,illustration3 ,,an ,,ice ,,harvesting ,,scene4 ,,the ,,ice ,,crop ,how to ,harvest1 ,store1 ,ship and ,use ,ice ,a ,,complete ,,practical ,,treatise ,,for ,,farmers1 ,,dairymen1 ,,ice ,,dealers1 ,,produce ,,shippers1 ,,meat ,,packers1 ,,cold ,,storers1 ,,and ,,all ,,interested ,,in ,,ice ,,houses1 ,,cold ,,storage ,,and ,,the ,,handling ,,or ,,use ,,of ,,ice ,,in ,,any ,,way ,,including ,many ,recipes for ,iced ,dishes and ,beverages ,,by ,,theron ,l4 ,,hiles ,,new ,,york ,,orange ,,judd ,,company #ahic ,,copyright1 #ahib1 ,,by ,,orange ,,judd ,,company ,,preface4 ,an attempt is made1 in this volume1 to record some of the more prominent features regarding ,ice as it affects the health1 convenience and industry of the people4 ,the development of the ice industry during the last forty years has been phenomenal2 there are1 however1 but few records by which its progress can be accurately gauged4 ,no pretentions1 other than those of a practical character1 are made in behalf of this book4 ,but it is hoped that the information here collected will meet with the favor and approval of those who are interested in this commodity4 ,,theron ,l4 ,,hiles4 ,,chicago1 ,,ill41 ,,winter1 #ahib4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,page4 ,frontispiece,a #b ,title ,page #c ,preface #e ,chapter ,i1 ,an ,historical ,sketch #g-aa ,chapter ,,ii1 ,legal and ,sanitary ,methods #aa-ad ,chapter ,,iii1 ,cutting and ,storing ,ice #ad-db ,chapter ,,iv1 ,construction of ,commercial ,ice ,houses #db-ee ,chapter ,v1 ,the ,care1 ,handling and ,marketing of ,ice #ef-fb ,chapter ,,vi1 ,the ,use of ,ice in ,refrigeration--,refrigerator ,ice ,house for ,use in ,farming1 ,cutting ,ice in ,small ,quantities for ,farm and ,family ,use1 ,co-operation with the ,ice ,crop #fb-hc ,chapter ,,vii1 ,artificial ,ice and ,cold ,air ,machines #hd-ia ,chapter ,,viii1 ,ice in ,transportation #ia-if ,chapter ,,ix1 ,retarding ,houses ,without ,ice--,miscellaneous ,hints #if-aja ,chapter ,x1 ,recipes for ,iced ,food and ,beverages #aja-aad ,list of ,illustrations #aae-aaf ,index #aag-abb ,a ,the ,frontispiece is from the ice harvest of the ,knickerbocker ,ice ,co4 of ,chicago4 ,,the ,,ice ,,crop4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,an ,,historical ,,sketch4 ,the ,origin of the ,ice ,business in the ,united ,states--,its ,wonderful ,development ,commercially and in the ,manifold ,uses of ,ice--,a ,pen ,picture of a ,modern ,ice ,harvest4 ,prior to #ahje1 there was no regularly conducted traffic in ice1 in this country4 ,in the winter of #ahje-f1 a supply was secured at ,boston1 ,mass41 and the following summer a cargo was despatched to the ,west ,indies1 where yellow fever was then raging4 ,,domestic ,,and ,,export ,,trade were both of very slow growth1 and1 in #ahbe1 the ice consumed in the ,united ,states and exported to foreign ports was probably less than fifty thousand tons4 ,during the thirty years following1 the consumption of ice increased more rapidly1 and the enterprise of the shippers carried the fame of ,boston ice all around the world4 ,cargoes were consigned to ,london1 to the ,east ,indies1 and the ,west ,indies1 ,rio de ,janeiro1 ,calcutta1 ,china1 ,japan1 and ,australia4 ,,the ,,export ,,trade reached its height about this time4 ,frederick ,tudor1 of ,boston1 ,mass41 who shipped the first cargo to the ,west ,indies in #ahjf1 and whose enterprise had carried his ships to all the ports mentioned1 was titled the 8,ice ,king40 ,not many years after this1 ice and refrigerator machines began to supply the demand for ice in tropical climes1 and the importations of the natural product soon ceased4 ,two million tons is a liberal estimate of the amount of ice stored at this date1 #ahee1 in the ,united ,states1 with six or seven million dollars of invested capital4 ,,many ,,new ,,uses for ice have exerted a marked influence on the demand during the succeeding years4 ,during the war of the ,rebellion1 the ,government was a large purchaser1 on account of the hospital service4 ,the brewers1 who in earlier days1 had suspended operations during the heat of the summer1 now pursued their avocation continuously1 with the aid of ice4 ,meat packers found in ice an agent for immensely augmenting their product1 while the fisheries consumed many thousand tons4 ,the demand for ice creams and cooled drinks1 together with the growing taste for luxuries1 in our cities and towns1 has stimulated the retailing of ice until1 at this time1 there is hardly a town or village1 where ice privileges exist1 that does not support a representative of the ice trade1 and there are few large towns in the ,south which are not furnished with one or more artificial ice factories4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,ice4--,it is safe to say that1 at this time1 the users of ice1 directly or indirectly1 now include nearly the entire population of the ,united ,states4 ,,development ,,of ,,methods4--,the progress made in the methods and conveniences for securing the natural ice crop1 and in the construction of storage houses1 has kept pace with the growth of the demand4 ,originally1 axes and saws comprised the dealers' outfit4 ,now1 a modern plant is replete with tools and appliances1 whose manufacture is a distinct calling1 and may comprise vessels1 cars1 wagons1 immense storage houses1 where upward of one hundred thousand tons of ice are gathered under one roof1 also city supply depots and wharfs1 all of which are equipped with special regard to handling this product4 ,,extent ,,of ,,the ,,ice ,,industry4--,the annual consumption of natural and manufactured ice is very great4 ,by adding to this the equivalent1 in tons of ice1 of the work performed by refrigerator machines1 in the various industries in which they are used1 the grand total is estimated to exceed twenty million tons of ice used each year4 ,the capital invested in carrying on this business is not less than twenty-eight million dollars4 ,employment1 constant and temporary1 is afforded by the ice trade to about ninety thousand persons and twenty-five thousand horses4 ,it is probable that more than half of the world's annual ice supply is procured and consumed in this country1 which is the home of this industry4 ,,the ,,preserving ,,or ,,antiseptic ,,powers ,,of ,,ice have long been made use of to keep food from decay4 ,the best illustration of its powers in this direction is found in the accounts which travelers in ,northern ,europe and ,asia have given us of the discoveries of huge mammoths frozen within large blocks of ice4 ,this species of animal has been extinct for ages1 and so perfectly have they been preserved that some of the native tribes occasionally make use of these supplies of flesh for food4 ,fish1 meat and eggs are now frozen and kept during many months1 and the transportation of fresh beef and mutton for thousands of miles over land and sea is an established custom4 ,fresh fish are frozen in the center of cakes of ice1 and1 shipped in this way1 present a very handsome appearance4 ,this property of ice for domestic and commercial purposes has been of an incalculable benefit to the human family4 ,many eminent physicians have laid the seal of their approval upon the use of ice as a remedial agent1 and also for the alleviation of suffering among the sick4 ,so highly did they esteem it that1 prior to the general introduction of the trade in ice1 many doctors and managers of hospitals had private stores of ice for use among their patients4 ,the directors of the ,pennsylvania hospital at ,philadelphia may be credited with being the pioneer ice dealers of that city1 as in the early years of the century they disposed of their surplus stores of ice by sale in that community4 ,many localities which are now important centers in the ice trade were at one time dependent upon the medical fraternity for ice for hygienic purposes4 ,,pen ,,picture ,,of ,a ,,modern ,,ice ,,harvest4 7,see ,frontispiece47--,viewed from an eminence on the shore1 a pretty and engaging scene is often presented at an ice house in the country1 during the harvest4 ,the clear sunlight flooding the quiet landscape discloses here and there a snug farmhouse sheltered among the hills1 and surrounded with trees and shrubs1 rivaling1 in their soft downy draperies of spotless white and brilliant pearls1 their vernal beauty when joyous spring has clothed their boughs with fragrant blossoms and emerald leaves4 ,the broad stream or lake1 ice-locked and still1 stretches away to the distance1 a level and unbroken plain2 its farther shore dwindling away until lost to view1 presents a delicately traced outline of forest and field against the horizon4 ,the near by shore stands out clear cut and bold of outline1 but quiet and deserted4 ,nothing in the aspect of nature denotes activity or invites the attack of man by a display of treasure4 ,stepping to the brink of the hill near the shore1 a new scene breaks upon the view4 ,at the foot of the hill stands a huge ice house1 its shore side serried with galleries along the entire front1 with inclined ways extending from the water to the top of the house1 and a connecting bridge or runway between each gallery and the incline4 ,alongside of the incline is discovered a power-house and tool-room1 and at a little distance large barns and dwellings4 ,from the foot of the incline leading out into the lake is seen a dark line1 which branches out and becomes a large blot on the clear white surface4 ,a closer inspection reveals an animated scene1 of men armed with strange weapons attacking1 with great vigor1 fields of ice1 which they detach from the main surface1 and on which they navigate the open water1 already stripped of its frozen crystals4 ,all around are seen teams and horses drawing huge loads of snow to the distant shores1 plows and markers1 crossing and recrossing the cleared surface1 and long lines of ice blocks1 which are being floated along the channels to the incline1 where the puffing engine imparts motion to swiftly gliding1 endless chains1 which catch up the waiting cakes and whisk them away up the incline and into the ice house1 looking as though they were endowed with life-motion and were traveling of their own volition4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,legal ,,and ,,sanitary ,,matters4 ,ice ,privileges and ,legal ,points--,artificial ,ice ,ponds and ,sanitary ,care of ,ice ,ponds and ,fields4 ,attention is now being given to the sanitary condition of the sources from whence supplies of natural ice are obtained4 ,ice sold for domestic uses and cut from canal water1 must1 in ,new ,york1 be so labeled4 ,agitation in this direction has led to the prohibition of ice cutting on specified polluted waters1 by some boards of health1 for any other than cooling purposes4 ,in several ,states the ice crop is protected by the enactment of laws which make it a misdemeanor to destroy or injure ice in the field where it is to be cut4 ,no doubt the preservation of the purity of our streams and lakes will receive more care in the future1 as sanitary knowledge becomes more widely diffused4 ,,lakes ,,fed ,,by ,,springs1 and having clean beds1 have naturally risen in value for ice cutting purposes4 ,running streams1 especially those with a rapid current1 purify their waters very rapidly4 ,exposure to light and air1 the influence of oxygen1 and the motion of the water1 all assist in this good office4 ,foreign substances are expelled from the ice in the process of freezing1 and streams of this character1 not polluted by the presence of sewerage1 waste products from factories1 packing houses1 gas works1 etc41 produce ice of great purity4 ,,the ,,ownership ,,of ,,ice ,,fields has been a bone of contention in many instances1 where a knowledge of the legal rights involved would have saved expensive litigation4 ,in a general way1 ice cutting rights are divided into two classes4 ,ice on navigable waters is under the authority of the national government4 8,navigable10 in this instance1 being used to denote tide water1 the proprietary rights of owners of the abutting property are limited to the water line at high tides4 ,on all such waters1 navigation being closed1 the ice is free and is secured by pre-emption1 the first one to stake out claims being entitled to cut the ice4 ,in contentions over boundaries of ice fields1 where the issue is in doubt1 the ice dealer whose property forms the water front is given the preference4 ,rivers1 small lakes and navigable streams above tide water are termed public4 ,the boundary line of abutting property is held to extend under the water to the center of the channel1 and includes the ownership of the ice formed above it4 ,public convenience for navigation and commerce1 however1 take precedence4 ,the rights to this ice are thus subject to contract and sale4 ,the submerged land may also be sold1 and all deeds to water front property should clearly set forth the boundary line and all the rights that are guarded and reserved4 ,,where ,,dams ,,are ,,built across streams and the water line is raised on property beyond the limits of that held by the owner of the dam1 consent must be obtained from the holders of property thus affected4 ,there are numerous creeks and brooks which are fed by springs1 or have their source in spring lakes1 which make excellent ice fields1 with very little labor or expense4 ,advantage may be taken of low lands in the vicinity of such streams4 ,gravel forms the best bed for ice ponds1 as it is free from weeds4 ,in some of our lakes1 occurring in districts abounding in gravel1 the water is pure and sweet and the gravelly bed can be seen at great depths4 ,springs are usually numerous in such localities4 ,the following methods of preparing dams can be employed in some situations4 ,the depth of the pond and the force of the current of the stream are to be taken into account in fixing upon the proportions and construction of dams4 ,also the quantity of water usually running into the pond and the largest amount likely to be received during a season of flood4 ,if the soil is a light loam1 or a seam of gravel is near the surface1 dig a trench down to a hard bottom1 and on the pond side drive in a row of stout boards1 breaking joints and sloping them toward the dam4 ,behind this paling fill in with clay rammed down4 ,a crib formed of logs notched and bolted together1 and lined or faced with plank on pond side1 should be set at the rear of the sub-paling4 ,this crib is filled with stones and clay or sand4 ,the front is banked up with earth and covered with rip-rap4 ,the center of the dam is provided with a sluiceway large enough to carry off flood waters1 and1 at the bottom1 a pipe or a box well bedded in cement gives a current on the bottom which carries off sediment4 ,it is also useful in taking off air and gases1 which1 arising from the bottom1 form air bubbles in the ice4 ,some water should always pass over the upper sluiceway4 ,dams may be formed entirely of an embankment of earth and stone4 ,their base should not be less than their height1 with increased thickness where pressure from a current has to be resisted4 ,shallow dams may be formed by driving two rows of plank across the line of the dam1 and filling in the inclosed space with rammed clay4 ,break joints in the planking1 and bolt stringers along the top edges to bind them firmly together4 ,,in ,,changing ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,streams1 cut the new channel deeper than the old one1 to insure the current following it4 ,straightening or changing the course of a stream will often improve the topography of a farm and drain wet or marsh land4 ,food fish1 which can readily be raised in these ponds1 forms a welcome addition to the family larder4 ,,the ,,purity ,,of ,,brooks which feed ice and fish ponds should be preserved4 ,no filth should be dumped into them or on their banks4 ,stables and cesspools should not be situated where they will drain into them4 ,vegetable refuse and litter1 which may be brought down with the current1 should be caught by screens and removed from time to time1 or they will accumulate in the pond and injure it4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,cutting ,,and ,,storing ,,ice4 ,the ,science of ,ice ,formation--,preparing the ,ice ,field for the ,harvest--,getting ,rid of ,snow--,sudden ,thaws and ,how to ,remedy ,their ,damage--,tools and ,implements ,used--,thickness of ,ice--,care of ,ice ,tools--,filling the ,ice ,house--,closing it up and ,caring for ,it--,shipping ,ice from the ,field4 ,with the advent of a sharp freeze1 attention is directed to the ice field1 from which a harvest is hoped for at no distant day4 ,the purification of the water has been given attention before this time1 together with all preliminaries relating to the plant in its various and complex features4 ,the weather now determines the lot of the ice dealer4 ,as the cold breezes whistle over the water1 stirring it into ripples1 and breaking its surface into waves1 a wonderful change is rapidly transforming its liquid pearls into flinty diamonds4 ,gradually the heat in the water is radiated into the air4 ,as fast as the surface water is cooled1 it is condensed1 and sinks to the bottom1 its place being taken by the warmer and lighter water from beneath4 ,gradually the entire mass reaches the point of maximum density1 at #ci ,f4 ,below this temperature1 until it reaches #ca ,f41 water expands as it is cooled4 ,now the surface water no longer sinks as it grows colder1 being rendered lighter by expansion than the water beneath4 ,upon reaching #cb1 convection1 or freezing1 takes place1 and the surface assumes the solid form4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,ice ,,field4--,from this time until the crop is stored in the ice house1 the ice dealer devotes his energies to the care of the ice field4 ,special situations develop special duties and requirements1 which the alert dealer studies with care4 ,if the ice is on a running stream1 the possible pollution of its higher levels will be carefully guarded against1 and also all rubbish removed from the surface of the field4 ,sticks and stones bedded in the ice hinder the work and damage the keen edges of the cutting tools4 ,motion in the water is necessary to promote the growth of the ice1 and1 when the ice is sufficiently heavy1 traveling over the surface1 or other jarring1 is beneficial4 ,it has been found that where a roadway has been opened across an ice field1 and the travel over it considerable1 the ice was thicker along the roadway than at other places on the field4 ,on inclosed lakes or mill ponds1 a gentle current induced in the water promotes the growth of the ice materially4 ,the air is expelled from the water during freezing1 if opportunity is found for it to do so4 ,unless this is done1 the ice is cloudy4 ,agitation of the water assists the escape of the air2 hence it is that ice from running streams is usually clearer and more brilliant than pond or lake ice4 ,an outlet afforded to the land-locked ponds and lakes is often beneficial during ice-making weather4 ,too rapid a current1 however1 will retard growth1 and a gentle motion diffused over the entire field produces the best results4 ,the growth should be carefully noted under different conditions1 attention being given to the atmospheric influences and other general effects1 and the regulation of the motion1 based on ascertained results at the locality where applied4 ,as the ice thickens1 its growth is slower at the same1 or even a lower1 temperature than that which at first made ice very rapidly4 ,the earth at the bottom and sides of the ice field radiate heat into the water4 ,the heat rays of the sun pass through the ice1 if it is clear1 into the water below1 with very little effect upon the ice itself4 ,the ice1 being a poor conductor of heat1 is1 under these conditions1 an obstacle to its own growth4 ,it shuts in the water from contact with the cooler air1 prevents agitation of its surface by passing breezes1 and retards the escape of air and heat4 ,on running streams1 these conditions are much modified4 ,in passing over shallows or rapids1 where the current is swift1 the water remains open and exposed to the air4 ,at these points in its course it parts with its accumulated air and heat very rapidly1 a thin vapor or mist being often perceptible in the air at such places1 owing to the rapid radiation4 ,the tumbling and turning of the water at rapid shoals materially assists the growth of ice at points below where the current grows gentle4 ,streams of this character1 whose beds are free from accumulations of vegetable mold1 or other sources which generate gases1 produce clear and sparkling ice of greater thickness than is found on still ponds or lakes in the same vicinity1 and exposed to the same temperature4 ,,the ,,usefulness ,,of ,,snow4--,snow1 as it is well known1 is a great impediment to the inroads of frost into anything enveloped by it4 ,a covering of snow on an ice field is a great impediment to the escape of heat from the water1 as well as protecting the ice from the direct action of the cold air1 and greatly retards the growth of the ice4 ,it is essential to remove this snow as early as practicable1 as the ice harvester has always in view a possible thaw or rain1 and endeavors to secure his crop at the earliest practicable moment4 ,snow1 however1 in the event of soft or warm weather1 is an aid to the ice by protecting it from the direct heat of the sun1 and the force of a rain is largely expended in melting the snow4 ,the water and snow on the top of the ice freezes into snow ice as soon as the weather turns cold again4 ,this snow ice is white1 being very porous and filled with air1 and detracts from the quality of the crop1 its thickness depending on the depth of snow on the field1 amount of water1 and the temperature4 ,at the top of this snow ice1 where it merges into the snow1 will be found a stiff1 crusty layer1 more or less firmly united to the ice below1 which adds to the difficulty of removing the snow on top4 ,an inch or two of snow ice will lessen the loss by breakage of cakes1 in stowing1 and the ice also comes out of the house in better shape1 and will stand shipping better4 ,it is not so brittle as clear ice1 and is homogeneous in its structure1 not being readily split in any direction4 ,,removal ,,of ,,snow4--,various methods and appliances are in use for the expeditious and economical removal of snow4 ,as soon as the field will bear the weight of a horse1 scrapers of various designs are placed at work4 ,if the ice is too thin to support a horse safely1 flooding is resorted to4 ,at intervals of six feet1 more or less1 according to the freedom with which the water rises through the openings1 holes are cut through the ice1 and the water saturates the lower part of the snow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,clearing ,,off ,,scraper4 ,this helps to thicken the ice rapidly1 and1 if the weather is cold1 it will very soon be heavy enough to support a horse4 ,as soon as this is the case1 the scrapers are placed at work4 ,the snow ice thus formed is afterward gotten rid of by planing1 if more than an inch or two in thickness4 ,if the snow is light1 and not too deep1 it is scraped into windrows1 by scrapers similar to those in ,figs4 #b1 #c and #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,snow ,,scoop ,,scrapers4 ,these windrows are distributed over the field1 not being made large enough to sink the ice at any point4 ,scoop scrapers are now employed1 which gather up the windrows and carry the snow off to the shore1 or to a distance from where the ice is to be cut4 ,if the field is very large1 and the snow deep1 dumping points are selected on the field4 ,the weight of the snow will sink the ice at these points1 and cracks will soon loosen the dump from the main body of ice4 ,a deep groove plowed alongside of the dump will assist in loosening the dump1 and keeps the water off the field4 ,some of these scoop scrapers are constructed with great care1 and nicely adapted to the needs of the ice harvester4 ,a ,,sudden ,,thaw during the winter1 while the ice crop is forming1 is an annoyance to the ice dealer1 and1 if accompanied by rain1 the field will often suffer by being flooded with water from the surrounding hills4 ,sand and earth may be washed on to the ice1 making it dirty and injuring its quality4 ,water standing on top of the field will soon comb and rot the ice4 ,if only an inch or two of water is on the field and the weather turns cold1 it can be left to freeze and then be planed off4 ,if it is deep it can be readily handled1 by cutting holes through the ice1 or tapping the ice field in a number of places2 the water1 being heavier than the ice1 will sink and raise the ice1 if it has opportunity of so doing4 ,tapping should have prompt attention1 and the water removed without delay4 ,even if the water freezes on top1 the ice is not of good quality and is not part of the ice below4 ,it forms a layer which is attached to the old ice1 but yet is not solidly a part of it1 and gives trouble by splitting out in barring off4 ,ice expels the air while freezing principally toward the bottom1 and as it has no chance for escape through the ice beneath1 the top layer will show a white streak4 ,for tapping the field the auger and the tapping axe are used4 ,if the water is accumulating rapidly and despatch is wanted1 the axe will be found the more rapid-working tool4 ,the auger1 however1 makes neater work1 and leaves the field in better shape--often an important desideratum4 ,,the ,,outfit ,,for ,,harvesting4--,time is of great value in handling ice in any of the various operations gone through with on the field or in the house4 ,delays during harvesting greatly increase the cost of getting ice prepared for the market4 ,great care and much study have been devoted to perfecting the paraphernalia by which the ice crop is handled1 as will appear as the reader follows the round of duties of the ice harvester4 ,in some emergencies the crop is only saved from partial or complete loss by the despatch which modern development of tools and machinery has placed at the command of the enterprising ice dealer4 ,the advent of warm weather during the harvest demands the utmost celerity in all departments1 if the crop is secured4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,ice ,,auger4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,measure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,tapping ,,axe4 ,more credit than is generally supposed to be warranted is due to the splendid energy and managerial ability of the ice harvester1 during seasons when the home ice crop is a partial or entire failure4 ,no one1 not practically familiar with the business1 can readily understand the extra strain and burden imposed on the ice dealer who succeeds in securing supplies sufficient to meet the requirements of his customers1 by going to the far north for this most beneficent and useful product of nature4 ,enterprise pays in this1 as in any business4 ,having removed the snow the field is carefully inspected1 and quality and thickness of the ice ascertained in all parts4 ,the field is bored with the ice auger1 and the measure indicates the thickness4 ,the auger is withdrawn and the appearance of the ice noted before the auger reaches the bottom and water fills the hole4 ,if the snow ice is too heavy it must be removed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,field ,,planer4 ,two methods for doing this are available4 ,it can be cut loose and broken into chips with the snow ice planer on the field1 the chips being afterwards cleared with scrapers and scoops2 or it can be left on the ice and cut away by the elevator ice planer as the ice cakes pass up the endless chain ice elevator incline1 on their way into the ice house4 ,the first method is in use wherever the endless chain ice elevator is not employed4 ,when it is to be removed by the field planer1 the ice field is first laid out and plowed to the depth of the snow or sap ice to be removed4 ,the snow ice planer follows the plowed grooves1 cutting off the refuse ice4 ,,thickness ,,of ,,ice4--,generally speaking1 the ice is desired at an average thickness of fourteen inches2 this being convenient for subsequent handling4 ,in practice1 the thickness of the ice1 as it is stored or shipped from the water1 varies with the exigencies of the season and the average thickness formed at the locality4 ,in the latitude of ,central and ,southern ,ohio six-inch ice is often stored2 in the vicinity of ,chicago and ,omaha1 ten inch2 in ,maine1 sixteen inch1 and in ,minnesota1 twenty inch4 ,ice1 thirty inches thick1 has been cut and stored on ,lake ,superior1 in ,northern ,wisconsin1 where ice forms equal in purity and brilliancy to any found in this country4 ,the ordinary printing on the pages of a ,chicago newspaper has been easily read through a block of ,lake ,superior ice twenty-nine inches thick4 ,at ,winnipeg1 ,manitoba1 ice is cut forty inches in thickness4 ,such thick ice keeps the year through4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,,marker1 ,,with ,,swing ,,guide4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,,field ,,plow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,,swing ,,guide ,,plows4 ,,laying ,,out ,,the ,,ice ,,field4--,as the ice field is inspected and mapped out for plowing1 all unsound places1 air holes1 or shallow places where rocks or sand bars approach near to the surface1 are marked for avoidance4 ,a convenient method is to bore holes at such places1 and plant pieces of brush in them4 ,thin ice1 formed where the ice has been removed during cutting1 is also marked in this manner1 to give warning of the danger of venturing upon it4 ,like a good general1 the ice harvester takes note of the physical advantages of his position4 ,if he can so lay out the field that the current and prevailing winds are in his favor and assist to float the ice toward the house1 his strategy is not without reward4 ,room for refuse ice is needed where it will not impede the ice floating toward the house4 ,the lay of the shore line must not be overlooked1 on streams where the current is strong1 in calculating for support for the shore ice4 ,the best ice in the field will always be secured as a prime consideration4 ,quality should always be of the first importance1 and1 in these days of close competition1 pure ice is necessary for success in the ice business4 ,ice1 for any purpose1 should never be cut from impure or contaminated water4 ,too much care can not be given to securing clean1 pure1 healthful ice for all uses1 directly or remotely allied to preserving or curing food products4 ,natural ice from pure crystal water is one of nature's purest productions4 ,having gone over the field and determined the plan of operation1 the first task is to lay out the base lines from which the marking and plowing are gauged4 ,stakes are planted at either end of the line1 and a heavy cord drawn taut between them4 ,the hand plow is now passed alongside the line1 making a score in the ice from end to end4 ,sometimes a long board with sights is used for laying out the first line1 and a line marker is a cheap substitute for the hand plow4 ,the teeth of the horse marker are now set in the hand plow groove2 the guide is unlatched and runs along on top of the ice4 ,care is taken to keep the marker upright1 by firmly supporting the handles4 ,this cuts a groove three inches deep4 ,the blade of the guide is now placed in this groove1 and the marker cuts a new groove parallel with the first one4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,,hand ,,plow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,,plow ,,rope4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,,line ,,marker4 ,this operation is continued until the field is grooved in parallel lines over its surface in one direction4 ,plows are now started in the marker grooves1 and are run back and forth until the grooves have been cut about two-thirds through the ice1 care being taken to leave not less than four inches of solid ice below the bottom of the groove4 ,meanwhile the marker is at work scoring the field in lines at right angles to those first laid out4 ,a large wooden square with legs about fifteen feet long is used to square from1 and the field is marked and plowed in both directions4 ,when the snow ice plane is to be used1 the field is marked out in one direction only4 ,the depth cut is regulated by a planer gauge1 attached to the marker1 to the thickness of the snow ice to be removed4 ,the runners of the plane set in the grooves and are guided by them4 ,,channels ,,and ,,canals4--,the marking and plowing being well under way1 the channels and canals require attention4 ,where the current is gentle1 and on ponds and lakes1 the opening of the channel and canals is not attended with much difficulty4 ,where the current is swift1 as on the large rivers1 practical skill is required in opening up the field4 ,the pressure of the current makes it difficult to open the channel and canals1 and the shore ice is in danger of giving way4 ,stays and braces are sometimes employed to anchor the shore ice1 and to prevent the channels from closing4 ,in some instances it has been found advisable to have the channel permanently fixed by piles driven into the bottom of the river on either side4 ,in others1 braces are set in the ice1 at short intervals1 before the channel is opened1 as shown in the illustration4 ,the posts should be heavy1 and the cross struts may be ten or twelve inches square4 ,the post holes1 if cut oblong1 will allow short boards to be spiked to the sides of the posts at their lower ends4 ,when inserted through the ice1 a quarter turn of the post will bring the projecting ears under the ice1 and no trouble will be given by the post raising out of its place4 ,the cross strut should just allow the ice to float beneath1 and be well secured to the posts1 which require inclined braces1 joining the posts opposite the ends of the struts1 with their feet planted in recesses cut into the ice4 ,water should be poured around the braces1 and when the braces and posts are frozen in place a very strong support is secured against the current1 as the following cut shows4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,,braces ,,for ,,channel ,,with ,,swift ,,current4 ,where the current is not so strong1 square frames may be employed4 ,they are placed in the channel where the ice cake will float through freely2 their sides should fill mortices in the sides of the channel1 and not project into the path of the cakes1 as shown in ,fig4 #af4 ,various methods of dealing with cracks in the ice have been tried4 ,a good one is to take long planks and extend them across the cracks laying flat on the surface4 ,by boring through the planks into the ice1 and inserting wooden pins1 the loosened portion is firmly held1 and the cracks will freeze up4 ,if the pins are inclined in opposite directions a firm hold is secured on the ice4 ,when the channel has been located1 if convenient1 a deep groove is plowed at either side1 and the remaining ice is cut away with the pond ice saws4 ,splitting chisels are now brought into play1 and the ice in the channel is split up into cakes1 which are sunk and floated under the ice4 ,canals through the plowed field are similarly opened4 ,the field is now in readiness to furnish a supply of ice cakes for stowing in the house4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,,brace ,,for ,,slow ,,current4 ,a section is selected1 and the grooves carefully double calked with chips1 from the plowing1 to prevent the water running in4 ,for this purpose a calking bar is used4 ,ice saws are now brought into requisition1 and the grooves at the ends of the section are sawed through to the back4 ,the groove at the back is now struck into at several points with one or another of the barring off tools provided for this work4 ,a section called a float1 and containing one hundred to one thousand or more cakes1 is readily split off4 ,the tools used for this work vary with the thickness of the ice and the size of the floats4 ,the fork bars are the most often used1 the two-prong bar being the favorite on heavy ice4 ,if the first cuts with the saws are so made that the ice cut away is a little wider on the bottom than on the top1 and the sides parallel1 it will facilitate getting out the first float cut away4 ,by sinking the float a little all pinching or binding at the sides is prevented4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,,best ,,cast ,,steel ,,ice ,,saws4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,,two-,,prong ,,fork ,,bar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,,three-,,prong ,,fork ,,bar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,,four-,,prong ,,fork ,,bar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,,calking ,,bar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,,breaking ,,bar4 ,the floats are split into rows of single or double cakes1 as they are floated near to the channel leading to the incline4 ,as the long rows are moved into the channel1 a man1 standing on a bridge a few inches above the ice1 strikes a needle or splitting chisel into the plowed grooves as they are passed beneath his feet4 ,one or two dexterous thrusts will cleave the ice to the bottom4 ,in frosty weather1 with the ice hard1 it can be split true and square1 in most instances4 ,cakes not smoothly split must be trimmed before they reach the incline1 and the bunches removed4 ,the work on the field is directed to secure a supply of ice cakes at the foot of the incline1 in advance of the requirements of those whose duty is found in placing the cakes in position within the ice house4 ,no more than will be run into the house1 and also leave the channel full1 with some floats near at hand at quitting time1 should be detached from the field4 ,ice floats left too long before being broken up into single cakes1 are in danger of having the grooves flooded1 and wholly or partially frozen up4 ,in this condition they are either worthless or split up with much labor and great irregularity4 ,the single cakes left in the channel over night serve to prevent it being closed with ice in the morning1 and the delay incident to opening it up is avoided4 ,some early work1 however1 is always needed on the channels4 ,the single cakes will have a connecting web of new ice1 which must be broken up and trimmed from the sides of the channel and the cakes4 ,the broken ice and damaged cakes which are not wanted must be kept clear of the channel at all times4 ,the larger pieces may be sunk under the ice1 and the smaller ones be removed by the scoop nets or sieve shovels4 ,a snowstorm during the harvest is attended with much discomfort to the ice harvesters4 ,the channels are filled with slush1 which packs around the floats and cakes1 making their progress slow and laborious4 ,it eludes the scoop net and is very hard to deal with4 ,the field is soon buried out of sight1 and must be cleared and scraped with as little delay as practicable4 ,,housing ,,the ,,ice4--,there is room for large latitude for variations in the methods employed on the ice field4 ,the situations are so different that the dealer is called upon to exercise judgment and ingenuity1 in determining what is best to be done4 ,on swift running streams the ice1 after first forming1 may be broken by storms1 and with a return of settled weather1 will freeze in rough and confused masses of broken ice in places4 ,at other points no floating ice has found lodgment1 and the second freezing is regular and of good quality4 ,in order to secure the ice from these favored spots1 the harvester may be obliged to open a channel several miles in length1 and float the ice down to where his storage houses are located4 ,at the foot of the incline at which the ice cakes are taken from the water1 and along the channel directly leading to it1 the ice is subject to much wear4 ,the work necessarily done on the cakes as they are floated through this channel1 requires the presence of a number of trimmers and bar men at this point1 as well as those who are feeding the cakes into the elevator1 or placing them in position for the grapple4 ,the tools used at the foot of the incline and near by channel are illustrated on ,pages #jj-jj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,,ice ,,hooks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,,elevator ,,feeding ,,fork4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,,chain ,,scoop ,,net4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,,sieve ,,shovel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,,ring ,,handle ,,splitting ,,chisel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,,channel ,,hook ,,chisel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,,needle ,,bar4 ,there is often an accumulation of refuse ice taken from the channel and thrown on the ice not far away4 ,ice cakes sometimes slip from the grapples on their way up the incline1 and slide down1 striking with great force at the foot of the incline4 ,all these1 and other sources of wear1 on the ice1 make it important to provide some protection to the sides of the channel1 and1 as the edges soon dip below the surface of the water1 a footing or walk for the channel men4 ,where elevating by means of grapples1 it will be found a convenience1 and often the means of avoiding delays1 to have a water box or trough sunk in the channel1 at a depth to admit the cakes passing freely on to the lower end1 and yet near enough the surface to prevent the cakes ducking1 or dodging under1 when pressed forward from the rear4 ,the jackman1 as the slack is taken out of the line and the pull is felt1 bears a firm grip on the handle of his grapple1 and1 at the same time1 bears down heavily1 and ducks the heel of the cake1 engaged by the grapple1 under the water4 ,the men who are placing the cakes for the jacks1 if the ice is heavy1 bear down on the cake with their pike poles at the same time1 to prevent the last cake from being ended over4 ,the water box is necessary1 at these times1 to steady the cake below1 and prevent it sinking too deep4 ,several cakes are usually run up at one trip4 ,a sharp lookout is necessary on the part of the jackman1 and some experience is required to become an adept at handling the grapple4 ,serious accidents have resulted from careless or ignorant methods1 and caution should be observed by all who are employed about the field1 incline1 or ice house4 ,the construction of the water box varies with the depth of water and amount of ice run over it4 ,usually it is of a temporary character1 and renewed each year4 ,order and a thorough system should be carefully adapted to the work on the field and in the house1 by every ice harvester4 ,details1 fully worked out1 and the plan once in force1 it should be strictly observed by the proprietor1 and exact compliance insisted upon from all employes4 ,unless discipline is maintained1 especially on large fields1 much loss of time and money will result1 and life and limb be jeopardized4 ,,care ,,of ,,ice ,,tools4--,provision for preserving the cutting qualities of tools is of great importance4 ,an inferior tool1 or one out of repair1 will detract from the efficiency of the labor employed to use it4 ,the amount depends on the particular kind of work under consideration1 and the comparative condition of the tool with which it is done4 ,attention to this matter is often neglected1 from a failure to properly estimate its importance1 or from a mistaken idea of the ease with which an incompetent or ignorant man can spoil the best implement which can be made4 ,ice saws1 of the best type1 will1 when new1 cut rapidly and true2 one or two dressings1 done in the wrong way1 will detract from their cutting efficiency one-fourth or more1 and it will be impossible to cut true with them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,,toothed ,,trimmer ,,bars1 ,,iron ,,handle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,,toothed ,,trimmer ,,bars1 ,d ,,handle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,,jack ,,grapple4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,,handle ,,grapple4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,,channel ,,grapple4 ,one man should be trained to correctly dress the saws1 and then be held responsible for their work4 ,when the teeth are worn short1 or the saws are sprung1 send them to the ice tool manufacturer1 to have the teeth gummed out to their correct size and shape1 and the blades straightened and stiffened4 ,ice plows are frequently rendered useless by improper dressing or careless handling4 ,the range and proportion of the teeth1 as they are when new1 must be kept up1 and the cutting points sharp and keen4 ,the heels and bottoms must be dressed down regularly with the points1--no more1 no less4 ,only a man of known ability should be allowed1 under any pretext1 to dress the ice plows4 ,any delay in plowing may involve the loss of part of the crop1 and any detention of the work of those detaching the cakes from the field1 from a lack of plowed surface to work upon1 may prove to be the cause of an hour or more time lost or frittered away by nine-tenths of the entire force employed1 both on the field and in the house4 ,nine-tenths of the entire wages1 for an hour or more1 is thus lost to the owner1 and an incompetent workman is the apparent cause4 ,the lack of management and system is1 more likely1 the source of this waste4 ,plows which have been worn so they cut hard1 need gumming out1 or reforging1 or both4 ,plows and markers are the chief cutting implements of the ice harvester4 ,too much care cannot be taken to make a proper selection1 originally4 ,the best plows are now made with steel beams and steel bolts4 ,they are superior to the old style iron plows4 ,the guides used on plows and markers should have no lost motion1 at any point1 when the guide handle is latched in place4 ,the latest improvements are in the trussed form of guide1 which is perfectly rigid1 and the double hinge and swivel method of securing the handle to the guide1 combined with the pin and mortice latch4 ,this construction produces a plow and guide which has no looseness in any joint1 and is so braced that the plow cannot depart from a vertical position unless the guide is raised out of its groove4 ,all ice cutters who have had their fields marked in curved1 instead of straight1 lines1 with the resulting wrenching or breaking of plow teeth1 will appreciate and welcome this improvement4 ,bars1 tongs1 and hooks should be kept sharp1 and1 when out of repair1 sent to the maker1 to be brought back to a condition of efficiency4 ,the close of the cutting season is the best time to select and ship to the ice-tool maker all implements which require overhauling4 ,a tool room should be provided1 of sufficient size to store all cutting tools1 scoops1 scrapers1 and extras of all kinds that are liable to breakage or rapid wear4 ,space should be reserved for a filing bench1 having a large north light1 and a grindstone--driven by power when practicable--for sharpening bars1 hooks1 and tongs4 ,where the ice houses are large1 and in isolated positions1 the tool house1 if well fitted up1 is of great assistance1 affording the means for making repairs of an urgent character4 ,a good set of millwright tools1 together with a well-chosen supply of seasoned timber1 of such sizes as are used in the various runs and connections1 will often repay their cost in a single season4 ,large boarding houses are often found included in the ice harvester's inventory4 ,this is a necessity where the storage houses are situated any distance from towns or cities4 ,several hundred men are sometimes thus accommodated4 ,,filling ,,the ,,house4--,ice should be housed during freezing weather1 if possible1 as the cakes will then enter the ice house dry and hard4 ,in soft weather the ice is soft1 and contains some water2 the cakes1 being chilled in the house1 are frozen together1 causing an increase of labor and breakage in getting the ice out for shipment during the summer4 ,when the ice is heavy1 of best quality1 and stowed1 during freezing weather1 in a well-constructed ice house1 it can be kept for two or three seasons1 and then be taken out in good condition1 with but little extra loss by breakage4 ,it should have attention at all times1 however1 and be kept in perfect order4 ,the various methods which are in use for elevating the ice cake from the water into the ice house1 or on to the platform1 will be noticed in detail1 under a special chapter devoted to this important branch of the mechanics of the natural ice trade4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,,wooden ,,skid4 ,,no4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,,wooden ,,skid4 ,,no4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,,wagon ,,and ,,loading ,,tongs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,,packing ,,chisel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,,packing ,,chisel4 ,the ice cake1 as it enters the ice house1 does so on a skid1 or run1 which is placed at an inclination1 the end nearest the entrance higher than the end leading in toward the center of the room4 ,at its lower end the skid is connected with another having the same general inclination1 and thus a continuous line of runs is formed1 extending from the entrance to the farther part of the room4 ,the inclination of these runs is determined by the distance the ice is to travel on them1 and the height of the galleries on the front of the ice house4 ,the runs are usually arranged with a rapid descent near the entrance1 and the further end1 on a level with the intermediate portion1 graduated between these extremes4 ,when the inclination imparts too high a speed to the cakes1 a break is set into the runs4 ,it usually consists of a board1 in which a number of large nails are driven1 with their heads left projecting above the surface4 ,this board is set in the line of the runs1 or attached to one of them1 so the under surface of the ice scratches on the nail heads4 ,the number of nails and the depth of the scratches is easily varied to suit the velocity required4 ,as the ice cakes are run into the ice house1 they are stored at the farther end first1 and are gradually filled in toward the front4 ,through the back and center of the room1 stowing is most rapidly performed4 ,filling the front end1 and under the runs1 require more time and care4 ,the ice cakes are moved into place with ice hooks and tongs4 ,as the cakes pass along the runs1 they are caught with the ice hook and guided off the run1 at either side1 as desired4 ,the runs are made flat1 with no projecting sides or rails4 ,two lines of the ,v-shaped run iron are placed on the runs1 and the ice will follow them1 but is readily slipped off when wanted4 ,the accompanying cuts show the common patterns of runs1 and the tools used in the house during packing4 ,the hooks1 tongs1 and runs are used in directing the cakes to their final positions4 ,the bars1 chisels1 and adze are used to trim any inequalities off from the cakes1 and1 in some cases1 to level off each layer of ice as it is stored4 ,this is not so often done1 when ice is stored for shipment from the house1 as in cooling rooms1 when it is desired to pack as much ice as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,,hoisting ,,tongs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,,drag ,,tongs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,,edging ,,tongs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,,ice ,,adze4 ,,packing ,,ice ,,in ,,the ,,house4--,the method employed in arranging the ice cakes varies in different parts of the country4 ,the important thing to keep in mind is the amount of good1 merchantable ice possible to be gotten out of the house1 as it is shipped away during the warm season4 ,this does not depend upon how much can be crowded in1 but upon the packing and arranging of the cakes4 ,two things are to be observed in this1 prevention of waste by melting1 and ease in loosening or detaching the cakes1 as they are taken out4 ,the following method may be taken as an example1 and varied as good cause is found for so doing4 ,if the ice is thin1 place the two first courses on edge1 and pack as closely together as practicable4 ,the succeeding courses place in flat1 or in the same position they occupy on the water4 ,arrange the cakes one directly above the other1 and leave a space of two inches on all four sides or edges4 ,in every five or six courses1 joints are broken4 ,the last four or five courses on top are placed1 each one1 to break joints1 and closely placed at edges4 ,the reasons for this arrangement are1 that the ice on the floor of the house wastes rapidly1 and1 by placing the cakes on edge1 the minimum loss is obtained1 and the succeeding cakes1 placed one above the other1 and free on the edges1 having only the top and bottom surfaces in contact1 the minimum breakage and labor1 in loosening cakes1 is obtained2 also1 by breaking the joints every few courses1 the circulation of air currents1 which is very destructive to the ice1 is shut off1 and1 finally1 the top courses close in the mass thoroughly1 and prevent the top covering from sifting down into the body of the ice4 ,the chapters on loss of ice by wastage in the house1 and the construction of ice houses1 will present more fully some of the considerations bearing upon the methods of stowing the ice4 ,in some localities the ice cakes are all placed upon edge4 ,among the advantages claimed for this method are1 ease in loosening and taking out the cakes1 and the closer packing secures more ice1 where storage room is limited4 ,there is a risk of damage to the ice house1 by the pressure of the ice against the side walls1 when packed in this manner4 ,the edges1 being uneven1 tend to throw the ice out of plumb1 or to give the whole mass an inclination in one direction4 ,in stowing1 care is required to keep the spaces between the cakes free from chips or broken ice4 ,no more trimming than is necessary should be done in the house1 and the crowding of cakes together on the runs1 and in sliding them to their places1 should be avoided4 ,broken cakes should not be allowed to come into the house1 and1 if cakes are broken in placing1 they should be thrown out of the house4 ,experience and practice1 in the handling of runs and managing the progress of the stowing of the ice cakes1 attest the value of system in this department4 ,to do the necessary work with as much despatch as possible requires close attention to details1 and watchfulness1 that the labor and efforts of the men are properly directed and distributed4 ,the runs outside the house are permanent1 and arranged in galleries1 about five feet apart1 with connecting runs from each gallery to the incline4 ,the top run is placed well up to the plate4 ,at each intersection of the incline and runs to the galleries1 there is a gate1 which may be removed from the face of the incline1 thus affording access from the incline to the runs4 ,the gate at the lower run being open1 the ice cakes all pass on to the first run1 and enter the house at this height4 ,when the house has been filled with ice to the height of the first run1 or one or two courses higher1 the level of the house is then too high to handle the ice over the lower run4 ,the incline gate is now placed in position1 shutting off the first run1 and the ice is raised upon the incline to the height of the second run1 and passes into the house at this level4 ,it is now necessary to rearrange the runs within the ice house4 ,they must be uncoupled from the first gallery1 and raised up and secured at the height of the second gallery4 ,the under blocking and bracing is removed1 and the runs set to one side4 ,before they are disturbed1 a number of ice cakes are run in1 and left near the entrance1 to be stowed in the space the runs and staging occupied1 directly in front of the entrance4 ,unless care is taken1 this filling in will be done with irregularity1 and more or less broken ice will be left among the good cakes1 causing loss by wastage and breakage1 when the house is opened up4 ,this filling in under the runs suspends the ordinary work of stowing1 and is attended with some loss of time4 ,after the cakes are all in place1 the house runs are raised up1 blocked and braced in position1 the connecting runs coupled on1 and a new line of runs conducts the ice from the second gallery to the further part of the room4 ,a system of winding drums1 placed in the roof timbers1 with ropes attached to the runs1 at either end1 saves time and labor1 in adjusting the house runs to the levels of the different galleries2 also1 in shifting them1 as they are raised to the level of the courses1 as the cakes are placed4 ,,closing ,,and ,,caring ,,for ,,the ,,house4--,when the room has been filled to the level of the wall plate1 the ice is covered with dry planing-mill shavings or sawdust1 ten or twelve inches deep4 ,the entrance opening is closed1 and filled in with sawdust1 or other packing4 ,the harvest being secured1 the ice house carefully closed1 and all chance for circulation prevented by a top dressing1 it requires regular attendance once a day1 to trim the top covering1 if any part of it should sink into the crevices between the ice cakes4 ,as the warmer days and spring rains set in1 the proper ventilation of the ice house is important4 ,all steam or vapor arising from the ice should be gotten rid of as soon as possible4 ,the various plans which are in use to attain this end1 will be found in the chapter on wastage and care of ice in the house4 ,as soon as the tools for harvesting are no longer required for use1 they should be promptly gathered together1 and inspected4 ,all that have been broken1 or damaged1 should be bundled up and consigned to the manufacturer1 to be put in thorough cutting order1 and returned to the ice house1 in the early fall4 ,all other tools should be carefully cleaned1 and all bright or polished steel coated with oil1 to preserve from rust1 cases strapped to plows and saws1 and all neatly packed away in tool house1 which should be dry4 ,snow scoops and scrapers are better for an occasional coat of paint1 and1 if stored in a dry1 cool place1 sheltered from the weather1 will last much longer4 ,it is a good plan to have all the tools inventoried directly after the cutting season1 and they should be marked with the owner's name or initials4 ,the elevator machinery should also be inspected1 and any defects noted1 for early repair1 the apron raised from the water1 and the water shaft and fittings cleaned1 and thoroughly oiled4 ,the ice chain1 if given a coat of slushing oil1 will take no harm4 ,all machinery which is exposed to the weather should be thoroughly coated with slushing oil4 ,the engine should have attention1 and all working parts be preserved from rust4 ,all the brass trimmings on engines or boiler should be taken down1 boxed1 and stored in a secure place4 ,,shipping ,,ice ,,from ,,the ,,field4--,while the ice house is being filled1 winter shipments of ice may be made to points where supply stations are maintained distant from any cutting privilege4 ,large shipments are often made to points south of the frost line1 or where the crop is deficient4 ,to accommodate this traffic1 loading platforms are built with connecting runs from the lower incline run4 ,a switch is arranged by which the ice cakes can be directed1 either on to the loading platform or into the ice house4 ,long trains of cars can be filled daily4 ,at a single platform1 ten to fifteen cars are loaded at one time1 while a double platform will accommodate double the number4 ,if the side tracks are placed at both sides of the platform1 no time will be lost while cars are being switched1 a train loaded on one track being switched out1 and the track filled with empty cars1 while loading proceeds in the cars on the other track4 ,diagrams of these platforms are shown at ,fig4 #eb4 ,endless chains1 with bars at short spaces1 pass along the top of the platform1 and carry a cake1 at a regular speed1 before each bar4 7,see ,fig4 #ea47 ,a short doorway slide is placed between the car and platform1 and a man1 stationed at the car door with an ice hook1 slides the cakes into the car as fast as the stowers can place them4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,construction ,,of ,,commercial ,,ice ,,houses4 ,the ,earliest ,forms of ,ice ,storage--,development of the ,modern ,ice ,house--,the ,site and ,its ,requirements--,placing the ,house--,survey--,foundations--,size of an ,ice ,house--,details of ,construction for a ,house ,embodying all ,modern ,improvements4 ,the earliest reference to the use of snow for cooling purposes occurs in ,holy ,writ1 and carries us back about three thousand years4 ,history records the custom which prevailed among the ,romans1 of storing snow upon the mountains during the winter1 which was made use of in the summer for cooling beverages4 ,vaults1 or pits1 of circular form at the top1 and tapering to a point at the bottom1 were scooped out in the ground4 ,the sides were lined1 and the top thickly thatched with straw1 after being filled with snow1 which was tightly packed4 ,the doorway was through the top4 ,a modernized ,roman snow cellar is shown in ,figs4 #dd and #de1 which is taken from a cellar in use in ,virginia4 ,its successor in the transition to more modern designs is seen in ,figs4 #df and #dg4 ,before ice was cut and stored for commercial uses in this country it was secured1 in many instances1 by those who used it in their business4 ,brewers1 dairymen1 butchers1 and some physicians1 had ice vaults1 or cellars1 constructed on the ,roman method4 ,the first commercial ice houses were built below the surface of the ground4 ,gradually they emerged into the light and air1 being only partly below the surface4 ,brick1 stone and wood were in use for building materials4 ,gradually1 experience leading the way1 the ice dealer has evolved the modern ice house4 ,,the ,,modern ,,ice ,,house represents many years of development1 and has a scientific1 as well as a practical1 value4 ,improvements may be expected in this as in other branches of the ice business4 ,the discoveries and inquiries which scientific and practical men are continually making in this direction are rapidly adding to our store of knowledge4 ,ice houses1 as now built and furnished1 give few suggestions of their original prototype4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,,interior ,,view ,,of ,,old ,,style ,,ice ,,cellar4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,,roof ,,of ,,same4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,,modern ,,ice ,,pit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,,its ,,construction4 ,,the ,,site4--,many features are combined in a really good site for a commercial or large ice house4 ,good ice in ample quantity1 a porous soil1 easy accessibility both from the water and land1 proximity to market2 also cheap and efficient transportation4 ,observance of the first and last of these points is imperative4 ,where natural drainage is lacking1 the deficiency can be supplied1 and access effected1 in most instances1 if the other features warrant the expense4 ,in selecting a site1 when the lay of the land will permit1 place the length of the house north and south1 and arrange the incline and runs with as few turns as practicable4 ,the ice cakes require assistance to keep them in motion on a crooked runway1 and are constantly being jammed and spalled4 ,on a direct run of proper pitch the cakes will travel without attention in freezing weather4 ,on warm1 sloppy days1 when the ice is soft1 it will require assistance4 ,the platforms for winter shipments via rail come in for attention in placing the incline1 which should be conveniently disposed for supplying them with ice cakes as fast as they can be handled4 ,system and dispatch are the watchwords of the ice dealer while ice cutting is on4 ,,survey ,,and ,,foundation4--,the location and size of the house being determined1 a survey is made and all lines staked out4 ,it is important to have the foundations square and of the exact size1 so that dimension lumber and roof trusses will fit as designed4 ,levels1 also1 call for attention1 and the entire site should be brought to grade4 ,in the construction of foundations practice varies4 ,they are partly dependent upon local conditions and climatic influences4 ,for large houses1 where the wastage is readily drained off and the sills are comparatively dry1 they are about as durable as the balance of the building when placed directly on the ground4 ,the life of an ice house varies from so many causes1 that no limit can be given applicable to all cases4 ,when the lumber is well selected and the construction thorough1 fifteen years of constant service will tell plainly on the building4 ,if repairs are made as often as required1 its term of usefulness is extended4 ,in warm climates1 also for smaller houses1 and for city supply depots1 foundations of stone or brick are employed to advantage4 ,they should be put in below frost1 and extend about two feet above the surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,,plate ,a4 ,,ground ,,plan4 ,,details ,,of ,,construction4--,in the building illustrated in plates ,a1 ,b1 the sills are placed upon the ground4 ,the house is divided into four rooms1 each forty feet wide in the clear1 two hundred and fifty feet deep1 and forty feet high from sill to plate4 ,the dimensions of lumber required may be3 ,for outside sills1 #h #aj inches1 of such lengths as can most readily be obtained4 ,inside sills1 #f #aj4 ,outside posts1 #d #aj inches #dj feet1 set #ab feet apart4 ,studding1 #c #aj inches #dj feet1 with three feet centers4 ,inside posts1 #d #h inches #dj feet4 ,studding1 #c #h inches #dj feet4 ,for outer circulating air space1 the studding should be #b #h inches #dj feet1 with three feet centers4 ,for inner dead air spaces1 #b #f inches #dj feet studding are placed upright #ab feet apart1 and horizontal cross studs #b #f inches #ab feet and three feet apart1 are filled in between4 ,this makes spaces #c #ab feet on the inside of all the outer walls4 ,plates on the outer walls are #c #aj1 and on inner walls #c #h inches4 ,the main studding is lined on both sides with moisture-proof sheathing1 and boarded up with matched lumber4 ,the inclosed space is filled with non-conducting substance1 usually sawdust or spent tan bark4 ,the filling must be dry and packed tightly4 ,the inner #b #f studding is lined with sheathing1 and then boarded up with matched lumber4 ,the joints of this studding should be made with care and the lumber selected1 no crooked stock being used4 ,sealing up these joints with pitch adds to their efficiency1 and also to the durability of the lumber4 ,the outer studding is covered with weather boarding or ship siding4 ,twelve inches at the bottom are left open and hinged covers swung over them1 which can be opened or closed as ventilation requires4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,,plate ,b4 ,,cross ,,section4 ,the interior walls have #d #h inch #dj feet posts1 and #c #h studding1 which are boarded on either side with matched lumber and filled4 ,the lower section of these walls1 to a height of ten to fifteen feet1 is often left without filling1 as it is more exposed to the ill effects of moisture1 and requires renewal before the upper portion4 ,this is more conveniently done where no filling is in the wall4 ,in the center of each room1 on the end at which the ice cakes enter1 an opening is left extending from the sills to the plate4 ,as the house is filled with ice these openings are closed up4 ,boards are provided1 when building1 which will fit into place and make the walls at these openings1 as near as practicable1 the same as in other places4 ,the middle section being filled and planked by the inner and outer air spaces4 ,at the opposite end of the rooms a similar opening is provided4 ,for closing it a slightly different plan is adopted4 ,the outer section is divided into doors five or six feet high1 swung on hinges2 these take the place of the weather boarding4 ,the interior wall is then arranged the same as the one at the opposite end of the room4 ,these doors can be opened as the ice is coming out1 and remain closed at other times4 ,interior partition walls are sometimes of value4 ,it is thought they add to the durability of the house1 and also effect a saving in wastage4 ,in the majority of houses they are dispensed with4 ,the construction of the roof will be found convenient and substantial1 if the plans shown in ,plate ,b are followed4 ,light-colored roofing composition should be used1 avoiding tar and gravel1 or tin1 as these both attract and absorb the heat4 ,gable roofs1 with good shingles laid four or five inches to the weather1 are the best roofs for ice houses4 ,they are cooler and more durable than most composition coverings4 ,the posts in ,diagram ,b can be extended and additional bracing put in4 ,the increased area and weight will require a proportional addition to the strength of roof timbers4 ,in the sizes of timbers for ice house construction1 noted in this chapter1 consideration has been given to durability1 and while lighter material is employed1 in some instances1 the houses are sooner racked and sprung out of place4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,,plate ,c4 ,,section ,,of ,,elevator ,,incline ,,and ,,platform ,,conveyors4 ,the ventilator on top is about twenty feet square and two feet high1 with slats on all sides4 ,it will not be required on high gable roofs1 an opening in each gable end being sufficient to carry off the moisture and heated air4 ,the gable ends should be well braced against the wind4 ,at the center of roof trusses a floor is laid through the building1 dividing the space above the ice4 ,trap doors are cut through this floor about seventy-five feet apart1 four to six feet in size2 these doors are for ventilating the space between the ice and the floor1 and for dumping the sawdust through on top of the ice4 ,it also affords a convenient place in which the sawdust can be stored and dried1 when the houses are cleaned in the fall4 ,the outer circulating air-spaces are continued to the level of the loft floor1 discharging the air into the loft1 where it finds vent through the ventilator4 ,the eaves project about two feet1 and are provided with ample gutters1 which are furnished with large conductor pipes every fifty feet4 ,on the side of the house where galleries are placed1 the roof is extended to cover them1 or1 if at a gable end1 a special roof is provided4 ,lightning rods are especially required on ice houses4 ,being often the most prominent object in their locality1 the electric fluid finds its readiest path through them1 and the escaping vapor and much of the material used in their construction add to their exposure4 ,copper strips1 terminating in forked points1 raised above the cone of the roof1 fifty or seventy-five feet apart each way1 provide ample protection4 ,a line of points across the house should be connected1 and the copper strips extended1 without any break or interruption1 into the ground4 ,they should be buried several feet below the surface1 and if they terminate in a drain or other damp place1 their efficiency is increased4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,,elevation ,,of ,,platform ,,along ,,tracks ,,for ,,loading ,,cars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,,plate ,d4 ,,section ,,of ,,loading ,,platforms4 ,the floor of each room is graded slightly toward the center1 and a trench dug through the center from end to end4 ,it should have a grade toward the front of the house of about two inches in a rod4 ,at the rear of the house it may be nine inches square1 gradually increasing to double this size at the front of the house4 ,lateral drains1 alternating on either side1 are desirable4 ,if the surface drainage sets toward the house1 it should be intercepted and conducted away4 ,after the trenches are made they are filled with broken stone or cobbles about nine inches deep at the start1 and double the depth at the front of the house4 ,the side trenches may be six or eight inches wide1 and filled about the same depth4 ,on top of the stones1 shavings1 straw1 reeds1 or other porous filling1 is placed1 to the level of the floor4 ,the entire floor is now covered with a layer of charcoal1 or with coal ashes placed several inches deep4 ,on top are laid boards1 not too closely placed1 with length toward the main drain4 ,the spaces between the boards form channels to conduct the waste water to the drains4 ,where the drains emerge from the house they are trapped1 to prevent any air currents from entering through them1 and collected into one or more main channels4 ,plate ,a illustrates the drainage plan1 and a section view is presented in ,plate ,b4 ,in porous soils1 which can be depended on to carry off the wastage1 drains are not so necessary4 ,for very large houses1 however1 they should not be entirely neglected4 ,in warm climates and for city supply houses1 cement floors are the best4 ,for loading cars for winter shipments1 the platforms illustrated in plates ,a1 ,c and ,d are used for handling large quantities4 ,the ice cakes are elevated on the incline to runways 7see ,r1 in ,plates ,a1 ,c and ,d71 and slide by gravity until landing on the platform4 ,an endless chain with cross-bars passes over the top of this platform1 carrying a cake before each bar4 ,where a railroad siding is placed on both sides of the platform the work is expedited1 as no delay is occasioned by waiting for cars1 a loaded train being pulled out and empty cars run in on one track1 while loading continues on the other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,,plate ,e4 ,,hoisting ,,gigs ,,and ,,reversing ,,engine4 ,,the ,,inclined ,,ways shown in ,plate ,c are rigged with endless chains1 which carry cross-bars4 ,in filling the house1 the ice cakes are floated to the foot of the incline1 and fed on to it1 one or two cakes at a time in front of each bar1 and thus is made to travel up the incline4 ,the cakes are passed through gates on to the runways at the various levels desired1 and pass over these1 by gravity1 into the ice house4 ,there are two methods of arranging the chains--called the over-shot and the under-shot4 ,the first named is mostly used1 and is the one shown in ,plate ,c4 ,the power required varies with the length of the incline and with the style of the elevators1 which are arranged for one or two cakes on a bar4 ,the smaller rigs are operated with an eight or ten horse power engine1 and the larger plants up to one hundred horse power1 where several elevators and platform conveyors are coupled on to one engine4 ,for filling smaller houses there are several methods in use1 a choice depending on the surroundings and size of the room or house4 ,next in importance to the endless chain system1 are the jack grapples by which large quantities of ice are annually stored4 ,an incline is used which is similar to the one shown on ,plate ,c1 but of lighter build4 ,these grapples are operated with horses1 or with steam power1 when winding drums are employed4 ,by using friction-winding drums1 the jack grapples readily accomplish the work of a single elevator1 and are less expensive4 ,this plan is shown in ,plate ,e4 ,an ordinary threshing engine furnishes ample power1 and this method is rapidly growing in favor4 ,where the ice house is placed at the edge of the water and there is no room in which to place an incline1 the gigs are very convenient4 ,when they are operated by means of a winding drum run by a reversing engine1 and large enough to handle four cakes at a time1 they are very efficient4 ,economy of power1 simplicity and ease of management1 are all in their favor4 ,small houses and cooling rooms are filled with the aid of hoisting tongs4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,care1 ,,handling ,,and ,,marketing ,,of ,,ice4 ,care of ,ice in the ,house--,leaking and ,waste1 ,how ,prevented--,getting out ,ice--,lowering ,machines--,ice ,shipments--,marketing ,ice--,ice ,wagons and ,outfits4 ,after a house is filled with ice and put in order1 it is placed in the care of an attendant4 ,the top dressing requires frequent inspection to keep it intact4 ,keep the circulating air-chambers in the walls in operation1 except when the air is humid2 at such times the lower openings are closed4 ,the loft is ventilated directly into the cupola on top of the roof1 which also carries off the warm air currents rising through walls4 ,,the ,,wasting ,,of ,,ice4--,ice in the house is attacked by water1 moisture1 vapor1 warm air and evaporation4 ,pressure of the mass upon the lower courses assists in their destruction1 and heat from the earth is also radiated into them4 ,evaporation goes on1 to some extent1 at all temperatures2 its immediate effect is cooling1 as it carries off heat4 ,water rots and wastes ice more rapidly than warm air4 ,water permeates the mass and destroys the ice1 while warm air affects only the exposed surface4 ,vapor is wasteful when it settles down on the ice and is condensed4 ,air currents1 if they are strong1 cut away the ice very rapidly1 and will sometimes comb the ice4 ,keeping the room as air-tight as possible tends to preserve the ice4 ,whenever the house is opened the warm air enters1 and vapor will collect above the ice4 ,this should be given an opportunity to escape1 by opening the ventilator doors in the loft floor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,,house ,,ice ,,saw4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,,raising ,,chisel ,,bar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,,striking-,,under ,,bar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,,dunnage ,,shovel4 ,as the ice is taken from the house1 the covering of sawdust should be kept in place over the ice as far as possible4 ,if the space over the ice is sealed up1 the air1 being above the freezing point1 becomes saturated with moisture1 which settles upon the ice1 softening and melting it4 ,when the outside air is cooler than that over the ice or in the loft1 the moist air is driven out1 if the ventilators are open4 ,hence1 in clear weather1 the ventilators should be opened at night4 ,in foggy or damp weather1 ventilators should be kept closed4 ,,in ,,taking ,,out ,,ice from the house1 it is a good plan to take out three tiers across the house at once4 ,the upper tier is worked a little in advance of the second1 which is in advance of the lower1 or third1 course4 ,this gives a sloping front1 on which ice from the top can be lowered without breaking1 and work can progress on the three courses at the same time4 ,the covering can also be readily handled4 ,the tools employed are the house ice saw1 raising-chisel bar and striking-under bar4 ,the saw has a narrow point1 with a double row of teeth for cutting down into the crevices around the cakes1 and a handle arranged to place pressure on the point of the saw4 ,the raising-chisel bar is used for cutting around the sides4 ,the striking-under bar is struck under the bottom of the cake1 to loosen it from the cake beneath4 ,where ice has been packed in double cakes the hand ice plow is sometimes employed to open the grooves1 and the splitting chisel for separating the cakes4 ,the ice is run out to the door on the house runs1 or skids4 ,the house tools not illustrated elsewhere are shown below4 ,,lowering ,,the ,,ice4--,there are several methods employed for dropping the ice down from the top of the ice to the level of the cars or wagons below4 ,gravity is the force usually employed4 ,ice-gigs1 with a counterweight to return the empty gig to the level of the ice1 are1 in one form or another1 mostly in use4 ,they can be mounted on a wheeled platform1 and moved from door to door1 as desired4 ,,packing ,,for ,,shipment4--,when ice is loaded into cars it is covered with marsh hay2 any crevices at doors or windows are carefully packed with hay1 to keep out the air4 ,shavings and sawdust are also employed4 ,when shipped to a distance1 the floors and sides of the cars are lined1 and in the ,south each cake is packed in sawdust and done up in burlap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,,lowering ,,gig ,,and ,,track4 ,when shipments are made in vessels1 runs are set up from the ice house1 to discharge over the vessel's rail4 ,as the distance is often considerable1 the elevation of the runway is high near the house1 and if the ice is taken from the bottom courses it is necessary1 in some cases1 to elevate the ice on to the vessel runway4 ,the ice can be lowered into the hold with tongs4 ,a gig1 to take on two cakes at a time1 handles the ice with great celerity1 a counterweight returning the gig to the deck after the ice is discharged4 ,ice cakes are packed closely in the hold1 being trimmed to shape1 when required4 ,six or eight inches of sawdust are placed at the sides of the vessel1 and1 perhaps1 ten inches of short shavings on top4 ,hay can be used1 but sawdust is the best4 ,hatches are thoroughly caulked1 and the hold is not opened until the end of the trip4 ,the pumps must be sounded every day4 ,,in ,,marketing ,,ice1 painstaking supervision of details is constantly required4 ,resources should always be in efficient working order when required4 ,a sudden hot spell often doubles the demand for ice1 and the utmost exertions will hardly keep pace with it4 ,enterprise in extending trade should not be overlooked1 and the efficiency of the service rendered is of special value in this direction4 ,system and supervision should be extended through every department4 ,in retailing ice1 as conducted in the large cities of the ,north1 no detail of management is deemed trifling4 ,many ice dealers take pride in having neat and convenient wagons for their retail business4 ,as a handsome wagon and a fine team are the means of attracting favorable attention1 so there is nothing which causes more unfavorable comment than ill-kept stock and untidy wagons4 ,the quality of ice used for domestic purposes is now closely scrutinized1 and cleanliness on the part of those handling this commodity1 is expected4 ,ice wagons are usually furnished with an ice scale1 an ice axe1 several pairs of ice tongs1 an ice shave1 a bucket1 and sometimes a broom4 ,the ice cakes are cut as required1 cleaned1 weighed1 and placed within the customer's refrigerator or ice box4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,a ,,popular ,,ice ,,wagon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,,another ,,ice ,,wagon4 ,the use of coupon tickets is a great convenience4 ,the customer is furnished with a book at the beginning of the season1 and for each delivery of ice he receives1 a ticket is given back to the ice dealer4 ,these tickets1 having the name and quantity indorsed on them1 avoid errors and disputes4 ,,strength ,,of ,,ice4--,two inches in thickness of ice will usually bear up a man1 four inches in thickness a horse1 and ice five inches thick is generally safe for a team of horses and a loaded wagon weighing two tons4 ,eight inches in thickness will bear up #aej pounds per square foot of surface1 if distributed over an entire field4 ,ten inches in thickness will support #bej pounds per square foot of surface4 ,it is usual to estimate that ice eighteen inches thick will support a railway train4 ,,weight ,,of ,,ice4--,one cubic foot of ordinary ice will1 on the average1 weigh fifty-seven and one-quarter pounds1 while a cubic foot of water weighs sixty-two and one-half pounds4 ,thirty-six cubic feet of ice weigh #b1jjj pounds4 ,but as stored in the house1 it is reckoned that forty-two to fifty cubic feet of space is required per ton of ice1 depending upon the thickness of the ice and the care with which it has been cut and stored4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,ice ,,in ,,refrigeration4 ,cold ,storage ,ice ,houses--,their ,value for ,handling ,meats1 ,fruits and ,vegetables--,what ,they ,will ,do--,principles of ,construction and ,operation--,how to ,build ,them--,the ,dairy and ,cold ,storage ,houses--,convenience and ,economy of ,combining ,them--,combined ,ice ,house and ,dairy--,very ,cheap ,ice ,houses--,how to ,cut ,ice in ,small ,quantities--,co-operation among ,farmers to ,secure ,advantages of ,ice ,supplies4 ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,refrigeration are numerous in these days of invention and economy4 ,the health1 comfort and convenience of the civilized world are so intimately interwoven with results directly dependent upon the command1 at will1 of low temperature1 that it is now of paramount importance to everyone4 ,refrigeration in the commercial world is largely secured by mechanical means1 and this method will receive notice in a later chapter4 ,cold storage1 secured by ice1 is in use all over this country1 for domestic and trade purposes in preserving food products4 ,the benefits of cold storage could be much more widely diffused1 than at present1 throughout all the farming communities1 where ice forms naturally during the winter1 adding materially to their profits and convenience1 and an attempt is here made to show1 in a practical way1 how it can be secured4 ,,the ,,construction of a cold storage ice house1 and the tools and methods employed for cutting and housing the ice1 as well as the benefits to be secured1 will be considered4 ,only such facts as have stood the test of practical experience1 and which are within the limits usually attained by those who have good cold storage in use from year to year1 will be presented4 ,these results are only attainable by properly constructed storage houses1 sufficient supply of ice1 correct condition of articles when placed in cool room1 length of time they are kept there and cleanliness4 ,cold storage houses1 not built on correct principles1 or improperly used1 will prove of little account1 and disappointment will follow their use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,a ,,simple ,,delivery ,,ice ,,wagon4 ,cold storage may be used to advantage in prolonging the market for many products4 ,the entire crop1 of fruit in particular1 need not be shipped at once1 but by proper picking and storing shipping can be extended over several months4 ,fresh meat can be enjoyed at will1 and the lengthening of the season during which many varieties of vegetables and fruits can be kept fresh for the home table will not only add to the health and enjoyment of the family1 but it is in the line of economy as well4 ,good health is the best doctor1 and the more generous living which cold storage brings within reach is a precursor of health4 ,in sickness a supply of ice and cooled viands is often beyond price4 ,the suffering its judicious use may alleviate1 and the numerous instances in which recovery is impossible without it1 commend a supply of so beneficent a commodity to all4 ,ice is a necessity to health and comfort1 and1 as it can be readily secured in nearly all communities within the frost belt1 very few farmers should be without it4 ,,how ,,long ,,cold ,,storage ,,will ,,preserve4--,no rules as to the length of time during which various articles can be kept in cold storage to the best advantage1 can be given1 which will apply invariably to all cases4 ,in stating what is often done in this way it is intended to show what it has been found profitable to do1 and what will be likely to prove of practical value to those who are starting in to make use of cold storage for themselves4 ,poultry and fresh meats can be kept sweet for two or three weeks4 ,beef is improved in quality by keeping this length of time4 ,butter1 eggs and lard may be stored for three to eight months4 ,apples1 according to variety and condition1 from five to ten months4 ,pears1 pulled when they will just come away from the stem1 and carefully handled1 will keep two or three months4 ,it is best to ship them in two or three weeks1 not waiting for color to mature1 as this will be perfected by the time they reach the consumer4 ,concord grapes will keep two to four months in cold storage1 and ,catawba grapes will keep longer4 ,strawberries1 blackberries and cherries will keep two to four weeks4 ,watermelons1 three to six weeks4 ,muskmelons1 two to three weeks4 ,peaches1 four to six weeks4 ,oranges1 lemons1 figs1 bananas and raisins1 two to three months4 ,green corn1 two to four weeks4 ,squash1 four to eight weeks4 ,cabbage and turnips1 eight to nine months4 ,potatoes may be kept a long time2 they have been kept1 on a trial1 several years1 with no apparent loss of quality4 ,canned fruits will keep well1 and ice cream can be conveniently stored4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,,wagon ,,scale4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,,ice ,,shave4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,,wagon ,,axe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,,wagon ,,saw4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,,wagon ,,ice ,,tongs4 ,,the ,,temperature at which these results have been secured varied from #cd to #ch ,f4 ,bananas1 oranges1 lemons1 peaches1 figs and raisins do better at #dj4 ,peaches1 pears1 berries1 plums and all the more delicately flavored fruits keep in good form and appearance1 but lose their delicate flavor if kept too long4 ,fruits which are picked green1 or before ripening1 mature or ripen while stored4 ,the tendency to decay in ripe fruits is arrested by refrigeration4 ,upon exposure to heat and air the usual process goes on more rapidly than in foods which have not been refrigerated4 ,food should enter into consumption with little delay when taken out of cold storage4 ,the length of time during which it is desirable to keep goods in cold storage may be best determined practically with reference to the ends sought to be attained in any particular case4 ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,cold ,,storage4--,refrigeration depends upon the circulation of pure1 dry cold air4 ,it is based upon natural laws1 which are well known and readily observed4 ,air exposed to heat is expanded in volume2 it is thus made lighter and will rise1 being forced upward by the surrounding cooler air4 ,air exposed to cold is condensed and made heavier2 it will then gravitate to lower levels4 ,the capacity of air for absorbing and retaining moisture varies with its temperature4 ,warm air will sustain a considerable amount of vapor1 which will be condensed and precipitated if the air is cooled4 ,as water is cooled and brought to the freezing point it expels a large part of the heat gathered at a higher temperature4 ,as ice is melted to water this process is reversed1 and heat and air are reabsorbed4 ,the operation of these natural laws is taken advantage of in refrigeration4 ,as usually constructed1 cold storage ice houses are built with two stories2 the first floor for storing goods1 the second filled with ice4 ,the floor between is arranged with openings1 through which the air1 chilled by contact with the ice1 descends into the store room4 ,a flue is provided to conduct the warm air to the upper part of the ice chamber1 when it is dried and purified by contact with the ice as it descends on being chilled4 ,drains and traps are required to carry off the meltage water1 and to secure the water condensed from the warm air4 ,dampers in the cold and warm air flues assist in controlling the circulation1 and ventilators placed in the roof keep the loft free from dampness4 ,the walls1 ground floor and ceiling are constructed as nearly non-conducting of heat and cold as practicable4 ,no cracks or any channels are permissible by which air can enter4 ,drains which take out the water are securely trapped1 to keep out the air4 ,vestibules with perfectly fitting doors are placed at all entrances4 ,windows are fitted with three or four sashes and air spaces between4 ,dryness in the storage room is secured by a sheet metal floor under the ice1 usually galvanized iron1 which forms a large pan or vessel1 in which all meltage water is collected4 ,water is very destructive to the ice1 and the warm air is kept away from the top of the ice to prevent the moisture from being condensed there and settling on the ice4 ,when the ice is low in the ice chamber1 vapor may accumulate in the space above the ice4 ,a ventilator in the top of the room is of service in conducting this away from the ice and keeping it dry4 ,the water from the melted ice will absorb air and gases so it is spread out over as large a surface as practicable1 and the air is conducted over it to be purified4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,,ground ,,floor4 ,there are several plans by which these general features are observed1 in the construction of cold storage houses1 some of which have been made the subject matter of patents4 ,the plans shown in the illustrations embrace the essential features of good cold storage construction4 ,these plans do not conflict with any patented devices1 and will prove adequate for all practical purposes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,,section ,,of ,,house4 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,,section ,,of ,,wall4 ,,principles ,,of ,,cold ,,storage ,,construction4 ,,the ,,general ,,arrangement ,,of ,,cold ,,storage ,,houses may be1 as shown in the illustrations1 ,figures #fg-gj1 for any size4 ,large houses require a girder and posts under the center of the ice floor1 and the air flues are best made double2 one set at each side1 with a drain on each side of the girder along the center of the room4 ,the construction of the walls vary4 ,walls filled with sawdust1 charcoal1 tan bark or other non-conducting materials1 have been in use for many years4 ,carefully conducted tests1 however1 have conclusively proved that a wall of this description is inferior to a wall which contains dead air spaces1 felt or paper linings1 a section packed with mineral wool and an outer circulating air space4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,,exterior ,,view ,,of ,,cold ,,storage ,,house4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,,section ,,view ,,of ,,combined ,,ice ,,house ,,and ,,dairy4 ,the wall shown in ,fig4 #fi gives good satisfaction4 ,it comprises air spaces1 ,a1 which are open to the outer air at the sill1 and at the top open into the loft under the roof4 ,dampers ,d1 in ,fig4 #fh1 are placed at the bottom1 so they can be closed when desired4 ,the next section1 ,b1 ,fig4 #fi1 is of dry sawdust1 packed in place between walls of matched boards2 the outer surface of these walls is lined with prepared water proof paper4 ,the inner section1 ,e1 contains dead air spaces1 which are about twelve inches square4 ,the inner wall is of matched lumber and the outer one is of weather boards4 ,this construction keeps the sawdust dry1 and the walls are free from dampness4 ,the circulation of air through the outer air spaces carries off the heat imparted to the weather boards by the direct heat of the sun4 ,when the air is humid1 or charged with moisture1 these air channels are tightly closed4 ,the thickness of the walls may be varied with the capacity of the building4 ,additional sections of filling and dead air are required for large houses where large quantities of goods are refrigerated4 ,fig4 #fg shows the ground floor4 ,the cold storage house shown in the illustration 7,fig4 #gj7 will hold forty tons of ice1 and do all the work required for dairy1 fruit and domestic service on a large farm with one filling of ice4 ,by regulating the dampers1 ,d ,d1 ,fig4 #fh1 the circulation can be adjusted to meet all conditions4 ,when these dampers are closed the ice wastes very slowly4 ,the waste water1 from meltage1 is useful for cooling milk1 and the milk room and cooling vats can be placed alongside the storage house or made a part of the same building to advantage4 ,a ,,creamery ,,ice ,,house4--,a very conveniently arranged and completely appointed creamery is shown in illustrations ,no4 #gb and #gc4 ,fig4 #gb is a perspective view1 and ,fig4 #gc the plan of a combined creamery1 ice house and water tower4 ,the tank ,b is placed in the second story of the tower2 ,c is the ice house1 ,d the creamery4 ,at ,i ,i are set creamers1 which are supplied with water from the tank by pipes passing through the ice house to cool the water4 ,at ,g is a churn1 which may be run by power located in the annex ,e4 ,at ,h is a butter molder1 and ,j is the veranda4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,,perspective ,,view ,,of ,,creamery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,,ground ,,plan ,,of ,,creamery4 ,by raising the ice chamber1 a cold store room can be secured below it4 ,if the structure is placed on an elevation1 water from the tank can be piped through the dwelling house4 ,,combined ,,dairy1 ,,cold ,,storage ,,and ,,ice ,,house4--,such an arrangement is shown in illustrations1 ,figs4 #gd and #gf4 ,there is no communication between the dairy and storage room4 ,for securing ice for the tank1 double doors1 made to fit very tight1 are set in back of the ice chamber in the loft over the dairy4 ,as leaving this door ajar would rapidly waste the ice1 it should be under the care of a competent person and properly secured4 ,where the ice house and dairy are required without the cold storage room1 the plan shown in ,fig4 #ga is a good one4 ,if a location on a sidehill is not conveniently at hand1 the milk room floor may be excavated sufficiently to secure proper fall for drain4 ,the floor of the ice house should be laid with hydraulic cement1 and slope toward the end nearest the milk room4 ,a cheaper floor is made from spent moulders' sand or coal ashes1 mixed with enough lime to give a hard finish when dry4 ,this makes a hard1 durable floor4 ,the water in the tank must be kept above the supply pipe from the ice house1 to prevent any ingress of warm air4 ,a trap placed in this pipe is a still better method4 ,at ,l1 ,fig4 #ga1 is a double door1 through which ice can be taken out for the tank if required4 ,the size of these rooms can be taken at convenience4 ,the ice house should not be less than twelve feet square and twelve feet high4 ,any smaller quantity than this wastes the ice much more rapidly4 ,a house sixteen feet square and twelve feet high is a safe size for a dairy which is served by forty cows or less4 ,the lumber for walls is better if matched1 and the studding lined with paper4 ,they are1 however1 often built from rough lumber1 with no air spaces4 ,the packed section should be ten inches in such cases4 ,a ,,freezing ,,house4--,in some instances it is required to have a freezing temperature in the cold storage room4 ,poultry1 dressed and frozen1 and shipped in tight cases1 has given good returns4 ,this low temperature is secured by means of galvanized sheet iron tanks1 ,figs4 #ge1 #gg1 #gh1 which are packed with broken ice and salt4 ,from the surface of these tanks the cold is radiated directly into the room2 hence1 the larger the surface of the tanks for a given capacity of ice and salt1 the better1 because of the large radiating surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,,cold ,,storage ,,house ,,combined ,,with ,,dairy4 ,the best form for the tanks is that of a hollow parallelogram4 ,the lower edge should set about eighteen inches above the floor1 to allow a circulation of air through the center of the tank4 ,the tank should be a little wider at the bottom than at the top4 ,this prevents the ice and salt from lodging4 ,a tank six feet high1 sixteen feet long1 and three feet wide1 placed at one side of the storage room shown in ,fig4 #fh1 and regularly supplied with ice and salt1 will reduce the temperature of the room nearly to ,o ,f4 ,as long as the supply of ice and salt is maintained1 this low temperature can be held4 ,the tanks are furnished with a trap to carry off the water1 placed at the lowest end1 and hand holds are arranged through which the salt which accumulates at the bottom may be removed4 ,a drip pan is set beneath the tanks to catch all drippings of condensation2 these pans are of wood1 lined with metal1 and provided with a pipe to carry off the water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 ,,section ,,of ,,refrigerating ,,tank4 ,frost and ice accumulate on the surface of these cooling tanks1 and their usefulness is thereby impaired4 ,duplicate tanks should be arranged1 so that they may be used in turn1 and the ice removed4 ,the ice coat prevents the radiation of the cold into the room1 and its force is spent in adding to the ice upon the sides of the tank1 a useless waste4 ,in some instances the cold storage houses are divided into two or more rooms1 so that various temperatures can be maintained to meet the requirements of a varied stock4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,,section ,,view ,,of ,,cold ,,storage ,,house ,,and ,,dairy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,,ground ,,plan ,,of ,,freezing ,,tank ,,and ,,bench4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,,end ,,view ,,of ,,freezing ,,tank4 ,a ,,very ,,cheap ,,ice ,,house1 but constructed on the same principles as those laid down in ,chapter ,,iv for commercial ice houses1 may take the form suggested by ,figs4 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1 or any desired modification thereof4 ,a ,,still ,,simpler ,,device4--,where the expense of an ice house is not warranted by the small use to which it may be put for cold storage1 on some farms1 a supply of ice sufficient for household purposes can be placed in any convenient corner of a barn or other building4 ,a room partitioned off with rough lumber1 and walls1 as well as floor1 well insulated with non-conducting filling1 will answer1 and repay its cost many times over during the summer4 ,in ,fig4 #hb is a view of an ice room built into a corner of a barn in this manner4 ,an above-ground silo1 if built of wood1 with double walls and air spaces1 will make a most excellent ice house1 if provided with double doors4 ,the underground1 or masonry silo1 should be boarded up1 with joists between walls1 and boards to form an air space1 if used for ice4 ,a ,,little ,,organized ,,co-,,operation in any farming community where ice-cutting privileges exist1 will secure an abundant supply of ice for all purposes for the entire section or neighborhood4 ,it is customary to do the threshing in turn1 and all participate in the use of the threshing machine and power1 where only very extensive farmers find it profitable to have an outfit for their own exclusive use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,cheap ,,ice ,,houses4 ,in a similar manner the benefits of cold storage can be obtained4 ,the houses can be owned by individuals1 or by a few families who may be living near enough together to conveniently use one in common4 ,the tools and outfit for cutting and handling the ice can be owned by a few enterprising young men1 who can fill a large number of houses yearly by contract2 or the appliances can be the joint property of all those having cold storage houses1 who may combine to secure them1 and also combine their labor in securing the ice crop4 ,this work is done when the ordinary duties of the farm are light1 and other interests would not be interfered with4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,,barn-,,corner ,,ice ,,house4 ,the practical advantages of this plan will readily present themselves to observing minds4 ,an outfit of tools necessary to harvest1 in good shape1 one hundred tons of ice1 will just as well harvest ten or fifteen times this quantity1 and would really secure the larger quantity to better advantage than the smaller one4 ,but1 allowing that the labor in getting out one hundred tons of ice is the same per ton that it is for one thousand tons1 the cost of the tools per ton of ice harvested is only one tenth as much in the latter case4 ,the tools are durable1 and will last many years4 ,ice plows which have been in use for fifteen or twenty years are still doing good service4 ,as the cold storage houses would be situated at several places1 a brief outline of the methods in use for handling ice under similar circumstances1 will be of interest4 ,the ice is transported from the water to the houses by wagons or sleds4 ,a platform is built near the edge of the water1 in an easily accessible place1 of a height a little above the bed of wagon boxes when they are backed up to the platform4 ,the end of this platform is toward the water1 and the teams are backed in on both sides4 ,from the water end an inclined way or run is built down into the water4 ,upon this run the ice cakes are rapidly run up on the platform1 quickly loaded on the wagons1 and started on their way to the storage houses4 ,arriving at its destination1 the load of ice may be deposited on the ground at the entrance of the house1 and the team returned for another load4 ,meanwhile two men1 with the assistance of a horse1 can stow the first load in place in the ice chamber4 ,for such work the tools required on the ice field comprise3 ,one ice plow with guide4 ,one ice saw4 ,one ice chisel4 ,one ice floating hook1 twelve to twenty feet long4 ,three ice hooks1 short lengths4 ,one jack grapple4 ,two pairs of loading tongs4 ,at the ice house are required3 ,one pair hoisting tongs4 ,one pair drag tongs4 ,one pair edging tongs4 ,at this time the cash value of these tools is about sixty-five dollars for first-class goods1 which are always the cheapest4 ,,cost ,,of ,,ice ,,in ,,the ,,house4--,regarding the cost of ice when stowed in place in the ice chamber1 it would be difficult to quote an amount which would cover all cases4 ,locality and tact have much to do with determining this cost4 ,ice1 twelve to sixteen inches thick1 cut in small quantities and placed in the ice chamber1 would cost1 on an average1 for labor1 about fifty cents per ton4 ,where cut on a large scale the cost for labor in cutting and stowing is less than half of this amount4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,a ,,loading ,,platform4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,,embankment ,,platform4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,,lifts ,,for ,,loading ,,ice ,,into ,,sleds4 ,a ,,loading ,,platform is illustrated in ,fig4 #hc1 which shows the method of running the ice cakes up with a jack grapple4 ,the size of the platform is determined by the quantity of ice to be handled over it4 ,one horse and grapple will readily serve several teams if a supply of ice cakes is maintained at the foot of the incline4 ,where many teams are to be served and the ice must be handled rapidly1 two grapplers1 one right and one left hand1 can be used on the incline4 ,by having the rope continuous and a pulling post at each end of the horse walk1 the horse will pull a load each way1 and several hundred tons of ice can be landed upon the platform in a day's run4 ,where the incline is long a team can be used to advantage on the grapple rope4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,a ,,cheap ,,ice ,,scraper4 ,a sweep such as shown in ,fig4 #he is a convenience in handling ice cakes directly from the water to sleds or wagons where only a small quantity is wanted1 and where the ice platform is not required4 ,a similar device1 which has the advantage of being more readily moved1 is shown at ,fig4 #hf4 ,where an artificial pond is made with an embankment1 a loading platform may be constructed1 as shown in ,fig4 #hd4 ,,in ,,packing ,,the ,,ice into the ice chamber1 attention is required to prevent any dirt from adhering to the ice and being packed into the ice chamber1 where it will accumulate in the drains and on the floors as the ice melts4 ,at ,s1 in ,fig4 #fh1 will be found an opening over the drip pan2 through these openings1 placed at convenience along the back of the floor1 the floor can be flushed with water and washed clean4 ,time1 labor and convenience are all conserved by the use of such necessary tools as are listed on previous pages4 ,more can be added as the amount of ice cut is increased4 ,,the ,,ice ,,field should be kept free from snow by scraping from time to time4 ,for clearing the small surface from which a harvest of forty tons can be secured1 a simple scraper1 cheaper than those used on large fields1 will answer the purpose4 ,an oak plank one and one-half inches thick1 ten inches wide and six feet long1 with two holes four inches from the bottom edge1 and four feet apart1 and a foot board mortised through the center1 will do tolerable work4 ,an iron shoe on the lower edge adds materially to its efficiency4 ,fig4 #hj illustrates a scraper of this pattern4 ,thirty-six cubic feet of ice weigh a ton4 ,hence1 a surface six feet square on an ice field1 where the ice is a foot thick1 represent a ton of ice4 ,at this rate a surface thirty-eight feet square would represent forty tons of ice4 ,owing to loss by breakage1 and irregular cutting1 it is usual to allow a considerable margin1 greater in small than in large quantities1 and a surface fifty feet square would readily harvest forty tons of twelve-inch ice4 ,where the ice is thinner a correspondingly larger surface is required to secure the same weight of ice4 ,the surface being cleared of snow1 the ice plow is set upon the ice alongside a line drawn taut in the direction in which the plowing is to be done4 ,the ice plow1 drawn by hand and guided to run parallel with the line1 gives the base groove4 ,the blade of the guide is placed in this groove1 and the field is now grooved in uniform spaces in one direction4 ,the plow makes only one cut in each groove1 while the guide is attached to it4 ,by repeating this method grooves are made crossing those first made at right angles4 ,the guide is now removed from the plow1 and by plowing back and forth the ice is grooved to the depth desired1 about seven or eight inches for twelve-inch ice and two inches for six-inch ice4 ,a channel is now opened at the foot of the incline1 and a few hours work for four men1 and a boy driving the horse to run the grapple1 will land the ice cakes on the platform4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,artificial ,,ice ,,and ,,cold ,,air ,,machines4 ,historical ,sketch--,the ,first ,ice ,machine--,its ,subsequent ,development--,progress in the ,use of ,machines--,the ,principles ,involved in their ,construction--,diversity of ,application--,recent ,discoveries4 ,the artificial production of cold has engaged attention from remote ages4 ,the application of spontaneous evaporation in ,eastern countries was the earliest method employed to produce ice4 ,america has the honor of being the home of the inventors who first achieved success in making artificial ice by modern methods4 ,jacob ,perkins1 in #ahcd1 and ,professor ,twinning1 of ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 in #ahej1 each procured ,british patents4 ,the former did not procure a patent in this country1 but ,professor ,twinning secured one in #ahec4 ,two years later1 he had a machine in operation at ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 which produced #a1fjj pounds of ice in twenty-four hours' run4 ,this was a favorable result from a pioneer machine of an estimated capacity of #b1jjj pounds in this time4 ,much credit is due these early inventors1 who introduced a type of machine which is now extensively employed1 and is known as the compression system4 ,in #ahea1 ,dr4 ,john ,gorrie1 of ,new ,orleans1 ,la41 patented a machine for producing ice1 by compressing and expanding atmospheric air4 ,this machine was also the pioneer of its class4 ,it gave rise to what are known as air machines1 used in ,england and on the ,continent1 and extensively employed for facilitating the transportation of fresh beef and mutton on the ocean4 ,in #ahdh1 ,ferdinand ,carr1 of ,france1 contrived an original process for employing aqua ammonia4 ,in #ahfe he patented an ice machine1 and at the ,french ,international ,exposition1 in #ahfg1 daily produced six tons of ice4 ,this has proved to be a notable invention1 the present absorption system being based upon it and extensively used4 ,efforts have been directed to expediting the spontaneous evaporation of water2 a reduction of pressure being effected by a vacuum pump1 and the vapors removed by a suitable absorbing medium4 ,the utilization of cold obtained by the evaporation of other liquids1 more volatile than water1 have received attention4 ,there have been discovered a number of freezing mixtures1 some of which produce wonderfully low temperatures4 ,the addition of salt to broken ice is the best known of these2 it is commonly employed in making ice creams and ices1 and is of great commercial importance as applied to refrigerator cars and cold storage houses4 ,of all these methods the compression1 absorption and air machines1 and the freezing mixture of ice and salt1 have entered into commercial uses in this country4 ,the details of the latter method are referred to in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,regarding the others1 some account of the principal operations involved1 and of the natural phenomena upon which they are based1 will be given4 ,,principles ,,of ,,ice ,,machines4--,it has been observed of gases1 that by compressing them to a fraction of their original volume1 heat was produced4 ,if the compression was great1 most gases were liquified by it4 ,a few gases were found which would not liquify1 and were designated as permanent4 ,by relieving the pressure1 gases will resume their original bulk1 and the heat of compression is gathered up or reabsorbed by them4 ,there is1 naturally1 a constant tendency toward the preservation of an equilibrium of temperature among the atoms of any body1 and also between different bodies4 ,this exchange is carried on upon a grand scale1 in the economy of nature4 ,where the difference in degree is small the exchange is effected slowly1 but where it is great the initial transfers proceed rapidly and with vigor4 ,by means of efficient insulation we can cut off1 in a great measure1 a room1 or a part of a room1 from the influence of the outer1 or general exchanges of temperature4 ,by this means we are able to bring this natural law into service1 by controlling the exchanges of temperature of the objects we place in such rooms4 ,by the union of heat with a fluid1 the latter is converted into a vapor1 and the abstraction of heat from a gas converts it into a liquid4 ,when a fluid or a gas is at the temperature at which a change in its condition is effected1 the continued application or withdrawal of heat does not increase or diminish this temperature4 ,this heat is termed latent1 or hidden4 ,the temperature at which ebullition takes place varies greatly with different liquids4 ,water boils at #bab ,f41 while ammonia boils at #cb ,f4 ,some substances act as absorbents4 ,water will absorb about seven hundred times its bulk of ammonia gas when they are brought in contact4 ,in manufacturing low temperatures1 by the ,compression and ,absorption systems1 a liquifiable gas is used as the vehicle by which to impart cold to1 and carry off heat from1 the body to be cooled4 ,anhydrous-ammonia 7ammonia from which all water has been removed7 is usually employed4 ,in the ,compression machines1 this gas is subjected to a pressure1 averaging one hundred and fifty pounds per square inch1 in a compression cylinder against a piston1 which is operated by a steam engine4 ,the heated gas is carried to a set of condenser coils1 which are cooled by a water bath2 here the gas is liquified by the reduction of temperature and the pressure4 ,by this process it is made to part with the heat of compression1 and its latent heat of vaporization1 as well4 ,the liquid ammonia is collected in a storage tank1 and is then ready for refrigeration duty4 ,from this point the ,compression and ,absorption systems are practically identical4 ,the liquid ammonia is allowed to escape through a valve with a minute opening1 into what are termed the expansion coils4 ,as the ammonia enters it is freed from about three-fourths of the pressure at which it has been held1 and begins to boil and vaporize4 ,as heat is necessary to accomplish this1 everything within reach of its influence is placed under tribute4 ,as the gas parted with about five hundred and seventy heat units per pound at the condenser1 its capacity for heat is now very large4 ,the expansion coils may be placed in a loft of a cold storage room in the same position in which ice is placed for this duty4 ,if they are submerged in a brine solution1 the brine is cooled1 and may be circulated in galvanized iron gutters suspended from the ceiling of the storage rooms4 ,after circulating through the expansion coils1 the gas is drawn out and forced again into the compression cylinder by a pump which renders the system a continuous one4 ,,in ,,making ,,artificial ,,ice1 the expansion tubes may be submerged directly in the water which is to be frozen2 the ice forms in huge cakes on the tubes1 and is sawed into small cakes by a circular saw1 when removed4 ,this is termed the plate system4 ,in the can plan1 a large tank holds the expansion tubes1 and1 suspended from its upper side1 are numerous iron cans2 a brine solution completely fills the tank1 and1 being chilled by the tubes1 it gradually freezes the water which has been placed in the cans for this purpose4 ,,in ,,the ,,absorption ,,system1 aqua ammonia is placed in a retort containing a coil of steam pipes4 ,a mixed vapor of water and ammonia is driven off1 until sufficient pressure is developed in the retort to force the vapor through a small pipe into a condensing tank4 ,here the gas is cooled and liquified1 and also rectified1 or freed from water1 making it anhydrous4 ,the liquid passes into a receiving tank1 and is then used for refrigerator work4 ,this duty is performed in the same manner as described for the compression machine4 ,from the expansion coils the gas is returned to a tank called the absorber1 where the water left behind at the condenser has also been sent2 here they are reunited1 and then pumped again into the retort1 to begin the round anew4 ,,in ,,the ,,air ,,machines1 this gas is compressed in a cylinder against a piston1 which is driven by a steam engine4 ,the compressed air is cooled by water jets sprayed in the compression cylinder1 and also in a cooling tank which has a water bath passed over it at the same time4 ,the condensed moisture is deposited in the cooling tank and in drying tubes1 which are exposed to the spent air which has done refrigeration duty1 and is still cool enough to further lower the temperature of the compressed air4 ,after being dried1 the air is expanded1 producing an intense cold4 ,this air can be circulated in tubes1 or used for cooling brine1 as in the methods already mentioned1 or the air can be expanded directly into the storage rooms or ice tanks4 ,a ,,large ,,plant ,,for ,,the ,,storage ,,of ,,fruit is situated at ,waldo1 ,fla41 and is controlled by the ,american ice and cold storage company4 ,it is illustrated in ,fig4 #hh4 ,a perfectly dry1 cool atmosphere is maintained1 and a temperature so uniform as to demand only one degree of variation4 ,the temperature at which the rooms have to be kept varies from #cc to #de ,f41 depending on the character of the fruit which is to be stored4 ,the higher temperatures are preferable1 if sufficiently low to preserve the fruit4 ,retarding houses for keeping oranges or the more delicate fruits1 can usually be more successfully managed by the use of refrigerating machinery1 as it is not always possible to maintain a sufficiently even and low temperature by means of ice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,a ,,fruit ,,retarding ,,house ,,in ,,florida1 ,,which ,,uses ,,refrigerating ,,machinery4 ,,the ,,latest ,,inventions4--,all these ice-making and cold air machines are more or less expensive and complicated4 ,it is natural1 therefore1 that inventors should be constantly seeking some plan1 idea or method1 for securing a low temperature at less cost for the plant involved4 ,the expense of the existing systems also prevents their use1 except on a large scale2 hence inventors are striving to find not only a method of producing cold at low cost1 but one that can be adapted for use in houses1 offices1 stores1 shops1 cars1 etc41 on a more or less limited scale4 ,several devices for this purpose have already been patented4 ,some of them promise good results1 though at this writing none seem to be thoroughly perfected4 ,one of these devices employs a gas jet1 or lamp light1 the heat from which1 acting on a kettle filled with chemical compound1 produces a low temperature for a small house refrigerator1 while the same principle is claimed to be applicable on a larger scale4 ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,artificial ,,refrigeration are numerous4 ,for cooling and ventilating buildings1 aiding in some lines of manufactures1 and in chemical works1 it has proved its usefulness4 ,in all hot climates it is extensively employed for making ice4 ,in breweries it is applied very extensively1 and is practically indispensable4 ,the handling of fresh meat1 in the modern method1 is directly dependent upon artificial refrigeration1 and in no other direction are its benefits more marked or widespread4 ,the cattle on our ,western plains have become the daily food of those living at the antipodes4 ,in ten years1 from #ahhj to #ahia1 the imports of fresh beef and mutton into ,great ,britain increased from #djj to nearly #c1cjj1jjj carcasses4 ,during the same period the exports of beef alone from the ,united ,states advanced from #ej1ejj tons to #aja1ejj tons4 ,not only are meats carried in refrigerator vessels from ,america and the antipodes to ,england1 but within a year ,australian milk has been shipped in frozen blocks in such quantities as to be retailed in the streets of ,london for four cents per quart4 ,butter1 cheese1 eggs1 fruits and other perishable products1 are likewise transported enormous distances by rail or water1 without injury to the quality1 and at a low cost for freight4 ,it is also worthy of mention that refrigeration is now employed by the engineer1 in substructure work in soils abounding in quicksands4 ,a solid wall of earth is frozen and maintained in such soils1 within which excavating and construction can proceed with ease and safety4 ,that many other uses for refrigeration will be developed goes without question4 ,the students and inventors who are engaged on the problems involved in the production of artificial cold1 claim that before many years all modern houses will be supplied with a refrigerating outfit in the garret to supply cold air to any of the rooms in summer1 by gravity1 as hot air is carried by flues from the furnace in winter4 ,the universal application of a practical device for this purpose1 will yield a rich reward for the successful inventor4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,ice ,,in ,,transportation4 ,refrigerator ,cars and ,vessels--,value of ,ice in ,transporting and ,marketing ,perishable ,produce--,ice and the ,fisheries4 ,on all the important lines of railroads a regular refrigerator car service is maintained1 for transporting perishable goods of all kinds4 ,butter1 poultry1 eggs1 cheese1 fruit1 fresh meat1 vegetables1 and other articles1 are despatched by this service4 ,the shipping of packing-house products is an important branch of this department of railroad service1 and a description of it will show the general features common to all branches of the business4 ,,refrigerator ,,cars4--,a cursory view of the cars in any freight yard discloses a decided difference in the appearance and thoroughness of construction among them4 ,those styled refrigerator cars fare very much better than their companions4 ,a critical examination shows that these cars are models in all details of construction1 and their finish casts the ordinary freight cars far in the shade4 ,the main features of these cars are found1 first1 in their walls1 including floors and ceilings1 which are variously made of combinations of filled and air sections1 with paper and felt linings2 second1 an ice tank placed1 sometimes at one1 or both ends1 and in others in the roof of the car2 third1 in the regulation of the air supply1 or ventilation4 ,some very elaborate designs have been made1 covering the features necessary to the successful working of these cars4 ,most of them are patented4 ,the floor1 ceiling and walls have several sections1 the outer being usually an air space1 or a space filled with thick hair felt4 ,following is a compartment filled with pulverized charcoal1 or other non-conducting filling4 ,this compartment is faced with carefully matched lumber lined with paper4 ,the walls are about six inches thick all together4 ,the doors are the same thickness as the walls1 with beveled edges1 which wedge into the frame as the door is closed4 ,a fastening is used that is so made that a strong pressure is brought against the door1 forcing it into its seat1 and an extra precaution taken by inserting a strip of cotton flannel between the door and frame1 which thoroughly excludes air and dust4 ,in the best constructed cars there is no chance for direct contact of the cooled air with the ice4 ,this of special is importance in cars in which fresh meat1 butter1 and other articles1 are carried1 which are absorbents4 ,where the ice tank is located in the roof of the car1 the circulation of air is secured by gravity1 and is changed by admission of air through an opening so arranged that a draft is created by the motion of the car4 ,very fine brass wire cloth is doubled over these openings1 to exclude the dust2 as the air enters1 it is discharged against a water surface1 which catches the fine dust carried through the screens4 ,the waste water is discharged through a trap1 which effectually shuts off the entrance of air4 ,when the ice tanks are placed at the ends of the car gravity will not maintain a circulation of air4 ,as the ice melts1 the upper strata of air remains warm4 ,to avoid this feature1 resource is had in a forced draft4 ,the air in the upper part of the car is collected by a fan and forced through tubes extending through the ice tanks and opening on to the floor of the car4 ,in connection with the fan is an inlet and outlet tube1 by which a gradual change of air is effected4 ,,ventilating ,,refrigerator ,,cars4--,in some cars there is no provision for renewal of the air2 the object is1 no doubt1 economy of ice1 and for very low temperature1 or for short trips1 it is an advantage which does not have any ill effects on the contents of the car4 ,for long trips and moderate temperatures1 a change of air is beneficial1 in most instances4 ,in some cars1 ventilation is so arranged that the air can be changed or not1 as desired4 ,the fans are run by motion taken from one of the car axles1 and are arranged to be run by hand when the car is not in motion4 ,,icing ,,refrigerator ,,cars4--,when a train is to be loaded with beef or mutton1 it is set in on a track alongside of the icing platform4 ,by means of double tracks on either side1 as many as fifty cars can be iced at short notice4 ,ice cakes are delivered on a staging above the platform by elevator1 suited to the location1 and run into the hopper of a large power ice breaker4 ,barrows1 of a capacity of five hundred pounds of broken ice1 are set below the breaker1 and1 by withdrawing the damper1 are filled with ice4 ,from two to four shovelfuls of salt are added1 and the barrow is dumped into the mouth of a chute which runs along the edge of the platform1 delivering the ice directly into the door above the ice tank4 ,about four tons of ice are placed in each car4 ,by an extension spout the cars are filled in the same manner on the farther tracks4 ,after icing1 the cars are loaded1 and at intervals on their journey the ice is replenished4 ,in shipping other goods1 which are not wanted below the freezing point1 ice is used without salt4 ,even with such goods1 the more frequent use of ice would often be advisable4 ,,value ,,of ,,ice ,,in ,,transportation4--,it is difficult to imagine the state of affairs which would ensue upon a withdrawal of all refrigerator service upon our railways4 ,the amount of privation and actual suffering which would follow would be felt directly in every community in the land4 ,to most people the blessings which follow in the wake of the refrigerator car are of a kind which are accepted without question1 as a matter of course4 ,it would be a long list1 to enumerate all the advantages which are now mutually divided between the producer and the consumer of the products of our farms1 gardens1 vineyards1 dairies and fisheries1 dependent1 in whole or in part1 upon this service4 ,it is but a short time since hundreds of bushels of fruit were left to decay on the ground in ,california orchards1 while many other sections were destitute of fruit4 ,now a refrigerator car service delivers these fruits at all the ,atlantic coast cities1 as well as points between4 ,trial shipments have been despatched to ,london1 with gratifying results1 and it is more than probable that large quantities of the products of these famous orchards will delight our cousins across the sea4 ,,refrigerator ,,vessels4--,on board the fastest steamships plying between our ,atlantic ports and ,europe1 are found extensive refrigerator compartments4 ,dressed beef and mutton are exported in large quantities1 as well as fruits1 vegetables1 dairy products and oysters4 ,the temperature1 for meat1 is maintained a few degrees below the freezing point4 ,air machines are principally used on the ocean1 the brisk circulation of air which they maintain being an advantage4 ,the enormous quantities of dressed meat transported from the ,united ,states1 ,argentine1 ,new ,zealand and ,australia1 to ,europe1 requires a large fleet of steamers1 some of which are equipped1 at considerable expense1 for this special service4 ,in connection with these vessels1 at both shipping and receiving wharfs1 are large storehouses1 where the frozen meat is held1 awaiting shipment1 or received after its voyage4 ,,in ,,transporting ,,fruit ,,on ,,the ,,ocean1 a large fleet find employment2 in it are found steamers built with insulated hulls formed by lining the outer steel hull with wood and packing the inclosed space with powdered charcoal4 ,refrigerator service is essential to success in transporting the more delicate fruits such as pears1 peaches1 cherries and plums which have been landed in ,london from ,california and ,south ,africa in excellent condition in this way4 ,ventilation1 in connection with insulated hulls1 is depended on in handling most of the tropical fruits imported into this country4 ,bananas from ,central and ,south ,american and ,west ,india ports form the staple commodity1 giving employment to an extensive fleet of very excellent boats4 ,from ,southern ,europe large quantities of fruit are exported1 oranges1 lemons1 grapes and nuts forming the bulk of the shipments which are carried in steamers in well ventilated compartments4 ,the development of the fruit traffic from different districts is attaining huge proportions with the control of the proper conditions for transit which shippers now have within their reach4 ,fruit shipments are now made to ,england from ,florida and ,california1 ,southern ,europe1 ,south ,africa and ,australia4 ,the shipments from one land forming the complement of those from others1 a continual supply of the finest fresh fruits is available4 ,,ice ,,in ,,the ,,fisheries4--,it is now long ago that fresh fish were to be enjoyed only at places near by the fishing grounds4 ,now they are in the market the year round4 ,during the season when fish may be caught1 those not entering into immediate consumption are placed in cold storage rooms and frozen1 to be taken out at any later time as they are wanted4 ,such storage houses are found in connection with all important fishing stations on the ,new ,england coast1 along the great lakes1 and among the salmon fisheries of the ,northern ,pacific4 ,when the fishing boats start on a cruise they are loaded with ice1 with which the fish are preserved1 and the fishermen are not obliged to return home with a small catch to prevent its spoiling4 ,in shipping fish to inland places1 a beautiful sight is often observed in a slab of crystal ice about three feet square and eight inches thick1 within which a dozen or more fish have been frozen4 ,they are as beautiful in appearance as when seen in their native element1 while no occasion exists for commenting upon the utility of this method of transporting them4 ,altogether ice is a prime necessity in this business in all departments--the fisherman1 the shipper and dealer1 and the consumer4 ,it would not do to close this chapter without referring to the oyster4 ,the association of oysters and ice are so intimate that they are usually seen together4 ,the trays of oysters and ice may be seen in every direction during the season1 on their way from the oyster beds to delight the palates of their admirers who are found everywhere4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,retarding ,,cellars ,,and ,,houses4 ,cold ,storage in ,modified ,form1 ,without ,ice--,ventilated ,storage and ,packing ,houses for ,fruit and other ,produce4 ,it is well known that cellars which are dry1 cool and well ventilated are of great service in preserving fruit and vegetables4 ,in ,sicily1 where oranges have long been produced in great quantities1 they are kept in cool caves1 which are numerous among the mountains of that island4 ,its volcanic origin no doubt has particularly favored their formation1 and the porous nature of the rock insures ventilation combined with a dry cool air4 ,,caves ,,for ,,storage4--,there is much of the natural phenomena of caves which is interesting1 and definite determination of their philosophy would be of value4 ,there are caves in which ice is formed during the hottest weather1 and in which it disappears during the winter4 ,shafts sunk in mining have exhibited the same peculiarity4 ,the even temperature and dryness of the air in many caves is remarkable4 ,while the facts are yet to be determined scientifically regarding these natural formations1 some of their characteristics may be secured by artificially constructed cellars4 ,,storage ,,cellars ,,without ,,ice have been in use for years1 with profit and convenience to their owners4 ,a convenient place is to locate them in the side of a slight hill1 as shown in ,fig4 #hi4 ,a cross section is shown in ,fig4 #ij4 ,an excavation the width of the cellar is made1 the earth being thrown up against the outside of the stone wall1 which is built on the lower hillside4 ,the opposite wall is formed by the cut face of the hill4 ,the rear end is constructed in the same manner as the lower hillside4 ,the front wall and doors are made of a double thickness of boards1 with six inches inclosed space filled with sawdust4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,,perspective ,,view ,,of ,,fruit ,,cellar4 ,the doors swing inward1 and are large enough to admit a single horsecart4 ,the sides and rear end are lined with inch boards4 ,the side walls are four feet high in the clear4 ,to form the roof1 boards are cut of a length which will raise the center seven feet above the floor and give easy passage for a horse4 ,midway between the center and either wall a #b #d post is set upon a footing of brick1 and above it under the roof boards a #a #d strip is run the length of the cellar4 ,on top of the first roof boards a layer of straw is placed1 which will be a foot in thickness when pressed down4 ,on top of this straw a second set of roof boards is placed1 covered with another layer of straw2 on top is now placed a tight cover of matched boards1 and two thicknesses of tarred paper over the whole4 ,battens are placed over the joints in the matched boards to hold down the tarred paper and prevent any water passing through4 ,the outer edges of the roof are set firmly against the ground at the top of the walls4 ,on the upper hillside tiling should be placed1 or other draining to carry off the surface water4 ,a porous1 gravelly side should be selected whenever available4 ,in the front two windows are placed and one large one at the rear1 double sashes being fitted during the coldest weather4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4 ,,cross ,,section ,,of ,,fruit ,,cellar4 ,,the ,,cheapness ,,and ,,capacity ,,of ,,such ,a ,,cellar4--,for a cellar one hundred feet deep the estimated cost is #ajj1 no skilled labor being required4 ,rough lumber is used except for the last roof boards4 ,large storage room is provided in such a cellar1 fifty thousand celery plants have been accommodated in one2 hundreds of bushels of vegetables1 apples and other fruits have been held in it during the fall and winter4 ,a ,,cold ,,packing ,,house4--,on large fruit farms a building designed to properly care for the fruit during shipping and packing1 and as a store house for temporary use1 is desirable4 ,the illustrations below 7,figs4 #ia and #ib7 are taken from a ventilated fruit house with insulated walls1 which has operated very successfully in ,ontario ,county1 ,n4 ,y4 ,a perspective view is shown in ,fig4 #ia4 ,the main building is #bd #cf feet1 built into a slight hill4 ,the basement is built with stone walls eighteen inches thick1 extending two feet below the surface and rising six feet above it4 ,the floor is made of eight inches of clean coarse gravel1 with a coat of hydraulic cement grouted in a finishing coat on top1 thus making a dry1 hard floor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4 ,,perspective ,,view ,,of ,,fruit ,,house4 ,the basement is divided into convenient apartments4 ,the entrance is from the front and north sides1 the floor being almost level with the outside surface4 ,both the doors and windows are double1 the latter being provided with screens to keep out insects when open for ventilation4 ,this basement is ceiled with inch boards1 on top of which1 between the joists1 is placed an inch and one-half of mortar4 ,the upper building is fourteen feet to the eaves1 the main story being eight feet in the clear4 ,the studding is five inches wide1 and on the outside are two thicknesses of damp-proof paper1 over which weather boards are placed4 ,on the inside of the studding are two layers of paper1 then a two-inch wide studding on which the paper is again doubled2 over this comes matched inch lumber1 making two dead air spaces to insure against the changes of outside temperature affecting that on the inside4 ,the ceiling of this room is formed by putting one thickness of paper on the joists1 covered with matched lumber4 ,the floor is of matched two-inch plank1 thus making dead air spaces between the cellars and the upper room1 and also rendering it impervious to rats and mice4 7,fig4 #ib47 ,this floor is occupied by an office and stairway in one end1 and these leave a clear floor space of #bd #bd feet1 for storing and packing purposes4 ,shelves1 thirty-two inches deep1 are placed all around the wall of this room1 and are capable of holding about seven tons of grapes or other fruits1 leaving the center for such as are in barrels4 ,from the east side of this room a door opens into the raised portion of the shed4 ,through this door the fruit can be unloaded from the wagon without any lifting4 ,this shed runs the whole length of the building and is sixteen feet wide1 with a ground floor4 ,it is ample to accommodate packing1 also several loads of fruit over night or through a shower4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,,section ,,of ,,floor ,,and ,,ceiling4 ,the top story is eight feet high in the center4 ,the floor is one-inch matched stuff1 laid on paper4 ,the sides and ceiling are lathed and plastered4 ,it makes a cool room1 pleasant to work in or to store grapes and other fruits in baskets1 as the veranda on the west side has a flat roof with a door opening on it1 which renders it very convenient for loading or unloading4 ,the veranda is six feet wide on the two sides4 ,a galvanized iron ventilating tube1 two feet in diameter1 runs from the fruit to above the roof1 to carry off the heated air4 ,other ventilating doors should be close to the floor and left open at night1 thus making a cool draft all night through the fruit room4 ,the doors are to be closed air-tight early in the morning2 the room above can be ventilated through the shaft all day1 drawing off the heat from the roof4 ,pure air and plenty of it being required in a house of this description1 its location should be well chosen4 ,the prevailing winds and surrounding buildings or other features can be noticed in selecting a site4 ,,in ,,removing ,,fruit from storage room1 it is always desirable to let the temperature gradually rise to that of the external atmosphere4 ,otherwise the fruit1 being removed at once from a cool room1 being cooler than the external atmosphere1 condenses moisture on its surface which1 unless removed1 may cause decay after the fruit is packed for shipment or sale4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,iced ,,foods ,,and ,,beverages4 ,recipes for ,iced ,foods and ,drinks--,ice ,creams of every ,sort and ,description--,fruit ,mashes1 ,sherbets and the like--,other ,iced ,dishes4 ,there are few who do not thoroughly enjoy a dish of well made ice cream or a glass of some refreshing iced beverage4 ,the addition of an ice house to the farm equipment is the connecting link which will supply these luxuries4 ,few entertainments are complete with ice cream omitted1 and as it falls to the lot of the charming wives and daughters to dispense the cordial hospitality for which ,american farmers are famous1 a few choice recipes are presented here for their consideration4 ,the ice crusher illustrated in ,fig4 #ic is very convenient for breaking ice for the freezer or for iced drinks4 ,it is an improvement over the common method of breaking the ice in a bag with a mallet4 ,recipes for ices are not numerous1 because many dainties are compounded by secret formulas for which confectioners sometimes have to pay dearly4 ,again1 one who knows how to make good1 plain1 old-fashioned ice cream1 generally knows how to add the different fruits and flavors4 ,but the following have been compiled with great care1 many of them are new or heretofore secret1 and they are sufficient in number to give the housewife1 caterer or confectioner every possible delicacy in the way of ices1 exclusive of intoxicating drinks4 ,,ice ,,creams ,,and ,,ices4--,pour the mixture to be frozen into the tin can2 put beater in this and put on cover4 ,place in the tub1 being careful to have the point on the bottom fit into the socket in the tub4 ,put on the cross piece1 and turn the crank1 to see that everything is right4 ,next comes the packing4 ,ice should be broken in large pieces1 put into a canvas bag and pounded fine with a mallet1 or put in a tub and shaved fine with the ice shaver4 ,put a thick layer of it into the tub1 then a good layer of coarse salt2 continue this till the tub is full2 pack down solid with paddle or common stick4 ,after turning the crank a few times add more salt and ice1 and pack down again1 till the tub is full4 ,for a gallon can three pints of salt and1 perhaps1 ten quarts of fine ice1 will be required4 ,the water must not be let off1 as it is one of the strongest elements to help the freezing4 ,if more salt than the quantity given is used the cream will freeze sooner1 but will not be so smooth and rich as when less is used4 ,turn the crank for twenty minutes1 not so fast at first1 but very rapidly the last ten minutes4 ,it will be hard to turn when the mixture is frozen4 ,let off the water carefully1 turn back the cross piece1 wipe the salt and water from the cover1 take off cover1 not displacing the can itself4 ,remove the beater and scrape the cream from it4 ,work a large spoon up and down until the cream is light1 and the space left by the beater is filled4 ,cover the can1 cork up the hole from which the handle of the beater was taken1 add more salt and ice till the can is well covered2 set in a cool place 7covered with a bit of old carpet71 until time for serving4 ,it is better for standing a couple of hours4 ,when ready to serve1 dip the can for a few seconds in hot water1 wipe it1 and turn on a platter4 ,rest it for a moment1 and lift a little4 ,if the cream is to be served from a mould1 remove it when you do the beater2 fill the mould1 and work the cream up and down with a spoon4 ,this will press the cream into every part and lighten it4 ,cover the top of the mould with a thick white paper1 put on tin cover1 and bury in fresh salt and ice4 ,,how ,,to ,,serve ,,creams ,,and ,,ices4--,much pride is taken by good cooks in the way they serve their dainties to their friends4 ,creams and ices look prettier served on pretty plates4 ,if these are lacking1 lay a flower on each plate1 or in some way beautify it4 ,a quaint way of serving cream was noticed not long since4 ,calla lilies had been robbed of their stamens and their cups filled with the cream4 ,,ice ,,creams4 ,,vanilla ,,ice ,,cream4--,one quart of rich cream1 one cup of milk1 one cup of sugar1 one and one-half teaspoonfuls of vanilla4 ,this recipe nearly doubles itself if the cream is very rich4 ,,strawberry ,,ice ,,cream4--,one quart of strawberries1 one pint of sugar1 one-half pint of milk1 one and one-half pints of cream4 ,mash the berries and sugar together through a fine strainer into the freezer1 after the rest of the mixture has been freezing about eight minutes4 ,,brown ,,bread ,,ice ,,cream4--,dry the crust of brown bread in a warm oven4 ,roll fine and sift4 ,add one pint of the crumbs to the preparation for vanilla ice cream4 ,the vanilla and one-fourth of the sugar must be omitted4 ,,cocoanut ,,ice ,,cream4--,one quart of cream1 one pint of milk1 three eggs1 one and one-half cupfuls of sugar1 one cupful of prepared cocoanut1 the rind and juice of one lemon4 ,beat together the eggs and grated rind and put with the milk in a double vessel4 ,stir till the mixture begins to thicken4 ,add the cocoanut and put away to cool4 ,when cold add sugar1 lemon juice and cream4 ,freeze4 ,,fig ,,ice ,,cream4--,one quart of milk1 two tablespoonfuls of corn starch1 one of gelatine1 one pint of cream1 a cupful and a half of sugar1 three eggs1 two cupfuls of figs cut fine1 one tablespoonful of vanilla4 ,put the milk in a double boiler1 reserving half a cupful4 ,when it is boiling pour in the corn starch1 which has been mixed with the cold milk4 ,cook ten minutes4 ,beat the eggs and sugar together2 pour the cooked mixture on this1 stirring all the time4 ,return to the fire1 add the gelatine1 which has been soaking in four tablespoonfuls of cold water1 and cook three minutes4 ,set away to cool4 ,when cold add the cream and vanilla1 and freeze4 ,when the cream has been freezing ten minutes1 take off cover and stir in the figs4 ,cover again and finish freezing4 ,,chocolate ,,ice ,,cream4--,one quart of cream1 one pint of milk1 one even pint of powdered sugar1 one tablespoonful of vanilla1 six eggs1 one teacup grated chocolate4 ,mix sugar1 chocolate1 cream and milk1 and bring to the boiling point in a porcelain kettle2 then draw the kettle to the back of the stove1 and stir in the mixture1 six yolks and four whites1 which have been beaten separately and together4 ,draw the kettle forward again1 stir constantly till the mixture looks like thick cream1 then take it from the stove and add the remaining whites1 which have been well beaten4 ,when slightly cooled add vanilla4 ,when cold pour in freezer and freeze4 ,this quantity is enough for twelve persons4 ,chocolate must be dissolved in a little boiling water4 ,,new ,,york ,,ice ,,cream4--,one full quart of cream1 one coffee cup of powdered sugar1 four eggs1 three teaspoonfuls of vanilla4 ,beat the yolks and whites separately1 then put together and stir in one pint of cream4 ,when it reaches the boiling point draw cream to back of stove until the whole is well mixed1 then draw forward1 stir until it thickens1 about three minutes4 ,cool1 add the other pint of cream1 then the vanilla4 ,freeze4 ,,neapolitan ,,cream4--,make a vanilla1 a chocolate and a strawberry cream2 freeze in separate freezers1 and fill a mould the form of a brick in three smooth layers of equal size4 ,,coffee ,,ice ,,cream4--,make the same as vanilla1 with the addition of coffee1 of which take a cupful ground moderately fine1 put over it just enough water to keep it simmering until strong1 then pour through a bit of cheesecloth1 and when cool into the cream ready for freezing4 ,,walnut ,,ice ,,cream4--,one pint of the meat of walnuts 7,american are the best71 pounded fine in a mortar1 one pint of milk1 one quart of cream1 two small cupfuls of sugar1 four eggs and a quarter of a teaspoonful of salt4 ,beat eggs with one cupful of sugar2 put them and the milk into double boiler and stir constantly until the mixture begins to thicken4 ,then add salt and put away to cool4 ,when cold add the rest of the sugar1 cream and nut meats1 and freeze4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,,ice ,,crushing ,,machine4 ,,tea ,,ice ,,cream4--,one and one-half pints of rich cream1 one pint of sugar1 one cup of good strong green tea1 yolks of eight eggs4 ,mix in inner vessel until it thickens4 ,strain through sieve and freeze4 ,,orange ,,ice ,,cream4--,one and one-half pints of milk or cream4 ,one pint of sugar4 ,the rind of two oranges rubbed on loaf sugar4 ,the juice of six large oranges4 ,yolks of eight eggs4 ,a pinch of salt4 ,mix the ingredients in an inner vessel4 ,stir well until the mixture thickens4 ,pass through fine sieve4 ,freeze4 ,,cinnamon ,,ice ,,cream4--,one and one-half pints of rich cream4 ,one pint of sugar4 ,yolks of eight eggs4 ,a good sized stick of cinnamon1 bruised4 ,cook in inner vessel until mixture thickens4 ,strain1 cool and freeze4 ,,vanilla ,,ice ,,cream4--,one and one-half pints cream4 ,one pint of sugar4 ,one vanilla bean4 ,yolks of seven eggs1 and a pinch of salt4 ,break up the bean in the mixture1 and proceed as in ,cinnamon ,cream4 ,,almond ,,cream4--,one pint of cream4 ,one cup of sugar4 ,one-quarter pound of blanched almonds1 well chopped4 ,stir over fire1 and add well beaten yolks of four eggs4 ,flavor with extract of rose4 ,pour into dish and pile on meringue4 ,place on ice until time to serve4 ,,tapioca ,,cream4--,soak two tablespoonfuls of tapioca over night in just enough water to cover it4 ,in the morning boil one quart of milk with the soaked tapioca by placing it in a tin can or pail set in water to boil4 ,add two-thirds of a cup of granulated sugar and a pinch of salt4 ,beat the yolks of three eggs4 ,when the milk has boiled eight minutes stir in the yolks4 ,remove from the fire and stir rapidly for five minutes1 so that it will not curdle4 ,flavor with vanilla4 ,pour into pudding dish4 ,beat whites well4 ,pour over the top of cream4 ,sift with a little powdered sugar1 brown a minute or two in oven4 ,serve ice cold4 ,,swans' ,,down ,,cream4--,whip stiff one put of rich cream4 ,beat to a froth the whites of three eggs2 sweeten with a small cup of sugar and flavor with vanilla4 ,beat all together4 ,pour into a glass dish and set into a bowl of crushed ice to send to table4 ,eat with sponge cake4 ,,peach ,,ice ,,cream4--,one quart of cream4 ,one cup of milk sweetened4 ,whites of three eggs4 ,one pint of sliced peaches4 ,as soon as the cream begins to freeze well add the sweetened peaches which have been run through a sieve4 ,freeze seven minutes and add the beaten whites4 ,freeze well4 ,,iced ,,dishes4 ,,lemon ,,ice4--,eight lemons1 two quarts of water1 one and one-half pounds of sugar1 whites of four eggs4 ,this makes three quarts to freeze4 ,,tutti ,,frutti4--,when rich vanilla cream is partly frozen add ,english currants1 chopped citron1 chopped raisins and candied cherries4 ,the rule is generally the same quantity of fruit as cream4 ,mould and place in pounded ice and salt until ready to serve4 ,a sufficient time must be allowed for the cream to harden4 ,blanched almonds chopped fine makes a nice addition4 ,,frozen ,,pudding4--,one generous pint of milk1 two cupfuls of granulated sugar1 a scant half cupful of flour1 two eggs1 two tablespoonfuls of gelatine1 one quart of cream1 one pound of ,french candied fruit 7half a pound will do71 four tablespoonfuls of wine4 ,let the milk come to a boil1 beat the flour1 one cupful of sugar and the eggs1 and stir into the boiling milk4 ,cook twenty minutes1 and add the gelatine1 which has been soaking an hour in enough water to cover it4 ,set away to cool4 ,when cold1 add wine1 sugar and cream4 ,freeze ten minutes1 then add the candied fruit and finish freezing4 ,when ready to serve dip tin in warm water1 turn out the cream and serve with whipped cream heaped around4 ,,nesselrode ,,pudding4--,one pint of shelled almonds1 one pint and a half of shelled chestnuts1 one pint of cream1 a pint can of pineapple1 the yolks of ten eggs1 half a pound of ,french candied fruit1 one tablespoonful of vanilla1 four of wine1 one pint of water1 one of sugar4 ,boil the chestnuts half an hour1 then rub off the black skins and pound in a mortar until a paste4 ,blanch the almonds and pound in same manner4 ,boil the sugar1 water and juice from the pineapple for twenty minutes in a saucepan4 ,beat the yolks of the eggs and stir them into the syrup4 ,put the saucepan in another of boiling water1 and beat the mixture with an egg beater until it thickens4 ,take off1 place in basin of cold water1 and beat ten minutes4 ,mix the almonds and chestnuts with the cream1 and rub all through a sieve4 ,add the candied fruit and pineapple cut fine2 mix this with cooked mixture2 add the flavor and half a teaspoonful of salt4 ,freeze the same as ice cream4 ,,lemon ,,sherbet4--,the juice of five lemons1 one pint of water1 one tablespoonful of gelatine4 ,soak the gelatine in a little water4 ,boil one cup of water and dissolve the gelatine in it4 ,mix together the sugar1 water1 gelatine and lemon juice4 ,turn into can and freeze4 ,this is light and creamy4 ,,lemon ,,sherbet4--,one pint and a half of sugar1 three pints of water1 the juice of ten lemons4 ,boil the sugar and water together twenty-five minutes4 ,add the lemon-juice1 strain and freeze4 ,this makes a smooth1 rich sherbet4 ,,orange ,,sherbet4--,make the same as lemon sherbet1 but use the juice of twenty oranges instead of ten lemons4 ,boil the syrup for this dish thirty minutes4 ,,pineapple ,,sherbet4--,a pint and a half can of pineapple1 or1 if fresh fruit is used1 one large pineapple1 a scant pint of sugar1 a pint of water1 one tablespoonful of gelatine4 ,soak the gelatine an hour in enough cold water to cover it4 ,cut the hearts and eyes from the fruit1 chop it fine and add to it the sugar and juice from the can4 ,have half the water hot and dissolve the gelatine in it4 ,stir this and the cold water into the pineapple4 ,freeze4 ,this sherbet will be white and creamy4 ,,strawberry ,,sherbet4--,two quarts of strawberries1 one pint of sugar1 one pint and a half of water1 one tablespoonful of gelatine4 ,mash the berries and sugar together1 and let them stand two hours4 ,soak the gelatine in cold water to cover4 ,add one pint of water to the berries1 and strain4 ,dissolve the gelatine in half a pint of boiling water2 add this to the strained mixture1 and freeze4 ,,strawberry ,,sherbet ,,no4 #b4--,one pint and a half of strawberry juice1 one pint of sugar1 one pint and a half of water1 the juice of two lemons4 ,boil the water and sugar together for twenty minutes1 add the lemon and strawberry juice4 ,strain and freeze4 ,,raspberry ,,sherbet4--,this sherbet is made the same as the strawberry4 ,when raspberries are not in season1 use the canned or preserved fruit and a smaller quantity of sugar4 ,the juice of a lemon or two is always an improvement4 ,this sherbet can also be made by following the second rule for strawberry sherbet4 ,,currant ,,sherbet4--,one pint of currant juice1 one pint and a half of water1 the juice of one lemon1 one pint of sugar1 one tablespoonful of gelatine4 ,have the gelatine soaked in cold water and dissolve it in half a pint of boiling water4 ,mix it with the pint of cold water1 the sugar1 lemon and currant juice1 and freeze4 ,,frozen ,,strawberries4--,two quarts of fresh berries1 one pint of sugar1 one quart of water4 ,boil the water and sugar together half an hour1 then add the berries1 and cook fifteen minutes longer4 ,let this cool1 and freeze4 ,when beater is taken out add one pint of whipped cream4 ,preserved fruit may be used in this case1 to each quart of fruit one quart of water1 and freeze4 ,,frozen ,,raspberries4--,prepare raspberries the same as strawberries4 ,when cold add the juice of three lemons1 and freeze4 ,,frozen ,,apricots4--,one can of apricots1 a generous pint of sugar1 a quart of water1 a pint of whipped cream--measured after being whipped4 ,cut apricots in small pieces1 add sugar and water1 freeze4 ,,frozen ,,peaches4--,one can of peaches1 one heaping pint of granulated sugar1 one quart of water1 two cupfuls of whipped cream4 ,boil sugar and water together for twenty minutes1 then add peaches1 and cook twenty minutes longer4 ,rub through a sieve1 and when cool1 freeze4 ,when the beater is taken out stir in the whipped cream with a spoon4 ,,biscuit ,,glace4--,one pint of cream whipped to a froth1 a dozen and a half macaroons1 three eggs1 half a cupful of water1 two-thirds of a cupful of sugar1 a teaspoonful of vanilla4 ,boil the sugar and water together for half an hour1 beat the eggs and stir into the boiling syrup4 ,place the saucepan containing the mixture in another of boiling water1 and beat for eight minutes4 ,take from the fire1 place the saucepan in a pan of cold water1 and beat mixture until cold4 ,then add flavor and whipped cream4 ,stir well and fill paper cases4 ,have the macaroons rolled fine and browned4 ,put a layer of crumbs on the cream in the cases4 ,place these in an ice cream mould1 cover well and bury in ice and salt for at least two hours4 ,serve on fancy plates4 ,,glace ,,meringue4--,one quart of cream1 one large cupful of granulated sugar and six tablespoonfuls of powdered1 one tablespoonful of vanilla1 the whites of six eggs1 one cupful of milk1 one tablespoonful of gelatine1 soaked an hour in four of cold water4 ,let the milk come to a boil1 and stir the gelatine into it4 ,strain into the cream1 add the vanilla and granulated sugar2 turn into the tin and freeze4 ,when the mixture is frozen 7it will usually require twenty minutes71 take out the beater and pack the cream smoothly1 being careful to have the top perfectly smooth4 ,set away until serving time4 ,it should stand1 at least1 an hour4 ,when ready to serve1 beat the whites of the eggs to a stiff froth1 and gradually beat into this the powdered sugar4 ,turn the cream out1 and cover every part of it with the meringue4 ,brown in a hot oven and serve immediately4 ,if the dish is flat put a board under it2 this keeps the heat from the bottom4 ,glace meringue is a beautiful dish4 ,,bombe ,,glace4--,one quart of strawberry or raspberry sherbet1 one pint of sugar1 one pint and a half of water1 the yolks of eighteen eggs1 one large tablespoonful of vanilla4 ,boil the sugar and water together twenty minutes1 beat the yolks of the eggs very light4 ,place the saucepan with the syrup in another pan of boiling water2 stir the eggs into this syrup and beat with a whisk for ten minutes4 ,take from the fire1 place the basin in a pan of cold water1 and continue beating for ten or fifteen minutes4 ,pack an ice cream mould in ice and salt4 ,take the sherbet from the freezer and spread on the sides and bottom of the mould4 ,when it is hard put the cooked mixture in the center1 being careful not to disturb the sherbet4 ,cover with a piece of thick white paper4 ,put on the cover1 and cover the top of the mould with salt and ice4 ,bombe glace can be made with any kind of sherbet1 having the center part flavored to correspond with the sherbet4 ,the handsomest dishes are1 of course1 made with the brightest colored sherbets4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4 ,a ,,power ,,ice ,,crusher4 ,,plain ,,blanc ,,mange4--,to one quart of boiling milk add two tablespoonfuls of corn starch dissolved in a little cold milk4 ,sweeten and let it boil long enough to thicken4 ,pour into cups1 and when cold serve in glass dishes with a sweet jelly and rich cream4 ,this makes a very simple and wholesome dish4 ,always cook custards in inner vessels1 as they are not so apt to scorch4 ,a frozen custard is a delight in hot weather4 ,,pineapple ,,water ,,ice4--,one pound of pineapple1 peeled1 sliced and reduced to a pulp by pounding4 ,rub through a fine sieve4 ,wash the dregs with half pint of cold water4 ,add one pint of syrup 7made by boiling one pint of water with quarter of a pound of sugar7 and juice of one lemon4 ,freeze4 ,,raspberry ,,ice4--,one and one-half pints of raspberry juice1 made by pressing the fruit through a sieve4 ,one pint of syrup4 ,one glass of currant juice1 or juice of half a lemon4 ,freeze4 ,,cherry ,,ice4--,two pounds of cherries picked1 pounded and boiled with a gill of water in a porcelain vessel4 ,rub through a sieve4 ,add one pint of thick syrup1 one pint of cream1 and a few drops of essence of the kernels4 ,mix4 ,freeze twenty minutes4 ,,blackberry ,,ice4--,put as many blackberries as you wish to stew1 and sweeten to taste4 ,when done put in a bag and strain4 ,when cold1 freeze4 ,,macaroni ,,custard4--,take one quart of milk1 set it on to boil4 ,mix one-half tablespoonful of butter and three of flour1 and stir into the boiling milk4 ,beat the yolks of six eggs with one-half cup of sugar4 ,stir into the milk1 and take from fire to cool4 ,flavor with vanilla1 then crumble one dozen fresh macaroons over the top and pile on the meringue4 ,serve ice cold4 ,,boiled ,,custard4--,one quart of milk1 two eggs1 one tablespoonful of corn starch1 one teacup of sugar4 ,flavor with vanilla4 ,boil milk and sugar1 then add starch and eggs well beaten together4 ,place on ice before serving4 ,,floating ,,island4--,one quart of milk1 four eggs--whites and yolks beaten separately--four tablespoonfuls of sugar1 two teaspoonfuls vanilla1 one-half cup of currant jelly4 ,heat the milk to scalding1 but not boiling4 ,beat the yolks1 stir into them the sugar and pour upon them gradually1 mixing well a cup of hot milk4 ,return to saucepan and boil until it begins to thicken4 ,pour into glass dish4 ,heap upon the top meringue of whites whipped very stiff1 into which you have beaten the jelly1 a teaspoonful at a time4 ,serve ice cold4 ,,blanc ,,mange4--,sweeten one quart of cream and flavor to suit the taste4 ,dissolve one tablespoon of gelatine in hot water and pour into the cream4 ,set on ice and serve with whipped cream4 ,,corn ,,starch ,,blanc ,,mange4--,dissolve three tablespoonfuls of corn starch in one pint of milk4 ,add three teaspoonfuls of sugar and three beaten eggs4 ,put this mixture into a pint of boiling milk4 ,flavor to taste4 ,pour into cup4 ,serve with jelly and whipped cream4 ,,velvet ,,blanc ,,mange4--,two cups of sweet cream4 ,one-half cup of gelatine dissolved in hot water4 ,one-half cup of powdered sugar4 ,one small glass of white wine4 ,flavor with almond extract4 ,boil cream1 sugar and gelatine until it is smooth1 then take it from the fire and flavor by adding the wine last4 ,stir well and put in fancy mould on ice4 ,serve with cream4 ,,lemon ,,jelly4--,to a package of gelatine add one pint of cold water and the juice of four lemons4 ,in an hour it will be sufficiently dissolved to add a pint of boiling water and three scant cups of sugar4 ,let it just come to a boil4 ,strain through cheese cloth into fancy moulds4 ,set on ice1 and serve with rich cream4 ,,strawberry ,,ice4--,crush three quarts of strawberries with two and one-half pounds of sugar4 ,let them stand an hour4 ,squeeze through a straining bag4 ,add an equal amount of water to the juice1 and when half frozen add the beaten whites of three eggs4 ,any juicy fruit may be prepared in the same manner1 currants and raspberries being especially good4 ,,snow ,,pudding4--,dissolve in one pint of boiling water half a box of good gelatine4 ,when cold add juice of one lemon and small cup of sugar4 ,strain well and add the well beaten whites of three eggs4 ,mix well and pour into mould4 ,when ice-cold serve with a custard made of the yolks of eggs and a pint of cream or milk4 ,sweeten and flavor to taste4 ,,iced ,,beverages4 ,,iced ,,coffee4--,one quart of strong coffee1 one quart of cream1 one and three-fourths of a pint of granulated sugar4 ,freeze4 ,,iced ,,teas are now served to considerable extent during warm weather4 ,they are used without milk1 and the addition of sugar serves only to destroy the finer tea flavor4 ,it may be prepared early in the day1 taking care to make it stronger than when served hot4 ,place in refrigerator1 and when ready to serve1 have crushed ice in the tumblers1 which are nicer for the purpose than cups1 as the tea looks pretty poured through the ice4 ,,lemonade4--,juice of half a lemon to each goblet of water4 ,sweeten to taste and pour over crushed ice4 ,,jelly ,,water4--,sour jellies dissolved in water make delicious drinks for fever patients4 ,best always to boil the jelly in water1 then cool4 ,in this way the jelly does not become lumpy4 ,a ,,cooling ,,drink4--,pour three quarts of water on an ounce of cream of tartar4 ,stir in it the juice of a fresh lemon and the peel cut in very thin strips without a particle of pulp4 ,sweeten to taste4 ,let stand till cold and clear4 ,pour off without disturbing sediment at the bottom4 ,a tumblerful iced is a pleasant and healthful beverage for a warm day4 ,,egg ,,lemonade4--,white of an egg1 juice of one lemon1 one tablespoonful sugar1 one tumbler of water4 ,beat well together4 ,serve cold4 ,,gum ,,arabic ,,water4--,one teaspoonful gum arabic4 ,one tumbler cold water4 ,allow it to stand long enough to dissolve4 ,flavor with jelly1 lemon1 or any fruit syrup4 ,,sago ,,milk4--,three tablespoonfuls sago1 soaked in a cup of cold water one hour4 ,add three cups of boiling milk4 ,sweeten and flavor to suit taste4 ,simmer slowly half an hour4 ,eat warm4 ,tapioca milk is prepared in the same manner4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,fig4 ,page4 #a4 ,clearing-off scraper #ag #b1c1d4 ,snow scoop scrapers #ah #e4 ,ice auger #bj #f4 ,measure #bj #g4 ,tapping axe #bj #h4 ,field planer #ba #i4 ,marker1 with swing guide #bb #aj4 ,field plow #bb #aa4 ,swing guide plows #bb #ab4 ,hand plow #bd #ac4 ,plow rope #bd #ad4 ,line marker #bd #ae4 ,braces for channel with swift current #bf #af4 ,brace for slow current #bg #ag4 ,best cast steel ice saws #bh #ah4 ,two-prong fork bar #bh #ai4 ,three-prong fork bar #bh #bj4 ,four-prong bar #bh #ba4 ,calking bar #bh #bb4 ,breaking bar #bh #bc4 ,ice hooks #ca #bd4 ,elevator feeding fork #ca #be4 ,chain scoop net #ca #bf4 ,sieve shovel #ca #bg4 ,ring handle splitting chisel #ca #bh4 ,channel hook chisel #ca #bi4 ,needle bar #ca #cj4 ,toothed trimmer bars1 iron handle #cc #ca4 ,toothed trimmer bars #cc #cb4 ,jack grapple #cc #cc4 ,handle grapple #cc #cd4 ,channel grapple #cc #ce4 ,wooden skid1 ,no4 #a #cf #cf4 ,wooden skid1 ,no4 #b #cf #cg4 ,wagon and loading tongs #cf #ch4 ,packing chisel #cf #ci4 ,packing chisel #cf #dj4 ,hoisting tongs #ch #da4 ,drag tongs #ch #db4 ,edging tongs #ch #dc4 ,ice adze #ch #dd1 #de4 ,interior view of old style ice cellar #dd #df-di4 ,modern ice pit #dd1 #df1 #dh #ej4 ,section of elevator incline and platform conveyors #ej #ea4 ,elevation of platform along tracks for loading cars #eb #eb4 ,section of loading platforms #eb #ec4 ,hoisting gigs and reversing engines #ed #ed4 ,house ice saw #eg #ee4 ,raising chisel bar #eg #ef4 ,striking-under bar #eg #eg4 ,dunnage shovel #eg #eh4 ,lowering gig and track #ei #ei4 ,a popular ice wagon #fa #fj4 ,another ice wagon #fa #fa4 ,sample delivery ice wagon #fd #fb4 ,wagon scale #ff #fc4 ,ice shave #ff #fd4 ,wagon axe #ff #fe4 ,wagon saw #ff #ff4 ,wagon ice tongs #ff #fg4 ,ground floor #fh #fh4 ,section of house #fi #fi4 ,section of wall #fi #gj4 ,exterior view of cold storage house #gj #ga4 ,section view of combined ice house and dairy #gj #gb4 ,perspective view of creamery #gb #gc4 ,ground plan of creamery #gb #gd4 ,cold storage house combined with dairy #gd #ge4 ,section of refrigerating tank #ge #gf4 ,section view of cold storage house and dairy #gf #gg4 ,ground plan of freezing tank and bench #gg #gh4 ,end view of freezing tank #gg #gi-ha4 ,suggestions for cheap ice houses #gh #hb4 ,barn-corner ice house #gi #hc4 ,a loading platform #ha #hd4 ,embankment platform #ha #he1 #hf4 ,lifts for loading ice into sleds #ha #hg4 ,a cheap ice scraper #hb #hh4 ,a fruit retarding house in ,florida1 which uses refrigerating machinery #hi #hi4 ,perspective view of fruit cellar #ig #ij4 ,cross section of fruit cellar #ih #ia4 ,perspective view of fruit house #ii #ib4 ,section of floor and ceiling #ajj #ic4 ,ice crushing machine #aje #id4 ,a power ice crusher #aaa ,,index4 ,artificial ice and cold air machines #dh-ia ,air machines #hh ,extent of artificial refrigeration #ij ,fruit storage plant at ,waldo1 ,fla4 #hh ,historical sketch #hd1 #he ,latest inventions1 the #hh ,principles of ice machines #he1 #hf ,systems employed #hf1 #hg ,uses of #ij1 #ia ,care1 handling and marketing of crop #ef-fc ,care of ice in houses #ef ,coupon tickets1 use of #fb ,lowering ice from house #eh ,marketing #fj ,packing ice for shipment #eh1 #fj ,taking out ice from house #eh ,ventilators1 how to use #da1 #ef1 #eh ,wasting of ice1 causes and preventatives #ef ,cold storage #fc-hf ,construction of house for #fc ,co-operation1 benefits of #gh ,extent and benefits of #fc1 #fd ,preservative power for various articles1 extent of #fe ,principles of #fg ,temperature1 variation of #fe ,use of #fd1 #fg ,cold storage ice house 7see also 8,retarding house10 and 8,storage cellars10 and 8,packing house073 ,barn corner ice house #gi ,cheap ice house #gg ,combined dairy1 cold storage and ice house #gb1 #gc ,construction of #fc1 #fg1 #fh ,cost of ice in house #hj ,creamery ice house #ga1 #gb ,floor1 best construction of #gc ,freezing room #gc ,general arrangement of #fi ,loading platform #hj ,milk room #gc ,principles employed #fg ,sample house described #ga ,size of rooms #gc ,silo as an ice house #gg ,tanks #ge ,temperature considered in removing fruit from #aja ,tools required in stowing ice #hj ,ventilators #fh ,walls considered1 various #fh1 #fi ,construction of commercial ice houses #dc-ee ,construction1 details of #dg-ed ,development of the modern ice house #dc1 #dd ,earliest forms of ice storage #dc ,site for #dd1 #de ,survey and foundation #de-dg ,construction of ice house1 details of #dg-ed ,air spaces #dg ,chains1 over-shot and under-shot #ee ,engine #ee ,floor #ec ,lightning rods1 use of #ea ,lumber required1 dimensions of #dg ,platforms for loading cars #ec ,posts1 inside and out #dg1 #di ,roof1 a good construction for #di ,sills1 inside and out #dg ,studding1 main outer and inner #dg ,ventilators #ea1 #fh ,walls and partitions #di ,contents1 table of #aae ,co-operation1 how best practiced #gi ,co-operation in ice-cutting and cold storage #gh ,creamery ice house #ga1 #gb ,cutting and storing ice #ad-db1 #hc ,calking bar1 use of the #bg ,care of ice fields #ae1 #hc ,care of tools #cb-ce ,channels and canals #be1 #hc ,channels1 early work on the #bi ,closing and caring for the house #da1 #db ,condition of field at quitting time #bi ,cracks in the ice #bf ,danger signals #bc ,floats1 how to handle #bg ,flooding1 use of #ag ,harvesting1 danger of delay in #bj ,harvesting outfit #bj-bc ,housing the crop #bi-cb1 #ce-ch ,inspection of field #bj1 #bc ,laying out ice field #bc ,marking and plowing #bc-be ,opening up the field #bf ,packing ice in the house #cg-da ,plowing1 results of delay in #cd ,plowing1 process of #hc ,refuse ice #bc ,science of ice formation #ad1 #ae ,shipping from the field #db ,snow1 removal of #ag1 #ba ,snow scrapers #ag1 #ah ,tapping the field during a thaw #ai ,thickness of ice #ba ,tool room and fittings #ce ,windrows1 how best distributed #ai ,dairy1 cold storage and ice house1 combined #gb1 #gc ,freezing house1 a #gc ,harvesting 7see cutting and storing7 ,historical sketch1 an #g-aa ,domestic and export trade #g ,export trade1 height of #g ,extent of ice industry #i ,home of the industry #i ,methods for securing1 development of #h ,modern ice harvest1 pen picture of #aj ,origin of business in ,united ,states #g ,preserving or antiseptic powers of ice #i ,uses of ice1 growing #h ,house1 closing and caring for the #da-db ,sawdust or mill shavings1 how used #da ,tools1 inspection of #da-db ,ventilation #da1 #ef1 #eh ,housing the ice #bi-cb ,discipline on the field1 value of #cb ,methods employed1 various #bi1 #ce ,preferable time for1 the #ce ,protection at sides of channel1 necessity for #cj ,runs1 or skids1 how arranged #cg1 #dj ,serious accidents1 how prevented #cb ,stowing1 process of #cg1 #ci ,water box1 use of #cj ,iced beverages3 ,coffee1 cooling drink1 gum arabic water1 jelly water1 lemonade1 sago milk1 tea #aad ,ice creams and ices #ajb-ajg ,almond #ajf ,brown bread #ajc ,chocolate #ajd ,cinnamon #ajf ,coffee #aje ,cocoanut #ajc ,fig #ajd ,general directions for making #ajb ,neapolitan #aje ,new ,york #ajd ,orange #ajf ,peach #ajf ,strawberry #ajc ,swan's down #ajf ,tapioca #ajf ,tea #aje ,vanilla #ajc1 #ajf ,walnut #aje ,iced dishes #ajg-aad ,biscuit glace #aaj ,blackberry ice #aab ,blanc mange #aaa-aac ,bombe glace #aaj ,cherry ice #aab ,currant sherbet #aji ,custards #aab ,frozen apricots #aji ,frozen peaches #aji ,frozen pudding #ajg ,frozen raspberries #aji ,frozen strawberries #aji ,glace meringue #aaj ,lemon ice #ajg ,lemon jelly #aac ,lemon sherbet #ajh ,macaroni custard #aab ,nesselrode pudding #ajg ,orange sherbet #ajh ,pineapple sherbet #ajh ,pineapple water ice #aab ,raspberry ice #aab ,raspberry sherbet #aji ,snow pudding #aac ,strawberry ice #aac ,strawberry sherbet #ajh ,tutti frutti #ajg ,iced food and beverages #aja-aad ,iced beverages #aad ,ice creams and ices #ajb-ajg ,iced dishes #ajg-aad ,ice field1 care of #ae1 #hc ,ice houses1 barn corner #gi ,cheap #gg ,cold storage #fc1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc ,commercial #dc-ee ,creamery #ga1 #gb ,dairy and cold storage combined #gb1 #gc ,silo #gg ,ice in transportation #ia-if ,fisheries1 ice in the #ie ,ocean transportation #id-ie ,refrigerator cars #ia1 #ib ,refrigerator vessels #id ,value of #id ,ice machines1 ,principles of #he-hf ,industry1 the ice #g-aj ,extent of #g1 #i ,home of #i ,origin of in ,united ,states #g ,laws for protection of crop #aa ,regarding prohibition of cutting on polluted streams #aa ,public vs4 private ownership of ice fields #ab ,legal and sanitary matters #aa-ad ,gravel as a bed for ice ponds1 use of #ab ,laws for protection of crop #aa ,preservation of purity of streams and lakes #aa ,purity of crop1 how maintained #aa ,marketing ice #fj ,ownership of ice fields1 public vs4 private #ab ,packing house1 a cold #ih-aja ,construction of #ii-aja ,temperature considered in removing fruit from #aja ,use for on large farms #ih1 #ii ,packing ice for shipment #eh ,packing in the house #cg-da ,methods employed1 various #ch ,method1 a good #ch1 #ci ,quantity packed dependent on arrangement #ch ,runs1 arrangement of outside and in #cg-dj ,preface #e ,purity1 conditions of #aa1 #bc ,shipping ice from field #db ,refrigerator cars #ia-id ,construction #ia-ic ,icing #ic ,ventilating #ic ,refrigerator vessels #id1 #ie ,extent of traffic through #id1 #ie ,temperature1 how regulated #id ,ventilation of #ie ,retarding cellars and houses #if-aja ,caves for storage #if ,cellars without ice #ig ,site for constructing ice house 7see also 8,cold storage ice house07 #dd1 #de ,accessibility from water and land #dd ,arrangement of house determined by lay of land #de ,good site dependent on what #de ,how to select #de ,transportation facilities considered #de ,snow1 usefulness of #af ,sources of ice supply #aa-ad ,artificial #ac1 #hd-ia ,lakes fed by streams #aa ,purity of compared #aa1 #ab ,running streams #aa ,storage cellars1 construction of #ig1 #ih ,streams1 changing the course of #ac ,strength of ice #fb ,survey and foundation for house #de-dg ,drainage1 the value of #de ,foundations1 extent of #de ,importance of survey #de ,inclined ways1 use and construction of #ed ,life of house1 how extended #de ,tool room and fittings #ce ,tools1 care of #cb-ce1 #da-db ,elevator machinery repairing #da ,engine and its parts #db ,good vs4 inferior tools #cb ,inspection of after use #da ,plows1 how often rendered useless #cd ,plows1 the best #cd ,repairing1 the best time for #cd ,repairing tools required #cd ,saws1 how to care for #cb ,storing room #ce ,uses of ice in refrigeration 7see also 8,cold storage07 ,cold storage1 extent and benefits of #fc ,decay of fruits prevented #fg ,fruits1 meats and vegetables1 preservation of #fe1 #fg ,poultry1 how best preserved #gc ,uses of ice1 the growing #h1 #fd ,ventilators1 construction of #ea1 #fh ,use of #da1 #ef1 #eh1 #fh ,wasting of ice in house1 causes and preventives #ef ,weight of ice #fb ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in the original book or the change did not affect the meaning of the text4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 unbalanced quotation marks were remedied when the change was obvious1 and otherwise left unbalanced4 ,illustrations in this e,book have been positioned between paragraphs and outside quotations4 ,in versions of this e,book that support hyperlinks1 the page references in the ,list of ,illustrations lead to the corresponding illustrations4 ,page #cj3 8,pages #jj-jj0 was printed that way4 ,the index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4 ,some page references and sequence errors in the ,list of ,illustration were corrected by ,transcriber4