,,the    ,,cabinet ,,cyclop,,dia4       
,,conducted ,,by ,,the    ,,rev4        
,,dionysius ,,lardner1 ,,ll4,d4         
,f4,r4,s4 ,l4  ,e4    ,m4,r4,i4,a4      
,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,f4,l4,s4 ,f4,z4,s4 ,hon4  
,f4,c4,p4,s4 c4 c4        ,,assisted    
,,by    ,,eminent ,,literary ,,and      
,,scientific ,,men4          ,,eminent  
,,literary ,,and ,,scientific ,,men     
,,of ,,italy1 ,,spain ,,and ,,portugal4 
,,vol4 ,,ii4        ,,london3           
,,printed ,,for    ,,longman1 ,,rees1   
,,orme1 ,,brown1 ,,green1  ,,longman1   
,,paternoster-,,row2    ,,and ,,john    
,,taylor1    ,,upper ,,gower ,,street4  
#ahce4          ,,contents  ,,galileo   
,,guicciardini  ,,vittoria ,,colonna    
,,guarini  ,,tasso  ,,chiabrera         
,,tassoni  ,,marini  ,,filicaja         
,,metastasio  ,,goldoni  ,,alfieri      
,,monti  ,,ugo ,,foscolo                
,,lives    ,,of    ,,eminent            
,,literary ,,and ,,scientific ,,men4    
,,galileo    #aefd-afdb4      ,the      
history of the life and labours of      

,galileo is pregnant with a  peculiar   
interest to the general reader1 as well 
as to the philosopher4  ,his brilliant  
discoveries1 the man of science regards 
as his peculiar  property2 the means by 
which they were made1 and the           
developement of his  intellectual       
character1 belong to the logician and to
 the philosopher2  but the triumphs and 
the reverses of his eventful life must  
be claimed  for our common nature1 as a 
source of more than ordinary            
instruction4    ,the lengthened career  
which ,providence assigned to ,galileo  
was filled up  throughout its rugged    
outline with events even of dramatic    
interest4 ,but  though it was emblazoned
 with achievements of transcendent      
magnitude1  yet his finest discoveries  
were the derision of his contemporaries1
 and  were even denounced as crimes     
which merited the vengeance of ,heaven4 
,though he was the idol of his friends1 
and the favoured companion of  princes1 
yet he afterwards became the victim of  

persecution1 and spent  some of his last
 hours within the walls of a prison2 and
 though the  ,almighty granted him1 as  
it were1 a new sight to descry unknown  
worlds  in the obscurity of space1 yet  
the eyes which were allowed to witness  
such wonders1 were themselves doomed to 
be closed in darkness4    ,such were the
 lights and shadows in which history    
delineates      ,the starry ,galileo    
with his woes4#a      ,but1 however     
powerful be their contrasts1 they are   
not unusual in their  proportions4 ,the 
balance which has been struck between   
his days of good  and evil1 is that     
which regulates the lot of man1 whether 
we study it in  the despotic sway of the
 autocrat1 in the peaceful enquiries of 
the  philosopher1 or in the humbler     
toils of ordinary life4    ,galileo     
,galilei was born at ,pisa1 on the #aeth
 of ,february1 #aefd1 and was  the      
eldest of a family of three sons and    
three daughters4 ,under the name  of    
,bonajuti1 his noble ancestors had      

filled high offices at ,florence2  but  
about the middle of the #adth century   
they seem to have abandoned  this       
surname for that of ,galileo4 ,vincenzo 
,galilei1 our author's father1  was     
himself a philosopher of no mean powers2
 and though his talents seem  to have   
been applied only in the composition of 
treatises on the theory  and practice of
 music1 yet he appears to have          
anticipated even his son  in a just     
estimate of the philosophy of the age1  
and in a distinct  perception of the    
true method of investigating truth4#b   
,the early years of ,galileo were1 like 
those of almost all great  experimental 
philosophers1 spent in the construction 
of instruments and  pieces of machinery1
 which were calculated chiefly to amuse 
himself and  his school-fellows4 ,this  
occupation of his hands1 however1 did   
not  interfere with his regular studies2
 and though1 from the straitened        
circumstances of his father1 he was     
educated under considerable             

disadvantages1 yet he acquired the      
elements of classical literature1 and   
was initiated into all the learning of  
the times4 ,music1 drawing1 and         
painting were the occupations of his    
leisure hours2 and such was his         
proficiency in these arts1 that he was  
reckoned a skilful performer on  several
 musical instruments1 especially the    
lute2 and his knowledge of  pictures was
 held in great esteem by some of the    
best artists of his  day4    ,galileo   
seems to have been desirous1 of         
following the profession of a  painter3 
but his father had observed decided     
indications of early  genius2 and1      
though by no means able to afford it1 he
 resolved to send  him to the university
 to pursue the study of medicine4 ,he   
accordingly  enrolled himself as a      
scholar in arts at the university of    
,pisa1 on the  #eth of ,november1 #aeha1
 and pursued his medical studies under  
the  celebrated botanist ,andrew        
,csalpinus1 who filled the chair of     

medicine  from #aefg to #aeib4    ,in   
order to study the principles of music  
and drawing1 ,galileo found it          
necessary to acquire some knowledge of  
geometry4 ,his father seems to  have    
foreseen the consequences of following  
this new pursuit1 and though  he did not
 prohibit him from reading ,euclid under
 ,ostilio ,ricci1 one of  the professors
 at ,pisa1 yet he watched his progress  
with the utmost  jealousy1 and had      
resolved that it should not interfere   
with his medical  studies4 ,the         
demonstrations1 however1 of the ,greek  
mathematician had too  many charms for  
the ardent mind of ,galileo4 ,his whole 
attention was  engrossed with the new   
truths which burst upon his             
understanding2 and  after many fruitless
 attempts to check his ardour and direct
 his  thoughts to professional objects1 
his father was obliged to surrender  his
 parental control1 and allow the fullest
 scope to the genius of his  son4       
,from the elementary works of geometry1 

,galileo passed to the writings of      
,archimedes2 and while he was studying  
the hydrostatical treatise#c of  the    
,syracusan philosopher1 he wrote his    
essay on the hydrostatical  balance#d1  
in which he describes the construction  
of the instrument1  and the method by   
which ,archimedes detected the fraud    
committed by the  jeweller in the       
composition of ,hiero's crown4 ,this    
work gained for its  author the esteem  
of ,guido ,ubaldi1 who had distinguished
 himself by his  mechanical and         
mathematical acquirements1 and who      
engaged his young  friend to investigate
 the subject of the centre of gravity in
 solid  bodies4 ,the treatise on this   
subject1 which ,galileo presented to his
  patron1 was the source of his future  
success4    ,through the cardinal del   
,monte1 the brother-in-law of ,ubaldi1  
the  reigning duke of ,tuscany1         
,ferdinand de' ,medici1 was made        
acquainted with  the merits of our young
 philosopher2 and1 in #aehi1 he was     

appointed  lecturer on mathematics at   
,pisa4 ,by the drudgery of private      
teaching he  was obliged to add to the  
small salary of sixty crowns which was  
attached to the office4    ,with this   
moderate ,competency1 ,galileo commenced
 his philosophical  career4 ,at the     
early age of eighteen1 when he had      
entered the  university1 he displayed   
his innate antipathy to the             
,aristotelian  philosophy4 ,this feeling
 was strengthened by his earliest       
inquiries2 and  upon his establishment  
at ,pisa1 he seems to have regarded the 
doctrines  of ,aristotle as the         
intellectual prey which1 in his chace of
 glory1 he  was destined to pursue4     
,nizzoli1 who flourished near the       
beginning of  the sixteenth century1 and
 ,giordano ,bruno1 who was burned at    
,rome in  #afjj1 led the way in this    
daring pursuit2 but it was reserved for 
,galileo to track the ,thracian boar    
through its native thickets1 and1 at    
the risk of his own life1 to strangle it

 in its den4    ,with the resolution of 
submitting every opinion to the test of 
experiment1 ,galileo's first inquiries  
at ,pisa were directed to the           
mechanical doctrines of ,aristotle4     
,their incorrectness and absurdity  soon
 became apparent2 and with a zeal1      
perhaps1 bordering on  indiscretion1 he 
denounced them to his pupils with an    
ardour of manner  and of expression     
proportioned to his own conviction of   
the truth4 ,the  detection of           
long-established errors is apt to       
inspire the young  philosopher with an  
exultation which reason condemns4 ,the  
feeling of  triumph is apt to clothe    
itself in the language of asperity2 and 
the  abettor1 of erroneous opinions is  
treated as a species of enemy to        
science4 ,like the soldier who fleshes  
his first spear in battle1 the          
philosopher is apt to leave the stain of
 cruelty upon his early  achievements4  
,it is only from age and experience1    
indeed1 that we can  expect the         

discretion of valour1 whether it is     
called forth in  controversy or in      
battle4 ,galileo seems to have waged    
this stern warfare  against the         
followers of ,aristotle2 and such was   
the exasperation which  was excited by  
his reiterated and successful attacks1  
that he was  assailed1 during the rest  
of his life1 with a degree of rancour   
which  seldom originates in a mere      
difference of opinion4 ,forgetting that 
all  knowledge is progressive1 and that 
the errors of one generation call  forth
 the comments1 and are replaced by the  
discoveries1 of the next1  ,galileo did 
not anticipate that his own speculations
 and incompleted  labours might one day 
provoke unmitigated censure2 and he     
therefore  failed in making allowance   
for the prejudices and ignorance of his 
opponents4 ,he who enjoys the proud lot 
of taking a position in advance  of his 
age1 need not wonder that his less      
gifted contemporaries are left  behind4 
,men are not necessarily obstinate      

because they cleave to deeply  rooted   
and venerable errors1 nor are they      
absolutely stupid when they  are long in
 understanding and embracing newly      
discovered truths4    ,it was one of the
 axioms of the ,aristotelian mechanics1 
that the heavier  of two falling bodies 
would reach the ground sooner than the  
other1 and  that their velocities would 
be proportional to their weights4       
,galileo  attacked the arguments by     
which this opinion was supported2 and   
when he  found his reasoning            
ineffectual1 he appealed to direct      
experiment4 ,he  maintained1 that all   
bodies would fall through the same      
height in the  same time1 if they were  
not unequally retarded by the resistance
 of the  air3 and though he performed   
the same experiment with the most       
satisfactory results1 by letting heavy  
bodies fall from the leaning  tower of  
,pisa2 yet the ,aristotelians1 who with 
their own eyes saw the  unequal weights 
strike the ground at the same instant1  

ascribed the  effect to some unknown    
cause1 and preferred the decision of    
their master  to that of nature herself4
    ,galileo could not brook this       
opposition to his discoveries2 and the  
,aristotelians could not tolerate the   
rebukes of their young instructor4  ,the
 two parties were1 consequently1        
marshalled in hostile array2 when1      
fortunately for both1 an event occurred1
 which placed them beyond the  reach of 
danger4 ,don ,giovanni de' ,medici1 a   
natural son of ,cosmo1 had  proposed a  
method of clearing out the harbour of   
,leghorn4 ,galileo1 whose  opinion was  
requested1 gave such an unfavourable    
report upon it1 that  the disappointed  
inventor directed against him all the   
force of his  malice4 ,it was an easy   
task to concentrate the malignity of his
 enemies  at ,pisa2 and so effectually  
was this accomplished1 that ,galileo    
resolved  to accept another             
professorship1 to which he had been     
previously  invited4    ,the chair of   

mathematics in the university of ,padua 
having been vacant  for five years1 the 
republic of ,venice had resolved to fill
 it up2 and1  on the recommendation of  
,guido ,ubaldi1 ,galileo was appointed  
to it1 in  #aeib1 for a period of six   
years4    ,in #aeia1 ,galileo lost his  
father1 who died at an advanced age1 and
  devolved upon his eldest son the      
support of the family4 ,this event1     
probably1 increased his anxiety to      
better his situation1 and must have     
added to his other inducements to quit  
,pisa4 ,in ,september1 #aeib1 he        
removed to ,padua1 where he had a salary
 of only #ahj florins1 and where  he was
 obliged to add to his income by the    
labours of tuition4  ,notwithstanding   
this fruitless occupation of his time1  
he appears to  have found leisure for   
composing several of his works1 and     
completing  various inventions1 which   
will be afterwards described4 ,his      
manuscripts  were circulated privately  
among his friends and pupils2 but some  

of them  strayed beyond this sacred     
limit1 and found their way into the     
hands of  persons who did not scruple to
 claim and publish1 as their own1 the   
discoveries and inventions which they   
contained4    ,it is not easy to        
ascertain the exact time when ,galileo  
became a convert  to the doctrines of   
,copernicus1 or the particular          
circumstances under  which he was led to
 adopt them4 ,it is stated by ,gerard   
,voss1 that a  public lecture of        
,mstlin1 the instructor of ,kepler1 was 
the means of  making ,galileo acquainted
 with the true system of the universe4  
,this  assertion1 however1 is by no     
means probable2 and it has been ably    
shown1  by the latest biographer of     
,galileo#e1 that1 in his dialogues on   
the  ,copernican system1 our author     
gives the true account of his own       
conversion4 ,this passage is so         
interesting1 that we shall give it      
entire4    ,i cannot omit this          
opportunity of relating to you what     

happened to  myself at the time when    
this opinion 7the ,copernican system7   
began to be  discursed4 ,i was then a   
very young man1 and had scarcely        
finished my  course of philosophy1 which
 other occupations obliged me to leave  
off1  when there arrived in this        
country1 from ,rostoch1 a foreigner1    
whose  name1 ,i believe1 was ,christian 
,vurstisius 7,wurteisen71 a follower of 
,copernicus4 ,this person delivered1 on 
this subject1 two or three  lectures in 
a certain academy1 and to a crowded     
audience4 ,believing that  several were 
attracted more by the novelty of the    
subject than by any  other cause1 and   
being firmly persuaded that this opinion
 was a piece of  solemn folly1 ,i was   
unwilling to be present4 ,upon          
interrogating1  however1 some of those  
who were there1 ,i found that they all  
made it a  subject of merriment1 with   
the exception of one1 who assured me    
that it  was not a thing wholly         
ridiculous4 ,as ,i considered this      

individual to be  both prudent and      
circumspect1 ,i repented that ,i had not
 attended the  lectures2 and1 whenever  
,i met any of the followers of          
,copernicus1 ,i  began to inquire if    
they had always been of the same        
opinion4 ,i found  that there was not   
one of them who did not declare that he 
had long  maintained the very opposite  
opinions1 and had not gone over to the  
new  doctrines till he was driven by the
 force of argument4 ,i next examined    
them one by one1 to see if they were    
masters of the arguments on the         
opposite side2 and such was the         
readiness of their answers1 that ,i was 
satisfied they had not taken up this    
opinion from ignorance or vanity4  ,on  
the other hand1 whenever ,i interrogated
 the ,peripatetics and the  ,ptolemeans 
7and1 out of curiosity1 ,i have         
interrogated not a a few71  respecting  
their perusal of ,copernicus's work1 ,i 
perceived that there  were few who had  
seen the book1 and not one who          

understood it4 ,nor have  ,i omitted to 
enquire among the followers of the      
,peripatetic doctrines1  if any of them 
had ever stood on the opposite side2 and
 the result was1  that there was not    
one4 ,considering1 then1 that nobody    
followed the  ,copernican doctrine1 who 
had not previously held the contrary    
opinion1  and who was not well          
acquainted with the arguments of        
,aristotle and  ,ptolemy2 while1 on the 
other hand1 nobody followed ,ptolemy and
  ,aristotle1 who had before adhered to 
,copernicus1 and had gone over from  him
 into the camp of ,aristotle2 weighing1 
,i say1 these things1 ,i began  to      
believe that1 if any one who rejects an 
opinion which he has imbibed  with his  
milk1 and which has been embraced by an 
infinite number1 shall  take up an      
opinion held only by a few1 condemned by
 all the schools1 and  really regarded  
as a great paradox1 it cannot be doubted
 that he must  have been induced1 not to
 say driven1 to embrace it by the most  

cogent  arguments4 ,on this account1 ,i 
have become very curious to penetrate to
  the very bottom of the subject4#f     
,it appears1 on the testimony of        
,galileo himself1 that he taught the    
,ptolemaic system1 out of compliance    
with the popular feeling1 after he  had 
convinced himself of the truth of the   
,copernican doctrines4 ,in the  treatise
 on the sphere1 indeed1 which bears his 
name#g1 and which must  have been       
written soon after he went to ,padua1   
and subsequently to #aeib1  the         
stability of the earth1 and the motion  
of the sun1 are supported by  the very  
arguments which ,galileo afterwards     
ridiculed2 but we have no  means of     
determining whether or not he had then  
adopted the true system  of the         
universe4 ,although he might have taught
 the ,ptolemaic system in  his lectures1
 after he had convinced himself of its  
falsehood2 yet it is  not likely that he
 would go so far as to publish to the   
worlds as true1  the very doctrines     

which he despised4 ,in a letter to      
,kepler1 dated in  #aeig1 he distinctly 
states that he had1 many years ago1     
adopted the  opinions of ,copernicus2   
but that he had not yet dared to publish
 his  arguments in favour of them1 and  
his refutation of the opposite          
opinions4 ,these facts would leave us to
 place ,galileo's conversion  somewhere 
between #aeic and #aeig2 although many  
years cannot be said to  have elapsed   
between these two dates4    ,at this    
early period of ,galileo's life1 in the 
year #aeic1 he met with an  accident2   
which had nearly proved fatal4 ,a party 
at ,padua2 of which he  was one1 were   
enjoying2 at an open window2 a current  
of air1 which was  artificially cooled  
by a fall of water4 ,galileo            
unfortunately fell  asleep under its    
influence2 and so powerful was its      
effect upon his  robust constitution2   
that he contracted a severe chronic     
disorder1  accompanied with acute pains 
in his body1 and loss of sleep and      

appetite1 which attacked him at         
intervals during the rest of his life4  
,others of the party suffered still more
 severely1 and perished by their  own   
rashness4    ,galileo's reputation was  
now widely extended over ,europe2 and   
the  archduke ,ferdinand 7afterwards    
emperor of ,germany71 the landgrave of  
,hesse1 and the princes of ,alsace and  
,mantua honoured his lectures with      
their presence4 ,prince ,gustavus of    
,sweden also received instructions  from
 him in mathematics1 during his sojourn 
in ,italy2 and it has been  supposed    
that this was the celebrated ,gustavus  
,adolphus4    ,when ,galileo had        
completed the first period of his       
engagement at ,padua1  he was re-elected
 for other six years1 with an increased 
salary of #cbj  florins4 ,this liberal  
addition to his income is ascribed by   
,fabbroni to  the malice of one of his  
enemies1 who informed the senate that   
,galileo  was living in illicit         
intercourse with ,marina ,gamba4        

,without inquiring  into the truth of   
the accusation1 the senate is said to   
have replied1  that if he had a family  
to support1 he had the more need of an  
increased salary4 ,it is more likely    
that the liberality of the republic  had
 been called forth by the high          
reputation of their professor1 and  that
 the terms of their reply were intended 
only to rebuke the malignity  of the    
informer4 ,the mode of expression would 
seem to indicate that one  or more of   
,galileo's children had been born       
previous to his re-election  in #aeih2  
but as this is scarcely consistent with 
other facts1 we are  disposed to doubt  
the authenticity of ,fabbroni's         
anecdote4    ,the new star1 which       
attracted the notice of astronomers in  
#afjd1 excited  the particular attention
 of ,galileo4 ,the observations which he
 made upon  it1 and the speculations    
which they suggested1 formed the subject
 of  three lectures1 the beginning of   
the first of which only has reached our 

times4 ,from the absence of parallax1 he
 proved that the common  hypothesis of  
its being a meteor was erroneous1 and   
that1 like the fixed  stars1 it was     
situated far beyond the bounds of our   
own system4 ,the  popularity of the     
subject attracted crowds to his         
lecture-room2 and  ,galileo had the     
boldness to reproach his hearers for    
taking so deep an  interest in a        
temporary phenomenon1 while they passed 
unnoticed the  wonders of creation which
 were daily presented to their view4    
,in the year #afjf1 ,galileo was again  
appointed to the professorship at       
,padua1 with an augmented stipend of    
#ebj florins4 ,his popularity had now   
risen so high1 that his audience could  
not be accommodated in his              
lecture-room2 and even when he had      
assembled them in the school of         
medicine1 which contained #ajjj persons1
 he was frequently obliged to  adjourn  
to the open air4    ,among the variety  
of pursuits which occupied his          

attention1 was the  examination of the  
properties of the loadstone4 ,in #afjg1 
he commenced  his experiments2 but1 with
 the exception of a method of arming    
loadstones1 which2 according to the     
report of ,sir ,kenelm ,digby1 enabled  
them to carry twice as much weight as   
others1 he does not seem to have  made  
any additions to our knowledge of       
magnetism4 ,he appears to have  studied 
with care the admirable work of our     
countryman2 ,dr4 ,gilbert2 ,de          
,magnete1 which was published in #afjj2 
and he recognised2 in the  experiments  
and reasonings of the ,english          
philosopher2 the principles of  that    
method of investigating truth which he  
had himself adopted4 ,gilbert  died in  
#afjc2 in the #fc;d year of his age1 and
 probably never read the  fine          
compliment which was paid to him by the 
,italian philosopher3--,i  extremely    
praise1 admire1 and envy this author4   
,in the preceding pages we have brought 
down the history of ,galileo's  labours 

to that auspicious year in which he     
first directed the telescope  to the    
heavens4 ,no sooner was that noble      
instrument placed in his hands1  than   
,providence released him from his       
professional toils1 and supplied  him   
with the fullest leisure and the amplest
 means for pursuing and  completing the 
grandest discoveries4    ,although he   
had quitted the service and the domains 
of his munificent  patron2 the grand    
duke of ,tuscany1 yet he maintained his 
connection with  the family1 by visiting
 ,florence during his academic          
vacations1 and  giving mathematical     
instruction to the younger branches of  
that  distinguished house4 ,cosmo1 who  
had been one of his pupils1 now         
succeeded his father ,ferdinand2 and    
having his mind early imbued with a     
love of knowledge1 which had become     
hereditary in his family1 he felt  that 
the residence of ,galileo within his    
dominions--and still more his           
introduction into his household--would  

do honour to their common  country1 and 
reflect a lustre upon his own name4 ,in 
the year #afji1  accordingly1 ,cosmo    
made proposals to ,galileo to return to 
his original  situation at ,pisa4 ,these
 overtures were gratefully received2 and
 in the  arrangements which ,galileo on 
this occasion suggested1 as well as in  
the  manner in which they were urged1 we
 obtain some insight into his temper    
and character4 ,he informs the          
correspondent through whom ,cosmo's     
offer  was conveyed1 that his salary of 
#ebj florins at ,padua would be         
increased  to as many crowns at his     
re-election2 and that he could enlarge  
his  income to any extent he pleased1 by
 giving private lectures1 and  receiving
 pupils4 ,his public duties1 he stated1 
occupied him only sixty  half-hours in  
the year2 but his studies suffered such 
interruptions from  the domestic pupils 
and private lectures1 that his most     
ardent wish was  to be relieved from    
them1 in order that he might have       

sufficient rest  and leisure1 before the
 close of his life1 to finish and       
publish those  great works which he had 
in hand4 ,in the event1 therefore1 of   
his  returning to ,pisa1 he hoped that  
it would be the first object of his     
serene highness to give him leisure to  
complete his works without the  drudgery
 of lecturing4 ,he expresses his anxiety
 to gain his bread by his  writings1 and
 he promises to dedicate them to his    
serene master4 ,he  enumerates1 among   
these books1 two on the system of the   
universe2 three  on local motion2 three 
books of mechanics2 two on the          
demonstration of  principles1 and one of
 problems2 besides treatises on sound   
and speech1  on light and colours1 on   
the tides1 on the composition of        
continuous  quantity1 on the motions of 
animals1 and on the military art4 ,on   
the  subject of his salary1 he makes the
 following curious observations3--    ,i
 say nothing1 says he1 on the amount of 
my salary2 being convinced  that1 as ,i 

am to live upon it1 the graciousness of 
his highness would  not deprive me of   
any of those comforts1 of which1        
however1 ,i feel the  want of less than 
many others2 and1 therefore1 ,i say     
nothing more on the  subject4 ,finally1 
on the title and profession of my       
service1 ,i should  wish that1 to the   
title of mathematician1 his highness    
would add that of  philosopher1 as ,i   
profess to have studied a greater number
 of years in  philosophy1 than months in
 pure mathematics2 and how ,i have      
profited by  it1 and if ,i can or ought 
to deserve this title1 ,i may let their 
highnesses see1 as often as it shall    
please them to give me an  opportunity  
of discussing such subjects in their    
presence with those who  are most       
esteemed in this knowledge4    ,during  
the progress of this negotiation1       
,galileo went to ,venice1 on a  visit to
 a friend1 in the month of ,april or    
,may1 #afji4 ,here he learned1  from    
common rumour1 that a ,dutchman1 of the 

name of ,jansen1 had  presented to      
prince ,maurice of ,nassau an optical   
instrument1 which  possessed the        
singular property of causing distant    
objects to appear  nearer and larger to 
the observer4 ,a few days afterwards1   
the truth of  this report was confirmed 
by a letter which he received from      
,james  ,badovere at ,paris1 and he     
immediately applied himself to the      
consideration of the subject4 ,on the   
first night after his return to  ,padua1
 he found1 in the doctrines of          
refraction1 the principle which he      
sought4 ,he placed at the ends of a     
leaden tube two spectacle glasses1  both
 of which were plain on one side1 while 
one of them had its other  side convex1 
and the other its second side concave1  
and having applied  his eye to the      
concave glass1 he saw objects pretty    
large and pretty  near him4 ,this little
 instrument1 which magnified only three 
times1 he  carried in triumph to        
,venice1 where it excited the most      

intense  interest4 ,crowds of the       
principal citizens flocked to his house 
to see  the magical toy2 and after      
nearly a month had been spent in        
gratifying  this epidemical curiosity1  
,galileo was led to understand from     
,leonardo  ,deodati1 the doge of        
,venice1 that the senate would be highly
 gratified  by obtaining possession of  
so extraordinary an instrument4 ,galileo
  instantly complied with the wishes of 
his patrons1 who acknowledged the       
present by a mandate conferring upon him
 for life his professorship at  ,padua1 
and generously raising his salary from  
#ebj to #ajjj florins4    ,although we  
cannot doubt the veracity of ,galileo1  
when he affirms that  he had never seen 
any of the ,dutch telescopes1 yet it is 
expressly  stated by ,fuccarius1 that   
one of these instruments had at this    
time been  brought to ,florence4 ,in a  
letter from ,lorenzo ,pignoria to ,paolo
 ,gualdo1  dated from ,padua1 on the    
#cast of ,august1 #afji1 it is expressly

 said1  that1 at the re-election of the 
professors1 ,galileo had contrived to   
obtain #ajjj florins for life1 which was
 alleged to be on account of an         
eye-glass like the one which was sent   
from ,flanders to the ,cardinal         
,borghese4    ,in a memoir so brief and 
general as the present1 it would be out 
of  place to discuss the history of this
 extraordinary invention4 ,we have no   
hesitation in asserting that a method of
 magnifying distant objects was  known  
to ,baptista ,porta and others2 but it  
seems to be equally certain  that an    
instrument for producing these effects  
was first constructed  in ,holland1 and 
that it was from that kingdom that      
,galileo derived the  knowledge of its  
existence4 ,in considering the          
contending claims1 which  have been     
urged with all the ardour and partiality
 of national feeling1  it has been      
generally overlooked1 that a single     
convex lens1 whose  focal length exceeds
 the distance at which we examine minute

 objects1  performs the part of a       
telescope1 when an eye1 placed behind   
it1 sees  distinctly the inverted image 
which it forms4 ,a lens1 twenty feet in 
focal length1 will in this manner       
magnify twenty times2 and it was by  the
 same principle that ,sir ,william      
,herschel discovered a new satellite  of
 ,saturn1 by using only the mirror of   
his forty-feet telescope4 ,the          
instrument presented to prince ,maurice1
 and which the marquis ,spinola  found  
in the ,dutch optician's shop1          
performing the part of a  philosophical 
toy1 by exhibiting a magnified and      
inverted image of a  distant            
weathercock1 must have been a single    
lens such as we have  mentioned1 or an  
astronomical telescope consisting of two
 convex lenses4  ,upon either of these  
suppositions1 it differed entirely from 
that which  ,galileo constructed2 and   
the ,italian philosopher will be justly 
entitled  to the honour of having       
invented that form of the telescope     

which still  bears his name4    ,the    
interest which the exhibition of the    
telescope excited at ,venice did  not   
soon subside3 ,serturi describes it as  
amounting almost to phrensy4  ,when he  
himself had succeeded in making one of  
these instruments1 he  ascended the     
tower of ,st4 ,mark1 where he might use 
it without  molestation4 ,he was        
recognised1 however1 by a crowd in the  
street2 and  such was the eagerness of  
their curiosity1 that they took         
possession of  the wondrous tube1 and   
detained the impatient philosopher for  
several  hours1 till they had           
successively witnessed its effects4     
,desirous of  obtaining the same        
gratification for their friends1 they   
endeavoured to  learn the name of the   
inn at which he lodged2 but ,serturi    
fortunately  overheard their inquiries1 
and quitted ,venice early next morning1 
in  order to avoid a second visitation  
of this new school of philosophers4     
,the opticians speedily availed         

themselves of this new instrument4      
,galileo's tube1--or the double         
eye-glass1 as it was then called1 for   
,demisiano had not yet given it the     
appellation of a telescope1--was        
manufactured in great quantities1 and in
 a very superior manner4 ,the           
instruments were purchased merely as    
philosophical toys1 and were  carried by
 travellers into every corner of        
,europe4    ,the art of grinding and    
polishing lenses was at this time very  
imperfect4 ,galileo1 and those whom he  
instructed1 were alone capable of       
making tolerable instruments4 ,it       
appears1 from the testimony of ,gassendi
  and ,grtner1 that1 in #afcd1 a good   
telescope could not be procured in      
,paris1 ,venice1 or ,amsterdam2 and     
that1 even in #afcg1 there was not one  
in ,holland which could show ,jupiter's 
disc well defined4    ,after ,galileo   
had completed his first instrument1     
which magnified only  three times1 he   
executed a larger and more accurate one1

 with a power  of about eight4 ,at      
length1 as he himself remarks1 sparing  
neither  labour nor expense1 he         
constructed an instrument so excellent1 
that it  magnified more than thirty     
times4    ,the first celestial object to
 which ,galileo applied his telescope   
was  the moon1 which1 to use his own    
words1 appeared as near as if it had    
been distant only two semidiameters of  
the earth4 ,he then directed it to  the 
planets and the fixed stars1 which he   
frequently observed with  incredible    
satisfaction4#h    ,the observations    
which he made upon the moon possessed a 
high degree of  interest4 ,the general  
resemblance of its surface to that of   
our own  globe naturally fixed his      
attention2 and he was soon able to      
trace1 in  almost every part of the     
lunar disc1 ranges of mountains1 deep   
hollows1  and other inequalities1 which 
reflected from their summits the rays of
  the rising sun1 while the intervening 
hollows were still buried in  darkness4 

,the dark and luminous spaces he        
regarded as indicating seas  and        
continents1 which reflected1 in         
different degrees1 the incident  light  
of the sun2 and he ascribed the         
phosphorescence1 as it has been         
improperly called1 or the secondary     
light1 which is seen on the dark  limb  
of the moon in her first and last       
quarters1 to the reflection of  the     
sun's light from the earth4    ,these   
discoveries were ill received by the    
followers of ,aristotle4  ,according to 
their preconceived opinions1 the moon   
was perfectly  spherical1 and perfectly 
smooth2 to cover it with mountains1 and 
to  scoop it out into valleys1 was an   
act of impiety which defaced the        
regular forms which nature herself had  
imprinted4 ,it was in vain that         
,galileo appealed to the evidence of    
observation1 and to the actual  surface 
of our own globe4 ,the very             
irregularities on the moon were1 in  his
 opinion1 the proof of divine wisdom3   

and had its surface been  perfectly     
smooth1 it would have been but a vast   
unblessed desert1 void  of animals1 of  
plants1 of cities1 and of men2 the abode
 of silence and  inaction2 senseless1   
lifeless1 soulless1 and stripped of all 
those  ornaments which now render it so 
various and so beautiful4    ,in        
examining the fixed stars1 and comparing
 them with the planets1  ,galileo       
discovered a remarkable difference in   
the appearance of their  discs4 ,all the
 planets appeared with round globular   
discs like the moon2  whereas the fixed 
stars never exhibited any disc at all1  
but resembled  lucid points sending     
forth twinkling rays4 ,stars of all     
magnitudes he  found to have the same   
appearance2 those of the fifth and sixth
  magnitude having the same character   
when seen through a telescope1 as       
,sirius1 the largest of the stars1 when 
seen by the naked eye4 ,upon  directing 
his telescope to nebul and clusters of  
stars1 he was  delighted to find that   

they consisted of great numbers of stars
 which  could not be recognised by      
unassisted vision4 ,he counted no fewer 
than  forty in the cluster called the   
,pleiades1 or ,seven ,stars2 and he  has
 given us drawings of this              
constellation1 as well as of the belt   
and  sword of ,orion1 and of the nebula 
of ,prsepe4 ,in the great nebula of  the
 ,milky ,way1 he descried crowds of     
minute stars2 and he concluded that     
this singular portion derived its       
whiteness from still smaller stars1     
which his telescope was unable to       
separate4    ,important and interesting 
as these discoveries were1 they were    
thrown  into the shade by those to which
 he was led during an accurate          
examination of the planets with a more  
powerful telescope4 ,on the #gth of     
,january1 #afaj1 at one o'clock in the  
morning1 when he directed this          
telescope to ,jupiter1 he observed three
 stars near the body of the  planet2 two
 being to the east and one to the west  

of him4 ,they were all  in a straight   
line1 and parallel to the ecliptic1 and 
appeared brighter  than other stars of  
the same magnitude4 ,believing them to  
be fixed  stars1 he paid no great       
attention to their distances from       
,jupiter and  from one another4 ,on the 
#hth of ,january1 however1 when1 from   
some cause  or other#i1 he had been led 
to observe the stars again1 he found a  
very  different arrangement of them3 all
 the three were on the west side of     
,jupiter1 nearer one another than       
before1 and almost at equal  distances4 
,though he had not turned his attention 
to the extraordinary  fact of the mutual
 approach of the stars1 yet he began to 
consider how  ,jupiter could be found to
 the east of the three stars1 when only 
the day  before he had been to the west 
of two of them4 ,the only explanation   
which he could give of this fact was1   
that the motion of ,jupiter was  direct 
contrary to astronomical calculations2  
and that he had got  before these two   

stars by his own motion4    ,in this    
dilemma between the testimony of his    
senses and the results of  calculation1 
he waited for the following night with  
the utmost anxiety3  but his hopes were 
disappointed2 for the heavens were      
wholly veiled in  clouds4 ,on the tenth1
 two only of the stars appeared1 and    
both on the  east of the planet4 ,as it 
was obviously impossible that ,jupiter  
could  have advanced from west to east  
on the #hth of ,january1 and from east  
to  west on the #ajth1 ,galileo was     
forced to conclude that the phenomenon  
which he had observed1 arose from the   
motion of the stars1 and he set  himself
 to observe diligently their change of  
place4 ,on the #aath1 there  were still 
only two stars2 and both to the east of 
,jupiter2 but the more  eastern star was
 now twice as large as the other one1   
though on the  preceding night they had 
been perfectly equal4 ,this fact threw a
 new  light upon ,galileo's             
difficulties1 and he immediately drew   

the  conclusion1 which he considered to 
be indubitable--that there were in  the 
heavens three stars which revolved round
 ,jupiter1 in the same manner  as ,venus
 and ,mercury revolve round the sun4 ,on
 the #abth of ,january1 he  again       
observed them in new positions1 and of  
different magnitudes2 and1  on the      
#acth1 he discovered a fourth star1     
which completed the four  secondary     
planets with which ,jupiter is          
surrounded4    ,galileo continued his   
observations on these bodies every clear
 night  till the #bb;d of ,march1 and   
studied their motions in reference to   
fixed  stars that were at the same time 
within the field of his telescope4      
,having thus clearly established that   
the four new stars were satellites  or  
moons1 which revolved round ,jupiter in 
the same manner as the moon  revolves   
round our own globe1 he drew up an      
account of his discovery1 in  which he  
gave to the four new bodies the names of
 the ,medicean ,stars1  in honour of his

 patron1 ,cosmo de' ,medici1 grand duke 
of ,tuscany4 ,this  work1 under the     
title of ,nuncius ,sidereus1 or the     
,sidereal  ,messenger1 was dedicated to 
the same prince2 and the dedication     
bears  the date of the #dth of ,march1  
only two days after he concluded his    
observations4    ,the importance of this
 great discovery was instantly felt by  
the enemies  as well as by the friends  
of the ,copernican system4 ,the planets 
had  hitherto been distinguished from   
the fixed stars only by their relative  
change of place2 but the telescope      
proved them to be bodies so near to  our
 own globe as to exhibit well-defined   
discs2 while the fixed stars  retained1 
even when magnified1 the minuteness of  
remote and lucid  points4 ,the system of
 ,jupiter1 illuminated by four moons    
performing  their revolutions in        
different and regular periods1 exhibited
 to our  proud reason the comparative   
insignificance of the globe we inhabit1 
and  proclaimed in impressive language  

that globe was not the centre of  the   
universe4    ,the reception which these 
discoveries met with from ,kepler is    
highly  interesting1 and characteristic 
of the genius of that great man4 ,he was
  one day sitting idle1 and thinking of 
,galileo1 when his friend  ,wachenfels  
stopped his carriage at his door1 to    
communicate to him the  intelligence4   
,such a fit of wonder1 says he1 seized  
me at a report  which seemed to be so   
very absurd1 and ,i was thrown into such
 agitation  at seeing an old dispute    
between us decided in this way1 that    
between  his joy1 my colouring1 and the 
laughter of both1 confounded as we were 
by such a novelty1 we were hardly       
capable1 he of speaking1 or ,i of       
listening4 ,on our parting1 ,i          
immediately began to think how there    
could  be any addition to the number of 
the planets1 without overturning my     
',cosmographic ,mystery1' according to  
which ,euclid's five regular solids  do 
not allow more than six planets round   

the sun4 99 99 99 ,i am so far from     
disbelieving the existence of the four  
circumjovial planets1 that ,i long  for 
a telescope1 to anticipate you1 if      
possible1 in discovering two  round     
,mars1 as the proportion seems to       
require1 six or eight round  ,saturn1   
and perhaps one each round ,mercury and 
,venus4    ,in a very different spirit  
did the ,aristotelians receive the      
,sidereal  ,messenger of ,galileo4 ,the 
principal professor of philosophy at    
,padua  resisted ,galileo's repeated and
 urgent entreaties to look at the moon  
and planets through his telescope2 and  
he even laboured to convince the  grand 
duke that the satellites of ,jupiter    
could not possibly exist4  ,sizzi1 an   
astronomer of ,florence1 maintained1    
that as there were only  seven apertures
 in the head--two eyes1 two ears1 two   
nostrils1  and one mouth--and as there  
were only seven metals1 and seven days  
in the week1 so there could be only     
seven planets4 ,he seems1 however1  to  

have admitted the visibility of the four
 satellites through the  telescope2 but 
he argues1 that as they are invisible to
 the naked eye1  they can exercise no   
influence on the earth2 and being       
useless1 they do  not therefore exist4  
,a protg of ,kepler's1 of the name of   
,horky1 wrote a volume against          
,galileo's discovery1 after having      
declared1 that he would never concede   
his four new planets to that ,italian   
from ,padua1 even if he should die  for 
it4 ,this resolute ,aristotelian was at 
no loss for arguments4 ,he  asserted    
that he had examined the heavens through
 ,galileo's own glass1  and that no such
 thing as a satellite existed round     
,jupiter4 ,he  affirmed1 that he did not
 more surely know that he had a soul in 
his  body1 than that reflected rays are 
the sole cause of ,galileo's erroneous  
observations2 and that the only use of  
the new planets was to gratify          
,galileo's thirst for gold1 and afford  
himself a subject of discussion4        

,when ,horky first presented himself to 
,kepler1 after the publication of  this 
work1 the opinion of his patron was     
announced to him by a burst of          
indignation which overwhelmed the       
astonished author4 ,horky supplicated   
mercy for his offence2 and1 as ,kepler  
himself informed ,galileo1 he took  him 
again into favour1 on the condition that
 ,kepler was to show him  ,jupiter's    
satellites2 and that ,horky was not only
 to see them1 but to  admit their       
existence4    ,when the spirit of       
philosophy had thus left the individuals
 who bore her  sacred name1 it was      
fortunate for science that it found a   
refuge in the  minds of princes4        
,notwithstanding the reiterated logic of
 his  philosophical professor at ,padua1
 ,cosmo de' ,medici preferred the       
testimony of his senses to the          
syllogisms of his instructor4 ,he       
observed  the new planets several times1
 along with ,galileo1 at ,pisa2 and when
 he  parted with him1 he gave him a     

present worth more than #ajjj florins1  
and  concluded that liberal arrangement 
to which we have already referred4      
,as philosopher and principal           
mathematician to the grand duke of      
,tuscany1  ,galileo now took up his     
residence at ,florence1 with a salary of
 #ajjj  florins4 ,no official duties1   
excepting that of lecturing occasionally
 to  sovereign princes1 were attached to
 this appointment2 and it was  expressly
 stipulated that he should enjoy the    
most perfect leisure to  complete his   
treatises on the constitution of the    
universe1 on  mechanics1 and on local   
motion4 ,the resignation of his         
professorship at  ,padua1 which         
necessarily followed his new            
appointment1 created much               
dissatisfaction in that university3 but 
though many of his former  friends      
refused at first to hold any            
communication with him1 this  feeling   
gradually subsided2 and the ,venetian   
senate at last appreciated  the views1  

as well as the powerful motives1 which  
induced a stranger to  accept of        
promotion in his native land4    ,while 
,galileo was enjoying the reward and the
 fame of his great  discovery1 a new    
species of enmity was roused against    
them4 ,simon ,mayer1  an astronomer of  
no character1 pretended that he had     
discovered the  satellites of ,jupiter  
before ,galileo1 and that his first     
observation was  made on the #bith of   
,december1 #afji4 ,other astronomers    
announced the  discovery of new         
satellites3 ,scheiner reckoned five1    
,rheita nine1 and  others found even so 
many as twelve3 these satellites1       
however1 were  found to be only fixed   
stars4 ,the names of ,vladislavian1     
,agrippine1  ,uranodavian1 and          
,ferdinandotertian1 which were hastily  
given to these  common telescopic stars1
 soon disappeared from the page of      
science1 and  even the splendid         
telescopes of modern times have not been
 able to add  another gem to the diadem 

of ,jupiter4    ,a modern astronomer of 
no mean celebrity has1 even in the      
present day1  endeavoured to rob        
,galileo of this staple article of his  
reputation4  ,from a careless           
examination of the papers of our        
celebrated countryman1  ,thomas         
,harriot1 which baron ,zach had made in 
#aghd1 at ,petworth1 the seat  of lord  
,egremont1 this astronomer has          
asserted#aj that ,harriot first         
observed the satellites of ,jupiter on  
the #afth of ,january1 #afaj2 and       
continued his observations till the     
#beth of ,february1 #afab4 ,baron ,zach 
adds the following extraordinary        
conclusion3--,galileo pretends to have  
discovered them on the #gth of ,january1
 #afaj2 so that it is not  improbable   
that ,harriot was likewise the first    
discoverer of these  attendants of      
,jupiter4 ,in a communication which ,i  
received from ,dr4  ,robertson1 of      
,oxford1 in #ahbbaa1 he informed me that
 he had examined a  class of ,harriot's 

papers1 entitled1 ,de ,jovialibus       
,planetis2 and that  it appears1 from   
two pages of these papers1 that ,harriot
 first observed  ,jupiter's satellites  
on the #agth of ,october1 #afaj4 ,these 
observations  are accompanied with rough
 drawings of the positions of the       
satellites1  and rough calculations of  
their periodical revolutions4 ,my       
friend1  professor ,rigaud#ab1 who has  
very recently examined the ,harriot     
,,mss41  has confirmed the accuracy of  
,dr4 ,robertson's observations1 and has 
thus  restored to ,galileo the honour of
 being the first and the sole           
discoverer of these secondary planets4  
,the great success which attended the   
first telescopic observations of        
,galileo1 induced him to apply his best 
instruments to the other planets  of our
 system4 ,the attempts which had been   
made to deprive him of the  honour of   
some of his discoveries1 combined1      
probably1 with a desire to  repeat his  
observations with better telescopes1 led

 him to announce his  discoveries under 
the veil of an enigma2 and to invite    
astronomers to  declare1 within a given 
time1 if they had observed any new      
phenomena in  the heavens4    ,before   
the close of #afaj1 ,galileo excited the
 curiosity of astronomers1  by the      
publication of his first enigma4 ,kepler
 and others tried in vain  to decipher  
it2 but in consequence of the emperor   
,rodolph requesting a  solution of the  
puzzle1 ,galileo sent him the following 
clue3--      ,altissimam planetam       
tergeminam observavi4    ,i have        
observed that the most remote planet is 
triple4      ,in explaining more fully  
the nature of his observation1 ,galileo 
remarked  that ,saturn was not a single 
star1 but three together1 nearly        
touching  one another3 he described them
 as having no relative motion1 and as   
having the form of three o's1 namely1   
o,oo1 the central one being larger  than
 those on each side of it4    ,although 
,galileo had announced that nothing new 

appeared in the other  planets1 yet he  
soon communicated to the world another  
discovery of no  slight interest4 ,the  
enigmatical letters in which it was     
concealed1  formed the following        
sentence3--      ,cynthia figuras       
mulatur mater ,amorum4    ,venus rivals 
the phases of the moon4      ,hitherto1 
,galileo had observed ,venus when her   
disc was largely  illuminated2 but      
having directed his telescope to her    
when she was not  far removed from the  
sun1 he saw her in the form of a        
crescent1  resembling exactly the moon  
at the same elongation from the sun4 ,he
  continued to observe her night after  
night1 during the whole time that  she  
could be seen in the course of her      
revolution round the sun1 and he  found 
that she exhibited the very same phases 
which resulted from her  motion round   
that luminary4    ,galileo had long     
contemplated a visit to the metropolis  
of ,italy1 and he  accordingly carried  
his intentions into effect in the early 

part of the  year #afaa4 ,here he was   
received with that distinction which was
 due to  his great talents and his      
extended reputation4 ,princes1          
cardinals1 and  prelates hastened to do 
him honour2 and even those who          
discredited his  discoveries1 and       
dreaded their results1 vied with the    
true friends of  science in their       
anxiety to see the first wonder of the  
age4    ,in order to show the new       
celestial phenomena to his friends at   
,rome1  ,galileo took with him his best 
telescope2 and as he had discovered the 
spots on the sun's surface in the month 
of ,march1 #afaa1 he had the            
gratification of exhibiting this new    
wonder to his admiring disciples4  ,he  
accordingly erected his telescope in the
 ,quirinal garden1 belonging  to        
cardinal ,bandini2 and in ,april1 #afaa1
 he exhibited them to his  friends in   
many of their most interesting          
variations4 ,from their change  of      
position on the sun's disc1 ,galileo at 

first inferred1 either that  the sun    
revolved about an axis2 or that other   
planets1 like ,venus and  ,mercury1     
revolved so near the sun as to appear   
like black spots when  they were        
opposite to his disc4 ,upon continuing  
his observations1  however1 he saw      
reason to abandon this last opinion4 ,he
 found1 that the  spots must be in      
contact with the surface of the sun2    
that their figures  were irregular2 that
 they had different degrees of darkness2
 that one  spot would often divide      
itself into three or four2 that three or
 four  spots would often unite          
themselves into one2 and that all the   
spots  revolved regularly with the sun1 
which appeared to complete its          
revolution in about twenty-eight days4  
,previous to the invention of the       
telescope1 spots had been more than     
once seen on the sun's disc with the    
unassisted eye4 ,but even if these  were
 of the same character as those which   
,galileo and others observed1  we cannot

 consider them as anticipations of their
 discovery by the  telescope4 ,as the   
telescope was now in the possession of  
several  astronomers1 ,galileo began to 
have many rivals in discovery2 and it is
  now placed beyond the reach of doubt1 
that he was not the first  discoverer of
 the solar spots4 ,from the             
communication which ,i received  from   
the late ,dr4 ,robertson1 of ,oxford#ac1
 it appears that ,thomas  ,harriot had  
discovered the solar spots on or before 
the #hth of ,december1  #afaj4 ,his     
manuscripts1 in lord ,egremont's        
possession1 incontestably  prove that   
his regular observations on the spots   
commenced on the #hth of  ,december1    
#afaj1--;at least three months before   
,galileo discovered them2  and that they
 were continued till the #ahth of       
,january1 #afac4 ,the  observations     
which he has recorded are #aii in       
number2 and the accounts  of them are   
accompanied with rough drawings         
representing the number1  position1 and 

magnitude of the spots4#ad    ,another  
candidate for the honour of discovering 
the spots of the sun1  was ,john        
,fabricius1 who undoubtedly saw them    
previous to ,june1 #afaa4 ,the          
dedication of the work#ae in which he   
has recorded his observation1  bears the
 date of the #acth of ,june1 #afaa2 and 
it is obvious1 from the  work itself1   
that he had seen the spots during the   
year #afaj3 but as  there is no proof   
that he saw them before the #hth of     
,december1 #afaj1 and  as it is probable
 that ,harriot had seen them before that
 date1 we are  compelled to assign the  
priority of the discovery to our        
distinguished  countryman4    ,the claim
 of ,scheiner1 professor of mathematics 
at ,ingolstadt1 is more  intimately     
connected with the history of ,galileo4 
,this learned  astronomer having1 early 
in #afaa1 turned his telescope to the   
sun1  necessarily discovered the spots  
which at that time covered his disc4    
,light flying clouds happened1 at the   

time1 to weaken the intensity of  his   
light1 so that he was able to show the  
spots to his pupils4 ,these             
observations were not published till    
,january1 #afab2 and they appeared in   
the form of three letters1 addressed to 
,mark ,velser1 one of the  magistrates  
of ,augsburg1 under the signature of    
,apelles post ,tabulam4  ,scheiner1 who1
 many years afterwards1 published an    
elaborate work on the  subject1 adopted 
the same idea which had at first        
occurred to  ,galileo1--that the spots  
were the dark sides of planets revolving
 round  and near the sun4#af    ,on the 
publication of ,scheiner's letters      
,velser transmitted a copy of  them to  
his friend ,galileo1 with the request   
that he would favour him  with his      
opinion of the new phenomena4 ,after    
some delay1 ,galileo  addressed three   
letters to ,velser1 in which he combated
 the opinions of  ,scheiner on the cause
 of the spots4 ,these letters were dated
 the #dth of  ,may1 #afab2 but though   

the controversy was carried on in the   
language of  mutual respect and esteem1 
it put an end to the friendship which   
had  existed between the two            
astronomers4 ,in these letters1 ,galileo
 showed  that the spots often dispersed 
like vapours or clouds2 that they       
sometimes had a duration of only one or 
two days1 and at other times of  thirty 
or forty days2 that they contracted in  
their breadth when they  approached the 
sun's limb1 without any diminution of   
their length2 that  they describe       
circles parallel to each other2 that the
 monthly rotation  of the sun again     
brings the same spots into view2 and    
that they are  seldom seen at a greater 
distance than #cj from the sun's        
equator4  ,galileo1 likewise1 discovered
 on the sun's disc facul1 or luculi1  as
 they were called1 which differ in no   
respect from the common ones but  in    
their being brighter than the rest of   
the sun's surface4#ag    ,in the last of
 the letters which our author addressed 

to ,velser1 and  which was written in   
,december1 #afab1 he recurs to his      
former discovery  of the elongated      
shape1 or rather the triple structure1  
of ,saturn4 ,the  singular figure which 
he had observed in this planet had      
entirely  disappeared2 and he evidently 
announces the fact to ,velser1 lest it  
should be used by his enemies to        
discredit the accuracy of his           
observations4 ,looking on ,saturn1 says 
he1 within these few days1 ,i  found it 
solitary1 without the assistance of its 
accustomed stars1 and1  in short1       
perfectly round and defined like        
,jupiter2 and such it still  remains4   
,now1 what can be said of so strange a  
metamorphosis8 ,are the  two smaller    
stars consumed like the spots on the    
sun8 ,have they suddenly  vanished and  
fled8 or has ,saturn devoured his own   
children8 or was the  appearance indeed 
fraud and illusion1 with which the      
glasses have for so  long a time mocked 
me1 and so many others who have often   

observed with  me8 ,now1 perhaps1 the   
time is come to revive the withering    
hopes of  those who1 guided by more     
profound contemplations1 have followed  
all the  fallacies of the new           
observations1 and recognised their      
impossibilities4  ,i cannot resolve what
 to say in a chance so strange1 so new1 
and so  unexpected2 the shortness of the
 time1 the unexampled occurrence1 the   
weakness of my intellect1 and the terror
 of being mistaken1 have greatly        
confounded me4 ,although ,galileo       
struggled to obtain a solution of this  
mystery1 yet he had not the good fortune
 of succeeding4 ,he imagined that  the  
two smaller stars would reappear1 in    
consequence of the supposed  revolution 
of the planet round its axis2 but the   
discovery of the ring  of ,saturn1 and  
of the obliquity of its plane to the    
ecliptic1 was  necessary to explain the 
phenomena which were so perplexing to   
our  author4    ,the ill health to which
 ,galileo was occasionally subject1 and 

the belief  that the air of ,florence   
was prejudicial to his complaints1      
induced him  to spend much of his time  
at ,selve1 the villa of his friend      
,salviati4  ,this eminent individual had
 ever been the warmest friend of        
,galileo1 and  seems to have delighted  
in drawing round him the scientific     
genius of  the age4 ,he was a member of 
the celebrated ,lyncan ,society1 founded
 by  ,prince ,frederigo ,cesi2 and      
though he is not known as the author of 
any  important discovery1 yet he has    
earned1 by his liberality to science1 a 
glorious name1 which will be            
indissolubly united with the immortal   
destiny of ,galileo4    ,the subject of 
floating bridges having been discussed  
at one of the  scientific parties which 
had assembled at the house of ,salviati1
 a  difference of opinion arose         
respecting the influence of the shape of
  bodies on their disposition to float  
or to sink in a fluid4 ,contrary to  the
 general opinion1 ,galileo undertook to 

prove that it depended on  other causes3
 and he was thus led to compose his     
discourse on floating  bodies#ah1 which 
was published in #afab1 and dedicated to
 ,cosmo de'  ,medici4 ,this work        
contains many ingenious experiments1 and
 much acute  reasoning in support of the
 true principles of hydrostatics2 and it
 is  now chiefly remarkable as a        
specimen of the sagacity and            
intellectual  power of its author4 ,like
 all his other works1 it encountered the
 most  violent opposition2 and ,galileo 
was more than once summoned into the    
field to repel the aggressions of his   
ignorant and presumptuous  opponents4   
,the first attack upon it was made by   
,ptolemy ,nozzolini1 in a  letter to    
,marzemedici1 archbishop of             
,florence#ai2 and to this ,galileo      
replied in a letter addressed to his    
antagonist4#bj ,a more elaborate        
examination of it was published by      
,lodovico delle ,colombe1 and another   
by ,m4 ,vincenzo di ,grazia4 ,to these  

attacks1 a minute and overwhelming      
answer was printed in the name of       
,benedetti ,castelli1 the friend and    
pupil of ,galileo2 but it was           
discovered1 some years after ,galileo's 
death1 that he was himself the author of
 this work4#ba    ,the current of       
,galileo's life had hitherto flowed in a
 smooth and  unobstructed channel4 ,he  
had now attained the highest objects of 
earthly  ambition4 ,his discoveries had 
placed him at the head of the great men 
of  his age2 he possessed a professional
 income far beyond his wants1 and  even 
beyond his anticipations2 and1 what is  
still dearer to a  philosopher1 he      
enjoyed the most perfect leisure for    
carrying on and  completing his         
discoveries4 ,the opposition which these
 discoveries  encountered1 was to him   
more a subject for triumph than for     
sorrow4  ,prejudice and ignorance were  
his only enemies2 and if they succeeded 
for  a while in harassing his march1 it 
was only to give him occasion for  fresh

 achievements4 ,he who contends for     
truths which he has himself been        
permitted to discover1 may well sustain 
the conflict in which  presumption and  
error are destined to fall4 ,the public 
tribunal may  neither be sufficiently   
pure nor enlightened to decide upon the 
issue2  but he can appeal to posterity1 
and reckon with confidence on its sure  
decree4    ,the ardour of ,galileo's    
mind1 the keenness of his temper1 his   
clear  perception of truth1 and his     
inextinguishable love of it1 combined to
  exasperate and prolong the hostility  
of his enemies4 ,when argument  failed  
to enlighten their judgment1 and reason 
to remove their  prejudices1 he wielded 
against them his powerful weapons of    
ridicule and  sarcasm2 and in this      
unrelenting warfare1 he seems to have   
forgotten  that ,providence had withheld
 from his enemies those very gifts which
 he  had so liberally received4 ,he who 
is allowed to take the start of his     
species1 and to penetrate the veil which

 conceals from common minds the         
mysteries of nature1 must not expect    
that the world will be patiently        
dragged at the chariot wheels of his    
philosophy4 ,mind has its inertia1  as  
well as matter2 and its progress to     
truth can only be insured by the        
gradual and patient removal of the      
obstructions which surround it4    ,the 
boldness--may we not say the            
recklessness8--with which ,galileo      
insisted upon making proselytes of his  
enemies1 produced the very  opposite    
effect4 ,errors thus assailed1          
entrenched themselves in general        
feelings1 and were embalmed in the      
virulence of the passions4 ,the  various
 classes of his opponents marshalled    
themselves for their mutual  defence4   
,the ,aristotelian professors1 the      
temporising ,jesuits1 the  political    
churchmen1 and that timid but           
respectable body who at all  times dread
 innovation1 whether it be in religion  
or in science1 entered  into an alliance

 against the philosophical tyrant who   
threatened them  with the penalties of  
knowledge4    ,the party of ,galileo1   
though weak in numbers1 was not without 
power and  influence4 ,he had trained   
around him a devoted band1 who idolised 
his  genius and supported his views4    
,his pupils had been appointed to       
several  of the principal professorships
 in ,italy4 ,the enemies of religion    
were  on this occasion united with the  
,christian philosopher2 and there were1 
even in these days1 many princes and    
nobles who had felt the  inconvenience  
of ecclesiastical jurisdiction1 and who 
secretly abetted  ,galileo in his       
crusade against established errors4     
,although these two parties had been    
long dreading each other's power1  and  
reconnoitring each other's position1 yet
 we cannot exactly determine  which of  
them hoisted the first signal for war4  
,the church party1  particularly its    
high dignitaries1 were certainly        
disposed to rest on  the defensive4     

,flanked on one side by the logic of the
 schools1 and on  the other by the      
popular interpretation of ,scripture1   
and backed by the  strong arm of the    
civil power1 they were not disposed to  
interfere with  the prosecution of      
science1 however much they may have     
dreaded its  influence4 ,the            
philosophers1 on the contrary1 united   
the zeal of  innovators with the        
firmness of purpose which truth alone   
can inspire4  ,victorious in every      
contest1 they were flushed with success1
 and they  panted for a struggle in     
which they knew they must triumph4      
,in this state of warlike preparation   
,galileo addressed a letter1 in  #afac1 
to his friend and pupil1 the abb        
,castelli1 the object of which  was to  
prove that the ,scriptures were not     
intended to teach us science  and       
philosophy4 ,hence he inferred1 that the
 language employed in the  sacred volume
 in reference to such subjects should be
 interpreted only  in its common        

acceptation2 and that it was in reality 
as difficult to  reconcile the          
,ptolemaic as the ,copernican system to 
the expressions  which occur in the     
,bible4    ,a demonstration was about   
this time made by the opposite party1 in
 the  person of ,caccini1 a ,dominican  
friar1 who made a personal attack upon  
,galileo from the pulpit4 ,this violent 
ecclesiastic ridiculed the  astronomer  
and his followers1 by addressing them in
 the sacred language  of ,scripture2 ,ye
 men of ,galilee1 why stand ye here     
looking up into  heaven8 ,but this      
species of warfare was disapproved of   
even by the  church2 and ,luigi         
,maraffi1 the general of the            
,dominicans1 not only  apologised to    
,galileo1 who had transmitted to him a  
formal complaint  against ,caccini1 but 
expressed the acuteness of his own      
feelings on  being implicated in the    
brutal conduct of thirty or forty       
thousand  monks4    ,from the character 
of ,caccini1 and the part which he      

afterwards played  in the persecution of
 ,galileo1 we can scarcely avoid the    
opinion that  his attack from the pulpit
 was intended as a snare for the unwary 
philosopher4 ,it roused ,galileo from   
his wonted caution2 and stimulated1  no 
doubt1 by the nature of the answer which
 he received from ,maraffi1 he          
published a longer letter of seventy    
pages1 defending and illustrating  his  
former views respecting the influence of
 scriptural language on the  two        
contending systems4 ,as if to give the  
impress of royal authority to  this new 
appeal1 he addressed it to ,christian1  
grand-duchess of ,tuscany1  the mother  
of ,cosmo2 and in this form it seems to 
have excited a new  interest1 as if it  
had expressed the opinion of the        
grand-ducal family4  ,these external    
circumstances gave additional weight to 
the powerful and  unanswerable reasoning
 which this letter contains2 and it was 
scarcely  possible that any man1        
possessed of a sound mind1 and willing  

to learn  the truth1 should refuse his  
assent to the judicious views of our    
author4 ,he expresses his belief that   
the ,scriptures were given to  instruct 
mankind respecting their salvation1 and 
that the faculties of  our minds were   
given us for the purpose of             
investigating the phenomena  of nature4 
,he considers ,scripture and nature as  
proceeding from the same  divine author1
 and1 therefore1 incapable of speaking a
 different  language2 and he points out 
the absurdity of supposing that         
professors  of astronomy will shut their
 eyes to the phenomena which they       
discover  in the heavens1 or will refuse
 to believe those deductions of reason  
which appeal to their judgment with all 
the power of demonstration4 ,he         
supports these views by quotations from 
the ancient fathers2 and he  refers to  
the dedication of ,copernicus's own work
 to the ,roman pontiff1  ,paul ,,iii41  
as a proof that the pope himself did not
 regard the new  system of the world as 

hostile to the sacred writings4         
,copernicus1 on  the contrary1 tells his
 holiness1 that the reason of inscribing
 to him  his new system was1 that the   
authority of the pontiff might put to   
silence the calumnies of some           
individuals1 who attacked it by         
arguments  drawn from passages of       
,scripture twisted for their own        
purpose4    ,it was in vain to meet such
 arguments by any other weapons than    
those of  the civil power4 ,his enemies 
saw that they must either crush the     
dangerous innovation1 or allow it the   
fullest scope2 and they determined  upon
 an appeal to the inquisition4 ,lorini1 
a monk of the ,dominican  order1 had    
already denounced to this body          
,galileo's letter to ,castelli2  and    
,caccini1 bribed by the mastership of   
the convent of ,st4 ,mary of  ,minerva1 
was invited to settle at ,rome for the  
purpose of embodying the  evidence      
against ,galileo4    ,though these plans
 had been carried on in secret1 yet     

,galileo's  suspicions were excited2 and
 he obtained leave from ,cosmo to go to 
,rome  about the end of #afae4bb ,here  
he was lodged in the palace of the grand
  duke's ambassador1 and kept up a      
constant correspondence with the family 
of his patron at ,florence2 but1 in the 
midst of this external splendour1  he   
was summoned before the inquisition to  
answer for the heretical  doctrines     
which he had published4 ,he was charged 
with maintaining the  motion of the     
earth1 and the stability of the sun1    
with teaching this  doctrine to his     
pupils1 with corresponding on the       
subject with several  ,german           
mathematicians1 and with having         
published it1 and attempted to          
reconcile it to ,scripture1 in his      
letters to ,mark ,velser in #afab4 ,the 
inquisition assembled to consider these 
charges on the #beth of ,february1      
#afae2 and it was decreed that ,galileo 
should be enjoined by cardinal          
,bellarmine to renounce the obnoxious   

doctrines1 and to pledge himself  that  
he would neither teach1 defend1 nor     
publish them in future4 ,in the  event  
of his refusing to acquiesce in this    
sentence1 it was decreed that  he should
 be thrown into prison4 ,galileo did not
 hesitate to yield to  this injunction4 
,on the day following1 the #bfth of     
,february1 he appeared  before cardinal 
,bellarmine1 to renounce his heretical  
opinions2 and1  having declared that he 
abandoned the doctrine of the earth's   
motion1  and would neither defend nor   
teach it1 in his conversation or in his 
writings1 he was dismissed the court4   
,having thus disposed of ,galileo1 the  
inquisition conceived the design of     
condemning the whole system of          
,copernicus as heretical4 ,galileo1 with
  more hardihood than prudence1 remained
 at ,rome for the purpose of giving  his
 assistance in frustrating this plan2   
but there is reason to think  that he   
injured by his presence the very cause  
which he meant to  support4 ,the        

inquisition had determined to put down  
the new opinions2  and they now inserted
 among the prohibited books ,galileo's  
letters to  ,castelli and the grand     
duchess1 ,kepler's epitome of the       
,copernican  theory1 and ,copernicus's  
own work on the revolutions of the      
heavenly  bodies4    ,notwithstanding   
these proceedings1 ,galileo had an      
audience of the pope1  ,paul ,v41 in    
,march1 #afaf4 ,he was received very    
graciously1 and spent  nearly an hour   
with his holiness4 ,when they were about
 to part1 the pope  assured ,galileo1   
that the congregation were not disposed 
to receive upon  light grounds any      
calumnies which might be propagated by  
his enemies1  and that1 as long as he   
occupied the papal chair1 he might      
consider  himself as safe4    ,these    
assurances were no doubt founded on the 
belief that ,galileo would  adhere to   
his pledges2 but so bold and            
inconsiderate was he in the  expression 
of his opinions1 that even in ,rome he  

was continually engaged  in             
controversial discussions4 ,the         
following very interesting account of   
these disputes is given by ,querenghi1  
in a letter to the cardinal  ,d',este3--
    ,your eminence would be delighted   
with ,galileo if you heard him holding  
forth1 as he often does1 in the midst of
 fifteen or twenty1 all  violently      
attacking him1 sometimes in one house1  
sometimes in another4  ,but he is armed 
after such fashion that he laughs all of
 them to  scorn1--and even if the       
novelty of his opinions prevents entire 
persuasion1 at least he convicts of     
emptiness most of the arguments with    
which his adversaries endeavour to      
overwhelm him4 ,he was particularly     
admirable on ,monday last in the house  
of signor ,frederico ,ghisilieri2  and  
what especially pleased me was1 that    
before replying to the contrary         
arguments1 he amplified and enforced    
them with new grounds of great          
plausibility1 so as to leave his        

adversaries in a more ridiculous        
plight1 when he afterwards overturned   
them all4    ,the discovery of          
,jupiter's satellites suggested to      
,galileo a new method  of finding the   
longitude at sea4 ,philip ,,iii4 had    
encouraged astronomers  to direct their 
attention to this problem1 by offering a
 reward for its  solution2 and in those 
days1 when new discoveries in science   
were  sometimes rejected as injurious to
 mankind1 it was no common event to  see
 a powerful sovereign courting the      
assistance of astronomers in  promoting 
the commercial interests of his empire4 
,galileo seems to have  regarded the    
solution of this problem as an object   
worthy of his  ambition2 and he no doubt
 anticipated the triumph which he would 
obtain  over his enemies1 if the        
,medicean stars1 which they had treated 
with  such contempt1 could be made      
subservient to the great interests of   
mankind4 ,during his residence at ,rome 
in #afae and #afaf1 ,galileo had        

communicated his views on this subject  
to the comte di ,lemos1 the  viceroy of 
,naples1 who had presided over the      
council of the ,spanish  ,indies4 ,this 
nobleman advised him to apply to the    
,spanish minister1 the  duke of ,lerma2 
and1 through the influence of the grand 
duke ,cosmo1 his  ambassador at the     
court of ,madrid was engaged to manage  
the affair4 ,the  anxiety of ,galileo on
 this subject was singularly great4 ,he 
assured the  ,tuscan ambassador that1 in
 order to accomplish this object1 he was
  ready to leave all his comforts1 his  
country1 his friends1 and his  family1  
to cross over into ,spain1 and to stay  
as long as he might be  wanted at       
,seville or at ,lisbon1 or wherever it  
might be convenient to  communicate a   
knowledge of his method4 ,the enthusiasm
 of ,galileo seems  to have increased   
the lethargy of the ,spanish court2 and 
though the  negotiations were           
occasionally revived for ten or twelve  
years1 yet no  steps were taken to bring

 them to a close4 ,this strange         
procrastination  has been generally     
ascribed to jealousy or indifference on 
the part of  ,spain2 but ,nelli1 one of 
,galileo's biographers1 declares1 on the
  authority of ,florentine records1 that
 ,cosmo had privately requested from    
the government the privilege of sending 
annually t to the ,spanish ,indies  two 
,leghorn merchantmen free of duty1 as a 
compensation for the loss of  ,galileo6 
,the failure of this negotiation must   
have been a source of extreme           
mortification to the high spirit and    
sanguine temperament of ,galileo4 ,he   
had calculated1 however1 too securely on
 his means of putting the new  method to
 a successful trial4 ,the great         
imperfection of the time-keepers  of    
that day1 and the want of proper        
telescopes1 would have baffled him  in  
all his efforts1 and he would have been 
subject to a more serious  mortification
 from the failure and rejection of his  
plan1 than that  which he actually      

experienced from the avarice of his     
patron1 or the  indifference of ,spain4 
,even in the present day1 no telescope  
has been  invented which is capable of  
observing at sea the eclipses of        
,jupiter's  satellites2 and though this 
method of finding the longitude has     
great  advantages on shore1 yet it has  
been completely abandoned at sea1 and   
superseded by easier and more correct   
methods4    ,in the year #afah1 when no 
fewer than three comets visited our     
system1  and attracted the attention of 
all the astronomers of ,europe1 ,galileo
  was unfortunately confined to his bed 
by a severe illness2 but1 though  he was
 unable to make a single observation    
upon these remarkable bodies1  he       
contrived to involve himself in the     
controversies which they  occasioned4   
,marco ,guiducci1 an astronomer of      
,florence1 and a friend of  ,galileo's1 
had delivered a discourse on comets     
before the ,florentine  ,academy1 which 
was published in #afai4bc ,the heads of 

this discourse  were supposed to have   
been communicated to him by ,galileo1   
and this  seems to have been universally
 admitted during the controversy to     
which  it gave rise4 ,the opinion       
maintained in this treatise1 that comets
 are  nothing but meteors which         
occasionally appear in our atmosphere1  
like  halos and rainbows1 savours so    
little of the sagacity of ,galileo that 
we  should be disposed to question its  
paternity4 ,his inability to partake  in
 the general interest which these three 
comets excited1 and to employ  his      
powerful telescope in observing their   
phenomena and their movements1  might   
have had some slight share in the       
formation of an opinion which  deprived 
them of their importance as celestial   
bodies4 ,but1 however this  may have    
been1 the treatise of ,guiducci afforded
 a favourable point of  attack to       
,galileo's enemies1 and the dangerous   
task was entrusted to  ,oratio ,grassi1 
a learned ,jesuit1 who1 in a work       

entitled ,the  ,astronomical and        
,philosophical ,balance1 criticised the 
discourse on  comets1 under the feigned 
name of ,lotario ,sarsi4    ,galileo    
replied to this attack in a volume      
entitled ,il ,saggiatore1 or  ,the      
,assayer1 which1 owing to the state of  
his health1 was not  published till the 
autumn of #afbc4bd ,this work was       
written in the form  of a letter to     
,virginio ,csarini1 a member of the     
,lyncan ,academy1 and  master of the    
chamber to ,urban ,,viii4#be1 who had   
just ascended the  pontifical throne4   
,it has been long celebrated among      
literary men for  the beauty of its     
language1 though it is doubtless one of 
the least  important of ,galileo's      
writings4    ,the succession of the     
cardinal ,maffeo ,barberini to the papal
 throne1  under the name of ,urban      
,,viii41 was hailed by ,galileo and his 
friends as  an event favourable to the  
promotion of science4 ,urban had not    
only been  the personal friend of       

,galileo and of prince ,cesi1 the       
founder of the  ,lyncan ,academy1 but   
had been intimately connected with that 
able and  liberal association2 and it   
was1 therefore1 deemed prudent to secure
 his  favour and attachment4 ,if ,paul  
,,iii4 had1 nearly a century before1    
patronised ,copernicus1 and accepted of 
the dedication of his great work1  it   
was not unreasonable to expect that1 in 
more enlightened times1  another pontiff
 might exhibit the same liberality to   
science4    ,the plan of securing to    
,galileo the patronage of ,urban ,,viii4
 seems to  have been devised by prince  
,cesi4 ,although ,galileo had not been  
able for  some years to travel1         
excepting in a fitter1 yet he was urged 
by the  prince to perform a journey to  
,rome1 for the express purpose of       
congratulating his friend upon his      
elevation to the papal chair4 ,this     
request was made in ,october1 #afbc2    
and1 though ,galileo's health was not   
such as to authorise him to undergo so  

much fatigue1 yet he felt the           
importance of the advice2 and1 after    
visiting ,cesi at ,acqua ,sparta1 he    
arrived at ,rome in the spring of #afbd4
 ,the reception which he here           
experienced far exceeded his most       
sanguine expectations4 ,during the two  
months which he spent in the capital he 
was permitted to have no fewer  than six
 long and gratifying audiences of the   
pope4 ,the kindness of his  holiness was
 of the most marked description4 ,he not
 only loaded ,galileo  with presents#bf1
 and promised him a pension for his son 
,vincenzo1 but  he wrote a letter to    
,ferdinand1 who had just succeeded      
,cosmo as grand  duke of ,tuscany1      
recommending ,galileo to his particular 
patronage4 ,for  we find in him1 says   
he1 not only literary distinction1 but  
the love of  piety2 and he is strong in 
those qualities by which pontifical     
good-will  is easily obtained4 ,and now1
 when he has been brought to this city  
to  congratulate us on our elevation1 we

 have very lovingly embraced him2  nor  
can we suffer him to return to the      
country whither your liberality  recalls
 him1 without an ample provision of     
pontifical love4 ,and that you  may know
 how dear he is to us1 we have willed to
 give him this  honourable testimonial  
of virtue and piety4 ,and we further    
signify1 that  every benefit which you  
shall confer upon him1 imitating or even
  surpassing your father's liberality1  
will conduce to our gratification4      
,not content with thus securing the     
friendship of the pope1 ,galileo        
endeavoured to bespeak the good-will of 
the cardinals towards the  ,copernican  
system4 ,he had1 accordingly1 many      
interviews with several of  these       
dignitaries2 and he was assured1 by     
cardinal ,hohenzoller1 that in  a       
representation which he had made to the 
pope on the subject of  ,copernicus1 he 
stated to his holiness1 that as all the 
heretics  considered that system as     
undoubted1 it would be necessary to be  

very  circumspect in coming to any      
resolution on the subject4 ,to this     
remark  his holiness replied1--that the 
church had not condemned this system2   
and that it should not be condemned as  
heretical1 but only as rash2 and  he    
added1 that there was no fear of any    
person undertaking to prove  that it    
must necessarily be true4    ,the recent
 appointment of the abb ,castelli1 the  
friend and pupil of  ,galileo1 to be    
mathematician to the pope1 was an event 
of a most  gratifying nature2 and when  
we recollect that it was to ,castelli   
that he  addressed the famous letter    
which was pronounced heretical by the   
inquisition1 we must regard it also as  
an event indicative of  new and         
favourable feeling towards the friends  
of science4 ,the opinions of  ,urban1   
indeed1 had suffered no change4 ,he was 
one of the few cardinals  who had       
opposed the inquisitorial decree of     
#afaf1 and his subsequent  demeanour was
 in every respect conformable to the    

liberality of his  early views4 ,the    
sincerity of his conduct was still      
further evinced by  the grant of a      
pension of one hundred crowns to        
,galileo1 a few years  after his visit  
to ,rome2 but there is reason to think  
that this  allowance was not regularly  
paid4    ,the death of ,cosmo1 whose    
liberality had given him both affluence 
and  leisure1 threatened ,galileo with  
pecuniary difficulties4 ,he had been    
involved in a great load of debt1 owing 
to the circumstances of his  brother's  
family2 and1 in order to relieve        
himself1 he had requested  ,castelli to 
dispose of the pension of his son       
,vincenzo3 but he was now  alarmed at   
the prospect of losing his salary as an 
extraordinary  professor at ,pisa4 ,the 
great youth of ,ferdinand1 who was      
scarcely of  age1 induced ,galileo's    
enemies1 in #afbi1 to raise doubts      
respecting the  payment of a salary to a
 professor who neither resided nor      
lectured in  the university2 but the    

question was decided in his favour1 and 
we have  no doubt that the decision was 
facilitated by the friendly             
recommendation of the pope1 to which we 
have already referred4    ,although     
,galileo had made a narrow escape from  
the grasp of the  inquisition1 yet he   
was never sufficiently sensible of the  
lenity which  he experienced4 ,when he  
left ,rome in #afaf1 under the solemn   
pledge of  never again teaching the     
obnoxious doctrine1 it was with an      
hostility  against the church1          
suppressed but deeply cherished2 and his
 resolution  to propagate the heresy    
seems to have been coeval with the vow  
by which  he renounced it4 ,in the year 
#afah1 when he communicated his theory  
of  the tides to the archduke ,leopold1 
he alludes in the most sarcastic  manner
 to the conduct of the church4 ,the same
 hostile tone1 more or  less1 pervaded  
all his writings1 and1 while he laboured
 to sharpen the  edge of his satire1 he 
endeavoured to guard himself against its

 effects1  by an affectation of the     
humblest deference to the decisions of  
theology4 ,had ,galileo stood alone1 his
 devotion to science might have         
withdrawn him from so hopeless a        
contest2 but he was spurred on by the   
violence of a party4 ,the ,lyncan       
,academy never scrupled to summon him   
from his researches4 ,they placed him in
 the forlorn hope of their  combat1 and 
he at last fell a victim to the rashness
 of his adventure4    ,but1 whatever    
allowance we may make for the ardour of 
,galileo's temper1  and the peculiarity 
of his position2 and however we may     
justify and even  approve of his past   
conduct1 his visit to ,urban ,,viii41 in
 #afbd1 placed  him in a new relation to
 the church1 which demanded on his part 
a new  and corresponding demeanour4 ,the
 noble and generous reception which he  
met with from ,urban1 and the liberal   
declaration of cardinal ,hohenzoller  on
 the subject of the ,copernican system1 
should have been regarded as            

expressions of regret for the past1 and 
offers of conciliation for the  future4 
,thus honoured by the head of the       
church1 and befriended by its           
dignitaries1 ,galileo must have felt    
himself secure against the indignity  of
 its lesser functionaries1 and in the   
possession of the fullest  licence to   
prosecute his researches and publish his
 discoveries1  provided he avoided that 
dogma of the church which1 even in the  
present  day1 it has not ventured to    
renounce4 ,but ,galileo was bound to the
  ,romish hierarchy by even stronger    
ties4 ,his son and himself were         
pensioners of the church1 and1 having   
accepted of its alms1 they owed to  it1 
at least1 a decent and respectful       
allegiance4 ,the pension thus given  by 
,urban was not a remuneration which     
sovereigns sometimes award to the       
services of their subjects4 ,galileo was
 a foreigner at ,rome4 ,the  sovereign  
of the papal state owed him no          
obligation2 and hence we must  regard   

the pension of ,galileo as a donation   
from the ,roman pontiff to  science     
itself1 and as a declaration to the     
,christian world1 that  religion was not
 jealous of philosophy1 and that the    
church of ,rome was  willing to respect 
and foster even the genius of its       
enemies4    ,galileo viewed all these   
circumstances in a different light4 ,he 
resolved  to compose a work in which the
 ,copernican system should be           
demonstrated2  but he had not the       
courage to do this in a direct and open 
manner4 ,he  adopted the plan of        
discussing the subject in a dialogue    
between three  speakers1 in the hope of 
eluding by this artifice the censure of 
the  church4 ,this work was completed in
 #afcj1 but1 owing to some difficulties 
in obtaining a licence to print it1 it  
was not published till #afcb4    ,in    
obtaining this licence1 ,galileo        
exhibited considerable address1 and  his
 memory has not escaped from the        
imputation of having acted unfairly1    

and of having involved his personal     
friends in the consequences of his      
imprudence4    ,the situation of master 
of the palace was1 fortunately for      
,galileo's  designs1 filled by ,nicolo  
,riccardi1 a friend and pupil of his    
own4 ,this  officer was a sort of censor
 of new publications1 and when he was   
applied to on the subject of printing   
his work1 ,galileo soon found that      
attempts had previously been made to    
thwart his views4 ,he instantly set  off
 for ,rome1 and had an interview with   
his friend1 who was in every  respect   
anxious to oblige him4 ,riccardi        
examined the manuscript1 pointed  out   
some incautious expressions which he    
considered it necessary to  erase1 and  
returned it with his written            
approbation1 on the  understanding that 
the alterations he suggested would be   
made4 ,dreading  to remain in ,rome     
during the unhealthy season1 which was  
fast  approaching1 ,galileo returned to 
,florence1 with the intention of        

completing the index and dedication1 and
 of sending the ,,ms4 to ,rome1 to  be  
printed under the care of prince ,cesi4 
,the death of that  distinguished       
individual1 in ,august #afcj1 frustrated
 ,galileo's plan1 and  he applied for   
leave to have the book printed in       
,florence4 ,riccardi was  at first      
desirous to examine the ,,ms4 again1 but
 after inspecting only  the beginning   
and the end of it1 he gave ,galileo     
leave to print it  wherever he chose1   
providing it bore the licence of the    
inquisitor-general of ,florence1 and one
 or two other persons whom he  named4   
,having overcome all these difficulties1
 ,galileo's work was  published in      
#afcb1 under the title of ,the ,system  
of the ,world of  ,galileo ,galilei1 c41
 in which1 in four dialogues concerning 
the two  principal systems of the       
,world1--the ,ptolemaic and the         
,copernican1--he  discusses1            
indeterminately and firmly1 the         
arguments proposed on both  sides4 ,it  

is dedicated to ,ferdinand1 grand duke  
of ,tuscany1 and is  prefaced by an     
,address to the prudent reader1 which is
 itself  characterised by the utmost    
imprudence4 ,he refers to the decree of 
the  inquisition in the most insulting  
and ironical language4 ,he attributes   
it to passion and to ignorance1 not by  
direct assertion1 but by  insinuations  
ascribed to others2 and he announces his
 intention to  defend the ,copernican   
system1 as a pure mathematical          
hypothesis1 and not  as an opinion1     
having an advantage over that of the    
stability of the  earth absolutely4 ,the
 dialogue is conducted by three persons1
 ,salviati1  ,sagredo1 and ,simplicio4  
,salviati1 who is the true philosopher  
in the  dialogue1 was the real name of a
 nobleman whom we have already had      
occasion to mention4 ,sagredo1 the name 
of another noble friend of  ,galileo's1 
performs a secondary part under         
,salviati4 ,he proposes doubts1         
suggests difficulties1 and enlivens the 

gravity of the dialogue with his  wit   
and pleasantry4 ,simplicio is a resolute
 follower of ,ptolemy and  ,aristotle1  
and with a proper degree of candour and 
modesty1 he brings  forward all the     
common arguments in favour of the       
,ptolemaic system4  ,between the wit of 
,sagredo1 and the powerful philosophy of
 ,salviati1 the  peripatetic sage is    
baffled in every discussion2 and there  
can be no  doubt that ,galileo aimed a  
more fatal blow at the ,ptolemaic system
 by  this mode of discussing it1 than if
 he had endeavoured to overturn it by   
direct arguments4    ,the influence of  
this work on the public mind was such as
 might have  been anticipated4 ,the     
obnoxious doctrines which it upheld were
 eagerly  received1 and widely          
disseminated2 and the church of ,rome   
became  sensible of the shock which was 
thus given to its intellectual          
supremacy4 ,pope ,urban ,,viii41        
attached though he had been to ,galileo1
  never once hesitated respecting the   

line of conduct which he felt  himself  
bound to pursue4 ,his mind was1         
nevertheless1 agitated with  conflicting
 sentiments4 ,he entertained a sincere  
affection for science  and literature1  
and yet he was placed in the position of
 their enemy4 ,he  had been the personal
 friend of ,galileo1 and yet his duty   
compelled him  to become his accuser4   
,embarrassing as these feelings were1   
other  considerations contributed to    
soothe him4 ,he had1 in his capacity of 
a  cardinal1 opposed the first          
persecution of ,galileo4 ,he had1 since 
his  elevation to the pontificate1      
traced an open path for the march of    
,galileo's discoveries2 and he had      
finally endeavoured to bind the         
recusant philosopher by the chains of   
kindness and gratitude4 ,all these      
means1 however1 had proved abortive1 and
 he was now called upon to  support the 
doctrine which he had subscribed1 and   
administer the law of  which he was the 
guardian4    ,it has been supposed1     

without any satisfactory evidence1 that 
,urban may  have been influenced by less
 creditable motives4 ,salviati and      
,sagredo  being well-known personages1  
it was inferred1 that ,simplicio must   
also  have a representative4 ,the       
enemies of ,galileo are said to have    
convinced  his holiness that ,simplicio 
was intended as a portraiture of        
himself2  and this opinion received some
 probability from the fact1 that the    
peripatetic disputant had employed many 
of the arguments which ,urban had       
himself used in his discussions with    
,galileo4 ,the latest biographer of     
,galileo#bg regards this motive as      
necessary to account for the  otherwise 
inexplicable change which took place in 
the conduct of ,urban  to his old       
friend2--but we cannot admit for a      
moment the truth1 of this  supposition4 
,the church had been placed in hostility
 to a powerful and  liberal party1 which
 was adverse to its interests4 ,the     
dogmas of the  ,catholic faith had been 

brought into direct collision with the  
deductions of science4 ,the leader of   
the philosophic band had broken the     
most solemn armistice with the          
inquisition3 he had renounced the ties  
of  gratitude which bound him to the    
pontiff2 and ,urban was thus compelled  
to intrench himself in a position to    
which he had been driven by his         
opponents4    ,the design of summoning  
,galileo before the inquisition1 seems  
to have  been formed almost immediately 
after the publication of his book2 for  
even in ,august1 #afcb1 the preliminary 
proceedings had reached the ears  of the
 grand duke ,ferdinand4 ,the ,tuscan    
ambassador at ,rome was speedily        
acquainted with the dissatisfaction     
which his sovereign felt at these       
proceedings2 and he was instructed to   
forward to ,florence a written          
statement of the charges against        
,galileo1 in order to enable him to     
prepare for his defence4 ,although this 
request was denied1 ,ferdinand  again   

interposed2 and transmitted a letter to 
his ambassador1  recommending the       
admission of ,campanella and ,castelli  
into the  congregation of ecclesiastics 
by which ,galileo was to be judged4     
,circumstances1 however1 rendered it    
prudent to withhold this letter4        
,castelli was sent away from ,rome1 and 
,scipio ,chiaramonte1 a bigotted        
ecclesiastic1 was summoned from ,pisa to
 complete the number of the  judges4    
,it appears from a despatch of the      
,tuscan minister1 that ,ferdinand was   
enraged at the transaction2 and he      
instructed his ambassador1 ,niccolini1  
to make the strongest representations to
 the pope4 ,niccolini had several       
interviews with his holiness2 but all   
his expostulations were fruitless4  ,he 
found ,urban highly incensed against    
,galileo2 and his holiness begged       
,niccolini to advise the archduke not to
 interfere any farther1 as he  would not
 get through it with honour4 ,on the    
#aeth of ,september the  pope caused it 

to be intimated to ,niccolini1 as a mark
 of his especial  esteem for the grand  
duke1 that he was obliged to refer the  
work to the  inquisition2 but both the  
prince and his ambassador were declared 
liable  to the usual censures if they   
divulged the secret4    ,from the       
measures which this tribunal had        
formerly pursued1 it was not  difficult 
to foresee the result of their present  
deliberations4 ,they  summoned ,galileo 
to appear before them at ,rome1 to      
answer in person the  charges under     
which he lay4 ,the ,tuscan ambassador   
expostulated warmly  with the court of  
,rome on the inhumanity of this         
proceeding4 ,he urged  his advanced age1
 his infirm health1 the discomforts of  
the journey1 and  the miseries of the   
quarantine#bh1 as motives for           
reconsidering their  decision3 but the  
pope was inexorable2 and though it was  
agreed to relax  the quarantine as much 
as possible in his favour1 yet it was   
declared  indispensable that he should  

appear in person before the inquisition4
    ,worn out with age and infirmities1 
and exhausted with the fatigues of  his 
journey1 ,galileo arrived at ,rome on   
the #adth of ,february1 #afcc4 ,the     
,tuscan ambassador announced his arrival
 in an official form to the  commissary 
of the holy office1 and ,galileo awaited
 in calm dignity the  approach of his   
trial4 ,among those who proffered their 
advice in this  distressing emergency1  
we must enumerate the cardinal          
,barberino1 the  pope's nephew1 who1    
though he may have felt the necessity of
 an  interference on the part of the    
church1 was yet desirous that it should 
be effected with the least injury to    
,galileo and to science4 ,he            
accordingly visited ,galileo1 and       
advised him to remain as much at home   
as possible1 to keep aloof from general 
society1 and to see only his  most      
intimate friends4 ,the same advice was  
given from different  quarters2 and     
,galileo felt its propriety1 and        

remained in strict  seclusion in the    
palace of the ,tuscan ambassador4       
,during the whole of the trial which now
 commenced1 ,galileo was treated  with  
the most marked indulgence4 ,abhorring1 
as we must do1 the  principles and      
practice of this odious tribunal1 and   
reprobating its  interference with the  
cautious deductions of science1 we must 
yet admit  that1 on this occasion1 its  
deliberations were not dictated by      
passion1  nor its power directed by     
vengeance4 ,though placed at their      
judgment-seat as a heretic1 ,galileo    
stood there with the recognised         
attributes of a sage2 and though an     
offender against the laws of which  they
 were the guardian1 yet the highest     
respect was yielded to his  genius1 and 
the kindest commiseration to his        
infirmities4    ,in the beginning of    
,april1 when his examination in person  
was to  commence1 it became necessary   
that he should be removed to the holy   
office2 but instead of committing him1  

as was the practice1 to solitary        
confinement1 he was provided with       
apartments in the house of the fiscal   
of the inquisition4 ,his table was      
provided by the ,tuscan ambassador1 and 
his servant was allowed to attend him at
 his pleasure1 and to sleep in  an      
adjoining apartment4 ,even this nominal 
confinement1 however1  ,galileo's high  
spirit was unable to brook4 ,an attack  
of the disease to  which he was         
constitutionally subject contributed to 
fret and irritate  him1 and he became   
impatient for a release from his anxiety
 as well as  from his bondage4 ,cardinal
 ,barberino seems to have received      
notice of  the state of ,galileo's      
feelings2 and with a magnanimity which  
posterity  will ever honour1 he         
liberated ,galileo on his own           
responsibility2 and in  ten days after  
his first examination1 and on the last  
day of ,april1 he  was restored to the  
hospitable roof of the ,tuscan          
ambassador4    ,though this favour was  

granted on the condition of his         
remaining in  strict seclusion1 ,galileo
 recovered his health1 and to a certain 
degree  his usual hilarity1 amid the    
kind attentions of ,niccolini and his   
family2 and when the want of exercise   
had begun to produce symptoms of        
indisposition1 ,niccolini obtained for  
him leave to go into the public  gardens
 in a half-closed carriage4    ,after   
the inquisition had examined ,galileo   
personally1 they allowed him  a         
reasonable time for preparing his       
defence4 ,he felt the difficulty of     
adducing any thing like a plausible     
justification of his conduct2 and he    
resorted to an ingenious1 though a      
shallow artifice1 which was regarded  by
 the court as an aggravation of the     
crime4 ,after his first appearance      
before the inquisition in #afaf1 he was 
publicly and falsely charged by  his    
enemies with having then abjured his    
opinions2 and he was taunted as  a      
criminal who had been actually punished 

for his offences4 ,as a  refutation of  
these calumnies4 ,cardinal ,bellarmine  
had given him a  certificate in his own 
handwriting1 declaring that he neither  
abjured  his opinions1 nor suffered     
punishment for them2 and that the       
doctrine of  the earth's motion1 and the
 sun's stability1 was only denounced to 
him  as contrary to scripture1 and as   
one which could not be defended4 ,to    
this certificate the cardinal did not   
add1 because he was not called  upon to 
do it1 that ,galileo was enjoined not to
 teach in any manner  the doctrine thus 
denounced2 and ,galileo ingeniously     
avails himself of  this supposed        
omission1 to account for his having1 in 
the lapse of  fourteen or sixteen years1
 forgotten the injunction4 ,he assigned 
the  same excuse for his having omitted 
to mention this injunction to           
,riccardi1 and to the inquisitor-general
 at ,florence1 when he obtained  the    
licence to print his dialogues4 ,the    
court held the production of  this      

certificate to be at once a proof and an
 aggravation of his  offence2 because   
the certificate itself declared that the
 obnoxious  doctrines had been          
pronounced contrary to the ,holy        
,scriptures4    ,having duly weighed the
 confessions and excuses of their       
prisoner1 and  considered the general   
merits of the case1 the inquisition came
 to an  agreement upon the sentence     
which they were to pronounce1 and       
appointed  the #bb;d of ,june as the day
 on which it was to be delivered4 ,two  
days  previous to this1 ,galileo was    
summoned to appear at the holy office2  
and  on the morning of the #bast1 he    
obeyed the summons4 ,on the #bb;d of    
,june he  was clothed in a penitential  
dress1 and conducted to the convent of  
,minerva1 where the inquisition was     
assembled to give judgment4 ,a long  and
 elaborate sentence was pronounced1     
detailing the former proceedings  of the
 inquisition1 and specifying the        
offences which he had committed  in     

teaching heretical doctrines1 in        
violating his former pledges1 and in    
obtaining by improper means a licence   
for the printing of his ,dialogues4     
,after an invocation of the name of our 
,saviour1 and of the ,holy ,virgin1     
,galileo is declared to have brought    
himself under strong suspicions of      
heresy1 and to have incurred all the    
censures and penalties which are        
enjoined against delinquents of this    
kind2 but from all these  consequences  
he is to be held absolved1 provided that
 with a sincere  heart1 and a faith     
unfeigned1 he abjures and curses the    
heresies he has  cherished1 as well as  
every other heresy against the ,catholic
 church4 ,in  order that his offence    
might not go altogether unpunished1 that
 he might  be more cautious in future1  
and be a warning to others to abstain   
from  similar delinquencies1 it was also
 decreed that his ,dialogues should be  
prohibited by public edict2 that he     
himself should be condemned to the      

prison of the inquisition during their  
pleasure1 and that during the  next     
three years he should recite once a week
 the seven penitential  psalms4    ,the 
ceremony of ,galileo's abjuration was   
one of exciting interest1 and  of awful 
formality4 ,clothed in the sackcloth of 
a repentant criminal1  the venerable    
sage fell upon his knees before the     
assembled cardinals2  and laying his    
hands upon the ,holy ,evangelists1 he   
invoked the divine  aid in abjuring and 
detesting1 and vowing never again to    
teach1 the  doctrine of the earth's     
motion1 and of the sun's stability4 ,he 
pledged  himself that he would never    
again1 either in words or in writing1   
propagate such heresies2 and he swore   
that he would fulfil and observe  the   
penances which had been inflicted upon  
him4#bi ,at the conclusion of  this     
ceremony1 in which he recited his       
abjuration word for word1 and  then     
signed it1 he was conveyed1 in          
conformity with his sentence1 to the    

prison of the inquisition4    ,the      
account which we have now given of the  
trial and the sentence of  ,galileo1 is 
pregnant with the deepest interest and  
instruction4 ,human  nature is here     
drawn in its darkest colouring2 and in  
surveying the  melancholy picture1 it is
 difficult to decide whether religion or
  philosophy has been most degraded4    
,while we witness the presumptuous      
priest pronouncing infallible the       
decrees of his own erring judgment1 we  
see the high-minded philosopher abjuring
 the eternal and immutable  truths which
 he had himself the glory of            
establishing4 ,in the ignorance  and    
prejudices of the age1--in a too literal
 interpretation of the  language of     
,scripture1--in a mistaken respect for  
the errors that had  become venerable   
from their antiquity1--and in the       
peculiar position  which ,galileo had   
taken among the avowed enemies of the   
church1 we may  find the elements of an 
apology1 however poor it may he1 for the

 conduct  of the inquisition4 ,but what 
excuse can we devise for the humiliating
  confession and abjuration of ,galileo8
 ,why did this master-spirit of the     
age--this high-priest of the stars--this
 representative of science--this  hoary 
sage1 whose career of glory was near its
 consummation1--why did he  reject the  
crown of martyrdom which he had himself 
coveted1 and which1  plaited with       
immortal laurels1 was about to descend  
upon his head8 ,if1  in place of        
disavowing the laws of nature1 and      
surrendering in his own  person the     
intellectual dignity of his species1 he 
had boldly owned the  truth of his      
opinions1 and confided his character to 
posterity1 and his  cause to an         
all-ruling ,providence1 he would have   
strung up the  hair-suspended sabre1 and
 disarmed for ever the hostility which  
threatened to overwhelm him4 ,the       
philosopher1 however1 was supported     
only by philosophy2 and in the love of  
truth he found a miserable  substitute  

for the hopes of the martyr4 ,galileo   
cowered under the fear  of man1 and his 
submission was the salvation of the     
church4 ,the sword of  the inquisition  
descended on his prostrate neck2 and    
though its stroke  was not physical1 yet
 it fell with a moral influence fatal to
 the  character of its victim1 and to   
the dignity of science4    ,in studying 
with attention this portion of          
scientific history1 the  reader will not
 fail to perceive that the church of    
,rome was driven into  a dilemma from   
which the submission and abjuration of  
,galileo could  alone extricate it4 ,he 
who confesses a crime and denounces its 
atrocity1  not only sanctions but       
inflicts the punishment which is annexed
 to it4  ,if ,galileo had declared his  
innocence1 and avowed his sentiments2   
and if  he had appealed to the past     
conduct of the church itself1 to the    
acknowledged opinions of its            
dignitaries1 and even to the acts of its
  pontiffs1 he would have at once       

confounded his accusers1 and escaped    
from their toils4 ,after ,copernicus1   
himself a catholic priest1 had  openly  
maintained the motion of the earth1 and 
the stability of the  sun3 after he had 
dedicated the work which advocated these
 opinions to  pope ,paul ,,iii41 on the 
express ground that the authority of the
  pontiff might silence the calumnies of
 those who attacked these  opinions by  
arguments drawn from ,scripture3 after  
the cardinal ,schonherg  and the bishop 
of ,culm had urged ,copernicus to       
publish the new  doctrines2 and after   
the bishop of ,ermeland had erected a   
monument to  commemorate his great      
discoveries2 how could the church of    
,rome have  appealed to its pontifical  
decrees as the ground of persecuting and
  punishing ,galileo8 ,even in later    
times1 the same doctrines had been      
propagated with entire toleration2 nay1 
in the very year of ,galileo's  first   
persecution1 ,paul ,anthony ,foscarinus1
 a learned ,carmelite monk1  wrote a    

pamphlet1 in which he illustrates and   
defends the mobility of  the earth1 and 
endeavours to reconcile to this new     
doctrine the passages  of ,scripture    
which had been employed to subvert it4  
,this very singular  production was     
dated from the ,carmelite convent at    
,naples2 was dedicated  to the very     
reverend ,sebastian ,fantoni1 general of
 the ,carmelite order2  and1 sanctioned 
by the ecclesiastical authorities1 it   
was published at  ,florence1 three years
 before the second persecution of       
,galileo4    ,by these acts1 tolerated  
for more than a century1 the decrees of 
the  pontiffs against the doctrine of   
the earth's motion were virtually       
repealed2 and ,galileo might have       
pleaded them with success in arrest of  
judgment4 ,unfortunately1 however1 for  
himself and for science1 he acted       
otherwise4 ,by admitting their          
authority1 he revived in fresh force    
these  obsolete and obnoxious           
enactments2 and1 by yielding to their   

power1 he  riveted for another century  
the almost broken chains of spiritual   
despotism4    ,pope ,urban ,,vii4 did   
not fail to observe the full extent of  
his triumph2  and he exhibited the      
utmost sagacity in the means which he   
employed to  secure it4 ,while he       
endeavoured to overawe the enemies of   
the church by  the formal promulgation  
of ,galileo's sentence and abjuration1  
and by  punishing the officials who had 
assisted in obtaining the licence to    
print his work1 he treated ,galileo with
 the utmost lenity1 and yielded  to     
every request that was made to diminish1
 and almost to suspend1 the  constraint 
under which he lay4 ,the sentence of    
abjuration was ordered to  be publicly  
read at several universities4 ,at       
,florence the ceremonial was  performed 
in the church of ,santa ,croce1 and the 
friends and disciples of  ,galileo were 
especially summoned to witness the      
public degradation of  their master4    
,the inquisitor at ,florence was ordered

 to be reprimanded  for his conduct2 and
 ,riccardi1 the master of the sacred    
palace1 and  ,ciampoli1 the secretary of
 pope ,urban himself1 were dismissed    
from their  situations4    ,galileo had 
remained only four days in the prison of
 the inquisition1  when1 on the         
application of ,niccolini1 the ,tuscan  
ambassador1 he was  allowed to reside   
with him in his palace4 ,as ,florence   
still suffered  under the contagious    
disease which we have already mentioned1
 it was  proposed that ,sienna should be
 the place of ,galileo's confinement1   
and  that his residence should be in one
 of the convents of that city4          
,niccolini1 however1 recommended the    
palace of the archbishop ,piccolomoni   
as a more suitable residence2 and though
 the archbishop was one of  ,galileo's  
best friends1 the pope agreed to the    
arrangement1 and in the  beginning of   
,july ,galileo quitted ,rome for        
,sienna4    ,after having spent nearly  
six months under the hospitable roof of 

his  friend1 with no other restraint    
than that of being confined to the      
limits of the palace1 ,galileo was      
permitted to return to his villa near   
,florence under the same restrictions2  
and as the contagious disease had       
disappeared in ,tuscany1 he was able in 
the month of ,december to re-enter  his 
own house at ,arcetri1 where he spent   
the remainder of his days4    ,although 
,galileo had now the happiness of       
rejoining his family under  their       
paternal roof1 yet1 like all sublunary  
blessings1 it was but of  short         
duration4 ,his favourite daughter       
,maria1 who along with her sister  had  
joined the convent of ,st4 ,matthew in  
the neighbourhood of ,arcetri1  had     
looked forward to the arrival of her    
father with the most  affectionate      
anticipation3 she hoped that her filial 
devotion might form  some compensation  
for the malignity of his enemies2 and   
she eagerly  assumed the labour of      
reciting weekly the seven penitentiary  

psalms  which formed part of her        
father's sentence4 ,these sacred duties1
  however1 were destined to terminate   
almost at the moment they were  begun4  
,she was seized with a fatal illness in 
the same month in which  she rejoined   
her parent1 and before the month of     
,april she was no more4  ,this heavy    
blow1 so suddenly struck1 overwhelmed   
,galileo in the deepest  agony4 ,owing  
to the decline of his health1 and the   
recurrence of his old  complaints1 he   
was unable to oppose to this mental     
suffering the  constitutional energy of 
his mind4 ,the bulwarks of his heart    
broke down1  and a flood of grief       
desolated his manly and powerful mind4  
,he felt1 as  he expressed it1 that he  
was incessantly called by his           
daughter1--his  pulse intermitted1--his 
heart was agitated with unceasing       
palpitations1--his appetite entirely    
left him1 and he considered his         
dissolution so near at hand1 that he    
would not permit his son ,vicenzo to    

set out upon a journey which he had     
contemplated4    ,from this state of    
melancholy and indisposition1 ,galileo  
slowly1 though  partially1 recovered2   
and1 with the view of obtaining medical 
assistance1 he requested leave to go to 
,florence4 ,his enemies1 however1       
refused this application1 and he was    
given to understand that any  additional
 importunities would be visited with a  
more vigilant  surveillance4 ,he        
remained1 therefore1 five years at      
,arcetri1 from #afcd  to #afch1 without 
any remission of his confinement1 and   
pursuing his  studies under the         
influence of a continued and general    
indisposition4    ,there is no reason to
 think that ,galileo or his friends     
renewed their  application to the church
 of ,rome2 but1 in #afch1 the pope      
transmitted1  through the inquisitor    
,fariano1 his permission that he might  
remove to  ,florence for the recovery of
 his health1 on the condition that he   
should  present himself at the office of

 the inquisitor to learn the terms upon 
which this indulgence was granted4      
,galileo accepted of the kindness thus  
unexpectedly proffered2 but the         
conditions upon which it was given were 
more severe than he expected3 he was    
prohibited from leaving his house1  or  
admitting his friends2 and so sternly   
was this system pursued1 that  he       
required a special order for attending  
mass during ,passion week4    ,the      
severity of this order was keenly felt  
by ,galileo4 ,while he remained  at     
,arcetri1 his seclusion from the world  
would have been an object of  choice1 if
 it had not been the decree of a        
tribunal2 but to be debarred  from the  
conversation of his friends in          
,florence1--in that city where  his     
genius had been idolised1 and where his 
fame had become immortal1  was an       
aggravation of punishment which he was  
unable to bear4 ,with his  accustomed   
kindness1 the grand duke made a strong  
representation on the  subject to his   

ambassador at the court of ,rome4 ,he   
stated that1 from his  great age and    
infirmities1 ,galileo's career was near 
its close2 that he  possessed many      
valuable ideas1 which the world might   
lose if they were  not matured and      
conveyed to his friends2 and that       
,galileo was anxious to  make these     
communications to father ,castelli1 who 
was then a stipendiary  of the court of 
,rome4 ,the grand duke commanded his    
ambassador to see  ,castelli on the     
subject2 to urge him to obtain leave    
from the pope to  spend a few months in 
,florence1 and to supply him with money1
 and every  thing that was necessary for
 his journey4 ,influenced by this kind  
and  liberal message4 ,castelli obtained
 an audience of the pope1 and  requested
 leave to pay a visit to ,florence4     
,urban instantly suspected  the object  
of his journey2 and1 upon ,castelli's   
acknowledging that he  could not        
possibly refrain from seeing ,galileo1  
he received permission  to visit him in 

the company of an officer of the        
inquisition4 ,castelli  accordingly went
 to ,florence2 and1 a few months        
afterwards1 ,galileo was  ordered to    
return to ,arcetri4    ,during          
,galileo's confinement at ,sienna and   
,arcetri1 between #afcc and  #afcf1 his 
time was principally occupied in the    
composition of his  ,dialogues on ,local
 ,motion4 ,this remarkable work1 which  
was considered  by its author as the    
best of his productions1 was printed by 
,louis  ,elzevir1 at ,amsterdam1 and    
dedicated to the count de ,noailles1 the
  ,french ambassador at ,rome4 ,various 
attempts to have it printed in  ,germany
 had failed2 and1 in order to save      
himself from the malignity of  his      
enemies1 he was obliged to pretend that 
the edition published in  ,holland had  
been printed from a ,,ms4 entrusted to  
the ,french ambassador4    ,although    
,galileo had for a long time abandoned  
his astronomical studies1  yet his      
attention was directed1 about the year  

#afcf1 to a curious  appearance in the  
lunar disc1 which is known by the name  
of the moons  libration4 ,when we       
examine with a telescope the outline of 
the moon1 we  observe that certain parts
 of her disc1 which are seen at one     
time1 are  invisible at another4 ,this  
change or libration is of four different
  kinds2 viz4 the diurnal libration1 the
 libration in longitude1 the  libration 
in latitude1 and the spheroidal         
libration4 ,galileo discovered  the     
first of these kinds of libration1 and  
appears to have had some  knowledge of  
the second2 but the third was discovered
 by ,hevelius1 and  the fourth by       
,lagrange4#cj    ,this curious discovery
 was the result of the last telescopic  
observations of ,galileo4 ,although his 
right eye had for some years lost  its  
power1 yet his general vision was       
sufficiently perfect to enable him  to  
carry on his usual researches4 ,in      
#afcf1 however1 this affection of  his  
eye became more serious2 and1 in #afcg1 

his left eye was attacked  with the same
 disease4 ,his medical friends at first 
supposed that  cataracts were formed in 
the crystalline lens1 and anticipated a 
cure  from the operation of couching4   
,these hopes were fallacious4 ,the      
disease  turned out to be in the cornea1
 and every attempt to restore its       
transparency was fruitless4 ,in a few   
months the white cloud covered the      
whole aperture of the pupil1 and        
,galileo became totally blind4 ,this    
sudden and unexpected calamity had      
almost overwhelmed ,galileo and his     
friends4 ,in writing to a correspondent 
he exclaims1 ,alas6 your dear  friend   
and servant has become totally and      
irreparably blind4 ,these  heavens1 this
 earth1 this universe1 which by         
wonderful observation ,i had  enlarged a
 thousand times beyond the belief of    
past ages1 are henceforth  shrunk into  
the narrow space which ,i myself occupy4
 ,so it pleases ,god2  it shall1        
therefore1 please me also4 ,his friend1 

father ,castelli1  deplores the calamity
 in the same tone of pathetic           
sublimity3--,the  noblest eye1 says he1 
which nature ever made1 is darkened2 an 
eye so  privileged1 and gifted with such
 rare powers1 that it may truly be said 
to have seen more than the eyes of all  
that are gone1 and to have opened  the  
eyes of all that are to come4           
,although ,galileo had been thwarted in 
his attempt to introduce into the       
,spanish marine his new method of       
finding the longitude at sea1 yet he    
never lost sight of an object to which  
he attached the highest  importance4 ,as
 the formation of correct tables of the 
motion of  ,jupiter's satellites was a  
necessary preliminary to its            
introduction1 he  had occupied himself  
for twenty-four years in observations   
for this  purpose1 and he had made      
considerable progress in this laborious 
task4  ,after the publication of his    
,dialogues on ,motion1 in #afcf1 he     
renewed  his attempts to bring his      

method into actual use4 ,for this       
purpose he  addressed himself to        
,lorenzo ,real1 who had been the ,dutch 
governor-general in ,india1 and offered 
the free use of his method to the       
states-general of ,holland4#ca ,the     
,dutch government received this         
proposal with an anxious desire to have 
it carried into effect4 ,at the         
instigation of ,constantine ,huygens1   
the father of the illustrious  ,huygens1
 and the secretary to the prince of     
,orange1 they appointed  commissioners  
to communicate with ,galileo2 and while 
they transmitted  him a gold chain as a 
mark of their esteem1 they at the same  
time  assured him1 that if his plan     
should prove successful it should not   
pass  unrewarded4 ,the commissioners    
entered into an active correspondence   
with  ,galileo1 and had even appointed  
one of their number to communicate      
personally with him in ,italy4 ,lest    
this1 however1 should excite the        
jealousy of the court of ,rome1 ,galileo

 objected to the arrangement1 so  that  
the negotiation was carried on solely by
 correspondence4    ,it was at this time
 that ,galileo was struck with          
blindness4 ,his friend  and pupil1      
,renieri1 undertook1 in this emergency1 
to arrange and  complete his            
observations and calculations2 but      
before he had made much  progress in the
 arduous task1 each of the four         
commissioners died in  succession1 and  
it was with great difficulty that       
,constantine ,huygens  succeeded in     
renewing the scheme4 ,it was again      
obstructed1 however1 by  the death of   
,galileo2 and when ,renieri was about to
 publish1 by the  order of the grand    
duke1 the ,ephemeris1 and ,tables of the
 ,jovian  ,planets1 he was attacked with
 a mortal disease1 and the manuscripts  
of  ,galileo1 which he was on the eve of
 publishing1 were never more heard  of4 
,by such a series of misfortunes were   
the plans of ,galileo and of the        
states-general completely overthrown4   

,it is some consolation1 however1  to   
know that neither science nor navigation
 suffered any severe loss4              
,notwithstanding the perfection of our  
present tables of ,jupiter's            
satellites1 and of the astronomical     
instruments by which their eclipses  may
 be observed1 the method of ,galileo is 
still impracticable at sea4    ,in      
consequence of the strict seclusion to  
which ,galileo had been  subjected1 he  
was in the practice of dating his       
letters from his prison  at ,arcetri3   
but after he had lost the use of his    
eyes1 the ,inquisition  seems to have   
relaxed its severity1 and to have       
allowed him the freest  intercourse with
 his friends4 ,the grand duke of        
,tuscany paid him  frequent visits2 and 
among the celebrated strangers who came 
from  distant lands to see the ornament 
of ,italy1 were ,gassendi1 ,deodati1 and
  our illustrious countryman ,milton4   
,during the last three years of his     
life1 his eminent pupil ,viviani formed 

one of his family2 and in  ,october1    
#afaa1 the celebrated ,torricelli1      
another of his pupils1 was  admitted to 
the same distinction4    ,though the    
powerful mind of ,galileo still retained
 its vigour1 yet his  debilitated frame 
was exhausted with mental labour4 ,he   
often complained  that his head was too 
busy for his body2 and the continuity of
 his  studies was frequently broken with
 attacks of hypochondria1 want of       
sleep1 and acute rheumatic pains4 ,along
 with these calamities1 he was          
afflicted with another still more       
severe--with deafness almost total2  but
 though he was now excluded from all    
communication with the external  world1 
yet his mind still grappled with the    
material universe1 and while  he was    
studying the force of percussion1 and   
preparing for a  continuation of his    
,dialogues on ,motion1 he was attacked  
with fever  and palpitation of the      
heart1 which1 after continuing two      
months1  terminated fatally on the #hth 

of ,january1 #afdb1 in the #ghth year of
 his  age4    ,having died in the       
character of a prisoner of the          
,inquisition1 this  odious tribunal     
disputed his right of making a will1 and
 of being buried  in consecrated ground4
 ,these objections1 however1 were       
withdrawn2 but  though a large sum was  
subscribed for erecting a monument to   
him in the  church of ,santa ,croce1 in 
,florence1 the pope would not permit the
 design  to be carried into execution4  
,his sacred remains were1 therefore1    
deposited in an obscure corner of the   
church1 and remained for more than      
thirty years unmarked with any          
monumental tablet4 ,the following       
epitaph1  given without any remark in   
the ,leyden edition of his ,dialogues1  
is1 we  presume1 the one which was      
inscribed on a tablet in the church of  
,santa  ,croce3--      ,,galil,o        
,,galil,i ,,fiorentino1  ,philosopho et 
,geometr vere lynceo1  ,natura dipo1    
,mirabilium semper inventorum           

machinatori1  ,qui inconcessa adhuc     
mortalibus gloria  ,clorum provincias   
auxit  ,et universo dedit incrementum3  
,non enim vitreos spherarum orbes       
,fragilesque stellas conflavit3  ,sed   
terna mundi corpore  ,medice            
beneficentiae dedicavit1  ,cujus        
inextincta glori cupiditas  ,ut oculos  
nationum  ,sculorumque omnium  ,videre  
doceret1  ,proprios impendit oculos4    
,cum jam nil amplius haberet natura     
,quod ipse videret4  ,cujus inventa vix 
intra rerum limites comprehensa         
,firmamentum ipsum non solum continet1  
,sed etiam recipit4  ,qui relictis tot  
scientiarum monumentis  ,plura secum    
tulit1 quam reliquit4  ,gravi enim  ,sed
 nondum affecta senectute1  ,novis      
contemplationibus  ,majorem gloriam     
affectans  ,inexplebilem sapienti animam
  ,immaturo nobis obi tu  ,exhalavit    
,anno ,domini  ,,mcxlii4  tatis su      
,,lxxviii4      ,at his death1 in #agjc1
 ,viviani purchased his property1 with  
the charge  of erecting a monument over 

,galileo's remains and his own4 ,this   
design  was not carried into effect till
 #agcg1 at the expense of the family of 
,nelli1 when both their bodies were     
disinterred1 and removed to the site  of
 the splendid monument which now covers 
them4 ,this monument contains  the bust 
of ,galileo1 with figures of ,geometry  
and ,astronomy4 ,it was  designed by    
,giulio ,foggini4 ,galileo's bust was   
executed by ,giovanni  ,battista        
,foggini2 the figure of ,astronomy by   
,vincenzio ,foggini1 his son2  and that 
of ,geometry by ,girolamo ,ticciati4    
,galileo's house at ,arcetri still      
remains4 ,in #ahba it belonged to one   
,signor ,alimari1 having been preserved 
in the state in which it was left  by   
,galileo2 it stands very near the       
convent of ,st4 ,matthew1 and about a   
mile to the ,s4 ,e4 of ,florence4 ,an   
inscription by ,nelli1 over the door of 
the house1 still remains4    ,the       
character of ,galileo1 whether we view  
him as a member of the social  circle1  

or as a man of science1 presents many   
interesting and  instructive points of  
contemplation4 ,unfortunate1 and to a   
certain  extent immoral1 in his domestic
 relations1 he did not derive from that 
hallowed source all the enjoyments which
 it generally yields2 and it was  owing 
to this cause1 perhaps1 that he was more
 fond of society than  might have been  
expected from his studious habits4 ,his 
habitual  cheerfulness and gaiety1 and  
his affability and frankness of manner1 
rendered him an universal favourite     
among his friends4 ,without any of  the 
pedantry of exclusive talent1 and       
without any of that ostentation  which  
often marks the man of limited though   
profound acquirements1  ,galileo never  
conversed upon scientific or            
philosophical subjects except  among    
those who were capable of understanding 
them4 ,the extent of his  general       
information1 indeed1 his great literary 
knowledge1 but1 above  all1 his         
retentive memory1 stored with the       

legends and the poetry of  ancient      
times1 saved him from the necessity of  
drawing upon his own  peculiar studies  
for the topics of his conversation4     
,galileo was not less distinguished for 
his hospitality and benevolence2  he was
 liberal to the poor1 and generous in   
the aid which he  administered to men of
 genius and talent1 who often found a   
comfortable  asylum under his roof4 ,in 
his domestic economy he was frugal      
without  being parsimonious4 ,his       
hospitable board was ever ready for the 
reception of his friends2 and1 though he
 was himself abstemious in his  diet1 he
 seems to have been a lover of good     
wines1 of which he received  always the 
choicest varieties out of the grand     
duke's cellar4 ,this  peculiar taste1   
together with his attachment to a       
country life1 rendered  him fond of     
agricultural pursuits1 and induced him  
to devote his leisure  hours to the     
cultivation of his vineyards4    ,in his
 personal appearance ,galileo was about 

the middle size1 and of a  square-built1
 but well-proportioned1 frame4 ,his     
complexion was fair1 his  eyes          
penetrating1 and his hair of a reddish  
hue4 ,his expression was  cheerful and  
animated1 and though his temper was     
easily ruffled1 yet the  excitement was 
transient1 and the cause of it speedily 
forgotten4    ,one of the most prominent
 traits in the character of ,galileo was
 his  invincible love of truth1 and his 
abhorrence of that spiritual despotism  
which had so long brooded over ,europe4 
,his views1 however1 were too  liberal1 
and too far in advance of the age which 
he adorned2 and however  much we may    
admire the noble spirit which he        
evinced1 and the personal  sacrifices   
which he made1 in his struggle for      
truth1 we must yet lament  the hotness  
of his zeal and the temerity of his     
onset4 ,in his contest  with the church 
of ,rome1 he fell under her victorious  
banner2 and though  his cause was that  
of truth1 and hers that of superstition1

 yet the  sympathy of ,europe was not   
roused by his misfortunes4 ,under the   
sagacious and peaceful sway of          
,copernicus1 astronomy had effected a   
glorious triumph over the dogmas of the 
church2 but under the bold and          
uncompromising sceptre of ,galileo all  
her conquests were irrecoverably  lost4 
,the scientific character of ,galileo1  
and his method of investigating  truth1 
demand our warmest admiration4 ,the     
number and ingenuity of his  inventions2
 the brilliant discoveries which he made
 in the heavens1 and  the depth and     
beauty of his researches respecting the 
laws of motion1  have gained him the    
admiration of every succeeding age1 and 
have placed  him next to ,newton in the 
lists of original and inventive genius4 
,to  this high rank he was doubtless    
elevated by the inductive processes     
which he followed in all his inquiries4 
,under the sure guidance of  observation
 and experiment1 he advanced to general 
laws2 and if ,bacon  had never lived1   

the student of nature would have found1 
in the writings  and labours of         
,galileo1 not only the boasted          
principles of the inductive  philosophy1
 but also their practical application to
 the highest efforts  of invention and  
discovery4      ,footnote #a3 ,childe   
,harold1 canto ,,iv4 stanza ,,liv4      
,footnote #b3 ,life of ,galileo1        
,library of ,useful ,knowledge1 p4 #a4  
,footnote #c3 ,de ,insidentibus in      
,fluido4    ,footnote #d3 ,opere di     
,galileo4 ,milano1 #ahaj1 vol4 ,,iv4 p4 
#bdh4    ,footnote #e3 ,life of         
,galileo1 in ,library of ,useful        
,knowledge1 p4 #i4    ,footnote #f3     
,systema ,cosmicum1 ,dial4 ,,ii4 p4     
#aba4    ,footnote #g3 ,the authenticity
 of this work has been doubted4 ,it was 
printed at ,rome1 in #afef1 from a ,,ms4
 in the library of ,somasohi1 at        
,venice4 ,see ,opere di ,galileo1 tom4  
,,vii4 p4 #dbg4    ,footnote #h3        
,incredibili animi jucunditate4--,sid4  
,footnote #i3 ,nescio quo fato ductus4  

,footnote #aj3 ,berlin ,ephemeris1      
#aghh4    ,footnote #aa3 ,edin4 ,phil4  
,journ4 vol4 ,,vi4 p4 #cac4    ,footnote
 #ab3 ,life and ,correspondence of ,dr4 
,bradley4 ,oxford1 #ahcb1 p4  #ebc4     
,footnote #ac3 ,see page #bb4           
,footnote #ad3 ,edin4 ,phil4 ,journ4    
#ahbb1 vol4 ,,vi4 p4 #cag4    ,footnote 
#ae3 ,joh4 ,fabricii ,phrysii de        
,maculis in ,sole observatis1 et        
apparente earum cum ,sole conversione1  
,narratio4 ,wittemb4 #afaa4    ,footnote
 #af3 ,it does not appear from the      
history of solar observations1  at what 
time1 and by whom1 coloured glasses were
 first introduced for  permitting the   
eye to look at the sun with impunity4   
,fabricius was  obviously quite ignorant
 of the use of coloured glasses4 ,he    
observed the  sun when he was in the    
horizon1 and when his brilliancy was    
impaired by  the interposition of thin  
clouds and floating vapours2 and he     
advises  those who may repeat his       
observations1 to admit at first to the  

eye a  small portion of the sun's light1
 till it is gradually accustomed to its 
full splendour4 ,when the sun's altitude
 became considerable1 ,fabricius  gave  
up his observations2 which he often     
continued so long1 that he was  scarcely
 able1 for two days together1 to see    
objects with their usual  distinctness4 
,scheiner1 in his ,apelles post         
,tabulanti1 describes four different    
ways  of viewing the spots3 one of which
 is by the interposition of blue or     
green glasses4 ,his first method was to 
observe the sun near the  horizon2 the  
second was to view him through a        
transparent cloud2 the  third was to    
look at him through his telescope with a
 blue or a green  glass of a proper     
thickness1 and plane on both sides1 or  
to use a thin  blue glass when the sun  
was covered with a thin vapour or cloud2
 and the  fourth method was to begin and
 observe the sun at his margin1 till the
  eye gradually reached the middle of   
his disc4    ,footnote #ag3 ,see        

,istoria e ,demostrazioni1 intorna alle 
macchie solari4  ,roma1 #afac4 ,see     
,opere di ,galileo1 vol4 ,v4 p4         
#aca-bic4    ,footnote #ah3 ,discorso   
intorno alle cose che stanno in sa      
l'acqua1 o che  in quella si muovono4   
,opere di ,galileo1 vol4 ,,ii4 pp4      
#afe-caa4    ,footnote #ai3 ,opere di   
,galileo1 vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #cee-cfg4      
,footnote #bj3 ,ibid4 #cfg-cij4         
,footnote #ba3 ,these three treatises   
occupy the whole of the third volume  of
 the ,opere di ,galileo4    ,footnote   
#bb3 ,it is said that ,galileo was cited
 to appear at ,rome on  this occasion2  
and the opinion is not without          
foundation4    ,footnote #bc3 ,printed  
in the ,opere di ,galileo1 vol4 ,,vi4   
pp4 #aag-aia4    ,footnote #bd3 ,printed
 in the ,opere di ,galileo1 vol4 ,,vi4  
pp4 #aia-ega4    ,footnote #be3 ,this   
work is said to have been dedicated to  
,urban ,,viii4  himself 7,lib4 ,u4      
,knowledge1 ,life of ,galileo1 chap1    
,,vii471 but there is  no dedication    

prefixed to the edition we have referred
 to2 and it is1  besides1 unusual to    
dedicate a volume to any person when    
that volume has  the form of a letter to
 another4    ,footnote #bf3 ,a fine     
painting in gold1 and a silver medal1   
and a good  quantity of agnus dei4      
,footnote #bg3 ,library of ,useful      
,knowledge1 ,life of ,galileo1 chap4    
,,viii4    ,footnote #bh3 ,the          
communication between ,florence and     
,rome was at this  time interrupted by a
 contagious disease which had broken out
 in  ,tuscany4    ,footnote #bi3 ,it has
 been said1 but upon what authority we  
cannot find1  that when ,galileo rose   
from his knees1 he stamped on the       
ground1 and  said in a whisper to one of
 his friends1 ,e pur si muove4 ,it does 
move1 though4--,life of ,galileo1 ,lib4 
,use4 ,knowledge1 part ,,ii4 p4 #fc4    
,footnote #cj3 ,these phenomena are     
explained in the volume on  ,astronomy4 
,footnote #ca3 ,it is a curious fact1   
that ,morin had about this time         

proposed to determine the longitude by  
the moon's distance from a fixed  star1 
and that the commissioners assembled in 
,paris to examine it1  requested        
,galileo's opinion of its value and     
practicability4 ,galileo's  opinion was 
highly unfavourable4 ,he saw clearly1   
and explained  distinctly1 the objection
 to ,morin's method1 arising from the   
imperfection of the lunar tables1 and   
the inadequacy of astronomical          
instruments2 but he seemed not to be    
conscious that the very same  objections
 applied1 with even greater force1 to   
his own method1 which  has since been   
supplanted by that of the ,french       
savant4 ,see life of  ,galileo1 ,library
 of ,useful ,knowledge1 p4 #id4         
,,guicciardini    #adhb-aedj4           
,guicciardini was the contemporary and  
intimate friend of ,machiavelli1  but   
their several careers bore small        
similitude2 for worldly prosperity      
attended the first1 while the other was 
depressed by neglect and penury2  and   

while his intellect struggled with these
 chains1 the nobler parts of  his       
disposition yielded to them4            
,machiavelli was a republican in        
principle1 of humble for tunes1 and     
dependent on his friends for their      
favour and encouragement4 ,guicciardini 
was a courtier2 he was the  servant of a
 prince1 not of a state2 in birth and   
position in life he  had the advantage  
of his friend2 and these combining      
circumstances  rendered him more        
confident in himself1 while at the same 
time it  inspired him with an avowed    
dislike for popular governments4    ,the
 ,guicciardini formed one of the noblest
 families of ,florence3 it was  of      
ancient origin1 and possessed several   
magnificent mansions in  ,florence4 ,one
 of the streets is named de'            
,guicciardini1 from containing  a palace
 belonging to them2 and they had large  
possessions in the ,val di  ,pesa4      
,francesco1 the subject of this memoir1 
was the son of ,piero de'               

,guicciardini1 a celebrated advocate1   
and at one time commissary-general  to  
the ,florentine army4 ,francesco was one
 of eight children4 ,his mother  was    
,simona1 daughter of the cavaliere      
,bongiani ,gianfigliazzi1 a noble       
,florentine4 ,he was born on the #fth of
 ,march1 #adhb4cb ,he was educated  with
 care by the best masters1 and taught   
,greek and ,latin4 ,he applied  himself1
 as he grew up1 to the study of logic   
and of civil law1 as he  was destined   
for the robe4 ,he was sent to ,ferrara  
by his father1 not  merely for the sake 
of attending the teachers there1 but    
that his parent  might have a place of  
refuge1 where to send his property1 in  
the event  of civil disturbance or      
external attack upon ,florence4 ,large  
sums of  money were remitted to him1 and
 he boasts of the trustworthiness of his
  conduct on this occasion1 despite his 
extreme youth4 ,it was in agitation  at 
one time to make him a priest1 as1      
through the interest of an uncle1  who  

was rich in benefices1 a prosperous     
career was opened to him in the  church4
 ,he was himself inclined towards the   
clerical profession1 as one  full of    
honour and dignity2 but his father      
decided against it1 and  resolved that  
none of his five sons should enter the  
priesthood2 partly  induced by the      
notion that the papal power was on the  
decline1 and  partly from a             
conscientious feeling of the impropriety
 of adopting the  sacred calling1 merely
 for the sake of temporal advantages4   
,instead1  therefore1 of assuming the   
sacerdotal garb1 ,francesco took a      
doctor's  degree in law1 and at an early
 age was appointed by the government to 
read the ,institute in the university of
 ,florence4 ,he married the  following  
year4 ,his wife was ,maria1 daughter of 
,alamanno di ,averardo  ,salviati1 one  
of the first men of the city4 ,several  
law offices were  bestowed on him1 and  
he prides himself at this success in    
early life4  ,but he felt himself still 

more honoured1 when he was sent by the  
republic as ambassador to ,ferdinand1   
king of ,aragon4 ,italy was then the    
arena on which the adverse powers of    
,france1 ,germany1 and ,spain  contended
 for mastery4 ,florence adhered to the  
,french party1 but the  timid           
gonfaloniere ,soderini1 desirous of     
currying favour on all sides1  thought  
it right to preserve a good             
understanding with ,ferdinand4          
,francesco1 feeling his inexperience1   
shrunk from the responsibility of  this 
mission1 and did not accept it1 till his
 father added his commands  to those of 
the state4    ,he remained two years at 
,burgos1 in attendance on the ,spanish  
court1  conducting himself in such a way
 as to acquire the esteem of ,ferdinand1
  who presented him with a number of    
silver vessels of great value on his    
departure4 ,this was no good school for 
the acquirement of political  integrity4
 ,the ,italians were proverbially       
treacherous1 but ,ferdinand  emulated   

them in the arts of deception4 ,it is   
related of this monarch1  that when he  
heard that ,louis ,,xii4 complained of  
having been twice  deceived by him1 he  
exclaimed1 ,the fool lies1 ,i have      
tricked him above  ten times4           
,meanwhile the aspect of affairs changed
 at ,florence4 ,the ,french were  driven
 from ,italy1 and the republic paid the 
penalty of the weak and  disarmed       
neutrality which it had preserved1 by   
being forced by the  allied armies to   
receive back the exiled ,medici4 ,the   
consequence of this  return was a change
 of government1 from that of a free     
state1 to  subjection to the will of a  
single family4 ,guicciardini acted with 
a  prudence that acquired for him the   
favour of the new rulers2 and1 on his   
return from ,spain1 was received with   
every suitable mark of distinction4     
,his joy1 however1 on returning to his  
native town1 was clouded by the  recent 
death of his father4    ,on the event of
 the visit of ,leo ,x4 to ,florence1    

attended by a numerous  retinue of      
cardinals1 ,guicciardini1 who had lately
 filled the office of  magistrate1 was  
sent1 with others1 to receive the pope  
at ,cortona4 ,leo  was so struck by him1
 that the next day he named him his     
consistorial  advocate1 of his own      
accord1 without solicitation3 nor did   
his patronage  stop here2 he soon after 
took him entirely into his service1 and 
finding  that his prudence and sagacity 
were equal to the good opinion he had   
formed of him1 he made him governor of  
,reggio and ,modena4 ,he acquitted      
himself with great credit in this high  
office4 ,having been educated for  the  
robe1 instead of the career of arms1 the
 enemies of the pope  cherished the     
notion1 that he might be surprised and  
frightened in his  government2 but his  
firmness and judgment disconcerted all  
their  stratagems4    ,when ,leo ,x4    
died1 the merits of ,guicciardini became
 yet more  conspicuous4 ,the papal power
 was very infirmly established in       

,lombardy1  and the duke of ,ferrara1   
who claimed ,modena and ,reggio as his  
own1 was  on the alert to take advantage
 of the interval of weakness caused by a
  delay in the election of a new pope2  
but ,guicciardini foiled him in all  his
 attempts4 ,his most memorable action on
 this occasion was his defence  of      
,parma4 ,he relates it with conscious   
pride in his history4 ,he had been  sent
 by cardinal ,julius de' ,medici to     
defend ,parma from an attack made  by   
the ,french4 ,guicciardini's chief      
difficulty was1 to inspire the  citizens
 with resolution and martial enthusiasm4
 ,he convoked them  together1           
distributed pikes among them1 and       
causing the defenceless part  of the    
town1 on one side of the river1 to be   
abandoned1 made strenuous  efforts to   
intrench the other4 ,the enemy entered  
the deserted portion1  and the people   
were eager to surrender4 ,guicciardini  
pointed out to them  the fact1 that the 
hostile forces were unprovided with     

artillery1 and so  succeeded in         
inspiring them with some degree of      
resolution3 he led the  attack himself1 
and the success that attended their     
sortie increasing  their courage1 the   
enemy was driven1 off and the siege     
raised4 ,federigo  da ,bozzole1 who     
commanded the attack1 had made sure of  
success1 and  declared that he had been 
deceived in nothing during the          
expedition1  except in the notion that a
 governor1 who was not a soldier1 and   
who had  newly come to the city1 should 
carry on the defence at his own peril1  
when he might have saved himself without
 dishonour4    ,when cardinal ,julius   
became pope1 under the name of ,clement 
,,vii41 he  showed his approbation of   
,guicciardini1 by naming him president  
of  ,romagna1 with greater powers than  
had been enjoyed by any predecessor in  
that office3 thus1 a large portion of   
,italy north of the ,apennines was      
under his rule4 ,it was a situation of  
honour1 but attended with an equal      

portion of difficulty and labour1 from  
the unsettled state of the  country4    
,prudence and firmness1 and even        
severity1 were the  characteristics of  
,guicciardini's administration2 he was  
unrelenting  towards criminals1 but at  
the same time became very popular1 in   
,modena  especially1 by the attention he
 paid to the comfort and pleasures of   
the  people1 and the embellishments he  
bestowed on the city4    ,at this time  
the ,french were again1 after the battle
 of ,pavia1 driven  from ,italy1 and    
,clement ,,vii41 afraid of the          
overweening power of ,charles  ,v41     
formed a league against him4 ,the duke  
of ,urbino was chief over the  army of  
the league1 and ,guicciardini was named 
lieutenant-general of the  pontifical   
army in the ecclesiastical states4 ,the 
choice that had been  made of the duke  
of ,urbino1 as chief leader1 was        
injudicious4 ,he had  been driven from  
his states by ,leo ,x42 ,lorenzo de'    
,medici had been  gifted with his duchy1

 and he naturally was inimical to his   
rival's  family4 ,his irresolute1       
shuffling conduct during the disastrous 
advance  of the constable ,bourbon on   
,rome1 was doubtless a principal cause  
of the  sack of that city4              
,guicciardini1 as general of the papal  
army1 exerted  himself in vain to induce
 him to more energetic measures3 instead
 of  throwing himself before the        
advancing army of the imperialists1 he  
slowly followed it4 ,when ,bourbon was  
in the neighbourhood of ,arezzo1 the    
duke of ,urbino entered ,florence4      
,the power of the ,medici was odious in 
that city4 ,a formidable party1  whose  
watchword was liberty1 regarded with    
triumph the dangers to which  ,clement  
,,vii4 was exposed4 ,a number of the    
younger nobility among them  took       
occasion of the alarm excited1 to seize 
on the palace of  government4 ,the duke 
of ,urbino prepared to attack it1 but   
first sent  ,federigo da ,bozzole to    
treat with the party who held it4 ,full 

of  enthusiasm and courage1 the young   
men refused all terms1 and ,bozzole     
left them1 enraged at their obstinacy   
and their personal ill-treatment  of    
himself4 ,guicciardini perceived the    
dangers that threatened his  country4   
,it was an easy task for the duke of    
,urbino to attack the palace  of        
government1 to destroy it and all those 
within2 but an act of  violence and     
bloodshed was to be avoided4            
,guicciardini hastened forward  to meet 
,bozzole as he left the palace1 and     
represented to him briefly  how         
displeasing such a contest would be to  
the pope1 and how detrimental  to the   
confederates2 and how much better it    
would be to calm1 instead of            
exasperating1 the mind of the duke of   
,urbino4 ,bozzole yielded1 and gave     
hope to the duke that quiet might be    
restored without recourse being had  to 
arms2 pacific means were in consequence 
resorted to1 and the  insurgents induced
 to quit the palace4 ,guicciardini      

relates this  circumstance and his      
interference with pride1 in the belief  
that he had  done his country as well as
 the pope good service1 but he adds1    
that he  got no thanks from either side2
 the ,medici party accusing him of      
preferring the lives and safety of the  
citizens to the firm  establishment of  
that family2 while the other party      
declared that he had  exaggerated their 
difficulties1 and caused them needlessly
 to yield  their advantages4    ,it had 
been well for the fame of ,guicciardini1
 if he had submitted to  the blame of   
his contemporaries1 and secured the     
approbation of  posterity1 by adhering  
to a line of conduct so impartial and   
patriotic4  ,although the fall of the   
,medici was suspended for a short time  
on this  occasion1 the taking of ,rome  
decided their expulsion4 ,when the duke 
of  ,urbino went southward to deliver   
the pope1 besieged in the ,castel ,sant'
  ,angelo1 the ,florentines seized the  
opportunity to drive out the ,medici1   

and to restore the freedom of their     
government4 ,the wars carried on by     
,clement ,,vii4 had weighed heavily on  
the republic1 since he drew from it  his
 chief resources2 the people were thus  
exasperated against his rule1  and now  
that they possessed the power1 displayed
 their hatred of his  family by many    
acts of outrage4 ,to have served them   
was to share their  disgrace1 and the   
odium with which they were regarded4 ,it
 has been  related how ,machiavelli1    
republican as he was1 and personally    
attached  to many of the leaders of the 
popular party1 was unable to overcome   
the  prejudice excited by his having    
entered the service of the ,medici4     
,guicciardini was visited by more open  
marks of the dislike of the new         
leaders2 and he was the more angry      
because he had displayed a wish to  join
 them4 ,he neither loved nor esteemed   
,clement2 whom he represents as  timid2 
avaricious1 and ungracious4 ,he regarded
 his imprisonment by the  imperialists  

with very lukewarm interest1 and even   
raised soldiers for  the defence of     
,florence3 but these demonstrations did 
not avail to  acquire for him the       
confidence of his countrymen1 and he was
 forced to  fly the town during a       
popular tumult4 ,hence seems to spring  
his hatred  of free institutions1 and   
his subsequent conduct in aiding in the 
destruction of the liberties of his     
country4 ,from this time he entered     
with all the zeal of personal resentment
 into the cause of the ,medici4  ,his   
name has thus received a taint never to 
be effaced4 ,he became the  abettor of  
tyrants1 the oppressor of his fellow    
citizens2 and that  equity and firmness 
which he before exercised2 by           
establishing order in  the districts    
over which he presided1 were changed to 
the persecution of  the martyrs of      
liberty4#cc ,it is impossible to slur   
over this portion  of his life as he    
does himself4 ,for it is remarkable that
 the only  events recorded in his       

history1 which are narrated in a        
slovenly and  confused manner1 are those
 in which he took a principal           
share1--the  second restoration of the  
,medici1 and the final overthrow of the 
liberties of ,florence4    ,when a      
reconciliation had been patched up      
between ,charles ,v4 and ,clement       
,,vii41 the force of their united arms  
was turned against ,florence4 ,the      
republic was headed by gallant spirits1 
who1 seeing their last hope of  freedom 
in a successful resistance1 exerted     
every nerve to defend  themselves4 ,they
 were willing to suffer any extremity1  
rather than  submit to a slavery which  
must crush for ever the proud           
independence and  free institutions of  
their native city4 ,guicciardini had    
been named by  the pope1 governor of    
,bologna1 and took no part in the war   
against his  country2 but he is accused 
of participating in the iniquitous      
proceedings which followed the surrender
 of the city4 ,the pope acted  with the 

utmost treachery4 ,he granted generous  
terms2 but when in  possession1 held a  
mock assembly of the people1 keeping    
off1 by means of  the troops he         
introduced1 all the citizens1 except    
those prepared to  receive law at his   
hands4 ,he thus1 as it were1 obtained a 
legal decree1  which changed the form of
 government1 and denounced its late     
leaders4  ,executions and confiscations 
became the order of the day2 the chief  
power was placed in the hands of        
,vettori1 ,guicciardini1 and two others1
  and their conduct entailed on them the
 execration of their fellow  citizens4  
,so zealous did ,guicciardini show      
himself1 that the pope entrusted him    
with the office of reforming and        
restricting the list of candidates1 who 
were selected to be members of          
government1 and he displayed his        
prudence  and sagacity for the reigning 
family at the expense of the lives and  
liberties of the most virtuous among his
 fellow citizens4 ,under his  auspices1 

the office of gonfaloniere1 which had   
subsisted for #bej years1  was          
abolished1 and ,alessandro de' ,medici  
was named duke1 which title was  to     
descend in perpetuity to his successors4
 ,this miserable man was the  son of a  
negro woman1 and regarded as the        
offspring of ,lorenzo1 the son  of      
,piero de' ,medici3 but it was more     
probable that he owed his existence  to 
,clement ,,vii42 at least the latter    
claimed the honour of paternity4  ,his  
disgraceful birth stamped him with      
contempt2 his profligacy and  cruelty   
acquired the hatred of the people over  
whom he ruled4    ,guicciardini         
endeavoured to restrain him in the      
indulgence of his vices1  but without   
avail4 ,he was now wholly devoted to his
 service4 ,when  ,clement ,,vii4 died1  
his successor wished him to continue    
governor of  ,bologna1 but he refused4  
,while the see was vacant1 he had       
yielded to the  entreaties of the       
senators1 and remained to prevent       

popular  disturbances4 ,they promised   
him every assistance to maintain his    
authority2 but his enemies took occasion
 to display their disrespect4  ,geronimo
 ,pepoli1 and others1 who some years    
before had retired from  ,bologna in    
distaste1 took this occasion to return1 
accompanied by armed  followers and     
public bandits4 ,guicciardini's haughty 
spirit was in arms  against the insult4 
,among the followers of ,pepoli were two
 outlaws under  sentence of death2 these
 he caused to be seized1 led to prison1 
and put  to death4 ,pepoli manifested   
the utmost indignation1 and was only    
restrained by the authority of the      
senators from giving public token of    
his resentment4 ,when the new pope was  
elected1 and another governor           
appointed1 ,guicciardini prepared to    
quit the city4 ,pepoli threatened to    
attack him on his departure2 but he1    
undismayed1 set out at noon-day1        
accompanied only by a few attendants on 
horseback4 ,his road led him past  the  

palace of the ,pepoli1 nor would he     
diverge from it on this account1  but   
passed under their windows with a firm  
and intrepid countenance1 and  was      
permitted to pursue his way unmolested4 
,he soon after displayed this energy and
 firmness of character in a very  bad   
cause4 ,the ,florentines1 unable any    
longer to endure the tyranny and  vices 
of duke ,alexander1 appealed to ,charles
 ,v41 whom they regarded as  lord       
paramount of their state4 ,the emperor  
summoned ,alexander to ,naples1  where  
he then was1 to answer the charges made 
against him4 ,he obeyed3  but the       
emperor was so incensed that he began to
 fear the result1 and  was on the point 
of retreating1 had not ,guicciardini    
exhorted him to  remain4 ,he drew up a  
defence for him1 and by a judicious     
distribution of  bribes1 succeeded in   
obtaining his acquittal2 and ,florence  
was again  subjected to his yoke4       
,two years after1 ,alexander was        
murdered by ,lorenzino de' ,medici1 who 

considered that he had a better right to
 be considered the head of the  family4 
,but this act1 undertaken without the   
participation of any  accomplice1 was   
not followed by the results that might  
have been  anticipated4 ,lorenzino1     
frightened by his very success1 fled the
 city1  and his cousin ,cosmo was raised
 to the supreme power1 and afterwards   
named grand duke of ,tuscany4           
,guicciardini assisted materially in his
  elevation1 and hoped to be real chief 
of the state1 while the other held  the 
nominal rank4 ,but ,cosmo was of a      
crafty1 cold1 and ungrateful            
disposition1 and treated his benefactor 
with such neglect1 that he  withdrew    
himself from public life1 and retired to
 his country seat at  ,montici1 in the  
neighbourhood of ,florence4    ,from    
this time he occupied himself wholly in 
the composition of his  history4 ,it is 
a fine monument of his genius and       
industry4 ,it commences  with the       
invasion of ,italy by ,charles ,,viii41 

and goes down to the  exaltation of     
,cosmo4 ,the fault attributed to him as 
an author is  prolixity1 and to this he 
must plead guilty4 ,he dwells with the  
most  tiresome and earnest minuteness on
 the most trivial incidents2 and the    
taking of an insignificant castle1      
followed by no important results1 is    
attended by the same diffuseness and    
exactitude of detail as events of  the  
greatest magnitude4 ,but no historian   
surpasses ,guicciardini when the        
subject is worthy of his pen4 ,his      
animated descriptions of battles1 the   
chances of war1 and conduct of princes  
and leaders2 his delineations of        
character1 and masterly views of the    
course of events1 all claim the  highest
 admiration4 ,the orations1 which he    
intersperses1 have been  cavilled at1   
but they are eloquent1 full of dignified
 exhortation1 or  sagacious reasoning4  
,his account of the rise and formation  
of the  temporal power of the popes     
excited great censure in catholic       

countries2  and throughout he is accused
 of showing himself the enemy of the    
,roman  church4 ,it is true1 that the   
pages of no other historian afford such 
convincing proofs of the pernicious     
effects resulting from the union of     
spiritual supremacy and temporal        
possessions4 ,his powerful character of 
the infamous pope ,borgia2 his          
description of the fiery vehemence of   
,julius ,,ii42 his unveiling of the     
faults of ,leo ,x41 and the exposure he 
makes of the mistakes and weakness of   
,clement ,,vii41 present the very men   
and times to our eyes1 and form as it   
were a school in which to study  the    
philosophy of history4 ,we perceive no  
partiality till the last few  pages1    
which record the downfall of the        
republic of ,florence4 ,his  language   
is1 in the eyes of ,italian critics1    
nearly pure2 it is  forcible1 without   
being concise2 and the clearness and    
majesty of the  expressions in his best 
passages carry the reader along with    

him4    ,guicciardini was solicited by  
pope ,paul ,,iii4 to leave his retreat1 
and  to enter again on public life1 but 
he refused4 ,the disappointment of his  
ambitious views on the exaltation of    
,cosmo1 and the duke's ingratitude1     
struck him to the heart4 ,he did not    
live to complete his history1 and  died 
on the #bgth of ,may1 #aedj1 in the     
fifty-eighth year of his age4 ,he       
expressly ordered that his funeral      
should be unattended by any pomp2 and   
his directions were so strictly         
followed1 that for some time no stone   
even commemorated the spot of his       
sepulture4    ,little is known of his   
private life4 ,his letters have all     
perished1  except a few addressed to    
,machiavelli4 ,they are lively in their 
style1  and very friendly4 ,he had no   
son1 and seven daughters1 and wrote to  
the  secretary to ask his advice in     
settling them in marriage4 ,machiavelli 
advised his applying to the pope for a  
dowry2 counselling him by all  means to 

marry the eldest well1 as the others    
would follow her example2  and he quotes
 a passage from ,dante1 referring to a  
duke of ,provence1  who had three       
daughters and each a queen4 ,and the    
cause of this thing1  was ,romeo1 a poor
 wandering man1 who had advised the duke
 to be  unsparing in his dowry to his   
eldest daughter1 so to command a        
splendid  alliance1 as the best means to
 advance her sisters also4 ,he gave her 
half his duchy1 and she married the king
 of ,france4 ,guicciardini in  reply    
says1 ,you have set me on ransacking    
,romagna for a copy of ,dante1  and at  
last ,i have found one4 ,but he was too 
high-spirited to apply for  a gift from 
the pope4    ,guicciardini was tall and 
of commanding aspect2 rather squarely   
made1  and not handsome2 but robust1 and
 with an animated1 intelligent          
countenance4 ,he was ambitious1 and even
 haughty1 so that he could endure       
neither contradiction nor advice4       
,prudence1 industry1 sagacity1 and a    

penetrating understanding1 recommended  
him to his employers2 and he was        
frequently entrusted with carrying on   
and correcting the correspondence  of   
the pope and other princes4    ,the last
 six books of his history are considered
 unfinished4 ,no portion  of it was     
published till some years after his     
death1 and then the  passages considered
 injurious to papacy were omitted4 ,a   
complete edition  was first printed at  
,basle2 but1 even in this1 the          
objectionable  passages appeared under  
the disguise of ,latin4 ,his first idea 
had been  to write only memoirs of his  
own life2 and it was by the advice of   
,nardi1 it is said1 that he enlarged his
 plan into a history of ,italy  during  
his own times4      ,footnote #cb3 ,it  
was a habit among the ,florentines to   
keep memoranda of  the principal events 
of their lives1 which they called       
,ricordi4 ,the date  of the birth of    
,guicciardini has been disputed1 but it 
is ascertained  from a ,,ms4 book of his

 ricordi1 or records1 which ,manni      
cites4 ,he thus  writes concerning      
himself3--,i record that ,i1 ,francesco 
di ,piero  ,guicciardini1 now doctor of 
civil and canon law1 was born on the    
#fth  ,march1 #adhb1 at ten o'clock4 ,i 
was baptised ,francesco1 from ,francesco
 de  ,nerli1 my maternal grandfather1   
and ,tommaso1 out of respect for ,st4   
,thomas ,aquinas1 on whose festival ,i  
was born4 ,messer ,marsiglio ,ficino    
held me at the baptismal font1 who was  
the greatest platonic philosopher  then 
existing in the world1 and by ,giovanni 
,canacci and ,piero del ,nero1  both    
philosophers also4    ,footnote #cc3    
,see a clever pamphlet1 entitled ,saggio
 sulla ,vita e sulle  ,opere di         
,francesco ,guicciardini1 by ,rosini1 a 
professor of the  ,university of ,pisa4 
,,vittoria ,,colonna    #adij-aedg4     
,it would be giving a very faint idea of
 the state of ,italian literature1  or  
even of the lives led by the learned men
 of those times1 if all  mention were   

omitted of the women who distinguished  
themselves in  literature4 ,no slur was 
cast by the ,italians on feminine       
accomplishments4 ,where abstruse        
learning was a fashion among men1 they  
were glad to find in their friends of   
the other sex1 minds educated to  share 
their pursuits and applaud their        
success4 ,in those days learning  was a 
sort of wealth2 men got as much as they 
could1 and women1 of  course1 were led  
to acquire a portion of such a valuable 
possession4    ,the list of women who   
aspired to literary fame in ,italy is   
very long4  ,even in ,petrarch's time1  
the daughter of a professor of ,bologna1
 gave  lectures in the university behind
 a veil1 which has been supposed was    
used to hide her beauty1 and which at   
least is a beautiful trait of  modesty1 
where a young girl was willing to impart
 her knowledge to the  studious1 but    
shrunk from meeting the public gaze4    
,the mother of ,lorenzo  de' ,medici is 
celebrated for her sacred poems1 and her

 patronage of  literature4 ,ippolita    
,sforza1 daughter of the duke           
,francesco1 and married  to ,alfonso    
,,ii41 king of ,naples1 was learned in  
,greek and many other  languages4 ,a    
manuscript copy of a translation of     
,tully's de ,senectute  is preserved of 
hers at ,rome1 and marked as having been
 written in her  youth2 and two of her  
,latin orations are to be seen in the   
,ambrosian  ,library at ,milan4         
,alessandra ,scala1 to whom ,politian   
was attached1 wrote  ,greek verses1     
which have been printed1 appended to the
 ,latin poetry of  her learned lover4   
,there was an ,isotta of ,padua1 whose  
letters are  models of elegance1 and who
 composed various poems of merit4 ,the  
noble  house of ,este boasted of a      
learned princess4 ,bianca d',este has   
been  celebrated by one of the ,strozzi 
in ,latin verses2 he speaks of her      
,greek  and ,latin compositions with    
great praise4 ,damigella ,torcila1 we   
are  told1 was numbered among the most  

distinguished women of her time4 ,she   
was profoundly versed in the learned    
languages1 particularly in ,greek2  she 
was an admirable musician1 and as       
beautiful as she was wise4  ,cassandra  
,fedele1 however1 excelled all her sex  
in her acquirements4 ,she  was of a     
noble family1 originally of ,milan2 born
 at ,venice in #adfe3 she  was1 by her  
father's desire1 instructed in all the  
abstruse  studies--,greek1 ,latin1      
philosophy1 and music--with such        
success1 that  even in girlhood she was 
the admiration of all the learned men of
 the  age4 ,there is a letter from      
,politian to her1 which praises her     
,latin  letters1 not only for their     
cleverness and elegance of style1 but   
for  the girlish and maiden simplicity  
which adorned them4 ,i have read  also1 
he says1 your learned and eloquent      
oration1 which is harmonious1           
dignified1 and full of talent4 ,i am    
told that you are versed in  philosophy 
and dialectics1 that you entangle others

 by the most serious  difficulties1 and 
make all plain yourself with admirable  
ease2 and while  every one loads you    
with praise1 you are gentle and humble4 
,this kind  of knowledge would not suit 
these days3 but those were times when   
men  tried to puzzle themselves by      
scholastic learning1 and when the noble 
,pico della ,mirandola took pleasure in 
disputing on nine hundred  questions4   
,isabella of ,spain1 ,louis ,,xii4 of   
,france1 and pope ,leo ,x4 all  warmly  
solicited ,cassandra to take up her     
abode at their several courts4  ,she    
showed willingness to accept the queen's
 invitation2 but the  ,venetian republic
 set so high a value upon her1 that they
 would not  permit her to leave their   
state4 ,she married ,mapelli1 a         
physician1 who  was sent to ,candia by  
the republic1 and ,cassandra accompanied
 him4 ,she  became a widow late in life1
 and lived to extreme old age4 ,she was 
elected when ninety years old to be the 
superior of a religious house in        

,venice2 and died at the age of one     
hundred and two4    ,this list might    
easily be much enlarged2 but we have no 
space for  further dilation2 and        
therefore turn from names less          
illustrious1 to  ,vittoria ,colonna1 the
 woman of all others who conferred1 by  
her virtues1  talents1 and beauty1      
honour on her sex4    ,vittoria ,colonna
 was the daughter of ,fabrizio ,colonna1
 grand constable  of the kingdom of     
,naples1 and of ,anna di ,montefeltro1  
daughter of  ,frederic duke of ,urbino4 
,she was born at ,marino1 a castle      
belonging to  her family1 about the year
 #adij4 ,at the infantine age of four   
she was  betrothed to ,ferdinando       
,francesco d',avolos1 marquess of       
,pescara1 who  was not older than his   
baby bride4 ,she was educated with the  
most  sedulous care1 and was sought in  
marriage by various princes--but that   
fidelity of disposition which was her   
beautiful characteristic through  life1 
prevented her from breaking her contract

 with her young lover4  ,they were      
married at the age of seventeen4 ,he    
competed with her in  talents and       
accomplishments4 ,they loved each other 
with the utmost  tenderness1 and lived  
for four years succeeding to their      
marriage1 in  solitude1 in the island of
 ,ischia1 where ,pescara had a palace4  
,but this happiness was of short        
duration2 at the time when ,julius ,,ii4
  leagued all ,italy against ,louis     
,,xii41 the marquess of ,pescara joined 
the  army of the emperor4 ,vittoria was 
full of chivalric feelings2 her         
enthusiasm1 as well as her tenderness1  
were gratified by the occupation  of    
embroidering banners for her hero1 who1 
at the early age of  one-and-twenty1 was
 made general of cavalry at the battle  
of ,ravenna4  ,that disastrous day was  
adverse to him4 ,he was taken prisoner  
and sent  to ,milan1 where he remained a
 year1 and wrote a dialogue on love1    
addressed to his wife1 in a dedication  
in which he laments that he can  no     

longer visit her as he was used1        
whenever the duties of his station      
permitted his absence4 ,as a kind of    
answer to this testimony of his         
affection1 ,vittoria designed an        
emblem--,cupid within a circle1 formed  
by a serpent1 with the motto ,quem      
peperit virtus1 prudentia servet        
amorem--,may prudence preserve the love1
 which originated in virtue4    ,after  
the ,french were driven from ,italy1    
that unhappy country enjoyed a  short   
interval of peace1 interrupted by the   
invasion of ,francis ,i4  ,pescara was  
present at the battle of ,pavia1 and    
distinguished himself by  his           
intrepidity1 and mainly contributed to  
the success of the emperor's  arms4 ,he 
was not rewarded as he deserved1 and the
 opposite or ,french  party thought that
 his consequent discontent afforded an  
opening for a  reconciliation with them4
 ,geronimo ,morone was employed by them 
to seduce  him from his fidelity to     
,charles ,v4 ,he was offered the kingdom

 of ,naples  as a reward1 and every     
argument was used that might have most  
weight2--the honour he would acquire by 
driving the barbarous nations  from     
,italy1 and the favours which the pope  
and other princes would  shower upon    
him4 ,these were1 however1 but specious 
reasonings4 ,pescara  lent too ready an 
ear to them2 but ,vittoria at once      
detected their  fallacy1 and the        
disgrace that would befall her husband  
if he abandoned  his imperial master4   
,she wrote him a letter full of earnest 
persuasion  to refuse the dazzling      
offers of ,morone4 ,she spoke of the    
glory acquired  by fidelity and         
unblemished honour1 as far outweighing  
any that a crown  could bestow1 saying1 
that for herself1 she desired to be     
called the  wife1 not of a king1 but of 
that great and glorious soldier1 whose  
valour and generosity of soul had       
vanquished the greatest kings4          
,pescara's conduct on this occasion is  
wholly unworthy of the precepts of  his 

admirable wife4 ,he continued faithful  
to the emperor1 but acted the  base part
 of a spy and informer3 by his means    
,morone's designs were  betrayed1 and he
 was thrown into prison4 ,there is no   
doubt that the  high-minded ,vittoria   
continued to the last entirely ignorant 
of this  ignoble action2 and praised her
 husband for having listened to her     
exhortations1 and rejected a crown4     
,but while the marquess was acting so as
 to cast an eternal stigma on his       
honour1 death was at hand to terminate  
every ambitious project4 ,his many      
wounds1 and the fatigues he had endured 
during the long wars1 had so  shaken his
 health1 that neither his good          
constitution nor the skill of           
physicians were any longer able to      
afford relief4 ,while preparing to  die1
 he desired to take leave of his wife1  
and sent for her to join him  at ,milan2
 but when he found that he should not   
survive long enough to  see her1 he sent
 for his cousin1 the marchese del       

,vasto1 and recommended  ,vittoria to   
him with the warmest affection4         
,vittoria1 on hearing of her  husband's 
illness1 had left ,naples to join him4  
,she passed through ,rome1  where she   
was received with the greatest honours1 
but on arriving at  ,viterbo1 she       
received intelligence of ,pescara's     
death3 her grief caused  her to forget  
her religious resignation and fortitude2
 its excess  overwhelmed her with tears 
and the bitterest anguish4    ,from that
 time this illustrious lady never ceased
 to spend every faculty  of her soul in 
lamenting her lost husband4 ,they had   
been married  seventeen years1 but had  
no child2 she gave herself up entirely  
to  sorrow2 and her faithful heart1     
incapable of a second attachment to     
replace one which had begun with her    
life1 cherished only the image of  her  
past happiness1 and the hope of its     
renewal in another life4 ,her  active   
mind could not repose tranquilly on its 
misery2 she continued to  cultivate it1 

so to render it more worthy of ,pescara1
 and she exercised  and amused it by the
 many sonnets she wrote in his honour4  
,an ,italian  author has named her      
second only to ,petrarch4 ,her verses   
are full of  tenderness1 of absorbing   
passion1 of truth and life4 ,they fail  
in poetic  fancy2 and yet1 so much does 
the reader sympathise in the intense and
  fond sorrows of this extraordinary    
woman1 that none can criticise1 while   
all are touched by her laments4 ,the    
best poem in her volume has been        
attributed to ,ariosto1 ,i do not know  
on what authority2 but if written  by   
her1 has that elegance of style and     
concentration of expression1  which     
characterises true poetry4 ,it begins   
with the affecting  exclamation1 ,i am  
indeed her you loved6 ,behold how bitter
 and eating  grief has changed          
me6--,scarcely could you recognise me by
 my voice4 ,on  your departure1 that    
charm which you called beauty1 and of   
which ,i was  proud1 since it was dear  

to you1 left my cheeks1 my eyes1 my     
hair6--,yet1  ah6 how can ,i live1 when 
,i remember that the impious tomb and   
envious  dust contaminates and destroys 
thy dear and beautiful limbs6 ,these    
verses may in their original be very    
justly compared in pathos and grace  to 
,petrarch3--      ,io sono1 io son ben  
dessa6 or vedi come  ,m' ha cangiata il 
dolor fiero ed atroce  ,ch' a fatica la 
voce  ,pu di me dar la conoscenza vera4 
,lassa6 ch' al tuo partir part veloce   
,dalle guancie1 dagli occhi1 e dalle    
chiome  ,questa a cui davi come  ,tu di 
beltade1 ed io n' andava altera1  ,che  
me 'l credea1 perch in tal pregio t'    
era4  99 99 99 99 99  ,com'  ch' io     
viva1 quando mi rimembra1  ,ch' empio   
sepolcro1 e invidiosa polve  ,contamina 
e dissolve  ,la delicate alabastrine    
membra8      ,for seven years she gave  
up her whole heart to sorrow4 ,her      
relations1  thinking her too young at   
the age of thirty-five to continue      
unmarried1  pressed her to accept one of

 the many offers of marriage which she  
received4 ,but1 wedded as all her       
thoughts had been since her earliest    
infancy to one object1 she felt         
unconquerably averse to any second      
nuptials4 ,she lived in retirement      
either at ,ischia or ,naples1 dedicating
  herself wholly to memory4 ,her active 
mind1 refusing to find comfort in  any  
sublunary blessing1 had recourse to     
religion for consolation4 ,she  now     
employed herself in writing sacred      
poetry1 and her enthusiastic            
disposition led her to project a        
pilgrimage to ,jerusalem2 but the       
marchese del ,vasto opposed her putting 
it into execution4    ,she now left     
,naples on a tour to the north of       
,italy1 and visited ,lucca  and         
,ferrara4 ,she afterwards took up her   
residence at ,rome1 and became  the     
intimate friend of the cardinals ,bembo1
 ,contarini1 and ,pole1 and  various    
distinguished prelates4 ,a love of yet  
greater retirement induced  her a few   

years after to retreat to a convent at  
,orvieto2 from whence  she removed1     
after a short time1 to the convent of   
,santa ,caterina1 at  ,viterbo4 ,our    
countryman1 cardinal ,pole1 resided in  
this town1 and an  intimate friendship  
subsisted between him and ,vittoria4    
,there is a  resemblance in their       
characters that renders this intercourse
  interesting2 they were both           
singleminded1 enthusiastic1 and noble4  
,vittoria added feminine tenderness to  
these qualities1 while religious        
fervour formed a bond of sympathy       
between them4 ,the companions of        
cardinal ,pole were ,flaminio and       
,pietro ,carnescecchi3 the latter having
  afterwards become a protestant1 doubts
 have been raised concerning the        
orthodoxy of ,vittoria2 but there is    
every evidence that she never fell  off 
from her adherence to the catholic      
church4    ,a short time before her     
death she returned to ,rome1 and took up
 her  abode in the ,palazzo ,cesarini2  

where she died1 in the year #aedg1 at   
the  age of fifty-seven4 ,during her    
last moments her attached friend1       
,michael  ,angelo1 stood beside her4 ,he
 was considerably her junior1 and looked
 up  to her as something superior to    
human nature1 and entitled to his most  
fervent admiration4 ,he has written many
 sonnets in her praise2 and there  is   
extant a letter1 in which he states how 
he stood beside her lifeless  remains1  
and kissed her cold hand1 lamenting     
afterwards that the  overwhelming grief 
and awe of the moment1 had prevented him
 from  pressing her lips for the first  
and last time4    ,this almost divine   
woman was held by her contemporaries in 
enthusiastic  veneration4 ,her name is  
always accompanied by glowing praises   
and  expressions of heartfelt respect4  
,ariosto joined with all ,italy in      
celebrating her virtues and talents1 and
 has addressed several stanzas  to her  
in his ,orlando ,furioso4               
,,guarini    #aecg-afab4      ,battista 

,guarani was descended from a family    
illustrious for its  literary merits4   
,one of his ancestors1 known as ,guarino
 of ,verona1 was  conspicuous among the 
restorers of learning of the fifteenth  
century2  and his descendants emulated  
his labours4 ,battista was born at      
,ferrara1  in #aecg4 ,his mother was    
,orsolina1 the daughter of count        
,baldassare  ,machiavelli4 ,we are      
nearly in ignorance with regard to any  
of the  circumstances of the early youth
 of ,guarini4 ,he studied at ,pisa and  
,padua1 and visited ,rome while very    
young4 ,on his return to ,ferrara1 he   
gave lectures on ,aristotle in the      
university4 ,he was made professor of   
belles lettres1 and was already known to
 his friends as a poet4 ,he  married    
young1 ,taddea ,bendedei1 of a noble    
,ferrarese family4    ,but ,guarini was 
not contented with a life of literary   
labour1 and  preferred the distinction  
of a court to poetic fame4 ,there is a  
letter  of his1 dated #aefe1 which gives

 token that he had already made the     
paltry ambition of serving a prince the 
aim of his life4 ,this letter is        
written to a friend at ,pisa1 who had   
asked his advice on the subject of      
whether he should enter on the service  
of his sovereign4 ,guarini  establishes 
the doctrine1 that in private life a man
 is as far from  tranquillity as in     
public2 he is equally pursued by envy   
and pride1  without the compensation he 
might find in courtly favour4 ,in his   
own  person he acted on these ideas1 and
 reaped the usual harvest of            
disappointment and mortification4 ,his  
wishes were1 however1 at first          
gratified4 ,he was sent1 by the duke    
,alfonso1 to ,venice1 about this very   
time1 to congratulate the new doge1     
,pietro ,loredano2 and1 his oration     
being printed1 he acquired a reputation 
for talent and learning4 ,he was  for   
some time resident at ,turin1 as        
ambassador to ,emanuel ,philibert1  duke
 of ,savoy4 ,in #aegc1 he was sent to   

,rome1 to pay homage to ,gregory        
,,xiii41 who had succeeded to ,pius ,v4 
,he arrived in the evening1 after a     
hasty journey1 and passed the night in  
composing his speech1 which he          
delivered the next morning in           
consistory4 ,two years afterwards1 the  
duke  sent him to ,poland1 to           
congratulate ,henry of ,valois on his   
accession to  the throne4 ,on his       
return1 he was named counsellor and     
secretary of  state4 ,after an interval1
 he was a second time sent to ,poland1  
on a  mission of the highest importance4
 ,henry of ,valois succeeded to the     
crown of ,france1 and ,alfonso was      
desirous of being chosen in his room to 
the ,polish throne4 ,guarini was sent to
 negotiate his election4 ,he felt  the  
weight and responsibility of his errand 
fall heavily on him4 ,his  letter to his
 wife during the journey has been       
several times quoted1 but  it is too    
interesting to be omitted here4 ,it is  
dated from ,warsaw1  ,november #be4     

#aege1 and is as follows3--    ,this    
which you read is my letter and not my  
letter2 it is mine1 for ,i  dictate     
it1--it is not mine1 because ,i do not  
write it4 ,but you must not  so much    
grieve that ,i have not a hand to write 
with1 as rejoice that ,i  have a tongue 
to recount that which1 from vain        
compassion or negligence1  another might
 conceal4 ,i know you must have been    
complaining of my  dilatoriness in      
writing1 but ,i shall find no difficulty
 in excusing  myself1 since the cause   
has been worse than the effect2 and1    
instead of  lamenting my silence1 you   
may thank ,god that you at last hear    
from me4 ,i  set out1 as you know1 more 
in the fashion of a courier than an     
ambassador2 and it would have been well 
if my body alone had laboured1  while my
 mind reposed4 ,but the hand used by day
 to whip on my horses1  was put to      
service at night in turning over papers4
 ,thus1 formerly1 ,i  arrived at ,rome  
in the evening by post1 and the next day

 presented  myself at the consistory4   
,nature gave way under the double       
fatigue of  body and mind1 especially as
 ,i travelled by the road that passes   
through  ,saravalle and ,ampez1 which is
 inexpressibly disagreeable and         
incommodious1 as well from the rudeness 
of the inhabitants as the state  of the 
country2 the want of horses1 scarcity of
 provisions1 and1 in  short1 of every   
necessary of life2 so that1 on my       
arrival at ,hala1 ,i  fell ill of a     
fever1 in spite of which ,i hurried on  
to ,vienna4 ,i leave  you to imagine    
what ,i suffered from fever1 weariness1 
and thirst3 unable  to procure remedies 
or medical treatment2 cast upon bad     
lodgings1 bad  food1 and into beds that 
smothered me with their feathers2 devoid
 of all  those conveniences and comforts
 which are necessary to the sick4 ,my   
malady increased1 and my strength grew  
less2 and every thing1 except  wine1    
became distasteful to me1 so that ,i had
 small hopes of life1 and  turned with  

disgust even from the few days ,i       
expected to live4 ,while ,i  navigated  
the ,danube1 we were nearly overwhelmed 
by a rapid and  dangerous stream1 and   
should not have escaped had not the     
sailors made  use of the assistance of  
the strong and active men of the        
country1 who  are accustomed to contend 
with this danger1 being always on the   
spot to  give aid1 and who1 by force of 
oars1 stemmed the torrent4 ,but for     
their  help no vessel could escape      
wreck2 and the place is worthy of the   
infamous reputation it has gained1 and  
the name of the ,pass of ,death1  which 
is bestowed on it4 ,the boldest         
travellers fear the passage1 and        
disembark1 and proceed by land1 till the
 boat has got beyond the danger1  for it
 is really frightful2 but ,i was so ill1
 that ,i had lost all sense  of peril1  
and remained on board with the brave    
boatmen1--,i will not say  whether from 
stupidity or intrepidity1--yet ,i may   
say that ,i was  intrepid1 since ,i felt

 no fear when but two steps from certain
 death4    ,i arrived at last at        
,vienna1 where a physician1 without     
considering the  symptoms of my illness1
 gave me a medicine that poisoned me1   
and my  malady grew worse4 ,you will all
 say that ,i ought to have stopped      
short1  and taken care of my life3 my   
common sense1 my sufferings1 the failure
  of strength1 and a natural wish to    
live1 love for my fellow creatures  and 
my family1 suggested the same counsel2  
but my honour forced me to  proceed1 and
 obliged me1 since ,i was at the head of
 this embassy1 and as  the whole weight 
of so important a negotiation rested on 
me1 to prefer  the interests of my      
prince to my own safety2 and ,i acted so
 that ,i might  testify to all ,poland  
my fidelity to my sovereign by my death1
 rather  than1 by preserving my life1   
give room to the suspicion that ,i      
feigned  an illness so to break my      
promises1 the fulfilment of which was   
expected  with anxiety2 which false     

notion among those selfish and          
distrustful men  would at once have     
discredited our negotiation1 and        
deprived our prince  of the crown which 
we are endeavouring to place on his     
head4    ,it is impossible to form an   
idea of what ,i suffered during a       
journey of  more than #fjj miles1 from  
,vienna to ,warsaw2 dragged and torn    
along1  rather than conveyed1 by my     
incommodious carriage4 ,i do not know   
how ,i  survived3 beset by continual    
fever1 without rest1 or food1 or        
remedies2  enduring excessive cold and  
infinite inconveniences1 while ,i passed
  through an uninhabited country1 where 
,i often found it better to remain  for 
the night in my uncomfortable carriage1 
than to expose myself to the  stench of 
the inns or1 rather1 stables1 where the 
dog1 the cat1 the  fowls1 the geese1 the
 pigs1 the calves1 and sometimes        
squalling  children1 kept me awake all  
night4 ,the difficulties of the journey 
were  increased also by the robbers1    

who1 during this interregnum1 infest the
  country1 robbing whatever they can2 so
 that it was impossible to proceed      
without a strong escort2 and1 although  
,i took infinite pains to avoid  them1  
,i had twice nearly fallen into their   
hands1 escaping rather  through ,divine 
,providence than human foresight4 ,i    
arrived at last at  ,warsaw1 a great    
deal more dead than alive2 nor have ,i  
gained any relief  to my sufferings by  
being here1 except that ,i am no longer 
in movement1  nor dragged along by my   
carriage2 for the rest1 ,i enjoy no     
repose1  either night or day4 ,my fever 
is now my least evil2 the objects by    
which  ,i am surrounded are worse3 the  
place1 the season1 the food1 the drink1 
the medicines1 the physicians1 the      
servants1 the inquietude of my mind1    
and other troubles1 are greater ills    
than the fever1 which would soon  quit  
me but for these annoyances4 ,indeed1 ,i
 have not yet discovered  whether my    
sleepless nights arise from illness1 or 

the constant noise  around me4 ,imagine 
a whole nation assembled in a little    
village1 and ,i  lodged in the middle of
 it4 ,there is no spot above1 below1 to 
the right  nor to the left1--there is no
 room by day or by night1 that is not   
full  of noise and disturbance4 ,no     
particular time is set apart for        
business  here2 they are always at work1
 because they are always drinking1 and  
without wine all transactions grow cold4
 ,when business is ended visits  begin1 
and when these are over1 drums1         
trumpets1 cannons1 shouts1 cries1       
quarrels1 and every other species of    
tumult1 fill up the interval till ,i  am
 distracted4 ,if ,i suffered these      
things for the glory and love of ,god1  
it would be called a martyrdom2 and yet1
 to render service without hope  of     
reward1 almost deserves the same name4  
,god knows what is to become of  me6 ,i 
should feel that my life was no longer  
in danger if ,i could take  any care of 
myself4 ,prepare your mind for every    

evil4 ,it is the part of  a silly woman 
to lament a husband who is content to   
die4 ,let others  honour my memory with 
their tears2 do you honour it by your   
courage4 ,i  recommend our children to  
you2 for if ,i die1 you must be a father
 as  well as a mother to them4 ,arm     
yourself with reflection and manly      
fortitude2 guarding them from those who 
have reduced me to this state1  and     
teaching them to imitate their father in
 any thing rather than in  his          
fortunes4#cd    ,this letter presents a 
lively picture of ,guarini's            
disposition2--his  energy in struggling 
with evils2 his ambition to please his  
prince1 and  his fears lest he should   
not be fitly recompensed2 the fervour of
  imagination1 which magnified ill      
fortune1 and which1 while it gave him   
strength to meet it1 yet doubled its    
power over him4 ,although he failed  in 
the object of the embassy1 yet1 after   
all the dangers to which he had  exposed
 himself1 he felt that he had sacrificed

 his life to his prince1  and yet that  
he should go unrewarded4 ,he was not    
deceived2 but he was  incapable of      
meeting the fulfilment of his           
anticipations with any  patience or     
fortitude4    ,his mind was naturally   
turned to poetry2 but he pretended to   
disdain  such occupation4 ,on the       
subject of his ,pastor ,fido1 he writes 
to a  friend3--,this is the work of one 
who does not profess the poetic art1    
but writes for his own amusement1 as a  
recreation from more serious  studies2  
and who would willingly burn his works  
when they do not appear  good to good   
judges4 ,the fame and favour which      
,tasso was enjoying made  him depreciate
 himself1 since he could not excel his  
rival4 ,tasso and he  had been friends  
for many years2 they quarrelled at this 
time1 but the  discord did not result   
from any literary contest1 but from     
rivalship in  the favour of a lady4     
,they both loved the countess of        
,scandiano4 ,tasso  wrote a sonnet1     

accusing ,guarini of lightness and      
inconstancy in his  passion1 as well as 
of the greater sin of boasting of his   
triumphs over  the ladies of his love4  
,guarini replied1 with bitterness1 in   
another  sonnet1 accusing his rival of  
uttering falsehoods that mirrored his   
own  faithlessness1 which enabled him to
 nourish love for two objects at the    
same time4#ce ,this contention broke off
 their friendship2 but ,guarini  was no 
ungenerous enemy2 he possessed a loyal  
and noble spirit1 and  never did any    
thing to injure his unfortunate rival4  
,on the contrary1  some years after1    
when the ,gerusalemme ,liberata of      
,tasso was about to be  published in a  
very defective and erroneous state1 he  
took great pains  to furnish a correct  
copy4    ,sidenote3 #aehb4  tat4  #de4  
,after struggling with his discontents  
at court for some time1 he  requested   
his dismissal from the duke2 and retired
 to his villa in the  ,polesine of      
,rovigo1 named ,la ,guarina1 having been

 bestowed upon an  ancestor by a former 
duke of ,ferrara4 ,he now congratulated 
himself on  having escaped from the     
tempests of public life into port2 yet  
his  disappointments1 and the duke's    
ingratitude1 rankled at his heart1 and  
overflowed upon paper1 even when the    
subject immediately before him was  not 
in accord with the pervading feeling of 
his mind4 ,he occupied  himself at ,la  
,guarina by writing the ,pastor ,fido2  
and he makes one of  the characters of  
the pastoral complain of wrongs similar 
to his own4  ,carino1 narrating his     
story1 says1--      ,how ,i forsook     
,elis and ,pisa after1 and betook       
,myself to ,argos and ,mycene1 where    
,an earthly ,god ,i worshipped1 with    
what there  ,i suffered in that hard    
captivity1  ,would be too long for thee 
to hear1 for me  ,too sad to utter4     
,only thus much know2--  ,i lost my     
labour1 and in sand did sow3  ,i writ1  
wept1 sung2 hot and cold fits ,i had2   
,i rid1 ,i stood1 ,i bore1 now sad1 now 

glad1  ,now high1 now low1 now in       
esteem1 now scorn'd2  ,and as the       
,delphic iron1 which is turned  ,now to 
heroic1 now to mechanic use1  ,i fear'd 
no danger--did no pains refuse2  ,was   
all things--and was nothing2 changed my 
hair1  ,condition1 custom1 thoughts1 and
 life--but ne'er  ,could change my      
fortune4 ,then ,i knew at last1  ,and   
panted after my sweet freedom past4     
,so1 flying smoky ,argos1 and the great 
,storms that attend on greatness1 my    
retreat  ,i made to ,pisa--my thought's 
quiet port4  99     99     99     99    
99  ,who would have dreamed 'midst      
plenty to grow poor8  ,or to be less1 by
 toiling to be more8  ,i thought1 by how
 much more in prince's courts  ,men did 
excel in titles and supports1  ,so much 
the more obliging they would be1  ,the  
best enamel of nobility4  ,but now the  
contrary by proofs ,i've seen3          
,courtiers in name1 and courteous in    
their mien  ,they are2 but in their     
actions ,i could spy  ,not the least    

transient spark of courtesy4  ,people1  
in show smooth as the calmed waves1     
,yet cruel as the ocean when it raves3  
,men in appearance only did ,i find1    
,love in the face1 but malice in the    
mind3  ,with a straight look and        
tortuous heart1 and least  ,fidelity    
where greatest was protest4  ,that which
 elsewhere is virtue1 is vice there3    
,plain truth1 fair dealing1 love        
unfeign'd1 sincere  ,compassion1 faith  
inviolable1 and  ,an innocence both of  
the heart and hand1  ,they count the    
folly of a soul that's vile  ,and       
poor1--a vanity worthy their smile4  ,to
 cheat1 to lie1 deceit and theft to use1
  ,and under show of pity to abuse2  ,to
 rise upon the ruins of their brothers1 
,and seek their own by robbing praise   
from others1  ,the virtues are of that  
perfidious race4  ,no worth1 no valour1 
no respect of place1  ,of age1 or       
law--bridle of modesty1  ,no tie of     
love1 or blood1 nor memory  ,of good    
received2 nothing's so venerable1       

,sacred1 or just1 that is inviolable    
,by that vast thirst of riches1 and     
desire  ,unquenchable of still ascending
 higher4  ,now ,i1 not fearing1 since ,i
 meant not ill1  ,and in court-craft not
 having any skill1  ,wearing my thoughts
 charactered on my brow1  ,and a glass  
window in my heart--judge thou  ,how    
open and how fair a mark my heart  ,lay 
to their envy's unsuspected dart4       
,,fanshawe's ,trans4 of ,pastor         
,fido4#cf      ,the ,pastor ,fido is the
 principal monument of ,guarini's poetic
 genius4  ,despite his pretended        
carelessness1 he was animated by the    
spirit of  poetry1 and emulation spurred
 him on to surpass the ,aminta of       
,tasso2 and  he took pains even to      
compose whole passages in opposition1   
and manifest  rivalship1 of that drama4 
,a pastoral presents in its very nature 
a  thousand difficulties4 ,it has for   
its subject the passions in their       
primitive simplicity1 and the manners   
are deprived of all factitious          

refinement2 and yet the most imaginative
 thoughts and the softest and  noblest  
sentiments are to flow from the lips of 
the untaught shepherds  and             
shepherdesses4 ,thus its foundation     
being purely ideal1 our chief  pleasure 
must be derived from the poetry in which
 it is clothed4 ,guarini  endeavoured to
 overcome the want of interest inherent 
in this species of  composition1 by a   
plot more complex than that usually     
adopted4 ,a portion  of this is         
sufficiently clumsy1 and the bad        
character of the piece1 the  coquette   
,corisca1 is managed with very little   
art or probability4 ,there  is much     
spirit and beauty1 however1 in the final
 developement1--in the  discovery that  
the priest makes that he is about to    
sacrifice his own  son1 and the joy     
occasioned by the conviction suddenly   
flashing on his  mind1 that the oracle1 
on which the whole depends1 is happily  
fulfilled4  ,still the chief charm of   
the ,pastor ,fido is derived from its   

poetry2 the  simplicity and clearness of
 its diction1 the sweetness and         
tenderness of  the sentiments1 and the  
vivacity and passion that animate the   
whole4 ,no  doubt he was satisfied with 
the result of his labours1 and found    
pride  in communicating it4 ,while      
affecting to despise his poetic         
productions1  their genuine merit1 and  
his own vanity1 which was great1 caused 
him to  collect with pleasure the       
applauses which his ,pastor ,fido       
naturally  acquired for him4 ,he read it
 at the court of the duke ,ferrante di  
,gonzaga1 to a society composed of      
courtiers1 ladies1 and eminent men4     
,sidenote3 #aehe4  tat4  #dh4  ,it was  
acted at ,turin on occasion of the      
festivals to celebrate the  nuptials of 
,charles ,emanuel1 prince of ,savoy1    
with ,catherine1 daughter  of ,philip   
,,ii41 king of ,spain4 ,the drama       
excited the greatest admiration2  and   
,guarini was looked on henceforth with  
justice1 as second only to  ,tasso among

 the poets of the age4    ,but he was   
not fortunate enough to be allowed to   
dedicate his whole time  and thoughts to
 poetry2 and he might bring forward his 
own experience in  proof of his         
assertion1 that private life is not more
 exempt than  public1 from cares and the
 influence of evil passions4 ,he was    
perpetually plunged in lawsuits1 his    
first being against his father1 who  had
 married a second time1 it was said out 
of spite1 and disputed his  just        
inheritance4 ,he had a family of eight  
children to provide for2 and  unrewarded
 by his prince1 he found himself1 after 
struggling for  fourteen years to       
advance himself at court1 overwhelmed by
 debt and  embarrassment4 ,his time and 
attention were taken up by exertions to 
extricate himself1 and to settle his    
affairs2 while his warm1 impatient      
disposition ill endured the delays and  
disappointments1 and the contact  with  
selfish or dishonest men1 which are the 
necessary concomitants of  pecuniary    

difficulties4    ,sidenote3 #aehf4  tat4
  #di4    ,perhaps these annoyances     
rendered him less unwilling to accept   
the  invitation1 or rather to obey the  
commands1 of the duke of ,ferrara1 and  
to return to his post at his court4     
,alfonso1 perceiving the esteem in      
which he was held by other princes1 with
 his usual selfishness resolved  to     
appropriate the services of a man1 which
 others also were desirous of           
obtaining3 he made him secretary of     
state1 and sent him on missions to      
,umbria and ,milan4 ,his stay1 however1 
was short3 very soon after his  children
 had advanced to manhood1 those         
dissensions occurred between  them and  
him1 which form a painful portion of    
,guarini's life4 ,it is  difficult to   
say who was most to blame4 ,the poet's  
temper was impetuous1  and he perhaps   
showed himself tyrannical in his        
domestic circle1 at the  same time that 
his nature was without doubt1 on most   
occasions1 generous  and artless4 ,his  

son had married a lady named ,virginia  
,palmiroli1 and  continued1 as is so    
usual in ,italy1 to reside with his wife
 under the  paternal roof4 ,but this    
arrangement became1 it is conjectured1  
from the  pride and imperiousness of the
 father1 quite intolerable2 and the     
young  pair left the house1 and         
instituted a suit at law to obtain such 
a  provision as would enable them to    
live in independence4 ,the suit was     
decided against ,guarini2 and his       
indignation1 and assertion that his     
defeat was occasioned by the partiality 
of the duke towards his son1  seem to   
evince that he had more justice on his  
side than we are enabled  to discover4  
,however this may be1 he was so angry at
 what he considered  the injustice of   
the sentence pronounced against him1    
that he again  requested permission to  
retire from ,alfonso's court4 ,the duke 
granted  his request1 but not without   
such tokens of displeasure1 as induced  
,guarini to leave ,ferrara privately and

 in haste4 ,he betook himself to  the   
court of ,savoy1 where the prince       
willingly took him into his  service2   
but the poet found that the change of   
masters benefited him  little1 and he   
was so constantly employed1 that he had 
not even time to  write a letter4       
,alfonso also set on foot some intrigues
 against him1  disliking that any       
dependant of his should find protection 
elsewhere4  ,sidenote3 #aeij4  tat4     
#ec4  ,his tranquillity being thus      
disturbed1 he hastily quitted ,savoy and
 took  up his abode at ,padua4 ,he here 
lost his wife1 whom he affectionately   
names in his letters as the better part 
of himself2 and1 by the  separation of  
his eldest son1 and the absence of his  
daughters1 who were  either married or  
had places in the palaces of various    
princesses of  ,italy1 his family circle
 was reduced to one son of ten years of 
age1  whom he calls the hope of his     
house1 and the consolation in his       
solitude4 ,this change gave birth to new

 projects in his restless mind4  ,this  
sudden alteration and transformation of 
my life1 he writes to the  cardinal     
,gonzaga1 in a letter dated from ,padua1
 the #bjth of ,november1  #aeia1 appears
 to me to be brought about by the will  
of ,god1 who thus  calls me to a new    
vocation4 ,i am not so old nor so weak  
as to be unfit  to make use of those    
talents which ,god has bestowed on me2  
and it  appears to me that ,i act ill in
 spending without profit those years1   
which by the course of nature ,i could  
turn to the advantage of my  family1 and
 of my young son1 whose inclination for 
the priesthood ,i am  desirous of       
assisting2 and ,i would willingly spend 
the remnant of my  days at ,rome1 if ,i 
could obtain such preferment1 as would  
enable me to  proceed honourably in the 
advancement of my moderate expectations4
 ,this  idea1 however1 was but the      
offspring of disappointed hopes1 and it 
vanished when other prospects were      
opened to him2 yet these were  variable 

and uncertain4 ,his life1 both from the 
ingratitude of ,alfonso  and his own    
restlessness1 was destined to be passed 
stormily2 discontent  and distrust had  
taken root in his mind1 and existence   
wore a gloomy  aspect4    ,at length    
,alfonso died1 and this circumstance1   
and the death of a  daughter1           
assassinated by a jealous husband1      
caused him to quit ,ferrara1  and to    
establish himself at ,florence1 where he
 was honourably received  by the grand  
duke ,ferdinand4 ,here doubtless he     
might have remained in  peace1 but for  
the irascibility of his temper1 the     
indignation he felt  when his views were
 thwarted1 and his tendency to consider 
himself an  ill-used man4 ,his younger  
son1 whom he mentions in the letter     
quoted  above with so much interest1 was
 placed at ,pisa for the sake of his    
education1 where he contracted an       
imprudent marriage with a young1        
beautiful1 and dowerless widow4 ,guarini
 was transported by rage3 he  accused   

the duke of abetting his son in this act
 of disobedience1 and  indulged in      
implacable anger against the youth      
himself1 to whom he  refused any        
assistance1 when reduced to the most    
necessitous  circumstances4 ,guarini    
exalted the paternal authority1 and     
exacted  filial obedience1 in a manner  
that displayed more pride than          
affection4  ,now in his old age1 he was 
at variance with nearly all his         
children2 his  violent expressions is a 
proof that he suffered2 but his heart   
did not  relent nor open towards them1  
even when death snatched them from him2 
and it is impossible to sympathise in   
passions1 which thus centred and  ended 
in himself4    ,on leaving ,florence1 he
 visited ,urbino2 but1 dissatisfied with
 his  reception1 he retired to ,ferrara4
 ,the citizens deputed him to ,rome to  
congratulate ,paul ,usur on his being   
created pope4 ,it was on this  occasion 
that cardinal ,bellarmino reproached him
 for having done more  harm to the      

,christian world by his ,pastor ,fido1  
than ,luther and ,calvin  by their      
heresies--a singular                    
denunciation--since1 though the softness
  and tenderness of love1 which pervades
 the poem1 may tend to enervate2  yet   
the fidelity1 the devotion1 and purity  
of sentiment1 exhibited in  the actions 
of the chief personages1 certainly do   
not lay it open to  excessive censure4  
,guarini retorted by a witty reply1     
which the respect  paid to the cardinal 
by the historians1 has not permitted to 
be  transmitted to us4    ,sidenote3    
#afjh4  tat4  #ga4    ,this was the last
 public service of ,guarini4 ,a few     
years after he was  invited to be       
present at the nuptials of ,francesco   
,gonzaga and  ,marguerite of ,savoy1    
during which a comedy of his was        
represented with  great splendour4      
,chiabrera wrote the interludes1 and the
 architect  ,viamini arranged the       
scenery and decorations4    ,the last   
years of his life were taken up by the  

lawsuits1 which so  strangely chequered 
his career4 ,he hired a lodging at      
,venice1 where many  of his causes were 
decided1 as near as possible to the     
courts1 and  frequently visited that    
city to attend the proceedings2 and he  
made a  last journey to ,rome at the    
time that two suits were decided in his 
favour4 ,on his return to ,venice he was
 seized by a fever1 of which he  died1  
after an illness of seventeen days1 on  
the #gth of ,october1 #afab1  at the age
 of seventy-five4      ,footnote #cd3   
,there is another letter of ,guarini1   
dated from ,cracovy1  during his first  
visit to ,poland1 written with less     
personal feeling1  and greater          
toleration3--,i have viewed the climate 
and manners of this  country1 he writes1
 with infinite pleasure2 mitigating the 
annoyances  resulting from unusual      
things1 by the enjoyment of unusual     
sights4 ,the  country and its           
inhabitants are certainly much less     
barbarous than is  generally supposed2  

and in my opinion there would be no     
fault to be  found1 if the former was   
gifted with wine1 and if the latter     
abstained  from it4 ,but ,i am afraid   
that my words will scarcely find credit 
with  you1 prejudiced as you are by the 
accounts given by the ,french who have  
been here4 ,yet ,i am sure you would    
agree with me1 if you ever visited  the 
country4 ,the kingdom is extensive1     
rich1 powerful1 united1 abundant1  and  
peopled by a brave population4 ,the     
senators display great talent  during   
peace--the cavaliers valour in war3     
their aim is glory--their  support      
liberty4 ,the form of the government is 
mixed1 like that of  ,sparta1 but better
 than that4 ,for the kingdom is neither 
oppressed by  the tyranny of one1 nor   
the insolence of a few1 nor the baseness
 of the  many2 but having mingled the   
best parts of all three modes of        
government1 one has resulted1 in which  
the kingly power cannot intrench  upon  
liberty1 nor licence endanger the       

monarchy4 ,the nobles cannot  oppress   
the people1 nor the people injure the   
nobles4 ,valour holds the  first rank1  
nobility the second1 riches the third2  
and every one1  however lowly born1 may 
nourish the expectation of rising by    
merit to  the highest honours4 ,how ,i  
wish that you had an opportunity of     
visiting  it3 ,i am certain that you    
would be highly pleased4 ,a journey to  
,france  is more fatiguing2 and after   
arriving in ,poland1 ,i1 to whom an     
excursion  to ,rome used to appeal an   
arduous undertaking1 begin to think that
  travelling is a natural state for     
every man4    ,footnote #ce3 ,abate     
,serassi1 ,vita di ,tasso4    ,footnote 
#cf3 ,come poi per veder ,argo e ,micene
  ,lasciassi ,elide e ,pisa1 e quivi    
fussi  ,adorator di deit terrena1  ,con 
tutto quel che in servit soffersi1      
,troppo nojosa istoria a te l' udirlo1  
,a me dolente il raccontarlo fora4  ,si 
dir sol1 che perdei l' opra1 e il       
frutto4  ,scrissi1 piansi1 cantai1 arsi1

 gelai1  ,corsi1 stetti1 sostenni1 or   
tristo1 or lieto1  ,or alto1 or basso2  
or vilipeso1 or caro4  ,e come il ferro 
,delfico2 stromento  ,or d'impresa      
sublime1 or d' opra vile1  ,non temei   
risco e non schivai fatica3  ,tutto fei1
 nulla fui3 per cangiar loco1  ,stato1  
vita1 pensier1 costumi e pelo1  ,mai non
 cangiai fortuna3 alfin conobbi1  ,e    
sospirai la libert primiera4  ,e dopo   
tanti strazi1 ,argo lasciando  ,e le    
grandezze di miseria piene1  ,tornai di 
,pisa ai riposati alberghi4  99     99  
99     99     99  ,ma chi creduto avria 
di venir meno  ,tra le grandezze1 e     
impoverir nell' oro8  ,io mi pensai che 
ne' reali alberghi  ,fossero tanto pi le
 genti umane1  ,quant' esse han pi di   
tutto quel dovizia  ,ond' ha l' umanit  
si nobil fregio4  ,ma vi trovai tutto il
 contrario1 ,uranio1  ,gente di nome e  
di parlar cortese1  ,ma d'opre scarsa e 
di piet nemica3  ,gente placida in vista
 e mansueta1  ,ma pi del cupo mar tumida
 e fera2  ,gente sol d' apparenza1 in   

cui se miri  ,viso di carit1 mente      
d'invidia  ,poi trovi1 e in dritto      
sguardo animo bieco1  ,e min or fede    
allor1 che pi lusinga4  ,quel ch'       
altrove  virt1 quivi  difetto4  ,dir    
vero1 oprar non torto1 amar non finto1  
,piet sincera1 inviolabil fede1  ,e di  
core e di man vita innocente2  ,stiman  
d' animo vii1 di basso ingegno          
,sciocchezza e vanit degna di riso4     
,l'ingannare1 il mentir1 la frode1 il   
furto  ,e la rapina1 di piet vestita1   
,cescer col danno e precipizio altrui1  
,e far a s1 dell' altrui biasmo onore1  
,son le virt di quella gente infida3    
,non merto altrui1 non valor1 non       
riverenza1  ,n d' et1 n di grado1 n di  
legge1  ,non freno di vergogna1 non     
rispetto  ,n d' amor n di sangue1 non   
memoria  ,di ricevuto ben1 n finalmente1
  ,cosa si venerabile1 o si santa  ,o si
 giusta esser pu1 che a quella vasta    
,cupidigia d' onori1 a quella ingorda   
,fame d' avere1 inviolabil sia4  ,or io1
 che incauto e di lor arti ignaro       

,sempre mi vissi1 e portai scritto in   
fronte  ,il mio pensiero1 e disvelato il
 core1  ,tu puoi pensar se a non        
sospetti strali  ,d'invida gente fui    
scoperto segno4    ,pastor ,fido1 atto  
,v4 scena #a4          ,,torquato       
,,tasso    #aedd-aeie4      ,tu che ne  
vai in ,pindo1  ,ivi pende mia cetra ad 
un cipresso1  ,salutala in inio nome1 e 
dille poi  ,ch' io son dagl' anni e da  
fortuna oppresso4    ,thou1 who to      
,pindus tak'st thy way1  ,where hangs my
 harp upon the cypress tree1  ,salute it
 in my name1 and say1  ,i am bow'd down 
with years and misery4      ,these few  
lines1 which1 in the simple and         
beautiful original1 show what  a burthen
 of thought and power of feeling may be 
compressed within the  smallest compass 
that language will allow1 were written  
by ,torquato  ,tasso1 during his second 
confinement as a lunatic in the hospital
 of ,st4  ,anne1 at ,ferrara1 by the    
duke of ,alfonso1 his patron and his    
oppressor4  ,they were written when all 

,europe was listening to the voice of   
his  song1 but heard not that of his    
complaint2 in the meridian of his glory 
as a poet1 and in the depth of his      
humiliation as a man4 ,a spectacle  more
 deplorable and repulsive could hardly  
be presented to the eye of  humanity2   
nor a fame more enviable and attractive 
be contemplated by  young spirits of    
finer mould1 to tempt them to hazard all
 perils of  such suffering for the      
acquisition of such renown4 ,this       
fragment--a  specimen of thousands of   
fancies1 no doubt1 equally exquisite and
  affecting1 which were continually     
passing through the darkened chamber  of
 his mind1 more dreary than the gloom of
 his prison-house--has been  quoted at  
the commencement of this memoir1 as     
letting the reader at once  into the    
whole mystery of the poet's life1 by a  
single flash of his  genius affording a 
glance at his afflictions4 ,what these  
were1 a long  and melancholy tale must  
unfold2 what their effect was may be    

painfully  conceived1 when we recollect 
that he was scarcely turned upon forty1 
at the time that he sends the message to
 his forlorn harp in the woods  of      
,pindus1 that he is oppressed with years
 and ill fortune1--dagl'  anni e da     
fortuna oppresso4    ,if ever man was   
born a poet1 it might be said so of     
,tasso2 while his  whole manner of life1
 not less than its remarkable           
vicissitudes1  exemplified the poetic   
character1 as it has been idealised in  
our minds  from infancy1 by the         
impressions left upon them1 both from   
fabling  traditions and authentic       
records1 concerning these privileged1   
but on  the whole 7perhaps7 unhappy1    
beings4 ,the price of greatness must be 
paid1 in labour or suffering1 by every  
man who would distinguish himself  in   
any way above his fellow-creatures2 and 
the poet 7no more1 it may  be1 though   
apparently much more1 than the prince1  
the warrior1 the  statesman1 or the     
philosopher17 must endure hardships1    

mental and  personal1 in proportion to  
his enjoyments1 and be humbled in the   
same  degree that he is exalted above   
the common lot4 ,among any ten names1   
which might be mentioned as having      
secured an imperishable pre-eminence    
beyond the probability of revolution1 in
 the same walk of polite  literature1   
,tasso's undoubtedly would be one4 ,at  
what an expense it was  acquired1 we    
proceed to show in a train of events1   
almost as romantic1  and a thousand     
times more touching1 than any thing in  
his own  diversified fictions4 ,he was a
 poet in every thing and at all times1  
from infancy 7if we may believe his     
biographers7 till he died in extreme    
old age 7if we measure his life by his  
own testimony above quoted71 in  his    
fifty-second year6 ,smiles and tears1   
rapture and agony1 hope and             
despondency1 a palace and a dungeon1    
were the alternations frequently        
crossing in the course of one who was   
the companion of princes1 the  delight  

of ladies1 the admiration of the        
world1--an outcast1 a wanderer1  clothed
 in rags and asking bread1 or the lonely
 tenant of a maniac's  cell4 ,such was  
he1 and such were the changes of his    
state4    ,torquato was the son of      
,bernardo ,tasso1 himself a poet of     
first rank in  his generation1 and who  
has left works1 both in prose and verse1
 to  which posterity is yet willing to  
give honour2 but which suffer more      
eclipse by proximity to the surpassing  
splendour of his son's1 than  might have
 been their lot had he appeared by      
himself1 the single one of  his race1   
who had proved how hard1 and yet how    
possible1 it is to climb      ,the steep
 where ,fame's proud temple shines afar4
      ,bernardo was the descendant of an
 honourable line of ancestors1--one of  
whom1 nearly two centuries before him1  
had been a benefactor to the  public1 by
 first introducing the method of        
epistolary intercourse  through the     
medium of posts2 and1 leaving to his    

children the reputation  which he had   
acquired in the conduct of these1 they  
became his  successors1 not only in     
establishments for that purpose in their
 own  country1 but some of them in lands
 beyond the ,alps4 ,it is said that     
noble alliances were formed by various  
branches of the ,tasso family1 in       
,spain and in ,flanders1 while others   
became sovereign princes in ,germany1   
that menagerie for potentates of all    
genera and species1 from the  two-headed
 eagle of ,austria to the wren of 99 99 
99 994 ,it would be  invidious to set   
down one out of a hundred who might     
contend for the  honour of filling up   
the blank1 as the least of the little   
among the  great4 ,but1 whatever were   
the hereditary glories of a name1--drawn
 like  a golden chain out of the        
darkness of the past1 and connected1 as 
that  of the obscurest peasant in a     
civilised country may be presumed to    
have  been1 with all the varieties of   
rank1 all the gradations of intellect1  

and all the changes of good and evil    
fortune1--of all the links which  formed
 that chain1 those of ,bernardo and     
,torquato were and have remained  the   
most illustrious1 though the consecutive
 or collateral series has  been         
continued to the present day1 when the  
representatives are still  found at     
,bergamo4    ,bernardo1 who was born in 
#adic1 being left an orphan in early    
youth1  with two dependent sisters to   
provide for out of a very slender       
patrimony1 was compelled to quarter     
himself on the patronage of sundry      
princes and prelates1 who1 according to 
the fashion of the times--some  from    
parade1 and others from attachment to   
the noble arts1--loved to  have men of  
genius and letters in their train4 ,many
 of these1 indeed1  were kept1 not only 
to adorn their courts and swell their   
pomp1 but were  employed as secretaries 
and counsellors1 as well as occasionally
  entrusted with important embassies1   
which1 both in war and peace1 were      

frequent between the commonwealths and  
principalities into which ,italy  was   
divided1 and by whose conflicting       
interests1 or under the malignant       
influence of whose petty intrigues 7the 
rank growth of such a state of          
society71 it was continually more or    
less distracted4 ,bernardo was1         
therefore1 from the pressure of         
circumstances1 a restless and homeless  
man through the principal part of his   
life1 serving the great without  serving
 himself1 for precarious bread2 and at  
once pursuing fortune and  fame1 in the 
vain hope of being at length--and at    
length--and at length  rewarded for his 
fidelity to his masters with the former1
 and leaving an  inheritance of the     
latter1 which should as much exalt his  
family by  distinction in literature1 as
 others had aggrandised it by the       
acquirement of riches and alliances with
 rank1 at home and abroad4    ,at the   
age of forty-one1 after a youth of      
liberal study1 sanguine  anticipation1  

and cherished but ill-directed love for 
a lady of great  beauty and no less     
celebrity1 having been praised by       
,ariosto--in the  unsuccessful pursuit  
of which he compensated himself and     
delighted his  countrymen with the      
blandishments of poetry1--he was at     
length appointed  secretary to ,ferrante
 ,sanseverino1 prince of ,salerno4 ,him 
,bernardo  accompanied through many     
strange vicissitudes of prosperity and  
misfortune1 in the court and in the     
battle-field2 till1 at the end of a  few
 years1 he shared so grievously1 yet so 
magnanimously1 in the ruin of  his      
patron1 that1 the latter being involved 
in a conspiracy against the  vice-regal 
government of ,naples1 and compelled to 
flee into ,france1 the  poet followed   
him thither at the sacrifice of his     
small estate1 and an  income which had  
just raised him above want4 ,before this
 ebbing in the  tide of his affairs1    
which1 taken at the flood 7had that not 
been  arrested in its advance71 he might

 reasonably have expected would have    
led on to fortune1 he had married a lady
 of ,naples1 named ,portia ,rossi1  an  
heiress in expectance1 and of great     
personal and mental  accomplishments4   
,this was the golden age of ,bernardo's 
life4 ,after the  revelry of fancy and  
romance which had carried him away      
during his  former passion1 wherein his 
heart had little share1 the love of     
affection endeared him to his home1 and 
he felt the transition like one  who    
exclaims1 ,how sweet is daylight and    
fresh air6 after the midnight  splendour
 of the ball-room1 with the dream-like  
fascinations of music1  dancing1 and    
spectacle1 which vanish as effectually  
as fairy palaces  conjured up in the    
wilderness1 and leave the heart         
desolate4    ,while ,bernardo was at    
,naples1 he commenced a poem of the     
romantic class  on the adventures of    
,amadis de ,gaul1 or ,amadigi1 as the   
work is  entitled4 ,this he projected   
upon the regular plan of a fable1 having

 a  beginning1 middle1 and end2 but he  
was not of sufficient authority to      
establish1 by his example1 a classical  
form of epic1 though his more           
successful and more gifted son seems to 
have borrowed the idea of doing  that   
from him4 ,when he read the first cantos
 of this performance1 as  originally    
constructed1 he observed1 that though   
the presence chamber of  the court of   
,salerno was well filled at first with  
eager and expecting  auditors1 before he
 had done nearly all of them had        
disappeared4 ,from  this he concluded   
7not suspecting any deficiency of power 
in himself71  that the unity of action  
prescribed by the severer critics was1  
in its  very nature1 not agreeable to   
nature in art1 knowing that he had      
punctiliously observed all the rules of 
the latter4 ,this failure1  enforced by 
the persuasions of his friends1 and the 
commands of the  prince1 induced him to 
remodel what he had written1 and        
elaborate the  remainder after the      

precedents of ,pulci1 ,bojardo1 and     
,ariosto4 ,the work  was extended to a  
hundred cantos1 and1 when published1 was
 so well  received1 that the author had 
cause to congratulate himself on having 
met the public taste and gratified it2  
but it was the public taste of  the day 
only1 for his poem passed away with the 
fashion of it1 and is  now remembered   
among things that were1 while the three 
productions of  his afore-named         
predecessors still keep their graduated 
rank of ascent1  and find readers in    
every age1 notwithstanding all the      
defects and  excesses that may be       
charged upon them4 ,bernardo's failed2  
less1  perhaps1 because of its          
inferiority1 than because it did not    
display the  proportionate superiority  
which the others had each in turn       
manifested  over all its respective     
forerunners4    ,it was while ,bernardo 
resided at ,sorrento1 a city in the     
vicinity of  ,naples1 where he occupied 
a palace overlooking the sea1 happy in  

his  home1 and prosperous1 or rather    
promising himself prosperity in his     
fortune1 the prince of ,salerno having  
released him from all burdensome  duties
 in his service1 that his son ,torquato1
 the second of that name  7the first    
having died young71 was born1 on the    
#aath of ,march1 #aedd4  ,sorrento is   
here put down as the birth-place of the 
poet1 among other  cities contending for
 that honour1 like those seven          
----that strove for ,homer dead1        
,through which the living ,homer begg'd 
his bread4    ,ath4 ,i4 #chd4      ,for 
of ,tasso1 in the sequel1 a sarcasm as  
bitter might be recorded4 ,a  daughter1 
elder than either of the boys1 was at   
this time growing up  under the eyes of 
their parents4 ,a letter of the father's
 7previous to  our ,torquato's birth7 to
 his sister ,afra1 who had retired into 
a  convent1 gives a lively glimpse of   
,bernardo's affectionate and domestic   
character4#cg ,my young daughter is very
 beautiful1 and affords me  great hopes 

that she will lead a virtuous and       
honourable life4 ,my infant             
son--,torquato the first--is before ,god
 our ,creator1 and prays for your       
salvation4 ,my ,portia is seven months  
gone with child2 whether a son or a     
daughter1 it shall be supremely dear to 
me2 only may ,god1 who gives it  me1    
grant that it may be born with his fear2
 pray together with the holy  nuns that 
the ,almighty may preserve the mother1  
who in this world is my  highest joy4   
,it is ludicrous1 yet affecting1 to     
observe what little  circumstances are  
eagerly laid hold upon after death1     
respecting the  personal history of men 
who1 during their lives1 were neglected 
in their  hardest trials1 or oppressed  
in their helplessness by those who were 
bound to protect and foster them4 ,the  
very hour of ,tasso's birth1 as  well as
 the place1 has been contested against  
his own authority3 he says  that it was 
four o'clock in the morning2 ,serassi1  
that it was mid-day4  ,he ought to have 

been born at ,naples1 says ,manso1      
though he happened  first to appear at  
,sorrento4 ,it may be settled that he   
was a native of  ,italy rather than of  
any place where he may first have seen  
the light1  in a country throughout     
which he was a stranger and a pilgrim   
all his  days4 ,indeed1 he ought to have
 been born on the sea2 so little claim1 
on  the ground of paternal kindness     
shown to him1 had any city in the       
peninsula to the glory of his birth4    
,scarcely had he been welcomed into the 
world under auspices so cheering  as    
those recently mentioned1 than the      
fortunes of his family took an  adverse 
turn4 ,bernardo was summoned away from  
the delightful retirement  of ,sorrento1
 to join his patron in the war which had
 just broken out  between the emperor   
,charles ,v4 and ,francis ,i41 and in   
which the prince  brilliantly           
distinguished himself4 ,meanwhile1 if we
 are to believe his  nursery traditions1
 the little ,torquato was giving1 even  

from his  cradle1 proofs of the spirit  
that was in him1 scarcely less          
extraordinary than if1 like ,hercules1  
he had strangled serpents1 or like      
another poet of old1 attracted bees to  
his lips1 whether to gather or to       
deposit sweetness there we need not stay
 to enquire4 ,manso1 his latest  and    
most munificent patron1 his first and   
most encomiastic biographer1  7whose    
memoir1 like ,boccaccio's of ,dante1    
reads more like romance than  reality in
 many passages1 and no where more than  
in this instance17  says1 that the      
child1 even during his first year1 gave 
evidence of the  divinity of his genius4
 ,for scarcely had he attained his sixth
 month1  when1 contrary to the usage of 
children1 he began not only to let loose
  his tongue 7or to prattle a snodar la 
lingua71 but even to speak  outright1   
and that in such a manner that he was   
never known to lisp 7or  clip7 his      
syllables1 as all other infants do1 but 
formed his words  complete1 and gave    

them perfect utterance4 ,if this be     
true1 his  marvellous faculty of speech1
 like the produce of a premature spring1
  must have suffered an early blight3   
for he himself records that1 in         
speaking1 he was little favoured by     
nature1 having an unconquerable         
impediment of tongue2 whence he         
preferred to communicate his thoughts   
rather in writing than by the audible   
voice1 when he meant to win  attention  
or produce impression4 ,his own         
testimony is so far at variance  with   
the assertion of his friend ,manso      
respecting his early fluency1  that he  
appeals for confirmation of the fact    
that he is a stammerer  7probably to no 
very inconvenient degree7 to some of his
 correspondents4  ,but we are told1 on  
the same authority1 that the infant was 
equally  precocious in the faculties of 
the mind2 that he could reason1 explain 
his thoughts1 and answer questions with 
surprising intelligence4  ,moreover1 to 
crown the climax1 it is said that he    

seldom cried1 and  never laughed2 the   
only exception1 it may be presumed1 of a
 healthy  child since the world began2  
but that he was grave1 dignified1 and   
sage1  and announced by his behaviour   
that he was destined for some great     
design4    ,on the return of ,bernardo  
from the army1 he enjoyed a brief       
prolongation  of his domestic quiet at  
,sorrento1 during which all that a      
romantic  father and a passionately     
tender mother could do to awaken1       
cherish1 and  confirm the early         
intimations of transcendent intellect in
 their darling  son1 was employed2 and  
such discipline1 by its natural effect1 
no doubt1  coloured and characterised   
their son's mind1 in the sequel1 to the 
end  of life4 ,in one of ,bernardo's    
letters to ,portia1 during his late     
absence1 he says1 that1 while he leaves 
to her the delicate task to  adorn their
 daughter ,cornelia with every virtue   
and accomplishment which  becomes a     
maiden1 he intends himself to train up  

their young ,torquato  for his more     
arduous station in society1 when he     
should be of proper  age4 ,this purpose 
was never realised4    ,in #aeeb1 the   
prince of ,salerno and his adherents    
being declared rebels1  ,bernardo1 as   
one of the most attached of his friends1
 was included in  the proscription3 his 
estate was confiscated1 and an income of
 #ijj scudi  lost2 leaving him utterly  
destitute of resources1 with the        
exception of  a few valuable trinkets1  
and the hope of some time recovering his
 wife's  dowry--a hope which outlived   
himself1 and which he bequeathed as a   
perpetual plague of expectation and     
disappointment to his son1 who1 as  will
 be seen1 obtained a decree to have it1 
against his mother's  brothers1 nearly  
at his own last hour4 ,bernardo being   
thus driven into  exile1 his wife       
remained with the children at ,naples1  
in very narrow  circumstances1 though   
amongst wealthy relatives1 who seem     
always to have  treated her and her     

offspring with unnatural                
hard-heartedness4 ,torquato1  meanwhile1
 under her superintendence1 was making  
progress in the general  rudiments of   
knowledge2 but especially in the        
acquisition of languages1  in rhetoric1 
and in poetry1 proportioned to the      
promise of his earlier  years4 ,his     
principal tutor was one ,angeluzzo1 at a
 college of the  ,jesuits1 recently     
established in that city4 ,so eager and 
intent was he  in quest of knowledge    
7such as lay within his reach71 that his
 mother1  so far from having to urge or 
bribe him onward1 was obliged1 for his  
health's sake1 to restrain him4 ,early  
and late he was at his books2 and  on   
the winter's mornings he was sent from  
his home to the school with a  lantern  
and servant to conduct him4 ,at seven   
years of age he was already  a          
considerable proficient in the ,greek   
and ,latin tongues1 and had begun  to   
exercise himself in oral eloquence and  
written composition2 but no  genuine    

specimens of either of these have been  
preserved4    ,the following beautiful  
and touching lines1 in which he alludes 
to the  worst period of his life1--his  
separation from his mother1 when called 
away from ,naples to join his father at 
,rome1--have been absurdly  attributed  
to him as actually penned at this date4 
,hoole1 and even ,hunt1  two of his     
modern translators1 have fallen into    
this error2 whereas a  moment's         
consideration would convince any man1   
who understood the  difference between  
adult poetry and puerile attempts at    
rhyming1 that  such verses1 at such an  
age1 7nine years67 would have been      
sufficiently  remarkable to justify     
belief in the fables of his babyhood1   
when he sat  talking pretty unbroken    
,italian on his mother's knee1 before he
 was  twelve months old4    ,the passage
 occurs in a figurative canzonet on the 
river ,metauso1 but  addressed to the   
duke of ,urbino1 imploring refuge and   
protection in his  adversity4 ,though   

left unfinished1 the fragment is        
acknowledged to be  one of the most     
exquisitely wrought of all the author's 
lyrics3--      ,me dal sen della madre  
empia ,fortuna  ,pargoletto divelse3 ah6
 di que' baci1  ,ch' ella bagn di       
lagrime dolenti1  ,con sospir mi        
rimembra1 e degli ardenti  ,preghi1 che 
sen portar l' aure fugaci1  ,ch' io     
giunger non dovea pi volto  volto  ,fra 
quelle braccia accolto  ,con nodi cos   
stretti1 e s tenaci4  ,lasso6 e seguii  
con mal sicure piante1  ,qual ,ascanio1 
o ,cammilla1 il padre errante4      ,me1
 from a tender mother's breast1  ,stern 
,fortune1 while an infant1 tore2  ,ah6  
,i remember how she press'd4  ,press'd  
me1 and kiss'd me1 o'er and o'er1       
,bathed with her tears1 with doleful    
sighs1  ,breathed for me many a fervent 
prayer1  ,which1 ere it reach'd the     
skies1  ,was scatter'd by the passing   
air4    ,for ,i was nevermore to meet   
,that parent face to face1  ,clasp'd in 
her clear embrace1  ,with folds so      

strait1 so binding and so sweet4  ,alas6
 't was mine thenceforth to roam  ,with 
ill-supporting feet1  ,and1 like        
,ascanius o'er the trackless floods1    
,or young ,camilla1 cast on wilds and   
woods1  ,follow a wandering father      
without home4      ,these               
lines--breathing forth such grateful    
recollections of maternal  tenderness1  
watching1 weeping1 praying1 over a most 
beloved and  affectionate child1 from   
whom she was parting for ever1 and who  
was  destined to be far greater than    
even she1 in her fondest entrancement1  
could have hoped--remind us of our own  
,cowper's filial reminiscences1 in      
words that weep1 translating tears that 
speak1 on receiving1 at a  more distant 
period of a suffering life1 his mother's
 picture3 at sight  of which1 for a     
while1 he lived over again1 with a      
thousand times more  intense delight1   
the scenes of infancy1 renewed1 like a  
vision of  pre-existence in some happier
 state than that which had intervened   

since  he had borne the burthen and heat
 of a long day of life consumed in      
anguish of spirit1 for which1 on this   
side of the grave1 he found no  solace1 
and beyond it1 no hope for his          
bewildered mind2 dark as ,egypt  under  
the ninth plague in that quarter1       
though1 in every other1 light as  the   
land of ,goshen4 ,between ,tasso and    
,cowper there were many traits of  sad  
as well as noble resemblance--kindred   
genius1 a kindred malady1 and  kindred  
misfortunes2 but not kindred            
alleviations3 the advantage here  was on
 our countryman's side2 but his disease 
lay deeper than that of  the former1 and
 the symptoms1 if not so violent after  
the first terrible  attack1 were more   
inveterate2 so that1 contemplating the  
fate of the  glorious ,italian under    
eclipse1 and pitying him with a sympathy
 which no  man living but himself could 
feel1 ,cowper might have drawn the same 
comparison between ,tasso's case and his
 own1 as he has done in those           

heart-wringing verses 7the last which he
 is recorded to have composed7  under   
the title of ,the ,castaway4 ,these were
 founded upon a  circumstance mentioned 
in ,anson's ,voyage1 of a sailor who    
fell overboard  in a storm1 when the    
ship could not be stayed to rescue him1 
but who  followed in its wake1 crying   
after it1 and being heard by his        
companions1 while he      ----lived an  
hour  ,in ocean1 self-upheld2  ,and     
ever1 as the minutes flew1  ,entreated  
help1 or cried 'adieu4'  99 99 99 99    
,at length he drank  ,the stifling wave1
 and then he sank4      ,the melancholy 
poet adds1 in reference to himself1 that
      ,misery still delights to trace   
,its semblance in another's case4  99 99
 99 99  ,no voice divine the storm      
allay'd1  ,no light propitious shone1   
,when snatch'd from all effectual aid1  
,we perish'd1 each alone2  ,but ,i      
beneath a rougher sea1  ,and 'whelm'd in
 deeper gulfs than he4      ,both of    
,tasso's parents had early and deeply   

impressed upon his mind and  his        
affections veneration and love to ,god4 
,in his tenth year the ,jesuit  fathers1
 following up the religious instructions
 of this child of  promise according to 
their views of the ,gospel1 admitted him
 to the  sacrament2 on which occasion1  
though he acknowledges1 in one of his   
epistles1 that he could not enter into  
the mystery of the real  presence1      
according to the ,roman interpretation  
of the true and simple  scripture       
doctrine of the communion of the body   
and the blood of  ,christ1 yet1         
impressed with awe by the pomp of the   
spectacle1 and  elevated almost to      
transport by sympathy of devotion with  
the  surrounding multitude1 he received 
the symbol1 according to his own        
ingenuous account1 with a certain       
indescribable and unwonted              
satisfaction4 ,this circumstance        
deserves particular mention1 because1   
assuredly1 by such a course of domestic 
and school discipline the boy  was      

trained up in what he understood to be  
genuine piety1 and of which1  through   
after life1 he became a zealous         
professor1 however lax on some  other   
subjects his writings1 and even his     
actions1 may have been4 ,in the  latter 
respect1 however1 he was countenanced by
 the licentious manners  of the age1 and
 especially of that class of society1   
refined and exalted  as it was1 in which
 his lot was cast1 but in which he was  
rather  entertained as a guest than     
recognised as a member of the privileged
  order4 ,his father1 in one of his     
letters to his mother1 says1 ,it is of  
the utmost importance to impress1 with  
all your influence and authority1  upon 
the infantine mind the name1 the love1  
and the fear of ,god1 that  the child   
may learn to love and honour ,him from  
whom he has received1  not life only1   
but all the benefits and mercies of     
providence and grace1  which can render 
man happy in this world1 and blessed in 
that which is  to come4 ,in the same    

letter he says1 ,i condemn those who    
beat their  children1 not less than if  
they should dare to lay hands on the    
image of  ,god4    ,it was after the    
expatriated party to whom ,bernardo     
belonged had planned  an attack upon    
,naples1 by the combined fleets of      
,france and ,turkey1  which miscarried  
in a miserable piratical descent upon   
the neighbouring  coast1 and a          
disgraceful re-embarkment1 that ,portia 
and her daughter  were received into a  
convent1 and ,torquato was sent to his  
father at  ,rome2 who1 an exile1 on a   
bed of sickness1 and in deep poverty1   
was  solacing himself1 amidst his       
misfortunes1 with preparing a volume of 
his  ,rime for the press1 and           
unweariedly labouring to complete his   
,amadigi4  ,in the eternal city1 young  
,tasso prosecuted his studies with      
indefatigable assiduity1 and having for 
companion a cousin of his own  name1    
,christofero ,tasso1 a lad of indolent  
habits and slow capacity4 ,he1  by his  

example and influence1 for a while      
happily stimulated the latter  to become
 a worthy competitor of himself2 but he 
soon growing tired in  the course1      
,torquato left him1 and every rival     
beside1 far behind in  every learned and
 liberal accomplishment4    ,in #aeef   
,portia died1 at ,naples1 never having  
seen her husband since his  original    
proscription4 ,her illness was so brief 
and so violent1 that  ,bernardo doubted 
whether it was poison or a broken heart 
that had cut  her off in the prime of   
her years1--most of which1 however1 had 
been so  melancholy1 since her happiness
 first seemed consummated by her union  
with the man of her choice1 and in the  
children of their love1 that  there     
needed no auxiliary1 in this instance1  
for ,nature to do her work  in the shape
 of death4 ,meanwhile ,bernardo1 not    
being permitted to return  to ,naples1  
was compelled1 by the stress of hard    
circumstances1 to leave  his daughter in
 the hands of those whom he had but too 

much reason to  call her enemies1 though
 the nearest of kin to her deceased     
mother4  ,these--probably from motives  
of rapacity1 though political rancour   
may  have added its malignity to the    
cold venom of avarice--instituted a     
process against young ,torquato1 to     
disinherit him1 under a pretence  which 
a fiend incarnate 7had such a wanderer  
from the abyss of lost  spirits been    
permitted to darken the earth with his  
shadow7 might have  blushed to advance  
in a court of justice1--that1 having    
followed his  miserable parent to ,rome1
 the boy 7at ten years of age67 had made
  himself partaker of his father's      
imputed treason1 and thereby            
righteously exposed himself to the same 
penalties of exile and  confiscation4   
,the issue of this iniquitous proceeding
 does not appear1  except it may be     
gathered from the fact1 that the uncles 
contrived to  withhold ,torquato's      
portion of his mother's dowry from him  
till the last  year of his life3 and1   

further to secure the control1 at least1
 of the  property by themselves1 they   
married her daughter ,cornelia1 who1 at 
fifteen years1 had grown up into a      
beauty1 to a gentleman of ,sorrento1  of
 narrow fortune1 but honourable birth1  
in spite of the protestations  of her   
father1 whose ambition had destined her 
for a higher and more  wealthy alliance2
 his hopes and his plans being even a   
day's march  beyond his power of        
overtaking them by performance4 ,there  
is extant a  letter written on this     
occasion by ,torquato 7probably at the  
dictation  of his father7 to ,signora   
,vittoria ,colonna1 in which the lad    
bitterly  complains against the cruelty 
of his uncles in forcing this match upon
  his sister2 and implores her          
interference to prevent the entailment  
of  poverty and disgrace upon the young 
,cornelia1 by such a sacrifice of her   
person and property to the mercenary    
views of her relatives4 ,it is  hard1   
says the reputed writer1 to lose one's  

fortune2 but the  degradation of blood  
is much harder to bear4 ,my poor old    
father has only  us two2 and1 since     
fortune has robbed him of his property1 
and of a wife  whom he loved as his own 
soul1 suffer not rapacity to deprive him
 of his  beloved daughter1 in whose     
bosom he hoped to finish tranquilly the 
few  last years of his old age4 ,we have
 no friends at ,naples2 our relations   
are our enemies1 and1 on account of the 
circumstances of my father's  situation1
 every one fears to take us by the hand4
 ,these stern but  tender sentiments1   
wrung in the agony of heart-sickness    
from the father1  were written1 not only
 by the hand of the son upon the paper  
of the  epistle1 but on his own heart1  
and became identified with his personal 
feelings through life4 ,though he never 
suffered the escutcheon of his  family  
to be blemished by a humbling           
connection1 yet he paid dearly1  both in
 his affections and in his pride1 to    
preserve it2 and1 if the  tradition of  

his love for a princess of the house of 
,este be founded in  truth1 he must have
 felt that he was himself1 in that case1
 playing the  part of some poor         
gentleman1 whose alliance would be a    
degradation of  the most ancient blood  
of ,italy4 ,both the father and the son1
 in the  sequel1 were reconciled--first 
for ,cornelia's sake1 and afterwards for
  his own--to her husband2 who proved a 
worthy and kind consort1 with whom  she 
lived happily1 though not long1 and by  
whom she had several  children4    ,in a
 letter addressed by ,bernardo to his   
daughter1 while she was yet a  girl1    
occurs the following affecting          
day-dreams of the comforts of old  age  
which he hoped to realise in her filial 
attentions4 ,after exhorting  her to    
mind her lessons1 and promising in due  
time to provide a husband  worthy of    
her1 with whom she should live near     
himself1 he thus fondly  adverts to that
 closing scene of a troubled life1 to   
which many a  sufferer like him1 to the 

last moment1 looked on as a forlorn     
hope--forlorn1 yet inexpressibly        
soothing1 and cherished even in the     
heart of despair3--,sweet and tranquil  
to me will be old age1 when ,i  shall   
see 7as ,i hope it may be the will of   
,god7 myself perpetuated in  your little
 ones1 with my very features impictured 
on their  countenances4 ,death will then
 appear to me less terrible1 when1      
beholding you in honour and in peace1   
enjoying the love of your husband1  and 
the delights derived from the affections
 of your children1 you shall  close with
 pale hands these eyes of mine4 ,and    
surely it is due to a dear  father to   
receive the last kisses1 the last tears1
 and every other pious  and tender      
office1 from a dutiful and loving       
daughter4    ,fresh commotions in ,italy
 rendering ,rome an unsafe sojourn for  
the  homeless ,bernardo1 he removed his 
son and his nephew to ,bergamo1 and     
fled himself to ,ravenna1 with two      
shirts and his ,amadigi yet             

uncompleted2 as destitute as his        
contemporary ,camons1 when he escaped   
from shipwreck with his ,lusiad in one  
hand1 and with the other  buffeting the 
waves--thus saving at once his life and 
his immortality6  ,on as troubled a sea1
 by land1 as any breadth of water       
between ,lisbon  and ,canton1 not       
excepting that round the ,cape of       
,storms1 ,bernardo was  tossed to and   
fro throughout ,italy2 and continued to 
the last as poor1  yet as sanguine1 as  
the only genius that ,portugal had      
hitherto produced1  and proved itself   
unworthy to give birth to another by its
 neglect1 if  not its ingratitude and   
inhumanity1 to that one4 ,but here a    
gleam of  sunshine broke upon ,bernardo1
 amidst the darkness of his flight from 
,rome4 ,the duke of ,urbino invited him 
to ,pesaro1 and afforded him a  welcome 
but temporary asylum there from the     
persecution of his enemies1  and the    
pressure of indigence--a retreat1       
indeed1 which he himself  acknowledged  

was such as might give inspiration to   
any poet1 and where  lie1 himself1 in   
quiet and amidst that comfort to which  
he had lately  been a stranger1 might   
complete his long poem4    ,torquato for
 a little time was pleasantly situated  
at ,bergamo1 in the  family of his      
cousin and fellow-student1 where1 being 
a boy of  exceedingly prepossessing     
appearance1 amiable disposition1 and    
manifestly brilliant talents1 he was    
much noticed and even caressed by  many 
of the principal persons in the         
neighbourhood4 ,bernardo1 however1      
anxious to have him under his own eye   
and direction1 soon reclaimed him4  ,at 
,pesaro1 ,torquato1 as might be         
expected1 won attention from the whole  
circle of his father's acquaintance2 and
 the duke d',urbino himself was  so     
delighted with his graceful modesty and 
rare accomplishments1 that he           
introduced him to his own son as a      
suitable companion in his studies and   
his pleasures4 ,the young noble of      

fortune at once became attached to the  
young noble of genius1 and a friendship1
 so natural to kindred minds  early     
associated--the dawn of affection       
preceding the day-star of  passion in   
the order of ,providence--speedily      
sprang up1 and amidst all  the splendour
 of station which through life          
distinguished the one1 and  the         
sufferings by adversity which were the  
subsequent lot of the other1  was never 
forsworn or forgotten by either4 ,and   
well was the lustre1 so  transiently    
shed by the prince1 in the court of his 
father1 upon the  humble son of the     
exile there1 imperishably reflected upon
 himself1 in  after years1 even from the
 dungeons of ,ferrara1 by the glory of  
the  author of ,gerusalemme ,liberata4  
,bernardo having at length put the      
finishing stroke to his ,amadigi1       
looked to the munificence of the king of
 ,france and the prince of  ,salerno for
 the means of printing it4 ,in these    
reliances he was  disappointed2 and it  

appears that his patron1 the prince1 was
 himself so  impoverished1 that the     
pension to the poet of #cjj crowns 7a   
poor  compensation for all his services 
and sacrifices7 was about this time     
withdrawn4 ,so utterly perished were    
,bernardo's resources1 in this          
extremity1 that1 according to his own   
lamentable statement1 had it not  been  
for the bounty of the duke d',urbino1 he
 must have been almost  reduced to the  
necessity of begging bread for himself  
and his son4 ,the  duke liberally       
supplied him1 not with bread only for   
himself and his  son1 but presented him 
with #cjj ducats1 to which were added a 
hundred  gold crowns by the cardinal de 
,tournon4 ,hereupon he repaired to      
,venice1  to publish his work4 ,being   
received with great respect by the      
literary  characters of that city1 then 
eminent for noble arts as well as       
victorious arms and prosperous commerce1
 he was adopted by them1 and  made      
secretary to their academy4 ,to this    

office was annexed a salary so          
considerable1 that1 with his wonted     
improvidence1 he immediately            
established himself in a handsome house1
 sumptuously furnished1 and  adorned    
with what seems to have been his        
delight1 rich tapestry1 the  poetry of  
the needle and the shuttle1 and which at
 best is but to  painting what painting 
itself sometimes is to nature -- a copy 
reminding the spectator of an original1 
of which one of the greatest  merits of 
the imitation is the difficulty overcome
 in achieving it4    ,bernardo's        
vicissitudes would present a touching   
but melancholy contrast  to those of    
,gil ,blas of ,santillane1 if written in
 a style of seriousness  and sympathy   
with what is most sacred in suffering1  
and trying in hope  deferred1 equal to  
the pungent humour and heartless        
indifference to what  is virtuosest1    
discreetest1 best1 in the characteristic
 adventures of  that gay footman of     
fortune4 ,but such transitions as both  

,bernardo and  ,torquato experienced1   
strange as they seem to us1 were events 
of common  occurrence1 arising out of   
the state of society in the petty       
principalities and commonwealths of     
,italy in the middle ages1 and long     
after the revival of learning1 when     
those who followed the profession of    
letters were too often dependent for the
 means of subsistence upon the          
precarious patronage of haughty nobles  
and ostentatious ecclesiastics4  ,the   
part which ,torquato had to bear in the 
diversities of circumstance1  scene1 and
 company1 into which he was thrown with 
his parent1 was too  well calculated to 
cherish and confirm all his natural     
aspirings2 while  those patrician       
sentiments1 which had been instilled    
into him from his  cradle1 amidst       
poverty1 ignominy1 and all the          
wretchedness of ephemeral  favour1 ever 
sustained in him a lofty self-esteem1 on
 the ground of  honourable birth1 the   
consciousness of innate genius1 and the 

pride of  acquired learning1 to which   
had been carefully added those          
gentlemanly  accomplishments which      
rendered him a fit companion for people 
of the  highest rank in an age of       
extraordinary display of personal       
conduct and  ceremonial bearing4 ,tasso1
 in addition to his peculiar advantages1
  excelled in all these conventional    
ones1 except in self-control--that      
especially which degenerates into       
servility--for 7though the most         
exquisite flatterer in the world1 as    
thousands of panegyrical verses  prove  
him to have been7 he never learned the  
meaner1 but more  profitable1 art of    
being a court-minion4    ,while he was  
thus pursuing his studies with in       
defatigable application1  he was not    
less diligent in cultivating those      
talents1 which had given  such          
extraordinary signs of power within him4
 ,it is stated that while1  for the     
latter purpose1 he was reading with     
intense devotion the poets  both of old 

,italy and new1 as well as the relics of
 the nobler bards of  ancient ,greece1  
like most of his countrymen1 7perhaps1  
from secret  nationality of feeling17 he
 preferred the ,latins to these1 and    
among the  ,latins ,virgil beyond every 
other bore the palm in his youthful     
imagination4 ,in fact he grew so        
enamoured of the graces and excellences 
of the neid1 that his own epic became   
just such a work as1 it might be        
presumed1 ,virgil himself would have    
composed in the same age1 and under  the
 same influences1 as ,tasso lived2      
while1 on the other hand1 had their     
births been exchanged1 ,tasso might have
 been the glory of the court of         
,augustus1 and flourished then in       
splendour amidst the greatest and most  
intellectual society of men of talents  
that were ever contemporary1  instead of
 being an almoner1 an exile1 a prisoner1
 beholden for food and  raiment1 in his 
best estate1 to the bounty--or rather to
 the  parsimony--of the ,great ,vulgar  

of ,italy in the sixteenth century1     
whose names are more illustrious from   
having been connected with his1  than   
for any record of themselves or their   
ancestors1 which could render  their    
families illustrious beyond the little  
boundaries of their  domains4 ,this     
supposition1 in reference to ,virgil and
 ,tasso1 may be  deemed impertinent2    
hazardous it certainly is1 and once     
would have been  deemed heretical by the
 idolaters of the ,roman poet4 ,though  
this is not  precisely the place1 yet1  
in a discursive memoir like the present1
 it  may be allowable1 to remark upon a 
line of ,boileau1 which has done more   
injury to the reputation of ,tasso than 
all the splenetic criticisms of         
,sperone1 and the verbal persecutions of
 the ,della ,cruscans4 ,ridiculing  the 
bad taste of certain personages who     
haunt courts1 and from their  rank and  
assurance are permitted to judge as     
foolishly as they please of  the merits 
of authors with impunity1 he says 7and  

in a note gives a  special instance of  
such aristocratic wrong-headness#ch7    
that these  will prefer  ,malherbe1     
,thophile1 ,thophile to ,malherbe1--    
,et le clinquant du ,tasse  tout l'or de
 ,virgile3    ,and ,tasso's tinsel to   
all ,virgil's gold4      ,this flippant 
antithesis1 which1 from its sparkling   
ambiguity1 might  itself be quoted as a 
specimen of sheer tinsel 7clinquant71   
amounts  to no more than that there are 
fools1 as the satirist calls them1 who  
prefer what is false in ,tasso to what  
is true in ,virgil2 but that  the whole1
 the half1 or even a tenth of the       
,gerusalemme ,liberata1 of  which he    
himself speaks elsewhere with sufficient
 commendation1 is  composed of          
clinquant1 without a greatly            
overbalancing weight of  gold even in   
its worst parts1 he has not dared to    
affirm1 though by a  pitiful            
insinuation1 not less unworthy of the   
author than unjust to the  object1 he   
has had the left-handed luck to fix a   

stigma to that effect  upon the fair    
fame of one1 in comparison with whose   
magnificent  creations of thought his   
own finely elaborated productions are   
but as  ,french wire to solid bullion4  
,the feeble confirmation of ,boileau's  
equivocal sentence1 by the elegant but  
prejudiced ,addison1 is of little       
weight4 ,the critic1 who1 in tracing    
,milton's obligations to some of his    
great forerunners1 acknowledges that    
among these he might have included      
,tasso1 but that he does not deem him a 
sufficient voucher1 could be  but very  
imperfectly acquainted with the         
authority which he affected to          
disparage1 but which the poet of        
,paradise ,lost held in very different  
estimation4 ,try ,boileau1 when he      
attempts a strain of heroics1 as in the 
,ode on the taking of ,namur1 or        
,addison1 in his celebrated ,campaign1  
by any page that may be first opened in 
all ,tasso's multifarious  compositions 
in verse1 and the white plume on the    

crest of ,louis ,,xiv41  which the court
 poet mistook for a star1 and the       
destroying angel1  which the court      
critics of queen ,anne's reign hailed as
 descending from  the highest heaven of 
invention1 and the feather              
metamorphosis1 in the  first instance1  
will be pronounced a puerile and        
pedantic conceit2 and  the angel1 in the
 second1 a piece of commonplace         
machinery1 which  scarcely escapes the  
charge of profaneness in its main       
attribute4  ,marlborough1 a mortal man1 
burning to avenge his country's wrongs1 
may  well be imagined as slaughtering1  
with terrible delight1 the thousands    
and tens of thousands of her enemies2   
but that an angel should be  pleased 7as
 the cold and heartless phrase is7 in   
executing judgments  upon unresisting   
victims of divine wrath 7righteous as   
the vengeance may  be7 is utterly       
inconceivable2 nor can the poet shelter 
himself under the  doubtful             
interpretation of the context1--        

,pleased the ,almighty's orders to      
perform1  ,rides on the whirlwind and   
directs the storm1--      because the   
first1 last1 and only impression upon   
the reader's mind will  be1 that the    
destroyer is pleased with the           
destruction1 though the  ,almighty      
himself declares that ,he hath no       
pleasure in the death of  the wicked4   
,both these passages might have escaped 
carping criticism2  but1 when ,boileau  
and ,addison mislead the public to      
believe that ,tasso's  writings are all 
tinsel1 it is fair to show that their   
own are not  all gold4#ci    ,torquato's
 mind now feeling strength1 and gaining 
confidence to  undertake things beyond  
his years1 he diligently gave his days  
and  nights1 in the intervals of severer
 exercises1 to reading and meditating   
upon the works of his great ,italian    
predecessors1 that he might form1  after
 their models1 a style of verse and     
manner of composition which  should     
rival theirs1 and yet be all his own4   

,unconsciously1 it is  probable1 at     
first1 but gradually as he grew up1     
through an undefined  period1 he        
conceived1 and1 before he reached the   
age of eighteen1 had  executed1 what    
,dr4 ,black calls the most wonderful    
work that ever was  written by man1 when
 the youth of the author1 and the short 
time in  which it was composed--ten     
months1 it is reported--are taken into  
the  account4 ,the ,joan of ,arc1 by our
 illustrious countryman1 ,southey1      
produced in a less compass of time1 and 
at an age not much more advanced  than  
,tasso's1 may fairly be put in          
competition with the ,rinaldo1  without 
disparagement to either4 ,nothing       
connected with the existence of  man1 in
 this mysterious world1 at once living  
within and beyond himself1  exceeds1    
either in purity or intensity1 the      
delight of youth when  framing poetry at
 first according to the extent of       
new-formed powers1  and anticipating    
poetry to come1 when years shall have   

matured his  faculties1 and his wings1  
after their first moulting1 shall have  
acquired full vigour of plume to bear   
him with no middle flight above  the    
,aonian mounts while he pursues         
,things unattempted yet in prose or     
rhyme4      ,among real curiosities of  
literature there yet remain copies of   
,dante  and ,petrarch1 with marginal    
notes in ,torquato's handwriting1 which 
prove  with what microscopic minuteness 
he examined and studied the productions 
of those masters of that language1 to   
which he himself was destined to  give  
consummate grace as well as power of    
expression--the strength of  ,dante1    
modified from the muscular proportions  
of ,hercules to those of  the           
fine-limbed ,apollo1--the delicacy of   
,petrarch veiled1 like the  ,medicean   
,venus1 in the mantle of ,minerva4 ,it  
may here be noticed1 that  ,tasso was no
 more an expert penman than a fluent    
speaker2 his  manuscripts1 according to 
his own acknowledgment1 being very      

indifferently recommended either by the 
fashion of the letters1 or the          
correctness of the spelling4 ,the       
numberless erasures1 interpolations1    
and new readings1 with which many of his
 best works1 preserved in the  library  
of the house of ,este1 are disfigured to
 the eye1 are interesting  marks of that
 process of elaboration by which he     
slowly but as  effectually brought out  
all the hidden beauty of his thoughts1  
as though  they had been suddenly       
conceived and perfectly expressed in the
 ardour  of inspiration4    ,during     
their residence at ,venice1 ,torquato   
was much employed by his  father in     
transcribing his own multitudinous poems
 and letters1 as well  as in preparing  
for the press the enormous length of the
 ,amadigi4 ,by  this exercise the son   
himself became daily more familiarised  
with the  means and artifices by which  
those who excel others in the           
productions  of their genius1 form their
 peculiar style according to their      

peculiar  standard of intellect1 and    
identify their whole cast of thinking   
with  their whole structure of language4
 ,to put a passage of an eloquent       
author to the nicest test of touch 7if  
the expression may be allowed  for the  
intercourse of mind with mind1 in the   
communication and  reception of ideas   
splendidly conceived and felicitously   
bodied forth by  the one1 and by degrees
 only apprehended by the other17--to put
 to the  nicest test of touch1 as it    
were1 any eloquent passage of poet or   
orator1 let the admirer copy it out at  
length1 and he will find that the       
progress of mind1 hand1 and eye1 going  
all together1 and through every  part1  
will give him the most distinct possible
 possession of the whole  in its full   
proportion1 minutest details1 and utmost
 effect4    ,but while thus the         
amanuensis of his father1 ,torquato was 
not less  assiduously cultivating his   
own talents1 and meditating the         
composition  already alluded to1 in     

which he was soon not only to rival the 
former1  but even while a boy1 and upon 
the enchanted ground of romance itself1 
to prove a greater magician than he4    
,this the sudden and passionate         
admiration with which his ,rinaldo was  
hailed throughout ,italy1 and  beyond   
the ,alps and ,pyrenees1 irreversibly   
established4 ,the failure of            
,bernardo's hopes1 in the neglect with  
which both sovereign princes and  the   
reading public1 after the first         
effervescence of applause1 treated  his 
,amadigi1 was nearly contemporaneous    
with the first triumph of his  more     
fortunate son1 who1 so far as fame could
 gratify or reward his  literary        
labours1 may be said to have succeeded  
in all that he  attempted1 either in    
prose and verse1 thenceforward1 though  
some of his  performances had but an    
ephemeral popularity1 being welcomed at 
first1  and afterwards formally honoured
 from the courtesy due to their author1 
and the measure of kindred excellence by

 which they were all allied to  the     
happier offspring of his too prolific   
mind4 ,bernardo1 after he found  that   
the stupendous monument of labour in    
vain1 which he had spent so  many years 
in accumulating1 was likely to be left  
to moulder away and  fall of itself into
 oblivion1--having at its first         
appearance excited  neither enough of   
envy or admiration to render it         
extensively attractive  to public       
curiosity1--lay down in despondency at  
its base1 amidst his  perished hopes2   
and though he made several attempts     
afterwards to rise1  these were all     
equally unavailing1 and the latest      
solace of his life was  the             
contemplation of that glory descending  
upon his son which had  departed from   
him4    ,in considering the fate1 by a  
natural death 7so to express it71 after 
a  date somewhat longer than that of a  
natural life1 of those who have been    
renowned in their own age1 but have     
dwindled into insignificance1 or  become

 utterly extinct in that which followed1
 it may be said of the far  greater     
number of those who flourish among      
contemporaries1 not1 indeed1  that they1
      are born to blush unseen1  ,and   
waste their sweetness on the desert air1
      but that they are flowers which   
bloom in their season1 and charm with   
their fragrance the passers by of one   
generation1 then disappear1 and  are    
remembered no more4 ,this is the order  
of ,providence1 and it is wise  and     
good2 for were the ,almighty less       
liberal of his gifts1 though the        
possessors being few and far between    
might be more admired and longer1  the  
world would be less benefited than by   
that perpetual succession and  supply   
7according to the demand for literature7
 of minds worthy1  perhaps1 of any age1 
but formed peculiarly to suit the taste1
 the  manners1 and the society of their 
own4 ,among ,chalmers' ,english ,poets1 
for example1 how many names1 once       
illustrious1 now merely catalogued1  are

 prefixed to works1 unread though       
unforgotten1 on which talents as        
diversified and as well cultivated as   
the circumstances of the times  would   
allow were painfully expended1 to       
delight and improve mankind2  each of   
whose possessors hoped1 besides serving 
his own generation1 to  leave something 
behind which the world would not        
willingly let die4 ,yet  it may be      
questioned whether some of these1 had   
they lived in other  periods1 or under  
different orders of things1 might not   
have taken far  higher rank among the   
candidates for fame1 and established    
permanent  claims to the veneration of  
posterity4 ,is not great genius1 as we  
call  it1 when fortunately developed1   
and favoured by many contingencies1     
without which it never would have been  
so developed1 more common than is       
generally imagined8 ,is there not at all
 times and every where a class of       
intelligences which may be trained up to
 become generals and captains in        

literature1 in comparison with the rank 
and file out of which they may  be      
called by peculiar events in their own  
or their nation's history1 and  without 
which they could not have risen above   
the ordinary state of  their less       
distinguished1 but1 perhaps1 equally    
capable companions2 as  the working bees
 in a hive1 as some naturalists tell us1
 when their  queen is lost or taken away
 from the little community1 by a        
particular  regimen1 may be nourished up
 into queens1 and from labourers become 
perpetuators of the race8 ,there seems  
some probability for this  hypothesis1  
fanciful as it may be deemed1 because in
 all extraordinary  emergencies1 whether
 in the world of politics or of         
literature1 minds of  the first order   
are invariably brought into activity    
from the motives1  the means1 and the   
opportunities then afforded to them1    
though they  could never have risen     
above the depression1 mediocrity1 or    
neutral  indifference to which they were

 born1 in which they had long lived1 and
  must assuredly have died1 had it not  
been for those apparently  accidental   
opportunities which gave them           
distinction and pre-eminence1  by a     
change in themselves resembling a new   
creation1 but in reality only  an       
awakening of latent powers4    ,while   
,torquato was thus continually giving   
new pledges1 and redeeming  old ones of 
equal lustre1 or surpassing the proudest
 names in his  country's literature1 the
 old man1 from bitter but unprofitable  
experience as regarded himself1 having  
proved the precariousness of the  favour
 of princes1 and the vanity of expecting
 fortune to follow fame in  verse1      
determined to indemnify his son for the 
loss of both his parents'  property by  
bringing him up to a profession in which
 wealth and honour  might more readily  
be acquired by common industry than by  
idly looking  for the golden rewards of 
genius at the hands either of           
aristocratic  patrons1 who bestow them  

as bounties1 or of the multitude that   
compose  the public1 and who care little
 about the good or ill fare of those on 
whom their transient applauses are      
lavished4      ,so praisen babes the    
peacock's spotted trayne1  ,and wondren 
at bright ,argus' golden eye3  ,but who 
rewardes him e'er the more for thy1  ,or
 feedes him once the fuller by a graine8
    ,,spenser1 ,ecl4 ,x4      ,in his   
seventeenth year1 therefore1 ,bernardo  
placed his son at ,padua1 to  study     
jurisprudence1 as ,petrarch and ,ariosto
 had been condemned to do  before him1  
by prudent parents1 and like each of    
those hopeful sons1 who  were      born 
a father's hopes to cross1  ,and pen a  
stanza when he should engross1          
,torquato 7though it is said that he    
dutifully and diligently applied  with  
his head to the study of the law7 gave  
his heart and his hand in  secret to the
 unportioned muse4 ,the issue of this   
affiance1 while he was  yet embroiled in
 the nets of legal precedents and       

practice1 was the  ,rinaldo already     
mentioned1 a romantic poem1 in twelve   
cantos4 ,the hero  is not his own       
champion of that name1 the glory of his 
later poems1 but  one of the million    
that figure in the ,orlando ,furioso--a 
work which  so possessed the mind of    
young ,tasso1 while he was at ,venice1  
that he  tells us he could not sleep for
 the fame of ,ariosto4 ,this juvenile   
performance is written more after the   
manner of that inimitable master  than  
the ,gerusalemme2 but1 though deficient 
in the humour and vivacity  which       
constitute the all-binding and          
assimilating spell of ,ariosto's  tissue
 of episodes1 and by which the reader is
 reconciled to wink at all  the author's
 incongruities and caprices1 ,tasso's   
poem1 nevertheless1 by  a more serious  
kind of magic1 laid hold upon public    
feeling and so  happily hit the expiring
 taste of his countrymen for the        
extravagances  of chivalrous fiction1   
that where his father1 after years of   

hard toil  in the same fields had       
miscarried1 the son1 in ten months1     
achieved a  triumph1 of which the       
trophies remain to this day2 ,rinaldo   
being yet  one of the metrical romances 
which are interwoven with the party     
coloured staple of ,italian literature4 
,well might ,bernardo be astonished and 
delighted1 yet humbled and  chagrined   
7in some measure71 when the manuscript  
of his son's poem was  presented to him1
 seeing himself already eclipsed in his 
meridian  altitude 7which he fondly     
imagined he had attained in the         
,amadigi7 by  this morning-star of      
promise just flaming in the forehead of 
the orient  sky2 and perceiving1 as he  
must have done1 that his purpose was for
  ever thwarted1 of placing the boy in  
that path where fortune scatters  her   
golden apples before the feet of        
competitors in the race for her  favour1
 rather than indulging them with golden 
dreams under the shadows  of laurels    
planted by the wayside1 the most        

precious rewards which she  bestows on  
the most successful among poets4 ,the   
father1 however1 was too  great a lover 
of song to ruin a good poet in making a 
bad lawyer1 as  might have been the case
 had he persevered in his former views  
with his  son4 ,wherefore1 after some   
delay1 he reluctantly1 yet willingly1 7a
  state of mind perfectly possible1     
though hard to reconcile17 gave his     
consent to the publication of the       
,rinaldo4 ,he who in the letter to his  
daughter formerly quoted1 so tenderly   
and beautifully anticipated the         
happiness of being himself1 with his    
very features1 perpetuated in her       
infant progeny1 could not but be        
transported to see himself1 with the    
features of his very soul1 perpetuated  
in the glorious offspring of his  son's 
congenial yet surpassing mind4 ,with a  
smile and a sigh1 therefore1  he        
permitted the poem to appear1           
surrendering at the same time his       
cherished expectation of seeing that son

 as eminent in the law as he was  now   
likely to be in that which is remotest  
from law practice and law  profits4 ,let
 who will make the laws1 said ,fletcher 
of ,saltoun1 let me  make the songs of a
 people1 and by these ,i will govern    
them4 ,tasso's  songs have assuredly had
 larger dominion1 and had deeper1 wider1
 more  enduring influence in modifying  
the subsequent character of his         
countrymen than any legislative         
enactments1 in which it may be imagined 
that he would never have been concerned1
 could have exercised4 ,but then  he    
might have enriched and ennobled        
himself2 he might have escaped most  of 
the calamities which hunted him to death
 in the midst of life2 and he  might not
 only have been happier himself1 but a  
more useful member of  that society in  
which he was born1 which he served in   
his day1 and in  which he died without  
any monument except some splendid       
sculpture to  record his name4 ,it came 
otherwise to pass2 and whether the world

 has  been made better or worse by his  
labours1 it must be acknowledged that   
the fame which he sought1 and for which 
he sacrificed all beside1 was  dearly   
purchased to himself by the sufferings  
which it cost him to win4  ,it is       
reported that when ,bernardo            
remonstrated with him on his  indiscreet
 preference of philosophy 7for with him 
philosophy and poetry  were identified7 
to jurisprudence1 and angrily demanded1 
,what has your  philosophy done for you8
 he replied1 ,it has taught me to bear  
with  meekness the reproofs of a father4
    ,the appearance of ,torquato's      
,rinaldo was not only the dawn of his   
own  day of glory1 but the dawn of a new
 day in the literature of his  country4 
,the age of absolute romance was        
succeeded by one of transition  in      
public taste1 during which what was most
 truly wonderful and  meritoriously     
captivating in the wild fictions of     
knight-errantry was  engrafted upon a   
stock of classical invention1 design1   

and execution4  ,this was in fact the   
nearest recurrence that could be made in
 epic  poetry to the models of the      
ancients1--for the mythological         
machinery of  ,greece and ,rome could   
not again be revived in poetry any more 
than in  religion2 ,jupiter could never 
again resume his thunder and his throne2
  ,neptune his trident2 ,pallas her gis1
 or ,venus her cestus2 nor could  the   
supernatural interposition of the       
supreme ,god1 the agency of angels  and 
sainted spirits1 or of ,saturn and his  
legions1 be extensively  employed       
7without constructive irreverence1 not  
to say rank blasphemy7  as auxiliaries  
in heroic fable1 disguised as true      
history1 or true  history disguised as  
heroic fable4 ,tasso1 ,marino1 ,camons1 
and ,milton  have indeed presumed upon  
the perilous experiment of enlisting the
  armies of heaven and hell in conflict 
with each other1 and intermeddling  with
 earthly affairs2 yet1 with the         
exception of our countryman--and he     

would be a bold critic who should dare  
to arraign him for impiety in the  use  
of what nothing but the most signal1    
unexampled1 and inimitable  felicity of 
success could justify1--it may be added1
 that he would be a  critic not less    
bold1 who1 as a believer in the         
,christian faith1 should  venture to    
defend even ,milton to the extent in    
which he has exercised  this            
questionable1 though hitherto           
unlitigated1 license of  fiction2--with 
the exception of our countryman1 the    
authors aforenamed  have1 for the most  
part1 grievously miscarried in the      
management of  their agents of this     
class1 whether good or evil1 these being
 among the  most indifferent and        
ineffective personages in their         
respective poems4  ,epic poetry1 indeed1
 either upon classic or romantic        
precedent1 may be  said to have become  
extinct from the time of ,tasso4        
,paradise ,lost  cannot be classed with 
either2 he having achieved the only work

 of the  kind1 which1 being neither the 
one nor the other1 but combining the    
merits of each1 touched the point beyond
 which improvement could not be         
carried4 ,he may be said to have lived  
in the last age in which  supernatural  
agents and miraculous interventions     
could be successfully  introduced into  
narrative verse1 as being consistent    
with popular  credulity or superstitious
 belief--an absolutely indispensable    
requisite  for the employment of such   
means to illustrate human affairs4 ,for 
example1 a poem equal to ,homers or     
,ariosto's1 written now on the plan1    
and with the gods of the one or the     
enchantments of the other1 would be     
insufferable3 no power of genius could  
create an interest in behalf of  ,apollo
 and ,venus1 no longer believed in by   
the poet or by his readers2  nor would  
the achievements of giants and witches1 
if celebrated by one  born in this age  
of reason1 find mercy from criticism1 or
 indulgence  even from the vulgar       

students of our penny literature4 ,monk 
,lewis's  ,tales of ,wonder1 and the    
monstrosities of the ,german drama1 have
 been  long ago forgotten2 the ,michael 
,scott of the great minstrel of that    
ilk6 alone keeps his ground2 but all the
 other preternatural machines  of the   
same creative hand would have perished  
utterly1 had they not been  associated  
with records of the doings and          
sufferings of beings of flesh  and blood
 like ourselves1 though existing in a   
state of semi-barbarous  society        
exceedingly different from our own4     
,the ,rinaldo was the first form of the 
abstract conception of a regular  poem1 
at once to rival ,virgil and ,ariosto1  
which originated in the mind  of        
,torquato while yet a youth of          
seventeen1 but was not wholly developed 
till1 at twice that age1 he had produced
 the ,gerusalemme ,liberata4 ,all  the  
characteristics of his peculiar genius  
are perceptible in the  incidents1      
style1 embellishments1 and conduct of   

this juvenile essay2  which1 contrasted 
with the matured form and perfect       
majesty of that  later offspring of his 
genius1 is1 as his own ,gabriel1 sent to
 comfort  ,godfrey1 at the opening of   
the siege of ,jerusalem3--take the image
 in  ,fairfax's version1--      ,a      
stripling seem'd he1 thrice five        
winter's old1  ,and radiant beams       
adorn'd his locks of gold1--            
compared with ,milton's ,raphael1 in    
prime of manhood1 where youth  ended1   
alighting on the eastern cliff of       
,paradise1 where1--      like ,maia's   
son he stood1  ,and shook his wings1    
that heavenly fragrance fill'd  ,the    
circuit wide4#dj    ,this prodigy of    
youthful genius no sooner appeared than 
it was hailed  with acclamation         
throughout ,italy1 and eager inquiries  
from every  quarter were made concerning
 the author--that prodigality of praise 
might be lavished upon him by the       
learned1 and parsimony of recompence1   
doled out to him by princes1 ambitious  

of attaching so great a natural         
curiosity to the collection of live     
rarities about their palaces4 ,for  the 
great of those times coveted the glory1 
little as they liked the  expense1 of   
retaining men of talents in the train of
 their sycophants  and dependents1 even 
when they regarded them only as         
remarkable among  their species1 in the 
same manner as the lions1 tigers1       
eagles1  peacocks1 and other strange and
 beautiful animals in their menageries  
were in comparison with the meaner ranks
 of brutes4 ,ariosto1 who had           
experienced all the bitterness of such  
favour1 and felt keenly the  ignominy of
 such distinction1 plainly tells us1    
that the patrons of his  day loved those
 of their parasites who would minister  
to their personal  necessities1 pull off
 and on their boots1 share in their     
orgies1 and  pander to their            
vices1--rather than those1 whose proud  
stomachs  disdained to allow them to be 
any thing less than themselves within   

the  precincts of courts1--poets among  
princes1 who could give enduring  lustre
 to the names of inglorious patrons1    
which otherwise would have  found no    
better memorial than the registers of   
their births1 marriages1  and deaths in 
their family genealogies4    ,after     
,torquato's emancipation from the       
trammels of law by the hand of  the     
parent who had so carefully involved him
 in them1--flushed with the  new wine of
 liberty1 obtained at the surrender of  
every thing else in  prospect1 and with 
nothing but itself in possession1--he   
repaired to  ,bologna1 to pursue his    
philosophical studies and indulge in his
 poetical  passion2--for poetry was     
truly to him a passion1 and the ruling  
one of  his existence1--honour1 fortune1
 ease1 pleasure1 were all in turns but  
ministers to this1 while by this he     
aimed at the acquisition of each  of    
them1 as the one or the other were1 for 
the moment1 the object of  desire or the
 subject of lamentation for having lost 

it4 ,but from ,bologna  he was expelled 
for a literary squib1 the only thing of 
the kind by which  he has gained any    
celebrity1 whether it were his own or   
not4 ,some  anonymous censor had been   
amusing himself with publishing         
pasquinades1  ridiculing the principal  
people of the city1 as well as the      
students of  the college1 with much     
malice and a little wit4 ,those who were
 exposed  to these sarcasms were        
exceedingly galled by the firing from   
this  ambuscade of the pen1 and the more
 so as they knew not on whom to wreak   
their vengeance4 ,torquato1 in the      
reckless gaiety of a youth of twenty1   
on a certain occasion making himself    
merry among his companions by  repeating
 one of these1 was immediately pounced  
upon as the author1 not  only of the    
unlucky lines1 with which he had been   
caught in his mouth1  but he was        
assailed as being the secret            
manufacturer of all the rest4 ,it  was  
in vain that he denied the charge       

indignantly1 and challenged his         
accusers for the proofs1 urging that he 
himself had been the butt of the        
sharp-shooter's shafts1 flying out of   
darkness and hitting in broad day4  ,his
 papers were seized and examined before 
the criminal magistrate2 but  nothing   
being discovered to fix the imputation  
upon him1 he was  nominally acquitted1  
though the suspicion was not so easily  
effaced from  the minds of the offended 
individuals4 ,he took the matter himself
 in  such dudgeon1 that he precipitately
 left ,bologna1 and removed to ,padua1  
whither he had been ,invited by his     
early friend ,scipio ,gonzaga1 who had  
lately established in the latter city   
the academy ,degli ,eterei1 of  which   
,tasso--certainly one of the most       
congenial spirits of the age--was       
worthily enrolled a member1 and1        
according to the pedantic fashion of    
those pompous but puerile institutions1 
assumed the name of  ,pentito--for some 
fanciful reason not well explained1     

though there has  been no small         
wrangling about it4    ,to enlarge his  
mind1 to exalt his imagination1 and to  
enrich his  eloquence1 ,torquato now    
devoted much of his attention to the    
works of  ,aristotle and ,plato2 but    
while the former subjected his reason to
 the  severest discipline in the        
ascertainment of principles of truth1 he
 gave  his whole soul to the guidance of
 the latter1 whose visionary splendour  
and profound speculations1 on subjects  
the highest that created  intelligences 
can conceive1 and of which comparatively
 so little can be  learned without light
 from heaven to illumine the light of   
nature1--while infinite space is        
afforded for everlasting conjectures1   
showing at once the capabilities and the
 limitations of the human               
intellect1--these peculiarly suited the 
young student's cast of thought  and    
intense delight in contemplating the    
things that are invisible and  eternal1 
as associated with things seen and      

perishable4 ,nor was the  philosophical 
poet an unworthy disciple of the        
poetical philosopher1  even upon his own
 ground and in his own style4 ,many of  
,tasso's sublimest  compositions are in 
the form of dialogues1 in which he      
discourses with  an elevation of        
sentiment and a power of diction which  
might have gained  admiration in the    
school of his master himself4           
,meanwhile the germ of his great poem1  
which had been quickened1 probably  not 
later than the publication of the       
,rinaldo1 was growing up in his         
thought1--for ,tasso1 by the necessity  
of his nature1 was ever ruminating  on  
some premeditated or progressive theme2 
and some mightier conception  followed  
the disburdenment of every matured      
production of his  inexhaustibly        
inventive genius4 ,while this new and   
magnificent project  was gradually      
assuming shape and character before he  
entered upon the  deliberate execution  
of it1 he prepared himself for the task 

by  composing his ,discourses on ,heroic
 ,poetry1 which place him among  critics
 in as high a rank as that which he     
holds among poets4 ,the merit  of these 
essays1 indeed1 is so remarkable1 that  
his principal ,english  biographer1 ,mr4
 ,black1 is almost seduced by them to   
assert the  universality of the author's
 genius1 in the following plausible     
remark  and happy quotations from high  
authority concerning another            
extraordinary poetic genius1 which      
seemed capable of excelling in  whatever
 it undertook1 whether in prose or      
rhyme3--,of the ',discourses  on ,heroic
 ,poetry' there appear to have been     
four1 only three of which  have been    
printed4 ,though composed at the age of 
twenty1 and published  without the      
knowledge and corrections of the author1
 they are  exceedingly valuable2 and    
while they display a most refined taste1
  discover also much metaphysical       
acuteness and geometrical precision4    
,indeed1 ,i am more and more of opinion 

that what ,mr4 ,stewart says of  ,burns 
is true in general of every great       
poetical genius1 ',all the  faculties of
 ,burns's mind1' says he1 'were1 as far 
as ,i could judge1  equally vigorous2   
and his predilection for poetry was     
rather the result  of his own           
enthusiastic and impassioned temper1    
than of a genius  exclusively adapted to
 that species of composition4'    ,in   
this year1 #aefd1 ,torquato visited his 
venerable father1 now literally  dagl'  
anni e da fortuna oppresso1 borne down  
by years and evil  fortune4 ,the        
transport of affection with which two of
 the greatest men  of their age1 in the 
most seductive walk of human ambition1  
met at  ,mantua1 in the relationship of 
parent and offspring1 must have been    
chastened1 yet rendered more exquisitely
 endearing1 when the father1  from his  
own sad experience1 must have foreseen1 
by his prophetic  soul1 the sorrows to  
come which his son would encounter in   
the course  that he had chosen2 while   

the son1 with emotions not less painful1
 must  have looked upon his father1     
remembering the sorrows past1 which he  
had  endured in the vain pursuit of fame
 from the multitude1 and fortune from   
patrons1 in whose cause he had          
sacrificed two sources of               
competence--his  own small patrimony1   
and his wife's dowry4    ,during this   
visit the youth was attacked by a       
dangerous illness1 from  which being    
rescued by the skill of a physician     
named ,coppino1 the  grateful father    
rewarded the doctor with the fee of a   
stanza to his  honour in a new poem1    
entitled ,floridante1 which the aged    
minstrel1  whom no medicine could cure  
of the disease of rhyme1 was composing  
in  his seventy-third year4 ,this       
daughter1 as she might be called1 of his
  ,amadigi1 to which it is a sequel1 and
 his own last child of  imagination1    
proved as short-lived as its romantic1  
and almost as its  natural1 parent1     
though the dutiful ,torquato endeavoured

 himself to  revive it1 in his own dark 
days2 but ,floridante1 of whom it could 
not  be said that she had no poet1 died 
though she had two1 and those of no     
mean name4 ,bernardo ,tasso himself     
survived for five years1 dying in       
#affi1 at the age of seventy-six4       
,however undervalued by posterity1 he   
was unquestionably the greatest poet who
 had appeared between ,ariosto  and his 
son ,torquato4    ,about this time      
,torquato received an intimation that   
the cardinal  d',este1 brother to the   
duke of ,ferrara1 had nominated him one 
of his  personal attendants1 and        
expected him forthwith in that city4    
,notwithstanding the warnings of his    
father's old friend1 ,sperone1 and      
afterwards his own1 ,zoilus1 who1       
exasperated by the disappointment of    
hopes of preferment which he had        
cherished when he went to ,rome1 gave   
loose to the most violent invectives    
against courts and courtiers1 and       
earnestly dissuaded ,torquato from      

trusting himself where nothing but      
allurements to ruin would be placed in  
his way1 from which it was hardly       
possible for virtue to escape unscathed 
or uncorrupted1 the young poet1         
however1 determined not to profit by the
 experience of the old one1 but  to     
learn for himself what experience alone 
can teach1 and what he indeed  learned  
at an awful cost in the issue4 ,he      
resolutely1 therefore1  determined to   
put both his virtue and his fortune to  
the hazard of  temptation1 not doubting 
that he could secure the former and     
advance the  latter1 where the most     
illustrious court in ,italy was held by 
a  descendant of the patron of ,ariosto4
 ,accordingly he hastened to ,ferrara1  
anticipating every thing that never came
 to pass1 except the one thing  on      
which1 indeed1 his mind was most bent1  
that there he should complete  his      
contemplated epic1 and establish a name 
which should associate him  with the    
most renowned of his predecessors4 ,what

 a bright morning was  that1 forerunning
 a day of darkness and despair1 on which
 he entered the  city1 happily          
unsuspecting the troubles that awaited  
him there6 ,the  kings of ,england1 of  
the house of ,hanover1 are lineally     
descended from  the family of ,este4    
,these much celebrated princes1 in the  
best period of  their ascendency1 during
 the sixteenth and seventeenth          
centuries1 were  the magnificent1 if not
 the liberal1 patrons of most of the men
 of  genius in the finer arts who were  
contemporary with them2 and none was    
more so than the reigning duke1 ,alfonso
 ,,ii41 under whose benign  influence   
for a while1 but under whose blighting  
displeasure afterwards1  poor ,tasso    
flourished and faded4    ,on the last   
day of ,october1 #aefe1 ,torquato       
arrived at ,ferrara1 where the  most    
superb preparations were making for the 
nuptials of ,alfonso with  ,barbara1    
daughter of the emperor ,ferdinand1 and 
sister to ,maximilian ,,ii4  ,he was    

cordially welcomed1 and immediately     
received into the service of  the duke's
 brother1 cardinal ,luigi1 whose        
establishment consisted of  nearly #hjj 
persons1 ministering to his pleasure or 
subsisting on his  bounty4 ,this prince 
was not less dignified than his brother1
 but  altogether more amiable and       
engaging4 ,on the #b;d of ,december the 
queen  7as she was styled from her      
imperial lineage7 entered ,ferrara1     
crowned1  and accompanied by a gorgeous 
retinue4 ,the marriage was celebrated by
 a  succession of the most imposing     
spectacles and profuse festivities1     
which continued for six days1 when they 
were suddenly broken off on the  arrival
 of intelligence of the death of the    
pope1 ,pius ,,iv4 ,among the  throng of 
the great and the small1 who had        
assembled from all parts of  ,italy to  
witness the tournaments1 the pantomimes1
 the balls1 and the  banquets given on  
this occasion1 ,torquato was but a      
solitary unit2  observing and treasuring

 up in his memory all that he saw and   
heard1 as  materials for celebration in 
another form of the same scenes of      
luxury  and splendour upon a grander    
scale1 and1 though in an ideal field1 of
  more enduring exhibition4 ,myriads of 
eyes may have glanced upon the          
contemplative youth1 and passed over him
 as one of the most  insignificant      
personages in the city2 but1 after the  
lapse of nearly  three centuries1 even  
these gorgeous ceremonials are          
principally  subjects of interest       
because he was present at them4 ,not a  
human being  in existence at this remote
 period 7one might imagine7 can feel any
  personal sympathy with the bridegroom1
 the bride1 or any other actor or       
spectator1 native or stranger1 upon the 
spot2 yet even the  representation of   
the ,temple of ,love1 which was erected 
in the ducal  gardens1 with a stupendous
 scenery of porticoes and palaces1 of   
woods  and mountains1 is worthy of being
 remembered1 because of the             

far-surpassing glory of imaginative     
palaces and gardens which were          
suggested to the admiring poet by the   
tawdry pageant1 which lasted six  hours 
without appearing tedious to the        
spectators1 as ,muratori  states2       
though1 according to the pithy remark of
 ,gibbon1 the latter is  the most       
incredible circumstance connected with  
the whole account4    ,during the four  
months which intervened between the     
demise of ,pius ,,iv4  and the election 
of a new pope1 who assumed the name of  
,pius ,v41  ,torquato's patron1 the     
cardinal ,luigi1 being absent1 he was   
left at  ,ferrara to make his way into  
favour wherever an opening might be     
presented2 and it was then that he      
became more particularly acquainted     
with the princesses ,lucretia and       
,leonora of ,este1 by whom he was       
brought  under the notice of their      
brother the duke1 who1 after all that   
has been  said and conjectured1 seems   
never to have regarded him otherwise    

than  with stately or selfish           
condescension4 ,that a youth so gifted  
with  genius1 so early distinguished    
among his countrymen1 favoured by nature
  with more than ordinary personal      
advantages1 and in many other ways      
gallantly accomplished1 should have     
attracted the esteem of these           
illustrious ladies1 who appear to have  
been more than mere court  beauties1    
both in intellect and sensibility1      
delighting in poetry1 and  occasionally 
exercising themselves in it1 was almost 
a necessary  consequence of the parties 
becoming acquainted4 ,under such        
circumstances1 nothing could be more    
natural than that1 on either side1      
secret presentiments of the most        
gratifying kind should unconsciously    
spring up and be covertly cherished by  
the several individuals2 never1  indeed1
 as must be inferred from the sequel1 to
 be fully disclosed1 nor  even1 perhaps1
 perfectly understood by themselves4    
,if1 in the age of  chivalry1 it was    

imperative upon true knights to assert  
the beauty and  maintain the honour of  
their ladies in all due seasons1 and in 
all  proper places1 it was1 in the      
seventeenth century1 equally the duty of
  true poets to celebrate the same      
virtues and adornments in their verses  
upon those of the better sex1 who were  
either their mistresses or their        
patronesses4 ,torquato1 dazzled by the  
transition from schools1 law  offices1  
and colleges of philosophy1 to the court
 region of enchantment1  has described  
his own emotions and the influence of   
the change upon him  in the language    
which he puts into the mouth of ,tirsi  
7the  representative of himself in his  
,amintor71 where1 after taking          
vengeance on his father's friend1 but   
his own very questionable one           
7,sperone71 for having dissuaded him    
from going to the city1 which1 he       
assured him1 was given up wholly to     
deceit1 voluptuousness1 avarice1 and    
ambition1 the shepherd tells his        

companions how bravely he was disabused 
when he beheld the marvellous reality2  
for there1 as gracious heaven  would    
have it1 ,i happened to pass near the   
blissful dwelling1 whence  issued sweet1
 harmonious voices of swans1 of nymphs1 
of syrens--heavenly  syrens6 and sounds 
of music soft and clear1 with other     
ravishments so  strange1 that for a     
while ,i stood entranced with joy and   
admiration4  ,being courteously invited 
to enter by one of noble aspect1 who    
appeared  the guardian of the enchanted 
spot1 he exclaims1 ,o then what saw1    
what  felt ,i8 ,i beheld nymphs1        
goddesses1 and minstrels--luminaries new
 and  beautiful--all without veil or    
cloud1 as to the immortals1 scattering  
silver dews and golden rays1 ,aurora    
seems2 ,apollo and the ,muses1 too1 ,i  
saw1 and in that moment felt myself as  
growing greater4 ,filled with new       
virtue1 new divinity1 ,i sang of wars   
and heroes1 disdaining my rude  pastoral
 pipe4 ,but though ,i soon returned to  

these calm shades 7to  please another71 
,i still retained a portion of that     
nobler spirit2 my  simple reed no longer
 warbled as before1 but1 rivalling the  
trumpet1  filled the woods with notes   
more lofty and sonorous4 ,mopso         
7,sperone7  heard it1 and1 with evil    
eye1 looked on me and bewitched me1 so  
that ,i  grew hoarse1 and long continued
 mute4 ,the shepherds thought ,i had    
been  glared at by a wolf--a wolf1      
indeed1 he was to me6 ,the last allusion
 is  to ,sperone's savage criticisms on 
the ,gerusalemme1 when submitted to  his
 examination in manuscript4 ,torquato1  
however1 had reason to think1  after    
years of disappointing experience1 that 
,sperone's notions of  courts and       
courtiers were quite as near the truth  
as his own1 during his  first visit and 
sojourn at ,ferrara4    ,of the duke1   
his brother the cardinal1 and their     
three sisters1 it is  recorded that     
thirteen years before this date1 on a   
public occasion1 in  presence of their  

father1 ,hercules ,,ii41 and pope ,paul 
,,iii41 the  ,adelphi of ,terence1 in   
the original1 was recited by them with  
great  spirit and effect1 the parts     
being sustained by the princesses ,anna1
  aged twelve1 ,lucretia1 eight1        
,leonora1 six1 the princes ,alfonso1    
ten1  and ,luigi1 five years of age4    
,mr4 ,black observes1 with apparent     
justice1  that the court of ,alfonso    
united1 like the poems of ,tasso1       
classic  elegance with the richness of  
romance2 and every thing conspired to   
kindle the fancy and refine the taste of
 the youthful bard4    ,anna1 the eldest
 of the three sisters above named1 in   
#aedh was married  to the celebrated    
,francis1 duke of ,guise1 and1 after his
 decease1 to  ,james of ,savoy1 duke of 
,nemours4 ,lucretia1 some years later   
than ,tasso's  arrival at her brother's 
court1 was married to the prince of     
,urbino1  only fifteen years old1 when  
she herself was thirty-seven4 ,this was 
one  of those state alliances which so  

little resemble treaties of peace1  that
 they deserve to be branded as treaties 
of discord1 in which royal  and noble   
parents sacrifice their children1 if not
 to ,moloch1 at least  to ,mammon--nay1 
too often to both1--for purposes of     
family  aggrandisement1 by adding       
territory to territory1 and confounding 
blood  with blood4 ,on the occasion of  
these unhappy nuptials1 ,tasso1 as in   
duty bound1 wrote an epithalamium1 which
 had1 in its predictions of  felicity1  
the equivocal qualification for         
excelling in that kind of  poetry which 
,waller1 with experienced adroitness1   
hinted to ,charles ,,ii41  when rallied 
by his majesty on having composed a far 
finer panegyric on  ,cromwell than on   
himself--the qualification of fiction2  
for scarcely had  the ill-paired couple 
had time to fall out1 when the gallant  
prince left  his bride to volunteer in a
 crusade against the ,turks1 with whom  
everlasting warfare1 in every petty form
 of hostility1 was wont to be  carried  

on by the states of ,italy4 ,the union  
ultimately was dissolved1  without the  
intervention of death2 and ,lucretia1 as
 duchess of ,urbino1  returned to       
,ferrara4 ,for many years afterwards1   
she was1 more openly  than either her   
brother or her younger sister1 the      
patron of ,tasso1 and  to her are some  
of his most graceful lyrics addressed4  
,leonora1 the third and younger sister1 
remained unmarried4 ,being highly       
attractive in person1 in manner1 and in 
mind1 it is no wonder if  ,torquato1    
having many opportunities of            
ingratiating himself in her  favour1    
should be gradually betrayed1 under the 
guise of that romantic  strain of       
adulation to rank and beauty 7especially
 in verse7 which the  fashion of the    
times not only tolerated but sanctioned1
 to insinuate all  the fervour of a     
passion which1 though hardly aware of it
 himself1 and  altogether unacknowledged
 by its sensitive object1 might yet be  
harboured in the bosoms of both1 though 

so secretly1 that each more             
complacently and jealously watched the  
symptoms of a tender attachment  in the 
other1 than cared to examine the reality
 of the same in  themselves4 ,the       
mystery1 thus cherished1 for the        
tantalising delight of  a hope too      
remote to be fulfilled1 except at the   
sacrifice of every  thing but that love1
 for which1 if true1 nothing might be   
deemed too  much to be sacrificed1 has  
never been cleared up1 and all reasoning
 and  conjecture on the subject1 at this
 distance of time1 must be vain4 ,it    
has been with equal confidence both     
affirmed and denied1 that the poet      
imprudently aspired to the hand of the  
princess1 and that the princess  as     
imprudently surrendered her heart to the
 poet1 though1 from  necessity1 she     
withheld her hand4 ,from the numberless 
canzoni and  sonetti1 of which love is  
the theme1 among the rime of ,tasso1 no 
premises towards the solution of this   
problem can be drawn4 ,dante and        

,petrarch1 in all their effusions of the
 kind1 are constant each to his         
respective mistress4 ,beatrice and      
,laura are the perpetual idols of their 
amorous devotion2 but to so many--or1 if
 to one1 under so many different  names 
and characters1--are ,tasso's adorations
 addressed1 that he may  have had fifty 
fits of passion for as many flames1 and 
been as true in  turn to each and       
equally volatile to all4 ,it is1        
however1 a remarkable  circumstance1    
that three of the greatest poets of     
,italy should owe as  much of their     
posthumous renown to their questionable 
love as to their  acknowledged genius1  
having been avowedly attached to ladies 
whose very  existence is unascertained  
at this day1 though volumes have been   
written1 proving nothing more than 7to  
borrow the comprehensive judgment  of   
sir ,roger de ,coverley7 that much may  
be said on both sides4    ,in the mean  
time1 whatever was the subsequent       
conduct of ,alfonso towards  ,tasso1    

there seems to be no doubt that1 for a  
considerable period during  which the   
poet was engaged upon his great work1   
the duke countenanced  him in the way   
most agreeable to his literary ambition 
and his personal  vanity2 for he loved  
rich apparel1 splendid apartments1      
sumptuous fare1  and to be associated   
with persons of the highest             
rank--feeling that he  could adorn and  
dignify the circle in which he moved1   
both as a man of  genius exalted above  
competition by intellectual endowments1 
and as a  man of the world qualified to 
shine in external demeanour among       
gentlemen and soldiers as well as among 
students and men of letters4  ,during   
this prosperous period--when the smiles 
of princesses1 who were  pleased to     
receive the homage of his muse1         
flattered his gentler  affections1 and  
the favour of sovereigns gratified the  
pride of a heart  easily elevated to an 
eminence of self-satisfaction1 from     
which the fall  when it came was the    

more terrible1 and the dashing to pieces
 of its  hopes and its claims the more  
humiliating and deplorable--,tasso      
accompanied the cardinal ,luigi as      
legate to the court of ,france4 ,here   
his fame had prepared the way for his   
reception with peculiar honour by       
,charles ,,ix41 himself both a lover of 
verse and a versifier4 ,it is said  that
 the king offered the poet some splendid
 presents1 which the latter  declined to
 accept1 though he was so scantily      
provided with a wardrobe1  that he left 
the kingdom1 at the end of twelve       
months1 in the same suit  of clothes in 
which he entered it4 ,the snake has but 
one skin1 but while  that is wearing out
 another is forming beneath3 it would be
 well for  poets1 who live on court     
expectations1 if they were as well      
provided4    ,as not many personal      
anecdotes are related of our poet1 two  
or three  indifferent ones may be given 
here as specimens of the tone of his    
conversation and address in public4 ,a  

poet of some repute having  committed a 
crime for which he was condemned to die1
 ,tasso resolved to  obtain1 if         
possible1 a mitigation of the           
punishment4 ,at the palace he  learned  
that the sentence was about to be       
executed immediately4  ,undiscouraged1  
however1 he pressed forward2 and being  
admitted to the  presence1 he thus      
addressed the king3--,may it please your
 majesty1 ,i am  come to implore you to 
put to death a wretch1 who has brought  
disgrace  upon philosophy1 by showing   
that she cannot stand out against human 
depravity4 ,the king1 struck with the   
turn of the request1 spared the         
criminal4 ,being asked by his majesty   
one day1 ,whether men most  resembled   
,god in happiness1 in sovereign power1  
or in the ability to do  good8 ,tasso   
replied1 ,men can resemble ,god only by 
their  virtue4--,again1 before the same 
monarch a discussion was held to        
determine what condition in life is most
 unfortunate4 ,in my opinion1  said     

,tasso1 the most deplorable condition is
 that of an impatient old  man1 borne   
down by poverty1 who has neither fortune
 to preserve him from  want1 nor        
philosophy to support himself under     
suffering4    ,in the course of this    
journey1 whatever he may have gained in 
honour at  the ,french court1           
gratification in the society of eminent 
contemporaries1 and knowledge of the    
country and people of his hero1         
,godfrey1 ,torquato lost the favour of  
cardinal ,luigi1 as ,ariosto  forfeited 
that of the cardinals kinsman and       
predecessor1 ,hippolyto of  ,este2      
though not for the same reason--want of 
servility to his highness  7,luigi      
probably not exacting such base homage  
as ,ariosto's barbarian  patron had     
done71 but for having manifested more   
zeal for the catholic  faith than1 in   
the opinion of some of his confidants1  
was deemed politic  at a time1 when1 for
 the most treacherous purposes1 previous
 to the  massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew1 

the protestants were treated with       
unwonted  indulgence1 to throw them off 
their guard4 ,hereupon he returned to   
,italy1 though not immediately to       
,ferrara2 for1 travelling in company    
with ,manzuoli1 the secretary of the    
late embassy1 we find that he  arrived  
at ,rome in ,january1 #aegb4 ,here he   
was cordially welcomed by many  of his  
father's old acquaintances1 as well as  
greatly distinguished for  his own sake4
 ,pope ,pius ,v4 honoured him with an   
audience1 and the  privilege of kissing 
his foot4    ,through the mediation of  
the duchess of ,urbino and ,leonora1 he 
was soon  afterwards formally admitted  
into the service of ,alfonso1 with a    
pension  of a hundred and eighty gold   
crowns a year1 and the understanding    
that  no personal duties would be       
required of him2 but that he should be  
at  liberty to pursue his studies and   
finish his poem at his own leisure4     
,generous as this provision undoubtedly 
was1 it yet made him a captive in       

golden chains1 too weak to bind the     
limbs1 but strong enough to enthral  the
 soul and enslave the mind4 ,so1 at     
least1 ,torquato found his  obligation2 
and even when on both sides it had been 
broken1 after his  second imprisonment1 
he was never in spirit enfranchised from
 the yoke  of ,alfonso1 till death set  
him free4 ,his own testimony concerning 
his  patron's munificence at this time1 
long after he had lost his favour1 is   
honourable to both3--,he raised me from 
the darkness of my low estate to  the   
light and glory of his court2 he removed
 me from penury to  abundance2 he       
exceedingly enhanced the value of my    
works1 by often and  willing listening  
while ,i read1 and treating their author
 with every  mark of esteem4 ,he placed 
me at his table1 and countenanced me    
with his  personal attention2 and he    
never denied me a favour which ,i       
requested4    ,under these auspices1    
while ,tasso was still vigorously       
prosecuting that  splendid crusade of   

his muse1 the poetical siege of         
,jerusalem1 and had  now nearly made    
himself master of it for an everlasting 
stronghold of  his poetical sovereignty1
 his exuberant mind poured out          
multitudes of  sonnets1 canzoni1 and    
other miscellanies in verse and         
prose--almost  entirely on transient    
themes1 love fancies1 and panegyrical   
attempts--      ----to give a deathless 
lot  ,to names inglorious1 born to be   
forgot4      ,among these1 in the       
composition of which it might be        
questioned whether  he was wasting his  
genius or cultivating it1 he produced   
something more  excellent1 in the form  
of a pastoral drama4 ,accordingly1 the  
most  beautiful offspring of his        
imagination--so far as refers to        
exquisite  grace of diction1 and        
consummate skill in adorning a subject  
altogether  artificial1 and feigning a  
state of society that never did1 never  
could1  never ought to exist1--in a     
story not very natural though the       

incidents  are few1 nor very happily    
connected or intelligibly               
developed1--his  ,aminta appeared1      
written in flowing verse of various     
measures without  rhyme1 and enriched   
with lyric chorusses of extraordinary   
elegance4 ,how  the public exhibition of
 such a drama could be tolerated1 before
 the  most exalted personages of the    
state1 ladies of the highest character1 
and religionists of the most plausible  
professions1 is very difficult  for us1 
in our cold climate1 and with our       
severer as well as juster  sentiments of
 decorum1 to imagine4 ,all that can be  
said in extenuation  of the audience1   
and perhaps of the poet1 comes to this  
presumption1  that1 though the piece    
abounds with descriptions and allusions 
the most  voluptuous and fascinating to 
awaken the most perilous passions in    
youth1 and which no gravity of age ought
 to endure1 such were the  manners of   
the day1 and so little of evil was      
apprehended1 where the  serpent1 that   

allured ,eve with his wiles of beauty   
among the flowers of  paradise1 put on  
this pastoral disguise of the innocence 
of the golden  age1 that the fair and   
the virtuous alike imagined themselves  
as  guiltless in listening to his       
blandishments1 as ,milton represents the
  mother of mankind to have been        
unsuspicious of danger1 when she        
followed  the tempter to the forbidden  
tree1 and entered into a parley with him
  there1 till at length1 beguiled by his
 subtilty1 she plucked1 she ate4  ,and  
here a subject too delicate to be       
handled on the present occasion  must be
 left to every one's conscience who     
indulges in the luxury of  such reading 
as the work under consideration         
furnishes4 ,it is remarkable  that the  
author1 designating himself under the   
name of ,tirsi1 seems to  have been     
forewarned of the malady which soon     
afterwards overwhelmed  him1 and to     
which1 no doubt1 from constitutional    
temperament he had been  prone from his 

youth upward1 and which1 in premature   
old age1 cast such  clouds of mystery   
over the gloom and splendour of his     
latter life4  ,knowest thou not what    
,tirsi wrote1 when1 fired with frenzy1  
he  wandered through the forest1 at once
 moving laughter and pity among the     
lovely nymphs and shepherds8 ,nor wrote 
he even then 'things worthy to  be      
laughed at1 although he did such        
things4'    ,the duchess of ,urbino     
being absent from ,ferrara1 when        
,tasso's muse1 like  ,habington's       
halcyon1 produced      ,the happy       
miracle of this rare birth1      invited
 him to her delightful retirement of    
,casteldurante1 where she  heard the    
pastoral strains from his own lips1     
which1 though not eloquent  from natural
 infirmity1 would yet convey the soul   
and passion1 the  delicacy and pathos1  
of every passage1 with an impression    
which no actor  on the stage1 nor indeed
 any reader but himself1 could give4    
,the living  voice1 in this case1 would 

be the actual language of the spirit    
that  conceived the thoughts1 speaking  
to the spirit of her who received them  
through the ear1 fresh and flowing from 
the fountain in his heart2 for  the     
written copy1 to the eye1 would be but a
 translation1 wanting the               
incommunicable accompaniments of tone1  
look1 expression1 and perfect           
intelligence of the whole in all its    
bearings and meanings1 such as the      
original author alone could possess2    
for1 as ,dr4 ,johnson said1 no  words   
can convey sounds2 and both sounds and  
words were requisite  to do justice to  
such verse as his4 ,tasso remained      
several months with  the duchess4       
,all ,italy soon echoed with the fame of
 this poetical phenomenon1 which1       
though not the first of the kind1 7an   
indifferent model having been  produced 
six years before1 by one ,arienti17 it  
was the first that had  power to compel 
almost universal admiration1 and        
establish a precedent  and authority for

 that fantastic species of literary     
composition4  ,imitations1 by the most  
gifted of his contemporaries1 sprang up 
in rapid  succession1 and passed away as
 rapidly1 with the exception of one1 the
  ,pastor ,fido of ,guarini1 which not  
only maintained its ground1 but even    
disputed that on which its forerunner   
stood1 and from which no rivalry  has   
ever yet been able to remove it4 ,the   
renown which ,tasso acquired by  the    
,aminta naturally exasperated envy in   
proportion as it commanded  applause1   
and among the multitude of competitors  
who could not soar to  his elevation1   
there were not wanting those who        
employed every artifice  to bring him   
down to their level1 that they might    
trample him under  foot4 ,whatever were 
the causes1 ,tasso to the end of his    
life was  persecuted as much by         
unmerciful critics as he was oppressed  
by  hard-hearted patrons4    ,but the   
,aminta was not the only episodal       
enterprise of ,tasso1 while he  was     

slowly but unweariedly proceeding with  
the ,gerusalemme4 ,flushed  with the    
success of his pastoral drama1 he set   
earnestly about the  construction of a  
regular tragedy2 but he had not advanced
 far in the  second act1 when the       
project was suspended1 and the fragment 
of fine  promise which remains1 compared
 with the completed performance long    
afterwards1 when his faculties were on  
the decline1 exhibits a brilliant  but  
melancholy contrast of the change that  
had come o'er the spirit  of his        
dream--his dream of life1 love1 and     
glory1 blighting his ,may of  youth1 and
 causing him in the prime of manhood to 
fall into the sere  and yellow leaf4    
,his ,torindo1 as this failure was      
styled1 was less a  failure than the    
,torrismondo1 as the resumed and        
perfected task was  called4    ,towards 
the conclusion of his toils on his main 
work 7as he fondly  hoped71 but the     
beginning of a series of miseries       
consequent upon it1  from which he found

 no end but in the grave1 ,tasso was    
seized with a  violent fever4 ,this left
 him in such a state of bodily          
exhaustion1 that  it was not till the   
following spring 7#aege71 that from the 
last lines of  his poem he could look   
back upon all the intervening ones to   
the first1  as the links of a chain1    
more subtle than air1 yet stronger than 
adamant1 which should deliver his       
thoughts as he had bound them in his    
words1 from generation to generation1 to
 delight millions of minds1 so  long as 
his country's language should be        
understood4 ,he had already  enjoyed    
such exhilarating foretastes of fame by 
the circulation in  manuscript of       
portions of the poem1 as they came      
completed from his  hands1 that he was  
the less prepared to encounter the      
enmity and  opposition1 which rancorous 
and intriguing rivals1 or fanatic and   
supercilious ecclesiastical censors of  
the press1 immediately commenced1  and  
inveterately continued to manifest      

towards him to the close of life4       
,there was in ,tasso--conscious as he   
must have been of his powers1 and       
confident as he must have felt in the   
exercise of his own judgment--a         
readiness to submit to learned and      
candid criticism1 and a willingness  to 
concede to dissentient opinions on minor
 points of taste1 so far as  was        
consistent with manly                   
independence1--which can rarely be found
 among  men of first-rate talents1 but  
yet might be expected from a court poet1
  accustomed in other matters to defer  
to superiors1 be compliant towards      
equals1 and condescending to inferiors4 
,this disposition1 however1 which  ought
 to have conciliated envy herself1 only 
provoked her the more to  assume every  
shape of candour or malignity1 as best  
suited her humour1  to torment and      
distract him1 that she might revel over 
his wretchedness1  if she could not     
accomplish his fall4 ,years intervened  
while the  ,gerusalemme ,liberata1 in   

its finished form1 was undergoing as    
many  ordeals almost as he had friends1 
and its author suffering almost as  many
 martyrdoms as he had enemies4 ,into the
 particulars of these  persecutions it  
is not necessary to enter here4 ,the    
poet was certainly  induced by the force
 of arguments used by some1 and the     
terror of  inquisitorial powers         
exercised by others of his critics1 to  
alter1  expunge1 and amend many parts of
 the poem1 which1 after all1 suffered   
little from the processes to which it   
was thus exposed before its             
publication4 ,that publication1 however1
 was long delayed by such  vexatious    
hinderances1 and at last was effected   
surreptitiously1 to the  great offence  
and injury of the author1 then in       
confinement as a  lunatic4    ,tasso's  
malady was grievously aggravated by     
these excruciating  criticisms1 when he 
found himself1 on the one hand1 charged 
with heresy  against ,aristotle and good
 taste1 and1 on the other1 with heresy  

against  the church and good morals4    
,fevers1 headaches1 strange dreams1     
waking  suspicions1 restlessness1       
disappointment1 dissatisfaction with his
  patron1 to whom he had dedicated his  
poem1 and in honour of whom he had      
created his imaginary hero1             
,rinaldo1--perhaps1 too1 the bitterness 
of  desponding passion1 though that is  
questionable1--suggested to him the     
idea of absconding from ,ferrara and    
taking refuge at ,rome1 where he        
purposed to bring out the ,gerusalemme1 
at his own pleasure1 and hoped  to reap 
a considerable pecuniary benefit from   
the sale4 ,alfonso1  however1 was not   
willing to lose the glory of the        
dedication to himself1  though he seems 
to have wanted the generosity1 the      
humanity1 the justice  to deal with the 
author except as an impotent creature in
 his power1 who  could do him much      
honour by flattering his pride1 but to  
whom he showed  at best but stinted     
kindness4 ,to secure his selfish object1

 he made the  poet a prisoner near his  
own person1--both at ,ferrara1 and at   
his palace  of ,belriguardo in the      
country1--a prisoner at large1 indeed1  
but under  perpetual observation4 ,of   
this the sufferer was aware2 and the    
very idea  of a human eye for ever upon 
him1 restraining his looks1 words1 and  
actions1 poring over him while he slept1
 haunting his dreams1 and  entering into
 his very thoughts--for so he must have 
felt as though it  did--this alone was  
enough to madden a man of iron heart and
 millstone  brain1 much more a poor     
hypochondriac1 as ,tasso had already    
become4    ,notwithstanding the         
jealousies of ,alfonso1 and the         
fascinations of his  sisters to detain  
him1 the capricious bard escaped from   
his splendid  captivity to ,rome1--and  
escaped even with the permission of the 
duke2  who gave him a letter of         
recommendation to the cardinal          
,hippolyto1 to  befriend him as a       
stranger there1 for the avowed purpose  

of obtaining  the accustomed indulgence 
granted to visiters during the jubilee4 
,here  he met with the cardinal         
,ferdinand de' ,medici1 afterwards grand
 duke of  ,tuscany1 who renewed to him  
in person the tender of an honourable   
asylum  7formerly intimated to him in   
private71 should he be disposed to leave
  altogether the service of ,alfonso4   
,the offer was gratefully  acknowledged1
 but not formally accepted2 and after   
six weeks of holidays  7as he felt them 
to be7 spent in the luxury of literary  
intercourse1 and  the renewal of the    
impressions which the scene of ,rome's  
posthumous  glory in her magnificent    
ruins1 and her not less imposing revival
 in her  hierarchal pomp1 had left on   
his mind in youth1 he returned by way of
  ,sienna and ,florence to ,ferrara4    
,here1 while his poem was going through 
a  second round of critical purgatory1  
and his soul was sinking under the      
burden of censures laid upon him1 like  
the spirits of the proud in  ,dante1    

condemned to bear enormous stones along 
the uneven uphill road1  he received the
 appointment of historiographer to the  
house of ,este1  with a small stipend1  
which laid upon him another cobweb      
obligation to  remain at ,ferrara4 ,what
 were the duties of this office it is of
 no  consequence to inquire2 he does not
 seem even to have performed any1 nor   
perhaps did he owe any2 his fable of the
 origin of that family from his  hero   
,rinaldo--the ,rinaldo of his           
,gerusalemme--had already conferred on  
it more of that glory which princes     
covet1 than the true history of all  its
 ancestors might have done4 ,when the   
results of the aforesaid second  revisal
 of his poem were communicated to him1  
in despair of conciliating  his critics1
 and determined not to yield altogether 
to their incompetent  authority1 on     
points where he felt himself strong in  
poetical power to  produce the very     
effects which they deprecated1 but which
 he had aimed  at and achieved most     

triumphantly1 he composed an            
interpretation of the  whole as an      
extended allegory1 spiritualising its   
heroes and its scenes1  with more       
perverse ingenuity than felicity of     
success4 ,of this it may be  fairly     
said1 that if the original were mainly  
fiction1 the moral was  wholly so4 ,his 
censors1 however1 persisted in          
condemning the voluptuous  passages to  
which he himself was most attached1     
because he knew them to  be the most    
beautiful1 and recked not that they were
 the most seductive4  ,in this respect  
the poet himself was the ,rinaldo of his
 sorceress muse1  who by her            
enchantments had wholly captivated his  
heart1 and carried him  away to her     
limbo of vanity2 from which ,sperone and
 ,antoniano1 his  remorseless critics1  
in vain endeavoured to deliver him2 as  
,carlo and  ,ubaldo had rescued his hero
 from the thralls of ,armida in her     
island of  sensual delights4 ,he never  
yielded all1 though he conceded many    

things1  and sacrificed several         
extravagant inventions1 by which the    
poem1 was  rather mended than mutilated4
    ,an incident occurred about this    
time1 which exhibited ,tasso not less in
  the character of a hero than he had   
hitherto figured in that of the         
laureate of heroes4 ,suspecting one of  
his friends to have been guilty of      
opening his trunks with false keys1 to  
pry into his secrets among his  papers1 
he gently remonstrated with the         
offender1 who resented the  charge by   
giving him the lie1 and received in     
return a blow upon the  face4 ,this     
rencontre took place in the court of the
 palace1 and was  therefore sufficiently
 notorious4 ,the cowardly aggressor--one
 ,maddalo1 a  notary--walked away with  
the dishonour on his brow1 but          
meditating in  his heart the most       
atrocious vengeance4 ,accordingly1      
having enlisted  three of his kindred in
 the quarrel1 they sallied forth1 armed1
 to  assail the poet2 and finding him   

abroad in the street1 they fell upon    
him from behind4 ,tasso promptly turned 
round1 drew his sword1 and dealt  so    
dexterously with it1 that the ruffians  
were soon put to flight2  though their  
fears of being apprehended1 no doubt1 to
 their speed lent  wings1 till they     
found refuge under the roofs of various 
friends4 ,the  circumstance gained him  
no small reputation1 and gave rise to a 
couplet  which was often repeated3--    
,con la penna e con la spada  ,nessun   
vai quanto ,torquato4    ,with the sword
 and with the pen1  ,tasso beats all    
other men4      ,it is not practicable1 
in this succinct memoir1 to trace the   
sufferer  through all the details which 
have been recorded of his miseries from 
penury1 pride1 ambition1 and            
disappointment1 the wrongs inflicted on 
him  by patrons and rivals1 and above   
all1 those growing symptoms of a mind   
diseased1 occasioning suspicions1       
jealousies1 misunderstandings1 and      
quarrels with his friends and           

contemporaries2 while that insidious    
malady1 which no medicine can reach1 was
 making its unchecked ravages  upon his 
constitution1 and inveterately fixing   
upon him its evil  influences1 so that1 
with brief and distant lucid intervals1 
his  remaining days were passed in      
horror and despondency1 whether amidst  
the  darkness of the dungeons of        
,ferrara1 or wandering amidst the broad 
sunshine on foot1 and depending for     
bread and shelter upon casual           
hospitality1 from province to province  
throughout ,italy4 ,imagining that  his 
enemies--enemies as imaginary1 in this  
case1 as were his fears of  them--had   
accused him to ,alfonso of treason1 and 
to the pope of heresy1  he at length    
grew so outrageous1 that1 one day1 for  
some unaccountable  provocation1 he drew
 a dagger upon a servant1 and assaulted 
him in an  apartment of the duchess of  
,urbino4 ,being instantly disarmed1 he  
was  confined1 by order of the duke1    
within the precincts of the palace4     

,here1 when for the first time he found 
himself a prisoner1 he was  overwhelmed 
with anguish1 and bitterly bewailed his 
fate4 ,as soon as he  could again       
command his passion1 he wrote a very    
penitential letter to  ,alfonso1 suing  
for pardon and release4 ,both were      
granted to him2 and he  was removed1    
under the eye of the duke himself1 to   
the palace of  ,belriguardo1 in the     
country1 that he might recover his      
health and  spirits1 amidst scenes and  
with the society in which he had        
formerly  delighted to be placed4 ,with 
a delicate regard to one of his most    
grievous temptations--that he had been  
guilty of heresy1 ,alfonso  introduced  
to him the head of the holy inquisition 
at ,ferrara1 who1  after duly examining 
him1 fully absolved him from all        
imputations of the  kind1 and assured   
him that he was yet a good catholic4    
,not contented  with this1 he suddenly  
left ,belriguardo1 and took refuge in a 
convent of  ,st4 ,francis1 from which he

 sent word to his patron1 that as soon  
as he  should be sufficiently restored  
he intended to enter himself among the  
fraternity4 ,but nothing could calm the 
troubled waters of his mind2 he  still  
conceived himself under the displeasure 
of the duke1 and that his  acquittal by 
the inquisitor was invalid4 ,in this    
turmoil of doubts and  self-reproaches1 
he importuned ,alfonso and the duchess  
of ,urbino with  letters concerning his 
imaginary offences1 and imploring       
comfort and  assurance which they could 
not give1 because he would not receive4 
,with  ,leonora he appears never to have
 had that freedom and frequency of      
correspondence which he had hitherto    
been permitted to hold with her  elder  
sister4 ,whether this be in favour of   
his presumed passion or not  must be    
left to those who are skilled in the    
mysteries of love-making  between       
unequal parties4 ,on this subject1 as on
 the poet's strange  melancholy1 and the
 severity with which it was visited by  

his patron1  whether for the punishment 
of the lover or the cure of the maniac1 
it  would be futile to argue here4      
,after all the explanation and          
mystification by ,tasso's biographers1  
the general impression has been1  is1   
and probably will remain1 that his love 
for ,leonora was real2 that  his        
imprisonment was vindictive on the part 
of her brother1 and that his  frenzy was
 the effect of hopeless passion and     
impotent resentment  against oppression4
 ,historians1 says ,ugo ,foscolo1 will  
be ever  embarrassed to explain aright  
the reasons of ,tasso's imprisonment3 it
 is  involved in the same obscurity as  
the exile of ,ovid4 ,both were among    
those thunder-strokes that despotism    
darts forth4 ,in crushing their  victims
 they terrified them1 and reduced       
spectators to silence4 ,there  are      
incidents in courts1 that1 although     
known to many persons1 remain in        
eternal oblivion--contemporaries dare   
not reveal1 and posterity can only      

divine them4    ,in the following       
summer1 ,tasso1 bewildered and          
desperate1 and not  knowing whither to  
turn1 or in whom to confide1 at length  
fled secretly  from ,ferrara to visit   
his sister at ,torrento1 whom he had not
 seen since  they were children         
together4 ,she was now a widow1 the     
mother of two  sons1 and dependent upon 
her uncles1 who still withheld her      
mother's  dowry1 for the means of       
subsistence4 ,with that caution to do   
every thing  by stealth1 which          
characterises the hallucination of one  
who fancies all  the world conspiring to
 do him harm1 he presented himself      
before her in  the habit of a shepherd1 
affecting to be the bearer of certain   
letters  from himself4 ,he found her    
alone2 her children being absent4 ,the  
letters  represented her brother at     
,ferrara as surrounded by enemies1 and  
in the  most imminent danger of his     
life1 unless she interposed in his      
behalf1  and rescued him from their     

machinations4 ,when she had read the    
distressing intelligence1 she implored  
the supposed messenger to tell  her all1
 the worst1 at once4 ,he answered by a  
recital of miseries so  aggravated1 in a
 tone so earnest and impassioned1 that1 
whether she  suspected him or not1 she  
fainted with alarm4 ,when she had been  
sufficiently recovered1 the cunning     
minstrel changed the hand that  played  
upon her1 like ,timotheus on his harp1  
and1 from excess of pity  for her       
brother's sufferings1 gently awoke all  
her tenderness of  affection1 by old and
 beautiful recollections of former days1
 and hopes  yet possible to be realised 
in years to come4 ,at length1 when she  
was  well prepared1 he discovered       
himself fully to her1 and they were     
brother  and sister again in a moment1  
and thenceforth to the end of life4     
,with  her he remained in comparative   
tranquillity for several months1 being  
all the while unacknowledged in the     
neighbourhood1 except as ,cornelia's    

cousin from ,bergamo1 who1 coming to    
,rome1 had availed himself of the       
opportunity to visit her4    ,but1 as   
might be expected1 his self-tormenting  
mind became unquiet  amidst scenes of   
repose1 which1 from day to day1         
delighted him at first1  but1 from day  
to day1 presenting little change of     
aspect or incident1 he  sighed again for
 ,ferrara1 choosing rather the agony of 
life to that rest  which was no longer  
supportable4 ,thither1 then1 he         
returned1 on the  assurance of pardon   
from the duke1 and the restoration of   
his papers4 ,it  was soon after his     
arrival1 that an act of indiscretion    
attributed to  him by some1 and denied  
by others of his biographers1 is said to
 have  caused him to be put in ward as a
 person of deranged intellect4 ,being in
  company with ,alfonso and his sisters1
 in the presence of the court1 in  reply
 to a question from ,leonora1 ,tasso    
gave her an involuntary salute1  their  
faces being so near together that he    

felt attraction to be  irresistible4    
,the duke1 astonished and indignant1    
turned to his  attendants and exclaimed1
 ,see to what a lamentable condition    
this great  man has been brought by the 
loss of his reason6 ,but the date of    
this  circumstance happens to be as     
disputable as the fact2 for it is       
certain  that the poet had not long     
resided at ,ferrara1 when1 still        
unsatisfied  with the duke's conduct    
towards him1 he again withdrew from the 
city1  and successively sought temporary
 refuge at ,mantua1 ,urbino1 ,florence1 
,padua1 ,turin1 and ,venice4 ,being ill 
at ease every where1 by a fatality  of  
instinct1 as it might be deemed1 he     
returned to ,ferrara1 and thence        
departed no more till after a           
confinement of seven years4 ,for1       
imagining  himself coldly received at   
court1 and unworthily repulsed when he  
sought  an audience1 he vented his      
anguish of disappointment in bitter     
invectives against the duke1 who1 amidst

 the festivities of his new  nuptials   
with a young bride1 his third wife1 a   
daughter of the duke of  ,mantua1 was   
little inclined to hearken to the       
complaints and  supplications of one    
whom he had long looked upon as insane4 
,on this  ground he was committed to    
,st4 ,anne's hospital1 as a lunatic1    
which in  those days of medical         
ignorance of the proper treatment of    
such patients  was to be punished as a  
criminal for his misfortune4 ,the       
following  extract must stand in place  
of multifarious details of the poet's   
feelings under this long restraint4 ,his
 imprisonment commenced in ,march1      
#aegi4 ,soon afterwards he thus         
expressed himself in a letter to his    
friend ,scipio ,gonzaga3--    ,ah me6 ,i
 had intended to compose two heroic     
poems of noble argument1  and four      
tragedies1 of which ,i had contrived the
 plots4 ,many works in  prose also1 on  
the most exalted and useful subjects1 ,i
 had contemplated2  purposing so to     

unite philosophy and eloquence1 that ,i 
might leave an  eternal monument to my  
memory in the world4 ,alas6 ,i hoped to 
close my  life with glory and renown1   
but now1 borne down under the load of my
  misfortunes1 ,i have lost all prospect
 of fame and distinction4 ,indeed ,i    
should consider myself abundantly happy1
 if1 without suspicion1 ,i could  but   
quench the thirst with which ,i am      
tormented2 and if1 as one of the        
multitude1 ,i could lead a life of      
freedom in some poor cottage1 if not  in
 health1 which ,i can no longer be1 yet 
exempt from this anguish4 ,if ,i  were  
not honoured1 it would be enough for me 
not to be abominated2 and  if ,i could  
not live like men1 ,i might at least    
quench the thirst that  consumes me1    
like the brutes which freely drink from 
stream and  fountain4 ,nor do ,i fear so
 much the vastness as the duration of   
this  calamity2 and the thought of this 
is horrible to me1 especially as in     
this place ,i can neither write nor     

study4 ,the dread1 too1 of perpetual    
imprisonment increases my melancholy1   
and the indignities which ,i suffer     
exasperate it2 while the squalor of my  
beard1 my hair1 and my dress1 the       
sordidness and the filth of the place1  
exceedingly annoy me4 ,but1 above  all1 
,i am afflicted by solitude1 my cruel   
and natural enemy2 which2 even  in my   
best state2 was sometimes so            
distressing1 that often1 at the most    
unseasonable hours1 ,i have gone in     
search of company4 ,sure ,i am1 that if 
she who so little has corresponded to my
 attachment1 if she saw me in  such a   
condition2 and in such misery1 she would
 have some compassion  upon me4         
,though such statements must be received
 with some allowance for the  power of  
self-torturing which he possessed in no 
small degree1 and  exercised with as    
little forbearance as though he were his
 own most  implacable enemy1 yet1       
according to ,tasso's representation1   
the  treatment which he experienced     

under the hands of his brother-poet1    
,agostino ,morti1 formerly a disciple of
 ,ariosto1 the keeper of the  hospital1 
was almost as bad as that which he      
received at his own4 ,he  says that by  
this man he was not allowed the         
necessaries of life1 the  medicines     
which his bodily disease required1 nor  
the spiritual  consolations which his   
heart-sickness needed3 moreover1 that   
his  meditations were disturbed by the  
inmates of the house1 so that he could  
not proceed with the preparation of his 
works for the press2 but above  all1    
that he was under the power of          
witchcraft1 ,morti being in league  with
 certain magicians to destroy him by    
enchantments2 and as this was a  capital
 crime1 he threatens to accuse the      
keeper to the duke4#da ,his  sonnets to 
the cats of the hospital1 imploring them
 to lend him the  light of their eyes to
 write by1 are specimens of that kind of
 mirth  which suits and sets off        
melancholy1 in a certain humorous       

sadness4  ,their genuineness1 however1  
is not certain1 and they are hardly     
translatable4    ,whatever were the     
actual circumstances of ,tasso's mental 
alienation and  corporal sufferings from
 disease or ill usage1 his life1 from   
the period  of his first imprisonment1  
was to himself like one of the          
opium-eater's  dreams--splendours and   
horrors1 alternations of agony and      
rapture1  changes sudden1 frequent1 and 
strangely contrasted3 he inhabited a    
world  of unrealities1 of which the joys
 and sorrows1 the hopes and fears1  were
 the more real in proportion as they    
were ideal1 and therefore  incurable2   
acting upon the soul itself like that   
effect upon the bodily  senses1         
excruciatingly susceptible of           
impressions of pain1 so happily         
imagined1 and not less felicitously     
expressed by the most polished of  our  
own poets3--      ,say what their use1  
were finer optics given8  ,to inspect a 
mite1 not comprehend the heaven2  ,or   

touch1 if tremblingly alive all o'er1   
,to smart and agonise at every pore2    
,or1 quick effluvia darting through the 
brain1  ,die of a rose in aromatic pain2
  ,if nature thunder'd in his opening   
ears1  ,and stunn'd him with the music  
of the spheres4  ,how would he wish that
 heaven had left him still  ,the        
whispering zephyr and the purling rill4 
,,pope's ,essay on ,man1 ,epist4 ,i4    
,and such a being1 too exquisitely      
sensitive1 is every poet1 whose         
imagination or whose passion overmasters
 his reason and his judgment4  ,tasso   
was eminently such--a poet in every     
thing1 and all life long4    ,meanwhile 
editions of his ,gerusalemme were       
multiplying throughout  ,italy1 and     
beyond the ,alps and the ,pyrenees2     
while the mind that  conceived and      
produced it was wandering1 like a lost  
star through the  infinity of space1    
unaccompanied by any kindred planet1 and
 unattracted  by any parent sun2 and the
 poet himself--he whom monarchs had     

delighted  to honour1 the associate of  
sovereigns1 who had been the favourite  
of  princesses1 and the admiration or   
the envy of the highest intellects of   
his age--was treated as a brute1 out of 
whose living frame the rational  soul   
had departed1 and whose animal appetites
 were to be subdued by  severe          
abstinence1 or controlled by harsh      
discipline4    ,yet in his solitude1    
when the first rigours of his           
imprisonment had been  relaxed1 and an  
apartment of less discomfort was        
allotted to him1 he  pursued1 with      
unabated ardour and intensity1 his      
studies1 so far as he  had the means1   
and poured out1 as he was ever wont1 his
 sorrows and his  hopes1 his            
remembrances and his imaginations1 in   
every form of verse4  ,indeed1 many of  
his most beautiful compositions are     
dated within the  term of his captivity4
 ,in course of time1 as he grew calmer1 
his  friends1 and illustrious strangers 
attracted by his fame1 were permitted   

to visit him4 ,occasionally1 too1 a day 
of light and liberty was granted1  and  
he was brought out of his prison-house  
to those splendid mansions  which he    
loved to inhabit1 and which he was so   
well qualified to adorn4  ,marfisa of   
,este1 cousin to the duke1 especially   
befriended him in this  manner1 and     
entertained him at her delightful villa1
 where1 in company  with her            
distinguished household and visiters1 he
 looked abroad again in  sunshine1 with 
all a poet's transport and all an       
invalid's delight1 when  mere existence1
 void of suffering1 is enjoyment4       
,see the wretch1 who long has tost  ,on 
the thorny bed of pain1  ,at length     
repair his vigour lost1  ,and breathe   
and walk again3  ,the meanest floweret  
of the vale1  ,the simplest note that   
swells the gale1  ,the common air1 the  
earth1 the skies1  ,to him are opening  
paradise4      ,so sang ,gray1 and so   
felt ,tasso for a few hours of          
freedom1--but soon  remanded back to his

 lonely abode1 he relapsed into         
despondency2 and  though one such day1  
while it lasted1 might seem to          
compensate for all  the past1 yet when  
it was gone1 its pleasures appeared too 
dearly  purchased by the misery of      
another day rendered more bitter by the 
transient change4    ,having collected a
 volume of his fugitive verses1         
principally composed  in prison1 he     
published it with a dedication to the   
princesses1 the  duchess of ,urbino and 
,leonora2 but the latter lived not to   
receive this  mournful proof of the     
fidelity of his gratitude1 if not of his
 love4 ,she  died1 after a long illness1
 in #aeha1 aged #dc years4 ,tasso       
enquired  earnestly after her during her
 sickness1 and offered to do any thing  
in  the power of his muse to beguile    
that part of her suffering which song   
might soothe1 while patiently bearing   
the rest1 for which there was no  relief
 but from ,heaven4 ,after her death he  
became mute on that theme1  which most  

of his biographers would fain prove to  
have been the real  though covert one of
 many an amorous effusion among his     
sonnets and  lyrics4 ,great griefs are  
silent4    ,among his wild imaginations1
 ,tasso thought himself haunted in his  
prison  by a sprite--something akin to  
our old ,english ,robin-good-fellow--who
  7probably in the very person of his   
knavish attendant7 played all manner  of
 petty mischievous pranks to plague him4
 ,one extract from a letter on  this    
subject will show how little command of 
his reason he had at this  time4 ,he    
says1 ,the little thief has stolen from 
me many crowns1 ,i know  not what       
number--for ,i do not1 like misers1 keep
 an account of them--but  perhaps they  
may amount to twenty4 ,he turns all my  
hooks topsy-turvy1  opens my chests1 and
 steals my keys1 so that ,i can keep    
nothing4 ,i am  unhappy at all times1   
especially during the night1 nor do ,i  
know if my  disease be frenzy1 or what  
is its nature4 ,far more frightful      

visitations he complains of during this 
dreadful interval1 all which  seem to   
prove a lamentable derangement of       
intellect1 of which he was  himself     
sometimes so conscious1 that he rouses  
all his powers of  reasoning to convince
 himself that he has not really lost his
 wits4 ,to a  friend he writes--,i      
cannot defend any thing from my enemies1
 nor from  the devil1 except my will1   
with which ,i will never consent to     
learn  any thing from him or his        
followers1 or have any familiarity with 
him  or with his magicians4 99 99 99 99 
,amidst so many terrors and pains1 there
  appeared to me in the air the image of
 the glorious ,virgin1 with her ,son  in
 her arms1 encircled with clouds of many
 colours1 so that ,i ought by  no means 
to despair of her grace4 ,and though    
this might be an illusion1  because ,i  
am frenetic1--troubled with various     
phantasms1 and full of  infinite        
melancholy1--yet1 by the grace of ,god1 
,i can sometimes  cohibere assensum     

7withhold my assent71 which1 as ,cicero 
says1 being  the act of a sound mind1 ,i
 am inclined to believe it was a miracle
 of  the ,virgin4--,this vision he      
celebrates in one of his most brilliant 
sonnets1 and also in an elegant         
madrigal1 ascribing to her grace the    
marvellous cure of his mental           
affliction4    ,in whatever way that    
cure may have been temporarily effected1
 ,tasso1  after more than seven years'  
confinement1 was liberated in #aehf1 at 
the  special intercession of the prince 
of ,mantua4 ,alfonso refused to allow   
him an audience1 and he left ,ferrara   
like a transport released from  prison1 
to go into perpetual banishment2 for the
 duke remained  inexorable1 and1 indeed1
 implacable1 to the end of his victim's 
life4  ,for a while ,tasso enjoyed the  
sudden transition1 again being lodged in
  the palace of ,mantua1 faring         
sumptuously1 and being admitted to the  
high1 amiable1 and intellectual society 
of nobles1 ladies1 and scholars4  ,this 

pleasant season was not1 however1       
without relapses of his fearful         
disease3 the evil spirit came upon him  
at times1 and all the enchantment  of   
his harp could not drive it away4       
,during several years afterwards1 the   
poet wandered about1 as his father  had 
done1 from city to city1 and from court 
to court1 experiencing all  the         
vicissitudes of what is called fortune1 
but which1 in his case1  appears to have
 been the lot which he chose and cut out
 for himself4  ,princes were ever ready 
to open their doors to him1 and wherever
 he was  known1 he was honoured         
according to the reputation which he had
 so  painfully but unprofitably         
acquired2 his patrons having only       
afforded  him hospitality while he abode
 with them1 and booksellers having been 
enriched at his expense by the spoils of
 his genius1 in a country where  the    
property of literary men in their own   
works was little acknowledged  and less 
respected4 ,his controversy with the    

,della ,cruscan academy  during his     
imprisonment1 the members of which had  
invidiously prejudiced  the public mind 
against him1 the living1 whom their     
favour might have  benefited1 by        
exalting ,ariosto1 the dead1 whom their 
preference could  not serve1--while it  
grievously galled him1 rather tended to 
spread the  knowledge1 and1 necessarily 
with that knowledge1 the fame of his    
,gerusalemme1 than permanently to injure
 his fair fame4 ,but he himself1  from  
scruples of conscience and infirmity of 
mind1 became dissatisfied  with it1 and 
employed no small portion of his brief  
remaining life in  remodelling it1 under
 the title of ,gerusalemme              
,conquistata1--a scheme  in which he    
utterly miscarried4 ,his last great     
poetical attempt1 and  worthy of him in 
his palmy state1 was a work on the      
creation1 entitled  the ,sette ,giornate
 7the ,seven ,days71 which he left      
unfinished4 ,it was  composed in versi  
scidti1 which nearly correspond to      

,english blank  verse4 ,there are many  
passages in this magnificent fragment1  
which were  evidently so familiar to    
,milton's mind1 that he fell into the   
same  trains of thought1 and imitated   
them in the style peculiar to himself1  
repaying as much as he borrowed1        
stealing and giving odours4    ,tasso1  
soon tiring of ,mantua1 and even        
languishing for ,ferrara1 though  never 
permitted to return thither1 wore away  
the residue of his  desultory life1     
principally at ,bergamo1 ,florence1     
,rome1 and ,naples4 ,in  the latter city
 7his sister being dead71 when it was   
too late for him to  enjoy the          
possession of it1 he recovered his      
mother's long-disputed  dowry1 or such a
 portion of it as1 at an earlier period1
 might have  rendered him independent of
 those eleemosynary supplies from       
precarious  hands1 on which he generally
 subsisted4 ,about the same time the    
pope  also settled a pension upon him1  
and consented to allow him the honour   

of a coronation1 such as had been       
granted to ,petrarch1 two centuries     
before4 ,but wealth and honour1 such as 
mortal hands could confer or  withhold  
at pleasure1 came too late for him4 ,in 
his latter years1 too1  he became       
acquainted with ,manso1 marquis of      
,villa1 his last patron1 and  his first 
biographer2 known in this country as1 in
 his old age1  befriending our ,milton1 
then a youth1 on his travels in ,italy1 
as1 in  his own youth1 he had befriended
 ,tasso sinking to the grave under      
premature decay4    ,one of the most    
remarkable circumstances of the last    
days of ,tasso was  the imagination1    
that he was occasionally visited by a   
spirit--not the  mischievous            
,robin-good-fellow of his prison1 but a 
being of far higher  dignity1 with whom1
 alone or in company1 he could hold     
sublime and  preternatural discourse1   
though of the two interlocutors none    
present  could see or hear more than the
 poet himself1 rapt into ecstasy1 and   

uttering language and sentiments worthy 
of one who1 with his bodily1 yet        
marvellously enlightened eyes and purged
 ears1 could distinguish the  presence  
and the voice of his mysterious         
visitant4 ,manso gives a strange        
account of such an interview1 when he   
himself stood by1 yet perceived  nothing
 but the half-part which the poet acted 
in the scene4    ,one day1 says the     
marquis1 as we were sitting alone by the
 fire1 he  turned his eyes towards the  
window1 and held them a long time so    
intensely fixed1 that when ,i called him
 he did not answer4 ,at last1  ',lo6'   
said he1 the courteous spirit1 which has
 come to talk with me2  lift up your    
eyes and you shall see the truth4' ,i   
turned my eyes thither  immediately2 but
 though ,i looked as keenly as ,i could 
,i beheld nothing  but the rays of the  
sun1 which streamed through the         
window-panes into  the chamber4         
,meanwhile ,torquato began to hold1 with
 this unknown being1  a most lofty      

converse4 ,i heard1 indeed1 and saw     
nothing but himself2  nevertheless his  
words1 at one time questioning1 and at  
another  replying1 were such as take    
place between those who reason closely  
on  some important subject4 99 99 99 99 
,their discourse was marvellously       
conducted1 both in the sublimity of the 
topics1 and a certain unwonted  manner  
of talking1 that exalted myself into an 
ecstasy2 so that ,i did  not dare to    
interrupt ,torquato about the spirit    
which he had announced  to me1 but which
 ,i could not see4 ,in this way1 while  
,i listened between  transport and      
stupefaction1 a considerable time       
elapsed2 at length the  spirit departed1
 as ,i learned from the words of        
,torquato1 who1 turning  to me1 said1   
',from this day forward1 all your doubts
 will be  removed4'--',rather1' ,i      
replied1 'they are increased2 for though
 ,i have  heard many wonderful things1  
,i have seen nothing to dispel my       
doubts4'  ,he smiled1 and said1 ',you   

have seen and heard more of him than    
perhaps--' here he broke off1 and ,i1   
unwilling to trouble him1 forbore  to   
ask further questions2 as it was more   
likely that his visions and  frenzies   
would disorder my own mind1 than that ,i
 should extirpate his  true or imaginary
 opinion4    ,throughout the year #aeid 
the poet was so manifestly breaking     
down1 both  in his bodily and mental    
faculties1 that his early dissolution   
was  anticipated by all his friends4 ,he
 arrived at ,rome on the #ajth of       
,november2 when on being introduced to  
the pope1 his holiness1 in the  most    
condescending terms1 told him that he   
intended to bestow upon him  the crown  
of laurel1 that from him it might       
receive as much honour as1  in times    
past1 it had conferred on others4 ,the  
winter proving very  tempestuous1 the   
ceremonial was deferred till the        
succeeding spring4 ,as  the time        
approached when all his dreams of       
ambition were to be thus  consummated1  

,tasso drooped daily both in spirits and
 in strength1 so  that from the #ajth of
 ,april1 when he was seized with violent
 fever1 no  hope could be entertained of
 preserving his life4 ,being informed of
 his  danger1 he thanked the physician  
for communicating tidings so welcome4   
,instead1 then1 of the vain glories of  
coronation in this world1 he set        
himself to prepare1 according to his    
religious views1 for his last  change to
 that eternal state1 where nothing could
 avail him but to have  found that      
mercy1 which is the only hope of sinful 
man beyond the grave4  ,on the #beth of 
,april he quietly expired1 with the     
words upon his lips  7of which the last 
were inaudible71 ,into thy hands1 ,o    
,lord6 ,i commend  my spirit4 ,he was   
aged fifty-one years4    ,the personal  
and poetical character of ,tasso are so 
strikingly betokened  in the incidents  
of his life1 that1 in a memoir1         
necessarily so  circumscribed as the    
present1 no further remark on either    

need be  introduced here4 ,to enter into
 a critical examination of his writings1
  which should at all do justice to     
their extent1 their diversity and  their
 excellence1 of various kinds whether in
 prose or verse1 would  require a       
distinct essay1 equal in length to the  
whole of this article4  ,this1 however1 
is little to be regretted1 for1 of all  
the ,italian poets1  ,tasso is the best 
known in our country2 indeed1 he has    
been almost  naturalised1 for his       
greatest work has been oftener          
translated than any  other continental  
poem1--so that the style1 the story1 the
 sentiments1  the actors1 the scenes1   
the whole fable1 with all its           
embellishments and  adjuncts1 are better
 known to general readers than those of 
the ,faerie  ,queene1 and1 perhaps1 it  
may be said1 than those of ,paradise    
,lost  itself1 except among that fit    
audience1 which1 though few1 ,spenser   
and ,milton must for ever find1 while   
,english poetry holds its  place--and   

that the highest1 hitherto--in the      
literature of ,christendom4    ,besides 
several inferior versions1 those of the 
,jerusalem ,delivered1  by ,fairfax1    
,hoole1 ,hunt1 and ,wiffin1 have each   
some peculiar merit1  though it must be 
confessed1 that1 in each1 so far as     
regards the  diction1 that peculiar     
merit belongs rather to the translation 
than to  the author1 the grace and      
harmony of whose verse1 unsurpassed in  
his own  language1 is absolutely        
unapproachable in ours4 ,fairfax's      
version1 in  the original stanza1 is    
masculine and free2 ,hoole's1 in the    
heroic  couplet1 is easy and            
commonplace1 but as a mere entertaining 
tale1 the  most readable of the four2   
,hunt's1 in the same measure1 may lay   
great  claim to indulgence for any      
defect in vigour1 on the score of the   
classic taste and learning which it     
displays4 ,wiffin's is unquestionably   
the best2 and it is his own fault that  
it is not as good as any  reasonable    

judge could desire a translation of     
,tasso to be3 but1 having  chosen to    
hamper himself1 and to encumber his     
author1 with the intricate  stanza of   
,spenser1 containing an                 
extra-,alexandrine line beyond the      
,italian octave1 he has been compelled  
to amplify his original one  eighth1    
which must deduct at least in the same  
proportion from the  compactness1       
precision1 and symmetry of every        
corresponding section4 ,how  could a    
master of versification like ,mr4       
,wiffin1 himself a genuine poet1  choose
 to run such a race1 carrying such a    
weight8 ,he has won it1  nevertheless1  
though not in the style that might have 
been wished2 yet  he that shall         
hereafter beat him must be a rival1 who1
 beyond the ,alps1  would have been a   
worthy competitor with ,tasso himself1  
had they been  countrymen and           
contemporaries4      ,footnote #cg3 ,the
 translation is from ,dr4 ,black's      
valuable ,life of  ,tasso1 from which   

other occasional quotations may be      
hereafter made1  with this brief but    
grateful acknowledgment4    ,footnote   
#ch3 ,see note1 page #aag4    ,footnote 
#ci3 ,it is curious and provoking to    
observe in how momentary  and           
contemptible a circumstance originated  
this enduring injury to the  reputation 
of one of the greatest poets by one of  
the greatest critics4  ,in a note to the
 clause in ,satire ,,ix41 ,boileau says1
 ,un homme de  qualit fit un jour ce    
beau jugement en ma prsence4 ,so1       
because a  fool of quality 7un sot de   
qualit1 as he words it in the verse7    
once happened to say1 in the hearing of 
a wit1 that he preferred the            
,gerusalemme to the neid1 all ,europe   
has been made to ring from  side to     
side1 for a century and a half1 with the
 clinquant of ,tasso  against the gold  
of ,virgil4    ,footnote #dj3 ,milton1  
in the context1 has manifestly imitated 
both ,tasso  and ,fairfax2--,tasso in   
the description of the angel's descent1 

and  ,fairfax in the lively circumstance
 here quoted1 and which is not in the   
original3--    ,on ,libanon at first his
 foot he set1  ,and shook his wings1    
with rory ,may dews wet4    ,the        
fragrance is ,milton's own2 and here we 
have the process of one  thought1       
carried onward by three poets1 to       
consummate beauty and  perfection in the
 last4    ,footnote #da3 ,well might    
,collins1 a kindred spirit1 both in his 
powers  of song and in his moody        
madness1 thus celebrate the great       
,italian1  whose ,godfrey of ,bulloigne 
he only knew through ,fairfax's         
translation3--    ----,in scenes1 which1
 daring to depart  ,from sober truth1   
are still to nature true1  ,and call    
forth fresh delight to fancy's view1    
,the heroic muse employ'd her ,tasso's  
art4  ,how have ,i trembled when1 at    
,tancred's stroke1  ,its gushing blood  
the gaping cypress pour'd2  ,when each  
live plant with mortal accents spoke1   
,and the wild blast upheaved the        

vanish'd sword2  ,how have ,i sat1 when 
piped the pensive wind1  ,to hear his   
harp by ,british ,fairfax strung6       
,prevailing poet6 whose undoubting mind 
,believed the magic wonders which he    
sung4    ,ode on the ,highland          
,superstitions4          ,,chiabrera    
#aeeb-afcg4      ,gabbriello ,chiabrera 
was born at ,savona1 a town on the      
sea-shore1 not  far from ,genoa1 on the 
#hth of ,june1 #aeeb4 ,he was born      
fifteen days after  his father's death1 
and his mother1 ,gironima ,murasana1    
being young when  she was left a widow1 
married again2 which circumstance caused
 ,chiabrera  to be brought up by an     
uncle and aunt1 brother and sister to   
his father1  who were both unmarried4   
,at the age of nine1 his uncle1 who     
resided at  ,rome1 took him thither1 and
 gave him a private tutor1 who taught   
him  ,latin4 ,he was twice during       
childhood assailed by dangerous fevers1 
which  left him so weak and spiritless1 
that his uncle placed him at the        

,jesuits' college1 that he might regain 
vigour and hilarity in the  company of  
boys of his own age4 ,the experiment    
succeeded1 and ,chiabrera  became robust
 and healthy to the end of his long     
life4 ,during his  juvenile years1 his  
application1 memory1 and studious habits
 attracted  the applause of his         
instructors2 and the ,jesuits were      
desirous of  inducing him to become one 
of them4 ,the youth showed no           
disinclination2  but his uncle watched  
over him1 and prevented that sacrifice  
of liberty  and independence1 which     
would have rendered him miserable       
through life4  ,when he was twenty this 
good uncle died2 but he had emancipated 
himself  from monkish influence1 and    
after paying his relations at ,savona a 
short  visit1 he returned again to      
,rome1 where coming accidentally into   
contact  with the cardinal ,comaro      
,camerlingo1 he entered his service1 in 
which he  remained some years4    ,his  
residence at ,rome1 however1 came to a  

disastrous termination3 he was  insulted
 by a ,roman gentleman1 and being forced
 by the laws of honour to  avenge       
himself1 the consequences obliged him to
 quit the city2 nor was  he permitted to
 return till eight years after4 ,he now 
took up his abode  in his native town1  
and grew to love the leisure and        
independence of his  life4 ,at one time 
his tranquillity was disturbed by       
another quarrel1 in  which he was       
wounded2 but with his own hand1 as he   
tells us1 took his  revenge4 ,he was    
forced1 on this1 to absent himself from 
,savona2 and  remained1 as it were1     
outlawed for several months1 when at    
last a  reconciliation being brought    
about1 he returned and enjoyed many     
years  of complete tranquillity4        
,chiabrera had been born rich1 but he   
was negligent of his affairs1 so  that  
at last his fortune was reduced to a    
mere competence2 and this was  at one   
time even endangered by a lawsuit at    
,rome1 all his property there  being    

confiscated2 but it was returned to him1
 through the intervention  of cardinal  
,aldobrandini4 ,at the age of fifty he  
married1 but had no  children4 ,with the
 few interruptions above recorded1 he   
passed a life of  peaceful leisure1     
content with his fortunes1 honoured and 
esteemed by  every body1 and rendered   
happy by the exercise of his talents and
  imagination4 ,while at ,rome in his   
early life1 he had cultivated the       
friendship of literary men2 and during  
his leisure1 on his return to  ,savona1 
he occupied himself by reading poetry as
 a recreation4 ,his own  genius         
developed itself as he studied the      
productions of others4 ,the  ,greek     
poets particularly delighted him2 and   
perceiving how much they  excelled all  
other writers1 he made them his study1  
till1 his emulation  being awakened1 he 
wrote some odes in imitation of ,pindar3
 these being  much admired1 he was      
encouraged to continue1 still making the
 ,greek  lyrical poets his models1      

though he did not confine his admiration
 to  them only4 ,homer he preferred to  
all other writers2 he was charmed by    
the versification and imagery of        
,virgil2 and appreciated in ,dante and  
,ariosto1 the power which they possessed
 of felicitously describing and         
representing the objects which they     
desire to bring before their            
readers4#db    ,chiabrera had the       
ambition of forming a new style2 as he  
expressed it1  he meant to follow the   
example of his countryman1 ,columbus1   
and to find  a new world1 or be wrecked 
in the attempt4 ,his wish was1 to       
transfuse  the spirit of the ,greeks    
into the ,italian language4 ,he         
perceived that  the fault common to the 
poets of his day1 was a certain         
cowardice of  style1 and an obedience to
 arbitrary laws1 which limited and      
chilled the  poetic fervour4 ,he shook  
off these trammels1 and adopted every   
possible  mode of versification1 and    
even bent the dialect of ,petrarch and  

,tasso  to new and unknown forms of     
expression4 ,he was no lover of rhyme1  
preferring to it a majestic harmony in  
the arrangement of syllables and  sound1
 which he found more musical and        
expressive than the mere jingle  of a   
concluding word4 ,his style thus became 
at once novel and exalted4  ,he adorned 
his verses with pompous epithets and    
majestic turns of  expression3 he was   
harmonious and dignified1 fervent and   
spirited4#dc    ,as he dedicated nearly 
the whole of his long life to the       
composition of  poetry1 he has left a   
vast quantity1 much of which has never  
been  printed1--narrative poems1 dramas1
 odes1 canzoni#dd1 sonnets1 c42 but  his
 canzoni1 or lyrics1 far excel all the  
rest4 ,this results from his  style     
being at once more original and         
beautiful than his ideas4 ,we are  apt  
to say1 as we read1 we have seen this   
before1 but never so well  expressed4   
,he does not1 like ,petrarch1 anatomise 
his own feelings1 and  spend his heart  

in grief3 even in his love poetry1 while
 he complains1  he does not lament1 and 
there is a sort of laughing and         
vivacious grace  and a liquid softness  
diffused over these poems in particular1
 which is  infinitely charming4 ,one of 
his most celebrated1 beginning--        
,belle rose porporine1      is in praise
 of his lady's smile4 ,it is impossible 
for any thing to be  more airy and yet  
heartfelt--he speaks of how the earth is
 said to  laugh1 when1 at the morning   
hour1 a rivulet or a breeze wanders     
murmuring amid the grass1 or a meadow   
adorns itself with flowers2--how  the   
sea laughs1 when a light zephyr dips its
 airy feet in the clear  waters1 so that
 the waves scarcely play upon the       
sands2--and how the  heavens smile when 
morning comes forth1 amidst roseate and 
white  flowers1 adorned in a golden     
veil1 and moving along on sapphire      
wheels4  ,when the earth is happy1 he   
says1 she laughs2 and the heavens laugh 
when they are gay3 but neither can smile

 so sweetly and gracefully as  you4 ,the
 flowing measure1 the admirable         
selection and position of the  words    
render this and other similar poems     
models of lyrical composition4  ,a      
fairy-like colouring1 and a thrilling   
sweetness1 like the scent of  flowers1  
invest them1 and render them peculiar in
 their aerial vivacity  and spirited    
flow4    ,these lighter and more        
animated productions have not been      
translated2  but1 as a specimen of his  
more serious style1 we select one of the
  epitaphs or elegiac poems among those 
which ,mr4 ,wordsworth has  translated1 
with his usual accuracy and force of    
diction3--      ,there never breathed a 
man who1 when his life  ,was closing1   
might hot of that life relate  ,toils   
long and hard4 ,the warrior will report 
,of wounds1 and bright swords flashing  
in the field1  ,and blast of trumpets4  
,he1 who hath been doom'd  ,to bow his  
forehead in the court of kings1  ,will  
tell of fraud and never-ceasing hate1   

,envy1 and heart-inquietude1 derived    
,from intricate cabals of treacherous   
friends4  ,i1 who on shipboard lived    
from earliest youth1  ,could represent  
the countenance horrible  ,of the vexed 
waters1 and the indignant rage  ,of     
,auster and ,botes4 ,forty years  ,over 
the well-steer'd galleys did ,i rule3   
,from huge ,pelorus to the ,atlantic    
pillars1  ,rises no mountain to mine    
eyes unknown2  ,and the broad gulphs ,i 
traversed oft and oft2  ,of every cloud 
which in the heavens might stir  ,i knew
 the force2 and hence the rough sea's   
pride  ,avail'd not to my vessel's      
overthrow4  ,what noble pomp1 and       
frequent1 have not ,i  ,on regal decks  
beheld6 ,yet in the end  ,i learn that  
one poor moment can suffice  ,to        
equalise the lofty and the low4  ,we    
sail the sea of life--a calm one finds1 
,and one a tempest--and1 the voyage     
o'er1  ,death is the quiet haven of us  
all4#de      ,the tranquil life of      
,chiabrera was agreeably varied by his  

love1 not  exactly of travelling1 but of
 visiting the various cities of ,italy1 
and  by the honours paid him by its     
princes1 in recompence for his poetry1  
which was enthusiastically admired by   
all his countrymen4 ,he never made  any 
long stay away from home1 except at     
,genoa and ,florence1 and there he      
possessed friends who were glad to      
welcome him2 for if he was of an        
irascible1 he was of a placable         
disposition1 and though serious of      
aspect1 he was gay and good-humoured in 
society4 ,the grand duke of  ,tuscany1  
,ferdinand ,i41 held him in high esteem1
 and employed him in  arranging various 
dramatic representations on the marriage
 of ,mary de'  ,medici with the king of 
,france4 ,charles ,emanuel1 duke of     
,savoy1 made him  generous offers of    
remuneration1 if he would take up his   
abode at his  court2 but ,chiabrera     
wisely preferred his independence4 ,it  
has been  mentioned that he arranged the
 interludes of a comedy of ,guarini1    

when  it was represented on occasion of 
the marriage of the son of the duke of  
,mantua with a princess of ,savoy4 ,all 
these princes rewarded him with  gifts1 
or honours1 which he seems to have set a
 still higher value upon2  lodging him  
in their palaces1 sending their         
carriages for his  conveyance1 and      
permitting him to remain covered in     
their presence4 ,he  had been the       
intimate friend of cardinal ,barberini1 
and when the latter  was created pope1  
under the name of ,urban ,,viii41       
,chiabrera often visited  ,rome1 though 
he would never reside there2 and the    
pope made him priestly  gifts of agnus  
dei and medallions1 and in the year of  
the jubilee  wrote him a brief1 or      
letter of compliment1 similar to those  
sent to  sovereign princes and men of   
the highest rank4    ,chiabrera was     
always an orthodox catholic1 a sinner1  
he expresses it1  but not without       
,christian devotion4 ,he had ,santa     
,lucia for his  advocate1 and during a  

space of sixty years1 he never failed   
twice a day  to devote himself to pious 
thoughts1 which continued uppermost in  
his  mind all his life4 ,his moderate   
desires and temperate habits assisted   
to preserve him in uninterrupted good   
health4 ,he died at the advanced  age of
 eighty-six1 and was buried in his own  
chapel in the church of ,san  ,giacomo4 
,footnote #db3 ,vita di se stesso4      
,footnote #dc3 ,muratori4    ,footnote  
#dd3 ,there is no ,english word that    
gives the exact idea of a  canzone2 we  
call such lyrical poems2 yet in ,italian
 they form a class  apart4    ,footnote 
#de3 ,per il ,signor ,giambattista ,feo4
    ,uomo non 1 che pervenuto a morte   
,non possa raccontar della sua vita     
,lunghi travagli4 ,il cavalier di ,marte
  ,dir le piaghe1 e lo splendor de'     
brandi1  ,ed il suon delle trombe3 il   
condannato1  ,nelle gran ,reggie1 ad    
inchinar la fronte1  ,de' ,re scettrati1
 narrer le frodi1  ,le lunghe invidie1  
ed i sofferti affanni  ,infra le schiere

 de' bugiardi amici4  ,io1 che mi vissi 
in su spalmate prore1  ,potrei          
rappresentar l' orribil faccia  ,del mar
 irato1 ed i rabbiosi sdegni  ,e        
d',austro e di ,bote4 ,anni cinquanta   
,commandai su galere a buon nocchieri3  
,dal gran ,peloro all' ,atlantei colonne
  ,non sorge monte a gli occhi miei non 
noto1  ,e gli ampj golfi veleggiai pi   
volte3  ,d' ogni nube1 che in ciel fosse
 raccolta1  ,seppi la forza1 onde marino
 orgoglio  ,a' legni miei non valse fare
 oltraggio4  ,che nobil pompa non mirai 
sovente  ,su regie poppe8 ,e pure io    
provo al fine1  ,che le disuguaglianze  
un' ora adegua4  ,tutti quaggiuso       
navighiamo in forse4  ,altri ha         
tempesta1 ed altri ha calma1 e poscia   
,nel porto della ,morte ognun d fondo4  
,,tassoni    #aefe-afce4                
,alessandro ,tassoni was born at        
,modena1 in #aefe1 of a noble and       
ancient  family4 ,he was so unfortunate 
as to lose both parents in early        
childhood2 nor had he any near relative 

to watch over his tender years  and     
guard his interests4 ,in consequence1   
scarcely had he emerged from  boyhood1  
than his inheritance was attacked by    
lawsuits1 and he was  involved in the   
most annoying struggles with private    
enemies1 while long  and painful        
illnesses unfitted him to cope with     
these evils4 ,still a  love of knowledge
 rose above the multiplied disasters    
that beset him1  and from his earliest  
years he was a student4 ,he learnt the  
,greek and  ,latin languages under      
,lazzaro ,labadini1 a learned and worthy
 man1 but  somewhat of the ,dominie     
,sampson species3 simple-hearted and    
abstracted1  he was exposed to          
ridiculous mistakes2 and his pupil      
records in his  celebrated poem1 how1   
when a servant informed him of the death
 of a cow1  he sent to the apothecary's 
shop for drugs to cure her4#df ,while   
yet  under this master's tuition1 he    
wrote a ,latin poem named ,errico1 which
  displayed an extraordinary smoothness 

of versification and command of         
language4 ,at the age of eighteen he    
took the degree of doctor of laws1  and 
in #aehe he entered the university of   
,bologna1 where he continued  five      
years1 applying himself to philosophy1  
under the most celebrated  masters4 ,he 
afterwards studied jurisprudence at     
,ferrara1 and acquired a  reputation for
 his learning and critical acumen4      
,it was not till past thirty years of   
age that he appears to have  seriously  
entered on the task of bettering his    
moderate fortunes4  ,sidenote3 #aeig4   
tat4  #cb4  ,he visited ,rome1 and      
entered the service of cardinal         
,colonna4 ,he  accompanied his patron to
 ,spain1 and two years after was sent by
 him to  ,rome1 to obtain permission    
from pope ,clement ,,viii4 to accept the
  viceroyalty of ,aragon4 ,succeeding in
 his mission1 ,tassoni returned to  the 
cardinal4 ,it was during these journeys 
that he amused himself by  composing his
 ,considerations on ,petrarch1 which    

afterwards occasioned  so much          
controversy4 ,the cardinal sent him     
again to ,rome to manage his  affairs   
there2 but a few years after1 for some  
reason1 with which we are  unacquainted1
 ,tassoni quitted his service4          
,restored to independence1 he visited   
,naples1 and then took up his abode  at 
,rome4 ,he now published his            
,considerations on ,petrarch1 and his   
,thoughts on various ,subjects1 which   
exposed him to the attacks of the       
literati of ,italy4 ,tassoni was of a   
bold and original turn of mind2 he      
hated literary prejudices1 and loved to 
set himself against received  opinions1 
merely because they were supported by   
the greater number4 ,thus  he attacked  
,homer1 ,aristotle1 and ,petrarch4 ,he  
was singularly acute in  discovering    
minor defects1 and his sarcastic and    
witty talent rendered  his criticisms   
doubly poignant4 ,he was attacked for   
his publications and  he replied with a 
mixture of humour and bitterness        

peculiarly galling4    ,he had thus     
become well known in ,italy1 when his   
reputation was raised  to its highest   
pinnacle by the ,secchia ,rapita1 or    
,stolen ,bucket1 a  serio-comic or      
mock-heroic poem1 the first of the kind 
that had  appeared4 ,a work of this     
nature is adapted only to the very      
region in  which it is composed2 and    
even then1 there are certain minds which
 never  relish travesti4 ,how much more 
is ,hudibras spoken of than read1 and to
  how many1 except in select and        
peculiar passages1 does it prove heavy  
and tedious4 ,to an ,english reader the 
,secchia ,rapita must appear  greatly   
inferior to the work of ,butler2 it is  
coarser and more  long-winded2 besides  
that the rhymes1 the wrenching and      
transformation  of language1 the        
vulgarisms and idioms fall coldly on the
 ears of those1  who have not been      
habituated from infancy to their use or 
abuse4    ,the ,secchia ,rapita is      
founded on those petty wars between two 

towns1  so common in ,italy in the #adth
 and #aeth centuries4 ,the people of    
,modena  had1 in #acbe1 discomfited the 
,bolognese at ,zoppolino1 and the       
vanquished  fled with such              
precipitation1 that their pursuers      
entered their town  with them4 ,the     
,modenese were driven out again1 but    
carried off1 as token  of their triumph1
 the bucket belonging to the public well
 of the city4  ,the ,bolognese made an  
expedition to recover it1 and this forms
 the basis  of the poem4 ,the plebeian  
names of the unwashed artificers who    
compose  the several armies1 their      
ridiculous proceedings1 their combats1  
mocking  those of belted knights1 are   
all infinitely relished by the          
,italians4  ,tassoni is praised also for
 the various fancy he displays in       
individualising the combatants1 their   
combats1 and the modes by which  they   
die1 as well as for the dignity with    
which he invests the really  noble      
personages who take a part in the       

warfare4 ,there are episodes  also1 some
 more dignified1 others more burlesque  
even than the main  subject of the poem2
 the gods and goddesses take part1 and  
the kings of  ,naples and ,savoy are    
brought in on either side4 ,the chief   
satire of the  poem falls on an         
unfortunate count di ,culagna1 under    
which name ,tassoni  held up to ridicule
 count ,paolo ,brusantini1 a noble of   
,ferrara1 who had  provoked him by      
instigating a violent and infamous      
attack on one of his  works4 ,tassoni   
was unable to avenge himself openly1 as 
,brusantini was a  favourite of his     
prince1 but vowed future vengeance1 and 
writing to a  friend he exclaims1 ,if   
,god lends me life1 he shall learn1 in  
one way or  another1 that he has        
furnished a work to the devil4 ,the     
count di  ,culagna falls in love with   
the ,amazon of the poem1 and resolves to
  poison his wife3 he makes a confidant 
of one ,titta1 a ,romagnole1 a  courtier
 of the papal court1 who was in fact the

 lover of the countess1  and betrays to 
her the murderous design4 ,the lady     
accordingly deceives  her husband1      
changes her soup plate with him1 and    
then flies to the tent  of ,titta4 ,the 
count's physician1 however1 who had been
 applied to for  poison1 has only       
furnished physic1 and ,culagna recovers4
 ,he hears of the  infidelity of his    
wife1 and defies ,titta to mortal       
combat4 ,titta is not  brave1 but       
,culagna is trebly a coward4 ,when his  
challenge is accepted1  he takes to his 
bed1 makes his will1 and declares that  
he is going to  die4 ,his friends cannot
 inspire him with any valour1 but his   
doctor1 by  administering three or four 
large cups of wine1 imparts the         
necessary  courage4 ,the opponents meet2
 ,titta's spear strikes the throat and  
chest  of the count1 who falls to the   
ground1 and is carried to his tent1 to  
bed1 while ,titta exults in his         
overthrow and death4 ,the surgeon visits
  ,culagna's wound2 but1 to the surprise

 of all1 the skin even is not           
scratched3 ,yet ,i saw something red1   
cries the count1 it was assuredly  my   
blood6 ,on this they examine him with   
more attention1 and discover a  red     
riband hanging from his throat to his   
girdle4 ,the blow of ,titta  disordering
 his dress1 had exposed this unfortunate
 silk of sanguineous  hue to the eyes of
 the frightened combatant1 who at once  
believed that  he had received a mortal 
wound4 ,now1 perceiving how he had been 
deceived1 the count thanked ,god most   
fervently1 and1 in his artless1  pious  
gratitude1 pardoned his friend and his  
wife all the injuries they  had done    
him4 ,such is the outline of the        
principal episode of the  ,secchia      
,rapita1 which concludes by a peace     
brought about by the pope's  legate2 the
 bucket remaining1 however1 with the    
,modenese2 and there it  probably is to 
this day4 ,goldoni saw it1 in #agcj1    
suspended by an iron  chain from the    
belfry of the cathedral4    ,this poem  

was hailed with rapture1 even in        
manuscript3 for some time1  indeed1 it  
was only known thus1 and numerous copies
 were made at the  price of eight crowns
 each4 ,as ,tassoni had not spared his  
countrymen or  his contemporaries1 great
 obstacles were thrown in the way of its
  publication2 and even when printed at 
,venice and ,padua1 no edition was      
really on sale till #afbb1 when it was  
published at ,paris1 under the          
inspection of ,marini4    ,tassoni's    
slender fortunes meanwhile did not      
permit him to preserve his              
independence3 he accepted the offers of 
,charles ,emanuel1 duke of ,savoy2  but 
scarcely had he entered on his new      
service1 than a series of  persecutions 
was commenced against him1 which ended  
by his taking refuge  in private life4  
,sidenote3 #afbe4  tat4  #ej4  ,again   
free from all slavery1 disgusted by the 
inconstancy of men and the  intrigues of
 courts1 he took up his abode at ,rome1 
where he had a house  and vineyard1     

giving himself up to the enjoyment of   
solitude and study1  and deriving his   
chief pleasure from hunting and the     
cultivation of  flowers4 ,still he was  
not wholly weaned from the world1 nor   
content to  be neglected3 he said that  
he reminded himself of ,fabricius       
expecting  the dictatorship2 and to     
follow up this truly mock-heroic        
similitude1 he  accepted the offer of   
cardinal ,ludovisio1 nephew of pope     
,gregory ,,xv41  and entered his        
service1 in which he remained till his  
patron's death4  ,he afterwards returned
 to his native town1 and being taken    
into favour  by its reigning prince1 he 
passed the remnant of his life          
prosperously1  under the shadow of that 
fame1 which his works1 his arduous      
studies1 and  great talents caused to   
gather thick around him4 ,after a few   
years spent  in peace and honour1 he    
died on the #eth of ,april1 #afce1 in   
the  seventy-first year of his age4     
,footnote #df3 ,la dove il ,labadin1    

persona accorta1  ,fe' il beverone alla 
sua vacca morta4          ,,marini      
#aefi-afbe4      ,giambattista ,marini  
was born at ,naples on the #ahth of     
,october1 #aefi4 ,his  father1 a        
celebrated jurisconsult1 was desirous of
 bringing up his son  to the same       
profession2 but the youth felt an       
unconquerable distaste to  the career of
 the law4 ,marini possessed a fervid and
 lively imagination1  and a facility in 
the composition of poetry which         
determined1 without a  question1 his    
destiny in life4 ,there are many poets  
even1 we may say1 of  a higher class    
than ,marini--many more sublime1 more   
earnest1 more  pathetic--but1 in his    
degree1 ,marini is a genuine poet1 and  
gave himself  up with confidence and    
ardour to the pursuit of that fame of   
which he  reaped so large a harvest4    
,his father1 angry at his resistance to 
his  wishes1 was doubly indignant when  
he gave open testimony of his new       
career1 and actually published a volume 

of poetry3 he turned him from  his      
house1 and refused to supply him with   
the necessaries of life4    ,but ,marini
 was born under a more fortunate star   
than usually smiles upon  men who give  
themselves to the fervent aspirations of
 genius4 ,amiable  and generous as he   
was1 he did not possess that stern      
independence of  disposition1 nor that  
self-engrossed intensity of feeling1    
which often  render poets an intractable
 race4 ,several noblemen stepped forward
 to  assist and patronise the young     
adventurer in the groves of ,parnassus4 
,sidenote3 #aehi4  tat4  #bj4  ,the duke
 of ,bovino1 the prince of ,conca1 and  
the marquess of ,manso1 the  friend of  
,tasso1 offered him protection and      
shelter4 ,he became  acquainted with    
,tasso1 who encouraged him to pursue his
 poetic career2  and he published his   
,canzoni de' ,baci1 which acquired for  
him a great  reputation4    ,he was     
concerned in some youthful scrapes2 and 
having assisted a friend  to escape1 who

 had been imprisoned on account of a    
love adventure1 he  was himself thrown  
into a prison4 ,he amused himself there 
by writing gay  and light-hearted       
verses2 but soon after he escaped from  
confinement1  and fled to ,rome1 where  
he took up his abode with monsignore    
,crescenzi4  ,with him he visited       
,venice1 but returned to ,rome after a  
short absence1  and entered the service 
of cardinal ,aldobrandini4 ,at ,venice  
he published  a volume of lyrical       
poetry1 which established his fame4     
,marini was always a popular man1 and   
beloved and esteemed by his  friends4   
,when ,paul ,v4 was created pope1 his   
patron1 cardinal  ,aldobrandini1 was    
sent as legate to ,ravenna1 and ,marini 
accompanied him4  ,he frequently visited
 ,venice and ,bologna1 and formed       
intimacies with the  men of reputation  
and talent residing in those cities4 ,he
 was devoted to  the cultivation of     
poetry2 and here he first conceived the 
idea of the  ,adone4 ,he accompanied the

 cardinal to ,turin1 where ,charles     
,emanuel1  duke of ,savoy1 received him 
at his court with the most flattering   
marks  of distinction4 ,marini repaid   
him by a panegyric1 which he called ,il 
,ritratto or the ,portrait1 and was     
rewarded by the gift of a gold chain1   
and made cavalier of the order of       
,saints ,maurice and ,lazarus4 ,when    
cardinal ,aldobrandini returned to      
,ravenna1 the poet was invited to       
remain at the ,piedmontese court2 and1  
with the consent of his former  patron1 
he accepted the offer4    ,marini's life
 was chiefly diversified by literary    
quarrels1 in which he  came off with his
 usual good fortune4 ,he had already    
sustained several  skirmishes with      
various authors1 when the most deadly   
war was declared  against him by        
,gasparo ,murtola1 a ,genoese1 and      
secretary to the duke4 ,he  believed    
himself to be the first poet of the age1
 and was indignant at  the favour shown 
to ,marini4 ,he levelled an attack of   

epigrams and  satirical sonnets against 
him1 which ,marini answered1 and was    
considered  to have the best of the     
battle3 they published these            
collectively  afterwards1 under the     
title of the ,murtoleide and the        
,marineide3 but  ,murtola1 still more   
angry at the advantages gained by his   
adversary in  this paper hostility1 took
 a more injurious mode of showing his   
enmity3  he shot at him as he was       
walking in the public square1 but1      
missing his  aim1 wounded a favourite of
 the duke who was with him4 ,murtola was
  thrown into prison1 and condemned to  
death4 ,marini generously interceded  in
 his favour1 and at his solicitation he 
was pardoned and liberated4  ,murtola1  
more angry and envious than ever1       
brought forward a poem of his  enemy1   
which satirised the duke of ,savoy4 ,in 
vain ,marini represented  that this work
 had been written at ,naples in his     
youth1 many years  before4 ,he was      
thrown into prison1 nor liberated till  

the marchese ,manso  sent his testimony 
of the truth of what he had declared1 as
 to the  period of its composition4 ,his
 tranquillity does not appear to have   
suffered by this persecution4 ,he       
continued to devote himself to learning 
and poetry3 he applied himself to the   
study of the ,holy ,scriptures and  the 
writings of the ,fathers1 and published 
his poem on the ,murder of the          
,innocents1 which he considered his best
 production4    ,his fame1 spread beyond
 the ,alps1 had induced queen           
,marguerite of ,france  to invite him to
 her court4 ,marini accepted her        
invitation2 but by the  time he arrived 
in ,paris his patroness had died4 ,queen
 ,mary de' ,medici  stepped forward1    
however1 in her room1 and the place of  
gentleman to the  king1 with a pension  
of #bjjj crowns1 was bestowed on him4   
,he became very  popular among the      
,french nobility2 many learnt ,italian  
for the express  purpose of reading his 
works4 ,he lived a happy and honourable 

life4 ,his  great pleasure consisted in 
forming a valuable and extensive        
library1  and collecting pictures by the
 best artists4 ,the queen showed him    
many  marks of favour3 if she met him in
 the street1 she was in the habit of    
stopping her carriage1 for the sake of  
conversing with him2 and such           
generosity was shown him by her1 and his
 other noble patrons1 that he  was      
enabled to buy a villa near ,naples1 on 
,mon ,posilippo1 whither he  intended at
 some future time to retire1 and end his
 days4 ,no doubt1 in  the chill climate 
of ,paris1 under the dusky atmosphere of
 the north1 his  lively imagination     
recurred with yearning to the beautiful 
and genial  land of his nativity4       
,sidenote3 #afbc4  tat4  #ed4    ,he    
published his ,adone while at ,paris4   
,the popularity of this poem was        
extraordinary2 nothing was spoken of but
 it and its author1 and the  rapid sale 
enriched ,marini1 though it also exposed
 him to much literary  enmity1 and the  

censures of the church4 ,italian critics
 have since  become exceedingly         
indignant1 and consider it the origin of
 the false  taste1 the conceits1 and    
flowery style of the seicentisti4 ,but1 
while it  must be allowed that the      
imitators of ,marini form a school of   
poetry  remarkable for its corrupt      
style1 its mannerism1 and false and     
metaphoric imagery1 it is impossible not
 to admit that the ,adone  itself is a  
work of great beauty and imagination3 it
 wants sublimity1  and deep pathos and  
masculine dignity2 but its fancy1 its   
descriptions1  its didactic passages1   
are animated by the undeniable spirit of
 poetry4  ,marini possessed an extreme  
ease of versification1 and a versatility
 and  fecundity of style that carries   
the reader along with it4 ,the ,adone is
  founded on the well-known mythological
 story of ,venus and ,adonis4 ,cupid1   
having been chastised by his goddess    
mother1 in revenge1 resolves to  wreak  
on her the miseries of love4 ,he brings 

the son of ,myrrha to the  shores of    
,cyprus1 and while the ,queen of ,beauty
 is regarding the  beautiful youth as he
 sleeps1 her wily son pierces her heart 
with his  love-poisoned arrow4 ,she     
falls in love on the instant1 and       
,adonis1 on  awakening1 is not slow to  
return her passion4 ,venus conducts him 
to her  palace1 where ,cupid relates to 
him his adventures with ,psyche1 and    
,mercury those of ,narcissus1 ,hylas1   
,acton1 and other victims of love4  ,he 
is then led through the gardens of      
pleasure1 into the tower of  delight2   
but the loves of the goddess and her    
favourite are interrupted  by the       
jealousy of ,mars1 and ,adonis flies in 
alarm from the angry god4  ,he falls    
afterwards into the hands of a fairy1   
who imprisons and annoys  him3 he       
escapes1 and1 after many wanderings and 
adventures1 returns to  ,venus4 ,it is  
then that he departs on that fatal      
hunting expedition which  brings on the 
catastrophe4 ,mars and the malicious    

fairy unite in sending  the hoar against
 him1 by which he is destroyed3 his     
death--the grief of  ,venus--his        
interment--and the combats with which   
the goddess celebrates  his funeral1    
conclude the poem4 ,its chief fault is1 
that it is terribly  wiredrawn1 even in 
the particular descriptions2 for as to  
the story  itself1 that forms but a     
slender portion of the whole            
composition4  ,besides this1 we are told
 that an allegory of youth is contained 
in the  temptations1 pleasures1 and     
fatal catastrophe of the young lover2   
and  this1 as well as the unreal and    
fantastic nature of the personages1     
deprives it of all vivid interest4 ,it  
is far removed from the fire of         
,ariosto1 or the pathos and dignity of  
,tasso2 still it is pleasing1  varied1  
and imaginative1 and but for its length 
would to this day be a  more general    
favourite4    ,the cardinal ,ludovisio1 
nephew of pope ,gregory ,,xv41 earnestly
 entreated  ,marini to forsake ,paris   

and repair to ,rome4 ,the king and queen
 of ,france  permitted him to accept the
 invitation2 and he returned to ,italy1 
unterrified by the accusation that hung 
over his head1 on account of the        
licentiousness of his work4 ,he was     
received at ,rome with enthusiasm1 and  
his society was courted by every person 
of distinction4 ,here1 as  elsewhere1   
however1 he was involved in literary    
squabbles2 so that at  last he resolved 
to retreat to the home he had prepared  
for himself at  ,naples4 ,the tribunal1 
meanwhile1 demanded alterations in his  
poem1  accused of licentiousness and a  
tendency to impiety4 ,two of his friends
  appeared to answer for him2 but he    
permitted two stanzas only to be        
altered4 ,the poem of ,marini is        
certainly in its very texture soft1     
effeminate1 and amorous2 but there are  
no passages so reprehensible as  many in
 ,ariosto3 the ,orlando ,furioso was    
never denounced2 and it is  singular    
that so pertinacious an outcry should   

have been raised against  the ,adone4   
,its author1 however1 was not destined  
to suffer persecution1 nor to  enjoy his
 success for any long time4 ,soon after 
his return to ,naples1 he  established  
himself at his delightful villa at      
,posilippo1 where his life  came to a   
sudden close3 he fell ill of a painful  
malady1 and died on the  #beth of       
,march1 #afbe1 aged fifty-six4 ,he was  
buried in the cloister of  the ,theatin 
,fathers1 to whom he had bequeathed his 
valuable library4          ,,filicaja   
#afdb-agjg4      ,vincenzo da ,filicaja 
was born at ,florence1 on the #cjth of  
,december1  #afdb4 ,the families of both
 his parents were noble2 his mother     
being the  daughter of ,christofano     
,spini1 one of the most distinguished   
families of  ,tuscany4 ,his father      
educated him with care1 and he attended 
the public  schools of ,florence4 ,he   
gave early token of his literary and    
poetic  genius3 his memory was          
tenacious1 and his industry             

indefatigable2 while  the seriousness of
 his disposition rendered retirement and
 study natural  and easy to him4        
,perceiving his inclination for         
learning1 his father  sent him to the   
university of ,pisa1 to fit him for     
pursuing the legal  profession4         
,filicaja attended the lectures of the  
professors on this  subject2 yet he     
could not induce himself to bestow his  
whole time on the  law1 but applied     
himself also to philosophy and theology1
 and to the  imbuing himself with a     
perfect knowledge of the ,latin and     
,italian  languages4 ,he was naturally  
inclined to piety1 and spent much of his
  time in prayer and devout exercises4  
,his habits were regulated by strict    
principles of morality2 and so devoted  
was he to the cultivation of his        
intellect1 that he always rose two hours
 before dawn1 finding his mind  clearer1
 and more capable of grappling with the 
abstruse subjects of his  contemplation1
 in the early hours of morning4         

,while yet a student at ,pisa1 when on a
 visit to his home during the  vacation1
 he fell in love2 and his poetic talent 
first developed itself  in verses       
addressed to the beautiful and noble    
girl who was the object  of his         
affection4 ,she died soon after1 and he 
lamented her death in  poetry2 but the  
exact moral discipline to which he      
subjected his  inclinations reproached  
him for giving himself up to the        
influence of  passion2 and he burnt all 
his love poetry1 and made a resolution1 
which  he kept to the end of his life1  
of dedicating his genius to the         
celebration only of moral and sacred    
subjects4    ,after a residence of five 
years at ,pisa1 having taken the degree 
of  doctor of laws1 he returned to      
,florence1 and was placed under         
,giovanni  ,federighi1 a jurisconsult of
 eminence1 that he might add to his     
theoretical1 a practical knowledge of   
law4 ,at the age of thirty-two1 he      
married ,anna1 the daughter of the      

marchese ,capponi4 ,soon after his      
father died2 and1 freed from all        
restraint1 he followed the bent of his  
disposition1 by retiring into the       
country1 where he spent the greater     
part of each year in domestic           
retirement1 devoting himself to the     
education of his two sons4    ,hitherto 
his poetic merits were unknown beyond   
the limits of a small  circle of        
friends2 but public events called his   
genius to higher  flights4 ,the ,turkish
 army overrunning ,hungary1 laid siege  
to ,vienna1 and  filled ,christendom    
with alarm4 ,the enthusiastic piety of  
,filicaja added  to the natural         
disquietude inspired by such a disaster2
 and while the  fate of the war was in  
suspense1 and afterwards1 when victory  
drove the  infidels from the gates of   
the capital of ,austria1 he poured out  
his  terrors and his exulting triumph in
 odes1 which breathe a pure and         
elevated lyric spirit4    ,at the time  
when he wrote1 ,italian poetry had      

received a check from that  unfortunate 
propensity men have to shackle the free 
course of genius by  rules and          
precedent4 ,there was a distinction made
 between the poetic and  prosaic style2 
the former was founded upon ,petrarch1  
and it became a law  to use no          
expressions but such as had his         
authority4 ,the language of  ,italian   
verse was thus becoming1 as it were1 a  
dead idiom2 repeating  itself1 and      
incapable of any original expressions4  
,filicaja disdained  these shackles1 and
 revivified his poetic diction by       
transfusing into it  many elevated and  
energetic modes of speech1 hitherto     
reserved for prose  only4 ,facility1    
dignity1 and clearness are his          
characteristics2 and the  grandeur of   
his ideas gives force to the originality
 of his expressions2  which1 emanating  
spontaneously1 as they did1 from a mind 
full of his  subject1 found an echo in  
the hearts of his readers4    ,his      
friends alone had hitherto been aware of

 his talent2 but the  enthusiasm they   
felt on reading these spirited odes led 
them to give  copies2 and they got into 
the hands of those princes who1 as the  
leaders  of the armies against the      
,turks1 were celebrated in them4 ,one of
 his  finest odes he had addressed to   
,john1 king of ,poland2 who acknowledged
  the honour in letters full of praises 
and thanks4 ,christina1 queen of        
,sweden1 displayed in a more kind and   
liberal manner her admiration3  hearing 
that ,filicaja had two sons1 she        
insisted upon providing for  their      
education2 declaring that she would     
bring them up as her own  children4 ,she
 showed herself so generous1 that the   
poet was accustomed  to say1 that he    
could not look on his home and family   
without perceiving  the marks of her    
favour4 ,while her modesty was such1    
that she insisted  that her bounty      
should be kept a secret2 declaring she  
was ashamed it  should be known that she
 did so little for a man1 whom she      

esteemed so  much2 and her benevolence  
remained unknown till after her death4  
,filicaja's life was not1 however1      
wholly prosperous3 on the death of      
,christina1 he became involved in       
pecuniary embarrassments1 and he was    
attacked by a dangerous malady4 ,he     
lost1 also1 his eldest son1 who1  since 
the queen's death1 had been appointed   
page of honour to the grand  duke of    
,tuscany4 ,the high opinion entertained 
of him by ,cosmo ,,iii4  extricated him 
from a part of his difficulties4 ,this  
prince named him to  the command of the 
city of ,volterra4 ,ancient feuds and   
old and almost  irremediable abuses of  
various kinds1 afflicted the town2 and  
it  required all the influence which    
,filicaja obtained by his justice1 his  
benevolence1 and urbanity to put an end 
to these evils4 ,volterra enjoyed       
tranquillity and plenty under his       
direction2 trade and the arts           
flourished2 and this venerable city was 
restored to a portion of its  former    

splendour3 he thus became so dear to the
 citizens1 that they  twice petitioned  
the grand duke to continue him in the   
government4 ,their  request was         
accorded2 and when1 at last1 he was     
recalled1 he carried  with him the      
universal regret4    ,on his removal    
from ,volterra1 he was1 for two years1  
governor of  ,pisa1--a situation of high
 trust4 ,on his return to ,florence1 he 
filled  several law offices of great    
power and emolument4 ,he was popular and
  beloved throughout3 equitable1 but    
benevolent2 diligent and  conscientious1
 his virtues were adorned by his        
pleasing and affable  manners4 ,his     
piety caused him to devote much of his  
leisure to  devotional exercises2 and   
his taste led him to cultivate poetry4  
,his  industrious habits enabled him to 
compose a great deal when his time was  
otherwise much taken up by his public   
duties4 ,he wrote much in ,latin1 a     
small portion only of which has been    
published2 and it displays a deep       

knowledge and command of that language4 
,he employed himself also in  correcting
 and adding to his ,italian poetry4 ,he 
was a severe critic on  his own works2  
and yet1 mistrusting his judgment1 he   
submitted them to  the further          
censorship of four selected friends4 ,he
 was much beloved1 as  well as admired1 
by all who knew him2 and belonged to the
 ,della ,crusca  academy1 and to the    
,arcadian1--of both of which he was the 
brightest  ornament4 ,his last work was 
an ,ode to the ,virgin1 which occupied  
him  but a few days before his death4   
,filicaja was not only devout1 but a    
rigid catholic4 ,one of the acts of his 
life previous to entering on a  new     
career1 had been a pilgrimage to        
,loretto2 and1 in his dying moments1  a 
picture of the ,virgin excited his pious
 and poetic thoughts4 ,there is  great  
spirit and sweetness in this ode1 in    
which he recurs to the love  of his     
earlier days2 and how1 on losing the    
object1 he transferred his  devotion1   

entire and for ever1 to the mother of   
his ,saviour4    ,while thus employed1  
he was seized by an inflammation of his 
lungs4 ,his  religious faith supported  
him in his sufferings1 and did not      
forsake him  to the last4 ,he died on   
the #bdth of ,september1 #agjg1 at the  
age of  sixty-five4 ,he was buried in   
his family tomb in the church of ,san   
,piero1  at ,florence4                  
,,metastasio    #afih-aghb4             
,metastasio was of obscure origin4 ,he  
owed his prosperity1 in the first       
place1 to the talents with which nature 
had endowed him2 and1 in the  second1 to
 singular good fortune2 while his       
amiable disposition and  excellent      
character gave a scope to the course of 
felicitous  circumstances2 which1 among 
men of genius1 is frequently checked by 
their impetuosity and thoughtlessness1  
or by the proud sense of  independence  
attendant upon their organisation4 ,the 
name of the poet's  father was ,felice  
,trapassi1 a citizen of ,assisi4 ,his   

poverty had forced  him to enter into   
the ,corsican regiment of the pope2 and 
he added to his  slender means by acting
 as copyist4 ,he married ,francesca     
,galasti1 of  ,bologna2 by whom he had  
two sons and two daughters4 ,later in   
life1 he  saved money enough to enter   
into partnership in a shop of l'arte    
bianca1--a sort of chandler1 where      
maccaroni1 oil1 and other culinary      
materials1 are sold4 ,his younger son1  
,pietro1 was born at ,rome1 on the      
#acth of ,january1 #afih4 ,the child    
gave early indications of genius2 and   
his father resolved to bestow on him the
 best education in his power2  and      
placed him1 at a very early age1 with a 
watchmaker1 that he might  learn a      
respectable art4    ,but the boy was    
born to pursue a nobler career4 ,he was 
already a poet2  and1 when only ten     
years old1 attracted an audience in his 
father's shop  by his talents as        
improvisatore4 ,it happened1 one summer 
evening1 that  ,vincenzo ,gravina1 a    

celebrated jurisconsult1 and renowned   
for his  learning and love of letters1  
was walking with the poet ,lorenzini in 
the  streets of ,rome4 ,passing by      
,trapassi's shop1 he was attracted by   
the  childish voice of the juvenile     
poet1 who was in the act of reciting    
extempore verses4 ,he joined the        
audience2 and1 being perceived by       
,pietro1 the little fellow introduced   
some stanzas in his praise into his     
effusion4 ,gravina1 charmed by his      
talent and prepossessing appearance1    
offered him money1 which the child      
refused4 ,the lawyer continued to       
question him1 and was so satisfied by   
the propriety and spirit of his         
answers1 that he immediately proposed to
 adopt him as his son2 promising  to    
give him a good education1 and to       
facilitate his career in the same       
profession as himself4 ,no objection    
could be raised to so generous and      
beneficent an offer4 ,the boy was not to
 be taken from his native town1  nor    

were his duties towards his parents to  
be interfered with4    ,one of          
,gravina's first acts was to change his 
adopted son's1 name from  the ignoble   
one of ,trapassi to the better sounding 
appellation of  ,metastasio1 which was a
 sort of translation of his paternal    
name into  ,greek4 ,gravina did not     
delay to cultivate the boy's            
understanding1 so as  to fit him for a  
literary career4 ,being an idolater of  
ancient learning1  his first care was to
 initiate his pupil in the languages of 
the writers  of ,greece and ,rome1 and  
then to imbue him with a knowledge of   
their  works4 ,metastasio showed himself
 an apt scholar3 at the age of fourteen 
he wrote a tragedy1 which1 in a letter  
written in after years1 he freely       
criticised4 ,my tragedy of ',giustino1' 
he says1 was written at the age  of     
fourteen1 when the authority of my      
illustrious master did not permit  me to
 diverge from a religious imitation of  
the ,greek models2 and when  my own     

inexperience prevented me from          
discerning the gold from the lead  in   
those mines whose treasures were but    
just opened to me4 ,the tragedy1        
written thus in strict imitation1 is    
necessarily frigid2 nor does the        
language bear the stamp of the ease and 
grace which so distinguished            
,metastasio's after writings4    ,he    
still continued to improvisare verses in
 company4 ,this attractive art  renders 
the person who exercises it the object  
of so much interest and  admiration1    
that it is to be wondered that any one  
who has once  practised it1 can ever    
give it up4 ,the act of reciting the    
poetry that  flows immediately to the   
lips is peculiarly animating3 the       
declaimer  warms1 as he proceeds1 with  
his own success2 while the throng of    
words  and ideas that present           
themselves1 light up the eyes1 and give 
an air of  almost supernatural          
intelligence and fire to the countenance
 and person4  ,the audience--at first   

curious1 then pleased1 and1 at last1    
carried away  by enthusiastic           
delight--feel an admiration1 and bestow 
plaudits1 which1  perhaps1 no other     
display of human talent is capable of   
exciting4 ,the  youth1 the harmonious   
voice1 and agreeable person of          
,metastasio added to  the charm3 yet1   
fortunately1 he gave up the exercise of 
his power before  it had unfitted him   
for more arduous compositions4 ,he gives
 an account  of his success1 and his    
quitting the practice1 in a subsequent  
letter to  ,algarotti4 ,i do not deny1  
he writes1 that a natural talent for    
harmony and rhythm displayed itself in  
me earlier than is usually the  case2   
that is1 when ,i was about ten years of 
age4 ,this strange  phenomenon so       
dazzled my great master4 ,gravina1 that 
he selected me as  soil worthy to be    
cultivated by so celebrated a man4      
,until ,i was  sixteen1 he brought me   
forward to improvisare verses on any    
given  subject2 and ,rolli1 ,vanini1 and

 ,perfetti1 then men of mature years1   
were  my rivals4 ,many people tried to  
write down our effusions while we       
extemporised1 but with no success2 for1 
besides that they were no adepts  in    
short-hand1 it was necessary to deceive 
us cleverly1 otherwise the  mere        
suspicion of such an operation would    
have dried up my vein4 ,this  occupation
 soon became burdensome and injurious to
 me2 burdensome1  because ,i was        
perpetually obliged1 by invitations     
which could not be  refused1 to task    
myself every day1 and sometimes twice a 
day1--now to  gratify some lady's whim1 
now to satisfy the curiosity of some    
high-born  fool1 and now to fill up a   
blank in some grand assembly1--losing   
thus  miserably the greater part of the 
time necessary for my studies4 ,it was  
injurious1 because my weak and uncertain
 health suffered4 ,it was  perceptible  
to every one that the agitation         
attendant on this exercise  of the mind1
 used to inflame my countenance and heat

 my head1 while my  hands and           
extremities became icy cold4 ,gravina   
consequently exerted his  authority to  
prohibit me from making extempore       
verses1--a prohibition  which1 from the 
age of sixteen1 ,i have never infringed1
 and to which ,i  believe that ,i owe   
the remnant of reasonable and connected 
ideas that  are to be found in my       
waitings4 ,he goes on to state the evils
 that  result to the intellect          
perpetually bent on so exciting a       
proceeding2  when the poet1 instead of  
selecting and arranging his thoughts1   
and then  using measure and rhyme as    
obedient executors of his designs1 is   
obliged  to employ the small time       
allowed him in collecting words1 in     
which he  afterwards clothes the ideas  
best fitted to these words1 even though 
foreign to his theme3 thus the former   
seeks at his ease for a dress  fitted to
 his subject2 while the latter1 in haste
 and disturbance1 must  find a subject  
fitted to his dress4    ,on withdrawing 

his pupil from the exercise of this     
fascinating art4  ,gravina became aware 
that his education could not be carried 
on with  success amidst the pleasures   
and idleness of his life at ,rome2 and  
he  sent him to study under his cousin  
,camporese1 who lived near the ancient  
,cortona1 a town of ,magna ,grcia1      
famous in antiquity for its schools of  
philosophy4 ,metastasio was very happy  
at this period of his life2 and1  in a  
letter written at an advanced age1 he   
recurs to it with yearning  fondness4   
,of how many dear and pleasing ideas1 my
 friend1 he writes to  ,don ,saverio    
,mattei1 you have awakened the          
recollection1 by causing me  to go over 
in my thoughts the happy time ,i spent1 
not less usefully than  delightfully1   
between boyhood and adolescence1 in     
,magna ,grcia4 ,i saw  again as if they 
were present all those objects which    
pleased me so much  at that time4 ,again
 ,i inhabited the little chamber1 in    
which the sound  of the breakers of the 

neighbouring sea so often lulled me into
 the  sweetest sleep2 and1 by force of  
my imagination1 ,i revisited in my boat 
the shores of neighbouring ,scalea2 and 
the names and aspects of many  places   
recurred to me1 before forgotten4 ,i    
heard again the venerable  voice of the 
renowned philosopher ,camporese2 who1   
stooping to instruct  one so young1 led 
me1 as it were1 by the hand among the   
vortexes of the  then reigning          
,descartes1 of whom he was a strenuous  
advocate1 and  attracted my boyish      
curiosity1 by showing me in wax1 as if  
in a game1  how globules were formed    
from atoms1 and filling me with         
admiration of  the bewitching           
experiments of philosophy4 ,it seems to 
me as if ,i again  saw him labouring to 
persuade me that his dog was formed upon
 the same  principle as a watch2 and    
that the trinal dimension is a          
sufficient  definition of solid bodies4 
,and ,i behold him smile1 when1 having  
kept me  long plunged in a dark reverie1

 by forcing me to doubt of every thing1 
he perceived that ,i breathed again1 on 
his assertion1 ',i think1  therefore1 ,i
 am2' the invincible proof of a         
certainty which ,i had  despaired of    
ever again attaining4 ,camporese died1  
unfortunately1 in  the midst of these   
studies1 and ,metastasio returned to    
,rome4    ,sidenote3 #agah4  tat4  #bj4 
,it was soon after his lot to lose his  
adopted father1 ,gravina4 ,he           
expresses1 both in letters written at   
the time1 and in after years1 his  deep 
grief on the death of his benefactor4   
,gravina kept his word1 of  considering 
him as his son2 and1 with the exception 
of a legacy to his  mother1 left him    
heir to all that he possessed1 to the   
amount of about  fifteen thousand       
crowns4 ,finding himself thus           
independent1 and even rich  in his own  
eyes1 ,metastasio gave himself up to the
 study of poetry4  ,hitherto the rules  
of ,gravina had limited his reading3 now
 he emerged  into freedom2 and1 having  

been before allowed only to peruse      
,ariosto1  among the ,italians1 he read 
the ,jerusalem ,delivered for the first 
time4 ,he was enchanted by the order and
 majesty of a single action1  conducted 
with art1 and terminated with dignity4  
,the grandeur of the  style1 the vivid  
colouring and fervid imagination of     
,tasso1 transported  him with delight4  
,ovid was also an especial favourite2   
and it is  recorded that he regarded    
,marini with an approbation which that  
poet1  indeed1 deserves1 but of which1  
as the original corrupter of the        
,italian  style1 and the leader of the  
degenerate ,seicentisti1 he is usually  
deprived4    ,unfortunately1            
independence and youthful               
thoughtlessness led ,metastasio  into   
other deviations from ,gravina's        
lessons1 less praiseworthy than  reading
 ,tasso4 ,the poet was warm-hearted1    
hospitable1 and gay4 ,he was  surrounded
 by companions ready to share the       
pleasures and luxuries which  his money 

procured2 while he believed his future  
prospects secured by  the promises he   
received from influential protectors4   
,two years had not  passed before he was
 undeceived4 ,he had squandered the     
greater part of  his fortune2 he had    
made many enemies1 and his friends fell 
off4 ,with a  firmness worthy of his    
education1 he stopped short of actual   
ruin2 and1  disgusted with the society  
of ,rome1 and the treatment he had      
suffered1  he changed1 on a sudden1 his 
whole plan of life1 following up his new
  designs with zeal and perseverance4   
,there lived at ,naples1 says his       
biographer1 ,venanzio1 a rough incult   
lawyer1 called ,castagnola1 covered with
 rust and dust1 and an enemy to  every  
thing that was not allied to forensic   
struggles and turmoils4  ,wishing to    
place a barrier between his will and his
 inclinations1  ,metastasio went to     
,naples1 and chose this man for his     
master1 believing  that his asperity and
 detestation of poetry would serve to   

guard him  against having again recourse
 to an art towards which nature impelled
  him4 ,for nearly two years he         
submitted to the control of ,castagnola1
 and  devoted himself to the severest   
study4 ,but he was well known at        
,naples1  and his talents were          
appreciated4 ,he was perpetually        
solicited to  compose epithalamiums1    
theatrical pieces1 and occasional       
verses4 ,he  resisted the temptation as 
long as he could3 at last1 commanded by 
the  viceroy1 he consented to write a   
drama1 to celebrate the birthday of the 
empress ,elizabeth ,christina1 wife of  
,charles ,,vi4 ,he1 however1 obtained a 
promise of secrecy1 and hoped to conceal
 his crime from his master4 ,to         
accomplish this1 he was obliged to steal
 for his work the hours usually  devoted
 to sleep2 but his natural vein1 checked
 for some time1 flowed  with such       
felicity1 that he accomplished his task 
before the appointed  time4 ,the ,orti  
,esperidi charmed his august employer1  

who bestowed on  it the highest praise1 
and presented the author with a purse   
containing  two hundred ducats4    ,the 
success of this interlude on the stage  
confirmed the judgment of the  viceroy4 
,it was admirably set to music1 and the 
decorations were most  splendid4 ,all   
,naples flocked to the                  
representation--all ,naples resounded   
with its praises1 and every one was     
eager to thank and applaud the  author4 
,but ,metastasio1 reluctant to quit his 
legal studies1 shrank from  the censures
 of his master1 and continued to        
preserve the concealment he  had at     
first adopted3 he even angrily denied   
the charge when he was  accused of being
 the writer1 and put enquiry to fault2  
till at last the  discovery was made by 
the prima donna1 ,marianna ,bulgarelli1 
usually  called ,la ,romanina1 from her 
native city4 ,she had received the      
greatest  applause in the character of  
,venus1 in this drama2 and her gratitude
 and  admiration made her eager to learn

 to whom she owed her success4 ,despite 
all his efforts1 she discovered that    
,metastasio was the author1 and she     
lost no time in spreading the report    
throughout ,naples4    ,castagnola was  
highly indignant4 ,he treated his pupil 
with severity and  disdain2 while1 on   
the other hand1 the ,romanina used every
 argument to  inspire him with          
self-confidence1 and to induce him to   
follow the career  for which he was     
formed by nature4 ,he consented at last3
 he quitted the  angry lawyer1 who      
refused even to listen to his farewell2 
and1 at the  earnest invitation of his  
new friend1 took up his abode at her    
house4  ,marianna ,bulgarelli had a     
society around her of distinguished men 
and  accomplished artists1 and among    
these ,metastasio found every           
encouragement to pursue his new career4 
,he studied the science of music  under 
,porpora1 the first composer of the day1
 and acquired a knowledge  of the art   
which greatly assisted the melody of his

 verses2 so that1 he  tells us1 he never
 wrote any lyrical poetry without       
imagining an  accompaniment at the same 
time1 which regulated its cadences and  
modulated the sounds4 ,his natural      
inclination led him to desire to write  
tragedies2 but1 on reflection1 he found 
that it was not sufficient that         
tragedies should be written1 if there   
were no actors to represent them1  nor  
an audience which could take interest in
 the representation4 ,his  association  
with musical people1 and a prima donna1 
led him to consider  the opera as the   
natural drama of ,italy4 ,operatic      
dramas owed their  origin to ,florence1 
the birthplace of so much that is great 
and  admirable1 and were first brought  
forward in #aeid4 ,after that time they 
fell into disrepute1 till ,apostolo     
,zeno1 choosing in ancient mythology    
and history the groundwork of his plots1
 brought out pieces that  acquired great
 popularity4 ,to this species of        
composition ,metastasio  accordingly    

turned his thoughts4 ,marianna          
encouraged him to proceed2  and1 when he
 received the commission to furnish the 
,neapolitan theatre  with an opera for  
the carnival of #agbd1 she suggested the
 subject of  ,didone ,abbandonata1 or   
the desertion of ,dido4 ,in this1 she   
filled the  part of the unfortunate     
queen2 and her dignity1 pathos1 and     
musical  powers imparted an attraction  
to the piece1 which filled the audience 
with enthusiasm1 while her heart warmed 
with gratitude towards the poet1  whose 
admirable conception and execution gave 
a scope to her talents1  before denied  
to them4 ,the reputation of ,dido spread
 through ,italy3  during the carnival of
 the following year1 it was acted at    
,venice1 la  ,romanina being still      
engaged to fill the principal part4     
,metastasio  accompanied his friend1 and
 wrote1 while in that city1 another     
opera1  called ,siroe4    ,this was the 
last appearance of ,marianna on the     
stage3 she was no longer  young1 and    

retired from her profession4 ,she took  
up her residence at  ,rome1 and with    
some difficulty persuaded her friend to 
return to his  native city4 ,the two    
families resided under the same         
roof--,marianna and  her                
husband--,metastasio with his father1   
elder brother1 and two sisters4  ,the   
relations of the poet were indigent2 but
 he possessed some property1  and his   
friend was comparatively rich4 ,the     
household was in common2  ,marianna     
acting as steward and housekeeper1 while
 she still kept her  station beside the 
poet2 encouraging him in moments of     
despondency2  suggesting subjects for   
his muse2 and displaying1 at all times1 
that  active and generous affection     
which so distinguished her4             
,metastasio did not1 however1 meet with 
the encouragement at ,rome which  hailed
 his first exertions4 ,he wrote his     
drama of ,cato1 which was  acted in     
#agbg3 but it was not attended with his 
accustomed success4 ,the  austere       

character of the ,roman hero--the cold  
loves--and disastrous                   
ending--displeased the morbid tastes of 
the spectators1 who were unable  to     
appreciate the simplicity of the plot1  
or the grandeur of the  sentiments4     
,metastasio had a true tragic bias for  
an unhappy  catastrophe2 but his        
audience did not relish it1 and1        
subsequently1 he  adapted himself better
 to their tastes1 and his operas have   
usually the  happy ending1 then supposed
 more consonant to the inherent         
lightness of  musical dramas1 or1       
probably1 to the talents of the singers3
 as1 in our  days1 the sublime acting of
 ,pasta has induced composers to bring  
forward  tragedies of the deepest dye1  
,medea and ,otello1 as the subjects best
  fitted for their art4    ,metastasio  
was discouraged3 he was poor1 and he had
 many enemies at  ,rome1 who prejudiced 
the pope against him1 and rendered his  
abode very  disagreeable4 ,at this      
moment1 fortune came to his aid1 and his

 whole  future life became prosperous   
and stable4 ,in ,november1 #agbi1 he    
received  a letter from prince ,pio of  
,savoy1 director of the imperial        
theatricals1  inviting him to become the
 court poet of ,vienna4 ,apostolo ,zeno 
was at  that time poet laureate to the  
emperor ,charles ,,vi42 but he also1    
with  praiseworthy liberality1 seconded 
the emperor in his wish to invite       
,metastasio to his court2 and the way   
was opened to him by the absence of     
envy in one1 who might have looked on   
him as a rival1 but who generously      
preferred regarding him as a            
fellow-labourer1 or rather1 successor1  
to  his own exertions4 ,metastasio at   
once accepted the offer with many       
expressions of gratitude4 ,he was       
allowed to delay his journey to ,vienna 
till the spring of #agcj1 and to fulfil 
his engagement of supplying the  ,roman 
theatre with two pieces for the         
carnival4 ,these were ,alexander in     
,india1 and ,artaxerxes4 ,the latter was

 a favourite from the first3 the  poet  
considered it the most fortunate of his 
productions1 and was  accustomed to say 
that he owed it more obligations than   
any other of his  dramas2 since1 even   
when set to indifferent music1 it never 
failed to  meet with success4           
,metastasio thus made his appearance at 
,vienna1 surrounded by the halo of  a   
recent triumph4 ,he left ,rome with     
pleasure2 but he quitted his family     
with regret3 more than all he must have 
lamented his separation from his        
generous and affectionate friend1       
,marianna1 the encourager of his        
youthful timidity1 the chief promoter of
 his fortunate choice of a  profession1 
and his unwearied comforter during      
adverse circumstances4 ,he  went to new 
scenes and to a new people1 and adapted 
himself at once to  the change4 ,he was 
kindly received by the emperor1 and his 
heart  overflowed with gratitude for his
 condescension and beneficence4    ,it  
is a strange fact1 how little we are    

contented with negative  qualities in   
our fellow-creatures2 and1 indeed1 how  
amiability1 and even  generosity1 become
 slight in our eyes1 if unaccompanied by
 energy1  independence1 and pride4      
,metastasio was the most amiable of men3
 his  disposition was affectionate and  
constant2 yet he was derided in his own 
time for his courtier-like qualities1   
and the gratitude he naturally  evinced 
towards his imperial benefactors2 and   
censured for a coldness of  heart of    
which we can find no trace in his       
writings or actions4 ,there is  one     
circumstance that renders posterity more
 just1 and1 in particular1  induces     
those who write his biography to regard 
him with a favourable  eye3 this is the 
publication of his letters4 ,we possess 
a series from  the age of thirty to that
 of eighty-four1 when he died1 which let
 us  into the secrets of his heart1 and 
display his good sense1 his friendly    
disposition1 his justice1 and the ready 
sympathy that he afforded to  those to  

whom he was attached1 in a more         
undisguised manner than could  be known 
to his contemporaries4 ,these letters   
prepossess the reader in  his favour2   
and1 while the biographer finds few     
events to record1 and  little of        
misfortune or error to mark his pages   
with high-wrought  interest1 he may envy
 the tranquil career of the fortunate   
poet1 and  wish that fate had made him  
the friend of such a man4    ,metastasio
 entered on his employments at ,vienna  
in the year #agcj1 at the  age of       
thirty-two4 ,he took up his abode in the
 house of ,niccolo  ,martinetz1 who held
 a place in the court of the apostolic  
nuncio1 and  with whom he remained to   
the end of his life4 ,the dramas that he
 brought  out during the year succeeding
 to his arrival were eminently          
successful4  ,these were ,adriano1 and  
,demetrio2 and1 during the three        
following1  he wrote the ,olimpiade1    
,demoofonte1 and ,issipile4 ,each1 as it
  appeared1 excited still renewed       

admiration and applause4 ,after the     
representation of ,issipile1 the emperor
 broke through his habitual  majestic   
reserve1 and expressed his satisfaction 
to the poet1 who was  enraptured by the 
unusual condescension4 ,his imperial    
master soon after  testified his        
approbation in a more solid manner1 by  
bestowing on him  the place of treasurer
 to the province of ,cosenza in ,naples1
 worth  annually #cej sequins4          
,unfortunately1 the war of the ,spanish 
succession  deprived him of this income1
 after he had enjoyed it but for a few  
years4    ,the poet's heart and soul    
were in his profession1 and his operas  
were  written with that fervent and     
exalted spirit which marks the          
compositions of genius2 while his       
modesty engendered doubts concerning    
their reception1 which were delightfully
 dissipated by the triumph of  their    
success4 ,his feelings are all          
ingenuously expressed in his letters  to
 ,marianna ,bulgarelli1 who1 together   

with her husband1 still remained  at    
,rome with the poet's family4 ,i did not
 believe1 he writes1 that ,i  should    
have been able to send you the good news
 ,i now give--,i was so  entirely       
prepared for the contrary4 ,my ,demetrio
 was brought out last  ,sunday1 and with
 so great success1 that the old people  
here assure me  they never witnessed    
such universal applause4 ,the audience  
wept at the  ,addio--my august master   
was not unmoved--and1 notwithstanding   
the  respect paid to the imperial       
presence1 the public could not restrain 
themselves from giving marks of         
applause4 ,my enemies have become my    
applauders4 ,i cannot express my        
surprise1 for this opera is so          
delicately touched1 without any of that 
strong colouring that strikes at  once1 
that ,i feared that it was not adapted  
to the national taste4 ,i was           
mistaken--every one seems to understand 
it1 and passages are recited in         
conversation1 as if it were written in  

,german4 ,while composing the           
,olimpiade1 he thus addresses his       
friend3--,here is a moral sonnet  which 
,i wrote in the midst of a pathetic     
scene1 that moved me as ,i wrote  it3 so
 that1 smiling at myself1 when ,i found 
my eyes humid from pity at  a fictitious
 disaster1 invented by myself1 ,i       
expressed my feelings in  the sonnet ,i 
send4 ,the idea does not displease me2  
and ,i did not choose  to lose it1 as it
 will serve as an incitement for my     
piety4 ,the thought  of the sonnet is1  
that1 while he smiles at himself for    
weeping over  dreams and fables of his  
own invention1 he may remember that     
every thing  that he fears and hopes is 
equally fictitious1--that all is false1 
his  existence a delirium1 and his whole
 life a dream2--and it ends with a      
prayer that he may awaken and find      
repose in the bosom of truth4    ,again1
 he writes1 ,will you suggest the       
subject of an opera8 ,yes or no8  ,i am 
in an abyss of doubt4 ,oh6 do not laugh1

 and say that the disease is  incurable2
 for indeed2 the choice of a subject    
merits all this  inquietude and         
scepticism4 ,it is my lot to be forced  
to make a choice2  and ,i cannot avoid  
it2 otherwise ,i should continue to     
doubt until the  day of judgment2 and   
then begin again4 ,read the third scene 
of the third  act of my ',adrian2'      
remark the character which the emperor  
gives of  himself1 and you will see my  
own4#dg ,from this you may conclude2    
that ,i  know my faults2 but not that ,i
 can correct them4 ,this pertinacity in 
a  fault2 which torments me without the 
recompence of any pleasure2 and  which  
,i clearly perceive2 without being able 
to remedy2 makes me often  reflect on   
the tyranny which the body exercises    
over the mind4 ,if my  understanding is 
convinced1 when reasoning calmly1 that  
this excess of  indecision is a         
troublesome1 tormenting1 and useless    
vice1 and an  obstacle to the execution 
of any design1 why do ,i not get rid of 

it8 ,why  not abide by a resolution1 so 
often taken1 to doubt no more8 ,the     
answer  is clear2 that the mechanical   
constitution of the soul's imperfect    
habitation gives a false colouring to   
objects before they reach it1 as  rays  
of the sun appear yellow or green or    
red1 according to the hue of  the       
substance which they traverse to meet   
our eyes4 ,hence it is clear1  that men 
for the most part do not act from       
reason1 but from mechanical  impulse1   
subsequently adapting1 by the force of  
their understanding1  their reason to   
their actions1 so that the cleverest    
frequently appear  the most reasonable4 
,do not get weary1 because ,i play the  
philosopher  with you2 ,i have none else
 with whom to play it2 and doing it thus
 by  letter1 ,i call to mind            
conversations of this kind1 which made  
us spend  so many happy hours           
together4--,o1 how much more matter for 
such has my  experience in the world    
given me6  ,footnote3 ,july #d4  #agcc4 

,we will again talk on these subjects1  
if fortune does not1 through some       
caprice1 entangle the thread of my      
honourable but laborious life4    ,a few
 months after fortune cut1 rather than  
entangled1 the thread of  these         
prospects2 ,marianna died1 and1 true to 
her feelings of  friendship#dh to the   
end1 she left the poet heir to her      
possessions1 to  the amount of thirty   
thousand crowns4 ,metastasio writes thus
 to his  brother1 on receiving this sad 
intelligence3--    ,in the agitation ,i 
feel from the unexpected death of the   
poor and  generous ,marianna1 ,i cannot 
long dilate4 ,i can only say1 that my   
honour  and my conscience have both     
induced me to renounce her bequest in   
favour  of her husband4 ,i owe it to the
 world to undeceive it from a great     
mistake1--that of fancying that my      
friendship was founded on avarice and   
interested motives4 ,i have no right to 
take advantage of the partiality  of my 
poor friend to the injury of her        

husband1 and ,god will by some  other   
means make up for what ,i now renounce4 
,i need nothing for myself2  ,i possess 
sufficient at ,rome to maintain my      
family in decency1 and if  ,providence  
preserves to me my property in ,naples1 
,i will give my  relations other marks  
of my affection1 and think seriously of 
you in  particular4 ,communicate my     
resolution to my father1 as ,i have not 
time  to write to him4 ,assure him of my
 intention always to contribute as      
heretofore to his comfort1 and even to  
increase my assistance1 if my           
,neapolitan income does not fail me4 ,in
 short1 make him enter into my          
feelings1 so that he shall not imbitter 
them by disapproving of my  honest and  
,christian determination4    ,you will  
continue to live with signor            
,bulgarelli1 who will1 ,i hope1  display
 towards you that friendly kindness     
which my conduct with regard  to him    
deserves4 ,all will go on as before2    
only poor ,marianna will never  return1 

nor can ,i hope for any consolation1 and
 the rest of my life will  be insipid   
and painful4    ,i feel1 he wrote to    
another friend on this occasion1 as if  
,i were in  the world as in an unpeopled
 solitude2 desolate as a man would feel1
 if1  transported in his sleep among the
 ,chinese or ,tartars1 he should1 on    
awakening1 find himself among a people  
whose language1 manners1 and  customs   
are alike unknown to him4 ,in the midst 
of such fancies1 so much  reason        
remains1 as permits me to be aware how  
without foundation they  are1 and how   
produced2 but reflection has not yet    
sufficed to dissipate  them4 ,you will  
have heard that ,i have renounced the   
bequest4 ,i know not  whether this      
renunciation will be approved of by all1
 but ,i know that  neither my honour nor
 my conscience permit me to take        
advantage of the  excessive partiality  
of a woman to the injury of her         
relations1 and that  the want of the    
riches which ,i refuse1 is more         

tolerable than the shame  which they    
would produce in me4    ,metastasio was1
 with his accustomed modesty1 disturbed 
by the fear1 lest  his honourable       
conduct would be disapproved of by his  
friends and the  world2 and he was      
agreeably surprised when1 on the        
contrary1 it met with  the general      
approbation it deserved4 ,i should be   
insincere1 he writes  to the same       
friend1 if1 affecting philosophy1 ,i    
pretended to be annoyed  by the kind    
approval which my country has           
universally yielded to my  renunciation 
of ,marianna's bequest4 ,it delights me 
in the first place1  and like a vow1    
confirms me in my opinion of the justice
 of the act2 and  in the second1 it     
surprises me1 as being the testimony of 
the affection  of so great a mother for 
the least of her sons4    ,this1 during 
the space of ten years1 from the time of
 his first arrival  in ,vienna1 was the 
only event that disturbed ,metastasio's 
life4 ,these  ten years are the period  

during which his poetic powers          
flourished most  vigorously1 and during 
which his best as well as the greater   
number of  his works were produced4 ,the
 favour they met confirmed his situation
 at  court1 while they caused him to    
labour unintermittingly4 ,it is         
difficult  to give one not versed in the
 ,italian language a correct idea of the
  peculiar merits of his poetry1 and the
 excellences of his dramas4 ,they  are  
not absolute tragedies3 their happy     
conclusions1 the introduction of  airs1 
and their being compressed into three   
acts1 give them a lightness  and a      
brevity unlike the heavier march of     
tragedy4 ,they are to a great  degree   
ideal1 and yet possess the interest     
which passion and plot1  described and  
developed with masterly skill1          
necessarily impart4 ,his  command of    
language is singularly great1 and he    
adapted poetic diction  to dramatic     
dialogue with wonderful felicity4 ,a    
long and profound study  of the genius  

of his native tongue gave him such      
extreme facility1 that  the perfection  
of art takes the guise of the most      
unadorned nature2 and  the flow and     
clearness of his verses so excite our   
sympathy1 as to make  us feel as if the 
thoughts and sentiments which we find in
 his pages  were the spontaneous growth 
of our own minds4 ,the magic of his     
style  renders sensible and distinct the
 most delicate and evanescent feelings1 
so that it has been remarked#di1 that   
many of the movements of the  human     
soul1 which the ablest writers have     
scarcely been able to indicate  in      
prose1 and which1 from their subtlety1  
are almost hidden from our              
consciousness1 are brought home to us in
 his verses with a lucid  felicity of   
expression1 that leaves no portion of   
them either obscure or  vague4 ,he thus 
formed a language peculiarly his own4   
,in his airs the  words flow in so      
unforced a manner and with such extreme 
propriety1 that  they appear to place   

themselves3 not one can be changed1 not 
one  omitted4 ,there is no pedantry1 no 
affectation2 simplicity is his          
principal charm2 it seems as if a child 
might utter them1--they are so          
unstudied2 and yet no other poet        
possesses to an equal degree the art of 
clothing his ideas with the same easy   
grace4    ,when we reflect on the       
singular perfection of his style1 we are
 not  surprised that he preserved it    
with the most jealous watchfulness4 ,he 
was careful not to accustom his mind to 
the use of any language except          
,italian1 and never knew more of ,german
 than the few words sufficient1  as he  
forcibly expresses it1 to save his life4
 ,many nobles of ,vienna  paid him the  
compliment of learning his language for 
the sake of  conversing with him1 and   
,italian being in common use among the  
well-educated1 he did not lose so much  
as might be expected3 yet he must  have 
felt the privation4 ,he was right1      
however1 in adhering to his  resolution4

 ,he was settled at ,vienna for life1   
while at the same time  his present     
occupation and his future glory depended
 on his preserving  uninjured that      
delicacy of taste1 and felicity of      
expression in his  native language1     
which characterises his compositions4   
,but to return to  his operas4    ,he   
himself has said1 that if he were forced
 to select one of his dramas  to be     
preserved1 while all the rest were      
annihilated1 he should fix upon         
,attilio ,regulo4 ,the principal action 
of this play1 founded on the  well-known
 heroism of ,regulus1 in dissuading his 
countrymen from an  exchange of         
prisoners1 and his consequent return to 
servitude and a  cruel death in         
,carthage1 is conducted with dignity and
 pathos4 ,but the  interest of the piece
 is somewhat marred by an underplot1 and
 the airs  interspersed are not among   
his best4 ,perhaps we are inclined to   
give the  preference among them to      
,themistocles3 the dignity of the       

subject  raises it to this pre-eminence2
 but in pathos1 tenderness1 and         
impassioned dialogue1 the ,olimpiade is 
unequalled4 ,devoted friendship  forms  
the action2 the personages are placed in
 the most interesting  situations1 and  
the language is sustained to the height 
of those  emotions which the clash of   
heroic feelings would inspire4 ,there   
are  scenes in ,demofoonte as fine as   
any to be found in ,metastasio1 but     
there is a reduplication of plot which  
mars the unity of the action2 as1  after
 deeply sympathising with the hero in   
his fears concerning his  wife's fate1  
through nearly four acts1 we are        
somewhat exhausted1 and  cannot well    
reawaken other sentiments1 to mourn over
 the relationship  that he imagines that
 he has discovered to exist between     
them4 ,voltaire  and others have praised
 the scene between ,titus and ,sestus in
 the  ,clemenza di ,tito1 as surpassing 
the representation of any similar       
struggle of feeling in any other        

dramatic poet2 and the airs in that     
piece are among his happiest            
compositions4 ,it was the poet's aim and
  pleasure1 in all his writings1 to make
 virtue attractive1 and to paint        
patriotism1 self-sacrifice and the best 
affections of the soul1 in  glowing and 
alluring colours4 ,this gives a great   
charm to his dramas4 ,we  live among a  
better race1 and yet the sorrows and    
passions and errors of  the personages  
are represented in a manner to call     
forth our liveliest  sympathy4 ,a       
heartfelt pathos reigns throughout1 and 
if passages of  sublimity are rare      
7though there are several which merit   
that name71 the  elevated moral feeling 
acts on our minds to prevent the        
enervating  influence of mere tenderness
 and grief4#ej    ,besides his dramas1  
,metastasio composed at this period two 
canzonetti1  which are among the best of
 his productions4 ,the ,grazie agli     
inganni  tuoi1 or thanks of a lover to  
his lady for having disenchanted him by 

her caprices1 is written at once with   
feeling and spirit4 ,the ,partenza  is  
yet more beautiful4 ,it was founded on  
the unfortunate attachment of a         
,viennese nobleman for a public singer1 
who at last yielded to the  entreaties  
of his friends1 in detaching himself    
from her1 on condition  that ,metastasio
 should write some verses of adieu4 ,the
 lover must have  been satisfied1 and   
the lady charmed1 despite regret1 by the
 passion1  tenderness1 and beauty of the
 poem which celebrates their separation4
    ,metastasio's tranquil and          
prosperous life was broken in upon in   
#agdj1 by  the death of the emperor     
,charles ,,vi41 who fell a victim to    
either poison  or indigestion1 after    
eating mushrooms4 ,the poet was         
unfeignedly  attached to his imperial   
master1 whose moral and religious       
character was  congenial to his own2 and
 the disturbed state of ,europe1        
immediately  after1 added to his regret4
 ,this prince had no son1 and his       

daughter1  ,maria ,teresa1 succeeded to 
him as queen of ,bohemia and ,hungary4  
,her  husband aspired to the imperial   
crown2 but the influence of ,france     
caused the duke of ,bavaria to be       
elected1 under the title of ,charles    
,,vii4 ,this disappointment was not the 
only misfortune of the queen2 the  king 
of ,prussia invaded ,silesia almost     
immediately after her father's  death1  
and ,vienna being threatened with a     
siege1 she was obliged to quit  it1 and 
to take refuge in ,presburg4 ,after a   
reign of four years1 ,charles  ,,vii4   
died1 and the husband of ,maria ,teresa1
 then grand duke of ,tuscany1  was      
elected emperor in the year #agde1 under
 the name of ,francis ,i43 but  the war 
still continued1 and its various        
success1 and the disasters1  with which 
it was attended1 gave the court little  
leisure or inclination  for amusement1  
until the peace of ,aix-la-,chapelle4   
,on the death of ,charles ,,vi41 several
 of the ,european sovereigns invited    

,metastasio to their courts1 and made   
him advantageous and honourable  offers2
 but1 as ,maria ,teresa still continued 
him in the place he held  under her     
father1 the poet felt that fidelity and 
gratitude alike  forbade him to change  
masters during her adversity4 ,his      
naturally  sensitive mind was strongly  
agitated by the various success of the  
empress queen's arms4 ,his              
susceptibility of disposition did not   
allow  him to regard the course of      
events with a stoical eye2 and to the   
disquietude he suffered is attributed   
the bad state of health into which  he  
fell after the year #agde1 when he was  
forty-seven years of age4 ,his  malady  
was chiefly nervous2 hysterical         
affections1 and a rush of blood  to the 
head1 were brought on by the slightest  
mental exertion1 followed  by a total   
temporary inability to write1 or even to
 think3 he was thus  obliged entirely to
 suspend his poetic labours2 and when he
 forced  himself to them1 they bear the 

mark of a falling off in his powers4 ,it
  cannot be doubted that this           
unfortunate state was brought on in a   
great  degree by climate4 ,he was a     
native of ,rome1 and1 till the age of   
thirty-two1 had resided constantly in   
the south of ,italy4 ,what a dreary     
contrast did ,vienna present to the     
enchanting land in which he passed  his 
youth6 ,the clear skies1 the perpetual  
summer1 the cheerful feelings  produced 
by the habits of a southern life1 were  
injuriously changed for  the gloom of   
the freezing north4 ,the very           
precautions which the natives  take to  
protect themselves from cold during the 
interminable winters1  the stoves1      
closed windows1 and consequent want of  
fresh air and healthy  exercise1 being  
in diametrical opposition to the more   
hardy habits of  southern nations1 are  
injurious to the health and spirits of  
those who  are accustomed to regard the 
skiey influences as friendly instead of 
inimical to their comfort and           

well-being4 ,metastasio never left      
,germany  after he first entered it4 ,a 
part of his occupation1 in the sequel1  
became the teaching the archduchesses1  
daughters of ,maria ,teresa1  ,italian3 
this was an office he felt that he could
 not desert1 with any  grace1 even for a
 limited number of months4 ,the kindness
 of the empress  in yielding to the     
total suspension of all theatrical      
composition on his  part1 forced on him 
by ill health1 bound him yet more       
devotedly to her4  ,as he grew older1 he
 became a man of habit1 and consequently
 averse to  travelling4 ,it is          
impossible1 however1 not to believe1    
that if he had  varied his residence in 
,germany by occasional visits to his    
native  country1 the disease under which
 he laboured1 which embittered though it
  did not shorten existence1 would have 
been dissipated and cured4              
,metastasio's life1 we are told1 is only
 to be found in his letters1 yet  these 
detail no event2 one of them contains1  

indeed1 an offer of  marriage to a lady1
 whose name is omitted3 it is well      
written1 and with  considerable delicacy
 of sentiment2 but1 as he had no        
acquaintance with  the object1 and      
aspired to her alliance on account of   
her character1 and  his friendship for  
her father1 his feelings could not be   
very deeply  interested4 ,many of his   
letters are addressed to his brother1   
and they  display a warm interest for   
his family4 ,after the death of         
,marianna1 the  management of his       
affairs in ,italy devolved on his       
relatives1 and many  are taken up with  
directions and advice4 ,leopold1 and the
 rest of  ,metastasio's family1 fell    
into the common error of supposing1 that
 since  he was in favour at court1 the  
greatest prosperity would flow in upon  
him4 ,the poet endeavoured to undeceive 
him3--,princes and their  satellites1 he
 writes1 have neither the will nor power
 to confer  benefits correspondent to   
the notions people are pleased to form4 

,i do  not know what definition merit   
bears among them2 and ,i religiously    
abstain from inquiring1 placing it among
 those mysteries which are  beyond1     
though not contrary to1 our             
understanding4 ,following these         
principles1 ,i do all that is enough to 
prevent my feeling remorse for  sins of 
omission2 but ,i never allow hope to    
interfere in the guidance of  my        
cautious line of conduct4 ,it is a long 
time since ,i have ceased to be  the    
dupe of hope1 and it would be shameful  
to become such at our age4  ,expect     
less1 therefore1 on my account1 and you 
will find the scales more  even4 ,this  
letter speaks more freely than any      
other1 as ,i write only for  you1 and   
among other earthly goods1 ,i desire for
 you the most useful of  all1--a clear  
perception1 if not of all1 of the       
greater part of those  innumerable      
errors1 contracted through our          
lamentable education1 and our           
intercourse with fools4    ,these       

sentiments did not float merely on the  
surface of ,metastasio's  mind1--he made
 them the guides of his actions4 ,as he 
says1 gratitude and  duty regulated his 
conduct1 but no servile hunting after   
greater  benefits mingled with the      
deference he manifested towards those in
  power4 ,he acted on the defensive in  
his intercourse with courts1 with  such 
consistency of purpose1 that he refused 
the honours chiefly valued  there1 and  
declined the various orders1 and the    
title of count1 which  the emperor      
,charles ,,vi4 had offered to bestow on 
him4    ,it is from passages such as    
these1 interspersed in his letters1 that
 we  can collect the peculiar character 
of the man--his difference from         
others--and the mechanism of being that 
rendered him the individual that  he    
was4 ,such1 ,dr4 ,johnson remarks1 is   
the true end of biography1 and he       
recommends the bringing forward of      
minute1 yet characteristic details1  as 
essential to this style of history2 to  

follow which precept has been  the aim  
and desire of the writer of these pages4
    ,in other letters ,metastasio writes
 concerning his works1 and explains  his
 views in the developement of his       
dramas2 but he never makes himself  the 
subject-matter without an apology4      
,never in my life1 he writes on  one    
occasion1 did ,i before write so much   
concerning myself4 ,i perceive  this at 
the end of my letter1 and blush1 not    
because ,i feel myself  guilty of too   
great self-love1 but because ,i shall   
appear so to you4  ,remember that few   
people distrust themselves to a fault1  
as ,i do2 and in  communicating to you  
the perfection which ,i desire to       
attain1 ,i do not  fancy that ,i am     
exempt from those defects1 to which     
human nature and my  own weakness expose
 me4    ,all his letters to his brother 
express the most earnest and            
affectionate  interest4 ,it is the more 
necessary to mention this1 as one of the
  calumnies propagated against him was1 

an aversion to render service to  his   
relatives4 ,you know1 he writes to his  
brother1 that your honour  and welfare  
have always been the objects of my      
solicitude1 and that ,i  never proposed 
to myself any reward1 except the        
agreeable consciousness  that my        
endeavours to introduce you and sustain 
you in the career of  letters1 have not 
failed of success2 if you think that you
 owe me any  gratitude1 pay it by       
increasing my self-satisfaction on this 
account4  ,you can never show yourself  
more generous to me than by meriting    
that  esteem which begins to be your    
due4    ,on the death of their father he
 writes with great feeling3--,the loss  
of  our poor father did not surprise1   
while it filled me with the liveliest   
grief4 ,i measure your sorrow by my own4
 ,i feel that it will require time  to  
render me reasonable4 ,i thank you for  
your fraternal kindness in the  midst of
 your affliction4 ,dear brother1 you now
 fill the place of a  father in his     

stead3 do it worthily1 and if there is  
any thing that ,i  can do to comfort    
you1 demand it from me without reserve3 
your  consolation will produce mine4 ,my
 poor sisters6--how lost they will feel 
themselves6 take care of them1 dear     
,leopold3 reflect how much fewer        
supports they have than we against the  
assaults of passion1 especially  of that
 feeling which is derived from the most 
sacred of nature's laws4  ,adieu4 ,if ,i
 have always loved you1 consider how    
this affection is  augmented by the loss
 of him who possessed before so large a 
proportion  of it4 ,let yours increase  
also4    ,his brother distinguished     
himself afterwards by some writings in  
favour  of religion2 and it appears that
 he even had the design of writing the  
poet's ,life4 ,metastasio1 while he     
praised ,leopold for occupying himself  
in a praiseworthy manner1 advised him   
against publishing controversial        
arguments1 which would occasion him to  
be attacked by the cleverest men  of    

,europe2 and which1 doubtless1 were not 
stamped with that talent which  could   
insure success4 ,metastasio1 while      
deprecating the spread of  unbelief     
occasioned by the ,french philosophers  
of those days1 yet joined  with the     
throng in fearing their attacks1 and in 
flattering  ,voltaire1--showing in how  
great awe he stood of the enmity and    
sarcasm  of that wonderful man4 ,it is  
supposed that ,leopold died in #aggj1   
after  which date no more letters appear
 addressed to him4    ,one of the       
principal correspondents of ,metastasio1
 and to whom his most  agreeable letters
 are addressed1 is ,farinelli4 ,the poet
 and the singer  were nearly of the same
 age2 both began their career at ,naples
 at the  same time2 which causes        
,metastasio to give his friend the      
affectionate  appellation of his twin4  
,both met with immediate and complete   
success2  and they formed a friendship1 
which the letters of the poet prove to  
have been maintained on his side with   

sentiments of the warmest  affection1   
and the most active wish to render      
service4 ,after having met  with the    
greatest applause in the various        
theatres of ,europe1 ,farinelli  was    
invited to ,spain1 in #agcg2 where his  
voice had the peculiar effect  of       
calming and solacing the accesses of    
malady to which the king1 ,philip  ,v41 
was subject4 ,on this account he was    
retained at the ,spanish court1 a  large
 income was settled on him1 and he never
 sang again on the public  stage1 being1
 to please the ,spanish notions of      
etiquette1 made cavalier  of the orders 
of ,st4 ,jago and ,calatrava1 that he   
might be considered of  rank sufficient 
to attend the private hours of the      
monarch4 ,philip ,v4  died in #agdf1 but
 ,farinelli continued in equal favour   
with his  successor4 ,his prosperity    
continued till the accession of ,charles
 ,,iii41  in #agfc1 when he was ordered 
to quit ,spain1 and1 with singular      
cruelty1  not permitted to make choice  

of an abode4 ,at last1 ,bologna was     
prescribed to him as the place that     
would best please the ,spanish          
monarch1--we are not told for what      
reason1 except that ,farinelli was as  a
 foreigner in that city1 and cut off    
from all personal intercourse with  his 
friends4    ,an interesting volume might
 be formed out of ,metastasio's letters 
to the  singer4 ,they are full of       
enthusiastic friendship2 now dwelling on
  alterations made to operas for the    
peculiar benefit of ,farinelli1--now  on
 more personal topics4 ,metastasio's    
days were clouded by ill health1  and   
his genius impaired through the same    
cause2 but it did not check the         
overflow of his kind heart1 nor injure  
the happy influence of his  contented   
disposition4 ,it is difficult1 however1 
to select passages1  since the interest 
consists in the openness1 friendship1   
and warmth of  the whole1 and mere      
isolated extracts would be devoid of    
attraction4 ,the  whole correspondence  

is replete with frank exhibitions of the
 writer's  mind1 and the style is       
remarkable for its vivacity as well as  
elegance4    ,with the exception of his 
physical sufferings1 which were rather  
annoying than painful1 and that         
sensibility of character which could not
  fail to chequer his life with a       
thousand various emotions1 ,metastasio's
  latter years was singularly           
prosperous1 and perfectly monotonous4 ,a
 few  weeks spent each autumn in        
,moravia was his only change4 ,the      
empress  kindly excused him from forcing
 his powers to compose new dramas1 and  
his occupation principally consisted in 
the easy task of instructing the        
archduchesses in ,italian4 ,when the    
empress ,maria ,theresa died1 the       
emperor ,joseph ,,ii4 continued to him  
his protection2 and the esteem and  even
 affection in which he was held at the  
imperial court prevented the  death of  
his benefactress from injuring his      
fortunes1 or disturbing his  repose4    

,he filled1 however1 a place in the     
public eye which exposed him to a  good 
deal of trouble4 ,as the first ,italian 
poet of the day1 each minor  aspirant to
 the laurel sent their verses for his   
criticism1 or rather  approval4 ,he has 
been accused of lavishing praise without
 moderation or  judgment4 ,it is        
difficult for one author not to flatter 
other authors1  since severity of       
criticism will be attributed to envy or 
ill-humour2  and1 besides1 the ,italian 
genius is singularly inclined to        
superlative  panegyric4 ,but it may be  
remarked that1 though ,metastasio gilds 
the  pill1 he never fails1 particularly 
to his friends1 to point out the weak   
points of their works1 and to bestow    
sagacious and valuable  observations4   
,when ,dr4 ,burney visited ,vienna in   
#aggb1 ,metastasio was an old man2 and  
his life1 uninterrupted by any events1  
flowed on in one unbroken and  quiet    
stream4 ,he lives1 writes the doctor1   
with the most mechanical  regularity1   

which he suffers none to disturb4 ,he   
has not dined from home  these thirty   
years4 ,he studies from eight o'clock in
 the morning till  noon4 ,then he is    
visited by his acquaintance4 ,he dines  
at two2 and at  five receives his most  
intimate friends4 ,at nine1 in summer1  
he goes out  in his carriage1 pays      
visits1 and sometimes plays at ombre4   
,he returns  at ten o'clock1 sups1 and  
goes to bed before eleven4 ,in          
conversation he  is constantly cheerful2
 fanciful1 playful1 and sometimes       
poetical2 never  sarcastic or           
disputatious2 totally devoid of         
curiosity concerning the  public news or
 private scandal in circulation2 the    
morality of his  sentiments resembles   
that of his life4 ,in confidence with   
few1 but  polite to all1 his affection  
to his countrymen is great1 and extends 
to  ecclesiastics1 painters1 musicians1 
poets1 and ministers from the  ,italian 
states1 who are all sure of his kindness
 and good offices4 ,i was  no less      

astonished than delighted to find him   
look so well2 he does not  seem more    
than fifty years of age4 ,there is      
painted on his countenance  the genius1 
goodness1 propriety1 and benevolence1   
which characterise his  writings4 ,i    
could not keep my eyes off his face1--it
 was so pleasing and  worthy of         
contemplation4    ,he thus spent in ease
 and peace the last years of his life4  
,it has been  said that1 like ,dr4      
,johnson1 he had a great aversion to any
 allusion  being made to death in       
conversation1 and carefully avoided all 
lugubrious subjects4 ,he continued to   
live with his friend ,martinetz1  whose 
daughter1 ,marianne1 being educated by  
,gluck1 became a celebrated  musician2  
and in this family he met with that     
respect1 attachment1 and  attention that
 rendered old age easy4    ,his last    
letter was written to ,farinelli4 ,he   
complains of the dreadful  season1 and  
says1 that he cannot find a friend or   
acquaintance who  does not complain of  

ill health4--,we are all equally        
obliged1 he  writes1 to have recourse to
 resignation4 ,my neighbour prays for   
me1 and  ,i pray for my neighbour2 and  
we all are wishing better health to our 
afflicted friends4 ,my complaints       
obstinately defend their posts1 and ,i  
my patience4    ,this letter is dated in
 ,march1 #aghb1 and was written but a   
short time  before he died4 ,though     
advanced to the age of eighty-four1 his 
death was  unexpected1 as the vigour of 
his constitution1 and his vivacity and  
unbroken powers1 promised several years 
more of life2 nor did his  nervous      
indispositions threaten dissolution1 for
 they neither interfered  with his sleep
 nor appetite1 nor the enjoyment he both
 conferred and  received in his domestic
 circle4 ,a fever1 attended with        
weakness and  loss of speech1 and       
lethargy1 carried him off after an      
illness of only  twelve days4 ,he died  
tranquilly1 and without pain1 on the    
#abth of ,april1  #aghb4 ,he left the   

family of ,martinetz his heirs to       
considerable wealth2  his property      
consisting of about #acj1jjj florins1 in
 addition to many  valuables presented  
to him by sovereign princes4 ,he was    
sincerely  regretted at ,vienna2 and    
,martinetz struck a medal in his honour4
 ,nor was  he forgotten in his native   
country2 and the various literary       
academies  of ,italy vied with each     
other in offering poetic testimonials of
  veneration to his worth and genius4   
,footnote #dg3 ,ah1 tu non sai  ,qual   
guerra di pensieri  ,agita l'alma mia4  
99     99     99     99  ,trovo per     
tutto  ,qualche scoglio a temer4        
,scelgo1 mi pento2  ,poi d' essermi     
pentito  ,mi ritorno a pentir4 ,mi      
stanco intanto  ,nel lungo dubitar1 tal 
che dal male  ,il ben non distinguo3    
alfin mi veggio  ,stetto dal tempo1 e mi
 risolvo al peggio4    ,ah1 thou knowest
 not the war of struggling thoughts     
,that agitates my soul4 ,i find in all  
,some peril still to dread4 ,i choose2  

and then1  ,my choice repent--and then  
again regret  ,having repented2 while   
protracted doubt  ,wearies my mind1 so  
that the ill from good  ,no longer ,i   
distinguish2 till at length  ,the flight
 of time impels me to the worst4        
,footnote #dh3 ,we have made no remark  
on the nature of this kind-hearted  and 
generous woman's attachment4 ,in ,italy 
it is customary to look on  such as     
formed by friendship only1 and to       
consider that they are  rendered        
respectable by constancy4 ,the ,italians
 lavish the greatest  praise on         
,marianna ,bulgarelli for her perception
 of the poet's merits1  her zeal in     
persuading him to1 and assisting him in1
 his arduous career2  and the           
disinterested affection which caused her
 at once to make a  sacrifice of her own
 feelings1 and to advise his journey to 
,vienna4 ,her  errors are those of her  
country4 ,any one who has visited ,italy
 must at  once censure1 and deeply      
deplore1 the social system there carried

 on--a  system which blights the        
affections1 degrades the moral feeling1 
and  causes almost universal            
unhappiness4 ,but it is unjust to heap  
the  censure of a system belonging to a 
whole country1 and carried on for       
centuries1 on the head of an individual1
 whose virtues1 we may presume  to say1 
redeemed an error1 the very existence of
 which is1 after all1  uncertain4       
,footnote #di3 ,baretti4    ,footnote   
#ej3 ,there is a curious instance in    
,metastasio of a poet using  the same   
image adopted by a preceding writer1    
which yet1 it is probable1  that the    
later one had not read4 ,the explanation
 may be1 that both drew  it from an     
ancient writer2 but we have been unable 
to find it4 ,the  passages are subjoined
 as1 if both are unborrowed1 it forms a 
curious  though natural coincidence of  
thought4    ,and as goodly cedars1      
,rent from ,oeta by a sweeping tempest1 
,jointed again1 and made tall masts1    
defy  ,those angry winds that split 'em1

 so will ,i  ,new pieced again1  ,and   
made more perfect far1  ,stand and defy 
bad fortunes4    ,,fletcher1 ,tragedy of
 ,valentinian4    ,spezza il furor del  
vento  ,robusta quercia1 avezza  ,di    
cento verni1 e cento  ,l' ingurie a     
tollerar4    ,e se pur cade al suolo    
,spiega per l' onde il volo1  ,e con    
quel vento istesso  ,va contrastando il 
mar    ,adriano4          ,,goldoni     
#agjg-agib4      ,the life of ,goldoni1 
written by himself1 is1 as well as his  
comedies1 a  school1 not of crabbed     
philosophy1 but of ,italian manners1 in 
their  gayest1 lightest guise4 ,at a    
time when it is hoped that a change is  
taking place in the system of society in
 that country1 resulting in a  great    
degree from the concourse of ,english1  
it is interesting to observe  what they 
were anterior to the ,french revolution1
 and to remark the  state of the        
,italians before they awoke to the sense
 of their  oppression1 or1 rather1 while
 oppression was in exercise only of the 

first of its effects--the demoralisation
 of its victim1 before the  second stage
 of its influence1 that of producing a  
noble and impatient  disdain of         
servitude4    ,carlo ,goldoni was born  
at ,venice1 in the year #agjg1 in a     
large and good  house1 situated between 
the bridge of ,nomboli and that of      
,donna ,onesta4  ,the ,venetians1 who1  
when on land1 spend their lives in      
running up and  down the bridges that   
cross the canals1 make them the chief   
land-marks  of their directions4 ,the   
family of ,goldoni came originally from 
,modena4  ,his grandfather1 while       
studying at ,parma1 formed an intimacy  
with two  ,venetian nobles1 who         
persuaded him to accompany them to      
,venice2 and the  death of his father   
rendering him soon after independent1 he
 established  himself in the native city
 of his friends4 ,he had an employment  
under  government1 and was sufficiently 
rich1 but not at all economical4 ,he    
loved the drama2 comedies were played in

 his own house2 the most  celebrated    
actors and singers were at his orders2  
and he was for ever  surrounded by a    
concourse of theatrical people4 ,his son
 had married a  lady of the ,salvioni   
family1 and resided with his father4    
,carlo was  born in the midst of all the
 bustle and hilarity attendant on a     
predilection for actors and acting3 his 
first pleasures were derived  from      
plays2 his first recollections were of  
histrionic gaiety2 and his  future life 
retained the colouring imparted by the  
amusements of his  early years4    ,he  
was the delight of the family4 ,his     
mother devoted herself to his           
education1 and his father to his        
amusement4 ,he made a puppet theatre for
  him1 and1 with two or three friends1  
drew the cords and acted plays to  the  
boy's infinite delight4 ,but a change   
soon came over this holiday  life4 ,his 
grandfather died1 in #agab1 from the    
effects of a cold1 caught  at an        
assembly4 ,his extravagance had         

dissipated his fortune2 and1 from       
abundance and luxury1 the family fell   
into the narrowest circumstances4  ,the 
prospects of the father of ,goldoni were
 dark4 ,he had no employment  and no    
profession1 and his inherited property  
was all sold or mortgaged4  ,in the     
midst of this distress1 his wife gave   
birth to a son3 this added  to the      
solicitude of the father2 but1 unwilling
 to be the prey of  useless gnawing     
cares1 he set out on a visit to ,rome1  
for the sake of  diverting his thoughts4
 ,his wife remained at home with her    
sister1 and  two sons4 ,the second1     
never a favourite1 was put out to nurse2
 and she  devoted herself to ,carlo4 ,he
 was gentle1 obedient1 and quiet4 ,at   
the age  of four he could read and write
 and say his catechism2 on which they   
gave him a tutor4 ,he grew to love      
books1 and made progress in grammar1    
geography1 and arithmetic2 but the old  
instinct survived1 and plays were  his  
favourite reading4 ,there were a good   

many in his father's library3  he pored 
over them at his leisure hours1 copied  
the passages that  pleased him most2    
and1 incited by a noble hardihood1 at   
the age of  eight1 wrote a comedy4 ,some
 laughed at it2 his mother scolded and  
kissed  him at the same time2 while     
others insisted that it was too clever  
to  have been written by a child of his 
age1 and that his tutor must have       
helped him4    ,meanwhile his father1   
instead of returning after a short      
visit1 remained  four years at ,rome4   
,he had a rich friend there1 who        
received him  cordially1 lodged him in  
his own house1 and introduced him to    
,lancisi1  physician and private        
attendant to ,clement ,,xi4 ,he attached
 himself  warmly to ,goldoni1 who was   
clever and agreeable1 and sought to     
advance  himself4 ,lancisi advised him  
to study medicine4 ,the advice was      
taken4  ,after attending lectures and   
hospitals for four years at ,rome1 he   
took  his doctor's degree2 and his      

patron sent him to ,perugia to exercise 
his  profession4 ,he became in vogue in 
this town3 if he were not the best      
physician in the world1 he was an       
agreeable man1 and quickly gained the   
esteem and friendship of the first      
families4 ,thus fortunately situated1   
he resolved to have his son with him4   
,he does not appear to have thought  of 
inviting his wife also2 and the mother  
and child were separated1 to  the deep  
grief of the former4 ,carlo quitted     
,venice for the first time1  in a       
felucca4 ,he disembarked at the mouth of
 the ,marecchia1 and it was  proposed   
that he should continue his journey on  
horseback4 ,carlo had  never seen a     
horse except at a distance3 he was      
frightened when placed  on the saddle1  
confused when told to hold reins and    
whip2 but1 as the  novelty wore off1 he 
made acquaintance with this new and     
strange animal1  and fed him with his   
own hands4    ,on arriving at ,perugia  
he was placed at school4 ,his first     

trial by the  masters1 for the purpose  
of judging what progress he had made in 
,latin1  was infelicitous2 he became the
 ridicule of his companions2 his masters
  conceived a slight opinion of his     
abilities2 his father was in despair1   
and ,carlo fell ill from mortification4 
,the holidays drew near1 when it  was   
usual for the scholars to present a     
,latin composition1 as a specimen  of   
their powers1 on which their advancement
 to a higher class was  determined upon4
 ,carlo had no hope of any such         
promotion4 ,the day came3  the master   
gave out the theme2 the pupils wrote4   
,the boy summoned all  his powers2 he   
thought of his honour1 his father1 his  
mother2 he saw his  companions look at  
him and laugh2 rage and shame animated  
him to  redoubled exertions2 he felt his
 memory clear--his thoughts free3 he    
finished1 sealed1 and delivered his     
paper before any of his comrades4       
,eight days after1 the school was       
assembled--the decision announced3      

,goldoni had the first place--his       
translation was without a fault4 ,he now
  received compliments on all sides1 and
 his father was desirous of  rewarding  
him4 ,he was aware of his love for      
theatricals1 and shared it4  ,he        
assembled a company of young actors in  
his own house1 and erected a  theatre4  
,a play was got up1 in which ,goldoni   
took the part of prima  donna1 and was  
much applauded2 but his father told him 
that1 though not  devoid of talent1 he  
would never make a good actor1 and after
 experience  proved the justice of his  
decision4    ,the signora ,goldoni bore 
her husband's absence very              
philosophically2 but  she could not     
consent to continue separated from her  
son3 she entreated  her husband to      
return2 and1 on his refusal1 removed    
herself to ,perugia4  ,but1 accustomed  
to the soft air of ,venice1 the climate 
of that city1  placed on the summit of a
 hill1 and surrounded by mountains1     
disagreed  with her3 other circumstances

 tended to disgust her husband with     
,perugia2 and1 as soon as ,carlo had    
finished his course of education at  the
 school1 they resolved to return to     
,venice4 ,passing through ,rimini in    
their way1 they were received kindly by 
a friend1 who persuaded them to  leave  
,carlo for the sake of his pursuing his 
studies under a celebrated  professor4  
,his parents embarked for ,chiozza4     
,chiozza is a town  twenty-five miles   
from ,venice1 built1 like that city1    
upon piles in the  midst of the sea2 it 
contains #dj1jjj inhabitants2 the       
population were  divided between rich   
and poor2 the rich wore a wig and a     
cloak2 the  poor1 a cap and a capote4   
,these last1 who were fishermen and     
sailors1  while their wives fabricated  
lace1 had often more money than many    
individuals of the class named rich4    
,the signora ,goldoni took a liking  to 
this place2 and her husband was averse  
to return to ,venice till his           
circumstances should have become more   

easy4 ,to further this end1 he was      
obliged to make a journey to ,modena3 he
 proposed to his wife to  establish     
herself at ,chiozza till his return2 and
 she consented4    ,carlo1 meanwhile1   
remained at ,rimini4 ,he did not like   
his master1 who1  bigotted to rules and 
systems1 wearied him to death3 he       
escaped from  him1 to read ,plautus1    
,terence1 ,aristophanes1 and the        
fragments of  ,menander2 and soon the   
incarnate spirit of drama arriving at   
,rimini1 he  was wholly turned from his 
abstruser studies4 ,a company of actors 
made  their appearance1 and ,goldoni    
became familiar with them3 he went      
behind  the scenes2 joined in their     
parties of pleasure2 and they1 being all
  ,venetians1 were happy to find a      
countryman4 ,one ,friday it was         
announced  that they were leaving       
,rimini1 and that a boat was engaged to 
carry them  to ,chiozza4 ,to ,chiozza6  
said ,carlo1 ,my mother is at           
,chiozza6--,come  with us1 then1 cried  

the director4 ,yes1 come with us1 cried 
the whole  company1 come in our boat2   
you will have a pleasant passage2 it    
will  cost you nothing3 we shall laugh1 
dance1 and sing1 and be as happy as  the
 day is long4 ,a boy of fourteen could  
scarcely resist so strong a  temptation4
 ,his master refused leave1 and the     
friends of his family  interfered with  
objections4 ,there was but one resource3
 ,carlo put two  shirts in his pocket1  
and hurried to hide himself in the boat4
 ,it made  sail1 and he was on his way  
to ,chiozza4 ,the light-hearted rambling
 life  of strolling comedians was       
alluring beyond measure to a mirthful   
lad1  who loved plays better than any   
thing in the world4 ,the company        
consisted of twelve1 besides            
scene-shifters1 mechanists1 and         
prompters2  there were eight men        
servants1 and four women1 two nurses1 a 
quantity of  children1 dogs1 cats1 apes1
 parrots1 birds1 pigeons1 and a lamb4   
,the  prima donna was ugly1 clever1 and 

cross2 the suicidical drowning of her   
cat diversified the time2 and1 after a  
prosperous and merry voyage1 the  whole 
cargo1 with the exception of poor puss1 
arrived safe at ,chiozza4    ,the       
signora ,goldoni received her son with a
 mixture of gladness and  scolding1     
which evinced no violent disapprobation 
of his truant  disposition2 but he      
himself began to regret it1 and to      
reflect seriously  on the consequences1 
when he read a letter just received from
 his  father4 ,business had taken       
,goldoni from ,modena to ,pavia4 ,the   
governor of  ,pavia was named the       
marchese di ,goldoni-,vidoni4 ,on       
hearing of the  arrival of a namesake in
 his town1 he sent for him1 and invited 
him to  dinner4 ,the governor belonged  
to one of the best families of ,cremona2
  but he considered that ,cremona and   
,modena were not far distant from each  
other1 and he had the whim of finding   
out and assisting a poor relation3  he  
promised to get a presentation for      

,carlo to a college of the  university  
of ,pavia1 and the father gladly        
consented to accept it4 ,he  set out to 
seek his son with this news1 and found  
him sooner than he  expected1 and was by
 no means pleased at a scrape which     
promised little  for his future         
steadiness2 but ,carlo was penitent1 and
 ,goldoni gloved  actors1 and was       
acquainted with several of this very    
company in  question3 so1 good easy man6
 he forgave the runaway1 and accompanied
 him  to thank the companions of his    
voyage4    ,goldoni's fame as a         
physician had spread to ,chiozza1 and he
 found it  worth his while to establish 
himself1 and to enter upon practice     
there3  while waiting for the           
presentation for the university of      
,pavia1 he  resolved to initiate his son
 in the rudiments of a profession which 
he  intended him hereafter to pursue4   
,he did not put him to the more         
difficult part of the medical science2  
but made him accompany him in his       

visits to his patients1 as the easiest  
mode of giving him a superficial        
knowledge4 ,carlo did not like this     
plan1 though he was forced to submit4   
,but passive obedience of will does not 
conquer the mind3 with all his  gaiety1 
the youth was subject to fits of        
hypochondria and low spirits1  and under
 the paternal discipline he lost his    
appetite1 and grew thin  and serious4   
,his mother easily extracted from him   
the cause of his  dejection1 and sought 
to bring a remedy4 ,she represented to  
her husband1  that the patronage of the 
marchese ,goldoni could be of no        
possible  service to their son in a     
medical career2 while1 on the contrary1 
if  they brought him up to the bar1 a   
senator of ,milan could without         
difficulty open to him the road of      
fortune4 ,she advised his going to      
study under an uncle at ,venice1        
proposing to accompany him herself1 and 
to stay with him till his removal to    
,pavia4 ,goldoni resisted for a long    

time1 but at last he became aware that  
her representations were  reasonable3   
poor ,carlo listened to the discussion  
with tearful eyes and  a beating heart2 
and his indisposition vanished as soon  
as his father's  consent was given4     
,four days after1 he and his mother set 
out for  ,venice4 ,they were kindly     
received by signor ,paolo ,indric1 who  
had  married his father's sister2 and   
,carlo found his home with him perfectly
  delightful4 ,the study of law was     
infinitely to be preferred to his       
father's medical initiation at ,chiozza2
 he fulfilled his duties with           
exactitude1 and his uncle was satisfied 
with him4    ,meanwhile he enjoyed his  
residence at ,venice4 ,oh6 la triste    
ville que  ,vnice6 ,madame de ,genlis   
exclaimed1 on entering the sea-paved    
city4  ,scarcely any but a ,french      
person would echo her exclamation2 and  
we1  who people the palaces and bridges 
with the shades of ,othello1            
,desdemona1 ,pierre1 and ,belvidera1    

find a peculiar charm in its strange    
and beautiful appearance4 ,there is     
something charming to the imagination   
in the wide-spread lagunes1 in the      
palaces rising from the waves1 the  sea 
that flows through the streets1 and the 
sombre-looking but luxurious  gondolas3 
no picture1 no description1 can convey  
an idea of ,venice1 that  is1 of the    
impression made by its singular aspect1 
and the modes and  machinery of daily   
life--dissimilar to those of every other
 city in the  world4 ,the young         
,goldoni1 as a native1 yet returning to 
it after so long  an absence1 was       
enchanted by the novelty of all he saw4 
,his stay1  however1 was short2 the     
presentation to a ,college at ,pavia    
arrived3 he  was forced to quit ,venice2
 and1 after a harried visit to ,chiozza 
to join  his father1 they set out       
together4    ,sidenote3 #agbc4  tat4    
#af4    ,on arriving at ,milan1 several 
obstacles presented themselves to impede
  his entrance into the university1     

which1 being under clerical             
jurisdiction1 required a number of      
attestations and documents1 with  which 
the travellers were wholly unprovided1  
and which could only be  obtained at    
,venice4 ,signora ,goldoni hastened     
thither to get them1 while  the father  
and son enjoyed themselves at ,milan1   
hospitably entertained  by their kind   
and noble soi-disant relation2 till1 the
 necessary papers  having arrived1 they 
pursued their way to ,pavia1 and        
,goldoni left his  son at his college4  
,the university of ,pavia was on a more 
expensive and luxurious footing  than is
 usual in ,italy1 and dissipation and   
liberty were the order of  the day4 ,the
 students were regarded in the town like
 officers in  garrison3 the men hated1  
and the women welcomed them2 while the  
studies  principally followed up were   
dancing1 fencing1 music1 and games of   
hazard3 the latter were prohibited1 and1
 therefore1 the more sought  after4     
,carlo's youth1 gaiety1 and ,venetian   

dialect pleased generally2  and he      
easily suffered himself to be seduced   
from study to pleasure4    ,his success 
caused him to make many enemies among   
his fellow-students1  augmented by the  
distinction derived from the kindness of
 the marchese  ,goldoni2 still he passed
 two years happily enough1 returning to 
,chiozza  during the vacations1 and     
spending his time between unforced      
studies and  pleasant society4 ,but     
misfortune was at hand to blight his    
happiness4  ,the time approached when he
 was to take his degree2 and this very  
moment  was seized upon by his college  
enemies to ensure his disgrace4 ,he had 
been admitted into the university at    
sixteen3 the legal age was  eighteen4   
,he was a boy among men1 and an easy    
prey4 ,a serious quarrel  arose between 
the inhabitants of ,pavia and the       
students3 four among the  latter1 who   
had conspired to ruin poor ,carlo1      
persuaded him to revenge  himself and   
his comrades by a satire4 ,the verses of

 which he was the  author attacked and  
insulted many families3 his four false  
friends  dispersed them and betrayed    
him3 the outcry was prodigious2 and1    
despite  every exertion made by his     
protectors1 ,goldoni was expelled4 ,the 
youth  repented very bitterly at once   
his imprudence and the easiness of his  
disposition4 ,shame and regret          
overwhelmed him1 and the idea of his    
parents' reproaches filled him with     
terror4 ,to escape these he meditated   
plans of flight1 resolving to seek his  
fortunes at ,rome4 ,it appeared of      
slight import to him that he should go  
on foot without money or  resources1 so 
that he could fly from those who were   
justly offended4  ,this idea was        
frustrated by the vigilance of those    
about him3 he was  sent back to his     
family under the especial care of the   
master of the  boat1 who never lost     
sight of him2 and a good monk1 who was a
 passenger  with him1 comforted him by  
his pious but kind admonitions4 ,his    

mother's  affection and his father's    
easiness of nature led them to pardon   
his  fault1 from which he had suffered  
severely enough4 ,a few days after he   
accompanied his father to ,friuli4      
,goldoni exercised his profession as    
physician at ,udine1 and ,carlo studied 
the law under an eminent advocate2      
after a short time1 the former proceeded
 to ,gorizia1 to the house of  count    
,landieri1 lieutenant-general of the    
army of the emperor ,charles  ,,vi4 ,the
 count was ill1 and having heard of the 
skill of ,goldoni1 sent  for him4       
,carlo1 left behind at ,udine1 got into 
several youthful scrapes1  very little  
to his credit3 he found himself deceived
 and betrayed2 and1  fearing a dangerous
 termination1 he hurried away1 and found
 his father  at ,vispack1 where count   
,landieri had a mansion4 ,they remained 
there for  some months1 till the count  
was convalescent1 hospitably            
entertained1  and very happy4 ,a        
dramatic puppet-show was got up1 which  

exercised the  theatrical talents of    
,carlo2 and afterwards he made a tour to
 ,laubeck1  ,gratz1 and ,trieste1 with  
the count's secretary4 ,on his return to
  ,vispack1 he and his father set off on
 their journey home1 the latter  having 
happily effected the cure of his        
patient1 who rewarded him  handsomely   
for his trouble4 ,we arrived at         
,chiozza1 said ,goldoni1 and  were      
received as a fond mother receives a    
son1 and a wife a beloved  husband1     
after a long absence4 ,i was delighted  
to see again a virtuous  mother who was 
tenderly attached to me4 ,after having  
been deceived and  betrayed1 ,i needed  
the consolation of being loved4 ,this1  
indeed1 was  another species of         
attachment1 but1 until ,i felt a        
virtuous and  engrossing passion1 my    
mother's love formed my greatest        
happiness4 ,soon  after his arrival at  
,chiozza1 his father received a letter  
from a cousin  at ,modena1 to inform him
 that the duke of that state had revived

 an  ancient decree1 which forbade the  
possessor of any landed property  within
 it1 to absent himself without an       
express permission from the  sovereign1 
which it was very expensive to obtain4  
,this relation added1  that his best    
course would be to send his son to      
,modena1 which would  satisfy the law1  
and he might there pursue his legal     
studies4 ,the advice  was followed1 and 
the youth sent to ,modena4    ,he went  
by water2 and the master of the boat was
 a very religious man3  each evening he 
invited the passengers to join him in   
prayers4 ,when  ,goldoni arrived at     
,modena1 this man1 whose name was       
,bastia1 asked him  where he meant to   
lodge1 and1 learning that he had his    
lodgings to seek1  asked him to select  
his house as his place of abode2 and1   
with the  assent of his cousin1 who had 
been the cause of his journey1 ,goldoni 
agreed to the proposal4 ,he found that  
the family of ,bastia was equally       
devout with himself2 father1 sons1 and  

daughters1 all were given up to  pious  
exercises4 ,no great amusement could be 
derived from their society2  but1 as    
they were respectable people1 and lived 
in concord1 ,goldoni was  satisfied and 
happy under their roof4 ,he grew as     
religiously inclined as  themselves1    
while1 as is often the case in youth1   
this sentiment was  accompanied by      
feelings of despondency and even terror4
 ,one day he  happened to pass through  
the public square while an unfortunate  
churchman was doing public penance for  
his conduct towards a female  penitent4 
,the sight struck him in the most       
painful manner3 he brought it  home to  
his own heart2 he thought of his past   
life1 his expulsion from  college1 his  
adventures in ,friuli3 the world seemed 
beset with  multiplied dangers1 and     
there was no refuge from them1 except in
 total  retirement4 ,he wrote to his    
parents to express a part of these      
feelings1  and to declare his resolve of
 entering the order of ,capuchin monks4 

,his  parents acted on this occasion    
with prudence3 they were both1          
especially  his mother1 pious1 but      
without bigotry4 ,they wrote in answer1 
that he  should do exactly as he        
pleased1 but in the mean time entreated 
him to  return to them without delay4   
,he immediately obeyed3 he was received 
with caresses1 and no opposition was    
made to his project4 ,his father        
proposed to take him to ,venice1 and he 
refused with that boldness which  the   
fancy of acting in immediate obedience  
to ,god1 alone inspires2 but1  on being 
told that he was to be introduced to the
 guardian of the  ,capuchins1 he        
consented4 ,they went to ,venice1       
visited their relations  and friends1   
dining with one and supping with        
another3 he was even  tricked into going
 to the theatre4 ,his low spirits and   
ascetic vocation  vanished insensibly1  
and he returned to ,chiozza cured of    
every wish to  shut himself up in a     
cloister4    ,it became matter of       

anxiety to know what to do with him4    
,his brother1 an  adventurous1 gallant  
youth1 had entered the army1 and was in 
garrison4  ,but ,carlo was nothing2 the 
plaything of fortune1 all the expense   
gone to  on his account had been of no  
avail2 the only resource seemed to be to
  obtain an employment under government2
 and1 at the moment when it  appeared   
impossible to succeed in so doing1 one  
presented itself to  them4 ,the republic
 of ,venice governed the towns under    
their dominion  through an officer      
called a podest1 who had under him a    
chancellor1 or  criminal judge1 who was 
assisted in his duties by a             
vice-chancellor1 or1  as he was called1 
a coadjutor2 and where there was much to
 do1 this  officer also had an          
assistant4 ,these places were more or   
less lucrative1  but were always        
desirable1 since they included the      
privilege of dining  at the governor's  
table1 and making one of his society4   
,the father of  ,goldoni was intimately 

acquainted with the governor of         
,chiozza1 and with  the judge1 and      
through their means ,carlo was employed 
to assist the  coadjutor4    ,goldoni   
was not of a noble and enterprising     
disposition1 but he  possessed great    
integrity1 and that habit of            
scrupulously examining his  own motives1
 and those of others1 which makes a part
 of the nature of  one whose bent it was
 to enter into and describe character4  
,on this  occasion he was earnest to do 
his duty1 and interested to observe the 
variety of human action and motive1     
which presented themselves to his       
enquiry in the exercise of his office as
 assistant to the criminal  judge4 ,he  
acquitted himself to the satisfaction of
 his superiors2 and1  when the governor 
of ,chiozza was changed1 and the        
chancellor was  appointed to go to      
,feltri1 the latter offered ,goldoni the
 place of  coadjutor1 which was eagerly 
accepted4    ,feltri is at a distance of
 #ahj miles from ,venice1 high up among 

the  mountains1 whose snows besiege it  
during the winter1 and block up the     
streets and houses4 ,goldoni found      
plenty of amusement here1 for there  was
 a company of comedians2 and he also    
fell in love4 ,he assures us that  this 
was his first passion1 and a sincere    
one2 but the future writer of  comedies 
had not that tenderness and passion of  
soul which creates a  profound and      
engrossing attachment4 ,he made parties 
of pleasure for the  lovely girl1 who   
returned his affection1 and got up a    
tragedy for her  amusement1 which did   
not amuse her at all2 for1 too bashful  
to act  herself1 with all the delicacy  
of love1 she was pained at witnessing   
her  lover's familiar conduct with other
 women4 ,poor girl6 exclaims  ,goldoni1 
with navet2 she loved me tenderly and   
sincerely1 and ,i  loved her with all my
 heart2 and ,i may say that she was the 
first person  for whom ,i felt a sincere
 attachment4 ,she was desirous of       
marrying me2  and would have become my  

wife1 but for some considerations which 
prevented my proposing for her4 ,these  
considerations were a notion he  formed 
that her beauty was of a delicate1      
evanescent species1 and that  she would 
soon fade and become old1 while he      
remained in the pride of  youth4 ,such  
was the force of his first passion1 that
 it was at once  overcome by selfish    
foresight1 and the habit1 innate in him1
 of  dissecting the materials of life1  
despoiling them of their sunny gloss1   
and handling the most frail1 yet        
precious1 among them with a roughness   
that iron and rock could not have       
resisted4 ,this dry1 analytical spirit  
is very apparent in his comedies3 he    
dignifies it with the name of  morality 
and honour2 but its root is often in    
coldness and tameness of  feeling and   
fancy4    ,on his return from ,feltri   
his father had accepted a medical       
situation at  ,bagnacavallo1 a town of  
,romagna1 near ,ravenna4 ,carlo joined  
him2 but1  after a short time1 the elder

 ,goldoni fell ill of a malignant fever1
 and  died in the month of ,march1      
#agca1 when his son was four and twenty 
years  of age4 ,he was sincerely        
lamented by his wife and son1 who wept  
together  over their loss4 ,as soon as  
the funeral was over1 ,goldoni          
accompanied  the widow to ,venice1 and  
established her with her sister at the  
house of  a relation4 ,she was most     
anxious to have her son resident with   
her1 and  her persuasions1 and those of 
other friends1 induced him to yield1 and
  to enter on the profession of         
barrister at ,venice4 ,the profession of
  advocate at ,venice was exceedingly   
honourable2 the first men of the city   
practised it3 but there were #bdj       
registered barristers1 and few among    
them rose to eminence2 the rest spent   
their time in running after  briefs4    
,goldoni1 however1 was of a sanguine    
disposition1 and did not  doubt that he 
should rank among the most celebrated   
pleaders at the bar4  ,he calculated how

 much could be gained1 and found that a 
barrister might  make an income of      
#bjjjl4 a year1--a large fortune at     
,venice1 which at  that time1 before it 
fell under the ,austrians1 whose aim is 
to ruin it  by the imposition of a      
vexatious taxation1 was one of the      
cheapest  places in the world4 ,it is   
true that the beginning of a forensic   
career  is in all countries trying to   
the patience2 and1 while ,goldoni       
indulged  in castles in the air with    
regard to future eminence1 he spent his 
time  attending the courts without a    
brief1 or in waiting for clients1 who   
did  not appear3 still he might hope for
 better success than the major part  of 
his brethren of the robe1 since1 during 
the first six months of his  being at   
the bar1 he carried on and won a cause2 
but his destiny  concurred with the     
genius still unformed and dormant within
 him to draw  him another way4    ,at   
the very moment of triumph on gaining   
his suit1 and when he might  fairly hope

 for an influx of clients1 an incident  
occurred to destroy  his prospects1     
causing him to form the resolution to   
quit ,venice4    ,he had fallen in love 
with a lady at ,venice1 who1 though     
forty years of  age1 was as fair and    
beautiful as a girl4 ,she was rich and  
unmarried3  the affection was mutual1   
and he already looked forward to their  
union1  when the attentions of a noble  
awakening the ambition of the lady1 she 
jilted him for his patrician rival4     
,this lady had a married sister with    
two daughters1 one deformed and the     
other ugly1 but not without  attraction2
 she had beautiful eyes1 a laughing     
countenance1 and  graceful1 fascinating 
manners4 ,she had often deprived her    
beautiful aunt  of lovers1 and inspired 
her with jealousy4 ,she tried to win    
,goldoni from  her2 and1 on her         
tergiversation1 vengeance induced him to
 make the niece  an offer4 ,her mother  
entered into her plans1 and the contract
 of  marriage was drawn up and signed2  

but when the moment came to fulfil it1  
a variety of doubts presented themselves
 to ,goldoni's mind4 ,he was  himself in
 debt1 and several years must pass      
before he could hope to  make an income 
at the bar4 ,the mother of his promised 
bride was wholly  unable to fulfil the  
conditions of the marriage contract1 and
 he found  that he should be burdened   
with the expense of his wife's family4  
,he  consulted his mother1 and his own  
sense of prudence3 he had become very   
much in love but1 in his light heart1   
every motive and impulsa was  stronger  
than the strongest affection3 frightened
 at the prospect before  him1 he made a 
sudden determination2 paid his debts1   
threw up his  profession1 and quitted   
,venice2 leaving a letter for the       
unfortunate  girl's mother1 attributing 
to her his sudden departure1 and        
promising to  return if she would fulfil
 the conditions of the contract4 ,he    
received  no answer4    ,again he was   
thrown on the world1 and all his        

prospects of future  subsistence were   
centred in a tragedy1 called            
,amalassunta1 which he  had written in  
his leisure hours4 ,it has been         
mentioned how1 born amidst  theatricals1
 his early pleasures had all been       
derived from plays4 ,when  he first went
 to ,pavia1 he had studied the ancient  
drama2 and1 finding  that ,italy had no 
theatre1 he had already conceived the   
idea of  bestowing one on her1 on a more
 enlarged plan1 more intricate as to    
plot1 and more diversified as to        
character1 than those of ,plautus and   
,terence4 ,in the course of his youth1  
to get up a play was his chief          
pleasure2 and now1 with ,amalassunta in 
his pocket1 he felt sure that  his      
fortune would be made at ,milan1 at the 
theatre of which city he  intended to   
offer it2 and1 with this expectation1   
his happy disposition  caused him easily
 to forget prospects1 friends1 love1 and
  disappointments1--all but his mother2 
while the pleasure of freedom  easily   

consoled him for the loss of his bride4 
,poor and almost friendless1 the first  
piece of good fortune that  happened to 
him was finding at ,bergamo the noble   
who had been governor  at ,chiozza when 
he was vice-chancellor4 ,he presented   
himself at his  palace1 and was kindly  
received4 ,the governor perceiving that 
he was  depressed in spirits1 enquired  
the cause3 and ,goldoni confessed that  
he  was penniless3 his kind protector   
offered him his purse and a home at  his
 house4 ,goldoni contented himself with 
borrowing ten sequins1 and1 in  lieu of 
the latter offer1 asked for letters of  
introduction at ,milan1  which were     
instantly given him4 ,these served him  
in good stead in that  capital4 ,the    
,venetian resident received him kindly1 
asked the object of  his journey1 and1  
when ,goldoni had recounted his         
adventure1 offered to  lend him money1  
which was declined4    ,amalassunta was 
the anchor of his hope1 and he lost no  
time in seeking  the actors and         

directors of the theatre4 ,he paid a    
visit to the first  ballerina1 whom he  
had formerly known1 and offered to read 
his opera to  her circle of actors1 and 
musicians1 and theatrical patrons4 ,his 
offer  was accepted3 he took the        
manuscript from his pocket1 and         
commenced--,amalassunta6 ,the chief     
actor1 ,caffariello1 began to object1   
in the first place1 to so long and      
ridiculous a name4 ,every one joined  in
 the laugh thus raised1 except the poor 
author1 who went on to read  the list of
 dramatis person4 ,new censure followed 
the too great number  of persons        
introduced2 and1 when it was found that 
the opera commenced  by a scene between 
the two principal actors1 he was told   
that would  never do3 the chief singers 
would never consent to begin during all 
the  bustle of the first entrance of the
 audience4 ,the criticisms multiplied   
as he went on1 till a kind amateur1     
count ,prata1 took him by the hand1     
and1 leading him into another room1     

asked him to read the opera to him      
alone4 ,poor ,goldoni consented1 and the
 whole piece was gone through4  ,when   
finished1 the count pointed out its     
defects1 not with regard to  plot and   
situation1 but to operatic rules2 how he
 had given airs of  passion and interest
 to secondary personages1 and curtailed 
the first of  what they considered their
 just proportion4 ,the count would have 
gone on  to find more fault1 but        
,goldoni begged him to take no more     
trouble1 and  took his leave4 ,he       
returned1 mortified and miserable1 to   
his inn4 ,his  first impulse was to burn
 his unlucky opera4 ,the waiter asked   
him if he  would sup4 ,no1 he replied1  
no supper1 only a good fire4 ,while this
  was making1 he looked over his poor   
,amalassunta3 it appeared to him  very  
beautiful1 and worthy of a better fate3 
the actors were in fault1  not it4 ,yet2
 after all his pains1 his hopes were    
fallen2 and1 in a fit  of desperation1  
he cast it on the flaming brands1 glad  

to see it burn1  and busy in collecting 
all the fragments1 that none might      
escape  destruction4 ,while thus        
employed1 he began to recollect that no 
disaster  which had yet happened to him1
 had ever caused him to go to bed       
supperless4 ,he recalled the waiter1    
ordered his repast1 ate it with a  good 
appetite1 and went to bed to sleep till 
morning4 ,it is no wonder  that love    
could exercise so little power over so  
well-regulated an  appetite6    ,the    
next morning he was obliged to reflect  
seriously on his desperate  situation1  
and he paid ,signor ,bartolini1 the     
,venetian resident1 a visit1  that he   
might consult with him4 ,he asked for a 
private interview1 and it  was granted2 
and then he related the occurrences of  
the previous  evening1 the impertinent  
criticisms of the actors1 and the       
decisive  judgment passed by count      
,prata1 and ended by declaring that he  
was  totally at a loss what to do4      
,bartolini laughed at his recital1 and  

asked to see the opera4 ,the opera8     
cried ,goldoni1 ,i have not got         
it6--,where is it1 then8--,i burnt it2  
and with it my hopes1 my  possessions1  
and my whole fortune4 ,the minister     
laughed still more at  this dnouement1  
and ended by offering him the situation 
of gentleman  in his palace1 with a good
 suite of rooms4 ,goldoni now found that
 he had  gained by his loss3 without    
doubt1 as he declares himself1 he was a 
lucky man1 and it was his own fault     
whenever he fell into misfortune4  ,yet 
he did this so frequently1 that the best
 part of his luck was that  cheerful    
buoyant disposition which never allowed 
him to be overwhelmed  by adversity1 and
 an integrity that always kept him from 
any  dishonourable scrape4              
,amalassunta was burnt1 but ,goldoni's  
predilection for theatricals  continued 
as strong as ever4 ,there arrived at    
,milan a singular man1  named ,buonafede
 ,vitali1 who had talents and knowledge 
enough to practise  as a regular        

physician1 but who preferred strolling  
as a mountebank1  under the name of the 
,anonymous4 ,as a part of the           
paraphernalia of his  trade1 he had with
 him a company of comedians4 ,goldoni   
sought out this  man1 who availed       
himself of his protection1 to obtain    
leave for his  company to act on the    
,milanese theatre4 ,there were several  
good actors  among them1 but their      
representations were made on the old    
,italian plan4  ,goldoni was            
particularly scandalised by a travestie 
of the story of  ,belisarius1 given out 
as a tragedy2 and1 to prevent the future
  degradation of historical names and   
sentiments1 he promised to write a      
tragedy on the subject1 but was         
interrupted by events of greater moment4
    ,the king of ,sardinia allying      
himself with ,france against the        
,austrians1  in the war of #agcc1 he    
sent an army of #ae1jjj men1 to which   
was added  some ,french troops1 to      
occupy ,milan4 ,that city being too wide

 in circuit  for defence1 it was forced 
to receive the soldiers2 who immediately
  entered on the siege of the citadel4  
,on this event1 the ,venetian  resident 
was ordered by his government to quit   
,milan1 and to take up his  abode at    
,crema3 he had before quarrelled with   
his secretary1 and he took  this        
opportunity to dismiss him1 and to      
install ,goldoni in his place4 ,he  was 
now fully employed1 and his situation   
was at once honourable and  lucrative2  
but soon after he lost the good graces  
of the minister1  though not from any   
fault of his own4 ,his brother had      
quitted the  ,venetian service1 and1    
seeking employment1 visited him at      
,crema4 ,he  introduced him to the      
governor1 who gave him the situation of 
gentleman  of his chamber1 formerly     
occupied by ,goldoni2 but both were     
violent and  irritable1 and they did not
 agree4 ,the resident dismissed his     
gentleman1  and no longer regarded      
,goldoni with the same favour as        

heretofore4 ,they  had a quarrel2       
,goldoni asked for his dismission1 and  
set out for ,modena1  where his mother  
was residing4    ,the country through   
which he passed on his way was the seat 
of war2  robbers took occasion of the   
unsettled state of the country1 and the 
roads were unsafe3 ,goldoni was the     
sufferer2 the little carriage in  which 
he travelled was attacked by five men1  
who robbed him of his  money1 watch1 and
 effects1 while he escaped across the   
country1 glad to  preserve the clothes  
he had on4 ,after running a long way1 he
 came to an  avenue of trees1 by which  
flowed a rivulet4 ,he drank of its      
waters in  the hollow of his hand1 and  
then1 fatigued in body1 but more        
composed in  mind1 he proceeded quietly 
along the avenue1 till he encountered   
some  peasants1 to whom he related his  
misfortune1 and who in return told him  
that there were a set of outlaws who    
took advantage of the war to attack  not
 only travellers1 but gentlemen's seats 

and cottages2 while a number  of men of 
some wealth near1 who had formed        
themselves into a company to  purchase  
the spoils of war1 became their         
accomplices by becoming the  purchasers 
of the stolen goods4 ,such1 exclaims    
,goldoni1 are the  miseries of war1     
which fall alike upon friends and       
enemies1 and ruin the  innocent6 ,the   
sun was now declining1 and the peasants 
offered ,goldoni a  part of their       
supper1 of which1 notwithstanding his   
disaster1 he partook  with appetite4    
,they then guided him to a village1 and 
recommended him to  the care of the     
curate1 who received him hospitably4 ,to
 him he related  his adventures1 making 
his manuscript tragedy of ,belisarius1  
then in  his pocket1 the principal hero 
of the tale4 ,he was invited to read it4
  ,the curate1 two abbs1 and the        
servants of the house1 were his         
audience2 and they all applauded it with
 enthusiasm4 ,the offers and  kindness  
of these good simple-hearted people     

filled ,goldoni with  gratitude4        
,unwilling1 however1 to burden them with
 his maintenance1 he  hastened to take  
leave2 the curate lent him his horse1   
and sent his  servant with him to defray
 the expenses of the day's journey to   
,brescia4    ,from ,brescia1 ,goldoni   
proceeded to ,verona4 ,he was in a      
deplorable  situation2 he only possessed
 a few sequins1 lent him by an          
adventurer  whom he met by accident at  
,brescia2 but with ,belisarius in his   
pocket1  he did not fear the enmity of  
fortune1 and ,belisarius did not prove  
so  false a friend as ,amalassunta4     
,when at ,verona1 he went to the        
celebrated amphitheatre1 a portion of   
which was arranged as a theatre1  and   
here a drama was about to be performed4 
,to his infinite joy1 he  discovered in 
the principal actor a man who had formed
 one in the  companions of the          
mountebank at ,milan1 and for whom he   
had promised to  write ,belisarius4 ,he 
instantly went behind the scenes1 and   

was  welcomed with joy4 ,he was on the  
moment installed poet to the company4   
,belisarius was read1 approved1 and the 
parts distributed4 ,in the month  of    
,september they proceeded to ,venice4   
,goldoni was presented to the           
proprietor of the theatre1 who received 
him with kindness4 ,on the #bdth  of    
,november1 #agcd1 he being then         
twenty-seven years of age1 ,belisarius  
was acted1 and met with the most        
complete success4 ,all actors in ,italy 
are strollers1 and looked upon with a   
good deal of contempt4 ,goldoni  might  
have been expected to regret the        
exchange he had made from the           
honourable profession of an advocate1   
for that of poet to a theatre2 but  his 
light heart and easy temper were not to 
be afflicted by trifles of  this nature1
 and the talent that perpetually        
impelled him to take  interest in       
theatricals1 prevented him from feeling 
degraded by his  association with the   
professors of the art3 and their        

existence and all  its vicissitudes bear
 another aspect under a sunny sky1 and  
amidst a  laughter-loving people1       
unspoilt by pride4 ,goldoni had much of 
the  spirit of ,gil ,blas in his        
disposition1 and possessed in his own   
person  all the talent which belongs1   
not to the hero of that book1 but its   
author4 ,several pieces1 operas1 and    
interludes of his were brought out2  and
 in the spring he accompanied the actors
 to ,padua and to ,friuli1  where1      
leaving them1 he returned to ,venice to 
see his mother1 who had  arrived there  
from ,modena4 ,his success as an author1
 and the talent he  displayed1 raised   
him in the estimation of his            
fellow-citizens4 ,his  relations crowded
 around him2 and he repaid their        
kindness by relating  his adventures to 
his old uncles and aunts1 making those  
laugh1 who had  never laughed before4   
,in ,september the actors returned to   
,venice1 and he  recommenced his        
labours1 which were not all literary1   

but interspersed  by those occasioned by
 the jealousy of the actors1 or rather  
of the  actresses4 ,after the winter    
season had passed1 he consented to      
accompany  the manager to ,genoa and    
,florence1 and was glad1 without        
expense1 to  visit two of the most      
celebrated cities of ,italy4    ,he was 
delighted with the aspect of ,genoa2 and
 the first good fortune  that happened  
to him1 was to gain #bjj crowns in the  
lottery2 the second1  to marry a girl1  
who1 he tells us1 was beautiful1        
virtuous1 and  prudent1 and who1 after  
all he had suffered from the treachery  
of women1  reconciled him to the sex4   
,his acquaintance began in the true     
,italian style3 he saw her at an        
opposite window1 and1 pleased with her  
appearance1 saluted her4 ,she  curtsied1
 and hastily withdrew1 nor again        
presenting herself at the  window4 ,his 
curiosity was thus excited2 he made     
enquiries1 and learnt  that her father's
 name was ,corrio2 that he was a notary1

 with a large  family and small fortune4
 ,he contrived to make acquaintance1 and
 within  a month asked permission to    
marry his daughter4 ,the affair was soon
  concluded3 he was married in ,july2   
and1 omitting the promised visit to     
,florence1 returned to ,venice at the   
beginning of ,september4    ,hitherto   
,goldoni's pieces had been rifaccimenti 
of old dramas4  ,griselda1 ,don         
,giovanni1 and ,rinaldo di ,mont'       
,albano1 were  melodramas or tragedies1 
written in the old style4 ,but at this  
time1  finding that the company of      
actors at ,venice1 through various      
changes1  had become one of great       
excellence1 he began to think the time  
arrived  when he might enter on the     
reform of the ,italian theatre1 which he
 had  long meditated3 he commenced      
writing comedies of character1 which are
  the genuine source of the dramatic    
merit1 following the example of         
,molire1 who had surpassed all ancient  
models1 and even now stands  alone1 as  

the first comic writer in the world4    
,was ,i wrong1 he asks1  in presuming to
 enter upon such an undertaking8 for my 
natural bent  leading me to write       
comedies1 excellence in the art was the 
proper aim  of my endeavours4    ,the   
old comedy in ,italy was on a singular  
system3 there were four masks  on which 
all the farcical incidents turned4      
,pantaloon1 a ,venetian  merchant1 who  
was the father of the heroine2 a        
garrulous1 kind-hearted  old gentleman4 
,the doctor1 a ,bolognese1 also an old  
man1 whose learning  was opposed to     
,pantaloon's simplicity3 and two        
,bergamese servants4  ,brighella and    
,harlequin4 ,brighella1 a clever rogue2 
,harlequin1 a greedy  simpleton2 his    
many-coloured clothes symbolising the   
poverty that forced  a patched garment4 
,the actors who filled these respective 
parts seldom  played any others4 ,it    
required ready wit and cleverness2 for  
the plot  only being sketched1 and the  
scenes indicated1 the dialogue was left 

to  their own invention4 ,of course1 no 
great refinement could be expected3     
practical tricks and broad jokes were   
sure to command the laughter and        
applause of the audience2 while1 there  
being in the ,italian character         
something peculiarly adapted to         
extempore exercises of the intellect1   
and a vivacity that renders them good   
actors1 many people regarded this  rude 
but amusing effort at drama1 as         
something at once so national and  so   
genuine1 as rendered it preferable to   
the studied productions of the  closet4 
,goldoni1 on the contrary1 saw farce    
take place of comedy1 and  the whole    
action and conduct of the piece often   
sacrificed to the  petulance of a       
favourite mask2 while no real           
sentimental interest1 nor  any comic    
incident out of the common routine1     
could be introduced4 ,he  proceeded1    
however1 slowly in the reform he        
meditated4 ,at first writing  only the  
more serious portions of his plays2 then

 the parts of the masks  themselves1 and
 only after some time1 and at intervals1
 dispensing with  them altogether4 ,nor1
 at the time of which we are writing1   
did he bring  out any of his best       
dramas2 though those which he did       
produce were  eminently successful4     
,to add to the respectability1 and1 as  
he hoped1 to the emoluments of his      
situation1 the relations of his wife    
obtained for him the ,genoese           
consulship at ,venice4 ,this office1    
however1 turned out more honourable     
than lucrative3 no salary attended it1  
and the fees did not amount to  more    
than #ajj crowns a year4 ,to do the     
republic he served honour1 he had  taken
 a better house and increased his number
 of servants1 and found  himself        
considerably embarrassed4 ,to add to    
these annoyances1 his income  from      
,modena failed him2 and he came to a    
resolution to make a journey1  with the 
triple object of bringing out a comedy  
with a part for a  favourite actress at 

,bologna1 to solicit a salary at ,genoa1
 and to look  after his possessions at  
,modena3 the first object failed before 
he set  out1 through the sudden death of
 the actress1 while an unexpected       
disaster rendered the two latter even   
more imperative than before4 ,his       
brother1 who was out of employ1         
introduced to him a ,ragusan of         
agreeable  and gentlemanly manners4 ,he 
asserted that he was sent on the secret 
service of raising a regiment of #bjjj  
men for his state4 ,he showed his       
commission as colonel1 offered a company
 to ,goldoni's brother1 and the  office 
of auditor1 or judge1 to the author4    
,goldoni1 always  easy-tempered and     
credulous1 though a little frightened by
 the danger  incurred if the ,venetian  
state should come to suspect these      
proceedings1  was soon talked over1 and1
 on an alleged emergency1 lent the man a
 large  sum of money4 ,the fellow was an
 adventurer3 he ran off with the money1 
and left ,goldoni so disagreeably       

implicated by his tricks1 that he       
judged that his only resource was to    
quit ,venice on the instant4 ,the       
,ragusan had disappeared on the #aeth of
 ,september1 and on the #ahth of the    
same month ,goldoni and his wife        
embarked for ,bologna4    ,sidenote3    
#agda4  tat4  #cd4    ,their journey was
 full of many accidents of flood and    
field4 ,the  melancholy and             
thoughtfulness occasioned by his        
disaster vanished under  the influence  
of his happy temperament2 and his wife  
was even better  skilled than he in that
 best philosophy which makes light of   
worldly  misfortunes4 ,on their arrival 
at ,bologna1 he was surrounded by the   
directors of theatres1 who asked for    
comedies4 ,he gave them three1 and      
wrote another on the subject of the     
,ragusan swindler1 in which he          
comforted himself1 and dissipated the   
rest of his regrets1 by  representing to
 the life all the actors in that too    
real drama4 ,this  task concluded1 he   

was about to proceed to ,modena1 when he
 heard that  the duke was absent at the 
,spanish camp at ,rimini1 and that his  
best  chance of pursuing his claims was 
to accompany ,ferramonti1 a celebrated  
pantaloon1 to the latter town2 where1 in
 default of justice being done  him by  
his sovereign1 he might have a further  
resource in the company of  actors to   
which this comedian belonged4 ,this     
latter staff turned out the  stoutest of
 the two3 the duke changed the          
conversation when ,goldoni  mentioned   
his claims on the ducal bank2 but as    
long as the carnival  lasted1 he        
supplied the actors with dramas1 and    
lived a comfortable life  at ,rimini4   
,at length it became necessary to depart
 for ,genoa4 ,the armies  which then    
occupied the country rendered it        
impossible to get horses2  and he and   
some other travellers agreed to embark  
for ,pesaro4 ,the sea  was high1 the    
passengers suffered3 weary of their sea 
voyage1 they  disembarked half way1 at  

,cattolica1 and1 leaving their effects  
to the  care of servants1 proceeded in a
 cart to ,pesaro4    ,a new misfortune  
here awaited him4 ,the ,spanish army had
 changed  quarters1 and were replaced by
 their enemies1 the ,austrians4 ,the    
soldiers entered ,cattolica1 and seized 
on the boat1 the servants1 and  the     
effects of the unlucky passengers4 ,all 
was lost3 trunks and  band-boxes1       
dresses and jewels1 were the spoil of   
the ravagers3 even the  signora ,goldoni
 was moved by so overwhelming a         
calamity3 but some remedy  was to be    
found4 ,goldoni resolved to apply in    
person to the ,austrian  officers for   
the restitution of his property2 and his
 wife1 with great  cheerfulness1        
prepared to accompany him4 ,pesaro is   
ten miles distant  from ,cattolica3 with
 great difficulty they hired a carriage 
to take  them4 ,the vetturino was very  
averse to the job1 but showed no signs  
of  discontent4 ,when three miles from  
,pesaro1 the pair alighted to walk a    

short distance2 and the cunning fellow1 
seizing the opportunity1 turned  his    
horses' heads1 and gallopped back to    
,pesaro1 leaving them in the  middle of 
the road4 ,no house1 no living being was
 to be seen2 the  inhabitants had fled  
on the arrival of the armies4 ,signora  
,goldoni began  to cry4 ,courage6 said  
the husband2 it is but six miles to     
,cattolica3  we are young and strong2 it
 will not do to turn back2 let us walk  
on4  ,the journey was not1 however1 an  
easy one2 the road was crossed by       
several torrents1 and the bridges were  
broken4 ,goldoni carried his wife  over 
the swollen streams2 but they had been  
obliged to make a circuit in  search of 
a ford1 and found themselves fatigued   
beyond measure4 ,at  length they arrived
 at the first advanced post of the      
,austrians4 ,goldoni  presented the     
passport with which he came provided1   
and they were  conducted to the         
commanding officer4 ,the colonel at     
first took them for  two wandering      

pedestrians2 but1 reading the passport1 
he made them sit  down1 and1 looking    
kindly on them1 said3 ,what1 are you    
signor  ,goldoni8--,alas6 ,yes1 replied 
the other4 ,author of ',belisarius8'--,i
  am indeed4--,and this lady is the     
signora ,goldoni8--,she is the last     
good ,i possess in the world4--,i hear  
you came on foot4--,alas6 sir1  you     
heard the truth4 ,goldoni now explained 
the nature of his  expedition1 and the  
officer reassured him3 he restored his  
luggage1 and  liberated his servant1    
and1 happy in the recovery of their     
property1  ,goldoni and his wife        
returned to ,rimini4    ,after spending 
some weeks happily in this town1 he set 
out on a tour  through ,tuscany1 meaning
 to proceed afterwards to ,genoa4 ,he   
visited  ,florence1 ,siena1 ,volterra1  
and then arrived at ,pisa4 ,while       
walking  about to see the liens of this 
town1 he passed by a palace1 and1       
perceiving that a great concourse of    
people were entering its gates1 he      

looked through1 and saw a large court1  
and the company all seated in a  circle 
round4 ,he asked a servant in livery1   
who waited1 what the  occasion was of so
 large an assembly4 ,that assembly1     
replied the man1  is a colony of the    
,arcadians of ,rome1 called the ,alphean
 colony2 that  is1 the colony of        
,alpheus1 a celebrated river of ,greece1
 which flows  near the ancient ,pisa of 
,aulis4 ,goldoni asked if he might make 
one of  the audience1 and the servant   
ushered him to a seat4 ,after a variety 
of  pieces of poetry had been read1 he  
sent the servant round to ask if a      
stranger might be permitted to recite2  
and1 on being answered in the           
affirmative1 he repeated an old sonnet  
of his1 which1 with a little            
alteration1 seemed extemporised  propos 
for the occasion4 ,the ,pisans1  charmed
 at once by the compliment and the      
talent of the stranger1  crowded round  
him4 ,he made many acquaintances1 was   
invited to their  houses1 and their     

cordial kindness seemed at one time to  
change the  whole tenour of his life for
 ever4 ,for1 invited and pressed by     
them1 and  promised protection and      
patronage1 he became a pleader once     
again1 and  for three years practised at
 the ,pisan bar4 ,briefs flowed in1     
clients  were numerous1 all were        
satisfied1 and ,goldoni1 content with   
his lot1  abjured the theatre4 ,he was  
too well known to be without temptations
 to  break his resolution3 actors wrote 
to him for plays1 and he tried to       
refuse1 and then1 yielding to the       
desire1 he wrote pieces for them in     
hours borrowed from sleep1 and gave his 
days entire to his profession4  ,still  
law and the drama contended for him1 and
 his heart was with the  latter1 though 
he tried to turn his back on her1 and to
 devote himself  to her rival4 ,but he  
lost the game4 ,a manager1 named        
,mendebac1 arrived  at ,pisa with a     
company4 ,goldoni went to see the       
representations4 ,they  acted his comedy

 of ,la ,donna di ,garbo1 which he      
considered his best  piece3 he had      
written it for a favourite actress2 but 
she died1 and he  had never seen it     
acted4 ,the wife of the manager was     
young1 beautiful1  and a good performer1
 and she took the part of the ,donna di 
,garbo4 ,it is  difficult exactly to    
translate1 in one word1 this expression3
 as used by  the ,tuscans it means1 the 
worthy woman--the woman whose conduct is
  upright and estimable4 ,the heroine of
 the piece1 however1 deserves more  the 
name of the cunning than the worthy2 and
 her chief merit consists in  her       
success4 ,rosaura is the daughter of a  
lace-maker of ,pavia2 and her  mother's 
house being frequented by many of the   
students and professors  of the         
university1 she acquires a good deal of 
the scholastic pedantry  of the schools4
 ,she is seduced by a student1 who      
deserts her2 on which1  for the sake of 
revenge1 she gets1 herself introduced as
 a servant into  the house of his       

father1 where1 by pleasing every body1  
and adapting  herself to their humours1 
and by great display of learning1 she   
hopes to  force her lover into a        
marriage1 and succeeds4 ,this is by no  
means one  of the best of ,goldoni's    
comedies1 but it pleased on the stage2  
and on  this occasion the principal part
 being filled up by the wife of the     
manager1 who was a clever actress1 it   
met with the greatest approbation4      
,goldoni1 warmed by success1 enticed by 
the offers of the manager1 and  drawn on
 by the instinctive bent of his         
disposition1 suddenly resolved  to leave
 ,pisa and the profession which he was  
pursuing with so much  advantage1 and   
returning to ,venice1 to enter again on 
the task of  writing comedies for its   
theatre4 ,such a determination was      
sufficiently  strange and imprudent2 but
 ,goldoni's love for his art was such1  
that he  never regretted the sacrifice  
he made2 on the contrary1 being now     
wholly  devoted to the drama1 his       

enthusiasm rose1 and1 filled with       
projects for  its reform1 he worked with
 an ardour1 which was rewarded by       
success1 and  which inspired his best   
pieces4    ,it is1 perhaps1 difficult   
for a person who has never visited      
,italy to  enter with zest into all the 
merits of ,goldoni4 ,his perfect        
fidelity to  nature1 the ease of his    
dialogue1 and the dramatic effect of his
 pieces1  can only be entirely          
appreciated in the representation4 ,the 
best of them  have often a slight plot1 
but the interest is kept alive by the   
variety  of the dialogue4 ,it was only  
slowly1 however1 that he proceeded to   
the  reform of the ,italian comedy2 the 
substitution of natural incident for    
violent and forced situations1 and the  
higher properties of comedy for  the    
mere burlesque of farce4 ,obliged to    
bring out his plays in quick            
succession1 they are1 of course1        
unequal1 and did not meet always with   
the same approbation4 ,unfortunately1   

his first season ended with a piece     
which had no success4 ,the company for  
which he wrote1 had to contend  with    
others1 longer established in the city2 
and2 at the end of the  carnival2 these 
circumstances combined to afford a      
dreary prospect for  the following year4
 ,at this moment ,goldoni stepped       
forward in the most  singular manner2 to
 the assistance of the manager4 ,he     
publicly promised  sixteen new comedies 
for the next season2 and the audience1  
wondering  and anxious1 instantly       
engaged all the boxes4 ,his enemies     
ridiculed1 his  friends trembled for    
him2 but he felt secure that he could   
fulfil his  engagement1 although at the 
moment he had not conceived the plot or 
plan  of one of the promised sixteen4   
,this certainly was a great stretch of  
invention and mental labour4 ,out  of   
the sixteen1 for he completed the whole 
number1 there were not more  than three 
or four mediocre ones1 and some were    
among his best4 ,the  ,donne            

,puntigliose1 or ,punctilious ,ladies1  
is exceedingly amusing4 ,a  ,sicilian   
trader's wife from the country1 desires 
to be received among  the noble ladies  
of ,palermo3 she contrives to get       
herself invited to  small parties1 where
 there are many men1 and no lady except 
the mistress  of the house2 but finds it
 impossible to get admitted to their    
ceremonious assemblies4 ,at last1 an old
 countess1 high-born1 but poor1         
promises to give a ball1 to which she   
shall be invited1 on certain            
conditions1 to which the low-born lady  
readily consents1 though they  draw     
rather largely on her purse4 ,but to her
 consternation1 as soon as  she enters  
the ball-room1 every woman flies as if  
she brought infection  with her1 and    
leaves her alone with her hostess4 ,the 
punctilious  scruples of those who try  
to make use of her without derogating   
from  their own dignity1 and who are    
ever ready to receive1 but never to     
confer favours1 form a very amusing     

picture of manners4 ,pamela was  among  
the most successful of these pieces4    
,richardson's novel of  ,pamela is a    
great favourite with the ,italians2 and 
,goldoni was often  asked to write a    
drama on the subject4 ,as the ,venetian 
laws are severe  against the children of
 a msalliance1 he considers the         
catastrophe  of the novel as not        
inculcating a recommendable line of     
conduct4 ,he1  therefore1 transformed   
,gaffer ,andrews into a ,scottish lord  
of the  rebellion of '#de1 and gave     
,pamela good blood to render her        
marriage with  her lover a commendable  
act on his part4 ,this comedy had the   
greatest  success4 ,the ,donna ,prudente
 was equally a favourite4 ,the story is 
founded on a jealous husband1 afraid of 
ridicule1 who is tortured by the        
attentions of the cavaliere servente of 
his wife1 yet who dares not  encounter  
the laughter that would ensue if he     
forbade the service4 ,the  prudent lady 
exerts herself with success to get rid  

of her cavaliere  without its being     
supposed that her conduct arises from   
her husband's  jealousy4 ,the last of   
his sixteen was a purely ,venetian      
subject1 written  almost entirely in the
 ,venetian dialect3 it is called ,i     
,pettegollezzi1  or ,the ,gossipings1   
and turns on the misfortunes brought on 
the heroine  through the gossip of her  
female acquaintances4 ,it was brought on
 the  last day of carnival4 ,the        
concourse1 ,goldoni writes1 was so      
immense1  that the price of the boxes   
was tripled and quadrupled2 and the     
applause  was so tumultuous1 that those 
who passed near the theatre were        
uncertain  whether the sound was that of
 mere plaudits1 or of a general revolt4 
,i  remained tranquil in my box1        
surrounded by my friends1 who cried for 
joy4 ,when all was over1 a crowd of     
people came for me1 forced me to        
accompany them1 and carried1 or rather  
dragged1 me to the ,ridotto1 and        
overwhelmed me with compliments1 from   

which ,i would fain have escaped4 ,i    
was too tired to support all this       
ceremony2 and1 besides1 not knowing     
whence all this enthusiasm sprang1 ,i   
was angry that the piece just           
represented should be more extolled than
 many others which were of  greater     
merit4 ,by degrees ,i discovered the    
true motive of the general  acclamation3
 it celebrated the triumph of my        
fulfilled engagement4    ,goldoni was   
now forty-three years of age4 ,his      
invention had not yet  fallen off1 but  
he tried his strength too much4 ,an     
illness was the  consequence of this    
extraordinary exertion1 and he felt the 
effects of  it all his life after2 yet  
during the ensuing season he brought out
  scarcely a smaller number1 and1 as he 
proceeded1 attained a yet purer  style  
of comedy2 and he became the censor of  
the manners1 and satirist  of the       
follies1 of his country4 ,the peculiar  
system of what is called  service1 paid 
by gentlemen to the ladies of their     

choice1 all over  ,italy1 would have    
presented an ample field both for       
ridicule and  reprehension1 could he    
have ventured on it openly2 but he was  
obliged to  treat it with the same      
reserve1 when bringing it on the stage1 
as is  used when it is spoken of in     
society2 and he could attack only the   
ridicule1 not the real evils of the     
system4 ,this comedy1 called the        
,villeggiatura1 which turns on this     
subject1 is particularly amusing2  but  
it can scarcely be called an attack upon
 it4 ,an ,italian gentleman1  returned  
lately from ,paris1 offers to serve a   
lady in the ,french manner3  he is not  
to perform those thousand services      
required of the cavaliere  servente1 nor
 to attend on her1 nor to be of any use 
or amusement to  her3 they are to be    
friends secretly2 and1 to preserve their
 friendship  more sacredly1 they must   
abstain from nearly all intercourse with
 each  other4 ,the lady1 accustomed to  
be constantly waited upon1 and to find  

in  her cavaliere a resource against the
 ennui of solitude1 is at a loss to     
understand the good that is to result   
from a negative of all the  ordinary    
uses of friendship4 ,the ,smanie della  
,villeggiatura attacks  another of the  
foibles of the ,venetians4 ,it is their 
custom1 each  autumn1 to spend several  
weeks at their country seats2 but1      
instead of  this being a period of      
economy and retirement1 it was the      
fashion to  invite their friends1 and to
 transport with them the dissipation of 
the  city4 ,besides this1 it being      
necessary1 as a mark of fashion1 to     
retire  to a villa1 those who were poor1
 and did not possess one1 fancied       
themselves obliged to hire a house1 and 
to go beyond their wealthier  neighbours
 in the number of their guests and the  
splendour of their  entertainments3 nor 
can any idea be formed out of the       
country of the  sort of fanaticism with 
which this custom was pursued2 even to  
the  bringing ruin on those who imagined

 themselves forced to so unnecessary  an
 expense4 ,goldoni wrote three comedies 
on this subject3 the first  consisted in
 describing the preparations for the    
villeggiatura1 or visit  to the country4
 ,it has for its subject the            
difficulties of a a poor  proud family1 
who were bent on following the general  
example2 the  thousand obstacles that   
rendered it almost impracticable2 and   
the envy  with which they view and vie  
with the preparations of their wealthier
  acquaintance4 ,at length they depart  
triumphant1 resolving to forget  their  
debts and difficulties until their      
return4 ,the second comedy  consists of 
the adventures in the country2 where1 in
 the midst of  gambling1 pleasure1 and  
apparent enjoyment1 a thousand          
annoyances  distract1 and jealousy and  
envy prevent1 all real happiness4 ,the  
third  comedy1 of the return from the   
country1 shows the unfortunate lovers of
  rural pleasures overwhelmed by debt2  
surrounded by a thousand  difficulties1 

sprung up while there2 and saved only1  
when on the verge  of ruin1 by a kind   
and prudent friend who assists them1 on 
their promise  never to undertake a     
villeggiatura again4 ,these plays are   
without the  masks1 and give a perfect  
representation of ,italian conversation 
and  manners4 ,as he wished to criticise
 the ,venetians1 he did not venture to  
place the scene at ,venice2 but the     
audience easily brought home to         
themselves the faults and follies of the
 ,tuscans or ,neapolitans4 ,in thus     
making a detail of some of the best of  
his plays1 it is impossible to do  more 
than to indicate those which appear the 
best worth reading4 ,the  ,vedova       
,scaltra1 or ,the ,gay ,widow1 was a    
great favourite in ,italy4 ,a  rich     
widow1 with four lovers from four       
different nations1 seeks from  each a   
proof of love1 and gives her hand to the
 ,italian1 who1 by his  jealousy1       
evinces1 she imagines1 the sincerest    
testimony of the tender  passion4 ,the  

,feudatario has in it more of farce than
 he usually  admits1 and is peculiarly  
amusing2 as well as the ,donna del      
,maneggio1  or ,managing ,lady1 whose   
avaricious husband1 after incurring a   
thousand  ridiculous disasters1 ends by 
placing the disposal of his property in 
his wife's hands4 ,it would be too long 
and uninteresting to enter on  even this
 brief notice of more2 but we may       
mention the titles of some of  his best1
 to guide any one who wishes to read    
only a portion of the vast  quantity he 
wrote3 among these may be named ,il     
,cavaliere e la ,dama1  ,il vero ,amico1
 ,la ,moglie ,saggia1 ,l',avanturiere   
,onorato1 ,molire  e ,terenzio1 which he
 names himself as the favourite         
offspring of his  pen4    ,he spent many
 years thus respectably and happily4 ,he
 loved his wife and  his domestic       
circle4 ,the applause of a theatre      
perpetually ringing in  his ears1 he was
 gratified by the consciousness that he 
was reforming  the national taste4      

,sometimes he was attacked for what he  
considered the  chief merit of his      
dramas4 ,the advocates of the old comedy
 condemned his  new style as puerile and
 tame4 ,he defended himself1 and was    
satisfied  that he obtained the victory4
 ,during the summer1 when the theatres  
at  ,venice were closed1 he visited the 
various cities of ,italy2 and his life  
was diversified1 and his invention      
refreshed1 by these occasional tours4   
,he had reason to be dissatisfied with  
the manager1 ,mendebac1 who had  allured
 him from ,pisa1 as he not only was     
illiberal enough not to add to  his     
salary on these extraordinary efforts1  
but appropriated the profits  arising   
from the publication of his works4      
,goldoni was unwilling to  enter into a 
lawsuit with him2 he contented himself1 
therefore1 by  bringing out an edition  
of his play at ,florence2 and as soon as
 his five  years' engagement with       
,mendebac was over1 he transferred      
himself to the  theatre of ,san ,luca1  

on terms at once more advantageous and  
honourable4    ,with some few reverses1 
attendant on an entire change of actors1
 and his  ignorance of the peculiar     
abilities of the company1 to which he   
was not  accustomed1 his career on this 
new stage was equally successful4 ,he   
wrote several comedies in verse1 which  
became peculiar favourites4 ,this       
success was the occasion of his being   
invited to ,rome during the  carnival3  
but his dramas did not succeed so well  
there4 ,the actors1  unaccustomed to his
 style1 were unable to give them with   
any effect1 and  the ,roman audience    
called out for ,puncinello4    ,in      
#agej1 he received an offer from the    
,french court of an engagement for  two 
years1 on very advantageous terms4      
,goldoni hesitated a little about       
accepting it4 ,a few years before1 his  
brother had returned to ,venice1 a      
widower1 with two children4 ,goldoni    
gave up to him all his property in      
,modena1 and adopted the children1      

having none of his own4 ,he made a good 
income in ,italy2 but he had no         
provision for old age3 still he was     
unwilling to leave his native           
country--whose climate and people were  
dear to him--where he was honoured1     
loved1 and applauded4 ,he made some     
enquiries with regard to the possibility
 of getting a pension from the          
,venetian government2 but this appearing
 a vain hope1 he considered it  right to
 close with the offer of the king of    
,france4 ,he hesitated the  more before 
taking this step1 as1 although the      
engagement in question  was but for two 
years1 he felt that1 once in ,paris1 and
 acquiring an  honourable maintenance1  
it was probable that he should never see
 ,italy  again4    ,during the carnival 
of #agfa1 the last pieces he wrote for  
the ,venetian  theatre were represented3
 one1 the last acted1 was a sort of     
allegorical  leave-taking1 which was so 
understood by the audience2 and the     
acclamations and adieus of the public   

moved him to tears4 ,he left ,venice  in
 ,april #agfa1 accompanied by his wife4 
,his mother was dead2 his niece  he     
placed in a convent1 under the          
superintendence of a respectable  family
 at ,venice2 his nephew was soon to     
follow him4 ,as he passed  through      
,italy1 on his way to ,france1 he was   
received at the various  towns with     
distinction and kindness4 ,he spent some
 little time at ,genoa1  with his wife's
 relations1 and then they proceeded by  
slow stages to  ,paris4    ,goldoni's   
dbt as an author in the ,french capital 
was not a happy  one4 ,the ,italian     
comedians there were not accustomed to  
regular  comedies1 which they were to   
learn by heart1 but to the old style of 
their native farce1 where the plot and  
arrangement of the scenes were  all that
 was written1 and they filled up the    
dialogue themselves4  ,goldoni wrote two
 or three pieces for them on this plan  
without success4  ,his stay in ,paris   
was1 however1 decided by the post of    

,italian master to  the daughters of    
,louis ,,xv4 being bestowed on him4 ,he 
knew so little of  ,french1 that he     
gained as much knowledge from the       
princesses as he  imparted to them4 ,his
 salary was very slender1 but it was    
increased in  the sequel2 and his nephew
 also was provided for by the post of   
,italian  teacher in the military       
school4    ,goldoni was charmed by the  
,french actors2 and his ambition was    
excited  to write a comedy to be        
represented by the excellent comedians  
who then  flourished4 ,his desire was   
fulfilled to the utmost4 ,he brought out
 ,le  ,bourru ,bienfaisant1 into which  
he endeavoured to instil the spirit of  
,french dialogue and plot with great    
success2 so that ,voltaire praises it   
as the best ,french comedy written since
 ,molire4 ,he wrote another on  the same
 plan2 but it fell to the ground1 and he
 at last desisted from  adding to the   
immense number of pieces of which he is 
the author4    ,he lived tranquilly and 

content with his moderate means4 ,his   
niece was  married at ,venice2 his      
nephew settled happily at ,paris4 ,the  
revolution  did not1 fortunately1       
disturb the repose of his last years4   
,the ,national  ,convention confirmed   
his pension to him1 and continued it to 
his widow  after his death4 ,goldoni    
died in the year #agib1 at the age of   
eighty-five4 ,no man was ever more born 
for the career which he pursued4  ,his  
heart was excellent1 and his disposition
 gay4 ,he never allowed  himself to be  
cast down by adversity1 and met the     
attacks of his enemies  with good       
humour1 or such replies as caused the   
laugh to be on his side4  ,he is        
numbered by his countrymen as among the 
best of their authors1--an  opinion     
confirmed by all those sufficiently     
cognisant with the ,italian  language   
and manners to enter into the spirit of 
his compositions4          ,,alfieri    
#agdi-ahjc4      ,the ,italian poets of 
the early ages were eminently           

distinguished for  their patriotism4    
,the haughty spirit of ,dante burst     
forth into indignant  denunciations     
against the oppressors of his country2  
the gentler1 but  not less fervent1     
,petrarch was never weary of adjuring   
its rulers to  bestow upon it the       
blessings of justice and peace2 and the 
latter years  of ,boccaccio's life were 
ennobled by his public services1 and his
  earnest endeavours to implant a love  
and reverence for literature in the     
minds of his countrymen4 ,the pages of  
,roman history and the writings of      
,roman poets made them proud of the     
country which had given them birth1  and
 which added to its moral grandeur1 of  
having been once the sovereign  and     
civiliser of the world1--the natural    
affection inspired by its  being1 from  
its fertility1 the diversity of its     
woods1 lakes1 and  mountains1 and       
surrounding sea1 the most beautiful     
country upon earth4    ,the national    
spirit died away in after times4 ,the   

devastating wars  carried on in the     
,peninsula by ,france and the emperor1  
the rise of minor  principalities1 and  
the struggles of rival states1 so       
excited the  passions and absorbed the  
interests of the ,italians1 that they   
became  incapable of enlarged views for 
the good of their country4 ,the         
depressing influence of courtly         
servitude checked the free spirit of the
  writers2 ,ariosto and ,tasso were both
 conspicuous for personal  independence 
of character2 but they did not extend   
their love of liberty  to any exertions 
for the redemption of ,italy4 ,a darker 
day was at hand4  ,the ,peninsula1      
divided and weakened1 became a mere     
province4 ,a ,spanish  viceroy reigned  
over ,naples1 and the northern portion  
was controlled by  ,france and ,austria4
 ,the ,italians were taught to take     
pride in the  virtues of slaves2 in     
submission1 patience1 and repose4 ,the  
prosperity  of the country was gone1 its
 trade destroyed1 its armies            

annihilated4 ,no  scope was given to    
generous ambition2 no career offered1 by
 entering on  which a man might exercise
 the peculiar privilege of the          
free--that of  instructing their fellow 
countrymen3 to be inoffensive to the    
ruling  powers was the aim of all4 ,the 
love of money--not the love of gain1 for
  to gain was impossible1 but mere      
parsimony1 arising from the necessity   
of regarding the domestic expenditure as
 the only business of  life--engrossed  
the fathers of families2 the women were 
uneducated and  degraded1 and though    
they preserved1 as is often the case in 
a depraved  state of society1 a nature  
more generous1 artless1 and kindly than 
the  other sex1 yet these virtuous      
feelings found no scope for their       
developement1 except in the passion of  
love4 ,while the law of  primogeniture  
interested not only the large class of  
younger sons1 but  even the heads of    
families1 who wished to prevent their   
children from  marrying1 to establish a 

system of society1 which1 beginning by  
subverting the best principles of       
morality1 ended by destroying all       
social happiness4 ,while the higher     
orders were thus occupied by            
money-saving and intrigue1 the lower    
orders were tamed by hard labour1  and  
rendered submissive by the priests4 ,the
 writers were the servants of  princes3 
they administered to the pleasures of   
their countrymen1 without  uttering one 
word that could call them from their    
state of debasement1  or inspire a love 
of the active and disinterested virtues4
    ,full of talent as the ,italians    
are1 and formed by nature for the       
noblest  scenes of action1 doubtless    
many a village ,hampden was born and    
died  in obscurity and inaction2 and yet
 this expression gives rise to a false  
notion4 ,the peasants of ,italy have no 
education1 and1 although  infinitely    
superior in talent1 perhaps1 to any     
other peasantry in the  world1 are      
incapable of that generalisation of     

ideas which produces  patriotism4 ,but1 
among the better sort of gentry1--men of
 simple habits  and strong good sense1  
among the men of science and the        
professors at  the universities1--there 
were individuals who mourned over the   
ruin of  ,italy4 ,these men did not so  
much dwell on the ancient greatness of  
,rome1  as on the achievements of their 
countrymen during the middle ages4      
,literature had been revived by them2   
the arts had flourished among them3     
they were proud of the past1 but they   
despaired of the present4    ,the voice 
of liberty was silent4 ,the ,italians   
hated and despised their  masters1 but  
never dreamed of rebelling against them4
 ,tuscany was  slothful under a mild    
sway1 whose tyranny was never felt1     
except by the  few who believed that    
they were not merely fruges consumere   
nati1 and  were bitten with a noble     
mania for benefiting their race4        
,piedmont was  ruled by a prince1 who1  
by cultivating in his subjects1 not a   

martial1  but a military spirit 7a very 
different thing71 gave his idle nobles  
something to do4 ,lombardy was crushed  
by foreign bayonets4 ,the voice of      
liberty was silent1 when the ,french    
revolution awoke the world1 and the     
hope of freedom spoke audibly in the    
hearts of all2 and1 afterwards1  when   
the victories of ,napoleon crushed this 
hope1 they could not impose  a silence  
for ever broken4 ,its language is now   
felt and understood from  one end of the
 country to the other1 and the day must 
come when the  oppressors will be unable
 to oppose the veto of mere physical    
force to  the overpowering influence of 
moral courage4    ,it was while ,italy  
yet reposed submissive and mute1 that a 
poet was  born1 who dedicated all the   
powers of his mind to the awakening his 
countrymen from their lethargy--to      
strengthening their enervated minds1    
and spreading such knowledge and such   
sentiments abroad among them1 as  would 
at once reveal their degraded state1 and

 give them energy to  aspire to a       
better4    ,vittorio ,alfieri was born  
at ,asti1 in ,piedmont1 on the #agth of 
,january1  #agdi4 ,his parents were     
noble1 wealthy1 and respected4 ,to these
 three  circumstances ,alfieri          
attributes many of the prosperous       
circumstances  that attended his        
literary career4 ,since ,i was born     
noble1 he says1 ,i  could attack the    
nobility without being accused of envy2 
since ,i was  rich1 ,i was independent  
and incorruptible2 and the              
respectability of my  parents prevented 
my ever being ashamed of my rank4       
,his father was named ,antonio ,alfieri1
 and his mother was ,monica ,maillard   
de ,tournon1 whose family1 originally   
from ,savoy1 had long been  established 
at ,turin4 ,his father was a man of     
blameless life3 he had  never entered on
 any public office1 and was without a   
spark of that  ambition which might have
 led him to seek distinction at court4  
,he was  fifty1 five when he married1   

and his wife1 though very young1 was    
already a widow4 ,their eldest child was
 a daughter4 ,two years after1 to  the  
infinite joy of his father1 ,vittorio   
was born4 ,he was put out to  nurse1 at 
a village called ,rovigliasco1 two miles
 from ,asti2 but such  was the          
tenderness of his father1 that he went  
on foot each day to see  the child4     
,this was a strong mark of affection1   
and testified also his  simple and      
unostentatious disposition3 for the     
,italian nobility usually  love repose  
beyond all things1 and their greatest   
pride is never to go  on foot4 ,this    
solicitude unfortunately cost him his   
life3 he caught cold  on occasion of one
 of his visits1 and died after a few    
days' illness1  leaving his wife about  
to give birth to another son1 who1      
however1 died  in his infancy4 ,she was 
an amiable and excellent woman1 and     
still young  when her second husband    
died2 so that she was induced to marry a
 third  time4 ,her husband was a cadet1 

of another branch of the ,alfieri       
family2  but1 by the death of his elder 
brother1 he in process of time inherited
  the wealth of his family1 and became  
very rich4 ,this marriage proved a  very
 fortunate one4 ,the cavaliere ,giacinto
 was handsome and amiable2 the  couple  
grew old together in happiness2 and the 
lady1 as she advanced in  years1 gained 
the love and respect of all by her piety
 and works of  charity and kindness4    
,on the marriage of his mother1         
,vittorio and his sister went to live in
  their father-in-law's house1 who      
proved himself a kind parent to the     
orphans4 ,although his health was not   
robust1 ,alfieri's childhood was  little
 interrupted by sickness2 and his first 
grief was experienced at  the age of    
seven1 when his sister ,julia was sent  
to a convent for her  education4        
,although he was1 at first1 permitted to
 see her every day1  yet he felt1 on her
 removal from the parental roof1 that   
violence of  emotion and boiling of the 

blood which was apt to seize on him1 in 
after  life1 when forced to separate    
from any one to whom he was warmly      
attached4 ,thus his sensibility         
developed itself early2 and sensibility 
and pride1 both exalted into passions   
rather than feelings1 were always  the  
prominent traits of his disposition1 and
 which at last1 from the  excessive     
influence they exercised over him1      
generated that gloomy  melancholy to    
which he was a victim4    ,alfieri      
remained at home1 under the tutelage of 
a worthy priest1 named  ,don ,ivaldi1   
with whose assistance he began to learn 
the rudiments of  ,latin4 ,his          
disposition was1 for the most part1     
taciturn and placid3 now  and then he   
became loquacious and gay in the        
extreme1 and1 at other  times1 the      
melancholy already nascent in his heart1
 filled him with  strange and passionate
 thoughts4 ,he was obstinate when       
treated unkindly1  but readily yielded  
to affection2 and1 above all1 he was    

susceptible1 to  a painful degree1 of   
the sense of shame4 ,when1 as a         
punishment for  childish faults1 any    
sort of public penance was imposed on   
him1 he  endured such transports of     
agony as affected his health for weeks4 
,at the age of nine1 his uncle1 the     
cavaliere ,pellegrino ,alfieri1 who was 
his guardian1 returned from a tour in   
,france and ,england1 and visited       
,asti1 on his way to ,turin4 ,he found  
his nephew happy under the domestic     
roof1 but learning little or nothing2   
accordingly1 he thought this a  very bad
 state of things1 and insisted that he  
should be placed at the  public school  
at ,turin1 where ignorance1 rather than 
knowledge1 was  taught1 but where1 as he
 would be neglected and enslaved1 it was
 to be  supposed that his education     
would prosper better than under the     
indulgent care of a fond mother4 ,she   
was obliged to consent1 and parted  from
 her son with reluctance and tears4 ,the
 boy's grief at the moment of           

separation was vehement2 but it was     
quickly dissipated by the delight of    
travelling post1 and the pleasure he    
took in bribing the postilions to  go at
 their utmost speed4 ,he was accompanied
 by a servant only2 and1  while the old 
man slept1 the little fellow sat proud  
and gay in the  carriage1 as it whirled 
past village and town in quick          
succession4 ,when  arrived at ,turin1   
his uncle received him kindly4 ,he was  
at first  depressed by the change of    
scene1 and missed the caresses of his   
loving  mother2 but soon he became so   
joyous1 and even riotous1 that the      
cavaliere ,pellegrino hastened to place 
him at the academy3 and here he  was1 at
 the age of nine1 torn from the domestic
 circle to which he was  accustomed1 at 
a distance from all his friends1        
isolated and abandoned4  ,the only      
species of education1 such as it was1   
entered upon at the  academy1 regarded  
their literary studies3 the feelings    
were left to form  themselves2 lessons  

of morality and the duties of life      
making no part of  the instruction      
afforded the pupils4    ,the academy1   
,alfieri tells us1 was a large1 handsome
 quadrangular  building1 with a large   
court in the middle2 two sides of the   
square were  occupied by the students1  
the other two by the king's theatre and 
royal  archives4 ,the side occupied by  
us1 who were called of the second and   
third apartment1 was opposite the       
latter2 that occupied by the students   
of the first apartment being opposite to
 the king's theatre4 ,the upper  gallery
 on our side was called the third       
apartment1 and was devoted to  the      
younger boys and lower schools4 ,the    
gallery on the ground floor was  called 
the second1 and occupied by the pupils  
rather more advanced in  age3 a portion 
of these studied at the university1     
another edifice  adjoining to the       
academy2 the rest received their        
education in the  military college4     
,every gallery contained at least four  

chambers1 each  occupied by eleven      
youths1 over which an assistant1 or     
usher1  presided1--a poor fellow1 whose 
only payment consisted in being boarded 
and lodged free of expense1 while he    
studied theology or law1 at the         
university2 or1 if he were not a poor   
student1 he was an old and  ignorant    
priest4 ,a third portion of the side    
destined to the first  apartment was    
occupied by the king's pages1 to the    
number of twenty or  twenty-five1 who   
were totally separated from us of the   
second1 at the  opposite angle of the   
court1 and close to the galleries of the
 archives4  ,we1 the younger pupils1    
could not have been worse placed4 ,on   
one side1  was a theatre which we were  
only permitted to visit about five or   
six  times during the carnival2 on the  
other1 the pages who attended on the    
court1 and who1 continually hunting and 
riding1 appeared to enjoy much  freer   
and happier lives than the poor         
imprisoned boys2 besides these1 we      

overlooked the proceedings of the first 
class1 which was composed almost        
entirely of foreigners1 ,russian and    
,german1 with a large proportion of     
,english2--this class was restrained by 
no rule except that of being in  by     
midnight2 and their apartment was a mere
 lodging house to them1  instead of     
being a place of education4    ,alfieri 
was placed in the third apartment3 he   
had the luxury of a  servant to attend  
on him2 but the fellow1 unchecked by    
superior  authority1 became a sort of   
petty tyrant over his young master3 in  
all  other respects1 he was on an       
equality with the rest of his comrades4 
,the basis of the system of education   
consisted in strict imprisonment1       
little sleep1 and unwholesome food4 ,to 
this was added a certain degree  of     
parrot knowledge of the ,latin language3
 the boys were taught to  construe      
,cornelius ,nepos2 but so little pains  
were taken1 or1 rather1 so  little power
 was there in their instructors to      

enlarge their stores of  real knowledge1
 that ,alfieri tells us1 that not one of
 them knew who the  men were whose lives
 they read2 nor what the country1       
government1 or  times were in which they
 lived1 nor even what thing government  
was4 ,the  boy made progress1 however1  
in what he was taught3 his emulation was
  excited1 and his memory was           
cultivated2 but1 on the other hand1 he  
grew  sickly and stunted in growth1 the 
effects of bad food and too little      
sleep4 ,he had only his drunken1 his    
dissipated servant to attend on him     
when he was ill2 who often1 on such     
occasions1 left him half the day  alone1
 which increased the constitutional     
melancholy of his disposition4  ,his    
pleasures were few2 and the want of all 
affectionate treatment  blighted his    
life4 ,it seems strange to us that his  
mother did not visit  him1 and that he  
never went home for a vacation3 but such
 were the  customs of the country1 and  
he was brought up in conformity with    

them4    ,the spirit of emulation1      
caused him1 in some degree1 to          
distinguish  himself1 and he advanced to
 higher classes and attended lectures on
  philosophy1 humanity1 and mathematics2
 but such was the style in which  they  
were taught1 that1 when he had gone     
through six books of ,euclid1 he  was   
unable to demonstrate the fourth        
proposition2 and1 though he studied  a  
whole year under the famous ,beccaria1  
he did not comprehend a word of  what he
 was taught4 ,this is the less          
extraordinary1 since1 speaking the      
patois of ,piedmont1 ,italian was as a  
foreign language2 and1 though he        
contrived to obtain a copy of ,ariosto1 
he was unable to understand a  word of  
it4 ,his teachers were1 for the most    
part1 equally ignorant2 so  that while  
his time was devoted to ,latin1 his     
native language was a  sealed book to   
him4 ,he had a few relations at ,turin1 
and when he became  really ill1 they    
interfered that he should have more     

sleep and better  food2 but he continued
 a puny and ailing boy4    ,some few    
pleasures diversified his life4 ,his    
uncle found that the  education of his  
sister ,julia was entirely neglected at 
,asti1 and she  was removed to a convent
 at ,turin4 ,she was fifteen--in        
love--and divided  from the object of   
her affections4 ,her brother became her 
confidant3 he  visited her twice a week1
 and tried to inspire her with constancy
 and  resolution2 but youthful spirits  
were of more avail than the lessons of  
romance1 and1 in short time1 she was    
consoled4 ,another pleasure he  enjoyed 
was1 when a relation took him1 on one   
occasion1 to the opera  buffa1 sung by  
the best comic singers of ,italy4 ,the  
opera was the  ,mercante di ,malmantile4
 ,the spirit and vivacity of the music  
made a  profound impression on him1     
leaving1 as it were1 a trail of harmony 
in  his ears and heart1 so that for many
 weeks after he remained immersed in  an
 excessive1 but not painful1 melancholy4

 ,during this time he abhorred  and     
nauseated his usual studies1 while a    
world of fantastic images  crowded his  
mind2 and had he known how1 he would    
have composed verses1  and have         
expressed the most lively emotions1 had 
not all language in  which to express   
them been denied to him1 through the    
ignorance of his  teachers4 ,this was   
the first time that music exercised so  
great an  influence over him1 and it    
remained long impressed upon his memory4
 ,at  all times he was excessively      
susceptible to the impressions made by  
harmony1 and he found that vocal music1 
especially female voices1  possessed a  
peculiar power to disturb and agitate   
his mind4 ,nothing1 he  tells us1       
awakened in him more violent or various 
emotions2 and almost  all his tragedies 
were conceived while in the act of      
listening to music1  or a few hours     
after4 ,one other pleasure that he      
enjoyed during this  period1 was        
spending a fortnight with his uncle at  

,cuneo4 ,this little  journey did his   
health good1 and occasioned him infinite
 delight4 ,it was  here that he wrote   
his first sonnet1 addressed to a lady   
admired by his  uncle1 and who pleased  
him4 ,as he knew nothing of ,italian1   
or1 as it is  called1 ,tuscan1 this     
sonnet must have been very bad4 ,it     
pleased the  lady2 but his uncle1 who   
was a soldier1 and of an austere        
disposition1  and who1 though imbued    
with sufficient knowledge of history and
  government1 despised poetry1 ridiculed
 the boyish effusion1 and put all       
thought of writing another out of his   
head4    ,at the age of fourteen1 the   
circumstances of his life were          
considerably  altered4 ,his guardian    
uncle died4 ,by the ,piedmontese laws1  
children of  fourteen are considered1 to
 a certain degree1 of age1 and are      
allowed  the entire disposal of their   
incomes2 while a trustee is appointed to
  prevent their alienating any part of  
the principal or real property4         

,alfieri was thus raised at once to     
independence2 and1 to add to his        
comfort1 his servant1 who had tyrannised
 over him1 and who1 unwatched1  and     
unchecked1 had fallen into the worst    
vices1 was dismissed4 ,alfieri  parted  
from him with regret1 despite his       
ill-treatment1 and showed the           
kindliness of his heart by visiting him 
twice a week1 and giving him  what money
 he could spare4 ,he tells us that he   
can ill account for his  attachment to  
one who had shown so little kindness to 
him3 he could not  attribute it to      
generosity on his part2 but partly to   
habit1 and partly  to the talents of the
 man1 who1 besides being singularly     
sagacious1 was  accustomed to tell him  
long adventures and tales full of       
imagination and  interest4    ,the first
 fruit he reaped from the death of his  
uncle was being  permitted to attend the
 riding school1 which had been before   
denied4 ,he  was then of diminutive     
stature and weak of frame1 and little   

able to  control his horse2 but         
perseverance1 and a great desire of     
success1  supplied every other defect4  
,to this noble exercise he owed the good
  health1 robustness1 and increase of   
stature1 that he soon acquired4 ,the    
next great event that followed was1 his 
being removed from the second to  the   
first apartment of his college4 ,in the 
second1 the students were  mere boys1   
and they were kept in strict discipline2
 in the first1 entire  freedom and      
idleness was the order of the day4 ,he  
made his entrance on  the #hth of ,may1 
#agfc4 ,his comrades were almost all    
foreigners1 many were  ,french1 a still 
greater number were ,english4 ,an       
excellent table was  served in the best 
style1 and all breathed luxury1 comfort1
 and freedom4  ,much amusement1 a great 
deal of sleep and of riding1 gave       
,alfieri  renewed health and spirits4   
,he spent his money on horses or dress4 
,his  trustee quarrelled with him for   
his extravagance1 but that did not alter

  the state of things4 ,with liberty and
 money he acquired friends and          
companions in every amusement and       
enterprise4 ,yet1 he says1 in the  midst
 of this busy vortex1 being little more 
than fourteen1 ,i was not  nearly so    
unreasonable as ,i might have been4     
,from time to time1 ,i felt a  silent   
impulse within me to apply to study1 and
 a good deal of shame for  my ignorance1
 concerning the extent of which ,i never
 deceived myself1  nor others4 ,but1    
grounded in no one study1 undirected by 
any1 not really  acquainted with a      
single language1 ,i knew not how nor to 
what to apply  myself4 ,i read ,french  
romances1 and conversed with foreigners1
 and  forgot the little ,italian ,i had 
before contrived to pick up from my     
,ariosto4 ,at one time ,i took it into  
my head to immerse myself in the        
thirty-six volumes of ,fleury's         
,ecclesiastical ,history1 making        
extracts  in ,french2 but soon ,i threw 
it aside1 and took to romances and the  

',arabian ,nights4'    ,riding1 and     
horses1 and fine clothes were his       
passions4 ,he and his  friends went out 
in troops1 leaping over every obstacle1 
fording rivers1  and breaking down the  
unfortunate animals they rode1 till at  
last no one  would let them any4 ,but   
these active exercises invigorated      
,alfieri's  health1 strengthened his    
frame1 and filled him with spirit and   
resolution2 preparing his mind to       
support1 and even to make good use of1  
the physical and moral liberty he       
afterwards acquired4    ,the youth of   
the first apartment were perfectly free1
 but they were all  young men3 ,alfieri 
was as a boy among them1 being only     
fifteen2 and it  was considered right   
that his servant should attend him      
constantly1 and  act as a check upon    
him4 ,the man who had replaced his      
former tyrant was  a foolish1           
good-humoured fellow1 who easily yielded
 to bribery and  persuasion1 and let his
 young master do as he pleased4 ,but    

this did not  satisfy the youth's pride2
 he resolved to be on an equality with  
his  comrades1 and1 without saying a    
word to his valet1 or to any one1 went  
out alone4 ,he was reproved by the      
governor1 but repeated his offence      
immediately4 ,on this he was put under  
arrest for a few days2 but no  sooner   
was his prison door opened1 than1 in    
open defiance1 he went out  again       
unaccompanied2 and although1 on the     
renewal of his offence1 the  term of his
 imprisonment was prolonged1 it was     
without avail4 ,at length  he declared  
that his arrest must be perpetual1 since
 as soon as he was  set at liberty he   
should exercise the same privilege1     
being resolved not  in any way to be on 
a different footing from his comrades2  
that the  governor might remove him from
 the first1 and replace him in the      
second  apartment1 but that he insisted 
upon being put in possession of all the 
rights of his companions4 ,on this he   
was kept confined for more than  three  

months2 nor would he make any request to
 be liberated1 but1  indignant and      
stubborn1 had died rather than have     
yielded4 ,i slept  nearly all day1 he   
tells us2 towards evening ,i got up from
 my bed1  and1 having a mattrass placed 
near the fireplace1 ,i stretched myself 
upon it on the ground4 ,not choosing to 
receive the usual college dinner1  ,i   
caused food to be brought into my room1 
and cooked pollenta and  similar things 
at my fire4 ,i never dressed myself1 nor
 allowed my hair  to be touched1 and    
became an absolute savage4 ,though ,i   
was not allowed  to quit my room1 my    
friends were permitted to visit me2 but 
,i was sullen  and silent1 and lay like 
a lifeless body1 not replying to any    
thing that  was said2 and thus ,i       
continued for hours1 with my eyes fixed 
on the  ground1 and full of tears1      
though ,i never suffered one to escape  
from  them4    ,this obstinacy must have
 annoyed his masters considerably1 and  
they  were1 no doubt1 glad to make use  

of the first fair occasion for          
restoring him to liberty4 ,the marriage 
of his sister gave them a  pretext1 of  
which they availed themselves4 ,julia   
married count ,giacinto  di ,cumiano on 
the #ast of ,may1 #agfd3 the wedding    
took place at the  beautiful village of 
,cumiano1 ten miles from ,turin4        
,alfieri enjoyed the  spring season and 
his newly recovered liberty with intense
 delight1 and1  on his return to        
college1 was admitted to all the        
privileges of the  class of students to 
which he belonged4 ,the control over his
 income  being now almost entirely in   
his own hands1 he launched out into a   
variety of expenses1 the first of which 
was the purchase of a horse1 a  fiery   
but delicate animal1 which he loved so  
passionately1 that he could  never after
 call him to mind without emotion3 if it
 was ill1 he could  neither eat nor     
sleep4 ,the delicacy of this beloved    
horse was the  occasion of his buying   
another2 and after that he bought       

carriage  horses1 and cab and saddle    
horses1 till he had a stud of eight1 to 
the  great dissatisfaction of his       
trustee2 but1 as he could set his       
reprehensions at nought1 he gave no ear 
to them1 but plunged into every  kind of
 expense1 principally in dress1         
competing in extravagance with  the     
,english members of the university4 ,in 
the midst of this vanity1 the           
ingenuousness of his disposition        
manifested itself4 ,he made display     
among the rich foreigners1 who were his 
associates2 but1 when he was  visited by
 his poorer friends and countrymen1 who1
 though of noble  birth1 were yet       
straitened in means1 he was accustomed  
to change his  dress1 to put on modest  
attire1 and even to hide his finery1    
that he  might not appear to possess any
 superiority over them3 this delicacy of
  feeling extended itself to other parts
 of his conduct1 and showed the  genuine
 urbanity and benevolence of his        
disposition4    ,in the autumn of #agfe1

 he made a short journey to ,genoa with 
his  trustee3 this was the first time   
that he had left ,piedmont2 and here1   
for the first time1 he saw the sea1 the 
aspect of which transported him  with   
admiration1 and so exalted his          
imagination1 that he says1 if he had    
understood any language1 or had had any 
poetry before him1 he should  certainly 
have composed verses4 ,during this      
journey1 to his infinite  delight1 he   
visited his native town1 and his mother1
 whom1 strange to  say1 he had not seen 
for seven years4 ,there seems something 
incomprehensible in a state of society  
that should admit of the  propriety1 or1
 rather1 enforce the necessity1 of a boy
 of nine being  separated from all      
maternal care1 and left to struggle as  
he might1  during the precarious season 
of childhood and of adolescence1 without
 a  parent's eye to watch over his      
well-being1 and administer to his health
  and happiness4 ,on his return to      
,turin1 he was not a little proud among 

his countrymen of his journey to ,genoa2
 but among the ,english1 ,german1       
,polish and ,russian students he felt   
the utmost rage and shame to think  that
 they had seen countries so much more   
distant4 ,this uneasy sense of          
inferiority inspired him with a passion 
for travelling1 and made him  resolve to
 visit the various lands of which his   
comrades were natives4    ,in the first 
impulse of expectant manhood1 he had    
petitioned to be  allowed to enter the  
army4 ,as he grew older he began to find
 that his  liberty was dearer to him    
than any military parade2 but1 as he did
 not  withdraw his request1 he found    
himself admitted1 in #agff1 as ensign   
into  the provincial regiment of ,asti4 
,he had chosen this1 as the duties      
attendant on it were slight1 it being   
only required to assemble for  review   
for a few days twice a year3 however1   
this necessity annoyed him1  especially 
as it forced him to quit the university1
 where he would have  been well pleased 

to remain2 but there was no help1 and he
 left college1  after an abode of nearly
 eight years4 ,he took a small apartment
 in the  same house with his sister1 and
 spent all he could in horses and all   
sorts of luxuries1 as well as in dinners
 given to his friends4 ,a dislike  of   
military discipline1 and a love of      
travelling1 made him soon after  ask a  
year's leave of absence2 and he set out 
for ,rome and ,naples under  the care of
 an ,english ,catholic1 who was about to
 make that tour1 as  tutor to two young 
,flemish gentlemen4 ,it was with great  
difficulty that  he obtained the        
necessary permission2 the king was      
averse to the nobles  leaving the       
country1 and it was only by a thousand  
petty artifices and  intrigues that at  
last he succeeded in his wishes4        
,agitated by an inexplicable disquietude
 of mind1 ignorant of all with  regard  
to literature and the arts1 that could  
make travelling  interesting4 ,alfieri  
had at this time but one pleasure in a  

journey1  which was1 going along the    
high road with the greatest possible    
speed4  ,his companions were as little  
awake to rational inquiry as himself2   
and  the only one among them1 he tells  
us1 who had common sense1 was his       
valet1 who also acted as courier1--a man
 named ,elia1 who served him for  many  
years with the greatest fidelity4 ,the  
first city at which the party  stopped  
was ,milan4 ,they went to see the       
curiosities1 and visited the  ,ambrosian
 library4 ,the treasures of the         
collection were wasted upon  ,alfieri3  
when an autograph of ,petrarch was shown
 him 7perhaps the ,virgil  on whose     
cover the poet has recorded his         
passionate sorrow on the death  of      
,laura71 he1 barbarian like1 pushed it  
away1 saying1 it was nothing to  him4   
,this act did not arise from mere       
indifference2 but partly from a  grudge 
he felt against ,petrarch1 arising from 
his not being able to  understand his   
poetry2 and shame for his own ignorance 

took the guise of  contempt of another's
 genius4 ,on visiting ,florence1 the    
only object that  called forth any      
emotion was the sight of ,michael       
,angelo's tomb2 when  the recollection  
of the fame which had been acquired by  
this master of  his art filled him with 
ideas that he could not define2 and the 
thought  rose in his mind1 that those   
men only were truly great1 who left some
  enduring monument of genius behind    
them4 ,but these notions were vague  and
 transitory2 he lived only for the      
present hour1 even while that  afforded 
no one object to occupy or please him4  
,on leaving ,florence1 he hurried       
through ,pisa and ,siena2 but such is   
the  magic of the name1 that the        
approach to ,rome made his heart        
palpitate1  and his torpid soul warmed  
into something like enthusiasm4 ,he was 
charmed by the magnificent aspect which 
the eternal city presents as it  is     
entered by the ,porta del ,popolo2 and  
scarcely had he alighted at the  hotel  

in the ,piazza di ,spagna1 than he      
hurried off co behold the wonders  of   
the place4 ,ignorance narrows the       
intellect1 and takes the living  colours
 from the imagination4 ,alfieri1 after  
all1 regarded coldly those  objects     
which render ,rome a city of absolute   
enchantment4 ,he was best  pleased with 
,st4 ,peter's4 ,at each successive      
visit1 the solemn vastness  of the      
mighty aisles of the cathedral made a   
deeper impression2 the  splendour of the
 architecture1 the sublime stillness of 
its  incense-breathing atmosphere1 and  
the soft twilight that reigns beneath   
its dome1 kindled his soul to something 
like poetic inspiration4 ,but  even     
these feelings could only for a few     
moments appease the  restlessness that  
pursued him1 and he hurried away from   
,rome with all  the impatience of one   
ill at ease in himself4 ,at ,naples he  
grew still  more disturbed and          
melancholy3 music1 which he loved1 only 
tended to  increase his gloom2 and his  

reserve prevented him from forming any  
intimacies4 ,all day he drove from place
 to place1 in those droll little        
,neapolitan calesine1 which go at such a
 prodigious rate under the  guidance of 
their ,lazaroni drivers1--,not1 he says1
 that ,i wished to  visit remarkable    
objects1 for ,i had no curiosity nor    
knowledge about  them1 but merely for   
the sake of being on the road3 ,i was   
never satiated  of rapid motion1 but a  
moment's quiescence filled me with      
annoyance4  444 ,and thus ,i lived1 a   
riddle to myself1 believing that ,i had 
capacity for nothing2 feeling no decided
 impulse or emotion1 except a  continual
 melancholy2 never finding peace nor    
quiet1 yet not knowing  what ,i desired2
 blindly obeying my nature1 although ,i 
neither studied  nor comprehended it4   
,many years afterwards ,i perceived that
 my  unhappiness proceeded from the     
want1 nay the necessity1 which ,i have1 
to  have at once my heart occupied by   
some worthy object1 and ray mind by     

some ennobling pursuit2 for1 whenever   
either of these two fail me1 ,i  remain 
incapable of the other1 satiated and    
weary1 and beyond all things  miserable4
    ,in the midst of this disturbed and 
unprofitable state1 he nourished the    
ardent desire to travel on and on1      
beyond the mountainous boundaries of    
his country1 uncontrolled and alone4    
,for this purpose he applied to the     
,sardinian minister2 and1 representing  
how correct his conduct was1 and  how   
capable he showed himself of managing   
his own affairs1 he besought  him to    
obtain leave from their sovereign1 that 
he might detach himself  from the tutor1
 and proceed alone4 ,to his great joy1  
his request was  complied with2 and1    
with infinite delight1 he left ,naples  
for ,rome1  eager to make use of his    
entire independence1 and to find himself
  solitary and lord of himself1 on the  
high road1 more than three hundred      
miles distant from his native ,piedmont4
    ,how little does mere freedom of    

will satisfy the mind1 when not         
ministered to and filled by thoughts    
that go beyond the present moment4  ,the
 aimless uneasiness of ,alfieri was not 
to be dissipated by the mere  ability of
 satisfying his craving for locomotion4 
,he obtained leave of  absence for      
another year1 and permission to visit   
,france and ,england3  but the same     
spirit accompanied him of melancholy and
 ennui2 and all  objects were stale and 
unprofitable to his languid senses4     
,motive was  absent2 and his ardent     
feelings1 left to prey on themselves1   
produced  tears and regret but no power 
of finding a means of exercising them   
with  advantage and happiness4 ,if his  
ignorance was ever brought home to him1 
he was rendered uncomfortable1 but felt 
no wish to improve4 ,he tells us  that1 
at ,rome1 he was accustomed to visit    
each day the count of ,rivera1  minister
 of ,sardinia1--a worthy old man1 who   
showed him every kindness1  and gave him
 the best advice4 ,one morning he found 

the count occupied in  reading the sixth
 book of the neid2 and when ,alfieri    
entered1 he  signed to him to approach1 
and began to recite the beautiful       
lamentation  for ,marcellus4 ,six years 
before1 ,alfieri had translated1 and    
known by  heart1 the greater part of    
,virgil2 but he had now forgotten it1   
and felt  thoroughly ashamed1 but with  
little courage to amend2 so that the    
result  of this scene was only that he  
sullenly ruminated over his disgrace1   
and  never went near the count again4   
,the desire of some sort of interest    
drove him into a fit of avarice4 ,he was
 slenderly provided with means  for his 
ultramontane journey2 and he resolved to
 save all he could in  ,italy1 that he  
might not be restricted when among      
foreigners4 ,he  followed up his system 
of parsimony with his usual ardour1 and 
carried  it to an excess which became   
its cure1 since he got weary of the     
privations and annoyances he thus       
brought on himself4    ,from ,rome he   

proceeded to ,venice1 passing through   
,ferrara without a  thought of ,ariosto 
or ,tasso2 and ,padua1 without visiting 
either living  professors1 or the tomb  
of the illustrious dead in the          
neighbourhood4  ,what was ,petrarch to  
him8 he again asked himself2 he wrote in
 an unknown  tongue1 of which1 after    
all1 he felt ashamed of being ignorant4 
,he was  pleased with ,venice1 and was  
diverted by its amusements2 yet the     
spring  season brought his usual annual 
fit of melancholy1 and he spent many    
days brooding over he knew not what1 and
 weeping he knew not why4  ,spurred on  
by restlessness1 he hurried away from   
,venice3 he passed  solitarily and      
ennuied through the beautiful cities of 
,lombardy1 seldom  presenting letters of
 recommendation1 and always keeping out 
of the way  of acquaintances3 proud and 
shy1 he hated new faces2 and besides1   
his  desire of travelling made him avoid
 the ties of friendship and even of     
love1 though once or twice the smiles of

 beauty almost softened his  heart4 ,all
 his desire was to hasten to ,france1   
and to enjoy the delights  he there     
promised himself4 ,he was destined to be
 disappointed2 for his  ill-regulated   
imagination always exaggerated the pains
 and pleasures of  the future1 while it 
did not possess the better power of     
exalting and  adorning the objects which
 in anticipation had appeared so        
desirable1  and which in possession grew
 contemptible and barren4    ,one of the
 singularities of ,alfieri's character  
was the extravagant  hatred of ,france  
which he cherished all his life4 ,he    
attributed this1 in  the first place1 to
 a vehement childish dislike of his     
,french  dancing-master4 ,still he read 
nothing but ,french books1 ,french was  
the  language he commonly spoke1 and he 
left ,italy in eager anticipation of    
the pleasures of ,paris4 ,but ,alfieri  
did not know his own nature2 nor was  he
 aware that he could find happiness     
through the medium of his passions  and 

intellect only1 while amusement and even
 dissipation had the effect  of wearying
 and disgusting him4 ,the circumstance  
of his first entrance  into ,paris      
sufficed to cloud his stay2 nay1 the    
feelings of his whole  life were        
influenced by the painful impression    
then made4 ,it was the  month of        
,august1 in ,italy so sunshiny and      
festal2 a drizzling rain1  accompanied  
by a chilling temperature of air1       
impressed him most  disagreeably2 the   
streets1 houses1 and people were all    
mean1 dirty1 and  impertinent in his    
eyes2 his illusions vanished1 and1 but  
for a sense of  shame1 he would on the  
instant have quitted the city he had    
come so far  to visit4 ,the lapse of a  
quarter of a century did not erase the  
profound  traces of disgust and aversion
 that were then trenched in his mind4   
,at  the time1 the principal effect of  
his disappointment was a little to      
diminish his passion for travelling2 and
 to find that1 beyond the ,alps1  he    

learned to appreciate the beauties of   
the divine country he had been  so eager
 to quit4    ,he delayed his departure  
from ,paris till ,january1 and then     
hurried to  ,london1 which delighted as 
much as ,paris had disgusted him2 and he
 thus  gives evidence of a fact of which
 many ,english1 who have travelled1 must
  be aware--that there is something in  
,italy and the ,italians1 in the  rural 
beauty of the country1 and in the       
unpretending but highly gifted  natives1
 more congenial to our taste1 than in   
the peculiar habits and  manners of the 
,french4 ,industry does here1 in        
beautifying the landscape1  what nature 
does beyond the ,alps2 while in ,france1
 there is a discomfort  and a desolation
 apparent in the midst of its           
civilisation and plenty1  which is      
singularly disagreeable4 ,in this       
country1 the roads1 the inns1  the      
horses1 the women1 all charmed ,alfieri2
 the appearance of general  competence1 
the activity of life1 and the           

cleanliness and comfort of the  houses1 
diminutive as they struck him to be1    
made an agreeable  impression1 which    
each successive visit renewed4 ,yet he  
led a strange  life--avoiding society1  
although in the midst of it4 ,he had    
been  accompanied from ,paris by a      
friend2 and he amused himself1 each     
morning1  by driving him about town1 and
 acting the coachman for him at night1  
sitting on the box for hours1 and taking
 pride in his dexterity in  extricating 
his carriage amidst the difficulties and
 confusion attendant  on the vast       
multitude of equipages that throng round
 places of amusement  during the ,london
 season4 ,this did for a little while2  
then1 in  obedience to his wandering    
propensity1 he made a tour to           
,portsmouth1  ,bristol1 and ,oxford4 ,he
 was pleased with all he saw2 and began 
to  entertain a wish to settle in a     
country whose aspect was so agreeable1  
where the manners were simple1 the women
 modest and beautiful1 the laws         

equitable1 and the men free4 ,the       
enthusiasm he felt1 made him disregard  
the melancholy generated by the gloomy  
climate1 and the ruinous expense  of    
living4 ,he observes1 and with justice1 
that ,italy and ,england are the  only  
countries in which it is desirable to   
live3 the former1 because  there nature 
vindicates her rights1 and rises        
triumphant over the evils  produced by  
the governments2 the latter1 because art
 conquers nature1  and transforms a rude
 ungenial land into a paradise of       
comfort and  laughing abundance4    ,in 
,june1 he left ,england for ,holland2   
and at the ,hague for the first  time   
became really in love1 and at the same  
time his heart opened itself  to        
friendship4 ,the lady whom he admired1  
and who returned his affection1  was    
unfortunately a married woman1 but an   
,italian education and habits  prevented
 any scruples of conscience from        
interrupting the felicity he  enjoyed4  
,his friend was ,don ,jos d',alcunha1   

,portuguese minister in  ,holland4      
,alfieri describes him as clever and    
original1 with a cultivated             
understanding and firm unbending        
character3 with tact and efficacy the   
,portuguese awoke in his new friend     
shame for his idle1 aimless life4 ,it   
was a curious circumstance1 he tells us1
 that he never felt a strong  desire for
 mental improvement1 except at such     
periods as when he was  passionately in 
love1 and his time so employed that he  
could bestow none  of it on literature4 
,in process of time1 when he became     
worthily  attached1 he may have         
perceived in this1 the beneficent action
 of the  passions in our nature1 when   
their objects are what they ought to    
be--ennobling and permanent4    ,after a
 period of great happiness1 he was      
forced to separate from the  lady to    
whom he was attached1--she being obliged
 to join her husband1  who had gone to  
,switzerland2 and ,alfieri suffered the 
mildest of the  punishments that result 

from loving one to whom you cannot      
consecrate  your life4 ,but though a    
separation1 attended neither by         
disastrous  incident nor infidelity1 is 
the gentlest penance for such an error1 
it  visited the young ,italian in no    
gentle manner4 ,it was a natural wish1  
as  any one will acknowledge who has    
attended to his own sensations1 on      
first being subjected to passionate     
sorrow1 that which he formed--for  being
 bled3 prevented by his friend and a    
faithful servant from allowing  this    
bleeding to be fatal1 his grief became  
gloomy and taciturn2 ,holland  grew     
hateful to him2 and he returned to      
,italy with the utmost  speed--never    
resting till he found himself at        
,cumiano1 in his sister's  villa1 after 
a three weeks' journey1 during which    
time he saw nothing  and said nothing1  
communicating only by signs with his    
faithful servant1  ,elia1 who never lost
 sight of him1 and bore with exemplary  
patience his  caprices and heedless     

tyranny4    ,this state of melancholy   
regret augmented his love of solitude1  
and  engendered1 moreover1 a desire to  
study3 he passed the winter at ,turin1  
in his sister's house1 seeing absolutely
 no society1 and spending his  time in  
reading4 ,he turned over the pages of   
,voltaire1 ,rousseau1  ,helvetius1 and  
,montesquieu2 but his chief delight was 
derived from the  perusal of ,plutarch's
 lives4 ,his mind was strongly excited  
by the heroic  virtues of the great men 
of whom he read1 and tears of mingled   
admiration and indignation gushed from  
his eyes4 ,he felt the misfortune  it   
was to be a native of ,piedmont2 and to 
have been born in a country1  and at a  
time1 when no scope was afforded for    
word or action1 scarcely  any for       
thought and feeling4    ,in the spring  
of #agfi he set out on another and a    
longer tour4 ,he had  been disappointed 
in a matrimonial project1 proposed to   
him by his  brother-in-law4 ,the young  
lady was rich and beautiful1 but she    

preferred  a handsome young courtier to 
a man already remarkable for the        
eccentricity of his conduct and the     
sombreness of his disposition3 for      
,alfieri1 withdrawn from the common     
routine of society by his passionate    
and earnest nature1 could but awkwardly 
and reluctantly fulfil the  thousand    
minute duties which an ,italian is      
accustomed to pay to his  lady2 nor1 on 
this occasion1 did love inspire him with
 that devotion of  heart which might    
have proved acceptable in lieu of petty 
attentions4 ,he  was now twenty1 and1   
according to the laws of his country1 of
 age--so  that his entire fortune was at
 his disposal3 this consisted of an     
income  of #bejj sequins1 or about      
#abjjl4 a year1 and a large sum of ready
  money2 and1 to augment the value of   
his possessions1 he had acquired the    
habits of rational economy1 which sprang
 from the scantiness of the  allowance  
which his prudent trustee had made him4 
,thus he set out with  money in his     

purse1 and no love in his heart1 except 
the tender  recollection of his         
half-extinguished ,flemish flame2 and if
 with a head  not much fuller of ideas1 
yet with a thousand sentiments awakened1
 which  afforded matter for thought4 ,as
 he drove along1 he read ,montaigne1 or 
reflected on what he read--a little     
galled by finding that he could not     
construe the ,latin quotations1 and     
still more so by being obliged to  skip 
the ,italian ones4 ,vienna and ,berlin  
were hastily visited1 and seen  without 
pleasure3 he had beheld the results of  
liberty in ,england1 and  he had read of
 them in ,plutarch1 and his natural     
sense of independence  made him revolt  
from the military despotisms of the     
north4 ,instinctive  good sense served  
him better than the philosophy of       
,voltaire1 and he  recognised the cloven
 foot of arbitrary power in the barrack 
capital of  the philosopher of ,sans    
,soui4 ,he hurried away from these      
mockeries of  liberalism1 and found more

 pleasure in the simplicity of the      
,swedes3 the  contrast which barren     
nature afforded1 in these frozen        
regions1 to the  luxuriance and glory of
 ,italy interested and pleased him2 the 
velocity  of his sledge1 as he proceeded
 through the silent pine forests1 and   
over  the ice-covered lakes1 fostered an
 agreeable melancholy2 and he  describes
 his spring journey from ,sweden to ,st4
 ,petersburgh with a  vividness and     
beauty which it would spoil to abridge4 
,embarking at the  first breaking up of 
the frost on the ,gulf of ,bothnia1 his 
boat had to  struggle through the       
floating ice2 and the novelty of his    
situation was  a source of amusement4   
,this is the country of ,europe1 he     
says1 most  agreeable to me1 from its   
savage rudeness2 fantastic1 gloomy1 and 
even  sublime1 ideas are created in the 
mind by the vast1 undefinable silence   
that reigns there1 making you feel as if
 transported away from the  globe4 ,st4 
,petersburgh disappointed him2 nor would

 he see the empress  ,catherine1 whom he
 regarded as the murderess of her       
husband1 and whose  conduct--having     
failed in her promise of bestowing a    
constitution on her  subjects--was      
unredeemed1 in his eyes1 by any         
mitigating circumstances4    ,from      
,russia he traversed ,germany to        
,holland1 and again visited ,england4   
,his time1 during his second visit to   
this country1 was engrossed by an       
attachment for a lady of rank1 who      
proved herself not only unworthy of  the
 affection of the husband whom she      
betrayed1 but the lover to whom  she was
 false4 ,the more violent passions of   
,alfieri were all roused to  their      
utmost vehemence by the various chances 
of this adventure1 which  was attended  
by all those hairbreadth escapes1       
menacing dangers1 and  final ruin and   
misery1 which usually wait upon intrigue
 in ,england4  ,first it was love1      
accompanied by the sin and fear which   
attends on  mystery and deceit2 then    

separation came to drive him to despair4
 ,the  ,london season over1 the lady    
went to her country house near ,windsor2
 and  ,alfieri could only visit her     
clandestinely1 on such nights when her  
husband was absent in ,london4 ,his     
impatience and agony during the  periods
 of separation were only appeased by    
excessive exercise3 he rode  about all  
day1 performing such feats of           
horsemanship as endangered his  life4   
,leaping a five-barred gate1 with his   
thoughts wandering to his  lady1 instead
 of being fixed on his bridle-hand1 his 
horse fell on him1  and dislocated his  
shoulder2 but that did not prevent a    
visit to ,windsor  on the following     
evening1 the last that he was destined  
to make4 ,the  servants observed and    
watched him1 and the husband of the lady
 had  intelligence of her infidelity2   
and here1 he writes1 it is impossible   
not to laugh at the contrast between    
,english and ,italian jealousy1 so      
different are the passions in different 

characters1 in another climate1  and1   
above all1 under other laws4 ,every     
,italian would now expect to hear  of   
blows1 poison1 stabs1 or1 at least1 of  
the imprisonment of the lady1  under    
such violent provocation3 nothing of all
 this happened1 though the  ,english    
husband adored his wife after his       
manner4 ,it was much according  to the  
present customs1 that the ,english      
husband1 besides instituting  legal     
proceedings against his wife and her    
lover1 called out the latter4  ,the duel
 was1 however1 a very harmless          
proceeding3 ,alfieri could not  fence1  
and his adversary was satisfied by      
merely drawing blood by a  scratch in   
the arm1 carefully abstaining from      
inflicting the wound or  death which he 
had it in his power to bestow4 ,a far   
deeper and more  painful wound was      
reserved for the ,italian1 when he      
learned how grossly  the lady had       
deceived him4 ,a groom of her husband   
had formerly been her  lover3 he still  

lived in the house2 and1 fearing that   
his lord would  risk his life in an     
encounter with ,alfieri1 he hastened to 
inform him  that the lady was totally   
unworthy such a chivalrous encounter4   
,all  these disgraceful circumstances   
came out on the trial4 ,alfieri1        
maddened  and enraged1 was yet unable1  
at first1 to separate from his          
treacherous  mistress4 ,they travelled  
together in ,england1 he furious at his 
own  weakness1 and perpetually          
struggling to vanquish it2 till1 seizing
 on a  moment when shame and indignation
 were stronger than love1 he left her   
at ,rochester1 on her way to ,france    
with a relative1 and returned to        
,london4 ,in after times1 the chief     
impression left on his mind from this   
adventure was1 a feeling of mixed       
respect and gratitude towards her       
husband1 who spared both his life and   
his purse1 neither killing him1  nor    
demanding damages3 the first the        
,english noble1 apparently1 had at  his 

mercy2 but it is unlikely1 under all the
 circumstances1 that the  latter should 
have been awarded him1 to any great     
extent4    ,after tempests like these1  
it was long before the impetuous and    
sensitive soul of ,alfieri settled into 
any thing like calm3 paroxysms of  rage1
 love1 grief1 and despair succeeded one 
to the other1 and his only  relief was  
derived from locomotion4 ,he left       
,london1 and after visiting  his friend 
,alcunha at the ,hague1 he hurried on to
 ,paris2 he traversed  ,france1 and     
entered ,spain1 struggling with the     
passion that warred  within him1 and    
devoured by the gloomiest melancholy4   
,at ,barcelona he  bought two ,spanish  
horses1 and with these resolved to      
proceed on his  journey to ,madrid4 ,his
 carriage went on first1 under the care 
of the  servants and muleteers2 and he  
followed1 chiefly on foot1 his beautiful
  ,andalusian trotting beside him with  
the docility of a dog4 ,this mixture  of
 idleness and change--of solitude and   

independence--soothed his  disturbed    
mind4 ,he was given up to endless       
reverie1 now engrossed by  melancholy   
and moral trains of thought2 now        
possessed by images wild1  terrible1 or 
gay4 ,he knew no language1 and could    
express nothing that he  felt--all was  
confused and vague1 and mingled with    
violent transports of  grief and        
despair4 ,he spoke to no one2 and his   
taciturn1 self-devouring  misery        
irritated him almost to madness4 ,his   
faithful servant1 ,elia1 who  followed  
him during all his journeys1 had nearly 
become the victim to an  explosion of   
the pent-up volcano4 ,in combing the    
count's long  tresses1--which it was the
 fashion then to wear1--he accidentally 
pulled  one hair2 and ,alfieri1 starting
 up like lightning1 hurled a candlestick
  at his head1 which struck him on the  
temple and inflicted a wound4  ,elia's  
,italian nature was roused1 and he flew 
on his master4 ,other  people           
interfered1 and no more harm was done4  

,alfieri told his servant  that he might
 kill him if he chose3 he deserved it1  
and would take no  precautions against  
his vengeance2 and he praises his own   
courage in  thus exposing himself1 and  
the magnanimity of the man for not      
rising in  the night and murdering him  
as he slept4 ,the whole scene is        
inexplicable  to our northern           
imaginations1 and borders on the        
excesses of savage  nature4 ,it would be
 difficult for any one1 says ,alfieri1  
to  understand the mixture of           
ferociousness and generosity on both    
sides1  who has not had experience of   
the manners and hot blood of the        
,piedmontese4    ,after a journey       
through ,spain and ,portugal more       
savage1 wild1 and  solitary than was    
even his wont4  ,sidenote3 #aggb4  tat4 
#bc4  ,alfieri returned to ,turin2 and  
here he seemed to be in greater danger  
than he had ever been of losing all the 
exaltation of character and  feeling    
that clung to him despite his excesses1 

his ignorance1 and the  total absence of
 all mental culture4 ,he took a         
magnificent house1 and  fitted it up    
with luxury and taste4 ,he had a circle 
of friends1 who  formed themselves into 
a society1 with laws and regulations4   
,one of  their amusements was a sort of 
literary budget1 to which the various   
members contributed writings for the    
recreation of the general society4      
,alfieri wrote several papers1 which    
obtained a good deal of applause3 he    
had a turn for satire1 and that is      
always a popular style of writing in  a 
coterie4 ,these compositions were all in
 ,french4    ,a worse degradation than  
this sort of vegetative dissipation     
awaited the  count3 he became a         
cavaliere servente4 ,the lady was of    
rank1 a good deal  older than himself1  
but of extraordinary beauty4 ,she was   
noted for her  gallantries2 and         
,alfieri1 who was not in love1 her style
 of beauty even  not being exactly to   
his taste1 was drawn in1 at first1 by   

mere  idleness1 and a belief in the     
excessive attachment she bore him4 ,soon
 a  most vehement passion engrossed him4
 ,friends1 diversions1 even horses1     
were neglected2 from eight in the       
morning till twelve at night he was     
continually with her--discontented with 
his servitude1 but unable to  stay away4
    ,it is difficult to understand1 and 
impossible to sympathise with1 the  sort
 of frenzy he describes4 ,he did not    
esteem the lady1 and he despised        
himself for the humiliating state to    
which he was reduced4 ,the situation  of
 a cavaliere servente is1 we are told by
 high ,english authority in  such       
matters1 no sinecure4 ,to be constantly 
in attendance is its chief  duty4 ,a    
cavaliere sits with his lady1 drives    
with her1 walks with her1  goes to      
assemblies and the opera with her3 he   
follows her like her  shadow1 and no    
matrimonial exigence can equal the total
 abnegation of  all independent         
occupation to which the cavaliere must  

submit4 ,the lady1  indeed1 may equally 
become weary2 but an ,italian woman is  
used to this  excess of indolence4 ,her 
life is monotonous1 her passage from one
  amusement to the other invariable1    
sameness forming the essence of her     
existence3 nothing animates it except   
love1 scandal1 or quarrelling3  these1  
and the natural vivacity of southern    
blood1 which can diversify  the         
indolence which would otherwise mantle  
over and incrust every  faculty4 ,but   
all this was torture to the fiery spirit
 of the count1 who1  born for better    
things1 struggled with his fetters1 and 
roared like a  lion in the toils4 ,his  
slavery lasted for two years4 ,at one   
time1 the  nervous irritation produced a
 violent and inexplicable malady1 which 
the  wits of ,turin declared he had     
invented exclusively for himself4 ,he   
was  unable for several days to swallow 
aliment in any shape2 and the           
convulsions brought on by any attempt to
 force it on him almost deprived  him of

 life4 ,at another time1 he acquired    
resolution enough to scheme a  journey  
to ,milan1 and actually set out2 but    
scarcely had he passed the  gates of    
,turin than his heart failed him1 and he
 returned1 burning with  indignation    
against himself1 to resume his chains4  
,his friends saw and  pitied his        
miserable state1 and their compassion   
aggravated his  sufferings1 while it did
 not enable him to rise above the       
enthralment4  ,day after day1 month     
after month1 he formed new resolves to  
extricate  himself1 and for a long time 
in vain4    ,at length1 in the ,february
 of #agge1 being now twenty-six years of
 age1  he1 in desperation1 came to a    
determination to break off the          
disgraceful  intercourse4 ,his old      
remedy of change of place had proved of 
no avail1  so he resolved to remain on  
the same spot2 to shut himself up in his
 own  house1 which was opposite that of 
the lady1 but to receive no letters1    
hear no messages1 and to be induced by  

no failing of the heart ever to  behold 
her more4 ,in token of his fixed        
purpose1 he cut off his long  hair1 and 
sent it to a friend1 as a proof that he 
could not present  himself in society so
 shorn and disfigured4    ,and now a    
better day dawned on the tempest of     
passion that darkened his  soul4 ,in    
,lisbon he had been acquainted with the 
abate ,caluso1 a man of  learning and   
talent1 who had1 in some degree1        
awakened in him a desire  for knowledge1
 while1 with the utmost forbearance and 
kindness1 he tried  to lighten the shame
 inspired by every glimmering light that
 displayed  his excessive ignorance4    
,they had passed many long evenings     
together1  and ,alfieri preferred his   
instructive but unpretending            
conversation to  the gaieties of        
society2 and here he felt an awakening  
of that dormant  power of composition   
which afterwards was to expand into     
worthy and  perennial fruit4 ,in ,turin1
 also1 he was acquainted with several   

literati2 and now1 a voluntary prisoner1
 and passing many long hours in  entire 
solitude1 unaware and almost unsought1 a
 true1 strong1 and  enduring love of    
knowledge sprang up within him1 never   
after to be  weakened or destroyed4 ,the
 first token of the spirit of           
composition1 was  a sonnet in           
commemoration of the freedom he had     
acquired4 ,some years  before1 in       
,paris1 he had bought a collection of   
,italian poets1 and by  reading them had
 gained a slight knowledge of           
versification1 and of his  native       
language2 yet so ludicrously imperfect  
was this1 that1 when he  showed his     
sonnet to a literary man1 the first     
advice he received was to  learn to     
spell4 ,orthography1 grammar1 and rhythm
 were alike defective in  his           
production4 ,he was not discouraged4    
,this same friend1 father  ,paciaudi1   
had given him the ,cleopatra of cardinal
 ,delfino4 ,alfieri  fancied that he    
could write a better tragedy himself2   

and he began one  on the same subject4  
,he consulted his friends upon it1 and  
tried to gain  some instruction as to   
style and poetic laws1 of which1        
hitherto1 he had  remained in profound  
ignorance4 ,his house became a sort of  
academy2  while he1 desirous of         
learning1 but proud and indocile1       
wearied himself  and all around him by  
his alternate fits of industry and      
despondency4 ,at  length1 a tragedy and 
a farce were the result of his          
endeavours1 and  both were acted on the 
same nights1 at the theatre of ,turin1  
with  applause1 on two consecutive      
evenings1 and were given out for a third
  representation4 ,but ,alfieri by this 
time began to discover the entire  want 
of merit of these productions3 which    
prove1 as we may judge from  the        
passages he has preserved1 that ideas   
and feelings are of no avail  in        
composition1 where there is a total     
absence of style1 and an absolute       
incapacity of finding language in which 

to clothe the naked and unformed        
conceptions of the brain4 ,on the third 
night1 therefore1 ,alfieri  prevented   
the representation2 and on the same     
night he was seized by so  vehement and 
burning a wish to deserve the applause  
of an audience1  that1 he tells us1 no  
fever of love had ever assailed him with
 similar  impetuosity4    ,and thus1 he 
says1 at the age of seven and twenty1 ,i
 entered into the  difficult engagement 
with the public and myself to become a  
writer of  tragedies2 and these were the
 props ,i had to sustain me in my       
undertaking1--a resolved1 obstinate1 and
 untamed spirit2 a heart boiling  over  
with all sorts of emotions1 among which 
predominated the transports  of love1   
and a profound and indignant abhorrence 
of every species of  tyranny2 a very    
slight recollection of the ,french      
tragedies ,i had seen  acted1 having    
read and studied none2 an entire        
ignorance of the rules of  the drama2   
and a total incapacity to command the   

language of which ,i  made use2--all    
this was surrounded by a husk1 not so   
much of  presumption1 as of petulance1  
and an impetuosity of character which   
stood in the way of my ever1 except with
 reluctance1 acknowledging1             
investigating1 or giving ear to truth4  
,the first thing he found he had to do1 
was to apply himself to a  spelling-book
 and grammar3 this necessity was not    
admitted without a  struggle2 but the   
ardour of his enthusiasm enabled him to 
triumph over  these petty but perplexing
 and irritating obstacles2 and he gave  
himself  up to the study of language    
with a mixture of impatience and        
perseverance that kept his mind in a    
perpetual tumult4 ,he was under the     
necessity of driving away all ,french   
words and forms of speech from his      
mind1 and of imbuing his thoughts in the
 idiom of ,tuscany1--a work of          
unspeakable labour1 uniting the studies 
of a man with those of a child1  and    
sufficient to have overcome the         

resolution of any temper less ardent    
and ambitious than his own4 ,after all1 
it must be acknowledged that it  was to 
a great degree an insuperable           
difficulty2 and1 though overcome1  in   
appearance1 by ,alfieri1 yet in         
composition he had always two           
labours1--that of giving birth to ideas1
 and that of examining with the         
attention and scepticism of a foreigner 
the words in which he clothed  them4    
,this1 perhaps1 is the cause1 that      
although1 in process of time1  his prose
 style became unexceptionable1 and that 
of his tragedies full  of fire and      
strength1 his lyrics are such lamentable
 failures4    ,for nearly a year he was 
given up to the ungrateful task of      
clearing  away the rubbish of another   
language1 and placing the foundation    
stones  of a pure and classic ,italian4 
,he retired to a village near ,turin1   
that  his attention might not be called 
off2 and there1 with a literary  friend1
 he laboured at all that nauseates a    

schoolboy1 with the still  greater      
disgust of mere verbal difficulties     
which is felt by a man4  ,after a year  
of much industry1 he began to be aware  
that he should never  attain his object 
as long as he merely translated himself 
from the  ,french1 which had become the 
language of his thoughts2 and he        
resolved  to pass six months in         
,tuscany1 to learn1 to hear1 speak1     
think1 and feel  ,tuscan only4    ,in   
this journey he sought the acquaintance 
of the first literary men1  and exerted 
himself strenuously to acquire the      
knowledge of which he was  so deficient4
 ,he never deceived himself by fancying 
his deficiencies  were less than they   
were4 ,he was born endowed with genius2 
uncultivated  and empty of all knowledge
 as his mind was1 yet it was filled with
  thought and feeling1 and1 during his  
solitary journeys and long              
incommunicative days of reverie1 he had 
studied his own character4 ,at  one time
 he had kept a journal1 in which he put 

down not only his  actions1 but their   
motives1 investigating his moral nature 
in its inmost  recesses4 ,this was an   
exercise of mind which1 joined to his   
natural  talent1 peculiarly adapted him 
to developement of feeling and motive1  
which is the essence of the tragic art2 
and it was towards this species         
composition that1 from the first1 he    
felt himself irresistibly impelled4     
,he had now fully entered on his        
dramatic enterprise4 ,several months    
before1 he had written his tragedies of 
,philip and ,polinices1 in  ,french     
prose1 which with unwearied industry1 he
 put into ,italian verse  three or four 
several times2 endeavouring to form a   
rhythm adapted to  dialogue1 and to     
concentrate and simplify his style as   
much as possible4  ,while studying      
,italian1 he had also applied himself to
 re-learning  ,latin2 and the tragedies 
of ,seneca suggested other subjects4    
,antigone1  ,agamemnon1 ,orestes1 and   
,don ,garzia1 were all conceived1 and in

  part written1 while he was            
indefatigable in the labour1 it cannot  
so  well be said of polishing his       
language1 as of modelling and           
remodelling  it1 as his greater use of  
,tuscan1 and his critical taste         
suggested4    ,he had now an aim in     
life1 from the pursuit of which he never
 deviated1  but followed it up with     
incredible enthusiasm and perseverance4 
,his  labours were great in literature1 
yet confined chiefly to the formation   
of style2 and he translated ,sallust1   
and other ,latin authors1 for the  sake 
of improving in force and conciseness4  
,sidenote3 #aggg4  tat4  #bh4  ,he did  
not continue in one place3 after a few  
months spent at ,florence1  he returned 
to ,turin1 recalled by the love of his  
friends and his stud3  but during the   
following spring he obtained the        
necessary permission of  the king to    
quit ,piedmont and return to ,tuscany1  
for the purpose of  imbibing at the     
purest source that energetic and concise

 language1 which  he considered yielded 
in elegance and force of expression to  
no other in  the world4    ,as the city 
where the purest ,tuscan is spoken4     
,alfieri visited ,siena1  and spent the 
summer there4 ,he there formed an       
intimacy which served to  encourage him 
in his laborious pursuits2 for he tells 
us he was never  capable of arduous and 
sustained undertakings1 except when the 
feelings  of his heart were exercised by
 an intercourse of friendship or love4  
,francesco ,gori was of ignoble birth1  
and his ostensible pursuits were  those 
of traffic1 which he pursued more for   
the sake of pleasing his  family than   
for gain4 ,in the obscurity of his      
warehouse he occupied  himself with     
classical literature1 and nurtured an   
admirable and  delicate taste for the   
fine arts4 ,extreme philanthropy formed 
the  essence of his character1 and a    
warm-hearted sympathy1 that led him to  
forgive and love all mankind4 ,the idle 
and opulent nobles of the city  could   

not1 by their worthlessness1 excite his 
hatred or contempt4 ,with  ,tacitus in  
his hand1 and the pure love of liberty  
in his heart1 how  could he hate the    
victims of tyranny8 he might exclaim1   
with a poet of  modern days1 whose      
political principles were equally       
derived from the  sensibility of his    
heart1--      ,i hate thy want of love  
and truth3  ,how should ,i then hate    
thee8      ,self-knowledge deracinated  
pride in himself1 and contempt for      
others2  and thus1 humbly occupied in   
his shop1 he could extend forbearance to
  all1 except the primal causes of the  
degradation of his countrymen2  while   
his only happiness was derived from     
books1 and his chief grief  from        
comparing himself and his times with the
 men and times of which he  read4       
,there is a simplicity in ,italian      
manners that renders the friendship     
between count ,alfieri and ,gori1 the   
mercer1 by no means extraordinary4  ,to 
the sympathy produced by an agreement in

 opinions was added the  respect which  
,alfieri felt for the virtuous qualities
 of his  unpretending friend4 ,their    
talk was of the ancient glory of their  
country1 and of the literary ambition of
 ,alfieri4 ,in the course of            
conversation1 ,gori suggested the       
conspiracy of the ,pazzi as a good      
subject for a tragedy4 ,alfieri was     
ignorant of the history of the  republic
 of ,florence1 and had never heard of   
the ,pazzi4 ,gori placed the            
,florentine annals of ,machiavelli in   
his hands4 ,machiavelli 7whatever his   
motives were for writing ,the ,prince7  
was an enthusiastic republican4  ,he    
tells us in his letters1 that while     
writing the history1 he delighted       
himself by exposing the conduct of the  
princes who had ruined ,italy3 his      
spirit of freedom found an echo in      
,alfieri's heart1 and so sharpened his  
hatred of despotism1 and his love of    
liberty1 that1 throwing aside his       
tragedies1 he wrote a treatise on       

tyranny1--a work of eloquence1 but      
rather a juvenile ebullition of feeling1
 than an argumentative essay4    ,on the
 advance of winter1 ,alfieri transferred
 himself to ,florence2 and  here an     
event happened that altered the colour  
of his future life1  through the        
influence of a constant attachment1     
which1 accompanied by  esteem for the   
good qualities and talents of its       
object1 remained fixed  in his heart to 
the end of his life4    ,louisa de      
,stolberg1 countess of ,albany1 was at  
that time twenty-five  years of age1    
beautiful and full of talent4 ,her rank 
and wealth gave her  a distinguished    
place in society4 ,she was the wife of  
the last of the  ,stuarts who made      
pretensions to the throne of ,england1  
who unfortunately  disgraced his        
illustrious house1 and even the private 
station to which  he was reduced1 by    
habits the most deplorable4 ,alfieri now
 regarded his  future prospects as      
fixed3 he had long determined never to  

marry1  considering that1 under the     
despotic government to which he was a   
subject1 the ties of husband and father 
would add weight to the chains  imposed 
upon him3 attached for life to a woman  
whom he esteemed worthy  of him1 and    
beyond all things ambitious of          
distinguishing himself as an  author and
 a defender of the cause of liberty1 he 
began to put into  execution the schemes
 which had long presented themselves to 
his  imagination1 for acquiring entire  
personal freedom4 ,the nobles of        
,piedmont were in a peculiarly enslaved 
state3 they could not quit the          
territories of their sovereign except by
 especial leave1 granted for a  limited 
time2 nor could they publish any        
writings in a foreign country1  without 
the licence of their native prince1     
under penalty of a fine1 and  even      
imprisonment1 if 7so the law was        
expressed7 it was necessary to  make a  
public example4 ,these shackles were    
intolerable to a man of  independent    

mind1 bent upon giving testimony of his 
abhorrence of  despotic rule3 but few   
men would have freed themselves at the  
cost that  ,alfieri paid4 ,he came to a 
resolve to make a donation of the whole 
of  his property to his sister ,julia1  
reserving to himself only the annual    
income of #adjj sequins1 or about #fjjl4
 a year1 the half of his actual         
receipt4 ,to execute this design1 the   
king's permission was necessary1  who   
readily gave it1 being1 says ,alfieri1  
as willing to get rid of me  as ,i was  
to emancipate myself from his authority4
    ,the transfer1 however1 was not     
completed without a good deal of        
annoyance2 and ,alfieri was irritated1  
at one time1 into making a  declaration1
 that1 if his brother-in-law would not  
receive the donation1  he must the      
count's abandonment of his whole        
property2 and that he would  resign his 
claim to every possession rather than be
 fettered by the laws  attendant upon   
keeping it4 ,in the exaltation of his   

imagination1 he  almost imagined that   
this latter offer would be acted on2    
and1 finding  himself reduced to merely 
a few thousand sequins of ready money1  
he fell  into his second fit of avarice1
 selling his horses1 and all his        
superfluous plate1 furniture1 and even  
dress1 renouncing the ,sardinian        
uniform1 to which he had adhered1 from  
boyish vanity1 even after  quitting the 
service4 ,he spent a good deal of money 
in books2 but this  was his sole        
expense2 while his abstemiousness of    
living1 directed by  economy1 became of 
the most rigid kind4 ,thus1 even in     
extremes1 resolved  never to marry1     
resolved to be an author1 he completed  
sacrifices1 which  a thousand           
circumstances might afterwards have     
caused him to regret1 but  which1 he    
assures us1 he never for a moment       
repented4 ,he did not confide  the      
secret of this change in his affairs to 
the countess until it was  past recal2  
for1 as their ultimate effect was to    

render their union more  stable and     
permanent1 he felt that she might       
consider it right1 as a  mark of her    
disinterestedness1 to oppose them4 ,when
 all was over1 her  blame was of no     
avail1 and she forgave the mystery he   
had practised4    ,these various        
annoyances1 joined to the perturbations 
of love1 and the  ardour of his literary
 application1 occasioned an illness from
 which he  only recovered when the      
season of summer brought that           
healthiness of  feeling1 that lightness 
of spirit1 and that energy for          
composition1  which summer and its heats
 always imparted to his constitution4   
,during  this summer1 ,alfieri1 as he   
tells us1 in a frantic delirium of a    
love  of freedom1 wrote his tragedy of  
the ,pazzi1 and that of ,mary ,stuart   
7,mary ,queen of ,scots72 the latter at 
the request of the countess of  ,albany4
 ,during the following year he completed
 these and made the first  sketch of    
,rosmunda1 ,ottavia1 and ,timoleon4     

,since his tragedies  have become so    
numerous1 and many of his best are      
written1 it will be as  well to glance  
over them1 and to give some account of  
his progress and  success in an art to  
which he devoted his life and fortune4  
,energy and conciseness are the         
distinguishing marks of ,alfieri's      
dramas4  ,wishing to bring the whole    
action of the piece into one focus1 he  
rejected altogether the confidantes of  
the ,french theatre1 so that his        
dramatis person are limited to the      
principals themselves4 ,the             
preservation of the unities of time and 
place also contributed to  curtail all  
excrescences2 so that his tragedies are 
short1 and all hear  upon one point     
only1 which he considered the essence of
 unity of action4  ,thus1 in the        
,merope1 there are but four             
interlocutors1 the queen and  her son1  
his foster-father1 and the tyrant4      
,instead1 therefore1 as is  the case in 
the ,french dramas1 of the action being 

carried on by a  perpetual talk about   
it1 at once tedious and unnatural1 the  
interest is  always at its height       
between the parties themselves2 and it  
is singular1  in the ,merope in         
particular1 with what talent and success
 he keeps the  action in perpetual      
progress1 and the passions developed by 
such slender  means4 ,it was the turn of
 ,alfieri's character to consider it a  
duty in  an author rather to conquer    
difficulties than to acquire facilities4
 ,he  would read no other tragedians1   
for fear of imitating them1 and         
abstained from a perusal of the great   
master of the art1 ,shakspeare1  from   
the same mistaken notion4 ,genius need  
not fear to be imitative2 but  genius1  
unaided by cultivation1 and by a study  
of what has gone before1  can never     
surpass what is already written3 it were
 as if a scientific  man were to refuse 
to be initiated in the discoveries of   
science1 that  he might pursue his      
labours in a new and original path4     

,thus he might1  we will say1 re-invent 
gunpowder and printing1 but never a new 
law and a  new power4 ,to use a more    
homely illustration1 it were as if an   
agriculturist refused to manure the     
ground1 and was bent on forcing the     
native soil1 to produce by labour what  
would arise with greater  fertility and 
ease if aided by extraneous nutriment4  
,it is a law of  mechanics1 never to    
waste power1 but to proportionate on all
 occasions  the means to the end4 ,if1  
instead of refusing to read the finest  
dramatic works1 ,alfieri had studied in 
them the genius and essence of  the art2
 he might2 instead of simply restricting
 his invention to the  bald and         
inconclusive expedient of contracting   
the personages of his  drama1 have      
invented some original method of        
combining the simplicity of  design     
consequent on an observance of the      
unities1 with a more natural  and       
inforced arrangement of plot1 and with a
 greater variety and truth  of          

character4    ,the great distinction    
between ,shakspeare and almost every    
other dramatic  writer arises from his  
developement and variety of character3  
all his  personages are individuals4 ,in
 other authors1 we have a lover1 an     
ambitious man1 a tyrant1 or a victim of 
tyranny2 but in ,shakspeare it is  not  
the passion that makes the man1 but the 
peculiar character of the  person that  
gives reality and life to the passion4  
,thus ,richard ,,iii4 and  ,macbeth are 
both ambitious2 but how differently do  
their respective  dispositions modulate 
their conduct and feelings6 ,the cruel1 
remorseless  ,richard can never1 in a   
single line he utters1 be mistaken for  
the weak1  vacillating usurper1 whose   
cruelties result from the necessities of
 his  situation1 and not from inborn    
ferocity of character4 ,juliet1 ,imogen1
  and ,rosalind1 are alike girls in     
love2 but how variously do they display 
their sentiments6 the ardent ,italian1  
the fond1 devoted wife1 and the         

sprightly1 spirited daughter of an      
exiled prince1 are all individuals      
characterised by distinctive marks2 so  
that a painter would give to each  a    
physiognomy utterly dissimilar the one  
from the other4 ,if ,alfieri had  read  
,shakspeare1 he might have discovered   
and appreciated this  incomparable mark 
of his excellence2 and his knowledge of 
the human  heart would have led him to  
imitate a model which1 if succeeded in1 
could not1 from its very nature1 bear   
any resemblance to mere  plagiarism4 ,he
 himself felt that one tyrant should not
 quite resemble  another1 nor one lover 
be but the mirror of another3 but so it 
is with  him1 with few                  
exceptions--situation1 not character1   
forms the interest  of his pieces4      
,besides this1 ,alfieri was not an      
imaginative poet3 his sonnets and       
longer poems are failures2 his tragedies
 are vacant of ideal imagery2  his      
sensible objects are never animated by a
 soul infused into them by  the speaker2

 his daggers and poisons1 and all the   
other tragic  paraphernalia1 are the    
mere things themselves--the poet's eye  
never  gives to airy nothing a local    
habitation and a name4 ,his inventive   
powers consisted in being able to       
conceive situations of passion and      
interest1 and giving to his personages  
feelings and language at once  natural1 
powerful1 and pathetic4    ,his mode of 
writing his tragedies shows1 indeed1 how
 spontaneous was his  conception of the 
action of a piece1 how mechanical the   
effort by which  he clothed it in verse4
 ,he was accustomed to throw off the    
design of the  intended action in a     
sketch of a few pages1 and then to lay  
it by3 after  an interval1 he read this 
sketch1 and1 if it pleased him1 he      
arranged  the plot into acts1 and       
scenes1 and speeches1 putting down every
 idea  that presented itself1 and the   
whole in prose2 and again he put aside  
his labour for future consideration4    
,if1 on reading it over1 he felt his    

imagination warmed and excited1 and the 
ideas renew themselves in his  mind     
vividly and forcibly1 then he completed 
his work by versifying it4  ,this is not
 the routine which a genuine poet       
follows3 something of the               
improvisatore's art is inherent in him1 
and he writes in numbers1 for  the      
numbers come4    ,philip was the first  
of ,alfieri's tragedies3 it was         
originally written  in ,french prose2   
and he was so well pleased with its     
conduct1 that he  was never weary of    
composing and recomposing it in ,italian
 verse1 till  he was satisfied that the 
language was equal in vigour to the     
ideas it  expressed4 ,the subject of    
,philip is the death of don ,carlos1    
prince of  ,spain2 and the contrast of  
character in the three principal persons
 is  finely conceived and well executed4
 ,there is the obdurate1 deceitful1     
cruel tyrant4 ,his son1 educated near   
him1 in perpetual fear and  suspicion1  
is never his dupe3 he sees through all  

his subterfuges1 and  perceives the     
snares laid for him in his pretended    
mercies2 and love1  while it causes him 
to expose himself to his father's       
vengeance1 only  renders him doubly     
watchful and cautious4 ,isabella1 on the
 contrary1 a  daughter of ,france1 at   
the same time that1 from feminine       
delicacy1 she  is more restrained in her
 feelings1 yet is unsuspicious1         
unguarded1 and  ready to give credit to 
the professions of those around4 ,her   
heart opens  itself readily to hope2    
while that of her lover is impassive to 
every  delusion1 and he regards with    
terror and grief the peril to which1 in 
her generous trustingness of nature1 she
 heedlessly exposes herself4    ,as the 
genius of ,alfieri led him to depict the
 passions in their  simplest though most
 energetic form1 unaccompanied by the   
influence of  manners1 the metaphysical 
subtleties of ,shakspeare1 or the wild1 
but  deeply interesting intricacy of    
plot of ,calderon and our old           

dramatists1  so classical subjects were 
treated by him with peculiar felicity4  
,agamemnon and ,orestes are among his   
best dramas3 the dignity and  tenderness
 of ,electra1 the remorse and struggles 
of ,clytemnestra1 and  the haughty1 rash
 disposition of ,orestes1 have more of  
truth1 of nature1  and grace than is to 
be found among any modern tragedies on  
similar  subjects3 but this very        
simplicity becomes1 to a certain degree1
  baldness in modern subjects2 and      
though the conspiracy of the ,pazzi  was
 written1 he says1 with a delirious     
enthusiasm for liberty1 there is  a want
 of developement and relief that renders
 it more like the sketch  of a tragedy1 
than one filled out in all its parts4   
,virginia1 equally  pregnant with the   
spirit of liberty1 has more grace and   
more pathos4    ,while the mind of      
,alfieri was thus fully occupied by the 
composition of  his dramas1 he was happy
 in the enjoyment of the friendship and 
love of  the persons dearest to him in  

the world4 ,he was the amico di casa of 
the countess of ,albany2 that is1 he    
spent his evenings in her society1  and 
attended her in mornings during her     
visits and excursions3 he kept  up a    
constant correspondence with ,gori1 at  
,siena2 and the abbate ,caluso1  the    
friend who had first awakened his desire
 for literary composition1  many years  
before1 at ,lisbon1 and to whom he was  
warmly attached1 came  from ,turin1 and 
spent a whole year at ,florence1 that he
 might enjoy his  society4 ,but the     
tranquil course of happiness is seldom  
allowed to human  beings1 especially    
when they feel and acknowledge their    
perfect  well-being1 and repose content 
on the accomplishment of their desires4 
,the conduct of the unfortunate prince1 
who was the countess of ,albany's       
husband1 poisoned every enjoyment1 and1 
at last1 forced his wife to  separate   
herself from him4 ,given up to the most 
degrading vice1--in his  drunken fits   
his ferocity and madness endangered her 

life1 and she lived  night and day1     
haunted by the terror inspired by his   
outrages4 ,alfieri  exerted himself to  
obtain permission from the government   
for their  separation2 and1 that being  
obtained1 she retired to a convent in   
,florence1 and afterwards1 under the    
sanction of the pope1 she removed to    
another convent at ,rome4    ,alfieri   
found that thus he had succeeded in     
saving the life of his  friend2 but the 
separation necessary to prevent any     
injurious opinions  being formed as to  
the motives of his interference1 was a  
cruel reward  for his exertions4        
,florence grew hateful to him in her    
absence2 he  became incapable of every  
occupation1 and his whole thoughts were 
bent  on contriving their re-union3 it  
was matter of difficulty1 but not       
insuperable to his earnest endeavours4  
,after some months1 the pope  allowed   
her to quit her convent1 and to take up 
her abode in the palace  of cardinal    
,york2 and ,alfieri1 having already     

quitted ,florence and spent  some time  
at ,naples1 ventured at last to fix     
himself at ,rome also1  having1 as he   
tells us1 paid court1 made visits1 and  
employed a thousand  servile and        
humiliating arts1 from which his nature 
revolted1 to obtain  the sufferance of  
the pope for his residence in the same  
city as the  countess4 ,no honours1 no  
glory1 no worldly advantage1 could have 
induced  him to submit to what he       
considered the excess of meanness and   
degradation2 love alone exalted the     
debasement in his eyes4    ,now again he
 was happy3 he lived at the villa       
,strozzi1 near the baths of             
,dioclesian4 ,he spent the long mornings
 in study1 never leaving his house      
except to ride over the solitary and    
uncultivated country around ,rome1      
whose immense and lonely expanse invited
 him to reverie and poetic  composition4
 ,he spent the evenings with the        
countess1 retiring at eleven  to his    
tranquil home1 which1 divided from all  

others1 rural though in  the city1 and  
surrounded by objects of antique        
grandeur and natural  beauty1 was an    
abode such as ,rome only in the world   
can afford1 and  peculiarly adapted to  
the noble poet's temper1 character1 and 
occupations4    ,his imagination        
received its happiest inspirations      
during this period4  ,besides continual 
labour on his former compositions1 he   
wrote the  tragedies of ,merope and     
,saul1 both conceived and executed with 
a  fervour of inspiration that allowed  
him no pause between the various        
operations into which he divided the    
composition of a tragedy4 ,the  ,merope 
was written in a sort of indignant      
burst1 to prove that the  tragedy of    
,maffei on the subject1 could be easily 
surpassed4 ,the ,saul  emanated from    
reading the ,bible1 in the study of     
which he at that time  occupied himself1
 and which awoke in him a desire to     
write several  dramas on scriptural     
subjects2 had it not been that1 fond of 

forming  resolutions and of adopting    
voluntary chains1 since he cast away and
  abhorred all others1 he had determined
 to limit his tragedies to twelve4  ,the
 ,saul and ,merope caused him to exceed 
this number by two2 but he  would not be
 allured to go beyond4    ,the ,saul is1
 there can be little question1 the      
chef-d'oeuvre of  ,alfieri3 character   
forms the basis of the interest1 and the
 situations  are deeply pathetic4 ,saul1
 in some degree1 reminds the reader of  
king  ,lear4 ,the ,hebrew king is not1  
like ,shakspeare's dethroned monarch1   
thrust from his state1 and turned out by
 his children1 a victim to the  pitiless
 elements1 and1 more bitter still1 the  
sense of undeserved  injury from those  
whose duty it was to foster and shelter 
him4 ,the  children of ,saul1 and his   
son-in-law ,david1 surround him with    
protestations of duty and a heartfelt   
wish to soothe him by their  affection  
and care2 but he is struck by ,god2     
prosperity has departed  from his house1

 victory from his banner2 and his       
vacillating reason  discerns rebellion  
and dethronement in the very submissions
 of those  around him4 ,he struggles    
with the sense of ill fortune1 and the  
sad  consciousness of the occasional    
aberrations of his intellect2 now       
lamenting the days of his prosperous    
youth1 now melted to tenderness by  the 
caresses of his children2 and again1    
seized upon by suspicion1 envy1  and    
pride1 he wildly and madly casts from   
him every support and hope1 to  find    
himself1 in the end1 alone1 defeated1   
lost2 till in a transport of  shame and 
despair1 he ends a life so tarnished and
 abhorrent4 ,saul is  the best of       
,alfieri's tragedies2 and1 if we were   
called upon to point  out his best      
scene1 we should select the second act  
of that play4    ,sidenote3#aghb4  tat4 
#cc4    ,alfieri felt proud and happy   
when he had completed his fourteen      
tragedies4 ,that month of ,october1 he  
writes1 was memorable to me1  since ,i  

enjoyed a repose no less delicious than 
necessary1 after so much  labour3 full  
to the brim of vainglory1 ,i breathed no
 word of my  achievements to any but    
myself1 and1 with a sort of veiled      
moderation1  to her ,i loved2 who1      
through her affection for me1 probably1 
seemed well  inclined to believe that ,i
 was capable of being a great man1 and  
always  encouraged me to do all ,i could
 to become one4 ,his works1 also1 were  
becoming known4 ,a few of the nobility  
of ,rome formed themselves into a       
company1 and acted his ,antigone1 in    
which he took the part of ,creon3  the  
representation was crowned with success4
 ,he was1 besides1 in the  habit of     
reading his tragedies in society1 partly
 for the sake of the  mute criticism    
displayed by the attention and interest 
they excited in  his audience2 and1     
under the superintendence of his friend 
,gori1 four  among his dramas were      
printed at ,siena4    ,but this very    
celebrity was the cause of the disaster 

that hung over his  head1 and1 by       
drawing attention to him1 engendered    
enmity and  disturbance4 ,his familiar  
intercourse with the countess1 and the  
daily  habit of his life1 in forming a  
part of the society she gathered around 
her1 began to excite censure3 this      
roused at once his fears and            
indignation4 ,his mode of life was in   
strict accordance with the notions  of  
propriety1 as they rule manners in      
,italy4 ,injurious and to be  deprecated
 as the system of society is1 no        
individual thinks1 when he  follows the 
example of the whole of his countrymen1 
that he should be  selected as an object
 for blame4 ,however1 in a moral and    
religious view1  the so-named friendship
 of the countess and ,alfieri was       
blameable1 yet  they scrupulously       
attended to the rules of decorum1 which 
form the whole  of an ,italian's        
conscience1 generally speaking1 and     
believed that they  had every right to  
be happy in each other4 ,as we have said

 in another  place1 we are not inclined 
to bestow vehement blame on individual  
conduct1 resulting from a system of     
manners which has endured for ages1     
while that system itself merits the     
utmost abhorrence1 and1 we are happy  to
 be able to say1 is in progress of being
 extirpated in ,italy3 until it  is1    
there can be no hope of moral           
regeneration1 or for the happiness and  
improvement of its inhabitants4         
,however1 it must be remembered that    
though1 especially in those days1 no    
one would have been so unreasonable or  
barbarous as to prevent a lady  from    
having a cavaliere servente1 yet the    
peculiar cavaliere she selects  is      
usually forbidden2 and as much misery is
 often produced by an  interference in  
the lady's choice as by a total         
prohibition to be  allowed a friend at  
all4 ,in the present instance1 the      
husband of the  countess complained to  
his brother1 the priests of the holy    
city were  roused to a perception of the

 scandal1 and the pope induced to       
consider  it right to interfere4        
,alfieri found only one mode of         
mitigating the  violence of the menaced 
storm1 which was to meet it3 he         
voluntarily  quitted ,rome1 and1 to     
prevent any actual measures of          
prohibition and  banishment1 went into  
voluntary exile4    ,affections and     
habits which had subsisted so long could
 not be thus  rudely torn up without    
intense suffering4 ,after several years 
of  happiness1 ,alfieri found himself   
cast from the shelter he had selected1  
wherein to place his warm and sensitive 
heart1 upon solitude1  uncertainty1 and 
bitter regret4 ,poetry and composition  
became  distasteful to him2 he could not
 even enjoy his friend ,gori's society1 
whom he visited immediately upon        
quitting ,rome3 he was ashamed to annoy 
him by his melancholy1 and his          
restlessness and desire for travel      
returned4 ,he visited ,venice1 and      
wandered for some time in ,lombardy1 and

  then again returned to ,siena1 to     
attend to the printing of six other     
tragedies1 although he had become       
indifferent even to the lately          
engrossing desire of fame2 and then he  
suddenly resolved to visit  ,england1   
for the sole purpose of buying horses4  
,sidenote3 #aghc4  tat4  #cd4  ,he had  
long put himself on short allowance with
 regard to these  favourite animals2    
but1 having saved a large sum of ready  
money1 during  several years1 at first  
of parsimony1 and then of economy1 he   
determined  to spend it on the purchase 
and maintenance of a number of ,english 
horses of the best breed4 ,a journey    
thus undertaken1 with but one  object1  
was executed with a mixture of          
impetuosity and persevering  patience   
characteristic of ,alfieri4 ,he went to 
,england2 he bought his  horses1        
fourteen in number1 to equal that of his
 tragedies2 he  transported them safely 
across the straits of ,dover1 conducted 
them with  unwearied care through       

,france1 and led them across ,mont      
,cenis with a  success--they being      
injured neither in wind or limb--on     
which he for the  moment prided himself 
scarcely less than on his dramatic      
labours4    ,on his return to ,italy1 he
 remained a few weeks at ,turin2 and the
 king  showed a disposition to employ   
him under government4 ,his minister     
sounded the count3 but he refused to    
entertain any proposition on the        
subject2 for1 although he acknowledges  
that the sovereigns of the house  of    
,savoy were not tyrannically inclined1  
but showed every inclination to  benefit
 their subjects1 his uncompromising1 and
 even fierce1 spirit of  independence   
spurned every shackle1 and he felt to   
breathe more freely  when he had quitted
 the territories of ,piedmont4 ,the     
countess of ,albany  was now on her way 
to ,baden for the summer4 ,she passed   
northwards along  the shores of the     
,adriatic1 while ,alfieri proceeded     
south1 by ,modena and  ,pistoia1 to     

,siena4 ,he had resisted the temptation 
of crossing the narrow  portion of      
,italy between them1 and obtaining a    
brief interview2 but when  she had      
arrived at ,baden1 and he at ,siena1    
this fortitude gave way1 and  he        
suddenly left his horses1 and his friend
 ,gori1 and posted with all  haste to   
,alsatia1 there for three months to     
enjoy her society4    ,during the two   
years of absence which he had endured4  
,alfieri had  forgotten poetry1 study1  
glory1 and his tragedies4 ,but the      
countess's  presence awoke every dormant
 energy1 and scarcely had he arrived1   
before  he conceived and wrote ,agis1   
,sofonisba and ,mirra4 ,the last        
deserves to be particularly mentioned as
 one of the best of his dramas1         
particularly as he overcomes            
difficulties of the most appalling      
description4 ,i had never thought1 he   
says1 either of ,myrrha or ,biblis  as  
subjects for the drama4 ,but1 in reading
 ,ovid's ,metamorphoses1 ,i hit  upon   

the affecting and divinely eloquent     
speech of ,myrrha to her nurse1  which  
caused me to burst into tears1 and1 like
 a flash of lightning1  awoke in me the 
idea of a tragedy4 ,it appeared to me   
that a most  original and pathetic piece
 might be written1 if the author could  
contrive that the spectator should      
discover by degrees the horrible        
struggles of the burning but pure heart 
of the more miserable than  guilty      
,myrrha1 without her betraying the half1
 nor scarcely owning to  herself so     
criminal a passion4 ,my idea was1 that  
she should do in my  tragedy what ,ovid 
describes her as relating1 but do it in 
silence4    ,there is something         
touchingly beautiful in the first       
description of  ,myrrha1 in a scene     
between her mother and her nurse4 ,she  
is described as  so gentle1 docile1     
soft1 and pliable of nature--so fearful 
of doing  wrong--so sweetly earnest to  
please her parents--and now to be       
labouring  under a melancholy so dark   

and gloomy1 as to deface her beauty1 and
 bow  her in appearance to the grave4   
,as the action is developed1 the notion 
that she is under a supernatural curse  
adds to the awe and pity of the  reader2
 but1 at last1 it must be confessed1 her
 violence and frenzy pass  the bounds of
 modest nature1 and the passion she     
nurtures fails in  exciting our         
sympathy4 ,this is the fault of the     
subject2 inequality of  age adding to   
the unnatural incest4 ,to shed any      
interest over such an  attachment1 the  
dramatist ought to adorn the father with
 such youthful  attributes as would be  
by no means contrary to probability3 but
 then a  worse evil would ensue2 and the
 more possible such criminal passion    
becomes1 the more violently does the    
mind revolt from dwelling on it4        
,while at ,baden1 ,alfieri received the 
afflicting intelligence of the          
unexpected death of his friend ,gori4   
,this misfortune disturbed his          
enjoyment of the last days of his visit1

 which of themselves were sad1  from the
 approximation of so painful and bitter 
a separation4 ,with  reluctance and     
grief he left the countess and returned 
to ,siena2 but his  sorrow was too acute
 to admit of a prolonged stay in a town 
where he had  enjoyed the company of a  
friend lost for ever4 ,he removed to    
,pisa2 while  the countess took up her  
abode at ,bologna4 ,the ,apennines only 
divided  them1 but he dared not cross   
them4 ,the gossip of the small ,italian 
towns  is unconceivably eager and       
pertinacious2 and it was necessary for  
her  future liberty to guard their      
conduct from all remark4 ,early in the  
following spring1 the countess departed 
for ,paris1 resolving to fix  herself in
 ,france1 where she had friends1        
relations1 and resources4 ,in  the month
 of ,august she again visited ,baden1   
and ,alfieri joined her4  ,again his    
mind was vivified and warmed by         
happiness1 and again two  tragedies were
 the result of the inspiration4 ,the    

subjects were the  ,brutus of the       
monarchy of ,rome and the ,brutus who   
died at ,philippi4 ,in  the first he    
displays great force and energy2 but the
 second1 we must be  permitted to say1  
is a complete failure4 ,to make a       
perfect equality of  sacrifice between  
the two heroes1 as ,lucius ,junius      
,brutus caused his  sons to be          
decapitated1 so he makes his descendant1
 ,marcus1 assassinate  his parent4 ,the 
idea that ,csar was the father of       
,brutus is so totally  devoid of        
foundation1 and so little in consonance 
with the simple  majesty of the         
character of the patriot1 that it       
deteriorates from the  interest of the  
drama1 and1 instead of exalting him1 the
 discovery1 the  resolution he declares 
nevertheless to persist in the          
assassination1 the  sympathy and        
admiration he gains1 is all so feeble1  
so puerile1 and so  false1 that it is   
astonishing that ,alfieri did not detect
 his mistake4  ,to us1 who possess the  

most admirable portrait ever drawn of   
magnanimous  and single-minded virtue in
 ,shakspeare's delineation of the       
character of  ,brutus1 this failure     
becomes more glaring1 and gives further 
proof of  the ,italian poet's error in  
not studying the pages of the greatest  
writer the world ever produced4         
,after some months spent at ,colmar1 the
 countess returned to ,paris2 while     
,alfieri remained at the former place1  
writing letters and sonnets1  mourning  
over his separation1 and correcting his 
tragedies4 ,he passed  two or three     
years at this place1 the countess       
joining him during the  summers4 ,in    
that of #aghg1 he had a most dangerous  
illness4 ,his friend1  the abbate       
,caluso1 came from ,turin to visit him2 
and but for this  illness1 he had been  
perfectly happy4 ,on the approach of    
winter that  year1 he accompanied the   
countess back to ,paris1 and established
 himself  there4 ,the death of her      
husband restored her to liberty2 but a  

number of  circumstances led them to    
continue for some time in ,france4      
,whether they  were married now1 is a   
secret that never has been revealed2 but
 their  union was acknowledged1 and it  
was understood that their constant1     
inviolable attachment had received from 
time a sanction which prevented  any    
blame from being cast on it by their    
relations and friends4 ,alfieri  mourned
 over the necessity that brought him    
back to his abjured  ,gallicisms2 but he
 was somewhat consoled1 during a three  
years'  residence in ,paris1 by         
superintending and bringing out an      
edition of his  tragedies1 on which he  
bestowed the last labours of correction 
with  regard to style1 and brought the  
language as near to his standard of     
perfection as he was capable of         
attaining4    ,the disagreeable and1 to 
his sensitive temperament1 irritating   
task of  correcting the press1 seems to 
have exercised an injurious influence   
over his temper and genius4 ,according  

to his own account1 it dried up  his    
brain1 quenched the fire of youthful    
enthusiasm1 and prevented his  ever     
again writing with equal vigour and     
felicity4 ,after terminating the        
correction of his tragedies1 he         
fortunately betook himself to writing   
the memoirs of his life1 which are the  
groundwork from which the present  pages
 are taken4 ,it is written unaffectedly1
 and with great frankness  and          
self-knowledge2 the style is unstudied1 
and the egotism of feeling  which       
produced it imparts extreme interest to 
the details4 ,after  bringing down the  
history of his life till the year #agij1
 when he was  forty-one years of age1 he
 still felt an utter inability to any   
high  flight in literature1 and he      
occupied himself in translating the     
neid and the ,comedies of ,terence4 ,he 
had long enthusiastically  admired the  
versification of ,virgil1 and tried to  
model his own upon it1  adapting it1 at 
the same time1 to dramatic dialogue4    

,this circumstance  is curious1 since no
 style can be so opposite2 the          
mellifluous1  dignified1 and graceful   
flow of the ,latin poet being a contrast
 to the  rough and concise energy of the
 modern ,italian4 ,this observation     
regards1 however1 only his tragedies2   
less praise must be bestowed on  his    
other productions in verse3 his         
translation of the neid is  feeble in   
the extreme2 his longer original poems  
are devoid of even  secondary merit2 and
 his love sonnets are1 to say all in a  
word1 the  very antipodes of his        
immortal master1 ,petrarch4 ,alfieri is 
a great  tragedian3 it is impossible to 
read his best dramas without being      
carried away by the eloquence and       
passion of the dialogue1 and deeply     
interested by the situations of struggle
 or peril in which his  personages are  
placed4 ,the rapidity of the action1 and
 the earnestness  and life with which   
every scene is instinct1 renders it     
impossible to  close the volume till the

 catastrophe ends all4 ,alfieri was also
 an  excellent prose writer3 his        
treatise on ,princes and ,literature is 
full  of power2 the style is correct1   
flowing1 yet simple1 and without        
meretricious ornament4 ,the pure spirit 
of independence burns like a holy  lamp 
throughout1 and gives a charm to every  
sentiment and expression4  ,but never   
was line so distinctly drawn between the
 poetry of  circumstance1 so to speak1  
and ideal poetry3 ,in all the pages of  
,alfieri  there is not one imaginative  
image2 and we feel this most in his     
lyrics1  since ideality is the soul of  
lyric poetry4 ,he seems never to have   
been  conscious of this defect4 ,he     
would readily have admitted that ,dante 
and  ,petrarch were superior to him in  
genius2 but he seems unaware that they  
possessed a quality of which not one    
glimmering ray is to be found in  the   
whole course of the flood of rhymes to  
the composition of which he  alludes    
frequently as being the overflowings of 

poetic inspiration4 ,it  is possible    
that ,alfieri might have been a great   
novelist1 had he ever  turned his       
attention to that species of            
composition4 ,or had he continued  to   
invent1 instead of drying his brain up  
with the irksome task of  correcting    
what he had already written1 he might   
have bestowed on us  tragedies finer    
than any we have of his1 or1 at least1  
several equal to  the ,saul4 ,but1 with 
all his philosophy and self-examination1
 he did  not understand the texture and 
capabilities of his intellect4    ,to   
return to his life in ,paris4 ,the      
disquietude arising from the ,french    
revolution added to the irritable state 
of ,alfieri's mind4 ,we all see  the    
visible universe through a medium formed
 by our individual  peculiarities2 but  
it is curious to find the advocate of   
liberty lay  most stress on his fear    
lest the tumults of ,paris should       
interrupt the  completion of ,didot's   
edition of his works4 ,probably his     

intense  abhorrence of the ,french      
prevented his fostering rational hopes  
for the  ultimate advantages to be      
gained by the overthrow of the time-worn
 and  corrupt monarchy of ,france1 at   
the same time that it prevented his ever
  being blinded by any illusion as to   
the real character of the events        
passing around him4 ,he prides himself  
on never having seen or conversed  with 
any one of the revolutionary leaders1   
and on having always regarded  the rise 
of a lawless democracy as the           
stepping-stone to military  despotism4  
,from the first1 he was eager to get    
away from these scenes of  bloodshed and
 horror1 and in the spring of #agia     
accompanied the countess  of ,albany to 
,england4 ,this country did not please  
her2 and he1 grown  querulous and       
subject to the gout1 was quickly        
disgusted by the climate1  and annoyed  
by the peculiar habits of life of the   
,english4 ,a great  portion of his and  
the countess's fortune was in the       

,french funds2 and  the fall of the     
assignats made it advisable for them to 
live in the  country where they still   
bore a value4 ,this circumstance induced
 them to  return to ,paris2 and1        
resolving to fix themselves there1 they 
took a  house1 furnished it1 and        
,alfieri collected a voluminous library3
 but the  whirlwind that swept over     
unhappy ,france included them in its    
devastations4 ,they became alarmed by   
the increase of lawless violence2  and  
when1 on the #ajth of ,august1 #agib1   
,louis ,,xvi4 was dragged from the      
,tuilleries and imprisoned in the       
,temple1 they determined to fly from a  
city1 where it appeared that no one of  
rank or wealth could remain in  safety4 
,the impetuosity of the poet's character
 was of great advantage  on this        
occasion4 ,with infinite difficulty     
passports were obtained for  the        
countess and himself2 and they fixed on 
the #bjth of ,august for their          
departure4 ,the impatience of ,alfieri  

caused them to anticipate their         
journey1 and they set out on the #ahth4 
,with a good deal of difficulty  they   
passed the barrier of ,st4 ,denis1 and  
hastened to a place of safety4  ,two    
days after1 on the #bjth1 the           
municipality of ,paris sent to arrest   
the countess3 had she remained1 she     
would have been thrown into prison1     
and1 in all probability1 have fallen a  
victim during the massacres of  the #b;d
 of ,september4 ,not finding her1 their 
income arising from the  ,french funds  
was sequestrated1 their furniture1      
horses1 and books  confiscated1 and     
though foreigners1 they were both       
declared emigrants4  ,alfieri chiefly   
lamented his library1 and the edition of
 his works4 ,some  years after1 a       
,french general1 then at ,turin1 with a 
good deal of  ostentation1 offered to   
obtain the restoration of his books1 a  
list of  which he sent him4 ,alfieri has
 left about #afjj volumes3 the list     
contained the names of #aej of the least

 valuable4 ,he refused to avail  himself
 of what he ironically calls a ,french  
restitution2 and surely1  if national   
contempt and hatred is ever pardonable1 
it was to be excused  in an ,italian1   
who saw his country over-run by         
soi-disant liberators1  who displayed   
their friendly intentions by a thousand 
acts of plunder  and arrogance4         
,burning with an unquenchable hatred for
 all things ,french1 ,alfieri  returned 
to ,florence with the countess of       
,albany1 in which city he  remained till
 his death4 ,in the tranquillity of his 
position1 his love  of study awoke with 
renewed force4 ,but whether it was that 
his fiery  temperament burnt itself     
quickly out1 or that the ardour of his  
studies1  joined to ill health and      
intemperate abstemiousness1 exhausted   
him4  ,alfieri appears to have grown    
prematurely old4 ,the spirit of         
invention  was dead within him2 and     
nothing can be more deplorable than that
 which  he mistook for such1 under whose

 influence he wrote laughterless        
comedies and toothless satires1 the most
 dolorous and innoxious that can  be    
imagined4 ,still1 though original       
invention was dead1 industry1           
perseverance1 and fervour in the pursuit
 of learning were as warm as  ever in   
his heart4 ,he brought to a conclusion  
his translations of  ,terence1 the neid1
 and ,sallust3 the latter is an         
excellent specimen  of style2 but his   
poetic translations are languid and     
unworthy4 ,as to  the unlucky           
,misogallo1 in which he accumulates1 in 
prose and verse1  the whole force of his
 detestation of the ,french1 it remains 
a monument  of how little men know      
themselves1 and the mistakes to which   
genius is  liable1 when it exchanges the
 nobler pursuit of the good and         
beautiful1  to soil itself by the       
pettier passions of our nature4         
,while thus employed1 a more genial     
pursuit occupied him for a short        
period1 which he calls waste of time1   

but which1 by linking him in  agreeable 
intercourse with his fellow creatures1  
and wearing away the  rust produced by  
despondency and over-excited feelings1  
would have made  his latter years       
happier2 but ,alfieri1 ever bent on     
fighting with  difficulties1 and        
thwarting his natural tendencies1 cast  
from him the  medicine offered to his   
diseased mind4 ,some friends of his1    
possessed of  histrionic talent1 got up 
his tragedy of ,saul3 ,alfieri filled   
the part  of the unfortunate king4      
,others of his plays were afterwards    
represented1 in which he also acted2 but
 he always preferred the part of  ,saul1
 which confirms our opinion1 that it is1
 of all the characters he  has          
pourtrayed1 the best fitted for the     
stage1 and the nearest approach  to     
those unrivalled princes of the drama1  
the heroes of ,shakspeare4    ,after    
some months had been occupied by these  
representations1 ,alfieri  gave them up1
 and devoted himself exclusively to     

study4 ,he had many  plans for          
composition3 the chief of these were    
what he called  tramelogedie1 or tragic 
melodramas1 only one of which1 ,abel1 he
 found  energy to write1 and this is an 
entire failure4 ,he entered on a new    
field1 to which his genius was not      
adapted--the mingling of human beings   
and spirits1 of the passions of the     
heart and the airy creations of our     
fancy2 a species of composition which is
 to be found in perfection in           
,calderon1 and which ,gothe1 ,byron1 and
 ,shelley have made familiar to us  in  
modern times1 and1 according to their   
various capacities1 adorned  with the   
mystery1 fire1 and glowing imagery      
peculiar to each4--,but of  this        
creative power1 that peoples our world  
with beings not of it1  though in       
it1--,alfieri was wholly destitute4 ,we 
have already remarked  how entirely his 
writings are wanting in the more ideal  
attributes of  imaginative poetry4      
,at the age of forty-six he applied     

himself with desperate ardour to the    
study of the ,greek language4 ,forty-six
 is no advanced age3 how many men  are  
in their prime at that epoch6 but it was
 not so with ,alfieri2 his  very memory 
failed him1 but he persevered with his  
accustomed energy1  battling with       
difficulties as if they had been        
opponents1 inspired with  a sense of    
opposition4 ,thus he read the most      
difficult authors1 with the  notes of   
the scholiasts1 learning an infinite    
multitude of verses by  heart1 and      
acquiring1 in the end1 by dint of       
unwearied industry1 a  considerable     
knowledge of the language4    ,his      
health was infirm and his quiet         
disturbed by the progress of the        
,french armies4 ,they came1 they said1  
to liberate ,italy1 and1 under this     
pretence1 destroyed its native          
governments1 introduced their own crude 
institutions1 and then1 on pretence of  
the opposition their tyranny met1       
despoiling the ,italians of their works 

of art1 endeavouring even to  supplant  
their divine language1 and treating with
 contempt and insolence  their peculiar 
manners and customs2 so that any welcome
 given by the  ,italians to these       
pretended friends only showed more      
plainly their  insulting pretensions and
 rapacity4 ,when the ,french first      
appeared in  ,florence1 ,alfieri and the
 countess hurried away as if it had been
  visited by the plague4 ,they          
established themselves at a villa in the
  environs1 having removed all their    
property from their house in the  city2 
and here they remained till the ,french 
were temporarily driven  from ,tuscany4 
,on their second invasion1 ,alfieri had 
no time to retreat1  and he satisfied   
his feelings of scorn and hatred by     
never speaking to a  ,frenchman1 or     
admitting the visits of the leaders of  
its armies4    ,his melancholy increased
 with the irritation caused by political
 events1  by unwearied study1 and the   
physical weakness produced by his       

systematic  abstinence4 ,he was happy in
 the society of the countess of ,albany1
 and  that of his dear friend1 the      
abbate ,caluso3 but many long hours he  
spent  by himself in gloomy reverie4    
,the bitterness and asperity of his mind
  was thus increased1 and his dislike of
 society prevented the beneficial       
action of sympathy and mutual           
forbearance4 ,he considered himself1 to 
a  great degree1 a disappointed man in  
his literary career1 and was  ignorant  
of the universal applause bestowed upon 
his tragedies4 ,he  divided his time    
with the most scrupulous exactitude1 and
 his horses  were still dear to him4    
,many hours were spent in the aisles of 
,santa  ,croce1 or other churches of    
,florence1 listening to the music1 and  
absorbed in reverie4    ,during the last
 years of his life1 he was visited each 
spring by a fit  of the gout1 and each  
summer by a desire to employ himself    
upon original  composition1 to which he 
devoted himself with an ardour which    

brought  on1 each autumn1 a dangerous   
illness4 ,his six unlucky comedies were 
the  principal objects of these         
ill-fated labours2 and his life was at  
last  their sacrifice4 ,a theorist in   
all things1 he imagined that1 as the    
gout  proceeded from inflammation1 it   
could be starved out of his frame2 and  
he commenced a system of abstinence that
 deprived him of the nutriment          
necessary to support life4 ,the countess
 in vain implored him not to  adhere to 
so senseless a plan3 it has often       
happened that1 by resisting  the        
prescriptions of physicians1 and the aid
 of medicine1 a man has  conquered      
inherent disease1 and lived to an old   
age2 but as soon as he  begins to       
administer remedies to himself1 and to  
act from theories1  instead of from that
 long and arduous practice necessary to 
give the  smallest insight into the     
delicate structure of our physical      
nature1 he  must become the victim3 thus
 it was with ,alfieri2 hard study and   

abstinence reduced his life to a mere   
flickering spark2 he became a  skeleton 
in appearance2 each day he took less    
nourishment1 and the  weaker he grew1   
the more resolutely did he apply himself
 to study1 as  the sole solace of his   
worn-out and burthensome existence4 ,in 
the month  of ,october1 #ahjc1 he was   
attacked by gout in the stomach4 ,the   
physicians  wished1 by means of blisters
 and sinapisms1 to draw it to the       
extremities2 but a childish dislike to  
the inconvenience which would  ensue1   
and the impossibility of taking his     
daily walk1 if these remedies  were     
applied to his legs1 caused him to      
refuse them4 ,opium was given  instead1 
and his pain was moderated2 but still he
 sat up2 and his mind  was rather       
excited than calmed by the narcotics    
administered3 he  remembered as in      
dreams1 but with the utmost vividness1  
various  incidents of his past life1 or 
passages from his own writings and those
  of others2 and these he repeated to   

the countess1 who sat by him  watching4 
,no idea of approaching death seems to  
have entered his mind2  and the priest1 
who came to offer the usual offices of  
the catholic  religion to the dying1 was
 sent away with an invitation to return 
on the  morrow2 whether because he      
believed that by that time he should be 
beyond such interference1 or as a mere  
excuse for delay1 cannot be told4  ,as  
he grew weaker1 he sent for the         
countess1 and when she came he          
stretched out his hand1 saying          
,stringetemi la mano1 cara amica2 mi    
sento morire4 ,press my hand1 dear      
friend2 ,i am dying4 ,these were his    
last words4 ,he died on the #hth of     
,october1 #ahjc1 at the age of          
fifty-five4    ,he was buried in ,santa 
,croce1 and the countess of ,albany     
erected a tomb  to his memory1          
sculptured by ,canova4 ,it is not one of
 his happiest  efforts2 but the         
inscription1 which has been called      
pretending1 appears  to me simple and   

affectionate4 ,louisa de ,stolberg1     
countess of ,albany1  to ,vittorio      
,alfieri1 is surely no impertinent      
obtrusion of the name of  his dearest   
friend2 and it may be remarked1 that1   
while the countess has  been censured   
for recording her name so prominently4  
,alfieri1 in the  epitaph he himself    
composed for her1 makes it her chief    
praise that she  was quam unice         
dilexit1--the only love of the poet4    
,this account of the life of a man who  
was endowed with the chief  attribute of
 genius1--that of spontaneously forming 
and manifesting  itself1 despite every  
obstacle or adverse circumstance1--may  
be  concluded by the quotation of the   
sonnet in which he describes his own    
person2 a faithful translation of which1
 which we also append1 appeared1  some  
years ago1 in ,the ,liberal4 ,it may be 
quoted with the more  propriety at the  
end of his life1 since it was written   
when time had  robbed him of the graces 
of youth2 giving instead those          

characteristic  marks stamped by the    
action of his disposition and pursuits4 
,sublime specchio di veraci detti       
,mostrami in corpo e in anima qual sono4
  ,capelli or radi in fronte1 e rossi   
pretti2  ,lunga statura e capo a terra  
prono2  ,sottil persona su due stinchi  
schietti2  ,bianca pelle1 occhi azzurri1
 aspetto buono1  ,giusto naso1 bel      
labbro1 e denti eletti1  ,pallido in    
volto pi che un re sul trono4    ,or    
duro1 acerbo1 ora pieghevol mite4       
,irato sempre e non maligno mai1  ,la   
mente e il cor meco in perpetua lite1   
,per lo pi mesto1 e tal or lieto assai1 
,or stimandomi ,achille1 ed or ,tersite2
  ,uom1 se' tu grande o vii8 ,muori1 e  
il saprai4#ea      ,footnote #ea3 ,thou 
lofty mirror1 ,truth1 let me be shown   
,such as ,i am1 in body and in mind4    
,hair plainly red1 retreating now       
behind2  ,a stature tall1 a stooping    
head and prone2  ,a meagre body on two  
stilts of bone2  ,fair skin1 blue eyes1 
good look1 nose well design'd2  ,a      

handsome mouth1 teeth that are rare to  
find1  ,and pale in face1 more than a   
king on throne4    ,now harsh and       
crabbed1 mild and pleasant soon2        
,always irascible1 no malignant foe2    
,my head and heart and ,i never in tune2
  ,sad for the most part1 then in such a
 flow  ,of spirits1 ,i feel now hero1   
now buffoon2  ,man1 art thou great or   
vile8--die1 and thou ',it know4         
,,monti    #aged-ahbh4      ,monti is1  
without question1 the greatest ,italian 
poet that has appeared  since the golden
 days of its poetry3 he alone emulates  
his predecessors  in the higher flights 
of the imagination4 ,it has been        
pronounced of  ,dryden1 that if each of 
the princes of poetry surpassed him in  
their  peculiar vein1 yet his fire and  
originality give him a near place beside
  them4 ,thus ,monti has not the        
sublimity of ,dante1 nor the tenderness 
of  ,petrarch2 neither the inventive    
flow of ,ariosto1 nor ,tasso's epic     
conception and voluptuous grace3 but he 

has a fervour1 a power of  imagery1 an  
overflowing and redundance of ideal     
thought1 that mark the  genuine poet4   
,he came to revive the languid and      
unnatural style that flourished under   
the reign of the ,arcadians4 ,some few  
real poets had sprung up in ,italy  in  
the interval between ,ariosto and       
,monti3 they are recorded in this       
volume4 ,chiabrera and ,filicaja are the
 chief4 ,these men found in the         
inspiration of their own minds the power
 that led them to adopt a style  of     
their own1 and to bestow                
originality--which1 in one shape or     
another1  is the vivifying soul of      
composition1--on their productions4     
,metastasio  carried clearness and grace
 of expression to a great perfection1   
but he  wanted strength and daring3     
,alfieri had not a trace of that        
sunshiny and  rainbow-like 7so to speak7
 colour-giving power of fancy1 without  
which  there is no real poetry4 ,for the
 rest1 the poets of those days were     

,arcadians2 the very word seems to      
express volumes of inane affectation1   
and turgid1 yet soulless1 language4 ,it 
is thus that a clever ,italian  critic  
of the present day speaks of them3--,to 
the hyperboles and  conceits of the     
seicentisti1 succeeded the follies and  
pastorals of the  ,arcadians4 ,the      
subject treated by these poets were     
restrained in narrow  limits2 they were 
all futile1 trite1 vulgar1 or           
silly1--adulatory1 or  false4 ,a        
new-married pair1 a nun1--the new-born  
babe of some sovereign  or noble1--the  
election of a cardinal1 or a bishop1 or 
even of an  abb--a funeral or a feigned 
love2 such were the favourite themes of 
the ,arcadians4 ,was a marriage in      
question1--,hymen was adjured to bring  
its chains to link two hearts2 and a new
 ,hercules or ,achilles was             
prognosticated as the future result of  
the union4 ,if a girl shut herself  up  
in the cloister1 the poets expatiated on
 her happiness2 they  described the     

heavenly bridegroom as descending and   
stretching out his  hand to her1 while  
the mischievous ,cupid angrily threw    
away his golden  quiver2 a censurable   
mixture of sacred and profane imagery   
was thus  introduced1 and their ideas   
were steeped in two fountains1 in       
contradiction one to the other1 the     
,bible and mythology4 ,the most         
shameless flattery blotted their pages1 
as they praised one another1 and        
depicted themselves on the heights of   
,parnassus1--beside the waters of       
,hypocrene1--in the company of ,apollo  
and the ,muses2 and the wonders of      
,orpheus and ,amphion were renewed1 to  
express the charms of each other's      
verses4 ,no ,arcadian dared imagine     
himself enamoured of a human being3  she
 was no mortal woman1 but a goddess1--a 
,venus sprung on the instant  from the  
foam of the sea3 lips1 and eyes1 and    
hair1 had all their  appropriate1       
still-repeated epithets3 did their lady 
sigh1 or did one  word escape the paling

 of her ivory teeth1--tempests fled1 the
 winds  were stilled1 and ,jove was     
again tempted to transform himself into 
a  bull for her sake4#eb    ,men can do 
strange things when they associate in   
companies1 and keep  each other in      
countenance by a wide-spread folly1 that
 bars out the  wholesome fear of        
ridicule4 ,thus1 the ,arcadians had     
colonies all over  ,italy4 ,they gave   
feigned names to each other2 they       
lauded1 and  celebrated1 and crowned    
each other4 ,good sense and good taste  
were  sacrificed in the emulation each  
felt to transcend his rivals in a       
sonorous and turgid system of words1 in 
which neither passion nor  thought      
appeared4#ec ,a new genius was wanted to
 trample on this  overgrowth of vanity  
or folly1 and to gift the tamed and     
chained  language of ,dante and ,bojardo
 with wings and liberty4 ,such was the  
poet1  the incidents of whose life we   
now proceed to detail4    ,vincenzo     
,monti was born in ,romagna1 on the     

#aith of ,february1 #aged4 ,his         
father's simple1 and even humble1 but   
pretty and agreeable1 house was         
situated among the vineyards and        
agricultural country which lies between 
,fusignano and the ,alfonsine1 in the   
,ravennese territory4 ,the air is       
healthy and serene1 the country fertile 
and diversified1 and the style  of life 
of his parents such as at once          
cultivated simplicity of taste  and     
kindness of heart4 ,nothing can be more 
primitive and patriarchal  than the mode
 of life of the smaller landholders in  
,italy2 and to this  class ,monti's     
father belonged4 ,the farm-house--or    
villa1 as it is  called1 if a little    
better than a cottage--is situated      
amidst the ground  they cultivate4 ,the 
name of podere is given to these small  
farms1  enclosed by hedges1 within whose
 limits grapes1 corn1 vegetables1 and   
fruits are all cultivated in a sort of  
picturesque confusion4 ,the vines1      
trained on trellises1 form covered      

walks2 and the sound of the  water-wheel
 is continually heard1 and of the water 
trickling through the  conduits that    
lead it to the various parts of the     
grounds4 ,the ,italian  farmer works    
very hard1 and the cottager still       
harder4 ,he divides the  produce of the 
land with his landlord1 entertains few  
servants1 and his  habits are at once   
laborious and frugal4 ,the parents of   
,monti were an  excellent specimen of   
the virtues of this unpretending race4  
,they are  still remembered in the      
country by numbers of the poor whom they
  assisted and comforted4 ,their        
children were brought up to consider it 
a  valuable privilege to bestow help    
upon those in want of the necessaries   
of life1 and ,vincenzo in particular    
inherited from them a warm heart and  a 
tenderness of feeling that caused him to
 be idolised in his domestic  circle4   
,monti passed his early boyhood in this 
rural retirement4 ,to the end of  his   
life he remembered with fondness the    

days of his childhood1 which  were spent
 gaily amidst a large family of three   
brothers1 older than  himself1 and five 
sisters4 ,the reward for good behaviour 
among them was  a permission to         
distribute charity among the            
indigent1--a sacred1  soul-saving duty  
with catholics4 ,the well-known         
benevolence of his  parents drew numbers
 to their house1 where portions of food 
were  distributed to them4 ,his mother  
never felt so happy as when thus        
engaged2 and it is related of her that1 
when1 a few years after1 the  family    
removed to ,majano1 where their         
charitable habits were at first         
unknown1 she complained in a sort of    
alarm that they were no longer  visited 
by the poor4 ,the same biographer       
relates a story of ,vincenzo4 ,on  one  
occasion he was permitted to distribute 
the portions of food to  mendicants1 who
 entered at one door and went out at the
 other3 some  among them fancied that   
they could deceive the child1 and       

returned  twice2 and he1 with ingenuous 
shame1 turned away1 and gave to them    
twice  without looking1 that he might   
not be obliged to accuse them of their  
trick4 ,an anecdote1 continues his      
biographer1 perhaps scarcely worth      
relating1 only that it describes the    
character1 or rather1 it may be  said1  
the whole life of ,monti1 who1 even in  
old age1 frequently suffered  himself   
voluntarily to be imposed upon4 ,were a 
philosophical analysis  of ,monti's     
disposition to be attempted1 it might be
 discovered how this  sensitiveness to  
the shame of others1 this sparing of    
their feelings in  preference to the    
assertion of truth and honesty1 makes a 
part of the  same weakness that led him 
always to regard as a secondary         
consideration  moral truths and         
political integrity1 when put in        
competition with the  happiness and     
welfare of his domestic circle4 ,we call
 this sort of  sensibility weakness1    
because1 though usually united to great 

private  rectitude of character1 it is  
incompatible with the heroism of the    
patriot and the martyr4    ,for several 
years ,monti had no instructors except  
his kind parents2 but1  soon after their
 removal to ,majano1 he was sent to the 
seminary of  ,faenza1 which enjoyed a   
good reputation for the solidity of its 
instruction2 there he learnt early and  
well the ,latin language4 ,his  first   
attempts in ,latin verse were1 however1 
so singularly infelicitous1  that his   
master thought it necessary to put him  
into a lower class than  that in which  
he had first been placed4 ,the boy1     
roused to indignation1  made no         
complaints1 but secretly learned by     
heart the whole of the  neid2 and       
persevered so earnestly in conquering   
the difficulties1 that  his ,latin      
verses soon became distinguished for a  
style and harmony that  announced his   
poetic talent4 ,his second trial was so 
different from the  first1 that his     
masters began to regard him as a sort of

 prodigy2 and he  himself entered with  
delight and ardour on the study of the  
,roman poets4  ,the full force of his   
impetuous and fertile imagination was   
early  awakened by them1 and he began to
 exercise the art peculiar to his       
country of extemporising verses2 but his
 master had the judgment to  withdraw   
him from an exercise so pernicious to   
the strength and critical  delicacy of  
poetry1 and induced him to write with   
care and meditation4  ,he was yet a boy 
when1 under this tutelage1 he composed a
 volume of  elegies1 several of which   
have been printed4    ,it is the usual  
custom among the smaller landholders of 
,romagna to  destine their youngest sons
 to the agricultural labours of their   
farms2  and this was fixed as the career
 of ,monti4 ,he yielded to his father's 
commands1 but with reluctance4 ,his mind
 was opened to the necessity of         
cultivation1 and mere manual labour and 
low-thoughted cares were  infinitely    
distasteful to him4 ,his heart was with 

the ,latin poets1 from  whom he could   
not separate himself2 and his dislike to
 every occupation  that was not         
intellectual grew to be insurmountable4 
,his father thought  it necessary to    
reprove him2 and a scene ensued similar 
to one recorded  as having taken place1 
several centuries before1 between       
,petrarch and  his father4 ,vincenzo1   
moved by his parent's reproof to a      
belief that his  literary predilections 
were reprehensible1 made a resolution to
 renounce  them4 ,he led his father into
 his chamber1 and there1 before him1    
threw  his favourite authors into a     
large fire4 ,the good man1 touched by   
this  act of docility1 gave him twelve  
sequins2 and the youth1 unable to       
resist the temptation thus held out1    
hastened to the neighbouring fair  of   
,luga1 and spent the whole sum in buying
 over again the authors whose  works he 
had left at home1 still warm in the     
ashes of the fire into  which he had    
thrown them4 ,his father1 seeing the    

inutility of combating  with his        
inclinations1 sent him to the university
 of ,ferrara1 wishing  him to enter on  
the legal or medical profession4 ,but1  
after a few vain  attempts to apply     
himself to these studies1 ,monti gave up
 every other  pursuit1 and dedicated    
himself wholly to the cultivation of    
literature  and poetry4 ,he still       
continued to write in ,latin1 and always
 retained a  predilection for this      
language1 and later in life translated  
some of his  own works into it4 ,his    
first ,italian poem was ,the ,prophecy  
of ,jacob4  ,it was1 of course1 inexact 
in versification1 and unequal2 but when 
,jacob  prophesies the future glory of  
the ,lion of ,judah1 the style rises    
into  vigour1 and even sublimity4 ,at   
this time the ,visions of ,varino and   
the  sonnets of ,minzoni1 two ,ferrarese
 poets1 fell into his hands4 ,they rose 
above the inanities of the ,arcadians1  
and indicated to him the path he  should
 pursue4 ,through reading them he was   

brought to the perusal of  ,dante1 and  
his soul opened at once to the          
conception of all that ,italian  poetry 
contains of grand and beautiful4        
,henceforth ,alighieri was his  model   
and master1 and he regarded at once with
 admiration and a sort of  worship the  
elevated and godlike powers of this most
 inspired of poets4  ,he wrote the      
,vision of ,ezekiel in a sort of        
imitation of his  favourite1 in which he
 displayed that grandeur of imagery and 
command of  language which distinguish  
his compositions4    ,cardinal ,borghese
 was at that time legate at ,ferrara4   
,admiring the  youth's genius1 he took  
him under his protection4 ,on his return
 from his  legation1 he obtained the    
elder ,monti's consent to his son's     
accompanying him to ,rome4 ,he was now  
eighteen4 ,the first intimacy that  he  
formed in the capital was with ,ennio   
,quirino ,visconti1 a man of vast       
erudition2 and under his direction      
,monti extended his classical           

knowledge4 ,it happened1 while he was at
 ,rome1 that the ,erme of ,pericles  and
 ,aspasia were discovered1--one in      
excavations made in the villa of        
,cassius at ,tivoli1 the other at ,civit
 ,vecchia4 ,visconti wrote a  treatise  
on these marbles1 and invited his friend
 to celebrate them in a  poem2 and he   
wrote the ,prosopopea di ,pericle1 which
 is preserved in  the ,vatican museum1  
written with great simplicity of style1 
and his  usual easy flow1 yet fervour1  
of language4 ,this was the first time   
that  he appeared in the character of a 
poet at ,rome2 and it was followed by   
several other attempts4 ,he thus        
attracted attention2 but1 having no     
fixed situation1 after remaining some   
years in the capital1 he was on  the    
point of complying with his father's    
frequent requests that he would  return 
home1 when a circumstance happened to   
change his plans4 ,the  ,arcadians of   
the ,bosco ,parrasio celebrated the     
,quinquenalli of ,pius ,,vi4  7#aghj1   

tat4 #bf472 when ,monti recited some of 
his compositions1 which  attracted so   
much applause that the duke of ,braschi1
 the pope's nephew1  sent for him the   
next day1 and offered him the place of  
his secretary1  which was at once       
accepted4 ,monti remained at ,rome in   
the house of the  prince1 who treated   
him with all the kindness of friendship1
 and he  enjoyed full leisure to pursue 
his literary studies4    ,yet it is1    
perhaps1 matter of regret that ,monti   
should have been thus  employed4 ,it is 
very difficult to make rules for the    
education of  genius1 when1 on the one  
hand1 care and want may fetter1 and even
 crush1  its loftiest aspirations2 or   
too much case and leisure wean it from  
habits of industry1 and foster the      
dissipation of thought and feeling      
which too frequently accompanies the    
poetic temperament4 ,monti's muse  had  
surely not been silent if he had        
remained in his father's farm1          
surrounded by the luxuriant beauty of   

nature1 and supported by conscious      
worth and independence4 ,but no people  
need so much sympathy as poets4  ,the   
interchange of thought and feeling1 the 
fresh spirit of inquiry and  invention1 
that springs from the collision or      
harmony of different  minds1 are with   
them a necessity and a passion4 ,and    
though solitude is  named the mother of 
all that is truly sublime1 yet this     
solitude ought  not to be that of       
desolation1 but retirement to meditate  
on the stores  heaped up in our         
intercourse with our fellow-creatures4  
,monti1 among the  uncultivated         
peasantry of ,romagna1 might have found 
his glowing  enthusiasm grow cool from  
the absence of appreciation1 and the    
want of  sympathy and equal intercourse4
    ,yet servitude at the court of ,rome
 was no good moral school4 ,to the      
years he spent in the service of the    
pope's nephew1 the habits of            
dependence1 and his daily intercourse   
with courtiers1 may be attributed  that 

want of political integrity1 and ready  
worship of ruling powers1  which was the
 great blot of ,monti's character4 ,the 
genuine glow of real  talent1 the       
ambition natural to conscious genius1   
and the instinct of  one1 in whom       
invention and the power of expression   
were indigenous1 to  pour forth his     
ideas and sentiments1 qualities which   
indefeasibly  belonged to him1 would1 in
 almost any situation1 have made ,monti 
a  writer4 ,he might have been less     
refined in the farms of ,romagna1 but   
more useful as a moral and dignified    
asserter of truth and independence4     
,yet we must reflect that the germ of   
each man's character is born with  him1 
to be checked or fostered by education1 
but still there to colour  the tide of  
thought and influence the motives of    
conduct4 ,and as  independence and      
strength of principle never displayed   
themselves as a  part of ,monti's       
character1 temptation might have found  
him as willing a  slave in the poverty  

of his farm as in the luxurious         
servitude of papal  ,rome4    ,at ,rome1
 at least1 he continued to cultivate his
 poetic tastes4 ,he  produced several   
poems which kept alive his fame4 ,on    
occasion of the  marriage of his patron1
 the duke of ,braschi1 he wrote an ode  
entitled  ,beauty of the ,universe2 and 
he celebrated the journey of ,pius ,,vi4
 to  the imperial court in a poem       
entitled the ,apostolic ,pilgrim4 ,but  
he  aspired to signalise himself by some
 greater work1 and long meditated       
writing a tragedy4 ,as early as #aggi he
 writes to a friend1--,i am weary  of   
writing verses on frivolous subjects4 ,a
 tragic drama is the notion  that most  
delights me4 ,but how can ,i satisfy the
 craving ,i have to write  a tragedy1   
since ,i am not able to tranquillise my 
mind1 and am occupied  by affairs which 
have no connection with poetry8 ,an     
hundred times ,i have  begun1 and as    
often broken off4 ,and in another letter
 he expresses a  feeling which has often

 entered the mind of any one deeply     
interested in  carrying on some literary
 labour3--,i have a ravenous desire1 he 
says1  to write tragedies1 which preys  
upon me4 ,this is my madness2 and ,i am 
in despair1 because ,i fear to die      
before ,i finish one4    ,his ambition  
was further excited by the emulation    
inspired by ,alfieri4  ,this great      
tragedian was now residing at ,rome2 and
 ,monti was present  when he read his   
,virginia in a society composed of the  
most celebrated  literati of the day4   
,monti listened with transport1 and1    
burning with a  desire to rival this    
production1 he instantly began his      
tragedy of  ,aristodemo1 founded on a   
story he had read a few days before in  
,pausanias4 ,he was the more eager to   
accomplish his purpose1 as lie          
perceived the faults of ,alfieri's      
style1 and hoped to avoid them4 ,the    
fecundity of his imagination rendered it
 easy for him to rise above the         
baldness and unideal versification of   

his rival2 so that it has been          
pronounced1 that a perfect tragedy would
 be produced1 were the grandeur  and    
penetration of ,alfieri adorned by the  
style of ,monti4 ,aristodemo  was acted 
with the greatest success at ,rome in   
#aghg4 ,monti writes to a  friend1--,my 
tragedy was represented yesterday       
evening at the theatre of  ,valle4 ,i   
was not present2 but when it was over1  
my house was inundated  by my           
acquaintances1 who seemed mad with      
delight4 ,i ought not to mention  this1 
but ,i write to a friend1 and ,i assure 
you that every one agrees  that so great
 a success and so much enthusiasm was   
never known at ,rome  before4    ,and   
here it is impossible not to remark the 
different feelings of  ,alfieri and     
,monti4 ,alfieri entered upon his       
literary career when the  more brilliant
 portion of the fire of youth was       
passing away4 ,he had  sufficient       
enthusiasm to animate him to mental     
labour1 and to warm his  imagination to 

the conception of fictitious situations1
 but not enough  to foster the delusion 
of success4 ,while he pretended stoicism
 and  disdain1 he was very sensitive to 
criticism2 but when applause was        
afforded1 he scanned the merits of his  
judges1 was annoyed by the faults  of   
the actors1 and never reaped the just   
reward of his toils--the sense  of      
triumph4 ,while the more youthful       
,monti1 early catching the spark of     
enthusiasm from his audience and his    
friends1 enjoyed1 to its full  extent1  
the celebrity which a successful        
tragedy1 more than any other  species of
 literary composition1 is able to       
confer4    ,the genius of ,monti1       
however1 was not that of a tragedian3   
lyrical and  imaginative rhapsodies1    
rather than the concatenation of a plot 
and the  impersonation of human passion1
 were the native bent of his mind4 ,the 
story of ,aristodemo is eminently simple
 in its construction2 the  interest is  
entirely confined to the principal      

character1 and there is  almost no      
action to support the piece4 ,aristodemo
 had1 to acquire the  popular favour1   
and his election to the throne of       
,mycene1 resolved to  sacrifice his     
daughter1 when some angry god required  
that the blood of a  virgin should be   
shed on his altar4 ,to save the girl1   
her lover declares  that she has yielded
 to him1 and is about to be a mother4   
,in his fury  the father destroys her1  
and afterwards discovers that she is    
innocent4  ,to add to his misfortunes he
 loses his only other child1 a little   
girl  of three years old1 in a skirmish 
with the ,spartans4 ,henceforth he is   
pursued by remorse2 the spectacle of his
 murdered daughter for ever  haunts him1
 and horror and despair darken his soul4
 ,the tragedy opens1  fifteen years     
after these events1 at the conclusion of
 a war with  ,sparta1 with the          
discussion for a treaty of peace1 when  
the prisoners on  both sides are to be  
given up4 ,among those taken by         

,aristodemo is a  girl1 to whom he has  
attached himself with paternal fondness1
 and who  devotes herself to mitigating 
his sufferings4 ,she1 of course1 is     
discovered to be his long lost daughter2
 but this is not made known to  him till
 the last scene1 when the agonies of    
remorse1 joined to sorrow  at losing his
 last consolation1 have driven him to   
destroy himself4 ,the  pure but warm    
attachment between him and his unknown  
child is delicately  and sweetly        
described1 while his passionate and     
remorseful ravings1  though they rise to
 sublimity1 shock us by going beyond    
ideal terrors  into images palpably     
disagreeable4 ,from this sketch it may  
be seen how  deficient in action the    
piece is4 ,aristodemo comes before us to
 lament  and to rave4 ,still1 despite   
his woe1 he is a hero and a king2 and1  
when  the interests of his country      
require it1 he can dismiss his private  
griefs1 and assert the majesty of the   
crown4 ,his character is conceived  in  

the truth and sublimity of tragic       
nature2 and the interest that  hovers   
over him1 the dim but harrowing horrors 
of his spectral visions1  the mingled   
remorse1 terror1 and love that tear his 
heart1 and the  poetry in which these   
overpowering passions are expressed1    
take  absolutely from the languor which 
the want of action might otherwise      
impart4    ,the success of ,aristodemo  
induced ,monti to write another drama4  
,galeotto ,manfredi is1 however1 a      
failure4 ,it is founded on the passion  
of jealousy4 ,in his preface the poet   
mentions that it is wanting in  tragic  
dignity3 such is not of necessity the   
fault of his subject1 but  it decidedly 
is of his method of treating it1 and    
there is no poetry to  redeem it from   
the charge of mediocrity4    ,he        
married1 about this period1 the daughter
 of the celebrated cavaliere  ,giovanni 
,pickler1 who had died a short time     
before4 ,it is a singular  fact1 that he
 made choice of his wife without having 

seen her1 and not  on account of her    
extraordinary beauty1 of which he was   
ignorant1 but  from respect for the     
reputation of her father1 and a wish to 
console his  afflicted family2 while she
 accepted him on account of her         
admiration  for the author of           
,aristodemo4 ,and now we enter on a new 
epoch of  ,monti's life1 when he        
composed his most celebrated poem1 and  
at the same  time gave to his           
productions that political groundwork   
which1 from his  vacillation of         
principle1 has not redounded to his     
honour4    ,the ,french revolution was  
at its height2 and the time-worn and    
absolute  governments of every country  
of ,europe were shaken1 as by an        
earthquake1  by the mere echo of the    
,parisian tocsin4 ,the ,french1 drunk   
with  enthusiasm1 were eager to call the
 whole world into a fraternity of       
liberty and equality2 and many were the 
warm young hearts1 long bowed  down by  
the yoke of the continental systems of  

slavery1 that beat  responsive to the   
call4 ,one of the persons sent by the   
,french to spread  their revolutionary  
tenets beyond the ,alps was ,hugh       
,basseville4 ,he was  the son of a dyer 
at ,abbeville2 the talents he early     
displayed induced  his father to wish   
him to pursue a more dignified career1  
and he  educated him for the church1 as 
the only profession then open to the    
lowly born4 ,but ,basseville studied    
theology only to find doubts as to  his 
creed2 he soon abandoned the clerical   
profession1 and1 going to  ,paris1 gave 
himself up entirely to literature4 ,he  
here fell in with two  ,americans1 who  
engaged him as their companion1 or      
tutor1 in a journey  they made through  
,germany4 ,at ,berlin1 ,basseville      
became acquainted with  ,mirabeau4      
,leaving his ,americans he visited      
,holland1 and wrote a work on  the      
,elements of ,mythology1 and a volume of
 amatory poems4 ,when the  revolution   
began1 he attached himself to the royal1

 or rather  constitutional1 party1 and  
instituted a journal which took that    
side4 ,he  wrote also a ,history of the 
,french ,revolution1 dedicated to ,la   
,fayette1 with whom he was intimately   
acquainted2 and the views he  developes 
are moderate and rational4 ,he was      
naturally eloquent1 and his  manners    
were agreeable1 while he joined to these
 fascinating qualities  the more solid  
ones of industry1 intelligence1 and     
boldness1 so that he  acquired the      
confidence and friendship of several of 
the ,girondist  leaders4 ,general       
,demourier named him secretary to the   
embassy at ,naples2  and while there he 
visited ,rome1 for the purpose of       
secretly propagating  revolutionary     
doctrines4 ,this imprudence cost him his
 life4 ,on the night  of the #acth of   
,january1 #agic1 he was assailed by the 
populace1 and  received a stab1 of which
 he died thirty-four hours after4 ,in   
his last  moments1 it is said that he   
was induced to regard his conduct1 in   

endeavouring to raise sedition against  
the pope1 as criminal1 and to  have     
exclaimed several times that he died the
 victim of folly4    ,monti1 who lived  
in the service of the pope's nephew1 and
 was thus  attached to the papal court1 
and without that ardour for liberty     
which  is so natural to many hearts1 and
 which appears at once senseless and    
even wicked to those who do not feel    
independence of thought to be the       
greatest of human blessings1 of course  
looked on the ,french revolution  as a  
series of crimes1 and saw no redeeming  
good in the madness that  urged a whole 
nation to so terrific a mixture of      
heroism and guilt4 ,he  was acquainted  
with ,basseville1 and1 hearing the      
recantations of his  dying moments1     
celebrated at once the repentance of his
 friend1 and the  awful tragedy acted   
almost at the same moment 7,louis ,,xvi4
 was beheaded  on the #aith of ,january1
 #agic71 in a poem entitled the         
,basvilliana4 ,in  this he feigns that  

the great enemy of mankind contended    
with the angel  of ,god for the soul of 
the murdered man4 ,his death-bed remorse
 caused  the good spirit to remain      
triumphant2 but as the crime-tainted    
soul  could not1 according to the tenets
 of ,catholicism1 be received at once   
into ,paradise1 the disembodied spirit  
of ,basseville was condemned to  visit  
once more the banks of the ,seine1 and  
to view the horrors there  perpetrated1 
as the consequence of his guilty and    
impracticable  theories4 ,the           
imagination of ,monti developed itself  
in the happiest  manner in treating this
 theme2 and the mingled emotions of     
horror and  grief that pervade the poem 
take a shape at once sublime and        
pathetic4  ,the soul of ,basseville     
hovers over ,paris at the moment that   
,louis ,,xvi4  loses his head by the    
guillotine4 ,the imagery with which he  
adorns the  scene is original and       
majestic4 ,four mighty shadows rush on  
the  scaffold1 and hover over the dying 

monarch2 shadows of former regicides1   
who glory in the companionship of crime4
 ,ravaillac1 ,ankerstrom1 ,damiens1  and
 one 7the executioner of our ,charles   
,i47 who veils his face with his  hand1 
proudly assist in giving the fatal blow4
 ,louis dies1 and before  his beatified 
ghost ,basseville prostrates himself2   
but his penance is  not got over1 and he
 is forced to view other scenes of      
greater bloodshed  and more frightful   
violence2 but as the poem enters upon   
these1 it  breaks off abruptly1 and is  
left unfinished4    ,the style of this  
poem does not resemble modern ,italian  
poetry1 but is  modelled on that of     
,dante2 so faithfully modelled1 that    
many  expressions1 ideas1 and even whole
 lines are1 as it were1 transfused1     
into ,monti's verses4 ,it is a singular 
fact that no poet was ever a  greater   
plagiarist than the author of the       
,basvilliana2 but the verses  of others1
 which he thus employs1 are framed1 as  
it were1 so  magnificently by original  

ones1 and are placed with such          
propriety1 and  acknowledged with such  
frankness1 that1 as an ,english author  
observes1  so far from accusing him of  
plagiarism1 we are agreeably surprised  
by  the new aspect which he gives to    
beauties already familiar to every      
reader4 ,and thus transfusion expresses 
his imitations better than the  word    
borrowing3 for though the form of       
expression is the same1 a new  soul and 
a new sense--not better1 certainly1 but 
different from their  former one--are   
breathed into them4 ,in some sort ,dante
 and ,monti  resembled each other in the
 cast of their ideas4 ,they were both   
painters  of the mind's images4 ,dante  
was the more faithful1 delicate1 and    
heartfelt2 but there is a shadowy       
grandeur joined to a perfection of      
taste and fire of sentiment in ,monti1  
which renders his poetry highly         
fascinating and beautiful4    ,the      
,basvilliana at once raised ,monti's    
reputation higher than that of  any poet

 who had for centuries appeared in      
,italy2 and he might have been          
considered the laureate of royalty1 but 
that his character was not  adorned by  
that sincere and exalted enthusiasm1    
without which no man  can1 with any     
success1 advocate any cause which       
embraces the interests  of human nature4
    ,the tide of ,french republicanism1 
checked a little in its first  advances1
 now swelled by ,bonaparte's victories1 
overflowed the ,alps and  deluged       
,italy4 ,the ,austrians1 defeated at    
,montenotte1 ,lodi1 and ,arcoli1  were  
driven from ,lombardy3 and the ,italians
 hoped to exchange servitude  to a      
foreign power for national independence2
 forgetting that liberty1  when given1  
may also be withdrawn1 and that it is   
only by force that any  real freedom can
 be acquired4 ,while resistance was made
 to the ,french  arms1 the requisitions 
of the victor1 and the seizure of the   
finest  works of art1 might have opened 
their eyes to the real views of their   

soi-disant deliverers4 ,napoleon himself
 had but one idea with  regard to       
liberty1 which was a free scope to the  
exercise of his own  will4 ,when that   
was given him1 he could be generous1    
magnificent1 and  useful2 but when his  
measures were obstructed1 no tyrant ever
 exceeded  him in the combinations of a 
despotism which at once crushed a       
nation1  and bore down with an iron hand
 every individual that composed it4     
,bonaparte's ambition1 however1 could   
only be gratified in ,france1 and  the  
conquest of ,italy was but the          
stepping-stone to the ,french empire4   
,still1 when all the north of the       
peninsula was subjected to him1 when    
the pope had submitted to his terms1 and
 the haughty queen of ,naples had  been 
induced to enter into a treaty with her 
sister's destroyers1 he  could no longer
 with any grace refuse the shows of     
freedom so often  promised4 ,on the #c;d
 of ,january1 #agig1 the ,cisalpine     
republic was  erected4    ,monti had    

been before invited to accept a         
professor's chair in the  university of 
,pavia1 which he had refused4 ,in the   
month of ,february  #agig1 general      
,marmont was sent to ,rome on occasion  
of the treaty of  ,tolentino1 to carry  
letters from ,bonaparte to the pope4    
,monti became  acquainted with him2     
being then in a bad state of health1 and
 advised to  change the air of ,rome for
 that of ,tuscany1 he accepted          
,marmont's  invitation1 who offered him 
a seat in his carriage1 and proceeded to
  ,florence4 ,it may be imagined1 that  
familiar intercourse with one of        
,napoleon's generals was the foundation 
of ,monti's admiration for the  ,french 
hero1 and the cause of his opening his  
eyes to the good to be  derived from    
adhering to the new order of things in  
his native country4  ,at first he       
entertained the delusive hope that the  
blessing of liberty  had really been    
conferred on ,italy by the ,french arms1
 and that his  countrymen would rise    

from chains and slavery to the enjoyment
 of  national independence under        
national institutions2 and yet the      
extravagant praise of ,napoleon1 which  
he indulges in1 in all his poems        
written at this time1 does not bear the 
marks of a sincere patriotism4  ,besides
 this1 he had to struggle with many     
personal mortifications4 ,the           
,basvilliana was not forgotten4 ,french 
exactions and ,french assumptions  had  
already alienated the minds of the noble
 born among the ,italians4  ,they feared
 the conqueror1 but disdained the       
masquerade of liberty in  which they    
were invited to play a part3 thus the   
better classes shrunk  from forming a   
part of the new governments1 and the    
offices devolved  upon men who had      
little to lose either in possessions or 
character4 ,they  regarded ,monti with  
envy and aversion1 and1 instead of      
receiving him as  a convert with open   
arms1 his superior claims as a man of   
talent caused  them to persecute him as 

an interloper and almost as a spy4 ,the 
heads of  the government1 indeed1 at    
first favoured him3 he was invited to   
,milan1  and elected central secretary  
of foreign affairs2 but he was soon     
disturbed by persecutions4 ,my arrival1 
he writes several years  afterwards1 was
 hailed by the usual abuse of the       
republican journals1  who censured the  
directory for employing an enemy of the 
republic4 ,i  loved liberty2 but the    
object of my love was the freedom       
described in  the writings of ,cicero   
and ,plutarch3 that which was adored on 
the altars  of ,milan appeared to me a  
prostitute1 and ,i refused to worship   
her4  ,hence my excommunication1--hence 
the public burning of the               
',basvilliana4' ,on this ,i was obliged 
to prostrate myself before the  idol4 ,i
 sang her virtues1 and became a         
revolutionary poet3 ,i grew insane  with
 the rest1 and my conversion procured me
 patronage and grace4    ,it was not    
without a struggle that he stooped to   

these abject  submissions1 and several  
events first intervened4 ,the hatred of 
the  democrats1 then the rulers of the  
,cisalpine republic1 caused them to     
pass a law which decreed that no one    
should be permitted to hold any  public 
employment who1 since the year #a of the
 ,french republic1 had  published any   
books tending to throw odium on         
democracy4 ,monti's poem  was the       
principal object of this law2 and one of
 his adversaries  exclaimed1 ,let us get
 rid1 not of the author of some foolish 
sonnet in  praise of kings1 but of those
 who1 with powerful enthusiasm and      
,dantesque imagination1 have inspired a 
hatred for democracy4 ,this law  being  
passed1 ,monti lost his situation4 ,he  
had published other poems  since the    
,basvilliana2 but even these were not   
considered sufficiently  democratic4    
,the ,musogonia1 or ,birth of the       
,muses1 is almost entirely mythological2
  but1 in the concluding verses1 he     
apostrophises ,bonaparte4 ,he implores  

him to be at once the ,alexander and    
,numa of ,italy3 he beseeches him to    
bestow laws upon her1 and to unite her  
scattered members2 and1 with a  noble   
voice1 he calls upon the ,italians to   
cultivate concord and  unanimity4       
,brothers6 he exclaims1 bear the voice  
of your brother6  ,what do you hope from
 divided opinions and counsels8 ,ah1 let
 there be in  our country1 in its       
danger1 one mind1 one courage1 one soul1
 one life6  ,the republicans perceived a
 hankering for royalty and tyranny in   
his  dislike of their measures4    ,the 
,prometeo is a finer poem1 or rather    
fragment1 for but few of the  cantos are
 written4 ,the subject of it is the     
history of ,prometheus2 but  we have    
only a small portion of it in the poem  
as it stands4 ,it opens  with the       
foolish act of ,epimetus4 ,jupiter had  
sent to him a casket  containing the    
various intellectual attributes and     
moral qualities1 to  be distributed     
among the new creation on earth4        

,epimetus begins by  bestowing various  
qualities on animals1 and is so prodigal
 of his gifts1  that when he comes to   
man he finds the casket empty4 ,on this1
 he has  recourse to his wiser brother  
,prometheus1 who reprimands him for his 
folly4 ,this opening is the weaker part 
of the poem4 ,lyrical outbursts  were   
more accordant to ,monti's genius4 ,the 
appearance of ,constancy  before        
,prometheus is sublime1 and the hero's  
prophecy of the future  state of man is 
full of fire and grandeur4 ,it ends1    
however1 by a  prophecy of ,napoleon1 on
 whom is heaped every epithet that      
admiration or  adulation could suggest4 
,jupiter gives him his lightning1 which 
loses  none of its terrors in the young 
hero's hands4 ,he shakes the bolts over 
,germany1 and the ,rhetian ,alps resound
 with the hoofs of the ,gallic  cavalry4
 ,one after the other1 ,prometheus      
celebrates the glorious  victories      
achieved in ,italy1 and hails with      
enthusiasm ,french ,liberty1  as the    

mother of heroes who shiver the chains  
that bound ,ausonia1 and  wipe the tears
 from universal ,europe--obstructed in  
its beneficent  career only by the      
,english robber4 ,bonaparte must have   
exulted in the  bitter and venomous     
abuse that ,monti never fails to heap   
upon ,england4  ,he tells us1 in the    
preface to this poem1 that its scope is 
to bring  into favour the neglected     
literature of ,greece and ,rome1 and to 
merit  well from a free country by      
speaking in the accents of freedom4     
,there is  something in the applause    
heaped on the conqueror that jars with  
our  notions of real independence and   
patriotism4    ,monti1 at this time1    
entertained the idea of returning to    
republicanised  ,rome4 ,but his friends 
dissuaded him2 and his reputation1 and  
probably  his adulation of the victor1  
caused him soon after to be named       
commissary of the province of the       
,rubicon4 ,but a poet makes a bad       
politician2 and ,monti's integrity stood

 in the way of his success1 and  he was 
obliged to give up his office4 ,he made 
many enemies1 and1  naturally timid and 
fearful for the welfare of his family1  
he was  terrified into making a complete
 amende to the democrats of his  country
 by writing odes1 whose violent         
sentiments went beyond those of  the    
most furious demagogues3 and it is to   
these poems that he alludes  when he    
speaks of the worship he was forced to  
pay to the mockery of  liberty2 and ever
 after he regretted his pusillanimity1  
and despised  himself for his           
concessions4    ,at the time they gained
 this point1 his enemies were pacified2 
and the  survivorship of the professor's
 chair of belles lettres in ,brera1 then
  occupied by ,parini1 was bestowed on  
him4 ,but scarcely had he overcome  the 
enmity of the friends of liberty and    
equality1 than their star was  eclipsed1
 and their reign came to an end4        
,sidenote3 #agii4  tat4  #de4  ,during  
the absence of ,bonaparte in ,egypt1    

,suvaroff and the ,austrians  crossed   
the ,alps1 and the ,french were driven  
from ,italy4 ,her republics  vanished   
like a forgotten dream2 and their       
partisans1 ,monti among them1  were     
forced to follow the retreating army of 
,france1 and to take refuge  beyond the 
,alps4    ,monti fell into a state of   
deplorable destitution4 ,he had left his
 wife  and young daughter in ,italy1 and
 he roamed alone and friendless among   
the mountains of ,savoy4 ,his sufferings
 during the brief period of his  exile  
were frightful4 ,he wandered about1     
subsisting on the fruit he  picked up   
under the trees4 ,often seated on the   
rugged banks of a  torrent1 he satisfied
 his hunger with roots and nuts1 and    
wept as he  thought of ,italy and his   
ruined fortunes4 ,the benevolence of his
 heart  manifested itself in the midst  
of this adversity4 ,it is related of    
him1  that1 as he was wandering one     
evening in a narrow lane1 near          
,chamberi1 a  stranger accosted him and 

asked charity1 relating that he had a   
sick  mother and five children4 ,monti's
 heart was moved3 two sequins was all   
that he possessed in the world2 he gave 
one of them to the suppliant4  ,his     
health failed through the hardships that
 he endured2 the labour of  collecting  
his food became intolerable1 and he     
forced himself to gather  at one time   
sufficient for two days1 so as to secure
 himself one of  uninterrupted rest4    
,his wife1 who had remained to put their
 affairs in  some order1 now joined him4
 ,she found him stretched on a wretched 
bed1  weak from inanition1 but          
disdaining to apply to any one for      
relief in  his need4 ,she brought money 
with her1 and proper food soon restored 
his  strength2 nor did he again fall    
into such an extremity of disaster1     
though it was long before the fickle    
goddess smiled upon him4    ,the        
minister1 ,mareschalchi1 invited him to 
,paris2 and the new victories  of       
,bonaparte in ,italy1 on his return from

 ,egypt in the following year1  revived 
his hopes of better times4 ,mareschalchi
 obtained that he should  be employed to
 write a hymn and an ode in celebration 
of the victory of  ,marengo1 which had  
driven the allies from ,italy and       
restored it to the  ,french4 ,he was to 
have been paid #aejj francs for these   
two poems1 with  the further reward of  
the professorship of ,italian literature
 in the  ,french university4 ,but       
fortune was not weary of persecuting    
him2 and  this remuneration was         
withheld1 on its being represented to   
government  that he was1 at heart1      
inimical to the ,french4 ,mareschalchi  
continued to  befriend him1 and obtained
 #ejj francs1 or about #bjl4 ,no small  
relief  to me1 he writes1 in my         
necessitous circumstances4 ,he was very 
eager  to return to ,italy1 and he      
writes to his brother1--,of the many    
thousand  refugees who were here1 almost
 all have returned to their country1    
because all have instantly received the 

necessary succour from home4 ,i  alone  
find myself abandoned by my relations1  
in a strange country1  without friends1 
and without resources2 unless1 indeed1  
,i can make up my  mind to renounce my  
country for the sake of earning my bread
 in some  office4 ,but an irresistible  
sentiment is linked to the name of my   
native  land4 ,i possess in ,italy the  
objects dearest to my heart--my child1  
my  mother1 brothers1 friends1 studies1 
habits2 all1 in short1 that renders     
life dear4 ,i pant1 therefore1 to       
return2 and ,i implore you to send me   
assistance in the shape of a remittance 
for my journey1 and to discharge  my    
debts here4 ,every delay injures my     
interests1 particularly at this  moment4
 ,direct to ',citizen ,vincenzo ,monti1 
,post-office1 ,paris4' ,i shall  count  
the days and moments--make my account   
short1 if my happiness is  dear to you4 
,soon after his wishes were fulfilled1  
and he celebrates his return to  his    
beloved ,italy by a beautiful hymn1     

which begins--      ,bella ,italia1     
amate sponde1  ,pur vi torno a riveder1 
,trema il petto1 e si confonde  ,l' alma
 oppressa di piacer4      ,he does not  
forget the victor in this song of joy   
and triumph4 ,marengo  is mentioned with
 exultation2 and ,bonaparte celebrated  
with enthusiasm1  as liberating ,italy  
from the barbarians1 and again bestowing
 upon her  the blessings of freedom4    
,on his arrival at ,milan1 ,monti       
employed himself in correcting his poem1
  entitled the ,mascheroniana1 which he 
had begun amidst the ,alps1 when        
overwhelmed by misery1 an exile1 weeping
 over the disasters of his  country and 
his own wrongs4 ,lorenzo ,mascheroni1 a 
celebrated  mathematician as well as an 
elegant poet1 was forced to quit ,italy 
at  the same time as ,monti1 and died in
 ,france shortly after4 ,in this poem   
the poet vents all his spleen against   
his democratic enemies4 ,in his  preface
 he exclaims1 ,reader1 if you really    
love your country1 and are a  true      

,italian1 read6 but throw aside the book
 if1 for your and our  misfortune1 you  
are an insane demagogue1 or a cunning   
trafficker in the  cause of liberty4    
,the poem opens with the death of       
,mascheroni1 and the  ascent of his soul
 to heaven4 ,he here meets ,parini1 who 
laments the  unhappy condition of       
,italy4 ,when ,i saw her misery1 he     
cries1 ,i  desired to die1 and my wish  
was fulfilled4 ,i first beheld her woe  
when  dressed in her new freedom1 which 
was called liberty1 but which1 in       
truth1 was rapine4 ,i then beheld her a 
slave1 alas6 a despised slave1  covered 
with wounds and blood1 complaining to   
heaven that she was  betrayed by her own
 children--by the many foolish1 base1   
and perverse  tyrants1 not citizens2    
while the few remained mute or were     
destroyed4  ,iniquitous law's were given
 her2 discord waited on her1 and pride1 
and  hate1 and madness1 ignorance and   
error2 while the tears and sighs of the 
people remained unheard4 ,o1 wretches6  

who spoke of virtue in  high-sounding   
words1 and called themselves ,brutus and
 ,gracchus1 while  they proved          
themselves traitors and monsters4 ,but  
short-lived was their  joy4 ,i saw the  
,russian and the ,austrian swords       
destroy the hopes of the  fields of     
,italy1 and the armed people commit     
crimes exceeding the supper  of ,atreus 
and the vengeance of ,theseus6 ,while   
,parini is thus pouring  out his angry  
and bitter denunciations1 ,mascheroni   
interrupts him4  ,peace1 austere spirit6
 he exclaims1 your country is again     
saved4 ,a  deity has caught her by the  
hair1 and drawn her from the abyss3     
,bonaparte6 ,at this name1 the frowning 
,parini raises his head1 and a  smile   
illuminates his countenance4 ,the       
victories of ,egypt1 of ,marengo1  and  
,hohenlinden1 are commemorated2 and the 
,british felon assailed with  the usual 
violence of hate4 ,in the midst of the  
conversation of the  friends1 ,god      
appears with his cherubim1--one the     

herald of peace and  pardon1 the other  
of war and vengeance3 they are sent out 
on the earth  to assist and wait on the 
,gallic hero4 ,this poem1 like so many  
others of  ,monti1 which celebrated what
 was then the present1 and is therefore 
truncated of its catastrophe1 is a      
fragment4 ,such praise1 dressed in all  
the magnificence of poetry1 must have   
sounded sweetly in ,napoleon's ear4     
,the ,mascheroniana1 whose chief object 
is to bestow on him new wreaths  of     
victory1 is one of ,monti's finest      
compositions4 ,it is full of  strength1 
vehemence1 and beauty4 ,his imitation of
 ,dante is even more  apparent than in  
the ,basvilliana4 ,the machinery of the 
poem1 and the  peculiar versification1  
are borrowed from the ,divina ,commedia4
 ,but1 as  we have before observed1     
,monti's was too original a mind to be a
  plagiarist4 ,what he took from        
another1 he remoulded and brought forth 
in  a new form1 in fresh and brilliant  
hues1 all his own4 ,he has not the      

sublimity1 the sweetness and pathos1 nor
 the distinct yet delicate  painting1 of
 his prototype2 but no one can read his 
verses without  feeling that the true   
spirit of poetry breathes in every line1
 and that  the author pours out the     
overflowings of a genuine and rapt      
inspiration4    ,his third tragedy of   
,caius ,gracchus had been written at    
,paris1 and he  occupied himself in     
finishing and correcting it on his      
return to ,milan4  ,this tragedy has    
been praised by some as superior to     
,aristodemo1 but  it is difficult to    
coincide in this opinion4 ,it possesses 
fine passages  and some energy1 but it  
is wanting in poetry2 and the characters
 want  the simple heroism of antiquity1 
and resemble rather violent ,italians of
  modern days4 ,the defects of          
monotonous dialogue and often repeated  
situations flow also from an observation
 of the unities1 which1 by  confining   
the subject in narrow limits1 permit no 
variety of action1  and1 except in      

peculiar instances1 force the poet to   
repeat himself2  making one scene       
frequently little else than a repetition
 of what had  gone before4    ,monti had
 begun his literary and poetic life by  
servitude1 when he  became secretary of 
the duke of ,braschi4 ,in his present   
desperate  circumstances he saw no hope1
 except in conciliating the ruling power
 of  the continent1 and entering on the 
service of the man who looked on all    
men as merely engines to fulfil his vast
 and illimitable projects4  ,sidenote3  
#ahjb4  tat4  #dh4  ,napoleon had by    
fresh victories driven the ,austrians   
from ,italy2 and a  congress1 called the
 ,cisalpine1 was held at ,lyons1 to fix 
on a form of  government for the north  
of the peninsula4 ,this was a kind of   
mockery  that ,bonaparte was fond of    
encouraging in the early days of his    
elevation1 since1 under some of the     
forms of popular election1 new  powers  
were1 with a show of legality1 bestowed 
on him4 ,the ,italians of  the congress 

fixed on a plan of government1 at the   
head of which was to  be a president3   
they entreated ,napoleon to accept this 
office1 as the  disunited state of the  
country rendered ii unadvisable to elect
 an  ,italian to it4 ,napoleon          
consented4 ,this was a happy moment to  
bring  himself before the supreme power1
 and ,monti seized on it4 ,he wrote an  
ode to ,bonaparte1 in the name of the   
,cisalpine congress2 he chose the  motto
 from ,virgil1 and it was a happy one1--
      ,victorque volentes  ,per populos 
dat jura4      ,the verses are very     
beautiful1 and worthy of a better cause 
than laying  the liberties of his       
country prostrate at the first consul's 
feet4 ,still  ,monti was aware that1    
degraded by long servitude and disunited
 by petty  passions1 the ,italians were 
ignorant of the nature of true liberty4 
,he  saw party spirit1 oppression1 and  
rapine as the result of any attempt on  
the part of his countrymen to govern    
themselves2 he knew also how vain  it   

was to contend with the conqueror1 and  
he was very probably sincere  in his    
belief that the welfare of his country  
was safest in his hands4  ,still1 while 
we admire the harmony of the verses and 
the beauty of the  imagery1 we repine at
 the slavish spirit that lurks within   
them4  ,bonaparte1 who loved to be borne
 up by the wings of men's imaginations  
into a superior sphere of glory and     
success1 must have been pleased by  the 
halo of poetry with which ,monti stooped
 to adorn his name4    ,he did not go   
unrewarded4 ,when peace was restored to 
,italy1 the  institutions for public    
education became objects of interest to 
the  government2 and a professorship was
 offered ,monti2 either at ,milan or    
,pavia1 at his choice4 ,monti preferred 
the latter1 for the sake of  enjoying   
the society of the able professors who  
filled the chairs of  that university4  
,he was diligent and conscientious in   
his attendance to  the duties of his    
situation1 and his lectures were fully  

attended3 the  best of his prose        
writings being his inauguration lecture1
 which had for  its subject the praise  
of the literary men of ,italy1 and the  
claiming  for them the merit of many    
discoveries usually attributed to the   
natives  of other countries4 ,after     
three years spent at ,pavia1 he was     
invited by  the governor to ,milan1 and 
a number of offices and honours were    
bestowed  on him4 ,he was made assessor 
to the minister of the interior for the 
department of literature and the fine   
arts2 he was named court poet and       
historiographer1 and made cavalier of   
the iron crown1 member of the           
institute1 and of the legion of honour4 
,monti was no laggard in  fulfilling the
 duties of the first of these places4   
,he wrote a variety  of poems in praise 
of ,napoleon1 and in celebration of his 
victories4 ,in  the ,bard1 a fictitious 
personage1 ,ullino1 attended by the     
maiden  ,malvina1 while watching with   
enthusiastic admiration the advance of  

the  ,french arms1 falls in with a young
 wounded warrior2 they1 of course1  take
 him home1 and watch over his recovery1 
when he relates1 at their  request1 the 
events of the expedition to ,egypt and  
the battles that  illustrated           
,napoleon's return to ,europe4 ,there is
 the merit of  enthusiasm and glowing   
description in portions of this poem4   
,the canto  on the expedition to ,egypt 
contains the best passages4             
,sidenote3 #ahje4  tat4  #ea4    ,when  
,napoleon was crowned king of ,italy1   
,monti was commanded to  celebrate the  
event4 ,he writes to ,cesarotti1--,while
 you are robing the  magnificent spleen 
of ,juvenal in beautiful and dignified  
,italian1 ,i am  sounding the ,pindaric 
harp for the emperor ,napoleon4 ,the    
government has  commanded me1 and ,i    
must obey4 ,i hope that love of my      
country will not  make my thoughts too  
free2 and that ,i may respect the hero1 
without  betraying my duty as a citizen4
 ,i am in a path where the wishes of the

  nation do not accord with its         
political necessities1 and ,i fear to   
lose  myself4 ,st4 ,apollo help me6 and 
do you pray that ,i may be endowed with 
sagacity and prudence4 ,this poem1 in   
which he tries to trim his sail so      
nicely between patriotism and servitude1
 is called ,il ,benificio2 or  ,the     
,benefaction1 a vision4 ,it has great   
merit4 ,all that ,monti ever wrote  is  
graced with such a happy flow1 and with 
so much beauty of imagery and           
expression1 that it is impossible not to
 admire as we read4 ,he describes       
,italy as appearing to him in a vision2 
she is personified by a woman1  wounded 
and drooping1 the victim of grief and   
slavery4 ,the poet1 struck  with        
compassion and horror1 evokes the shades
 of mighty ,romans from  their tombs to 
assist the degraded queen of the world2 
but they turn in  scorn from the fallen 
and lost one4 ,then a warrior1 godlike  
and  majestic1 descends from the        
,alps1--,victory attends him1--yet he   

disregards her1 and prefers the olive to
 the laurel 7a most unfortunate         
compliment to a man whose whole soul was
 war74 ,he approaches the  unfortunate  
prostrate being1--raises her1 and bids  
her reign2 nor could  the livid glare   
cast by the ,british cannon over the    
,tyrrhene sea avail  against him4 ,the  
warrior smiles1 and at his smile all    
danger vanishes4  ,then the austere and 
noble spirit of ,dante arises and       
apostrophises  ,italy1 telling her that 
the regal power of ,napoleon was exactly
 the  restraint and law he had wished   
her to fall under2 and1 taking the crown
  from her head1 places it on that of   
the ,french emperor4 ,spain salutes  the
 new diadem4 ,the ,german1 still crimson
 with his own blood1  acknowledges the  
victor1 and bends his eyes to earth2    
while the ,british  pirate1 powerful in 
fleets and fraud1 curses aloud4 ,i send 
you a copy  of the ,vision1 ,monti      
writes to a friend1 which ,i have       
written for the  coronation of our king3

 it has succeeded perfectly1 and no work
 of mine1  since ,i began to write      
verses1 has prospered so well4 ,it is   
impossible  not to congratulate him on  
his success in attaining prudence4      
,assuredly  there was nothing too free  
in these verses2 and ,napoleon might    
accept  them without an unpleasant      
thought being awakened as to his        
usurpation1  tyranny1 and rapacious1    
unbounded ambition4    ,every fresh     
victory1 every new conquest1 was a theme
 for the venal muse  of ,monti2 venal we
 have a right to call it1 since he      
acknowledges the  bond of a salary and  
the necessity of obedience4 ,thus1 on   
occasion of  the battle of ,jena1 he    
brought out the ,spada di ,federico2 or1
 the  ,sword of ,frederic1--the most    
popular of his odes of triumph4 ,in this
  poem he images the spectral hand of   
the warrior king of ,prussia  disputing 
with ,napoleon the possession of his    
sword1 and yielding to the  proud       
assumptions and tenacious grasp of the  

,gallic victor4 ,ten editions  of this  
work were sold in the space of five     
months1 and it was  translated into the 
,french and ,latin languages4    ,the   
attempted usurpation of the ,spanish    
throne did not go uncelebrated4  ,the   
,palingenesi has for its subject the    
regeneration of mind and of  political  
institutions wrought in ,spain1 under   
the auspices of the  ,french emperor and
 his brother ,joseph4 ,if we could      
dismiss from our  minds the truth1 and  
fancy1 as ,monti assumes1 that a great  
and generous  nation had sunk into the  
depths of slavery and degradation       
through the  evil influence of a corrupt
 government1 and that ,napoleon was bent
 on  loosening its fetters and raising  
it to freedom and knowledge1 it would   
be impossible not to be filled with     
enthusiasm by the noble ideas and  grand
 imagery of this poem4 ,but the taint of
 falsehood prevents any  sympathy1 and  
our admiration of the imagination       
displayed is checked by  our contempt of

 the flatterer2 while we smile at the   
bitter and violent  curses poured upon  
the ,english1 whose motives for         
assisting the  ,spaniards in resisting  
the ,french are painted in the most     
odious  colours4    ,we wonder as we    
read4 ,there is fire1 sublimity1 and    
power in every line4  ,can these be     
inspired1 as we are assured by ,monti's 
friends1 by the mere  desire of         
acquiring the loaves and fishes1 if not 
for himself  individually1 for his wife 
and daughter8 ,are the shadowy forms    
which he  invests with so much          
beauty--the conceptions into which he   
infuses so  much energy and seeming     
sincerity--the mere playthings of his   
thought1  and not the genuine offspring 
of a mind teeming and overflowing with a
  sense of usefulness and truth8 ,we    
cannot believe it2 we are so apt to     
forget what our feelings were when the  
occasion that called them forth  has    
vanished like morning mist4 ,when       
,napoleon fell1 men forgot the  wonder  

and admiration with which they had      
regarded him during his  prosperity4 ,he
 had come on the time-worn world like an
 incarnation of  the memories of        
antiquity4 ,the greatest sovereigns1 who
 traced their  descent from the middle  
ages--the thrones of the world1 so long 
the  objects of worship and fear--the   
crowns and sceptres which had been      
looked upon as the sacred and inviolable
 symbols of divine right--were  all at  
his feet1 dispossest1 transferred1 and  
broken4 ,it could be no  wonder that men
 looked upon the cause of these things  
as something  prodigious and superhuman4
 ,monti may be excused that he joined in
 the  common feeling of awe and         
admiration2 while1 afterwards1 seeing   
how  little good arose from the breaking
 up of the ancient tyrannies1 and how   
the indomitable will of one man was     
enforced by means of treachery and      
slaughter1 he might forget that he could
 ever have been so blinded1 and  fancy  
that acknowledged fear was the cause of 

an inspiration which  really sprung from
 the slavish worship of success1 which  
is too  naturally inherent in human     
beings4    ,although ,monti brought     
forward this disingenuous plea to excuse
 his  celebration of the hero of the    
age1 he was sincere in one feeling1--an 
attachment to the offspring of his      
brain1 and in the indignation he felt   
against those who depreciated his poetic
 merits4 ,the ,sword of ,frederic  was  
attacked by the critics with great      
asperity1 and he replied with  still    
greater acrimony4 ,he had been charged  
with mannerism and sameness1  especially
 in the machinery of his poems1 in which
 visions1 spectres1  and cloudy         
spiritual essences play for ever a      
principal part4 ,he would  not allow    
this to be a defect1 and railed at the  
unimaginative minds who  conceived it to
 be such4 ,he tries to be jocose in his 
indignation1 but  his laugh is bitter2  
and he heaps the accusations of ill     
faith and envy1  as well as of ignorance

 and bad taste1 on those who attack him4
 ,there  may be justice in this1 but    
there is no dignity4 ,there is always a 
degree of degradation in noticing the   
enmity of a race of ephemera1 and  not  
calmly relying on the award of the      
public4    ,besides the poems above     
mentioned1 ,monti wrote several other   
poems in  praise of the conqueror4 ,the 
,jerogamia and the ,api ,panacridi were 
compositions which1 whatever their      
apparent subject might be1 turned1      
after all1 on the praise of the emperor4
 ,they maintained1 if they did  not     
increase1 the poet's fame4 ,his best    
works were already written2 and  these  
may be named to be the ,aristodemo1 the 
,basvilliana1 passages  in the ,prometo1
 the ,mascheroniana1 and the            
,palingenesi and of his  shorter odes1  
that to ,bonaparte1 on occasion of the  
,cisalpine congress1  and his hymn on   
his return to ,italy4    ,years began to
 tame the fire of his imagination1 and  
he felt the spirit  of original         

composition fail him4 ,his active mind  
turned to other  subjects on which to   
exercise it3 his love of classical      
learning led him  to works of criticism 
and erudition1 and he wrote ,remarks on 
the ,winged  ,horse of ,arsinoe4 ,a want
 of knowledge of the ,greek language    
must1  however1 have been a great       
drawback to this species of study2 but  
we  must regard with still greater      
wonder1 considering this defect1 his    
next  enterprise1 which was the         
translation of the ,iliad4 ,he had been 
looking  out for a subject1 and         
meditating in what way he could employ  
his  powers1 when a word1 spoken by     
chance by ,ugo ,foscolo1 at once awoke  
in  his mind the desire and the energy  
requisite for so arduous a task4 ,not   
being acquainted with ,greek1 he applied
 himself to every kind of literal       
translation1 and was1 besides1 mainly   
assisted by his friend ,mustoxidi1  who 
explained passages1 compared his version
 with the original1 and  bestowed a     

degree of labour which1 barren as it was
 of reputation to  himself1 must be     
regarded as a singular proof of         
disinterested  attachment4 ,monti       
applied himself so vigorously to the    
task1 that1 in  spite of all his        
disadvantages1 in less than two years he
 brought it to  a conclusion4    ,this  
new labour yielded him a large harvest  
of reputation4 ,other ,italian          
translations of the ,iliad already      
existed3 that of ,salvini is valuable1  
from his profound knowledge of the      
,greek and ,italian languages4 ,it is   
elegantly and faithfully translated1 but
 it wants spirit2 and the  sublime      
,homeric fire1 which renders the ,iliad 
the greatest of human  works1 glimmers  
feebly in his version4 ,the translation 
of ,ceruti is as  faithful as is        
compatible with his ignorance of ,greek2
 but1 besides the  want of the true     
spirit of the original1 his style1      
modelled on that of  ,metastasio and    
,rolli1 wants vigour and versatility4   

,monti possessed1 beyond any other poet1
 the faculty of warming himself  with   
his subject1 of penetrating himself with
 its soul1 and imparting1  by the       
vivacity of his language and the glowing
 brightness of his  imagination1 his own
 sentiments to the reader4 ,the very act
 of  versifying seemed to be to him what
 the sound of song is to the  sensitive1
 in elevating and moving the soul4 ,his 
mind possessed the  qualities of the    
harp1 which gives forth sweet music when
 swept by the  breezes3 thought with him
 was always pregnant with harmonious and
  animated expression1 with glowing and 
various imagery4 ,on this has been      
founded his excuse for writing with such
 apparent fervour on subjects  that did 
not really interest his feelings2 and   
this facility is a good  quality in a   
translator4 ,monti could conceive and   
imbibe the spirit of  the original1 and 
give it out1 in his own language1 with  
vigour and  life4 ,visconti1 in waiting 
to the poet1 says1 ,the choice and      

variety of  diction and phrases1 the    
equal and sustained tone of the verses1 
and the  noble simplicity of the style1 
place your work among the few that      
transmit the poetic name with honour to 
posterity4 ,this praise was  accompanied
 by a few judicious criticisms which    
showed the care and zeal  with which he 
had examined the translation4 ,monti    
paid attention to  them1 and endeavoured
 to amend all the errors pointed out in 
the  subsequent editions of his work4   
,sidenote3 #ahad4  tat4  #fj4    ,when  
,napoleon was overthrown1 and the north 
of ,italy fell under the yoke  of the   
,austrians1 ,monti of course lost all   
his public employments1 and  he was     
menaced in his old age by the miseries  
of hopeless poverty4 ,but  his          
submissive disposition and plastic      
opinions were just of that sort  which  
kings delight to honour2 and the emperor
 of ,austria bestowed such  pensions on 
him as enabled him to pursue his studies
 in leisure and  competence4 ,no doubt  

,monti felt glad1 in common with all his
 countrymen1  to get rid of the         
antinational sway of the ,french1 and   
hoped that a  better state of things    
would result from any change4 ,his      
experience of  popular rule in ,italy   
had disgusted him with it4 ,he had not  
that zeal  and ardour of feeling        
resulting from a conviction that1       
however perilous  the passage from      
slavery to liberty1 it must be attempted
 and persevered  in1 with all its       
attendant evils1 if men are to be       
brought back from  that cowardice1      
indolence1 and selfishness which mark   
the slave1 to the  heroism1 patience1   
and intellectual activity which         
characterise the  freeman4 ,besides     
this1 the armies of ,austria admitted of
 no reply from  the unwarlike ,italians4
 ,the remnants of their army which had  
returned1  wasted and broken1 from the  
,russian campaign had been forced1 after
 some  show of resistance1 to           
capitulate3 submission was their only   

resource1  and submission was in        
accordance with ,monti's disposition4   
,nor did he  afterwards ever give       
umbrage to the jealous and revengeful   
government  whose pay he received1 when 
hopes of better times and of redemption 
warmed the hearts of all the nobler     
,italians to attempt the destruction  of
 their tyrants4 ,he was acquainted with 
many of the ,austrian victims2  and when
 we find in his letters complaints of   
sorrows and misfortunes1  we must       
attribute these to the real sympathy he 
felt for these unhappy  martyrs3 but1   
though he sympathised with the men1 it  
is probable that he  disapproved of     
their attempts4 ,he was hopeless1 and a 
hopeless struggle  presented to him only
 the too real picture of aggravated     
oppression in  general1 and frightful   
individual suffering2 he did not feel   
that  boiling of the heart1 that fire of
 the spirit1 which makes the great and  
good risk all1 rather than live subject 
to a power which exerted all its  leaden

 strength to press down genius1 crush   
every exertion of mind1 and  to reduce  
men as nearly as possible to the        
condition of the herds who  graze in the
 fields1 without a thought beyond the   
food and rest which  the fertility of   
the soil and the beauty of the climate  
afford4 ,monti  was not one of these3   
his mind was active1 and1 in his way1 he
 wished to  benefit his country4 ,so    
when a thousand hearts were convulsed by
 the  throes arising from all the hopes 
and fears of a just rebellion1 he       
turned his attention to the study of the
 ,italian language1 to the task  of     
freeing it from the shackles which      
critics had thrown over it1 and of      
gifting it with the new spirit and      
animation which must arise from the     
introduction of living forms of speech1 
instead of the classic and  restricted  
limitations imposed by the ,della       
,crusca society4    ,he composed few    
poems after the fall of ,napoleon4 ,when
 the emperor of  ,austria sent the      

archduke ,john to receive the oath of   
fealty from the  provinces of ,lombardy1
 he wrote1 by command1 a cantata1       
entitled  ,mistico ,omaggio1 or the     
,mystic ,homage1 which was brought out  
at the  principal theatre at ,milan4    
,when the emperor himself visited ,italy
 he  celebrated the event by a poem1    
called ,the ,return of ,astrea1 and     
another1 named ,the ,invitation to      
,pallas4 ,his style in these later      
compositions joins harmony to dignity1  
and forms that mixture of  strength and 
sweetness which is so delightful in     
,metastasio4 ,his last  poetic          
compositions were written at ,pesaro1   
where he was debarred from  his usual   
occupations1 and dispirited by a disease
 that attacked one of  his eyes2 and he 
solaced himself by dictating various    
poems full of  grace and beauty1 which  
he afterwards published under the title 
of  ,sollievo nella ,malinconia1 or     
,relief of ,melancholy4    ,sidenote3   
#ahab4    ,one of the most fortunate    

incidents of his life was the marriage  
of his  daughter to a man of singular   
merit4 ,costanza ,monti was 7is1 we     
should  rather say7 remarkable for her  
beauty and her talents2 her poetry1     
though there is little of it1 is of a   
very high grade1 and one poem1 ,on  a   
,rose1 has sufficed to establish her    
fame in ,italy4 ,count ,giulio          
,perticari sprung from a noble family of
 ,romagna4 ,his residence was at        
,pesaro1 and he there filled            
successively the offices of podest and  
judge4 ,he devoted himself to           
literature1 and had published works both
 in  prose and verse1 by which he       
acquired considerable reputation4 ,it   
must  be in the memory of all ,italians1
 and all those strangers who visited    
,italy during his lifetime1 how he was  
beloved by every one who knew him4  ,no 
man was ever more popular1 more         
universally pronounced the best of  men2
 and this praise resulted from the      
goodness and singleness of his  heart1  

the sweetness of his disposition1 and   
his unpretending but  attractive        
manners4 ,writing concerning this       
marriage to his friends1  ,monti speaks 
of it with pride and pleasure4 ,he says1
 ,count ,giulio  ,perticari1 of ,pesaro1
 is a young man well cultivated in      
literature4 ,i  say nothing of his moral
 qualities1 which render him dear to    
all4 ,it is  the most delightful match  
that paternal love can desire4    ,after
 this period ,monti's labours were      
chiefly confined to prose1 and he  is   
considered in this manner to have       
greatly benefited the literature of  his
 country4 ,the chief among these are the
 considerations on the  difficulty of   
well translating the poetry of the      
,iliad1 and several  dialogues on the   
,italian language1 full of acute        
criticism and wit4 ,a  circumstance     
turned his attention still more entirely
 to the subject of  language4 ,the      
government of ,lombardy1 wishing to show
 some encouragement  to literature1 had 

ordered the ,royal ,institute of ,milan 
to occupy itself  in the reform of the  
national dictionary2 and ,monti was     
requested by his  colleagues to publish 
his observations on the subject4 ,he    
obeyed with  alacrity4 ,his son-in-law1 
count ,perticari1 had devoted much      
attention to  this subject1 and he      
became ,monti's associate in the task4  
,the great question in ,italy is1       
whether the pure and classical language1
  the only one not wholly barbarous and 
vulgar1 is ,italian or ,tuscan2 a       
mixture drawn from the various dialects 
of the peninsula1 or solely  founded on 
,petrarch1 ,dante1 and ,boccaccio1 and  
other early ,tuscan  authors4 ,the      
academy ,della ,crusca espoused the     
latter side of the  question1 and1      
forming a dictionary1 expunged every    
word not to be found  in the authors    
named the ,trecentisti4 ,monti1 on the  
contrary1 attacked  the ipse-dixits of  
this academy1 and1 pointing out         
innumerable errors  in their dictionary1

 undertook1 as he called it1 a crusade  
against the  ,della ,crusca4    ,this is
 a question that has divided all the    
talents of ,italy1 and in  which it     
appears presumptuous in a foreigner to  
express any decision4  ,still we may    
reason from general grounds1 and from   
analogy4 ,every  portion of ,italy has a
 distinct dialect4 ,immediately on      
leaving the  precincts of any town1 an  
acute ear will detect in the person who 
lives  outside the gate a difference in 
the form of speech and pronunciation4   
,many of the towns use a mere patois1   
which has never been written4 ,the      
,neapolitan1 ,romagnole1 ,genoese1 and  
,milanese1 each have a dialect1  devoid 
of grace1 cacophonous1 truncated of     
vowels1 and unintelligible to  any but  
themselves2 the ,venetian being the only
 one distinguished for  its own peculiar
 charms4 ,to a stranger the language of 
the ,romans has a  great charm3 the     
bocca ,romana1 or ,roman pronunciation1 
is clear1 soft1  and yet emphatic4      

,their language is unidiomatic1 and     
therefore easily  comprehended4 ,you    
enter ,tuscany1 and come upon those     
terse and idiomatic  forms of speech    
which enraptured ,alfieri1 and which    
give so much energy  and animation to   
the expression of sentiment1 so much    
clearness and  precision to narration or
 reasoning4 ,but even these are not     
admitted by  the ,della ,crusca4 ,the   
,florentine is still a dialect--the     
,pisan and the  ,siennese fall under the
 same denomination3 the principal       
difference is  that the grammar of all  
the ,tuscans is pure1 and that you may  
form your  speech on that of the        
peasantry and servants1 without running 
any risk  of falling into errors and    
vulgarisms4 ,alfieri used to mingle in  
the  crowds assembled in the            
market-place of ,sienna1 there to imbibe
 from  unlearned lips the purest modes  
of the ,italian language4 ,the          
dictionary  ,della ,crusca was founded  
therefore on ,tuscan1 omitting its      

peculiarities1 and carefully registering
 any innovations that had crept  in     
since the era of the ,trecentisti4 ,it  
is obvious1 under this tutelage1  that  
the ,italian became1 when written1      
virtually a dead language4 ,no  author  
could adopt the forms of speech he made 
use of in the common  conversation4 ,the
 language that they heard and spoke when
 moved by joy1  by grief1 by love1 or   
anger1 was to be modified1 corrected1   
and1 so to  speak1 translated1 before it
 could be put in a book4 ,the living    
impress  of the soul was to be taken    
from it1 and1 instead of putting down   
the  word that rose spontaneously to the
 lips1 and ought to have flowed as      
easily from the pen1 the author hunted  
in the ,della ,crusca dictionary  for   
authorities1 which shackled the free    
spirit of inspired genius with  chains  
and bolts forged from the works of the  
old writers1 who  themselves wrote as   
they spoke1 and created a language1     
simply by  putting down the forcible and

 graceful expressions then in colloquial
  use4    ,still a great difficulty     
arises from any deviation from these    
rules4 ,was  then the ,florentine       
dialect1 or the ,siennese1 or the       
,pisan1 to be the  written language of  
the country8 ,each city would have      
rejected its  neighbour's1 and still    
more would ,lombardisms be regarded with
 disdain  by the inhabitants of the     
south4 ,language1 pronunciation1 idiom1 
all  form a habit to the eye and ear1   
which1 beginning with our very birth1   
cannot be afterwards discarded4 ,no     
,tuscan ever would or even could        
tolerate the introduction of any of the 
words or phrases belonging to  other    
dialects2 and they endure the mistakes  
of foreigners with less  disgust than   
the uncouth pronunciation of their      
countrymen of the north  and east of the
 peninsula4 ,nor will they allow that   
even the well  educated among these use 
classic modes of speech4 ,this is the   
point of  contention2 for their         

antagonists insist1 that they are in as 
full  possession as the ,tuscans of pure
 ,italian1 drawing it from the same     
sources-- namely1 the best writers of   
the country2 and assert that they  are  
as well able to originate new modes of  
expression1 and to turn with  as much   
elegance and force those already in use4
    ,monti and ,perticari both entered  
heart and soul into this dispute1 which 
speedily roused every literary person in
 ,italy to take one side or the  other4 
,the ,tuscans1 headed by the ,della     
,crusca1 were furious that their        
long-acknowledged supremacy should be   
questioned2 while ,monti1 resting  the  
merits of his opinion on the great      
authority of ,dante1 did not  hesitate  
in his attack4 ,several letters to his  
friend ,mustoxidi display  his          
earnestness and sincerity in the cause4 
,we extract passages from  them1 as     
explanatory of his ideas and            
characteristic of the man4    ,the      
necessity of relaxing a little the      

intensity of the labour ,i have  in     
hand1 led me for a few days among these 
mountains1 where yours of the  #b;d     
found me4 ,to fulfil my duty towards    
government1 ,i have been obliged  to    
publish my remarks on the ,della ,crusca
 vocabulary1 and the great  distinction 
of which it is necessary to remind the  
,italians2 the  distinction ,i mean     
between the plebeian dialects1 and that 
dignified  language spoken by all the   
well educated in the country1 from the  
summit  of the ,alps to the ,lilybum    
promontory4 ,founding my opinion on the 
authority of ,dante1 in which both      
,petrarch and ,boccaccio concur in a    
surprising manner1 ,i have undertaken to
 advocate that dignified ,italian  which
 is not spoken but written2 and to      
vindicate the rights of fourteen        
provinces of ,italy against the         
pretensions of a single one1 which1     
contrary to the principles of the great 
father of ,italian literature1  has     
endeavoured to substitute the language  

in use in a single city1 in  short a    
peculiar dialect1 which1 however        
beautiful1 is only a dialect1  and can  
never fill the place of that universal  
language of which the  country has need4
 ,i do not know whether ,i shall treat  
this great cause  worthily2 but ,i am   
convinced that whoever impugns the      
principles which ,i  establish1 must    
begin by proving that ,dante and the    
other two were mad4  ,i dare not believe
 that ,i have obtained a complete       
victory2 but ,i have  laid the          
foundation-stones on which others of    
greater talent may one day  erect and   
finish the edifice4    ,to another      
friend he writes3--,the treatise of     
,perticari on the language  of the      
,trecentisti1 which will soon be        
published1 is a chef-d'oeuvre1          
displaying great philosophy and acute   
criticism4 ,i promise you that it  will 
make a great sensation1 and that the    
,crusca with drooping head1  caudamque  
remulcens1 will not know what to answer4

    ,grassi has written an excellent    
parallel of the ,della ,crusca          
dictionary  with that of ,johnson and   
the ,spanish academy1 which are similar 
in their  plan2 and you will perceive   
the ,gothic condition of our vocabulary 
in  comparison with others4 ,assistance 
and support reach me from all parts  of 
,italy1 even from ,tuscany2 so that ,i  
may say that the whole nation  sides    
with me4    ,with more moderation he    
writes afterwards1--,we do not wish to  
rule2 but  neither reason nor honour    
permit us to continue slaves4 ,we only  
desire  the right to have a voice in the
 defence of national rights against     
municipal pretensions3 for the rest1 we 
will take the law from them4    ,in     
fact1 ,monti must have felt the extreme 
difficulty of the question4 ,in         
,england and ,france it is just to say1 
that the language of the well  educated 
all over the country may serve for      
authority as to language4  ,but the     
nobility and higher classes in ,lombardy

 and ,romagna all speak  their          
unintelligible dialects among           
themselves2 it is only with  strangers1 
and when they write1 that they have     
recourse to ,italian4 ,it  is           
impossible1 therefore1 that what they   
compose by rule1 after study  and       
practice1 can be the living language of 
a people in opposition to a  dialect1 if
 you will1 which1 with few omissions and
 some change of  pronunciation1 is the  
admiration of all who can appreciate the
 true  beauties of style2 which is      
remarkable for passion and fervour      
combined  with concision and sweetness2 
for idiomatic phrases that realise and  
stamp as it were the thought1 instead of
 a periphrastic expression which  speaks
 of an idea or notion rather than giving
 expression to these  themselves4 ,monti
 was right in throwing aside the        
classical shackles of  the ,della       
,crusca2 but there is token in his      
letters that1 in his heart1  he at last 
acknowledged that there was more of the 

living spirit of true  ,italian abroad  
in the colloquial idiom of ,tuscany1    
than in all the  well-turned sentences  
and set phrases of the well educated of 
the rest  of ,italy4    ,we cannot help 
thinking that ,monti must have been very
 happy during the  prosecution of these 
labours4 ,an active mind abhors repose1 
when it must  cream and mantle like a   
standing pool4 ,the aid and sympathy of 
his  amiable and cultivated son-in-law  
must have shed an infinite charm over   
his labours1 the zeal of his partisans  
have flattered1 the attacks of  his     
enemies have animated him4 ,he believed 
that he was delivering his  country from
 a superstition which clogged the       
springs of her literature1  and choked  
up its free course4 ,to a great degree  
he was in the right1  and the proof is  
in the original and beautiful use made  
of his theory by  the ,italian authors  
of the present day4    ,monti1 loudly   
acknowledged to be the first ,italian   
poet of his day1  continued to reside at

 ,milan1 devoted to literary pursuits1  
surrounded  by a circle of admirers1 the
 chief not so much of a sect1 as of     
,italian  literature4 ,yet he was often 
attacked1 and was by no means tolerant  
of  criticism4 ,his heart1 however1 was 
of better grain than his temper1 and    
his violent literary disputes with      
distinguished contemporaries1 with      
,mazza1 ,cesarotti1 and ,bettinelli1    
terminated in mutual friendship and     
esteem4 ,angry when offended1 and       
unmeasured in his expressions of        
offence1 yet the desire of              
reconciliation on the part of others was
  always met by him with cordiality and 
ready forgiveness4 ,he was the more     
loved and admired the more he was known2
 one of the charms that attended  his   
intercourse was the beauty of his       
recitation4 ,to hear him read  ,virgil  
or ,dante1 was to find a deeper pathos  
in the laments of ,dido1 new  energy in 
the complaints of ,ugolino4 ,fond of1   
devoted to his art1 there  was no       

pedantry about him3 he never thrust it  
upon the ignorant or  frivolous2 but    
with his friends he loved to analyse the
 essence of  poetry1 and to discuss the 
great question then in vogue in ,italy  
of the  classic and romantic schools4   
,there is a letter of his to a friend on
  this subject1 passages of which may be
 quoted as showing his opinions on  this
 subject1 opinions which bear the stamp 
of truth4    ,a poet1 he writes1 ought  
to paint the nature which he beholds4 ,i
  applaud the poetry of the ,north1     
which is in perfect accord with the     
gloomy atmosphere from which it receives
 its inspiration4 ,but ,italian  poetry1
 born of a glad and happy sky1 is mad   
when she would robe herself  in clouds1 
and study to paint a nature of which she
 can form no idea  except from          
imagination4 ,and besides1 should       
poetry1 whose chief use is  to delight  
7and1 in the miserable state of human   
beings1 to delight is  to serve71 ought 
she to appear rough and frowning1 ruled 

by pedantry and  crabbed philosophy8 ,is
 it possible that no one knows how to   
distinguish  the office of poet from    
that of philosopher8 ,it is one thing to
 speak to  the senses1 another to speak 
to the intellect4 ,naked and dry truth  
is  the death of poetry2 for poetry and 
fiction are the same1 and fable  being  
only truth disguised1 this truth must be
 ornamented by flowers to  be gladly    
received4 ,you scattered fresh and      
beautiful roses over your  poetic       
meditations when you speak of ,greece   
and ,rome2 but1 when you  leave these   
fields of perennial poetic beauty1 and  
say that the thoughts  of the ,greeks   
ran around in a narrow circle of images1
 and after  uttering this falsehood1 you
 throw yourself with loosened reins into
 the  praise of the romantic school1    
then1 my noble friend 7pardon me if ,i  
frankly declare my opinion71 you are no 
longer the same4 ,had ,i been at  your  
side when you wrote your tender adieu to
 the gods of ,greece1 ,i  should have   

persuaded you not to continue it--nor to
 irritate the shade  of ,schiller--of   
that ,schiller whom1 next to            
,shakspeare1 ,i admire4 ,do you  not    
know that his best and favourite ode is 
entitled the ',gods of  ,greece8' in    
which he manifests his indignation      
against those who have  expelled them   
from the kingdom of the muses1 and prays
 that they may be  recalled to adorn    
life and poetry4 ,i conversed much with 
lord ,byron  during the fifteen days'   
stay which he made at ,milan4 ,do you   
know that  he trembled with rage when   
any one chanced1 fancying that they paid
 him  a compliment1 to praise the       
romantic school4 ,yet1 in the sense in  
which  we understand it1 no one was more
 romantic than he4 ,but he disdained the
  name1 hating to find himself mixed up 
with the crowd of fools who  dishonour  
that noble school4 ,i do not wish to    
play the preceptor with  you1 but allow 
the true friendship that binds me to you
 to conclude with  a counsel which for  

many years ,i have myself followed1     
inter utrumque  vola2 and1 leaving the  
squabbles of party1 let us use our best 
endeavours to write good verses4    ,we 
may add to this profession of the poet's
 faith with regard to the  classic and  
romantic schools1 that ,monti considered
 ,homer1 ,dante1 and  ,shakspeare as the
 first poets of the world2 thus giving  
proof of the  justness of his taste1 and
 demonstrating that originality and     
truth were  appreciated by him at their 
just value4 ,next to these three kings  
of the  art he placed ,virgil1 whom he  
loved as the friend of his boyhood4 ,he 
preferred ,tacitus and ,livy among the  
,latin prose writers1 and  ,machiavelli 
among the ,italians4 ,his opinions on   
these subjects were  delivered without  
arrogance1 and without presuming to     
institute an  unappealable decision4    
,the count and countess ,perticari      
resided principally at ,pescara2 but    
they held frequent intercourse with     
,monti at ,milan4 ,in the winter of     

#ahba-bb1 ,perticari having made some   
stay at ,milan1 ,monti accompanied  him 
on his return home4 ,several of his     
letters to his wife written  during this
 excursion are published2 and we cannot 
resist the temptation  of giving them to
 the reader1 affording as they do       
demonstrations of his  affectionate     
heart1 and of the pleasure he took in   
the society of his  amiable relative4   
,the first of these is dated from       
,verona1 #gth ,october1  #ahba4    ,i   
never made a merrier journey4 ,we were  
six in company3 a ,brescian1 a          
,veronese1 a ,paduan1 ,mercandante1 and 
us two4 ,day had scarcely dawned1  when 
we began to examine each other1 and     
snuff-boxes went their amicable  round4 
,an instant confidence sprung up among  
us1 which led to much chat  and         
pleasantry4 ,so gay were we1 that we did
 nothing but laugh in chorus  till we   
arrived at the gates of ,verona4        
,perticari and ,i ordered that our      
luggage should be carried to the inn2   

being determined to remain free4  ,but  
the signore ,mosconi1 and ,persica1 had 
already left word at the best  inns that
 there was no room for ,perticari and   
,monti2 and1 at the moment  when we     
arrived in the diligence1 the countess  
,clarina and her daughter1  and the     
count1 got into their carriage to meet  
and run away with us1 as  if we had been
 two beautiful birds4 ,poor ,mariano1   
who was accompanying  the porter with   
our luggage to the hotel1 was pounced   
upon by the son of  the countess1       
ordered to turn right about and to      
follow him1 he knew not  whither2 not   
daring to resist1 and fearing that his  
commander was a  custom-house officer4  
,in short1 it was not possible to resist
 the gentle  violence put upon us1 and  
the cordial entreaties of my dear friend
 the  countess2 and here we are         
welcomed1 feasted1 and honoured beyond  
measure4    ,it was our intention only  
to remain three days at ,verona1 but we 
have  been obliged to promise not to go 

till ,sunday4 ,the countess means to    
accompany us half-way on the road to    
,vicenza1 where we shall arrive by      
noon1 and on ,monday evening we shall be
 at ,bassano1 three hours' journey  only
 from ,vincenza2 thence to ,passagno1   
and on to ,padua1 whence you  shall hear
 from us4      ,venice1 ,november #bj4  
#ahba4    ,not to leave you any longer  
waiting for news of us1 ,i seize a      
moment  when every one is asleep 7it    
being only five in the morning7 to tell 
you  that yesterday we arrived safely at
 ,venice4 ,it would be a too            
long-winded egotism to relate to you the
 kindness1 the politeness1 the  friendly
 contests1 with which we have been every
 where welcomed4 ,we had  been expected 
here for several days with impatience1  
and1 at the moment  of our arrival1     
chance brought us into immediate contact
 with the baron  ,tordero1 who embraced 
us with indescribable delight4 ,it being
 known that  we were going to call on   
the countess ,albrizzi1 an assembly     

gathered  together there2 nor can ,i    
describe to you the demonstrations of   
joy with  which we were welcomed by that
 celebrated lady1 and all her agreeable 
friends4 ,we remained till eleven1 and  
should have staid longer had not  hunger
 7for we had not dined7 recalled us to  
our inn2 that1 and the  circumstance    
that our friends1 who had accompanied us
 from ,padua1 were  waiting for us4 ,the
 merriment at table was prolonged till  
one in the  morning2 so you see ,i have 
barely had three hours' sleep1 and yet  
,i  never was so well in my life4       
,pesaro1 ,december #g4 #ahba4    ,at    
length1 yesterday1 at the stroke of the 
ave-maria1 we arrived1 safe  and sound1 
at ,pesaro1 to the immense joy of our   
,constance2 a joy1  nevertheless1       
mingled with bitterness1 because her    
mother had not chosen  to accompany us3 
a circumstance which grieves me also1   
because ,i fear  that the severity of   
the winter1 at ,milan1 which is here    
mild1 may be  injurious to you4 ,but1   

since you have been pleased to          
disappoint our  hopes1 at least take    
particular care of your health1 and do  
not expose  yourself to cold4           
,surrounded by visits and compliments1  
,i have no time at present for  more4   
,let it suffice that my health is       
flourishing1 and that ,i hope that      
yours is the same4 ,constance and       
,giulio embrace you fondly4 ,addio1     
addio6      ,the following letter does  
not concern personal topics2 but gives  
so  lively a picture of ,italian        
manners1 that it is well worthy to be   
extracted3--      ,pesaro1 ,january #ab4
 #ahbb4    ,you have reason to complain 
of the infrequency of my letters1 but ,i
  study and write continually2 and when 
,i am buried among my books1 with a  pen
 in my hand1 you know how difficult it  
is to draw me away1 and ought  to       
forgive me4    ,i am delighted to hear  
that1 notwithstanding the clouds and    
snow that  infest ,milan at this season1
 your health had not yet suffered4 ,i   

entreat  you to take the greatest care  
of it4 ,mine is perfect4 ,i never       
enjoyed so  benignant a winter4 ,it is  
so mild1 that ,i am dressed now as ,i am
  accustomed to do at ,milan in         
,october4    ,for the sake of making a  
longer letter1 ,i will relate an        
anecdote which  will make you laugh4    
,there is an ancient custom still       
existing at ,fano1 ten miles from       
,pesaro1 of celebrating a bull-fight at 
this season2 to which a great  concourse
 of people resort from the surrounding  
towns4 ,a few days ago  the first       
celebration took place4 ,a truly        
ferocious bull was turned into  the     
arena4 ,it is a law1 that whoever       
chooses to attack the animal may        
descend into the lists4 ,no one dared   
expose himself to this infuriated       
creature1 and all the dogs who ventured 
to assail him were tossed and  killed4  
,at length a peasant presented himself1 
and1 to the wonder of  all1 approached  
the tremendous animal4 ,he boldly went  

close to him2 and  the bull became quite
 mild1 allowing himself to be patted and
 stroked1  while he licked the hand that
 caressed him2 every one was astonished1
  when1 all of a sudden1 a fellow among 
the spectators starts up1 and  calls    
out1 ',the man is a sorcerer6' ',a      
sorcerer6 a magician6' exclaimed        
several others in a fury4 ',burn the    
magician6 burn the magician6' every  one
 exclaims4 ,the president of the games  
is also persuaded that this  prodigy can
 only be the work of the devil2 and he  
sends four soldiers1  who seize on the  
magician1 drag him from the lists1 and  
throw him into  prison4 ,the poor fellow
 asked the cause of this violence2 he   
was told1  ',you are a magician2 you    
will be hanged and burnt6' ',what are   
you saying  about a magician8' cried the
 man2 'does not his excellency and his  
reverence know that the bull let me     
touch him because he knew me8 ,i am  his
 master4' ,this testimony1 being        
confirmed by several who knew the man   

to be the master of the bull1 and who   
took oaths to this effect1 ought  to    
have cured the president of his folly2  
but the poor magician is still  in      
prison1 and they are still disputing    
what to do with him4    ,at the same    
time that ,monti writes thus to his     
wife1 his letters to his  other friends 
are equally full of the pleasure he     
enjoyed at this time4  ,you will like to
 know1 he writes to one1 how ,i am      
passing my life4  ,most happily2 but not
 in idleness4 ,happily1 because ,i am   
with my  children2 and enjoy a season so
 mild and serene1 that winter resembles 
the opening of spring4 ,not in idleness1
 because ,i pursue my studies1 and  mean
 to give a last1 short1 critical        
treatise4    ,but a few months after1 in
 the ,july of the same year1 #ahbb1     
,monti again  visited ,pesaro1 in       
circumstances that form a painful       
contrast with the  tranquil and domestic
 happiness that occasioned him so much  
pleasure  during his former one4        

,perticari had died1 suddenly1 and      
,monti went to  assist and console his  
sorrowing daughter4 ,he thus writes1 on 
this  occasion1 to his friend           
,mustoxidi1 in a letter dated ,pesaro1  
#cjth ,july1  #ahbb3--    ,you will have
 heard from my wife the pitiable state  
in which ,i found my  poor ,constance4  
,my arrival has produced a happy change 
in this  unfortunate creature3 my coming
 was like a sunbeam on a flower beaten  
down by the tempest4 ,but1 again1 her   
mind is distracted1 sleep flies  from   
her eyes1 and her health suffers        
dreadfully4 ,i must applaud the  kind   
attentions of her mother-in-law1 who is 
an angel of goodness4 ,but ,i  perceive 
that the only way to preserve her from  
the most dangerous  consequences of     
excessive grief1 is to take her from a  
place too full of  shocking             
associations4 ,and ,i would not delay my
 journey1 but for the new  regulation of
 the pontifical police1 which does not  
permit any one to  leave these states   

without a passport countersigned by the 
,austrian  ambassador at ,rome4 ,as soon
 as ,i obtain this ,i shall set out1 and
  conduct this dear object of my        
compassion to the arms of her mother4   
,this was a wound not easily healed1 and
 never to be forgotten4 ,in the  spring 
of the following year ,monti still      
alludes to his loss with the  keenest   
grief4 ,your letter1 he writes to a     
friend1 afforded me  infinite pleasure  
and consolation4 ,for a long time ,i    
have lived a  wretched life under the   
rod of adversity2 and it is only when ,i
 enjoy  the society of some person dear 
to me1 or hear from them1 that ,i become
  a little cheerful1 and my spirits     
revive4 ,such has been the effect1 dear 
friend1 of your letter to your poor     
,monti--poor indeed in every way1 and   
very unhappy4 ,unhappy in the death of  
,giulio2 unhappy in the ill health  of  
,constance1 who is wasting away with    
grief2 unhappy in myself1 as ,i am      
deaf1 old1 and almost blind4 ,for my    

eyes1 owing to my over-use of them  in  
reading and writing by candle-light1 are
 fallen into their old  state4    ,the  
last volume of the ,proposta was        
published in ,july1 #ahbc2 and1 this    
last prosaic labour finished1 the       
imagination of ,monti awoke again1 and  
he turned his thoughts once more to the 
composition of poetry4 ,he  restored the
 true reading to the ,convito of ,dante1
 which he prized as  the basis and      
authority of his own theories concerning
 the ,italian  language4 ,he wrote1     
also1 the idyl on the nuptials of       
,cadmus2 and then  contemplated the     
completion of his poem of the           
,feroniade1 which he had  begun many1   
many years ago at ,rome4 ,when he was   
secretary to don ,luigi  ,braschi1 duke 
of ,nemi1 and nephew of ,pius ,,vi41 he 
was accustomed to  accompany his patron 
in his hunting expeditions3 the usual   
course of  these excursions was the     
,pontine marshes1 near ,terracina1 a    
spot  abundant in game4 ,there is a     

fountain in that neighbourhood1 supposed
 to  be that anciently dedicated to the 
,diva ,ferronia1 at which the hunters   
were accustomed to drink to refresh     
themselves4 ,the sight of that          
insalubrious marshy tract of land1 the  
drainage of which had just been         
undertaken by the pope1 for the purpose 
of restoring it to agriculture1  awoke  
in ,monti the idea of paying his debt of
 gratitude to the house of  ,braschi1 by
 commemorating this munificent work2 he 
instantly began his  task1 and named his
 poem from the guardian genius of the   
place4 ,the  circumstances of the times 
interrupted his design3 it became more  
profitable to celebrate the ambition of 
,napoleon than the piety of a  captive  
priest2 and the work was neglected1     
thrown aside1 and almost  forgotten4    
,during the last years of the poet's    
life1 his friends  solicited him to     
finish it4 ,perhaps1 when many years and
 many changes  had made much of his past
 life appear like an unconnected dream1 

the  memory of his early years came     
before him with all that charm and      
vividness which youth often assumes in  
the eyes of age2 and he was glad  to    
recur to a forgotten monument of bygone 
times4 ,he yielded1 therefore1  to the  
request of those about him1 and had     
almost finished1 when first  disease1   
and afterwards death1 put an end to all 
his designs4 ,it was  early in the year 
#ahbf that he had thus renewed his      
poetic existence1  resolving not again  
to abandon it while his imagination     
remained  vigorous2 but in the very     
opening of this enthusiasm1 while every 
fear  was distant1 and his active mind  
gladly met1 each morning1 the series of 
duties and labour which he imposed on   
himself1 he was seized by an  illness1  
through which every scheme and every    
hope was calamitously  overthrown4      
,on the #ith of ,april1 at about eleven 
o'clock1 when he had retired1  rather to
 study than repose1 a sudden apoplexy   
attacked him2 and no  medical aid1 nor  

any care1 could restore him again to    
health4 ,he lost  the use of his left   
side1 and the vital powers appeared     
mortally  attacked4 ,the news spread    
through ,milan1 and struck every one    
with  grief2 the population crowded     
round his door1 and this public         
demonstration of kindness sensibly      
affected him4 ,his mind remained clear  
and strong throughout the attack1 nor   
was he without sanguine hopes of        
recovery4 ,in the ,april succeeding his 
first seizure1 we find him writing  to a
 friend3 ,i burn with a desire to       
revisit ,florence before ,i die2        
consequently ,i have resolved1 next     
,june1 to go to the mud baths of        
,albano1 near ,padua1 whence ,i hope to 
receive a renewal of my strength        
sufficient for my journey4 ,these mud   
baths1 however1 were pronounced  hurtful
 instead of beneficial to his disorder1 
and he never went4 ,still  hope was     
alive1 and he lingered on until the     
autumn of #ahbh1 his life  being        

consumed in a slow martyrdom3 his       
death-bed was attended by his  wife and 
disconsolate daughter1 whom1 even to the
 last1 he sought to  cheer by words of  
affection1 and by smiles when he could  
not speak4 ,he  expired on the #acth of 
,october1 #ahbh1 at the age of          
seventy-four4    ,the genius of ,monti  
would1 in times of less public          
excitement1 have  adorned his name with 
the highest praise2 and his faults would
 never  have been called into view4 ,the
 studious and imaginative bent of his   
mind would have led him to cultivate    
letters and poetry2 and we should  glory
 in the exalted fancy of a creative     
poet1 without any shame for the  man4   
,his domestic character was amiable2 he 
was zealous for his friends1  grateful  
for benefits2 generous1 kind1 and true  
in all the ordinary  intercourse of     
life3 but neither reverence for genius1 
nor attachment to  the man1 ought to    
blind us to his political               
tergiversation1 or to  suppose that     

there is virtue in that inborn          
slavishness of spirit that  could see no
 degradation in praising those whom he  
reprobated in his  heart1 and in        
commemorating with applause acts the    
most injurious to the  common cause of  
humanity4 ,there is retribution in our  
own consciences  for all our faults1 and
 ,monti felt this3 his love of glory was
 great1  and he was often pained by     
being reminded of his political         
apostacies2  but too often1 when        
irritated by censure1 he was willing to 
cast the  blame upon others1 instead of 
admitting his own want of rigid public  
integrity4    ,but take away this error1
 and1 as a private character1 ,monti    
merited the  affection and esteem of    
all4 ,the only fault of his disposition 
was  irritability and an inclination to 
anger2 but he redeemed it by the        
candour of his acknowledgments1 and the 
uprightness of his conduct4  ,warmth of 
heart and warmth of temper are too apt  
to be united in the  same disposition2  

but the kindness of his nature was      
rendered even more  apparent by this    
defect of temperament4 ,he was sensitive
 to injury1 and  his indignation was    
proportionate to his quick sense of     
injustice2 but1  though his anger took  
the appearance of sternness and         
severity1 it never  led him to injure   
another1 but evaporated in words1 and   
might be said to  agitate the surface1  
but never penetrated into the depths1 of
 his mind4  ,he was never guilty of an  
act of revenge1--on the contrary1 he    
often  benefited those who injured him4 
,his mind was1 in short1 of a uniform   
texture2 and what it wanted in dignity  
and grandeur was compensated for  by    
gentleness1 tenderness1 and ready       
sympathy with the sufferings of  others4
 ,he was beyond measure charitable to   
those in distress2 and  infinite and    
unwearied compassion1 we are told by one
 who knew him well1  was his prominent  
characteristic4 ,the poor gladly        
celebrated the  charities he strove to  

conceal4 ,this virtue sprung1 doubtless1
 from  early habits acquired under the  
roof of his benevolent parents4 ,he was 
simple as a child in the midst of       
worldliness1 and the good faith and     
sincerity of his friendships were       
without a flaw4    ,in person1 the same 
friend informs us who has furnished the 
public  with the principal documents on 
which this memoir is founded1 he was    
tall and handsome3 his forehead ample2  
the shape of his face regular2  and his 
eyes1 gleaming from beneath his arched  
and full brows1 shone at  once with a   
vivacious and soft light1 which         
commanded both affection and  respect4  
,an air of melancholy was diffused over 
his countenance1 to  which the habits of
 reflection would have given a severe   
and even  disdainful expression1 had not
 the sweetest smile illuminated it with 
the gracious light of love4 ,his        
carriage was dignified1 his mien        
serious1 and his whole aspect was that  
of a man of talent1 and of one  warmed  

and softened by the benevolence and     
affectionateness of his  disposition4   
,we may conclude with this description  
of the outward man1 emanating from  one 
who revered and loved him as a preceptor
 and a friend4 ,the world1 in  the days 
succeeding to those of revolution and   
preceding those of  reform1 was much    
divided between those who despaired and 
those who  hoped4 ,the latter now       
triumph2 but ,monti died before the     
milder light  dawned on the world1 and  
while change appeared inevitably        
accompanied by  bloodshed and misery4   
,his compassionate heart preferred the  
peace of  submission1 both for himself  
and others1 to the suffering attendant  
on  defeated struggles2 and errors      
springing from so humane a source may be
  forgiven1 even by those whose ardent  
natures lead them to overlook the  toil 
and danger of the journey1 in the hope  
of attaining the  accomplishment of     
their desires4      ,footnote #eb3      
,maffei2 ,storia della ,litteratura     

,italiana4    ,footnote #ec3 ,bonetti4  
,,ugo ,,foscolo    #aggh-ahbg4      ,the
 most necessary quality of an author is1
 that he should impress us  with the    
conviction that he has something to say4
 ,in reading his pages1  we ought to    
feel that he puts down the overflowing  
of his mind--ideas  and notions which1  
springing up spontaneously1 force a     
birth for  themselves from the womb of  
silence1 and acquire an existence       
through  their own native energy and    
vitality4 ,an author1 therefore1 is a   
human  being whose thoughts do not      
satisfy his mind1 ruminated on merely in
 his  own isolated bosom3 he requires   
sympathy1 a world to listen1 and the    
echo of assent from his                 
fellow-creatures4 ,but this is not all4 
,few men  can be excited by a mere      
abstraction1 by the images of their own 
mind1  and the desire of communicating  
them for the benefit of their           
fellow-creatures4 ,pride or vanity      
mingle essentially in the fabric of a   

writer's mind3 the pride which leads him
 to desire to build up an  enduring     
monument for his name1 formed from his  
own compositions2 or the  vanity that   
leads him to introduce himself to the   
reader1 and to court  the notoriety     
which usually attends those who let the 
public into the  secret of their        
individual passions or peculiarities4   
,the three great authors of modern      
,italy form a singular contrast to each 
other1 as to their apparent motives for 
authorship4 ,alfieri1 proud1            
independent1 and gloomy1 sought at once 
to honour his own name1 to exalt  and   
refine his countrymen1 and to produce   
such works as would benefit  his        
species2 while the vehement passions of 
his own soul were their  primal source  
and inspiration4 ,monti was a poet of   
the imagination4 ,he  wrote because the 
imagery1 the melody1 the aerial fabric  
of poesy were a  part of his essence4   
,the subjects of his poems were of less 
consequence1  in his eyes1 than the well

 treating them1 or the variety1         
grandeur1 and  fantastic ideality       
displayed in his verses4 ,thus1 at the  
word of  command1 he could celebrate the
 usurper1 taint the struggles of a noble
  and free nation1 and adorn the naked  
form of despotism with garments of      
beauty4 ,foscolo1 on the contrary1 was  
impelled to produce and reproduce       
himself3 and yet to this assertion we   
must put some limit1 for ,foscolo  was a
 man of learning and taste1 and he was  
capable of giving light to  compositions
 formed by the rules of art1 and adorned
 by the graces  culled from an intimate 
knowledge of the finest of human works4 
,but  vanity was still the              
mainspring1--a vanity accompanied by    
honesty of  principle and independence  
of soul1 and yet which was vanity--the  
worship of self--the making his own     
individuality the mirror in which  the  
world was reflected4    ,ugo ,foscolo   
was born in the island of ,zante1 about 
the year #aggh4 ,the  ,ionian isles had 

long been under the dominion of ,venice4
 ,the family of  ,foscolo was of        
,venetian origin2 and his father was a  
surgeon in the navy  of the republic4   
,little is known of his early years4 ,he
 seldom mentioned  them in conversation1
 though his imagination sometimes       
delighted to  recur to the sunny land of
 his birth1 and to regret it4 ,in one of
 his  sonnets he exclaims1--      ,ne pi
 mai toccher le sacre sponde  ,ove il   
mio corpo fanciulletto giacque  ,zacinto
 mia1 che te specchi nell' onde  ,del   
,greco mar4    ,tu non altro che il     
canto avrai del figlio1  ,o materna mia 
terra2 a noi prescrisse  ,il fato       
illacrimata sepoltura4    ,o6 never more
 shall ,i thy sacred shores  ,approach1 
where my young limbs first sprung to    
life1  ,beloved ,zante6 who look'st upon
 the waves  ,of the ,greek sea2 and thou
 the song alone  ,may'st claim of thy   
lost son1 maternal land6  ,for fate to  
him decrees an unwept tomb4      ,the   
,ionian islands were at that time held  

as colonies of the ,venetian            
government1 and tyrannised over by the  
most odious and oppressive laws4  ,among
 others1 no schools nor colleges were   
allowed to exist1 and the  youth of the 
islands were sent to ,venice for the    
purposes of education4  ,at an early    
age1 therefore1 ,foscolo repaired to the
 parent city4 ,his  father1 it would    
seem1 was at this time dead1 for we hear
 only of his  mother1 to whom he was    
always tenderly attached2 and it appears
 that  she1 also1 transferred herself to
 ,venice at the same period4 ,foscolo   
seldom mentioned his family1 with the   
exception of his mother4 ,he had  two   
brothers1 one who died1 it is reported  
by his own hand1 about the  year #agig2 
the other enlisted as a soldier1 and    
rose1 from his good  conduct and valour1
 to the rank of captain of dragoons4    
,when boyhood was passed1 ,foscolo was  
sent to the university of ,padua1  and  
studied under ,cesarotti4 ,there was    
great dissimilarity in the tastes  and  

literary opinions of the master and     
pupil2 and thus ,foscolo soon  displayed
 his original and independent turn of   
mind4 ,cesarotti explained  and         
commented upon ,homer1 and undertook at 
the same time to emend and  improve the 
verses of the father of poetry4 ,he     
preferred ,voltaire to  ,euripides1 and 
,ossian to ,homer4 ,while a great       
portion of ridicule  attaches itself to 
such paradoxes1 the real learning and   
extensive  reading of the professor     
benefited his scholars2 and by          
liberating them  from the narrow system 
of instruction which had subsisted for  
many  years1 he introduced them1 as it  
were1 from the paled and guarded park   
of classical literature1 to the wilds1  
the moors1 the incult mountains1  in    
short1 to all the vast variety of       
unfettered nature4    ,foscolo1 though  
taught by the advocate of ,ossian1 was  
all his life a  worshipper of ,homer4   
,studious1 as well as ardent in his     
literary  pursuits1 he became a critical

 scholar2 and1 admiring not only ,greek 
poetry1 but the fabric and machinery    
which constitute its structure1 he      
modelled his own poetic productions on  
them1 and made ancient mythology1  and  
allusions to classical history1 the     
props as well as the ornaments  of his  
verses4 ,at the same time he admitted   
,cesarotti's rules with  regard to the  
,italian language1 and abandoned the    
dialect of the  ,trecentisti1--so long  
held up as a model1 and yet which had   
become a  dead tongue1--to form an      
animated1 simple1 living language1      
introducing  into it phrases and words  
of modern use2 expressions for ever on  
the  lips of the ,italians1 though      
heretofore banished from their pens4    
,we are told that1 on leaving college1  
,foscolo hesitated whether to enter  the
 clerical profession1 which held out the
 prospect of competency to  its         
followers2 but he was fortunately turned
 aside from a profession  whose narrow  
rules and arbitrary laws were in direct 

opposition to his  impetuous and        
independent disposition4 ,instead of    
assuming the tonsure1  ,foscolo resolved
 to follow in the steps of ,alfieri1 and
 to acquire fame  as a tragedian4       
,sidenote3 #agig4  tat4  #ai4  ,he      
produced his drama of ,thyestes at the  
early age of nineteen2 and it  may be   
said to be a creditable production for a
 youth4 ,it is from his  after works    
that we judge that it was not           
inexperience1 but an absolute  defect of
 a certain species of talent1 that made 
this boy's tragedy a  mere bald         
imitation of those of his illustrious   
predecessor4 ,alfieri was  not a        
fanciful poet2 his talent lay in        
developing plot1 animating  dialogue1   
and interesting the reader by the clash 
of passion1 or the  concentrated        
feelings of a single person4 ,foscolo   
possessed far more of  the peculiar     
spirit of poetry2 but it was of didactic
 poetry4 ,he could  not invent incident1
 nor describe any feelings but such as  

originated in  his own heart4 ,thyestes1
 founded on one of the domestic crimes  
of the  unfortunate house of ,pelops1   
possesses all the faults of ,alfieri's  
tragedies4 ,he imitated him in producing
 only a few personages on the  scene2 so
 that1 as a critic observes1 it seems as
 if it were written  just after the     
deluge1 when the human race congregated 
by threes and  fours3 obscurity of plot 
is added to this simplicity of action1  
and the  purpose and aim of the poet is 
never clearly discerned4 ,one scene     
follows another1 not because produced by
 the antecedent one1 but because  it is 
necessary that something should be said 
and done1 or all would be  at a full    
stop4 ,the language is clear and        
energetic2 but1 as we are  uninterested 
by the ideas which it conveys1 this must
 appear a very  secondary merit4        
,thyestes1 however1 succeeded in the    
theatre2 and1 as success in             
representation is certainly the test of 
dramatic merit1 we might suppose  some  

latent energy in its concoction1        
unapparent to the reader1 but that  its 
success appears to have arisen from     
political feeling4 ,it was acted  for   
the first time on ,january #d4 #agig1 in
 the theatre of ,st4 ,angelo at         
,venice1 to a vast concourse of         
spectators1 and was repeated with       
applause for nine consecutive nights4   
,the extreme youth of the author  filled
 the audience with admiration1 and he   
was called for after the                
representation4 ,we cannot well discern 
the political allusions that gave  it   
its chief interest1 except that the name
 of king and tyrant are made            
synonymous2 a style1 it might be        
imagined1 neither distasteful nor       
injurious to a republican government1   
however aristocratic4 ,it would  appear1
 however1 that this avidity for liberal 
sentiments was the cause  of its        
temporary success2 for it was never     
again acted on any stage in  ,italy4    
,adversity meanwhile was hanging over   

the head of the poet4 ,the fall of      
,venice1 which occurred in the autumn of
 the same year1 deprived him of  the    
very name of country4 ,hatred of the    
,austrian is a sentiment  profoundly    
engraved in every ,italian heart2 and   
when ,venice was made  over by treaty to
 the ,german despot1 ,foscolo became a  
voluntary exile4  ,whether he was in    
danger of being marked out in any of the
 lists of  proscription does not appear2
 but as it is evident that he is the    
hero  of his ,letters of ,jacopo ,ortis1
 we gather from that book1 that his     
friends feared for his personal liberty 
if he remained1 and besought him  to    
shelter himself1 while there was yet    
time1 from the enmity of the new        
government4 ,i have left ,venice1 ,ortis
 writes1 to avoid the first and  most   
violent persecutions4 ,how many victims 
remain6 ,we ,italians  ourselves bathe  
our hands in ,italian blood4 ,let what  
will happen to me6  ,since ,i despair of
 good1 either for myself or my country1 

,i can await in  tranquillity a prison  
or death4    ,all these letters are full
 of the indignant struggles1 and the    
sorrow1  as well as of the opinions     
which ruled the heart of ,foscolo1 as he
 found  himself driven a wanderer from  
his home1 sometimes lamenting his own   
misfortunes1 sometimes those of his     
country4    ,how many of our            
fellow-citizens repent their flight from
 home1 he  writes1 and mourn6 for what  
can we expect except indigence and      
indignity--or1 at the best1 that brief  
and sterile compassion which            
uncivilised nations offer to the        
stranger exile8 ,and where shall ,i seek
  an asylum--in ,italy8 ,unhappy land6  
and can ,i behold those who have        
robbed1 scorned1 and sold us1 and not   
weep with rage8 ,oh6 if the tyrants     
were one only1 and if the slaves were   
less abject1 my hand would  suffice4    
,but those who now blame me for         
cowardice would then accuse me  of      
crime2 and the prudent would lament     

over1 not the heroism of one  resolved1 
but the frenzy of a desperate man4 ,what
 can be done between  two powerful      
nations1 who1 from being sworn1         
ferocious1 and eternal  enemies1        
colleague to enslave us8 and where force
 alone does not avail1  the one cajoles 
us with the name of liberty1 the other  
with that of  religion2 and we1 debased 
by ancient servitude and new-born       
licence1  groan1 betrayed1 enslaved1    
famished1 and yet not roused1 either by 
treason or famine4 ,ah6 if ,i could1 ,i 
would destroy my house and all dear  to 
me1 and myself with them2 ,i would leave
 nothing for the tyrants to  triumph    
over4 ,were there not people who1 to    
escape the ,romans1 robbers  of the     
world1 gave to the flames their         
dwellings1 their wives1 their  children1
 and themselves1 burying their sacred   
independence among the  glorious ashes  
of their country8    ,thus passionately 
attached to liberty1 ,foscolo was not to
 be deluded by  the false halo that then

 surrounded the name of ,bonaparte1 or  
by the  fallacious promises of the      
,french republican crusaders4 ,another  
set of  lovers of their country1 he     
writes1 lament loudly4 ,they exclaim    
that  they are betrayed and sold2 but1  
if they had armed themselves1 they      
might have been conquered1 but never had
 been betrayed2 and if they had         
defended themselves to the last drop of 
blood1 the conquerors could not  have   
sold1 nor would the conquered have      
sought to buy1 them4 ,many of our       
countrymen imagine that freedom can be  
bought with money4 ,they fancy  that    
foreign nations come from a             
disinterested love of justice to        
slaughter each other mutually on our    
fields1 for the sake of liberating      
,italy4 ,but will the ,french1 who have 
rendered the divine theory of  public   
liberty execrable1 become ,timoleons for
 our sakes8 ,many1  meanwhile1 confide  
in the young hero1 sprung from ,italian 
blood1 born  where our language is      

spoken4 ,but ,i expect nothing useful or
 noble from  a cruel and base mind4     
,what is it to me that he has the       
strength and  roar of the lion1 if he   
have the soul of a fox--and glories in  
it8 ,yes6  base and cruel2 nor are these
 epithets exaggerated4 ,has he not sold 
,venice1 with open and boasted          
barbarity8 ,selim ,i41 who caused       
#cj1jjj  ,circassian warriors1 who had  
surrendered1 confiding in his faith1 to 
be  massacred on the shores of the      
,nile2 and ,nadir ,shah1 who1 in our    
time1  massacred #cjj1jjj ,indians1 are 
more atrocious1 but less contemptible4  
,with these eyes ,i saw a democratic    
constitution signed by the young  hero2 
yes1 it was subscribed by his own hand1 
and sent by ,passeriano to  ,venice for 
acceptance2 and at that very time the   
treaty of ,campo ,formio  was already   
confirmed and ratified3 ,venice was     
sold2 and the confidence  which the hero
 fostered in us all1 has filled ,italy  
with proscriptions  and exiles4 ,i do   

not blame the reasons of state1 through 
which nations  are sold like flocks of  
sheep2 it was ever so1 and so will it   
ever be3  but ,i grieve for my country1 
which ,i have lost4 ',he was born       
,italian1  and will one day regenerate  
his country3' others may believe        
this1--,i  never can4 ,i replied1 and   
shall always reply1 ',nature made him a 
tyrant1  and a tyrant cares not for his 
country1 nor does he possess one4'      
,ruminating on all these violent and    
bitter feelings1 the offspring of       
patriotism and adversity1 ,foscolo took 
the road to ,tuscany4 ,in this  blessed 
land1 he writes1 poetry and letters     
first awoke from  barbarism4 ,wherever  
,i turn1 ,i behold the houses where were
 born1 and the  turf that covers1 those 
renowned ,tuscans2 and ,i fear at every 
step to  tread on their remains4        
,tuscany is a garden1 its inhabitants   
are  naturally courteous1 the sky       
serene1 and the air full of life and    
health2 but ,i am not happy here4 ,i    

hope always for better things on the    
morrow1 when ,i shall reach another     
town3 but to-morrow arrives1 and ,i     
pass from city to city2 and this state  
of exile and solitude grows each  day   
more unendurable4 ,we ,italians are     
foreigners and exiles even in  ,italy2  
and scarcely do we leave our little     
native territory1 than  neither         
understanding1 nor fame1 nor blameless  
habits can shelter us2  and we are lost 
if we endeavour to distinguish          
ourselves4 ,our very  fellow-citizens   
look upon all ,italians who are not     
natives of their own  town1 and on whose
 limbs the same chains do not hang1 as  
strangers4  ,thus ,tuscany afforded no  
asylum to the fugitive4 ,he desired to  
see no  one in ,florence except         
,alfieri2 and the retired and reserved  
habits of  the count prevented his      
seeking his acquaintance4 ,he saw him1  
as he  describes in one of his poems1   
wandering silently along the most       
solitary bank of the ,arno1 gazing      

anxiously on earth and heaven2 but1     
finding nothing living that could warm  
his heart1 he took refuge in the  aisles
 of ,santa ,croce1 while wished-for     
death overspread his countenance  with  
pallid hues4#ed ,the silence and the    
concentrated melancholy of  ,alfieri    
made a deep impression on the mind of   
his admirer2 and ,foscolo  sought       
afterwards to imitate it in his own     
person1 forgetful that his  natural     
impetuosity and vehemence were very     
dissimilar to the gloom and  pride of   
his model4    ,from ,florence1 ,foscolo 
pursued his way to ,milan1 which was    
then the  capital of the ,cisalpine     
republic1 and imparted its rights of    
citizenship to all the wandering        
patriots of ,italy4 ,the new republic   
afforded a strange spectacle3 formed    
upon notions of ,greek and ,roman       
liberty1 picked up from learned priests1
 mingled with modern notions of         
freedom1 it displayed the most          
ridiculous anachronisms2 and its        

members1  all ,italians1 yet strangers  
to each other1 and regarding with       
oblique  looks all those born in a      
different city1 met without             
amalgamating4 ,the  young found hope and
 life in the new stage on which they    
were permitted  to act a part2 and      
though ridicule and blame might be      
attached to many  of their public       
actions1 still the more sanguine lovers 
of their country  hoped that1 when the  
first springtide of enthusiasm should   
ebb1  prudence1 unanimity1 and strength 
would be the first born of national     
independence4 ,foscolo1 however1 was not
 among those4 ,irascible and            
misanthropic1 and sensitively alive to  
the sufferings of his  fellow-creatures1
 he saw the evils around him1 and       
desponded4    ,one of the advantages    
derived from this new capital was1 that 
it served  to draw together the most    
distinguished ,italians within the walls
 of the  same city4 ,each town of the   
peninsula sent some man esteemed for his

  talents2 and names1 scattered before  
over the surface of the country1  now   
congregated together4 ,foscolo had thus 
an opportunity of becoming  acquainted  
with all his more illustrious           
countrymen4 ,in his ,letters of  ,jacopo
 ,ortis1 he mentions ,parini especially 
with reverence and  affection2 and he   
became intimate also with ,monti1 who   
then displayed  fervour in the cause of 
liberty1 while his inward dislike for   
the  members of the actual government   
must have accorded with the sentiments  
of ,foscolo4 ,two decrees1 passed at    
that time1 served1 indeed1 to show  that
 blame deservedly attached itself to    
them3 one was the law enacted  to       
deprive of office all those who had     
formerly written against  liberty--an   
act of despotism levelled expressly     
against ,monti2 the other  was the      
sentence passed by the great council    
against the ,latin language3  whether it
 was because ,latin was the language of 
their religion and the  priests1 or from

 mere stupid barbarism1 they passed a   
decree to prohibit  its being taught in 
the public schools4 ,foscolo saw1 in the
 languages of  the ancient world1 not   
only the root of all our knowledge1 but 
also the  most splendid monuments of    
human intellect3 he knew how fallacious 
and  trivial all translations are2 he   
was imbued to the heart with a love of  
classic lore2 and he saw1 in the        
suppression of the ,latin1 the paramount
  influence of the ,french language4 ,no
 wonder that he1 as well as every       
well-educated man1 regarded such a law  
and its promulgators with mingled  scorn
 and disgust4    ,to make the           
resemblance between ,foscolo and his    
imaginary hero1 ,jacopo  ,ortis1 the    
more exact1 we are told that1 at this   
very time1 he fell in  love with a young
 lady of ,pisa3 his passions1 naturally 
vehement1 were  inflamed to their utmost
 by the influence of the most engrossing
 of them  all4 ,the object of his       
attachment was singularly beautiful2 her

 large  black eyes1 rich raven hair1 her
 dignified stature and noble carriage1  
her whole person1 in short1 cast in the 
very mould of majestic beauty1  was     
formed to inspire admiration and love4  
,she possessed also all that  natural   
talent which so usually falls to the lot
 of ,italian women3 her  voice was      
harmonious1 and her proficiency in music
 great4 ,she was known  afterwards to   
several of the biographers of her lover2
 and1 with the  simplicity and frankness
 usual to the ,italians1 spoke openly of
 their  mutual attachment4 ,one among   
them1 after calling the lady the flower 
of  all loveliness1 adds1 ,we heard from
 her--for she yet lives--that the  few  
lines cited as being written by ,teresa1
 in a letter of ,ortis1 dated  #agth    
,september1 #agih1 were a part of a     
letter which she wrote to  ,foscolo4#ee 
,giuseppe ,pecchio1 in his ,life of     
,foscolo1 speaks of her  with great     
enthusiasm3 ,i saw her1 he writes1      
several times after she  was married1   

when1 at a private theatre1 she took the
 part of ,isabella  in the ',filippo' of
 ,alfieri2 and ,i still remember1 with  
pleasure1 her  dignified action and her 
expressive countenance1 which filled the
  audience with enthusiasm1 and carried 
their feelings along with her4    ,this 
attachment was not fortunate2 and       
,foscolo suffered all the throes  of    
disappointment and grief4 ,violent in   
all his feelings1 love possessed  his   
heart like a burning fire2 he grew      
sullen and gloomy1 only breaking        
silence by muttering a few sentences    
indicative of his ardent desire for     
self-destruction4 ,he did not openly    
speak of his passion2 but his  feelings 
overflowed on paper1 and he wrote and   
published ,the ,letters of  ,two        
,lovers1 a sort of novel1 which         
afterwards served as a foundation to    
the ,letters of ,ortis4 ,while thus     
occupied by literature and love1 he     
added the duties of a more laborious    
profession4 ,bonaparte1 having  created 

the ,cisalpine republic1 strove to raise
 an ,italian army for its  defence4 ,the
 ,lombard legion formed the nucleus of  
these troops1 and the  sons of the      
noblest families in ,italy accepted     
commissions3 among  others1 ,foscolo    
became an officer4    ,sidenote3 #ahjj4 
tat4  #bb4    ,the absence1 however1 of 
,bonaparte in ,egypt1 and the invasion  
of the  ,austrio-,russian army1 put a   
sudden end to the existence of the new  
republic4 ,at the same time that ,monti 
fled across the ,alps1 and  wandered1 a 
famished exile1 among the ravines and   
woods of ,savoy1  ,foscolo1 forced also 
to provide for his own safety1 took     
refuge in  ,genoa1 and joined the       
,french garrison commanded by ,massena4 
,it was here  that the ,french made a   
last stand1 endeavouring to stop the    
progress of  the invading army4 ,the    
siege of ,genoa was formed2 and         
,foscolo1 serving  under the ,french    
banners1 had an opportunity of studying 
at once the  military art and the       

science of government during the various
 chances of  a long and arduous         
struggle4 ,while day lasted1 there were 
perpetual  combats along the whole line 
of mountains which surround ,genoa to   
the  north2 and the night was spent in  
popular assemblies1 in which the        
leaders strove to inspire the citizens  
with resolution to endure the  evils of 
the siege4 ,these soon grew intolerable2
 and famine1 and  consequent disease1   
made frightful ravages4 ,foscolo        
sometimes collected  the people together
 in a spot of the city made famous by   
the act of an  ,austrian corporal1 who  
7#agdh7 struck with his cane a ,genoese1
 who was  striving in vain to move a    
cannon3 he endeavoured to animate his   
audience to heroic deeds1 by describing 
the magnanimous vengeance with  which   
their ancestors had vindicated the      
insult4 ,nor was he less forward  in the
 performance of his military duties2 and
 his name occurs in the  lists of those 
who were most distinguished for their   

bravery4    ,during the siege1 on       
occasion of ,napoleon's return from     
,egypt1 and being  named consul1        
,foscolo addressed a letter to him from 
,genoa1 which  prophesied the height to 
which he would hereafter rise1 and      
besought him  to rest content with his  
present exaltation1 nor to taint his    
well-merited renown by schemes of       
unmeasured ambition4 ,this letter1      
which is of two pages only1 is written  
with the freedom of a patriot and  the  
dignity of a disinterested and noble    
mind4 ,he incurred no danger by  this   
address1 but he displeased the ear of   
power2 and the truth and  frankness of  
his representations form an honourable  
contrast with the  general adulation1   
and the barefaced flatteries1 which     
other writers  addressed to the victor4 
,the energetic mind of ,foscolo was not 
satisfied by the arduous duties of  his 
profession1 to which were added the not 
less exciting task of  guiding and      
animating the minds of the citizens of  

,genoa1 when they  flagged under the    
visitation of the most frightful        
calamities4 ,it was at  this period that
 he wrote an ode to ,luigia             
,pallavicini1 on her falling  from her  
horse1 which betrays no signs of the    
sufferings which he was  enduring1      
except its motto1 taken from ,horace3   
,sollicit oblivia  vit4 ,this poem is   
all grace1 elegance1 and classic        
allusion2 but  there is no originality  
nor poetic fire4 ,the machinery is      
mythological1  the imagery drawn from   
the same source2 and it is rather the   
work of one  imbued with the poetry of  
the ancients1 and translating remembered
 ideas  into his native language1 than  
the outpourings of a mind inspired by   
passion and nature4 ,it is strange that 
,foscolo should have found time to      
compose verses at a period when the town
 he inhabited was being  bombarded by   
the ,english fleet1 when the ,austrians 
were making daily  assaults1 and the    
streets were filled by a famished and   

dying multitude4  ,but while ,foscolo   
shared the labours and dangers of the   
garrison1 he did  not partake their     
amusements2 and while they were immersed
 in the  grosser pleasures of the       
bottle1 of cards1 and smoking1 he took  
refuge  in his imagination1 and found   
relief in the soothing and refined      
feelings generated by study and poetry4 
,meanwhile ,genoa1 reduced by famine1   
surrendered on the #dth of ,june1       
#ahjj1 with the condition that the      
garrison should be conveyed to ,france  
by the ,english fleet4 ,foscolo         
accompanied his fellow-soldiers1 but he 
endured only a brief exile from his     
country4 ,the battle of ,marengo drove  
the ,austrians from ,italy2 the         
,cisalpine republic was restored2 and   
,foscolo1 together with the rest of the 
,italian fugitives1 returned to  ,milan4
    ,already known as an author and a   
man of letters1 he increased his fame   
at this period by the publication of the
 ,last ,letters of ,jacopo ,ortis1  a   

romance which at once acquired great    
popularity1 and1 as being the  first    
that had been written in the ,italian   
language1 demanded the praise  of some  
sort of originality4 ,yet its chief     
fault is1 that it is an  imitation4     
,foscolo could not invent incidents1 nor
 weave the artful  texture of a         
well-told story4 ,the plot of ,ortis is 
similar to that of  ,goethe's more      
celebrated romance of ,werter4 ,a youth 
of disappointed  expectations1 and      
devoured by a morbid melancholy1 falls  
in love with a  girl who is already     
betrothed to another4 ,he resolves to   
die as soon as  the marriage shall take 
place2 but1 meanwhile1 fosters his      
passion by  frequenting the society of  
the young lady4 ,she had never been     
attached  to her intended husband1 and  
is the victim of obedience to her       
father's  will1 who1 besides that his   
honour is engaged1 would have found an  
insuperable obstacle to the pretensions 
of ,ortis in his plebeian birth4  ,his  

sorrowing daughter1 while she obeys1    
returns the affection of her            
passionate1 adoring lover2 her destined 
husband become jealous1 her  father     
uneasy2 and ,ortis1 called upon by duty 
and friendship1 absents  himself from   
her society3 he travels to ,florence1 to
 ,milan1 to ,genoa2  and then1 hearing  
of ,teresa's marriage1 retraces his     
steps to the  ,euganean hills1 the abode
 of his mistress1 and fulfils his       
long-nurtured  intention of putting an  
end to his existence4 ,the slight       
differences  between this story and     
,werter are founded on ,foscolo's own   
attachment1  before alluded to4         
,there is1 indeed1 this main difference 
between the work of ,gothe and  that of 
,foscolo1--that the former is1 so to    
speak1 a dramatic1 and the  latter a    
didactic1 author4 ,gothe founded his    
story on the feelings of  another4 ,he  
delineated the sentiments and passions  
of his unfortunate  young friend        
,jerusalem2 and1 putting himself in his 

place1 filled out1  from his own        
experience and imagination1 the various 
portions of a  picture1 the most highly 
wrought1 refined1 and true that1        
perhaps1  exists in the world of        
fictitious portraits4 ,foscolo painted a
 beau  ideal of himself4 ,so full was   
his mind of his own idea1 that he       
prefixed a portrait of ,ortis1 which was
 only a favoured likeness of  himself4  
,like the author1 ,ortis fled from      
,venice when it was made over  to the   
,austrians4 ,like the author1 his heart 
was tortured by patriotic  sufferings1  
and his soul was in arms against the    
oppressor4 ,ortis1 like  ,foscolo1 saw  
misery and evil rife around him3        
compassion rose with him  into a        
passion2 and his heart bled and burnt   
alternately1 as he pitied  the victim1  
and abhorred the tyrant4 ,ortis1 like   
,foscolo1 meditated  suicide as the cure
 for all evils1 and regarded death as a 
harbour  whence to retreat from the     
tempests of life4 ,yet ,foscolo did not1

 like  ,ortis1 destroy himself2 because1
 we are apt to say1 he is in this       
greater than his prototype1 since he    
felt powers and capacities within  him  
that led him to continue to endure the  
evils of life1 to raise for  himself a  
name among his fellow-creatures1 to     
benefit and to exhort  them2 while      
,ortis1 like a weak plant that wants all
 self-erecting power1  fell prostrate1  
and was trampled on by the iron heels of
 destiny4  ,egotists1 perhaps1 are1 of  
all people1 the least likely to put an  
end to  themselves2 yet they like to    
dwell on their own deaths1 and1 feeling 
that the drama of their lives is        
incomplete without a striking           
catastrophe1 they ponder on it1 and1 if 
led to bring themselves forward1  are   
pretty sure to adorn their lives by     
describing its disastrous  conclusion4  
,this morbid shrinking from the woes of 
existence1 this total want of           
fortitude1 added to a lively            
sensibility1 presents a picture which1 a

  few years ago1 was the model by which 
the youth of ,europe delighted to  dress
 their minds4 ,men need a career--an    
hope1 an aim3 the ,french  revolution   
first gave new life to these natural    
instincts1 and then1  aided by          
,napoleon's despotism1 blighted and tore
 them up4 ,since then1 a  better day has
 dawned1 and men are glad to live for   
the morrow1 since  each day is full of  
spirit-stirring expectation4 ,the       
influence of a book  like ,ortis is null
 now3 it was pernicious at the time when
 it was  written4 ,and yet1 in          
representing his hero as a              
self-destroyer1 ,foscolo  was not       
without moral aim4 ,the ,italians fear  
death to the extent of the  most        
contemptible cowardice2 they consider   
any one insane who engages in  any      
actions that even remotely endanger his 
life2 and ,foscolo was  earnest to prove
 that death was not the worst of evils1 
but that it  might be sought voluntarily
 as a refuge from slavery or woe4 ,we   

find1  therefore1 conjoined to          
intolerance of personal suffering1 the  
most  ardent patriotism1 integrity1 and 
independence of spirit2 lively          
compassion for the physical evils of the
 poor1 which are too often  disregarded2
 and observations on life and our       
natural feelings1 full of  delicacy and 
profound truth4 ,what more true than the
 remark1 that we  are too proud to give 
our compassion1 when we feel that we can
 give  nothing else8 ,what can come more
 home to a man of sensibility than the  
exclamation of ,ortis1--,i am always in 
perfect harmony with the unhappy1  for  
indeed ,i always find something wicked  
in the prosperous8 ,and1  again1 when he
 says1 ,let us gather up a treasure of  
dear and soothing  feelings1 which1     
during the course of years1 destined1   
perhaps1 to be  sad and persecuted1 may 
awaken the memory that we have not      
always been  unhappy4 ,another merit    
which these letters have may be         
mentioned1 which  an ,italian author has

 also discovered3 they display a love   
for1 and an  observation of1 nature1    
seldom found among their greatest       
writers4 ,the  ,italians1 generally     
speaking1 are not lovers of nature3 full
 of passion  and talent1 yet they do not
 ally themselves to the mighty mother1  
nor do  their pulses beat responsive to 
her varied and living phenomena4 ,dante 
alone1 perhaps1 displays a true feeling 
for external objects1 describing  them  
as they are1 and as they may be supposed
 to feel2 while the others  dilate      
rather on their beauty1 as if they      
presented a scenic exhibition1  than    
were in themselves animated beings to   
feel and have existence4 ,the  rambles  
of ,ortis amidst the ,euganean hills2   
the sentiments with which he            
contemplates a tempest and the          
succeeding calm2 the glories of summer1 
or tyranny of winter2 resemble those so 
often to be found in ,english  authors1 
and give the work a charm peculiar to   
itself4 ,the style1 also1  of these     

letters 7and the ,italians make style a 
chief merit7 is pure1  elegant1 and     
forcible4 ,it created a language        
hitherto unknown to his  countrymen1    
uniting the familiar and colloquial with
 the tasteful and  the expressive4 ,it  
is too rhetorical1 even thus1 for our   
ears2 but the  ,italians easily pardon  
inflation4    ,the success of ,ortis was
 immediate and striking4 ,the ,italians 
usually  love to be amused and made     
laugh2 but they were caught by the      
charm1 and  content to weep over the    
misfortunes of the victim of love4 ,the 
author  had artfully contrived to mingle
 himself inextricably with the image of 
his hero2 and the ladies of ,italy were 
interested by his appearance1  uncouth  
as it was1 and his manners1 dissimilar  
to the inanity of their  usual          
companions4 ,he became what we call a   
lion1 and he himself fell  in love with 
one of his fair admirers2 but1 as is too
 often the case  where the author is    
more thought of than the man1 this      

lady's love was  more of the head than  
the heart1 and ,foscolo1 after a short  
period1 was  dismissed4 ,we are told    
that this lady was the daughter of the  
courteous  ,marchesa ,f41 mentioned by  
,sterne in his ,sentimental ,journey4   
,true  passion often enforces sympathy2 
otherwise1 we cannot wonder that        
,foscolo did not create a sentiment in  
another as strong as that which he      
himself felt4 ,in personal appearance he
 was not formed to excite tender        
admiration4 ,pecchio1 who knew him at   
this time1 describes him in vivid  but  
no attractive colours4 ,according to    
him1 ,foscolo was of middle  stature1   
rather strong and muscular of frame2 he 
had thick1 reddish1  rough hair1 which  
added to his expression of wild         
vehemence1 and  rendered his fits of    
gloomy silence1 or transports of rage1  
more  horrible4 ,his eyes were of a     
blueish grey1 small1 deep set1 and      
intensely sparkling4 ,his complexion was
 ruddy2 his features well formed1       

except that his lips1 though thin1      
protruded1 having that animal-look      
about the jaw which is the opposite of  
the beau idal of the human  countenance3
 he wore his chin thickly covered with  
hair1 which gave him  a sort of         
resemblance to an oran-outang4 ,there is
 a story told of him  that a ,frenchman 
said to him one day1 ,vous tes bien     
laid1 monsieur2  to which ,foscolo      
wittily replied1 ,oui1 monsieur1  faire 
peur4 ,on  another occasion he was      
engaged in a duel with a friend1 who    
impertinently compared him to the animal
 above mentioned4 ,to add to the        
wildness and singularity of his         
appearance1 he was fond1 in an awkward  
sort of imitation of ,alfieri1 of       
appearing immersed in thought1          
maintaining a gloomy silence1           
interrupted only as he muttered1 or     
rather  growled forth1 various          
quotations or verses1 in a voice which  
made an  ,italian young lady once name  
him a sentimental clap of thunder4 ,such

  was the outward appearance and manners
 of the ,italian ,werter2 and if he  met
 with success among the fair sex1 it    
must be attributed to the ready         
sympathy they are apt to afford to      
sincere feeling1 and to a generous1     
independent spirit4    ,sidenote #ahjb4 
tat4  #bd4    ,when ,bonaparte1 under   
the name of first consul1 rose to       
supreme power in  ,france1 it became    
necessary to remodel the ,cisalpine     
republic2 and a  congress of #dej       
deputies was held at ,lyons1 to decide  
on the new form of  government4 ,on this
 occasion ,foscolo published an ,oration
 to  ,bonaparte4 ,a good deal of        
uncertainty exists as to the exact      
circumstances under which this oration  
was composed4 ,it has been  supposed    
that it was delivered publicly at the   
congress2 but there is no  foundation   
for this idea1 as ,foscolo was not one  
of the deputies1 and  did not accompany 
them to ,lyons4 ,it is said1 on one     
hand1 that he wrote  it at the desire of

 ,bonaparte himself2 and on the other1  
that the task  was entrusted to him by  
the triumvirate1 who1 under the title of
  committee of government1 were placed  
at the head of the ,cisalpine  republic2
 and it is said that the oration was    
delivered before the  committee         
itself#ef1 which1 considering its       
nature1 can hardly be  believed4 ,it    
commences with a grandiloquent eulogium 
of ,napoleon2 it  then diverges into    
indignant and sarcastic representations 
of the  mal-conduct of the heads of the 
republic4 ,men1 he describes them1 who  
are neither statesmen nor warriors1     
formerly slaves1 now tyrants1 and  for  
ever slaves of themselves1 and of       
circumstances1 which they neither  will 
nor can command2 conscious of their own 
vices1 and therefore timid  and         
discordant2 cowardly with the bold1 bold
 with the cowardly1 they  crush         
accusations by bribery1 and complaints  
by menaces4 ,men who took  the arms out 
of the hands of the militia soldiery1 an

 army formed of  citizens1 to give them 
to bands of runaway felons and          
deserters4 ,he  then dilates on the     
miseries endured in ,italy during the   
period of the  success of the ,austrians
 and ,russians1 and describes           
,bonaparte's return  as the advent of a 
demigod2 and he calls on him to complete
 his work by  assuming the supreme      
command1 instead of leaving it to the   
triumvirate1  who betrayed the cause of 
liberty and oppressed their countrymen4 
,independent as ,foscolo was1 we are    
surprised when he goes on to say1  that 
every patriotic ,italian would elect    
,bonaparte for their legislator1        
captain1 father1 and perpetual prince4  
,but this surprise diminishes when  we  
read on1 and find that he expects this  
supreme ruler to gift the  subject      
country with liberty4 ,he entreats him  
not to entrust the state  to men1 but to
 laws2 not to the generosity of other   
nations1 but to its  own force4 ,let    
such be your institutions1 he exclaims1 

such your  example1 such our strength1  
that no one shall dare rule us after    
you4  ,who1 indeed1 would be worthy to  
succeed to ,bonaparte8 ,as you cannot   
live  for ever for us1 let the seal of  
our liberty be set2 you yourself        
leaving it inviolate3 and1 with the     
whole nation1 ,i call freedom our not   
having 7with the exception of           
,bonaparte7 any magistrate who is not   
,italian1 nor any general who is not our
 fellow-citizen4 ,if1 while you  live1  
our liberty totters1 what hope have we  
that it will endure after  you are      
withdrawn from the earth8 ,no6 there is 
no liberty1 no property1  no life1 no   
soul in any country1 and under whatever 
form of government1  when national      
independence is fettered6    ,it is     
impossible that ,foscolo1 despite his   
assertions1 and despite1  perhaps1 his  
hopes1 should not have been aware that  
the strongest chain  that can be imposed
 on the freedom of a nation is its      
having a foreign  prince at the head of 

government4 ,still he vindicated the    
cause he  espoused1 by demanding        
national institutions and a national    
army4 ,the  style of the oration is     
forcible1 but too rhetorical2 and1      
though full  of truths that intimidated 
the oppressors and did honour to the    
free  spirit of the writer1 calmer      
representations and closer reasoning    
would  command more of our admiration4  
,not that such would have availed with  
the conqueror3 ,italy was1 to him1 only 
one other lever added to the vast       
engine of military force which was to   
raise him to the throne of the  world4  
,yet1 though not gifted with liberty1   
the present epoch was a happy one  for  
the north of ,italy4 ,after suffering   
from the persecutions of  demagogues1   
and from the devastations of war1 it    
reposed contentedly  under the wise and 
liberal administration of ,melzi4       
,foscolo continued to  inhabit ,milan3  
by day immersed in study1 his evenings  
were spent in  amusements4 ,his sanguine

 disposition often led him to try the   
chances of  a gambling table3 when he   
won1 he launched out into extravagant   
expenses2 he bought horses and dress1   
and hired the most magnificent          
apartments4 ,when ,fortune turned her   
back1 all this show of prosperity as    
suddenly disappeared2 and he retired    
into a corner to study4#eg ,in one  of  
these intervals of seclusion1 he wrote a
 translation of the ,hymn of            
,callimachus on the ,hair of ,berenice1 
accompanied by a whole volume of        
comments4 ,the sort of learning which he
 here displayed obtained no  applause2  
but we are told that the erudition thus 
made show of had for  its aim1 not the  
instructing the ignorant1 but the       
ridicule of pedants  and book-worms4 ,it
 is difficult1 however1 to cull wit from
 the dry bones  of verbal criticism4    
,under the presidency of ,melzi1 an     
,italian legion had been formed in      
which ,foscolo held a commission4 ,when 
,bonaparte formed the camp at           

,boulogne1 for the avowed purpose of    
invading ,england1 the division of  the 
,italian army to which the poet belonged
 made part of the vast  assemblage of   
troops called together4 ,he held the    
rank of captain1 and  was attached to   
the staff of general ,tulli4 ,the       
,italian troops were  stationed at ,st4 
,omer and ,calais1 at which latter place
 ,foscolo entered  on the study of the  
,english language4 ,the spot which he   
selected for the  purpose of study was  
curiously chosen3 he was often seen     
writing with  eagerness by the light of 
the lamp of the billiard-table1 while   
his  fellow-officers were playing1      
drinking1 and conversing around4    ,to 
exercise himself in ,english1 he        
undertook the translation of ,sterne's  
,sentimental ,journey2 and it is much   
praised for the purity of its  style4   
,but the most curious part of the       
publication is a disguised  account of  
the translator4 ,foscolo's excessive    
vanity shines very  apparent in this    

account of himself1 in which he indulges
 in an  egotistical description of his  
own singularities2 and1 according to his
  old fancy1 conducts himself to the    
grave1 and writes his own epitaph4  ,the
 title-page of the translation declares 
the translator to be one  ,didimo       
,chierico2 and on the character of this 
,didimo 7being himself7  ,foscolo fondly
 dilates2 mentions various works of his1
 the manuscripts  of which he says that 
he possesses2 and records his           
eccentricities and  opinions in a manner
 which excites a smile1 when we remember
 that he is  his own memorialist of     
trifles1 which it would be hardly worth 
mentioning when appertaining to the     
greatest men4 ,didimo entertained1  he  
tells us1 strange systems1 which1       
nevertheless1 he did not defend by      
argument2 and1 as apology to those who  
brought forward irresistible  reasons1  
he replied by the single word           
'opinions4' ,he respected1 also1  the   
systems of others1 and1 from            

carelessness or some other motive1      
never tried to refute them2 but always  
remained silent1 without making  sign of
 dissent1 except that he uttered the    
word 'opinions' with  religious         
seriousness4 ,on these systems or       
notions he founded actions  and words   
worthy of laughter4 ,he called don      
,quixote happy1 because he  deluded     
himself with glory and love4 ,he drove  
away cats1 because they  appeared to him
 the most silent of all animals2 at the 
same time he  praised them1 because1    
like dogs1 they took advantage of       
society1 and  enjoyed their liberty like
 owls4 ,he did not believe that you     
could trust  any one who lived next door
 to a butcher1 or near the place        
destined for  public executions4 ,he    
believed in prophetic inspiration1 and  
fancied  that he was acquainted with its
 source4 ,he accused the nightcap1      
dressing-gown1 and slippers of husbands1
 as the cause of a wife's first         
infidelity4 ,he gave no better specimen 

of his knowledge3 asserting that  the   
sciences were a series of propositions  
which had need of  demonstrations       
apparently self-evident1 but            
substantially uncertain2 and  that      
geometry1 in spite of algebra1 would    
remain an imperfect science1  until the 
incomprehensible system of the universe 
was known3 and he  maintained that the  
arts could render truth more useful to  
men than the  sciences4    ,when        
travelling1 he dined at the public      
tables3 he easily became  familiar1     
though he spoke dryly to the            
ceremonious1 proudly to the rich1  and  
avoided all sects and confraternities4  
,he frequented mostly the  society of   
women2 because he thought them more     
richly endowed by nature  with pity and 
modesty1 two pacific qualities which1 he
 said1 alone  temper the combative      
propensities of human beings4 ,he was   
listened to  readily2 though ,i know not
 where he found matter of discourse1    
since he  would talk a whole evening    

without uttering a word concerning      
politics1  religion1 or scandal4 ,he    
never asked questions1 that he might not
 lead  others to answer falsely4 ,he was
 glad to receive his acquaintances at   
home2 but when walking he liked to be   
alone1 or with strangers to whom  he    
took a fancy2 and if any of his         
acquaintance approached1 he took a  book
 from his pocket1 and1 in room of       
salutation1 recited scraps from a       
modern translation of the ,greek poets2 
on which he was left alone4    ,and thus
 he goes on1 for several pages1         
describing eccentricities1  partly      
natural1 partly assumed1 which he wished
 should attract  attention1 as is       
evident by his thus introducing them to 
the public1 who  would otherwise have   
been ignorant of their existence4       
,sidenote3 #ahje4    ,on his return to  
,italy1 he became intimate with general 
,caffarelli1  minister of war of the    
kingdom of ,italy4 ,warmed by the recent
 sight of  the encampment of ,boulogne1 

he proposed to the general to make a new
  edition of the military works of      
,montecucoli1 with notes4 ,the text was 
furnished him by the marchese           
,trivulzio1 and the edition was brought 
out  with great splendour2 but ,foscolo 
is accused of having used his           
imagination1 rather than critical       
acumen1 in the emendation of his        
author4    ,the north of ,italy was     
enjoying a great degree of prosperity at
 this  time4 ,melzi gave encouragement  
to all undertakings that tended to      
elevate the ,italian character2 and     
literary men were held in that esteem   
which ensures their exerting themselves 
to bestow on their country the  richest 
harvest of their talents4 ,foscolo1     
though he still held his  captain's     
commission1 was1 in honour of his       
literary character1 exempted  from the  
toils of service2 and1 taking advantage 
of the liberty allowed  him1 he left    
,milan for a time1 and took up his      
residence at ,brescia4 ,he  resided in a

 small house1 situated on an open hill1 
not far from the  city4 ,here he was    
accustomed to study till sunset2 and1   
whether alone or  in company1 he would  
recite the poetry of the ancients1 or   
his own1  which he was then occupied in 
composing4 ,the ,brescians are a happy1 
gay  people2 they live less in the town 
than the inhabitants of the rest of     
,italy1 and take peculiar pleasure in   
rural amusements2 they are  hospitable  
and fond of festivity2 not very refined1
 they are yet  open-hearted and cordial1
 and noted for bravery when in the      
field4  ,foscolo's neighbours admired   
and visited him2 persons of every sect  
and  opinion1 even the priests1 flocked 
to his house2 and often seated under  a 
wide-spreading fig tree which was in his
 garden1 he held forth to a  numerous   
audience4 ,the ,brescians are naturally 
enthusiastic3 he had the  art of        
inflaming the souls of the young1 and   
they crowded round him as1  with        
stentorian voice1 he uttered his moral  

apophthegms4 ,when night  closed in1 he 
left his rustic drawing room1 and       
visited the theatres2  and was often    
seen paying homage to the dark eyes of  
some ,brescian  beauty4#eh    ,it was   
here that he wrote the most perfect of  
his poems--his ,ode on  ,sepulchres4    
,the elegance and pure taste of this    
composition have caused  it to be       
compared to ,gray's well-known ,elegy2  
but it is more classical  in its ideas  
and construction1 and would rather      
remind the reader of  ,milton's         
,lycidas4 ,every verse is harmonious    
music2 and the melancholy  that is cast 
over it is graceful and touching1 not   
harrowing and sombre4  ,a law had been  
passed at ,milan instituting a public   
cemetery without the  walls of the city1
 in which all the dead were to be       
promiscuously  buried1 without marks of 
distinction4 ,the poet1 addressing      
,pindemonte1  begins by commenting upon 
the notion that funeral pomp and an     
honourable  tomb are of no avail to the 

dead2 and then he speaks of the sacred  
sentiment that leads us to live still   
with our lost friends1 and makes  the   
spot of their interment precious in our 
eyes4 ,alluding to the new  law1 he     
apostrophises the muse1 asking her if   
she does not love to  linger near the   
desecrated tomb of her ,parini1 whose   
venerated remains1  cast among the      
bodies of criminals1 are scarcely       
protected from the  assaults of the     
houseless dog1 while night birds hover1 
screaming1 over  it4 ,he speaks of the  
pious sentiments with which the sad     
relics of  mortality have ever been     
regarded since religion first instituted
 sacred  and social laws2 and describes1
 in heartfelt but poetic language1 the  
various ways in which survivors love to 
pay homage to the beloved dead4  ,from  
tender and pathetic pictures of domestic
 bereavement1 he then rises  to describe
 the ennobling sentiment inspired by a  
sight of the tombs of  the great and    
good4 ,he apostrophises ,florence1 and  

gracefully brings in  the well-known    
predilection of ,alfieri for the aisles 
of ,santa ,croce2  and then1 taking a   
still higher flight1 he describes       
,providence and  destiny as presiding   
over the graves of the worthy1 and      
vindicating  their unforgotten names1   
even from the silent turf that covers   
them2  and1 carried away by his love for
 classic lore1 with no forced           
digression1 he concludes by speaking of 
the mounds that still mark the  spot    
where the warriors of ,greece died on   
the ,trojan shore1 and  describes       
,homer1 the poet blind and old1         
wandering around1 and bestowing  on them
 the immortal fame of which they would  
otherwise have been  deprived4    ,this 
anatomy of a poem can convey but a      
slight and incomplete idea of  its      
merits4 ,the harmony of the             
versification--the tender and soft      
melancholy diffused throughout--the     
grace of the transitions--and the       
continual rising in his subject to the  

end1 are all lost4 ,nor could a         
translation do justice to these1 since1 
as evanescent as they are  delicate1    
they would be lost in another language4 
,the whole poem is  ,foscolo's          
masterpiece4    ,he also published at   
this time his translation of the first  
book of the  ,iliad4 ,monti was bringing
 out his version1 and there was much    
hardihood  in ,foscolo's rivalship4 ,his
 knowledge of ,greek1 contrasted with   
the  other's ignorance1 no doubt        
instigated him4 ,to remove any          
unpleasant  feeling1 he dedicated it to 
,monti2 in which he speaks at once with 
modesty of his own attempt1 and in high 
praise of ,monti's genius4 ,it is       
difficult for a stranger to judge       
between the merits of the translators2  
but even if ,foscolo's is the best1 it  
is a mere fragment4 ,he never  published
 more than the first and third books2   
while ,monti went through  the labour of
 the entire translation1 and bestowed a 
complete work on  his country4    ,in   

#ahjh1 ,foscolo was installed professor 
of eloquence in the university  of      
,pavia--a chair formerly filled by      
,monti and ,cesarotti4 ,the choice was  
universally popular2 and his            
introductory oration1 ,on the ,origin   
and  ,use of ,letters1 was listened to  
with enthusiasm4 ,he had refused to     
introduce any praise of ,napoleon into  
it1 and the whole was conceived in  the 
spirit of personal and political        
independence4 ,this fault was  visited  
with singular severity2 since1 after a  
short time1 the  professorship of       
eloquence at ,pavia was entirely        
suppressed1 under the  pretence of a    
reform in the plan of studies1 but in   
reality as a mark of  disapprobation4   
,petty jealousy and the vain desire of  
ruling even the  thoughts of the subject
 world1 induced ,napoleon on all        
occasions to  punish severely any       
demonstration of independence4 ,nor was 
the vengeance  confined to ,foscolo and 
,pavia alone4 ,the literary             

professorships at  ,bologna and ,padua  
were also abolished1 as well as those   
for the ,greek  and oriental languages2 
for history1 and1 in short1 all except  
those  instituted to teach law1         
medicine1 and the sciences4 ,several    
learned and  excellent men were thus    
deprived of an honourable living4 ,the  
nation was  at once robbed of all easy  
access to a liberal education1 and to   
the  inappreciable knowledge of those   
languages which contain the most        
glorious monuments of man's genius3 and 
thus ,napoleon gave testimony to  the   
,italians of the truth of ,alfieri's    
axiom1 that absolute monarchs  hate the 
historian1 the poet1 and the orator1 and
 give the preference to  the            
sciences4#ei    ,foscolo retreated from 
the university to the seclusion of the  
,lake of  ,como2 giving proof of his    
pure and ardent love of nature1 so rare 
among  ,italians1 by his retirement from
 cities to the sublime and luxuriant    
scenery of this lake4 ,he took up his   

residence at a villa named the          
,pliniana1 built on the site of the     
fountains whose periodical ebb and  flow
 the younger ,pliny records in his      
letters4 ,the lake1 paled in by         
mountains1 bathes the walls of the      
villa2 and the neighbouring banks1      
clothed with myrtle and arbutus1        
overhang the waters1 and cast their     
deep shade on the clear depths3 the     
precipitous mountain rises behind1      
diversified by chestnut woods2 and here 
and there are seen huge  cypresses1     
whose spires seem to pierce the skies1  
when regarded from the  terraced garden 
of the villa4 ,the flowing fountains    
keep up a perpetual  murmur2 and1       
perhaps1 in all the varied earth there  
is no spot which  affords such a        
combination of the picturesque1 the     
beautiful1 the rich1  the balmy1 and the
 sublime4 ,the house itself1 without    
being ruinous1 is  huge and desolate2   
but its vast cool halls are a pleasant  
refuge against  the heats of mid-day4   

,here ,foscolo studied through the      
morning1 varying  his life by spending  
his evenings with the family of count   
,giovio1 a man  of education and        
learning1 whose young and gay family    
served to  dissipate the fumes of       
melancholy in which the poet was rather 
fond of  indulging4#fj    ,he here      
commenced his ,ode to the ,graces3 this 
was a favourite  composition1 yet left  
unfinished4 ,he was never weary of      
altering or  improving--of softening its
 language1 or adding new melody to the  
versification4 ,it is purely classical  
in its idea1 yet varied by the  most    
beautiful touches of natural beauty4 ,he
 occupied himself also by  finishing his
 tragedy of ,ajax4 ,the same faults are 
discoverable in  this drama as in his   
juvenile production of ,thyestes4 ,it is
 founded on  the dispute between        
,ulysses and ,ajax for the arms of      
,achilles1 and the  self-destruction of 
the latter4 ,the action ends almost     
before it begins2  the scenes are       

frigid1 the interest null2 still it     
excited a good deal  of expectation2 and
 reading1 as he did1 speeches and scenes
 to various  friends1 its representation
 on the stage was looked forward to with
  eagerness at ,milan4 ,the theatre was 
crowded on the first night1 and the     
audience sat patiently and listened for 
a long time to scene following  scene1  
of sonorous words1 high-sounding        
declamations1 and vehement  apostrophes1
 all leading to nothing1 ending in      
nothing--exciting no  sympathy1 but     
wearying the ear4 ,at length they grew  
tired2 and though  they listened to the 
conclusion1 it was evident that they    
were delighted  to be dismissed4    ,it 
was a strange accident1 that a drama    
which thus failed of eliciting  any     
interest in the audience1 and the great 
fault of which was dulness1  should have
 excited a persecution against its      
author4 ,his enemies spread  the report 
that the tragedy had a political aim2   
that ,napoleon was  symbolised in       

,agamemnon1 the king of kings2 and that 
general ,moreau was  pictured in ,ajax1 
who deserved1 but did not obtain1 the   
arms of  ,achilles4 ,there seems to have
 been no real foundation for this       
supposition1 but ,foscolo did not deny  
it3 he preserved a mysterious  silence2 
whether from disdain1 or from a covert  
pleasure in the  annoyance of           
government1 is uncertain4 ,the ministers
 of ,napoleon were  inquisitorial and   
revengeful2 not to praise their emperor 
was sin  sufficient to render any author
 obnoxious1 and any expressions that    
could be distorted into blame were      
criminal4 ,the cities of ,italy1 whose  
inhabitants are forbidden all political 
discussions1 and who are shut  out from 
the pursuits that naturally excite      
ambition1 are singularly apt  to        
diversify the monotony of their lives by
 gossiping4 ,such a  supposition as the 
one above mentioned spread rapidly      
through ,milan3 men  met together to    
wonder and dispute2 they worked         

themselves up into an  idea that        
something had been done1 and that       
something would ensue2 while  the spies 
of the police excited and reported each 
unguarded expression4  ,the city became 
disturbed by the notion of ,foscolo's   
attempt to bring  ,napoleon on the stage
 as an object of censure1 and in        
expectation of the  punishment with     
which his boldness would be visited2    
while he1 silent  and mysterious1       
refused to offer any explanation4 ,it   
was intimated  accordingly to him1 that 
he would do well to change the air2 and1
  submitting to an exile from ,milan1 he
 again visited ,tuscany4    ,he took the
 house at ,camaldoli1 near ,florence1   
which had1 in ages gone  by1 been       
inhabited by ,galileo4 ,he alludes to   
this in his ,ode to the  ,graces1 in    
some verses which describe the nocturnal
 murmur of the  distant ,arno1 which    
flowed clear yet hid beneath its        
willows1 and  visited the ear of the    
astronomer as he watched the star of    

eve4 ,it was  here1 he records1 that    
dawn1 and the moon1 and the sun         
displayed to him1  with various tints1  
the serene clouds that hung below the   
,alps1 or  illumined the plain which    
stretches to the ,tyrrhene sea2 a       
wide-spread  scene of cities and woods1 
diversified by the labours of the happy 
husbandman1 by temples2 or the hundred  
hills with which1 adorned by  caverns1  
and olive groves1 and marble palaces1   
the ,apennines encircle  the lovely     
city1 where ,flora and the ,graces have 
garlands4#fa ,in one  point1 the poetry 
of ,foscolo may be compared to the more 
didactic parts  of ,milton4 ,he never   
omits a romantic or classical allusion2 
and1  bringing forward all that ennobles
 and animates his subject1 adorns it    
with human interest4 ,whoever reads in  
the original the verses ,i have so      
lamely translated into prose1 cannot    
help remembering various passages       
inspired by the memory of ,tuscany1     
which show like pictures of ,claude in  

the pages of the most graceful as well  
as the most sublime of our poets4    ,we
 cannot refrain from observing1 in this 
place1 that we possess a  proof1 in the 
bent of ,foscolo's genius1 of how little
 the intellect is  often in accord with 
the heart4 ,wild1 vehement1 gloomy      
almost to  savageness1 independent even 
to an incapacity of yielding to the     
common  rules of society1 he could not  
depict the wild furies of ,ajax1 nor1   
indeed1 the more burning throes that    
often tore his own heart4 ,his best     
compositions1 on the contrary1 seem to  
emanate from an impassioned but         
brooding spirit1 nursed in soft         
melancholy and elegant and fanciful     
reverie4 ,as we have before mentioned1  
he was purely a didactic writer2  but   
perhaps no modern poet ever displayed so
 much harmony1 grace1 and  truth of     
description4 ,we have not the fantastic 
imagery nor the fire of  ,monti2 neither
 the storms of the deep1 nor the        
thunders of the sky2 but  an inland     

landscape1 where the balmy air broods   
over waving forest and  murmuring       
stream1 and the heart of man reposing   
seems to take refuge      ,in that sweet
 mood where pleasant thoughts  ,bring   
sad thoughts to the mind4               
,sidenote3#ahac4  tat4  #ce4    ,when   
the result of his ,russian invasion     
shook ,napoleon's throne1 ,foscolo      
returned to ,milan4 ,public events were 
undergoing a vast change4  ,napoleon1   
defeated by his own ambition1 retired to
 what seemed to him  the narrow circle  
of ,france1 and appeared for a while to 
stand at bay1  while a universal attack 
was made on him4 ,his authority1 every  
where  shaken1 tottered in ,italy4 ,the 
,english1 who had assisted so gloriously
  in the emancipation of ,spain1 sent   
emissaries to ,italy1 to invite the     
people to throw off the ,french yoke4   
,it would have been of no avail to  have
 invited them to exchange servitude     
under ,france for that under  ,austria1 
and the words liberty and national      

independence were pronounced  as a spell
 to rouse them4 ,lord ,william ,bentinck
 published a manifesto  calling on them 
to assert their freedom2 he conjured the
 soldiers to  vindicate their country's 
rights1 and to acquire for it that      
liberty  which ,spain1 ,portugal1 and   
,holland reaped from the fall of        
,napoleon4 ,his  voice found an echo in 
every heart4 ,we are told that the name 
of  independence was on the lips of all2
 nor at any crisis of any nation in  the
 world were so much ardour and unanimity
 shown1 as by the ,italians at  this    
moment4#fb ,while thus the allies tried 
to win the ,italians to  their side1 the
 treaty of ,fontainebleau and the       
abdication of the ,french  emperor      
placed the peninsula at their feet4 ,the
 viceroy of ,italy1 prince  ,eugne1     
crossed the ,alps2 the south of ,italy  
fell into the hands of its  old rulers2 
while ,milan1 left to itself1 assembled 
a senate to discuss a  new form of      
government4 ,the point disputed was1    

whether prince ,eugne  or a prince of   
the house of ,austria should preside    
over them2 but they  fancied that their 
independence was secure under the one or
 the other4  ,the latter proposition    
carried the day2 for when the senate1   
recording  the virtues of the viceroy1  
was about to solicit the allies to set  
him  over them1 a vast multitude        
surrounded their house1 composed of     
every  class--nobles1 commonalty1       
artificers1 rich and poor--even women of
  rank joined in the tumult--crying out 
for the independence of their  country1 
and ,no viceroy6 ,no ,france6 ,a placard
 went about1 saying1  ,spain and        
,germany have cast away the yoke of     
,france from their  necks--,italy must  
imitate them2 while magistrates and     
people called  aloud1 ,we will have     
electoral colleges1 and no ,eugne4 ,the 
senate  fled--the people1 roused to     
violence1 rushed to destroy the         
partisans of  the ,french1 and the      
unfortunate ,prini was torn to pieces4  

,liberty 7alas6  blood-stained7 seemed  
to win the day2 but it was a mock       
victory4 ,the  electoral colleges were  
convened1 and they created a regency2 it
 was  decreed that the allies should be 
solicited to grant the independence of  
the kingdom1 and a free constitution    
with an ,austrian but independent       
prince at its head4 ,legates were sent  
to the emperor ,francis1 at ,paris1     
with these demands4 ,he replied1 that he
 also was ,italian--that his  soldiers  
had conquered ,lombardy1 and that the   
answer would be given at  ,milan4 ,the  
,austrians entered ,milan on the #bhth  
of ,april4 ,bellegarde took  possession 
of it in the name of ,austria on the    
#bc;d of ,may4 ,the kingdom  of ,italy  
was at an end2 its independence was     
crushed and exchanged for  an           
ignominious and cruel servitude4#fc     
,at the commencement of these changes   
,foscolo remained unmoved4 ,he  pursued 
his studies in silence and seclusion1   
and seemed to forget the  political     

crisis among his literary occupations4  
,but when ,napoleon fell1  he sided with
 the independents against the ,french   
party2 though at the  same time he gave 
proof of his courage and humanity by    
exerting himself  vigorously1 though    
vainly1 to save the unfortunate ,prini4 
,at the same  time he resumed his       
military duties2 and when the regency   
was  established1 he was promoted to the
 rank of capo squadrone1 or  colonel4   
,to the last he took an active part in  
asserting the liberty of  his country4  
,when the ,austrian soldiers entered    
,milan1 the city  submitted peacefully1 
but not silently4 ,six thousand soldiers
 of the  civic guard assembled1 and1 in 
presence of the occupying army1 placed  
in  the hands of the ,english general1  
,macfarlane1 an address which they      
begged might be laid before the allies1 
claiming national independence  and a   
constitution4 ,foscolo drew up this     
address4 ,we are told that it  was      
brief1 energetic1 and dignified#fd2 a   

precious monument of the  author's      
patriotism4    ,but ,foscolo was not    
allowed to reap any good from his firm  
adherence to  the cause of liberty4 ,the
 ,austrians looked on him with          
suspicious eyes1  and he was not popular
 among his countrymen4 ,he had          
quarrelled with  ,monti1 and had many   
enemies4 ,he saw no mode of maintaining 
himself3 he  foresaw that he should be  
persecuted1 and perhaps entered into    
plots for  the subversion of government4
 ,at this moment1 some member of the    
,austrian government1 knowing the       
benefit that would accrue to their      
cause if they could win ,foscolo as a   
writer1 asked him to furnish a plan  for
 a public journal4 ,he consented1       
refusing at the same time to write  in  
it2 but this slender act of civility was
 tortured into one of  apostacy by his  
enemies1 and too late he found that he  
had given room to  calumny4 ,pecchio    
relates a conversation which he had with
 him1 which1 if  he did not suspect     

,foscolo of treason to his country1 was 
unkindly  carried on by him4 ,they met  
without the eastern gate of the city1   
and  ,foscolo walked on for some time   
without speaking4 ,at length he suddenly
  addressed his companion1 saying1 ,you1
 who are accustomed to speak the  truth 
both to friends and enemies1 tell me    
what is said of me in  public4 ,pecchio 
replied1 ,if you continue your          
intercourse with  ,austrians1 your      
enemies will assert that you are their  
spy4 ,this answer  was as a thunderbolt 
to ,foscolo--his countenance            
darkened--he quickened  his steps1 and  
said no more4 ,the next day1 without    
taking leave of any  one1 without       
passport1 and without money1 he set out 
in disguise for  ,switzerland4 ,whether 
his proud heart rebelled against        
continuing any  longer among his        
suspicious countrymen1 or whether1 as   
some said1 he was  implicated in a plot 
among the soldiers1 which was just then 
discovered1  or whether1 hopeless and   

sick at heart1 he yearned for new scenes
 and a  new life2 whatever his motive   
was1 he became henceforth a voluntary   
exile1 and1 leaving friends and country1
 began an untried career2 adding  one   
more to the number of unfortunate       
wanderers whom political changes  had   
driven from their homes abroad on the   
earth4    ,at first ,foscolo took refuge
 in ,switzerland1 and remained for two  
years  in the city of ,zurigo4 ,he did  
little during that interval1 except     
publish a sort of unintelligible ,latin 
satire1 called ,dydymi ,clerici         
,prophet ,minimi ,hypercalypseos1 ,liber
 singularis2 which is written in        
imitation of the prophecies of the      
,bible1 and satirises ,paradisi and     
others who enjoyed offices in the fallen
 kingdom of ,italy4 ,without a key  it  
is impossible to understand             
it--alluding1 as it does1 to people     
little known1 and to facts still more   
obscure2 and when understood is  not    
praised1 even by his countrymen1 who    

might be supposed to take some  interest
 in a personal satire on men with whom  
they were acquainted4    ,foscolo found 
tranquillity at ,zurigo2 and his        
disposition1 not being  inclined to     
intrigue1 would have permitted him to   
remain there in peace2  but he was poor1
 and obliged to seek a country where he 
could turn his  talents to some account4
 ,england1 the refuge of exiles1 was the
 place to  which he repaired4 ,there    
were liberal men there1 who1 ashamed of 
the  part which the country had         
permitted lord ,castlereagh to play1 in 
sacrificing to despotism the very men   
whose desire of freedom he had  sought  
to excite1 readily and generously       
welcomed the victims of our  foreign    
secretary's cruel policy4 ,foscolo1 on  
his arrival1 was visited  by the most   
distinguished men of the country2 the   
,whig party received  him with open     
arms1 and he made one of the circle     
assembled at ,holland  ,house4 ,he was  
treated with all the cordiality         

considered due to a man of  integrity   
and a patriot1 banished by a foreign    
despot1 and refusing to  become the     
pensioner of the oppressors of his      
country2 while1 at the  same time1 he   
met with the mingled respect and        
curiosity which an author  of           
acknowledged talents excites3 and even  
lord ,sidmouth1 armed with the  terrors 
of the alien act1 assured him that he   
should remain unmolested  during his    
sojourn4    ,a little time somewhat     
destroyed the illusion which first      
adorned his  name4 ,the ,english are    
very ready to receive any one as a lion1
 but not  fond of fostering intimacies  
with any whose habits and manners do not
  perfectly assimilate with their own4  
,the vehement gestures1 wild looks1  and
 loud voice of the ,italian1 were all in
 contradiction to the  etiquette of     
,english society2 and no foreigner is   
capable of perceiving  any thing but    
dulness and ice in the mild1 high-bred1 
and unpretending  manners of the        

aristocracy of this country4 ,the       
,english enjoy society in  their own    
way2 and there is a charm to us in the  
perfect liberty each  one enjoys--no one
 encroaching1 or being encroached upon4 
,but the  sensitiveness which leads us  
to give freedom to others1 renders us   
jealous of any assumption of it on their
 part4 ,foscolo had no real hold  on the
 society of which he made a part1 except
 through his talents1 and  the respect  
his independence and integrity          
commanded3 but respect is a  cold       
feeling1 and can be indulged while we   
keep the object of it at a  distance4   
,his talents ceased to amuse1 joined as 
they were to pride1 to  vehemence1 and  
to habits which would not alter1 but    
could not please4    ,foscolo ceased to 
be a lion2 and he retired to the        
neighbourhood of ,st4  ,john's ,wood1   
near the ,regent's ,park2 and1          
surrounding himself by his  books1 and  
visited by a few friends1 he led a life 
at once retired and  eccentric4 ,when   

,pecchio visited his friend in this     
retreat1 in #ahbb1 he  was struck by the
 apparent desolation of the spot 7,south
 ,bank7 in which  his house was         
situated2 and at the same time by the   
appearance of three  lovely sisters1 who
 were the household servants of the     
poet1--named by  his visiters the three 
,graces2 in allusion at once to their   
beauty and  ,foscolo's poem4#fe ,he     
supported himself chiefly by writing in 
the  ,quarterly ,review2 and we owe to  
this mode of exercising his pen one of  
the most delightful of his productions1 
the ,essays on ,petrarch4 ,these  are   
four in number3 on the ,love of         
,petrarch1--on his ,poetry1--on his     
,character1--and a ,parallel between him
 and ,dante4 ,on the whole1 we are      
almost inclined to say that ,foscolo    
scarcely does justice to the  generous1 
amiable1 and faithful lover of ,laura4  
,the pride and unbending  disposition of
 ,dante were more in accordance with his
 own character4 ,but  the               

discrimination1 the taste1 and          
enthusiasm of these ,essays render  them
 one of the most delightful books in the
 world4 ,the volume in which  they are  
collected is enriched1 also1 by several 
of lady ,dacre's  translations from     
,petrarch1 which are unequalled for     
fidelity and grace2  preserving the     
spirit and feeling of the original1 and 
yet arraying them  in flowing and       
melodious ,english verse4    ,foscolo   
published also a translation of the     
third book of the ,iliad2 and  his      
tragedy of ,ricciarda4 ,though founded  
on a story of the middle  ages1 there is
 no more interest in this last drama    
than his preceding  ones3 the feelings  
and situations are forced and unnatural4
 ,fraternal  hatred is the mainspring of
 the plot3 ,guelfo detests his          
half-brother1  ,averardo2 and1 on the   
death of their father ,tancred1 goes to 
war with  him1 to deprive him of his    
portion of their common heritage4 ,as a 
further mark of hate1 he betroths his   

daughter ,ricciarda to ,guido1 the  son 
of ,averardo1 merely to discover whether
 she loves her cousin or not2  and1     
finding that she does1 separates them   
with violent denunciations1  and        
resolves to marry her to another4 ,the  
drama opens while the brothers  are at  
war4 ,on account of the unfortunate     
unities--which force the  author to     
bring all the persons together in one   
place1 however  improbable it may be    
that they should there meet--the poet   
causes ,guido  to leave his father's    
camp1 and to secrete himself in         
,guelfo's palace1  for the sake of      
watching over ,ricciarda's safety1 whose
 life he imagines  to be menaced by her 
father4 ,the action chiefly turns on    
,averardo first  sending a friend1 and  
then coming himself in disguise1 to     
induce ,guido  to return to him2 in     
,guelfo's denunciations against his     
daughter2 and in  scenes between the    
lovers4 ,at length ,averardo assaults   
and enters his  brother's palace2 and   

,guelfo1 finding himself defeated1 first
 kills  ,ricciarda1 to prevent her      
marrying ,guido1 and then stabs himself2
 while  ,guido swears that he will soon 
follow his mistress to the tomb4 ,the   
only  beauty of the tragedy consists in 
the character of ,ricciarda1 her        
struggles between filial piety and love1
 her obedience to her father1  and her  
devotion to her lover4 ,but the whole is
 conceived in one  unvaried tone of hate
 and unhappy love--of meditated murder  
and suicide4  ,you neither perceive the 
end that the author has in view1 nor    
that there  can be any end except by    
their all dying4 ,foscolo dedicated this
 tragedy  to lord ,william ,russell4    
,his politics naturally brought him into
 contact  with what was then the        
opposition party2 and this alliance was 
drawn  closer when the exiles of ,parga 
applied to him to draw up the petition  
to be presented to parliament4 ,he      
assented gladly1 and wrote four  hundred
 pages without avail2 former treaties   

preventing the ,english from            
interference in behalf of the           
,pargiotes4    ,foscolo found difficulty
 in obtaining the means of life1 and    
lady ,dacre  in particular interested   
herself in pointing out some method by  
which he  might turn his talents to     
account4 ,she proposed1 and zealously   
promoted1  the course of lectures on    
,italian literature which ,foscolo      
delivered in  #ahbc4 ,mr4 ,stewart ,rose
 was another of his real and anxious    
friends2 and  ,foscolo's acknowledged   
talents1 and the interest excited by his
 exile1  facilitated their endeavours4  
,his lectures were numerously attended1 
and  brought him a thousand pounds2--a  
small sum1 if on it he was to found a   
sufficient income to maintain him for   
the rest of his life2 a large one  to an
 ,italian1 accustomed to look on a few  
hundred crowns as riches4 ,and  thus it 
was that the success that attended his  
undertaking was1 in the  end1 fruitful  
of annoyance and disaster4 ,the poet's  

head was turned--he  fancied his        
treasure inexhaustible1 and he set about
 spending it with as  much knowledge as 
a child would have had of its real      
quantity and value4  ,he built a house1 
furnished it expensively1 and adorned it
 with all  those luxuries that cost     
largely and are of least intrinsic      
value4 ,his  entrance hall was adorned  
by statues1 and he had a conservatory   
filled  with the rarest flowers2 while  
the three ,graces still waited on him1  
and  did not contribute to the economy  
of his household4 ,as all the houses in 
the suburb of ,st4 ,john's ,wood1 which 
he continued to inhabit1 are            
distinguished by a name1 he1 to the no  
small puzzle of the common  people1     
christened his ,digamma ,cottage2 in    
commemoration of a literary  victory    
which he believed achieved by his ,essay
 on the ,digamma4 ,i  went to see him1  
,pecchio writes1 on my return from      
,spain1 in ,august1  #ahbc4 ,i found him
 inhabiting a new house1 surrounded by  

all the luxury  of a financier suddenly 
become rich4 ,i was astonished1 and     
could not  account for this sort of     
theatrical change2 it appeared to me a  
dream4  ,i thought to myself1 ,ugo      
,foscolo has followed in the steps of   
doctor  ,faustus1 and has entered into  
some compact with the fiend             
,mephistopheles4 ,he certainly displays 
good taste2 and if he be not rich1  he  
deserves to be so2 and if all ,i see is 
not a vision1 he deserves that  it      
should be real4 ,but too truly it was a 
vision3 little or nothing of  what ,i   
saw was paid for2 it was the palace of  
king ,theodore1 tapestried  with        
promises to pay4 ,his destiny was       
similar to that of him of whom  ,young  
says--      ,a man who builds1 and wants
 wherewith to pay1  ,provides a home    
from which to run away4#ff      ,poor   
,foscolo too soon paid the penalty of   
his inexplicable want of  common sense2 
he became pressed by his creditors1 his 
goods were seized1  and he1 threatened  

by arrests1 was obliged to leave his    
villa1 which so  resembled a castle in  
the air1 and to hide in a lodging in an 
obscure  corner of ,london4 ,he was now 
obliged to provide for his daily        
necessities by writing articles for     
various reviews and magazines4 ,the     
merit and success of his ,essays on     
,petrarch suggested to ,mr4  ,pickering1
 a ,london bookseller1 the idea of an   
edition of ,dante1  ,petrarch1          
,boccaccio1 and ,tasso1 with preliminary
 notices and critical  notes by         
,foscolo4 ,the offer was tolerably      
liberal1 being #fjjl4 for the  whole    
work1 if completed in two years4 ,but   
even now ,foscolo was ruined  by another
 mistake4 ,had he provided ,essays      
similar to the admired ones  already    
written1 adding a few critical and      
historical observations1 it  had been   
well2 he would have produced1 at no     
great cost to himself1 a  popular work  
that had repaid the bookseller for his  
speculation4 ,but  ,foscolo had already 

given token of a predilection for verbal
 and minute  criticism4 ,his prefatory  
notice to ,boccaccio consisted of a     
critical  history of editions1 totally  
uninteresting to the general reader1 and
 of  no value except to book collectors4
 ,the commentary on ,dante is somewhat  
less confined in its topics2 and1 with  
great subtlety and talent1 he  compares 
various readings1 and gives reasons for 
his own selection4 ,but  even in this   
his observations are almost entirely    
grammatical and  verbal1 though         
interspersed by others of great         
acuteness on the meaning  and intentions
 of ,dante4 ,still his work1 altogether1
 bore no similarity  to his delightful  
,essays1 which portray the character1   
spirit1 and  history of ,petrarch and   
,dante in so new and attractive a       
manner4    ,unfortunately1 intense      
labour was required for a work so little
 alluring  or profitable2 and ,foscolo  
spent months collating1 consulting1 and 
emending3 producing1 in the end1 a work 

to be read with tedium and  fatigue4    
,while thus diligently occupied1 and at 
the same time harassed  by many cares1  
ill lodged1 and full of chagrin and     
mortification1 he  fell ill4 ,he grew   
thin1 and a tendency to dropsy          
manifested itself2 the  consequence of  
an affection of the liver1 from which he
 had long  suffered4 ,a few friends     
visited him2 and1 dividing his time     
between them  and his literary labours1 
he never left the house4 ,yet his work  
did not  advance4 ,he and his bookseller
 were at cross purposes4 ,mr4 ,pickering
  desired a popular and saleable        
publication1 which he supposed would    
cost  not much more time than the       
author's celebrated articles in the     
reviews4  ,foscolo wished to immortalise
 himself by a work of labour and        
erudition1  which should become a text  
book and authority to all who hereafter 
read  or wrote upon the poets in        
question4    ,anxieties thus grew upon  
him4 ,economy1 and a desire for         

tranquillity and  better air1 induced   
him to leave ,london2 and he hired a    
small house at  ,turnham ,green4 ,here  
the last months of his life were spent  
,a few friends  visited him3 some of    
these were ,english2 but they consisted 
mostly of  the exiles driven from the   
south of ,europe by the ill success of  
the  attempted revolutions of #ahbj-ba4 
,the canon ,riego was one among them1   
who attached himself warmly to ,foscolo1
 admiring his independence and          
consistency4 ,meanwhile his disease     
gained ground1 and it became publicly   
known that small hopes were entertained 
for his recovery4 ,this  announcement   
excited universal sympathy2 and his rich
 or noble ,english  friends1 who1 from  
incompatibility of manners and          
character1 had fallen  from him1 came   
forward to offer assistance4 ,the       
friends around him  declined receiving  
more than fifty pounds to meet the      
exigencies of the  moment2 and even this
 supply was concealed from ,foscolo1    

whose pride  would have been deeply and 
uselessly mortified by the sense of     
pecuniary  obligation4 ,money1 indeed1  
was not the only kindness proffered3    
lord  ,holland sent wine1 the duke of   
,devonshire1 game2 but the kindness and 
services most deeply felt1 were those of
 the canon ,riego1 who spared no        
trouble to assist and comfort his dying 
friend4 ,foscolo was sensible of  his   
friendship1 but feared that it might    
become officious2 and he wrote  to him1 
thanking him warmly1 but entreating him 
to do no more4 ,i beg of  you1 he       
writes1 and it is my most earnest       
prayer1 that you do not  inform any one1
 man or woman1 of my situation1 for the 
purpose of  obtaining assistance4 ,i    
make this fervent request1 because ,i   
heard of  something of the kind from    
miss ,florida4 ,but your kindness on    
this point  would only cruelly torture  
my heart1 increase the sufferings of my 
mind1  and the sickness of my body4     
,he lingered two months after this      

letter4 ,on the day of his death he was 
visited by his noble countryman1 count  
,capo d',istria1 who1 passing  through  
,london to assume the presidentship of  
,greece1 paid the homage of  a visit to 
the most renowned author of modern      
,greece4 ,foscolo was now in  a state of
 torpor1 and unconscious of the honour  
done him4    ,to the last he was        
patient1 submissive to his medical      
attendants1 and  courageous2 commenting 
on the inevitable advances of death with
  fortitude and calmness4 ,he died on   
the #ajth of ,october1 #ahbg4 ,his      
funeral was private and modest2 his     
remains were followed to the grave  by  
five friends1 and they were buried in   
the neighbouring churchyard of          
,chiswick1 where1 a little to the left  
of the church1 amidst a crowd of        
tombstones1 is to be found one1         
inscribed simply3      ,ugo ,foscolo1   
,obiit ,,xiv4 ,die ,septembris1  ,a4 ,d4
 #ahbg4  tatis #eb4fg      ,the         
character of ,foscolo1 and his literary 

merits1 may be gathered from  the       
foregoing biography4 ,consistency was   
among his most prominent  virtues1 for  
his writings and actions were in strict 
accordance one with  the other4 ,he     
always rose superior to the blows of    
fortune1 and  preserved his independence
 in the midst of the disasters brought  
on him1  either by the misfortunes of   
his country or his own imprudences4     
,vanity1  that assumed the appearance of
 disdain1 rendered him difficult of     
access1 but compassion and warmth of    
heart were hidden by this outside4      
,fearful of being thought servile1 he   
ran into the opposite extreme1 and  was 
little apt to praise even those to whom 
praise was due4 ,vehement in  his       
opinions1 yet he disliked dispute2 and  
if ever led into it1 in a few  minutes  
sheltered himself again in silence4 ,his
 heart was a stranger to  the feeling of
 hatred1 but neither was he very open to
 friendship2 he  was intimate but with  
few1 and even with these he was         

reserved4 ,he  preferred the society of 
women1 and in early life loved with     
sincerity  and passion2 and there was   
delicacy and refinement in all his      
feelings  with regard to the fair sex4  
,as he expresses himself1 in ,ortis1 ,i 
have  been taught by some how to seduce 
and betray1 and ,i might perhaps have   
seduced and betrayed1 but the pleasure  
,i anticipated fell coldly and  bitterly
 on my heart1 which has never been tamed
 either by time or  reason2 and thus you
 have often heard me exclaim1 that all  
depends on  the heart1 which neither    
heaven1 men1 nor we ourselves can ever  
change4  ,the sincerity of his feelings 
had their reward--since his affections  
had  on some occasions met a return1    
which his uncouth appearance and strange
  manners would never have commanded1   
and which was due only to his truth4    
,he loved solitude and study1 was       
abstemious in his habits1 but not of    
strong health1 and was often devoured by
 the deepest gloom4 ,he spoke  well1 and

 detested all artifice and deceit4 ,to  
these virtues we may add  his constant  
attention to and affection for his      
mother4 ,strange1 wild1  and imprudent1 
his faults chiefly hurt himself2 and    
even the impetuosity  of his character  
seldom led him into any acts that       
injured or annoyed  others4    ,as an   
author1 he may be said to be a bad      
tragedian1 and not a good  novelist2 but
 he was an elegant writer1 conversant   
with the depths and  the refinements of 
the human heart4 ,his subtle turn of    
mind led him too  much to verbal and    
minute criticism--his love of the       
ancients sometimes  injured the warmth  
and originality of his productions2 but 
we may name  two among them as nearly   
perfect in their several species2--the  
,essays  on ,petrarch1 in prose2 and1 in
 verse1 his ,ode on ,sepulchres1 which1 
for harmony1 grace1 sweetness1 and pure 
taste1 is perhaps unequalled by  any    
other poem in the world4      ,footnote 
#ed3 ,dei ,sepolcri di ,ugo ,foscolo4   

,footnote #ee3 ,see the biographical    
notice of ,foscolo1 prefixed to the     
,ultime ,lettere di ,jacopo ,ortis4     
,londra1 #ahbi4    ,footnote #ef3       
,pecchio1 ,vita di ,ugo ,foscolo4       
,footnote #eg3 ,pecchio4    ,footnote   
#eh3 ,pecchio4    ,footnote #ei3        
,hobhouse's ,illustrations of the       
,fourth ,canto of  ,childe ,harold4     
,footnote #fj3 ,pecchio4    ,footnote   
#fa3 ,con elle 7le ,grazie7  ,qui dov'  
io canto ,galileo sedea  ----a spiar l' 
astro  ,della loro regina1 e il desviava
  ,col notturno rumor l' acqua remota   
,che sotto ai pioppi della riva d' ,arno
  ,furtiva e argentea gli volava al     
guardo1  ,qui a lui l' ,alba1 la ,luna e
 il ,sol mostrava  ,gareggianti di      
tinte1 or le serene  ,nubi sulle cerulee
 ,alpe sedente  ,ora il piano           
che----alle tirrene  ,nereidi1 immensa  
di citt e di selve  ,scena--e di templi 
e d' arator beati1  ,or cento colli1    
onde ,appenin corona  ,d' ulivi e       
d'antri1 e di marmoree ville  ,l'       

elegante citt1 dove con ,flora  ,le     
,grazie han serti1 e amabile idioma4    
,footnote #fb3 ,storia d' ,italia1      
scritta da ,carlo ,botta4    ,footnote  
#fc3 ,carlo ,botta4    ,footnote #fd3   
,pecchio4    ,footnote #fe3 ,it was on  
account of one of these ,graces that    
,foscolo  believed himself obliged to   
challenge one ,graham1 an ,american4    
,when they  met in the field1 the poet  
received1 but did not return1 his       
adversary's  fire1 and the affair       
terminated without a reconciliation44   
,graham was at  that time a reporter to 
a newspaper1 and had served ,foscolo as 
translator of his works4 ,he afterwards 
got into difficulties1 committed  a     
forgery1 and was obliged to leave this  
country4 ,soon after1 he fell in  a duel
 in ,america4    ,footnote #ff3         
,pecchio1 ,vita di ,ugo ,foscolo4       
,footnote #fg3 ,there is an error in    
this inscription with regard to the  day
 of ,foscolo's death1 and also probably 
of his age1 since it is  supposed that  

he was not more than forty-nine when he 
died4 ,his  countrymen also regret that 
instead of the above inscription1 that  
was  not adopted which he wrote for     
himself1 under the feigned name of      
,didimo  ,chierico1 which runs thus3--  
,didymi ,clerici  ,vitia3 virtus3 ossa  
,hic3 post3 annos 4 4 4  ,conquiescere  
cpere4          ,,end ,,of ,,the        
,,second ,,volume4