,illustration3 ,,feu ,d',,artifice ,,versailles ,,pour ,,le ,,mariage ,,du ,,dauphin1 #agce4 ,,from ,a ,,water-,,colour ,,drawing ,,by ,,morel ,,torr4 ,front ,endpaper4 ,,pyrotechnics ,illustration3 ,copyright4 ,brock4 ,sutton ,frontispiece ,display at the ,tercentenary ,fetes1 ,quebec1 ,july #bcrd1 #aijh4 ,the largest display ever fired in the ,western ,hemisphere4 ,from a drawing by ,c4 ,m4 ,padday4 ,,pyrotechnics3 ,,the ,,history ,,and ,,art ,,of ,,firework ,,making ,,by ,a4 ,st4 ,h4 ,,brock1 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,,with ,,numerous ,,coloured ,,and ,,other ,,illustrations ,,london3 ,,daniel ,o',,connor #ij ,,great ,,russell ,,street1 ,w4,c4#a ,,mcmxxii ,dedicated to the memory of my brother ,wing-,commander ,frank ,arthur ,brock1 ,r4,n4,a4,s4 ,killed at ,zeebrugge ,april #bcrd1 #aiah 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 be bright and busy ,while hoaxed astronomers look up and stare ,from tall observatories1 dumb and dizzy1 ,to see a ,squib in ,cassiopeia's ,chair6 ,a ,serpent wriggling into ,charles's ,wain6 ,a ,roman ,candle lighting the ,great ,bear6 ,a ,rocket tangled in ,diana's train1 ,and ,crackers stuck in ,berenice's ,hair6 ,ode to ,madame ,hengler1 ,firework-maker to ,vauxhall ,by ,,thomas ,,hood4 ,,contents ,,part ,i ,,chapter ,,page ,introduction xiii ,i ,the ,origin of ,pyrotechny #c ,,ii ,pyrotechny in the ,east #f ,,iii ,pyrotechny in ,europe #ac ,,iv ,pyrotechny in ,europe 7continued7 #bc ,v ,london ,pleasure ,gardens #cb ,,vi ,fireworks in the ,nineteenth and ,twentieth ,centuries #ci ,,vii ,firework ,manufacture #eg ,,viii ,modern ,firework ,manufacture #fi ,,ix ,firework ,accidents #gg ,,part ,,ii ,i ,simple ,fireworks1 ,rocket ,class #ia ,,ii ,simple ,fireworks1 ,shell ,class #ajc ,,iii ,simple ,fireworks1 ,mine ,class #aaj ,,iv ,simple ,fireworks1 ,saxon and ,lance ,classes #aaf ,v ,compound ,fireworks #aba ,,vi ,compound ,fireworks 7continued7 #aca ,,vii ,firework ,compositions #acf ,,viii ,modern ,firework ,compositions #add ,,ix ,military ,pyrotechny #aeb ,x ,military ,pyrotechny in the ,great ,war #afd ,,xi ,the ,civil ,use of ,fireworks #age ,list of the ,principal ,ingredients used in ,pyrotechny at the present time #aha ,pyrotechnic ,bibliography #ahb ,index #ahg ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,to face page ,firework ,display at ,quebec4 ,from a drawing by ,c4 ,m4 ,padday ,frontispiece ,six ,coloured ,japanese ,prints of ,fireworks manufactured by ,messrs4 ,hirayama of ,yokohama #b1 #d1 #f1 #h1 #aj1 #ab ,facsimile ,title ,page of ,john ,bate's 8,second ,booke10 #afce #af ,a ,display of the ,earliest ,type 7c4 #afej7 #ah ,set ,piece of the ,scenic ,type #bj ,firework ,display at ,nuremberg1 #afej #bb ,great ,firework ,display near ,stockholm1 #affi #bd ,fireworks on the ,thames1 #afhh #bh ,firework ,display given by the ,duke of ,richmond1 #agdi #cj ,firework ,temple at ,vauxhall1 #ahde #cf ,fireworks at ,versailles1 #ahee1 from a drawing by ,gustav ,dor #dd ,the ,grand ,whim for ,posterity to laugh at1 #agdi #df ,a ,full-size ,picture of the ,jumma ,musjid in ,fireworks at the ,crystal ,palace1 #ahib ,firework ,display for the ,coronation ,durbar at ,delhi1 #ej ,january #crd1 #aijc ,a ,crystal ,palace ,set ,piece at the time of the ,south ,african ,war #eb ,panorama of the ,aerial ,effects in the ,national ,display at ,hyde ,park1 #aiai #ef ,the ,explosion at ,madame ,cotton's ,firework ,factory1 #aheh #ff ,programme of ,experiments with ,fireworks at ,nunhead1 #ahgb #fh ,modern ,firework ,tools #gb ,types of ,modern ,fireworks #ij ,cracker ,making #ib ,rocket ,manufacture1 from ,frzier's 8,feu d',artifice10 #agdg #id ,manner of making and representing ,flowers1 etc41 in the ,chinese ,fireworks1 from the 8,universal ,magazine0 of #agfd #ajj ,an ,old ,firework ,bill3--,programme of ,mr4 ,brock's ,superior ,fireworks at ,ipswich1 #ahah #aad ,rocket ,charging #aaf ,filling ,roman ,candles ,types of ,compound ,fireworks3--,lattice ,poles1 ,chromatrope1 ,lattice ,diamond #abh ,a ,display ready for ,firing1 ,dresden1 #ahii #acd ,diagram illustrating the evolution of ,pyrotechnic ,composition1 showing their periods of use #adj ,roman ,candles--illustrating brilliance of aluminium compositions #aej ,the ,late ,wing-,commander ,brock1 ,r4,n4,a4,s4 #aff ,smoke ,float in action #afh ,crystal ,palace--,by the light of a ,magnesium ,shell #agh ,end ,papers3--,feu d'artifice a ,versailles pour le ,mariage du ,dauphin4 ,two displays from the original watercolour drawings by ,morel ,torr1 #agce ,,introduction ,the word 8fireworks0 as a metaphor1 used either to describe the higher flights of oratory1 of literature1 or of human strife1 whether it be in ,parliament or the ,parish ,hall1 or merely descriptive of domestic discord1 is familiar1 even threadbare4 ,moreover1 the metaphor has generally a humorous flavour2 why is this8 ,is there anything inherently comic about fireworks8 ,it is true that for a short season the less critical of the comic papers used the cracker and squib as pegs upon which to hang the type of joke which depends for its success on the atavistic human trait of laughing at the misfortune or discomfort of others1 but this is the lowest type of humour which soon palls upon the mind4 ,the ,stage also has its comedy and clown1 yet the mention of the stage is not a signal for mirth4 ,can any who have heard the long-drawn ,ah-h6 of rapture from many thousand throats1 at the bursting of a flight of shell1 or the darting up of the wonderfully tinted rays of the 8,magical ,illumination0 at the ,crystal ,palace1 maintain that the most dramatic moment on the stage is more affecting to the spectators8 ,pyrotechny is possibly the only art which can compete with nature2 anyone who has seen a first-class firework display will admit that for impressive grandeur1 colour effects1 and contrasts of light and shade1 pyrotechny is unapproached4 ,pyrotechny paints on the canvas of the sky2 and the results are at once the joy and despair of the artist4 ,many artists have tried to record their impressions1 but the results have been generally disappointing4 ,whistler came near success1 but even his wonderful work conveys merely the dying embers of passed glory4 ,one feels that here has been a magnificent display1 but the scene in its full grandeur is not depicted4 ,one of the few black-and-white artists who can approach the subject with some success is ,mr4 ,c4 ,m4 ,padday1 an example of whose work is reproduced in the following pages4 ,his success comes from a careful study of the subject1 both technically and from the point of view of composition4 ,that fireworks are popular there is no doubt2 no form of amusement is capable of giving enjoyment to so many people at one time2 there is no entertainment which so appeals to youth and age of all classes and tastes4 ,and yet it is doubtful if there is an industry concerning which the public at large is so profoundly ignorant4 ,to the average onlooker any firework which rises in the air is a rocket1 any that revolve are catherine wheels2 both of these assumptions are incorrect4 ,what is the average conception of a firework factory8 ,a building1 let us say1 in which workmen1 with sleeves rolled up1 are busily engaged in shovelling heaps of gunpowder4 ,how many know that a firework factory consists of dozens of small buildings1 the construction of which is exactly defined by law1 separated by spaces also specified by law2 that workmen may not roll up their sleeves in the danger buildings2 or that the amount of gunpowder in each building is strictly limited to a small quantity8 ,all of these restrictions being enforced with the view1 of course1 of limiting the effects of any explosion that may occur4 ,so far as ,i am aware1 no history of the art has yet been written4 ,it is true that during the nineteenth century many text-books on pyrotechny were written1 but the historical side of the subject has been generally represented by a few disjointed remarks in the prefaces4 ,my object has not been to write a text-book on firework-making1 but rather to trace the art from earliest times1 and to give a description of the development and process of manufacture4 ,for those interested in the subject1 and desiring fuller information1 the list of ,,mss4 and books given in the ,bibliography at the end of this volume may be found useful4 ,my excuse for adding another volume to the literature of the art is that ,i am of the eighth generation of a family of pyrotechnists1 whose work1 ,i venture to claim1 has not been without its effect4 ,if ,i succeed in interesting1 and in some degree enlightening1 my readers1 ,i shall feel ,i have not written in vain2 if ,i fail1 ,i shall know it is not in my choice of subject but in my capacity for dealing with it4 ,a4 ,st4 ,h4 ,,brock4 ,sutton1 ,august1 #aibb4 ,,errata ,page #aag line #ac for 8filled0 read 8fitted0 #acc #h 8and0 8at0 #aec #aed for 8,hume0 read 8,hime0 ,,part ,i ,illustration ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,pyrotechny ,pyrotechny1 or the ,art of ,firework-making1 is of great antiquity1 and the date of its origin is quite unknown2 indeed1 it would be impossible to define with any degree of exactitude what actually constitutes a firework4 ,it is curious how universal is the belief that fireworks were dependent upon the invention or discovery of gunpowder4 ,very little consideration will prove the fallacy of this view2 in fact1 will show that the reverse is probably the case4 ,in ,india and ,china saltpetre 7or nitrate of potash7 is found in large quantities1 and was1 no doubt1 used by the primitive inhabitants in far-off times for such purposes as curing meat1 cooking1 etc4 ,the dropping of a quantity in the camp fire may have attracted the attention of some early inventor to the extent of starting him on a series of what were probably the earliest chemical experiments4 ,he would notice that the presence of saltpetre made the fire burn brighter1 and its use as a tinder maker would suggest itself by mixing it with some substance which he knew to be combustible4 ,the most common fuel he knew of was wood1 but it must be a powder to mix evenly with saltpetre4 ,wood is not easily reduced to powder2 saws had not been invented1 so that he could not add sawdust1 and the nearest thing he could get would be charcoal from the fire1 which could easily be reduced to powder4 ,with this mixture he would be well on the way to success in elementary pyrotechny4 ,the next step in his career as the first pyrotechnist is to utilise his composition as an easy means of making fire4 ,gradually he gives up his hitherto necessary tasks of hunting and trapping1 as he receives the fruits of other labours in return for his services as fire-maker to the tribe4 ,the most important item in early social life is fire1 the implements for producing it the most valued property of the tribe2 it was the focus of religion and the centre of daily existence1 so that any new phenomenon connected with fire would be of the greatest interest to primitive people1 and any short cut to the production of fire would be accorded more perseverance and care in its perfection than almost any other invention4 ,fire would be struck with a piece of iron pyrites on a flint1 small pieces of reguline particles of iron would be detached and fall on the fire mixture unlit4 ,afterwards1 when combustion of the mass of fire mixture took place1 these small pieces of metal would scintillate as do the iron filings in a modern firework composition4 ,this would give rise to a further series of experiments1 and gradually the composition known as ,chinese ,fire would be evolved1 which is known to have been in use in the ,east from remote times4 ,having arrived at a pyrotechnic composition1 attempt to use it in other ways besides fire-making would naturally follow1 and sooner or later the idea of filling the mixture into tubes would suggest itself1 especially as both in ,india and ,china 7in one of which countries pyrotechny undoubtedly originated7 a serviceable tube--or to use the modern term 8case0--was ready to hand in any size or quantity in the ubiquitous bamboo4 ,the bamboo is in use for the purpose at the present day in the ,east1 and until recent times1 when displaced by ,european weapons1 was used in the construction of ordnance of considerable size4 ,mortars used for throwing firework shell up to six or more inches in diameter are still in use in ,japan and ,china1 the barrel consisting of a section of bamboo strengthened on the outside with a binding of split cane4 ,illustration ,having reached the point of charging composition into a tube1 that is to say confining it1 a more or less violent explosion was likely or rather certain to follow during the course of the experiments1 which might suggest the use of a tube as a means of discharging a projectile4 ,this would lead to research in the direction of the best composition for the purpose and the evolution of gunpowder4 ,it must be remembered that the constituents of gunpowder must be present in approximately exact proportion1 whereas with primitive pyrotechnic compositions1 if the ingredients saltpetre and charcoal are present1 it is almost impossible to fail in getting some result4 ,the above suggestion must not be taken literally as a statement of fact1 but rather as an attempt on the part of the writer to trace the stages by which pyrotechnic and explosive compositions came to be evolved4 ,if one disabuses one's mind of the curiously widespread belief that all fireworks are composed chiefly of gunpowder1 and that without the invention of gunpowder fireworks could not have been constructed1 it seems far more likely that pyrotechny is based on the discovery of the assistance given to combustion by saltpetre1 than on the discovery of gunpowder4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,pyrotechny ,,in ,,the ,,east ,pyrotechny undoubtedly had its genesis in the ,east1 and for that reason we will deal with its development there first4 ,as he has intended to convey1 the writer is strongly of opinion that the discovery of pyrotechnic compositions antedated that of gunpowder4 ,in many cases earlier writers have discovered passages which they consider prove the use of firearms and gunpowder2 in reality these refer to ,greek-fire and similar compositions1 which were used as projectiles1 being thrown from machines or catapults1 and not as propellants4 ,gunpowder as a mixture of ingredients may have been known from remote times1 as undoubtedly were other simple pyrotechnic compositions1 but all evidence goes to show that its use as a propellant was not known until well into the ,christian ,era4 ,the composition ,greek-fire1 known in ancient times as 8naphtha10 was a mixture of pitch1 resin1 and sulphur1 with the addition in some cases of crude saltpetre4 ,it may be considered that in the absence of the latter ingredient the mixture does not constitute a pyrotechnic composition1 but from the description of the use of 8naphtha0 in early writings1 it appears at least likely that it was generally present4 ,the fire was either enclosed in hollow stones or iron vessels1 and thrown from a catapult1 or sometimes filled into the end of arrows and assisted to propel them forward or sustain their flight4 ,philostratus 7#agj-bej ,a4,d471 writing of the ,indian ,campaign of ,alexander the ,great 7,b4,c4 #cbf71 relates that the inhabitants of a town on the river ,hyphasis 7,beas7 8defended themselves by means of lightning and thunder1 which darted upon their besiegers40 ,this has been considered as evidence of the use of firearms1 but is more probably the first reference to ,greek-fire4 ,greek-fire or 8naphtha0 was used at the defence of ,constantinople between #ffj and #ffg4 ,illustration ,at the siege of ,pian-,king ,lo-,yang 7#abcb71 as mentioned in the ,chinese ,annals1 iron pots were thrown containing a burning substance which could spread fire over half an acre1 and described by the historians as the 8thunder which shakes heaven40 ,the ,mongolians attacking ,bagdad in the year #abeh made use of similar vessels1 also fire arrows4 ,marco ,polo1 describing sieges of towns in ,china #abfh to #abgc1 mentions the throwing of fire4 ,in most of the early records although noise is remarked upon1 it is apparently while the projectile is in the air or upon impact2 this disposes of the impression which many writers have formed that firearms are referred to1 there being no reference to an initial explosion4 ,sir ,george ,stanton1 writing in #agih of his embassy to the ,emperor of ,china1 says that 8nitre 7saltpetre7 is the daily produce of ,china and ,india1 and there accordingly the knowledge of gunpowder seems coeval with that of the most distant historic events4 ,among the ,chinese it has been applied at all times to useful purposes 444 and to amusement in making a vast variety of fireworks--but its force had not been directed through strong metallic tubes1 as it was by ,europeans soon after they had discovered that composition40 ,although the place of origin of the art1 pyrotechny has not developed in the ,east as rapidly as in ,europe1 except in ,japan4 ,japanese pyrotechnists1 with that wonderful capacity for careful and exact manual work which is so characteristic of the race1 have developed aerial fireworks1 that is to say1 the shell1 to a remarkable degree of perfection4 ,the compositions used are not to be compared with ,european manufactures in point of colour or brilliance1 but the effects obtained are extraordinary4 ,the stars1 upon the bursting of the shell1 are thrown out in symmetrical patterns and designs1 several examples of which are given in the accompanying ,japanese colour prints4 ,daylight fireworks also originated in ,japan4 ,instead of pyrotechnic effects1 the shell contains a grotesque balloon in the form of an animal1 human figure1 or other form1 which1 being open and weighted at the lower end1 becomes inflated as it falls and remains in the air for a considerable period4 ,other daylight effects are coloured clouds formed by coloured powder1 distributed by the bursting of the shell1 showers of streamers1 confetti1 and toys4 ,chinese firework displays have often been enthusiastically described by travellers in ,china4 ,whether it is that the glamour of the ,east distorts the perceptions1 or that these travellers have not seen a ,european firework display1 there is no doubt that such descriptions are1 to say the least1 over coloured4 ,chinese fire 7a composition of saltpetre1 iron filings1 sulphur and charcoal71 a few simple colour compositions1 and a large number of ,chinese crackers of varying sizes constitute a ,chinese display2 the rest of the exhibition being eked out with lanterns1 pictures1 etc41 which certainly do not come under the heading of pyrotechnics4 ,the writer once had an opportunity of witnessing a ,chinese display of some importance1 lasting several hours1 which produced the effect on the mind of watching some performance or game of the rules of which one was in entire ignorance4 ,pyrotechnically1 only the crudest effects were produced1 the remainder of the display1 consisting of such items as a man slowly climbing a ladder carrying a lantern1 was to the uninitiated mystifying4 ,illustration ,the following is an account by a traveller in the early nineteenth century of a ,chinese display3 8,the fireworks1 in some particulars10 says he1 8exceeded anything of the kind ,i had ever seen4 ,in grandeur1 magnificence1 and variety they were1 ,i own1 inferior to the ,chinese fireworks we had seen at ,batavia1 but infinitely superior in point of novelty1 neatness and ingenuity of contrivance4 ,one piece of machinery ,i greatly admired3 a green chest1 five feet square1 was hoisted up by a pulley fifty or sixty feet from the ground1 the bottom of which was so contrived as then suddenly to fall out1 and make way for twenty or thirty strings of lanterns1 enclosed in a box1 to descend from it1 unfolding themselves from one another by degrees1 so as at last to form a collection of full five hundred1 each having a light of a beautifully coloured flame burning brightly within it4 ,this devolution and development of lanterns was several times repeated1 and at every time exhibiting a difference of colour and figure4 ,on each side was a correspondence of smaller boxes1 which opened in like manner as the other1 and let down an immense network of fire1 with divisions and compartments of various forms and dimensions1 round and square1 hexagons1 octagons1 etc41 which shone like the brightest burnished copper1 and flashed like prismatic lightnings1 with every impulse of the wind4 ,the whole concluded with a volcano1 or general explosion and discharge of suns and stars1 squibs1 crackers1 rockets and grenades1 which involved the gardens for an hour in a cloud of intolerable smoke4 ,the diversity of colour1 with which the ,chinese have the secret of clothing their fire1 seems one of the chief merits of their pyrotechny40 ,it will be seen that lanterns play an important part in the exhibition1 and that when the fireworks proper are reached1 the result is an 8intolerable smoke40 ,indian pyrotechnists are more advanced than their ,chinese neighbours4 ,firework displays carried out by them are nowadays more or less crude attempts to reproduce ,european work4 ,the writer has seen a set piece evidently intended to follow a fire picture seen in a ,european display carried out by small wicks burning in oil instead of the 8lances10 as the small fireworks used to outline the pictures are called in this country4 ,in ,india as in ,china fireworks play a frequent part in religious and civil ceremonies4 ,in the former country1 at certain festivals1 a primitive device for producing a series of reports is used4 ,these are called 8adirvedis10 and consist of a series of short iron tubes fitted to a wooden plank1 charged with gunpowder and tamped with clay4 ,at weddings1 crackers are largely used under a variety of names1 such as ,vengagvedi1 ,gola1 ,pataka or ,koroo4 ,to-day these are simple crackers filled with country-made gunpowder or the imported ,chinese crackers4 ,formerly almost the only composition used was chlorate of potash and one of the sulphides of arsenic4 ,a favourite form consisted of a small quantity of the two ingredients put together unmixed into a piece of rag with some small stones or grit and tied4 ,the resulting fireworks were similar to the 8throw-down0 crackers sold in this country4 ,owing to the very large number of accidents caused by the casual methods1 both in manufacture and use1 with this highly sensitive composition1 ,h4,m4 ,chief ,inspector of ,explosives for ,india endeavoured1 in #aijb1 to secure its prohibition1 as was done in this country in #ahie1 but it was not until #aiaj1 when it had been established that this composition was being used by anarchists1 that it was finally prohibited4 ,the most successful effect produced by ,hindoo pyrotechnists is the 8,tubri40 ,the composition is here known as ,chinese fire1 a mixture of charcoal1 saltpetre1 sulphur and iron dust1 charged into either bamboo tubes or earthen pots4 ,illustration ,it is a common practice to fix a pot at either end of a long bamboo1 which is whirled quickly about by a performer2 the result produced is quite good1 but seems rather to come under the heading of juggling than that of pyrotechnics proper4 ,as the pots are theoretically the wrong shape for such a purpose1 that is to say1 a large mass of composition is burning through a narrow orifice1 premature explosions are frequent4 ,this want of theoretical knowledge is noticeable throughout1 but such incidents seem to be appreciated as part of the show4 ,another use of the earth pot is the 8burusu10 a kind of red flare2 the composition used being sulphur1 saltpetre1 and nitrate of strontia4 ,flare compositions are also used loose as in ,england1 and are known as 8chandrajota0 or 8mahteb40 ,abusavanani or ,hawai1 that is to say1 rockets1 are now made similarly to those manufactured in ,europe except a bamboo case is most generally used1 but formerly chlorate of potash and orpiment seem to have been employed for this purpose4 ,the firework shell under the name 8out0 is also manufactured very much as in this country1 except that the range of effects is very limited1 simple coloured stars being almost the only 8garniture0 used4 ,in ,siam it is a custom1 and one apparently of considerable antiquity1 to celebrate certain religious festivals with firework displays4 ,these displays take place in the day-time1 and take the form of discharges of rockets1 some of which are of very large size2 a writer giving their length1 exclusive of the stick1 as from #h ft4 to #aj ft4 ,the case is composed of a section of bamboo bound with string4 ,the composition consists of coarse native powder1 of which from #bj lbs4 to #cj lbs4 is often used in one case4 ,the rocket stick1 which is of bamboo1 varying from #bj ft4 to #dj ft4 in length1 is gaily decorated with coloured paper and tinsel and fitted with bamboo whistles4 ,a rough scaffold is erected from which to fire the rockets1 and according to those who have witnessed such exhibitions1 considerable altitudes are reached by the rockets in flight4 ,as may be expected with such crude methods1 mishaps are of frequent occurrence4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,iii ,,pyrotechny ,,in ,,europe ,pyrotechnic compositions and gunpowder are inextricably mixed together in early ,european records2 for our inquiries it will serve no useful purpose to disentangle them1 the latter being only a particular case of the former4 ,we will therefore deal with them together1 taking the evidence of the knowledge of one as that of both1 as until gunpowder is specifically mentioned as being used as a propellant in a gun or similar weapon1 there is nothing to distinguish it from any other pyrotechnic composition4 ,the earliest record of ,european pyrotechny is in ,claudius' account of the public festivities during the consulate of ,theodosius in the fourth century ,a4,d41 in which he describes fire 8which ran about in different directions over the planks without burning or even charring them1 and which formed by their twisting and turning globes of fire40 ,leo ,,vi1 ,emperor of the ,east1 in a work written about ,a4,d4 #ijj1 says3 8,we have divers ways of destroying the enemies' ships1 as by means of fire prepared in tubes1 from which they issue with a sound of thunder1 and with a fiery smoke that burns the vessels on which they are hurled4 ,a tube of tin must be put on the front of the ship to hurl this from40 ,the most interesting reference of an early date is supposed to have been written by ,marcus ,graecus in his 8,liber ignium ad comburendos hostes0 7,book of fires for burning up the enemy71 in which he not only gives the exact proportions of the compositions1 but describes what is virtually the modern cracker1 and also a primitive form of rocket4 ,the case of the former was only partially filled1 as with the jumping cracker of to-day1 and although the wording is not very explicit1 it was apparently bent in a similar way4 ,the date of this work is a subject of controversy2 some writers place it as early as the eighth century1 and it can only be said with certainty that it is not later than #abhj4 ,the latter date is fixed by the death of ,albertus ,magnus1 who1 in his book 8,de miribilibus mundi10 from internal evidence1 is obviously plagiarising the ,liber ,ignium4 ,friar ,roger ,bacon 7#abad-id71 in two of his works1 refers at least twice to compositions containing saltpetre1 powdered charcoal1 and sulphur4 ,in one place he refers to fires that 8shall burn at what distance we please02 in another to 8thunder and corruscations10 which references seem to suggest that he is describing something of a pyrotechnic nature rather than the simple effect of gunpowder4 ,his description in no way indicates that he claimed to be the inventor1 but rather as something well known before4 ,dr4 ,jebb1 in his preface to ,bacon's 8,opus ,majus10 refers to what seems to be an early example of both the rocket and the cracker4 ,dutens1 in his 8,inquiries into the ,origin of the discoveries attributed to the ,moderns0 7#agij71 makes reference to many early writers1 which are mostly so vague and exaggerated that no definite conclusion can be drawn from them2 most refer to the early uses of ,greek-fire or similar composition4 ,don ,pedro1 ,bishop of ,leon1 says that 8in #acdc1 in a sea combat between the ,king of ,tunis and the ,moorish ,king of ,seville 444 those of ,tunis had certain iron tubes or barrels wherewith they threw thunderbolts of fire40 ,this description1 if accurate1 may be thought to suggest the use of cannons1 but it is more likely to refer to the use of ,greek-fire2 this composition will1 in certain proportions1 if charged into a strong tube1 give intermittent bursts1 projecting blazing masses of the mixture to a considerable distance4 ,the writer has seen this effect produced in a steel mortar of #e inches diameter1 the masses of composition being thrown a distance of upwards of a hundred yards1 a considerable range in the days of close warfare4 ,anyone who has seen this phenomenon will at once realise that here probably is the true solution of many obscure early references to explain which so much ingenuity has been expended4 ,an interesting fact which seems to have escaped the notice of writers on this subject is that ,theresa1 daughter of ,alfonso ,v4 ,king of ,leon and the ,asturias 7,a4,d4 #iii71 when married to ,abdallah1 ,king of ,toledo1 took for device on her coat of arms a mortar in which a powder is being pounded4 ,this powder is supposed to represent gunpowder1 a supposition which is supported by the motto1 8,minima maxima fecit0 7,a little makes much74 ,if gunpowder is intended1 this must be one of the earliest references to its quality of exploding1 and it is difficult to explain the meaning otherwise4 ,richard ,cur de ,lion used ,greek-fire on his galley at the siege of ,acre in #aaia1 and it is thought by many that it was introduced into ,western ,europe by the ,crusaders1 who had learned its use in the ,east4 ,alfonso ,duke of ,ferrara had as his coat of arms a bomb-shell in flight1 and ,antoine de ,lalaing1 ,count of ,hooghstraeten1 had a bomb-shell exploding in water4 ,the adoption of these two devices at about the same time 7#aedj7 seems to indicate that this projectile was coming into use1 that is to say1 for military purposes at least4 ,an early reference to shell appears in ,stowe's ,chronicles 7#aefe74 ,he mentions two foreigners1 ,peter ,brand and ,peter ,van ,cullen1 a gunsmith1 in the employ of ,henry ,,viii 7,a4,d4 #aedf71 who 8caused to be made certain mortar pieces being at the mouth eleven inches unto nineteen inches wide1 for the use whereof to be made certain hollow shot of cast-iron1 to be stuffed with firework or wild-fire1 whereof the bigger sort for the same had screws of iron to receive a match to carry fire kindled1 that the firework might be set on fire for to break in pieces the same hollow shot1 whereof the smallest piece hitting any man would kill or spoil him40 ,the missile is to all intents the firework shell of the present day1 except that the modern shell has a papier-mach case4 ,the reference to 8firework0 without further explanation seems to indicate that by this time the word was well established in use4 ,shakespeare makes three references to fireworks4 ,in 8,love's ,labour's ,lost10 ,act ,v1 ,scene #a1 ,don ,armado says3 8,the ,king would have me present the ,princess with some delightful entertainment1 or show1 or pageant1 or antic1 or firework40 ,in 8,henry ,,viii10 ,act ,i1 ,scene #c1 we read of 8fights and fireworks02 and again in 8,king ,john10 ,act ,,ii1 ,scene #a3 8,what cracker is this same that deafs our ears80 ,however1 nothing in the nature of a firework display appears to have taken place1 at least in this country1 before the time of ,elizabeth4 ,the use of fire for theatrical purposes1 as in ,mystery ,plays to represent the 8gate of ,hell10 has been taken by some to refer to fireworks1 but this seems doubtful as flames are mentioned1 and it is more probable that a torch or similar contrivance was used4 ,when1 however1 we read a description of a barge at the coronation of ,anne ,boleyn1 in #aech1 carrying a dragon 8casting forth wild fire--and men casting fire10 the reference to some pyrotechnic effect1 however primitive1 seems fairly obvious4 ,the men performers may be considered as early types of the 8green man0 who made his appearance somewhat later4 ,the office of this performer was to head processions carrying 8fire clubs0 and scattering 8fireworks0 7probably sparks7 to clear the way4 ,one account of a procession to the ,chester ,races on ,st4 ,george's ,day1 #afaj1 commences as follows3 8,two men in green ivy1 set with work upon their other habit1 with black hair and black beards1 very ugly to behold1 and garlands upon their heads1 with great clubs in their hands1 with fireworks to scatter abroad to maintain the way for the rest of the show40 ,the fire clubs referred to are described in ,john ,bate's book1 published in #afce2 the same writer illustrates a 8green man0 on the title page of his work4 ,illustration3 ,facsimile ,title-page of ,bate's ,book1 showing a 8,green ,man40 ,regarding the origin of the ,green ,man1 it has been suggested that the character was evolved from the wild men1 satyrs1 monsters1 etc41 which appeared in the earlier exhibitions4 ,this may or may not be so1 but another explanation suggested to the writer by an old ,danish print of the sixteenth century is at least plausible4 ,this print1 which apparently represents a floating firework device of the old scenic type1 shows two figures carrying fire clubs wearing leaves1 and suggesting immediately the green man of a slightly later date4 ,behind them are two figures holding rockets1 leaving no doubt that a firework display is portrayed4 ,on the other hand1 apart from the fact that normally they have no fire issuing from their clubs1 the supporters of the ,danish royal arms might be here depicted2 a supposition which is borne out by the fact that the figure surmounting the erection carries the crown and sceptre of ,denmark4 ,it seems quite within the bounds of possibility that these two figures were introduced into ,danish displays as a compliment to ,royalty1 and that later they appeared in ,england1 and became1 as it were1 acclimatised4 ,colour is lent to this belief by the record of a display given on a float by the ,king of ,denmark in #afjf upon his departure from this country1 where he had been on a visit to his brother-in-law1 ,james ,i4 ,this exhibition seems to have given ,james a taste for fireworks1 and one at least of the ,danish artists appears to have remained in this country1 as some months after ,james had a display carried out by 8a ,dane1 two ,dutchmen1 and ,sir ,thomas ,challoner40 ,in #aegb a firework display was given in the ,temple ,fields1 ,warwick1 by the ,earl of ,warwick1 then ,master-,general of the ,ordnance4 ,the occasion was a visit to the castle by ,queen ,elizabeth1 who appears to have been rather partial to such exhibitions4 ,the display consisted of a mimic battle1 with two canvas forts for a setting2 noise was provided by the discharge of ordnance of various sizes2 the fireworks proper seem to have taken the form of flights of rockets4 ,the display was evidently conducted in a somewhat reckless manner1 some houses being set on fire1 and some completely destroyed1 the two inhabitants of which are said in a contemporary report to have been in bed and asleep1 although how that could be with continuous discharge from twenty pieces of ordnance1 to say nothing of 8qualivers and harquebuses10 in the immediate neighbourhood1 is to say the least curious4 ,two other displays attended by ,elizabeth were those at ,kenilworth in #aegb and at ,elvetham in #aeia4 ,illustration3 ,a ,display of the ,earliest ,type4 ,from a contemporary print 7c4 #afej74 ,the first ,european people to make headway in the art of pyrotechny proper appear to have been the ,italians4 ,vanochio1 an ,italian1 in a work on artillery1 dated #aegb1 attributes to the ,florentines and ,viennese the honour of being the first who made fireworks on erections of wood1 decorated with statues and pictures raised to a great height1 some in ,florence being forty ells1 or seventy-two feet high4 ,he adds that these were illuminated so that they might be seen from a distance1 and that the statues threw out fire from the mouths and eyes4 ,he refers to the practice1 which survived up to the end of the eighteenth century1 of constructing elaborate temples or palaces richly decorated1 with transparencies illuminated from inside1 statuary1 gilding1 floral and other decorations4 ,on these erections the fireworks proper were displayed1 and which were then called artificial fireworks4 ,nothing very large in the way of firework set-pieces seems to have been attempted1 but effect was gained by repetition of a small device over the facade of the building4 ,displays were given annually in ,florence at the ,feast of ,st4 ,john and the ,assumption4 ,this custom extended to ,rome1 where the festivals were given on the ,feast of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul1 and at the rejoicings on the election of a ,pope4 ,the towers and fortifications of the castle of ,st4 ,angelo furnished suitable spots for these1 being visible from the greater part of the city of ,rome1 and what are described as braziers1 firepots1 and other fires would be placed there1 so as to give a great display without the expense of a building4 ,evelyn1 the famous diarist1 gives an account of one such display which he witnessed in #affd4 ,in other towns that wished to imitate the festival of ,rome1 it was arranged to place illuminations on the highest towers and steeples of the towns1 but as it was found that there was considerable danger of fire from these1 it was afterwards preferred to make suitable erections in the great public squares1 which were convenient for the exhibition itself and also for the sightseers4 ,the ,italians appear to have held the supremacy until the end of the seventeenth century4 ,in the book of ,artillery by ,diego ,ufano1 written in #afaj1 we read that only very simple fireworks were made in his time in ,spain and ,flanders1 consisting of wooden framework supporting pots of fire wrapped round with cloth dipped in pitch1 but that more than fifty years before magnificent spectacles could be seen in ,italy4 ,in #afae1 on the occasion of the marriage of ,louis ,,xiii1 a display was given at ,paris in the ,place ,royale1 in which were included combats between men carrying illuminated arms4 ,in #afjf the ,duc de ,sully gave a spectacle which depicted a battle between savages and monsters1 the former throwing darts and fire4 ,a similar display had previously been given on the occasion of the entry of ,henry ,,ii into ,rheims1 and it was repeated in #afab4 ,these spectacles1 which are quoted as firework displays1 cannot rightly be considered as such1 fireworks playing a comparatively secondary part in the exhibitions4 ,a display of this nature to celebrate the capture of ,rochelle was conducted by ,clariner of ,nuremberg1 a celebrated pyrotechnist of the day4 ,during the reign of ,louis ,,xiv1 #afch-agae1 great advances were made in pyrotechny in ,france2 great displays were given on the return of the ,king and ,queen to ,paris in #affj1 on five consecutive days at ,versailles in #afgf1 also on the occasion of the birth of the ,dauphin in #afhb1 in ,paris at the ,louvre1 ,dijon1 and ,lyons4 ,a particularly fine display in celebration of the ,peace of ,riswick1 #affi 7for which event displays took place in several countries71 is mentioned by ,frzier1 who wrote a treatise on pyrotechny 7#agdg72 it was1 he says1 witnessing this display that inspired him to study the art4 ,illustration3 ,set ,piece of the ,scenic ,type4 ,one of the chief causes of progress in ,france was the encouragement given by ,louis ,,xv 7#agaj-aggd7 to the pyrotechnists ,morel ,torr and the ,ruggieri brothers1 the latter being ,italians from ,bologna who became naturalised ,frenchmen1 and contributed very greatly to the development of ,french pyrotechny4 ,they were the first to rely chiefly on fireworks for the effect1 instead of using them merely to embellish a scenic or architectural structure4 ,louis ,,xv expended large sums of money on displays1 one of the finest being that fired at ,versailles in #agci by ,ruggieri1 on the occasion of the marriage of ,madame ,la ,premire of ,france with ,don ,philippe of ,spain4 ,writing of this display in #ahba1 ,ruggieri's son says3 8,there appeared for the first time the ,salamander la ,rosace and le ,guilloche1 which are still admired to-day40 ,these are purely pyrotechnic pieces and devices2 similar or identical ones are used at the present day1 which seems to indicate that fireworks proper were making headway against scenic effect4 ,other displays in ,france during the eighteenth century were those on the occasions of the birth of the ,duke of ,brittany1 #agjd2 birth of the ,dauphin1 #agcj2 the convalescence of the ,king1 #agdd2 and the return of the ,king to ,paris1 #agde4 ,also there is in existence a series of prints which1 but for the fact that they are described as fireworks1 would be taken to be scenic tableaux2 whether the figures are human beings or wax-works is not indicated4 ,these were erected in celebration of the following events3--,the taking of ,tournay1 the taking of ,chateau ,grand1 ,victory over the ,allies1 all dated #agde2 the taking of ,ypres1 #agdg1 all of which took place in ,paris before the ,hotel de ,ville4 ,similar displays were given in ,lyons in #agfe to celebrate the taking of ,fort ,san ,philippe1 and at ,soleure in #aggg1 in honour of the ,swiss ,guard4 ,displays took place at ,versailles 7#agea7 on the occasion of the birth of the ,duke of ,burgundy4 ,in #ageh-i came a further series of victory celebrations in honour of the victory of ,lutzelberg1 over the ,english in ,america1 and over the ,allies at ,bergheri1 all of which appear to have been of the 8tableau0 type mentioned above4 ,there were also displays for the peace celebrations on the ,seine1 #agfc1 the birth of the ,dauphin1 #aghb1 in the ,place de ,geneve1 and peace rejoicings1 #aghc1 before the ,hotel de ,ville4 ,ruggieri1 however1 states in his book that the display fired on the marriage of ,louis ,,xvi 7or1 as he then was1 the ,dauphin7 was the only display since the great fetes of #agci which showed any considerable advance in the art2 he may1 however1 be in some degree biased as his father was concerned in each of these displays4 ,illustration3 ,firework ,display at ,nuremberg1 #afej4 ,from a contemporary engraving ,,chapter ,,iv ,,pyrotechny ,,in ,,europe 7continued7 ,during the later part of the seventeenth century1 and subsequently1 many prints appeared depicting firework displays2 their number seems quite out of proportion to the total number of prints published in that period4 ,possibly this may be taken as some indication of the popularity of firework displays at the time1 or may give the measure of the favour in which they were held by the artists of the day4 ,many of these prints are of little value to the student of pyrotechny1 as they merely depict the more or less elaborate structure for the display by daylight1 and whatever may be their architectural or artistic merit there is generally no indication of what actual fireworks were to be used1 or how they were to be displayed4 ,in some cases a list of the works is given under the engraving1 adding greatly to its value in the eyes of the pyrotechnist1 and some1 although they are considerably in the minority1 are intended to represent the display in progress1 although on the rather futuristic method of showing everything going off at one time4 ,a series of prints published in ,germany during the seventeenth century are among the earliest in which a serious attempt is made to depict pyrotechnic effects2 the series includes 8,swedish ,fireworks10 dated #afej2 8,fireworks at ,nuremburg in celebration of ,peace10 of the same date2 8,fireworks given at ,pleissenburg by the ,prince of ,saxony10 #afff2 and the same year1 8,fireworks at ,vienna02 all three prints show a good display of rockets1 also bonfires1 and there are indications of primitive wheels4 ,the same remarks apply to a very fine plate published in #affi1 depicting a display given at ,stockholm in honour of the investiture of ,charles ,,xi of ,sweden with the ,order of the ,garter by the ,british ,ambassador4 ,this engraving carries with it a feeling of conviction that it is an actual representation of the scene1 and not--as is the case with earlier and with some later work--that the artist is drawing on his imagination4 ,in many of the earlier prints it is difficult to judge if the artist is depicting what he imagined1 or monsters and scenic effects actually constructed for the display4 ,it is worthy of note that even in early times1 speaking pyrotechnically1 the value of water in enhancing the effect of fireworks seems to have been realised4 ,the display at ,stockholm we have already mentioned appears to have taken place on the sea front4 ,many of the larger ,french displays of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were fired with a foreground of water2 in those at ,versailles full advantage was taken of the wonderful fountains and ornamental water1 the display given in celebration of the entry of ,louis ,,xiv in ,paris after his marriage being given on the ,seine1 and many of the early ,english displays took place on the ,thames4 ,probably the earliest contemporary account of any length of a firework display in ,england is one headed 8,the ,manner of ,fire-,workes shewed up upon the ,thames0 in celebration of the marriage of ,prince ,frederick 7,elector ,palatine7 with the daughter of ,james ,i in #afac4 ,we read 8many artificiall concusions in ,fire-,workes were upon the ,thames performed4 8,first1 for a welcome to the beholders a peale of ,ordnance like unto a terrible thunder ratled in the ayre4444 ,secondly1 followed a number more of the same fashion1 spredding so strangely with sparkling blazes1 that the skie seemed to be filled with fire4444 ,after this1 in a most curious manner1 an artificiall fire-worke with great wonder was seen flying in the ayre1 like unto a fiery ,dragon1 against which another fierrie vision appeared flaming like to ,saint ,george on ,horsebacke1 brought in by a burning ,inchanter1 between which was then fought a most strange battell continuing a quarter of an howre or more2 the dragon being vanquished1 seemed to roar like thunder1 and withall burst in pieces1 and so vanished2 but the champion1 with his flaming horse1 for a little time made a shew of a tryumphant conquest1 and so ceased4 ,illustration3 ,great ,firework ,display near ,stockholm1 ,july1 #affi4 ,to celebrate the ,investiture of ,charles ,,xi1 ,king of ,sweden1 with the ,order of the ,garter by ,king ,charles ,,ii4 8,after this was heard another ratling sound of ,cannons1 almost covering the ayre with fire and smoke1 and forthwith appeared1 out of a hill of earth made upon the water1 a very strange fire1 flaming upright like unto a blazing starre4 ,after which flew forth a number of rockets so high in the ayre1 that we could not chose but approve by all reasons that ,arte hath exceeded ,nature1 so artificially were they performed4 ,and still as the ,chambers and ,culverines plaide upon the earth1 the fire-workes danced in the ayre1 to the great delight of his ,highnes and the ,princes4 8,out of the same mount or hill of earth flew another strange piece of artificiall fire-worke1 which was in the likenes of a hunted ,harte1 running upon the water so swiftly1 as it had been chaced by many huntsmen4 8,after the same1 issued out of the mount a number of hunting-hounds made of fire burning1 pursuing the aforesaid ,harte up and downe the waters1 making many rebounds and turnes with much strangenes2 skipping in the ayre as it had been a usual hunting upon land4 8,these were the noble delights of ,princes1 and prompt were the wits of men to contrive such princely pleasures4 ,where ,kings commands be1 ,art is stretcht to the true depth2 as the performance of these ,engineers have been approved4 8,but now again to our wished sports3 when this fiery hunting was extinguished1 and that the ,elements were a little cleared from fire and smoke1 there came sailing up1 as it were upon the ,seas1 certaine ships and gallies bravely rigged with top and top gallant1 with their flagges and streamers waving like ,men of ,warr1 which represented a ,christian name opposed against the ,turkes2 where1 after they had awhile hovered1 preparing as it were1 to make an incursion into the ,turkish country1 they were discovered by her ,towers or ,castles of defence1 strongly furnished to intercept all such invading purposes1 so sending forth the reports of a cannon1 they were bravely answered with the like from the gallies1 banding fire and powder one from another1 as if the ,god of ,battle had been there present4 8,here was the manner of a sea-fight rightly performed3 ,first1 by assailing one another1 all striving for victorie1 and pursuing each other with fire and sword3 the ,culverines merrily plaid betwixt them1 and made the ayre resound with thundering echoes2 and at last to represent the joyes of a victorie1 the ,castles were sacked1 burned1 and ruinated1 and the defenders of the same forced to escape with great danger40 ,the foregoing appears to be the only full account of a display in ,england during the early part of the seventeenth century1 but in the first serious work on fireworks1 8,pyrotechnia10 by ,john ,babington1 8gunner and student of the mathematicks10 we find a proposed programme for 8a generall piece of fire-worke for land1 for the pleasure of a ,prince or some great person40 ,the spectacle consists of two castles with mechanical effects1 but includes such devices as horizontal and vertical wheels1 flights of rockets1 line rockets and 8torches of beautifull fire40 ,babington also describes the ,st4 ,george and ,dragon device1 which is merely scenic1 the figures being of wickerwork and canvas with slight firework effects4 ,at this time1 according to a 8,history of ,colleges in and arround ,london10 there were 8many men very skilful in the art of pyrotechny and fireworks40 ,in a book on fireworks1 published in the same year1 by ,john ,bate1 the author concludes by saying3 8,i might have been infinite in the describing of such like with ,ships1 ,towers1 ,castles1 ,pyramides4 ,but1 considering that it would but increase the price of the book and not better your understanding1 since all consist of the former workes1 which are so plainly described as that the most ignorant may easily conceive thereof1 and 7if any whit ingenious7 thence contrive others1 of what fashion they list40 ,from this it would appear that firework displays were by that date a well-established institution4 ,pepys1 in his account of the coronation of ,charles ,,ii1 #affa1 says3 8,we staid upon the leads and below till it was late1 expecting to see the fireworks1 but they were not performed to-night40 ,he seems to have looked upon fireworks as a matter of course on such an occasion4 ,however1 a display of considerable size did take place1 conducted by ,sir ,martin ,beckman1 later ,firemaster to ,james ,,ii1 who was responsible for most of the important displays until #agjf4 ,one of the earliest prints of an ,english firework display is that depicting the fireworks on the ,thames at ,whitehall for the coronation of ,james ,,ii1 #afhe1 in which the artist appears to have drawn somewhat on his imagination4 ,three years later an elaborate display was given on the ,thames to celebrate the birth of an heir to the throne1 who was afterwards known as the ,old ,pretender4 ,in the same year we again see fireworks on the ,thames1 this time to celebrate the reception of the ,prince of ,orange4 ,illustration3 ,fireworks on the ,thames1 ,june #agth1 #afhh4 ,to celebrate the birth of a son to ,king ,james ,,ii4 known to fame first as the ,prince of ,wales1 and afterwards as the ,old ,pretender4 ,in #afij displays were given1 again on the ,thames1 and in ,covent ,garden1 on the occasion of the ,king's return from ,ireland4 ,the taking of ,namur1 #afie1 was celebrated by a display in ,st4 ,james's ,square1 and on the same site two years later1 the celebrations for the ,peace of ,riswick4 ,this latter is depicted in a fine engraving1 giving the following list of fireworks used on the occasion3--8#a1jjj ,sky ,rockets1 from four to six pounds weight2 #bjj ,shell2 #b1djj ,pumps with ,starrs 7,roman ,candles72 #a1jjj ,cones2 #g1jjj ,reports2 #ae1jjj ,swarms2 #djj ,light ,balls2 #bc ,rocket ,chests1 each containing #fj rockets from one to four pounders40 ,john ,evelyn1 in his 8,diary10 says3 8,the evening concluded with illuminations and fireworks of great expense40 ,the display cost #ab1jjj4 ,there seem to have been no fireworks in ,london at the coronation of either ,anne or the first two ,georges1 although on the former occasion rockets appear to have been fired from the ,fleet at ,spithead4 ,the ,peace ,rejoicings of #agac were the occasion of another display on the ,thames off ,whitehall1 the erection being about #djj feet long on barges chained together in the stream4 ,a feature of this display was the water fireworks1 described as3 8#a1ejj small and large water ,rockets2 #e large water ,pyramids2 #d water fountains2 #ac ,pumps2 #ba standing ,rockets1 with lights all swimming on the water2 #hd of ,coll ,borgards2 large and small ,bees swarms1 half of which were set with lights to swim on the water40 ,the next event to be celebrated by firework displays on a large scale was the ,peace of ,aix-la-,chapelle2 these were given at ,paris1 ,the ,hague1 ,london1 and ,st4 ,stephen's ,green1 ,dublin4 ,the ,duke of ,richmond was responsible for a display on the ,thames off ,whitehall1 the official display taking place in ,green ,park1 and was on a scale unequalled in this country until well into the last century4 ,it was conducted by the famous pyrotechnist ,gaetano ,ruggieri1 who came over from ,france for the purpose1 assisted by ,gioseppe ,sarti1 under the direction of the ,board of ,ordnance4 ,following the practice of the period1 an elaborate structure was prepared4 ,the following is taken from the official programme3 8,a ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,machine ,,for ,,the ,,fireworks1 c4 8,the ,machine is #aad feet high to the ,top of ,his ,majesty's arms1 and is #daj feet long4 ,it was invented and designed by the ,chevalier ,servandoni and all the framing was performed by ,mr4 ,james ,morris1 ,master ,carpenter to the ,office of ,ordnance4 8,the ,ornaments of this ,machine are all in ,relief1 and it is adorned with ,frets1 ,gilding1 ,lustres1 ,artificial ,flowers1 ,inscriptions1 ,statues1 ,allegorical ,pictures1 etc40 ,according to a contemporary newspaper report1 the construction occupied from ,november #gth until ,april #bfth4 ,it was composed of timber covered with canvas1 whitewashed and sized4 ,the display commenced about six o'clock1 and continued until after twelve2 during the display the left wing caught fire1 which prevented the firing of some of the devices4 ,indeed1 according to ,walpole1 the ,duke of ,richmond's display on the ,thames a few weeks later consisted largely of fireworks which had not been fired owing to this occurrence1 and which the noble duke had bought up cheap4 ,among the items were included the following3--,regulated ,pieces1 ,fixed ,suns1 ,stars of six ,points1 and between each point a ,ray1 a large vertical ,sun moved by double ,fires1 ,cascades1 ,pyramids 7#dj feet high7 of ,gerbs1 etc41 etc4 ,the chief piece seems to be one 8from whence ,fire issues out and retires within1 twelve times alternately2 when without1 it forms a ,glory2 when within1 it composes a ,star of eight ,points1 and then changes to a ,royal brilliant ,wheel1 whose ,fire is thirty feet in diameter1 and is moved by twelve fires40 ,the remainder of this century in ,england appears to be rather barren of firework displays on a large scale4 ,a writer in the 8,st4 ,james's ,chronicle10 under the date ,february #ahth1 #agfd1 in a letter advocating certain improvements in ,st4 ,james's ,park1 evidently recalling the outcry over the #agdi display1 observes3 8,we had no fireworks at the peace last year1 that will surely obviate any argument preferred against the expense of the undertaking40 ,until nearly the end of the eighteenth century1 according to ,strutt1 writing at that time1 it was customary 8for the ,train of ,artillery to display a grand fire-work on ,tower ,hill1 on the ,king's ,birthday1 but owing to the disturbances that occurred1 the inhabitants a few years since petitioned against it40 ,there was1 however1 a great increase in the number of displays4 ,fireworks became a feature of the programme of the majority of the then fashionable tea and pleasure gardens4 ,walpole describes a firework display given in #agfc by the notorious ,duchess of ,kingston1 who was thirteen years later tried by her peers on a charge of bigamy4 ,the display appears to have taken place in ,hyde ,park1 opposite the residence of the ,duchess1 then at the height of her popularity4 ,he records that 8the fireworks were fine and succeeded well40 ,one item seems curious to modern ideas2 it took the form of a cenotaph for the ,princess ,elizabeth1 a sister of the king1 bearing the inscription3 8,all honours the dead can receive40 ,the sequel was even more extraordinary1 as 8about one in the morning this ,sarcophagus burst into crackers and guns40 ,illustration3 ,firework ,display given by the ,duke of ,richmond on the ,thames off ,whitehall1 ,may #aeth1 #agdi1 to celebrate the ,peace of ,aix-la-,chapelle4 ,lieutenant ,jones1 who published a book on fireworks in #agfe1 in his preface makes the following remarks3 8,i own ,i cannot help reflecting with some kind of chagrin that whenever we have had occasion for these sort of diversions to be exhibited in ,england we have almost always had recourse to foreigners to execute them2 if this has been owing to the ignorance of our own people on this subject ,i shall be very happy if it is in my power to correct it2 if it is only owing to that prevailing fondness we entertain for everything foreign ,i know no remedy for that evil but time and experience40 ,to a certain extent his complaint seems justified2 as we have seen1 the ,aix-la-,chapelle celebrations were conducted by foreigners--,ruggieri and ,sarti4 ,later in the century1 ,morel ,torr1 who1 as previously mentioned1 collaborated with ,ruggieri in pyrotechnic displays for ,louis ,,xv1 and several other pyrotechnists came to this country and conducted displays4 ,at the same time1 however1 there were undoubtedly many capable pyrotechnists of ,english nationality1 who found scope for their abilities in the exhibitions given in the pleasure gardens of ,london and the provinces in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries4 ,a history of pyrotechny would not be complete without a survey of these popular places of amusement1 and we propose in the following chapter to give a brief summary of the better known places of resort4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,london ,,pleasure ,,gardens ,during the eighteenth and first half of the nineteenth centuries the ,pleasure ,gardens filled a position in the lives of a large proportion of the public comparable with that of the ,cinema to-day4 ,to the great mass of the public1 the most general form of evening relaxation was a visit to one or other of these places of resort4 ,apart from meals of a more or less elaborate nature1 and liquid refreshments of various kinds1 a great variety of entertainments were provided1 varying from displays of horsemanship to exhibitions of paintings4 ,of these diversions none were more general than fireworks and illuminations4 ,at many gardens fireworks formed a regular feature of the programme1 at others1 generally less ambitious undertakings1 displays were confined to occasions1 such as the ,king's ,birthday4 ,space will hardly permit of more than a glance at those resorts situated in the provinces1 but a description of those in the ,london area may be taken as typical4 ,captain ,marryat1 in 8,peter ,simple10 gives an account of a visit to ,postdown ,fair1 near ,portsmouth1 and an adjournment to the local ,ranelagh ,gardens to 8see the fireworks40 ,as the pyrotechnist was behind time1 ,peter ,simple and his friends took it upon themselves to fire the display4 8,in about half a minute off they all went in the most beautiful confusion2 there were silver stars and golden stars1 blue lights and ,catherine ,wheels1 ,mines and ,bombs1 ,grecian fires and ,roman ,candles1 ,chinese ,trees1 rockets and illuminated mottoes1 all firing away1 cracking1 popping1 and fizzing at the same time4 ,it was unanimously agreed that it was a great improvement on the intended show40 ,undoubtedly the gardens best remembered at the present day are ,vauxhall and ,ranelagh1 neither of which were early in the field in presenting firework displays to the public4 ,the first displays took place at ,vauxhall about #agih1 more than half a century after their appearance at some of the less famous gardens1 and did not become a permanent feature of the programme until #ahac4 ,they continued regularly until the final closing of the gardens in #ahei1 the final item of the programme being 8,farewell for ,ever0 in letters of fire4 ,in #ahac an item in the firework programme was the performance of ,madame ,saqui1 which was to slide down an inclined rope #cej feet long from the top of a mast #fj feet high1 erected on the firework platform1 enveloped in fireworks4 ,so popular did this exhibition become that it was repeated here by other performers1 by ,longueman in #ahbb1 and later by ,blackmore4 ,the best-known pyrotechnists connected with ,vauxhall were ,southby1 ,mortram1 and ,hengler1 the first display being by an ,italian named ,invetto4 ,pyrotechnic displays at ,ranelagh became a prominent feature of the amusements about #agfg4 ,the pyrotechnists ,angelo1 father and son1 during that and the following years1 helped to establish these displays in popularity1 followed by ,clithero1 ,caillot1 ,brock1 ,rossi1 and ,tessier1 up to the closing of the gardens in #ahje1 after which date they appear to have been opened from time to time on special occasions4 8,the ,morning ,chronicle0 of ,june #ast1 #ahab1 announces that 8,by the ,authority of the ,right ,hon4 the ,lord ,chamberlain0 these gardens would be open 8in ,honour of ,his ,majesty's ,birthday1 with a grand naval and military ,fete1 and a superb exhibition of ,fireworks40 ,an interesting old advertisement1 dated #agff3 8,for the ,benefit of the ,general ,lying-in ,hospital4 ,the most superb and ,magnificent ,fireworks ever exhibited at that ,place1 under the conduct and direction of ,mr4 ,angelo40 ,it would appear from this that fireworks had been fired at ,ranelagh earlier than #agff1 but they could not have been a regular feature before #agfg4 ,cupers ,gardens1 which stood on the south side of the river1 approximately on the site of the ,waterloo ,bridge approach1 were for a long period the scene of popular firework displays4 ,commencing about #agda1 these displays were as elaborate as any of this period4 ,the earlier displays appear to have been conducted by 8the ingenious ,mr4 ,worman10 who seems to have relied to a considerable extent on transparencies and scenery2 in #agdi and #agej he reproduced in miniature the firework 8machine0 or ,temple used in the respective official displays in ,green ,park1 and at ,the ,hague for the ,aix-la-,chapelle peace celebrations4 ,other scenic effects were a view of the city of ,rhodes with a model of the ,colossus2 ,neptune1 issuing from a grotto below drawn by sea-horses1 set fire to a pyramid or an 8,archimedan worm0 and returned4 ,clithero was also associated with these displays1 producing similar scenic effects1 including a naval engagement in #agee1 which was the last year of fireworks in these gardens4 ,the earlier displays at ,marylebone ,gardens took place about the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,in #agea a display is announced to take place at eleven o'clock1 and 8a large collection0 of fireworks was advertised in #agec4 ,some at least of these earlier displays were fired by ,brock1 whose son1 later on1 worked here in conjunction with ,torr4 ,in #agfi the displays were under the direction of ,rossi and ,clanfield4 ,from #aggb to #aggd was the most successful period of the fireworks at these gardens2 they were then under the direction of ,torr4 ,a popular item1 afterwards copied by ,marinari at ,ranelagh1 was the 8,forge of ,vulcan10 a scenic display concluding with the eruption of ,mount ,etna4 ,on the occasion of ,torr's benefit1 in #aggb1 there was a further exhibition of this kind1 representing ,hercules delivering ,theseus from ,hell4 ,during this period attempts were made by neighbouring residents to stop the displays as a nuisance1 but nothing came of it1 and the fireworks continued4 ,at the annual festival in #aggb1 the display included a temple of 8upwards of #aj1jjj cases of different fires1 all lighted at the same time40 ,other pyrotechnists firing at the gardens were ,clithero and ,caillot1 both of whom had conducted displays at ,ranelagh1 the latter being responsible for the fireworks up to the closing of the gardens about #aggh4 ,it is recorded that ,dr4 ,johnson once visited the gardens on a firework night1 but unfortunately a wet one1 and notice was given to the handful of visitors that the fireworks were wet and the display would be cancelled4 ,the doctor1 however1 was of opinion that it was a 8mere excuse to save their crackers for a more profitable company10 and suggested that a threat to break the lamps would result in the show being forthcoming4 ,some young men standing by endeavoured1 under his direction1 to ignite the pieces1 but unsuccessfully4 ,the ,mulberry ,gardens1 ,clerkenwell1 were among the earliest to make fireworks a feature4 ,displays took place from the opening in #agdb1 and ten years later ,clanfield gave a display each evening4 ,two neighbouring taverns1 8,lord ,cobham's ,head0 and the 8,sir ,john ,oldcastle10 had displays from #agdd1 and in #agea 8,new fireworks in the ,chinese manner0 were announced at the latter establishment4 ,the ,new ,wells1 in the same neighbourhood as the foregoing1 had had a display as early as #agdj1 but it appears to have been of a scenic nature1 representing the ,siege of ,portobello4 ,the 8,star and ,garter10 ,chelsea1 advertised displays by ,signor ,genovini of ,rome1 in #agfb1 and 8,jenny's ,whim10 in the same neighbourhood1 had displays somewhat earlier1 the place having been established as a pleasure resort by a pyrotechnist4 ,cromwell ,gardens1 in the vicinity of the present ,cromwell ,road1 had what appears to have been a small display in #aghd4 ,rossi and ,tessier1 the pyrotechnists of ,ranelagh1 gave displays at the ,bermondsey ,spa ,gardens in #agib4 ,a representation of the ,siege of ,gibraltar was given1 and on ,september #bhth of that year1 8by special desire the ,battle of the ,fiery ,dragons1 and the line comet to come from the ,rock of ,gibraltar and cause the ,dragons to engage40 ,brock also gave displays here later4 ,finch's ,grotto ,gardens1 whose site is now occupied by the headquarters of the ,metropolitan ,fire ,brigade in ,southwark1 had occasional displays of fireworks about #aggj1 as did the ,temple of ,flora in the ,westminster ,bridge ,road1 about the same date4 ,clithero advertised a display of fireworks at ,jamaica ,house1 ,rotherhithe1 in #agfb4 ,a ,peace ,celebration display is announced for ,february #gth1 #agdi1 to 8be play'd off this evening in the ,field adjoining to the ,tavern called ,bob's ,hall40 ,in #aghh ,astley senior advertises1 to take place at the ,royal ,grove and ,astley's ,amphitheatre1 ,westminster ,bridge1 a 8,double ,display of ,fire-,works4444 ,numerous ,devices prepared in the usual way from ,powder1 etc41 which will be alternatively played off with the new-invented ,philosophical ,fire-,works1 under the direction of ,mons4 ,henry1 the inventor and ,professor of ,natural ,philosophy from ,paris40 ,the same year he announces a display 8on the ,thames immediately after ,astley's ,exhibition in ,honour of ,his ,majesty's ,birth-day10 and concludes by saying 8the ,fireworks are made under the ,direction of ,mr4 ,astley1 by ,messrs4 ,cobonell ,son1 who will let them off on the ,thames this evening at different signals from ,mr4 ,astley1 ,sen41 who will be mounted on the ,gibraltar ,charger1 placed in a ,barge1 in the ,front of the line of ,fireworks40 ,illustration3 ,firework ,temple at ,vauxhall1 #ahde4 ,from a woodcut in 8,the ,illustrated ,london ,news40 ,the 8,philosophical fireworks0 above mentioned were evidently an imitation of those exhibited at the ,lyceum by ,diller1 which he describes as 8,philosophical ,fireworks from ,inflammable ,air without smell1 smoke or ,detonation40 ,these appear to have been nothing more than gas jets arranged in patterns and designs1 some revolving and some stationary4 ,air was forced from a bladder through a sponge saturated with ether4 ,movement and variation were produced by turning on and off the gas from separate sets of holes4 ,two colours only appear to have been produced--rose and green2 these were by the addition of strontia and baryta or copper4 ,a handbill is in existence advertising a similar display at ,hull in #ahjd1 by ,w4 ,clarke4 ,during the early part of the nineteenth century several gardens round ,london made a feature of pyrotechnic displays4 ,the ,mermaid ,gardens1 ,hackney1 in 8,the ,morning ,chronicle0 of ,june #ast1 #ahab1 announces 8the greatest feast for the eye ever exhibited is a superb firework by that unparalleled artist1 ,mr4 ,brock1 ,engineer40 ,the ,yorkshire ,stingo and ,bayswater ,tea ,gardens in the west gave displays up to the early forties4 ,white ,conduit ,house1 in the ,islington district1 had firework displays from #ahbd up to shortly before the closing of these gardens in #ahdi4 ,rosherville ,gardens1 opened in #ahcg1 the ,north ,woolwich ,gardens1 the ,eagle1 #ahbe-hb1 the ,globe1 ,mile ,end1 the ,cremorne1 #ahdc-gg1 all had their firework displays4 ,the best known1 however1 for this feature were the ,surrey ,zoological ,gardens1 #ahca-ef1 where ,southby1 of ,vauxhall1 conducted displays for several years1 producing pyrotechnic and scenic displays there4 ,in #ahda he gave a reproduction of the fireworks of ,st4 ,angelo1 and the ,illumination of ,st4 ,peter's1 ,rome1 which proved a great attraction to the gardens4 ,in the provinces the ,belvue ,gardens1 ,manchester1 and the ,clifton ,zoological ,gardens1 ,bristol1 have made a feature of firework displays in their list of attractions1 those at the latter being carried out in #ahce by ,gyngell4 ,the famous ,cremorne ,gardens made a feature of pyrotechnic displays and spectacles of the scenic type with more or less regularity from their opening in #ahdf down to the final closing owing to public petition in #ahgg4 ,the earlier displays were carried out by ,mortram and ,duffel4 ,firework displays of a somewhat more ambitious nature have been given from time to time at the ,alexandra ,palace1 no doubt in emulation of the historic ,crystal ,palace displays1 which are dealt with in the ensuing chapter4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,fireworks ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,twentieth ,,centuries ,as we have seen1 the commencement of the eighteenth century was marked by great activity in the pyrotechnic art4 ,firework displays were looked upon as a necessary item in the programme of a place of public entertainment4 ,so ambitious did these displays become1 owing to keen rivalry existing between the various resorts1 that any official display in celebration of peace or like event must of necessity be on a scale of unexampled lavishness4 ,no official display of note appears to have been given in ,london during the first thirteen years of the nineteenth century1 or indeed since the ,aix-la-,chapelle peace display4 ,the reason may have been the public outcry on the score of waste on that occasion4 ,they were totally prohibited at the coronation of ,george ,,iii1 and at his jubilee in #ahji there were apparently no firework displays in ,london1 although more than forty towns about the country celebrated the event pyrotechnically1 and a fine display was given from the ,fleet at the ,nore4 ,the largest public firework exhibition on this occasion was that given at ,bombay1 where the celebration took place earlier in the year1 the date selected being ,june #dth1 the ,king's birthday1 instead of ,october #beth1 the actual anniversary of his accession4 ,the ,peace of #ahjb1 although no official display was given1 was the occasion of much private pyrotechnic enterprise1 the fireworks and illuminations in ,london lasting nearly a week4 ,the ,peace of #ahad was signalised in ,london by several displays3 the #ast of ,august was chosen for the ,peace ,celebration1 it being the centenary of the accession of the ,house of ,brunswick1 and also the anniversary of the ,battle of the ,nile4 ,the display in ,hyde ,park commenced with a naval engagement on the ,serpentine between model warships representing the ,english and the combined ,french and ,american ,fleets4 ,this item1 which lasted three hours1 was followed by a display of water fireworks4 ,the display in ,green ,park commenced at ten o'clock1 one of the chief items being the 8grand metamorphosis of the ,castle into the ,temple of ,concord40 ,this change1 says a writer in 8,the ,times0 of the period1 8was made with somewhat less celerity than those witnessed in our theatrical pantomimes4 ,it resembled rather the cautious removal of a screen than the sudden leap into a new shape4 ,when fully developed1 however1 it presented a spectacle which excited general approbation40 ,the ,temple of ,concord was an elaborate structure illuminated with coloured lamps1 and decorated with gilding1 festoons1 etc41 and transparent paintings4 ,it was designed by ,smirke1 the paintings being by ,stodard1 ,howard1 ,hilton1 and others1 and represented such subjects as 8,the ,golden ,age10 and 8,peace restored to ,earth40 ,charles ,lamb1 in a letter to ,william ,wordsworth1 dated ,august #ith1 #ahad1 after describing the havoc wrought in the park by the crowds and booths1 remarks that3 8,after all the fireworks were splendent--the ,rockets in clusters1 in trees and all shapes1 spreading about like young stars in the making floundering about in space 7like unbroke horses7 till some of ,newton's calculations should fix them1 but then they went out4 ,anyone who could see 'em and the still finer showers of gloomy rain fire that fell sulkily and angrily from 'em1 and could go to bed without dreaming of the ,last ,day1 must be as hardened an ,atheist as 9999999940 ,st4 ,james's ,park was reserved for those who paid for admission4 ,the trees were illuminated with lamps1 and a ,chinese bridge1 which had been erected over the lake1 was similarly treated4 ,the use of gas on this structure must be one of the earliest occasions of its being employed for outdoor illuminations of this nature4 ,neither can the result be considered altogether successful1 as the building caught fire towards the end of the firework display1 and a lamplighter1 who appears to have been caught by the flames in an attempt to throw himself into the water1 was killed4 ,other men similarly employed were also severely burned4 ,these men1 evidently through ignorance1 had started lighting the lower lamps first1 working upwards on the structure1 until they found themselves in a position of intolerable heat with no means of descending4 ,the pyrotechnic display consisted chiefly of aerial fireworks with gerbs1 roman candles1 fountains1 and wheels2 there do not appear to have been many devices of any size4 8,the ,times0 reporter complains that 8the repetition of these things1 with occasional pauses1 for more than two hours became tedious to all40 ,the coronation of ,george ,,iv1 in #ahba1 was celebrated by a display in ,hyde ,park1 including land and water fireworks1 superintended by ,congreve4 ,the displays on the coronation of ,william ,,iv1 in #ahca1 were directed by ,congreve's successor1 ,sir ,augustus ,frazer1 but appear to have been of an insignificant character4 ,queen ,victoria's coronation was celebrated by displays in ,hyde ,park and ,green ,park1 conducted by ,southby and ,d',ernst1 which exhibitions included a ,temple on similar lines to that of #ahad4 ,in ,france1 during the first few years of the nineteenth century1 there were many pyrotechnic displays of importance4 ,napoleon is credited with being extremely partial to such exhibitions4 ,displays took place in ,paris in the ,champs ,elyses1 at the barriere ,chaillot1 before ,les ,invalides in #ahja to celebrate the foundation of the ,republic1 and in the following year in honour of ,napoleon's arrival in that city4 ,major-,general ,lord ,blayney1 who was captured by ,napoleon's troops in the ,peninsula in #ahaj1 travelled on parole across ,spain and ,france on his way to ,verdun4 ,his somewhat leisurely journey of nearly six months enabled him to witness many celebrations of ,french victories in the towns through which he passed4 ,he records having seen fireworks and illuminations among other places at ,malaga and ,orleans4 ,in #ahjd a display was given by ,napoleon before the ,hotel de ,ville1 ,paris1 on his assumption of the title of ,emperor of the ,french4 ,the scenery provided for this display took the form of a representation of ,mount ,st4 ,bernard1 with a figure symbolising ,napoleon mounted on a charger on the summit4 ,this display was repeated in #ahaj on the occasion of his marriage with ,marie ,louise2 this time1 however1 the topmost feature was the ,temple of ,hymen1 with figures of ,napoleon and his bride4 ,other displays were given on the bridge of ,louis ,,xvi1 which appears to have been a popular position for such exhibitions1 in #ahjj1 #ahjd1 #ahjf1 #ahbj1 and #ahba4 ,another site frequently used for displays was the garden of the ,senate1 where ,ruggieri fired displays in the years #ahja1 #ahjf 7twice71 and #ahjg4 ,fireworks continued to be a national institution in ,france1 irrespective of the form of government4 ,louis ,napoleon1 like his uncle1 being fond of fireworks1 or it may be1 considering them a good means of gaining popularity1 made any public event an excuse for pyrotechnic displays4 ,notable occasions were the ,military ,fetes1 #aheb1 the ,fete of the ,emperor1 #ahec1 the visit of ,queen ,victoria to the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahee1 in honour of which a most elaborate display was given at ,versailles1 the ,baptismal ,fetes in #ahef1 the triumphal entry and the ,emperor's birthday1 #ahei1 and the visit of the ,king ,consort of ,spain in #ahfd4 ,the ,entente ,cordiale movement in #ahfh was responsible for displays in the ,fleets on both sides of the ,channel1 those in ,france taking place in ,cherbourg1 those in ,england at ,spithead4 ,a previous event which had been celebrated pyrotechnically on a large scale in both countries was the ,peace ,rejoicing at the conclusion of the ,crimean ,war4 ,this occasion was marked in ,london by four displays of fireworks on a scale hitherto unprecedented4 ,the sites chosen were ,hyde ,park1 ,green ,park1 ,primrose ,hill1 and ,victoria ,park4 ,they were arranged thus with the very sensible idea of splitting the crowds of sightseers into sections and thus preventing dangerous crowding to one spot4 ,the fireworks were prepared for these displays in ,woolwich ,arsenal1 under the direction of ,mr4 ,southby1 the pyrotechnist of the ,surrey ,gardens1 who went there for this event4 ,the programmes of these displays were precisely similar1 with the exception of that at ,primrose ,hill1 which consisted mainly of aerial fireworks4 ,tyrrell1 in his 8,history of the ,war with ,russia10 gives the following account of the display in ,green ,park3 8,at the appointed signal there was a continuous discharge of maroons1 accompanied by brilliant illuminations with white1 red1 green1 and yellow fires4444 ,then for two hours followed every conceivable design of elegant and dazzling pyrotechnic art4 ,flights of rockets a hundred at a time2 revolving wheels1 sun star and golden streamers1 and fiery serpents chasing each other through the air4 ,gerbs1 ,roman candles1 tourbillions1 shells1 and fixed pieces of the most fantastic designs and brilliant hues4 ,the eyes were dazzled by the intensity of the light4444 ,it was strange to believe that so fierce and ungovernable an element as fire could be rendered so delicately obedient to the will of man4444 ,the triumph1 however1 of the entertainment was reserved for the close of it4 ,this was a tremendous bombardment1 during which the air was constantly filled with flights of rockets1 and was intended as a representation of the last grand attack upon ,sebastopol--the blowing up of the magazines and works1 and general conflagration4 8,as an introduction to this there were five fixed pieces1 all of complicated construction1 the centre being an enormous one which1 amid all its fantastic blazing and revolving1 exhibited the words #8,god ,save the ,queen4' ,language fails to convey a vivid idea of the deafening1 roaring1 crashing and grand appearance of the termination1 during which the proud fortifications of ,sebastopol were supposed to succumb4 ,then rose up into the blackness1 rapidly one after another1 six flights of rockets1 comprising altogether no less than ten thousand of these beautiful and brilliant instruments4444 ,it was such a spectacle as man could not reasonably expect to witness more than once in a lifetime40 ,this account appears to be somewhat highly coloured1 as the official programme makes no reference to the fall of ,sebastopol1 but it is evident from it that the writer was greatly impressed with the display1 and contemporary prints indicate that he was voicing popular opinion4 ,it is worthy of note that these celebrations were the first occasion of the kind in which the exhibitions consisted of veritable fireworks without extraneous matter in the form of scenery and buildings4 ,this may account for the fact that there was1 on this occasion1 considerably less of the usual outcry against the 8waste0 involved4 ,it is curious that on occasions of this kind there are always to be found certain damp spirits who begin a clamour against the expenditure of money on fireworks which might be applied to other objects4 ,the ,aix-la-,chapelle display excited these gentlemen to a great pitch1 probably on account of the elaborate nature of the preparations1 which1 as we have already seen1 occupied over five months1 thus providing them with plenty of time to develop their theme1 or an object lesson to prove their statements4 ,illustration3 ,queen ,victoria's ,visit to ,france1 #ahee4 ,the ,fireworks at ,versailles4 ,from a drawing by ,gustav ,dor in 8,the ,illustrated ,london ,news40 ,where1 however1 the display consists--as on the occasion under consideration--solely of fireworks proper1 a few days' preparation on the actual site is usually sufficient2 the kill-joy has less time to spread himself4 ,it may be mentioned his season is over with the display2 generally the ,british public1 having enjoyed itself1 turns a deaf ear to those who would convince it that it ought not to have done so4 ,other displays took place in various parts of the kingdom3 in ,edinburgh on ,arthur's ,seat1 at ,portsmouth on the ,fleet1 to mention two only4 ,an interesting event which took place on the #beth ,august was the entertainment of #b1jjj men of the ,guards at the ,surrey ,gardens4 ,this resort was at the time the home of ,british pyrotechny1 the displays being conducted by ,southby1 who1 as we have said1 went into ,woolwich ,arsenal to assist in the production of the fireworks for the official displays4 ,the amusements of the day concluded with an exhibition of fireworks4 ,a further event connected with the foregoing celebration was the festivities in ,moscow on the occasion of the coronation of the ,emperor ,alexander ,,ii1 which concluded with a pyrotechnic display4 ,from this time until the end of the century the history of pyrotechny in this country is practically the history of pyrotechny at the ,crystal ,palace2 it has been the ,crystal ,palace displays which have set the pace1 as it were1 to pyrotechnists in this country1 and has provided the spur which has placed ,british pyrotechnists not only ahead but markedly ahead of their competitors in other countries4 ,the ,crystal ,palace displays became a national institution1 and any public event worthy of such recognition was accorded a pyrotechnic celebration there on a scale hitherto unattempted4 ,the credit for the original introduction of fireworks at the ,crystal ,palace must belong to the late ,c4 ,t4 ,brock1 who succeeded in inducing the ,directors to institute a competition among pyrotechnists in #ahfe4 ,it may be interesting to give in his own words an account of the matter1 taken from an article written by him some few years later3 8,it occurred to me that of all the places of public resort suitable for the inauguration of a new era for pyrotechny1 none offered such glorious advantages as the ,crystal ,palace1 then at the height of its popularity4 ,its terraces1 fountains and foliage offered unrivalled advantages for the display of grand effects4 ,the ,directors of the ,crystal ,palace ,company1 who had more than once been applied to for permission to hold displays in the grounds1 feared that1 inasmuch as fireworks had been recently associated solely with gardens of the ,cremorne class1 the ,palace itself would be degraded to the same rank if consent were granted4 ,i urged that the ,exhibition of #ahfb had afforded no opportunity for competition among firework makers--necessarily excluded by the nature of their trade--although almost every other branch of manufactures were embraced1 that such a contest might with reason and advantage be held at ,sydenham1 and that fireworks were really not of an immoral tendency4 ,i further agreed that in the event of the result being unfavourable1 either financially or from a social point of view1 no second display need take place1 but if1 as ,i felt confident1 there should be a large attendance of the better classes1 then other exhibitions might follow4 ,the ,directors1 after many months of delay1 consented to make the experiment1 and the favourable result of the trial on ,july #abth1 #ahfe1 far exceeded my most sanguine expectations4 8,the result was an unlooked-for success1 #bj1jjj people being present on the occasion4 ,three more displays took place that year upon a small scale1 but always with successful results4 8,the first display was produced jointly by my father and ,mr4 ,southby1 the winner of the first prize1 and continued to the end of that season by my father alone under my management4 8,the success of fireworks at the ,crystal ,palace having become an accomplished fact1 ,i built extensive works at ,nunhead1 and commenced manufacturing on a scale never previously dreamt of in the trade--the vast expanse of the locale of my displays obviously necessitating extraordinary expenditure of material4 8,by degrees the set pieces grew from twelve feet in diameter to #cjj feet4 ,shells for which the ,crystal ,palace has been renowned grew to one hundred times more than the ordinary shells of my early days1 and thousands of pounds weight of material was gradually introduced to increase the effectiveness of these displays40 ,illustration3 8,the ,,grand ,,whim for ,,posterity to ,laugh at3 ,being the ,night ,view of the ,,royal ,,fireworks1 as ,exhibited in the ,green ,park1 ,st4 ,james's1 with the ,right ,wing on ,fire40 ,firework ,display in the ,green ,park to celebrate the ,peace of ,aix-la-,chapelle1 #agdi4 ,the ,crystal ,palace displays carried out by ,c4 ,t4 ,brock and his brother1 ,arthur ,brock1 who succeeded him in the business on ,march #beth1 #ahha1 have since become proverbial4 ,they continued up to #aiaj1 when the ,crystal ,palace was taken over by the promoters of the ,pageant of ,empire4 ,they have been revived in #aibj1 when the ,war ,museum was opened1 and the attendance has proved that the public taste for fireworks is very far from diminishing4 ,during the run of forty-five consecutive years an installation was built up1 method and technique were evolved unknown in any other place of pyrotechnic exhibition4 ,while the firework terrace1 with its magnificent background of park and shrubberies1 is unrivalled as a firing ground1 it is at the same time the most exacting4 ,the huge building1 its imposing position and setting1 the wonderful fountains1 all demand pyrotechnic effects on a corresponding scale4 ,the pictorial set pieces1 originally introduced by ,c4 ,t4 ,brock in #ahge1 increased in size until a plant was arrived at capable of exhibiting a picture ninety feet high and two hundred feet long on the main girder1 which length could be extended to even six hundred feet of frontage1 as on the occasion of the exhibition of a battle piece or similar subject4 ,during this period the subjects dealt with in the main set pieces have covered a wide range4 ,a favourite subject1 and one lending itself particularly well to pyrotechnic production1 is the sea battle4 ,almost every historic naval engagement of sufficient size to warrant its adoption has been proved the subject for a fire picture4 ,among the battle pictures produced are the following3--,bombardment of ,alexandria in #ahhb1 ,siege of ,gibraltar in #ahhc1 ,battle of ,trafalgar in #ahhd2 during #ahhe1 two pictures representing the use of the ironclads of the period and based on the ,naval manuvres1 entitled the 8,attack on ,dover10 and the ,battle of ,bantry ,bay2 the following year another imaginary picture depicting an attack by torpedo boats on the latest battleship1 the 8,colossus40 ,the ,bombardment of ,sebastopol was reproduced in #ahhg1 followed by the ,jubilee ,naval ,review at ,spithead4 ,in #ahhh the defeat of the ,spanish ,armada was depicted2 in #ahij ,trafalgar1 followed in #ahia by the engagement between the 8,chesapeake0 and the 8,shannon10 together with a portrait of ,admiral ,sir ,provo ,wallis1 then aged one hundred1 and another from an early painting showing him at the time of the engagement when the command of the ,english vessel devolved upon him owing to the casualties among the senior officers4 ,later in that year the ,battle of the ,nile was reproduced2 #ahic saw the ,bombardment of ,canton2 #ahid the ,battle of the ,first of ,june1 and the ,battle of the ,yalu4 ,the ,battle of ,manilla ,bay was produced in #ahih1 and on the centenary date the ,battle of the ,nile4 ,in #ahhi1 ,h4,m4,s4 8,implacable0 was shown in action on the day on which she was commissioned1 followed in #aijj by the ,bombardment of the ,taku ,forts1 and in #aija by the immortal sea fight between the 8,revenge0 and the 8,fifty-three40 ,in #aijd the ,russo-,japanese ,war gave subjects in the various attacks on ,port ,arthur and the ,battle of ,tsu-,shima1 and the ,battle of the ,sea of ,japan in the year following4 ,the ,battle of ,trafalgar was renewed that season1 and in #aijh another imaginary picture portraying modern naval warfare was produced1 followed in #aiji by an imaginary encounter between the first ,dreadnought and other craft4 ,the revival of the ,crystal ,palace displays in #aibj saw the reproduction of the ,battle of ,jutland1 of which the following appreciation appeared in the ,press3 8,the chief set piece in the programme is a ,fire ,picture of the ,battle of ,jutland1 the most realistic spectacle ever produced in fire2 by ingenious devices the guns fire1 shells burst in all directions1 gaping holes appear in the sides and upper works of the ships engaged1 until--when the din of battle has reached its height--the ,german cruiser #8,lutzow' blows up and sinks4 ,one realises that here at least is one pictorial subject in which the ,cinematograph is hopelessly outdone2 the variety of noises1 varying from the sharp bark of quick-firers to the boom of the heavy guns1 which are here so wonderfully reproduced1 are quite inadequately rendered by the conventional thumps on the big drum in the orchestra40 ,before the resources of lance-work were fully understood1 the reproduction of famous buildings was a fruitful source of subjects2 those reproduced vary from the ,crystal ,palace itself to ,worcester and ,salisbury ,cathedrals1 and from the ,arc de ,triomphe to the ,mosque at ,delhi4 ,natural catastrophes such as the ,avalanche1 the ,eruption of ,vesuvius1 and the ,destruction of ,pompeii have been portrayed4 ,the ,wreck of the ,eider in #ahib1 with the rescue of the passengers by the lifeboats1 formed the subject of a popular set piece2 another successful scenic showed a wreck with line-throwing rockets and transport of passengers by the breeches buoy4 ,in #ahgi portraits in fire were reproduced for the first time1 and since that date those executed have included almost all the ,royal ,personages of the day1 many of which have been fired electrically from the ,royal ,box by the originals4 ,other eminent people reproduced range from ,king ,cetewayo in #ahhb1 the ,maori ,king in #ahhd1 ,li-,hung-,chang in #ahif1 to ,douglas ,fairbanks and ,mary ,pickford in #aibj4 ,in #ahhg what is known as the transformation set piece was introduced4 ,upon lighting1 the piece exhibits a floral design in colours1 which1 after burning some time1 becomes transformed into a portrait1 the lines of which are worked inconspicuously with those of the floral design1 and1 to use a modern term1 camouflaged by its colours1 the colour of the portrait being white4 ,illustration3 ,a full-size picture of the ,jumma ,musjid in ,fireworks at the ,crystal ,palace1 #ahib4 ,illustration3 ,firework ,display for the ,coronation ,durbar at ,delhi1 ,january #crd1 #aijc4 ,in the background is the ,jumma ,musjid4 ,the first portrait to be so shown was ,lord ,beaconsfield1 the floral design being of primroses1 and the occasion ,primrose ,day4 ,this1 for the first example of its kind1 was very successful1 and later in the year an enormous transformation picture1 #bjj feet long and #ajj feet high1 was fired at the ,jubilee display1 changing to portraits of ,queen ,victoria and members of the ,royal ,family4 ,a popular picture of this kind is the puzzle picture which transforms from a jungle scene to animals4 ,another most successful changing picture was entitled 8,the ,seasons10 first produced in #ahhi1 and revived from time to time4 ,a rural scene changes from ,spring to ,summer1 from ,summer to ,autumn1 and finally to ,winter4 ,the effect is produced by varying compositions in the lances1 and by employing lances of varying length1 and requires very exact manipulation and supervision4 ,patriotic1 congratulatory1 and political cartoons and devices have been exhibited in wonderful variety of design1 sentiment1 and language3 ,chinese1 ,persian1 and ,maori1 to mention only three of the latter4 ,living ,fireworks1 invented and patented by ,c4 ,t4 ,brock and ,co41 in #ahhh1 have always been a favourite feature of the ,crystal ,palace displays4 ,the performer is clad in overalls of asbestos cloth1 and on the side nearest to the spectators wears a light wood framework1 of which the outline is 8lanced0 to depict the particular character to be portrayed4 ,the first subject dealt with was the boxing match1 which has enjoyed continuous popularity up to the present day1 and is possibly the most successful4 ,other favourites have been ,blondin on the tight rope1 inspired by the appearance of the real ,blondin on the firework terrace1 surrounded by firework effects1 in #ahga2 dancers of various kinds1 from the ,sailor's ,hornpipe to ,salome2 ,cat fights2 ,cock fights2 the ,boxing ,kangaroo in #ahic1 when that performance was attracting crowds to the old ,aquarium2 an ,indian ,snake ,charmer2 a ,fisherman2 a ,trapeze ,artist1 have all been produced by living actors in fire4 ,in #ahie 8,the ,village ,blacksmith0 was enacted1 with horse1 blacksmith1 assistant1 and horse's owner1 with forge1 bellows1 anvil1 and all necessary 8properties40 ,the following year a piece was exhibited showing various members of the building trades at work4 ,then followed the ,fire ,scene1 in which a house is seen on fire1 the motor fire engine arrives1 the men jump down1 unroll the hose1 and proceed to extinguish the outbreak with a jet of fire4 ,another ambitious effort showed a ,city policeman regulating the traffic4 ,the most elaborate scene of the kind yet attempted was to work living figures in connection with the main set piece4 ,the subject chosen was life in the ,arctic ,regions1 and opened with the open ,polar ,sea1 with whaling vessels1 spouting whale1 and launch of the whaling boat1 which follows the whale and fires a harpoon4 ,the picture then changed to ,arctic winter1 ice forms1 and the vessel is frozen with the ice1 sledging parties travel over the ice1 and the picture concluded with a man and bear fight in living fireworks4 ,the same year--#ahij--there was introduced into the ,children's ,fireworks1 which form an annual feature of the ,crystal ,palace displays1 a living ,jack and the ,beanstalk picture4 ,in #aijf the then popular song1 8,i wouldn't leave my little ,wooden ,hut for ,you10 was the basis of what was described in the programme as a ,living ,firework ,drama4 ,the popular songs of the day have provided the subject for many successful set pieces1 and form a class of picture which derives much of its success from the band accompaniment and the opportunity for vocal effort on the part of the crowd4 ,illustration3 ,a ,crystal ,palace ,set ,piece at the time of the ,south ,african ,war4 7#bjj ft4 long by #gj ft4 high47 ,the origin of this type of picture is worth recording4 ,in #ahhi the ,shah of ,persia visited the ,crystal ,palace1 and fired a portrait of himself1 electrically1 from the ,royal ,box4 ,a popular song of the day1 8,have you seen the ,shah80 was suggested to some musically inclined members of the audience1 who commenced to sing it1 and were soon joined by the whole of the spectators1 numbering about #ej1jjj4 ,the effect of this impromptu concert was so striking as to lead to the production of the popular song whenever there happened to be one suitable for pictorial rendering in fireworks4 ,in #ahib a mechanical ,lottie ,collins1 #fj feet high1 dancing to the then popular strain of 8,ta-ra-ra-bom-de-ay10 was enthusiastically received4 ,a series of patriotic and sentimental songs at the time of the ,south ,african ,war1 as 8,the ,absent-minded ,beggar0 and 8,good-bye1 ,dolly ,grey10 etc41 were very successful4 ,the 8,honeysuckle and the ,bee0 provided the subject for a transformation picture1 a design of honeysuckle changing to a girl's head with a mechanical bee twelve feet long4 ,in #aijh three songs were included in one piece--8,bill ,bailey10 8,farewell1 my ,bluebell10 and 8,the ,old ,bull and ,bush40 ,the smaller mechanical pieces form a history of locomotion during the half-century covered by the displays4 ,bicycles1 motor cars1 looping the loop1 aeroplanes1 costers' barrows1 hansom cabs1 fire engines1 scooters have all been represented1 and in #ahie1 on the occasion of the visit of the ,railway ,conference1 two of the best mechanical pieces ever carried out--full-sized representations of the 8,rocket0 and the latest type of express engine with exact details and working parts4 ,an effective working device introduced as early as #ahgj was a comet travelling down a wire from one of the famous towers to the ground4 ,later the comet was replaced by a dragon1 ,mother ,goose1 and in #ahgb by a 8,fiery ,bicycle10 a subject which seems somewhat out of place in such a position4 ,the next development of this feature was to introduce a living man who1 clad in shining armour and surrounded and illuminated by a frame of fireworks1 striking an impressive attitude1 slid from the summit of the tower to the terrace4 ,the name of this performer1 no doubt in imitation of the ,italian artists who on a smaller scale carried out a similar feat at ,vauxhall1 was given in the programme as ,signor ,gregorini4 ,in private life or in the works1 however1 he went by the name of ,bill ,gregory1 and it is recorded that1 when on the first night he stuck half-way down and had to remain in his airy position for the remainder of the display1 his remarks left no doubt as to the country of his origin4 ,it is characteristic of ,mr4 ,c4 ,t4 ,brock that he who originated the idea was the first to try the descent4 ,the weight of the cable was very considerable and the strain very heavy in order to keep it sufficiently taut1 and doubts were expressed as to the advisability of putting such a stress on the structure1 which led to the abandonment of the performance4 ,it would be tedious to attempt to give anything like a description of the many and varied moving and stationary devices used in the ,crystal ,palace displays4 ,the descriptions in the traditional somewhat flowery language of the firework programmes would convey little without illustration4 ,one feature generally to be found in the programme is that of the wheels4 ,these are generally fired in a group of three in the centre of the ,terrace1 the designs varying in form1 movement and colour from time to time1 the fire of the centre or largest wheel forming a circle one hundred feet in diameter4 ,the historical displays during this period include the displays given in ,india in #ahge-f1 during the tour of ,king ,edward1 then ,prince of ,wales1 at ,bombay1 ,madura1 ,colombo1 ,madras1 and ,jaipur1 and a series of enormous displays carried out at the ,philadelphia ,centennial ,exposition in #ahgf1 at one of which #bej1jjj people paid half-a-dollar admission1 and in #ahgg1 the displays given at ,calcutta and ,delhi on the occasion of the assumption by ,queen ,victoria of the title ,empress of ,india4 ,the ,jubilee and ,diamond ,jubilee of ,queen ,victoria produced enormous activity in the manufacture of fireworks4 ,displays great and small took place all over the ,united ,kingdom1 or rather1 the ,empire4 ,among the displays fired on the occasion of the ,diamond ,jubilee1 certainly not the least interesting1 although comparatively small in extent1 was that given at ,blantyre in the heart of the ,african continent4 ,this display1 which included a portrait of ,her late ,majesty1 was carried up three hundred and sixty miles of the ,zambesi1 thence by canoe over eighty miles of sandbanks and mud1 and finally thirty miles overland with a rise of #c1ejj feet4 ,other displays were the display on the ,tagus in #ahhf on the occasion of the marriage of the late ,king of ,portugal2 the display fired from ,brooklyn ,bridge for the ,columbus ,tercentenary in #ahib2 the ,imperial ,fete on the ,danube in #aijc2 the display fired from thirteen battleships moored at a distance of a quarter of a mile from each other on the occasion of the 8,entente ,cordiale0 visit of the ,french ,fleet in #aije2 the display celebrating the ,tercentenary of the founding of ,quebec in #aijh2 and the greatest display of fireworks ever fired--the official ,peace display in ,hyde ,park in #aiai1 in which some of the ground works suffered from the rain which1 unfortunately1 started about five o'clock1 but the aerial work was on an unprecedented scale1 shells varying from sixteen inches down to #e inches in diameter being fired in salvoes of twenty-five to one hundred4 ,rockets of #a lb4 were fired in flights of one hundred1 and a final flight of three thousand2 sets of ,roman candles1 each containing two hundred2 one hundred fiery jets1 etc41 etc4 ,the 8,fourth of ,june0 celebration at ,eton has always been the occasion of a firework display1 and displays have taken place annually1 with the exception of the years of the ,great ,war1 from at least as early as the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,hone1 in his 8,everyday ,book0 7#ahca71 speaks of the fireworks as a well-established feature of the festival4 ,it is possible1 and even probable1 that they date from the reign of ,george ,,iii1 on whose birthday the event takes place4 ,illustration3 ,,panorama ,,of ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,aerial ,,effects ,,in ,,the ,,national ,,firework ,,display ,,at ,,hyde ,,park1 #aith ,,july1 #aiai4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,firework ,,manufacture ,the manufacture of fireworks in this country1 as an industry distinct from mere firework making1 dates from the early part of the eighteenth century4 ,before that period displays appear to have been generally carried out by the military1 or at any rate under the control of artillery or engineer officers4 ,at that time the art was considered to have two distinct branches1 civil and military pyrotechny1 the latter class naturally attracting most attention during a period when ,europe was almost continuously at war1 and when firearms had made little progress from the early types4 ,as has been previously mentioned1 ,jones complains that when it was required to carry out a display of fireworks on a large scale1 recourse was always had to foreigners to conduct it4 ,one reason was that1 apart from the actual making of the firework units1 a display depends far more for its success on the experience and skill of the pyrotechnist in arranging and composing both the form and sequence of the pieces4 ,the firework makers capable of carrying out a display on a large scale were very few2 there were fewer1 if any1 in this country4 ,the whole of the trade was illegal2 under the statute of the #ith and #ajth of ,william ,,iii it was illegal to make1 sell1 or let off fireworks3 8,by the #ith and #ajth of ,william1 ,chap4 #g1 it is enacted3 ,that if any ,person shall make or cause to be made1 or sell1 give1 or utter1 or offer1 or expose to sale any ,squibs1 ,rockets1 ,serpents1 or other ,fire-works1 he shall forfeit ,five ,pounds4 ,and that if any ,person shall permit the same to be fired from his ,house or ,premises1 or shall cast or fire1 or be aiding and assisting in casting or firing the same in any public ,street1 ,house1 ,shop1 ,river1 or ,highway1 he shall forfeit ,twenty ,shillings1 or be committed to the ,house of ,correction to hard ,labour for one ,month40 ,this ,act continued in force up to the passing of the ,gunpowder ,act in #ahfj4 ,there were periods during which it was practically a dead letter1 and again periods of sporadic activity4 ,the first restriction of the public use of fireworks appears to have been an order in council dated ,november #fth1 #afhe1 which 8,for the preventing of ,tumultuas ,disorders0 and with the object of 8,disappointing the ,evil ,designs of ,persons ,disaffected to the ,government1 who commonly make use of such occasions to turn those ,meetings into ,riots and ,tumults10 enacted that 8,no ,person or ,persons whatsoever1 do presume to make or encourage the making of any ,bonfires1 or other ,publick ,fire ,works--without particular permission ,leave in ,order--upon ,pain of ,his ,majesty's ,displeasure2 and being ,prosecuted with the utmost severity of the ,law40 ,a notice appeared in the press of ,november #ast1 #aghh1 dated from the 8,public ,office1 ,bow ,street10 warning the public against firing crackers in the street1 and quoting the ,act 8that no ,person may claim ,ignorance thereof40 ,again1 in #ahad1 8,the ,times0 has an account of a summons under the ,act of a ,william ,swift1 8for exposing for sale1 ,squibs1 ,serpents1 ,crackers and ,fireworks of other descriptions to the great danger and annoyance of the public and contrary to the ,statute40 ,the report continues3 8,mr4 ,laws in opening the case observed1 that this was a prosecution brought forward at the recommendation of the ,magistrates of ,union-,hall1 who1 however1 did not by it seek to punish the defendant with severity but only to inform him and others acting like him1 that the ,act upon which the present indictment was founded and which so far back as the reign of ,william ,,iii1 was passed for the protection of the public1 though it had not lately been acted upon1 was still in force4 ,the defendant1 it appeared1 was a man of property and a respectable holder residing in ,falcon-,court1 where he had for some time past carried on the profession of a firework-maker4 ,the officers of ,union-,hall having heard1 however1 that he was in the habit of supplying boys or any person who applied indiscriminately with these dangerous commodities1 they determined1 if possible1 to put a stop to this traffic1 so dangerous to the public safety4 ,for this purpose they sent a person1 properly instructed1 to purchase some2 ,goff1 ,bruce1 and some other of the officers remaining near the door to detect him coming out2 the purchase was made1 and as the purchaser was quitting the house1 the officers stopt him and forced their way in4 ,they proceeded to search the premises1 and concealed in closets and other parts1 they discovered a vast quantity of fireworks of various sizes and descriptions1 amounting to #ai1fjj and weighing upwards of #f cwt41 several of these1 singly1 were large enough to have spread ruin through the neighbourhood1 had they by accident exploded4 ,these the officers took away and deposited at the ,office1 where they still remained to the great annoyance of the ,magistrates waiting the decision of this question40 ,hone1 in his 8,everyday ,book10 records that at that time1 #ahbe1 8,a ,corporation notice was annually left at the house of every inhabitant in the ,city of ,london1 previous to lord mayor's day40 ,the following 7delivered in ,st4 ,bride's7 is its form3 8,october the #aath1 #ahbe4 ,sir3 ,by ,virtue of a ,precept from my ,lord ,mayor1 in order to prevent any ,tumults and ,riots that may happen on the ,fifth of ,november1 and the next ensuing ,lord ,mayor's ,day1 you are required to charge all your ,servants and ,lodgers1 that they neither make1 nor cause to be made1 any ,squibs1 ,serpents1 ,fire ,balloons1 or other ,fireworks1 nor fire1 fling1 nor throw them out of your ,house1 ,shop or ,warehouse1 or in the ,streets of this ,city1 on the ,penalties contained in an ,act of ,parliament made in the ,tenth year of the late ,king ,william4 ,note4 ,the ,act was made perpetual1 and is not expired1 as some ignorantly suppose4 ,c4 ,puckeridge1 ,beadle4 ,taylor1 ,printer1 ,basinghall ,street40 ,during the period of the operation of the ,act1 that is from the end of the seventeenth to the middle of the nineteenth centuries1 on the occasion of public rejoicing1 the authorities were in the anomalous position of employing persons to break the law1 both by manufacturing and displaying fireworks4 ,although1 as we have seen1 this ,act had very little effect on the quantity of fireworks manufactured1 it had considerable adverse effect on the industry4 ,as the whole thing was illegal1 no regulations were framed to control the making1 storage1 or distribution of fireworks1 or the safety of either workers or public4 ,the manufacture was conducted on lines which1 at the present time1 appear inconceivably reckless4 ,several people working in one room in a crowded building1 with loose composition and gunpowder1 and a fire in an open grate round which finished or partially finished goods were put to dry1 and this in a thickly populated area of ,london4 ,the result of this state of affairs1 as might have been expected1 was a continuous series of explosions of a more or less serious nature4 ,an early press account1 dated #agbb1 relates to 8,mr4 ,goodship of ,white ,alley in ,chancery ,lane10 and continues1 8as he was making some fireworks1 the ,gunpowder took fire and blew him up1 by which means the ,house was fired1 and that adjoining somewhat damaged4 ,more ,mischief had been done1 but that there was timely help4 ,the ,man is so hurt that his life is despaired of40 ,another account gives the man's name as ,goodsheaf4 ,the early part of the nineteenth century provided an extraordinary list of accidents4 ,in #ahaj we find the following account of an accident at ,bath3 8,on ,monday a dreadful accident happened at ,bath to ,mrs4 ,invetto1 a firework-maker1 and a young man her assistant4 ,they were preparing sky-rockets1 etc41 for the ,jubilee1 when1 by some means1 an explosion took place of a considerable quantity of powder1 some say upwards of two hundred barrels1 which blew the house1 and another adjoining1 to atoms4 ,the unfortunate woman was miserably burnt and bruised2 and no hopes are entertained of her recovery4 ,the poor fellow also lies in a shocking state at the ,casualty ,hospital at ,bath40 ,in #ahad two accidents are recorded to ,mortram and ,clithero4 ,the former took place in the 8,westminster ,roade1 near the ,asylum02 a man and two boys were very badly burned1 two succumbing to their injuries the same day4 ,clithero's establishment was situated in ,fleet ,street ,hill1 ,bethnal ,green4 ,the accident here was caused by fire from the steam engine reaching some fireworks4 ,three people were badly injured1 and much glass was destroyed in the neighbourhood4 ,clithero appears to have had his works separate from the dwelling-house1 an arrangement which appears to be the exception rather than the rule4 ,mortram's premises were again destroyed in #ahah1 fortunately without loss of life4 ,a serious accident took place in #ahae1 in which five people lost their lives1 the premises1 and those on either side1 being demolished1 and nearly all windows destroyed within two hundred yards4 ,the proprietor of the premises1 which were situated at ,wilkes ,street1 ,spitalfields1 was ,lushalan4 ,in #ahba a third accident occurred at ,mortram's works1 the newspaper account of which gives an illuminating glimpse of the extraordinary methods of the period3 8,tuesday morning an accident1 which occasioned considerable alarm1 and might have been attended with dangerous consequences1 took place in the house of ,m4 ,mortram1 firework-maker1 in ,westminster ,road4 ,it appears that one of the boys employed in making composition stars for rockets had placed a number of them on the fender before the fire to dry1 and had set fire to one on the hob1 which falling in amongst the others1 the whole exploded1 by which a little girl was much hurt in the back1 and so frightened that she ran to the window of the first floor1 but was prevented jumping out4 ,the boy escaped up the area with his jacket on fire4 ,the neighbours were now much alarmed1 fearing that the fire might spread to more combustible matter in the house1 and so on to the extensive workshops of ,madame ,hengler1 the celebrated pyrotechnic to his ,majesty2 but1 through the activity of the workmen1 who ran into the adjoining house with buckets of water1 further damage was happily prevented1 or the consequences might have been dreadful4 ,an accident of a shocking nature1 it will be recollected1 occurred about three years since in the same person's repository1 when two men were killed by the explosion40 ,in #ahbe1 in ,bell's 8,weekly ,messenger0 of ,september #dth1 appears the following account3 8,,dreadful ,,explosion ,,in ,,whitechapel4 8,yesterday morning1 about half-past eight o'clock1 ,whitechapel ,road1 and the numerous streets that abound there1 were thrown into the greatest state of agitation1 by the inhabitants experiencing a most tremendous shock1 as if caused by a volcano or an earthquake4 ,the houses for a considerable distance were deserted by their inhabitants1 and men1 women1 and children were seen running about in all directions1 under the impression that the world was at an end4 ,it was soon ascertained that their alarm was produced by the explosion of the factory of ,mr4 ,brock1 the artist in fireworks1 at ,no4 #aa1 ,baker's ,row1 ,whitechapel ,road1 nearly opposite the ,london ,hospital4 8,the following particulars relative to this direful disaster have reached us3--,mr4 ,brock has resided for the last five years in ,baker's ,row1 and at the back of his dwelling-house is his repository for fireworks1 where they are manufactured4 ,this building is about #ej feet by #bj feet1 and contains three magazines1 which are lined with lead1 and would be perfectly secure from fire1 should it occur1 on any of the adjoining premises4 ,in these receptacles were deposited all the powder1 composition1 and1 in fact1 all the combustible matter1 and ,mr4 ,b4 was remarkable for the method he had taken to prevent any accident occurring on his premises4 ,a few weeks since he had taken two boys out of the poor-house to instruct in the art of firework making and he kept them chiefly employed in filling and ramming the cases of the sky-rockets1 serpents1 squibs1 etc4 ,the latter part of this stage of the work is done by a funnel1 or piece of tin made in the shape of an extinguisher1 and a small piece of iron wire1 about a foot long1 which is used as a ramrod4 ,the small end1 or nipple1 as it is called1 of the extinguisher is introduced into one end of the rocket or squib1 and the boys ram the powder and wadding down with the ramrod4 ,yesterday morning1 at the time above stated1 ,mr4 ,brock and his men left the factory to go to breakfast1 leaving the two boys engaged at the work-board1 ramming the sky-rockets4 ,they had scarcely sat down to their meal when they1 as well as the inhabitants around them for some distance1 heard a sort of rumbling noise as if of some distant thunder1 and the next moment a tremendous and deafening explosion followed1 and the air was illumined with lights of various descriptions1 and accompanied by continued reports4 ,the concussion thus occasioned was so great that the inmates in the different houses were shaken from their seats1 many of whom were sitting at their breakfast1 and the tables and tea-things were upset and broken to pieces4 ,the window frames were all forced out1 and the brickbats and materials were flying about in every direction4 ,the roofs of ,mr4 ,brock's manufactory1 and the factory of ,mr4 ,m',devitt adjoining1 were blown to a considerable height1 and the falling materials did considerable mischief4 ,after the agitation was somewhat subsided1 an inquiry into the cause of the accident took place1 when it appeared from the statement of the two boys 7who were blown a considerable height and were much injured7 that they were at work1 ramming the rockets1 when the ramrod struck against the funnel1 and the friction caused a spark1 which flew into the bowl of gunpowder that stood near them2 this soon exploded1 and ran like a train to all the other fireworks in the factory1 and at length communicated to the magazines1 which caused the disaster4 ,mr4 ,brock1 however1 declares that it could not have arisen in that way1 as the nipple of the funnel was copper1 therefore a friction would not cause a spark4 ,one poor woman1 sister to the beadle1 who lives next door to ,mr4 ,brock1 was so dreadfully injured by the broken glass that she lies in the ,london ,hospital without hopes of recovery4 ,ten houses were seriously damaged1 and over sixty had their windows broken from top to bottom40 ,it will be seen from the foregoing that ,brock was in advance of his time as regards precautions against explosions1 which1 however1 in this case proved to some extent ineffective4 ,an accident took place in #ahch at the premises of ,cockerill1 in ,paradise ,row1 ,lower ,road1 ,islington4 ,three persons were killed1 and the proprietor was so severely hurt in an attempt to rescue his family that he died later4 ,the following year an accident took place at #f ,edward ,street1 ,bethnal ,green1 in which three persons were injured4 ,the explosion was caused by a spark from the fire falling on a quantity of loose powder lying on the table1 the flash from which was communicated to a barrel of powder near4 ,the report continues3 8,the most miserable negligence was displayed by the persons engaged in the fabrication of the fireworks1 as just previous to the accident one of the individuals was making a squib by the fire with a lighted pipe in his mouth40 ,the pyrotechnist's name is not recorded4 ,an explosion took place in #ahda at #f ,hatfield ,place1 ,westminster ,road1 ,lambeth1 at the works of ,drewett4 ,considerable damage was done1 but fortunately no one was injured4 ,in #aheg ,darby's factory at #ih ,regent ,street1 ,lambeth ,walk1 was destroyed4 ,the upper part of the house was used as bedrooms1 with the stock below2 the whole of the premises and stock were destroyed1 the occupants of the bedrooms1 who were cut off1 being rescued by the aid of ladders4 ,on this occasion the gunpowder appears to have been stored in a magazine away from the house4 ,the report adds that the same premises had suffered in a similar manner on one or two previous occasions1 and subsequently1 in ,november1 #ahgc1 a disastrous explosion at the same premises resulted in the loss of no fewer than eight lives4 ,in #aheh a serious explosion took place at ,madame ,cotton's factory in the ,westminster ,bridge ,road4 ,the above-mentioned accidents do not comprise anything like a complete list1 but tend to show the lines on which the manufacture of fireworks was conducted during the period covered4 ,the frequency of such occurrences and the danger entailed to third parties pointed to the necessity of action of some kind4 ,the old ,act might have been put into force1 but by so doing the industry would be stamped out1 an industry which found employment for a large number of workpeople1 and besides giving amusement and entertainment to many1 provided signal lights and rockets1 the demand for which was steadily increasing4 ,there were at this time a considerable number of firework makers in ,london1 particularly in the east and south of the ,thames4 ,much of the work was given out to the workpeople's families to make up in their own homes4 ,workmen now living can remember1 as children1 seeing crackers1 squibs1 and other small goods being manufactured in bed and living-rooms of tenement houses in crowded districts1 with open fires in the grates and several pounds of powder in a corner of the room4 ,the materials were either given out at the factory and a piecework rate paid for making up1 or the workers bought their own materials at the local shops1 which in these districts kept what was required1 and sold them to the factory on completion4 ,it was then a common practice for a maker who had completed a 8frame0 of quickmatch to take it round to the local bakehouse to be dried and called for in the morning4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,explosion ,,at ,,madame ,,coton',s ,,firework ,,factory1 ,,westminster ,,road4 ,from 8,the ,illustrated ,london ,news10 #aheh4 ,considered from the point of view of modern practice1 the wonder is that there were not more accidents than actually took place4 ,the ,gunpowder ,act of #ahfj was an attempt to place the manufacture and storage of explosives generally on a more satisfactory footing4 ,it laid down regulations to be 8observed with regard to the manufacture of loaded percussion caps1 and the manufacture and keeping of ammunition1 fireworks1 fulminate of mercury1 and any other preparation or composition of an explosive nature02 and makes it lawful for ,justices of the ,peace in ,quarter ,sessions to license places for the manufacture and storage of such articles1 and to grant licenses to persons to sell fireworks4 ,it also provided for the installation of lightning conductors in explosive magazines4 ,this ,act1 although far from perfect1 was a step in the right direction2 it had the effect of bringing some makers out from the back streets of crowded districts1 to construct properly arranged factories1 or at any rate1 factories planned with some regard to their use4 ,four years after the passing of the ,act1 public attention was sharply drawn to the matter by an explosion on an unprecedented scale at ,erith1 where several of the gunpowder manufacturers had magazines4 ,enormous damage was done1 and many lives lost1 over an area ten miles in radius4 ,lieutenant-,colonel ,boxer1 ,r4,a41 ,superintendent of the ,royal ,laboratory1 ,woolwich1 in his report on this explosion1 draws attention to the need for a system of inspection of explosive establishments1 with the result that he was himself authorised to make such inspection4 ,lieutenant-,colonel ,boxer was succeeded in #ahgj by ,captain 7afterwards ,colonel7 ,sir ,v4 ,d4 ,majendie1 ,k4,c4,b41 who recommended the appointment of permanent ,explosives ,inspectors4 ,the late ,c4 ,t4 ,brock1 who commenced the long run of ,crystal ,palace displays in #ahff1 found his works insufficient for the large supply of material required for such displays1 and commenced the construction of a factory on new lines at ,nunhead4 ,it was here in #ahgb that the ,royal ,commission witnessed a series of experiments1 the programme of which is here reproduced4 ,it was upon the results of these experiments that the provisions of the ,explosives ,act of #ahge1 in so far as they relate to fireworks1 are based4 ,this ,act is still in force1 and is unlikely to be superseded for many years to come4 ,there can have been few ,acts which have1 since their inception1 proved so satisfactory to the industry controlled by them1 either in the results achieved1 or in the manner of their administration4 ,the ,explosives ,acts of #ahfj and #ahge took the then proscribed art of pyrotechny from back streets and crowded districts1 rehoused it in properly designed and conducted factories in rural or suburban districts1 making it as healthy and safe an occupation as almost any in the country4 ,,experiments ,,with ,,fireworks ,,at ,,nunhead1 7,in a ,field near ,messrs4 ,c4 ,t4 ,brock ,co4's ,firework ,manufactory17 ,on ,thursday1 ,april #dth1 #ahgb4 ,,the ,,objects ,,of ,,the ,,experiments ,,are-- #a4 ,to determine if the distance between ,firework ,sheds1 as at present laid down by law1 viz4 #bj yards1 is amply sufficient to prevent an explosion in one shed communicating to other sheds situated at the statutory distance4 #b4 ,to determine the liability of ,fireworks to ignite by concussion or friction4 #c4 ,to determine the liability of ,fireworks to explode en masse if from any cause they should be accidentally ignited4 #d4 ,in the event of ,fireworks exhibiting a liability to explode1 to determine the area of destructive effect of such explosion4 #e4 ,to determine1 with reference to the conclusions which may be arrived at as to points #c and #d1 the degree of danger which attends the transport of ,fireworks by rail1 barge or other public conveyance4 #f4 ,to determine at what distance from dwelling houses stores of ,fireworks may be safely established4 ,,programme ,,of ,,experiments4 #a4 ,explode #cj lbs4 of loose ,firework ,composition in a ,shed1 another ,shed being #aj yards distant4 ,screen between4 #b4 ,explode #cj lbs4 of ,composition in ,fireworks in a ,shed1 another ,shed being #aj yards distant4 ,screen between4 #c4 ,ignite a ,box of cwt4 of mixed ,ordinary ,fireworks in open air4 #d4 ,ditto ditto ditto in contact with another ,box of ditto4 #e4 ,place a ,box of cwt4 of ditto in a bonfire4 #f4 ,no4 #c repeated1 with mixed ,fireworks bought over the ,counter4 #g4 ,no4 #d ditto ditto4 #h4 ,no4 #e ditto ditto4 #i4 ,hammer various sorts of ,fireworks--,wood on ,wood4 #aj4 ,ditto ditto ,wood on ,iron4 #aa4 ,ditto ditto ,iron on ,iron4 #ab4 ,run a ,railway ,truck over some of the different sorts4 #ac4 ,repeat such of above as may seem necessary with 8,parlour ,fireworks40 ,v4 ,d4 ,,majendie1 ,captain ,r4 ,a41 ,h4,m4's ,inspector of ,gunpowder ,works1 c4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,modern ,,firework ,,manufacture ,fireworks are now manufactured under the ,explosives ,act of #ahge and ,orders in ,council ,no4 #b and ,no4 #d under that ,act4 ,order in ,council ,no4 #d deals with small ,firework ,factories1 the total contents of which1 either finished or in course of construction1 do not exceed #ejj lbs4 ,this class of factory presents little of interest for consideration2 and is governed by practically the same rules as are the larger establishments of the kind1 with such modifications as are justified by the small quantity of explosive material involved4 ,order in ,council ,no4 #b sets out the general rules to be observed in factories licensed under the ,act1 the leading points of which are as follows3 ,the absence of iron or steel in any workshop1 carriage1 or boat2 cleanliness and absence of grit2 care as to material liable to spontaneous ignition2 provision of lightning conductors on magazines2 tools and implements to be of soft metal2 working clothes without pockets2 shoes without nails2 searching or means to prevent the introduction of matches or dangerous substances into the works2 materials and finished work to be removed from working buildings and not allowed to accumulate when any particular process is completed2 no person under sixteen years to be employed or enter any danger building4 ,every building to be provided with a set of these rules1 and a statement of the quantities of explosives and ingredients1 and the work to be carried on in it as allowed by the license4 ,the modern factory is generally situated in a rural district on account of the fact that it is more easy to observe the statutary distances from protected works4 ,protected works referred to in the ,act include other workshops and magazines in the factory1 and also dwelling-houses1 factories1 institutions1 railways1 highways1 and various undertakings and buildings1 the distances to be observed varying with the nature of the protected work from public highways to palaces or houses of residence of the ,king1 his heirs and successors4 ,in some cases1 as with private dwelling-houses1 the distance to be observed is about half1 if the consent of the occupier to the erection of the factory building or magazine is obtained4 ,firework factories1 in fact all explosive factories1 are constructed on the principle of limiting the scope and effect of any explosion that may take place to the smallest possible quantity of material and to the smallest possible risk to human life4 ,the working buildings are constructed with a door at either end to facilitate escape in case of danger2 the quantity of chemicals and of partially or wholly finished fireworks is strictly limited1 as is the number of persons employed in the building4 ,this number varies with the nature of the operation being carried out1 from one in the case of the most hazardous to six in some cases4 ,the working buildings are of light construction2 the form most in use is a timber framing lined with matched boarding and covered externally with corrugated iron4 ,no iron fittings are used1 or iron nails left exposed in the interior4 ,the floor is covered with linoleum1 which is secured by copper tacks4 ,the distance separating working buildings is1 generally speaking1 twenty-five yards1 or if a suitable screen is placed between two such buildings1 this distance may be reduced to twelve yards4 ,the workpeople are provided with non-inflammable outer garments1 no pockets are allowed1 and suitable overshoes of sewn leather or indiarubber are provided4 ,all tools are of soft metal1 such as brass or copper1 or of wood4 ,the regulations refer1 of course1 only to those buildings in which explosive work is carried on1 that is to say1 buildings in the danger area as distinct from the non-danger area4 ,the buildings in the danger area are working buildings1 drying-rooms1 expense and factory magazines4 ,expense magazines are those which are licensed for a comparatively small quantity of explosives1 and from which explosive material is drawn as the work of the factory demands1 or into which is put partially or wholly finished work either awaiting completion or transference to the main or factory magazines4 ,the non-danger area includes stores for chemicals1 paper1 and other material1 also case rolling and drying sheds1 sawmill1 wood-working and paper-cutting shops1 offices1 and similar buildings4 ,the manufacture of fireworks begins with the making of the case or container1 which1 with the exception of shells and ,jacks-in-the-box1 are cylindrical in form4 ,what are known as 8small goods0 are 8dry-rolled10 that is1 the outer edge of the paper only is pasted4 ,they are then rolled up on a metal former on a slate slab4 ,the larger cases1 such as rockets1 gerbs1 and ,roman candles1 have the paper pasted all over1 which is rolled up on the former and consolidated by repeated rolling between the slate slab and a board provided with a handle4 ,there are two methods of introducing the composition into the cases--filling and charging4 ,filling is used where the composition does not have to be consolidated1 and is done with a wire and funnel1 or as it was formerly called1 a 8tun dish40 ,the funnel has its outlet of such a size as to fit the case to be filled1 the wire or rod is somewhat smaller than this outlet1 and is provided at the upper end with a knob for the hand4 ,the end of the funnel1 which is filled with composition1 is inserted in the upright case4 ,the wire is then drawn up1 thus freeing a small quantity of the composition which runs down into the case1 the lowering of the wire pushing it into position4 ,in order to render the downward movement more effective1 the wire is often notched1 but it is doubtful if this actually increases the efficiency4 ,this action is rapidly repeated until the case is filled4 ,this method1 although simple1 is very effective1 and in the hands of a practised worker is exceedingly quick4 ,charging is adopted where the contents have to be solidified in the case4 ,the composition is introduced in small quantities with a scoop of suitable size and consolidated by repeated blows with a wooden mallet on a 8drift40 ,the drift is a cylindrical wooden tool of a size to fit the case1 and an enlargement at the upper end to receive the blow of the mallet4 ,the methods of charging the various forms of fireworks will be dealt with later under their separate headings4 ,the method of charging rockets in use in the sixteenth century are those of to-day1 and it is remarkable that no satisfactory alternative to hand charging has yet been devised4 ,mechanical hammering and hydraulic pressure have both been tried1 but so far with limited success4 ,stars which are used in ,roman candles and as garniture for rockets and shells1 are of many kinds and combinations1 but with the exception of some which are in effect complete miniature fireworks1 they are constructed on one of three methods--they are either 8pumped10 8pinched0 or 8charged40 ,the pump used in the first of these operations consists of a short metal tube1 which fits exactly a short metal plunger provided with a knob for the hand1 and a small metal stud at the side4 ,the tube has a slot cut partially down the side to receive this stud4 ,illustration3 ,modern ,firework ,tools4 ,gerb ,tools ,a#a ,case4 ,a#c ,drift4 ,a#c ,nipple4 ,a#d ,scoop4 ,b#d ,mallet4 ,rocket ,tools ,d#a ,mould4 ,d#b ,spindle4 ,d#c ,mallet4 ,d#d ,choking ,tools4 ,d#e ,choked ,case4 ,d#f ,scoop4 ,d#g ,setting down ,tool4 ,d#h ,graduated ,drifts4 ,roman ,candle ,tools ,b#a ,bundle of ,cases ready for filling4 ,b#b ,drift4 ,b#c ,topping ,funnel and ,drift4 ,b#e ,powder ,bowl and graduated ,scoops4 ,c#a ,shell ,mould4 ,c#b ,half ,shell ,case as taken from mould4 ,e ,star ,pump4 ,f ,funnel and ,wire4 ,the method of using the pump is as follows3--,the plunger is drawn up so that the stud rests on the top of the tube4 ,the pump is pressed into a heap of prepared composition1 which action has the effect of compressing the composition in the tube4 ,the plunger is then turned so that the stud engages with the slot1 and pushed down1 forcing the star out of the tube4 ,the composition is prepared for pumping by being damped with methylated spirit or some other suitable solvent1 and after making1 the stars are dried in specially constructed buildings4 ,pinched stars are made by pinching the damped composition into a short paper case1 through which a short length of match is first passed4 ,charged stars have generally a clay or cardboard bottom to the case1 and are usually matched4 ,this form is generally used for ,government signal rockets1 as the composition being only at one end of the case1 the time of burning is extended4 ,the mixing of compositions requires great care and thoroughness4 ,care both on account of the necessity of exact adherence to the formula1 and to preclude the presence of any foreign body or chemical which1 apart from any effect it might have on the successful functioning of the fireworks for which it happens to be used1 might render it most dangerous in manipulation4 ,generally working buildings are licensed for mixing compositions1 but it is usual to set certain sheds apart for this purpose1 especially if the chemicals used are of a dusty nature1 that is1 very finely divided1 in which case the atmosphere becomes highly charged and dangerous4 ,chlorate of potash1 from the introduction of which into pyrotechny modern effects and colours may be said to date1 has at the same time been responsible for many accidents4 ,as will be seen in the later chapters on firework compositions1 for many years chlorate of potash and sulphur were used freely in the same mixtures1 and many as were the accidents caused by so doing1 yet it is incredible that they were not far more numerous4 ,most makers were well aware of the dangerous nature of this admixture1 but persisted in using it1 as the colours so obtained were at that time unapproached by other means2 naturally no manufacturer wished to be alone in the discontinuance of some of the most striking effects at the time available1 or to give competition the consequent advantage4 ,in ,august1 #ahic1 a man was fatally burned whilst simply emptying a small quantity of crimson stars from one tray to another2 the slight friction so caused was sufficient to ignite the stars and thus fire the whole contents of the building4 ,this unfortunate accident took place at the works of ,c4 ,t4 ,brock and ,co41 then at ,south ,norwood1 and seems even more unfortunate when one learns that with the exception of this particular crimson1 they had practically eliminated chlorate and sulphur colours4 ,the following year1 by ,order in ,council ,no4 #ae1 the admixture of chlorate of potash and sulphur was made illegal4 ,previous to this accident1 during the same year and in the same works1 a serious accident involving the death of one workman and the injury of another1 was caused by a barrel of chlorate of potash being delivered and marked nitrate of potash 7saltpetre74 ,its use in a composition containing sulphide of arsenic 7orpiment7 produced a mixture approximately to that used in some fog signals and designed to fire by percussion4 ,the natural effect was the serious explosion that followed4 ,the late ,sir ,vivian ,d4 ,majendie1 ,k4,c4,b41 the then ,chief ,inspector of ,explosives1 records in his report that 8,messrs4 ,brock are extremely careful to keep chlorate and non-chlorate mixing departments1 and even ingredients in separate buildings and under separate control10 and while he considered that 8some measure of blame is attributable to them in respect of the defects of their system which rendered possible the presence of a cask of chlorate of potash as 8saltpetre0 in the saltpetre shed10 he adds3 8,it is only fair and proper that ,i should say that our experience of the manner in which ,messrs4 ,brock conduct their large business generally is extremely satisfactory4 ,this factory is in many respects a model2 they have always shown themselves ready to discuss with us and adopt any suggestion tending to increase the safety of the workpeople40 ,these indications1 if such were needed apart from the official prohibition of the use of these two ingredients together1 convinced ,mr4 ,arthur ,brock that even greater care was necessary in dealing with them4 ,with this object in view1 when the works were removed to ,sutton1 ,surrey1 the two factories at ,south ,norwood and ,harold ,wood1 ,essex1 being inadequate to deal with the business1 the plan of the new factory was arranged so as entirely to separate that portion of the factory using chlorate of potash from the portion using sulphur4 ,a road running up the factory from the entrance gate divides it into what are virtually two factories1 known as the ,colour and ,bright ,sides4 ,these works1 which are easily the largest of the kind in the world1 cover an area of nearly #bjj acres4 ,they include about #fj magazines1 expense magazines1 and drying rooms1 with a total storage capacity of #a1cjj1jjj lbs4 of fireworks and #e tons of gunpowder2 #abj explosive working buildings 7mostly double71 besides numerous stores1 non-explosive working buildings1 saw-mills1 and wood-working shops4 ,the buildings are connected by over four miles of tram-lines4 ,the average number of employees is #aej men and #bjj women4 ,during the late war this number was increased to over #b1jjj on the manufacture of munitions4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,firework ,,accidents ,the record of firework accidents until the date of the ,explosives ,act1 #ahge1 is very meagre1 not in subject matter1 as reference to ,chapter ,,vi will show1 for the history of the industry up to that time appears to have been one catalogue of accidents2 the only cause for wonder when one considers the conditions then prevailing is that there were not more4 ,but in detail1 the only records are more or less sensational reports of the event1 and such explanation of the cause as the reporter could pick up from some bystander4 ,in some cases where the workers were not killed the explanation was found to be simple2 as for instance1 the accident at ,mortram's works in #ahba4 ,here a boy who was making stars in a room with several other workers and other composition present1 put some of his work to dry before the open fire1 and as if this was not a sufficiently reckless proceeding1 lit one on the hob1 with the consequences that were to be expected4 ,in most cases1 however1 the cause seems to have been obscure1 and little or no trouble appears to have been taken to discover the cause with a view to prevention of a repetition4 ,since the ,explosives ,act careful record is kept of all accidents2 the scene of the accident is inspected1 and a report printed1 setting out the cause1 so far as can be ascertained4 ,until the introduction of chlorate of potash about #ahcj1 if even reasonable care had been used the chances of spontaneous ignition were very small1 and it is reasonable to suppose that such accidents as did take place were in the majority due to such incidents as the above4 ,after that date1 however1 it is not too much to say that quite as large a proportion of accidents were due to the admixture of chlorate of potash and sulphur4 ,we are1 of course1 now speaking of accidents during manufacture1 although to the same cause may be attributed many of the numerous cases of bursting mortars during displays which were so frequent until the prohibition of this mixture in #ahid by ,order in ,council #ae4 ,dr4 ,browne1 of ,hull1 a consulting chemist1 published in #ahhd a book entitled1 8,firework ,accidents1 their cause and prevention10 in which he divides accidents into three classes3 mechanical1 chemical 7spontaneous combustion71 and mechano-chemical4 ,such a classification seems to the writer misleading1 as all accidents must of necessity be chemical2 that is to say1 for combustion chemical action must take place2 and with the exception of cases where ignition has taken place quite spontaneously1 that is where the composition has ignited when lying perfectly undisturbed1 all must be considered mechanical4 ,almost any composition used in pyrotechny1 however stable1 can be ignited by a violent blow between two hard surfaces1 but some compositions are so unstable as to be ignited by very slight friction4 ,it is therefore a question of degree1 or whether the mechanical factor is most to blame or the chemical4 ,a better classification would be3 ,i4 ,ignition caused by violence1 friction or heat4 ,,ii4 ,accidents caused by the state1 condition or quality of the composition or ingredients4 ,if the accident be included in the class which gives the fundamental cause of the accident1 it will be found that the greatest number fall in ,class ,,ii1 even though they may at first glance appear to belong to the first class4 ,class ,i includes accidents caused by the accidental presence of fire and accidents caused by necessarily more or less violent action in manufacture1 that is to say1 in charging4 ,ignition during charging may be caused in two ways1 either by a blow on composition between the charging tool or drift and the spindle or other hard surface1 or by heat generated by repeated blows on the consolidated composition4 ,in this class also should be put accidents1 of which there are many1 caused by playing or scuffing by the workpeople1 the absence of safety overshoes1 the presence of grit or iron or steel implements1 in fact those caused by misconduct or negligence on the part of the workers1 also the rare occasions where lightning has been the cause4 ,accidents caused by slight friction have to a great extent ceased to exist owing to the elimination of chlorate and sulphur compositions4 ,where accidents arise owing to instability of the composition1 they most frequently at the present time fall within ,class ,,ii1 as the instability of the composition is generally due to the presence of some impurity in one or more of the ingredients4 ,another source of accident of this class is the use of violence in emergency with a composition which1 although not sufficiently stable for heavy charging1 is quite safe for careful manipulation2 as for instance1 where force is exerted to clear a funnel which has become blocked with composition1 or some similar action4 ,as regards the part played by heat in accidents of this class1 a study of the records clearly indicates how great is the influence of weather4 ,by far the greatest number of accidents take place in the summer months2 hot weather and a heavy atmosphere are the most likely conditions to produce trouble for the pyrotechnist1 although whether the primary cause is heat or owing to an electrical condition of the atmosphere it is difficult to say1 probably it is the two conditions in conjunction4 ,sulphur and shellac1 two very important ingredients in the art1 are both capable of holding an electric charge1 and it seems not unlikely that they may be so charged in an electric atmosphere during the process of mixing4 ,accidents in ,class ,,ii are generally less easily explained than those in the former class and have occurred in many forms4 ,as has been said1 during the period 7about sixty-five years7 from the introduction of chlorate of potash to the ,order in ,council forbidding its use with sulphur1 numerous accidents occurred2 spontaneous ignition1 both whilst drying during manufacture and even during mixing1 ignition from very slight friction1 and for a time a frequent occurrence the detonation of the contents of shell by the lifting charge4 ,during the period of seventeen years between the date of the ,explosives ,act and the prohibition of chlorate sulphur mixture1 twenty-eight accidents are recorded1 resulting in eleven deaths attributable to the use of such mixtures4 ,the instability of chlorate sulphur compositions1 however1 does not appear to be so much due to the presence of these two chemicals themselves1 but rather to the presence of impurity in conjunction with them4 ,commercial sulphur often contains free sulphurous acid1 which acting upon the chlorate produces chlorine tetroxide1 which rapidly decomposes and ignites the mass of the composition4 ,other acids which produce decomposition of the chlorate are equally likely to produce ignition4 ,of such cases1 examples may be mentioned of acid being present in the paste used for case and box-making1 also in gumwater which has been kept some time before using1 and in starch paste similarly treated4 ,spontaneous ignition has also been caused by the contact of oil with finely divided carbon such as lampblack or finely divided metals1 such as magnesium and aluminium1 which are so largely used at the present time4 ,another case of this nature is the heating up of cases after charging with gerb composition1 two of the ingredients of which are sulphur and iron borings1 this heating sometimes being sufficient to cause combustion4 ,the cause of this phenomenon is the combination of the iron with sulphur to form sulphide of iron1 this action being accompanied by heat4 ,in fact1 it is the same as that producing the experiment known as ,lemery's volcano4 ,as far as the knowledge of the writer extends1 however1 no occurrence of ignition has been definitely traced to this phenomenon1 although it seems highly probable that even if ignition of the actual composition has not taken place1 cases have occurred where more sensitive compositions have been fired by heat so generated where fireworks have been stored together4 ,the annual reports of ,h4,m4 ,inspectors of ,explosives published since #ahgf form an interesting and instructive summary of accidents in explosive trades1 an examination of which throws considerable light on our subject4 ,one is struck by the frequency with which explosions occur as a result of ignorance1 generally on the part of amateur firework makers4 ,in many cases1 as where children are concerned1 this ignorance is natural1 but the want of knowledge and even reasonable care displayed by individuals whose occupation suggests at least some knowledge of the risk is indeed often extraordinary4 ,such a case occurred in #ahhd in ,devonshire1 when a local chemist who was illegally manufacturing coloured fire1 instructed an assistant to grind in an iron mortar a mixture containing chlorate of potash and sulphur4 ,the lad was killed in the resulting explosion4 ,even more remarkable was an explosion which took place in a railway carriage in #ahic4 ,this was due to the spontaneous ignition of a quantity of chlorate and sulphur coloured fire1 which was being carried in an ordinary handbag by a gentleman whose occupation in life was that of professor of chemistry4 ,an accident presenting considerable interest took place in #ahhe at ,mitcham4 ,the cause of this occurrence was quite simple4 ,a man was fixing the curved stick which forms the pivot upon which a tourbillion rotates to one of those fireworks4 ,the wire nail used for the purpose penetrated the composition and fired it4 ,the remaining goods in the shed were ignited1 and communicated to the neighbouring buildings1 one of which was a magazine containing #c1jjj lbs4 of partially manufactured fireworks1 including a number of rockets4 ,these being without sticks and becoming ignited flew in all directions1 setting fire to other buildings4 ,the result was that ten buildings and an air drying rack were totally destroyed1 and three buildings and three racks partially so4 ,this would seem a very serious matter as far as monetary damage is concerned1 but as regards the chief consideration in accidents of this kind1 that is to say damage to human life and limb1 the result was almost negligible2 two persons were slightly injured4 ,this accident1 which was the most extensive in any firework factory since the ,explosives ,act came into operation1 afforded striking proof of the efficiency of the precautions instituted under that ,act4 ,it is indeed extraordinary that in an explosive factory of considerable size1 employing many workpeople1 during working hours it should be possible to destroy more or less completely seventeen buildings and only slightly injure two persons4 ,it may be contended that the number of buildings damaged was very high1 but it must be remembered that rockets without sticks take a most erratic course in their flight1 rendering the effective screening of other buildings most difficult1 if not impossible4 ,however1 there is evidence that many rockets were stopped by the screens1 and that without their interposition the number of buildings destroyed might have been many times greater4 ,the other ,explosives ,act requirements of which the efficiency was demonstrated by this accident1 are the dividing of sheds into compartments with a limited number of workpeople in each1 easy means of escape from working buildings1 and the value of uninflammable clothing4 ,it was also shown that a large quantity of fireworks might be burnt in mass without causing a veritable explosion2 as in the case of the magazine containing #c1jjj lbs4 ,contrasting with this occurrence are the reports of accidents in firework factories both on the ,continent and in ,america4 ,the same year1 at ,civita ,vecchia1 ten persons were killed and twice that number injured in one accident at a firework factory4 ,four years later1 in ,paris1 seven girls were killed out of the eighteen employed in one compartment4 ,the material being used was red phosphorus and chlorate4 ,in #ahhb fourteen persons were killed and no fewer than seventy injured at ,chester1 ,pennsylvania4 ,from #ahia to #ahid eight accidents in the ,united ,states are reported1 resulting in a total of twenty-three deaths and injury to more than fifty persons4 ,in #ahid1 at ,new ,haven1 ,con41 damage to the extent of #abe1jjj dollars was done1 and at ,dallas a considerable part of the city was destroyed4 ,these are1 of course1 not a complete list1 but only such cases as are brought to the notice of the ,english ,home ,office1 but the extent of these clearly illustrates the value of the restrictions in force in this country4 ,during the same years the total of firework factory accidents in this country was thirteen1 in which three persons lost their lives1 and in no case was more than one person killed in any one accident4 ,indeed1 in one instance only since #ahge has the number of deaths resulting from any accident exceeded two--on that occasion four deaths resulted4 ,an interesting type of accident1 examples of which have taken place on several occasions1 is that in which two compositions1 one containing sulphur and the other chlorate of potash1 are placed in contact in the paper case of a firework1 and produce spontaneous combustion4 ,in one case a lance containing white and green composition burst into flame on the work bench4 ,this provided an explanation to an explosion at the same factory which had taken place ten days before in a magazine containing between #f1jjj and #g1jjj lbs4 of display fireworks4 ,an occurrence of a similar nature was observed at ,brighton in #aijc1 when some changing coloured lights which had been removed from a building where a fire had taken place 7the fireworks not being involved in any way7 ignited some days afterwards4 ,it is thought that the lights may have been wetted during the fire1 and upon drying out some days later the different compositions in contact in the case or cases set up chemical action1 which resulted in spontaneous ignition4 ,it was found on examination that a blue containing sulphur was in contact with a green containing chlorate4 ,it may be noted here that mixtures which are damped during manufacture are more liable to spontaneous ignition than those manipulated in a dry state4 ,many accidents and explosions are left unexplained1 either because the evidence is destroyed by the resulting fire or by the death of the witness or witnesses1 or because of the difficulty often experienced in getting the workpeople to give a full and faithful account of what occurred1 fearing to cause trouble for themselves or others concerned4 ,there can be no doubt that the cause is frequently carelessness or mistakes on the part of workers4 ,in a large number of cases1 however1 this explanation gives no help and the cause remains obscure4 ,one such may be mentioned3 ,in #aijb an explosion occurred in a store for non-explosive ingredients1 in which were kept the chemicals used in a firework factory4 ,in the building at the time was a workman who appears to have been engaged in sifting chlorate of potash1 and the technical manager of the factory who seems to have been weighing out ingredients4 ,there is no doubt that he was a man of very considerable experience1 and from his responsible position unlikely either to take risks or be guilty of carelessness4 ,an explosion occurred in the building1 killing both occupants1 and of so violent a nature as to sever the foot of the manager and to project one of the sheets of corrugated iron with which the roof was covered a distance of thirty yards4 ,no explanation of this occurrence was arrived at other than that in some way some of the chemicals must have become mixed to form a sensitive and violent explosive2 so much is obvious1 but how the chemicals became so mixed remains a mystery1 as no mixing was actually done in the building4 ,the ignition of such a mixture is less obscure as magazine boots were not necessary in the building owing to the non-hazardous nature of the work carried on there1 and sufficient friction would be produced to fire even a fairly sensitive mixture between a nailed boot sole and a wood floor4 ,an occurrence of considerable interest in this direction took place in a warehouse at ,manchester in #aijh4 ,in the building were stored several tons of chemicals1 among which were twelve tons of chlorate of potash and thirty-two of chlorate of soda4 ,a workman stepping down from a barrel struck fire1 and saw a flame1 which he tried to extinguish by rubbing with his foot4 ,this1 however1 had the opposite effect4 ,he then tried a bucket of water1 which failed to put it out2 he left the building and heard an explosion1 followed by a second and a third1 all apparently of a violent nature1 all three being heard nearly ten miles away1 and glass broken throughout a considerable area round the warehouse4 ,the cause appears to have been as follows3 ,during the conveyance of the chlorate into the building leakings took place1 and a certain quantity remained on the floor1 this mixing with dust and other organic matter would prove a highly sensitive composition4 ,this was ignited by the man's foot and rapidly spread1 probably a deposit which had accumulated under the floor became involved4 ,the woodwork of the building and the wooden barrels then became ignited4 ,the rapid decomposition of the chlorate caused by the heat liberated large quantities of free oxygen1 which united with carbon in the smoke to form gas1 which exploded upon reaching the correct proportion for so doing4 ,the writer has chiefly confined himself to accidents in firework factories2 those occurring during the illegal manufacture of fireworks in premises unlicensed for the purpose present no further interest1 and are generally caused by ignorance on the part of the participant of the often extremely dangerous nature of the material he is handling4 ,to take an example3 ,two boys were engaged in grinding in a mortar a 8small quantity0 of chlorate of potash and sugar4 ,an explosion resulted which blew out the entire window frames of the room1 destroyed the partition between the room and the passage1 considerably damaged the other wall1 and projected the pestle into the ceiling1 where it remained embedded4 ,accidents at displays are now happily rare2 the most fruitful cause of such happenings was the detonation of shell in the mortar1 that is1 the detonation of the contents or 8garniture0 by the explosion of the propellant charge4 ,the elimination of chlorate-sulphur composition has reduced the chances of this to a minimum1 and the compulsory burying of mortars up to the muzzle has practically eliminated the danger to either firers or spectators4 ,apart from slight injuries caused by falling rocket sticks and mishaps of a similar nature1 accidents to the public at firework displays are things of the past4 ,,part ,,ii ,illustration3 ,types of ,modern ,fireworks4 ,,chapter ,i ,,simple ,,fireworks--,,rocket ,,class ,in the preceding chapters we have been dealing with displays of fireworks1 that is to say2 fireworks in the mass4 ,we will now turn our attention to the firework units composing those displays1 and endeavour to trace their gradual evolution from the crude originals4 ,fireworks may be divided into two classes1 simple and compound4 ,the first of these include fireworks which are a complete item in themselves1 as the rocket1 shell1 or ,roman candle2 also the units which1 fitted on a framework1 go to compose the set pieces and devices of a display1 and the small shop goods not used in displays4 ,we will consider this class first4 ,the two oldest forms of fireworks known are undoubtedly the cracker and the rocket4 ,as we have already noted1 both of these--or at least primitive forms--are mentioned by ,marcus ,graecus1 ,albertus1 and ,roger ,bacon4 ,the description by the former is sufficiently clear to leave no doubt in our minds that he is describing a rocket2 although the description of a cracker is not so explicit as to enable us to say that he is actually describing a jumping cracker1 yet his mention of folding and tying would certainly give colour to that belief4 ,in fact1 some writers have endeavoured to find a connection between the words 8,graecus0 and 8,cracker40 ,greene1 in 8,orlando ,furioso0 7#aeii71 uses the words1 8,yes1 yes1 with squibs and crackers brauly40 ,john ,bate1 in his book previously mentioned1 under the somewhat misleading heading1 8,how to make ,crackers10 says3 8,it is well knowne that every boy can make these1 therefore ,i think it will be but labor lost1 to bestow time to describe their making40 ,he also describes a kind of kite which he designates a 8,fire ,drake10 to the tail of which he fastens 8divers crackers0 which are shown in the illustration to be exactly like the jumping crackers of the present day4 ,babington illustrates a cracker fixed to the top of a rocket4 ,pepys makes the following entry in his diary for ,november #eth1 #affa3 8,seeing the boys in the streets flying their crackers40 ,the only practical difference between the cracker of #afce and that of to-day is in the difference of methods of manufacture1 the early practice being to fold the gunpowder in the paper1 the modern1 to roll a paper case and fill the powder in through a funnel1 afterwards flattening it through a roller mill4 ,illustration3 ,cracker ,making ,curiously enough1 although the cracker has been in use for centuries in ,england1 there appears to be no early reference to it on the ,continent1 the word 8petard0 meaning a cracker in ,french1 but more often being applied to a firework with a single report1 such as a maroon or cannon4 ,the ,dictionnaire ,national of #aheb1 however1 describes the true cracker as one of the meanings of 8petard40 ,the rocket is equal to the cracker in its claim to antiquity1 and it is extraordinary that these two fireworks should have changed so little in form and composition4 ,john ,babington gives illustrations of rocket-charging tools and describes the manufacture of rockets1 which are approximately those of the present day4 ,it is only in the proportion of the ingredients that there is any considerable alteration4 ,the word 8rocket0 appears to be ,italian in origin1 and to be based on the similarity in appearance of a rocket on its stick to the round piece of wood used in the ,middle ,ages to cover the point of a lance in mimic combat1 and known as a 8rockette10 from 8rocca10 the ,italian word for a bobbin1 a diminutive of distaff4 ,as a rocket is the most important unit in the art of pyrotechny1 a description of its manufacture will assist in the consideration of a large number of other fireworks which are either modifications of or based upon the underlying principles of the rocket1 as well as the several principles governing all fireworks4 ,the ingredients of rocket composition are those of gunpowder in approximately similar proportions1 but the resultant composition is not gunpowder1 the reason being that the ingredients are less intimately mixed1 with the result that the combustion is spread over a longer interval of time4 ,instead of the whole mass deflagrating instantly1 only the exposed surface is consumed4 ,it is the recoil produced by the rush of gases1 and partially consumed matter1 from the violently burning composition which projects the rocket forward4 ,the obvious form for the case containing the composition is cylindrical1 both on account of ease of construction and of charging4 ,in order to get the greatest possible reaction from the burning composition1 the case of the rocket is constricted or choked1 so that the fire may issue as it were in the form of a jet4 ,this choke has one obvious disadvantage1 it reduces the surface of composition to the area of the opening1 thus restricting the initial burning surface at the time when the maximum of effort is required to force the rocket into motion4 ,this defect is overcome by having a tapering hole up almost the entire length of the composition1 thus giving a large burning surface with a consequent discharge of gas through a small orifice and a resultant powerful jet of fire and gas4 ,the rocket case is of stout paper rolled on a former consolidated by rolling under a board4 ,the choke is formed by inserting into the bore of the rocket two wooden tools with rounded ends1 the shorter tool having a peg projecting which is equal in diameter to the bore of the choke4 ,the tools are of such length that when they are inserted the peg takes up the position where the choke is to be formed4 ,the case is then constricted at this point by a strong pressure with a stout cord wound round the case and soaped to allow it to slip round easily4 ,the case is then dried and charged by placing on a 8spindle10 which is a strong gun-metal base with a nipple fitting into the vent of the rocket and having a tapering spindle which fits tightly in the choke and projects up into the bore of the rocket4 ,the composition is poured in in small quantities measured in a scoop1 each scoopful being consolidated by blows with a wooden mallet or a wooden 8drift0 hollowed to take the spindle4 ,before the first scoop of composition is introduced1 the rocket is 8set down10 that is1 several blows are given on the drift to consolidate the paper at the choke and give it accurate shape4 ,next1 a scoop of ground dry clay is poured in and charged firm as a protection to the paper of the choke4 ,the charging is then proceeded with as detailed above4 ,varying drifts are used in order that the hole may approximately correspond with the diameter of the tapering spindle as the composition rises in the case4 ,a short portion of the case above the spindle is charged solid2 this is referred to as the 8heading10 and is usually about one and a half times the bore in depth4 ,large rockets are charged in a mould which fits tightly round the outside of the case and prevents the case being split under the pressure of the blows whilst being charged4 ,illustration3 ,rocket ,manufacture1 from ,frzier's 8,feu d',artifice10 #agdg4 ,in early times these moulds were used for all sizes and were of cast metal1 and it is from them that the classification of the sizes is derived4 ,rockets are designated by the weight of a ball of lead which fits the bore of the corresponding mould4 ,thus we have rockets varying in size from oz4 to #f lbs4 and over1 war rockets being made up to #i and #bd lbs41 but their use is now almost extinct4 ,this classification1 although it serves its purpose well enough1 is somewhat misleading1 as the thickness of the case varies in practice1 at any rate under modern conditions4 ,in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries pyrotechnists seem to have had a standard proportion between the case and bore1 i4e41 the thickness of the case was one-quarter the internal diameter of the rocket4 ,in modern commercial practice a rocket--say for example of #a lb4--is a rocket rolled on a former whose diameter is that of the bore of a #a lb4 rocket of standard thickness1 but whose outside diameter is governed by the strength of the paper employed in the case4 ,several writers on pyrotechny1 one ,frzier writing in #agdg in particular1 have endeavoured to supersede this classification of rockets by replacing it with a series of internal diameter measurements1 so far without success4 ,it is hard to supersede the traditions of centuries on a plea of mere rationalism4 ,rocket compositions1 although containing the same ingredients1 namely1 saltpetre1 sulphur1 and charcoal1 have them in differing proportions4 ,broadly speaking1 the larger the rocket the greater the proportion of charcoal and sulphur1 the variations in proportion being considerable1 from the half-ounce rocket mixing of #ac saltpetre1 #b sulphur1 and #e charcoal to the #i lb4 and #bd lb4 war rocket1 with #ac saltpetre1 #c sulphur1 and #d charcoal approximately1 and even higher proportions of the second and third ingredients for special purposes4 ,a larger proportion of charcoal gives a larger tail--a desirable feature in display and signal rockets4 ,some compositions have a proportion of mealed gunpowder to produce fiercer burning4 ,early makers appear to have used mealed gunpowder and added charcoal and other ingredients to1 as it were1 dilute the powder and render the deflagration less fierce4 ,babington 7#afce7 adds charcoal in the following proportion3 #a oz4--#d oz4 rockets1 #a lb4 of mealed powder to #b oz4 charcoal #d oz4--#aj oz4 #a lb4 #b oz4 #aj oz4--#a lb4 #a lb4 #c oz4 ,john ,bate's compositions are rather erratically arranged2 in some cases he adds the saltpetre1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 and a further addition is 8yron scales10 presumably to increase the effect of the tail1 for which purpose later pyrotechnists used iron filings4 ,the rocket having been charged to the top of the heading1 clay is charged in1 forming a diaphragm above it4 ,earlier practice was to turn down the top edge of the case on the heading composition to form a diaphragm4 ,the best-known form of rocket is the sky rocket1 which is fitted with a stick held in position by having a dowelled end introduced into a rolled paper or metal tube secured to the side of the rocket4 ,the object of the stick is to direct the flight of the rocket1 and further serves to hold it in position for firing1 being passed through two rings at a suitable distance one above the other on a stake1 through which it slides easily4 ,sky rockets are fitted with a 8cap0 containing the 8garniture0 of the rocket1 which may take the form of 8stars0 or other pyrotechnic effects1 or a gun-cotton wad1 or similar explosive to make a sound signal1 or small cases charged with picrate of potash1 producing the well-known 8whistling rocket0 effect4 ,the 8cap0 is either cylindrical or in the form of a truncated cone1 with a conical or other top4 ,the cap is burst open and the contents ignited by an opening charge of powder lighted through a hole bored in the clay diaphragm above the heading1 so that when the heading is burnt through the fire may be communicated to the opening charge4 ,from earliest times the rocket has been the chief item in recreative fireworks2 either the sky rocket as we know it to-day or its many modifications and derivatives was the chief constituent of the early displays4 ,during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries a display would contain the following items--dragons or similar figures issuing from the scenic castle provided for the display2 these would be moved by line rockets4 ,a line rocket has no cap or garniture1 the socket usually provided to hold the stick being lengthened1 and of sufficient diameter to allow it to slide along a tightly stretched cord passed through it4 ,pieces of a similar nature to the modern fountain and gerb would be represented by 8ground rockets40 ,this is a rocket less fiercely burning1 charged solid1 fixed to a support so that it remains stationary whilst burning1 the fire being thrown out in a jet4 ,rockets would also be used to turn such primitive wheels as were exhibited1 and to actuate mechanical scenic devices1 which are in effect the 8turning cases0 of the present day4 ,serpents of fiz-gigs were much used1 both as a garniture for rockets1 and to give animation to wheels and similar pieces4 ,these were made on the rocket principle1 similar to the squib1 but slightly more elaborate4 ,a choke was formed between the composition and the 8bounce0 or powder giving the report4 ,to-day the ground rocket has developed into the gerb or ,chinese tree1 fountains of various kinds1 the flower pot--of the larger kinds2 and among the smaller varieties1 the squib with its variations1 such as ,black ,jack and ,blue ,devil1 and the golden rain with its variations4 ,the modern1 or rather more recent1 method of heading the rocket with a clay diaphragm evidently suggested that the choking of the case might be dispensed with where the composition was less fierce1 the necessary reduction of the orifice being produced by a clay diaphragm with a central hole of sufficient size4 ,this method is followed with the gerb1 fountains1 and flower pot1 and in the firework known to pyrotechnists as 8fixt02 this unit is largely used in display work to form the fringe frame or lattice effect of a set piece4 8,fixt0 are made in #a oz4 and #b oz4 sizes1 and contain a composition of approximately one part of steel filings to four of mealed gunpowder and finish with a bounce4 ,the origin of the name is uncertain3 it may refer to their use on fixed pieces in contradistinction to one revolving1 or--as is most probable--was first used to distinguish between a fixed and a moving rocket4 ,the time of the introduction of the clay choke is uncertain4 ,jones1 writing in #agfe1 although using clay in the heading of rockets1 still choked all cases1 but ,mortimer 7#ahbd7 uses it1 although ,ruggieri 7#ahba71 whilst doing the same1 appears to think choking preferable4 ,the former gives instructions for charging the clay solid and boring the central hole2 ,ruggieri1 however1 uses a nipple like a much shortened rocket spindle1 in which he agrees with the modern practice4 ,this method is also utilised at the present time for small-sized rockets4 ,of the fireworks of the fountain class1 probably the first to develop from the crude rocket form were the gerb and flower pot4 ,the gerb1 or ,chinese tree1 contains a composition of saltpetre1 sulphur1 charcoal and iron borings1 with the addition--if more force is required1 as for instance to turn a device--of mealed gunpowder4 ,early makers used mealed powder alone and 8iron sand10 or cast-iron reduced to powder by hammering4 ,this composition is known as ,chinese fire1 and1 as its name implies1 was introduced into ,europe from the ,east4 ,an interesting article appeared in the 8,universal ,magazine0 of #agfd1 written by a ,jesuit missionary on the subject of ,chinese fireworks4 ,in it he describes the making of iron sand as follows3 8,old broken or useless pots serve generally for making this sand2 they are broken into pieces of the breadth of the hand1 after which1 being made red-hot in the fire of a forge1 they are thrown in that condition into a trough filled with fresh water1 where they are left to cool4 ,thus calcined1 the rust falls off in scales1 and they are easily reduced into sand1 being first broken into parcels of a finger's breadth4 ,the anvil and hammer used for this purpose must be also of cast-iron1 because steel flats the grains of sand4 ,it is necessary that the angles of those grains should be sharp1 as it is the angles that form the flowers40 ,the word 8gerb0 is derived from the ,french word meaning a sheaf of corn1 and was first applied to water fountains4 ,the flower pot is charged with a composition formerly known as 8spur-fire10 from the resemblance in form of its coruscations to the rowel of a spur4 ,the effect produced is one of the most effective when successful1 but has the disadvantage for display work that the effect is only appreciated at close quarters4 ,the ingredients used are lampblack1 sulphur1 red arsenic1 saltpetre1 with sometimes the addition of charcoal and mealed gunpowder4 ,of the smaller works of this division the squib and golden rain are too well known to need description4 ,the squib and its variations have a choked case2 the golden rain and similar works are left with an open bore4 ,squibs are generally filled with a composition of sulphur1 saltpetre and charcoal1 sometimes steel filings1 with a bounce of fine-grain powder4 ,a curious firework1 now almost obsolete1 for which it is difficult to find a class1 is the five-pointed star4 ,this work consisted of a case having a diaphragm of plaster of paris or clay above the filling1 below which five holes are bored equidistant and at right angles to the axis4 ,the case is fired in the unusual position of horizontal with the end towards the spectator1 the fire playing all round the case1 forming a star4 ,the composition used was mealed powder1 sulphur1 saltpetre1 and sulphuret of antimony4 ,ruggieri mentions this firework under the name 8,etoile fix10 and it is mentioned by ,jones1 writing in #agfe1 but not by ,frzier4 ,it is hard to believe that this unit was successful1 so many factors militating against success1 which depends upon the exactly similar jet from each of the five holes4 ,but it is possible that in large geometrical pieces it was at least of use to give an additional effect in what1 owing to the lack of variety of the fireworks of the time1 must have been rather a monotonous repetition of a few effects4 ,it also would enable small blank spaces to be filled in on set pieces4 ,in a sun or star of the ordinary type1 that is of radiating cases1 the commencement of the jets must be as far apart as the length of two of the cases1 which length is governed by the required time of burning4 ,this leaves a blank centre2 the five-pointed star1 however1 if working correctly1 has the jets radiating from a point4 ,many of the earlier writers classified fireworks under the heads3--,fireworks for the ground1 for the air1 and for the water4 ,those falling in the latter division are only variations of those for the ground1 that is to say1 a gerb1 fountain or other firework is fitted with a float1 such as a block of wood1 and functions floating on the surface of the water1 the effect being greatly enhanced by the reflection4 ,illustration3 ,from 8,the ,universal ,magazine10 #agfd4 ,it is not proposed to deal separately in this work with aquatic fireworks unless they have some essential difference from their parallel type for land display4 ,one unit1 of the rocket class1 which is so distinct is the 8skimmer40 ,this is in effect a stickless rocket with the cap 7which is empty7 fastened at an angle to the line of the main case4 ,when fired the skimmer1 as its name implies1 skims over the surface of the water1 with occasional dives under the surface in an erratic course4 ,it requires for its safe display a considerable area of water4 ,these are known by ,french pyrotechnists as 8genouillres10 from their shape4 ,ruggieri and ,frzier describe what they call 8plongeons40 ,these are gerbs charged in the ordinary way1 except that before each scoop of composition a small quantity of mealed powder is added4 ,this produces a jerky burning1 the recoil of each puff of powder driving the gerb beneath the surface of the water2 the jet of fire1 of course1 is sufficient to prevent water entering the case while so submerged4 ,these1 and other earlier writers1 in their section devoted to aquatic fireworks1 give directions for firing ordinary land fireworks on the water1 which would almost appear to have been included with the idea of filling space4 ,one item which is generally included consists of directions for firing rockets under water4 ,jones1 under this heading1 gives the following directions3 8,,to ,,fire ,,sky ,,rockets ,,under ,,water4 8,you must have stands made as usual1 only the rails must be placed flat1 instead of edgeways1 and have holes in them for the rocket sticks to go through2 for if they were hung upon hooks1 the motion of the water would throw them off3 the stands being made1 if the pond is deep enough1 sink them at the sides so deep that when the rockets are in their heads may just appear above the surface of the water2 to the mouth of each rocket fix a leader which put through the hole with the stick2 then a little above the water must be a board1 supported by the stand1 and placed along one side of the rockets2 then the ends of the leaders are turned up through holes made in this board1 exactly opposite the rockets4 ,by this means you may fire them singly1 or all at once4 ,rockets may be fired by this method1 in the middle of a pond1 by a ,neptune1 a swan1 a water-wheel1 or anything else you chuse40 ,it will be seen that the rockets themselves are above the surface1 which seems more reasonable than the instructions of some writers1 who1 to get the effect of a rocket rising from actually beneath the surface1 give themselves an infinite amount of trouble to render the case and connections waterproof4 ,the effect seen from a short distance is identical4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,simple ,,fireworks--,,shell ,,class ,we now come to a distinct class of fireworks1 those whose functioning depends on the propulsion of gunpowder4 ,the first and parent of this class is the shell or bomb4 ,the original name of the shell was 8air balloon10 which is now obsolete4 ,some writers have been misled by its appearance in old amusement announcements into thinking a balloon ascent was referred to1 or that a balloon carrying fireworks was to be exhibited1 at dates considerably before the invention of gas or hot-air balloons4 ,in this connection it is interesting to note that ,ruggieri claims that his father was the first to release a balloon carrying fireworks in #aghf4 ,as we have seen1 the military use of shell dates from at least as early as the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,both ,babington and ,bate1 writing in #afce1 give instructions for making shell1 and although the book of the former is more advanced in this particular matter1 he is1 generally speaking1 considerably more primitive4 ,babington describes a hollow sphere of canvas1 a part of which is filled with a slow-burning composition1 the remainder being filled with stars and grain powder1 the canvas is pierced to expose the slow composition4 ,the shell is fired from a mortar having a touch-hole4 ,the following are ,babington's instructions in the matter3 8,load your morter piece with one ounce of corne powder1 putting after a wadd and tampion1 and put on your ball with the vent towards the mouth of your piece3 so elevating your piece to the zenith1 you may proceed to the firing of it1 which must be after this manner3 provide two matches ready lighted1 having one in each hand1 and first fire your ball with one hand and presently give fire to your piece with the other1 alwaies holding your head under the horizontall line of your piece1 for fear the blast annoy you3 this having done you shall see your ball mount very high with a fair taile of fire1 and when at its highest1 shall break forth into a goodly showre of starres40 ,this somewhat unconvincing account gives one to wonder if the worthy gunner had indeed fired a shell such as he describes1 and if so1 whether he was not more than 8annoyed0 at the result4 ,he gives the lifting charge as exactly one ounce1 but gives no indication of the size of the shell or mortar4 ,it seems probable that he had never seen a shell of this nature1 and was giving his idea of it without practical experience2 this is the more curious as1 generally speaking1 his book is wonderfully advanced for the period1 and indicates personal experience of the matters under discussion4 ,john ,bate1 although less fluent1 gives greater indication of practical knowledge of the matter4 ,his 8balloone0 is rather oblong in section1 and is made by rolling canvas on a former1 using eight or nine turns4 ,the ends are choked in the same way as a rocket case1 one end being choked on to a 8little cane rammed full of a slow composition40 ,the shell is placed in the mortar with the fuse downwards1 which is ignited by the flash of the mortar charge4 ,bate takes the precaution of having a time fuse at the touch-hole of the mortar1 and concludes his instructions for firing by saying1 8and while that burneth1 retreat out of harms way40 ,altogether a more practical and convincing description4 ,frzier 7#agdg7 makes the following prefatory remarks to his chapter on shells3 8,the name of #8balon' is given to a firework which is thrown into the air like artillery bombs for war1 so that they are often given the same name as bomb4 8,the difference between this firework and a bomb is not only that the former is to amuse and that the latter to destroy1 and that the one is made of iron1 and the other of wood1 linen1 or cardboard1 but principally because the latter is made to burst and throw out its garniture at the point of the highest elevation1 while the war bombs do so at the moment of their fall to the earth1 also the war bombs are thrown towards the horizon1 while the firework bombs are thrown vertically or nearly so4 8,the fireworks differ also from the war bombs in shape1 the former being not always spherical1 as the latter are4 8,we must therefore understand by the name of shell a firework of which the effect and principal beauty is that while going up in the air it only shews a small stream of fire1 which multiplies itself suddenly into a great number of others at the moment of its highest elevation1 which causes a pleasant surprise4 8,as this firework does not lift itself1 but is thrown by impulsion the same way as a bomb1 it can1 like the latter1 only be fired from a mortar40 ,he describes two shapes of shell1 the spherical and cylindrical1 with a hemispherical end1 which shape is more convenient where the contents are long in form1 as rockets1 ,roman candles1 etc4 ,he attributes the introduction of this shape to ,siemienowitz1 who1 he says1 made the cases of wood4 ,he himself1 however1 adopts the modern method1 as he does with the fuse1 which he calls the port-fire4 ,the lifting charge1 however1 is placed in the mortar separately from the shell and ignited at a touch-hole1 in which1 as will be seen1 he differs from modern practice4 ,he gives a list of garnitures or fillings1 which are interesting as showing the practice of the day3 8,the first is the one which gives the effect of a waterfall or head of hair4 ,this is made of thin narrow tubes1 or if possible1 of thin canes1 cut to the length of the shell1 and filled with a slow-burning composition made of three parts of priming powder1 two of charcoal1 and one of sulphur1 damped with a little petroleum1 and capped with a paste made of powder crushed in distilled water or spirit and afterwards dried4 ,all these are put in the tube1 around the one which is used for the passage of the port-fire4 8,when it is full the loaded port-fire is introduced1 and pushed so far that it reaches the frame1 and when it is touching the lid1 this lid must be glued by the rough ends to that of the tube1 and the shell is finished4 8,as it is rather heavy1 it is advisable to adopt means for its resisting the shock of the lifting charge of powder which drives it out of the mortar1 by strengthening it with a covering of linen strips1 which should be stuck on to the shell by means of a paste1 composed of two-thirds of flour paste1 and one-third of glue4 8,unless this is done it often happens that the shell bursts before it rises in the air40 ,the second consists of serpents1 the third of 8saucissons volans10 similar to the 8fiz-gig0 of ,bate2 the choke in the middle between the composition and the bang being varied in position so as to produce a succession of bangs4 ,the vacant spaces left over in the shorter may be filled with stars4 ,the fourth is of stars arranged in beds of grain powder2 the interstices being filled with a mixture of mealed powder and charcoal4 ,the fifth of 8light balls10 and for the sixth he describes 8the manner of making figures and various shapes in fire appear in the air40 ,these letters are made on a frame covered with composition1 and are consequently limited to a size to the internal diameter of the shell1 that is1 less than eight inches4 ,it seems improbable that they could be distinguished satisfactorily at the height of a shell's trajectory1 besides which the difficulties involved1 as he himself explains1 are very great1 which no doubt explains the fact that this idea is now obsolete4 ,under the heading 8,double and ,triple ,balloons10 this writer describes the method of placing shell of smaller size inside a larger4 ,the bursting of the first shell lights the short-time fuse of the contained shell1 which falls some distance and bursts4 ,with the triple shell this action is repeated4 ,jones 7#agfe7 divides shell into four kinds1 namely1 8illuminated balloons0 filled with stars2 8balloons of serpents10 8balloons of reports1 marrons and crackers10 and 8compound balloons40 ,the last description is misleading1 as the balloon is not compound but the contents are varied1 as for example1 the contents of one specified ten crackers of six reports1 twenty golden rains1 sixteen two-ounce cases charged half-inch with star composition and bounced1 two ounces each of brilliant1 blue1 coloured tailed1 large string and rolled stars4 ,it is hard to believe that this writer had ever seen a shell fired in this manner1 the result would have been mere confusion4 ,the star compositions of that date were very rudimentary1 the colours when seen from the distance of a bursting shell were indistinguishable4 ,one interesting detail in ,jones's work is the classification of sizes4 ,the smallest shell mentioned by him is the 8,coehorn ,balloon02 he does not give the size1 but it is given in the 8,military ,encyclopedia0 as #d inches4 ,this corresponds to the #d-;inch of to-day4 ,the name was apparently derived from a ,dutch military engineer of that name4 ,the next size is the royal #e-;inch1 and above that #h-;inch and #aj-;inch4 ,ruggieri 7#ahba7 is the first writer on the subject to have the shell and lifting charge in a unit as is the practice to-day1 which indicates constructionally a great advance over his predecessors1 although the fillings show little progress4 ,the modern shell is arranged with a 8lighter0 of quickmatch1 long enough to reach from the top of the shell when in position in the mortar to a sufficient distance outside the mouth to enable it to be ignited without danger4 ,the lighter fires the time-fuse in the top of the shell1 and at the same time two pieces of quickmatch which run round the shell in grooves worked in the paper shell case1 and ignites the lifting charge1 which is contained in a flannel bag1 or in the case of small shell1 a paper cone4 ,the lifting charge projects the shell into the air and the time fuse1 which is arranged to burn through at the top of the shell's flight1 ignites the bursting charge which opens the shell and fires the contents4 ,the modern varieties of shell are almost infinite4 ,colours have been brought to a wonderful pitch of depth and brilliance1 besides various kinds of fire for stars1 producing stars with tails of the same and contrasting colours4 ,another class of shell1 which might be called the compound1 consists of shell filled with fireworks of other kinds--,roman candles1 tourbillions1 wheel-turning cases1 small shell1 and what gives undoubtedly the most dramatic aerial effect yet devised1 with rockets4 ,the 8thunderbolt10 a shell #af inches in diameter1 containing a hundred #d-ounce rockets1 has always been a popular feature of the ,crystal ,palace displays4 ,another variation of the shell is the comet1 which is in effect a small shell 7generally about three inches7 with an exaggerated fuse of brilliant fire1 which leaves a heavy tail during the comet's flight4 ,these are usually fired from either side of the firing-ground in rapid succession1 producing an aerial arch1 and opening just after having passed each other4 ,the aerial maroon consists of a maroon fitted with a lifting charge and time fuse4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,simple ,,fireworks--,,mine ,,class ,the next group of fireworks is what may be called the 8,mine0 class1 and has some of its members amongst the earliest firework units4 ,to-day a mine consists of a quantity of small effects such as stars1 crackers1 squibs1 etc41 blown simultaneously from a case1 or in display work--from a mortar4 ,in the latter event they are made up into bags with the lifting charge below1 and are known technically as 8bags40 ,the 8,mine of ,serpents0 and 8,jack-in-the-,box0 as sold in the shops consist of a rolled paper case which acts as the mortar1 at the bottom of which is a lifting charge4 ,this case has a light strawboard cover with a central hole1 through which passes a case charged with a golden fountain composition1 the lower end of which is not--as is generally the case--8clayed40 ,the space round the central case is filled in with squibs or crackers4 ,when lighted the fountain case functions in the usual way1 but when finished ignites the lifting charge1 which lights and blows up the contained fireworks4 ,a very early reference to the 8,jack-in-the-,box0 is by ,john ,babington 7#afce74 ,in ,chapter ,,xxxvii he says3 8,another which ,i call ,jack in a ,box4 ,the order of making this is after this manner3 provide a box of plate1 of what largeness you please--then putting in a quantity of corn powder or powder dust 7in the bottom of the box7 you shall fill it with fisgigs or serpents1 leaving a case in the middle for a cane to go through to the bottom1 which cane must be filled with a slow receipt1 in which you shall put a quantity of champhire but no oyles1 in regard of the narrow passage it has to burn without any other vent40 ,he then describes fitting the pasteboard top and concludes3 8and light your cane1 which will appear like a candle1 and after a pretty distance of time you shall heare a sudden noyse and see all those fisgigs flying some one way1 some another4 ,this toy has given great content to the spectators40 ,frzier calls mines 8,pots feu0 or 8d'aigrettes10 which1 he says1 were three1 four1 or five inches in diameter1 and twelve to eighteen inches in length4 ,when fired in batteries they were called 8,pots de brins40 ,the smaller kind were ignited at a vent formed by choking the case1 the vent--when the case was in position--pointing downward4 ,the larger sorts were lighted from above1 and were practically the same as the ,jack-in-the-,box1 with the difference that there was a case similar to a shell fuse instead of the central ,roman candle4 ,jones' description of 8,pots d'aigrettes0 and 8,pots de brins0 are similar1 only that he fires the former with a ,roman candle in the centre of the central mortar of a group with a lighter from it to each of the others1 so that at the finish of the ,roman candle the mortars are discharged simultaneously4 ,an elaboration of the 8,jack0 is the 8,devil-among-the-,tailors10 which is the same device surrounded by ,roman candles4 ,the next fireworks in this class--the ,roman candle--is one whose genesis presents a most interesting study4 ,from the evidence available there seems no doubt that this firework1 in spite of its name1 originated in this country4 ,the first mention of anything resembling it is found in ,babington's book4 ,he describes what he calls 8a trunck of fire which shall cast forth divers fire balls40 ,it is one of a class1 apparently in favour at this time1 intended to be carried on a staff1 and known collectively as 8fire lances0 or 8clubs0 7the former name is not to be confused with the lances used in set-piece work74 ,the particular one under consideration1 although it is very large1 being four inches bore1 and only emits two balls or stars1 is undoubtedly the prototype of the 8,roman40 ,bate describes a somewhat similar lance with the difference that 8petards0 or single crackers are substituted for stars4 ,this was in #afce4 ,over one hundred years later1 ,frzier describes an almost exactly similar firework under the heading 8,artifices ,portatifs10 which name he adopts instead of the old name 8,lance feu10 in order to avoid confusion with the lance as known to-day1 which was then coming into use4 ,this is the only mention he makes of anything that can be considered to even remotely resemble a ,roman candle1 and as he refers to several other writers1 a justifiable inference seems to be that neither he or they had any knowledge of such a firework4 ,had he known of it1 such is its popularity he would certainly have mentioned it4 ,eighteen years later ,jones describes exactly the ,roman candle as made to-day1 to which he gives the name 8,fire ,pump40 8,pumps0 and 8,pumps with ,starrs0 occur in the description subjoined to engravings depicting ,english peace displays in #afig and #agac2 there can be no doubt that the reference is to ,roman candles or the earlier development of them4 ,when1 however1 the elder ,ruggieri came over to this country in #agdi to conduct the ,aix-la-,chapelle peace display in ,green ,park1 in conjunction with ,sarti1 no firework of this nature appears in the programme of the display4 ,here we have two pyrotechnists who can be considered to represent the best skill of ,france and ,italy2 in fact1 it was ,ruggieri whose arrival in ,france from ,italy in or about #agce marked the great advance in pyrotechny in the former country4 ,yet the 8,pump0 does not appear in this great display planned and executed by them1 although for years it had been a popular item in displays in this country4 ,the obvious reason for this omission is that they did not know of it4 ,in the early part of the nineteenth century the name 8,roman candle0 comes into use both here and in ,france4 ,the 8,english ,encyclopdia0 of #ahjb still uses the expression 8,fire ,pump10 but this is probably because their article is copied almost verbatim from ,jones' book4 ,the name ,roman candle1 however1 appears in an advertisement of a display at ,ipswich by ,william ,brock in #ahah1 and ,ruggieri the younger uses the words 8chandelle romaine0 in his book of #ahje4 ,how this firework received the name ,roman is obscure2 it may have been affixed by one of the many ,italian pyrotechnists working here1 or it may have had political or religious significance4 ,a firework functioning in the same way as a ,roman candle is the ,italian streamer1 which has stars of a composition containing lampblack1 which burn with a gold fire and leave a tail in their flight4 ,the ,roman candle of the present day is made with an almost endless variety of stars1 but those in use when the name was first introduced were of very simple character4 ,coloured stars1 as accepted to-day1 were not introduced until about the thirtieth year of the last century4 ,the compositions given by ,jones and ,ruggieri would produce approximately the same effect as the ,italian streamer star of to-day1 but with little or no tail4 ,lampblack compositions appear to have been introduced into ,europe from the ,east1 and there seems to be no reason why ,italy should have had them before this country1 or that the introduction of lampblack into ,roman candle star composition should be credited to ,italy4 ,it seems more probable that the name ,italian streamer was attached to that firework in this country to distinguish it from the ,roman candle with tailless stars1 and under the mistaken idea that the 8,roman0 was a foreign importation1 or that it would be more acceptable if labelled with a foreign name4 ,as we have said1 the modern ,roman candle is made with stars of very many varieties1 but whatever kind of star may be used1 the method of filling is the same4 ,the principle on which the ,roman candle is constructed is as follows3 ,the case is charged with a series of repetitions of the following--,roman candle fuse1 8dark fire10 star1 blowing charge4 ,these are repeated as many times as the case will hold1 and function thus--the fuse burns with a fountain effect1 and upon being exhausted lights the 8dark fire10 which lights the star1 flashes round it and fires the blowing charge which propels the star from the case4 ,the blowing charge also ignites the next layer of fuse1 and the effect is repeated4 ,in filling the case different sized scoops are used for the blowing charge1 which is of fine-grain powder1 the smaller scoops being used at the lower portion of the case4 ,this is done so that the stars may rise to approximately the same height2 the charge at the bottom acting through a greater distance1 naturally acts more effectively and less is required4 ,earlier pyrotechnists1 in addition1 as a means of regulating the height of the stars' flight1 made the stars of differing sizes2 this under modern manufacturing conditions would be impossible1 and has been abandoned4 ,roman candle fuse is composed of sulphur1 charcoal1 saltpetre in the proportion of #d1 #h1 #ae4 ,the 8dark fire0 is of mealed powder1 with a small admixture of charcoal4 ,illustration3 ,an old ,firework ,bill4 ,another firework which is probably a development of the ,roman candle is the jewel fountain4 ,this consists of a fountain mixture of saltpetre1 sulphur1 and charcoal1 to which is added granules of star composition1 which are thrown out by the force of the fire1 giving a fountain effect in which appear variously coloured points of fire4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,simple ,,fireworks--,,saxon ,,lance ,,classes ,the fireworks which form a class by themselves are the ,saxon or ,chinese flyer1 and the tourbillion4 ,both of these consist of a single case made to revolve in the plane of its axis by jets of fire projected through a hole at right angles to the axis4 ,saxons revolve about a nail driven through the case into a post or other support2 they are charged with a composition of mealed gunpowder1 saltpetre1 and sulphur4 ,the case is charged thus3 the lower end is firmly 8clayed0 and the composition is charged up to a point about inch below the centre1 clay is then charged for inch1 and again composition to within a short distance of the top1 which is again firmly clayed4 ,two holes are bored near each end on opposite sides of the case1 and a third hole is bored through the centre of the case at right angles to the other two and of sufficient size to take the nail or spindle on which the case revolves4 ,the two holes at the end may be connected with match to light simultaneously1 or the time of burning may be lengthened by leading the second half from the lower end of the first lit4 ,in the larger sizes1 and generally in display work1 a small case charged with a colour composition is attached to the side of the case1 producing a ring of colour inside the fire of the saxon4 ,a smaller and cheaper form of saxon is what is in effect half of that described above1 the nail being at one end and the propelling hole at the other4 ,illustration3 ,rocket ,charging4 ,illustration3 ,filling ,roman ,candles4 ,formerly saxons for display work were made with a wooden centre1 on which the two halves1 which were charged separately1 were fitted1 and to which the colour case was secured by a nail4 ,the tourbillion is a development of the saxon2 instead of the central spindle a piece of curved wood is secured to the case1 forming a pivot on which to revolve when lying on a flat surface1 and two additional holes are bored on the under side of the case1 so arranged as to light when the case has sufficiently rapid revolution and project it into the air4 ,jones describes tourbillions as made to-day1 also saxons under the older name of ,chinese flyer4 ,in addition1 he describes what he calls 8table rockets10 which resemble four double saxon cases fitted to a centre1 which has a projecting cone upon which the device revolves4 ,he says that 8table rockets are designed merely to show the truth of driving and the judgment of a fireworker1 they having no other effect when fired than spinning round in the same place where they begin till they are burnt out1 and showing nothing more than a horizontal circle of fire10 but afterwards adds that 8these rockets may be made to rise like tourbillions by making the cases shorter and boring holes in the under side of each case at equal distances2 this being done they are called #8double tourbillions4'0 ,frzier shows tourbillions as at present manufactured1 which he calls 8tourbillion de feu0 or 8soleil montant10 but the nearest device he shows to a saxon is similar to ,jones's table rocket1 made to revolve on a spindle1 and having several holes bored down the side of each case1 presumably to produce more effect4 ,these he designates 8tourniquets0 or 8soleils tournants40 ,he also illustrates two ordinary rockets mounted on a centre similar to that of a double saxon4 ,this he calls 8baton feu10 and describes that one case lights after the other is burnt out1 and one gathers that the device is intended to revolve but how it can be made to do this by fire issuing radially is not apparent4 ,the word tourbillion is the ,french for a whirlwind and is applied by ,ruggieri to a compound firework1 which will be considered later under that head4 ,what we know as tourbillion he names 8fuse de table0 7a table rocket71 and adds that they are commonly called 8artichauts40 ,the success of all the above1 in common with rockets1 depends on careful and experienced construction and strength of the case1 and it is indeed curious that ,jones describes the rolling of the cases for these fireworks without paste except on the edge of the paper4 ,it seems incredible that an experienced pyrotechnist should make such a mistake1 and one is almost inclined to agree with ,kentish 7#ahgh71 who says of ,jones's book3 8,the greater portion of it is absurd and impracticable1 and shows it was written by a person who undertook to teach what he had not learnt40 ,nevertheless ,jones's book1 as ,kentish says1 has been copied by almost every book published since1 just as his own matter was largely pirated from previous works4 ,in fact1 for a century and a half the plates illustrating pyrotechnic works were in a great degree fac-similes of one another4 ,the catherine wheel1 or1 as it is sometimes called1 the pin wheel1 is a rotating firework of simple1 as distinct from compound construction1 and should therefore be included in this class4 ,it consists of a long1 thin case of small diameter1 charged with a composition of sulphur1 saltpetre1 and mealed gunpowder4 ,this case is wound round a circular block of thin wood1 with a hole in the centre through which a pin or nail is passed1 forming a pivot upon which the wheel turns4 ,the case of the catherine wheel1 unlike any firework we have considered up to the present1 burns down as the composition is consumed1 and for this reason it may be included equally well in another small class of fireworks4 ,this class includes the lance1 the port-fire1 the starlights1 feathers1 and the colour cases used on wheels and saxons1 etc4 ,the lance is used in display work in greater numbers than any other unit4 ,some idea of the quantity used may be gathered from the fact that on one of the battle set pieces shown at the ,crystal ,palace as many as thirty thousand lances are consumed in a single display4 ,lances consist of thin paper cases about the diameter of a lead pencil1 filled with colour composition1 and primed1 to facilitate the lighting1 with mealed powder damped with water4 ,this sets and further serves to retain the contents of the lance1 which are not compressed solid as are fountains1 rockets1 etc4 ,the port-fire is used as a means of lighting the pieces1 etc41 of a display1 and in the last century for military purposes2 its composition consists of a mixture of saltpetre1 sulphur1 and mealed gunpowder4 ,it was formerly known as a blue candle4 ,the starlight and feathers1 as are the squib1 golden rain1 etc41 are of the garden type1 and are not used in display work1 as although burning with pretty effect1 it is not distinguishable at any distance4 ,the feather and starlight compositions are similar to that of the flower pot1 but the cases are smaller1 that of the feather being catherine wheel pipe1 but naturally not bent--the ends are closed by 8dubbing40 ,this is a method usually adopted for closing the ends of 8small goods40 ,the end of the case is introduced into an opening formed by opposing ,v-shaped notches in an upper and lower series of steel plates1 the upper set being then forced down4 ,the result is to constrict the end of the case1 which is then dipped in a mixture of sealing-wax and glue4 ,under the same head fall the ,light group1 which are wide and comparatively thin cases filled with coloured or 8bright0 7as white composition is known in the trade7 composition4 ,they are used either for illuminating as ,bengal lights1 or for signalling purposes2 if for the latter1 they are generally provided with a wooden handle and some means of self-ignition4 ,the name ,bengal light is probably based on the use of ,bengal saltpetre1 and does not indicate their origin in that province4 ,,chapter ,v ,,compound ,,fireworks ,compound fireworks are those which are composed of a number of simple fireworks or units fixed to a framework or other device so that they produce a more elaborate effect than do single fireworks4 ,probably the earliest form of compound firework was the wheel4 ,after the sky rocket had become an established fact1 it was a small step to tie rockets round a wheel1 so that when fired they caused it to revolve4 ,babington gives several devices based on the idea of imparting movement to a wheel by rockets3 he describes horizontal and vertical wheels1 which appear to be the same piece fired either horizontally or vertically4 ,in neither case is there any further effect than the fire from the rockets tied to the periphery4 ,his illustration shows no less than sixteen rockets to fire singly in succession1 which would1 by modern standards1 make a rather lengthy and monotonous piece4 ,he also describes ground wheels1 which consist of two wheels fitted to an axle with a smaller wheel placed centrally between them4 ,the centre wheel has rocket cases fitted to it1 causing the whole arrangement to revolve and run along the ground4 ,as an alternative he suggests substituting cases secured to the axle without a central wheel1 so arranged that one being burnt out the second burns in the opposite direction and reverses the direction of the wheels4 ,the device is now quite obsolete4 ,one interesting point is the method of communicating fire from one case to the next2 quickmatch1 as used to-day1 had not then been invented4 ,his method was to fasten the cases head to tail a short distance apart by wrapping and tying paper round in the form of a tube1 the space so formed containing some mealed powder4 ,he also describes what he calls fixed wheels1 which are in effect the fixed sun of to-day2 that is1 a framework with cases arranged radially so that the fire is thrown out from the centre4 ,as variations of the above1 he suggests various effects such as 8a fixed wheel which shall give divers reports10 8which shall cast forth divers fisgigs1 and likewise as many reports or breakers10 8which shall cast forth many rockets into the ayre40 ,the latter is evidently the prototype of a piece known later as the rocket wheel1 popular for some time1 but little used at the present1 the objection to it being that there is no control over the direction in which the rockets fly from it4 ,the wheel revolves horizontally1 and projects a series of rockets into the air as it revolves4 ,during the following century1 as compound fireworks developed in this country1 the ,italian and ,french nomenclature was introduced1 many of which survive at the present time4 ,the pyrotechnists of the eighteenth century seem to have delighted in inventing new terms1 possibly with the idea of impressing the layman4 ,frzier1 writing over a hundred years later than ,babington1 records very little advance in revolving fireworks1 except in the matter of names4 ,he classifies all revolving pieces as girandoles4 ,this word appears in pyrotechny very frequently2 curiously enough1 nearly every writer has attached a different meaning to it4 ,frzier explains that the word is derived from girare--to revolve or gyrate1 from the ,greek4 ,bate applied this meaning to it4 ,he says1 8,how to make gironels or fire wheeles40 ,he is1 however1 the only ,english writer to do so2 others use it to mean a flight of rockets1 and occasionally for an elaborate fixed piece of the fountain type4 ,ruggieri and ,sarti1 both ,italians1 used it in the sense of a 8flight0 of rockets in the programme of their ,green ,park display in #agdi4 ,ruggieri the younger1 however1 applies it to a specific kind of revolving firework in his book1 and introduces a new word--girande--to which he applies the same meaning as the one generally accepted in this country for girandole4 ,the confusion of these two words1 which have the same derivation1 may be the explanation of the duplication of meaning1 or it may lie in the fact that the name was also applied to the rocket wheel previously mentioned1 which both revolves and throws up rockets4 ,frzier shows a wheel similar to that given by ,babington1 and variations on the double saxon1 a fixed sun also1 as do most early writers1 double line rockets to run backwards and forwards and variations4 ,these latter1 which appear to have been very popular at this period1 were known in ,france as 8courantins40 ,bate calls them 8swevels10 other early writers 8runners on the line40 ,the above-mentioned1 together with some rather intricate but impracticable appearing water devices1 make up the compound fireworks in ,frzier's book4 ,it seems1 however1 that he must have been behind his day in this branch of the art1 as the ,aix-la-,chapelle peace display appears to have included several elaborate pieces which1 even allowing for the usual exaggeration of the programme1 must have required considerable skill and knowledge in construction4 ,these were mostly what were called regulated or regulating pieces1 generally described as of a certain number of mutations4 ,the pieces were1 and are1 although the old descriptions are now dispensed with1 so constructed that after being lit they go through a series of alterations in form and movement without further attention4 ,some of those described in old works would seem to have required more than a slight element of luck for their successful performance4 ,to-day it is often found more advantageous to make a second lighting in cases where there is a danger of premature ignition1 the effect to the spectators being identical1 and the successful functioning of the piece secured4 ,this does not apply to all pieces of this nature1 as with modern safety fuse the pyrotechnist has considerable advantage over the earlier practitioners4 ,the modern spectator is only concerned with the effect produced1 not by the means adopted to produce it4 ,it is difficult to-day to realise the position occupied by the pyrotechnist of the eighteenth century4 ,he carried out his work personally1 with of course trained assistants1 and occupied a position similar to the artist or sculptor4 ,each piece was looked upon as a work of art1 the personal effort of the pyrotechnic artist4 ,ruggieri gives some idea of this in the following passage from his book3 8,it was in the month of ,july1 #agdc1 that my father and my uncles ,ruggieri exhibited for the first time at the ,theatre de la ,comdie ,italienne and before the ,king1 the passage of fire from a moving to a fixed piece4 8,this ingenious contrivance at first astonished the scientists of the day1 who said when it was explained to them that nothing could be more simple and that any one could have done it at once40 ,he then explains the method of construction1 which is to lead from the back end of one of the turning cases through the hollow centre of the axle to the lighter of the fixed piece situated behind it4 ,the development of fixed and mechanical pieces was made possible by the introduction of quickmatch4 ,when this actually took place is uncertain4 ,frzier describes its making similarly to that in use to-day1 under the name of 8toupilles40 ,bate uses the word 8stouple10 evidently a corruption of the ,french4 ,he gives no actual description of the making of this1 but it appears to be of 8cotton weeke0 dipped in 8aqua vit wherein camphire hath been dissolved40 ,this would produce only a slow-burning match unless it was his intention to use it wet1 in which case the burning of the spirits of wine might quicken the effect4 ,it would1 however1 be quite out of the question to construct a piece of any elaboration with such materials4 ,quickmatch is manufactured to-day in the following manner4 ,cotton wick is run through a pan containing a paste composed of gunpowder and starch4 ,it is wound on a frame six feet in length1 dusted with mealed powder and dried4 ,when dry it is cut off the frame and threaded into paper tubes or 8pipes0 of larger diameter1 leaving an air space round the match4 ,before threading in the tubes it is known in the trade as 8raw match10 and is used for priming and similar uses1 and in this state will only burn quite slowly4 ,quickmatch is used to connect the units of all pieces4 ,display cases have a 8cap0 formed of a few turns of paper pasted on the case at the lighting end4 ,when a piece is fitted up the cases are tied to the cleats provided to receive them on the framework2 they are then 8lead up40 ,a length of quickmatch has a small piece cut out of the pipe to allow the fire to flash through1 it is then doubled at that point and inserted in the cap1 which is gathered in and tied round securely4 ,this is continued round the piece1 each case having match entering and leaving the cap1 and in some cases a further length connecting one series with another4 ,this leading up of set pieces is work requiring skill and knowledge which is only gained by experience4 ,an amateur at a first attempt might possibly be successful in lighting all the cases on a piece1 but he would be very unlikely to produce that instant and symmetrical ignition which denotes the skilled pyrotechnist4 ,the smaller wheels have turning cases1 that is1 small rockets to give them motion2 these burn through very rapidly1 and the continuation of movement is provided for by capping the turning cases at either end and leading them up vent to head in series2 the motive power for the larger display pieces is provided by gerbs1 which1 from the nature of their fire1 give more effect than would rocket cases1 and have the further advantage of burning longer4 ,it would not be possible in the present work to give a complete catalogue of the varieties of pieces which have been produced1 but the list given by ,ruggieri is typical of the whole1 and includes many of the smaller compound pieces in use to-day for shop and small display work4 ,the larger display pieces are generally designed and redesigned season by season by pyrotechnists1 and are certainly being elaborated and improved4 ,they1 however1 fall generally into certain classes in the same way as do those given by ,ruggieri4 ,his classification is as follows3 #a4 ,stationary fireworks4 #b4 ,fireworks turning vertically4 #c4 ,mixed fireworks or fixed and turning4 #d4 ,fireworks turning horizontally or on a pivot4 #e4 ,built-up pieces turning on a pivot4 #f4 ,cut-out pieces and transparencies4 ,of these1 the last mentioned class are now obsolete3 they consisted of transparent and silhouette pictures or designs illuminated from behind4 ,he also includes both simple and compound fireworks in each class1 but as the former have already been dealt with they will be ignored here4 ,class #a4 7#a7 ,glorys1 fans and 8pates d'oie0 or goose foot1 synonymous with our expression crow's foot4 ,glory was a term used also in this country to signify fixed suns1 as mentioned above4 ,fans were cases five or more in number1 arranged as the name indicated1 and pates d'oie1 three similarly arranged4 7#b7 ,mosaiques4 ,these are geometrical designs formed by arranging gerbs or fixt on framework1 so that their fire forms a symmetrical pattern4 ,the effect is heightened by saxons in suitable positions1 and in large devices of this nature1 small wheels1 also formerly1 the now obsolete fixed or five-pointed star4 ,this type includes what are now called 8lattice poles10 a series of poles provided with cleats so that the fire of the cases crosses1 forming a lattice of sparks2 also the more elaborate 8carpet piece40 7#c7 ,feux croiss4 ,these were similar in conception to the above1 except that the design is circular or based on the circle or wheel form2 this type is represented by the 8fixt piece0 of to-day1 which is constructed up to considerable dimensions1 the large fixt piece at the ,crystal ,palace often measuring sixty feet across the fire4 7#d7 ,palm ,trees4 ,these consist of a framework intended to suggest the form of a palm1 provided with cleats to take the cases4 7#e7 ,bouquets4 ,these he describes also as a kind of tree different from palm trees2 his illustration shows that they were similar to the modern lattice-pole with the difference that the cleats were not symmetrically arranged4 ,to-day the word bouquet is applied to ,roman candles arranged in what he called 8pates d'oie40 7#f7 ,cascade4 ,this device needs no explanation4 ,he says that ,chinese fire is the best composition for such a piece2 this remained true up to the introduction of the aluminium into pyrotechny1 when the 8weird white waterfall0 became a feature of the ,crystal ,palace displays1 being #bjj feet long and #ij feet high4 7#g7 ,decorations in coloured fire4 ,this heading introduces the lancework set piece of to-day4 ,the development of this branch since #ahfe has been very marked4 ,as will be seen from the description of the lancework pieces carried out at the ,crystal ,palace1 the subjects dealt with have been of extraordinary variety4 ,up to the beginning of the nineteenth century pyrotechnists had failed to realise the possibilities of lancework4 ,this was undoubtedly due in a great measure to the fewness of colours available4 ,ruggieri appears to have used lancework to outline architectural designs1 evidently a survival of the temples or theatres of earlier years4 ,in his time1 and even as late as the middle of the nineteenth century1 any subject of a pictorial nature was depicted by the use of scenery or transparencies4 ,lancework was1 as ,ruggieri describes it1 merely 8decorations in coloured fire40 ,the lances of his day were considerably thicker than those at present in use1 which are about the diameter of a lead pencil4 ,they were also spaced further apart and were in some cases 8bounced10 as are fixed cases of the present day4 ,the modern method of constructing a lancework set piece is as follows3 ,an outline drawing of the subject is made in which all unnecessary lines are eliminated4 ,this is ruled in square of such size that in the proportion one square to a foot the completed piece will be of the size required4 ,frames are then laid out on the drawing-floor3 these are of light battens forming foot squares1 and of a convenient size for handling1 generally ten feet by five feet4 ,illustration3 ,lattice ,poles4 ,illustration3 ,chromatrope 7,the outer fire forms the ,guilloch of ,ruggieri47 ,illustration3 ,lattice ,diamond 7,the ,feux ,croiss of ,ruggieri47 ,the drawing is then transferred to the floor with the assistance of the squared lines1 and the design followed by nailing on light wood strips or thin rattan cane4 ,the lines thus indicated are then 8pegged10 that is1 pegs or small wire nails pointed at either end1 are driven in at intervals of about four inches4 ,the lances1 whose construction has already been described in ,chapter ,,iv1 have their ends glued and are pushed on to the pegs so that they stand vertically from the framework4 ,the frames are then led up with quickmatch1 secured by pins driven into the priming4 ,the match is then pierced with a small awl above the priming1 and secured and protected by a strip of paper pasted over it and round the case of the lance4 ,the piece is then ready for hoisting into position and firing4 ,formerly1 and sometimes now on the ,continent1 the match was secured by a wire passing through the case near the top1 which was twisted over the match4 ,ruggieri1 under this head1 describes a method of illuminating by impregnating wick similar to that used for matchmaking1 with a mixture of sulphur1 antimony1 and saltpetre4 ,this was wired on to a metal framework4 ,he says it is better than lancework for outlining curves1 volutes1 etc41 as the line is continuous4 ,this difficulty is disposed of in modern ,english lancework by the closer spacing of lances on curves rendered possible by the smaller lances now used4 ,he also remarks that this method was rarely used in his time and it is now quite discontinued4 ,another device of which he seems proud was a palm tree1 the leaves of which were of thin metal from which project spikes upon which was hung cotton impregnated with a composition composed of 8vert-de-gris1 vitriol blue and sel ammoniac0 7copper acetate1 copper sulphate and ammonium chloride74 ,immediately before firing the cotton was soaked with alcohol4 ,actually this composition can hardly be considered pyrotechnic2 what takes place is that the alcohol burns1 and the flame thus created is coloured with the copper present in the salts4 ,the whole arrangement is too cumbersome and involved for modern use1 but at the time of its inception1 when colour was practically unknown1 no doubt it attracted great admiration4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,compound ,,fireworks 7continued7 ,ruggieri's next class 7fireworks turning vertically7 includes the following3 #a4 ,revolving ,suns4 ,these are merely vertical wheels2 he appears to use this term for the more ambitious pieces of this kind4 #b4 ,vertical ,wheels4 ,he illustrates a vertical wheel exactly as made to-day under that name4 ,it has1 however1 been elaborated by the addition of colour cases on the spokes and centre1 as rosette and rainbow wheels2 also by the application of saxons to the spokes1 as saxon wheels4 ,he also shows the triangle wheel1 consisting of three spokes with grooved ends to receive the cases whose sides form the sides of an equilateral triangle4 ,this has been further developed into the double triangle wheel1 with two sets of spokes placed one set behind the other4 ,in all the wheels in this class the cases fire in succession1 not as in the case of the sun--simultaneously4 ,windmills he illustrates as flat bars pivoted in the centre with three cases at either end fired in succession4 ,there also were three1 four1 and up to eight-armed windmills of the same kind4 ,the nearest device to these of modern times is the chromatrope1 the simplest form of which has two bars with a gerb at either end so set as to revolve them in opposite directions1 the front one carrying two saxons4 ,this piece1 which is of comparatively simple design1 gives an extraordinarily fine effect by the intersections of the various streams of fire4 ,the chromatrope has been developed and enlarged until for important display work quite elaborate pieces are fired under this name4 ,lancework of geometric form is used on the bars or spokes1 and the intersection of these1 forming ever-changing geometrical designs1 adds greatly to the effect of the intersection of the fire4 ,this effect is the basis of the ,guilloch1 a somewhat elaborate piece which falls in ,ruggieri's third class4 ,it consisted of six wheels placed one behind the other in pairs of graduated size2 the two smallest--which fired first--had six cases1 the next eight1 and the largest forty-eight1 and was twenty feet in diameter4 ,the next described is the ,salamandre1 a piece which1 on a large scale1 is still occasionally fired at the ,crystal ,palace4 ,it shows a snake in pursuit of a butterfly which it seems to overtake but never quite catches4 ,the mechanism is an endless chain of wooden links running in and out between eight sprocket wheels1 arranged in octagon formation4 ,about half the length of the chain is made out and lanced to represent the snake1 and a lancework butterfly is situated in the centre of the other half4 ,ruggieri claims that his father fired this piece and the guilloch in #agci at ,versailles4 ,the other pieces mentioned in this section are too elaborate for description in the space available1 but are interesting as showing the use of the helix and spiral as applied to wheels and cones1 as secondary elements of larger pieces4 ,the modern designer of pyrotechnic pieces has great advantage over the earlier practitioners in that he has available an infinitely larger range of colour and other composition4 ,it is often possible to get a much-enhanced result with less cases giving more or varied effects as opposed to a larger number of cases of similar effects1 which1 in an attempt to produce a lavish show of fire1 end in confusion4 ,his fourth division begins with the 8,caprice simple02 this is the modern horizontal wheel4 ,this wheel is similar in arrangement to the vertical above-mentioned1 except that its cases are arranged so that the first plays horizontally in the plane of the wheel1 the next at an angle downwards1 and the third upwards4 ,this succession is repeated with the remaining three cases4 ,in addition1 the horizontal wheel has either a mine which is lit from the last case1 or ,roman candles and mine1 at the centre playing upwards4 ,the second form is arranged so that the ,romans are fired simultaneously with the fourth case and the mine from the last4 ,the wheel given by ,ruggieri has a gerb in the centre4 ,he explains that ,caprice is a generic name applied to all horizontal wheels which vary the direction of the fire when revolving4 ,however1 at the present time the name ,caprice is only applied to a wheel with three tiers of three cases1 each similar in appearance to three single triangle wheels superimposed at distances about equal to their diameter1 the grooves in the end of the spokes being so arranged as to vary the direction of the fire4 ,the cases are led up in the following order--one case horizontal1 one up1 one down1 one horizontal1 two cases one up and one down1 four cases in each direction and one vertical4 ,for a compact piece this is one of the most effective made4 ,a similar piece is the ,furiloni ,wheel1 which has1 however1 two tiers of three cases each4 ,jones describes a furiloni wheel which is more elaborate1 having twenty-five cases4 ,his method of leading would1 however1 not be so effective as the modern wheels of this type4 ,the cases used for these wheels are charged with a steel mixing formerly known as brilliant fire4 ,he mentions two other devices--,caprices petans and ,caprices des pts4 ,the first of these was a modification of the piece formerly used in this country as the balloon wheel4 ,it consisted of a solid wheel round which are a series of mines which discharged in succession as each turning case lit4 ,the second was similar but more elaborate1 having rockets as well as mines1 and was a variation of the rocket wheel4 ,in his description of the ,girandole1 he explains that it is composed of two horizontal wheels one above the other4 ,this is the form taken by the rocket wheel as fired in this country which1 as we have seen1 was known as the girandole wheel4 ,ruggieri1 however1 appears not to have used rockets on his girandole4 ,the last device he mentions in this class is the ,spirali1 which consisted of a framework in the form of a cone1 round which was wound a spiral of cane fitted with lances4 ,a very effective piece1 not mentioned by ,ruggieri1 is the revolving fountain2 it consists of a wood centre bored to turn on a vertical spindle4 ,the centre has two spokes fitted with gerbs for turning1 and has playing vertically a large gerb and ,roman candles4 ,the turning gerbs play tangentially and slightly upwards4 ,jones describes a similar device under the name of 8illuminated spiral wheel02 also two other horizontal pieces--the spirali and the plural wheels1 which approximate to the furiloni and caprice wheels of the present day4 ,the spiral and helix are much used in larger devices1 and the use of modern lancework and colour has greatly added to their effect4 ,ruggieri's next division deals with built-up lancework pieces such as the globe1 which it was thought worthy of separate mention in his time1 but to-day is included with many devices of this nature too numerous to mention1 forming1 as they do1 a large proportion of the mechanical and other pieces used in display work4 ,illustration3 ,a ,display ready for ,firing1 ,dresden1 ,september #ast1 #ahii4 ,firework ,portraits of the ,king and ,queen of ,saxony on the right1 ,bismarck second from the left4 ,he then deals with tourbillions and table wheels4 ,the latter consisted of a circular table with a central pivot1 round which is free to revolve a bar which forms the axle of a wheel1 the hub of which runs on the edge of the table4 ,when the wheel is turned1 the hub running on the edge of the table moves it forward in a circular path round the pivot4 ,this principle is applied to similar and more elaborate devices4 ,the name tourbillions1 as before mentioned1 is by other writers differently applied4 ,the section dealing with cut-out and transparent devices is of little interest4 ,these devices were an attempt to give variety from the monotonous repetition of turning cases and gerbs4 ,to-day the use of colour cases1 lances1 a much-enlarged range of fountain and similar compositions1 including aluminium and other brilliant fires1 has obviated the employment of effects which cannot be rightly considered as pyrotechnic4 ,the moving and stationary pieces considered in this and preceding chapters give a good general idea of the firing methods in compound fireworks4 ,as we have already noted1 the difference of designs and effects at the present time is infinite1 so that it would be impossible in a work of the present size to give anything approaching a complete survey of what has been accomplished4 ,but it is hoped that enough has been said to give the reader some idea of the methods adopted and the lines upon which the modern pyrotechnist works4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,firework ,,compositions ,it may have been remarked in the foregoing chapters that1 although the ingredients composing the firework mixtures are given1 generally the proportions are not4 ,the reason for this is two-fold3 primarily1 as we have seen in the chapter on rockets1 the proportion of the ingredients of a firework varies in accordance with its size4 ,so that to give the proportions of the compositions of any one type of firework would often require as many formul as there are sizes4 ,secondly1 and perhaps more importantly1 the quality and purity of chemicals as supplied in bulk vary so enormously that a constant series of experiments has to be conducted in order to ascertain what modifications and adjustments are necessary in the formul to give the required standard of performance4 ,it is not meant to suggest that the impurities generally to be found in bulk supplies are necessarily harmful to pyrotechnic results4 ,this is not so2 salts give far better results in their natural or mineral form than do those prepared synthetically4 ,as an example of this saltpetre may be cited4 ,for pyrotechnic purposes the best obtainable is that from ,bengal1 yet an analysis of this would probably be found to be less pure than that synthetically prepared in ,germany4 ,but experiments have shown that samples of the latter1 taken from the same cask1 but in different parts1 produce very distinctly varying results pyrotechnically4 ,pyrotechny is an art1 chemistry is a science1 and although it is impossible to deny that the former is greatly indebted to the latter for the supply and production on a commercial scale of chemical ingredients1 yet it is possible to overestimate the position of chemistry in the art1 or possibly it might be more correct to say that pyrotechny has its own chemistry4 ,chemistry without pyrotechnic experience is apt to lead to erroneous conclusions4 ,to take a concrete instance3 in an article in a famous encyclopdia1 obviously written by a chemist of standing1 a portion deals with the use of metal salts in the production of colour2 the writer gives copper as producing green1 which no doubt it does in the laboratory2 in practice1 however1 copper is used solely for the production of blue4 ,the question of purity in chemicals used in pyrotechny is a secondary consideration1 that is1 of course1 as long as the adulterants have no adverse effect either as regards the pyrotechnic result or the safety of the worker in manipulation4 ,what is of first importance is its pyrotechnic suitability1 that is1 it must produce the required result and must be consistent4 ,unequal results are the bugbear of the firework makers4 ,as we have seen1 constant experiments are necessary to keep an even standard1 but with irregularly functioning chemicals these would be multiplied to an impossible degree4 ,the first group of compositions for consideration is that nearest related to gunpowder1 in fact1 for the purposes of a work on pyrotechny1 gunpowder may be considered a particular case of this class4 ,the governing principle of this group1 and one may say of all firework compositions1 is the same4 ,for combustion to take place oxygen must be present4 ,when an inflammable article such as a piece of paper is set on fire it takes up oxygen from the air4 ,a pyrotechnic composition1 however1 is so arranged that one of the ingredients has a supply of oxygen which it is ready to give up2 another1 or others1 are of a kind ready to receive and combine with this oxygen4 ,the oxygen-supplying ingredient which is by far the most frequently used is saltpetre1 or1 as it was formerly called1 nitre1 known chemically as nitrate of potash4 ,saltpetre may be said to be the basis of pyrotechny4 ,there is hardly a formula by any of the writers on pyrotechny up to at least the middle of the nineteenth century which does not contain it4 ,gunpowder is composed of saltpetre1 sulphur1 and charcoal1 three chemicals which it will have been gathered from the previous pages play a prominent part in very many of the pyrotechnic compositions4 ,in some compositions their proportion is apparently identical with that of gunpowder1 yet they do not form gunpowder as they are not milled1 and are consequently not so intimately mixed4 ,compositions containing these ingredients have frequently an admixture of mealed gunpowder1 the function of which is to give additional fierceness when required1 as is the case in some rocket mixings4 ,these chemicals1 as we have seen in the previous chapters1 are the components of rockets1 turning cases1 tourbillions1 saxons1 ,roman candle fuse1 and many others4 ,when variation was required in fireworks used to give a simple fountain effect the earliest addition was of metal in finely divided particles1 as filings1 borings1 or the now almost obsolete iron sand4 ,steel filings were used in what was known as 8brilliant fire10 a term which has fallen into disuse since the introduction of other metals whose effects eclipsed that of steel4 ,it has also been used where extra effect is wanted1 that is1 more tail in rockets and tourbillions4 ,it is1 however1 not much used in the former case to-day1 as the presence of steel in a composition which is to be charged on a steel spindle introduces a decided element of risk into the operation4 ,the introduction of steel and iron was the first use of metals in firework making1 probably the next metal to be introduced was antimony1 either black 7sulphide7 or regulus4 ,jones 7#agfe7 was already using what he calls crude antimony2 this was probably the black sulphide4 ,before the introduction of genuine colour1 and while the chemicals which had been adopted for pyrotechny were still very limited in number1 attempts were made to obtain either a semblance of colour or some variety in stars and garnitures by the addition of such substances as powdered glass1 brass1 sawdust1 beech raspings1 which appear to have functioned as do the iron or steel in the compositions already discussed1 except that there would be no coruscation even with the brass4 ,these additions would merely show as red-hot particles in the jet of fire4 ,kentish gives two gerb compositions1 one of which contains coke grains1 and the other porcelain grains1 which would apparently produce cognate results2 the use1 however1 of both these ingredients is now almost if not quite obsolete4 ,antimony1 on account of its ready combustion1 is more completely consumed before leaving the case4 ,in this connection it may be mentioned that care is necessary in a mixture containing steel or iron to avoid too large a proportion of the oxygen-bearing ingredient1 for fear of consuming it inside the case4 ,another composition producing remarkable coruscations is the old-fashioned 8spur fire10 which consists of saltpetre1 sulphur1 and lampblack4 ,this composition requires very careful and experienced mixing1 or no effect will be produced1 rendering its preparation a very lengthy process4 ,this difficulty was somewhat overcome during the last century by the addition of orpiment or sulphide of arsenic4 ,even with this addition1 however1 its manufacture requires care and patience4 ,it is a curious fact that this composition1 unlike most others1 has the quality of markedly improving by keeping4 ,how the lampblack produces this unique effect1 or why its effect should be so different from that produced by any other form of carbon1 has not been satisfactorily explained4 ,the compositions we have been considering fall into one of two classes1 namely1 those to produce force and those to produce sparks4 ,these two classes1 with one other1 namely that of colour1 may be said to include all the modern recreative firework compositions4 ,up to the end of the eighteenth century the ingredients used in the production of the compositions of these three classes were very few in number4 ,a considerably larger number went to supply the ingredients for a fourth class now almost extinct1 these might be called the flame-producing class4 ,the principle on which these compositions were designed was1 as it were1 to overload a mixture of saltpetre and sulphur with combustible material2 this latter took the form of gums1 resins1 or fats1 the object being to produce a reddish or golden coloured flame4 ,the early writers give formul for variously coloured stars and fires1 which must have required considerable effort on the part of the observer for identification4 ,these belonged to the flame class4 ,frzier1 with more perception than most of the others1 realised the shortcomings of such compositions1 merely designating them greenish 7verdtre71 yellowish1 reddish1 and russet4 ,the only colour which he professes to produce distinct is blue1 which he obtained with pure sulphur4 ,progress from the earliest times of pyrotechny up to the first quarter of the nineteenth century was very gradual and very slight4 ,the chemicals used by ,bate and ,babington in their actual pyrotechnic compositions were as follows3--,gunpowder and its constituents1 camphor1 pitch1 resin1 orpiment1 linseed oil1 both pure and boiled1 oil of spike 7spica lavandula71 oil of petre 7rock oil71 an oil known either as benedict or tile1 varnish 7probably amber71 iron scales1 and aqua vit 7spirits of wine74 ,illustration3 ,diagram ,illustrating the evolution of ,pyrotechnic ,composition4 ,bate extends this list considerably by the ingredients of a series of compositions which he has evidently taken from some alchemistic work4 ,these compositions are all either designed to burn under water or to ignite spontaneously in water1 and fall somewhat outside the bounds of our subject4 ,frzier also includes these1 evidently from the same source4 ,bate also refers to a liquid1 the recipe for which was probably taken from the same work4 8,aqua ardens40 ,the following are his directions for preparing it3 8,take old red wine1 put it into a glassed vessell1 and put into it of orpiment one pound1 quicke sulphur halfe a pound1 quicke lime a quarter of a pound2 mingle them very well1 and afterwards distill them in a rosewater still2 a cloth being wet in this water will burne like a candle and will not be quenched with water40 ,it is difficult to see what he obtained by this process differing from spirits of wine4 ,the quicklime would serve to dehydrate the wine1 and probably no part of the orpiment or sulphur would be taken over in the distillation4 ,rather over a century later we find ,frzier and ,jones have made some additions to the ingredients of pyrotechny1 the most notable innovations being the use of iron filings 7not to be confused with the iron scales of ,bate1 which were probably hammerslag1 the magnetic oxide of iron71 steel filings and pulverised cast-iron4 ,beyond these1 and the spark-producing agent already mentioned1 the other additions are of small importance1 the most notable being lapis caliminaris1 or the mineral carbonate of zinc1 which however was not used as are metal salts to-day1 that is1 for the production of colour4 ,jones's book1 written some years after that of ,frzier1 shows little advance from the latter as far as pyrotechnic results are concerned4 ,what he has done1 however1 is to eliminate what might be called the alchemistic1 or one might almost say magic element with which it is pervaded4 ,in attempting to classify the compositions in ,frzier's book one is staggered by the grotesque character of many of them and by the extraordinary variations in the proportion of their ingredients1 even amongst compositions designed for a similar effect4 ,presumably with the intention of impressing his readers with the wonders of the science1 he added ingredient after ingredient1 which1 if they did actually no harm to the composition1 certainly in no degree assisted its functioning4 ,in what he calls a simple star there are eleven ingredients1 of which1 in fact1 four only are essential4 ,further1 beyond the multiplication of unnecessary ingredients in individual compositions1 there is often their incompatibility and innate unsuitability for the purpose4 ,such components as ink1 onion juice1 and the drainings of a dung-heap suggest so strangely the formul of the alchemists that one almost expects to come across 8the hair of a ,barbary ape10 or similar absurdity4 ,ruggieri1 who may be considered as the last of the old school1 is the first author to deal with the subject in such a way as to convince the professional reader of the practical knowledge of the subject4 ,his additions to the list of ingredients are not many1 but they are genuine4 ,he is the first writer to make use of metals or their salts in the production of colour2 he includes among his chemicals metallic copper and zinc1 also the acetate and sulphate of copper1 and chloride of ammonium4 ,the notable advance in his colour compositions1 besides the use of metal salts for that purpose1 is the introduction of a chloride1 which has the effect of improving the colour by assisting in the volatilisation of the metal4 ,for this purpose he used sal-ammoniac1 the use of which has now been almost discontinued on account of its hygroscopic nature1 notwithstanding that its base of ammonium is very useful in compositions containing copper4 ,its place is now generally taken by calomel2 in such compositions chloride of sodium had been used for many years1 but not as a chlorine carried4 ,ruggieri appears to have been the first to produce colour on anything approaching modern lines1 and although he did not progress greatly1 what he did achieve was undoubtedly a marked advance in the art4 ,his account of the invention of this composition is interesting4 ,he says that he was told by a returned traveller from ,russia of a set piece representing a palm tree1 8the colour of which rivalled nature40 ,this piece he set out to imitate1 which he did1 at any rate to his own satisfaction4 ,the result he obtained would undoubtedly give a good colour1 if the method of firing was very clumsy4 ,he remarks that he does not know if his method was as that adopted in ,russia1 and later of the 8merit if not of discovering a new fire at least to have imitated or rather to have rediscovered it40 ,it appears1 therefore1 that there may be some doubt as to the originality or priority of ,ruggieri's achievement in this direction1 but he must be credited at least with independently arriving at the result4 ,indeed it is more than probable that the piece seen in ,russia was quite different1 a transparency or illumination1 either imported or copied from the work of ,eastern pyrotechnists1 and that the whole credit of introducing colour into the art belongs to ,ruggieri and to him only4 ,he mentions that he puts it on record with the object of 8thus preventing writers from attributing it to the ,chinese1 the ,medes1 or ,arabs1 as is the custom in ,europe1 and above all in ,france1 where more than elsewhere there is a mania for enriching foreigners with our merits and to rob ourselves of the birthrights of genius40 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,modern ,,firework ,,compositions ,ruggieri may be regarded as the last of the ancients4 ,it is true that his book shows a marked advance on anything that had gone before1 also that he appears to have been one of the first1 if not actually the first1 to introduce the use of metal salts in the production of colour4 ,but he makes no reference to the use of chlorate of potash1 and it is the introduction of this salt into pyrotechny which marks the commencement of the modern epoch of the art4 ,this earliest use of chlorate1 or as it was then called1 oxymuriate or hyperoxymuriate of potash1 appears to have been soon after its discovery in #aghf by ,berthollet4 ,samuel ,parkes1 in a work on chemistry written in #ahaa1 says3 8,the shocking death of two individuals in ,october1 #aghh1 and the burns others have suffered by it1 render it feared by chemists in general10 that is in conjunction with sulphur and charcoal4 ,he later remarks that notwithstanding this accident 8the ,french have since ---- actually employed in one of their campaigns gunpowder made with oxymuriate of potash instead of saltpetre10 and adds that a ,scotch clergyman had taken out a patent for the use of a powder containing chlorate of potash to be fired by percussion4 ,this patent1 granted in #ahjg1 is the first for the percussion system in firearms4 ,the use1 however1 of chlorate of potash in propellant compositions presents no very great advance in pyrotechny1 however revolutionary may have been the introduction of the percussion system into the manufacture of firearms4 ,it is its use in the production of colour that marks the modern epoch4 ,the exact date of this innovation appears to be about #ahcj4 ,a ,belgian lieutenant of artillery1 ,hippert by name1 published in #ahcf a translation of a work by ,captain ,moritz ,meyer1 of the ,prussian ,artillery1 on the application of chemistry to artifices of war4 ,in a chapter devoted to coloured fires he gives several formul containing chlorate of potash4 ,although this appears to be the first published notice of its use1 it seems likely that by the time the book was published that it was fairly well established4 ,meyer concludes his remarks on coloured composition by saying that the ,english at that time made use of coloured rockets for signalling at sea1 and had succeeded in producing ten different shades1 8which are quite sufficient for the purpose of signalling particular pieces of information40 ,this seems rather to indicate that the elaboration if not the first introduction of chlorate of potash into pyrotechny may be attributed to this country4 ,his mention of ten distinguishable tints1 however1 is somewhat optimistic4 ,during the late war it was found that to avoid any chance of a mistake in code signals only three colours could be used for long-distance signalling1 namely1 red1 green1 and white4 ,it is curious that ,meyer makes a mistake over the first composition he mentions4 ,he describes a light composition of chlorate of potash and sugar1 which he says burns with a red light4 ,in fact1 however1 the light so produced is a bluish white1 similar to the so-called blue shipping light4 ,the directions he gives for the preparation of other colours are as follows3 8,a powder which burns with a green flame is obtained by the addition of nitrate of baryta to chlorate of potash1 nitrate of copper1 acetate of copper4 8,a white flame is made by the addition of sulphide of antimony1 sulphide of arsenic1 camphor4 8,red by the mixture of lampblack1 coal1 bone ash1 mineral oxide of iron1 nitrate of strontia1 pumice stone1 mica1 oxide of cobalt4 8,blue with ivory1 bismuth1 alum1 zinc1 copper sulphate purified of its sea water 7sic74 8,yellow by amber1 carbonate of soda1 sulphate of soda1 cinnabar4 8,it is necessary in order to make the colours come out well to animate the combustion by adding chlorate of potash40 ,these formul1 if somewhat incoherent1 and clearly showing a want of experimental verification1 indicate a real advance in pyrotechnic chemistry1 not only by the addition of chlorate of potash1 but by the multiplication of the number of metal salts used4 ,at the same time it is evident that the old alchemistic ideas were not entirely extinct by the use of such ingredients as ivory1 mica1 and pumice stone4 ,however1 there can be no doubt that from the third decade of the nineteenth century dates the modern era of the pyrotechnic art4 ,from this date onward chemical ingredients1 metals and their salts as they were provided by the commercial chemist were eagerly taken and tested by the pyrotechnist1 and adopted or rejected on their merits4 ,and from this date begins the rapid elimination of useless additions4 ,of those compositions given above the following salts are at present in use3 nitrate of baryta1 sulphide of antimony1 sulphide of arsenic1 nitrate of strontia1 copper sulphate1 carbonate of soda1 and chlorate of potash4 ,zinc1 alum1 lampblack1 and oxide of iron are also used1 but not for the purpose indicated4 ,nitrate of copper and sulphate of soda would both be valuable ingredients1 but their unstable nature prevents their use under modern conditions4 ,meyer also describes the use of salts to tint an alcohol flame1 which is merely an elaboration of ,ruggieri's palm tree and of little interest at the present time4 ,the next name prominent in pyrotechny is that of ,f4 ,m4 ,chertier1 who published in #ahed his 8,nouvelles recherches sur les feux d'artifice10 after having published a pamphlet on the subject about twenty-five years previously4 ,in this work ,chertier devotes most of his attention to the subject of colour1 and although new ingredients have been introduced which were either unknown or were not then available on account of expense or other causes1 since the time of his writing1 yet there can be no doubt that ,chertier stands alone in the literature of pyrotechny and as a pioneer of the modern development of the art4 ,tessier1 in the introduction to his 8,treatise on ,coloured ,fires10 published in #ahei1 whilst paying tribute to ,chertier's work1 regrets that he only possessed 8quite superficial notions of chemistry40 ,here speaks the chemist4 ,the writer recently asked a pyrotechnic chemist of many years' experience1 whose knowledge of pyrotechnic chemistry is probably second to none1 his opinion of ,tessier's book1 and received this answer4 8,tessier's book contains too much chemical theory and too little pyrotechnic practice40 ,there speaks the pyrotechnist4 ,the writer1 as he has before remarked1 has no wish to belittle the value of the chemist's work in relation to pyrotechny1 but a knowledge of chemistry is not the most important attribute of the successful pyrotechnist4 ,as in other arts so in pyrotechny1 experience and natural aptitude are the first essentials4 ,chertier may have had little knowledge of chemistry1 but in spite of or perhaps because of his lack of chemical knowledge1 he was able to produce a work which1 from the point of view of the practical pyrotechnist1 has never been equalled4 ,his researches were conducted by practical experiments2 he had one end in view1 namely1 pyrotechnic effect1 and by exhaustive trials of the materials obtainable1 unbiased by theoretical consideration1 he succeeded in advancing the art to a stage undreamed of a few years previously4 ,it is true that many of his formul are not in use to-day1 in this country that is1 on account of the danger of using sulphur or sulphur compounds in conjunction with chlorate of potash2 but there can be no doubt that his writings and research work laid the foundation of modern pyrotechnic practice4 ,once the theory of colour production was established1 that is to say the volatilisation of a metal salt in a hotly burning composition1 it was a matter of less difficulty to either eliminate the sulphur1 which was present chiefly as a burnable1 or to replace it4 ,this prohibition1 as we have seen1 took place in #ahid1 under ,order in ,council #ae1 and affected the production of coloured fireworks far less than might have been anticipated4 ,during the period between the introduction of chlorate of potash and the ,order in question1 the development of commercial chemistry had increased greatly the number of chemicals available in pyrotechny1 so that in some few cases it was found possible to replace the chlorate4 ,in addition1 moreover1 most of the leading makers1 anticipating some form of restriction on this admixture1 had been for some time previously seeking substitute colour formul1 and although it may be said by some that colours were obtained by the use of chlorate and sulphur which have not been equalled by subsequent formul1 yet most have not only been equalled but improved upon1 and the small minority remaining are an insignificant price to pay for the security and safety gained in manufacture4 ,between the publication of ,chertier's book in #ahef 7nearly thirty years later than his first pamphlet7 and the close of the century1 several works on pyrotechny made their appearance1 several by ,frenchmen3 ,tessier1 #ahei1 8,trait ,pratique des ,feux colors10 two works in the ,roret encyclopdia series1 8,pyrotechnie ,civile0 and 8,pyrotechnie ,militaire10 published #ahfe1 and in #ahhb1 8,trait pratique des ,feux d',artifice10 by ,denisse4 ,the ,english works of any value during this period were3 8,pyrotechny10 by ,practicus1 ,brown's 8,practical ,firework ,making10 and 8,the ,pyrotechnist's ,treasury10 by ,kentish1 #ahgh4 ,hutstein and ,websky's 8,art of ,firework ,making10 published at ,leipzig in #ahgh1 a book published under the same title by ,oscar ,frey about #ahhe1 and 8,a ,theoretical and ,practical ,treatise of ,civil ,pyrotechny10 by ,antoni1 published at ,trieste in #ahic1 together with some works on military pyrotechny published both in ,europe and the ,united ,states1 complete the list4 ,some of the military works are of considerable value1 but are chiefly directed to the study of rockets and signals2 some1 however1 are in the same category as 8,the ,artillerist's ,manual and ,british ,soldier's ,compendium10 by ,captain ,f4 ,a4 ,griffiths1 ,r4,a41 published in #aheb4 ,the section dealing with fireworks in this work might almost be taken as an attempt to be humorous on the subject4 ,the author quotes in all seriousness formul dating from the days of ,bate and ,babington1 and knows so little of his subject that he gives instructions for making the same firework under different names under the impression that they are distinct units1 the information being obviously pillaged from earlier writers4 ,generally a study of the above-mentioned works indicates that the tendency in pyrotechnic compositions has been in the direction of simplification4 ,during the eighteenth century the useless ingredients had been in a great measure eliminated4 ,the 8burnables0 had been reduced from a long list of alchemistic survivals to a mere half-dozen or so4 ,gums had been reduced practically to shellac alone 7the use of gum arabic as an adhesive is quite distinct71 carbons to lampblack and charcoal1 and these with sulphur and sulphides of antimony and arsenic practically completed the list4 ,of the metals the use of pure zinc1 copper1 and brass has been discontinued1 and the two almost revolutionary additions of magnesium and aluminium made1 the former about #ahfe and the latter in #ahid4 ,the date of the introduction of these metals marks almost as great advances in the art as did the introduction of chlorate of potash4 ,not only are they used as spark-producing metals in the same way as are steel and iron1 but they are also used as 8burnables10 that is1 they are consumed inside the case2 and many of the present-day firework compositions owe their brilliance to one or other of these metals4 ,it is1 however1 in colour compositions that the tendency towards simplification is most strongly exhibited4 ,in ,kentish's book colour compositions containing as many as seven or eight ingredients are common1 whereas to-day formul containing over four are the exception rather than the rule4 ,illustration3 ,roman ,candles4 ,this untouched photograph illustrates the extraordinary brilliance of aluminium compositions4 ,each 8plume0 7#bjj ft4 high7 is produced by a single star about in4 diameter and in4 long4 ,each line is a microscopic particle of aluminium4 ,the reason for this complexity is not easy to follow1 but it may have been in some measure due to the difficulty of obtaining sufficiently finely ground chemicals before the days of machine grinding2 in some cases it was found that by melting two of the ingredients together and allowing the mass to cool they could be ground with greater ease4 ,chertier went so far as to melt shellac and salt together1 grind them and remove the salt by dissolving in water4 ,also by adding a finely ground chemical of similar action to one only coarsely ground a better result was obtained4 ,whatever may have been the reason1 there can be no doubt that1 except for secondary shades1 the fewer the chemicals used the more brilliant will be the resulting fire4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,military ,,pyrotechny ,the use of pyrotechnic mixtures for military purposes is the basis of artillery1 and one might almost say the foundation of chemistry4 ,before the age of the alchemist men were at work endeavouring to produce some weapon which would give them an advantage over their enemies4 ,of the natural phenomena none made so strong an appeal as fire1 which from earliest times had been a mysterious and therefore terrible element4 ,the early use of fire or pyrotechnic mixtures gave the users so decided an advantage over their enemies that their use was chronicled by historians of the day either on the side of the victors as a pan of praise for their invincible weapon1 or as an excuse for defeat on the side of the vanquished4 ,such reports are necessarily vague and exaggerated1 vague because the writer had no technical knowledge of the subject1 and the users naturally wished for secrecy and exaggerated because exaggeration increased the value of the weapon4 ,it is from such reports that we obtain our information about ,greek fire and similar compositions1 and when one considers that the translations were generally biased1 in most cases unintentionally but still biased1 in favour of reading into passages referring to fire or projectiles an early reference to gunpowder1 guns or some unknown pyrotechnic effect1 it is obvious that all information so gained must be accepted with a considerable amount of reserve4 ,the translators1 too1 in many cases were men of no technical knowledge1 which made them even more prone to fall into errors which would be avoided by the expert4 ,of the mass of writing dealing with the subject1 the work of two writers stands out prominently--the late ,mr4 ,oscar ,guttman in his 8,history of ,explosives10 and ,col4 ,h4 ,w4 ,l4 ,hime in his 8,origin of ,artillery10 whose observations cover the field of information on the subject1 although approaching from slightly different angles4 ,neither1 however1 gives an exact explanation satisfactorily covering the projection of ,greek or sea fire4 ,col4 ,hime1 rejecting earlier theories1 goes somewhat to the other extreme3 he denies the knowledge of saltpetre before the twelfth century1 but attempts to explain the phenomenon by the use of phosphide of calcium4 ,he premises four conditions to be filled by the weapon or apparatus4 ,these conditions are fulfilled by the explanation already briefly touched upon on page #ae1 and the writer is convinced that this simple although apparently little known phenomenon is the true explanation of the terrible1 mysterious ,greek or sea fire4 ,if a mixture of saltpetre1 pitch1 and sulphur is charged into a long tube sufficiently strong and ignited it will burn1 giving off dense smoke1 for a short time1 when it appears to choke momentarily4 ,this choking is followed by a more or less violent outburst1 which may be likened to a 8cough10 projecting a burning mass of composition to a considerable distance2 the action is repeated with surprising regularity during the burning of the whole of the composition throughout the length of the tube1 and will1 the writer is confident1 satisfy any unbiased observer that here is the true explanation of the phenomenon4 ,let us see how the requirements mentioned by ,col4 ,hime are fulfilled4 ,the first1 8,it was a wet fire10 i4e41 its action necessarily connected in some way with water or the sea1 and as a matter of fact it was used at sea with great success on many occasions4 ,may not a 8wet fire0 be a way of saying 8a molten1 viscous mass of fire08 ,the masses would float and although some might become extinguished1 some would probably burn on the surface of the water2 also its use at sea would1 with a range up to a hundred yards1 be quite as easy as on land4 ,secondly1 8,its composition was such as could be kept secret at ,constantinople40 ,if1 as ,col4 ,hime says1 saltpetre as such was unknown at the time1 it was only as a separate kind of salt4 ,it was undoubtedly known1 but not distinguished from sea salt or nitrate of soda4 ,would not this fact render the concealment of the ingredients used more easy8 ,thirdly1 8,it burned with much noise and smoke40 ,allowing for some slight exaggeration the first condition is fulfilled1 as undoubtedly is the latter4 ,fourthly1 8,it was necessarily connected in some way with syphons40 ,as ,col4 ,hime points out1 there is ambiguity between the word syphon and tube1 and if the latter word meets the facts it seems the more likely rendering4 ,the writer saw this effect produced during experiments with smoke-producing compositions1 and it is probable that the mixture in question was not in the most effective proportions1 but so striking was the result that there is little doubt that experiments on such lines would produce a terrible and effective weapon under the conditions of warfare then in existence4 ,the 8,dictionnaire ,mobilier ,franais0 gives a diagram of a weapon of a somewhat similar nature stated to have been used by the ,arabs in the fifteenth century4 ,the illustration shows what is virtually a ,roman candle1 and appears plausible until one considers the facts4 ,what is most probable is that the weapon1 which was of an incendiary nature1 was similar to that described above1 which fulfils the requirements of the description without assuming a knowledge of compositions which at the time did not exist4 ,from the period of ,greek fire onward military and recreative pyrotechny appear to have marched side by side4 ,as we have seen1 the progress in the latter branch was extremely slow1 so with the former1 and it was not until the introduction of modern or comparatively modern methods that real progress commenced4 ,with the progress came divergence1 the introduction of the rifled bore in artillery1 and of nitro compounds and high explosives whose dynamic force exceeds many times that of gunpowder1 which however useful they might be to the artillerist1 were of little value to the recreative pyrotechnist4 ,it was not until the great war that the resources of pyrotechny were fully realised and utilised by the military4 ,it is curious to note that just as the tactics and methods of warfare eventually adopted--although on an unprecedentedly large scale--were in a great measure those of centuries before1 so military pyrotechny returned to ideas just as antiquated4 ,with the advantages of modern science1 and by the assistance of knowledge gained in the development of recreative pyrotechny1 the progress made in a month or so in military pyrotechny during the war may1 without exaggerating1 be said to have exceeded that of previous centuries4 ,speaking generally1 the use of pyrotechny in warfare1 or indeed any science1 has two objectives1 the first to destroy or embarrass the troops of the enemy1 and secondly1 to assist one's own4 ,until the late war it was the first of these which received by far the greater attention1 and it is but natural that the introduction of the modern methods mentioned above should have provided means which left pyrotechnics far behind4 ,in the second division1 however1 pyrotechny triumphed4 ,of the offensive type the earliest use of pyrotechny was the incendiary4 ,greek fire1 wild fire1 and similar compositions have been used from time immemorial to set fire to enemies' works or ships or to injure his personnel4 ,and just as incendiary compositions antedated the propellant1 so the incendiary shell appears to have preceded the explosive4 ,incendiary projectiles of the past were known as carcasses2 the earliest form appears to have been a canvas bag or container pitched over on the outside and bound with iron hoops1 which1 from their likeness to the ribs of a corpse--according to 8,chambers' ,encyclopdia0 7#agda7--suggested the name4 ,the fireball was similarly constructed and designed for hand projection1 bearing the same relation to the carcass as does the grenade to the bomb4 ,the composition in most incendiary missiles consisted of a mixture of saltpetre1 sulphur1 and pitch1 with or without the addition of mealed gunpowder4 ,the most recent form of carcass was a spherical shell of iron1 having three vents1 and filled with incendiary composition4 ,this projectile became obsolete in the ,service at the end of the last century4 ,another form of pyrotechnic projectile was that designed to give out smoke1 either with the idea of rendering the atmosphere of works or casemates unbearable to the defenders 7a principle revived in the late war by the use of poison gas71 or to hinder them by obscuring their vision either by firing a smoke cloud in their 7the enemy's7 works1 or so placed as to hide one's own troops4 ,it is open to discussion if the use of smoke is not indeed of greater antiquity than that of incendiary missiles1 but it is probable that its origin was its production by the combustion of grass or similar material1 and not with pyrotechnic composition4 ,read's 8,weekly ,journal0 of ,october #beth1 #agfj1 in an account of a review in ,hyde ,park1 mentions as the concluding item of the manuvres1 that 8pieces of a new construction1 of a globular form1 were set on fire1 which occasioned such a smoke as to render all persons within a considerable distance entirely invisible1 and thereby the better in time of action to secure a retreat40 ,there can be little doubt that this is one of the first demonstrations1 at any rate in this country1 of the use of smoke balls4 ,the ,chinese made use of both projectiles many centuries ago1 and the smoke--or stink-pot--was in use by them until comparatively recently4 ,smoke balls from #dth inches up to #ac inches calibre were included in the official list of projectiles for smooth-bore guns until about #ahgc1 when with ground light balls they became obsolete4 ,the latter1 as their name suggests1 were intended to be burnt on the ground and light up enemy working parties1 etc4 ,this also was the object of the parachute light-ball1 which was fitted with a time fuse and an opening charge2 upon opening1 a light was ignited suspended from a parachute4 ,this method appears to have been invented in ,denmark in #ahbj1 and they were used in ,austria the following year4 ,another class of war store which naturally suggests itself is that used to give light for the purpose of signalling4 ,the light is either burnt on the ground as a hand light or fitted to a rocket4 ,fireworks for this purpose have been in use from earliest times1 being the logical development of the signal beacon1 but it was not until the introduction of genuine colour--that is to say1 colour distinguishable at a long distance--that they reached their full standard of utility4 ,it is1 however1 the rocket which has received most attention for military purposes1 and certainly with good reason4 ,here was a projectile which1 in the days of smooth-bore ordnance had a good range and required no heavy gun or transport4 ,moreover1 it formed its own time fuse4 ,congreve wrote3 8,rockets are ammunition without ordnance1 the soul of artillery without the body40 ,many methods of fitting up rockets for warlike purposes have been evolved1 invented and re-invented1 most of which for practical purposes were useless4 ,it is the military use of the rocket1 however1 which presents the most interesting study in military pyrotechny4 ,there are several early references to what is supposed to be the use of rockets in warfare4 ,the ,paduans are stated to have burned the town of ,mestre with these projectiles4 ,orleans used rockets in its defence in #adbi1 and ,dunois fired them in #addi1 when besieging the town of ,pont-,andemer4 ,in #adeb they were used against ,bordeaux1 and the following year at ,gand4 ,rockets were employed in #aehf for lighting purposes and as projectiles against cavalry4 ,the description seems to indicate a method of fitting up to produce a similar effect to a shrapnel shell4 ,hanselet1 writing in #afcj1 refers to rockets with grenades attached4 ,casimir ,siemienowitz1 ,lieut4-,general of the ,ordnance to the ,king of ,poland1 published in #afej his 8,great ,art of ,artillery10 which contains a treatise on fireworks both for civil and military purposes4 ,he refers to a work on the military use of fireworks written ninety years before1 and speaks of rockets up to #ajj lbs4 and describes their construction4 ,a ,french work published in #aefa1 entitled 8,treatise upon several kinds of ,war-,fireworks10 suggests a rocket case of varnished leather4 ,it is on record that in #afhh trials were made in ,berlin with rockets of #ej lbs4 and #abj lbs41 which carried a bomb weighing #af lbs4 ,the composition was nine parts saltpetre1 four parts sulphur1 and three parts charcoal4 ,the case is stated to have been of wood covered with linen4 ,hyder ,ali is credited with making considerable use of rockets against our troops in ,india2 he is said to have had a corps of #a1bjj 8rocketers0 in #aghh1 whilst later on1 his son1 ,tippoo ,sahib1 employed as many as #e1jjj1 and ,captain ,moritz ,myer1 writing in #ahcf1 ascribes to experience of these weapons so gained the efforts made in ,england to bring them to perfection4 ,he also describes the ,indian rocket as 8an iron envelope about #h inches long and #a inches in diameter1 with sharp points at the top4 ,the stick of bamboo #h or #aj feet long1 but sometimes consisting of an iron rod4 ,they were hand-thrown by the rocketers1 and did much damage to the cavalry40 ,this description1 which1 to say the least1 is unconvincing1 would seem rather to refer to some other pyrotechnic missile4 ,whatever may have been the cause1 there was undoubtedly great interest in the subject of rockets during the first half of the nineteenth century4 ,sir ,william ,congreve is perhaps best known in connection with the work of this period4 ,his efforts1 however1 were rather directed to the development of existing ideas than to invention4 ,in #ahjd1 after experiments at the ,royal ,laboratory1 ,woolwich1 a flotilla of boats was fitted out under his direction for the purpose of bombarding ,boulogne ,harbour with incendiary rockets from frames fixed on the decks4 ,the first attempt ended in a fiasco owing to heavy weather1 but the following year better results were obtained1 although the rockets were deflected by the wind and did more damage in the town than in the harbour4 ,in #ahjg ,congreve personally superintended their use at ,copenhagen with even better effect1 and they were again used in the ,walcheren ,expedition and in an attack on the island of ,aix4 ,these rockets were all of an incendiary nature1 with paper cases1 and fired at an elevation of #ee degrees4 ,myer gives the proportion of the composition as #fb4dd saltpetre1 #bc4ah charcoal1 #ad4ch sulphur4 ,this writer gives ,congreve's rockets little credit for efficiency1 but admits that they 8attracted great attention and were regarded as formidable40 ,he remarks that at the siege of ,flessingen 8the rockets acted so badly that the ,english themselves said that they did more harm to the battery than the besieged town40 ,he also states that as a result of finding an 8unburnt specimen0 in the town after the bombardment of ,copenhagen trials were conducted by ,captain ,schuhmacher1 although how an unburnt rocket could reach the town is not clear2 possibly he means from a reconstruction of the remains collected4 ,these trials seem to have been successful1 and in #ahjh a rocket brigade was formed4 ,in #ahji ,admiral ,cochrane used rockets upon the town of ,callao1 in #ahaj they were used against ,cadiz1 and in #ahac in the battle of ,leipsic1 where the commanding officer1 ,captain ,bogeu1 was killed1 and at the siege of ,dantzic4 ,it is interesting to note that during that year they were used for propaganda purposes4 ,at the siege of ,glogau proclamations1 etc41 were printed on thin paper and fastened to the sticks with light thread4 ,rockets were used with effect at ,waterloo1 the rocket detachment being directed by ,sergeant ,dunnet4 ,in #ahac ,colonel ,augustin1 of the ,austrian army1 saw the ,english rocket batteries in action and trials of ,congreve rockets in ,london1 and the following year visited ,copenhagen1 where by arrangement between the two ,powers he was instructed by ,schuhmacher in his method of rocket construction4 ,the ,austrian ,government as a result established shortly afterwards an extensive factory at ,weinerisch-,neustadt for the manufacture of war rockets4 ,much work and ingenuity was expended about this time in seeking to eliminate the necessity of the rocket stick4 ,congreve is credited with introducing fins similar in action to the feathers on an arrow2 this1 however1 had been done nearly one hundred years previously1 and ,frzier illustrates the method in his treatise4 ,a ,mr4 ,heath1 of ,boston1 is credited with having reached a range of two and a half-miles with a five-pound rocket of this type4 ,garnier in #ahac proposed to avoid the alteration in position of the centre of gravity by using a wire or chain with a weight at the end fastened to the centre of the rocket and hanging vertically4 ,from ,ruggieri's book it would appear that this idea had often been tried previously4 ,however1 the most successful series of inventions were those based on the principle of the rifle1 that to give the rocket a rotary motion in its passage through the air4 ,in #ahae successful trials were made in ,america with rockets of the rotary type1 rotation being imparted by means of holes bored through the case into the composition in an oblique direction4 ,congreve established a factory at ,bow for the manufacture of rockets for the ,east ,india ,company1 and ,captain ,parlby1 of the ,bengal ,artillery1 manufactured similar rockets1 both being made to rotate1 probably on similar lines to the ,american model4 ,the 8,calcutta ,journal0 of the period contains a discussion of the rival merits of ,congreve's and ,parlby's rockets4 ,hale patented a rocket constructed on similar lines as late as #ahdd1 the holes at the side of the case being nearly tangential4 ,he also gave his name to a service rocket--,hale's #bd pr4 and #i pr4 ,these were constructed of iron with a wooden head1 fitted metal plug at the base with three vents1 a tail piece or flange continuing from the base so as to enclose half the periphery of each jet4 ,this arrangement imparts a rotary motion to the rocket4 ,in #ahec ,macintosh patented a method of rotating the tube from which the rocket was fired so as to give an initial rotary movement before the flight commences4 ,the following year ,fitzmaurice patented the idea of causing rotation by a screw-shaped head1 and ,court a method by which the fire impinged on surfaces inclined to the axis of the rocket4 ,in #ahbf ,congreve patented a method of fixing two or more rockets together so that the heading of one ignited the next and so obtained a longer time of burning2 this method is1 however1 again anticipated in ,frzier's book4 ,about this time all the leading ,powers in ,europe were manufacturing rockets for war purposes1 factories for their manufacture being established at ,warsaw1 ,turin1 ,toulon1 and ,metz4 ,the ,russians used them at this period in their war with ,turkey1 firing them in salvoes of nine4 ,in #ahca a series of trials were made by the ,swiss military authorities of #f lb4 rockets fired from a #f ft4 tube1 when a range of from #ah-aijj yards was obtained1 and three hits registered out of five were made at #a1ajj yards4 ,although great interest was aroused by the rocket for war purposes1 it quickly subsided1 and it is now practically only used for signalling and line-carrying purposes4 ,william ,bourne1 who describes himself as a 8poor gunner10 the first to produce an original book on artillery in this country1 as distinct from translation of continental works1 makes the following observations on military pyrotechnics3 8,divers gunners and other men have devised sundry sorts of fireworks for the annoyance of their enemies1 yet as far as ,i have ever seen or heard1 ,i never knew any good service done by it1 either by sea or land1 but only by powder1 and that has done great service for that the force of it is so mighty and cometh with such a terror4 ,but for their other fireworks it is rather meet to be used in the time of pleasure in the night rather than for any service40 ,,chapter ,x ,,military ,,pyrotechny ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,war ,the outbreak of the great war1 whatever may have been the case as regards other branches1 found the ,service badly equipped pyrotechnically4 ,the great and almost frantic interest taken in military pyrotechny during the first half of the nineteenth century had died away4 ,gradually the pyrotechnic stores included in the official schedule had been reduced until in #aiad a few rockets--mostly signal--lights for signalling and illumination1 ,very pistol cartridges for signalling purposes1 with single stars of various colours1 and incendiary and light stars for shells constituted the entire list4 ,the cause of this neglect of the art of pyrotechny for warlike purposes was not difficult to understand4 ,rifled barrels1 breech-loading1 and quick-firing ordnance had entirely destroyed interest in the rocket as a projectile4 ,the telephone and telegraph had almost entirely superseded older methods of signalling1 and so with most of the pyrotechnic contrivances which1 less than a century before1 had been thought to be indispensable4 ,as events proved1 this abandonment of old ideas was premature4 ,although every thinking man in the country realised that war was some day inevitable1 no one1 or at least very few1 realised the nature of the struggle4 ,the development of land war into what were practically siege operations on a gigantic scale2 the nature of sea warfare with the new factors1 the submarine1 seaplane and wireless2 the extent and ferocity of aerial warfare--all were unforeseen4 ,yet each of these called for new inventions1 new methods of destruction1 new methods of protection and communication1 and in many cases the resuscitation of old ideas long since abandoned4 ,and as fire has for all time been associated with the sword1 it is small wonder that pyrotechny played no inconspicuous part in the struggle4 ,as has always been the case1 and no doubt always will be1 the outbreak of hostilities was the signal for an epidemic of inventions4 ,men who had never before interested themselves either in war1 or in that particular department of science to which their ideas belong1 and in spite of or perhaps because of an entire ignorance of the subject1 inundated the authorities with so-called inventions which were so much waste of time to all concerned4 ,in this connection it is interesting to turn to a volume of 8,abridgements of ,specifications relating to ,fire-arms and ,other ,weapons10 published by the ,patent ,office in #ahei4 ,the preface contains the following remarks3 8,it is worthy of notice that a very large proportion of the so-called inventions of the present day are1 in fact1 old contrivances1 sometimes modified and adapted to modern requirements1 but very often identical with what has been tried and abandoned as useless long ago4 ,from the year #afag down to the end of the year #aheb1 not more than about #cjj patents were granted for inventions relating to fire-arms4 ,when the war with ,russia broke out the ,patent ,office was inundated with applications for ,letters ,patent for similar inventions1 and about #fjj have since been actually granted4 ,of these it may be safely said that five-sixths of the applications related to old contrivances which have been patented over and over again40 ,many of these inventions recall a story of the ,duke of ,wellington1 who was examining a steam rocket invented and patented by a ,jacob ,perkins in #ahbd4 ,this device consisted of an iron case with a stick like that of a rocket4 ,the case was filled with water and had a fusible metal plug at the base4 ,the case was heated1 and when the plug melted the generated steam escaped and impinging on the air drove forward the projectile4 ,the absurdity of the idea is too obvious to need discussion4 ,the ,duke carefully examined it1 and after asking many questions1 remarked3 8,if this had been invented first and gunpowder afterwards1 what a capital improvement gunpowder would have been40 ,the great war saw these 8inventions0 multiplied a thousand-fold4 ,the spread of education1 the availability of books from which at least a smattering of any subject could be obtained1 and from the increase both in quality and quantity of newspaper news a consequent closer knowledge of what was happening--all these factors helped to add to the crop of ideas4 ,in many cases undoubtedly these ideas were elaborated and worked out by the inventor1 adopted by the authorities1 and proved of the highest value4 ,these cases were1 however1 greatly in the minority1 and were generally the work of one who had at least some pre-knowledge of his subject4 ,such a man was the late ,wing-,commander ,f4 ,a4 ,brock1 ,r4,n4,a4,s41 of whom it can be said without fear of contradiction no one man did more for military pyrotechny during the great war1 and possibly in no other single subject during the war was one man so invaluable4 ,born in #ahhd1 educated at ,dulwich1 he entered the firm of ,c4 ,t4 ,brock and ,co4 in #aija1 where he remained until the outbreak of war4 ,endowed with a marked inventive ability and a phenomenal memory1 and brought up as it were in an atmosphere of pyrotechny1 he developed a knowledge of pyrotechnic chemistry which was extraordinary and appeared almost instinctive4 ,a naval correspondent1 writing in 8,the ,navy10 speaks of him as follows3 8,from ,h#b,o to ,,wo#b they knew all about it1 or thought they did until the wayward genius of the ,commander1 who never pretended to be a chemist1 taught them that there were permutations and combinations to the nth degree that they had never dared to think of4 ,illustration3 ,,wing-,,commander ,,frank ,,arthur ,,brock1 ,r4,n4,a4,s4 ,killed at ,zeebrugge1 ,april #bcrd1 #aiah4 8,wing-,commander ,brock's great secret was originality4 ,to the accepted formula he would add just a touch of the unexpected4 ,the chemists would say it can't be done1 or it wouldn't work4 ,sometimes it did not1 but often it did1 very nearly4 ,and ,brock's pioneer brain touched it a bit more--and lo6 the impossible and the unexpected had arrived40 ,during his connection with the firm he had travelled over a large portion of the world on its behalf4 ,his experience at a comparatively early age in organising and carrying out large displays--where the safety of thousands of spectators is in the hands of the directing mind--no doubt did much to develop those qualities of self-reliance and self-confidence which were so marked a characteristic of his ,service career4 ,wing-,commander ,brock was responsible for many pyrotechnic inventions1 and for the practical development of many ideas and inventions not his own1 but which required technical knowledge and experience to ensure success4 ,it is perhaps as the 8inventor of the smoke screen0 that he is best known1 a quite mistaken idea1 the fallacy of which a moment's consideration will show4 ,there are many references to the use of smoke as a screen in classic times and even in mythology4 ,the smoke ball1 as we have seen1 was a recognised military store up to the middle of the last century4 ,it is just as absurd to credit ,commander ,brock1 or for that matter any living man1 with the invention of the use of the smoke screen in warfare as to credit the inventor of a patent fire extinguisher with the idea of putting out fires4 ,what ,commander ,brock did do was to provide the means when the demand arose of producing smoke suited to the particular purpose for which it was to be used1 whether for screens1 signalling1 or other purposes4 ,as an example the 8,e0 float may be cited4 ,a demand had arisen for a smoke-producing device for use on board merchant ships to assist escape from enemy submarine attack4 ,commander ,brock1 with characteristic energy1 in a very short space of time produced the 8,e0 float1 which for ease in manipulation by untrained operators and volume of smoke produced was probably unsurpassed by any subsequent device1 and on the score of cheapness it undoubtedly held the field4 ,this store1 which was in reality a triumph of pyrotechnic design1 was in appearance so simple as to mislead some at least to whom greater insight might have been credited as to the ingenuity of its design4 ,counsel at a sitting of the ,royal ,commission on ,awards to ,inventors1 described the float as 8half-a-dozen or so drain rockets in a box40 ,a remark which might be considered as accurate as to describe a clock as some pieces of metal in a box1 were it not for the fact that the box in question contained no drain rockets1 or anything resembling them more closely than one firework resembles another designed for quite a different purpose4 ,illustration3 ,smoke ,float in ,action4 ,the requirements to be met were as follows3 ,the apparatus was to be used by men whom by nature of their employment it was impossible to train individually1 therefore its ignition must be simple and at the same time certain and quick in action1 and carried on the float itself2 a chamber had to be provided in which to as it were accumulate the smoke generated1 which chamber had of necessity to have holes through which the smoke could issue4 ,as the float had to be dropped after ignition from the deck of the vessel into the sea1 and would consequently be submerged for a short time1 these holes must be in some way sealed until the float rose to the surface4 ,the pyrotechnic compositions which produce the greatest volume of smoke were found to take some considerable time to attain their maximum of production1 and separate units had to be included which would develop almost instantaneously a big mass of smoke1 pending the generation of the main supply4 ,in addition1 the float must be so constructed as to remain efficient when stored on the deck of a merchant vessel in all weathers and conditions4 ,two hundred thousand of these floats were issued during the war4 ,the subject of smoke is one which naturally attracts the attention of the pyrotechnist1 although in what might be called a negative direction4 ,for display work the elimination of smoke is obviously of greater importance than its production1 but inquiry into the one of necessity leads to a knowledge of the other4 ,in some few cases the smoke generated is of value in adding to the effect of the burning composition2 the most noticeable case of this is the use of coloured fire as flares1 that is to say1 burnt in masses for the illumination of trees and other natural features4 ,some years ago ,messrs4 ,c4 ,t4 ,brock ,co4 spent considerable time in eliminating as far as possible the smoke from coloured fire1 when it was found that without the smoke the result was very poor4 ,it was the reflection of the colour on the smoke upon which the illumination depended for its effect4 ,this1 however1 is hardly germane to our subject1 but is mentioned to indicate how largely the question of smoke enters into the work of the modern pyrotechnist4 ,commander ,brock had1 apart from his ordinary work1 been engaged for some months prior to the outbreak of war on the question of the production of smoke for the ,admiralty1 and had also interested himself in the subject for commercial purposes1 such as insecticide and other uses4 ,he was therefore in a position1 when the demand arose for smoke both for naval and military use1 to start research in the matter considerably ahead of other inquirers1 and to produce immediately a smoke that would supply the needs for the time being until more satisfactory means could be evolved4 ,the ,royal ,naval ,experimental ,station at ,stratford1 of which he was in command and which he organised and brought into being1 had many activities besides smoke4 ,but even the exacting work of controlling its many activities was not sufficient for the ,commander's untiring energy2 the few moments he could snatch from his duties and the many he stole from sleep were devoted to the invention and elaboration of war devices4 ,his greatest achievement was the ,brock anti-,zeppelin bullet1 for which he and he alone is responsible1 and which beyond any shadow of doubt delivered this country from the terror of the ,zeppelin raids4 ,his other inventions include many purely pyrotechnic smoke devices and inventions connected with the production of smoke1 such as igniters which were used to start the action of smoke production1 the ,dover flares of one million candle power each1 used by the anti-submarine patrol in the ,straits of ,dover1 and burned to the extent of several hundreds every night4 ,he was also responsible for several forms of stars for use in ,very pistol cartridges4 ,captain ,carpenter1 ,v4,c41 in his splendid book1 8,the ,blocking of ,zeebrugge10 writes as follows of his work in connection with that operation3 8,it would be difficult for anybody to speak too highly of ,wing-,commander ,frank ,a4 ,brock4 ,he was a rare personality4 ,an inventive genius1 than whom the country had no better1 it was his brain that differentiated this blocking enterprise from all previous attempts in history in one most important particular4 ,the difficulty of reaching the destination in the face of a strenuous opposition had hitherto brought failure1 but he provided an antidote in the form of a satisfactory artificial fog designed to protect the blockships from the enemy's guns during the critical period of approach4 ,that in itself was a wonderful achievement1 but his inventive mind was not satisfied therewith4 ,to him we owed the special flares intended for turning darkness into light4 8,a special buoy was wanted--one that would automatically provide its own light on being thrown into the water4 ,brock made so little of the problem that he produced such a buoy1 designed1 constructed and ready for use in less than twenty-four hours4 ,special signal lights were required3 ,brock produced them4 ,flame projectors1 far exceeding anything hitherto known1 were mooted3 ,brock produced them also4 ,no matter what our requirements were ,brock was undefeated4 ,with a highly scientific brain he possessed extraordinary knowledge of almost any subject4 ,he had travelled much and could tell you all that was worth knowing of any country from ,patagonia to ,spitzbergen4 ,he was no mean authority on old prints and books1 was also a keen philatelist1 and was blessed with a remarkable memory4 ,wherever he went he carried with him a pocket edition of the ,new ,testament1 which was his favourite possession2 his knowledge of the contents was quite unique4 ,and with it all he was a great shot and an all-round sportsman4 ,his fine physique was well remembered by many a ,rugby footballer from the days when he played in the pack of one of the leading club fifteens4 ,his geniality and humour were hard to beat4 ,but of all his qualities1 optimism perhaps held first place4 ,at times we1 who were far from being pessimistic1 thought his optimism excessive1 but it was justified absolutely with regard to the success of the enterprise40 ,the 8,very0 was a pre-war invention1 patented in #ahgh2 it was not adopted into the ,service until about ten years later4 ,it consists of a short-barrelled pistol of #a inch calibre--or rather that was the original size1 a #a inch pattern was introduced during the war1 and subsequently a #a inch pattern with a longer barrel and shoulder piece4 ,the original cartridge was in effect a single star ,roman candle1 fired by percussion4 ,a small propelling charge drove out a single coloured star1 either red1 white1 green or blue4 ,the star rose to a height of about #cjj feet4 ,these were used purely for signalling purposes4 ,the war suggested another use of the 8,very0 pistol1 that is for illuminating purposes1 and various illuminating stars were introduced1 both to light up upon reaching their objective with a range of two to three hundred yards1 and to hang suspended from a parachute1 similar to the old parachute light ball1 but with many times the brilliance1 although considerably less in size4 ,the difficulty of identifying coloured stars in daylight suggested the use of coloured smokes4 ,these were successfully evolved by ,major ,wicks and ,captain ,gray1 an achievement of far greater difficulty than the casual observer might think4 ,apart from these synthetically prepared colours1 the yellow smoke natural to orpiment was much used in signal stars4 ,later stars were suggested by ,commander ,brock1 which ascended burning white and at their height broke into two1 and in a subsequent pattern into three1 stars of varying colours4 ,the rifle grenade1 which was fired by a rod fixed to the base of the grenade and running down the barrel of a rifle1 being blown out by a cartridge without a bullet1 was also fitted up for signalling purposes4 ,upon opening1 a series of lights1 arranged to code1 were suspended from a parachute4 ,recognition and illuminating lights were constructed for use from aeroplanes1 and were ignited by dropping through a launching tube fixed to the machine1 which made contact and fired them electrically as they passed through4 ,landing lights and wing-tip lights1 electrically ignited1 were other stores used in connection with aerial warfare4 ,another was the incendiary bomb4 ,until the outbreak of war the incendiary composition for use as stars in incendiary shells was of a most primitive nature1 and even during the war incendiary compositions were used which were ridiculous in comparison with those produced later4 ,the construction also of some of the earlier efforts was quite as absurd4 ,projectiles were devised in a thin paper case1 intended to be dropped from heights of many thousand feet1 and ignite on impact1 whereas the impact produced by the velocity of a projectile after such a fall was sufficient to scatter the case and its ingredients in all directions4 ,it was the use of aluminium in pyrotechny which pointed the way to real incendiary composition1 composition which exceeds the temperature of these primitive pitch and other elementary compositions by many times more than the flame of a candle exceeds the temperature of ice4 ,bombs containing thermit1 and later on thermalloy 7a composition which set hard1 and did away with the necessity of a case71 were terrible weapons1 giving a temperature which has hardly been exceeded by other means4 ,these compositions were almost identical with some of those containing aluminium used in pyrotechny for a considerable time before the war1 but of course not for incendiary purposes4 ,the intense heat is naturally accompanied by brilliant light1 which was of great value to the pyrotechnists1 the more so as aluminium compositions do not deteriorate on being kept as do those containing magnesium1 and although the light is not quite so brilliant1 and has less actinic value1 the fact that it is considerably cheaper1 combined with its keeping qualities1 renders it a very satisfactory substitute for that rather expensive metal1 in very many cases at least4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,civil ,,use ,,of ,,fireworks ,the utility of fireworks and the number of purposes to which they have been applied are far greater than most people imagine1 both at sea1 where possibly their usefulness is most fully exploited1 on land1 and since the war and its consequent developments of aeronautics1 in the air4 ,firework signals at sea are used in almost endless variety for the purpose of identifying vessels at night4 ,each shipping line has its own signal or signals1 which are fired on such occasions as when passing ,lloyd's signal stations4 ,these signals consist of hand lights1 ,roman candles1 rockets1 or ,coston lights4 ,the last-mentioned is a small hand light which is arranged to burn with either one colour or two or more colours in succession4 ,this signal is used by the majority of foreign vessels4 ,the signal used may be either lights burnt singly or together1 or a light or lights burnt in combination with ,roman candles or rockets4 ,by making use of the various combinations a great number and variety of signals have been arrived at3 a few typical examples will illustrate the kind of signals used4 ,the ,zud-,amerika ,lyn of ,amsterdam burns a white light at stern1 green at bridge and blue at bow4 ,the ,white ,star have a green light at bow and green at stern4 ,w4 ,johnston and ,co41 a green light followed by a ,roman candle1 throwing three red and three blue stars1 followed by a white light4 ,the ,aberdeen have a red light followed by a ,roman candle1 throwing red1 white and blue stars three times successively1 shown from aft4 ,j4 ,l4 ,burnham and ,co41 a blue light changing to white1 then to red1 followed by a red star4 ,the ,cunard ,line1 off the coast of ,ireland1 fire a blue light followed by two golden star rockets4 ,the ,ulster ,steamship ,co4 fire three vertical lights1 yellow1 blue and red1 followed by two ,roman candles fired together1 each throwing two yellow1 two blue and two red stars4 ,these examples will give some idea of the variety of signals used2 they are often followed by another signal1 or rather have a suffix which if fired has a particular meaning4 ,for instance1 a red light after the signal may mean 8,all's well10 or a green may signify a wish to communicate4 ,some lines bring the whistle into the signal and combine long and short blasts with pyrotechnic signals4 ,besides the house signals there are some generally accepted signals used by all vessels4 ,a blue light is the signal for a pilot in all waters1 except those of the ,united ,states4 ,it is curious1 however1 that no universal pyrotechnic signal of distress has yet been arranged1 although in #ahhi ,mr4 ,f4 ,crundall endeavoured to get a standard distress signal recognised by shipping throughout the world4 ,this signal1 which consisted of a ,roman candle surrounded at the mouth by four lights which burnt simultaneously with it1 was demonstrated before the ,board of ,trade1 and was distinguishable across the ,channel at ,dover1 but was1 however1 not universally adopted4 ,another extensive field use of pyrotechnic signals at sea is in the fishing industry4 ,lights and rockets are used to communicate between vessels of the fishing fleets and with the carriers4 ,the use of such signals by the coastguard and the ,lifeboat ,institution and at harbours and ports throughout the world is also very great4 ,another pyrotechnic store of the greatest utility is the line-carrying rocket1 a device which has been responsible for the saving of thousands of lives4 ,the credit for suggesting this use of the rocket appears to belong to a ,mr4 ,trengouse1 of ,cornwall4 ,this was in #ahjg4 ,the proposal did not1 however1 make as much headway as it should have done1 owing to the fact that ,capt4 ,manley had that year introduced a device with a similar purpose1 the line being carried by a shot fired from a mortar4 ,this idea had been previously worked out by a ,sergt4 ,bell of the ,royal ,artillery and by ,la ,fre1 a ,frenchman1 the two working independently4 ,the ,manley apparatus was officially adopted1 and stations established at forty-five positions round the coast4 ,the rocket method was1 however1 revived in #ahbf by a ,mr4 ,dennett1 of ,newport1 ,isle of ,wight1 and four stations were established on the island for the use of rockets of his pattern4 ,the advantages of the rocket over the shot apparatus are obvious--the lightness and mobility of the rocket trough as compared with a mortar1 the fact that the rocket traces its own flight1 which can be seen and followed even at night1 not to mention greater simplicity in working4 ,however1 it was not until #ahee1 when a rocket of greater range was invented by ,col4 ,boxer1 of the ,royal ,laboratory1 that the rocket as a line carrier came into its own4 ,the ,boxer rocket consisted actually of two rocket cases joined head to tail1 and so arranged that when the first case had burnt out it was blown off1 and the second gave renewed impetus4 ,this rocket is still in use at the ,board of ,trade rocket stations4 ,a further development of the line-carrying rocket which is making rapid headway is a compact apparatus designed for use on the wrecked vessel to carry a line to the shore4 ,this system has two great advantages1 namely1 the target is so much greater when firing from the ship1 consisting as it does of the whole coast line1 whereas the ship forms in comparison an insignificant mark from the shore4 ,again1 a vessel is generally wrecked on a lee shore1 so that in firing from the ship the rocket travels with the wind4 ,both the ,brock and ,schermuley systems are designed for this purpose1 and there is little doubt that in a few years all vessels will carry their own means of establishing communication with the shore4 ,as a further development of the line-carrying rocket1 it is interesting to note that ,congreve1 in association with ,lieut4 ,j4 ,m4 ,colquhoun1 took out a patent for the use of the rocket as a harpoon in whale fishing1 which1 if it proved satisfactory in use1 must have been a marked advance1 especially as this was before the advent of the now universally used harpoon gun4 ,another pyrotechnic invention responsible for the saving of many lives is the ,hale's ,light apparatus4 ,this apparatus is fitted to a lifebuoy1 which is arranged for launching from a vessel's bridge2 the act of launching ignites a flare1 enabling the person in the water to see the buoy and the rescuing boat to pick them up4 ,the practical use to which fireworks have been put on land are many4 ,probably that which comes most readily to the mind is the sound signal or alarm4 ,many fire brigades whose members are volunteers and therefore scattered use aerial maroons to warn and call them for duty4 ,these maroons became familiar to ,londoners during the air raid period in the late war4 ,the maroon has also been adopted for firing with a trip line as a burglar alarm1 or for protecting game preserves or similar purposes4 ,another well-known pyrotechnic sound signal is the fog signal used on the railways1 which consists of a tinned iron envelope containing a mixture of chlorate of potash and red phosphorus4 ,it is secured in position on the rail by two lead clips provided for the purpose1 and is fired by percussion on the impact of the engine wheel4 ,bird scarers1 consisting of a series of single crackers connected by a time fuse1 and so arranged as to fire at regular intervals1 have been much used for the protection of seed and crops4 ,the miner's squib and chieza stick or fuse lighter are to all intents port-fires for lighting the fuse in blasting operations in mines1 their form and composition being adapted to the particular circumstances of their use4 ,illustration3 ,crystal ,palace4 ,from a photograph taken by the light of a magnesium shell4 ,the crowd at 8,brock's ,benefit0 7#fd1jjj persons present74 ,the use of pyrotechnic compositions for photographic purposes is well known2 those in use at the present generally contain magnesium1 which has greater actinic value than any other firework composition4 ,magnesium lights fitted up to fire with a trip line have been successfully used for obtaining photographs of big game in their native surroundings at night4 ,smoke pyrotechnically produced has for several years been used for the testing of drains1 and recently successful experiments have been carried out establishing the value of smoke as a protection for fruit blossom against frost4 ,it has also been used as an insecticide for use against various kinds of parasites2 a poisonous smoke has been found of great use in the dislodging and exterminating of rats4 ,another agricultural use of pyrotechnic1 or in this case perhaps more correctly explosive composition1 is the use of explosive cartridges for ploughing2 that is1 cartridges are exploded at a certain depth in the ground1 the effect being to break up the subsoil4 ,the explosive used is a mild and cheap form of dynamite4 ,the use of rockets and other explosive fireworks for producing rain has been much discussed recently4 ,many writers deny the possibility of success by such means4 ,there cannot be the slightest doubt1 however1 that given clouds in the right condition and altitude it is quite possible to cause rain4 ,the writer has seen it done1 not once but many times2 generally it must be admitted when the rain was not wanted4 ,maroons fired in wide-mouthed mortars have been used on the ,continent for some years to break up hail clouds and bring them down in the form of rain over the vineyards1 where a hail storm is a serious calamity to the wine grower4 ,the use of pyrotechnic signals in connection with aerial travel is gradually increasing4 ,the stores used are practically those evolved and adopted during the great war1 modified in some cases to suit peace time requirements1 but substantially they are those described in the chapter on ,military ,pyrotechny4 ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,ingredients ,,used ,,in ,,pyrotechny ,,at ,,the ,,present ,,time4 ,force and ,sparks ,compositions4 ,saltpetre ,sulphur ,charcoal ,mealed ,gunpowder ,iron ,borings ,steel ,filings ,zinc ,filings ,aluminium and ,alloys ,magnesium and ,alloys ,lampblack ,orpiment 7,sulphide of ,arsenic7 ,black ,antimony 7,sulphide of ,antimony7 ,chlorate ,colour ,compositions4 ,chlorate of ,potash or ,perchlorate of ,potash4 ,nitrate of ,strontia ,red ,carbonate ,sulphate ,nitrate of ,baryta ,green ,chlorate ,carbonate ,carbonate of ,copper ,blue ,sulphide ,arsenite ,calomel ,yellow ,oxalate of ,soda ,carbonate ,for extra brightness ,magnesium added4 ,secondary tints obtained by mixtures of the above4 ,non-,chlorate ,colour ,compositions4 ,saltpetre ,sulphur ,charcoal ,black ,antimony ,white ,arsenic ,orpiment ,aluminium ,magnesium ,sulphate of ,copper ,borax ,burnables4 ,shellac ,pitch ,sterine ,paraffin ,sugar of ,milk ,linseed ,oil ,agglutinants4 ,shellac and ,spirit ,starch ,paste ,gum ,water ,linseed ,oil ,dextrine ,sound ,producing4 ,gunpowder ,gun-cotton ,picrate of ,potash ,chlorate of ,potash ,aluminium ,,pyrotechnic ,,bibliography ,manuscripts #abbe4 ,treatise of the ,ruses of ,war1 the capturing of ,towns and the ,defence of ,passes1 according to the instructions of ,alexander son of ,philip 7in the ,leyden ,library74 #adcb4 ,feuerwerksbuch 7,,ms4 #cfb in the ,university ,library of ,freiburg i4 ,b474 #adch4 7about74 ,latin ,manuscript1 with enumeration of materials for all fires 7,no4 #aig in the ,royal ,library1 ,munich74 ,printed ,books #aebi4 ,strassburg4 ,anonymous3 ,buchsenmeisterei von ,geschoss1 ,buchsenpulver1 ,salpeter und ,feuerwerk4 #aedj4 ,venice4 ,vanuccio ,biringuccio3 ,de la pirotechnia4 #aegc4 ,london4 ,peter ,whitehorne3 ,how to make ,saltpetre1 ,gunpowder1 etc4 #aegh4 ,william ,bourne3 ,inventions and ,devices4 #aegi4 ,leonard ,diggs3 ,stratistico4 #aehh4 ,london4 ,cyprian ,lucar3 ,lucar ,appendix1 collected to shew the ,properties1 ,office and ,dutie of a ,gunner1 and to teach him to make and refine artificial ,saltpeeter to sublime for ,gunpowder1 etc4 7annexed to a translation of ,tartagalia's book74 #aeia4 ,london4 ,anonymous3 ,a profitable and ,necessary ,book of ,observations for all those that are burned with the flame of ,gunpowder1 etc4 #afjg4 ,argentorati 7,strassburg7 ,albertus ,magnus3 ,de mirabilibus mundi4 #afad4 ,diego ,ufano3 ,artillery4 c4 #afbj4 ,w4 ,eldred3 ,the ,gunners ,glasse4 #afbh4 ,robert ,norton3 ,the ,gunner4 #afbi4 ,f4 ,malthus 7,francois de ,malthe73 ,treatise of ,artificial ,fireworks4 #afcj4 ,pont--,mousson4 ,jean ,appier1 alias ,hanzelet3 ,la ,pyrotechnie4 #afce4 ,london4 ,john ,bate3 ,mysteries of ,nature and ,art4 ,the ,second ,book teaching most plainly and withall most exactly the composing of all manner of ,fireworks for ,tryumph and ,recreation4 #afce4 ,london4 ,john ,babington3 ,pyrotechnia4 #afdc4 ,robert ,norton3 ,the ,gunners ,dialogue4 #afdh4 ,worcester1 ,nathanael ,nye3 ,the ,art of ,gunnery4 #afej4 ,casimir ,siemienowitz3 ,great ,art of ,artillery4 7,translated into ,english by ,george ,shelvocke in #agbi47 #afih4 ,hafniae 7,copenhagen74 787 ,winter3 ,de pulvere ,pyrio4 ,recreation4 #agjg #agdg4 ,paris4 ,frzier3 ,trait des ,feux d',artifice4 #agaj4 ,frankfort4 787 ,sinceri3 ,salpetersieder und ,feuerwerker4 #agce4 ,paris4 ,jean ,baptiste ,du-,halde3 ,description gographique historique1 ,chronologique et physique de l'empire de la ,chine et de la ,tartarie chinoise4 #agdj4 ,paris4 ,perinet-d',orval3 ,essay sur les ,feux d',artifice4 #agee4 ,frankfort4 ,anonymous3 ,der ,wohlerfahrne ,salpetersieder und ,feuerwerker4 #agfe #aggf4 ,london4 ,lieut4 ,robert ,jones3 ,a new ,treatise on ,artificial ,fireworks4 #ahja #ahba4 ,paris4 ,claude-,fortun ,ruggieri3 ,elmens de ,pyrotechnie4 #ahjg4 ,leipsig4 ,die ,pyrotechnie nach der ,vorschriften von ,claude ,ruggieri und ,thomas ,morel4 #ahab4 ,paris4 ,claude-,fortun ,ruggieri3 ,pyrotechnie ,militaire4 #ahbd4 ,london4 ,g4 ,w4 ,mortimer3 ,a ,manual of ,pyrotechny4 #ahbd4 ,strassburg4 ,j4 ,ravichio de ,peretsdorf3 ,trait de pyrotechnie militaire1 contenant tous les artifices de guerre en usage en ,autriche4 #ahcf4 ,bruxelles4 ,capt4 ,moritz ,meyer 7translated into ,french by ,lieut4 ,hippert73 ,pyrotechnie ,raisonne4 #ahde4 ,madrid4 ,d',antonio ,bermejo3 ,manual de pirotechnica militar4 #ahde4 ,paris4 ,joseph ,toussaint ,reinaud and ,general ,ildephonse ,fav3 ,histoire de l'artillerie4 #are partie4 ,du feu grgois des feu de guerre et des origines de la poudre canon4 #ahdg4 ,paris4 ,joseph ,toussaint ,reinaud and ,general ,ildephonse ,fav3 ,controverse propose de feu grgois4 ,rponse aux objections de ,l4 ,lalanne4 #ahej4 ,breslau4 ,martin ,websky3 ,schule der ,lustfeuerwerkerei4 #ahed4 ,paris4 ,f4 ,m4 ,chertier3 ,nouvelles recherches sur les feux d'artifice4 #ahei4 ,london4 ,abridgments of the ,specifications relating to ,fire-,arms1 etc4 #ahfd4 ,philadelphia4 ,g4 ,dussauce3 ,a ,practical ,treatise on the ,fabrication of ,matches1 ,gun-,cotton1 ,coloured ,fires and ,fulminating ,powders4 #ahfe4 ,london4 8,practicus03 ,pyrotechny1 or ,the ,art of ,making ,fireworks4 #ahfe4 ,paris4 ,a4 ,d4 ,p4 ,vergnaud3 #are ,partie1 ,pyrotechnie militaire4 #b;ime ,partie1 ,pyrotechnie ,civile4 #ahfe4 ,london4 ,richardson ,watts3 ,chemical ,technology4 c4 #ahgj4 ,london4 8,practicus03 ,manual of ,pyrotechny4 #ahgf4 ,paris4 ,e4 ,dsortiaux3 ,la poudre1 les corps explosifs et la pyrotechnie4 ,traduction des ouvrages des docteurs ,upmann et ,meyer4 #ahgh4 ,paris4 ,a4 ,lamarre3 ,nouveau manuel de l'artificier1 ou trait pratique pour la fabrication des feux de couleurs1 etc4 #ahgh4 ,washington4 ,major ,james ,m4 ,whittemore and ,lieut4 ,f4 ,heath3 ,ammunition1 ,fuses1 ,primers1 ,military ,pyrotechny1 etc4 #ahgh4 ,london4 ,thomas ,kentish3 ,the ,pyrotechnists' ,treasury4 #ahhj4 ,london4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,browne3 ,practical ,firework-,making for ,amateurs4 #ahhb4 ,paris4 ,amde ,denisse3 ,trait pratique complet des feux d'artifice4 #ahhc4 ,paris4 ,paul ,tessier3 ,chimie pyrotechnique1 ou trait pratique des feux colors4 #ahhd4 ,hull4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,browne3 ,firework ,accidents4 #ahhe4 ,erfurt4 ,oscar ,frey3 ,die ,feuerwerkskunst4 #ahia4 ,paris4 ,marcelin ,berthelot3 ,les compositions incendiares dans l'antiquit et au moyen age4 ,le feu grgois et les origines de la poudre canon4 7,revue des ,deux ,mondes47 #ahic4 ,trieste4 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