,,how ,,to ,,live ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,hygiene ,,for ,,use ,,in ,,the ,,schools ,,of ,,the ,,philippine ,,islands ,,by ,,adeline ,,knapp ,,author ,,of 8,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,philippines0 ,,illustrated ,illustration ,,silver1 ,,burdett ,,and ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,boston ,,chicago ,,copyright1 #aijb1 ,,by ,,silver1 ,,burdett ,,and ,,company ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,human ,,body #g ,,ii4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,water #ai ,,iii4 ,,about ,,food #cj ,,iv4 ,,all ,,around ,,the ,,house #dd ,v4 ,,our ,,own ,,selves #fc ,,vi4 ,,public ,,hygiene #ha ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,,the ,,skull1 ,,chest1 ,,and ,,abdomen #h ,,the ,,circulation #aa ,,the ,,wrong ,,way ,,to ,,carry ,a ,,baby #af ,,governor-,,general ,,carriedo #ai ,,pumping ,,station1 ,,manila ,,waterworks #bj ,,the ,,wrong ,,place ,,for ,a ,,well #bc ,a ,,badly ,,arranged ,,market #ca ,a ,,market ,,as ,,it ,,should ,,be #cf ,,an ,,unhealthful ,,street #df ,,clothes ,,drying ,,on ,,the ,,ground #ei ,,the ,,best ,,way ,,to ,,dry ,,clothes #fj ,,the ,,skin ,,magnified #ff ,,the ,,ear #gg ,,gate ,,covered ,,with ,,unhealthful ,,mold #hd ,,how ,,to ,,live4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,human ,,body4 ,in ,america1 where they make the best locomotive engines in the world1 they say that the life of an engine is about twenty years4 ,that is1 when they build an engine1 they know about how much work it will have to do and what usage it is likely to have4 ,they know that the engine is strong enough to do such work and stand such usage for twenty years4 ,so they say that the length of the engine's life is twenty years4 ,now1 a man's body is1 in its way1 a machine4 ,it is made to do certain work1 and if it has the right sort of care1 it ought to be healthy and do the work required of it1 to the end of the man's life4 ,it is estimated that the natural life of a man is seventy years4 ,this little book is intended to tell us how to live and something about caring for our bodies so that they shall last as long as possible1 and be ready and able to do their work in the world4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,skull1 ,,chest1 ,,and ,,abdomen4 ,in a general way1 we may compare the human body to three closed boxes1 one above another4 ,these boxes are the skull1 the chest1 and the abdomen4 ,each one has its own special contents1 formed to do a special work for the body4 ,the skull is a hard1 bony case made to contain the brain4 ,this is where the mind lives1 and it is part of the work of the mind to take care of the body and direct its movements4 ,the brain maintains a sort of telegraph station within itself4 ,wires1 which we call nerves1 branch out from it to all parts of the body1 and the brain is constantly receiving messages over these wires and sending others telling the muscles what to do4 ,for instance1 if the hand comes in contact with something hot1 a message instantly goes to the brain1 telling this fact4 ,the brain sends back word to take the hand away1 and the hand is withdrawn4 ,but all this is done so quickly that the hand seems to be withdrawn the very instant that it comes in contact with the fire4 ,the skull is supported by the backbone1 which connects it with the second closed box4 ,this second cavity is the chest1 which is really a sort of cage formed by the ribs1 the backbone1 and the breastbone4 ,in the chest are the heart and the lungs4 ,the heart is an engine4 ,put your hand over it and you can feel the steady throb of its beat1 day and night4 ,it is working all the time1 whether you are awake or asleep4 ,the business of the heart is to send blood to all parts of the body4 ,it does this by driving the blood through tubes1 called arteries and veins1 that go all over the body4 ,the arteries are deep down among the muscles1 but some of the veins are close to the surface4 ,we can see blue veins at the temples and on the backs of our hands4 ,all the blood goes to every part of the body once in two minutes4 ,the food which a person eats is acted upon by the digestive fluids in the body and is turned over and dissolved until it becomes fluid itself4 ,it is then taken up by the blood and carried to different parts of the body1 so that each organ and muscle gets what it needs4 ,we shall learn1 a little later1 just how the food gets into the blood4 ,we have seen that the heart sends the blood out through vessels1 which are called arteries4 ,this blood starts from the heart bright red1 full of fresh air and food for the body4 ,as it goes on its journey1 each tissue takes from it what is needed to keep that part healthy1 and at last the blood has given out all the good things with which it was loaded4 ,it no longer carries food and fresh air1 but is full of the impurities taken in on its journey4 ,if something were not done to cleanse it1 the man would die4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,circulation ,,of ,,the ,,blood4 ,the blood is forced by the heart through the arteries 7black lines71 and returns to it through the veins 7dotted lines74 ,the impure blood flows from the arteries into the veins through tiny canals4 ,the veins are tubes something like the arteries1 and they usually lie beside the arteries4 ,they and the arteries are like the two tracks of a great railway line1 one going from the main station1 the heart1 the other coming back4 ,but the blood in the veins is not like that in the arteries4 ,instead of being bright red1 and healthy-looking1 it is dark colored4 ,it flows more slowly1 and it is full of impurities which it is carrying away from the body4 ,the veins carry this blood to the right side of the heart1 and the heart sends it to the lungs4 ,there are many blood vessels in the lungs1 and they are divided into branches running in every direction through the lung tissue4 ,when we draw in a deep breath1 we fill the lungs with fresh air4 ,this is at once taken up by the impure blood in the branching blood vessels4 ,the impurities are breathed out with the air that leaves our lungs1 and the blood once more becomes bright red and full of new life4 ,in this way the blood is purified4 ,then it is sent back to the heart1 all ready to start out again through the body4 ,the whole journey is made every two minutes4 ,the third box1 which we call the abdominal cavity1 is separated from the chest by a broad1 thin muscle1 the diaphragm4 ,the abdomen has a hard floor of bone1 but the walls are soft1 being made up only of the muscles and the lower ribs4 ,in the abdomen are the stomach and intestines1 the liver1 kidneys1 and other organs of which we shall learn later4 ,food is carried from the mouth to the stomach by the muscular tube which passes through the chest just back of the breastbone4 ,this tube is called the esophagus4 ,with the mouth1 the stomach1 and the bowels1 it forms what is called the food canal4 ,as soon as the food enters the mouth1 it begins to turn from solid into liquid form1 so that the blood can take it up4 ,we chew the food1 so that it may become mixed with the saliva in the mouth2 then it is swallowed and goes into the stomach4 ,this is a kind of sack which holds about a quart4 ,just as saliva is secreted in the mouth and acts upon the food1 so in the stomach there is a fluid called the gastric juice1 which aids digestion4 ,the gastric juice mixes with the food1 dissolves it1 and makes it soft1 so that it can pass through the lower opening of the stomach into the intestines4 ,here there are other juices which dissolve still more of the food1 until at last it is all liquid and looks like milk4 ,now it is taken up by the blood through tiny canals that reach down into the intestines and absorb it4 ,but it is not really a part of the blood yet4 ,it must be changed still further1 so the blood carries it to the liver4 ,here it is made a part of the blood1 and is able to nourish all parts of the body4 ,all the food that cannot be dissolved is indigestible1 and the body must get rid of it4 ,some of it passes off as solid matter1 by way of the bowels2 some is got rid of through the urine2 some goes out with the breath1 as we have seen2 and a great deal goes off in the perspiration4 ,this is why we need to bathe our bodies and to wash our clothing4 ,the perspiration brings the bad matter to the surface1 where it clings to the skin and the clothing until it is removed by washing4 ,but this series of boxes1 which we call the head and trunk of the body1 would be very helpless without the legs and arms to carry them about and to wait upon them4 ,taken all together1 the head1 trunk1 and limbs form the body4 ,the framework1 which we call the skeleton1 is made up of bones4 ,these bones are like the framework of a house1--they keep the body upright and support the muscles4 ,in young people the bones are soft and elastic4 ,a baby often has falls that would break the bones of a grown person1 but the baby's bones are not broken because they are not yet hardened4 ,this is an advantage1 for children get a great many more falls than grown people do1 and it would be hard for them if the bones were broken as easily4 ,but if children's bones do not break1 they bend1 and it is easy for them to grow into bad shape4 ,if children do not sit up straight they become round-shouldered1 and many children get into the habit of carrying one shoulder higher than the other4 ,often1 too1 they are careless about walking and sitting properly4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wrong ,,way ,,to ,,carry ,a ,,baby4 ,in this country1 where nearly all weights are carried on the head1 we rarely see a man who does not carry his head and shoulders well4 ,he learns in childhood to keep his shoulders even and to hold his head up4 ,but there is one custom of the country which prevents the people from walking well4 ,this is the practice of carrying little children on the hip4 ,it is bad for the children1 as it strains the muscles of the lower part of the back1 and bends the soft little bones so that they do not grow straight as they naturally would4 ,it is bad1 too1 for the person who carries the child4 ,the body is thrown to one side1 the weight of the child presses the soft organs of the abdomen downward1 and the effect is often serious4 ,it is very bad indeed for one child to carry another this way4 ,babies should be carried in the arms1 as ,european children are4 ,when we walk1 we should let the weight of the body rest on the soles of the feet4 ,we should lift the foot free from the ground and carry it straight forward when we step4 ,some day1 if you will study the difference between the walk of a good horse and that of a carabao1 you will see how a man should walk4 ,the horse lifts his hind foot1 carries it straight forward1 and sets it down almost exactly in the print his front foot made4 ,the carabao lifts his hind foot1 swings it outward in an awkward curve1 brings it back into line1 and sets it down in much the same way as the horse4 ,but he loses a little time swinging it outward1 and he looks very clumsy1 as well4 ,now1 some people1 instead of walking like horses1 walk like carabaos4 ,they scuffle along the street with dragging steps1 rolling their hips1 and swinging their feet outward1 just as these animals do4 ,they look lazy and clumsy1 and as if they could hardly hold their bodies together4 ,people should learn to walk well while they are young4 ,the bones are covered with muscles1 which are what we mean when we say the flesh4 ,there are a great many muscles in the body4 ,they give it shape and move it about4 ,when we bend an arm or a finger1 we do it by the action of the muscles4 ,the brain tells the muscles how to act1 as we have seen4 ,it sends messages along the nerves1 and the muscles obey4 ,we can make our muscles strong by exercise1 but if we do not use them enough1 they will grow weak and soft4 ,,questions4 ,how does the brain send messages to the different parts of the body8 ,what does the heart do8 ,what does the blood take up from the body8 ,how does it get rid of impurities8 ,what becomes of food after it is swallowed8 ,how are the bones of a child different from those of a grown person8 ,how does it hurt the bones to sit or stand badly8 ,why should we sit up straight8 ,how ought babies to be carried8 ,why is it hurtful to carry them on the hip8 ,what do we call the muscles8 ,what are their uses8 ,how can we make our muscles strong8 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,water4 ,illustration3 ,,governor-,,general ,,carrideo ,who gave ,manila her waterworks4 ,many years ago there was a wise governor-general in the ,philippine ,islands1 who left a large sum of money to the city of ,manila4 ,this money was to be put out at interest and allowed to increase1 and in his will the governor-general directed that when there should be a large enough sum1 it should be used to build waterworks for the city of ,manila4 ,illustration3 ,,pumping ,,station1 ,,manila ,,waterworks4 ,the waterworks were not built until a hundred years after the governor-general died4 ,in #ahgb another wise governor-general came to the islands1 and learning of this money which had been left1 he at once set to work to provide the city with a water supply4 ,this was one of the best things that ever happened to ,manila4 ,in the tropics nothing is more important than pure water4 ,there is a great deal of water in the body4 ,in fact1 three fourths of the body is made up of water4 ,it is in the blood1 in the muscles1 and in the bones4 ,there is even some water in the enamel of the teeth1 which is the hardest substance in the whole body4 ,the digestive juices1 the saliva1 and the different intestinal juices1 all help to dissolve some part of the food which we take4 ,to obtain this power to dissolve the food1 they depend upon water4 ,when a man is thirsty1 it seems to him that his throat is dry4 ,but dryness of the throat is only a sign by which the body makes known its need4 ,thirst is the cry of the fluids and tissues for water4 ,it means that some part of the body is suffering for the precious fluid4 ,if we look at a drop of water under a microscope1 which magnifies it many times1 we shall see in the water a great number of moving specks which are really little animals4 ,the animals are so small that thousands of them can live in a single drop of water as happily as they could in a whole ocean of room4 ,they are called germs4 ,some of them are wholesome3 they help to keep the water bright and sparkling and sweet1 and make it pleasant to the taste4 ,but some of them are very harmful3 they produce many kinds of disease1 most of which cause death4 ,it is because of these germs that people1 particularly in tropical countries1 have to be so careful about the water they drink4 ,the purest water that we have is clean rain water4 ,this is the vapor which rises from the earth and from the surface of the sea4 ,it ascends into the air until it strikes a current of cold air1 when it is turned into moisture and falls as rain4 ,we can catch the rain water in cisterns or other vessels2 and this water we may drink without boiling1 if we are careful to keep the cisterns clean4 ,the cistern1 to be perfectly sweet1 should be emptied and cleaned at least once every two weeks4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wrong ,,place ,,for ,a ,,well4 ,in this country nearly all the drinking water comes from wells4 ,well water may be very good1 but the chances are that it is full of impurities4 ,the water from the wells is rain water which has soaked into the earth and has collected in the well4 ,but the earth is always full of impurities4 ,it is like a great sponge through which the water flows1 and the water is pretty sure to take up some impurities as it sinks through the earth4 ,if a well is near an outhouse or stable1 or a place where cattle are kept1 the water that filters through this earth will carry with it germs from these places4 ,a well should always be on higher ground than any outbuildings4 ,it should be some distance from the house1 and no slops or anything emptied from the house should be put near it4 ,no drainage of any kind should run near it4 ,in the city of ,pittsburg1 in the ,united ,states1 some years ago1 there was an epidemic of typhoid fever4 ,many thousands of people died1 and at last the legislature of ,pennsylvania appointed a committee to investigate the cause of the epidemic4 ,this committee began to study the source of the city water supply4 ,they traced it far up the mountains1 many miles away1 until they found a certain little stream emptying into a large river which supplied the city4 ,living on the banks of this stream was a family where there was a case of typhoid fever4 ,the slops from the house had been thrown into the stream and had so poisoned the water that thousands of people in far-away ,pittsburg died of typhoid fever4 ,in ,manila there was once a great cholera epidemic1 during which more than thirty thousand ,filipinos in the city and province of ,manila died2 many ,spanish people died also4 ,during the worst of the epidemic the death rate was at least a thousand every day4 ,but only one ,englishman died1 and it is said that his death was due to his own carelessness in drinking impure water4 ,if everybody in the city had boiled and filtered the drinking water1 as the ,americans and the ,english did1 nearly all of these thirty thousand people would have escaped death4 ,what has been said of the impurities collected by water passing through the earth is especially true of the water which supplies ,manila4 ,the ground all about the city has been so long occupied by large numbers of people1 the drainage has been so poor and so many impurities have been cast out1 that the soil for a great distance around the city is a mass of decay4 ,to stir up the earth1 as when digging and laying pipes1 makes the men who do it feverish and often ill1 because of the gases rising from the soil4 ,we may judge from this how bad the water must be that drains through the earth and is collected in the wells of the city4 ,even the water in the ,carriedo water pipes cannot be said to be pure4 ,it comes from a river far from the city4 ,on the banks of this river are many native villages1 and the people throw all sorts of refuse into the stream4 ,they wash their clothes in it1 and bathe themselves1 their horses1 and their carabaos there4 ,for this reason the water should be purified before we drink it4 ,when the ,americans first came to ,manila the city was not kept as clean as it is now4 ,this is one reason why there were so many deaths in ,manila1 and because of the high death rate1 the ,americans at once set to work to clean the city4 ,to do this cost the lives of many ,american soldiers1 who died of fever caused by bad gases from the earth2 but since it was done1 the death rate in ,manila is less than it ever was before4 ,but even yet the death rate is greater than it would be1 if everybody would be careful about food and drink4 ,the greater number of those who die are little children4 ,indeed1 one third of all the deaths in ,manila are of children who die of a single complaint4 ,this is the terrible fits from which we so often see little babies suffering4 ,the fits are caused by trouble in the stomach and bowels1 arising from bad food and drink4 ,sometimes the little one dies because it is worn out by the pain it has suffered4 ,sometimes the brain is affected by the stomach trouble2 but the true cause of death in every such case is impure water or the wrong kind of food4 ,most of the trouble comes from the water which the children drink4 ,not even a grown person ought to drink water that has not been boiled4 ,it is not safe1 for the germs of many of the tropical diseases are found in the water4 ,all of these germs are killed by that degree of heat which we call the boiling point4 ,no less heat than this will kill them4 ,it is not enough merely to heat the water2 it must really boil for at least five minutes after it begins to bubble and simmer4 ,it ought then to be strained through a clean cloth and put at once into a banga or some other of the jars used to contain water4 ,the jar should be clean1 and should have a cover4 ,if it is hung in a draft of air1 the water will become cool enough to drink4 ,the jars used to hold water should be of ware that will 8sweat0 after the liquid has been in them for some time4 ,that is1 the outside should be covered with beads of moisture which have crept through the sides4 ,this sort of jar keeps the water cool and lets the air get to it4 ,water1 after it has been boiled1 is tasteless and flat1 and until it again takes up oxygen from the air1 it is not so pleasant to drink1 or so digestible as it was before boiling4 ,we have seen how important water is to life1 and we cannot have too high an idea of the importance of its being pure4 ,it is not enough that water looks clear and sparkling4 ,it may look like crystal and yet be full of poisonous germs4 ,the only way to be certain that it is pure is to boil it and then see that no further impurities get into it before it is used4 ,,questions4 ,what is thirst8 ,what is the proportion of water in the body8 ,what is the purest sort of water we have8 ,how does water become unfit for drinking8 ,how may it be purified and made fit to drink8 ,how should drinking water be kept8 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,about ,,food4 ,shall we go to market to-day8 ,let us go to one of the large new buildings that the government has put up in ,manila1 to be used as markets4 ,they are well fitted for this purpose4 ,they have cement floors1 which can be washed every day1 and clean1 well-built stalls1 where goods are sold4 ,the floor of a market should be washed often1 and every bit of waste matter should be carried off4 ,if this is not done faithfully1 the food sold there spoils and becomes unfit for use4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,badly ,,arranged ,,market4 ,what quantities of fruit6 ,it would take a long time to count all these bunches of bananas4 ,the mangoes are in season now1 and look very tempting4 ,it is not well to eat too many of them at the beginning of the season1 however1 and we should be sure that those which we do eat are ripe and sound4 ,unripe fruit is very hurtful1 and so is fruit which is too ripe1 which has begun to decay4 ,some of these bananas1 for instance1 are so black and so soft that no one should think of trying to eat them4 ,in some countries a merchant who tried to sell such fruit would soon find himself stopped from selling any fruit at all4 ,the law would not allow him to offer poison for sale1 and decayed fruit is poison4 ,we will buy some of these sound1 clean-looking bananas1 and a few oranges this morning4 ,we will choose oranges that are of a fine1 rich green1 not too hard1 but firm and of good weight4 ,oranges that feel light in the hand are dry and not wholesome4 ,here are radishes and lettuce1 for salad2 but if we buy these1 we must be sure that they are well washed in boiled water before we eat them4 ,there are little creatures1 so small that they cannot be seen without a strong microscope1 that live among the lettuce and other green leaves4 ,these tiny creatures are the cause of the worst form of dysentery4 ,all sorts of vegetables which we eat raw should be washed clean1 and it is of no use to wash them in unboiled water1 as the amba 7which is the little creature's name7 may be in that1 too4 ,we need camotes to-day1 and here are some fine ones4 ,we will not buy them1 however4 ,why8 ,do you not see that some one has been chewing betel nut1 and has spit close beside them1 and the camotes are all spattered with the red stain8 ,it is a terrible thing that not even our markets can be kept clean from this bad habit of so many people4 ,in some parts of the world the man who spit upon the sidewalk1 the floor of a car1 or in any public building would be arrested and taken to prison4 ,this may seem to some a hard punishment for what many people think is a small offense4 ,we know1 however1 that many diseases are caused by this practice1 and the man who willfully does anything which puts his fellows in danger from disease does as great wrong as he who endangers their lives in any other way4 ,many people have catarrh1 bronchitis1 and consumption2 all such diseases can be given to others in this way4 ,the air can become poisoned1 so that other people catch the disease4 ,people in older countries have learned that if sick persons are careless about spitting in public places1 they often endanger the lives of others2 so it is quite right to compel all to stop this bad habit and to punish them if they continue in it4 ,constant spitting is a bad habit in other ways4 ,the saliva is meant to help digest the food4 ,if one gets into the senseless habit of spitting all the time1 the saliva is wasted and the digestion hurt4 ,then1 too1 it is an uncleanly habit4 ,it makes floors and sidewalks filthy1 and people who have been well brought up always have a feeling of disgust when they see any one spit in public places4 ,if one must spit1 he should do so in private1 where no one need be disgusted by his act4 ,certainly no one who has regard for decency would ever spit upon the floor of a market4 ,we should make sure that all vegetables which we buy are fresh and in good condition4 ,food the least bit decayed should never be eaten4 ,it is very dangerous in this climate1 where people are more likely than in colder countries to have trouble of the stomach and bowels4 ,not even cooking will make decayed vegetables fit to eat4 ,the poison in them irritates the lining of the food canal and makes us sick4 ,besides1 there is very little nourishment in poor vegetables2 so that if they are eaten1 the blood gets thin and cannot feed the body4 ,now that we have fruit and salad1 we will buy some camotes and gabi1 and some squash1 here at this stall where everything seems so clean4 ,some tomatoes1 too1 but we will not buy any of the beans to-day2 they seem soft and flabby1 and we may be sure that they are not fresh4 ,meat8 ,yes1 by and by2 but we shall do better to get that elsewhere4 ,it is bad for meat to lie in the open air as it does here4 ,meat should be killed at least twenty-four hours before it is eaten1 and if it is kept so long1 it must be on ice4 ,otherwise1 it spoils in a very few hours4 ,meat should never be left where flies can light on it1 and you see that the meat here is covered with flies4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,market ,,as ,,it ,,should ,,be4 ,flies are great carriers of disease1 and often take germs from place to place on their feet4 ,some of these flies may have just left places where there is fever or cholera1 or smallpox1 and they can easily leave the germs of these diseases on the meat where they next alight4 ,so you see we should be very careful where we buy meat1 and what sort we buy4 ,there is plenty of poultry in the market to-day1--chickens1 ducks and pigeons1 all alive1 and dealers all anxious to sell4 ,if we buy a chicken1 we should get it home as carefully as we can1 and it should be allowed to rest and get over its fright before it is killed4 ,then it should be killed as quietly and quickly as possible1 as otherwise the meat will be feverish and bad for food4 ,it should be killed some hours before it is needed for food1 so that the flesh may cool4 ,to kill it just before cooking1 as is almost always done in this country1 is a very bad custom1 as flesh so killed is not wholesome4 ,here are the fish stalls2 and here are the fish1 most of them alive and flopping about4 ,fish caught in the river should not be bought unless they are alive2 fresh-water fish spoil so quickly that unless alive when bought1 they are not likely to be fit for food4 ,deep-sea fish may be bought dead1 and are safe to eat if the gills are bright red and the scales clean and shiny4 ,if the gills look dull and bluish1 we should never think of buying the fish2 for it has been out of the water too long4 ,crabs and other shellfish should always be bought alive1 unless they are already cooked and frozen1 as we see them in the cold storage house4 ,then they must be kept on ice until they are made ready for the table4 ,but under the very best circumstances shellfish should be sparingly used in this country1 as they are the cause of much trouble of the digestion4 ,we will buy some rice to-day1 but we must look at it carefully first4 ,good rice is clean and white4 ,it is free from mold1 and there should be no musty smell about it4 ,if it has any such smell1 we will not buy it1 for it is unfit for food4 ,it ought not to be fed1 even to the chickens4 ,moldy and dirty rice is a common cause of the disease called beri-beri1 which is so often fatal in tropical countries4 ,many people are not prudent about selecting and cooking their rice4 ,they are careless and often buy musty rice1 nor do they cook it long enough4 ,they eat it half cooked1 and many people like it a little burned4 ,prepared this way the rice is hard to digest1 and is irritating to the system and to the food canal4 ,a grown man who is well and strong needs a certain amount of food every day1 to keep him in health4 ,the body requires water1 fat1 sugar1 and albumen1 and some mineral salts4 ,albumen is a substance rich in food for the body1 of which it makes up a large part4 ,the white of egg is almost pure albumen1 and therefore eggs are very good for food4 ,milk1 which is the only food very young babies should have1 contains all the things which the body needs1 and in just the right quantities4 ,it has water1 sugar1 fat1 albumen1 and some mineral matter4 ,meat has albumen and fat1 but no sugar1 and fish is similar to meat in this respect4 ,most of the sugar we take into the body we really eat in the form of starch1 but the saliva in the mouth turns the starch into sugar4 ,the secretions of the liver do this also4 ,rice is a starchy food4 ,it contains a great deal of starch1 and before we eat it1 it should be well cooked1 so that it is soft enough to be acted upon by the saliva and turned into sugar2 otherwise1 the liver has all this work to do4 ,corn1 potatoes1 meal1 bread1 are all starchy foods1 and we get with them nearly all of the mineral substances needed2 but to most of our food we need to add a little salt4 ,bananas and other fruits1 when they are ripe1 all have sugar1 and in this country people are fortunate in having the sugar cane to eat4 ,if one does not eat too much of this1 it is pleasant and wholesome1 and it is very good for the teeth2 it makes them white and keeps them healthy4 ,besides what he takes in with his solid food1 a man should drink three pints of water a day4 ,if he drinks tea or coffee he will get some water with these1 and so will not need so much1 but three pints of liquid are needed daily to keep the body well4 ,people in this country drink also the sap of the cocoanut tree and the water contained in the cocoanut itself4 ,these are both good and wholesome1 when fresh4 ,but if they are not fresh1 they can do much harm4 ,why this is we shall see in another chapter4 ,people who live in the tropics need less fat than those in colder countries4 ,away in the frozen north the ,esquimaux eat great quantities of fat meat and oil1 and even tallow1 from which candles are made4 ,they need much fat to keep them warm4 ,in the tropics1 on the other hand1 people should eat but little fat4 ,lean meat is good1 especially beef1 but pork raised here is very unwholesome4 ,the pigs themselves eat all manner of unclean things4 ,they are the natural scavengers of the country1 and the food which they eat makes their flesh unfit for us4 ,the flesh of the carabao is not so good as beef4 ,it gives really very little nourishment1 and is tough and dry4 ,the mutton which is grown in these islands is not so good as it might be if more pains were taken4 ,sheep ought to be shorn twice a year1 not only for the value of the wool1 but because it adds to the comfort of the sheep and makes the flesh better4 ,dry and salt meats are of little value here1 and they spoil quickly4 ,the fish of the ,philippine ,islands are rich in albumen1 which the body needs4 ,they should always be fresh1 as we have seen1 and should always be eaten hot4 ,even cooked fish1 after it has grown cold1 is not good for food4 ,it is likely to produce skin diseases and certain kinds of poisoning4 ,many of the shellfish cause this disease also1 particularly the crabs of these islands4 ,in fact1 shellfish should all be used sparingly1 as they are not easy to digest and are often the cause of diarrha and dysentery4 ,babies and very young children ought to be fed carefully in this country4 ,yet frequently we see tiny babies eating fish and meat1 and often raw vegetables and green fruit4 ,the stomachs of such little children are very small and weak4 ,their natural food is milk1 and if we give them anything else than this1 we should choose it very carefully4 ,it should be the best that we can get1 perfectly clean1 and easy to digest4 ,not until people are more careful about these matters will the children in the islands have a fair chance to grow up to healthy manhood and womanhood4 ,,questions4 ,why is fruit that is too ripe unfit to eat8 ,how do we select oranges that are fresh and good8 ,why should we be careful to wash all fruit and vegetables before we eat them8 ,why is spitting in public places a filthy habit8 ,how may it be dangerous to others8 ,why should meat not hang in the open air in tropical countries8 ,how do flies carry disease8 ,why is it injurious to eat meat that has just been killed8 ,why is it not a good plan to buy dead fish8 ,why are crabs and shellfish a poor sort of food8 ,what does good rice look like8 ,what kinds of rice should be avoided8 ,what sort of food and drink are best for the tropics8 ,how ought babies and young children to be fed8 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,all ,,around ,,the ,,house4 ,the ,english people have a saying3 8,every man's house is his castle40 ,in his own house a man ought to be safe1 if he is to be so anywhere1 and there he ought to feel sure that his family is safe4 ,with his strong right arm he will keep all enemies away2 will fight1 if need be1 for the safety of his castle4 ,it would be a very mean man who would not do this4 ,we should think even a child a coward who did not help to defend his home4 ,but while we defend the front door1 we must not let enemies creep in at the back4 ,now1 the deadliest enemy of human life in the tropics is dirt4 ,we have to fight hard against dirt of every sort4 ,let us see1 to-day1 about building a house and keeping our enemy out of it4 ,every country must have its own particular kind of a house4 ,the house suitable for a cold country would not do at all in the country where we are now4 ,we do not need walls built so as to keep out cold and winds4 ,we have no use for fires to fight off frost and chill4 ,but houses in countries where the winters are cold and snowy must have thick walls2 they must have carpets on the floors and heavy curtains at the windows4 ,there must be fires in the houses1 to keep people warm4 ,if the houses were not warm1 people would suffer from cold and many would die4 ,nevertheless1 while they do not need to be built for warmth1 our houses in the tropics ought to be as carefully built as are the homes in winter lands4 ,that they are not so built is one reason why so many little children die here1--many more than in ,america1 for instance4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,unhealthful ,,street4 ,without pavement or gutters4 ,first of all1 since we are to build a house1 we must have a good place for it4 ,we will not build on low land if we can help it4 ,neither will we build near standing water4 ,we see a great many houses upon land that is almost always wet1 but they are very unhealthful for the people who have to live in them4 ,if our house is to be a healthful place for us1 we must build it on firm land that is well drained4 ,some day the whole city of ,manila1 within the walls1 will have to be raised several feet higher than it is at present1 to get it far enough above the low1 unhealthful land it now stands on4 ,the streets must be made wider1 too1 so that the sun can shine upon the house walls4 ,the narrow streets are nearly always damp and unhealthful4 ,manila will never be a healthy place until these things are done4 ,but outside of the walls1 and in the country1 we can pick our plots and prepare our building sites4 ,the fine1 beautiful house and the little nipa cottage can be equal in one respect2 that is1 both can have clean1 healthful surroundings4 ,the living-rooms of houses in this country should never be close to the ground4 ,the land on which a house stands should be well drained and kept dry4 ,this1 however1 is not all that should be done to prepare a building spot4 ,in tropical countries bad gases rise from the earth at night1 and we should do what we can to prevent these from getting into the house4 ,the ground where the house is to stand should be dug down at least a foot and filled in with hard cement4 ,this will keep it dry and prevent the earth-gases from rising through the floors4 ,besides this foundation1 the house should have cement gutters running all around it1 to carry off surface water4 ,the foundation walls should rise from the cement bottom to a height of at least six feet4 ,the ground floor may be used as a place to store carriages1 furniture1 and other things of that sort2 but it is unsafe to keep horses or other animals there4 ,all the bad odors and gases from these rise1 making the living rooms above unhealthful4 ,the first floor of our house1--the floor on which we mean to live1 should be tightly built1 so as to keep out all drafts of air1 and to leave as few cracks as possible for insects to crawl through4 ,we shall get fresh air enough if we have large windows that open freely4 ,we are fortunate1 in this country1 in having the beautiful thin shells with which our window sashes are filled4 ,these are much better here than glass would be4 ,they shut out the bright rays of the sun1 while they can be pierced with tiny holes1 if need be1 to let in air when the window is closed4 ,heavy shutters with slats are also good4 ,if we have these in the house1 the windows may be open1 even at night1 or when it rains4 ,the roof of our house is a very important part4 ,most of the roofs in this country are of nipa or bamboo4 ,these make a good protection against the sun's rays1 but they need great care1 and should be often renewed1 as the wind tears them so that they become leaky4 ,they catch and hold the dust1 and are always hatching-places for all sorts of insects4 ,the roof of split bamboo is cheap1 beautiful1 and easy to make1 but it is also easily blown away by a high wind4 ,if we use it1 we must fasten it with wire to the rafters and walls4 ,wood makes a very bad roofing material4 ,it decays quickly and is a poor protection against the rain4 ,then1 too1 it can hardly be built so that a great wind will not blow it away4 ,many roofs are now built of zinc1 and for some reasons this is good material to make them of4 ,if we have a zinc roof1 however1 we must build a garret between it and the living rooms1--a sort of air chamber for the sake of coolness2 for when the sun beats down on the zinc roof1 the metal gets very hot4 ,this sort of roof is useful for catching rain water2 after the first rain has washed off all the dust and dirt1 then we may collect the rain water that falls from the roof into our cisterns1 and have a plentiful1 pure supply during the rainy season4 ,in early days roofs were covered with half-round red tiles4 ,we see a great many of them still on old houses1 but they are heavy1 and dangerous as well during the typhoons and earthquakes that sometimes visit us4 ,perhaps the best of all roofs for this climate are the ones covered with flat1 broad pieces of slate1 secured by wire or nails to boards and rafters underneath1 but roofs of this sort are expensive4 ,it will probably be best1 therefore1 for us to roof our house with zinc4 ,if we have an airy garret between it and the ceiling of the upper rooms1 it will be quite cool enough4 ,the rooms in our house will be very simple4 ,we shall not have any heavy1 stiff carpets on the floors1 to catch dust and breed disease4 ,nor shall there be moldings or ornamental ledges along the walls1 because these also catch and hold the dust4 ,our rooms shall be easy to keep clean4 ,what pictures and ornaments we have on the walls shall be such as can readily be reached and dusted4 ,a room so decorated that it cannot be kept free from dust and dirt cannot possibly be beautiful4 ,the kitchen of a house anywhere should be clean as can be1 but particularly in this country4 ,it should be on the north side of the house if possible1 for the sake of shade4 ,we will not1 however1 have trees growing very near it1 even to shade it4 ,they have a saying in the tropics that 8,he who grows a tree against his house invites death to his door40 ,this means that dampness and shade made by the trees growing too near the house breed disease and often bring death4 ,so we shall have no trees nearer our house than twenty feet4 ,nor shall any one be allowed to sleep in our kitchen4 ,it is a very unhealthful and uncleanly custom to let the servants sleep in the kitchen4 ,there should be no sleeping in a room where food is prepared4 ,by morning the air of a sleeping room is always charged with bad matter given off from the lungs of the sleepers4 ,sleeping rooms have a chance for ventilation during the day1 and all these vapors are replaced by pure air4 ,but there is no time in the morning to change the air of the kitchen4 ,the food must be prepared in the midst of all the bad gases that have gathered there during the night4 ,this brings us to think of what proper sleeping arrangements should be4 ,not enough attention is given to the subject in this country4 ,the nights are so hot that people are careless4 ,many grown people and nearly all children sleep on or close to the floor4 ,this custom is a great source of sickness4 ,if the floor is of bamboo1 the bad air from the earth rises through it at night4 ,there is always a draft across the floor1 from doors and from windows1 and from spaces in the floor itself4 ,when we are asleep the body is relaxed1 the pores of the skin are open1 and we are in every way less able to resist chills and the bad effects of impure air4 ,sleep is a condition of helplessness1 and we should protect ourselves in it4 ,a serious cause of disease1 which people are just beginning to understand1 is the mosquito4 ,we have only lately come to know that this insect is the direct cause of the malaria which is so common1 and so dangerous1 here4 ,malaria is a germ disease4 ,that is1 it is a disease caused by germs which get into the blood4 ,the germ of malaria is a parasite which lives on the body of the mosquito4 ,we can imagine how tiny it must be when we know that a great many of them find room to live on a single mosquito4 ,now1 when the mosquito lights on a person and bites him1 these germs often get into the little puncture which the insect makes to draw blood4 ,in this way they get into the blood of the human being1 and there they increase in numbers very fast4 ,they poison the blood1 the person becomes sick and weak1 suffers from headache and other pains1 and very often dies at last of malaria4 ,we may learn from these facts how important it is that mosquito nets should be used in this country4 ,even if a person sleeps upon the floor1 he should arrange some sort of protection from the mosquitoes4 ,every morning1 the floors of our house must be washed with water in which we have put a little kerosene oil2 one or two large spoonfuls of oil will be enough for a bucket of water4 ,we should see that the washing is carefully done4 ,this washing with kerosene will help to keep mosquitoes away4 ,it also tends to drive out ants and other small insects4 ,kerosene oil is cleansing1 and helps to kill many of the germs that breed in corners and cracks4 ,if it is poured upon standing water1 it will prevent mosquitoes from breeding there4 ,one ounce of kerosene will spread out over fifteen square feet of water1 and this fact is made use of in some countries in getting rid of mosquitoes4 ,it may be spread over the surface of the water in cisterns without imparting any taste to the water which is drawn from below for drinking purposes4 ,persons who have consumption ought never to sleep in the same room with others1 particularly with children4 ,consumption is catching4 ,the germs which cause it are breathed out by the victim1 and other people often inhale them and contract the disease4 ,a consumptive person should never spit on the floor1 and all discharges from the mouth should be disinfected4 ,there are two other places about a house in the tropics where our arch enemy1 dirt1 may hide and slay us1 if we are not on guard against it4 ,these are the sinks and the cesspools1 which receive waste from the bathroom1 toilet1 and such places4 ,no refuse matter ought to be thrown out about the house1 and no dirt should be allowed to gather on the ground floor or in the court4 ,we cannot be too careful about this2 for if dirt does gather in these places1 it is sure to breed disease4 ,decayed vegetables1 fruit1 and all leavings from the kitchen should be carried away and burned1 or buried1 or otherwise disposed of where they can do no harm4 ,even the water in which dishes are washed1 or in which we have bathed1 should not be poured out on the ground near the house4 ,it should be carried as far away as possible and emptied in some waste place4 ,there are few sewers in this country4 ,even those in ,manila are scarcely worthy of the name4 ,before long1 steps will have to be taken to have them in all cities in the archipelago2 for there is great need for them4 ,the fact that there are no good sewers makes the question of cleanliness about the house a grave one4 ,if waste from the toilets is carried into the cesspools1 there should be plenty of running water with it for flushing2 it should be carried in pipes to the cesspool1 and at least once a day the water-closet should be flushed with water in which there is some good disinfectant4 ,if1 as is so often the case1 the closet is merely an outhouse over a hole or vault dug in the earth1 at least five liters of a mixture of quicklime and dry earth should be put into the vault every day4 ,milk of lime is one of the best disinfectants for use in this country4 ,it is cheap1 and it not only disinfects waste matter1 but destroys bad odors4 ,it is powdered quicklime dissolved in water1 about one liter of quicklime to four liters of water4 ,another very cheap1 but reliable1 disinfectant is made by dissolving three drams of mercury bichloride with three drams of ammonium chloride in a bucket of water4 ,this mixture can always be kept in the house and a tabo or two of it thrown down the closet seat whenever the latter is used4 ,it must be kept where little children cannot meddle with it2 but a child need not be very old to be wise enough to use it when necessary and not to meddle with it4 ,children1 as well as grown people1 should feel in honor bound to take good care of the house and to fight against dirt and disease when these attack it4 ,the bathroom and water-closet of our house should be kept as clean as can be4 ,they should be swept and washed every day1 and no soiled clothing or towels should be allowed to lie about4 ,our enemies1 the mosquitoes1 are very fond of hiding about soiled clothing or that which has been worn and is not soiled enough to be sent to the laundry4 ,soiled garments should be washed as soon as possible after they are taken off4 ,right here lurks one of the greatest foes to health in this country4 ,people are too careless about the way their garments are washed4 ,the clothes often lie for several days in baskets or bags before going to the laundry or being washed4 ,this is bad1 as germs breed quickly among them4 ,it is harmful for clothes to be washed in pools or canals4 ,the water of standing pools or even of the canals in the city is1 more often than not1 full of disease germs4 ,illustration3 ,,clothes ,,drying ,,on ,,the ,,ground4 ,to make matters worse1 the clothes1 when washed1 are laid out on the grass to dry4 ,all sorts of tiny creeping things are here2 so that while the garments look white and clean1 they may be full of wriggling life from the water and from the ground1--creatures too small to be seen without a microscope1 yet the cause1 many times1 of the unpleasant skin diseases so common in this climate4 ,the laundry work of the family ought to be done at home1 and the clothes should be hung upon lines to dry4 ,in other countries clothes are boiled after first being washed with soap1 but this is not possible here2 probably it never will be possible4 ,yet clothes can be washed with soap and water and then leached1--that is1 rinsed in lye water4 ,wood ashes are easy to get1 and lye water--that is1 water in which the ashes have been soaked--will destroy all germs4 ,the clothes rinsed in it are as safe as those which have been boiled4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,best ,,way ,,to ,,dry ,,clothes4 ,attention to all of these things means work for men and women1 and for the boys and girls who wish to feel that their house is really their castle which they are defending against unseen foes4 ,these foes are harder to fight than those who come openly and slay with the sword4 ,they are more dangerous foes1 moreover2 for they are about us always1 and must be fought daily4 ,otherwise1 they will rob us of health1 of comfort1 of sight2 they will make us the victims of disease which is ugly to look upon and painful to bear4 ,they even take from us life itself1 unless we are constantly on guard to fight their great helper1 the dirt1 which gathers about any neglected spot4 ,,questions4 ,what sort of site should be chosen to build a home upon8 ,how should the foundation be prepared8 ,why is it unhealthful to live near the ground in the tropics8 ,why is it unwise to keep animals under the houses8 ,what is the best sort of roof in this country8 ,how should the kitchen be located8 ,why should no one be allowed to sleep in the kitchen8 ,why is it not healthful to sleep on the floor8 ,how should the body be protected during sleep8 ,how do mosquitoes cause malaria8 ,how does the use of kerosene oil keep them away8 ,why should consumptives never sleep in the room with healthy persons8 ,how should refuse matter be disposed of8 ,what are some of the best cheap disinfectants8 ,how should clothes be washed8 ,how should they be dried8 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,our ,,own ,,selves4 ,a human being is very wonderful4 ,even the smallest baby is entirely separate from all the rest of the world4 ,he is a part of the great whole1 but he has his own life and separate being1 just as much as the greatest man in the world4 ,if everybody in the world did just what was right excepting one man1 both that man and the rest of the world would suffer because of his doing wrong4 ,if all the rest of the world were healthy and clean and he was not1 the cleanliness and health of all the others would not save him from being dirty and unhealthy4 ,each one of us must do all that he can to help the rest of the world to be good and healthy and clean4 ,now1 the first and greatest thing that any one of us can do toward this1 is to do right and be healthy and clean himself4 ,the human being is not only very wonderful1 but he lives in a wonderful body4 ,this body can do much and endure much4 ,it is very perfectly adapted to its use4 ,if man had not his reason to help him2 if he did not walk upright when all other creatures crawl or go on all fours2 if he did not differ from the lower animals in any other way than by having a thumb on each hand1 he would still be superior to them4 ,all the other large creatures are stronger than man1 but his skillful hands1 with their thumbs1 make him master of them4 ,these help him to grasp and to hold1 to make things for his own use4 ,he makes clothing to wear1 houses to shelter himself1 and weapons with which to defend himself4 ,hundreds of years ago there lived a great doctor1 named ,galen4 ,he wrote one of the first books ever written about the human body1 and he has left it on record that he was obliged to believe that ,god lives2 for none but divine power could have made so wonderful a thing as the joint that turns the human hand at the wrist4 ,yet this joint is only one of the many wonderful things in the body4 ,now1 to each of us is intrusted one of these bodies to take care of1 that it may do our work for us4 ,our work is not just to live for ourselves1 but to do something useful in the world2 to help it all to be better because we are here4 ,so you see how very much worth while it is that we should keep these useful bodies of ours as well and strong as we can4 ,besides the outer garments in which we clothe it1 the body has a garment of its own4 ,this garment is never laid aside2 and though it is in constant use1 it never wears out4 ,we call it the skin4 ,the skin is meant to protect the body4 ,lying close under it are many nerve ends1 delicate blood vessels1 oil glands1 sweat glands1 and other tiny organs that are too small to be seen without a microscope1 but which are needed to keep the body in good order4 ,in the pictures which are shown on this page1 you will see how these tiny organs look when they are many times magnified4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,skin ,,magnified ,fig4 #a4 ,surface showing openings of pores4 ,fig4 #b4 ,side view of sweat glands and pores4 ,now1 like our outer clothing1 this garment of the body needs to be kept very clean4 ,you know that in this country when we take exercise1 or1 during the heat of the day1 even without our taking exercise1 the surface of the skin gets moist1 little drops of water stand on it1 and even run down our faces or make our hands wet4 ,we call this moisture perspiration1 and say that we are sweating or perspiring with the heat4 ,the drops of water come from openings in the skin1 which we call pores4 ,these are little tubes connecting with sweat glands below the skin4 ,you will see in the picture how these sweat glands look1 and how the pores come to the surface4 ,the perspiration is not pure1 clean water2 it contains many impurities which the lungs1 kidneys1 and other organs have not cast out from the body4 ,it is the work of the skin to help carry off these impurities1 and it does this by means of sweat glands and pores4 ,if the perspiration dries on the skin1 the impurities remain2 they stop up the pores and make the body unhealthy4 ,it is to prevent all this that we bathe often4 ,bathing keeps the pores of the skin open and the skin itself in a healthy condition4 ,we use soap because the skin secretes oil as well as perspiration4 ,this oil is to keep it soft and smooth1 but it is needful that the excess of it should be washed off with soap1 in order that the oil glands may not become clogged4 ,we should be very careful not to become chilled when in a perspiration4 ,we should not plunge into cold water at this time4 ,neglect of this rule often causes bowel trouble1 and is a great cause of the catarrh and bronchitis so common among the ,filipino people4 ,to keep it perfectly clean1 the body should be washed with soap once a day4 ,just before noon is the best time to bathe1 or else about four o'clock in the afternoon4 ,one should never bathe right after eating4 ,if one takes a sponge bath with water alone1 immediately on rising1 one feels better all day1 but1 in this climate1 the bath with soap is needed as well4 ,babies and very little children should be bathed with soap and water without being plunged into the bath4 ,they are delicate1 and unable to withstand the chill that might result4 ,chills are very dangerous1 and a person should be careful in the rainy season not to get drenched4 ,a person who has any kind of skin trouble should be very careful not to give it to any one else4 ,he owes it to all others to take pains about this4 ,if he does not1 he is not a good citizen4 ,he should be careful not to use the towels that any one else is likely to use1 and his soiled clothing1 when taken off1 should be disinfected before being sent to the laundry4 ,the custom of going barefoot is a dangerous one4 ,the sole of the foot is a very delicate surface2 a great many nerves and blood vessels center in the instep1 and any injury to these may produce the disease called lockjaw1 which usually results fatally4 ,even if nothing so serious as this happens1 the foot is often injured by bruising or by other hurts4 ,the feet are susceptible to chill1 especially in the rainy season1 when they should be kept dry and warm4 ,disease is often taken through the feet1 especially such diseases as the bubonic plague1 and the different kinds of itch which are known in the tropics4 ,aside from all these reasons why we should dress the feet1 it is an untidy practice to go barefoot4 ,the low shoes without fastenings1 into which so many ,filipinos thrust their feet1 give people who wear them an awkward1 shuffling walk4 ,a shoe which fits the foot well and is fastened upon it so that it does not flap at the heel is the only one that should be worn out-of-doors1 and no shoes should be worn without stockings4 ,every boy or girl who wants to be well must take exercise4 ,if we do not use our muscles1 they become weak and small4 ,the brain suffers as well4 ,when we exercise we not only strengthen our muscles1 but we set the blood in quicker circulation4 ,the heart must work faster2 the lungs must expand more2 the food digests better and the brain is clearer4 ,the best sort of exercise is useful work out-of-doors or about the house1 but boys and girls need to play as well as work4 ,all games that take them out-of-doors and make them move about actively are good for them4 ,many ,filipino boys and girls do one thing that is very hurtful2 that is1 they smoke4 ,the use of tobacco injures growing young people4 ,it stunts the growth1 so that even when grown they are small and weak4 ,boys who smoke do not grow so fast or so large as those who do not4 ,smoking injures the memory and makes people heavy and stupid2 it makes them less inclined to take exercise1 and so the muscles become weak2 it hurts the digestion and makes the stomach weak4 ,besides these things1 it induces the constant spitting so common in this country2 and we have seen how hurtful this waste of the saliva is4 ,chewing betel nut is even worse than smoking4 ,if all of the betel juice is not spit out1 some of it will be swallowed1 and this is very bad indeed1 as the betel acts like a poison on the system4 ,so the betel chewer must waste all the saliva that comes into his mouth while he is chewing the nut4 ,more than this1 he stains the sidewalks and floors with the filthy stuff1 and makes himself ugly to look at1 as well as offensive to cleanliness4 ,it is to be hoped that the boys and girls who study this book will never take up such a disgusting habit4 ,still another thing which is very bad for the health in this country is the use of alcohol4 ,alcohol is bad for the system2 it irritates the delicate lining of the food canal1 and hurts the liver and the kidneys4 ,we have said that tuba1 the juice from the cocoanut tree1 is good and refreshing to drink when just drawn from the tree2 but in a few hours after it is drawn changes begin to take place in it4 ,the greatest of these changes we call fermentation2 it is caused by tiny vegetable growths1 called ferments4 ,these are too small to be seen unless magnified1 but they float about in the air4 ,they get into the tuba1 and1 because there is something there which they like and thrive upon1 they grow and increase in numbers very fast4 ,they separate the sugar of the tuba into the parts that make up sugar1 and take from it the part which they like4 ,what is left forms two other things4 ,one is a poisonous gas1 called carbonic acid gas4 ,at one stage in the fermenting process1 there is a great deal of this carbonic acid gas in the tuba1 and that is what gives it its dreadful taste when it first begins to work or ferment4 ,the other thing found in the tuba is alcohol4 ,if this were not distilled1 the tuba would simply go on working until all the sugar was gone2 then it would be as sour as vinegar and disagreeable to drink4 ,but distillers heat it until it boils2 the alcohol rises and passes off into a vessel especially prepared to receive it1 and becomes the drink called bino4 ,this drink is really an active poison to most people4 ,if a man drinks much of it he becomes crazy1 his actions are dangerous to society1 and at last he has to be kept in confinement4 ,often he does terrible mischief under the influence of bino4 ,it is very fortunate for this country that ,filipinos know how dangerous it is to drink this stuff4 ,still1 there are some weak and foolish people who think that they can stand it1 and who drink it until they form a habit which holds them in bondage4 ,none of the alcohol made in this country is refined2 therefore it is full of impurities and very poisonous4 ,those who know the climate agree that the less alcohol of any sort one uses here1 the better4 ,those soldiers and others who let it quite alone are the ones who best withstand the bad effects of the tropics and keep well and strong4 ,alcohol weakens the brain sooner than it does any other part of the body4 ,a person cannot think clearly when he has had too much2 he cannot walk straight1 and often a man does things under its influence which he never would do if he had not been drinking it4 ,there are five different ways in which a person can tell something of what is going on around him4 ,he can see1 he can hear1 smell1 or touch some things1 and some he can also taste4 ,we call these five faculties of man the special senses4 ,each of these special senses has its own home in the body1 its own organ to do its work4 ,for instance1 the eyes see1 the ears hear1 the organs of taste are in the mouth1 those of the smell in the nose1 while the sense of touch is everywhere in the body where there are any nerves4 ,in this country the organs of the special senses need great care4 ,there are a great many blind people here1 who have become blind because they have not understood how to take care of the eyes4 ,the lids and the eyelashes are meant to protect the eyes and keep out dust1 to prevent insects1 etc41 from getting into them4 ,nature has taken wonderful pains to protect our eyes1 but we must do all we can to help her4 ,she has prepared a fluid which washes the balls1 but the outside of the eyes as well should be carefully washed once or twice a day1 and wiped dry4 ,we should be very particular to wipe them on a clean cloth4 ,we should never use a towel that is used by any one who has any trouble with the eyes or who has any skin disease4 ,the eyes should never be rubbed with the fingers4 ,when any foreign matters1 as specks of dust1 or cinders1 get into them1 we should go at once to some skillful physician to have them removed4 ,we should shade the eyes from the direct rays of the sun4 ,if we walk out in the middle of the day1 we should carry an umbrella or wear a broad hat4 ,we should not strain the eyes1 or use them when they are tired or when the light is bad4 ,alcohol is very bad for the eyes2 it makes them weak4 ,the eyes of a hard drinker become red and watery4 ,such a person may often become blind4 ,tobacco1 too1 causes dimness of sight1 and has been known to produce blindness4 ,strange as it may seem1 the ears are even more delicate than the eyes1 and more readily injured2 and when hurt1 there is less that science can do for them4 ,the outer ear only catches sound and turns it inward4 ,the parts of the ear that really hear are deep in the head1 where they can be well protected4 ,the little canal leading into the ear secretes wax1 which hinders insects from crawling in4 ,sometimes they do get in1 despite the wax4 ,in some parts of this country1 there are leeches that get into the ear4 ,when they do this they cause great pain and often produce deafness4 ,we should never try to pick or lift anything of this sort out of the ear4 ,the best way1 when anything alive gets into the ear1 is to pour in a little quantity of oil4 ,this nearly always causes the creature which has gotten in to back out1 in order to escape the oil4 ,if1 instead of coming out1 it is drowned1 it must be removed by some skillful physician4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,ear4 ,showing the drum and bones4 ,nothing should ever be inserted in the ear for the purpose of cleaning it except the little finger4 ,the ear should be washed very carefully with soap and water and dried thoroughly4 ,sometimes1 when swimming1 people get water into their ears4 ,they should shake it out at once1 or the ears may ache4 ,sometimes water that gets in this way causes inflammation and cold1 which hurt the sense of hearing4 ,no one should ever strike another on the ear1 even in play4 ,it is likely to cause deafness4 ,what is called the drum of the ear is a very delicate membrane which receives the sound4 ,this is what really hears1 and a blow on the side of the head may rupture this membrane and destroy the hearing4 ,the sense of smell is high up in the nose4 ,it is a very useful sense and warns us of danger4 ,we can often detect bad air by its odor4 ,we know whether food is good or whether it is spoiled1 by its smell4 ,we taste things with the tongue4 ,substances which do not dissolve in water have no taste4 ,even our food would have no taste if it were dry4 ,the saliva must dissolve it before we can taste it4 ,we can hurt the sense of taste by eating too fast1 or by seasoning our food too strongly with pepper and other hot spices4 ,chewing the betel nut helps to destroy the sense of taste1 and so does much use of alcohol4 ,we need the sense of taste to tell us whether food is good or bad4 ,food which has a pleasant taste is more easily digested than that which we do not like4 ,the sense of touch tells us whether things are hard or soft2 it tells us when we are hurt4 ,it does this by the feeling which we call pain4 ,if we did not feel pain when we were being injured1 we might be killed before we could know of our danger and protect ourselves from it4 ,so we see how true it is that our bodies are wonderful machines4 ,but they are something besides machines1--they are houses in which the soul dwells1 and as such they are worthy of great care and honor4 ,we must keep them clean4 ,it is our duty to feed them right and guard them from injury4 ,we should be careful1 too1 never to injure them ourselves by putting them to uses not clean and pure1 or by making them accustomed to things which are bad for them4 ,when we do any of these things1 we hurt the soul1 as well as the body1 and bring shame upon ourselves and sorrow to others4 ,,questions4 ,why should we try to keep our bodies well and strong8 ,what is perspiration8 ,why should we bathe often8 ,how should children be bathed8 ,when is the best time to bathe8 ,why is it imprudent to go barefoot in the tropics8 ,is smoking hurtful to boys and girls8 ,what does it do8 ,why is betel chewing injurious8 ,how does alcohol affect those who drink it to excess8 ,what is its effect on the mind8 ,on the eyes8 ,how do we tell what is going on about us8 ,what are the organs of the five senses8 ,how can we best take care of our eyes8 ,of our ears8 ,what tells us when we are hurt8 ,what is our duty toward our bodies8 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,public ,,hygiene4 ,one of the great questions in which governments in all countries are interested is how to keep down the death rate in great cities4 ,in olden times there were many plagues and epidemics4 ,these often destroyed thousands of lives4 ,people did not understand why the plagues came2 they used to think them punishments for sin1 or sent by some evil spirit out of hatred to humanity4 ,they did not know how to meet them or how to take care of those whom the plagues attacked1 and so whole cities were sometimes emptied by disease before which the science of those days was helpless4 ,but now we have come to know that all epidemics have natural causes4 ,an epidemic is always caused either by bad water or neglected sewers or poisonous gases arising from long-gathered filth4 ,in ,europe and in ,america every city has its system or systems of sewers1 its boards of public health and of street cleaning4 ,great care is taken1 and enormous sums of money are spent1 to keep the cities clean1 that the people may be as healthy as possible4 ,manila1 the capital city of the ,philippines1 is one of the largest cities on the ,asiatic coast4 ,it has been1 in the past1 in very bad condition because of filth4 ,one of the first things the ,americans began to do when they came here was to try to make the city clean1 so that it would be more healthful4 ,this was a very difficult thing to do1 because of the dirt which had been allowed to gather during many years4 ,it was also difficult because of the way in which the city of ,manila is built4 ,the ground is low and marshy4 ,two feet below the surface of the earth under the city1 water is found almost everywhere4 ,this keeps the earth damp4 ,those who built houses in the past knew this1 so they laid cement floors in the basements of their buildings4 ,but the cement floors were not made as they should have been4 ,instead of digging down into the earth and filling in the excavation1 builders spread the cement on the surface of the ground and then built their walls around this platform4 ,the cement which has been used here is not the best for such a country as this4 ,it is what is called ,roman cement1 very porous1 and not hard and solid1 as is the ,portland cement in use in ,america4 ,the walls of the houses1 as well as the ground floors1 were very often of this cement4 ,if you take a lamp wick and hold one end of it in oil1 before long not only that end but the whole wick is wet with the oil4 ,this is because the porous fibers of the wick have soaked up the oil4 ,now1 these porous walls of the houses in ,manila take up the moisture from the earth1 so that many of them are completely soaked with water4 ,when this is the case1 mold begins to grow on the walls4 ,it is not unusual to see walls quite overgrown with green mold and moss that always feels a little damp to the touch4 ,illustration3 ,,gate ,,covered ,,with ,,unhealthful ,,mold4 ,this growth on the walls is a great hurt to the health of people living in the houses4 ,it breeds disease1 and keeps the moisture in the walls1 so that the houses are damp and unwholesome4 ,it is of no use to shut our windows at night1 for the early morning chill that we hope thus to shut out is in the walls themselves4 ,it is far better to leave the windows open1 that fresh air may come in and drive out some of the poisonous vapors that rise from the walls and creep into the house4 ,the walls of the house should be kept clean of mold4 ,they should be scraped and whitewashed very often1 and the green1 unhealthy growth kept down4 ,in the cities of ,europe and ,america there are great sewer systems to take the waste and refuse from the houses and carry it far from the city4 ,the sewers empty into the sea or into drainage canals1 and thence to points where the sewage can be destroyed so that it will not endanger life4 ,the city of ,manila has some sewers4 ,we can see the openings into them in the streets4 ,they are small1 square openings1 covered with stone4 ,but the sewers that run through the streets empty into the open moat that surrounds the walled city6 ,it will become necessary1 before many years1 to fill this moat1 to save the people of ,manila from being killed by the gases that rise from it4 ,damp walls1 damp floors1 damp rooms close to the ground1 make the very best sort of places for dirt to gather4 ,it is not enough that walls should be scraped and floors cleaned once in a while2 they must be kept clean all the time4 ,this is why sanitary inspectors go about the city to examine houses and walls and report on their condition4 ,we should be glad that they do this2 for we know that if they are faithful about it1 the city will be more healthful and many lives will be saved4 ,the dirt that gathers in the streets is of many sorts4 ,a great deal is made by the horses and carabaos1 mules and oxen1 that draw loads about the city4 ,the wheels of the vehicles1 too1 grind the stone pavement to dust1 and this is blown about by the wind4 ,dead leaves drop from the trees1 choke up the gutters1 and1 left to themselves1 will make sodden masses of decayed vegetation in corners4 ,waste paper blows about1 and all sorts of unclean things are thrown into the streets by careless people4 ,it takes a small army of laborers to keep the streets in order4 ,they go over the city with brooms1 shovels1 and dust-boxes1 and sweep and gather up refuse and dirt4 ,they put it into carts and take it away to where it is loaded upon barges and sent out to sea1 or used to fill in low places where it can do no harm4 ,there is a great deal that each of us can do to help keep the streets clean4 ,no one should ever do anything that is likely to leave any dirt about them4 ,banana and orange peel should never be thrown on the sidewalk4 ,this is not only a dirty and untidy trick1 but often a bit of peel does serious mischief2 a person may step upon one1 slip1 and get a very dangerous fall4 ,school children are the very best sort of helpers to the street-cleaning department4 ,they can form what are called 8,good-,government0 clubs or societies1 to help4 ,they can keep a sharp lookout for careless people who are about to throw paper or fruit parings into the street4 ,when they see any one doing this1 they should not be afraid to remind him that it is a dangerous and an untidy thing to do4 ,most great cities now provide sheet-iron boxes along the sidewalks to receive all these things4 ,we should have them in ,manila4 ,the children could then point them out to any one who needed to have his attention called to them4 ,if they saw paper or peelings lying about1 the boys might pick them up1 if no street-cleaner were near1 and put them into the boxes4 ,we may be sure that girls and boys who were thus careful1 never would do anything themselves to make the city untidy4 ,they would not throw paper and peelings about1 nor spit upon the sidewalks4 ,even school children ought to remember that they are growing up to be citizens4 ,they cannot begin too young to take pride in their city or town or village and try to make it one of the best-governed places in the country4 ,they should take pride in keeping school buildings nice4 ,even if these buildings are old1 as so many are1 at present1 in the islands1 they can still be kept so clean that any one entering will know that the pupils are self-governing1 order-loving boys and girls1 who will some day be self-governing and order-loving citizens4 ,the elements of good living are1 after all1 very simple4 ,if we would live long and keep our bodies in condition to do their work1 we must be clean4 ,we must have clean surroundings2 we must drink pure water and eat clean1 wholesome food4 ,we must not eat or drink things that will hurt us4 ,we must do nothing that will make our bodies less fit dwelling-places for our souls4 ,we must be honest and kind1 ready to help and to take part in keeping everything about us clean and well ordered4 ,thus we shall be useful citizens1 each ready to do his own part to make this world the place it should be4 ,,questions4 ,what are the causes of epidemics8 ,why are damp walls and floors unhealthful8 ,is it best1 in this country1 to sleep with our windows closed8 ,where should sewers empty8 ,why is the sewer system of ,manila a bad one8 ,what sort of dirt gathers in the streets8 ,how can school children help to keep the city clean8 ,what should we all try to do if we would live long8 ,why is it our duty to do these things8 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes #a4 ,silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling4 #b4 ,archaic1 non-standard1 and uncertain spellings retained as printed4 #c4 ,enclosed italics font in underscores4