,,phrenology ,,examined4 ,,phrenology ,,examined4 ,,by ,p4 ,,flourens1 ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,academy1 ,,perpetual ,,secretary ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,academy ,,of ,,sciences 7,,institute ,,of ,,france71 ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,societies ,,of ,,london ,,and ,,edinburg1 ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,academy ,,of ,,sciences ,,of ,,stockholm1 ,,of ,,munich1 ,,and ,,of ,,turin1 ,,etc4 ,,etc4 ,,professor ,,of ,,comparative ,,physiology ,,at ,,the ,,natural ,,history ,,museum ,,at ,,paris4 8,j'ai un sentiment clair de ma libert40 ,,bossuet1 ,,trait ,,du ,,libre ,,arbitre4 ,translated from the ,second ,edition of #ahde1 by ,,charles ,,de ,,lucena ,,meigs1 ,m4,d4 ,,memb4 ,,amer4 ,,phil4 ,,soc4 ,,etc4 ,,etc4 ,,philadelphia3 ,,hogan ,,thompson4 #ahdf4 ,,entered ,,according ,,to ,,act ,,of ,,congress1 ,,in ,,the ,,year #ahde1 ,,by ,,charles ,d4 ,,meigs1 ,m4 ,d4 ,,in ,,the ,,clerk',s ,,office ,,of ,,the ,,district ,,court ,,for ,,the ,,eastern ,,district ,,of ,,pennsylvania4 ,,to ,,dr4 ,,james ,,jackson1 ,,of ,,boston4 ,,my ,,dear ,,sir3 ,perhaps ,i have taken too great a liberty in sending to you in this public manner1 and in praying you to accept a copy of ,m4 ,flourens' ingenious work4 ,i have a very sincere desire that you should read the ,inquiry2 for ,i feel sure1 that if you approve of it1 the studious portion of our countrymen who may peruse it1 will concur in the opinion of a gentleman so justly distinguished as yourself in every good word and work1 and so capable of judging as to the salutary or evil tendency of the productions of our teeming press4 ,inasmuch as many of our countrymen have heretofore felt1 and many do now feel1 desirous to know the truth as to the question of the multiple nature of the human mind1 ,i have here translated the ,examination1 in order that they might have an opportunity to learn what is thought of ,gall's doctrines by one of the best and most precise thinkers in ,europe4 ,professor ,flourens1 by his writings on the brain and nervous system1 by his courses of lectures at the ,jardin des ,plantes1 by numerous writings on various scientific subjects1 by his position in the ,institute1 has acquired a place among the literary and scientific celebrities of the present age4 ,the amiable and elegant manners1 and the fine disposition of this distinguished character1 coincide with his acknowledged learning1 and exactness1 and zeal1 to accumulate upon him the public respect and esteem4 ,it is therefore with great confidence that ,i present to you this copy of his criticism upon ,phrenology1 since ,i suppose that every writing of so good a man might prove acceptable to you1 and to the studious portion of our countrymen generally4 ,i invoke your approbation of what ,i cannot but deem a masterly criticism of the doctrines of ,gall4 ,so highly have ,i appreciated it1 that ,i cannot readily suppose it possible to rise from its perusal1 without being convinced that ,gall was wholly mistaken in his views of the human mind2 and of course1 that all the cranioscopists1 mesmerizers1 and diviners1 who have followed his track1 or risen up on the basis of his opinions1 are equally in error4 ,in order to have a just view of human responsibility1 it is indispensable to entertain the justest notions of the nature of the human mind4 ,if ,phrenology be an unsubstantial hypothesis1 no phrenologist is fit to be a juror1 a judge1 or a legislator3 for since all human law--the whole social compact--and indeed all divine law1 as relative to human propensities and actions--is founded on some real nature of the soul and mind1 there is risk that manifestly erroneous conceptions of the freewill1 of the conscience1 of the judgment1 and the perceptive powers1 c4 may mislead the juror1 the judge1 and the legislator1 in their vote1 their opinion1 and their notion of rights and wrongs4 ,if ,i am correct in entertaining these apprehensions as to the influence of false metaphysics on the public characters ,i have enumerated1 there is abundant cause to rejoice when a blow is struck1 like that pulverizing blow which is given in this work1 to so considerable an error4 ,there are thousands among the young and ardent and curious of our countrymen and countrywomen1 whose minds may be likewise led astray from the truth2 but if it be mischievous for the judge and the juror and the legislator to entertain erroneous views upon the nature of the understanding1 the mind1 or the soul1 it is equally to be deprecated where the error is sown broadcast in the land4 ,tares1 if not in themselves poisonous1 serve at best to choke up the useful or beautiful plants that ought to be cultivated in the fields of science or morals2 but you will find that ,m4 ,flourens regards them as poisons4 ,has not ,m4 ,flourens clearly refuted the phrenologists8 and has he not1 in doing so1 performed a useful and an acceptable service8 ,i pray you to believe that ,i am1 with the most grateful respect and the sincerest esteem1 ,your obliged and faithful servant1 ,,charles ,d4 ,,meigs4 ,,philadelphia1 ,dec4 #aj1 #ahde4 ,,to ,,the ,,memory ,,of ,,descartes4 ,,author',s ,,preface4 ,having been a witness to the progress of phrenology1 ,i was led to the composition of the following treatise4 ,each succeeding age has a philosophy of its own4 ,the seventeenth century recovered from the philosophy of ,descartes2 the eighteenth recovered from that of ,locke and ,condillac3 is the nineteenth to recover from that of ,gall8 ,this is a really important question4 ,i propose1 in this work1 to examine phrenology as it appears in the writings of ,gall1 of ,spurzheim1 and of ,broussais4 ,my wish is to be brief4 ,there is1 however1 one great secret in the art of being brief3 it is to be clear4 ,i frequently quote ,descartes3 ,i even go further2 for ,i dedicate my work to his memory4 ,i am writing in opposition to a bad philosophy1 while ,i am endeavouring to recall a sound one4 ,,contents4 ,i4 ,of ,gall4--,of his doctrine in general #ag ,,ii4 ,of ,gall4--,of the faculties #dg ,,iii4 ,of ,gall4--,the organs #ei ,,iv4 ,of ,spurzheim #if ,v4 ,of ,broussais #aae ,,vi4 ,broussais's ,psycology #aba ,,vii4 ,broussais's ,physiology #abe ,,viii4 ,of ,gall #abg ,note ,i4 ,anatomical relations supposed by ,gall to exist between the organs of the external senses and the organs of the intellectual faculties #aca ,,ii4 ,difference between instinct and understanding #acc ,,iii4 ,gall as an observer #acg ,,iv4 ,the animal spirits #aci ,v4 ,exaggeration of ,broussais1 even in phrenology #adj ,,vi4 ,contractility of ,broussais #adb ,,vii4 ,real labours of ,gall as to the brain #adc ,i4 ,,of ,,gall4 ,,of ,,his ,,doctrine ,,in ,,general4 ,the great work in which ,gall sets forth his doctrine is well known4#a ,that work shall serve as the groundwork of my examination4 ,i shall examine in succession each of the questions studied by the author2 merely introducing some slight changes in the order in which they are arranged4 ,the entire doctrine of ,gall is contained in two fundamental propositions1 of which the first is1 that understanding resides exclusively in the brain1 and the second1 that each particular faculty of the understanding is provided in the brain with an organ proper to itself4 ,now1 of these two propositions1 there is certainly nothing new in the first one1 and perhaps nothing true in the second one4 ,let us commence our examination with the first proposition4 ,i say that in the first proposition1 namely1 that the brain is the exclusive seat of the understanding1 there is nothing new4 ,gall himself admits this to be the case4 8,for a long time10 says he1 8both philosophers and physiologists1 as well as physicians1 have contended that the brain is the organ of the soul40#b ,the opinion that the brain1 7as a whole1 or such and such parts of the brain considered separately17 is the seat of the soul1 is1 in fact1 as old as learning itself4 ,descartes placed the soul in the pineal gland1 ,willis in the corpora striata1 ,lapeyronie in the corpus callosum1 c4 c4 ,as to the more recent authorities1 ,gall quotes ,smmerring1 who says precisely that1 8the brain is the exclusive instrument of all sensation1 all thought1 and all will10#c c4 ,he quotes ,haller1 who proves 7proves is the very expression made use of by ,gall himself17 that 8sensation does not take place at the point where the object touches the nerve1 the point where the impression is made1 but in the brain40#d ,he might have quoted many other authorities to the same effect4 ,were not ,cabanis's writings anterior to the time of ,gall8 and did not he say1 8,in order to obtain a just idea of those operations whose result is thought1 the brain must be considered as a peculiar organ designed to produce it1 just as the stomach and the bowels are designed to produce digestion1 the liver to secrete the bile10 c48#e a proposition so extravagant as to become almost ridiculous1 but which is in truth the very proposition of ,gall himself1 except as to some exaggeration in the terms employed4 ,antecedently to the time of ,gall1 both ,smmerring and ,cuvier1 in the comparative anatomy of the various classes of animals1 had investigated the ratio existing between the development of the encephalon and that of the intellectual power4 ,the following remarkable phrase is from the pen of ,cuvier3 8,the proportion of the brain to the medulla oblongata1 a proportion which is greater in man than in all other animals1 is a very good index of the perfection of the creature's intelligence1 because it is the best index of the preeminence of the organs of reflection above the organs of the external senses40#f ,and this other still more remarkable phrase3 8,in animals the intelligence appears to be greater in proportion as the volume of the hemispheres is greater40#g ,gall1 in an especial manner1 contends against the assertion of ,bichat1 who remarks that 8,the influence of the passions is exerted invariably upon the organic life1 and not upon the animal life2 all the signs that characterise them are referable to the former and not to the latter4 ,gestures1 which are the mute exponents of the sentiments and the understanding1 afford a remarkable proof of this truth4 ,when we wish to signify something relative to the memory1 the imagination1 to our perception1 to the judgment1 c4 the hand moves involuntarily towards the head3 if we wish to express love1 joy1 grief1 hatred1 it is directed towards the region of the heart1 the stomach1 or the bowels40#h ,doubtless1 there is much that might be criticised in the foregoing words of ,bichat2 nevertheless1 to say that the passions expend their influences upon the organic life1 is not the same thing as to say that they reside or exist there4 ,bichat had already remarked1 that 8,every species of sensation has its centre in the brain1 for sensation always supposes both impression and perception40#i ,furthermore1 regarding this distinction1 7which as yet has not been drawn with sufficient clearness17 between the parts that are the seats of the passions1 and the parts that are affected by their action1 ,gall might have found in ,descartes the following remark1 which is not less judicious than acute4 8,although10 says he1 writing to ,leroy1 8the spirits that move the muscles come from the brain1 we must1 nevertheless1 assign as seats of the passions1 the places that are most considerably affected by them2 hence1 ,i say1 the principal seat of the passions1 as far as they relate to the body1 is the heart1 because it is the heart that is most sensibly affected by them2 but their place is in the brain1 in as far as they affect the soul1 for the soul cannot suffer immediately1 otherwise than through the brain40#aj ,as ,i am quoting ,descartes1 who1 ,i ask1 more clearly than ,descartes has perceived that the soul can have only a very circumscribed seat in the economy1 and that that circumscribed seat is the brain itself8 8,we know10 says he1 8that1 properly speaking1 it is not inasmuch as the soul is in the members that serve as organs to the exterior senses1 that the soul feels1 but inasmuch as she is in the brain1 where she exercises the faculty denominated common sense40#aa ,he elsewhere observes3 8,surprise is expressed because ,i do not recognise any other point of sensation except that which exists in the brain2 but all physicians and surgeons will1 ,i hope1 assist me in proving this point1 for they are aware of the common fact that a person who has been subjected to amputation of a limb1 continues to feel pain in a part that he no longer possesses40#ab ,here then1 according to ,descartes1 we find that the soul is situated1 that is to say1 feels in the brain1 and only in the brain4 ,the following passage shows with what precision he excluded even the external senses from any participation with the functions of the soul4 8,i have shown10 says he1 8that size1 distance1 and form are perceived only by the reason2 and that1 by deducing them the one from the other40#ac 8,i cannot agree with the assertion that this error 7the error caused by the bent appearance of a stick partly plunged into water17 is not corrected by the understanding but by the touch2 for1 although the sense in question makes us judge that the stick is straight1 yet that cannot correct the error of vision2 but furthermore1 it is requisite that reason should teach us to confide1 in this case1 rather to our judgment after touching1 than to the judgment that we come to after using our eyes2 but this reason cannot be attributed to the sense1 but to the understanding alone2 and in this very example1 it is the understanding that corrects the error of the sense40#ad ,the brain1 then1 is the exclusive seat of the soul2 and all sensation1 even those operations that appear to depend upon the simple external sense1 is function of the soul4 ,gall falls back upon ,condillac1 who1 much less rigorous in this particular than ,descartes1 says1 that 8all our faculties proceed from the senses40#ae ,but when ,condillac speaks thus1 he evidently speaks by ellipsis1 for he immediately adds these words3 8,the senses are only occasional causes4 ,they do not feel2 it is the soul that alone feels1 through the medium of the organs40#af ,now1 if it be the soul only that feels1 fortiori1 it is the soul only that remembers1 that judges1 that imagines1 c4 ,memory1 judgment1 imagination1 c41 in a word1 all our faculties1 are therefore of the soul1 and therefore come from the soul1 and not from the senses4 ,there is no philosopher who has exaggerated more than ,helvetius the influence of the senses upon the intelligence4 ,but ,helvetius says1 8,in whatsoever manner we interrogate experience1 she always answers that any greater or lesser superiority of mind is independent of any greater or lesser perfection of the senses40#ag ,but ,i leave ,helvetius and ,condillac1 and ,i return to ,descartes1 to ,willis1 to ,lapeyronie1 to ,haller1 ,smmerring1 ,cuvier1 c4 ,they all perceived and all asserted that the brain is the seat of the soul1 and that it is so to the exclusion of the senses4 ,therefore1 the proposition that the brain is the exclusive seat of the soul is not a new proposition1 and hence does not originate with ,gall4 ,it belonged to science before it appeared in his ,doctrine4 ,the merit of ,gall1 and it is by no means a slender merit1 consists in his having understood better than any of his predecessors the whole of its importance1 and in having devoted himself to its demonstration4 ,it existed in science before ,gall appeared--it may be said to reign there ever since his appearance4 ,taking each particular sense1 he excluded them all1 one after another1 from all immediate participation in the functions of the understanding4#ah ,far from being developed in the direct ratio of the intellection1 most of them are developed in an inverse ratio4 ,taste and smell are more developed in the quadruped than in man4 ,sight and hearing are more so in the bird than in the quadruped4 ,the brain alone is in all classes developed in the ratio of the understanding4 ,the loss of a sense does not lead to the loss of the intelligence4 ,the understanding survives the loss of sight and hearing4 ,it might survive the loss of all the senses4 ,to interrupt the communication between the sense and the brain1 is enough to insure the loss of the sense4 ,the mere compression of the brain1 which abolishes the intellection1 abolishes all the senses4 ,far1 therefore1 from being organs of the intelligence1 the organs of the senses are not even organs of the senses1 they do not even exercise their functions as organs of the senses1 except through the medium of the intelligence1 and this intelligence resides only in the brain4 ,the brain alone1 therefore1 is the organ of the soul2--is it the whole brain--the brain taken en masse8 ,gall thought so1 and ,spurzheim followed ,gall's opinion2 and all the phrenologists who have come after them have followed the examples of ,gall and ,spurzheim4 ,yet1 after all1 it amounts to nothing4 ,if we deprive an animal of its cerebellum1 it loses only its locomotive action4 ,if we deprive it of its tubercula quadrigemina1 it loses its sight only2 if we destroy its medulla oblongata1 it loses its respiratory movements1 and in consequence thereof1 its life4#ai ,neither of these parts1 therefore1 that is to say1 the cerebellum1 the tubercula quadrigemina1 and the medulla oblongata1 is the organ of the understanding4 ,the brain1 properly so called1 is so1 and it alone4 ,if we remove from an animal the brain1 properly so called1 or the hemispheres1 it immediately loses its understanding1 and loses nothing but its understanding4#bj ,the brain1 en masse1 the encephalon1 is then a multiple organ2 and this multiple organ consists of four particular organs3 the cerebellum1 the seat of the principle that regulates the movements of locomotion2 the tubercula quadrigemina1 seats of the principle that regulates the sense of sight2 the medulla oblongata1 in which resides the principle that determines the respiratory motions2 and the brain proper1 the seat1 and the exclusive seat of the intelligence4#ba ,therefore1 when the phrenologists promiscuously place the intellectual and moral faculties in the brain1 considered en masse1 they deceive themselves4 ,neither the cerebellum1 the quadrigeminal tubercles1 nor the medulla oblongata can be regarded as seats of these faculties4 ,all these faculties dwell solely in the brain1 properly so called1 or the hemispheres4 ,the question as to the precise seat of the intelligence1 has undergone a great change since the time of ,gall4 ,gall believed that the intelligence was seated indifferently in the whole encephalon1 and it has been proved that it resides only in the hemispheres4 ,further1 it is not the encephalon taken en masse that is developed in the ratio of the intelligence of the creature1 but the hemispheres4 ,the mammifera are the animals most highly endowed with intelligence2 they have1 other things being equal1 the most voluminous hemispheres4 ,birds are the animals most highly endowed with power of motion2 their cerebellum is1 other things being equal1 the largest4 ,reptiles are the most torpid and apathetic of animals2 they have the smallest brain1 c4 ,every thing concurs then to prove1 that the encephalon1 in mass1 is a multiple organ with multiple functions1 consisting of different parts1 of which some are destined to subserve the locomotive motions1 others the motions of the respiration1 c41 while one single one1 the brain proper1 is designed for the purposes of the intellection4 ,this being conceded1 it is evident that the entire brain cannot be divided1 as the phrenologists divide it1 into a number of small organs1 each of which is the seat of a distinct intellectual faculty2 for the entire brain does not serve the purposes of what is called the intelligence4 ,the hemispheres alone are the seats of the intellectual power2 and consequently1 the question as to whether the organ1 the seat of the intelligence may be divided into several distinct organs1 is a question relative solely to the uses and powers of the hemispheres4 ,gall avers1 and this is the second fundamental proposition of his doctrine1 that the brain is divided into several organs1 each one of which lodges a particular faculty of the soul4 ,by the word brain1 he understood the whole brain1 and he thus deceived himself4 ,let us reduce the application of his proposition to the hemispheres alone1 and we shall see that he has deceived himself again4 ,it has been shown by my late experiments1 that we may cut away1 either in front1 or behind1 or above1 or on one side1 a very considerable slice of the hemisphere of the brain1 without destroying the intelligence4 ,hence it appears1 that quite a restricted portion of the hemispheres may suffice for the purposes of intellection in an animal4#bb ,on the other hand1 in proportion as these reductions by slicing away the hemispheres are continued1 the intelligence becomes enfeebled1 and grows gradually less2 and certain limits being passed1 is wholly extinguished4 ,hence it appears1 that the cerebral hemispheres concur1 by their whole mass1 in the full and entire exercise of the intelligence4#bc ,in fine1 as soon as one sensation is lost1 all sensation is lost2 when one faculty disappears1 all the faculties disappear4 ,there are not1 therefore1 different seats for the different faculties1 nor for the different sensations4 ,the faculty of feeling1 of judging1 of willing any thing1 resides in the same place as the faculty of feeling1 judging1 or willing any other thing1 and consequently this faculty1 essentially a unit1 resides essentially in a single organ4#bd ,the understanding is1 therefore1 a unit4 ,according to ,gall1 there are as many particular kinds of intellect as there are distinct faculties of the mind4 ,according to him1 each faculty has its perception1 its memory1 its judgment1 will1 c41 that is to say1 all the attributes of the understanding1 properly so called4#be 8,all the intellectual faculties10 says he1 8are endowed with the perceptive faculty1 with attention1 recollection1 memory1 judgment1 and imagination40#bf ,thus each faculty perceives1 remembers1 judges1 imagines1 compares1 creates2 but these are trifles--for each faculty reasons4 8,whenever10 says ,gall1 8a faculty compares and judges of the relations of analogous or different ideas1 there is an act of comparison1 there is an act of judgment3 a sequence of comparisons and judgments constitutes reasoning10 c4#bg ,therefore1 each and every faculty is an understanding by itself1 and ,gall says so expressly4 8,there are10 says he1 8as many different kinds of intellect or understanding as there are distinct faculties40#bh 8,each distinct faculty10 says he1 further1 8is intellect or understanding--each individual intelligence 7the words are precise7 has its proper organ40#bi ,but1 admitting all these kinds of intellects1 all these individual understandings1 where are we to seek for the ,general ,intelligence1 the understanding1 properly so called8 ,it must1 as you may please1 be either an attribute of each faculty1#cj or the collective expression of all the faculties1 or even the mere simple result of their common and simultaneous action2#ca in one word1 it cannot be that positive and single faculty which we understand1 conceive of1 and feel in ourselves1 when we pronounce the word soul or understanding4 ,now here is the sum and the substance of ,gall's psycology4 ,for the understanding1 essentially a unit faculty1 he substitutes a multitude of little understandings or faculties1 distinct and isolate4 ,and1 as these faculties1 which perform just as he wills them to do--which he multiplies according to his pleasure1#cb seem in his eyes to explain certain phenomena which are not well explained by the lights of ordinary philosophy1 he triumphs6 ,he does not perceive that an explanation1 which is words merely1 adapts itself to any and to every thing4 ,in the time of ,malebranche1 every thing was explained by animal spirits2 ,barthez explained every thing by his vital principle1 c4 8,this10 says ,gall1 8explains how the same man may possess a judgment that is ready and sure as to certain objects1 while it is imbecile as to certain others2 how he may have the liveliest and most fruitful imagination upon some subjects1 while it is cold and sterile upon others40#cc 8,grant10 says he1 further1 8to the animals certain fundamental faculties1 and you have the dog that follows the chase with passion2 the weasel that strangles the poultry with rage2 the nightingale that sings with fervour beside his mate10#cd c4 ,no doubt of it4 ,but what sort of philosophy is that1 that thinks to explain a fact by a word8 ,you observe such or such a penchant in an animal1 such or such a taste or talent in a man2 presto1 a particular faculty is produced for each one of these peculiarities1 and you suppose the whole matter to be settled4 ,you deceive yourself2 your faculty is only a word1--it is the name of the fact1--and all the difficulty remains just where it was before4 ,besides1 you speak only of the facts that you suppose yourself able to explain2 you say nothing of those that you render by your system wholly inexplicable4 ,you say not one word as to the unity of the understanding1 the unity of the me1 or you deny it4 ,but the unity of the understanding1 the unity of the me1 is a fact of the conscious sense1 and the conscious sense is more powerful than all the philosophies together4 ,gall is always talking about observation1 and he was indeed1 as an observer1 full of ingenuity4 ,but1 in order to follow out an observation1 it must be traced to the very end1 and we must accept all that it yields to our research2 and observation every where gives1 and shows every where1 and above all things else1 the unity of the understanding1 the unity of the me4 ,gall's philosophy consists only in transmuting into a particular understanding each separate mode#ce of the understanding1 properly so called4 ,descartes had already said1 8,there are in us as many faculties as there are truths to be known4444 ,but ,i do not think that any useful application can be made of this way of thinking2 and it seems to me rather more likely to be mischievous1 by giving to the ignorant occasion for imagining an equal number of little entities in the soul40#cf ,it may well be supposed that ,gall1 who in the word understanding sees nothing but an abstract word1 expressive of the sum of our intellectual faculties1 would also1 in the word will1 perceive nothing more than an abstract word1 expressing the sum of our moral faculties4 ,he had given a definition of reason3 8,the result of the simultaneous action of all the intellectual faculties40#cg ,in the same way he defined will to be 8the result of the simultaneous action of the superior intellectual faculties40#ch ,but ,gall always deceives himself2 for reason and will are not results--they are powers1 and primary powers of thought4 ,gall1 in a manner equally singular1 defines moral liberty or free will4 8,moral liberty10 says he1 8is nothing more than the faculty of being determined1 and of determining under motive40#ci ,not so3 liberty is precisely the power to determine against all motive4 ,locke well defined liberty as power3 to be determined1 is to allow one's self to be determined--that is1 to obey4 ,gall says again1 8,unlimited liberty supposes not only that man governs himself independently of all law1 but that he is the creator of his own nature40#dj ,not at all2 it supposes that he may have choice--and in fact he does choose4 ,lastly1 ,gall says1 8,a phenomenon such as that of absolute liberty1 would be a phenomenon occurring without any cause whatever40#da ,why without cause8 ,the cause is in the power of choosing--and this power is a fact4 ,gall's whole doctrine is one series of errors1 which press upon each other cumulatively4 ,he resolves that the part of the brain in which the understanding resides shall be divided into many small organs1 distinct from each other2 a physiological error4 ,he decries the unity of the understanding1 and looks upon the will and the reason as mere results--psycological errors4 ,in the free will he perceives merely a compulsory determination1#db and consequently a mere result--this is a moral error4 ,man's liberty is a positive faculty1 and not the simple passive result of the preponderance of one motive over another motive1 of one organ over another organ4#dc ,reason1 will1 liberty1 are therefore1 not as in ,gall's doctrine1 positive faculties1 active powers2 or rather1 they are the understanding itself4 ,reason1 will1 liberty1 are in fact the understanding1 as conceiving1 willing1 choosing1 or deliberating4#dd ,the consciousness which feels itself to be one1 feels itself free4 ,and you will remark1 that these two great facts given out by the inward sense1 the consciousness1 to wit1 the unity of the understanding and the positive power of the free will1 are precisely the two first facts denied by the philosophy of ,gall4 ,and take good care to observe further1 that if there be in us any thing that belongs to the consciousness1 it is evidently and par excellence the sense of our personal unity2 or what is more1 the consciousness of our moral liberty4 ,man is a moral force1 only inasmuch as he is a free force4 ,any philosophy that attempts the liberty of man1 attempts1 without knowing it1 morals itself4 ,man then is free1 and as he is a moral agent only in proportion as he is free1 it would seem that his liberty is the only attribute of his soul from which ,providence has designed to remove all the boundaries4 8,what is here very remarkable10 says ,descartes1 8is that1 of all within me1 there is not one thing so perfect or so great1 but that ,i know it might be greater and more perfect4 ,thus1 for example1 if ,i consider my faculty of conceiving1 ,i find it of very small extent1 and very limited4 ,if1 in the same manner1 ,i examine the memory1 the imagination1 or any other one of my faculties1 ,i find not one that is not very limited and very small4 ,within me there is only my will or my liberty of free will1 which ,i feel to be so great that ,i conceive not the idea of another more full and of greater extent40#de ,,ii4 ,,of ,,gall4 ,,of ,,the ,,faculties4 ,gall's philosophy consists wholly in the substitution of multiplicity for unity4 ,in place of one general and single brain1#df he substitutes a number of small brains3 instead of one general sole understanding1 he substitutes several individual understandings4#dg ,these pretended individual understandings are the faculties4 ,now1 ,gall admits the existence of twenty-seven of these faculties1 each one of them 7since each one is a peculiar understanding7 endowed with its perceptive faculty1 its memory1 its judgment1 its imagination2 c4#dh ,hence1 there are twenty-seven perceptive faculties1 twenty-seven memories1 twenty-seven judgments1 twenty-seven imaginations1 c4 ,for1 if we are to follow ,gall1 each attribute is not less distinct than each faculty4 ,the memory1 the judgment1 imagination1 c4 of one faculty are not the memory1 judgment1 or imagination of another faculty4 8,the sense of numbers10 says he1 8possesses a judgment for the relations of numbers2 the sense of the arts1 a judgment for works of art2 but where the fundamental faculty is wanting1 the judgment relative to objects of that faculty must necessarily be wanting likewise40#di ,he says further3 8,it is impossible for an individual to possess imagination and judgment for any object with the fundamental faculty for which he has not been gifted by nature40#ej ,thus1 beyond all doubt3 there are twenty-seven faculties2 and as there are twenty-seven faculties1 there must be twenty-seven memories1 judgments1 imaginations1 c4 ,in one word1 there is no such thing as a general understanding2 but there are twenty-seven special understandings1 with three or four times twenty-seven distinct attributes of each4 ,such is the entire psycology of ,gall4 ,to proceed4 ,gall's twenty-seven faculties are3 the instinct of propagation1 love of offspring1 self-defence1 the carnivorous instinct1 the sense of property1 friendship1 cunning1 pride1 vanity1 circumspection1 memory for things1 memory for words1 sense of locality1 sense of persons1 sense of language1 of relations of colours1 relations of sounds1 relations of numbers1 of mechanics1 of comparative sagacity1 the metaphysical genius1 sarcasm1 poetic talent1 benevolence1 imitation1 religion1 firmness4 ,gall says that these faculties are innate1#ea and this assertion certainly will not be contested4 ,locke1 who so vigorously opposed the doctrine of innate ideas1 never decried the innateness of our faculties4 ,he always regarded them as natural1 that is to say1 innate4#eb ,condillac himself1 who charges ,locke with having considered the faculties of the soul as innate1 in making these charges confounds the faculties of the soul with the operations of the soul4#ec ,now1 that which is perfectly true as to the operations of the soul1 is by no means so as regards her faculties4 ,all the faculties of the soul are innate and contemporary1 for they are nothing more than modes of the soul2 indeed1 they are the soul itself1 viewed under different aspects4 ,but the operations of the soul succeed each other1 and beget each other4 ,there can be no memory without previous perception2 there can be no judgment without recollection4 ,in order that there may be a will1 there must have been a judgment1 c4 ,after saying that the faculties are innate1 ,gall says also that they are independent4#ed ,and if1 by the word independent1 he means distinct1 there is nothing less contestible4 ,but if1 by this word independent1 he understood 7as indeed he does understand7 that each faculty is a real understanding1 the question is altered and the difficulty begins4 ,for1 if each individual faculty is a proper understanding1 it follows that there are as many understandings as there are faculties1 and the understanding ceases to be one1 and the me is no longer one4 ,i am well aware that this is exactly what ,gall means2 he says it1 and reiterates it throughout his work4 ,he says it1 but does not prove it4 ,and how should he prove it8 ,can we prove any thing against our consciousness8 8,i remark here1 in the first place10 says ,descartes1 8that there is a great difference between the mind and the body1 in that the body is1 by its nature1 always divisible1 and the mind wholly indivisible4 ,for1 in fact1 when ,i contemplate it--that is1 when ,i contemplate my own self--and consider myself as a thing that thinks1 ,i cannot discover in myself any parts1 but ,i clearly know and conceive that ,i am a thing absolutely one and complete40#ee ,gall reverses the common philosophy1 and it is worthy of remark1 that the whole of his philosophy1 which he thinks so novel1#ef is1 to the very letter1 nothing more nor less than this very inversion4 ,according to common philosophy1 there is one general understanding--a unit2 and there are faculties which are but modes of this understanding4 ,gall asserts that there are as many kinds of peculiar intelligences as there are faculties1 and that the understanding in general is nothing more than a mode or attribute of each faculty4 ,he says so expressly4 ,his words are3 8,the intellectual faculty and all its subdivisions1 such as perception1 recollection1 memory1 judgment1 and imagination1 are not fundamental faculties1 but merely their general attributes40#eg ,gall first inverts the common philosophy1 and then contends for the existence of all the consequences of that common philosophy4 ,he suppresses the me1 but insists that there is a soul4 ,he abolishes the freewill1 and yet contends that there is such a thing as morals4 ,he makes of the idea of ,god an idea that is merely relative and conditional1 but yet asserts that there may be such a thing as religion4 ,i say he abolishes the me2 for the me is the soul4 ,the soul is the understanding1 general and one2 but if there be no understanding as general1 there can be no soul4 ,according to ,gall1 there is nothing real and positive except the faculties4 ,and these faculties alone are possessed of organs4 8,none of my predecessors10 says he1 8had any knowledge of those forces which alone are the functions of special cerebral organs40#eh ,by the contrary reasoning1 neither the will1 nor the reason1 nor the understanding1 are possessed of any organs1 for they are nothing but forces2 they are nothing but nouns collective--words4 8,these observations may suffice10 says ,gall1 8to convince the reader that there cannot exist any special organ of the will1 or the freewill40#ei ,he adds3 8,it is equally impossible that there should be any peculiar organ of the reason40#fj ,finally he says3 8,from all that ,i have now said it follows1 that the idea of an organ of the intellect or understanding is quite as inadmissible as the idea of an organ of the instinct40#fa ,hence there can be nought but the faculties2 and1 according to ,gall1 these faculties are so distinct1 that he attributes to each particular one a separate organ4#fb ,he divides the understanding into little understandings4 ,descartes expressed himself in the following words3 8,we do not conceive of any body1 except as divisible2 whereas the human mind cannot conceive of itself except as indivisible2 for in fact we are incapable of conceiving of half a soul40#fc ,gall1 however1 settles that point4 ,he makes half souls4 ,he retrenches or adds as many faculties as suits his plan4 ,these faculties are separated by material limits4 ,he goes so far as to say that such or such a faculty acts with greater or less facility upon such or such another faculty1 according as one happens to be situated nearer to or farther off from the other4 8,as the organ of the arts10 says he1 8is located far from that of the sense of colour1 the circumstance explains why historical painters have rarely been colourists40#fd ,thus1 we find that the faculties alone are possessed of forces4 ,these forces alone are endowed with organs2 and these organs1 by which they are kept separate from each other1 separate them to distances sufficiently great to hinder1 in certain cases1 one given faculty from exercising any influence over another4 ,therefore1 there is no such thing as unity2 there is no unit faculty1 no unit understanding2 there is no me2 and if there be no me1 there can be no soul4 ,in the same way he abolishes the freewill4 ,will1 liberty1 reason1 in his view1#fe are nothing but results1 as ,i have already stated4 8,to the end10 says he1 8that man may not be confined merely to the ability to wish--in order that he may actually will--the concurrence of several superior faculties is requisite4 ,the motives must be weighed1 compared1 and judged2 the decision resulting from this operation is denominated will40#ff 8,reason10 he further adds1 8supposes a concerted action of the superior faculties4 ,it is the judgment pronounced by the superior intellectual faculties40#fg ,hence1 the will is nothing but a decision2 reason is nothing but a judgment4 ,the faculties concert together4 ,what a singular philosophy1 which always substitutes the fictions of language for the facts of the conscious sense1 and which is satisfied with those fictions6 ,freewill is either a power1 a force1 or it is nothing4 ,he resolves that it is merely a result4 ,gall therefore abolishes the freewill4 ,indeed1 he makes of the idea of ,god nothing but a relative and conditional idea1 for he supposes that this idea comes from a particular organ2 and he supposes that that organ may possibly1 in some case1 be wanting4 8,it cannot be doubted10 says ,gall1 8that the human race are endowed with an organ by means of which it recognises and admires the ,author of the universe40#fh 8,god exists10 adds he1 8for there is an organ to know and adore him40#fi ,but he continues3 8,climate and other circumstances may obstruct the development of the cerebral part1 by means of which the ,creator designed to reveal himself to his creature man40#gj ,again3 8,if there were a people whose organization should be altogether defective in this respect1 they would be as little susceptible as any other kinds of animal1 of the religious idea or sentiment40#ga ,further3 8,there is no ,god for beings whose organization does not bear the original stamp of determinate faculties40#gb ,what6 ,if ,i happen not to possess a little peculiar organ1 7for it may be wanting17 can ,i not feel that ,god exists6 ,and how can ,i be an intelligence1 knowing myself1 and yet not knowing that ,god is8 ,i do not more strongly feel that ,i am1 than that ,god is4 8,this idea10 7the idea of ,god7 says ,descartes1 8is born and produced along with me1 just as is the idea of myself40#gc ,my understanding1 which perceives itself and feels itself to be an effect1 necessarily perceives the intelligent ,cause which produced it4 8,it is a very evident thing10 says ,descartes again1 8that there must be at least as much reality in a cause as in the effect it produces2 and since ,i am a thing that thinks1 whatsoever be in fact the cause of my being1 ,i am compelled to confess1 that it also is something that thinks40#gd ,hitherto ,i have considered ,gall's philosophy only under its speculative points of view2 what would it be1 if considered in a practical relation8 ,in one of his happy moments1 ,diderot wrote the following very remarkable phrase3 8,the ruin of liberty overthrows all order and all government1 confounds vice and virtue together1 sanctions every monstrous infamy1 extinguishes all shame and all remorse1 and degrades and deforms without recovery the whole human race40#ge ,nothing astonishes a phrenologist4 8,let us imagine10 says ,gall1 8a woman in whom the love of offspring is but little developed1 444 if1 unfortunately1 the organ of murder be very much developed in her1 need we be surprised if her hand44440#gf c4 ,organization explains every thing4 8,these last named facts show us10 says ,gall1 8that this detestable inclination 7the inclination to commit murder7 has its source in a vice of the organization40#gg 8,let those haughty men10 says he again1 8who cause nations to be slaughtered by thousands1 know that they do not act of their own accord1 but that ,nature herself has filled their hearts with rage and destructiveness40#gh ,no1 indeed6 ,this is not what they must know2 for1 thanks be to ,god1 it is not true4 ,what they ought to know1 what they ought to be told1 is1 that although ,providence has left to man the power to do evil1 he has also endowed him with the power to do good4 ,that which man ought to know1 that which should be instilled into his mind and heart is1 that he has a free power1 and that this power ought not to be misdirected2 and that he who in his own nature misdirects it1 no matter under what form of philosophy he takes refuge1 is a being who degrades his nature4 ,under the title of fundamental faculties1 ,gall confounds all things together--the passions1 the instinct1 the intellectual faculties4 ,these faculties1 which are at the basis of his whole philosophy1 he knows not even how to denominate them4 ,he calls them instincts1#gi inclinations1 senses1 memories1 c4 ,there is a memory or sense of things1 a memory or sense of persons1 c4 ,he confounds the instinct that leads certain animals to live in elevated regions with pride1 which is a moral sentiment in man2#hj the carnivorous instinct with courage2#ha he believes that conscience1 7which is the soul judging itself17 is nothing but a modification of a particular sense1 the sense of benevolence1 c4#hb ,the hesitation of his mind is visible every where4 8,i leave it to the reader10 says he1 8to decide whether the fundamental faculty to which this penchant relates1 should be denominated sense of elevation1 self-esteem10 c4#hc 8,to speak correctly10 continues he1 8firmness is neither a penchant nor a faculty2 it is a mode-of-being1 which gives to a man a distinctive quality1 which is called character40#hd ,finally1 he writes the following paragraph1 perhaps the most singular one that he ever wrote1 for it shows in the clearest manner how little confidence he had in his own psycology4 8,if we are materialists because we do not admit the existence of a unit-faculty of the soul1 but recognise several primitive faculties1 we ask whether the ordinary division of the faculties of the soul into understanding1 will1 attention1 memory1 judgment1 imagination1 and affections and passions1 expresses nothing more than a primitive unit-faculty8 ,if it be asserted that all these faculties are merely modifications of a sole and same faculty1 what can hinder us from making the same assertion as to the faculties whose existence we do admit40#he ,to be sure1 nothing prevents you4 ,or rather every thing constrains you to do so4 ,there is therefore one sole faculty1 of which all the other faculties are but moods4 ,you return then to the common philosophy1 and consequently you no longer possess a peculiar philosophy4 ,the problem proposed by ,gall is at the same time physiological1 psycological1 and anatomical4 ,in our first article an account has been given of ,gall's physiology1 and it has been shown to be generally disproved by direct experiment4 ,in the present one his psycology has been examined1 and it is confuted by the consciousness 7le sens intime74 ,it only remains for us now to examine his anatomy4 ,,iii4 ,,of ,,gall4 ,,the ,,organs4 ,of all ,gall's writings1 his anatomy is that which has been most talked of1 and yet it is the part least known4 ,in the year #ahjh1 ,gall read to the first class of the ,institute a memoir on the anatomy of the brain2#hf and ,m4 ,cuvier made a report upon that memoir4 ,but neither in that memoir nor in the report do we find one word of special anatomy1 of secret anatomy1 of what might be called anatomy of the ,doctrine2 or1 in other terms1 and as it would be expressed at the present day1 of phrenological anatomy4 ,the anatomy of ,gall's memoir is nothing but a very ordinary anatomy4 ,he insists that the cerebral nerves1 all of them without exception1 rise upwards from the medulla oblongata towards the encephalon2 that the cineritious matter produces the white matter3 he divides the fibres of the brain into divergent and convergent2 he supposes that each convolution of this organ1 instead of being a full and solid mass1 as is generally thought1 is merely a fold#hg of nervous or medullary fibres1 c4 c4 ,such are the questions discussed by ,gall2 and it is sufficiently clear that1 whatever side we take upon these questions1 his doctrine assuredly would neither gain nor lose any thing4 ,whether such or such a nerve ascends or descends2 whether the white matter is produced by the gray2 or whether1 which is1 to say the least1 quite as probable1 this be nonsense2 whether this or that fibre goes out or comes in1 diverges or converges1 c4 c4 the doctrine of the plurality of brains1 the doctrine of individual intelligences1 will be neither more nor less true1 more nor less doubtful4#hh ,m4 ,cuvier1 in his report1 observed3 8,it is essential to repeat1 were it merely for the information of the public1 that the anatomical questions we have been considering1 have no immediate and necessary connexion with the physiological doctrines taught by ,m4 ,gall1 as to the functions and relative volume of different parts of the brain2 and that all that we have inquired into as to the structure of the brain1 might be either true or false1 without affording the least conclusion in favour of or against the doctrine40#hi ,it is necessary not to make any mistake as to the real point of the question4 ,gall's doctrine goes to establish one and only one thing1 to wit1 the plurality of intelligences and the plurality of brains4#ij ,that is what constitutes the special and peculiar doctrine2 that is to say1 different from the common doctrine1 which admits but one understanding and a single brain4 ,whatever goes to prove the plurality of understandings and brains belongs to ,gall's doctrine2 and whatever does not tend to prove the plurality of understandings and brains is in opposition to that doctrine4 ,gall's works then really contain two very distinct anatomies3 one is a general anatomy1 which has nothing in particular to do with his doctrine2 the other is a special anatomy1 which1 supposing it to be true1 would constitute the basis of his doctrine4 ,now1 a great deal has been said about ,gall's general anatomy2 but as to his special anatomy1 ,i know of no one who has spoken of it4 ,gall himself says as little as possible about it4 ,in other matters he tells his opinions both very clearly and very positively3 in this particular we are obliged to guess at them4 ,when ,gall1 in his psycology1 substitutes the faculties for the understanding1 he defines those faculties4 ,he defines them1 as we have already seen1 to be individual intelligences4 ,how happens it1 then1 that in his anatomy1 when he substitutes the organs of the brain for the brain itself1 he does not define these organs8 ,how strange6 ,gall's whole doctrine1 all phrenology1 rests upon the organs of the brain2 for1 without distinct cerebral organs1 there can be no independent faculties2 and without independent faculties there can be no phrenology3 and ,gall does not say1 nor has any phrenologist said for him1 what is the thing called a cerebral organ4 ,the truth is3 ,gall never had any settled opinion upon what he called the organs of the brain2 he never saw those organs1 and he imagined them for the use of his faculties4 ,he did what so many others have done4 ,he commenced with imagining a hypothesis1 and then he imagined an anatomy to suit his hypothesis4 ,when the doctrine of animal spirits was believed1 the brain was composed of pipes and tubes to convey these spirits4 8,the cortical substance which is found in the hemispheres of the brain10 says ,pourfour du ,petit1 8furnishes the whole of the medullary portion1 which is a mere collection of an infinite number of pipes40#ia 8,the small arteries of the cortical part of the brain10 says ,haller1 8transmit a spirituous liquor into the medullary and nervous tubes40#ib ,it is evident that the organs of ,gall have no more real existence than the pipes of ,pourfour du ,petit1 or the tubes of ,haller4 ,they are two structures that have been imagined1 as suitable for two hypotheses4 ,in searching for the primary idea1 the secret notion that led ,gall to his doctrine of the plurality of the intelligences1 ,i detect it in the analogy that he supposed to exist between the functions of the senses and the faculties of the soul4 ,he sees the functions of the senses constituting distinct functions1 and insists that the faculties of the soul must constitute equally distinct faculties2 he sees each particular sense possessing an organ proper to itself1 and thinks that each faculty of the soul must have its proper organ2#ic in one word1 he looks upon the outer man1 and constructs the inner man after the image of the outer man4 ,according to ,gall1 every thing between an organ of a sense and an organ of a faculty1 between a faculty and sense1 is similar4 ,a faculty is a sense4 ,his words are3 the memory or the sense of things1 the memory or the sense of persons1 the memory or the sense of numbers4 ,he talks of the sense of language1 the sense of mechanics1 the sense of the relations of colours1 c4 c4 8,as we must admit10 says he1 8five different external senses1 since their functions are essentially different1 444 so we must agree1 after all1 to acknowledge the different faculties and the different inclinations as being essentially different moral and intellectual forces1 and likewise connected with organic apparatuses1 which are special to each and independent of each other40#id 8,who10 says he1 8can dare to say that sight1 hearing1 taste1 smell1 and touch1 are simple modifications of faculties8 ,who could dare to derive them from a single and same source1 from a single and same organ8 ,in the same way1 the twenty-seven qualities and faculties which ,i recognise as fundamental or primary forces1 444 cannot be regarded as the simple modifications of any one faculty40#ie ,on the one hand1 ,gall gives to the faculties all the independence of the senses2 and on the other1 he gives the senses all the attributes of the faculties4 8,here10 says he1 8are new reasons why ,i have always maintained in my public discourses1 though these assertions are in opposition to the ideas that prevail among philosophers1 that each organ of a sense possesses absolutely its own functions2 that each of these organs has its peculiar faculty of receiving and even of perceiving impressions1 its own conscience1 its own faculty of reminiscence10#if c4 ,gall did not foresee that a physiological experiment 7and a very sure one it is7 would one day demonstrate that the sense receives the impression but does not perceive it1 and that1 consequently1 it is endowed neither with conscience nor reminiscence1 c4 ,when the cerebral lobes or hemispheres#ig are removed from an animal1 the animal immediately loses its sight4 ,and yet nothing1 as regards the eyes themselves1 has been changed2 objects continue to be depicted upon the retina1 the iris retains its contractility1 and the optic nerve its excitability4 ,the retina continues to be sensible of light1 for the iris contracts or dilates according as the light admitted to it is more or less intense4 ,no change has taken place as to the structure of the eye1 and yet the animal does not see6 ,therefore it is not the eye that perceives1 nor is it the eye that sees4#ih ,the eye does not see2 it is the understanding that sees by means of the eyes4#ii ,when ,gall concludes from the independence of the external senses to the independence of the faculties of the soul1 he confounds1 as to the sense itself1 two things that are essentially distinct1 impression and perception4 ,impression is multiple2 perception is single4 ,when the hemispheres are removed1 the animal instantly loses its perception2 it no longer sees nor hears1#ajj c4 notwithstanding all the organs of the senses1 the eye1 the ear1 c4 subsist1 and the impressions take place4 ,therefore the principle that perceives is one4 ,lost for one sense1 it is lost for all the senses4 ,and if it be one for the external senses1 how can it be other than one for the faculties of the soul8 ,gall therefore cannot suppose the existence of several distinct principles for the faculties of the soul1 otherwise than because he supposes several distinct principles for the perceptions2 and he only supposes several principles for the perceptions because he confounds impression with perception4 ,the whole of his psycology arises from a mistake2 and the whole of his anatomy is constructed for the sake of his psycology4 ,in psycology he endeavours to prove that the faculties of the soul are merely internal senses2 in anatomy1 he endeavours to prove that the organs of the faculties of the soul only repeat and reproduce the organs of the external senses4 ,now an organ1 that is to say1 under the present point of view1 the nerve of an external sense1 is nothing more than a fascicle of nervous fibres4 ,therefore the brain1 under the theory1 can be nothing but a collection of fascicles of fibres4#aja ,according to ,gall1 the origin1 the development1 the structure and mode of termination1 as to the organs of the faculties of the soul and the organs of the external senses1 every thing is similar1 every thing is in common4 ,and yet the primitive difficulty remains unsolved4 ,when ,i say an organ of the senses1 ,i speak of a very determinate nervous apparatus4 ,but is the same thing true when ,i say an organ of the brain8 ,what is an organ of the brain8 ,is it a fascicle of fibres8 ,is it each particular fibre8 ,but if it be a fascicle of fibres1 there are too few of them1 for there are not twenty-seven of them2 and twenty-seven are necessary1 for there are twenty-seven faculties4 ,if it be each particular fibre1 then there are too many of them1 and far too many1 because there are only twenty-seven faculties4 ,what are we to do in this difficulty8 ,we must do as ,gall does3 sometimes say it is a fascicle of fibres2 at other times1 that it is each fibre in particular4 ,in one place he says3 8,the brain consisting of several divisions whose functions are totally different1 there are several primary bundles1 which contribute by their development to produce it4 ,among these bundles we place the anterior and posterior pyramids1 the bundles that come off direct from the corpora olivaria1 and some others that are concealed in the interior of the medulla oblongata40#ajb ,and there are yet some others2 be it so2 but they never can amount to twenty-seven4 ,again he says3 8,a more extensive development of the same conjecture1 might perhaps dispose the reader to consider each nervous fibrilla1 whether in the nerves or in the brain itself1 as a little special organ40#ajc ,even this is not all4 ,for the sake of ,gall's doctrine1 the anatomy of the brain must have a connexion with cranioscopy4 ,and ,gall takes great care to place all his organs upon the surface of the brain4 8,the possibility of a solution of the problem under consideration10 says he1 8supposes the organs of the soul to be situated at the surface of the brain40#ajd ,indeed1 were they not situated at the surface of the brain1 how could the cranium bear the impression of them8 and what would become of cranioscopy8 ,cranioscopy has nothing to fear4 ,gall has made provision for it2 all the organs of the brain are placed at the surface of the brain2 and ,gall most judiciously adds1 8,this explains the relation or the correspondence that exists between craniology and the doctrine of the cerebral functions 7cerebral physiology71 the sole aim and end of my researches40#aje ,but as to the pretended organs of the brain1 are they really situated at the surface of the brain1 as ,gall asserts8 ,in plain terms1 is the surface of the brain the only active part of the organ8 ,here is a physiological experiment that shows how very much mistaken ,gall is4 ,you can slice off a considerable portion of an animal's brain1 either in front1 behind1 on one side1 or on the top1 without his losing anyone of his faculties4#ajf ,the animal may1 therefore1 lose all that ,gall calls surface of the brain1 without losing any of his faculties4 ,therefore it cannot be that the organs of the faculties reside at the surface of the brain4 ,and comparative anatomy is not less opposite to ,gall's opinions than is direct experiment itself4 ,i shall not follow him here in the detail of his localizations4 ,how could these localizations have any meaning8 ,he does not even know whether an organ is a fascicle of fibres1 or a fibre4#ajg ,for example2 he places what he calls the instinct of propagation in the cerebellum1 and what he calls the instinct of the love of offspring1 in the posterior cerebral lobes2 and he looks upon these two localizations as the very surest in his book4 8,i should wish10 says he1 8that all young naturalists might begin their researches with the study of these two organs4 ,they are both easily to be recognised10#ajh c4 ,what6 ,the cerebellum1 so different in its structure from the great brain1 is the cerebellum1 like the brain1#aji to be considered an organ of instinct8 ,and what is more1 is it to be regarded as the organ of a single instinct only1 while the brain shall have twenty-six of them8 ,i have already said that the cerebellum is the seat of the principle that presides over the locomotion#aaj of the animal1 and that it is not the seat of any instinct4 ,gall places the love of offspring in the posterior lobes of the brain4#aaa ,now1 the love of offspring1 and especially maternal love1 is every where to be found among the superior animals2 it is found in all the mammifera1 in all the birds4#aab ,the posterior lobes of the brain1 therefore1 ought to be found in all these beings4 ,not at all3 the posterior lobes are wanting in most of the mammifera2 they are wanting in all the birds4 ,gall locates the faculties that are common to both man and animals1 in the posterior part of the brain2 in the anterior part he places those#aac that are peculiar to man alone4 ,according to this plan1 the most persistent portion of the brain will be the posterior portion1 and the least persistent the anterior portion4 ,but the inverse of the proposition holds4 ,the parts that are most frequently wanting are the posterior parts1 and those that are most invariably present are the anterior parts4#aad ,if1 from the brain1 ,i pass on to consider the cranium1 all the foregoing is found to be of still greater force4 ,how can the localizations that are destitute of meaning as to the brain--how can they1 ,i say1 have any meaning as relative to the cranium itself8 ,the cranium1 especially the external surface of it1 represents the superficial configuration of the brain but very imperfectly4 ,gall knows it4 8,i was the first10 says he1 8to maintain that it is impossible for us to determine with exactitude the development of certain circumvolutions1 by the inspection of the external surface of the cranium4 ,in certain cases1 the exterior lamina of the cranium is not parallel with the internal lamina40#aae 8,there are certain species in which there is no frontal sinus2 in others1 the cells betwixt the two bony lamin are found throughout the whole skull10#aaf c4 c4 ,the cranium represents the convolutions of the brain only upon its inner surface2 it does not represent them upon its external superficies4 ,and as to the fibres1 as to the bundles of fibres1 it does not even represent them on its inner surface2 for the fibres are covered with a layer of gray matter1 and the bundles of fibres are situated in the interior of the nervous mass4 ,gall is aware of all this1 and nevertheless he inscribes his twenty-seven faculties upon the skulls4#aag ,such confidence surprises one4 ,nothing is known of the intimate structure of the brain1#aah and yet people are bold enough to trace upon it their circumscriptions1 their circles1 their boundaries4 ,the external surface of the skull does not represent the brain's surface1 it is admitted2 and yet they inscribe upon this surface twenty-seven names1 each of which names is written within a small circle1 each little circle corresponding to one precise faculty6 ,and what is stranger yet1 people are to be found who1 under each of these names inscribed by ,gall1 imagine that there is concealed something more than a name6 ,those who1 seeing the success of ,gall's doctrine1 imagine that the doctrine therefore rests upon some solid foundation1 know very little of mankind4 ,gall knew mankind better4 ,he studied them in his own way1 but he studied them very closely4 ,let us hear his own words3 8,in society1 ,i employ many expedients to find out the talents and inclinations of people4 ,i start the conversation upon a variety of topics4 ,in general1 we let fall in conversation whatsoever has little or no concern with our faculties and penchants2 but when the interlocutor touches upon one of our favourite subjects1 we at once become interested in it4444 ,do you wish to spy out the character of a person1 without the fear of being misled as to your conclusions1 even though he might be on his guard8 ,set him to talking about his childhood and boyhood2 make him relate his schoolboy exploits2 his conduct towards his parents1 his brothers and sisters1 and his playfellows1 and his emulators4444 ,ask him about his games1 c4 ,few persons think it necessary to dissemble upon these points2 they do not suspect they are dealing with one who knows perfectly well that the basis of character remains ever the same2 and that the objects only that interest us change with the progress of years4444 ,besides1 when ,i discover what it is that a person admires or despises2 when ,i see him act2 when he is an author1 and ,i merely read his book1 c4 c4 the whole man stands unveiled before me40#aai ,descartes shut himself up in a stove1#abj in order that he might meditate4 ,according to ,gall1 there is no necessity for one's shutting himself up in a stove4 ,descartes says3 8,now ,i shall shut my eyes1 ,i shall stop my ears1 ,i shall turn my senses aside2 ,i shall even efface from my memory every image of corporeal objects1 or at least1 as that can hardly be done1 ,i will repute them as vain and false2 and thus1 shut up within myself1 and contemplating what is within me1 ,i shall endeavour gradually to become more and more familiarly acquainted with my own real nature40#aba ,according to ,gall1 there is no occasion for this absolute gathering one's self together within4 ,all that is needful is to look at and touch the skulls of people4 ,gall's doctrine succeeded just as ,lavater's did4 ,men will always be looking out for external signs by which to discover secret thoughts and concealed inclinations3 it is vain to confound their curiosity upon this point3 after ,lavater came ,gall2 after ,gall some one else will appear4 ,we soon become wearied of a true philosophy1 because it is true2 because the search after truth1 of whatsoever kind1 requires strenuous and continual efforts4 ,it is impossible1 moreover1 always to have the very same philosophy3 even the same philosopher cannot be always approved of4 ,approbation must change its object1 especially in ,france4 ,it was for the ,french that ,fontenelle wrote these words3 8,the approbation of mankind is a sort of forced state1 which seeks nothing so much as to come to an end40#abb ,descartes goes off to die in ,sweden1 and ,gall comes to reign in ,france4 ,,iv4 ,,of ,,spurzheim4 ,spurzheim published two works2 the first of which is entitled1 8,observations sur la ,phrnologie1 ou la connaissance de l'homme moral et intellectuel1 fonde sur les fonctions du systme nerveux30#abc the title of the second is1 8,essai philosophique sur la nature morle et intellectuelle de l'homme20#abd and these two works are merely a reproduction of the doctrine of ,gall4 ,spurzheim makes ,gall's book over again--the same book that they commenced together--and abridges it4 ,spurzheim tells us how he heard ,gall1 and having heard him1 felt himself drawn to participate in his labours1 and propagate his doctrine4 8,in #ahjj1 ,i attended for the first time a course of lectures which ,m4 ,gall had from time to time repeated at ,vienna for four years4 ,he spoke then of the necessity there was for a brain to give out the manifestations of the soul2 and of the plurality of organs2 444 but he had not as yet begun to examine into the structure of the brain4#abe ,from the very first1 ,i found myself much attracted by the doctrine of the brain2 and from the period of my first attention to that subject to the present moment1 ,i have never lost sight of it as an object of study4 ,after finishing my studies in #ahjj1 ,i joined ,m4 ,gall1 in order to pursue in a special manner the anatomical part of the researches4#abf ,in #ahje1 we left ,vienna for the purpose of travelling together2 from which time1 up to the year #ahac1 we made our observations in common10 c4#abg ,in fact1 the two authors1 uniting their labours1 first published1 in #ahjh1 their fine memoir upon the anatomy of the brain1#abh and subsequently1 in #ahaj and #ahab1 the two first volumes of ,gall's great work4#abi ,in the year #ahac they separated1 and that separation even proved useful4 ,gall1 when writing independently1 has a freer movement4 ,had he continued united with ,spurzheim1 he either would not have written the last chapter of his fourth volume1 or he would have written it very differently1 and we should not have obtained the definite expression of his doctrine4 ,that chapter1 entitled 8,philosophy of ,man10 is ,gall's philosophy entire4 ,it is in that chapter that he says what he does understand by faculties1 by understanding1 by will1 c4 c4 and it is there that he defines the faculties of the individual understandings2#acj understanding1 a simple attribute of each faculty2#aca will1 a simple result of the simultaneous action of superior faculties1 c4#acb ,spurzheim never would have imagined the doctrine3 he found it already concocted2 he follows it1 and in doing so1 always hesitates4 ,he did not imagine it2 and perhaps never could have had the facilities enjoyed by ,gall for carrying it successfully into the world4 ,gall's mind was full of address4 ,we have seen his method of studying men4#acc ,in his great work there is a dominant tone of philosophy2 for the doctrine was already established at the period of the publication of that work4 ,when the doctrine was inchoate1 ,gall's tone was not quite so grave1 for it is above all things necessary to awaken the public curiosity1 and the philosophic tone does not answer for that purpose4 ,charles ,villers has preserved some of his souvenirs1 touching the first impressions produced by the doctrine4#acd 8,if10 writes ,gall at the period in question1 8the exterminating angel was under my orders1 wo to ,kstner1 to ,kant1 to ,wieland1 and others like them4444 ,why is it1 that no one has ever preserved for our times1 the skulls of ,homer1 ,virgil1 ,cicero1 c480#ace 8,at one time10 says ,charles ,villers1 8every body in ,vienna was trembling for his head1 and fearing that after his death it would be put in requisition to enrich ,dr4 ,gall's cabinet4 ,he announced his impatience as to the skulls of extraordinary persons--such as were distinguished by certain great qualities or by great talents--which was still greater cause for the general terror4 ,too many people were led to suppose themselves the objects of the doctor's regards1 and imagined their heads to be especially longed for by him1 as a specimen of the utmost importance to the success of his experiments4 ,some very curious stories are told on this point4 ,old ,m4 ,denis1 the ,emperor's librarian1 inserted a special clause in his will1 intended to save his cranium from ,m4 ,gall's scalpel40#acf ,gall and ,spurzheim differ from each other upon several points3 upon the offices of the external senses2 upon the names of the faculties of the soul2 upon their number2 and upon the classification of the faculties1 c4 ,let us examine a few of the points more particularly4 #a4 ,offices of the external senses4 8,m4 ,gall is disposed10 says ,spurzheim1 8to attribute to the external senses1 as well as to each and every internal faculty1 not only perception1 but also memory1 reminiscence1 and judgment4444 ,it seems to me that such facts 7the facts cited by ,gall7 do not prove the conclusion4 ,in the first place1 memory1 being nothing more than the repetition of knowledge1 must have its seat in the point where perception takes place4 ,the impressions of the nerves that give rise to the sensation of hunger1 c4 are indisputably perceived in the head1 which likewise has the reminiscence of hunger4444 ,i do not believe we can conclude that the eyes or the ears are the seats of reminiscence40#acg ,spurzheim is right1 as we have sufficiently seen2#ach perception is not in the organ of the sense4 ,but the error that ,spurzheim combats is not the whole of ,gall's error2 it is only a particular and secondary error3#aci the error that he does not perceive1 the error that he follows1 is a general and capital one4 ,from the independence of the external senses1 ,gall concludes the independence of the faculties of the soul3 he reasons upon an apparent analogy1 which conceals a profound dissimilitude2 and ,spurzheim reasons just as ,gall does4 8,in the nervous system10 says he1 8we find the five external senses separate and independent of each other40#adj 8,the faculties of the external senses are attached to different organs2 they may exist separately4 ,the same holds true of the internal senses40#ada 8,we assert that there is a particular organ for each species of sentiment or thought1 as there is for each species of exterior sensation40#adb ,like ,gall1 ,spurzheim denominates the faculties of the soul internal senses2 in the same spirit he says3 8,the sense of colour1 the sense of number1 sense of language1 sense of comparison1 sense of causality10#adc c4 c4 ,both authors begin by calling the faculties of the soul internal senses2 and then1 misled by the word1 they conclude from the independence of the external senses1 to the independence of their internal senses2 that is to say1 the independence of the faculties of the soul4 #b4 ,names of the faculties4 ,spurzheim accuses ,gall of having given denominations only to actions1 and not to the principles of those actions4 8,finding10 says he1 8a relation betwixt the development of a cerebral part and a sort of action1 ,m4 ,gall denominated the cerebral part from the action2 thus1 he spoke of the organs of music1 poetry1 c40#add 8,the nomenclature10 says he further1 8ought to be conformed to the faculties1 without regard to any action whatever4444 ,when we attribute to an organ cunning1 management1 hypocrisy1 intrigue1 c4 we do not make known the primary faculty which contributes to all these modified actions40#ade ,gall replies3 8,m4 ,spurzheim cannot have forgotten how often we reasoned without end1 with a view to determine the primitive destination of an organ4444 ,i confess1 that there are several organs1 with whose primary faculties ,i am not yet acquainted2 and ,i continue to denominate them from the degree of activity that led me to the discovery of them4 ,m4 ,spurzheim thinks himself more fortunate3 his metaphysical temperament has led him to the discovery of the fundamental or primitive faculty of every one of the organs4 ,let us put it to the proof40#adf ,indeed1 ,spurzheim's expedient for rendering himself master of the primary faculties is very simple4 ,he creates a word3 he calls the instinct of propagation amativity1 the propensity to steal1 convoitivity2 courage is combativity1 c4 c4 ,gall and ,spurzheim talk a great deal about nomenclature2 but they do not perceive1 that as to nomenclature1 the first difficulty1 and indeed the only one1 is to get at simple facts4 ,whoever has come to simple facts1 is very nigh to a good nomenclature4 ,descartes says3 8,had some one clearly explained the simple ideas that exist in the imagination of men1 and which constitute all that they think1 ,i should venture to hope for a language that it would be very easy to learn1 444 and1 which is the principal matter1 that would assist the judgment1 representing to it things so distinctly that it would be almost impossible for it to be deceived2 whereas1 on the contrary1 the words we now have possess1 so to speak1 only confused significations1 to which the human mind has been so long accustomed1 that it therefore understands scarcely any thing perfectly well40#adg #c4 ,number of the faculties4 ,spurzheim adds eight faculties to those established by ,gall1 and ,gall is vexed by it4 ,one does not see why4 ,what6 ,shall ,gall endow twenty-seven faculties1 and ,spurzheim not have the same privilege for seven or eight8#adh ,shall ,gall have a faculty for space1 one for number1 c4 and ,spurzheim be refused one for time1 one for extent1 c48 ,is not ,spurzheim half right1 when he says3 8,one does not readily perceive why ,m4 ,gall should desire to suggest to his readers that his method of treating the doctrine of the brain is the only admissible one1 and that there are no other organs than those he has recognised2 that the organs do nothing but what he attributes to them2 444 that all he says and all he does 7and that only7 bears the stamp of perfection2 and that his decision constitutes the supreme law40#adi #d4 ,classification and attributes of the faculties4 ,gall1 by giving the same attributes to all the faculties1 and to each faculty all the attributes of the understanding1 in fact forms out of the faculties only two groups3 the group of faculties that he supposes common to man and the animals1 and the group of faculties that he supposes to be proper to man alone4 ,spurzheim divides and subdivides them4 ,none of the formulas required for the classification agreed upon are omitted4#aej ,in the first place1 there are two orders of faculties3 the affective and the intellectual faculties2 then each of these orders is divided into genera4 ,the first order has two genera3 the affective faculties common to man and animals1#aea and the affective faculties peculiar to man alone4#aeb ,the second has three genera3 the faculties or internal senses which make external objects known2#aec the faculties or internal senses which make known the relations of objects in general2#aed and the faculties or internal senses that reflect4#aee ,what an apparatus for saying very simple things2 for saying that there are propensities1#aef sentiments1#aeg and intellectual faculties6 ,what singular personification of all these faculties3 faculties that know2 faculties that reflect6#aeh ,spurzheim elsewhere speaks of happy faculties4#aei ,indeed1 what arbitrariness in the distribution of facts6 ,and ,gall1 too1 is he not half right8 8,by what right10 says he1 8does ,m4 ,spurzheim exclude from the intellectual faculties imitation1 wit1 ideality or poetry1 circumspection1 secretivity1 constructivity8 ,how are perseverance1 circumspection1 imitation2 how are they sentiments8 ,what reason have we for counting among the propensities constructivity rather than melody1 benevolence1 or imitation80#afj ,gall1 by endowing each faculty with all the attributes of an understanding1 makes as many understandings as faculties4 ,spurzheim makes several kinds of understandings3 understandings that know1 understandings that reflect1 c4 ,he restores the sensitive and rational souls4 ,in fine1 ,gall and ,spurzheim rarely agree as to their faculties4 ,in hope ,gall sees nothing more than an attribute2 ,spurzheim beholds it as a primary faculty4 ,in conscience ,gall sees nothing but an effect of benevolence2 ,spurzheim looks upon it as a peculiar faculty4 ,gall resolves that there is only one organ of religion1 and ,spurzheim insists upon three--the organ of causality1 that of supernaturality1 and that of veneration1 c4 c4 ,we should never end1 were we to follow them throughout their debates4 ,i have said enough to show the case1 and ,i now pass on to ,broussais4 ,v4 ,,of ,,broussais4 ,broussais appears to have been born solely for the purpose of imagining or propagating systems4 ,guided by facts which he seized upon with a rare sagacity1 ,broussais begins by bringing back certain affections to their real seats2#afa but soon1 by an immoderate generalization of this fine result1 he perceives all affections in the same affection1 all diseases in the same malady2 he imagines one abstract affection1 by means of which he explains all other affections3 fevers are nothing but irritations of the digestive apparatus2 insanity is nothing but an irritation of the brain2#afb and he who is so intolerant of the personifications proposed by others1 makes one personification more2 in fine1 his exclusive and headstrong genius carries him beyond himself1 and1 as if merely to amuse him after the fatigue of forming his systems1 plunges him into the question of phrenology1 where he enjoys himself so much the more1 because he finds in it his own accustomed method1 his own ideas1 and his own language3 there are plenty of faculties to bring back to their organs1 plenty of localizations to establish4 ,broussais ought not to be judged of by his 8,cours de ,phrnologie40#afc ,the five or six first lessons1 or1 as he calls them1 generalities1#afd are merely a confused mixture of ideas3 the notions of ,condillac rejected by ,cabanis1 and the ideas of the phrenologists4 ,he says that sensibility is the common origin of the faculties2#afe he calls perception a primary faculty1#aff c4 c42 and ,condillac would not speak differently4 ,but1 on the other hand1 he says that there are as many memories as there are organs2#afg that the instincts and the sentiments possess a memory1 as the external perceptions#afh have theirs2 that the mind is the sum of the faculties1#afi c42 and ,gall could not say it more clearly4 ,broussais is particularly opposed to the moi of ,descartes4 8,seduced10 says he1 8by the moi of ,descartes1 philosophers have been led to reason according to the testimony of their consciousness44440#agj ,and according to what testimony does ,broussais think they ought to reason8 ,he thinks it very funny to call the moi an intra-cranial entity1#aga intra-cranial central being1#agb person par excellence1 c4#agc ,he laughs at the moi of ,descartes2 he forgets that the moi of ,gall is either nothing else than the sum 7ensemble7 of the intellectual faculties1 or nothing else than a word2 and he makes for himself a peculiar moi1#agd which he locates in the organ of comparison4 8,we owe10 says he1 8to the organ of general comparison the distinction of one person expressed by the sign me40#age ,broussais was never designed for compliance with the ideas of others2 a yoke oppresses him2 he is never truly ,broussais1 except in the midst of conflict4 ,in #ahaf he publishes a volume1#agf and the medical doctrines are shook for half a century3 we ought to read that volume over again1 and forget the 8,cours de ,phrnologie40 ,,vi4 ,,broussais',s ,,psycology4 ,the fact is1 ,broussais is busier with his own opinions than with what ,gall thought2 and here is a specimen of his way of thinking3 8,the understanding and its different manifestations are10 says he1 8the phenomena of the nervous actions40#agg 8,the faculties10 says he further1 8are the actions of the material organs10#agh c4 ,broussais's whole psycology is contained in these words4 ,the organ1 and the phenomenon produced by the organ4 ,to speak more clearly1 the organ and the action of the organ4 ,to speak like ,cabanis1 the organ and the secretion of the organ1 or thought4#agi ,that's all6 ,the understanding1 therefore1 is merely a phenomenon1 a product1 an act4 ,but if this be the case1 how can there be a continuity of the moi8 ,now1 the consciousness which gives me the unity of the moi1 gives me not less assuredly the continuity of the moi4 ,descartes' admirable words are3 8,i find that there is in us an intellectual memory40#ahj ,the consciousness tells me that ,i am one1 and ,gall insists that ,i am multiple2 the consciousness tells me ,i am free1 and ,gall avers that there is no moral liberty2 the consciousness endows me with the continuity of my understanding1 but ,cabanis and ,broussais tell me that my understanding is nothing but an act4 ,philosophers will talk4 ,,vii4 ,,broussais',s ,,physiology4 ,the whole of ,broussais's physiology is founded upon irritation4 ,he says1 8,irritation constitutes the basis of the physiological doctrine40#aha ,but what is irritation8 ,broussais replies3 8,it is the exaggeration of contractility40#ahb ,but then1 what is contractility8 ,in ,haller1 the term irritability 7for that is his term for contractility7 possesses a precise meaning and import4 ,irritability is a property of muscular fibre1 by which it shortens or contracts itself when touched4 ,haller demonstrated1 and it is his glory1 that the muscle alone moves when it is touched4 ,what is that to ,broussais8 ,he goes back again to the vague irritability of ,glisson and de ,gorter3 like those authors1 he assigns it to every tissue1 and1 like them1 he explains every thing by means of it4 ,broussais's irritation is merely ,haller's irritability exaggerated and deformed4 ,the genius of ,broussais was too impatient to allow him to proceed step by step up to the idea--too impassioned to hinder him from being satisfied with the name--and for that very reason he appears to have been by nature fitted for success in a school where the name is every thing4 ,but here is the great difference4 ,gall and ,broussais laboured for the ,school3 ,descartes toiled for the human mind4 ,,viii4 ,i return to ,gall4 ,those who wish to learn ,gall's doctrine1 will always go up to ,gall himself4 ,spurzheim already alters the spirit of that doctrine1 and ,gall complains of it4 8,m4 ,spurzheim10 says he1 8knows my discoveries better than any body else1 but he tries to introduce among them a spirit quite foreign to that in which they were begun1 continued and perfected40#ahc ,gall1 moreover1 was a great anatomist4 ,his idea of tracing the fibres of the brain is1 as to the anatomy of that organ1 the fundamental idea4 ,the idea is not his own3 two ,french anatomists1 ,vieussens and ,pourfour du ,petit1 had admirably understood it long before his time2 but at the period of his appearance it had been long forgotten4 ,the brain was not then dissected by any one3 it was cut in slices4 ,it was a great merit in ,gall to have recalled the true method of dissecting the brain2 and there was still greater address on his part1 in connecting with his labours in positive anatomy1 his doctrine of independent faculties and multiple brain4 ,this strange doctrine has had a fortune still more strange4 ,gall and ,spurzheim forgot to place curiosity among their primary faculties4 ,they were wrong4 ,but for the credulous curiosity of mankind1 how could they have explained the success of their doctrine8 ,fortunately1 a system never lives otherwise than as a system lives4 ,that of the moment is abandoned for the sake of another3 and almost always for a perfectly opposite one4 ,systems multiply and pass away2 and we are indebted to the systems themselves for an escape from the mischiefs of systems4 ,,notes4 ,,note ,i4 ,,anatomical ,,relations ,,supposed ,,by ,,gall ,,to ,,exist ,,between ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,external ,,senses1 ,,and ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,intellectual ,,faculties4 ,page #hb4 ,according to ,gall1 the origin1 the development1 the structure and mode of termination1 as to the organs of the faculties of the soul and the organs of the external senses1 every thing is similar1 every thing is in common4 ,it is known that two substances compose the nervous system--the gray matter1 and the white or fibrous matter4 ,well1 according to ,gall1 one of these substances produces the other4 ,the gray matter produces the white matter4 ,wherever1 therefore1 there happens to be any gray matter1 white matter must appear2 that is to say1 nervous fibres1#ahd nervous filaments1 nerves4 ,all the nerves in the body must arise in this way4 ,the spinal nerves arise from the gray matter which is in the interior of the spinal marrow2 the cerebral nerves from the gray matter that is in the interior of the medulla oblongata4 ,hence1 the nerves of the body are organs of the senses4 ,on the other hand1 the brain and the cerebellum1#ahe which are the organs of the faculties of the soul1 must arise like the nerves3 the brain from the gray matter of the pyramidal eminences2 the cerebellum from the gray matter that surrounds the restiform bodies4 ,in the second place1 whenever a nerve traverses a mass of gray matter1 it receives from it1 according to ,gall1 certain new nervous filaments2 and in this way it grows and developes itself4 ,the cerebrum and cerebellum will not fail therefore to grow and be developed likewise4 ,the primitive bundles of the cerebellum1 7the restiform bodies17 will grow by means of the filaments which will be imparted to them by the gray matter of the ciliary body3 the primitive bundles of the cerebrum1 7the pyramidal eminences17 by the filaments imparted to them by1 first1 the gray matter of the pons varolii2 secondly1 by that of the optic strata2 and then by that of the olivary bodies1 corpora striata1 c4 c4 ,finally1 in the same manner as a nerve of sense expands at its termination1 and by means of such expansion forms the organ of the sense1 so the primitive bundles of fibres of the brain and of the cerebellum terminate in expansions1 and constitute the organs of the internal senses2 that is to say1 the lobes of the cerebellum and the hemispheres of the brain4#ahf ,,note ,,ii4 ,,difference ,,between ,,instinct ,,and ,,understanding4 ,page #fd 7,note74 ,and he does not see that as to the instincts and the understanding all is contrast4 ,here is what ,i have elsewhere said upon this question1 so long debated1 of the instinct and understanding of animals4 8,there is a most complete difference between instinct and understanding4 8,in instinct all is blind1 necessary1 and invariable4 ,in understanding every thing is elective1 conditional1 and modifiable4 8,the beaver which builds its house1 and the bird that constructs its nest1 act only by instinct4 8,the dog and the horse1 that learn even the meaning of several of our words1 and who pay obedience to us1 do so by understanding4 8,in instinct all is innate4 ,the beaver builds without having learned to build3 all that he does is from fatality4 ,the beaver builds under the impulsion of a constant and irresistible force4 8,in understanding1 every thing results from experience and instruction4 ,the dog obeys only because he has learned to obey3 he is perfectly free in this respect2 for he obeys only because he will obey4 8,finally1 in regard to instinct every thing is particular4 ,that admirable industry that the beaver exhibits in the construction of his hut1 can be employed in no other occupation than the building of his hut4 ,now1 in understanding every thing is general2 for the dog could apply the same flexibility of attention1 and of conception1 which he uses in obeying1 to do any other thing4 8,in animals there are1 therefore1 two distinct and primary forces--instinct and understanding4 ,as long as our conceptions of these forces were confused1 all our views and opinions in regard to the actions of animals remained obscure and contradictory4 ,among these actions1 some exhibited man every where superior to the brute2 while others appeared to accord to the brute creation the superiority over man--a contradiction almost as deplorable as absurd6 ,by the distinction that separates blind and necessary actions from elective and conditional ones--or1 in a word1 instinct from intelligence--all contradiction disappears1 and order succeeds to confusion4 ,whatever in animals is understanding1 does not in any degree approach the excellence of the human understanding2 and whatsoever1 under the appearance of understanding1 seemed superior to the human understanding1 is in fact a mere result of a mechanical and blind force40#ahg ,here is what ,i say as to the boundaries between the intelligence of man and of animals4 8,animals receive1 through their senses1 impressions similar to those that we receive through the medium of our senses2 like ourselves1 they retain the traces of these impressions3 these impressions1 when preserved1 form for them1 as well as for us1 numerous and various associations3 they combine them1 they draw from them inferences1 and deduce judgments from them3 therefore they possess understanding4 8,but the whole of their understanding stops at that point4 ,the understanding they possess is not one that can consider itself3 it cannot see itself1 does not know itself4 ,they do not possess reflection1 that supreme faculty with which the mind of man is endowed1 and which enables him to turn his intellectual power inwards1 so as to study and know the nature of his own understanding4 8,reflection1 thus defined1 is then the boundary that separates human intelligence from that of the brute creation3 and in fact it cannot be denied that this furnishes a strong line of demarcation between them4 ,thought1 which contemplates itself2 understanding1 which sees itself and studies itself2 knowledge1 which knows itself2 these evidently constitute an order of determinate phenomena of a decided character1 and to which no brute animal can ever attain4 ,this is1 if one might so speak1 a purely intellectual domain2 and it appertains to man alone4 ,in one word1 animals feel1 know1 think2 but man is the only one of all created beings to whom has been given the power of feeling that he feels1 of knowing that he knows1 and of thinking that he thinks40#ahh ,i will quote1 also1 the following passage from my work sur l'instinct et l'intelligence des animaux1 p4 #agh1 et seq4 8 444 ,there are three facts3 instinct1 understanding of brutes1 and human understanding2 and each of these facts has its definite limits4 8,instinct acts without knowing2 understanding knows in order to act2 the human understanding alone knows1 and knows itself4 8,reflection1 closely defined1 is the knowledge of thought by thought4 ,and this power of thought over thought gives us a whole order of new relations4 ,as soon as the mind perceives itself it judges itself2 as soon as it can act upon itself it is free2 as soon as it becomes free it becomes moral4 8,man is only moral because he is free4 8,the brute animal follows its body2 in the midst of this body1 which shrouds it completely in matter1 the human mind is free1 and so free that it can1 whenever it prefers to do so1 immolate its very body4 8#8,the great power of the will over the body1' says ,bossuet1 #8consists in this prodigious effect1 that man is so completely master of his frame1 that he can even sacrifice it for the sake of some greater good in view4 ,to rush into the midst of blows1 and plunge into a flight of arrows from a blind impetuosity1 as happens among brute creatures1 shows nothing superior to the body itself2 but to resolve to die with understanding1 and for reasons1 notwithstanding the whole disposition of the body to the contrary1 evinces a principle superior to the body2 and among all the tribes of animals1 man is the only one in whom this principle exists4'0 ,,note ,,iii4 ,,gall1 ,,as ,,an ,,observer4 ,page #ic4 ,he studied them 7mankind7 in his own way1 but he studied them very closely4 ,gall was a practical observer4 ,he observed and studied always1 and with so much the greater success because 8people never suspected that they had to do 7these are his own words7 with a man who knew perfectly well that the basis of human character continues to be always the same1 and that merely the objects that interest us change with the progress of years40#ahi ,he examined 8families1 schools1 hospitals1 c40#aij ,and he never was satisfied with appearances only4 8,the occupations that we pursue as our business1 generally prove nothing either as to our faculties or our propensities3 but those which we engage in as recreation are almost always in conformity with our tastes and our talents40#aia ,his observations on men were more serviceable to him in judging of and describing their characters1 than the bumps on the skull4 8,i often said to my friends1 show me the fundamental forces of the soul1 and ,i will find the organ and the seat for each one of them4#aib 444 ,when ,i had become convinced that a distinguished talent1 and one fully so recognised1 was especially the work of nature1 ,i examined the head of the individual1 444 c40#aic ,gall's progression1 then1 was from observation to the cranium2 he first proceeded from observation to the cranium1 and next from the cranium to the brain4 ,furthermore1 ,gall began by studying the physiognomy--the features of the countenance--like ,lavater4 ,he at first thought that a good memory was connected with a certain conformation of the eyes3 8,i remarked10 says he1 8that they all had large projecting eyes4444 ,i suspected1 therefore1 that there ought to exist some connexion between memory and this conformation of the eyes40#aid ,again he says1 8,it may be perceived1 from the progress of these researches1 that the first step consisted in the discovery of certain organs2 that it was by degrees only that we allowed facts to speak in order to deduce from them general principles2 and that it was subsequently1 and towards the close1 that we had learned to know the brain40#aie ,thus it appears that the study of the brain came later than the doctrine2 and that is the reason why the anatomy of the brain is a mere series of mistakes and conjectures--,i mean here the special anatomy1 the secret anatomy1 the phrenological anatomy2 ,i mean the anatomy made out to suit the doctrine4 ,i have already sufficiently discriminated between it and the real anatomy4#aif ,,note ,,iv4 ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,spirits4 ,page #aaf4 ,he who is so intolerant of the personifications proposed by others makes one personification more4 ,broussais explains every thing by the word irritation1 just as ,gall explains every thing by the word faculties1 and as ,malebranche explained them by animal spirits4 ,after serving ,descartes1 the animal spirits were in the service of ,malebranche2 they served all the authors of the seventeenth century4 ,malebranche commences one of his chapters with these words3 8,every body agrees that the animal spirits44440#aig ,he had no idea that every body would agree some day1 that the animal spirits is mere nonsense4 ,there were animal spirits of all sorts2 as ,gall had faculties of all sorts3 there were agitated#aih animal spirits1 languid animal spirits4#aii ,there were even libertine animal spirits4 8,wine is so spirituous10 says ,malebranche1 8that it is animal spirits almost completely formed1 but libertine spirits40#bjj ,the animal spirits seemed to have become the ultima ratio of the philosophers4 ,the author of a book1 in other respects to be esteemed1 thus defined imagination3 8,imagination is a perception of the soul's caused by the internal motion of the animal spirits40#bja ,that author had no doubt that he was saying something4 ,,note ,v4 ,,exaggeration ,,of ,,broussais1 ,,even ,,in ,,phrenology4 ,page #abj4 ,we ought to read that volume over again1 and forget the ,cours de ,phrnologie4 ,broussais does not adopt merely the general ideas of the phrenologists--he adopts even the smallest of them4 ,gall had located the instinct of murder in a given part of the brain2 and he supposed1 be it understood1 that this part existed only in the brain of the carnivorous animals4 ,but see1 it is found in the brain of the herbivora2 and one would suppose that the phrenologists would be in trouble about it4 ,don't deceive yourself1 the instinct of murder is the instinct of destruction4 ,spurzheim denominates it destructivity2 and the herbivorous animals must possess it1 for they eat plants and consequently destroy them4 8,the herbivora0 says ,broussais1 8effect a real destruction among plants4#bjb ,an attempt has been made to turn these ideas into ridicule1 even in an ,academy4444 ,it was in a learned society of this kind considered ridiculous in the phrenologists to compare the destruction of vegetables to that of animals4 ,for my own part ,i do not see why the idea should be rejected1 if the fundamental object of the organ be to procure the means of alimentation1 which seems to be quite certain40#bjc ,gall imagines an organ for religion2 he thinks it peculiar to man1 and denominates it the ,organ of ,theosophy4 ,the same organ is found quite down in the scale as low as the sheep2#bjd and do not suppose that ,broussais is at all shocked by the discovery4 ,if necessary he will go further than all the phrenologists taken together4 8,the phrenologists0 says he1 8have denied that this sentiment 7the sentiment of veneration7 belongs to the animals4 ,i am not of that opinion4 ,a certain shade of veneration exists in many species1 among the vertebrate1 that choose their leaders1 and march according to a signal given by their chiefs and obey them4 ,thus even among the sheep you may see a chief40#bje ,who would have believed it8 ,broussais finds ,gall too timorous4 8,there is10 says he1 8no central organ4 ,this is considered as one of the most powerful objections to ,gall4 ,as far as ,i know he never answered it4 ,as for me1 ,i shall be more frank1 perhaps more bold3 ,i shall say it is impossible that there should be one1 c40#bjf ,,note ,,vi4 ,,contractility ,,of ,,broussais4 ,page #abf4 ,he assigns it to every tissue1 and1 like them1 he explains every thing by means of it4 ,he assigns it to every tissue4 ,haller attributed this property to the muscles alone1 8but it is a common property of the tissues40#bjg ,he explains every thing by means of it3 every thing1 even innervation itself4 ,but he is constrained to add3 8,doubtless something more occurs in the interior of the nervous tissue2 doubtless we are unacquainted and ignorant as to how that other thing is connected with the motions in question1 and how it may employ them in the act of innervation10 c4#bjh ,so we perceive1 in the first place1 contractility explains innervation2 and then1 that something more is wanting4 ,and as nervous contractility is nothing but a mental fiction 7a nerve never moves1 never contracts1 when it is touched7 the whole matter tapers down to this something more1 or to that other thing4 ,see how very far from being rigorous are those who construct systems4 ,,note ,,vii4 ,,real ,,labours ,,of ,,gall ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,brain4 ,page #abh4 ,gall1 moreover1 was a great anatomist4 ,he found that the medullary substance of the brain was fibrous throughout2#bji he saw the fibres of the medulla oblongata decussate before they form the pyramidal eminences1#baj those of the corpora olivaria1 c42 that is to say1 all the ascending fibres of the medulla oblongata across the pons varolii1 thalami nervor opticorum1 and the corpora striata1 as far as the vault of the hemispheres2 he saw the bundles formed by these fibres increased in magnitude at each of these passages2 he distinguished the fibres which go out in order to expand in the hemispheres1 from those that go in in order to give birth to the commissures3 many nerves that were regarded as coming out immediately from the brain1 were by him traced even into the medulla oblongata1 c4 ,and ,i repeat that all these facts1 with the discovery of which he has enriched the science of anatomy1 all of them are the results of a happy thought of his--the idea of tracing the fibres of the brain1 or to use a common expression1 of substituting in the dissection of the brain the method of developments for that of sections4 ,those of ,gall's opinions which it seems ought not to be adopted1 are3 that in which he supposes the nerve fibres to be born 7he understands the word to the letter7 of the gray matter2 that in which he contends that the convolutions of the brain are merely foldings of the medullary fibres1 and can therefore be unfolded2 that in which he compares the rete mucosum of the skin to the gray matter of the encephalon1 c41 c4 ,gall had a mind which impelled him to the formation of hypotheses2 and even in his real anatomy there is a decided smack of a system-author4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,footnotes #a ,anatomie et ,physiologie du systme nerveux en gnral1 et du cerveau en particulier1 avec des observations sur la possibilit de reconnatre plusieurs dispositions intellectuelles et morales de l'homme et des animaux par la configuration de leurs ttes2 #d vol4 #dto1 avec planches4 ,paris1 de #ahaj #ahai4 #b ,t4 ii4 p4 #bag4 8,it is generally understood10 says he further1 8that the brain is the peculiar organ of the soul40 ,t4 ii4 p4 #ad4 #c ,gall1 t4 ii4 p4 #bba4 #d ,gall1 t4 ii4 p4 #bbb4 ,haller1 ,elem4 ,physiolog4 etc41 t4 iv4 p4 #cjd4 ,sensus prterea sedem in cerebro esse1 atque ad cerebrum per nervos mandari1 alia sunt qu ostendunt4 #e ,rapports du ,physique et du ,moral de l'homme1 ,i,ie ,mmoire1 vii4 #f ,leons d',anat4 ,comp4 t4 ii4 p4 #aec4 #g ,ibid4 p4 #agc4 #h ,recherches ,phys4 sur la ,vie et la ,mort1 art4 vi4 ii4 #i ,ibid4 #aj ,descartes1 ,lettre ,regius ou ,leroy1 t4 viii4 p4 #eae1 edit1 par ,m4 ,cousin4 #aa ,t4 v4 p4 #cd4 8,i remark10 says he again1 8that the mind does not receive the impression from all parts of the body1 but from the brain only40--,t4 i4 p4 #cdd4 #ab ,t4 vi4 p4 #cdg4 #ac ,t4 ii4 p4 #ceg4 #ad ,t4 ii4 p4 #ceh4 #ae 8,the principal object of this work10 says he1 8is to show how all our knowledge1 and all our faculties come from the senses40--,trait des ,sensations1 prambule de l',extrait ,raisonn4 #af ,trait des ,sensations1 pram4 de l',extrait ,raisonn4 #ag ,de l'homme1 de ses facults intellectuelles1 etc4 t4 i4 p4 #ahf4 ,liege1 #aggd4 #ah ,he very properly distinguishes the senses from the understanding2 but1 as will be elsewhere seen1 he endows each sense with all the attributes of the understanding4 ,he escapes from one error only to fall into another4 #ai ,see my ,recherches ,exprimentales sur les proprits et les fonctions du ,systme ,nerveux1 #b;d edit4 ,paris1 #ahdb4 #bj ,ibid4 #ba ,see my ,recherches ,exprimentales sur les proprits et les fonctions du ,systme ,nerveux1 #b;d edit4 ,paris1 #ahdb4 #bb ,see my ,recherches ,exprimentales sur les proprits et les fonctions du ,systme ,nerveux4 #bc ,ibid4 #bd ,see my ,recherches ,exprimentales sur les proprits et les fonctions du ,systme ,nerveux4 #be 8,from what ,i have now said1 it clearly follows that the aperceptive faculty1 the faculty of reminiscence1 and that of memory1 are nothing but attributes common to all the fundamental faculties40--,gall1 t4 iv4 p4 #cai4 8,all that ,i have just said1 is also applicable to the judgment and the imagination10 c4--,ibid4 p4 #cbe4 8,the sentiments and the propensities also have their judgment1 their imagination1 their recollection1 and their memory40--,ibid4 p4 #cbg4 #bf ,ibid4 #cbh4 #bg ,ibid4 #cbg4 #bh ,gall1 t4 iv4 p4 #cci4 #bi ,ibid4 p4 #cda4 #cj 8,the intellectual faculty and all its subdivisions1 such as perception1 recollection1 memory1 judgment1 imagination1 c4 are not fundamental faculties1 but merely general attributes of them40--,gall1 t4 iv4 p4 #cbg4 #ca 8,reason10 says ,gall1 8is the result of the simultaneous action of all the intellectual faculties40--,gall1 t4 iv4 p4 #cda4 #cb ,gall enumerates twenty-seven of these faculties1 ,spurzheim enumerates twenty-five1 c4 #cc ,gall1 t4 iv4 p4 #cbe4 #cd ,ibid4 p4 #ccj4 #ce 8,i find in myself10 says ,descartes1 8divers faculties of thought1 that have each their own way1 444 whence ,i conclude1 they are distinct from me1 as modes are distinct from things40--,t4 i4 p4 #ccb4 #cf ,t4 viii4 p4 #afi4 #cg ,gall1 iv4 p4 #cda4 #ch ,ibid4 #ci ,ibid4 t4 ii4 p4 #ajj4 #dj ,gall1 t4 ii4 p4 #ig4 #da ,ibid4 #db 8,it is a law of moral liberty1 that man shall be always determined1 and that he shall himself determine from the most numerous and most powerful motives40--,t4 ii4 p4 #acg4 #dc 8,but an organ may act with greater energy1 and furnish a more powerful motive40--,t4 ii4 p4 #ajd4 #dd 8,there is no person who1 upon contemplating himself1 does not feel and experience that will and liberty are one and the same2 or rather1 that there is no difference between that which is voluntary and that which is free40--,t4 i4 p4 #dif4 #de ,descartes1 t4 i4 p4 #bii4 8,it is always in our power to prevent ourselves from pursuing a good which is clearly known to us1 provided we should think it a good to show in that way our free will40--,descartes1 t4 vi4 p4 #acc4 8,the fulness of liberty consists in the great use of our positive ability to follow the worse1 while we truly know the better40--,ibid4 p4 #ach4 #df ,the question here relates solely to the brain1 properly so called1 7the lobes or cerebral hemispheres47 ,the rest of the encephalon does not serve in the operations of the understanding4 ,see the preceding article1 p4 #bi1 et seq4 #dg ,individual intelligences--an expression of ,gall's4 8,each individual intelligence has its own proper organ40--iv4 #cda4 #dh ,even the instincts1 according to ,gall1 have their memory1 imagination1 c4 8,the instinct of propagation1 that of the love of offspring1 pride1 vanity1 possess1 beyond contradiction1 their perceptive faculty1 their recollection1 their memory1 judgment1 imagination1 and their own attention40--,t4 iv4 p4 #cca4 8,the propensities and the sentiments likewise possess their judgment1 their taste1 their imagination1 their recollection1 and their memory40--iv4 #cdd4 #di ,gall1 t4 iv4 p4 #cbe4 #ej ,ibid4 #ea ,see particularly t4 ii4 p4 #e4 #eb 8,had ,i to do with readers wholly free from prejudice1 ,i should1 in order to convince them of this1 7the supposition of innate ideas17 have nothing to do but show them that mankind acquire all the knowledge they possess by the simple use of their natural faculties40--,philos4 ,essay on the ,human ,understanding4 #ec 8,locke contents himself10 says he1 8with acknowledging that the soul perceives1 doubts1 believes1 reasons1 knows1 wills1 and reflects3 that we are convinced of the existence of these operations2 444 but he seems to have regarded them as something innate40 ,a short time before he had said1 8,we shall see that all the faculties of the soul appeared to him to be innate qualities40--,trait des ,sensations4 7,extrait raisonn47 #ed ,see t4 iii4 p4 #ha4 #ee ,t4 i4 p4 #cdc4 #ef 8,i may now flatter myself10 says he1 8that the reader is sufficiently prepared for quite a new philosophy1 deduced directly from the fundamental forces40--,t4 iii4 p4 #aa4 #eg ,t4 iv4 p4 #cbg4 #eh ,t4 iv4 p4 #cai4 #ei ,t4 iv4 p4 #cda4 #fj ,ibid4 #fa ,ibid4 #fb 8,each individual understanding possesses its own proper organ40--,t4 iv4 p4 #cda4 #fc ,t4 i4 p4 #bcj4 #fd ,t4 iv4 p4 #aje4 #fe ,see the preceding articles4 #ff ,t4 iv4 p4 #cdj4 8,from all these faculties comes at last decision4 ,it is this decision 444 which is really will and wishing40--,t4 ii4 p4 #aje4 #fg ,t4 iv4 p4 #cda4 #fh ,t4 iv4 p4 #bfi4 #fi ,t4 iv4 p4 #bga4 #gj ,t4 iv4 p4 #beb4 #ga ,t4 iv4 p4 #beb4 #gb ,t4 iv4 p4 #aj4 #gc ,t4 i4 p4 #bij4 #gd ,t4 i4 p4 #bhg4 #ge ,article 8,libert10 ,diction4 ,encyclop4 #gf ,t4 iii4 p4 #aee4 ,such phrases cannot be concluded4 #gg ,t4 iii4 p4 #bac4 #gh ,ibid4 #bai4 #gi 8,this term1 instinct1 is applicable10 says he1 8to all the fundamental forces40--,t4 iv4 p4 #ccd4 ,and he does not see that as to the instincts and the understanding all is contrast4 ,upon this difference of instinct and understanding1 see my work ,de l',instinct et de l',intelligence des ,animaux1 etc4 ,paris1 #ahde1 #b;d edit4 #hj ,it is true that this approximation astonishes him4 8,the predilection of animals for elevated places depends10 says he1 8upon the same parts as pride1 which is in man a moral sentiment6 ,let the reader imagine the astonishment excited in my mind by such a phenomenon40--,t4 iii4 #caa4 #ha 8,co-existing with the love of war1 it 7the carnivorous instinct7 constitutes the intrepid warrior40--,t4 iii4 p4 #beh4 8,i know a head which1 as to the organ of murder1 approaches that of ,madeline ,albert1 and the la ,bouhours1 except only that nature has executed it upon a grander scale4 ,to witness suffering1 is for this person to have the keenest enjoyment4 ,whoever does not love blood1 is in his eyes contemptible40--,t4 iii4 p4 #bei4 ,the pen refuses to transcribe such things1 which fortunately1 however1 are pure extravagances4 #hb 8,from my reflections it follows that conscience is nothing but a modification1 an affection of the moral sense10 7organ47--,t4 iv4 p4 #baj4 8,from all that ,i have said as to conscience1 it follows that it can by no means be regarded as a fundamental quality3 that it is really only an affection of the moral sense--or benevolence40--,t4 iv4 p4 #bag4 #hc ,t4 iii4 p4 #cba4 #hd ,t4 iv4 p4 #bgb4 #he ,t4 ii4 p4 #bhg4 #hf ,recherches sur le systme nerveux en gnral et sur celui du cerveau en particulier2 mmoire prsent l',institut de ,france1 le #ad ,mars1 #ahjh2 suivi d',observations sur le rapport qui en a t fait cette compagnie par ses commissaires1 par ,f4 ,j4 ,gall et ,g4 ,spurzheim4 ,paris1 #ahji4 #hg 8,the nervous membrane of the brain forms these folds1 which are denominated its convolutions40--,anat4 et ,physiol4 du ,systme ,nerveux1 t4 iii4 p4 #hb4 #hh ,spurzheim justly remarks3 8,admitting that the direction of the fibres is known1 that we know their consistence to be greater or less1 that their colour is more or less white1 that their magnitude is more or less considerable1 c4 what conclusions can we1 from all these circumstances1 draw as to their functions8 ,none at all40--,obser4 sur la ,phrnologie1 ou la connaissance de l'homme moral et intellectuel fonde sur les fonctions du ,systme ,nerveux1 p4 #hc4 ,paris1 #ahah4 #hi ,rapport sur un ,mmoire de ,,mm4 ,gall et ,spurzheim1 rlatif l'anat4 du cerveau4 ,sances des #be ,avril et #b ,mai1 #ahjh4 #ij 8,the determination of the fundamental forces and the seat of their organs constitutes the most striking portion of my discoveries4 ,the knowledge of the primary faculties and qualities1 and the seat of their material conditions1 constitutes precisely the phrenology of the brain40--,gall1 ,anat4 et ,phys4 du ,syst4 ,nerv41 t4 iii4 p4 #d4 #ia ,lettre d'un ,mdecin des ,hpitaux du ,roi4 ,namur4 #agaj4 #ib ,elementa ,physiologi1 t4 iv4 p4 #chd4 #ic 8,but if it be supposed that each fundamental faculty1 as well as each particular sense1 is dependent on a particular part of the brain10 c4 ,gall1 ,anat4 et ,phys4 du ,syst4 ,nerv41 t4 iii4 p4 #cib4 #id ,t4 iv4 p4 #i4 #ie ,t4 iv4 p4 #i4 #if ,t4 ii4 p4 #bcd4 #ig ,the brain1 properly so called4 #ih ,i see with my eyes4--,m4 #ii ,see my ,recherches ,exprimentales sur les proprits et les fonctions du ,systme ,nerveux1 #b;d edit4 #ahdb4 #ajj ,ibid4 #aja ,see at the end of this work the first ,note on ,gall's ,anatomy4 #ajb ,t4 i4 p4 #bga4 ,spurzheim explains himself in like manner4 8,the organs of the internal faculties are as separate as the bundles of the nerves of the five senses40--,observ4 sur la ,phrnol41 c4 p4 #gd4 8,it is found that the brain is composed of many bundles1 which must have their functions40--,ibid4 p4 #id4 8,the organs 444 are composed of divergent bundles1 of convolutions1 and of the commissures40--,ibid4 #ajc ,t4 iv4 p4 #h4 8,bonnet believes1 and it is probable1 that each nerve fibre has its own proper action40--,ibid4 #ajd ,t4 iii4 p4 #b4 #aje ,t4 iii4 p4 #d4 #ajf ,see my ,recherches ,exprimentales sur les proprits et les fonctions du ,systme ,nerveux1 #b;d edit4 #ahdb4 ,see also the first article of this work4 #ajg ,it must1 however1 be one or the other2 for it must be something4 ,might it be a convolution1 as has been since said8 ,but there are not seven and twenty convolutions1 c4 c4 #ajh ,t4 ii4 p4 #afc4 #aji ,gall1 as we have seen1 confounds understanding with instinct4 ,literally1 he divides understanding into many instincts1 and then out of each instinct constructs an intellectual faculty4 ,see the second article of this work4 8,the term instinct suits all the fundamental faculties40--,t4 iv4 p4 #ccd4 ,for the characters peculiar to the instincts1 see my work entitled 8,de l',instinct et de l',intelligence des ,animaux10 #b;d edit4 #ahde4 #aaj ,see my ,recherches ,exprimentales sur les proprits et les fonctions du ,systme ,nerveux1 #b;d edit4 #ahdb4 #aaa 8,the organ of philogeniture1 or the last convolution of the cerebral lobes40--,spurzheim1 ,obser4 sur la ,phrn41 c4 p4 #aag4 #aab ,with very few exceptions4 #aac 8,the qualities and faculties common to man and animals1 are situated in the posterior portions10 c4--,t4 iii4 p4 #gi1 and t4 iv4 p4 #ac4 8,the qualities and faculties that man exclusively enjoys1 are situated in the cerebral portions1 of which the brute creation is deprived2 and we must consequently seek for them in the antero superior portion of the frontal bone40--,t4 iii4 page #gi4 #aad 8,the anterior parts of the brain are not wanting in the mammifera1 but the posterior parts10 says ,leuret1 very justly1 in his fine work on the circumvolutions of the brain1 entitled1 ,anat4 ,compar4 du ,syst4 ,nerveux1 consider dans ses rapports avec l',intelligence1 t4 i4 p4 #ehh4 ,paris1 #ahci4 #aae ,t4 iii4 p4 #bj4 #aaf ,t4 iii4 p4 #bf4 #aag ,it is curious to see how ,m4 ,vimont1 a very decided phrenologist as well as an able anatomist1 expresses himself on the subject of the localizations of ,gall and ,spurzheim4 8,gall's work10 says ,m4 ,vimont1 8is fitter to lead into error than to give a just idea of the seats of the organs40--,trait de ,phrn4 t4 ii4 p4 #ab4 8,gall says he has remarked1 that horses whose ears are widely separated at the roots1 are sure-footed and courageous4 ,possibly the fact may be true2 but ,i cannot comprehend the connexion that may exist betwixt the outward mark and the quality of courage1 whose seat1 in the horse1 ,gall indicates at a point where there is no brain40--,ibid4 #bha4 8,spurzheim indicates the region of the frontal sinuses as the seat of gentleness1 while courage is located upon the muscles that go to be inserted on the os occipitis40--,ibid4 p4 #aag4 ,such are ,m4 ,vimont's remarks1 yet this same ,m4 ,vimont inscribes the following twenty-nine names on the skull of a goose6 #a4 ,conservation4 #b4 ,choice of aliment4 #c4 ,destruction4 #d4 ,cunning4 #e4 ,courage4 #f4 ,choice of locality4 #g4 ,concentration4 #h4 ,attachment to life1 or marriage4 #i4 ,attachment4 #aj4 ,reproduction4 #aa4 ,attachment to the product of conception4 #ab4 ,property4 #ac4 ,circumspection4 #ad4 ,perception of substance4 #ae4 ,configuration4 #af4 ,extent4 #ag4 ,distance4 #ah4 ,geometrical sense4 #ai4 ,resistance4 #bj4 ,localities4 #ba4 ,order4 #bb4 ,time4 #bc4 ,language4 #bd4 ,eventuality4 #be4 ,construction4 #bf4 ,musical talent4 #bg4 ,imitation4 #bh4 ,comparison4 #bi4 ,gentleness4 8,all this upon the cranium of a goose60 says ,m4 ,leuret upon this occasion1 7page #cee47 8,and there is no place so small but it is occupied4444 ,the faculties are so crowded10 adds he1 8that it would be a marvellous thing to be able to write their names upon the brain4444 ,it would be a greater marvel to discover them40 #aah ,gall himself says3 8,in whatever region we examine the two substances that compose the brain1 it is with difficulty that we can discern any difference between them as to their structure1 c40--,t4 iii4 p4 #gj4 #aai ,t4 iii4 p4 #fc4 #abj 8,i remained a whole day shut up in an oven40--,t4 i4 #acc4 #aba ,t4 i4 p4 #bfc4 #abb ,eloge de ,tournefort4 #abc ,one volume1 #hvo4 ,paris1 #ahah4 ,phrenology is the very name given by ,spurzheim to the doctrine of ,gall4 #abd ,one volume1 #hvo4 ,paris1 #ahbj4 #abe ,observ4 sur la ,phrnol4 c4 p4 #h4 #abf ,observ4 sur la ,phrn4 p4 #bj4 #abg ,ibid4 p4 #bb4 #abh ,rech4 sur le ,syst4 ,nerv4 en gnral1 c4 par ,f4 ,j4 ,gall et ,g4 ,spurzheim4 #abi ,anat4 et ,phys4 du ,syst4 ,nerveux1 c41 the work which has been examined in the three preceding articles4 #acj ,t4 iv4 p4 #cda4 #aca ,ibid4 p4 #cbg4 #acb ,ibid4 p4 #cda4 #acc ,in the preceding article1 p4 #ic4 #acd ,lettre de ,charles ,villers ,georges ,cuvier1 sur une nouvelle thorie du cerveau1 par le ,docteur ,gall1 c4 ,metz1 #ahjb4 #ace ,lettre de ,charles ,villers1 c4 p4 #cd4 #acf ,ibid4 #acg ,observ4 sur la ,phrn41 c4 p4 #aj4 #ach ,especially in the last article4 #aci ,and which was not taken up by ,gall1 except from the necessity he was under of assimilating at all points the external senses with the faculties of the soul4 #adj ,observ4 sur la ,phrn41 c4 p4 #fe4 #ada ,ibid4 p4 #fg4 #adb ,ibid4 p4 #ge4 #adc ,see particularly the ,essai philosophique sur la morle et intellectuelle de l'homme1 p4 #ed1 et seq4 #add ,observ4 sur la ,phrn4 p4 #ag4 #ade ,ibid4 p4 #abg4 #adf ,anat4 et ,phys4 du ,syst4 ,nerv41 c4 t4 iii4 p4 #ai4 ,this volume came out the same year as ,spurzheim's ,observ41 c4 #adg ,t4 iv4 p4 #fg4 #adh ,the eight organs added by ,spurzheim1 are the organs of habitativity1 order1 time1 right1 supernaturality1 hope1 extent1 weight4 ,gall's remarks upon these eight organs proposed by ,spurzheim are as follows3 8,m4 ,spurzheim1 it is true1 recognises eight organs more than ,i admit4 ,as to the organs of habitativity1 order1 time1 and supernaturality1 ,i have already spoken4 ,i admit an organ of the moral sense1 or sense of right 7juste71 but ,i have very strong reasons for believing that benevolence is nothing more than a very strong manifestation of the moral sense2 therefore ,i treat these two organs under the rubric of a single organ4 ,what ,m4 ,spurzheim says on the organs of hope1 of extent1 and of weight1 has not as yet convinced me3 and1 in fact1 he has hitherto proved nothing in respect to them40--,t4 iii4 p4 #be4 #adi ,essai ,philosophique1 c4 p4 #baf4 #aej ,see the ,essai ,philosophique1 c4 p4 #dg1 et seq4 #aea ,the sense of ,amativity1 the sense of ,philogeniture1 the sense of ,destructivity1 the sense of ,affectivity1 the sense of ,thievishness1 the sense of ,secretivity1 the sense of ,circumspection1 the sense of ,approbation1 the sense of ,self-love4 7,what a chaos1 and what words67 #aeb ,the sense of ,benevolence1 the sense of ,veneration1 the sense of ,firmness1 the sense of ,duty1 the sense of ,hope1 the sense of the ,marvellous1 the sense of ,ideality1 the sense of ,gaiety1 the sense of ,imitation4 #aec ,the sense of ,individuality1 of ,extent1 of ,configuration1 of ,consistence1 of ,weight1 of ,colour4 #aed ,the sense of ,localities1 of ,numeration1 of ,order1 of ,phenomena1 of ,time1 of ,method1 of ,artificial ,language4 #aee ,the sense of ,comparison1 the sense of ,causality4 #aef 8,some of the affective faculties produce only a desire1 an inclination4444 ,i shall call them propensities40--,observ4 sur la ,phrnol41 c4 p4 #abd4 #aeg 8,other affective faculties are not restricted to a simple inclination1 but something beyond2 which is what is called sentiment or feeling40--,ibid4 #aeh 8,the intellectual faculties are also double3 some of them know2 others reflect40--,essai ,philosophique1 c4 p4 #bbe4 #aei 8,the faculties peculiar to man are happy in themselves1 per se40--,ibid4 p4 #afg4 #afj ,anat4 et ,phys4 du ,syst4 ,nerv4 c4 t4 iii4 p4 #bg4 #afa ,see his ,histoire des ,phlegmas4 ,chron4 #ahjh4 #afb ,see his work entitled1 8,de l',irritation et de la ,folie10 #ahbh4 #afc ,cours de ,phrnologie1 #a vol4 #hvo4 #ahcf4 #afd ,cours de ,phrnologie1 p4 #hb4 #afe ,ibid4 p4 #adj4 #aff ,ibid4 p4 #cg4 #afg 8,memory is not an isolated faculty2 and there are as many memories as organs40--p4 #aca4 #afh 8,the instincts and the sentiments have a memory as well as the external perceptions40--p4 #cf4 #afi 8 444 ,the study of the human mind1 not indeed that of a fictitious one bearing this mysterious appellation1 but of the ensemble of the mental faculties of man40--p4 #hb4 #agj ,page #dh4 #aga 8,the favorers of the intra-cranial entity40--p4 #aec4 #agb 8,their central intra-cranial being1 to which they attribute all their faculties40 #agc 8,suppose they had called this being person par excellence44440--p4 #ge4 #agd ,let us examine1 as to this particular 7moi7 ,,me1 all ,broussais's variorums4 ,in one place the me comes from only one organ--the organ of general comparison3 8,we owe to the organ of general comparison the distinction of our person expressed by the sign me40--,cours de ,phrn41 p4 #fhd4 ,further on it comes from two--the organ of comparison and the organ of causality3 8,the organ of causality is as necessary to the distinction of the me1 and of the person1 as the organ of general comparison40--,ibid4 p4 #fhe4 ,next there is no organ at all3 8,to assign to the me a special organ appears to me to be out of the question40--,ibid4 p4 #aai4 ,and then it comes from every where3 8,there is no special and central organ1 and our perception of ourselves has for its basis the sensitive perceptions40--,ibid4 p4 #aai4 #age ,cours de ,phrnologie1 p4 #fhd4 #agf ,examen de la ,doctrine ,mdicale1 etc4 #ahaf4 #agg ,cours de ,phrnologie1 p4 #gag4 #agh ,cours de ,phrnologie1 p4 #gg4 ,he also says1 8,their central intra-cranial being1 to which they attribute all the faculties of a man1 is not cognisable by any of our senses1 444 it is therefore a pure hypothesis40--,ibid4 p4 #aec4 ,thus there is no mind 7pure hypothesis72 no faculties but those of the organs 7the faculties are the acts of material organs72 no understanding1 except as a simple phenomenon of the nervous action 7understanding and all its manifestations are phenomena of nervous action72 consequently1 there is no psycology2 there is nothing but physiology2 and even 7for it should be clearly understood7 nothing but ,broussais's physiology4 #agi 8,in order to form for one's self a just notion of the operations which result in the production of thought1 it is necessary to conceive of the brain as a peculiar organ1 specially designed for the production thereof1 just as the stomach is designed to effect digestion1 the liver to form the bile1 c40--,cabanis1 ,rapports du ,physique et du moral de l'homme1 ,i,ie mmoire1 vii4 #ahj ,whence he concludes still more admirably1 to the immortality of the soul4 8,i cannot10 says he1 8conceive otherwise of those who die1 than that they pass into a more pleasing and tranquil life than ours1 even carrying with them the remembrance of the past3 for ,i find there is within us an intellectual memory4444 ,and although religion teaches us many things upon this subject1 ,i must1 notwithstanding1 confess my infirmity on this point1 which it appears to me that ,i possess in common with most people1 which is1 that although we might wish to believe1 and even might suppose ourselves to be firm believers in the doctrines of religion1 we are not so deeply touched with those things that are taught by faith alone1 and which our mere reason cannot attain1 as by those that are instilled into us by natural and very evident reasons40--,t4 viii4 p4 #fhd4 #aha ,de l',imitation et de la ,folie1 p4 #d4 #ahb 8,the exaggeration of the phenomena of contractility is what constitutes irritation40--,ibid4 p4 #gg4 #ahc ,anat4 et ,physiol4 du ,systme ,nerveux1 c4 iii4 #ae4 #ahd ,the white matter is every where fibrous4 ,no person has contributed more than ,gall to the demonstration of this great fact4 ,he justly remarks3 8,those authors who1 with ,smmerring and ,cuvier1 c41 recognise the fibrous structure of the brain1 in many of its parts1 have nevertheless1 not yet ventured to say that it is so in all its parts40--,t4 i4 #bce4 #ahe ,the cerebellum serves only for the motions of locomotion4 7,see the first article of this work47 ,but1 ,i am here setting forth ,gall's opinions4 #ahf 8,the particular systems of the brain terminate in fibrous expansions arranged in layers1 just as the other nervous systems expand in fibres at their peripheral extremity40--,t4 i4 #cah4 8,all the diverging bundles of the brain1 after they come out from the last apparatus of reinforcement1 expand in layers and form convolutions40--,t4 i4 #bhc4 8,the nerves of sensation and motion expand in the skin and the muscles2 the nerves of the senses1 each in the external instrument to which they belong3 for example1 the pituitary membrane upon the bones of the nose3 the nerve of taste in the tongue1 and the expansion of the optic nerve in the retina4444 ,nature obeys precisely the same law in the brain4 ,the different parts of the brain originate and are reinforced at different points2 they form fibrous bundles of various sizes1 which terminate in expansions4 ,all these expansions of the various bundles constitute1 when reunited1 the hemispheres of the brain40--,t4 iii4 p4 #c4 ,i here speak only of the diverging fibres4 ,coming from the interior1 they proceed towards the exterior3 the converging fibres coming from the exterior1 that is1 according to ,gall1 from the gray matter that envelopes the brain and the cerebellum1 are directed inwards4 ,the former constitute the convolutions1 while the latter compose the commissures4 ,but ,i shall1 further on1 return to this subject4 #ahg ,see my work1 ,de l'instinct et de l'intelligence des animaux1 c4 p4 #df1 #b;d edit4 #ahh ,opus citat4 p4 #di4 #ahi ,t4 iii4 p4 #fd4 #aij ,t4 iii4 p4 #fd4 #aia ,t4 iii4 p4 #fd4 #aib ,t4 iii4 p4 #eh4 #aic ,t4 iii4 p4 #ei4 #aid ,t4 i4 p4 #c4 #aie ,t4 i4 p4 #ah4 #aif ,t4 i4 p4 #fd #fg4 #aig ,de la ,rech4 de la ,verit1 liv4 ii4 chap4 ii4 #aih ,ibid4 #aii ,ibid4 #bjj ,du bel esprit1 p4 #hj4 #bja ,ibid4 #bjb ,cours de ,phrn4 #bah4 #bjc ,p4 #bba4 #bjd ,see ,m4 ,leuret3 ,anat4 ,comp4 du ,syst4 ,nerv4 c4 #ahci4 #bje ,cours de ,phrn4 p4 #cej4 #bjf ,ibid4 p4 #aag4 #bjg ,de l',irritation et de la ,folie1 p4 #b4 #bjh ,ibid4 p4 #gf4 #bji ,steno had already said1 8,if the medullary substance be every where fibrous1 as in fact1 in most parts it appears to be1 you must confess that the disposal of these fibres must be arranged with great skill1 since the whole diversity of our feelings and motions depend upon them4 ,we wonder at the artifice of the fibres in each muscle1 but how much more are they worthy of admiration in the brain1 where these fibres1 enclosed within so small a space1 perform each its own function without confusion and without disorder40--,discours sur l'anat4 du cerveau1 #affh4 #baj ,long before his time the same had been seen by ,mistichelli1 ,pourfour du ,petit1 ,winslow1 and several others1 but it had been forgotten4 8,each pyramidal body10 says ,pourfour du ,petit1 8is divided at its inferior part into two large bundles of fibres1 most frequently into three1 and in some instances into four4 ,those of the right pass to the left side1 and those of the left pass to the right side1 mingling with each other40--,lettre d'un mdecin des hpitaux du ,roi4 ,namur #agaj4