file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #febdc-;h4htm or #febdc-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#febdc_/pg#febdc-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#fe bdc_/febdc-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive4 ,see https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/printsbr iefrevie#jarich ,,prints ,a ,,brief ,,review ,,of ,,their ,,technique ,,and ,,history ,illustration3 ,,herodotus4 ,,venice1 #adid ,,prints ,a ,brief ,review of ,their ,technique and ,history by ,,emil ,h4 ,,richter ,with ,illustrations ,boston and ,new ,york ,houghton ,mifflin ,company ,the ,riverside ,press ,cambridge #aiad ,copyright1 #aiad1 by ,houghton ,mifflin ,company ,all ,rights ,reserved ,published ,november #aiad ,,preface ,prints have long been an undisturbed domain of the collector and scholarly connoisseur4 ,centuries of study and research are resulting in the identification and description of this vast amount of material4 ,the literature on prints embodies these results in the form of handbooks1 histories1 catalogues for reference1 essays1 and specializing treatises4 ,these are written primarily for the use of students and collectors1 with the elaboration and detail requisite for this class of readers4 ,manifestations of a widening interest are more evident every day4 ,with this broadening popular interest has come a demand for a plain1 short explanation of 8prints40 ,in the absence of such a brief review and in answer to repeated inquiries1 a series of lectures were prepared and delivered--some years ago--by the writer4 ,these lectures are herewith offered1 in slightly revised form1 to those interested in the nature and development of prints4 ,this little book is not a compendium of the graphic arts1 just an introduction4 ,brevity and simplicity have been aimed at1 the purpose being to awaken interest and convey initial information conducive to further study4 ,the charm and value of a print lies essentially in the quality of line or tone peculiar to the process employed in its making4 ,these cannot be rendered adequately by the half-tone illustrations which accompany these pages4 ,the prints themselves must be seen to be truly appreciated and understood4 ,,contents ,i4 ,,how ,,prints ,,are ,,made #a ,introductory1 #a4 ,bank note and magazine illustration1 #c4 ,three main divisions of processes4 ,woodcut1 #d4 ,wood-engraving1 #e4 ,engraving1 #f4 ,dry-point1 mezzotint1 #h4 ,etching1 #i4 ,lithography1 #aj4 ,the printing presses used1 #aa4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,woodcut #ab ,not a sudden invention1 #ab4 ,utilitarian origin1 #ad4 ,the past reviewed1 #ae4 ,the panel picture and its cheap substitute1 #ah4 ,saints' pictures1 #bj4 ,playing cards1 #ba4 ,increasing demand for pictures1 #bd4 ,block-books1 movable type1 #bf4 ,book illustration in ,germany and ,italy1 #bh4 ,examples of early woodcuts3 ,german1 #cj1 ,italian1 #cb4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,early ,,days ,,of ,,engraving #ce ,intaglio printing1 the goldsmith's niello1 #ce4 ,engraving in ,germany and ,italy1 attitude and results1 #cg4 ,anonymous masters1 #dj4 ,schongauer1 #da4 ,early ,italian examples1 #dd4 ,pollajuolo1 ,mantegna1 #df4 ,giulio ,campagnola1 #dg4 ,,iv4 ,,italy #di ,the professional engraver1 #di4 ,marcantonio ,raimondi1 #ej4 ,the publisher1 #ea4 ,revival2 ,carracci1 #eb4 ,painter-etchers1 #ec4 ,later developments2 ,canaletto1 #ee4 ,the classical engravers1 #ee4 ,chiaroscuro woodcut1 #ef4 ,v4 ,,germany #ei ,culmination1 ,drer1 #fj4 ,lucas van ,leyden1 #fe4 ,italian influence1 #ff4 ,little masters1 #fg4 ,woodcut3 ,cranach1 ,holbein1 #fi4 ,the two masters1 ,drer and ,holbein1 #gj4 ,decline1 #ga4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,netherlands #gc ,history4 ,flemish and ,dutch art1 #gc4 ,engraver families1 commerce in ,saints' pictures1 #ge4 ,virtuosi of the graver1 ,goltzius1 #gf4 ,rubens and his engravers1 #gg4 ,van ,dyck1 #gh4 ,cornel ,visscher1 #gi4 ,rembrandt1 #hj4 ,ostade1 #hd4 ,ruysdael4 ,landscape and animal etchers1 #he4 ,italian influence1 decline1 #hf4 ,,vii4 ,,france #hg ,woodcut illustrations1 #hg4 ,engraving1 ,jean ,duvet1 #hi4 ,the ,fontainebleau school1 #ij4 ,callot1 ,claude ,lorrain1 #ia4 ,portrait engraving1 #ic4 ,mellan1 #id4 ,morin1 #ie4 ,nanteuil1 #if4 ,edelinck and others1 #ig4 ,new processes1 #ajj4 ,color-prints1 book ornamentation1 #aja4 ,classical engraving1 ,wille1 #ajd4 ,italian preminence1 #aje4 ,etchers1 vignettists1 #aje4 ,,spain3 ,goya1 #ajg4 ,,viii4 ,,england #aji ,early days1 ,hollar4 ,english engravers1 #aji4 ,hogarth1 #aaj4 ,bartolozzi1 #aaj4 ,mezzotint engravers1 #aaa4 ,earlom1 #aac4 ,wood-engraving3 ,bewick1 #aad4 ,,ix4 ,,the ,,united ,,states #aaf ,colonial times2 ,pelham1 ,peale1 #aaf4 ,stipple2 book illustration1 #aag4 ,wood-engraving1 the tone engravers1 #aah4 ,etching1 #abj4 ,x4 ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century #aba ,individual expression1 #aba4 ,blake1 #abb4 ,chodowiecki1 #abc4 ,a new era1 ,constable1 ,delacroix and others1 #abd4 ,turner1 #abf4 ,wood-engraving and lithography1 #abg4 ,menzel2 ,gavarni1 ,daumier1 #abi4 ,raffet1 #acj4 ,revival of etching1 #acj4 ,jacque1 ,millet1 and others1 #aca4 ,etching versus ,engraving1 #aca4 ,haden1 ,whistler1 #acb4 ,meryon1 #acc4 ,gaillard1 #acd4 ,exacting demands on the graphic arts2 ,zorn1 ,klinger1 #ace4 ,conclusion1 #acf4 ,books recommended for study of prints1 #ach4 ,,illustrations ,,title-,,page ,,to ,,herodotus4 ,anonymous ,title-page ,,st4 ,,margaret ,,of ,,hungary4 ,anonymous #cj ,,page ,,from ,,ars ,,memorandi4 ,anonymous #cj ,,page ,,from ,,nuremberg ,,chronicle4 ,anonymous #cj ,,virgin ,,and ,,child ,,with ,,st4 ,,john4 ,anonymous #cb ,,page ,,from ,,hypnerotomachia4 ,anonymous #cb ,,page ,,from ,,morgante ,,maggiore4 ,anonymous #cb ,,madonna ,,of ,,einsiedeln4 ,anon4 ,master ,e4 ,s4 #dj ,,death ,,of ,,the ,,virgin4 ,martin ,schongauer #db ,,sibilla ,,samia4 ,anonymous #dd ,,clio1 ,,from ,,the ,,so-,,called ,,tarocchi4 ,anonymous #dd ,,battle ,,of ,,nude ,,men4 ,antonio ,pollajuolo #df ,,christ ,,between ,,two ,,saints4 ,andrea ,mantegna #df ,,st4 ,,john ,,the ,,baptist4 ,giulio ,campagnola #df ,,death ,,of ,,dido4 ,marcantonio ,raimondi #ej ,,adam ,,and ,,eve4 ,marcantonio ,raimondi #ej ,,titian4 ,agostino ,carracci #eb ,,madonna ,,and ,,child4 ,federigo ,barocci #ed ,,torre ,,di ,,malghera4 ,antonio ,canale #ef ,,diogenes4 ,ugo da ,carpi #ef ,,four ,,horsemen1 ,,apocalypse4 ,albrecht ,drer #fj ,,arms ,,with ,,the ,,skull4 ,albrecht ,drer #fb ,,rest ,,in ,,egypt4 ,albrecht ,drer #fb ,,st4 ,,jerome ,,in ,,his ,,study4 ,albrecht ,drer #fd ,,cardinal ,,albrecht4 ,albrecht ,drer #fd ,,adoration ,,of ,,the ,,magi4 ,lucas van ,leyden #ff ,,tournament4 ,lucas ,cranach #fh ,,johannes ,,zurenus4 ,hendrik ,goltzius #gd ,,rubens4 ,paul ,pontius #gf ,,jan ,,brueghel4 ,anthony van ,dyck #gh ,,gellius ,,de ,,bouma4 ,cornel ,visscher #gh ,,adoration ,,of ,,the ,,shepherds4 ,rembrandt #hj ,,the ,,three ,,trees4 ,rembrandt #hj ,,janus ,,lutma4 ,rembrandt #hb ,,tobit ,,blind4 ,rembrandt #hb ,,the ,,spinner4 ,adriaen van ,ostade #hd ,,the ,,travelers4 ,jacob ,ruysdael #hd ,,the ,,diamond4 ,nicolaes ,berghem #hf ,,tour ,,de ,,nesle4 ,jacques ,callot #ij ,,le ,,bouvier4 ,claude ,lorrain #ib ,,duc ,,de ,,guise4 ,claude ,mellan #id ,,antoine ,,vitr4 ,jean ,morin #id ,,pompone ,,de ,,belli,,vre4 ,robert ,nanteuil #if ,,philippe ,,de ,,champaigne4 ,grard ,edelinck #if ,,bossuet4 ,pierre ,imbert ,drevet #ih ,,champs ,,lys,,es4 ,nicolas ,henri ,tardieu #ajj ,,instruction ,,paternelle4 ,georg ,wille #ajd ,,plate ,,from ,,the ,,caprichos4 ,francisco ,goya #ajf ,,catharine ,,of ,,braganza4 ,william ,faithorne #aaj ,,the ,,hon4 ,,miss ,,bingham4 ,francesco ,bartolozzi #aaj ,,mrs4 ,,carnac4 ,john ,raphael ,smith #aab ,,flower ,,and ,,fruit ,,piece4 ,richard ,earlom #aad ,,thomas ,,jefferson4 ,david ,edwin #aaf ,,chief ,,justice ,,marshall4 ,asher ,brown ,durand #aah ,,still-,,life ,,with ,,the ,,peacock4 ,william ,j4 ,linton #aah ,,plate ,,from ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,job4 ,william ,blake #abb ,,home ,,of ,a ,,painter4 ,daniel ,chodowiecki #abd ,,inverary ,,pier4 ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner #abf ,,sacus ,,and ,,hesperie4 ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner #abf ,,christ ,,disputing ,,with ,,doctors4 ,a4 v4 ,menzel #abh ,,cartoon ,,on ,,louis ,,philippe4 ,honor ,daumier #abh ,,midnight ,,review4 ,auguste ,raffet #acj ,,woman ,,churning4 ,jean ,franois ,millet #acj ,,sunset ,,in ,,ireland4 ,sir ,seymour ,haden #acb ,,the ,,doorway4 ,,venice4 ,james ,mc,n4 ,whistler #acb ,,le ,,petit ,,pont4 ,charles ,meryon #acb ,,dom ,,prosper ,,gu,,ranger4 ,ferdinand ,gaillard #acd ,,girl ,,bathing4 ,anders ,zorn #acd ,,expulsion ,,from ,,paradise4 ,max ,klinger #acd ,,prints ,,their ,,technique ,,and ,,history ,i ,,how ,,prints ,,are ,,made ,prints are familiar to every one of us1 and yet the subject of prints is strangely unfamiliar4 ,if we look at a painting1 a piece of sculpture1 or at a monumental building1 we know how these things came into being4 ,without any effort we can see in our mind's eye the painter1 with palette and brushes1 applying the colors on his canvas1 we can see the sculptor thumbing the clay model on the stand before him1 with alternate gentleness and force1 while the spectacle of stone-masons and bricklayers at work is a matter of daily occurrence4 ,likewise are we daily face to face with prints in our homes4 ,they are familiar objects that have always been there2 we are so used to them that we hardly see them4 ,but have we ever conjured up1 in our mind's eye1 the vision of an engraver1 or etcher1 or lithographer at work making the print which is so familiar to us8 ,it is a world1 indeed1 this field on which the energies of thousands upon thousands of men have been expended1 expressive of the thoughts of great masters1 expressive1 yes1 eloquent1 of the changing mental attitude1 the changing customs and interests of successive periods4 ,there is no field1 ,i am tempted to say1 in all the realm of art1 more comprehensive1 more broadening than this subject of prints4 ,in order fully to appreciate the phases of its development1 we must find out1 first of all1 what a print is1 and how it is made4 ,the term 8print10 as we use it here1 applies to any design conveyed upon paper or any similar substance by means of pressure1 usually in the printing-press4 ,prints are not all produced in one and the same manner2--if this statement should prove surprising1 just open any magazine on an illustration page2 then place beside it1 for comparison1 a new dollar bill4 ,notice the even tone of black in the magazine illustration and the intensity of the black1 sharp-cut1 metallic lines of the head on the bill4 ,it is quite evident that these two examples have been produced by different means2 the magazine illustration shows that the inked lines and dots which constitute the picture have been brought upon the paper with considerable pressure3 the ink is embedded into the paper2 whereas1 if the bill is new1 you will notice1 upon close inspection1 that the ink of every line and dot lies upon the surface of the paper4 ,pass your finger lightly over some of the heavier lines1 and if your finger-tips are sensitive1 you will distinctly feel these ridges of ink4 ,why this difference8 ,because human ingenuity has devised several ways of obtaining an impression4 ,there are three such possibilities1 which divide the graphic arts into three main groups1 namely3-- ,,relief ,,processes3 ,woodcut1 wood-engraving2 ,,intaglio ,,processes3 ,engraving1 dry-point1 mezzotinting1 and the etching processes2 ,,planographic ,,processes3 ,lithography1 and its derivatives4#a #a ,in order to keep the subject as simple as may be1 we will leave aside that vast array of modern processes based upon photography1 and therefore known as photo-mechanical processes 7half-tone1 photogravure1 and the like7 and devote our attention to the hand processes only4 ,examples from two of these main divisions have just been under discussion1 the magazine illustration being a relief print1 the bill an engraving on steel1 consequently intaglio4 ,let us now devote a few moments to their technical features1 taking first the oldest of all the processes1 woodcut4 ,if we take a block of wood1 nicely planed1 finish its face with sandpaper1 and cover it with printer's ink1 an impression from that blackened surface would naturally be an unbroken1 rectangular patch of black4 ,now we take a knife with a strong1 short blade1 a woodcutter's knife1 and with two slanting cuts we take out a thin long sliver from the middle of this blackened surface of wood4 ,the result of an impression will now be a black surface with a white line where we have cut away the wood4 ,another two cuts parallel with the first will result in another white line1 or rather we shall now have a black line1 with a white space on either side1 the black line being the ridge of wood standing between the two pieces which we have cut away4 ,could anything be simpler than this working recipe8--wherever black is wanted1 leave the wood standing2 where you need white1 cut away the wood4 ,the same theory applies to wood-engraving1 with some changes in material and implements4 ,the wood-engraver uses cross-grain blocks of the hard boxwood1 instead of planks of cherry or pear wood1 and on this hard surface the graver replaces the knife4 ,the graver--most useful of tools--is a long1 thin1 diamond-shaped bar of steel1 ending in a blunt point with cutting edges2 its wooden handle fitting the palm of the hand4 ,the graver is pushed forward and ploughs with great precision across the block or plate1 cutting lines of any degree of delicacy or boldness4 ,like the knife1 it removes the wood1 consequently leaving a white line or dot wherever it has passed4 ,hence the term 8white-line engraving10 often used for wood-engraving4 ,when we turn to the second great division1 to the intaglio processes1 we find that the recipe of the woodcut has to be just reversed to fit this new proposition4 ,consult the diagram of the three possibilities of printing2 the cross-section of the relief-block presents a series of flat-topped ridges with valleys between them4 ,the tops of the ridges print1 the valleys are the spaces which are to appear white in the impression4 ,the second figure1 a cross-section of an intaglio plate1--an engraving on copper we will say1--shows no hills and vales1 but a flat surface with a number of ,v-shaped cuts filled with ink4 ,when engraving on a copper plate1 we cut with the graver into the metal every line of our design that is to appear black4 ,wherever we want a white space we are careful to leave untouched the polished surface of the plate4 ,having completed the cutting-in 7engraving7 of our design1 the plate is covered all over with printing-ink1 and this is rubbed thoroughly into every furrow which we have cut1 so that they are all filled flush with the surface4 ,the surface of the plate is wiped clean4 ,an impression taken from the plate so prepared will show us a black line for every furrow we have cut4 ,small wonder that the lines on the dollar bill were perceptible ridges of ink1 since all the ink in the furrows of the plate is now on the surface of the paper4 ,the theory of the intaglio processes is plainly this3 wherever you want black in your design1 cut lines or dots into the plate2 wherever white is needed1 leave the smooth surface of the plate untouched4 ,based upon this formula1 the different intaglio processes produce their blacks in different ways2 in dry-point engraving1 for instance1 the design is scratched into the metal by means of a sharp needle-point1 the etching-needle4 ,in tearing through the copper the needle leaves a jagged ridge of copper standing on the sides of each line1 this 8burr0 retains some ink after the plate has been wiped clean1 and gives to the dry-point line its peculiar velvety1 slightly blurred appearance4 ,the mezzotinter begins his work by roughening the whole surface of the plate with the 8rocker0 into myriad indentations and tiny projecting teeth of copper4 ,the plate in this condition prints a uniform1 velvety black1 the deepest tone obtainable4 ,now by scraping away the little teeth of copper more or less completely1 the design is modeled at will in varying half-tones4 ,the high lights are obtained by burnishing the copper quite smooth again4 ,the etcher1 instead of cutting the lines of his design into the copper1 trusts to the corroding action of powerful acids4 ,covering his plate with an acid-proof etching-ground1 he draws his subject with the etching-needle1 using just sufficient pressure to cut through the thin film of ground and lay bare the copper4 ,the plate is then put into an acid bath which eats away the metal wherever a line has been laid bare4 ,the ground is then washed off with a suitable solvent1 and the plate printed4 ,there are a number of processes based on etching1 like aquatint1 crayon manner1 stipple1 soft-ground etching1 and others1 but a review1 however brief1 of all these kindred devices does not lie within the scope of these pages4 ,we have now reviewed the relief processes1 both dependent entirely on hand work1 and the intaglio processes1 engraving1 dry-point1 mezzotint1 likewise relying upon manual power to prepare the plate for printing4 ,in the etching group of intaglio devices1 a chemical factor is called upon to lessen and accelerate the work of the hand4 ,the last group to be considered1 planographic processes1 is based entirely upon chemical and physical action4 ,the drawing to be reproduced is made with fatty crayon or ink upon a slab of a special variety of limestone2 the stone is then treated with acidulated water1 and with gummed water4 ,as a result1 when the stone is moistened1 all those parts which have been drawn upon reject the water1 but have an affinity for printing-ink1 while the portions not drawn upon have an affinity for water and reject printing-ink1 as long as they are kept moist4 ,neither by ridges nor sunken furrows1 just from one plane surface1--hence the term 8planographic10--merely by the enmity of water and fatty ink are these lithographic impressions obtained4 ,plates of metal are often substituted for stone 7zincography1 algraphy71 but the process always remains the same4 ,it goes without saying that each of these three possibilities of printing necessitates presses of appropriate construction2 thus1 in the so-called platten press1 the pressure is exerted vertically upon the block by the flat metal plate which comes down upon it1 on the same principle as in the letter-press familiar to us all4 ,all intaglio plates are printed in roller presses1 in which the plate1 laid on an iron bed1 passes between two rollers1 one above1 one below1 as in a clothes-wringer4 ,the lithographic press1 finally1 has a traveling bed1 which passes under a stationary flat piece of wood4 ,during its passage under this wooden bar1 the paper is firmly pressed down upon the stone1 which would be crushed in the other types of presses4#b #b ,lithographs made on metal plates may be printed in an intaglio press as well4 ,after this summary review of the technique of prints1 let us consider1 with what brevity we may1 the great phases of development of the graphic arts4 ,,ii ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,woodcut ,the term 8invention0 is often used in referring to the origin of printing and of engraving1 as though these devices had come into being quite suddenly1--overnight1 as it were4 ,the belief is prevalent1 indeed1 that one man in ,mayence originated1 developed1 perfected1 established printing1 and that another man in ,florence originated printing from engraved plates about that same time 7middle of the fifteenth century74 ,if we look more closely into these subjects1 it becomes evident that ,dame ,tradition has flashed the light of fame upon one link only1 of a chain of achievements which stretches back into the unknown4 ,she has clothed one man1 call him ,gutenberg1 call him ,finiguerra1 with the sum of thought and attainment which had preceded them1 that the achievement might gain added impressiveness4 ,the printing-press1 and printing from movable type1 had reached a state of high perfection at the time when ,gutenberg printed his epoch-making ,bibles1 and research has substantiated the belief that a period of experiment and development must have preceded and led up to such excellence1 although these early days of printing still baffle the ingenuity of research4 ,the genesis of printing from engraved plates is equally difficult to establish1 though the claim of invention by any one man is as little admissible here as in the other instance4 ,it is a matter of gradual development4 ,remember1 it is the printing from engraved plates which concerns us in our inquiry4 ,engraving as a means of decorating metal surfaces dates back to remote antiquity1 but that is foreign to our present subject4 ,only when engraving is used as a means of reproducing a design1 does it enter within our sphere of interest4 ,similarly are we concerned to a certain extent with the wood-block method used in the days of ,byzance1 for stamping patterns upon cloth1 because it is the parent of our woodcut4 ,we have here1 however1 a device used for the decoration of textile fabrics1 and we must reserve our interest for the time when the design printed from the wood block1 upon paper or any other suitable carrier of an impression1 becomes the essential consideration4 ,the origin of the processes of reproduction is invariably utilitarian4 ,every advance1 every new technical attainment1 can be traced to the demand for devices which would lessen labor and save time4 ,the graphic arts do not share with painting a development based upon a desire for sthetic expression4 ,their origin is imitative1 thoroughly democratic1 and every process continues in that lowly sphere1 until the genius of some powerful artist lifts it into realms of art4 ,for the very reason of this utilitarian tendency1 and because of a gamut of expression restricted to line and tone for the interpretation of a world of color and form1 the graphic arts1 even more than other forms of artistic expression1 need the steady hand of the gifted artist to sustain them on a high plane of excellence4 ,deprived of this guiding support1 their decline to levels of mediocrity and commercialism is swift and inevitable4 ,if we glance at early periods of history1 we are readily convinced that before the fifteenth century there existed no demand for pictorial work widespread or emphatic enough to call into life speedier substitutes for hand work4 ,surely no need of such substitutes was felt in the ,grco-,roman world1 where a well-developed system of scribes met the demands of their patrons4 ,nor were multiplying devices needed in the early days of ,christianity4 ,the new faith1 to be sure1 made its appeal to everybody1 to the high-born and lowly alike1 but it relied mainly on the word of the preacher for the transmission of its simple creed4 ,during the dark ages of ferment1 migration1 and strife which followed1 the monuments of antique culture1 erudition1 knowledge were engulfed4 ,what demand could there have been for the multiplying arts in that period of dense ignorance1 of ceaseless struggle for life itself1 for the bare necessities of life1 for merely endurable conditions8 ,the ,church1 the only institution of stability in this sea of unrest1 became the repository of whatever remained of tradition and erudition1--mysteries1 these1 to be jealously guarded and held as a privilege of the clergy4 ,owing to the prevalent illiteracy among the people in these dark ages1 the ,church1 in its mission of spiritual guidance1 relied1 as of old1 on the preacher's word4 ,the power of his exhortations was seconded1 however1 by silently eloquent1 impressive teachings surrounding the worshipers1 namely1 the scenes and figures of religious import1 painted upon the walls of the church4 ,that same endeavor to stimulate pious thoughts carried the miniature into liturgical books1 into religious manuscripts generally4 ,the writing-room of the monastery was all-sufficient to provide for the pious needs of clergy1 rulers1 and nobles4 ,here the patient copyist drew again and again the outlines of the large illuminated initials of his text1 until he bethought himself of the labor he might save by imitating the cloth-printer1 and cutting wooden relief-blocks of these outlines which he might stamp upon his parchment4 ,an early device this1 adopted in the twelfth or thirteenth century1 but clearly foreshadowing the development which was soon to follow4 ,meantime1 in that iron age religious enthusiasm had fired the crusaders1 the armor-clad ,occident had met the ,orient1 bringing back some of the wisdom of the ancient ,east into the scholar's study and the convent cell1 and broadening man's outlook upon the world4 ,we know how ,gothic architecture grew up in the ,north1 how in the ,gothic church the ample wall space1 which had been heretofore the realm of painting1 was divided1 reduced1 suppressed4 ,we know how the curtailed pictorial art sought new spheres of expression1 how the panel picture took possession of the altars4 ,before long this picture1 which could be shifted from one position to another1 was used independently of altars1 for the adornment of suitable wall spaces in the church1 until finally it found its way from the church to the home1 henceforth to be one of its indispensable adornments4 ,as painting made its way into the lay world1 the impersonal1 traditional1 dogmatic character of sacred subjects faded away4 ,not that ecclesiastic art had lost its deeply religious sincerity1 but the artist saw nature with new eyes2 he realized the beautiful world around him1 and lovingly painted the plants and flowers at the feet of the ,virgin4 ,he removed her throne from the formal diapered background of gold1 and placed it in the midst of the actual living world4 ,the figures became more personal and lifelike2 worldly subjects1 even portraits1 or at least efforts in the direction of individual differentiation1 came within the artist's sphere1 while as yet the sacred subject remained the one great theme of artistic expression4 ,the panel picture had come into the home as a means of decoration1 but the wealthy only could gratify their desire for this costly form of artistic adornment4 ,the burgher1 the artisan1 the economical household1 could not think of owning such painted luxury1 not any more than they could afford the costly miniatures painted on parchment4 ,then some bethought themselves that they might cut the outline of figures on blocks of wood1 after the manner of the cloth-printers and of the initial blocks which we have found in use in monastic writing-rooms4 ,these outlines could then be printed on parchment1 or on that new and cheaper product1 paper1 as an inexpensive substitute for panel picture and miniature4 ,in this manner the common people obtained their saints' pictures or 8,helgen0 7,heiligen71 more or less crude in design1 clumsy in the execution of knife-work1 colored with the gayest pigments which the ,briefmaler could find4 ,with all their imperfections these early woodcuts were prized and evidently found a ready market1 as souvenirs of pilgrimages1 as fit embellishments of wayside shrines or altars of the chapels and churches of poor parishes1 as scapulars1 or pasted in books1 as makeshifts for the unattainable miniatures1 or else they were simply fastened on the wall1 as a decoration4 ,tastes were simple1 and with all their crudeness1 these productions--of greatly varying size and of every degree of careful or careless execution--are not without charm even to the twentieth-century beholder4 ,the same artisans who cut and printed these saints' pictures found lucrative employment in a field quite remote from religious matters4 ,playing-cards had been introduced into ,europe from the ,orient1 probably in the latter part of the thirteenth century4 ,they quickly won popular favor and were used by rich and poor with equal zest4 ,cards exquisitely painted or charmingly engraved attest the favor accorded the game by people of rank and wealth1 but in making cards for the use of the people at large1 cheapness of production far outweighed any sthetic considerations which might have existed4 ,cards had to be sold cheaply1 and they had to be produced in large quantities to satisfy the growing demand4 ,how were these conditions to be met8 ,one solution of the problem was stenciling1 another stamping the outlines on paper by means of relief-blocks2 both were resorted to by the artisans of the fifteenth century1 and their trade spread beyond the confines of ,germany1 to the south of the ,alps1 causing ,venetian craftsmen to clamor for legislative protection of their home production4 ,in all these early manifestations1 we saw woodcut in the service of the common people2 we saw it used instead of other means of production for reasons purely utilitarian4 ,but a change is at hand1 for has not the crusader sown a seed throughout the land2 has not the human mind been awakened from its medival lethargy8 ,the humanist arises1 seeking enlightenment and the solution of life's problems amid the meager surviving relics and records of the art and thought of antiquity4 ,feudal conditions are grudgingly modified1 under pressure from a new element1 which brings about a gradual shifting of the balance of power1 intellectually as well as economically and politically3 the rise of the ,town4 ,during our early1 turbulent centuries with their grim 8simple plan1 ,that he shall take who has the power1 ,and he shall keep who can10-- misery not only loved company1 as the old proverb has it1 but absolutely needed it4 ,groups of those1 too weak singly to withstand the attacks of that vast1 lawless element which lived by oppression and plunder1 huddled themselves together1 built themselves shelters1 and intrenched themselves against the common foe4 ,in the course of time1 owing to an advantageous position or to intensity of commerce or industry1 these one-time shelters grew into towns1 rising in wealth1 power1 and independent spirit1 girt about with strong walls and moats1 each town a state within the state1 protected by imperial grants and privileges1 bound together by the common enmity of the feudal power1 and within the walls by an ardent local patriotism4 ,strong in their guilds and associations1 in touch with each other and with the world by the constant travel of merchants and craftsmen1 the towns became not only centers of wealth1 but also the bearers of progressive thought1 of art1 of mental enlightenment4 ,here the graphic arts might well originate and flourish1 for here were their patrons1 the burgher1 the craftsman1 the people4 ,the time was at hand when the call for the multiplying arts would become imperative--compelling4 ,man looked about1 and beheld a world full of beauty and abuses2 he felt himself a unit1 an individual1 not merely part of the mass of mankind1 and he was going to think for himself2 he demanded to know1 to learn1 to grasp the truths and probe the problems of his world4 ,for the instruction of this untutored multitude1 eager for light1 there were two modes of expression1 instantly intelligible3 the simple spoken word1 and that other--the illustrative1 explanatory picture4 ,this latter must now go forth also among the people1 to help in the task of enlightenment2 not the panel picture1 to be sure1 nor the miniature in the costly manuscript1 for aside from their costliness they could never numerically satisfy so universal a demand4 ,in response to the call--we are now in the fifteenth century--we see woodcut pictures pasted into manuscripts1 to form edifying picture books1 the pictures printed from wood blocks1 a few lines of text added with the pen4 ,then both picture and text are cut into the same wood block in imitation of the picture manuscripts4 ,these early 8block-books10 of ,biblical or moralizing contents1 were intended for the use of pupils in the monastic schools which were then the only educational institutions4 ,in the early days of woodcut1 impressions were taken from the wood block by laying a sheet of paper on the inked surface of the block and rubbing the back of the paper with a stiff scrubbing brush1 or with a flat piece of wood1 so as to bring it in close contact with the inked ridges on the surface of the block4 ,it is evident that neither the quality nor yet the speed of this form of printing could long satisfy even the most easy-going craftsman4 ,a more perfect mode of printing was needed and gradually evolved1 culminating in the printing-press4 ,similarly the cutting of letters of the text on the picture blocks--in the so-called block-books--must soon have proved itself impracticable1 for the reign of these books is quite brief4 ,one is tempted to let fancy play around the bald facts1 and to watch the artisan1 wearily cutting the same letters again and again into the wood block1 until he bethinks himself1--a half-dozen others likewise3 8,why cannot ,i saw off the lettering cut on another block1 cut it up1 word by word1 or1 better yet1 letter by letter1 then put the letters together in words and sentences as ,i need them1 and use them with my newly cut picture8 ,it would save a deal of trouble60 ,thus the next step was movable type1 used around1 between1 together with1 the blocks bearing the illustrations4 ,the rapid spread of type-printing simultaneous with these developments concerns us merely because the vast number of illustrated books published during that period greatly favored the development of woodcut illustration4 ,throughout these developments1 we always discern the same utilitarian element which ,i have pointed out4 ,far from originating in any striving for a higher1 more ideal form of artistic expression1 the devices for printing both pictures and text were simply means to save labor and expedite publication4 ,the manuscript1 the miniature1 were the ideals to be approached1 and they were high ideals1 to be sure4 ,distinguished humanists like ,pope ,nicholas ,v1 ,poggio1 ,giannozzo ,mannetti1 and others1 being themselves experts in calligraphy1 demanded the best efforts of their scribes and miniaturists4 ,it is a pleasure merely to look at their books4 ,the material used is invariably parchment1 the bindings in the ,vatican and at ,urbino1 crimson velvet and silver4 ,it could hardly be expected that these men1 who spared neither pains nor expense to show their respect for the contents of a book1 would view the advent of printing with anything like satisfaction4 ,their collective feelings are well summed up in the one remark of ,federigo da ,urbino1 that he would be ashamed to own a printed book4 ,not by these nor for their use had type-printing and picture-printing been called into life1 but by the needs of the people1 and at the people's call the world was flooded with a multitude of works1 informative or entertaining in character4 ,soon ,german printers set up presses in ,italian cities1 and ere long the publishing centers of the ,south1 especially ,venice1 vied with ,germany in importance of production4 ,book illustration was considered from a very different point of view in ,germany and in ,italy4 ,german illustration grew out of a demand for and pleasure in the explanatory picture4 ,the demand for picture books and for books consisting chiefly of illustrations came from a public easily pleased1 satisfied with crude outline cuts daubed over with colors4 ,in ,italy illustration came in answer to a desire for artistic illustrative ornamentation1 on the part of a public of cultivated taste4 ,for this reason the ,german illustrated book bears a character largely instructive1 while the ,italian illustration is essentially decorative4 ,very few of the early books in the ,german language are devoid of illustrations4 ,the pictures constitute their decoration1--they are used as chapter headings1--long before the advent of purely ornamental embellishments4 ,in ,italy the printed book takes over from the manuscript the idea of decorative embellishment4 ,borders are stamped--with relief-blocks--upon the printed pages of early ,venetian books1 and colored by hand4 ,this craving for color is as old as mankind2 its demands are urged upon the graphic arts at all stages of their development4 ,the demand for color caused the manuscript to be illuminated1 and the pen-drawn outline of the early miniature to be filled in with pigment2 we have seen its call answered in the crudely colored saint's picture4 ,the outline is explanatory1 intellectual1 the coloring adds a sensual pleasure1 and this additional feature of bright color was soon demanded also of the printed book4 ,the printer's answering endeavors are seen in the red initials printed into pages of black text1 in title-page designs1 arms and ornaments1 in borders and diagrams printed in two1 sometimes three colors4 ,another effort in this direction of color is the chiaroscuro#c woodcut1 but that belongs to a later period4 ,a few illustrations will convey a more definite idea of these early woodcuts4 ,here is a dignified1 pleasing example of the 8,helgen10 cut in outline1 as usual1 and colored by hand 7the dark tones on the garments and elsewhere are due to this coloring74 ,no shade-strokes are as yet introduced1 merely an outline2 the rest is left to the colorist4 ,after that1 inscriptions are cut into the block1 or written in1 and this combination of lettering and picture carries us to the block-books4 #c ,pronounce3 keearoskooro4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,margaret ,,of ,,hungary ,woodcut with hand coloring ,illustration3 ,,block-,,book ,,page ,ars ,memorandi ,illustration3 ,,page ,,from ,,the ,,nuremberg ,,chronicle ,nuremberg1 #adic ,a typical page from the 8,ars ,memorandi0 7probably cut in the ,netherlands7 shows the character of these school books4 ,this is designed to help theological students in memorizing the ,holy ,writ4 ,the pictures are good2 the text1 hard to read1 was soon to be replaced by movable type4 ,a page1 from the ,nuremberg 8,chronicle0 of #adid1 shows us the state of woodcut1 technically as well as its use in books4 ,many examples might be shown1 from different parts of ,germany1 from schools swayed by various currents of artistic thought4 ,common to them all1 despite their crudity1 is a growing familiarity with woodcut1 a realization of its possibilities and of its limitations4 ,artistic talent of a high order--compared with earlier productions--reveals itself1 resulting from a division of labor4 ,the artisan of the playing-cards and early saints' pictures could never have risen to these heights of creative independence4 ,his simple figures were copied from manuscripts1 or from some other handy model1 but when it came to supplying the growing demands of book-illustration with material from fields without precedent in past productions1 the publishers were constrained to entrust artists with these designs1 and the woodcut maker was given the task--not easy1 though mechanical--of cutting with precision the lines drawn by the artist4 ,illustration3 ,,virgin ,,and ,,child ,,with ,,st4 ,,john ,woodcut ,illustration3 ,,page ,,from ,,hypnerotomachia ,,poliphili ,venice1 #adii ,this development is common to ,germany and ,italy alike2 but throughout the early productions of the ,southern country1 we seem to hear an echo of the sublime harmonies achieved in painting4 ,for instance1 in this large 8,helgen0 of ,italy3 a simple outline woodcut1 this ,virgin and ,child with ,st4 ,john1 but in its simplicity what dignity and strength4 ,the accents introduced by slight decorative indications and the shade-lines in the hair add charm to the simple1 charming composition1 by contrast of tone4 ,excellent cutting1 this1 after a masterly design4 ,but in a country which has just reached the zenith of artistic achievement1 we may expect1 likewise1 such remarkable decorative designs as the title-page border for the ,venetian 8,herodotus0 of #adid1 which frames the title of this volume4 ,illustration3 ,,page ,,from ,,morgante ,,maggiore ,florence1 #aejj ,it is the golden era of typography1 this last decade of the fifteenth century4 ,brought to ,italian towns by ,german printers1 both type and illustration soon fall in line with the prevailing high standard of excellence4 ,if further proof were needed1 it would be found in this page from a ,venetian publication1 the 8,hypnerotomachia ,poliphili40 ,see how well the beautiful type of the text harmonizes with the illustration1 how nicely the values of both are adjusted to form a harmonious page4 ,simple1 unpretentious outline is used to convey the beauty of the artistic conception4 ,these same characteristics will be met again in engraving as it is used by ,italian masters4 ,woodcut as well as the other forms of reproductive art remain the servants1 never become the friends of artists in ,italy4 ,for brevity's sake1 we must pass by northern ,italy and turn to ,florence which was1 next to ,venice1 the foremost southern publishing center4 ,in this example1 taken from ,pulci's 8,morgante ,maggiore10 published in #aejj1 we notice a keener appreciation of the possibilities of woodcut4 ,broad masses of white1 with severe outline1 scantily shaded1 contrast with bold masses of black1 whose intensity of effect is modified and blended by means of tenuous white lines1 a manner likewise adopted in illustrations for the forceful sermons of ,savonarola1 whose teachings1 widely read1 necessitated a number of successive editions4 ,,iii ,,the ,,early ,,days ,,of ,,engraving ,having followed woodcut from its beginnings to the end of the fifteenth century1 it behooves us now to devote our attention to the earliest intaglio process1 namely1 engraving4 ,ever since the days of antiquity it had been the practice of metal-workers to cut decorative designs into the surface of the metal4 ,armorers and goldsmiths practiced this art of engraving in medival and ,renaissance times4 ,for our present purposes the absorbing question is this3 ,how did the idea of printing from this decorated metal first suggest itself8 ,we may get a clue by watching the engraver at work4 ,with the graver he cuts a maze of lines into the metal2 it is almost impossible to see the design owing to the glitter of each new-cut furrow4 ,this troubles the engraver himself1 and in order to see just what he has done1 he smears the plate over with a mixture of lamp-black and oil1 rubbing it well into the furrows4 ,then he wipes the plate clean1 and now the design stands out plainly in black lines upon the shining metal surface4 ,if he were now to take a piece of paper and press it against the plate1 the black color in the furrows would adhere to the paper1 and every line cut into the metal would be reproduced there4 ,in such an accidental way1 no doubt1 the possibility of obtaining impressions from intaglio plates became known some time about or before the middle of the fifteenth century4 ,but1 of course1 such an impression taken by hand pressure is bound to be very imperfect1 and it may have been some time before some goldsmith thought it worth while to experiment with these printing possibilities4 ,at first impressions may have seemed useful as guides for further work on the metal1 or they may have served as memoranda of work done and delivered4 ,as a matter of fact1 goldsmiths did make use of this new-found mode of printing1 and took impressions from their small decorative niello plates1 before filling in the engraved lines with the final black enamel1--the 8nigellum40 ,if woodcut were dubbed the democrat among the graphic arts1 certainly engraving must be called the aristocrat of the family4 ,it originates in the goldsmith's workshop1 amidst a guild of skilled designers1 who not unfrequently practice painting together with their craft4 ,no wonder that in such hands engraving should shape itself along artistic lines from the start4 ,in ,germany engraving finds a ready welcome among other manifestations of an art essentially of the town1 of the burgher1 while the art of the ,italian quattrocento celebrates its great triumphs in the erection or adornment of sumptuous edifices1 under the fostering care of princes and prelates4 ,the ,german navely depicts1 with minute precision1 the scenes and environments of his homely sphere2 all subjects1 whatever their time or country1 are shifted into the familiar setting of his own time and his own surroundings4 ,hence we see the crucifixion taking place in a clearing amidst firs2 we find ,german and ,dutch burghers in the scenes of the ,passion1 or kneeling in adoration--as ,magi--before the new-born ,child4 ,the ,italian artist is no less zealous in his search for nature's truths1 but at the same time he harks back to those remains of former artistic perfection which are just then being reclaimed from the soil1 heirlooms from classical antiquity4 ,guided by both1 he imparts a semblance of life to his ideal forms1 that they may appear real1 though belonging to a higher world4 ,the cult of antiquity establishes a retrospective tendency in the choice of subjects represented4 ,traditional themes taken from the ,bible1 from legend and mythology1 are used again and again with changes in the composition1 in costume1 lighting and color scheme1 all in the constant endeavor to excel in perfection of form and composition1 and in harmonious1 beautiful coloring4 ,illustration3 ,,madonna ,,of ,,einsiedeln ,master ,e4 ,s4 ,in ,germany purses are more slender1 customers are content to adorn their homes with woodcuts or engravings instead of paintings4 ,pictures are wanted1 with figures carefully drawn1 explicit pictures1 finished1 natural in appearance1 with plenty of detail in figures and accessories1 something appealing to their humor1 to their piety1 to their own sphere of interest4 ,hence the tendency to carry every scene into the familiar setting of actuality2 hence the interest in the natural surroundings of the scene2 hence the predominance of ,biblical and religious subjects which appeal to the pious2 and for others the scenes of daily life1 tournaments1 soldiers1 not to forget plates and books of designs for the use of craftsmen4 ,the production of picture-like prints in which hand coloring was not to be considered1 necessarily brought about a speedy development of technique4 ,even in early work it seems as though the ,german engraver realized1 more than his ,italian contemporary1 the possibilities of the engraved plate2 the figures are quaint1 reminiscent of the ,gothic past1 but they are well cut1 in clear1 sweeping outline4 ,the shading is simple1 but not timid or awkward1 and pleasantly follows and accents the form4 ,few of these fifteenth-century engravers have left us as much as a name or the most meager data as to their lives4 ,in many cases we have not even a date1 a sign1 or an initial placed somewhere on the print1 as a means of identification4 ,we are conscious1 in these early examples1 of the artistic spirit in which the engraver treats the saint's picture and the playing-card1 extensive fields1 exploited already by primitive woodcut4 ,a choice between eminent representatives among the anonymous engravers would lie between the so-called ,master of the ,playing-,cards1 the ,master of the ,amsterdam ,cabinet1 and ,master ,e4 ,s4 ,an illustration of the excellence achieved by the last named artist will be found in his presentation of the ,madonna of ,einsiedeln4 ,notice the development of the picture element1 the sureness with which the graver is used1 long strokes and delicate touches1 varying with the needs of modeling and design4 ,this mastery over the medium is yet more apparent in the engravings of ,martin ,schongauer1 the leading figure in fifteenth-century engraving4 ,in his work we still discern the peculiar characteristics of the period1 long slim hands and feet1 an emaciation which brings the head into prominence1 a tendency--reminiscent of the ,middle ,ages--to treat each object independently1 as a unit1 as a symbol of its kind2 but then what purity and sincerity emanate from his figures4 ,in his 8,death of the ,virgin10 what a harmonious effect1 what keenness of observation4 ,he knows little of the rendering of nudity1--all ,northern artists are hampered in that way1--but his bodies1 though lacking in structural skill1 are wonderfully well caught in pose and gesture4 ,his observation and his resourceful imagination were fully recognized by both ,drer and ,raphael1 who both availed themselves of his achievements4 ,the graver helps to round the forms1 by following the direction of the curves4 ,long1 steady1 curving strokes1 emphasized in the deep shadows1 breaking up--in the lights--into dots which blend into the high lights of white paper4 ,no hesitating1 little criss-cross strokes here1 but a dignified simplicity of line which enhances the dignity and simplicity of his compositions4 ,remember that in order to appreciate these essential qualities of line and of resulting effect1 you must consult the original prints2 half-tone illustrations cannot be expected to convey more than a general idea of the originals4 ,illustration3 ,,death ,,of ,,the ,,virgin ,martin ,schongauer ,it would be unfair to attribute all this artistic development to ,german initiative alone4 ,italy has practically no share in it1 at this period1 but the close commercial relations existing between ,germany and the ,burgundian ,netherlands must have facilitated an artistic intercourse most beneficial to the former country4 ,the stupendous creations of the brothers ,van ,eyck1 of ,van der ,weyden1 ,memling1 ,van der ,goes1 and others did induce workers in the artistic crafts to visit the ,low ,countries4 ,their contemplation must have been a source of stimulating inspiration to the ,german painters1 and indirectly to ,german engraving4 ,direct influence there could not be1 since we look in vain through the ranks of this flourishing school of ,flemish painters for any manifestation in the graphic arts4 ,only the arts of opulence3 painting1 costly illuminated manuscripts with miniatures1 or the woven tapestries of ,arras and ,brussels1 brocades1 and laces1 were produced in the prosperous towns and at the brilliant ducal court of ,burgundy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,sibilla ,,samia ,florence1 #aeth ,century ,illustration3 ,,clio1 ,,from ,,the ,,so-,,called ,,tarocchi ,northern ,italy1 #aeth ,century ,illustration3 ,,battle ,,of ,,nude ,,men ,antonio ,pollajuolo ,illustration3 ,,christ ,,between ,,two ,,saints ,andrea ,mantegna ,early ,italian engraving begins with the niello of the goldsmith1 little silver plates for ornamental uses1 with minute scenes and figures1 usually well cut1 as might certainly be expected in a guild so highly skilled4 ,it is interesting to follow engraving as it broadens beyond the neat and primarily ornamental sphere of the craft1 into the large field of art4 ,florence1 the center of dignified1 conservative art1 the ,florence of ,botticelli has given us the two classical series of 8,sibyls0 and 8,prophets40 ,the manner of execution1 as we see in the example shown1 is still that of the goldsmith1 fond of ornament1 of detail1 shading with minute strokes1 close together1 which blend to form a tone4 ,the other example is selected from a ,north ,italian series of the same period4 ,it forms part of what by some authorities is thought to be a set of 8,tarocchi10 a game of cards peculiar to ,italy4 ,less severe1 more graceful than the ,florentine example1 it is another triumph of the goldsmith in the field of the graphic arts4 ,from him engraving passes under the sway of the painter4 ,if we compare ,italian and ,german graver-work of those days1 a plate of ,mantegna1 for instance1 and a plate of ,schongauer1 we shall readily perceive that in engraving the ,german master thinks in line4 ,the ,italian painter thinks1 not in line1 but in masses of light and shade1 in terms of the antique marbles1 which he has studied with such enthusiasm4 ,his design goes on the copper as it would be jotted down on paper with the pen1 without consideration of the graver1 except that it seems a useful implement for multiplying his sketches1 which are wanted in many studios and workshops4 ,a simple1 even outline1 and for shading1 parallel lines1 straight and close together1 generally in a uniform diagonal direction1--that is all4 ,fine early impressions from plates of this character have quite the charm of a drawing2 deep shadow-tones are then visible1 caused by a system of slight1 tone-giving lines over the heavier shadings4 ,when these have worn off1 they leave only a system of hard1 wiry-looking shade-strokes2 unfortunately the good early impressions are very1 very rare1 so that we are accustomed to look upon the gray1 worn impressions usually found as being the actual work of the artist1 which is unfair4 ,the absorbing interest of antique bas-reliefs is evident in the large 8,battle of ,nude ,men10 by ,antonio ,pollajuolo1 breathing the enthusiasm with which ,italy told anew the artistic message of the distant past1 yet lacking the poise and moderation which we admire in the grand classical sculptures4 ,in his eagerness to proclaim the beauty and power of the human body in vigorous action1 he far outstrips his powers of expression1 yet his muscular exaggerations need not materially lessen our enjoyment of this powerful1 expressive print4 ,in ,andrea ,mantegna1 we reach the central figure of this early period of ,italian engraving4 ,in him are combined the humanist's devotion to classical art and the fiery energy of a man of action1 filled with his art1 rugged1 stern1 taking from nature and antiquity the forms of artistic expression4 ,at his hands the world is invested with a grandeur seldom achieved1 inspiring to his contemporaries1 helpful and stimulating to young ,drer in his strivings toward greater breadth1 simplicity1 and unity of composition4 ,in ,mantegna's 8,christ between two ,saints10 we find the same scant means of graver-work which he employed in all his austere compositions3 a well-defined outline1 even1 without swelling1 softening accents1 simple shading1 generally in a uniform diagonal direction2 nowhere an attempt at texture1 or differentiation of color4 ,the subjects are all treated as though they were cut in high relief on slabs of stone1 without variation of surface or suggestion of distance4 ,venetian influence mitigates the ruggedness of ,mantegna's gaunt1 imposing 8,john the ,baptist10 by means of the unusual1 soft1 stippling technique adopted by ,giulio ,campagnola1 which gives the print more the appearance of a grainy wash drawing1 in contrast with the usual pen-and-ink aspect of early ,italian prints4 ,scores of other important examples might be adduced1 but they can easily be found in any good history of engraving4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,john ,,the ,,baptist ,giulio ,campagnola ,,iv ,,italy ,the sixteenth century brings new developments to be noted1 new factors to be considered4 ,in ,germany it rings in the culmination of artistic development under the leadership of ,albrecht ,drer1 whose towering personality lifts both engraving and woodcut to high levels of excellence4 ,the cultivation of the technique of engraving has carried ,germany far and away beyond the ,south1 in a technical perfection duly appreciated in ,italy2 and when the demand for prints grows1 when they become a marketable article1 the ,italian engraver copies ,german prints in order to gain the requisite technical knowledge4 ,this ,italian engraver1 however1 is not a painter-engraver as in ,germany1 an artist1 namely1 engraving his own designs4 ,we know that the ,italian artist continues intent on grander tasks and indifferent to the charms of the graver1 hence a division of labor3 the busy painter jots down the sketch or cartoon and the professional engraver undertakes the lengthy task of transferring1 of interpreting the artist's drawing by means of the graver4 ,the subtle continuity of thought1 from the first conception to the finished plate1 which we prize in original engraving1 is necessarily destroyed in such collaboration1 but the engraver1 working exclusively on the copper plate1 is able infinitely to vary and develop the resources of the process by dint of practice4 ,a noted instance of such collaboration is found in the 8,death of ,dido10 engraved after ,raphael's design by ,marcantonio ,raimondi4 ,the lifework of ,marcantonio is mainly devoted to the reproduction of sketches of the great ,urbinate1 whose genius inspires the engraver and lifts him to the highest rank in sixteenth-century ,italy4 ,his pliable graver1 trained by much copying after ,drer and other ,northern masters1 delicately outlines the figures4 ,the shade-strokes follow and accent in easy curves the rounding forms and the gradations of light and shade4 ,there is variety in the line1 no longer the uniform diagonal shading of the early period4 ,it is1 in a word1 excellent engraving1 which is seen likewise in his 8,adam and ,eve10 after a figure sketch of ,raphael4 ,the latter print shows also the pitfalls which await the thoughtless copyist4 ,raphael's cartoon for this print shows the two lovely figures without any background whatever2 ,marcantonio1 always at a loss without a definite model to copy1 looked for a suitable background1 and found it in a ,german print which he faithfully pieced in1 peasant houses and all1 as a setting for ,adam and ,eve6 ,illustration3 ,,death ,,of ,,dido ,marcantonio ,raimondi ,illustration3 ,,adam ,,and ,,eve ,marcantonio ,raimondi ,about this time the publisher of prints appears1 buying plates from engravers and publishing them1 centralizing a commerce which--before this--had been carried on by the engraver himself or by the artist who employed him4 ,this commercial factor lowers the standard of engraving1 both by the choice of subjects demanded of the engraver1 with a view mainly to a ready sale1 and by the quality of work tolerated4 ,the only excuse for some of the plates published must have been their cheapness4 ,under these conditions and1 moreover1 at a time when painting was rapidly declining1 one cannot look to the graphic arts for masterpieces4 ,venice1 it is true1 is yet in her glory2 encouraged by the interest of ,titian1 woodcut flourishes for a while at the hands of ,boldrini and others4 ,as to engraving1 ,venetian art demanded of it a technique strongly expressive of color2 a new impetus was needed for a revival of the medium4 ,this was supplied by engravers from the ,netherlands1 where the technique of engraving had been highly elaborated in this the latter part of the sixteenth century4 ,a noted representative of this ,italian revival is the painter-engraver ,agostino ,carracci4 ,if we examine this portrait of ,titian1 engraved after the great master's own painting1 ,carracci's skill in engraving will be at once apparent4 ,long parallel strokes1 close together1 give a rich deep hue to cloak and cap4 ,the brown fur trimming1 with its loose1 broad handling1 contrasts effectively with the delicate work on beard and hair4 ,the short1 swelling stroke used in the light background1 the clear1 transparent cross-hatching on the cheek1 all denote great advance in differentiating this variety of textures4 ,illustration3 ,,titian ,agostino ,carracci ,illustration3 ,,madonna ,,and ,,child ,federigo ,barocci ,thereafter1 as engraving sinks into routine and commercialism1 let us turn to etching1 a process likewise introduced from the ,north and practiced in ,italy since the sixteenth century4 ,its easy technique offered many advantages to the artist over the intricacies which had crept into engraving1 to be mastered only by long practice4 ,the ease and freedom of the etched line1 its expressiveness and--not least--the accidental effects resulting from unforeseen action of the acid1 appealed to the artists1 but the process came too late to share with engraving in the reflected glory of the grand ,renaissance period4 ,etching is the medium used by ,parmeggiano1 ,primaticcio1 ,guido ,reni1 and many others1 but they do not take the graphic arts any more seriously than their predecessors in ,italian art4 ,their plates are hasty experimental jottings1 which show that their main interest is centered on more pretentious conceptions2 only rarely do they attempt the picture-like elaboration which we find in this 8,madonna and ,child40 ,it is the work of ,federigo ,barocci1 certainly one of the best painter-etchers of the period1 and reveals to some extent the rich1 effective accents1 the freshness and freedom of line attainable in etching1 which is to find such splendid exponents in the ,netherlands4 ,it is well worth while1 though not within the scope of this condensed review1 to dally amidst these sixteenth-century etchings1 and then1 proceeding to a later period1 to linger over the powerful1 direct presentations of ,giuseppe ,ribera and to glance at the figure sketches of ,salvator ,rosa4 ,the eighteenth century brings us the spirits compositions of the two ,tiepolo1 effective1 with sharp1 sparkling play of light and shade1 and ,antonio ,canale 7,canaletto71 who makes us feel the very breeze which blows1 in his etchings1 and the warmth of the sunshine which bathes his ,venetian views4 ,what more delightful glimpse of the ,italian coast than this 8,torre di ,malghera0 with the dazzling white watch-tower and the exquisite1 luminous handling of sea1 sky1 and distance4 ,the same eighteenth century witnesses an intense revival of activity in engraving4 ,the technical triumphs then achieved in ,france stimulate ,italian engravers1 whose mastery of an elaborate technique is plentifully exemplified in the plates of ,raphael ,morghen1 ,volpato1 ,longhi1 ,toschi1 and a number of other well-known men in the large group of 8classical0 engravers4 ,their energies and skill are mainly devoted to the interpretation of those glorious creations of painters of the ,renaissance1 which had entirely baffled the early engravers with their limited technical resources4 ,these thousands of plates were exceedingly popular for many years1 some of them--the 8,last ,supper0 after ,leonardo1 engraved by ,morghen1 for instance--is much sought for to this day in fine impressions4 ,broadly speaking1 while these engravings are certainly skillful achievements in a highly systematized1 elaborate technique1 their technical perfection is aggressive and imparts a formal coldness1 a lifelessness1 and a metallic quality1 which doubtless explains--in part--their decline in popular favor during recent years4 ,illustration3 ,,torre ,,di ,,malghera ,antonio ,canale ,illustration3 ,,diogenes ,chiaroscuro woodcut by ,ugo da ,carpi ,before leaving the ,south1 we must yet cast a glance at an interesting though minor manifestation of the graphic arts1 the chiaroscuro4 ,repeated allusions have been made to the demand for color on the part of the general public4 ,in response to this ever-present craving for the joy of varied tones1 the chiaroscuro takes a step in the direction of painting by translating color into several graded tones giving the effect of a semi-colored wash-drawing4 ,the process was used in various ways1 in various countries and at various times1 but the golden era of chiaroscuro is the sixteenth century in ,italy4 ,the example selected1 8,diogenes10 by ,ugo da ,carpi1 is one of the finest of the period4 ,it is impossible to render in this monochrome reproduction the rich glow of superimposed tones of golden and greenish browns1 which constitute its greatest charm2 chiaroscuros must be seen themselves to be appreciated4 ,one can then see what manner of success attended the wood-cutter's endeavors1 the endless possibilities of variety of tones become apparent1 also the difficulty attendant upon the accurate placing 7register7 of the paper on the three or more successive blocks printed from1 one for each tone4 ,a few scattered experiments in ,germany1 during the period of extensive production in northern ,italy1 and thereafter a short-lived appearance here and there1 such is--briefly--the history of the chiaroscuro woodcut4 ,v ,,germany ,in former chapters1 we have followed the origin of woodcut and engraving in ,germany1 to the end of the fifteenth century2 we have seen woodcut grow from the crude conceits of the early craftsman to illustrations of distinct artistic merit2 we have followed engraving from its origin in the goldsmith's shop to the expressive beauty of ,martin ,schongauer's plates4 ,both are to culminate during the early sixteenth century4 ,at this time ,maximilian reigned over the vast ,german ,empire3 8,massimiliano pochi denari0 the ,italians called him1 because of the insufficiency of the imperial resources4 ,ambitious to perpetuate the glory of his illustrious house1 yet quite unable to vie with the ,pope and ,italian princes in the erection of sumptuous edifices1 the ,emperor saw in the effective and inexpensive woodcut a means of transmitting to posterity a record of his own deeds and adventures and of the virtues of his ancestors4 ,the leading ,german artists of the time were employed on designs for their imperial patron1 chiefly ,hans ,burgkmair of ,augsburg1 and ,albrecht ,drer of ,nuremberg4 ,with ,drer we reach the zenith of the graphic arts in ,germany4 ,he stands1 a monumental figure1 seen from afar1 influencing--not only his ,german contemporaries1 but the artists of ,italy and of the ,low ,countries4 ,drer was a thoughtful1 forceful1 imaginative leader2 he was more--he had thought out the resources1 the latent possibilities of engraving and of woodcut1 he knew their limitations and the manner of presentation most adequate for either process4 ,these principles of treatment are illustrated in his prints1 set forth so clearly as to be readily understood and applied by other engravers1 by other designers for woodcut4 ,for this reason he has become a teacher for all times4 ,his development may be followed through many stages1 from his early manner1 imitative of fifteenth-century masters1 to the pictorial finish and wonderful play of light in his grand 8,st4 ,jerome in his ,study40 ,italian influence is felt in many of his early plates1 the 8,effect of ,jealousy10 for instance1 the 8,apollo and ,diana10 or the charming 8,madonna with the ,monkey02 but his vigorous individuality was not swayed long nor impaired by these ,southern charms which were soon to overwhelm ,northern art4 ,even in the days when young ,drer responds with enthusiasm to the power1 to the passionate energy of ,mantegna1 his ,german characteristics are plainly apparent2 ,i am thinking of his famous series of illustrations to the ,apocalypse4 ,take the powerful print of the 8,four ,horsemen10 with their resistless onward rush1 violent action vividly expressed1 every figure1 every detail instinct with close scrutiny and conscientious rendering of nature4 ,then as to technique1 see how outline and shade-stroke are made to yield their full measure of expressiveness4 ,none of the uniform diagonal shading of early ,italian masters is found in these woodcuts2 nor shall we find such summary treatment in ,drer's engravings4 ,if we turn to his 8,arms with the ,skull10 for instance1 we see there no mere suggestion of shadow1 every line tells4 ,the outline swells and accents the form1 the shading-strokes curve and bend to accent the rounding1 the modeling of the figure2 the quality1 strength1 tonality of the line varies with every texture which is to be expressed1 such as the metal of the helmet1 the feathers on the crest1 the cloth1 the leather1 the wood1 the hair4 ,the modest means of black lines and white paper1 which at first had seemed barely sufficient for suggestive outline and indications of the rounding of form1 are now becoming a medium fit for the presentation of all the infinite phenomena of visible nature4 ,from the large1 predominant figures massed in the immediate foreground of early woodcut series like the ,apocalypse1 or the large ,passion1 ,drer progresses to a deepening of the scene in the serene woodcut illustrations of the 8,life of the ,virgin40 ,we are led along the pleasant1 peaceful paths of life1 we are spared the anguish and suffering of the previous series4 ,in this illustration1 for instance1 we see the ,holy ,family at rest in ,egypt2 ,joseph is working at his trade1 while the ,mother watches her sleeping ,babe1 and angels busy themselves or gambol about the ,holy group4 ,the scene is laid in a pleasing ,german landscape1 among low hills1 which carry out the serenity of the composition4 ,illustration3 ,,apocalypse3 ,,the ,,four ,,horsemen ,woodcut4 ,albrecht ,drer ,illustration3 ,,arms ,,with ,,the ,,skull ,albrecht ,drer ,illustration3 ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,virgin3 ,,rest ,,in ,,egypt ,woodcut4 ,albrecht ,drer ,the fullness of ,drer's powers as an engraver is manifested in the three plates which typify man's attitude toward life4 ,first comes the good1 steadfast knight1 the champion of righteousness1 unmindful of his weird escort of death and a hellish monster as he wends his way through a dark defile to his home on a distant sunlit hill4 ,we then see despondent1 bitter ,melancholy1 vainly demanding of science the answer to life's riddle4 ,finally1 we come to ,st4 ,jerome1 serene in his chosen solitude3 a mind resigned1 at peace with the world which has been left behind4 ,these engravings take a very high rank1 indeed1 in ,german art4 ,such technique of engraving as that here found had never before been even approached3 broad gleams of sunlight brighten the room1 striking the walls and floor2 in the silvery half-light every texture1 every substance is expressed by differentiations of the graver-stroke4 ,yet with all the infinite detail which abounds in the plate1 the tonality is so sustained and detail so discreetly introduced1 that the general feeling1 after all1 is one of simplicity4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,jerome ,,in ,,his ,,study ,albrecht ,drer ,one other aspect of ,drer's genius must be introduced1 namely1 his mastery in portraiture4 ,in the strong face of ,cardinal ,albrecht of ,mayence1 the keenest observation of the man is revealed with means astonishingly simple4 ,notice how far from extreme depth the shadings have been kept2 all in the range of silvery grays1 which ,drer sought in preference to dark shadows4 ,the values in the figure1 the arms and the inscription have all received careful consideration from this master whose genius was1 indeed1 the faculty of taking infinite pains4 ,illustration3 ,,cardinal ,,albrecht ,,of ,,mayence ,albrecht ,drer ,from this brief glance at the great ,nuremberg artist1 we must turn now to his ,northern contemporary1 ,lucas van ,leyden1 likewise a painter-engraver1 and a solitary figure in the ,netherlands at that period4 ,bred in the realistic maxims of the fifteenth century1 his ,northern origin asserts itself in the careful detail and truthful presentation of nature1 in the characteristic types of his figures4 ,truthful rendering of natural facts--as has been mentioned before--is a quality common to ,northern artists4 ,drer1 in his fondness for psychological themes1 is in tune with the humanists of his time4 ,leyden1 though strongly influenced by the ,german master1 has not ,drer's depth of thought4 ,he does not infuse that deeper meaning into his plates4 ,following the bent of his ,germanic mind1 he reverts to the simple1 daily scenes of life1 and when he undertakes to render scenes from other times and from distant places1 he transforms them into events of his own day and his own surroundings4 ,he can thus express himself with the directness of an eye-witness1 and therein lies much of the charm of his work1 which was much appreciated even in ,italy4 ,one of the few large plates of ,lucas van ,leyden will illustrate his artistic and technical powers4 ,the 8,adoration of the ,magi10 broad in composition1 sober and harmonious in the handling of the graver1 typically ,northern in feeling1 is perhaps the finest of his achievements4 ,later in life his restless1 searching mind was diverted to the allurements of ,italian grace of form1 and gave itself up to its influence without reserve4 ,illustration3 ,,adoration ,,of ,,the ,,magi ,lucas van ,leyden ,a great wave of enthusiasm for ,southern ideals swept over the entire ,north about the third decade of the sixteenth century4 ,it established the supremacy of ,italian standards of artistic merit1 which--as we know--were not such as to give new life to the graphic arts4 ,this wave of ,italian influence was felt in the immediate following of ,drer1 in that group of painter-engravers1 known to us as the 8little masters10 though little only in the size of their plates4 ,a high standard of technique is common to them all1 with variations in their perfection4 ,variations there are also in the measure in which they yielded to ,italian influence4 ,their graver was devoted to the rendering of a great variety of subjects2 ,northern characteristics are still evident in their portraits1 in their ,biblical scenes with ,german types of figures4 ,northern customs are depicted with ,northern minuteness2 on the other hand1 the study of ,southern models has developed in these ,northern engravers an appreciation of the beauty of the nude1 which is freely introduced in mythological1 allegorical1 ,biblical1 and other subjects1 and very skillfully handled4 ,we are apt not to appreciate the gravity of this ,italian invasion1 of this ,southern supremacy in ,northern art4 ,ideal perfection of form was a new language to the ,germanic artists1 accustomed to the realistic1 faithful rendering of nature as they saw it1 with all its facts1 perfections1 and imperfections alike4 ,the change often meant that the artist forgot his native tongue1 if the expression may be used--a harsh tongue1 if you will1 but sincere and expressive2 in return he acquired1 often but imperfectly1 a new language in which his expression needs must be imitative1 not original4 ,illustration3 ,,tournament ,woodcut4 ,lucas ,cranach ,the true ,northern spirit still greets us in the woodcut productions of that period4 ,woodcut was used for subjects of wide popular interest1 for ,passion series1 portraits1 religious subjects1 and all manner of illustration4 ,drer had used the relief process extensively for such purposes1 likewise ,burgkmair1 who was1 with ,drer1 one of the foremost designers for the extensive publications of ,emperor ,maximilian4 ,lucas ,cranach elected the strong1 emphatic woodcut for much of his graphic work1 prominently employed in the service of the ,reformation4 ,an example of his work1 this tournament scene1 is a reminder of the times in which he dwelt1 and an illustration of his vivid power of presentation1 typically ,northern with its crowded figures4 ,other masters there are in plenty1 whom we must neglect1 as we shift our abode to ,basle for a moment4 ,we find ourselves here1 about #aeaf1 in the midst of a thriving publishing center4 ,enterprising printers seek to secure pleasing decorations and illustrations for their scientific and literary output4 ,they look for a good draughtsman to design some tasteful headings and end-pieces1 borders and initials1 and are well pleased with the samples submitted by a young newcomer1 by name ,hans ,holbein4 ,at first the cutting of his designs offers some difficulties1 but when the right man has appeared1 when ,hans ,ltzelburger has joined his skill to the genius of ,holbein1 their joint productions attain a peerless mastery4 ,high summits in art always invite comparison2 this is true of ,drer and ,holbein1 even though these two great ,german masters are so widely different from each other4 ,drer is nowhere greater than in engraving1 while ,holbein excels in painting2 both are masters of woodcut4 ,drer1 with his scholarly1 analytical nature1 ponders over the deep1 essential meaning which underlies the multitude of his observations1 and sets down his conclusions in types broadly generalized4 ,his ,st4 ,jerome--to quote but one instance--is not so much a specific old man in his study as the expression of a mental attitude common to mankind generally4 ,holbein is more a man of impulse1 quick to express himself in a direct manner full of life4 ,he is more sensual1 and has much feeling for pleasing form and a beautiful flow of lines4 ,he accents the event itself more strongly than ,drer1 who is given to express himself rather by association of ideas4 ,it is a significant fact that ,drer chooses his subjects with preference from the figurative ,new ,testament1 with its parables1 while ,holbein prefers to illustrate the ,old ,testament1 a book of essentially historical character4 ,every scene is plainly told and intensely human in ,holbein's ,biblical illustrations1 as well as in that masterpiece of his1 the 8,dance of ,death40 ,we cannot but marvel at the feeling of spaciousness in these small prints1 at the lifelike action of the expressive little figures1 at the perfect harmony of these figures and their surroundings4 ,at the time of ,drer's death1 in #aebh1 the long period of warfare1 devastation1 and misery had begun which was to end only after the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,emperor ,maximilian was dead2 ,charles ,v had broken the power of ,france in ,italy2 his mercenaries had sacked ,rome1 and incidentally ruined ,marcantonio1 the ,italian engraver4 ,his promising school was dispersed4 ,it was a period of decline1 both north and south of the ,alps4 ,from that time on1 the successive influences of ,italy1 of the ,netherlands1 and of ,france sway the character of ,german art4 ,a clever superficiality develops1 which adapts itself to the characteristics of the art in vogue4 ,etching1 the sister art of engraving1 cannot boast any signal triumphs during this period of ,german art1 although1 from the early days of its adoption1 it was used to a considerable extent by the ,hopfer family4 ,drer experimented with the process1 but soon returned to engraving4 ,the greatest ,german etcher of the following 7seventeenth7 century1 ,wenzel ,hollar followed the ,earl of ,arundel to ,england1 there to build up his fame4 ,,vi ,,the ,,netherlands ,the seventeenth century1 which witnesses ,german art in its decline1 brings about a wonderful flowering of art in the neighboring ,netherlands4 ,this country had passed from ,burgundian rule to the ,hapsburg dynasty4 ,with the advent of ,charles ,v1 it passed under the rule of ,spain4 ,the master hand of that emperor had been able to curb the feeling of unrest and ferment caused by the ,reformation1 but the oppressive measures of his somber successor1 ,philip ,,ii1 drove the ,dutch and ,flemish people to rise in arms for the defense of their liberties4 ,a long1 cruel war of emancipation ensued1 and near its close there came a parting of the ways which bears directly upon our subject4 ,in #aeih1 the division occurred2 the southern--,flemish--provinces remained true to the ,house of ,hapsburg1 true also to the long-established ,catholic faith4 ,consequently their art retained its strongly religious element1 tinged with ,italian traditions4 ,the great exponent of this ,flemish trend of art is ,peter ,paul ,rubens1 of whom more presently4 ,the northern 7,dutch7 provinces adopted the teachings of ,calvin1 and soon established their independence4 ,their churches were bare of any pictorial adornment2 their art was forced1 therefore1 to develop mainly in the sphere of home life4 ,if we term ,rubens the leader of ,flemish art1 ,rembrandt stands for the highest development of ,dutch art4 ,between these two leaders lies a broad field with many blending1 interweaving influences1 many local characteristics1 in this magnificent epoch4 ,the only way to approach the subject in a few brief sentences is by considering as one vast unit the whole period of seventeenth-century art in the ,netherlands1 both ,dutch and ,flemish4 ,illustration3 ,,johannes ,,zurenus ,hendrik ,goltzius ,it will ever be a matter for surprise that this small country should burst into the full glory of a great period of art at a time of incessant1 strenuous warfare4 ,first the long1 exhausting war with ,spain2 then a war with ,england2 finally1 a war with the powerful ,france of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,within the time limit of these wars lie the dates of the birth of ,rubens1 and of ,rembrandt's death1 marking the culmination of art in the ,netherlands4 ,if we look back to earlier days of ,dutch engraving1 we discern the isolated figure of ,lucas van ,leyden1 the only painter-engraver of fame in the ,netherlands at the time of ,drer4 ,after his death no master of similar merit arose to carry on his traditions4 ,engraving1 deprived of eminent guidance1 sank to levels of commercialism4 ,saints' pictures being always in great demand throughout ,christendom1 engravers in the ,netherlands devoted their energies largely to this field1 and that country became the center of production of all kinds of engraved devotional prints4 ,trained by daily routine practice1 the engravers acquired a high degree of dexterity in handling the graver4 ,whole families of engravers--the ,wierix1 the ,van de ,passe1 the ,galle--devoted themselves to this work1 which assumed the character of a manufacture of engravings4 ,one did the figures1 another the backgrounds1 another again the draperies1 ornaments1 etc41 according to their respective aptitudes4 ,toward the close of the sixteenth century1 this ,northern skill in handling the graver was communicated to ,italy1 and there mastered by ,agostino ,carracci4 ,in ,holland manual dexterity was carried to its height by a virtuoso of the graver1 ,hendrik ,goltzius4 ,his 8,piet0 in the manner of ,drer1 and a series of large plates1 in which he exhibits1 in turn1 characteristics of this and other noted artists1 reveal his technical mastery4 ,they disclose also his power of close observation1 which appears to best advantage in portraits such as that of ,zurenus4 ,excellent judgment is shown in the selection of line2 the effect is sparkling1 brilliant2 in fact1 this very brilliancy1 this cleverness in the telling use of the line1 becomes an end to be striven for1 and no longer the means only employed to express an artistic thought4 ,this worship of technique carries ,goltzius and his numerous followers to extremes of mannerism1 where we must leave them and turn to the engravers grouped around ,rubens4 ,illustration3 ,,peter ,,paul ,,rubens ,paul ,pontius ,illustration3 ,,jan ,,brueghel ,anthony van ,dyck ,peter ,paul ,rubens perceived the advantages which prints might bring to a painter by the propagation of his compositions4 ,so he surrounded himself with experienced engravers1 whom he guided by suggestions and corrections4 ,how well they interpreted the work of the master may be seen in ,rubens's portrait of himself1 engraved by ,paul ,pontius1 one of the noted engravers of this group4 ,a stride toward the expression of color is to be perceived in this plate2 great variety in the rendering of cloth1 hair1 lace1 the face1 the background and frame4 ,the problem of expressing color1 as well as form1 now enters more and more into the sphere of engraving2 a problem much more difficult than would appear at first thought4 ,here is the task which faces the engraver3 he must keep true to the original he reproduces1 true in form1 true in color values1 by a judicious gradation of tone4 ,at the same time he must strive to make his plate interesting1 spirited1 brilliant1 and apparently easy and free in handling4 ,singly these qualities are not uncommon1 but that engraver is far from common1 who1 having the power to do such brilliant work1 has moreover the wish and ability to efface himself1 and let only the artist speak1 whose work he interprets4 ,it is a claim to distinction for many engravers of the ,rubens group that they came so near to solving this problem4 ,whether or not ,rubens made use of the etching-needle himself remains a matter for speculation2 there is no doubt1 however1 that his great pupil--,anthony van ,dyck--used etching very effectively1 as will be seen by this portrait taken from his famous 8,iconography40#d ,the likeness is sketched with his characteristic sureness and ease upon the grounded copper plate4 ,the biting was doubtless left to the engraver who was to finish the plate4 ,neither ,rubens nor ,van ,dyck seems to have been interested in etching or engraving as such2 to them the graphic arts were excellent means of reproduction1 nothing more4 #d ,a large series of portraits after ,van ,dyck1 engraved by a number of the ,rubens engravers4 ,illustration3 ,,gellius ,,de ,,bouma ,cornel ,visscher ,illustration3 ,,adoration ,,of ,,the ,,shepherds ,rembrandt ,illustration3 ,,the ,,three ,,trees ,rembrandt ,you will notice that the engraver has begun his work in fine1 parallel lines1 close together1 in the upper corner of the plate4 ,the print thus presents one aspect of the use--conjointly--of etching and engraving1 which had then come into universal use4 ,another example of the combined use of the two processes1 blended into a rich harmonious tone1 is the portrait of ,gellius de ,bouma by one of the great portrait engravers of the seventeenth century1 ,cornel ,visscher1 an artist who tolerated no hard-and-fast system in the graphic arts4 ,here is a vigorous1 well-modeled figure1 broadly treated in so interesting a manner that the means of expression are quite forgotten in the enjoyment of the effect achieved4 ,a new element now enters the sphere of our interest3 the problem of light1 bright or subdued1 in infinite gradations4 ,interiors with the light focused on one spot2 night effects partially brightened by a torch or lantern1 or by a fire1 all else enfolded in darkness4 ,the pioneer in this clair-obscur manner is the painter1 ,adam ,elzheimer1 but no one made more effective use of this play of light and shade in the graphic arts than ,rembrandt4 ,take the 8,adoration of the ,shepherds0 as an instance1 with the feeble light of the lantern and the rich tone of surrounding darkness1 with indistinct forms of figures and objects half seen and half guessed1 which gain shape as we look more closely4 ,in the famous plate known as the 8,three ,trees0 our attention is at first attracted by the vast expanse of threatening sky1 with its lofty thunder-clouds1 and the immense plains1 with dikes and level fields stretching to the distant horizon4 ,as we look at the picture1 details appear1--the team behind the trees1 the people in the fields1 the couple in the bushes4 ,they are overlooked1 then seen1 just as they would be in nature2 they keep their subordinate places1 and do not intrude and disturb the general effect of grand simplicity4 ,color is so well suggested by differentiations in handling and varying intensities of tone that one almost forgets the simple black and white presentation of the scene4 ,as an example of ,rembrandt's mastery in etching applied to portraiture1 no better print could be chosen than the 8,janus ,lutma10 especially if we can see it in the glorious richness exhibited by the first state of the plate4 ,all the resources of the process are in evidence here1--they are seen in the subtle modeling1 in the insensible gradations of tone1 in the brilliancy of the accents1 in the depth of the velvety shadows4 ,it will be readily understood that such delicate1 almost breathlike differences in shading1 cannot long withstand the wear and strain to which they are subjected at each successive impression4 ,every print taken from the plate means rubbing the ink into every one of these delicate incisions in the copper2 then comes the severe pressure as the plate passes through the press4 ,a soft metal like copper soon shows the effect of these wearing influences3 the delicate ridges of the dry-point work flatten down1 and the edges of the etched lines become blunt4 ,after a very little while the difference in the impressions grows more and more noticeable2 then comes the touching-up of the plate1 in an endeavor to restore--in a measure--its former brilliancy and freshness2 naturally this modifies the appearance of the print to some extent4 ,the first of these retouches are probably made by the artist himself2 later on1 as the plate again wears1 it may have passed into the hands of dealers1 who1 in turn1 have the copper touched up repeatedly for further printing4 ,thus you may have a ,rembrandt print1 from the original copper1 yet without even the echo of that which the great master had originally expressed4 ,this applies not to ,rembrandt etchings only1 but to prints in general2 whatever the print1 the first essential must always be to secure a good impression of it4 ,illustration3 ,,janus ,,lutma ,rembrandt ,illustration3 ,,tobit ,,blind ,rembrandt ,we cannot leave ,rembrandt without glancing at one of those sketchy little prints which1 upon examination1 reveal to us his big-hearted knowledge of human nature and his keen powers of observation4 ,here is the old ,tobit1 a groping figure1 eloquently described by means of a few telling lines in its pathetic1 helpless blindness1 the little dog acting as a guide4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,spinner ,adriaen van ,ostade ,illustration3 ,,the ,,travelers ,jacob ,ruysdael ,the influence of ,rembrandt on his contemporaries and on subsequent artistic productions is very great indeed2 none of his followers1 gifted though they be1 approach him in excellence and universality4 ,to the ,northern mind there is a great fascination in presentments of the life of the common people4 ,brouwer1 ,brueghel1 ,teniers are among those partial to this theme1 and each of them has done some experimental work with the etching-needle4 ,in ,germany we find plates relating to peasant life among the prints of ,drer1 ,holbein1 and the little masters4 ,rembrandt has devoted a good many plates to character sketches of beggars and of peasants4 ,among the other ,dutch etchers the greatest interpreter of the peasantry is without doubt ,adriaen van ,ostade4 ,he shows them to us at their homes1 or at the tavern1 smoking1 drinking1 dancing1 merrymaking4 ,the gay1 sunny side of their existence is revealed in his fifty etchings1 which display a thorough command of the medium employed4 ,in the scene which has been chosen as an example of his powers1 we discern the sympathetic interest in country life which characterizes all his work4 ,jacob ,ruysdael1 the landscape painter1 has sketched on the copper a number of characteristic subjects1 none1 perhaps1 finer than this clump of sturdy1 gnarled oaks1 with roots bathed in a shallow pool4 ,the distant trees are flooded with sunlight1 while the foreground is toned down to a lower key4 ,all this is done in the simplest possible manner4 ,the whole plate speaks of close1 careful observation1 and truthfully1 suggestively expresses actual nature4 ,another notable feature is the subordination of the figures4 ,here1 as in ,rembrandt's 8,three ,trees10 the figures are quite subordinate2 the quiet beauty of the scenery presented is the main theme of the artist's message4 ,passing by numerous other delightful landscape etchers1 ,everdingen1 ,waterloo1 ,saftleven1 likewise the gifted etcher of animals1 ,paul ,potter1 we must turn now to ,nicolas ,berghem1 who combines animal life with landscape4 ,in his masterpiece1 known as the 8,diamond10 there is apparent the close study of nature1 characteristic of the period1 also much clever mise en scne1 but as we examine the plate more closely1 we realize the admixture of ,italian inspiration4 ,the vigor of home influences is weakening1 and the art of the ,south again asserts itself as we approach the eighteenth century4 ,the same ,southern influence pervades the landscapes of ,jan ,both2 they are very pleasing1 technically fine1 but the evil which creeps into ,dutch art is quite evident here4 ,the ideal landscape of ,titian1 ,poussin1 and ,claude ,lorrain gradually warps the former frank realistic rendering of nature2 elegance1 hollow display gradually take the place of the good1 wholesome naturalness of ,dutch art4 ,with the advent of the eighteenth century1 painting and the graphic arts decline to levels which we may pass by in this rapid survey4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,diamond ,nicolaes ,berghem ,,vii ,,france ,having considered the fate of the graphic arts in ,italy1 ,germany1 and the ,netherlands1 our attention must dwell for a while on developments of the printed picture in ,france4 ,in each of the countries above mentioned1 we have witnessed a definite era of excellence in the sphere of prints2 in ,germany and in ,italy1 this zenith was reached in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries4 ,in the ,netherlands1 as we have just seen1 the great awakening took place fully a century later4 ,in this same seventeenth century1 toward its close1 as art declines in the ,low ,countries1 ,french engraving rises to its highest perfection4 ,we needs must deal briefly with early ,french productions in relief and intaglio processes4 ,woodcut first3 some few examples of early playing-cards which have survived destruction to these days1 prove the trade of the card-printer to have flourished in ,france as well as in ,germany4 ,book-printing speedily grew to important proportions2 great printing firms were founded in ,lyons and elsewhere1 and carried on an extensive trade4 ,men of artistic originality1 like ,geoffroy ,tory1 knew how to infuse a distinctive character into type and illustration of their books2 but apart from a few choice spirits1 artistic ,france is not conspicuous in these early productions4 ,not only is printing largely carried on by printers from ,germany and ,switzerland1 but these countries likewise furnish a large share of the relief-blocks needed for illustration4 ,the ,holbein 8,dance of ,death0 is a notable instance of this practice4 ,that series of wood-blocks had passed to ,lyons1 and there one edition after another was printed from the blocks1 until they were quite worn out4 ,woodcut never was1 in ,france1 the important means of artistic expression which we have found it to have been in ,germany4 ,its days sped by unheeded4 ,the chief field of usefulness of the woodcut1 the decoration and illustration of books and the sphere of the devotional print1 were invaded by the intaglio processes4 ,the woodcut lost ground everywhere in the seventeenth century2 it had practically no share in solving the problems set to the graphic arts by the rising schools of ,dutch1 ,flemish1 and ,french painters4 ,it sank to mere imitation of the fashionable book-decorations done in etching or engraving4 ,the true1 bold language of woodcut1 spoken during the sixteenth century1 finds no counterpart in the seventeenth2 we must1 therefore1 turn to engraving1 to vindicate ,france as a great center of development in the graphic arts4 ,illustration3 ,,tour ,,de ,,nesle ,jacques ,callot ,in the early sixteenth century we meet in ,jean ,duvet an engraver of original merit4 ,he adopts in his work the style of certain early ,italian engravers4 ,in his compositions he harks back to ,drer's imaginative genius4 ,a little later ,etienne ,delaune appears1 affecting the elongated figures of contemporary ,italians1 while in his graver-work one discerns a resemblance with the manner of the ,german 8little masters40 ,in etching a vital impulse is given to ,french work about the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,at that time ,francis ,i called ,italian artists to ,france for the decoration of his castle of ,fontainebleau4 ,many of these ,italian artists--,primaticcio1 ,fantuzzi1 and others--made use of etching occasionally in a hasty1 sketchy style4 ,the sensuous charm of their lithe1 long figures appealed to ,french taste1 and elicited a response in the plates etched by ,jean ,cousin1 for instance4 ,in all this early production we feel the dominating influence of ,italian art1 with an occasional echo of ,german thought or ,german technique4 ,france seeks her own language in the graphic arts1 and timidly ventures forth in an original manner of expression4 ,this diffidence is of brief duration1 however1 and by the end of the seventeenth century we find her a leader in engraving1 and by no means in engraving only4 ,as we enter upon this broad development1 we must cast a glance on two personalities of distinct originality1 namely1 ,jacques ,callot and ,claude ,lorrain4 ,both are natives of ,lorraine1 both are schooled in the art centers of ,italy4 ,callot1 endowed with an impulsive1 expressive style1 full of personal qualities1 vividly describes in his plates the habits1 customs1 pleasures1 the life1 in short1 of ,france and ,italy at his time4 ,he peoples his plates with multitudes of minute figures1 with well-accented gestures4 ,these little figures are written down1 as it were1 with consummate skill2 they are expressive in their concerted action2 in their grouping1 these peasants1 soldiers1 beggars1 cripples1 actors1 courtiers1 as they troop across the scene1 unfold a bird's-eye view of the world in the midst of which the artist lived4 ,from the vast number of his prints1 let us select for illustration one of his views of old ,paris1 with the ,tour de ,nesle prominent in the foreground4 ,in his hundreds of plates we see the miseries of warfare described as well as the gayety of public festivities and the pomp of ceremonies of state which he witnessed in ,florence4 ,claude ,lorrain1 an originator and gifted exponent of landscape1 has occasionally taken up the etching-needle1 largely in an experimental spirit1 modifying his technique at different times1 and showing himself1 like other noted painters and occasional etchers1 infinitely more clever in the design than in the actual etching4 ,the plate chosen for illustration1 called 8,le ,bouvier10 is the most famous of his prints2 in it we perceive 7provided we see a fine early impression7 the rich tonal effect1 the sense of airiness1 of space1 the delightful composition1 the knowledge of nature's forms and of atmospheric aspects1 which appear far more markedly still in the paintings of this master4 ,illustration3 ,,le ,,bouvier ,claude ,lorrain ,the new awakening in ,french engraving in the seventeenth century is especially notable in portrait engraving4 ,germany has lost its leadership in the graphic arts2 the great days of ,italian engraving are likewise over1 though ,italy continues a source of inspiration to painters of all nations1 she can add no vital1 helpful impulse to engraving4 ,such life-giving influences could only come from the ,netherlands1 where the great tide of art is now at its height1 where painting and the graphic arts have unfolded all their glory4 ,here the etcher's and the engraver's technique1 very highly developed1 is growing yet in perfection4 ,what could be more natural than the powerful stimulus exerted by such excellence on ,french engraving8 ,its greatest triumphs coincide1 in point of time1 with the period of political supremacy of ,france during the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,the 8,grand ,monarque0 infused grandeur into all the arts4 ,the stately graver is the medium aptly chosen for numerous portraits of the 8roi soleil0 himself4 ,in this period of teeming fertility in portraiture1 we find an abundance of likenesses of statesmen1 generals1 princes1 nobles1 of leaders in art1 science1 literature1 and of distinguished churchmen4 ,one cannot look through these prints without being struck by the prevalence1 among them1 of an element of stately aloofness which removes these men and women from the everyday sphere of life4 ,they lack some of the freedom1 some of the lifelike appearance1 which characterize the achievements of the ,netherlanders4 ,illustration3 ,,duc ,,de ,,guise ,claude ,mellan ,in glancing through the ranks of the ,french engravers1 we come upon ,claude ,mellan1 an artist-engraver of striking originality4 ,he departs from the beaten track of cross-hatching1 and develops a manner of shading which relies--for the rendering of shadows--solely on the swelling line peculiar to graver-work4 ,his technique is seen in the portrait of the young ,duc de ,guise here reproduced4 ,lines very lightly traced in the lighted portions1 grow in strength and swell proportionately to the depth of shadow to be expressed4 ,the direction of the line and its degree of heaviness are the means of expression used by ,mellan4 ,the difficulties inherent in such a technique are evident1 and it is equally evident that the elimination of cross-hatching is a heavy handicap to an engraver4 ,naturally enough1 ,claude ,mellan did not have any following to speak of among engravers4 ,illustration3 ,,antoine ,,vitr ,jean ,morin ,from this peculiar but fascinating artist1 we pass on to another engraver of marked individuality1 ,jean ,morin1 an excellent technician who studied with profit the works of his ,dutch and ,flemish predecessors4 ,he combines etching and graver-work in his plates1 modeling the flesh exquisitely by means of minute stipple-like touches4 ,among his best productions the portrait of ,antoine ,vitr stands forth as a plate of great effectiveness and power1 with rich1 dark tones of shadow and brilliant lights4 ,the school of ,philippe de ,champaigne1 which disciplined the powers of ,morin1 set upon his way the greatest of ,french portrait engravers1 ,robert ,nanteuil4 ,a finished draughtsman1 known by his pastel portraits1 and an engraver who carried the technique of the graver to perfection2 he knows how to blend delicacy and strength in plates like this portrait of ,pompone de ,bellivre4 ,the longer one studies such a print1 the more one realizes the unerring faculty of this master in the selection of line2 each stroke fits the substance which it is meant to express4 ,the eloquence of the graver is a matter too subtle for language1 and far transcends the possibilities of reproduction1 however skillful2 a half-hour spent with some good1 early impressions of ,nanteuil prints will prove the truth of this assertion4 ,everything is expressed there1 and wondrously well expressed1 yet one is quite unconscious of any display of virtuosity4 ,nanteuil was too great an artist not to subordinate the beauty of line1 the marvelous finish of elaborate detail1 to the main consideration1 namely1 the beauty of a well-balanced1 well-harmonized ensemble4 ,he was an artist-engraver in the true sense of the word1 since many of his finest plates have been drawn from life1 as well as engraved by him4 ,illustration3 ,,pompone ,,de ,,belli,,vre ,robert ,nanteuil ,illustration3 ,,philippe ,,de ,,champaigne ,grard ,edelinck ,it is usual1 in reviews of this period of art1 to find the name of the noted ,fleming1 ,grard ,edelinck1 mentioned side by side with ,nanteuil4 ,with a technique akin to that of the ,rubens school1 in long1 easy strokes1 he models his figures and his draperies1 and while he lacks the creative originality of ,nanteuil1 working always after the designs of other artists1 his range of subjects is far more extended4 ,in the striking likeness of the painter ,philippe de ,champaigne1 he has left us a splendid example of his powers4 ,his plate after the 8,madonna of ,francis ,i10 by ,raphael1 is a model of interpretative engraving1 and when he undertakes to reproduce the canvases of ,lebrun1 he produces prints admittedly more attractive and brilliant than the originals4 ,another man whom we cannot afford to omit from even this hasty enumeration is ,antoine ,masson1 were it only for that superb 8gray-haired man10 the portrait of ,guillaume de ,brisacier1 brilliant1 powerful1 revealing an absolute mastery of the graver4 ,the fact is1 that we are drifting now toward an ever-growing worship of technique1 at the expense of higher issues1 artistically4 ,many names claim our notice1 as we continue our survey1 and a few will not be denied1--,grard ,audran1 with his great series of the 8,triumphs of ,alexander10 a series1 which1 for breadth and beauty of treatment1 assures him a place among the leaders1 near ,edelinck4 ,illustration3 ,,bossuet ,pierre ,imbert ,drevet ,as we glance at portrait engraving farther afield1 there is at least one name1 among the notables of the eighteenth century1 which demands recognition here3 ,pierre ,imbert ,drevet1 a member of that well-known family of engravers4 ,perhaps his greatest title to fame is the portrait--here shown--of ,jacques ,bnigne ,bossuet1 the prelate1 writer1 and orator4 ,many regard this plate as the greatest engraving of the century4 ,in a manner typical of those pomp-loving times1 the eminent churchman is represented amidst columns and sweeping draperies4 ,here1 indeed1 we have the last word of technical resourcefulness in expanses of gorgeous silks and delicate laces1 and many other textures and substances4 ,if one should feel that all this elaboration of the setting distracts the attention from the portrait itself1 he must blame the epoch and the painter whose design the engraver needs must follow4 ,now the reign of ,louis ,,xiv is over1 and we come to the ,regency1 and to ,louis ,,xv4 ,sensitive art1 always the expression of the prevailing attitude of mind1 shifts to that well-known sphere of light-hearted1 trifling1 idyllic1 galant subjects1 a sphere which we naturally connect with ,watteau and ,lancret1 with ,boucher and ,greuze3 subjects of which the illustration 8,champs lyses10 after ,watteau1 by ,tardieu1 is a fairly typical example4 ,playful shepherd scenes abound1 dainty figures masquerading as housekeepers1 school-teachers1 laundresses2 or else we have glimpses of the intimacy of the boudoir and chamber with sensuous allusions more or less veiled4 ,it is clear that such scenes required a medium other than the serious1 dignified form of engraving1 which we have seen heretofore4 ,such light1 gay1 piquant scenes demanded a freer medium of expression2 also they required the merry touch of light1 joyous coloring4 ,illustration3 ,,champs ,,lys,,es ,nicolas ,henri ,tardieu ,in response to these demands1 ,gilles ,demarteau perfected a process admirably suited to rendering the effect of sketchy crayon drawing4 ,leprince devised the process known as 8aquatint10 by means of which the washes of water-color or sepia might be closely imitated upon the copper4 ,both these media came into frequent use1 and often a brown ink was used in the printing1 being deemed more appropriate to the subjects than the usual black1 or the copper plate was painted with colors for each impression1 a lengthy and delicate operation1 and these color-prints--not to be confounded with prints colored by hand--are prized by many amateurs4 ,a word here on these color-prints3 ,le,blon evolved a cumbersome method of three-color printing1 engraving one plate for each color2 often a fourth plate was added1 as a foundation for the other three4 ,the other method1 mentioned above1 was generally adopted1 quite a number of engravers devoting themselves to this color-work4 ,now again temptation spreads out a world of enticing themes for discussion1 which we must pass by3 ornaments1 elaborate decorations of theses1 emblems1 armorial designs1 calendars4 ,even the teeming field of book decoration must not keep us long1 entrancing though it be as a field for specializing study4 ,it has already been remarked that in this field1 formerly held by woodcut1 the intaglio processes had assumed a monopoly4 ,artists of great repute were called upon for designs to ornament the elegant volumes offered to literary amateurs4 ,the character of the illustration and ornamentation was dictated1 not so much by the contents of the books as by the predilections of the buying public4 ,a very high degree of technical efficiency prevailed among the engravers who busied themselves with illustrations for literary productions2 they entered so thoroughly into the spirit of the designs that their own individual characteristics are hard to discern in the mass of light1 dainty embellishments of the printed page4 ,the fine harmony which blends together type and ornamentation in the books of that period1 would be well worth imitation in our own advanced days4 ,the subjects are amorous for the most part1 as well befits a time when ,venus ruled in ,french society4 ,if you glance through the illustrated editions of the 8,fables10 or the 8,baisers0 of ,dorat1 the 8,temple de ,gnide0 of ,montesquieu1 the 8,henriade0 of ,voltaire1 the 8,contes nouveaux0 of ,marmontel1 or the 8,chansons0 of ,delaborde1 you will find there the best efforts of such masters of illustration as ,eisen1 ,choffard1 ,gravelot1 ,moreau1 and others1 who struck the note demanded by the social lite of their day4 ,they idealize a hollow1 shamming society1 which they carry into fairyland by an art true in its rendering of a play-acting world4 ,the dimpled1 rosy ,venus1 the shepherdess of well-rounded1 shapely figure1--these ideals of beauty are not ,greek1 nor of the great ,renaissance period4 ,such divinities are found in ,versailles gardens2 their prototypes are ,jeanne ,dubarry and her like1 the ladies of the court1 the beauties of the stage2 and for this reason ,french art of the eighteenth century is genuine and true1 because it does not seek its ideals in the dim past1 but chooses them in contemporary life4 ,as we follow engraving1 it declines from a spontaneous exercise of the thinking1 artistic mind into drudgery of systematized routine4 ,engraving becomes petrified into a thing of tradition1 with elaborate systems of lines and dots1 to be dutifully acquired during long years of apprenticeship4 ,originality is frowned down by rigid precept1 selection is made subservient to accepted prescription4 ,in this so-called 8classical0 style of engraving1 ,georg ,wille moves at ease1 among the most perplexing technical intricacies4 ,a virtuoso1 and a purist1 ,wille deems the burin the one and only admissible tool of an engraver4 ,the careful detail1 the minutely finished paintings of ,grard ,dou1 ,mieris1 or ,netscher give play to his powers4 ,the plate reproduced here is the famous 8,satin ,gown0 after ,terborch1 so called because of the wonderful rendering of the girl's dress1 with its silvery sheen and glossy shadows4 ,the lighting of the scene1 the modeling of forms1 the translation of color-values into terms of black and white1 have all received careful consideration1 nor do we feel in the work of this leader the cold metallic hardness and monotony which often wearies in the immense output of the classical engravers4 ,the names of ,bervic1 excellent but slow and excessively systematic1 ,boucher ,desnoyers1 the brilliant technician1 come to mind among ,frenchmen4 ,italy1 however1 became the real home of classical engraving1 and names such as ,longhi1 ,raphael ,morghen1 ,toschi1 with their large plates1 chiefly dealing with religious subjects1 must be familiar to any amateur of prints4 ,their fame1 the great favor which they enjoyed with the art-loving public for a while1 brought pupils from all parts of ,europe to these ,italian leaders4 ,illustration3 ,,instruction ,,paternelle 7,the 8,satin ,gown07 ,georg ,wille ,in ,france the triumphs which painter-etching achieved in the ,netherlands had but a faint echo3 ,callot and ,claude ,lorrain have already been mentioned4 ,painters like ,lebrun or ,largillire left the graphic arts to the engravers2 they viewed their skillful translations of painting into black and white as the work of colleagues1 not craftsmen4 ,we have noted the influence of ,watteau on the 8etcher-engravers02 he himself handled the etching-point at times1 in a few sketchy plates2 ,boucher1 ,fragonard1 and others dabbled in etching a little1 nothing more4 ,jean ,jacques de ,boissieu and ,jean ,pierre ,norblin1 the latter an enthusiastic student of ,rembrandt's perplexing technique1 should be mentioned as leading exponents of etching before the great nineteenth-century revival to which we shall presently turn4 ,now we must leave ,france1 with the classical engravers at the helm1 their formula spreading far and wide and with the vignettists busy on their portrayal of ,french society at the end of the ancien rgime4 ,as ,watteau had shown us the customs of the grandfathers1 at the beginning of the century1 so ,saint-,aubin1 ,eisen1 ,moreau1 and other clever artists show us the life of the grandchildren3 a society bound up in the pursuit of pleasure1 blindly rushing on toward exile or the guillotine of the ,french ,revolution4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,from ,,the ,,caprichos ,francisco ,goya ,before proceeding to ,english prints1 let us glance at the one prominent figure in ,spanish etching3 ,francisco ,goya4 ,a painter-etcher of intense feeling1 fiery1 impulsive1 he feels acutely the evils under which his country is groaning4 ,in an art largely allusive and bitterly satirical1 he conjures before us an abyss of human wretchedness1 greed1 and misrule in those strange 8,caprichos0 from which an illustration has been selected4 ,in other series he shows with the same graphic power the hazards of the bull-fight1 and again the fearful consequences of warfare4 ,filled with his thought1 he compels the copper to express the intensity of his conception4 ,his medium is whatever will convey the message1 usually an etched outline1 modeled into with aquatint in a bold sketchy manner4 ,his few1 rare lithographs have the same powerful characteristics1 and it is this energy of expression which makes his prints distinctive and desirable4 ,,viii ,,england ,in point of time ,england is last1 among ,european countries1 in bringing forth any important manifestation in the realm of prints4 ,during the early centuries of engraving the artistic demands of the country were supplied by foreigners4 ,in the seventeenth century ,wenzel ,hollar accompanied the ,earl of ,arundel to ,england1 and the name of this prolific etcher is1 without a doubt1 the most important for that period4 ,among his #bgej plates are landscapes1 views1 portraits1 plates of costumes and events of the day1 allegories1 and what-not3 all done with the skill of the practiced etcher1 though not exalted by the master-touch of genius4 ,other foreign-born engravers are not lacking2 among native ,britons1 ,faithorne1 ,robert ,white1 and ,george ,vertue are the most noted4 ,a portrait by ,william ,faithorne gives an idea of early ,english work4 ,it cannot offer anything new1 relying as it does on the art of the ,continent for every artistic impulse2 imitative1 not yet creative4 ,even well-known men of the eighteenth century--,robert ,strange1 ,william ,sharp1 and ,william ,woollett1 with his large ideal landscapes--hark back to the teachings of the ,continent and follow in the beaten track4 ,one personality stands out prominently in this period1 a man with a message delivered by means of his prints1 the painter-engraver ,william ,hogarth1 who1 like ,goya1 uses the needle and graver as a medium for a powerful crusade against the social evils of his day4 ,these he castigates with biting satire and forceful preachment4 ,his might be called a literary art1 with the stress laid on the moral theme1 not on technical perfection4 ,illustration3 ,,catharine ,,of ,,braganza ,william ,faithorne ,illustration3 ,,the ,,hon4 ,,miss ,,bingham ,francesco ,bartolozzi ,among the foreign talent ,francesco ,bartolozzi is preminent as a stipple engraver in ,england4 ,he is the foremost interpreter of the dainty compositions of ,angelica ,kauffmann and of ,cipriani4 ,our illustration1 8,the ,hon4 ,miss ,bingham10 after ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 shows the ,italian engraver at his best4 ,the whole plate is a mass of minute dots which form the lines and the tones of the portrait4 ,an adaptation1 in a more minute grain1 of the ,french crayon-manner1 the ,english stipple lends itself admirably to the smooth blendings and soft modeling of the sweet allegorical plates1 which ,bartolozzi produced with indefatigable industry4 ,stipple prints quickly gained the favor not only of the ,british public1 but also held sway for a while on the ,continent4 ,the process was eminently suited1 and often used1 for color-printing1 or for slight suggestions of color introduced in the printing1 to add to their charm4 ,the medium most particularly fostered in ,england is mezzotint engraving2 originary from ,germany1 it found in the island kingdom a happy soil for its speedy growth4 ,when ,lely1 ,kneller1 ,gainsborough1 ,reynolds1 and all that famous group of painters gave to the world their magnificent array of portraits1 there existed no school of line engravers in ,england1 no group of masterly engravers or etchers such as those of the ,netherlands or of ,france4 ,the field1 therefore1 was clear for mezzotint1 and it seems as though no other process could have more adequately interpreted the achievements of the great portraitists4 ,their prevalent breadth of treatment1 devoid of small1 niggling detail1 their numerous women's portraits1 with soft1 rounded forms1 subtle transitions of tone1 sparkling accents of light and blending depths of shadow1 were admirably suited to the 8black art40 ,hence the rise1 during the eighteenth century1 of a large school of mezzotint engravers1 who attained great perfection in their chosen medium1 progressing from prints of a sooty1 black appearance to plates of clear1 fine texture1 like the portrait of ,mrs4 ,carnac here reproduced1 an engraving by ,john ,raphael ,smith4 ,one is apt1 quite naturally1 to accord to engravings like this the credit due to the painter for his graceful composition4 ,quite aside1 however1 from matters of composition and beauty of subject1 the mere charm of intense shadow and brilliant high light1 with transitions of breath-like delicacy1 rendered with the velvety richness peculiar to mezzotint1 will readily explain the vogue and costliness of such prints4 ,no half-tone reproduction1 however good1 can convey an idea of the texture of mezzotinting4 ,an examination of good1 early impressions of mezzotint portraits by such men as ,mc,ardell1 ,watson1 ,ward1 ,green1 ,reynolds1 or other notables of the scraper1 will prove their merits much more convincingly than words4 ,illustration3 ,,mrs4 ,,carnac ,john ,raphael ,smith ,while portraiture is the field par excellence of mezzotint achievement1 other possibilities of the process are evidenced by plates like the flower and fruit piece here shown1 in which ,richard ,earlom proves himself a gifted interpreter of ,huysum4 ,the varied surfaces1 the delicate bloom on the fruit1 and all those little touches dear to the ,dutch painter--sparkling dewdrops1 insects1 the velvety underside of an overturned leaf--are faithfully reproduced4 ,we almost seem to see the actual colors of the painting1 so carefully have the values been gauged4 ,in no other process could the painting have been transcribed more pleasingly4 ,the mention of ,earlom as the engraver of a large series of landscape plates1 the 8,liber ,veritatis10 after sketches by ,claude ,lorrain1 leads us to ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner1 to whom these plates suggested the well-known 8,liber ,studiorum10 but of this more in our review of the nineteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,flower ,,and ,,fruit ,,piece ,richard ,earlom ,in the matter of woodcut1 little need be said in this brief outline1 aside from ,jackson's chiaroscuros1 until we come to ,thomas ,bewick and with him to an important revival of the relief process in modified form4 ,bewick recognized the possibilities of the wood block1 if cut across the grain1 instead of plank wise as used for the old woodcut4 ,the plank block necessitates the use of the knife2 a cross-grain block of boxwood on the other hand1 permits the use of that king of instruments1 the graver4 ,wood-engraving once established by ,bewick1 and elaborated by his followers1 rapidly spread over ,europe1 ultimately to reach its highest form of technical perfection in the ,united ,states4 ,,ix ,,the ,,united ,,states ,in early days1 the ,american colonies were indifferent if not inhospitable to the fine arts4 ,only portraiture and expressions of patriotism found a welcome1 both in painting and engraving4 ,these1 with some maps1 diagrams1 and views1 gave partial employment to a few engravers1 with such additions to their number as landed from time to time from ,europe for a sojourn more or less prolonged4 ,prominent among early arrivals was ,peter ,pelham1 an artist of good abilities1 who portrayed in mezzotint a number of ,new ,england ministers4 ,illustration3 ,,thomas ,,jefferson ,david ,edwin ,passing on to the ,washington period1 we find in ,charles ,willson ,peale an ,american painter-engraver of merit4 ,such mezzotint portraits as ,general and ,lady ,washington1 ,lafayette1 ,franklin1 and others easily rank among the best native productions of that period4 ,david ,edwin1 an immigrant from ,england1 brought proficiency in stipple engraving4 ,his merits can be judged from the best of his plates1 the portrait of ,thomas ,jefferson1 appropriately simple and dignified in execution4 ,with the advancing nineteenth century1 engraving becomes plentiful in this country4 ,publishers require many portraits1 views1 subjects of all kinds1 nor must we forget the important and flourishing branch of bank-note engraving4 ,this teeming activity brings with it a commercial sameness of execution1 a workmanlike1 metallic sleekness1 not quite absent even in the charming vignettes of ,john ,cheney1 which adorn the gift-books of the forties and fifties4 ,a portrait of ,chief ,justice ,marshall1 engraved by ,asher ,brown ,durand1 after ,inman's painting1 is shown as an illustration of good nineteenth-century work4 ,generally speaking1 portrait engraving had fallen into a rut1 suggested by the tonality of photographs1 a development shared by wood-engraving4 ,illustration3 ,,chief ,,justice ,,marshall ,asher ,brown ,durand ,the ingenious innovation of the ,englishman ,thomas ,bewick--which rejuvenated and refined the mishandled and discredited woodcut1 by substituting cross-grained blocks of boxwood and the graver1 for planks and the knife--was championed in ,america by ,dr4 ,alexander ,anderson4 ,none of the early ,american wood-engravers were endowed with great artistic gifts1 but ere long the steady demand by publishers brought to the fore men of acknowledged ability4 ,their achievements are plentifully illustrated in books and magazines2 the 8,still-life with the ,peacock10 engraved by ,w4 ,j4 ,linton1 a well-known writer on wood-engraving1 is reproduced here as a reminder of their skill4 ,originally the tendency of wood-engraving1 or white-line engraving1 as it is sometimes called1 had been to obtain effects by white lines 7the natural expression of the graver on the black surface of the block7 and by black and white masses4 ,as the wood-engraver grew proficient in his technique1 he widened his field by imitating the effect of etching or engraving on copper1 in rivalry with this form of illustration4 ,in this he succeeded so well that the other1 more expensive modes of adornment were largely driven from the field of book illustration4 ,with the advent of photography1 the design could be fixed upon the wood block mechanically1 accurately1 without the trouble of a careful drawing4 ,the values of tone in the photograph relieved the engraver from the work of translating color-values into black and white4 ,the blending half-tones of the photograph invited close imitation1 and thus tone-engraving developed1 with its masses of fine lines1 close together1 merging into tone4 ,beautiful results were achieved in this way by men like ,jngling1 ,french1 ,timothy ,cole1 ,wolf1 and many other engravers2 but soon the human hand was dispossessed altogether by the half-tone plate which makes the photographic image printable by mechanical means alone4 ,illustration3 ,,still-,,life ,,with ,,the ,,peacock ,wood-engraving4 ,w4 ,j4 ,linton ,the great ,european revival of etching extended to the ,united ,states in the seventies4 ,it proved a fruitful period1 with names like the ,morans1 ,ferris1 ,farrar1 ,duveneck1 ,charles ,platt1 and many others which might be mentioned4 ,the vogue of etching1 it will be remembered1 was short because mediocrities soon glutted the market and sent purchasers to other fields for a while4 ,interest in the process has awakened again of late1 but that is matter of too recent date to be discussed in these few pages4 ,x ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century ,from a survey of prints in their varying national aspects1 we have arrived now at that vast period of an art increasingly cosmopolitan1 the nineteenth century4 ,in these last hundred years nationality has blended together to a great extent2 travel is not the serious matter of former times1 a pastime rather than a venture2 all races have intermingled in the great world-centers2 students from far and near congregate in the centers of art4 ,all these factors1 and many others1 contribute in making artistic expression individual1 less and less national in character4 ,no sudden phase1 this1 rather an insensible general trend toward individuality as the great requisite in an artist's work4 ,the masterpieces of the fine arts had been interpreted by means of prints since the sixteenth1 and especially since the advent of the 8classical0 engravers in the eighteenth1 century4 ,the increasing number of these reproductive prints made it ever easier for an artist to acquaint himself1 in a way1 with the great achievements of the past4 ,finally photography1 and in its wake the photo-mechanical processes1 brought a flood of exact documents invaluable for study1 a lure to imitation for the unimaginative or indolent1 a spur to the real artist1 helpful in forming his own powers4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,from ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,job ,william ,blake ,individuality seems the keynote of the nineteenth century2 hence it may be as well not to bind ourselves to headings and subdivisions1 but rather to roam at large through this enormous sphere4 ,goya1 of whom we spoke in a preceding chapter1 belongs here by right1 and with ,fortuny forms the ,spanish contingent in the new awakening of the graphic arts4 ,in ,england there lived1 about the turn of the century1 a visionary poet and great artist1 ,william ,blake1 who fluently expressed himself in strangely fascinating compositions of religious or fantastic import1 doubtless familiar to us all4 ,our concern is not with ,blake's drawings1 in which he adds the charm of exquisite color to his command of expressive form4 ,a plate taken from his remarkable series of illustrations to the ,book of ,job1 shows his powerful1 poetic conception of the beginning of life1 when the world was young and the morning stars sang together4 ,in a totally different way1 illustrative of another phase of this same new awakening1 the work of ,daniel ,chodowiecki shows a man concerned with the world which surrounds him4 ,we see him here1 at work in the midst of his family1 on his little illustrations which went forth in their hundreds to embellish the bountiful stream of ,german literature4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,home ,,of ,a ,,painter ,daniel ,chodowiecki ,goya's vivid1 realistic allegories1 ,blake's fantastic1 powerful conceptions1 ,chodowiecki's living portrayal of the world of his day1 no longer follow the beaten track of imitative work1--all these activities point to a new phase in art4 ,all this seems a reaction1 a protest against the mental attitude1 the set standards and ideals of the eighteenth century4 ,the vignette1 so gay and graceful in the hands of ,eisen1 ,gravelot1 or ,moreau1 had lost much of its esprit in the heavier1 more sober style of the ,empire4 ,the classical engraver was still in power1 on the ,continent as well as in ,england1 where ,boydell issued1 in #ahjc1 his monumental series of illustrations to ,shakespeare's plays in large folio plates4 ,on the other hand1 ,constable had broken away from the accepted standards of landscape composition2 he painted his native countryside as he saw it4 ,england frowned upon him for this heresy1 but his art was joyfully acclaimed in ,france4 ,there arises everywhere a buoyant1 youthful spirit1 conscious of infinite possibilities1 filled with unbounded aspirations4 ,the leaders in the movement emancipate themselves from the sterile cult of precedent2 they blaze new trails into the vast unknown1 in their search for truth4 ,kant's philosophy1 ,darwin's theory of evolution1 sufficiently denote the trend of the times2 in literature1 this is the period of ,byron1 ,scott1 ,wordsworth1 of ,manzoni1 of ,goethe1 of ,nodier1 ,balzac1 ,victor ,hugo4 ,barrye carries realism into his sculpture and such men as ,delacroix1 ,decamps1 and ,clestin ,nanteuil carry romanticism into ,french painting and ,french prints4 ,men1 these1 whose imaginative souls rebel against petrified classicism and formal1 abstract beauty1 and this protest of the young and ardent against the tyranny of the 8old and accepted order of things0 has been heard ever since1--sometimes the voice of coteries1 sometimes that of individuals3 ,constable's1 for instance1 which helped ,france in its remarkable awakening4 ,his simple creed was faithfully transposed in terms of mezzotint by ,david ,lucas4 ,unfortunately these effective landscape mezzotints are so fleeting in their delicate effects that they can be appreciated only in engraver's proofs4 ,the relative position of ,constable and ,turner1 in ,english landscape1 has been1 not inaptly1 compared with that of ,van ,dyck and ,rubens in ,flemish art4 ,certainly ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner was a sun in the ,english firmament1 the painter of imposing canvases and water-colors of haunting loveliness2 the leader likewise in a stupendous development of landscape engraving revealed in series like his 8,england and ,wales0 and his vignettes for 8,roger's ,italy0 among others of equal fame4 ,supreme among his prints stands a set known as 8,liber ,studiorum10 undertaken in rivalry with ,claude ,lorrain1 whose memoranda sketches of pictures painted constitute the 8,liber ,veritatis10 engraved subsequently in ,england by ,earlom4 ,in his 8,liber0#e ,turner proceeds to display his art in all its versatility1 engraving some of the plates himself and closely supervising the mezzotinting of the others4 ,this 8,inverary ,pier10 his own throughout1 is a glorious vision of morning on the shores of ,loch ,fyne4 ,the night mists are clearing in the sunlight2 a luminous haze still trails along between the hills1 beyond the quiet water4 ,the scene suggests unbounded space and calm1 peaceful beauty4 ,another plate1 8sacus and ,hesperie10 carries us into the depth of the woods4 ,the figures are mere accessories3 what we potently feel is the fragrant shade1 emphasized by a slanting shaft of sunlight1 which gleams on soil1 branch1 and leaf1 and builds a pathway of light amidst the luminous shadows4 #e ,a series of one hundred plates1 seventy-one of which were published by the artist1 then discontinued1 because financially unsuccessful4 ,illustration3 ,,inverary ,,pier ,from 8,liber ,studiorum40 ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner ,illustration3 ,,sacus ,,and ,,hesperie ,from 8,liber ,studiorum40 ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the early nineteenth century two new processes demand recognition3 wood-engraving and lithography4 ,the former1 reviewed in the preceding chapter with reference to its development in ,america1 speedily gained in technical perfection at the hands of ,english engravers4 ,it spread far and wide in ,europe1 adapting itself to the charming illustrations of ,ludwig ,richter and doing full justice to the expressive1 accurate line of ,adolph von ,menzel's pen-and-ink work4 ,light and vivacious in the vignettes of ,tony ,johannot1 ,gigoux1 ,clestin ,nanteuil1 it grows somber in ,dor's designs for the ,bible and for ,dante's 8,divina ,commedia40 ,illustration3 ,,christ ,,disputing ,,with ,,the ,,doctors ,adolph von ,menzel ,shortly after the advent of wood-engraving1 lithography appears1 and offers the tempting inducement of utmost technical simplicity to the artist4 ,the drawing is made on the stone or on transfer paper with lithographic ink or crayon2 the transferring and preparation of the stone 7or metal plate7 with acid1 gum1 and water is left to the printer4 ,no wonder that the process found wide favor and that it was put to a great variety of uses3 innumerable portraits1 endless series of views1 costume plates1 music titles1 reproductions of pictures4 ,in the hands of artists the process proves its merit by such prints as 8,christ ,disputing with the ,doctors10 by ,adolph von ,menzel1 that untiring pioneer of realism in ,germany4 ,the scene with its masterly characterization is astonishing in the play of expression on each face and figure4 ,in ,france both processes burst into profuse bloom with the awakening of romanticism4 ,the thirties and forties bring a wealth of notable lithographic productions1 the work of ,delacroix1 ,isabey1 ,gricault1 ,decamps1 ,diaz1 and a host of other artists4 ,gavarni uses this easy medium to portray in thousands of sketches the life of all ,paris4 ,daumier portrays the frailties of humanity in his cartoons for 8,charivari0 and 8,la ,caricature10 or else wields his crayon as a formidable political weapon2 in the print selected for illustration he shows us ,louis ,philippe at the death-bed of a political offender 8who can now be released1 being no longer dangerous40 ,illustration3 ,,cartoon ,,on ,,louis ,,philippe ,honor ,daumier ,the fortunes of ,france1 fraught with conquest under the first ,napoleon1 sink to humdrum levels with the ,restoration4 ,for years all recollection of the ,emperor and his ,grande ,arme is embittered by the final disaster4 ,but passing years restore the luster of former great exploits1 and gradually these become a favorite subject for illustration4 ,the field is well covered by ,charlet's military scenes1 though none of these approach the grandeur and skill displayed by ,auguste ,raffet4 ,in his 8,midnight ,review0 we see innumerable hosts of shades1 passing in review before the phantom emperor on his white charger2 an immense concourse insensibly merging into the mists of night4 ,in the forties there is a welcome revival of etching1 ,charles ,jacque being one of the pioneers1 skillful alike in his handling of acid and dry-point4 ,his theme is the peasant's life1 his setting the wooded1 undulating region about ,barbizon3 broad1 sunny fields1 thriving farms1 pastures with cattle1 sheep1 and pigs1 for which he shows an especial predilection4 ,the peasant1 here1 is no longer the joyous1 carousing1 merry being of ,ostade's fancy4 ,in the plates of ,millet and ,jacque we see him at his daily labors and the woman at her household tasks1 as in the 8,woman ,churning10 by ,jean ,franois ,millet1 drawn in sober1 telling lines1 and evoking by some subtle magic a sense not only of the scene before us1 but of her surroundings and her whole labor-laden life4 ,illustration3 ,,midnight ,,review ,auguste ,raffet ,illustration3 ,,woman ,,churning ,j4 ,f4 ,millet ,we must pass with a mention even such masters as ,corot and ,daubigny1 both of whom have left us spirited examples1 in etching1 of their masterly interpretation of nature4 ,the period we now reach brings a flood of etching1 and it is but natural that the sketchy freedom1 the suggestiveness sought by this new school1 should conflict with the set1 time-honored traditions of engraving4 ,that serious old gentleman--,engraving--did not approve of the rollicking youngster who knocked at the gates of the ,academy and the ,institut for admission4 ,the battle1 after all1 was not so much a quarrel between etching and engraving2 rather a contest between formula versus original thought4 ,both in ,england and ,france the same conflict arose1 the etchers calling the other side mechanical1 petrified2 the engravers retorting that etching1 8even in the hands of ,rembrandt1 is uncertain1 blundering40 ,this dictum of ,ruskin and the fiery rejoinder by ,sir ,seymour ,haden are matters of history4 ,our illustration1 the dry-point 8,sunset in ,ireland10 will sufficiently show that the president of the ,painter-,etchers' ,society was as apt with the etching-point as he was formidable in debate4 ,the painter-etcher is an originating artist1 but the success of his creations on the copper depends a good deal on the skill of the printer1 who can1 by differences of inking1 wiping1 pressure1 and heat make an impression hard or soft in effect1 rich and dark or pale and silvery at wish4 ,to a man of ,james ,mc,neill ,whistler's exquisite sensibilities and refined taste this thought of dependence on another for his subtle effects of light and tone could not but prove unendurable4 ,therefore he installed a press at his home and did his own printing of choice impressions1 realizing in these1 to the fullest extent1 the possibilities of effectiveness and beauty which we admire in his etchings4 ,art has been defined as a selection from the truth1 and1 indeed1 the elimination of unimportant detail and the accenting of the essentials make for the great charm in ,whistler's etchings as well as in his numerous lithographs4 ,from this versatile genius1 delightful in his rendering of the human figure and likeness1 who evokes with equal facility the shimmering vistas of ,venetian lagoons or the quaintness of an old ,french street1 who can fascinate with a fleeting glimpse of a fish-shop1 or make a lovely vision of a foggy reach of the ,thames1 we must now turn to one who has forever fixed in his plates a truthful yet ideal likeness of old ,paris4 8,le ,petit ,pont0 by ,charles ,meryon is a characteristic plate with heavy shadows1 fine feeling for structural essentials1 endless modifications of light1 and with ,notre ,dame made duly impressive by lifting it high above the nearer buildings4 ,every plate has a character of its own1 with here and there a weird reminder of the artist's ultimate mental doom4 ,only a poet could have conceived a plate like the 8,stryge10 that evil figure on ,notre ,dame1 surveying the vast field of his conquests4 ,illustration3 ,,sunset ,,in ,,ireland ,sir ,seymour ,haden ,illustration3 ,,the ,,doorway4 ,,venice ,james ,mc,neill ,whistler ,illustration3 ,,le ,,petit ,,pont ,charles ,meryon 99 99 99 99 99 ,as we survey the reproductive processes1 they are drawn1 one and all1 into the current of new1 original expression4 ,innovators appear even in the conservative camp of engraving2 ,ferdinand ,gaillard1 for instance1 an engraver1 in that he uses the graver1 though he uses it in a manner to him particular1 expressive of minutest detail4 8,my aim10 he says1 8is not to charm but to be truthful4 ,my art consists in saying all40 ,and he expresses 8all0 in this wonderful portrait of ,dom ,prosper ,guranger4 ,no detail has escaped him in his scrutiny of this strong1 bright face with its searching1 clear eyes4 ,a counterpart of ,gaillard--a painter-engraver similarly minute and precise with his burin--is ,stauffer-,bern1 a ,swiss of ,german training4 ,illustration3 ,,dom ,,prosper ,,gu,,ranger ,ferdinand ,gaillard ,illustration3 ,,girl ,,bathing ,anders ,zorn ,illustration3 ,,expulsion ,,from ,,paradise ,from 8,eva und die ,zukunft40 ,max ,klinger ,now1 if we compare a print of the early times with the technical creations of our present day1 we cannot but realize the increased demands made upon the artist4 ,the phenomena of light must be ever studied anew1 in the endeavor to attain new1 effective1 convincing ways of expression--not merely of color and form as heretofore1 but of atmosphere1 of light1 of vibrating1 living1 ,i had almost said 8moving10 nature4 ,hence impressionism2 hence1 also1 daring experiments like this girl bathing1 by ,anders ,zorn1 the ,swedish painter-etcher4 ,here is a distinct outdoor feeling2 the breeze and sun1 the modeling of rock1 and the softly rounded nude body against its hard face4 ,everything is done with long1 slashing strokes1 with hardly any definite outline2 a wonderful display of skill4 ,another illustration1 the 8,expulsion from ,paradise10 by that ,german master of many arts1 ,max ,klinger1 shows us an effect of most intense expression of light in the glaring foreground1 where a merciless sun beats down on the first couple3 a world all the more arid by contrast with the cool1 shady woodland behind the huge1 guarded gateway4 ,the nearer we approach to the present day1 the more difficult1 even painful1 becomes the work of selection2 painful because of the many gems barred from inclusion by the necessary restriction of space4 ,a longer review1 including men like ,lalanne1 ,legros1 ,lepre1 ,schmutzer1 ,gevger1 ,munch1 ,liebermann1 ,bone1 ,cameron1 ,bauer1 would needs have to include many others1 and disproportionately swell this closing chapter4 ,if the few prints mentioned--a very few picked from a field immensely rich--should awaken in the reader a desire for further exploration in this world of prints1 the purpose of these pages will have been achieved4 ,,the ,,end ,,books ,,recommended ,,for ,,study ,,of ,,prints ,to those bent on further inquiry into the subject of prints1 two books of prime importance can be most warmly recommended1 namely3-- ,hind1 ,arthur ,m4 ,a ,short ,history of ,engraving and etching1 with full bibliography1 classified list and index of engravers4 ,boston1 ,houghton ,mifflin ,co41 #aijh4 7,an excellent1 comprehensive book1 with exhaustive lists and indexes1 dealing with intaglio prints up to the present day47 ,kristeller1 ,paul4 ,kupferstich und ,holzschnitt in vier ,jahrhunderten4 ,berlin1 ,bruno ,cassirer1 #aije4 7,a masterly review of the whole field of prints1 including woodcuts1 but unfortunately exclusive of the nineteenth century4 ,this also contains an extensive bibliography47 ,the careful perusal of either book will provide a good foundation1 and the excellent lists of books at the end of each of them will safely guide the reader in his subsequent studies4 ,the ,riverside ,press ,,cambridge4 ,,massachusetts ,u4,s4,a 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in the original book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 unpaired quotation marks were remedied when the change was obvious1 and otherwise left unpaired4 ,illustrations in this e,book have been positioned between paragraphs and outside quotations4