,transcriber's ,notes ,obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,variations in hyphenation and accents have been standardised but all other spelling and punctuation remains unchanged4 ,several tables have been rearranged to improve clarity and constrain width4 ,in particular the table of star signs on p #dja was printed horizontally with vertical names and has been rotated4 ,the reference to 'the upper list' has been changed to 'the left hand list'4 ,the names ,shesu-,hor and ,hor-shesu are used1 apparently1 interchangeably and have not been rationalised4 ,the first two errata have been implemented1 the third is erroneous4 ,italics are represented thus italic1 bold thus bold and superscripts thus yen4 ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,astronomy ,illustration3 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,amen-,r1 ,,looking ,,from ,,the ,,sanctuary ,,towards ,,the ,,place ,,of ,,sunset ,,at ,,the ,,summer ,,solstice4 7,from a ,photograph by the ,author47 ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,astronomy ,a ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,temple-,,worship ,,and ,,mythology ,,of ,,the ,,ancient ,,egyptians4 ,,by ,j4 ,,norman ,,lockyer ,fellow of the ,royal ,society2 ,correspondent of the ,institute of ,france1 the ,society for the ,promotion of ,national ,industry of ,france1 the ,royal ,academy of ,science1 ,gttingen1 ,la ,societ degli ,spettroscopisti ,italiani1 the ,royal ,academy of ,palermo1 ,natural ,history ,society of ,genera1 the ,franklin ,institute1 ,philadelphia1 and the ,royal ,medical ,society of ,brussels2 ,member of the ,royal ,academy of ,lincei1 ,rome1 and the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 ,philadelphia2 ,honorary ,member of the ,academy of ,natural ,science of ,catania1 ,literary and ,philosophical ,society of ,manchester1 ,philosophical ,society of ,york1 and ,lehigh ,university2 ,member of the ,committee on ,solar ,physics1 and ,professor of ,astronomical ,physics in the ,royal ,college of ,science ,,cassell ,,and ,,company ,,limited ,,london ,,paris ,,melbourne #ahid ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved ,illustration3 ,decorative figure1 ,la belle sauvage ,,preface4 ,the enormous advance which has been recently made in our astronomical knowledge1 and in our power of investigating the various bodies which people space1 is to a very great extent due to the introduction of methods of work and ideas from other branches of science4 ,much of the recent progress has been1 we may indeed say1 entirely dependent upon the introduction of the methods of inquiry to which ,i refer4 ,while this is generally recognised1 it is often forgotten that a knowledge of even elementary astronomy may be of very great assistance to students of other branches of science2 in other words1 that astronomy is well able to pay her debt4 ,amongst those branches is obviously that which deals with man's first attempts to grasp the meaning and phenomena of the universe in which he found himself before any scientific methods were available to him2 before he had any idea of the origins or the conditionings of the things around him4 ,in the present volume ,i propose to give an account of some attempts ,i have been making in my leisure moments during the past three years to see whether any ideas could be obtained as to the early astronomical views of the ,egyptians1 from a study of their temples and the mythology connected with the various cults4 ,how ,i came to take up this inquiry may be gathered from the following statement3-- ,it chanced that in ,march1 #ahij1 during a brief holiday1 ,i went to the ,levant4 ,i went with a good friend1 who1 one day when we were visiting the ruins of the ,parthenon1 and again when we found ourselves at the temple at ,eleusis1 lent me his pocket-compass4 ,the curious direction in which the ,parthenon was built1 and the many changes of direction in the foundations at ,eleusis revealed by the ,french excavations1 were so very striking and suggestive that ,i thought it worth while to note the bearings so as to see whether there was any possible astronomical origin for the direction of the temple and the various changes in direction to which ,i have referred4 ,what ,i had in my mind was the familiar statement that in ,england the eastern windows of churches face generally--if they are properly constructed--to the place of sun-rising on the festival of the patron saint2 this is why1 for instance1 the churches of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist face very nearly north-east4 ,this direction towards the sun-rising is the origin of the general use of the term orientation1 which is applied just as frequently to other buildings the direction of which is towards the west or north or south4 ,now1 if this should chance to be merely a survival from ancient times1 it became of importance to find out the celestial bodies to which the ancient temples were directed4 ,when ,i came home ,i endeavoured to ascertain whether this subject had been worked out3 ,i am afraid ,i was a nuisance to many of my archological friends1 and ,i made as much inquiry as ,i could by looking into books4 ,i found1 both from my friends and from the books1 that this question had not been discussed in relation to ancient temples1 scarcely even with regard to churches outside ,england or ,germany4 ,it struck me that1 since nothing was known1 an inquiry into the subject--provided an inquiry was possible for a stay-at-home--might help the matter forward to a certain extent4 ,so1 as it was well known that the temples in ,egypt had been most carefully examined and oriented both by the ,french in #agih and by the ,prussians in #ahdd1 ,i determined to see whether it was possible to get any information on the general question from them1 as it was extremely likely that such temples as that at ,eleusis were more or less connected with ,egyptian ideas4 ,i soon found that1 although neither the ,french nor the ,germans apparently paid any heed to the possible astronomical ideas of the temple-builders1 there was little doubt that astronomical considerations had a great deal to do with the direction towards which these temples faced4 ,in a series of lectures given at the ,school of ,mines in ,november1 #ahij1 ,i took the opportunity of pointing out that in this way archologists and others might ultimately be enabled to arrive at dates in regard to the foundation of temples1 and possibly to advance knowledge in several other directions4 ,after my lectures were over1 ,i received a very kind letter from one of my audience1 pointing out to me that a friend had informed him that ,professor ,nissen1 in ,germany1 had published some papers on the orientation of ancient temples4 ,i at once ordered them4 ,before ,i received them ,i went to ,egypt to make some inquiries on the spot with reference to certain points which it was necessary to investigate1 for the reason that when the orientations were observed and recorded1 it was not known what use would be made of them1 and certain data required for my special inquiry were wanting4 ,in ,cairo also ,i worried my archological friends4 ,i was told that the question had not been discussed2 that1 so far as they knew1 the idea was new2 and ,i also gathered a suspicion that they did not think much of it4 ,however1 one of them1 ,brugsch ,bey1 took much interest in the matter1 and was good enough to look up some of the old inscriptions1 and one day he told me he had found a very interesting one concerning the foundation of the temple at ,edf4 ,from this inscription it was clear that the idea was not new2 it was possibly six thousand years old4 ,afterwards ,i went up the river1 and made some observations which carried conviction with them and strengthened the idea in my mind that for the orientation not only of ,edf1 but of all the larger temples which ,i examined1 there was an astronomical basis4 ,i returned to ,england at the beginning of ,march1 #ahia1 and within a few days of landing received ,professor ,nissen's papers4 ,i have thought it right to give this personal narrative1 because1 while it indicates the relation of my work to ,professor ,nissen's1 it enables me to make the acknowledgment that the credit of having first made the suggestion belongs1 so far as ,i know1 solely to him4#a ,the determination of the stars to which some of the ,egyptian temples1 sacred to a known divinity1 were directed1 opened a way1 as ,i anticipated1 to a study of the astronomical basis of parts of the mythology4 ,this inquiry ,i have carried on to a certain extent1 but it requires an ,egyptologist to face it1 and this ,i have no pretensions to be4 ,it soon became obvious1 even to an outsider like myself1 that the mythology was intensely astronomical1 and crystallised early ideas suggested by actual observations of the sun1 moon1 and stars4 ,next1 there were apparently two mythologies1 representing two schools of astronomical thought4 ,finally1 to endeavour to obtain a complete picture1 it became necessary to bring together the information to be obtained from all these and other sources1 including the old ,egyptian calendars1 and to compare the early ,babylonian results with those which are to be gathered from the ,egyptian myths and temple-orientations4 ,it will1 ,i think1 be clear to anyone who reads this volume that its limits and the present state of our knowledge have only allowed me really to make a few suggestions4 ,i have not even attempted to exhaust any one of the small number of subjects which ,i have brought forward2 but if ,i have succeeded so far as ,i have gone1 it will be abundantly evident that1 if these inquiries are worth continuing1 a very considerable amount of work has to be done4 ,of this future work1 the most important1 undoubtedly1 is a re-survey of the temple sites1 with modern instruments and methods4 ,next1 astronomers must produce tables of the rising and setting conditions of the stars for periods far beyond those which have already been considered4 ,the ,german ,astronomical ,society has published a table of the places of a great many stars up to #bjjj ,b4,c41 but to carry on this investigation we must certainly go back to #gjjj ,b4,c41 and include southern stars4 ,while the astronomer is doing this1 the ,egyptologist1 on his part1 must look through the inscriptions with reference to the suggestions which lie on the surface of the inquiry4 ,the astronomical and associated mythological data want bringing together4 ,one part of that work will consist in arranging tables of synonyms like those to which ,i presently refer in the case of the goddesses4 ,my own impression is that this work will not really be so laborious as the statement of it might seem to imply4 ,i have attempted to go over the ground during the last two years as well as my ignorance would allow me1 and ,i have arrived at the impression that the number both of gods and goddesses will be found to be extremely small2 that the apparent wealth of the mythology depends upon the totemism of the inhabitants in the ,nile valley--by which ,i mean that each district had its own special animal as the emblem of the tribe dwelling in it1 and that every mythological personage had to be connected in some way with these local cults4 ,after this work is done1 it will be possible to begin to answer some of the questions which ,i have only ventured to raise4 ,i am glad to take this opportunity of expressing my obligations to the authorities in ,egypt for the very great help they gave towards the furthering of the inquiries which were set on foot there4 ,many of my own local observations would1 in all probability1 never have been made if my friend ,major ,a4 ,davis1 of ,syracuse 7,new ,york7 had not invited me to join him in a cruise up the river in the s4s4 ,mohamet ,aly and practically given me full command of her movements4 ,my best thanks are due to him not only for his hospitality1 but for sympathetic aid in my inquiries4 ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge and ,captain ,lyons1 ,r4,e41 have rendered continual help while this book has been in progress1 and ,i cannot sufficiently thank them2 to the first-named ,i am especially indebted for looking over the proof sheets4 ,i am also under obligations to ,professors ,maspero1 ,krall1 and ,max ,mller for information on certain points1 and to ,professors ,sayce and ,jensen for many valuable suggestions in the chapters dealing with ,babylonian astronomy4 ,j4 ,,norman ,,lockyer4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,,page ,,preface vii ,i4 ,,the ,,worship ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,and ,,the ,,dawn #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,first ,,glimpses ,,of ,,egyptian ,,astronomy #i ,,iii4 ,,the ,,astronomical ,,basis ,,of ,,the ,,egyptian ,,pantheon #bj ,,iv4 ,,the ,,two ,,horizons #dj ,v4 ,,the ,,yearly ,,path ,,of ,,the ,,sun-,,god #ea ,,vi4 ,,the ,,probable ,,hor-,,shesu ,,worship #eh ,,vii4 ,,methods ,,of ,,determining ,,the ,,orientation ,,of ,,temples #fg ,,viii4 ,,the ,,earliest ,,solar ,,shrines ,,in ,,egypt #gc ,,ix4 ,,other ,,similar ,,shrines ,,elsewhere #hf ,x4 ,,the ,,solar ,,temple ,,of ,,amen-,r ,,at ,,karnak #ii ,,xi4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,amen-,r ,,at ,,karnak #aac ,,xii4 ,,the ,,stars--,,their ,,risings ,,and ,,settings #abj ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,egyptian ,,heavens4--,,the ,,zodiacs ,,of ,,denderah #acb ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,circumpolar ,,constellations3 ,,the ,,myth ,,of ,,horus #add ,,xv4 ,,temples ,,directed ,,to ,,the ,,stars #aee ,,xvi4 ,,further ,,inquiries ,,with ,,regard ,,to ,,the ,,stellar ,,temples #afg ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,building ,,inscriptions #agc ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,star ,,temples ,,at ,,karnak #ahb ,,xix4 ,,the ,,personification ,,of ,,stars--,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,isis ,,at ,,denderah #aib ,,xx4 ,,the ,,personification ,,of ,,stars 7,continued7--,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,hathor ,,at ,,denderah #bja ,,xxi4 ,,star-,,cults #baj ,,xxii4 ,,star-,,cults 7,continued7--,,amen-,t ,,and ,,khons #bbj ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,egyptian ,,year ,,and ,,the ,,nile #bbf ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,years ,,of #cfj ,,and #cfe ,,days #bdc ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,vague ,,and ,,the ,,sirian ,,years #bdi ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,sothic ,,cycle ,,and ,,the ,,use ,,made ,,of ,,it #beg ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,calendar ,,and ,,its ,,revision #bff ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,fixed ,,year ,,and ,,festival ,,calendars #bgd ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,mythology ,,of ,,isis ,,and ,,osiris #bhg ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,temple-,,stars #cjd ,,xxxi4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,sun-,,worship ,,at ,,annu ,,and ,,thebes #cae ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,early ,,temple ,,and ,,great ,,pyramid ,,builders #cbe ,,xxxiii4 ,,the ,,cult ,,of ,,northern ,,as ,,opposed ,,to ,,southern ,,stars #cda ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,egyptian ,,astronomy--,,the ,,northern ,,schools #cei ,,xxxv4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,egyptian ,,astronomy 7,continued7--,,the ,,thebes ,,school #cga ,,xxxvi4 ,,general ,,conclusions ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,north ,,and ,,south ,,races #chg ,,xxxvii4 ,,the ,,egyptian ,,and ,,babylonian ,,ecliptic ,,constellations #cif ,,xxxviii4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,egypt ,,upon ,,temple-,,orientation ,,in ,,greece #dab ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,the ,temple of ,amen-,r looking from the ,sanctuary towards the ,place of ,sunset at the ,summer ,solstice ,frontispiece ,the ,rosetta ,stone #i ,temple of ,edf1 looking ,east2 showing ,pylon and ,outer ,court #ac ,great ,court of ,heaven1 at the ,entrance to the ,hathor ,temple at ,denderah #ae ,temple ,gate with ,propylon and ,obelisks #af ,hathor ,temple of ,dr el-,bahari #ag ,the ,central ,portion of the ,circular ,zodiac of ,denderah #ah ,tablet of ,kings at ,abydos #ba ,harpocrates #bc ,r1 ,min-,r2 ,amen-,r #bd ,sebak-,r1 ,chnemu-,r #be ,anubis1 or ,set1 ,anubis-,osiris1 ,osiris 7as a ,mummy7 #bf ,osiris seated #bg ,various ,forms of ,bes--as ,warrior1 ,musician1 and ,buffoon #bh ,khons-,lunus1 ,thoth-,lunus1 the ,goddess ,sesheta #bi ,the ,weighing of the ,soul by ,horus and ,anubis1 in ,presence of ,osiris #cj ,thoth and ,sesheta ,writing the ,name of ,rameses ,,ii4 on the ,fruit of the ,persea #ca ,cleopatra as the ,goddess ,isis #cb ,isis 7seated7 #cc ,the ,rising ,sun ,horus between ,isis and ,nephthys #cd ,the ,goddess ,nu-t #ce ,the ,goddess ,nu-t represented ,double #cf ,various ,forms of ,shu #cg ,forms of ,ptah1 the ,god of ,memphis #ch ,apparent ,movement of the ,stars to an ,observer at the ,north ,pole #dj ,apparent ,movement of the ,stars to an ,observer at the ,equator #da ,the ,celestial ,sphere ,viewed from a ,middle ,latitude #db ,a ,terrestrial ,globe with ,wafer attached to ,show the ,varying ,conditions of ,observation in a ,middle ,latitude #dc ,showing ,amplitudes reckoned from the ,east or ,west ,points to ,n4,p41 ,north ,point of ,horizon1 and ,s4,p41 ,south ,point of ,horizon #df ,diagram ,showing the ,various ,amplitudes at which ,stars of ,different ,declinations ,rise and ,set in ,different ,latitudes #di ,earth and ,sun at the ,equinoxes #ed ,earth and ,sun at the ,solstices #ee ,diagrams ,showing ,position of the ,sun in ,relation to the ,zenith of ,london at the ,northern ,winter ,solstice and at the ,northern ,summer ,solstice #ef ,azimuth ,compass #fg ,theodolite for ,determining ,azimuth and ,altitudes #fh ,magnetic ,map of the ,british ,isles1 ,showing the ,variation at ,different ,points #ga ,plan of the ,mounds at ,abydos4 ,from ,mariette #gd ,the ,mounds and ,obelisk at ,annu #gf ,the ,colossi of the ,plain at ,thebes at ,high ,nile1 ,oriented to the ,sunrise at the ,winter ,solstice #gi ,plan of ,memphis #hj ,east and ,west ,pyramids and ,temples at ,gzeh #ha ,temple and ,temenos ,walls of ,tanis #hb ,temple and ,temenos ,walls of ,sas 7,sa-el-,hagar7 #hc ,the ,temple near the ,sphinx1 looking ,west 7,true71 ,showing its relation to the ,south ,face of the ,second ,pyramid #hd ,stonehenge1 from the ,north #ij ,stonehenge ,restored #ia ,plan of ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 ,showing the ,door ,facing the ,sunrise #if ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome2 ,faade ,facing the ,east 7true7 #ig ,axis of the ,temple of ,amen-,r from the ,western ,pylon1 ,looking ,south-,east #ajj ,plan of the ,temple of ,amen-,r and some of its ,surroundings1 ,including the ,sacred ,lake #aja ,view to the ,south-,west from the ,sacred ,lake of ,amen-,r #ajc ,ruins of ,door at ,entrance of the ,sanctuary #ajd ,the ,obelisks near the ,oldest ,part of the ,temple of ,amen-,r #aje ,inner ,court and ,sanctuary at ,edf #ajf ,plan of the ,temple of ,amen-,r #aah ,model ,illustrating the ,precession of the ,equinoxes #abe ,star-map ,representing the ,precessional ,movement of the ,celestial ,pole from the ,year #djjj ,b4,c4 to the year #bjjj ,a4,d4 #abg ,northern ,half of the ,so-called ,square ,zodiac of ,denderah #acf ,sirius and ,orion 7#ahth ,dynasty7 #aci ,astronomical ,drawing's from ,bibn el-,mulk 7#ahth ,dynasty7 #adj ,ruins of the ,ramesseum1 where the ,month-,tables were found #adb ,the ,god of ,darkness--,set #add ,various ,forms of ,anubis #ade ,forms of ,typhon #adf ,mestha4 ,hpi1 ,tuamutef1 ,qebhsennuf #adg ,set-,horus #adi ,illustration from a ,theban ,tomb #aea ,horus and ,crocodiles #aeb ,horus and ,crocodiles1 ,ptah and ,crocodiles #aec ,ground ,plan of ,edf #aeg ,ground ,plan of the ,temple of ,hathor at ,denderah2 ,plan of the ,temple of ,seti at ,abydos #aeh ,plan of the ,temple of ,rameses ,,ii4 in the ,memnonia at ,thebes #aei ,plan of ,temples at ,mednet-,hab #afd ,the ,bent ,axis of the ,temple of ,luxor #afe ,the ,laying of the ,foundation ,stone ,ceremonial #agd ,plan of the ,temples at ,karnak ,showing their ,orientations ,to face p4 #ahc ,plan of ,denderah #aib ,ruins of the ,mamisi 7,place of ,birth7 or ,temple of ,isis at ,denderah #aie ,ceremonial ,procession in an ,egyptian ,temple #aii ,orientation of the ,temple of ,hathor at ,denderah #bjb ,capital1 with ,masks of ,hathor with ,cow's ,ears #baf ,the ,cow of ,isis #bag ,hathor as a ,cow #bah ,hathor1 ,the ,cow of the ,western ,hills #bai ,the ,annual ,rise and ,fall of the ,nile #bbh ,hpi1 the ,god of the ,nile #bbi ,different ,forms of ,thoth #bcb ,scale of the ,nilometer at ,rda #bce ,the ,island of ,rda #bcf ,conditions of the ,heliacal ,rising of ,sirius from #djjj ,b4,c4 to #fjj ,a4,d4 #bee ,the ,distribution of the #ast of ,thoth 7representing the ,rise of ,sirius7 among the ,egyptian ,months in the #adfj-year ,sothic ,cycle #beh ,julian ,dates of the #ast of ,thoth 7,vague7 from #bc ,a4,d4 and #bdj ,a4,d4 #bfg ,the ,month-,table at the ,ramesseum #bgf ,black ,granite ,statue of ,sekhet from the ,temple of ,mut at ,thebes #bhh ,the ,goddess ,taurt2 the ,goddess ,serk-t or ,selk-t 7both with ,horns and ,disk7 #bhi ,nit 7two forms of72 ,bast #bij ,anuqa2 ,sati #bia ,isis ,nursing ,horus #bib ,isis1 ,osiris and ,horus #big ,a ,change of ,cult at ,luxor #bih ,curves showing the ,declinations of ,some of the ,stars used by the ,egyptian ,astronomers at ,different ,epochs #cjg ,the ,temples at ,tell el-,amarna #cbb ,apis 7two forms of7 #ccj ,mnevis #cca ,the ,two ,great ,pyramids at the ,time of the ,inundation #ccb ,the ,step-,pyramid of ,sakkarah #ccd ,the ,pyramid of ,mdm #cce ,the ,blunted ,pyramid of ,dashr #ccf ,ship of ,ht-,shepset ,laden with ,produce from ,pun-t #cdf ,huts ,built on ,piles in ,pun-t #cdg ,cynocephalus ,ape with ,moon ,emblem #cdi ,plan of the ,pyramids at ,nuri #cee ,plan of the ,temples and ,pyramids at ,gebel ,barkal #ceh ,statue of ,chephren1 ,found in ,temple near the ,sphinx #cfh ,the ,temples at ,phil #chb ,the ,temple at ,amada #chc ,chnemu #che ,the ,winged ,solar ,disk #cia ,a ,greek ,temple ,restored--the ,temple of ,poseidon at ,pstum #dac ,the ,temple of ,theseus at ,athens3 the ,acropolis1 with the ,parthenon1 in the ,background #dad ,the ,east ,front of the ,parthenon1 ,facing the ,rising of the ,pleiades #dae ,the ,temple of ,jupiter ,olympius ,below the ,acropolis at ,athens4 ,oriented to ,arietis #dbj ,,errata4 ,page #cd1 inscription to illustration3 for ,iris read ,isis4 ,page #hc1 inscription to illustration3 for ,s-el-lager read ,sa-el-,hagar4 ,page #cbg1 line #h from top3 for ,dies read ,this4 ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,astronomy4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,worship ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,and ,,the ,,dawn4 ,when we inquire among which early peoples we are likely to find the first cultivation of astronomy1 whatever the form it may have taken1 we learn that it is generally agreed by archologists that the first civilisations which have so far been traced were those in the ,nile ,valley and in the adjacent countries in ,western ,asia4 ,the information which we possess concerning these countries has been obtained from the remains of their cities1 of their temples--even1 in the case of ,babylonia1 of their observatories and of the records of their observations4 ,of history on papyrus we have relatively little4 ,not so early as these1 but of an antiquity which is still undefined1 are two other civilisations with which we became familiar before the treasure-houses of ,egypt and ,babylonia were open to our inquiries4 ,these civilisations occupied the regions now called ,india and ,china4 ,the circumstances of these two groups are vastly dissimilar so far as the actual sources of information are concerned2 for in relation to ,china and ,india we have paper records1 but1 alas6 no monuments of undoubtedly high antiquity4 ,it is true that there are many temples in ,india in the present day1 but1 on the authority of ,prof4 ,max ,mller1 they are relatively modern4 ,the contrary happens in ,egypt1 for there monuments exist more ancient than any of the inscribed records2 monuments indicating a more or less settled civilisation2 a knowledge of astronomy1 and temples erected on astronomical principles for the purposes of worship1 the astronomers being called the mystery teachers of ,heaven4 ,we go back in ,egypt for a period1 as estimated by various authors1 of something like #f1jjj or #g1jjj years4 ,in ,babylonia inscribed tablets carry us into the dim past for a period of certainly #e1jjj years2 but the so-called omen tablets indicate that observations of eclipses and other astronomical phenomena had been made for some thousands of years before this period4 ,in ,china and in ,india we go back as certainly to more than #d1jjj years ago4 ,when one comes to examine the texts1 whether written on paper or papyrus1 burnt in brick1 or cut on stone1 which archologists have obtained from all these sources1 we at once realise that man's earliest observations of the heavenly bodies in all the regions we have named may very fairly be divided into three perfectly distinct stages4 ,i do not mean to say that these stages follow each other exactly1 but that at one period one stage was more developed than another1 and so on4 ,for instance1 in the first stage1 wonder and worship were the prevalent features2 in the second1 there was the need of applying the observation of celestial phenomena in two directions1 one the direction of utility--such as the formation of a calendar and the foundation of years and months2 and the other the astrological direction4 ,supplied as we moderns are with the results of astronomical observation in the shape of almanacs1 pocket-books1 and the like1 it is always difficult1 and for most people quite impossible1 to put ourselves in the place and realise the conditions of a race emerging into civilisation1 and having to face the needs of the struggle for existence in a community which1 in the nature of the case1 must have been agricultural4 ,those would best succeed who best knew when to plow and sow1 and reap and mow2 and the only means of knowledge was at first the observation of the heavenly bodies4 ,it was this1 and not the accident of the possession of an extended plain1 which drove early man to be astronomically minded4 ,the worship stage would1 of course1 continue1 and the priests would see to its being properly developed2 and the astrological direction of thought1 to which ,i have referred1 would gradually be connected with it1 probably in the interest of a class neither priestly nor agricultural4 ,only more recently--not at all1 apparently1 in the early stage--were any observations made of any celestial object for the mere purpose of getting knowledge4 ,we know from the recent discoveries of ,strassmaier and ,epping that this stage was reached at ,babylon at least #cjj years ,b4,c41 at which time regular calculations were made of the future positions of moon and planets1 and of such extreme accuracy that they could have been at once utilised for practical purposes4 ,it looks as if rough determinations of star places were made at about the same time in ,egypt and ,babylonia4 ,this abstract inquiry is now practically the only source of interest in astronomy to us2 we no longer worship the sun2 we no longer believe in astrology2 we have our calendar2 but we must have a ,nautical ,almanac calculated years beforehand1 and some of us like to know a little about the universe which surrounds us4 ,it is very curious and interesting to know that the first stage1 the stage of worship1 is practically missing in the ,chinese annals2 the very earliest ,chinese observations show us the ,chinese1 a thoroughly practical people1 trying to get as much out of the stars as they could for their terrestrial purposes4 ,in ,babylonia it is a very remarkable thing that from the beginning of things--so far as we can judge from the records--the sign for ,god was a star4 ,we find the same idea in ,egypt3 in some of the hieroglyphic texts three stars represented the plural gods4 ,i have already remarked that the ideas of the early ,indian civilisation1 crystallised in their sacred books called ,vedas1 were known to us long before either the ,egyptian or the ,babylonian and ,assyrian records had been deciphered4 ,enough1 however1 is now known to show that we may take the ,vedas to bring before us the remnants of the first ideas which dawned upon the minds of the earliest dwellers in ,western ,asia--that is1 the territory comprised between the ,mediterranean1 the ,black ,sea1 the ,caucasus1 the ,caspian ,sea1 the ,indus1 and the waters which bound the southern coasts--say1 as far as ,cape ,comorin4 ,of these populations1 the ,egyptians and ,babylonians may be reckoned as the first4 ,according to ,lenormant--and he is followed by all the best scholars--this region was invaded in the earliest times by peoples coming from the steppes of ,northern ,asia4 ,bit by bit they spread to the west and east4 ,there are strange variants in the ideas of the ,chaldans already recovered from the inscriptions and those preserved in the ,vedas4 ,nevertheless1 we find a sun-god#b and the following hymn3-- ,oh ,sun1 in the most profound heaven thou shinest4 ,thou openest the locks which close the high heavens4 ,thou openest the door of heaven4 ,oh ,sun1 towards the surface of the earth thou turnest thy face4 ,oh ,sun1 thou spreadest above the surface1 like a mantle1 the splendour of heaven4 ,let us consider for a moment what were the first conditions under which the stars and the sun would be observed4 ,there was no knowledge1 but we can very well understand that there was much awe1 and fear1 and wonder4 ,man then possessed no instruments1 and the eyes and the minds of the early observers were absolutely untrained4 ,further1 night to them seemed almost death--no man could work2 for them there was no electric light1 to say nothing of candles2 so that in the absence of the moon the night reigned like death over every land4 ,there is no necessity for us to go far into this matter by trying to put ourselves into the places of these early peoples2 we have only to look at the records3 they speak very clearly for themselves4 ,but the ,vedas speak fully1 while as yet information on this special point is relatively sparse from the other regions4 ,it is wise1 therefore1 to begin with ,india1 whence the first complete revelations of this kind came4 ,max ,mller and others during recent years have brought before us an immense amount of most interesting information1 of the highest importance for our present subject4 ,they tell us that #a1ejj years ,b4,c4 there was a ritual1 a set of hymns called the ,veda 7,veda meaning knowledge74 ,these hymns were written in ,sanskrit1 which a few years ago was almost an unknown language3 we know now that it turns out to be the nearest relation to our ,english tongue4 ,the thoughts and feelings expressed in these early hymns contain the first roots and germs of that intellectual growth which connects our own generation with the ancestors of the ,aryan races--those very people who1 as we now learn from the ,vedas1 at the rising and the setting of the sun1 listened with trembling hearts to the sacred songs chanted by their priests4 ,the ,veda1 in fact1 is the oldest book in which we can study the first beginnings of our language and of everything which is embodied in all the languages under the sun4 ,the oldest1 most primitive1 most simple form of ,aryan ,nature-worship finds expression in this wonderful hymnal1 which doubtless brings before us the rituals of the ancient ,aryan populations1 represented also by the ,medes and ,persians4 ,there was1 however1 another branch1 represented by the ,zend-,avesta1 as opposed to the ,vedas1 among which there was a more or less conscious opposition to the gods of ,nature1 to which we are about to refer1 and a striving after a more spiritual deity1 proclaimed by ,zoroaster under the name of ,ahura-,mazda1 or ,ormuzd4 ,the existence of these rituals side by side in time tends to throw back the origin of the ,nature-worship of both4 ,now1 what do we find8 ,in the ,veda the gods are called ,devas1 a word which means bright2 brightness or light being one of the most general attributes shared by the various manifestations of the deity4 ,what were the deities8 ,the sun1 the sky1 the dawn1 fire1 and storm4 ,it is clear1 in fact1 from the ,vedas that sunrise was1 to those from whom the ritual had been derived1 the great revelation of ,nature1 and in time1 in the minds of the poets of the ,veda1 deva1 from meaning bright1 gradually came to mean divine4 ,sunrise it was that inspired the first prayers of our race1 and called forth the first sacrificial flames4 ,here1 for instance1 is an extract from one of the ,vedas4 ,will the sun rise again8 ,will our old friend the ,dawn come back again8 ,will the power of ,darkness be conquered by the ,god of ,light8 ,these three questions in one hymn will show what a questionable stage in man's history is thus brought before us1 and how the antithesis between night and day was one of the first things to strike mankind4 ,we find very many names for ,sun-gods-- ,mitra1 ,indra 7the day brought by the sun71 ,srya1 ,vasishtha1 ,arusha 7bright or red72 and for the ,dawn-gods-- ,ushas1 ,dyaus1 ,dyotan1 ,ahan1 ,urvas4 ,we have only to consider how tremendously important must have been the coming of the sun in the morning1 bringing everything with it2 and the dying away of the sun in the evening1 followed at once by semi-tropical quick darkness1 to cease to wonder at such worship as this4 ,here is an extract from one hymn to the ,dawn 7,ushas73-- 7#a7 ,she shines upon us like a young wife1 rousing every living being to go to his work2 when the fire had to be kindled by men she made the light by striking down darkness4 7#b7 ,she rose up spreading far and wide1 and moving everywhere1 she grew in brightness1 wearing her brilliant garment the mother of the cows 7the mornings71 the leader of the days1 she shone gold-coloured1 lovely to behold4 7#c7 ,she1 the fortunate1 who brings the eye of the gods1 who leads the white and lovely steed 7of the sun71 the ,dawn1 was seen revealed by her rays1 with brilliant treasures1 following everyone4 7#d7 ,thou art a blessing when thou art near4444 ,raise up wealth to the worshipper1 thou mighty ,dawn4 7#e7 ,shine for us with thy best rays1 thou bright ,dawn4444 7#f7 ,thou daughter of the sky1 thou high-born ,dawn4444 ,in addition to the ,sun and the ,dawn1 which turn out to be the two great deities in the early ,indian ,pantheon1 other gods are to be met with1 such as ,prithiv1 the ,earth on which we dwell2 ,varuna1 the ,sky2 ,ap1 the ,waters2 ,agni1 the ,fire2 and ,maruts1 the ,storm-gods4 ,of these1 ,varuna is especially interesting to us4 ,we read3-- ,varuna stemmed asunder the wide firmament2 he lifted up on high the bright and glorious heaven2 he stretched apart the starry sky and the earth4 ,again-- ,this earth1 too1 belongs to ,varuna1 the king1 and this wide sky with its ends far apart4 ,the two seas 7the sky and the ocean7 are ,varuna's loins4 ,finally1 the result of all this astral worship was to give an idea of the connection between the earth and the sun and the heavens1 which are illustrated in later ,indian pictures1 bringing before us modernised and much more concrete views of these early notions1 ultimately transformed into this piece of poetic thought1 that the earth was a shell supported by elephants 7which represent strength71 the elephants being supported on a tortoise 7which represents infinite slowness74 ,this poetical view subsequently gave way to one less poetical--namely1 that the earth was supported by pillars2 on what the pillars rested is not stated1 and it does not matter4 ,we must not consider this as ridiculous1 and pardonable merely because it is so early in point of time2 because1 coming to the time of ,greek civilisation1 ,anaximander told us that the earth was cylindrical in shape1 and every place that was then known was situated on the flat end of the cylinder2 and ,plato1 on the ground that the cube was the most perfect geometrical figure1 imagined the earth to be a cube1 the part of the earth known to the ,greeks being on the upper surface4 ,in these matters1 indeed1 the vaunted ,greek mind was little in advance of the predecessors of the ,vedic priests4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,first ,,glimpses ,,of ,,egyptian ,,astronomy4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,rosetta ,,stone4 7,in the ,british ,museum47 ,in the general survey1 which occupied the preceding chapter1 of the records left by the most ancient peoples1 it was shown that ,egypt1 if we consider her monuments1 came first in the order of time4 ,i have next to show that in the earliest monuments we have evidences of the existence and utilisation of astronomical knowledge4 ,it is impossible to approach such a subject as the astronomy of the ancient ,egyptians without being struck with surprise that any knowledge is available to help us in our inquiries4 ,a century ago1 the man to whom we owe more than to all others in this matter2 the man who read the riddle of those strange hieroglyphs1 which1 after having been buried in oblivion for nearly two thousand years1 were then again occupying the learned1 was not yet born4 ,i refer to ,champollion1 who was born in #agij and died in the prime of his manhood and in the midst of his work1 in #ahcb4 ,again1 a century ago the ,french scientific expedition1 planned by the great ,napoleon1 which collected for the use of all the world facts of importance connected with the sites1 the buildings1 the inscriptions1 and everything which could be got at relating to the life and language of the ancient ,egyptians1 had not even been thought of2 indeed1 it only commenced its labours in #agih1 and the intellectual world will for ever be a debtor to the man who planned it4 ,i know of no more striking proof of the wit of man than the gradual unravelling of the strange hieroglyphic signs in which the learning of the ancient ,egyptians was enshrined2 and there are few things more remarkable in the history of scientific investigation than the way in which a literature has been already brought together which is appalling in its extent2 and yet it may well be that1 vast as this literature is at present1 it is but the vanguard of a much more stupendous one to follow2 for we are dealing with a nation which we now know existed completely equipped in many ways at least seven thousand five hundred years ago4 ,it forms no part of the present work to give an account of the unravelling to which ,i have referred1 one which finds a counterpart in the results achieved by the spectroscope in another scientific field4 ,but a brief reference to one of the most brilliant achievements of the century may be permitted1 and the more as it will indicate the importance of one of the most valued treasures in our national collections4 ,i refer to the ,rosetta ,stone in the ,egyptian ,gallery of the ,british ,museum4 ,it was the finding of this stone in #agii by ,boussard1 a captain of ,french artillery at ,rosetta1 which not only showed the baselessness of the systems of suggested interpretations of the hieroglyphics which had been in vogue from the time of ,kircher downwards1 but by its bilingual record in hieroglyphic1 demotic and ,greek characters1 paved the way for men of genius like ,thomas ,young 7#ahad7 and ,champollion 7#ahbb74 ,the latter must be acknowledged as the real founder of the system of interpretation which has held its own against all opposition1 and has opened the way to inquiries into the history of the past undreamt of when the century was young4 ,chateaubriand nobly said of him1 ,ses admirables travaux auront la dure des monuments qu'il nous a fait connatre4 ,the germ of ,champollion's discovery consisted in the bringing together of two sets of characters enclosed in cartouches4 ,one of them is in the ,rosetta inscription itself2 the other1 on the plinth of an obelisk in the island of ,phil4 ,the name of ,cleopatra was associated with the one inscription1 and that of ,ptolemy with the other4 ,it was clear that if the two names1 written ,hieroglyphs and ,hieroglyphs1 were really ,ptolemaios and ,cleopatra1 they must include several identical signs or letters2 in ,ptolemaios the quadrangular figure ,hieroglyphs1 being the first1 must stand for ,p1 and this in ,cleopatra was found to occur in the right place1 standing fifth in order4 ,the third sign ,hieroglyphs in ,ptolemaios must be an o1 and the fourth ,hieroglyphs an l4 ,now the lion for l occurs second in ,cleopatra1 and the knotted cord for o fourth4 ,in this way1 proceeding by comparison with other names1 that of ,alexander1 or ,alksantrs1 was next discovered1 ,hieroglyphs and by degrees the whole ,egyptian alphabet was recovered4 ,what had come down the stream of ages and were universally recognised as unsurpassed memorials of a mysterious past were the famous pyramids1 successively described by ,herodotus1 ,diodorus and ,pliny among classical1 and ,abd el-,latf among ,arabian1 chroniclers4 ,although the rifling of the most important of these structures for the purpose of finding treasure dates at least as far back as #hbj ,a4,d41 the ,khalf ,el-,mamun being the destroyer1 the scientific study of their mode and objects of construction is a work of quite modern times1 and may be said to have been inaugurated by ,colonel ,howard ,vyse in #ahci4 ,much that has been written has been wild and nonsensical1 but from the exact descriptions and measures now available1 it is impossible to doubt that these structures were erected by a people possessing much astronomical knowledge4 ,the exact orientation of the larger pyramids in the pyramid-field of ,gzeh has been completely established1 and it is not impossible that some of the mysterious passages to be found in the pyramid of ,cheops may have had an astronomical use4 ,let us1 to continue the subject-matter of the present chapter1 come to the year #ahbj4 ,it was about then that were gathered some of the first-fruits of the investigations carried on by the ,commission to which ,i have referred2 that some translations of the inscriptions had been attempted1 and that1 some of the new results were discussed by the members of the ,french ,academy1 while at the same time they astounded and delighted the outside world4 ,illustration3 ,,temple ,,of ,,edf1 ,,looking ,,east3 ,,showing ,,pylon ,,and ,,outer ,,court4 ,from the point of view which now concerns us1 it may be said that the new discoveries might be arranged into three different groups4 ,first of all1 the land had been found full of temples1 vast and majestic beyond imagination2 among these the temples at ,karnak were supreme1 but there were others on a par with them in points of architectural detail4 ,but besides these1 then as now1 above ground and inviting inspection1 there were many others which were then--as undoubtedly many are still--more or less buried in the sand2 some of these have since been unearthed to reveal the striking features of their structure4 ,i shall show subsequently that1 on the evidence of the ancient ,egyptians themselves1 these temples were constructed in strict relation to stars2 they1 then1 like the pyramids1 must be taken as indicating astronomical knowledge4 ,if we deal with the general external appearance of the temples1 they may be arranged architecturally into two main groups4 ,edf is the most perfect example of the first group1 characterised by having a pylon consisting of two massive structures right and left of the entrance1 which are somewhat like the two towers that one sometimes sees on the west front of our ,english cathedrals4 ,in ,denderah we have an example of the second group1 in which the massive pylon is omitted4 ,in these the front is entirely changed2 instead of the pylon we have now an open front to the temple with columns--the ,greek form of temple is approached4 ,illustration3 ,,great ,,court ,,of ,,heaven1 ,,at ,,the ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,hathor ,,temple ,,at ,,denderah4 ,associated with many of the temples1 frequently but not universally in close proximity to the propylon1 were obelisks1 often of gigantic proportions1 exceeding one hundred feet in height and many hundreds of tons in weight1 which it has since been discovered were hewn out of the syenite quarry at ,aswn1 and floated down the river to the various places where they were to be erected4 ,it is not necessary to go to ,egypt to see these wonderful monoliths1 for they have been carried away from their original temple sites at ,thebes and ,heliopolis to adorn more modern cities in the ,western world4 ,london1 ,paris1 ,rome1 and ,constantinople are thus embellished4 ,it is obvious to anyone acquainted with astronomical history and methods1 that some of these structures1 at all events1 may have served as gnomons4 ,illustration3 ,,temple ,,gate ,,with ,,propylon ,,and ,,obelisks4 ,sometimes these temples1 instead of being entirely constructed of stone on a level surface1 were either entirely or partly rock-hewn4 ,of the former class1 the temple of ,abu ,simbel is the most striking example2 of the latter1 the temple of ,dr el-,bahari at ,thebes4 ,illustration3 ,,hathor ,,temple ,,of ,d,r ,,el-,,bahari4 7,as restored by ,m4 ,brune47 ,the second revelation was that the walls of these temples1 and of many funereal buildings1 were1 for the most part1 covered with inscriptions in the language which was then but gradually emerging from the unknown1 its very alphabet and syllabary being still incomplete4 ,hence there was not only a great wealth of temple buildings1 but a still more wonderful wealth of temple inscriptions4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,central ,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,circular ,,zodiac ,,of ,,denderah4 ,there was even more than this1 and something more germane to our present purpose4 ,in several temples which were examined1 zodiacs--undoubted zodiacs1 representing a third group of finds--were discovered2 these1 also1 were accompanied by inscriptions of an obviously astronomical nature4 ,at the first blush1 then1 it seemed to be perfectly certain that we had to deal with a people of an astronomical turn of mind2 and here was the opportunity for the astronomer1 which indeed the ,french astronomers did not fail to make use of4 ,where the philologist was for the moment dumb1 it seemed as if the astronomer could be of use1 giving explanations1 fixing probable dates on the one hand2 while1 on the other1 he would certainly be gaining a fresh insight into1 and possibly filling a tremendous gap in1 the history of his science4 ,the figure on the preceding page gives an idea of the method of presentation generally employed in these zodiacs4 ,i shall show in the sequel--for ,i shall have to deal with this part of my subject at full length in a subsequent chapter--that many of the animal forms represent at once mythological personages and actual constellations4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,astronomical ,,basis ,,of ,,the ,,egyptian ,,pantheon4 ,it will be abundantly clear from the statements made in the foregoing chapter that1 as ,i have said1 the main source of information touching things ,egyptian consists no longer in writings like the ,vedas1 but in the inscriptions on the monuments1 and the monuments themselves4 ,it is true that1 in addition to the monuments1 we have the ,book of the ,dead1 and certain records found in tombs2 but1 in the main1 the source of information which has been most largely drawn upon consists in the monuments themselves--the zodiacs being included in that term4 ,it has been impossible1 up to the present time1 to fix with great accuracy the exact date of the earliest monuments4 ,this should not surprise us4 ,we must all feel that it is not a question of knowing so little--it is a question of knowing anything at all4 ,when one considers that at the beginning of this century not a sign on any of these monuments was understood1 and that now the wonderful genius of a small number of students has enabled ,egyptologists to read the inscriptions with almost as much ease and certainty as we read our morning papers3 this is what is surprising1 and not the fact that we as yet know so little1 and in many cases lack certainty4 ,but we already know that probably some of these monuments are nearly #f1jjj years old4 ,this has been determined by the convergence of many lines of evidence4 ,illustration3 ,,tablet ,,of ,,kings ,,at ,,abydos4 ,one of the many points already profoundly investigated by ,egyptologists has been the chronology of the kings of ,egypt from their first monarch1 whom all students recognise as ,mena or ,menes4 ,all these inquirers have come to the definite conclusion that there was a ,king ,mena1 and that he reigned a long time ago2 but with all their skill the final result is that they cannot agree to the date of this king within a thousand years2 one reason among many others being that in these early days astronomy was a science still to be cultivated1 and therefore the early ,egyptians had not a perfect mode of recording2 perhaps even they had no idea of a hundred years as we have4 ,we are told that all their reckonings were the reckonings of the reigns of kings4 ,this is difficult to believe1 and the statement may be a measure of our ignorance of their method of record4 ,we now1 fortunately for us1 have a calendar which enables us to deal with large intervals of time1 but still we sometimes reckon1 in ,egyptian fashion1 by the reigns of kings in our ,acts of ,parliament4 ,furthermore1 ,egypt being then a country liable to devastating wars1 and to the temporary supremacy of different kingly tribes1 it has been very difficult to disentangle the various lists of kings so as to obtain one chronological line1 for the reasons that sometimes there were different kings reigning at the same time in different regions4 ,the latest date for ,king ,mena is1 according to ,bunsen1 #cfjj years ,b4,c42 the earliest date1 assigned by ,boeckh1 #egjb years ,b4,c42 ,unger1 ,brugsch1 and ,lepsius give1 respectively1 #efac1 #ddee1 #chib4 ,for our purpose we will call the date #djjj ,b4,c4--that is #f1jjj years ago--and for the present consider this as the start-point for the long series of remains of various orders to which reference has been made1 and from which alone information can be obtained4 ,we come now to deal with the ideas of the early inhabitants of the ,nile valley4 ,we find that in ,egypt we are in presence absolutely of the worship of the ,sun and of the accompanying ,dawn4 ,whatever be the date of the ,indian ideas to which we have referred1 we find them in ,egypt in the earliest times4 ,the ancient ,egyptians1 whether they were separate from1 or more or less allied in their origin to1 the early inhabitants of ,india1 had exactly the same view of ,nature-worship1 and we find in their hymns and the lists of their gods that the ,dawn and the ,sunrise were the great revelations of ,nature1 and the things which were most important to man2 and therefore everything connected with the ,sunrise and the ,dawn was worshipped4 ,illustration3 ,,harpocrates4 ,renouf1 one of the latest writers on these subjects1 says3#c ,i fear ,egyptologists will soon be accused1 like other persons1 of seeing the dawn everywhere1 and he quotes with approbation this passage from ,max ,mller relating to the ,veda3-- ,i look upon the sunrise and sunset1 on the daily return of day and night1 on the battle between light and darkness1 on the whole solar drama in all its details1 that is acted every day1 every month1 every year1 in heaven and in earth1 as the principal subject4 ,but we must now go somewhat further into detail4 ,the various apparent movements of the heavenly bodies which are produced by the rotation and the revolution of the earth1 and the effects of precession1 were familiar to the ,egyptians1 however ignorant they may have been of their causes2 they carefully studied what they saw1 and attempted to put their knowledge together in the most convenient fashion1 associating it with their strange imaginings and their system of worship4 ,dealing with the earth's rotation1 how did the ,egyptians picture it8 ,how was this interaction1 so to speak1 between the earth and the sky mythologically represented8 ,they naturally would be familiar with the phenomena of dawn and sunset1 more familiar certainly with the phenomenon of dawn than we are1 because they had a climate much better suited for its study than ours4 ,there can be no doubt that the wonderful scenes which they saw every morning and evening were the first things which impressed them1 and they came to consider the earth as a god1 surrounded by the sky--another god4 ,illustration3 ,,ra4 ,,min-,r4 ,,amen-,r4 ,i have next to point out that1 the sun being very generally worshipped in ,egypt1 there were various forms of the sun-god1 depending upon the positions occupied in its daily course4 ,we have the form of ,harpocrates at its rising1 the child sun-god being generally represented by the figure of a hawk4 ,when in human form1 we notice the presence of a side lock of hair4 ,the god ,r symbolises1 it is said1 the sun in his noontide strength2 while for the time of sunset we have various names1 chiefly ,osiris1 ,tum1 or ,atmu1 the dying sun represented by a mummy and typifying old age4 ,the hours of the day were also personified1 the twelve changes during the twelve hours being mythically connected with the sun's daily movement across the sky4 ,illustration3 ,,sebak-,r4 ,,chnemu-,r4 ,we often find ,r compounded with other names1 and in these forms of the god we possibly get references to the sun at different times of the year4 ,amen-,r1 ,sebak-,r1 and ,chnemu-,r are cases in point4 ,the former undoubtedly refers to the sun at the summer solstice4 ,min-,r is an ithyphallic form4 ,the names given by the ,egyptians to the sun then may be summarised as follows3-- ,hor1 or ,horus1 or ,harpocrates1 and ,chepera 7morning sun74 ,r 7noon74 ,tum or ,atmu 7evening sun74 ,osiris 7sun when set74 ,illustration3 ,,anubis1 ,,or ,,set4 ,illustration3 ,,anubis-,,osiris4 ,i have not space to quote the many hymns to the ,sun-gods which have been recovered from the inscriptions1 but the following extracts will show that the worship was in the main at sunrise or sunset--in other words1 that the horizon was in question3-- ,thou disk of the ,sun1 thou living ,god6 ,there is none other beside thee4 ,thou givest health to the eyes through thy beams1 ,creator of all beings4 ,thou goest up on the eastern horizon of the heaven to dispense life to all which thou hast created--to man1 four-footed beasts1 birds1 and all manner of creeping things on the earth where they live4 ,thus they behold thee1 and they go to sleep when thou settest4 ,hymn to ,tmu-- ,come to me1 ,o thou ,sun1 ,horus of the horizon1 give me help4 ,hymn to ,horus-- ,o ,horus of the horizon1 there is none other beside thee1 ,protector of millions1 deliverer of tens of thousands4 ,hymn to ,r-,tmu-,horus-- ,hail to thee of the double horizon1 the one god living by ,mat4444 ,i am the maker of heaven and of the mysteries of the twofold horizon4 ,illustration3 ,,osiris 7,,as ,a ,,mummy74 ,hymn to ,osiris-- ,o ,osiris6 ,thou art the youth at the horizon of heaven daily1 and thine old age at the beginning of all seasons4444 ,the ever-moving stars are under obedience to him1 and so are the stars which set4 ,illustration3 ,,osiris ,,seated4 ,hymn to ,r-- ,o ,r6 in thine egg1 radiant in thy disk1 shining forth from the horizon1 swimming over the steel 787 firmament4 ,tmu and ,horus of the horizon pay homage to thee 7,amen-,r7 in all their words4 ,so far we have dealt with the powers of sunlight2 but the ancient ,egyptians1 like ourselves1 were familiar with the powers of darkness or of the underworld4 ,the chief god antithetical to the sun was variously named--,sit1 ,set1 ,sut1 ,anubis1 ,typhon1 ,bes2 and a host of other names was given to him4 ,as ,i shall show1 the idea of darkness was associated with the existence of those stars which never set1 so that even here the symbolism was astronomical4 ,illustration3 ,,various ,,forms ,,of ,,bes--,,as ,,warrior1 ,,musician1 ,,and ,,buffoon4 ,the contrast between the representations of ,bes and of the other forms suggests that the former was imported4 ,in the form of ,typhon the goddess ,taurt is represented as a hippopotamus1 while for ,anubis the emblem is a jackal4 ,in all illustrations of funeral ceremonies the above-mentioned figure largely4 ,in the ,book of the ,dead we find that in the representations of the judgment of the dead1 besides ,osiris we have ,anubis1 both responsible for the weighing of the soul4 ,with the moon we find two gods connected--,thothlunus and ,khons-lunus--though the connection is not a very obvious one4 ,thoth is also associated with the ,egyptian year1 and is variously represented2 all forms1 however1 are based upon the ibis4 ,for the stars generally we find a special goddess1 ,sesheta4 ,illustration3 ,,khons-,,lunus4 ,,thoth-,,lunus4 ,,the ,,goddess ,,sesheta4 ,thoth as the sacred scribe and ,sesheta as the star-goddess are often represented together engaged in writing4 ,associated with the phenomena of morning and evening we find the following divinities4 ,the attributes stated are those now generally accepted4 ,this is a subject which will occupy us in the sequel4 ,isis represents the ,dawn and the ,twilight2 she prepares the way for the ,sun-god4 ,the rising sun between ,isis and ,nephthys morning4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,weighing ,,of ,,the ,,soul ,,by ,,horus ,,and ,,anubis ,,in ,,presence ,,of ,,osiris4 ,nephthys is the ,dawn and the ,twilight1 sometimes ,sunset4 ,shu is also the ,dawn1 or sunlight1 ,tefnut represents the coloured rays at dawn4 ,shu and ,tefnut are the eyes of ,horus4 ,shu was also called ,neshem1 which means green felspar1 in consequence of the green colour observed at dawn4 ,the green tint at dawn and sunset are represented further by the sycamore of emerald4 ,sechet is another goddess of the ,dawn1 the fiery ,dawn4 ,illustration3 ,,thoth ,,and ,,sesheta ,,writing ,,the ,,name ,,of ,,rameses ,,ii4 ,,on ,,the ,,fruit ,,of ,,the ,,persea4 7,relief from the ,ramesseum at ,thebes47 ,the red colours at sunset were said to be caused by the blood flowing from the ,sun-god when he hastens to his suicide4 ,a legend describes ,isis as stanching the blood flowing from the wound inflicted on ,horus by ,set4 ,illustration3 ,,cleopatra ,,as ,,the ,,goddess ,,isis4 ,hathor is1 according to ,budge1 identified with ,nu or ,nu-t1 the sky1 or place in which she brought forth and suckled ,horus4 ,she is the female power of ,nature1 and has some of the attributes of ,isis1 ,nu-t1 and ,mat4 ,illustration3 ,,isis 7,,seated74 ,we next have to gain some general idea of the ,egyptian cosmogony--the relation of the sun and dawn to the sky2 this is very different from the ,indian view4 ,the ,sky is ,nu or ,nu-t1 represented as a female figure bending over ,seb1 the ,earth1 with her feet on one horizon and her finger-tips on the other4 ,seb is represented by a recumbent figure1 while the sky1 represented by the goddess ,nu-t1 is separated from the earth by ,shu1 the god of air or sunlight4 ,the daily journey of the sun is represented by a god in a boat traversing the sky from east to west4 ,the goddess ,nu-t is variously symbolised4 ,sometimes there is a line of stars along her back1 which clearly defines her nature1 but sometimes she is represented by a figure in which the band of stars is accompanied by a band of water4 ,this suggests the ,jewish idea of the firmament4 ,we read of the firmament in the midst of the waters1 which divided the waters from the waters1 the waters above being separated from the waters below the firmament4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,rising ,,sun ,,horus ,,between ,,isis ,,and ,,nephthys4 ,it would seem that it was not very long before the ,egyptians saw that the paths of the sun and stars above the horizon were extremely unequal3 in the case of the sun1 at different times of the year2 in the case of the stars1 depending upon their position near the equator or either pole4 ,in this way1 perhaps1 we may explain a curious variant of the drawing of the goddess ,nu-t1 in which she is represented double1 a larger one stretching over a smaller one4 ,not only the ,sun-gods1 but the stars1 were supposed to travel in boats across the firmament from one horizon to the other4 ,the underworld was the abode of the dead2 and daily the sun1 and the stars which set1 died on passing to the regions of the west1 or ,amenti1 below the western horizon1 to be born again on the eastern horizon on the morrow4 ,in this we have the germ of the ,egyptian idea of immortality4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,goddess ,,nu-,t4 ,among other gods which may be mentioned are ,chnemu1 the ,moulder1 who was thought to possess some of the attributes of ,r2 and ,ptah1 the ,opener1 who is at times represented with ,isis and ,nephthys1 and then appears as a form of ,osiris4 ,we can now begin to glimpse the ,egyptian mythology4 ,seb1 the ,earth1 was the husband of ,nu-t1 the ,sky2 and the ,sun-and ,dawn-gods and-goddesses were their children1 as also were ,shu representing sunlight1 and ,tefnut representing the flames of dawn4 ,mat1 the goddess of law1 was the daughter of ,r4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,goddess ,,nu-,t ,,represented ,,double4 ,illustration3 ,,various ,,forms ,,of ,,shu4 ,we know several points regarding ,egyptian customs independently of the astronomical inscriptions1 properly so-called1 to which ,i have called attention4 ,we know that there were sacrifices at daybreak2 we know that stars were watched before sunrise1 and heralded the dawn2 we know that these observations were among the chief duties of the sacrificial priests1 and it is obvious that a knowledge of star-places1 as well as star-names1 must have been imperative to these morning watchers1 who eventually compiled lists of decans--that is1 lists of belts of stars extending round the heavens1 the risings of which followed each other by ten days or so4 ,these are the exact equivalents of the moon-stations which the ,indians1 ,arabians1 and other peoples invented for the same purpose4 ,we also find1 more or less indeterminately from inscriptions in some graves at ,thebes1 that the daily risings of the chief stars were observed very carefully throughout the year4 ,unfortunately the inscriptions in question are very difficult indeed to co-ordinate4 ,there have been various efforts made to connect them with certain stars1 but1 so far1 ,i am afraid they have resisted all efforts to get a complete story out of them1 though certain very important points have been made out4 ,these points ,i shall consider later4 ,illustration3 ,,forms ,,of ,,ptah1 ,,the ,,god ,,of ,,memphis4 ,it is not too early to point out here that there is evidence that the ,egyptian pantheon1 as ,i have stated it1 had not a simple origin4 ,there are traditions that many of the gods came from a region indeterminately described as the land of ,pun-t4 ,among these gods are ,chnemu1 ,amen-,r1 ,hathor1 and ,bes4 ,on page #bh ,i have associated ,bes with ,typhon1 following several authorities1 but if they are right it is very difficult to understand his rle4 ,it may also be added that the temple-evidence supports the view of his foreign origin4#d ,when one comes to consider the ,rig-,veda and the ,egyptian monuments from an astronomical point of view1 one is struck by the fact that1 in both1 the early worship and all the early observations related to the horizon4 ,this was true not only of the sun1 with which so far we have exclusively dealt1 but it was equally true of the stars which studded the general expanse of sky4 ,in ,egypt1 then1 as in ,india1 the pantheon was astronomical and1 to a very large extent1 solar in origin4 ,i shall have to show that the remainder--nearly the whole of it--had its origin in stellar relations4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,two ,,horizons4 ,it is not only of the first importance for our subject1 but of great interest in itself1 to study some of the astronomical problems connected with this horizon worship1 which in the previous chapter we have found to be common to the early peoples of ,india and ,egypt4 ,illustration3 ,,apparent ,,movement ,,of ,,the ,,stars ,,to ,,an ,,observer ,,at ,,the ,,north ,,pole4 ,we must be perfectly clear before we go further what this horizon really is1 and for this some diagrams are necessary4 ,the horizon of any place is the circle which bounds our view of the earth's surface1 along which the land 7or sea7 and sky appear to meet4 ,we have to consider the relation of the horizon of any place to the apparent movements of celestial bodies at that place4 ,we know1 by means of the demonstration afforded by ,foucault's pendulum1 that the earth rotates on its axis1 but this idea was1 of course1 quite foreign to these early peoples4 ,since the earth rotates with stars1 infinitely removed1 surrounding it on all sides1 the apparent movements of the stars will depend very much upon the position we happen to occupy on the earth3 this can be made quite clear by a few diagrams4 ,illustration3 ,,apparent ,,movement ,,of ,,the ,,stars ,,to ,,an ,,observer ,,at ,,the ,,equator4 ,an observer at the ,north ,pole of the earth1 for instance1 would see the stars moving round in circles parallel to the horizon4 ,no star would either rise or set--one half of the heavens would be always visible above his horizon1 and the other half invisible2 whereas an observer at the ,south ,pole would see that half of the stars invisible to the observer at the northern one1 because it was the half below the ,n4 horizon4 ,if the observer be on the equator1 the movements of the stars all appear as indicated in the above diagram--that is1 all the stars will rise and set1 and each star in turn will be half its time above the horizon1 and half its time below it4 ,but if we consider the position of an observer in middle latitude1 say in ,london1 we find that some stars will always be above the horizon1 some always below--that is1 they will neither rise nor set4 ,all other stars will both rise and set1 but some of them will be above the horizon for a long time and below for a short time1 whereas others will be a very short time above the horizon and a long time below it4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,celestial ,,sphere ,,viewed ,,from ,a ,,middle ,,latitude4 ,,an ,,oblique ,,sphere4 ,at ,o we imagine an observer to be in latitude #de 7that is1 half-way between the equator in latitude #j1 and the ,north ,pole in latitude #ij71 hence the ,north ,celestial ,pole will be half-way between the zenith and the horizon2 and close to the pole he will see the stars describing circles1 inclined1 however1 and not retaining the same distance from the horizon4 ,as the eye leaves the pole1 the stars rise and set obliquely1 describe larger circles1 gradually dipping more and more under the horizon1 until1 when the celestial equator is reached1 half their journey is performed below it4 ,still going south1 we find the stars rising less and less above the horizon1 until1 as there were northern stars that never dip below the horizon1 so there are southern stars which never appear above it4 ,d ,d' shows the apparent path of a circumpolar star2 ,b ,b ,b the path and rising and setting points of an equatorial star2 ,c ,c,c and ,a ,a ,a those of stars of mid-declination1 one north and the other south4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,terrestrial ,,globe ,,with ,,wafer ,,attached ,,to ,,show ,,the ,,varying ,,conditions ,,of ,,observation ,,in ,a ,,middle ,,latitude4 ,wherever we are upon the earth we always imagine that we are on the top of it4 ,the idea held by all the early peoples was that the earth was an extended plain3 they imagined that the land that they knew and just the surrounding lands were really in the centre of the extended plain4 ,plato1 for instance1 as we have seen1 was content to put the ,mediterranean and ,greece upon the top of his cube1 and ,anaximander placed the same region at the top of his cylinder4 ,we can very conveniently study the conditions of observation at the poles of the earth1 the equator1 and some place in middle latitude1 by using an ordinary terrestrial globe4 ,the wooden horizon of the globe is parallel to the horizon of a place at the top of the globe1 which horizon we can represent by a wafer4 ,in this way we can get a very concrete idea of the different relations of the observer's horizon in different latitudes to the apparent paths of the stars4 ,we have next to deal with the astronomical relations of the horizon of any place in connection with the worship of the sun and stars at the times of rising or setting1 when1 of course1 they are on or near the horizon2 and in order to bring this matter nearer to the ancient monuments1 it will be convenient to study this question for ,thebes1 where they exist in greatest number and have been most accurately described4 ,to adjust things properly we must rectify the globe to the latitude of #be #dj ,n41 or1 in other words1 incline the axis of the globe at that angle to the wooden horizon4 ,it will be at once seen that the inclination of the axis to the horizon is very much less than in the case of ,london4 ,since all the stars which pass between the ,north ,pole and the horizon cannot set1 all their apparent movement will take place above the horizon4 ,all the stars between the horizon and the ,south ,pole will never rise4 ,hence1 stars within the distance of #be from the ,north ,pole will never set at ,thebes1 and those stars within #be of the ,south ,pole will never be visible there4 ,at any place the latitude and the elevation of the pole are the same4 ,it so happens that all these places with which archologists have to do in studying the history of early peoples1 ,egypt1 ,babylonia1 ,assyria1 ,china1 ,greece1 c41 are in middle latitudes1 therefore we have to deal with bodies in the skies1 which do set1 and bodies which do not2 and the elevation of the pole is neither very great nor very small4 ,in each different latitude the inclination of the equator to the horizon1 as well as the elevation of the pole1 will vary1 but there will be a strict relationship between the inclination of the equator at each place and the elevation of the pole4 ,except at the poles themselves the equator will cut the horizon due east and due west4 ,therefore every celestial body which rises or sets to the north of the equator will cut the horizon between the east or west point and the north point2 those bodies which do not set will1 of course1 not cut the horizon at all4 ,the sun1 and stars near the equator1 in such a latitude as that of ,thebes1 will appear to rise or set at no very considerable angle to the vertical2 but when we deal with stars rising or setting near to the north or south points of the horizon they will seem to skim along the horizon instead of rising or setting vertically4 ,now it will at once be obvious that there must be a strict law connecting the position of the sun 7or a star7 with its place of rising or setting4 ,stars at the same distance from either of the celestial poles will rise or set at the same point of the horizon1 and if a star does not change its place in the heavens it will always rise or set in the same place4 ,here it will be convenient to introduce one or two technical terms4 ,every celestial body1 whether we deal with the sun1 moon1 planet1 or star1 occupies at any moment a certain place in the sky1 partly1 though not wholly1 defined by what we term its declination1 i4e41 its distance from the celestial equator4 ,this declination is one of the two co-ordinates which are essential for enabling us to state accurately the position of any body on the celestial vault2 and we must quite understand that if all these bodies rise and set1 and rise and set visibly1 the place of their rising or setting must be very closely connected with their declination4 ,bodies with the same declination will rise at the same points of the horizon4 ,when the declination changes1 of course the body will rise and set in different points of the horizon4 ,next we define points on the horizon by dividing the whole circumference into four quadrants of #ij each #cfj1 so that we can have azimuths of #ij from the north or south points to the east and west points4 ,azimuths are not always reckoned in this way1 navigators preferring one method1 while astronomers prefer another4 ,thus azimuth may also be taken as the distance measured in degrees from the south point in a direction passing through the west1 north1 and east points4 ,on this system1 a point can have an azimuth varying from #j to #cfj4 ,illustration3 ,,showing ,,amplitudes ,,reckoned ,,from ,,the ,,east ,,or ,,west ,,points ,,to ,n4,p41 ,,north ,,point ,,of ,,horizon1 ,,and ,s4,p41 ,,south ,,point ,,of ,,horizon4 ,it is next important to define the term amplitude4 ,the amplitude of a body on the horizon is its distance north and south of the east and west points2 it is always measured to the nearest of these two latter points1 so that its greatest value can never exceed #ij4 ,for instance1 the south point itself would have an amplitude of #ij south of west 7generally written ,w4 #ij ,s471 or #ij south of east 7,e4 #ij ,s471 while a point #b to the westward of south would have an amplitude of ,w4 #hh ,s41 and not ,e4 #ib ,s4 ,we can say then that a star of a certain declination will rise or set at such an azimuth1 if we reckon from the ,n4 point of the horizon1 or at such an amplitude if we reckon from the equator4 ,this will apply to both north and south declinations4 ,the following table gives for ,thebes the amplitudes of rising or setting 7north or south7 of celestial bodies having declinations from #j to #fd2 bodies with higher declinations than #fd never set at ,thebes if they are north1 or never rise if they are south1 as the latitude 7and therefore the elevation of the pole7 there is nearly #bf4 ,,amplitudes ,,at ,,thebes4 ,declin ,ampli ,declin ,ampli ,declin ,ampli -ation4 -tude4 -ation4 -tude4 -ation4 -tude4 #j #j #j #bb #bd #cc #dd #ej #be #a #a #g #bc #be #da #de #ea #da #b #b #ac #bd #bf #di #df #eb #eg #c #c #bj #be #bg #eh #dg #ed #ad #d #d #bf #bf #bi #f #dh #ee #cb #e #e #cc #bg #cj #ae #di #ef #ea #f #f #dj #bh #ca #bc #ej #eh #ab #g #g #dg #bi #cb #cb #ea #ei #cd #h #h #ec #cj #cc #da #eb #fj #eh #i #i #ei #ca #cd #ea #ec #fb #bc #aj #aa #f #cb #cf #a #ed #fc #ea #aa #ab #ac #cc #cg #aa #ee #fe #ba #ab #ac #bj #cd #ch #ba #ef #ff #ed #ac #ad #bg #ce #ci #ca #eg #fh #ca #ad #ae #cd #cf #dj #db #eh #gj #ab #ae #af #da #cg #da #ec #ei #ga #ei #af #ag #di #ch #dc #e #fj #gc #ee #ag #ah #ef #ci #dd #ag #fa #gf #a #ah #bj #c #dj #de #cj #fb #gh #be #ai #ba #aj #da #df #dc #fc #ha #ai #bj #bb #ag #db #dg #ef #fd #he #db #ba #bc #be #dc #di #aj ,the absolute connection1 then1 between the declination of a heavenly body and the amplitude at which it rises and sets is obvious from the above table3 given the declination we know the amplitude2 given the amplitude we know the declination4 ,suppose we were dealing with a sea horizon3 all the bodies rising or setting at the same instant of time would be in a great circle round the heavens1 for the plane of the sensible horizon is parallel to the geocentric one4 ,but there are some additional points to be borne in mind4 ,ordinarily we should determine that the amplitude being so and so1 the declination of the body which rose or set with that amplitude would be so and so1 taking the horizon to be an all-round horizon like a sea one4 ,but that would not be quite true1 because we generally see the sun1 to take an instance1 some little time before it really rises and after it has set1 owing to refraction4 ,so that if we see the sun setting1 say1 north of west1 we know that when we see it setting it appears really a little further to the north than it actually was at the moment of true sunset1 because refraction gives us the position of the sun just below the true horizon4 ,that is one point that we have to consider4 ,another is that1 of course1 we as a rule do not deal with sea horizons4 ,here we find a hill1 there some other obstacle2 so that it is necessary to make a correction depending on the height of the hill or other obstacle above the sea-or true-horizon at the place4 ,only when we take these things completely into consideration1 can we determine absolutely the declination1 or distance from the celestial equator1 of the body at the moment of rising or setting4 ,still1 it is worth while noting that when only approximations are required1 the refraction-and hill-corrections have a tendency to neutralise each other in the northern hemisphere4 ,refraction will tend to carry the sunrise or sunset place more to the north1 hills will cause the body to appear to rise or set more to the south4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,showing ,,the ,,various ,,amplitudes ,,at ,,which ,,stars ,,of ,,different ,,declinations ,,rise ,,and ,,set ,,in ,,different ,,latitudes4 ,it is important to point out that these corrections vary very considerably in importance according to the declination of the star with which we have to deal4 ,with a high north or south declination the amplitude increases very rapidly1 and the more it increases the more the corrections for refraction and elevation above the true horizon to which ,i have referred become of importance4 ,in all cases the correction has to be made so that the amplitude will be increased or decreased from the true amplitude by this effect of refraction1 according as the body--whether sun or star--is seen to the north or south of the equator4 ,in the diagram given on page #di1 the various amplitudes are shown at which bodies of different declinations appear to rise and set in places with latitudes ranging from #ai to #ea ,n4 ,it is a diagram to which frequent reference will be made in the sequel4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,yearly ,,path ,,of ,,the ,,sun-,,god4 ,let us1 then1 imagine the ancient ,egyptians1 furnished with the natural astronomical circle which is provided whenever there is an extended plain1 engaged in their worship at sunrise1 praying to the ,lord of the two ,horizons4 ,the rising 7and setting7 of stars we will consider later2 it is best to begin with those observations about which there is the least question4 ,in the very early observations that were made in ,egypt and ,babylonia1 when the sun was considered to be a god who every morning got into his boat and floated across space1 there was no particular reason for considering the amplitude at which the supposed boat left or approached the horizon4 ,but a few centuries showed that this rising or setting of the sun in widely varying amplitudes at different parts of the year depended upon a very definite law4 ,we now1 more fortunate than the early ,egyptians1 of course know exactly what this law is1 and with a view of following their early attempts to grapple with the difficulties presented to them we must pass to the yearly path of the sun1 in order to study the relation of the various points of the horizon occupied by the sun at different times in the year4 ,not many years ago ,foucault gave us a means of demonstrating the fact that the earth rotates on its axis4 ,we have also a perfect method of demonstrating that the earth not only rotates on its axis once a day1 but that it moves round the sun once a year1 an idea which was undreamt of by the ancients4 ,as a pendulum shows us the rotation1 so the determination of the aberration of light demonstrates for us the revolution of the earth round the sun4 ,we have1 then1 the earth endowed with these two movements--a rotation on its axis in a day1 and a revolution round the sun in a year4 ,to see the full bearing of this on our present inquiry1 we must for a time return to the globe or model of the earth4 ,to determine the position of any place on the earth's surface we say that it is so many degrees distant from the equator1 and also so many degrees distant from the longitude of ,greenwich3 we have two rectangular co-ordinates1 latitude and longitude4 ,when we conceive the earth's equator extended to the heavens1 we have a means of determining the positions of stars in the heavens exactly similar to the means we have of determining the position of any place on the earth4 ,we have already defined distance from the equator as north or south declination in the case of a star1 as we have north latitude or south latitude in case of a place on the earth4 ,with regard to the other co-ordinate1 we can also say that the heavenly body whose place we are anxious to determine is at a certain distance from our first point of measurement1 whatever that may be1 along the celestial equator4 ,speaking of heavenly bodies1 we call this distance right ascension2 dealing with matters earthy1 we measure from the meridian of ,greenwich and call the distance longitude4 ,the movement of the earth round the sun is in a plane which is called the plane of the ecliptic1 and the axis of rotation of the earth is inclined to that plane at an angle of something like #bc4 ,we can if we choose use the plane of the ecliptic to define the positions of the stars as we use the plane of the earth's equator4 ,in that case we talk of distance from the ecliptic as celestial latitude1 and along the ecliptic from one of the points where it cuts the celestial equator as celestial longitude4 ,the equator1 then1 cuts the ecliptic at two points3 one of these is chosen for the start-point of measurement along both the equator and the ecliptic1 and is called the first point of ,aries4 ,we have1 then1 two systems of co-ordinates1 by each of which we can define the position of the sun or a star in the heavens3 equatorial co-ordinates dealing with the earth's equator1 ecliptic co-ordinates dealing with the earth's orbit4 ,knowing that the earth moves round the sun once a year1 the year to us moderns is defined with the most absolute accuracy4 ,in fact1 we have three years3 we have a sidereal year--that is1 the time taken by the earth to go through exactly #cfj of longitude2 we have what is called the tropical year1 which indicates the time taken by the earth to go through not quite #cfj1 to go from the first point of ,aries till she meets it again2 and since the equinoctial point advances to meet the earth1 we talk about the precession of the equinoxes2 this year is the sidereal year minus twenty minutes4 ,then there is also another year called the anomalistic year1 which depends upon the movement of the point in the earth's orbit where the earth is nearest to the sun2 this is running away1 so to speak1 from the first point of ,aries1 instead of advancing to meet it1 so that in this case we get the sidereal year plus nearly five minutes4 ,the angle of the inclination of the earth's plane of rotation to the plane of its revolution round the sun1 which1 as ,i have said1 is at the present time something like #bc1 is called the obliquity of the ecliptic4 ,this obliquity is subject to a slight change1 to which ,i shall refer in a subsequent chapter4 ,in order to give a concrete idea of the most important points in the yearly path of the earth round the sun1 let us imagine four globes arranged on a circle representing the earth at different points of its orbit1 with another globe in the centre representing the sun1 marking the two practically opposite points of the earth's orbit1 in which the axis is not inclined to or from the sun but is at right angles to the line joining the earth in these two positions1 and the two opposite and intermediate points at which the north pole of the axis is most inclined towards and away from the sun4 ,a diagram will show what will happen under these conditions4 ,if we take first the points at which the axis1 instead of being inclined towards the sun1 is inclined at right angles to it1 it is perfectly obvious that we shall get a condition of things in which the movement of the earth on its axis will cause the dark side of the earth and also the light side represented by the side nearest to the sun1 both being of equal areas1 to extend from pole to pole2 so that any place on the earth rotating under those conditions will be brought for half a period of rotation into the sunlight1 and be carried for half a period of the rotation out of the sunlight2 the day1 therefore1 will be of the same length as the night1 and the days and nights will therefore be equal all over the world4 ,we call this the time of the equinoxes2 the nights are of the same length as the day in both these positions of the earth with regard to the sun4 ,illustration3 ,,earth ,,and ,,sun ,,at ,,the ,,equinoxes4 ,in the next figure we have the other condition4 ,here the earth's axis is inclined at the greatest angle of #bc1 towards1 and away from1 the sun4 ,if ,i take a point very near the north pole1 that point will not1 in summer1 be carried by the earth's rotation out of the light1 and a part equally near the south pole will not be able to get into it4 ,these are the conditions at and near two other points called the solstices4 ,illustration3 ,,earth ,,and ,,sun ,,at ,,the ,,solstices4 ,on each of these globes ,i have drawn a line representing the overhead direction from ,london4 ,if we observe the angle between the direction of the zenith and that to the sun in winter we find it considerable2 but if we take the opposite six-monthly condition we get a small angle4 ,in other words1 under the first condition the sun at noon will be far from the zenith of ,london1 we shall have winter2 and in the other condition the sun will be as near as it can be to the zenith at noon1 we shall have summer4 ,these two cases represent the two points in the earth's orbit at which the sun has the greatest declination south and north4 ,with the greatest north declination the sun will come up high1 appear to remain at the same height above the horizon at noon for a day or two1 as it does at our summer solstice1 and then go down again2 at the other point1 when it has the greatest southern declination1 it will go down to the lowest point1 as it does in our winter1 stop1 and come up again--that is1 the sun will stand still1 so far as its height above the horizon at noon is concerned1 and the ,latin word solstice exactly expresses that idea4 ,we have1 then1 two opposite points in the revolution of the earth round the sun at which we have equal altitudes of the sun at noon1 two others when the altitude is greatest and least4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,showing ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,zenith ,,of ,,london ,,at ,,the ,,northern ,,winter ,,solstice4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,showing ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,zenith ,,of ,,london ,,at ,,the ,,northern ,,summer ,,solstice4 ,we get the equal altitudes at the equinoxes1 and the greatest and the least at the solstices4 ,these altitudes depend upon the change of the sun's declination4 ,the change of declination will affect the azimuth and amplitude of the sun's rising and setting2 this is why1 in our northern hemisphere1 the sun rises and sets most to the north in summer and most to the south in winter4 ,at the equinoxes the sun has always #j ,decl41 so it rises and sets due east and west all over the world4 ,but at the solstices it has its greatest declination of #bc ,n4 or ,s42 it will rise and set1 therefore1 far from the east and west points2 how far1 will depend on the latitude of the place we consider4 ,the following are approximate values3 ,latitude of ,amplitude of ,sun ,place4 at ,solstice4 #be #bf #e #cj #bg #bd #ce #bi #h #dj #ca #ba #de #cd #dj #ej #ch #bj #ee #dd #j ,at ,thebes1 ,lat4 #be #dj ,n41 representing ,egypt1 we find that the amplitude of the sun at rising or setting at the summer solstice will be approximately #bf ,n4 of ,e4 at rising1 and #bf ,n4 of ,w4 at setting4 ,these solstices and their accompaniments are among the striking things in the natural world4 ,at the winter solstice we have the depth of winter1 at the summer solstice we have the height of summer2 while at the equinoxes we have but transitional changes2 in other words1 while the solstices point1 out for us the conditions of greatest heat and greatest cold1 the equinoxes point out for us those two times of the year at which the temperature conditions are very nearly equal1 although of course in the one case we are saying good-bye to summer and in the other to winter4 ,in ,egypt the summer solstice was paramount1 for it occurred at the time of the rise of the ,nile1 the beginning of the ,egyptian year4 ,did the ancients know anything about these solstices and these equinoxes8 ,were the almost mythical ,hor-shesu or sun-worshippers familiar with the annual course of the sun8 ,that is one of the questions which we have to discuss4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,probable ,,hor-,,shesu ,,worship4 ,at the end of the last chapter ,i referred to the ,hor-shesu or followers1 that is worshippers1 of the ,sun-god ,horus4 ,i shall have to refer to the traditions relating to them at a later stage1 but it is well that ,i should state here that those personages who preceded the true historic period are considered by ,de ,roug and others to represent le type de l'antiquit la plus recule4 ,let us for the moment accept the truth of the various traditions relating to them1 and suppose that they left traces of their worship2 what1 in the light of the last chapter1 should we expect to find8 ,the thing most likely to remain would be ancient shrines in all probability serving for the foundation of nobler structures built in later times4 ,this brings us to the question as to the probabilities of temple-building generally in relation to the heavenly bodies2 but before ,i deal with it1 it is important to consider a view first put forward1 ,i believe1 by ,vitruvius1 and repeated by all since his time who have dealt with the question1 that the temples were built purely and simply to face the ,nile4#e ,the statement is so far from the truth that it is clear that those who have made it had not studied the larger temple-fields4 ,indeed1 we have only to note the conditions at ,karnak alone to determine whether there is any truth in the view that the temples face the river4 ,we see at once that this idea cannot be true1 because we have the chief temples facing in four directions1 while the ,nile flows only on one side4 ,other archologists who have endeavoured to investigate the orientations of these buildings have found that they practically face in all directions2 the statement is that their arrangement is principally characterised by the want of it2 they have been put down higgledy-piggledy2 there has been a symmetrophobia1 mitigated perhaps by a general desire that the temple should face the ,nile4 ,this view might be the true one1 if stars were not observed as well as the sun4 ,with regard to all the temples of the ancient world1 whether they are located in ,egypt or elsewhere1 we must never forget that if astronomy is concerned in them at all1 we have to deal with the observations of the rising or setting of the heavenly bodies2 whereas the modern astronomer cares little for these risings or settings1 but deals only with them on the meridian4 ,the place of rising or setting would be connected with the temple by the direction of the temple's axis4 ,now1 the directions towards which the temples point are astronomically expressed by their amplitudes--that is1 the distance in degrees from the east or west point of the horizon4 ,for instance1 a temple facing east would have an amplitude of zero from the east point4 ,if we suppose a temple oriented to the north1 it would have an amplitude of #ij2 if half-way between the east and north1 the amplitude would be #de north of east1 and so on4 ,so that it is possible to express the amplitude of a temple in such a way that the temples in the same or different countries or localities1 with the same or equivalent amplitudes1 may be classified2 and the more temples which can be thus brought together1 the more likely is any law relating to their structure to come out4 ,let us take this1 then1 as a general principle4 ,now how would it be carried out8 ,it becomes pretty obvious1 when we consider the conditions of things in these early times1 that the stars would be the objects which would first commend themselves to the attention of temple builders1 for the reason that the movements and rising-and setting-places of the various planets by night1 and of the sun by day1 would appear to be so erratic1 so long as the order of their movements was not known4 ,to go a step further4 ,it is clear in the first place that no one would think of orienting a temple to the moon1 as there is so little constancy about its path in the sky1 and1 therefore1 in its place of rising or setting4 ,if the temple caught it each month1 the intervals between which this occurrence takes place would vary very considerably1 and in early times would have been impossible to predict4 ,similarly it would not be worth while to orient temples to the planets4 ,but when we come to the stars1 the thing is different4 ,a few years' observations would have appeared to demonstrate the absolute changelessness of the places of rising and setting of the same stars4 ,it is true that this result would have been found to be erroneous when a long period of time had elapsed and when observation became more accurate2 but for hundreds of years the stars would certainly appear to represent fixity1 while the movements of sun1 moon and planets would seem to be bound by no law4 ,before1 then1 the yearly apparent movements of the sun had been fully made out1 observations of a star rising or setting with the sun at some critical time of the agricultural cycle1 say sowing-time or harvest1 would be of the highest importance1 and would secure the work being done at the right time of the--to the early peoples--still unformulated year4 ,if a star was chosen in or near the ecliptic1 sooner or later the sunlight as well as the starlight would enter the temple1 and the use of a solar temple might have thus been suggested even before the solstices or equinoxes had been thoroughly grasped4 ,there is no doubt that if we are justified in assuming that the stars were first observed1 the next thing that would strike the early astronomers would be the regularity of the annual movement of the sun2 the critical times of the sun's movements as related either to their agriculture1 or their festivals1 or to the year2 the equinoxes and the solstices1 would soon have revealed themselves to these early observers1 if for no other reason than that they were connected in some way or other with some of the important conditions of their environment4 ,after a certain time1 solar temples1 if built at all1 would be oriented either to the sun at some critical time of the agricultural--or religious--year1 or to the solstices and equinoxes4 ,but at first1 until the fixity of the sun's yearly movements and especially the solstices and equinoxes had been recognised1 it would have seemed as useless to direct a temple to the sun as to the moon4 ,after a time1 however1 when the solstices and equinoxes had been made out1 it would soon have been found that a temple once directed to the sun's rising place at harvest or sowing time1 or at a solstice or an equinox1 would continue for a long period to mark those critical points in the sun's yearly course2 and when this yearly course had been finally made out it would soon be observed that the sun at any part of the agricultural year was as constant 7indeed1 as we now know1 more constant7 in its rising-and setting-place as a star4 ,but dealing with sun-worshippers1 and endeavouring to think out what the earliest observers probably would try to do in the case of a solar temple1 we see that1 in all likelihood1 they would orient it to observe the sun at one of the chief points in the year which could be best marked4 ,i have said which could be best marked1 but how was this to be done8 ,evidently1 if terrestrial things were to be assisted1 the marking must have been by something exterrestrial1 otherwise they would have been reasoning in a circle2 and moreover we must take for granted that what was wanted was a warning of what was to be done4 ,now1 in the earliest times1 as ,i have said1 the constant movements of the stars would have stood out in strong contrast to the inconstant movements of the sun1 and ,i think that there can be little doubt that the first fixing of any point in the year was by the rising or setting of some star at sunrise--or possibly sunset4 ,it is obvious that this might have gone on even before the solstices and equinoxes were recognised4 ,when this came about1 then temples might have been directed to the sun at a solstice or an equinox4 ,was it difficult to do this8 ,did it indicate that the people who built such temples were great astronomers8 ,nothing of the kind2 nothing is more easy to determine than a solstice or an equinox4 ,let us take the solstice first4 ,we know that at the summer solstice the sun rises and sets furthest to the north1 at the winter solstice furthest to the south4 ,we have only from any point to set up a line of stakes before the time of the solstice1 and then alter the line of them day by day as the sun gets further to the north or south1 until no alteration is wanted4 ,the solstice has been found4 ,there is another way of doing it4 ,take a vertical rod4 ,such a rod1 which ,i may state is sometimes called a gnomon and used to measure time1 may be used with another object3 we may observe the length of the shadow cast by the sun when it is lowest at the winter solstice1 and when it is highest2 at these two positions of the sun obviously the lengths of the shadows thrown will be different4 ,when the noon-sun is nearest overhead in the summer the length of the shadow will be least1 when the sun is most removed from the zenith the shadow will be longest4 ,the day on which the shortest shadow is thrown at noon will define the summer solstice2 when the shadow is longest we shall have the winter solstice4 ,this1 in fact1 was the method adopted by the ,chinese to determine the solstices1 and from it very early they found a value of the obliquity of the ecliptic4 ,it may be said that this is only a statement1 and that the record has been falsified2 some years ago anyone who was driven by facts to come to the conclusion that any very considerable antiquity was possible in these observations met with very great difficulty4 ,but the shortest and the longest shadows recorded 7#aajj years ,b4,c47 do not really represent the true lengths at present4 ,if anyone had forged these observations he would state such lengths as people would find to-day or to-morrow1 but the lengths given were different from those which would be found to-day4 ,laplace1 who gave considerable attention to this matter1 determined what the real obliquity was at that time1 and proved that the record does represent an actual observation1 and not one which had been made in later years4#f ,next suppose an ancient ,egyptian wished to determine the time of an equinox4 ,we know from the ,egyptian tombs that their stock-in-trade1 so far as building went1 was very considerable2 they had squares1 they had plumb-lines1 they had scales1 and all that sort of thing1 just as we have4 ,he would first of all make a platform quite flat2 he could do that by means of the square or plumb-line2 then he would get a ruler with pretty sharp edges 7and such rulers are found in their tombs71 and in the morning of any day he would direct this ruler to the position of the sun when it was rising1 and he would from a given point draw a line towards the sun2 he would do the same thing in the evening when the sun set2 he would bisect the angle made by these two lines1 and it would give him naturally a north and south line1 and a right angle to this would give him east and west4 ,so that from observations of the sun on any one day in the year he would practically be in a position to determine the points at which the sun would rise and set at the equinox--that is1 the true east and west points4 ,suppose that the sun is rising1 let a rod throw a shadow2 mark the position of the shadow2 at sunset we again note where the shadow falls4 ,if the sun rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west1 those two shadows will be continuous1 and we shall have made an observation at the absolute equinox4 ,but suppose the sun not at the equinox1 a line joining the ends of the shadows equally long before and after noon will be an east and west line4 ,it is true that there may be a slight error unless we are very careful about the time of the year at which we make the observations1 because when the sun is exactly east or west at the time of rising or setting it changes its declination most quickly4 ,so it is better to make the above observations of the sun nearer the solstices than the equinoxes1 for the reason stated4#g ,we have now got so far4 ,if the ,egyptians worshipped the sun and built temples to it1 they would be more likely to choose the times of the solstices and the equinoxes than any other after its annual movement had been made out4 ,is it possible to bring any tests to bear to see whether they did this or not8 ,certainly3 examine the temples which still remain1 and where they have disappeared examine the temenos walls which still exist as mounds in many cases4 ,suppose we take1 to begin with1 as before1 that region of the earth's surface in the ,nile valley with a latitude of about #bf ,n4 ,the temples will have an amplitude of about #bf ,n4 or ,s4 if they have anything to do with the sun at the solstices4 ,any structures built to observe the sun will have an east and west aspect true if they have anything to do with the sun at the equinoxes4 ,dealing with a solstitial temple1 the first thing to observe is the amplitude of the temple1 which must depend upon the latitude in which it was wished to note the rising or setting of the sun at either of the solstices4 ,if we take the latitude #bf ,n41 which is very nearly the latitude of ,thebes1 the amplitude has to be #bf as stated above2 so that a temple at ,thebes having an amplitude of #bf would be very likely to have been oriented to the sun at the moment that it was as far from the equator as it could be--i4e41 at the time of the longest day of the year--in which case we should be dealing with the summer or northern solstice2 or of the shortest day of the year1 if dealing with the winter or southern solstice4 ,as we deal with higher latitudes1 we gradually increase the amplitude1 until1 if we go as far as the latitude of the ,north ,cape1 the sun at the summer solstice1 as everybody knows1 has no amplitude either at rising or setting1 because it passes clear above the horizon altogether1 and is seen at midnight4 ,these are the conditions which will define for us a solstitial solar temple4 ,we see the amplitude of the temple must vary with the latitude of the place where it is erected4 ,but the temples directed to the sun at an equinox will be directed to an amplitude of #j3 that is1 they will point ,e4 or ,w41 and this will be the case in all latitudes4 ,the orientation of a temple directed to the sun at neither the solstices nor the equinoxes will have an amplitude less than the solstitial amplitude at the place4 ,as a matter of fact1 as ,i shall show in the sequel1 some of the temples recognised as temples of the sun in the inscriptions are of this latter class4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,methods ,,of ,,determining ,,the ,,orientation ,,of ,,temples4 ,this brings us at once to a practical point4 ,it will be asked1 ,how can such an inquiry be prosecuted8 ,how can the amplitudes of the temples be determined8 ,illustration3 ,,azimuth ,,compass4 ,nothing is easier4 ,an azimuth compass is all that is necessary for all but the most accurate inquiries4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,,azimuth ,,compass4 ,a1 needle and card2 ,p1 prism2 ,,sv1 directrix or frame carrying a wire directed to the object and seen over the prism while the prism reflects to the eye the division of the scale underneath it4 ,the azimuth compass is an instrument familiar to many2 it consists of a magnetic needle fastened to a card carrying a circle divided into #cfj1 which can be conveniently read by a prism when the instrument is turned toward any definite direction marked by a vertical wire4 ,its use depends upon the fact that at the same place and at the same time all magnetic needles point in the same direction1 and the variation for the true north and south direction is either supposed to be known or can be found by observation4 ,illustration3 ,,theodolite ,,for ,,determining ,,azimuth ,,and ,,altitudes4 ,a theodolite armed with a delicately hung magnetic needle1 which can be rotated on a vertical axis1 will do still better2 it has first of all to be levelled4 ,there is a little telescope with which we can see along the line4 ,when we wish1 for instance1 to observe the amplitude of a temple1 the theodolite is set up on its tripod in such a position that we can look along a temple wall or line of columns1 etc41 by means of the telescope4 ,we then get a magnetic reading of the direction after having unclamped the compass2 this gives the angle made between the line and the magnetic north 7or south71 as in the azimuth compass4 ,what we really do by means of such an instrument is to determine the astronomical meridian by means of a magnetic meridian4 ,here some definitions will not be out of place4 ,the meridian 7meridies midday7 of any place is the great circle of the heavens which passes through the zenith 7the point overhead7 at that place and the poles of the celestial sphere4 ,the meridian line at any place is the intersection of the plane of the meridian with the plane of the horizon at that place1 or1 in other words1 it is the line joining the north and south points4 ,if we have the proper instruments1 we can determine the meridian line astronomically at any place by one of the following methods3-- 7#a7 ,if only an approximate position is required1 the best means of determining it is by fixing the direction of the sun or a star when it has the greatest altitude4 ,the instrument to be used for this purpose would be a small theodolite with both a vertical and horizontal circle1 and provided also with tangent screws to give slow motion to each of the circles as required4 ,by using stars of both high and low altitudes1 a greater exactness can be obtained1 but1 after all1 the method only gives a first approximation1 as its weakness lies in the very slow change of altitude as the meridian is approached4 7#b7 ,a much more accurate method is that of observing with an altitude and azimuth instrument the azimuth 7i4e41 its angular distance east or west of the north or south7 of a star when at the same altitude east and west of the meridian4 ,if the mean of the two readings given by the azimuth circle be taken1 the resulting reading indicates the direction of the meridian4 ,if we employ the sun in place of a star1 its change of declination during the interval between the observations must be taken into account4 7#c7 ,to find the meridian line by means of the pole star is a simple and accurate method1 as a value can be obtained at any time at night by a simple altitude1 provided the time of observation is known4#h ,if these means of directly determining the astronomical meridian line are not available1 then we have to do it indirectly by using the magnetic meridian in the first instance4 ,if we take a magnetic needle and balance it horizontally on a vertical pivot1 its ends will be directed to two points on the horizon4 ,by drawing a great circle through these two points and the zenith point of the place1 we obtain the magnetic meridian4 ,the magnetic meridian line is the intersection of the plane of the magnetic meridian with the plane of the horizon4 ,the angle between the astronomical and magnetic meridian lines is called the variation1 ,e4 or ,w4 according as the needle points to the ,w4 or ,e4 of true--that is1 astronomical--north at any particular place at any particular time4 ,the variation may vary from place to place1 and always varies from time to time4 ,the bearing required has1 in the first instance1 to be determined by the instruments already referred to in relation to the magnetic meridian4 ,having made such an observation1 the next thing we have to do is to determine the astronomical or true north1 which is the only thing of value4 ,illustration3 ,,magnetic ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,isles1 ,,showing ,,the ,,variation ,,at ,,different ,,points4 ,if the magnetic variation has been determined for the region1 we may use a map4 ,such a map as that shown below gives us the lines along which in the ,british ,isles the compass variation west of north reaches certain values4 ,from such a map for ,egypt we learn that in #agih a magnet swung along a line extending from a little to the west of ,cairo to the second cataract would have had a variation of #aa to the west2 in #ahdd of #h to the west2 and at the present time the variation is such that observations made along the same part of the ,nile valley will have a variation closely approximating #d to the west4 ,by means of such a map it is quite possible to get approximately the astronomical bearings of all temples which were observed by the ,french in #agih or by the ,germans in #ahdd1 or which can be observed in the present day1 provided always that there is no local magnetic attraction4 ,if we are not fortunate enough to possess such a map1 the methods previously referred to for obtaining the astronomical north must be employed2 observing the direction in which the sun culminates at noon will give us the south point astronomically2 from observations of the pole star at night the astronomical north can also be determined4 ,from the former of these observations the magnetic variation is obtained without any difficulty1 even in the absence of accurate local time4 ,when this is available other methods are applicable4 ,it is sad to think how much time is lost in the investigation of a great many of these questions for the reason that the published observations were made only with reference to the magnetic north1 which is vastly different at different places1 and is always varying4 ,few indeed have tried to get at the astronomical conditions of the problem4 ,had this been done with minute accuracy in all cases1 either by the ,french or ,prussian ,commissions to which ,i have referred1 it is perfectly certain that the solstitial orientation of ,karnak and other temples1 which ,i shall have to mention1 would have been long ago known to all scholars4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,earliest ,,solar ,,shrines ,,in ,,egypt4 ,not only can an inquiry like that referred to in the previous chapter be prosecuted--it has been prosecuted4 ,the ,french and ,prussian ,governments have vied with each other in the honourable rivalry of mapping and describing the monuments4 ,the ,french went to ,egypt at the end of the last century1 while the ,scientific ,commission which accompanied the army1 a ,commission appointed by the ,institute of ,france1 published a series of volumes containing plans of all the chief temples in the valley of the ,nile as far south as ,phil4 ,in the year #ahdd1 some time after ,champollion had led the way in deciphering the hieroglyphics1 we became almost equally indebted to the ,prussian ,government1 who also sent out a ,commission to ,egypt1 under ,lepsius1 which equalled the ,french one in the importance of the results of the explorations2 in the care with which the observations were made1 and in the perfection with which they were recorded4 ,in attempting to get information from ancient temples on the points to which ,i have referred1 there is1 therefore1 a large amount of information available2 and it is wise to study the region round and below ,thebes where the information is so abundant and is ready to our hand4 ,first1 then1 with regard to the existence of solar temples4 ,dealing with the monumental evidence1 the answer is absolutely overwhelming4 ,the evidence ,i bring forward consists of that afforded by some of the very oldest temples that we know of in ,egypt4 ,among the most ancient and sacred fanes was one at ,annu1 ,on1 or ,heliopolis1 which1 the tradition runs1 was founded by the ,shesu-,hor before the time of ,mena2 ,mena1 as we have seen1 having reigned at a date certainly not less than #djjj1 and possibly #ejjj years ,b4,c4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,mounds ,,at ,,abydos4 7,from ,mariette47 ,the ,nile valley holds other solar temples besides that we have named at ,heliopolis4 ,abydos was another of the holiest places in ,egypt in the very earliest times4 ,since the temples and temple mounds at ,abydos can be better made out than those at ,heliopolis1 ,i will take them first4 ,the orientations given by different authors are so conflicting that no certainty can be claimed1 but it is possible that at ,abydos one of the mounds is not far from the amplitude shown in the tables for the sun in the ,nile valley at sunset at the summer solstice4 ,if this were so1 the ,egyptians who were employed in building the temple must have known exactly what they were going to do4 ,at ,heliopolis1 as ,i have hinted1 the matter is still less certain4 ,almost every trace of the temple has disappeared1 but of remains of temenos walls in #ahdd1 when the site was studied by ,lepsius1 there were plenty4 ,at ,karnak1 where both temples and temenos walls remain1 we can see how closely the walls reflect the orientation of the included temples1 even when they seem most liable to the suggestion of symmetrophobia4 ,i have before stated that the ,egyptians have been accused of hating every regular figure1 and the irregular figures at ,karnak are very remarkable2 in the boundary walls of the temple of ,amen-,r there are two obtuse angles2 round the ,mut temple we also have walls1 and there again this hatred of similarity seems to come out1 for we have one obtuse and one acute angle4 ,but if we examine the thing a little carefully1 we find that there is a good deal of method in this apparent irregularity4 ,the wall of the temple of ,amen-,r is parallel to the face of the temple or at right angles to its length4 ,one wall of ,mut is perfectly parallel to the face of the temple or at right angles to the sphinxes4 ,and the reason that we do not get right angles at one end of the wall is that the walls of the temple at ,mut are parallel to the chief wall of the temple of ,amen-,r4 ,surely it must be that1 before these walls were built1 it was understood that there was a combined worship2 that they stood or fell together4 ,one thing was not attempted in one temple and another thing in another1 but the worship of each was reflected in the other4 ,if this be true1 there was no hatred of symmetry1 but a definite and admirable reason why these walls should be built as they were4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mounds ,,and ,,obelisk ,,at ,,annu4 ,with the knowledge we possess of both temenos walls and temples at ,karnak1 and of the1 ,i may almost say1 symbolism of the former1 it is fair to conclude that when temples have gone we may yet get help from the walls4 ,the walls at ,heliopolis are the most extraordinary ,i have met with in ,egypt1 as may be gathered from the accompanying reduction of ,lepsius' map4 ,the arrow in ,lepsius' plan is so wrongly placed that the plan is very misleading4 ,it follows from ,captain ,lyons' observations and my own that the longest mound heads #ad ,n4 of ,w4 to #ad ,s4 of ,e4 within a degree2 the condition of the mounds renders more accurate measures impossible4#i ,it is to be gathered from the inscriptions that the temple within these mounds1 now only represented by its solitary obelisk1 was styled a sanctuary or temple of the sun4#aj ,as the orientation of the ,n4 and ,s4 faces of the obelisk is #ac ,n4 of ,w41 the sun's declination must have been #aa ,n4 ,the times of our year marked by it1 therefore1 were #ahth ,april and #bdth ,august4 ,but it must not be forgotten that the temple may have been built originally to watch the rising or setting of a star which occupied the declination named1 and possibly1 though not necessarily1 at some other time of the year4 ,i shall return to this subject4 ,if ,maspero and the great authorities in ,egyptology are right--namely1 that the ,annu temple was founded before #djjj ,b4,c4--the above figures drive us to the conclusion that we have in this temple a building which was orientated to the sun1 not at a solstice1 some #fjjj years ago4 ,so much for two of the places known to be of the highest antiquity in ,egypt4 ,there remains another locality supposed to date from more modern times--,i refer to ,thebes4 ,it is here that evidence of the most certain kind with regard to the solstitial temples is to be found4 ,at ,karnak itself there are several temples so oriented1 chief among them the magnificent ,temple of ,amen-,r1 one of the wonders of the world1 to which a special chapter must be devoted4 ,suffice it to say here that the amplitude of the point to which the axis of the great temple of ,amen-,r points is #bf ,n4 of ,w41 which we learn from the table already given is the amplitude of the place of sunset at the summer solstice in the latitude of ,thebes4 ,the amplitude of the point to which the axis of an attached small temple points is #bf ,s4 of ,e41 exactly the position of sunrise at the winter solstice4 ,it must not be forgotten in this connection that the ,colossi of the plain on the other side of the river1 and the associated temple1 also face the place of sunrise at the winter solstice4 ,the list of solar solstitial temples1 so far probably traced1 is as follows3-- ,place and ,temple4 ,amplitude4 ,declination4 ,date4 ,kasr ,kerun #bg ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #bc ,s4,e4 ,karnak 7,o7 #bf ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #bc ,temples4 ,memnonia 7,avenue of ,sphinxes7 #bg ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #bd 7orientation not to 7 ,s4,w4 ,erment #bg ,s4 of ,w4 ,s4 #bd ,temples4 ,n4,w4 ,karnak 7,q4 ,k7 #bf ,n4 of ,w4 ,n4 #bc ,temples4 ,karnak 7,u7 #bg ,n4 of ,w4 ,n4 #bd ,illustration3 ,,the ,,colossi ,,of ,,the ,,plain ,,at ,,thebes ,,at ,,high ,,nile ,,oriented ,,to ,,the ,,sunrise ,,at ,,the ,,winter ,,solstice4 7,these are statues of ,amen-hotep ,,iii41 and are monoliths #fj feet high47 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,memphis4 7,from ,lepsius47 ,we have seen that it did not require any great amount of astronomical knowledge to determine either the moment of the solstice or the moment of the equinox4 ,the most natural thing to begin with was the observation of the solstice1 for the reason that at the solstice the sun can be watched day after day getting more and more north or more and more south until it comes to a standstill4 ,but for the observation of the equinox1 of course1 the sun is moving-most rapidly either north or south1 and therefore it would be more difficult to determine in those days the exact moment4 ,illustration3 ,,east ,,and ,,west ,,pyramids ,,and ,,temples ,,at ,g,,zeh4 7,from ,lepsius47 ,we next come to the question as to whether any buildings were erected from an equinoctial point of view--that is1 buildings oriented east and west4 ,nothing is more remarkable than to go from the description and the plans of such temples as we have seen at ,abydos1 ,annu1 and ,karnak1 to regions where1 apparently1 the thought is totally and completely different1 such as we find on the ,pyramid ,plains at ,gzeh1 at ,memphis1 ,tunis1 ,sas1 and ,bubastis4 ,the orientation lines of the ,german surveyors show beyond all question that the pyramids and some of the temenos walls at the places named are just as true to the sun-rising at the equinoxes as the temples referred to at ,karnak were to the sun-rising and setting at the solstices1 and the ,sphinx was merely a mysterious nondescript sort of thing which was there watching for the rising of the sun at an equinox1 as the ,colossi of the plain at ,thebes were watching for the rising of the sun at the winter solstice4 ,illustration3 ,,temple ,,and ,,temenos ,,walls ,,of ,,tanis4 7,from ,lepsius47 ,illustration3 ,,temple ,,and ,,temenos ,,walls ,,of ,,sa,s 7,s-,,el-,,lager74 7,from ,lepsius47 ,further1 the temples at ,gzeh1 instead of being oriented to the north-west1 and to the south-east1 are just as truly oriented to the east and west as the ,pyramids themselves4 ,we have either ,temples of ,osiris pointing to the sunset at the equinox1 or temples of ,isis pointing to the sunrise at the equinox1 but in either case built in relation to the ,pyramids4 ,as an indication of the importance of the considerations with which we are now dealing1 ,i may mention that it is suggested by them that the building near the ,sphinx is really a crypt of a temple of ,isis or ,osiris4 ,this is a view which may change the ideas generally held with regard to its age to the extent of something like a thousand years4 ,it has been imagined that it was at least one thousand years older than the second ,pyramid2 but if it be ultimately proved that this is really a temple of ,isis or ,osiris1 then since it was built in just as strict relation to the side of the ,pyramid as the temple near the ,pyramid was to its centre1 both temples were most probably built at the same time as the ,pyramid itself4 ,however this may be1 the important thing is that when we pass from ,thebes1 and possibly ,abydos1 to the ,pyramids at ,memphis1 to ,sas and ,tanis1 we find a solstitial orientation changed to an equinoctial one4 ,there is a fundamental change of astronomical thought4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,temple ,,near ,,the ,,sphinx1 ,,looking ,,west 7,,true71 ,,showing ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,south ,,face ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,pyramid4 7,from a photograph by ,mr4 ,fearing47 ,i confess ,i am impressed by this distinction2 from the astronomical point of view it is so fundamental that almost a difference of race is required to explain it4 ,i say this advisedly1 although ,i know creed can go a great way1 because among these early peoples their astronomy was chiefly a means to an end4 ,it was not a story of abstract conceptions1 or the mere expression of interesting facts whether used for religious purposes or not4 ,the end was a calendar1 of festivals and holydays if you will1 but a calendar which would allow their tillage and harvest to prosper4 ,now1 it is almost impossible to suppose that those who worshipped the sun at the solstice did not begin the year at the solstice4 ,it is1 of course1 equally difficult to believe that those who preferred to range themselves as equinoctials did not begin the year at an equinox4 ,both these practices could hardly go on in the case of the same race in the same country1 least of all in the valley where an annual inundation marked the solstice4 ,i shall show subsequently how the rise of the ,nile1 which took place at the summer solstice1 not only dominated the industry1 but the astronomy and religion of ,egypt2 and ,i was much interested in hearing from my friend ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge that the rise of the ,tigris and ,euphrates takes place not far from the spring equinox4 ,this may have dominated the ,babylonian calendar as effectually as the date of the ,nile-rise dominated the ,egyptian4 ,if so1 we have a valuable hint as to the origin of the equinoctial cult at ,gzeh and elsewhere1 which in all probability was interpolated after the non-equinoctial worship had been first founded at ,annu1 ,abydos1 and possibly ,thebes4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,other ,,similar ,,shrines ,,elsewhere4 ,the observations which have been made in ,babylonia are very discordant among themselves1 and at present it is impossible to say1 from the monuments in any part of the region along the ,tigris valley1 whether the temples indicate that the solstices were familiar to the ,babylonians4 ,the ancient cities which have so far been excavated and the modern names of the sites are as follows3 ,nineveh ,kouyunjik4 ,babylon ,birs ,nimrd4 ,calah ,nimrd4 ,erech ,warka4 ,ur of the ,chaldees ,mukeyyer4 ,ashur ,kalat ,sherkt4 ,dur ,sarginu ,khorsabad4 ,let us take1 for instance1 the region in the valley near where the ,upper ,zab joins the main stream4 ,we gather from the map published in #ahfg by ,place1#aa that ,nimrd1 the modern ,calah1 is near the junction1 while the mounds of ,kouyunjik1 ,mosul1 and ,khorsabad1 representing the ancient ,dur ,sarginu1 are to the north 7#cf ,n4 latitude74 ,there are two other mounds shown on the map at ,djigan and ,tel ,hakoab4 ,now1 by inspection it is quite clear that none of the mounds except that of ,nimrd lie east and west4 ,it becomes important1 therefore1 to determine their orientation2 but1 alas6 this is nearly impossible with the sole exception of ,khorsabad1 for no measures appear to have been made4 ,at first sight the matter seems more hopeful in the case of ,khorsabad1 for we have not only the plans of ,place1 but those of ,botta and ,flandin4#ab ,the plans seem oriented with care1 so far as the existence of a compass direction is concerned--for that is present while it too often is lacking in such productions--but in neither series is it stated whether ,n4 means true or magnetic north4 ,both observers noted a well-marked temple facing ,n4,e41 and also an observatory4 ,about the temple there can be no mistake1 for the fair-way of the light to it is carefully preserved1 and there is a flight of wide steps on the north-east side of it4 ,place gives the orientation #cg ,n4 of ,e4 in one plan and #ci in another4 ,botta and ,flandin give #ca in one plan and #cb in another6 ,now1 the change in the magnetic variation between #ahdi and #ahfg will not explain this difference1 nor indeed can it be accounted for by supposing that the magnetic north is in question in one set of plans and the true north in the other2#ac and it is clear that no perfectly certain conclusion can be arrived at till this work has been done over again4 ,but it is known that ,m4 ,flandin was a skilled surveyor1 and we have the remarkable fact1 that if we take his value1 we have the amplitude of the sun at the summer solstice in the latitude of ,nineveh6 ,i certainly think the temple may be accepted as a solstitial solar temple provisionally2 and if so1 the question is raised whether the structures in ,assyria1 supposed to be oriented so that the angles face the cardinal points1 are not all of them oriented to the sun at a solstice or to some other heavenly body4 ,certainly we must have more definite measures before the statement generally made can be accepted as final4 ,when we leave ,assyria we find other countries1 it is true still farther afield1 in which the existence of solstitial temples of a great antiquity of foundation is fully recognised4 ,the great temple of the sun at ,pekin is oriented to the winter solstice4 ,the ceremonials which take place there are thus described by ,edkins3-- ,the most important of all the ,state observances of ,china is the sacrifice at the winter solstice1 performed in the open air at the south altar of the ,temple of ,heaven1 ,december #bast4 ,the altar is called ,nan-,tan1 'south mound1' or ,yuenkieu1 'round hillock'--both names of the greatest antiquity4 ,here also are offered prayers for rain in the early summer4 ,the altar is a beautiful marble structure1 ascended by twenty-seven steps1 and ornamented by circular balustrades on each of its three terraces4 ,there is another on the north side of somewhat smaller dimensions1 called the ,ch'i-ku-t'an1 or altar for prayer on behalf of grain4 ,on it is raised a magnificent triple-roofed circular structure #ii feet in height1 which constitutes the most conspicuous object in the tout ensemble1 and is that which is called by foreigners the ,temple of ,heaven4 ,it is the hall of prayer for a propitious year1 and here1 early in the spring1 the prayer and sacrifice for that object are prosecuted4 ,these structures are deeply enshrined in a thick cypress grove1 reminding the visitor of the custom which formerly prevailed among the heathen nations of the ,old ,testament1 and of the solemn shade which surrounded some celebrated temples of ancient ,greece4 ,the ,temple of ,heaven is thus described3-- ,the south altar1 the most important of all ,chinese religious structures1 has the following dimensions3 ,it consists of a triple circular terrace1 #baj feet wide at the base1 #aej in the middle1 and #ij at the top4 ,in these1 notice the multiples of three3 #c #c #i1 #c #e #ae1 #c #g #ba4 ,the heights of the three terraces1 upper1 middle1 and lower1 are #egb feet1 #fbc feet1 and #e feet respectively4 ,at the times of sacrificing1 the tablets to heaven and to the ,emperor's ancestors are placed on the top2 they are #b feet #e inches long1 and #e inches wide4 ,the title is in gilt letters2 that of heaven faces the south1 and those of the ancestors east and west4 ,the ,emperor1 with his immediate suite1 kneels in front of the tablet of ,shang-,ti and faces the north4 ,the platform is laid with marble stones1 forming nine concentric circles2 the inner circle consists of nine stones1 cut so as to fit with close edges round the central stone1 which is a perfect circle4 ,here the ,emperor kneels1 and is surrounded first by the circles of the terraces and their enclosing walls1 and then by the circle of the horizon4 ,he thus seems to himself and his court to be in the centre of the universe1 and turning to the north1 assuming the attitude of a subject1 he acknowledges in prayer and by his position that he is inferior to heaven1 and to heaven alone4 ,round him on the pavement are the nine circles of as many heavens1 consisting of nine stones1 then eighteen1 then twenty-seven1 and so on in successive multiples of nine till the square of nine1 the favourite number of ,chinese philosophy1 is reached in the outermost circle of eighty-one stones4 ,the same symbolism is carried throughout the balustrades1 the steps1 and the two lower terraces of the altar4 ,four flights of steps of nine each lead down to the middle terrace1 where are placed the tablets to the spirits of the sun1 moon1 and stars and the year god1 ,tai-sui4 ,the sun and stars take the east1 and the moon and ,tai-sui the west3 the stars are the twenty-eight constellations of the ,chinese zodiac1 borrowed by the ,hindoos soon after the ,christian era1 and called by them the ,naksha-tras2 the ,tai-sui is a deification of the sixty-year cycle4#ad ,we find1 then1 that1 the most important temple in ,china is oriented to the winter solstice4 ,to mention another instance4 ,it has long been known that ,stonehenge is oriented to the rising of the sun at1 the summer solstice4 ,its amplitude instead of being #bf is #dj ,n4 of ,e42 with a latitude of #ea1 the #bf azimuth of ,thebes is represented by an amplitude of #dj at ,stonehenge4 ,the structure consists of a double circle of stones1 with a sort of naos composed of large stones facing a so-called avenue1 which is a sunken way between two parallel banks4 ,this avenue stretches away from the naos in the direction of the solstitial sunrise4 ,but this is not all4 ,in the avenue1 but not in the centre of its width1 there is a stone called the ,friar's ,heel1 so located in relation to the horizon that1 according to ,mr4 ,flinders ,petrie1#ae who has made careful measurements of the whole structure1 it aligned the coming sunrise from a point behind the naos or trilithon4 ,the horizon is invisible at the entrance of the circle1 the peak of the heel rising far above it2 from behind the circles the peak is below the horizon4 ,now1 from considerations which ,i shall state at length further on1 ,mr4 ,petrie concludes that ,stonehenge existed #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,it must not be forgotten that structures more or less similar to ,stonehenge are found along a line from the east on both sides of the ,mediterranean4#af ,illustration3 ,,stonehenge1 ,,from ,,the ,,north4 ,it will be seen that the use of the marking stone to indicate the direction in which the sun will rise answers exactly the same purpose as the long avenue of majestic columns and pylons in the ,egyptian temples4 ,in both cases we had a means of determining the commencement and the succession of years4 ,illustration3 ,,stonehenge ,,restored4 ,hence1 just as surely as the temple of ,karnak once pointed to the sun setting at the summer solstice1 the temple at ,stonehenge pointed nearly to the sun rising at the summer solstice4 ,stonehenge1 there is little doubt1 was so constructed that at sunrise at the same solstice the shadow of one stone fell exactly on the stone in the centre2 that observation indicated to the priests that the ,new ,year had begun1 and possibly also fires were lighted to flash the news through the country4 ,and in this way it is possible that we have the ultimate origin of the midsummer fires1 which have been referred to by so many authors4#ag ,we have thus considered solstitial temples scattered widely over the earth's surface far from the ,nile ,valley4 ,we may now return to the equinoctial temples which can still be traced to the ,n4,e4 of that valley--the chief ones being those1 remains of which still exist at ,jerusalem1 ,baalbek1 and ,palmyra1 where stone was available for the temple builders4 ,these temples were apparently as perfectly squared to the equinox as the ,pyramids at ,gzeh4 ,i will take the temple of ,jerusalem first1 as its history is more complete than that of the others4 ,we learn from the works of ,josephus that as early as ,solomon's time the temple at ,jerusalem was oriented to the east with care2#ah in other words1 the temple at ,jerusalem was parallel to the temple of ,isis at the ,pyramids2 it was open to the east1 closed absolutely to the west4 ,in plan1 as we shall see1 it was very like an ,egyptian temple1 the light from the sun at the equinox being free to come along an open passage1 and to get at last into the ,holy of ,holies4 ,we find that the direction of the axis of the temple shows the existence of a cult connected with the possibility of seeing the sun rise at either the spring or the autumn equinox4 ,all the doors being opened1 the sunlight would penetrate over the high altar1 where the sacrifices were offered1 into the very ,holy of ,holies1 which we may remember was only entered by the high priest once a year2 it could have done that twice a year1 but as a matter of fact it was only utilised once2 whereas at ,karnak the priest would only go into the ,holy of ,holies once a year1 because it was only once illuminated by the sun in each year4 ,there is evidence1 too1 that the entrance of the sunlight on the morning of the spring equinox formed part of the ceremonial4 ,the priest being in the naos1 the worshippers outside1 with their backs to the sun1 could see the high priest by means of the sunlight reflected from the jewels#ai in his garments1 thus referred to by ,josephus3-- ,i will now treat of what ,i before omitted--the garment of the high priest1 for he ,moses left no room for the evil practices of false prophets2 but if some of that sort should attempt to abuse the ,divine authority1 he left it to ,god to be present at ,his sacrifices when ,he pleased1 and when ,he pleased to be absent4 ,and he was willing this should be known1 not to the ,hebrews only1 but to those foreigners also who were there4 ,for as to those stones1 which we told you before1 the high priest bare on his shoulders1 which were sardonyxes 7and ,i think it needless to describe their feature1 they being known to everybody71 the one of them shined out when ,god was present at their sacrifices4#bj ,i mean that which was of the nature of a button on his right shoulder1 bright rays darting out thence1 and being seen even by those who were most remote2 which splendour yet was not before natural to the stone4 ,josephus#ba states that the miraculous shining of the jewels ceased two hundred years before his time1 ,god having been displeased at the transgression of ,his laws4 ,this remark of ,josephus quite justifies the assumption that the effect of sunlight on the priest's jewels formed part of the ceremonial1 and in this way4 ,in the earliest times there is no doubt that the equinoctial temples were solar temples pure and simple1 and the rising sun would always1 in fine weather1 shine into them at the equinox1 which1 while they were used as solar temples1 marked ,new ,year's ,day4 ,the influence of the later ,babylonian astronomy1 however1 at length replaced the sun by the moon1 and the year would commence1 not at the equinox1 but by a new or a full moon near the equinox4 ,if either of these happened at the equinox1 well and good2 but if not1 then the sun's declination might be widely different from #j--;it might amount roughly to #aj either ,n4 or ,s4--and under these circumstances1 as the amplitude would be greater1 the sun's light could not enter the temple at all at the date of the feast4 ,more than this1 a mistake of a month might be made1 or a question of old style and new style might come in1 and that of course would make matters worse4 ,in this way1 then1 the withdrawal of the sunlight from the temple at ,jerusalem admits of being astronomically explained4 ,it seems highly probable that the temple in question was built on a ,phenician foundation1 for some of the stones exceed #ch feet in length and weigh #ij tons4#bb ,this remark is suggested by the fact that at ,baalbek or ,heliopolis1 to which ,i next direct attention1 the most ancient and most massive part of the structure is1 in all probability1 of ,phenician origin4 ,to give an idea of its massiveness1 which is almost more than ,egyptian1 it may be stated that there are three stones each about #fd feet long1 #ac feet high1 and #ac feet thick4 ,there are smaller stones used in the filling in1 of the same height and thickness1 and #cj feet long4#bc ,these form the western wall of the original naos or of its support4 ,here the orientation is due ,e4#bd ,when we come to ,palmyra1 we find also another temple to the equinoctial sun2 but here the sunset1 and not the sunrise1 is in question--the temple faces due west4 ,in the whole problem1 then1 of orientation as ,i have had to present it1 and as it now stands1 we seem for the moment to be face to face with two very remarkable and strange things2 so strange that the argument may appear far-fetched and worthless1 since we are landed in a region apparently very far removed from our modern habits of thought4 ,but is this really so8 ,i assume the personification or the deification of the sun3 ,i shall subsequently have to include the stars2 ,i indicate special orientations of buildings devoted to the worship of the sun at one time of the year or another4 ,but really both these things1 though they seem improbable1 have been carried down to our own day1 quite independently of any question relating to ,egypt4 ,there is nothing new about them at all1 and there is nothing really strange4 ,when we go into an observatory we think nothing of turning our telescope towards ,venus1 or ,jupiter1 or ,mars4 ,here we have the deification of the planets4 ,it is perfectly true that this religious treatment of the planets is not of our own day3 we have inherited it from the ,greeks through the ,latins2 but we do not think it at all extraordinary that a planet should be called ,venus or ,jupiter4 ,thus we of to-day are completely in touch with the old ,egyptians1 except that the ,egyptians were wiser in their generation1 and looked after the sun at fixed points in the year and the constant stars instead of the variable planets4 ,then1 again1 take the question of orientation4 ,this is1 after all1 one which survives among ourselves4 ,all our churches are more or less oriented1 which is a remnant of old sun-worship4#be ,any church that is properly built to-day will have its axis pointing to the rising of the sun on the ,saint's ,day1 i4e41 a church dedicated to ,st4 ,john ought not to be parallel to a church dedicated to ,st4 ,peter4 ,it is true that there are sometimes local conditions which prevent this2 but if the architect knows his business properly he is unhappy unless he can carry out this old-world tradition4 ,but it may be suggested that in our churches the door is always to the west and the altar is always to the east4 ,that is perfectly true1 but it is a modern practice4 ,certainly in the early centuries the churches were all oriented to the sun1 so that the light fell on the altar through the eastern doors at sunrise4 ,the late ,gilbert ,scott1 in his ,essay on ,church ,architecture1 gives a very detailed account of these early churches1 which in this respect exactly resembled the ,egyptian temples4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,st4 ,,peter',s ,,at ,,rome1 ,,showing ,,the ,,door ,,facing ,,the ,,sunrise4 ,in regard to old ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1#bf we read that so exactly due east and west was the ,basilica that1 on the vernal equinox1 the great doors of the porch of the quadriporticus were thrown open at sunrise1 and also the eastern doors of the church itself1 and as the sun rose1 its rays passed through the outer doors1 then through the inner doors1 and1 penetrating straight through the nave1 illuminated the ,high ,altar4 ,the present church fulfils the same conditions4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,peter',s ,,at ,,rome3 ,,fa,,ade ,,facing ,,the ,,east 7,,true74 ,but we have between our own churches and the ,egyptian temples a link in the chain which has just been magnificently completed by ,mr4 ,penrose by his study of the ,greek temples4 ,these interesting results will occupy us in a later chapter4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,solar ,,temple ,,of ,,amen-,r ,,at ,,karnak4 ,so much having been premised concerning the early temple-worship of the sun in ,egypt and the adjacent countries1 and the survival of some of the ideas connected with it down to our own day1 ,i next propose to describe the finest ,egyptian solar temple which remains open to our examination--that of ,amen-,r at ,karnak4 ,of the chief solar temples referred to in a previous chapter1 two have passed away2 even the orientation of the one at ,heliopolis ,i was only able to determine by the mounds1 assuming them to bear the same relation to the temple as other mounds do1 and the remaining obelisk4 ,the temple at ,abydos is also a mound2 but in the case of the temple of ,amen-,r at ,thebes the case is different3 instead of being a mere heap1 the orientation of which is obtainable only by the general lie of the remains1 this temple is still in such preservation that ,lepsius in the year #ahdd could give us a large number of details about it1 and locate the position of the innumerable courts4 ,its orientation to the solstice we can claim1 as ,i hope to be able to show1 as an early astronomical observation4 ,so it is quite fair to say that1 many thousand years ago at all events1 the ,egyptians were perfectly familiar with the solstices1 and therefore more or less fully with the yearly path of the sun4 ,illustration3 ,,axis ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,amen-,r ,,from ,,the ,,western ,,pylon1 ,,looking ,,south-,,east4 ,this temple of ,amen-,r is beyond all question the most majestic ruin in the world4 ,there is a sort of stone avenue in the centre1 giving a view towards the north-west1 and this axis is something like five hundred yards in length4 ,the whole object of the builder of the great temple at ,karnak--one of the most soul-stirring temples which have ever been conceived or built by man--was to preserve that axis absolutely open2 and all the wonderful halls of columns and the like1 as seen on one side or other of the axis1 are merely details2 the point being that the axis should be absolutely open1 straight1 and true4 ,the axis was directed towards the hills on the west side of the ,nile1 in which are the tombs of the kings4 ,from the external pylon the ,south-eastern outlook through the ruins shows the whole length of the temple1 and we see at the very extremity of the central line a gateway nearly six hundred yards away4 ,this belonged to a temple pointing towards the south-east4 ,there were really two temples in the same line back to back1 the chief one facing the sunset at the summer solstice1 the other probably the sunrise at the winter solstice4 ,the distance which separates the outside entrances of both these temples is greater than that from ,pall ,mall to ,piccadilly2 the great temple covers about twice the area covered by ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 so that the whole structure was of a vastness absolutely unapproached in the modern ecclesiastical world4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,amen-,r ,,and ,,some ,,of ,,its ,,surroundings1 ,,including ,,the ,,sacred ,,lake4 ,,ii4 ,original ,sanctuary4 ,,iii4 ,obelisks4 ,,iv4 ,hall of ,columns4 ,v4 ,interior ,pylon4 ,,vi4 ,outer ,court4 ,,vii4 ,external ,western ,pylon4 ,,viii4 ,sphinxes4 #a ,temple ,m4 of ,lepsius4 #b ,temple of ,seti ,,ii4 #c ,side ,entrance4 #d ,south ,wall4 #e ,pylons of ,south #f ,courts4 #g #h ,inner ,courts near #i the ,sanctuary4 #aj a ,n4 ,wall4 b c ,columns in ,outer d ,court1 ,n4 ,side4 e ,columns in ,outer f ,court1 ,s4 ,side4 g ,taharqa's ,columns4 ,some ,egyptian temples took many tens of years to build2 the obelisks1 all in single blocks1 were brought for hundreds of miles down the ,nile4 ,the building of a solar temple like that of ,amen-,r meant to the ,egyptians a very serious undertaking indeed4 ,some of the structural details are of a very curious nature1 while the general arrangement of the temple itself is no less extraordinary4 ,first1 with regard to the temple axis4 ,it seems to be a general rule that from the entrance-pylon the temple stretches through various halls of different sizes and details1 until at last1 at the extreme end1 what is called the ,sanctuary1 ,naos1 ,adytum1 or ,holy of ,holies1 is reached4 ,the end of the temple at which the pylons are situated is open1 the other is closed4 ,these lofty pylons1 and even the walls1 are sometimes covered with the most wonderful drawings and hieroglyphic figures and records4 ,stretching in front of the pylons1 extending sometimes very far in front1 are rows of sphinxes4 ,this principle is carried to such an extent that in some cases separate isolated gates have been built right in front and exactly in the alignment of the temple4 ,from one end of the temple to the other we find the axis marked out by narrow apertures in the various pylons1 and many walls with doors crossing the axis4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,to ,,the ,,south-,,west ,,from ,,the ,,sacred ,,lake ,,of ,,amen-,r4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,,door ,,at ,,entrance ,,of ,,the ,,sanctuary4 ,in the temple of ,amen-,r there are #ag or #ah of these apertures1 limiting the light which falls into the ,holy of ,holies or the ,sanctuary4 ,this construction gives one a very definite impression that every part of the temple was built to subserve a special object1 viz41 to limit the light which fell on its front into a narrow beam1 and to carry it to the other extremity of the temple--into the sanctuary1 so that once a year when the sun set at the solstice the light passed without interruption along the whole length of the temple1 finally illuminating the ,sanctuary in most resplendent fashion and striking the ,sanctuary wall4 ,the wall of the ,sanctuary opposite to the entrance of the temple was always blocked4 ,there is no case in which the beam of light can pass absolutely through the temple4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,obelisks ,,near ,,the ,,oldest ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,amen-,r ,,at ,,karnak4 ,the point was to provide an axis open at one end and absolutely closed at the other1 the open courts being only found towards that end towards which the temple opened1 the other end being all but absolutely dark and quite blocked up at the extremity4 ,these sunlight effects were fully appreciated4 ,referring to the obelisks erected by ,queen ,ht-shepset as a monument to her father ,amen1 an inscription at the base of one of these says1 ,they are seen an endless number of miles off3 it is a flood of shining splendour when the sun shines between the two2#bg and again1 ,the sun's disc shines between them as when it rises from the horizon of heaven4#bh ,passing from the temple at ,karnak to others in a better state of preservation1 we can gather that the part of the axis furthest from the entrance was covered1 so that in the penetralia there was only a dim religious light4 ,the entrance is also1 as it were1 guarded by a massive exterior pylon1 as in the more or less modern temple of ,edf4 ,this1 again1 reduces the light in the interior4 ,it is easy to recognise that these arrangements bear out the idea of an astronomical use of the temple4 ,illustration3 ,,inner ,,court ,,and ,,sanctuary ,,at ,,edf4 7,from a ,photograph by the ,author47 ,first of all we know that the temple was directed to the place of the sun's setting2 and if the ,egyptians wished to lead the narrow shaft of light which was bound to enter the temple1 since it was directed to the sunset1 they would have contrived the very system of gradually narrowing doors which we have found to be one of the special features of the temple4 ,the doors were considered as very important--and no wonder4 ,in the account given of ,thothmes ,,iii4's restoration of the temple of ,amen-,r1 we read that after the building had been constructed in a position corresponding to the four quarters of heaven the great stone gateways were erected4 ,the first had doors of real acacia wood covered with plates of gold1 fastened with black bronze and iron4 ,then came a propylon 7,bekhen7 with three other gates connected with it covered with plates of copper1 and the sacrifices were brought through these4#bi ,this idea is strengthened by considering the construction of the astronomical telescope4 ,although the ,egyptians knew nothing about telescopes1 it would seem that they had the same problem before them which we solve by a special arrangement in the modern telescope--they wanted to keep the light pure1 and to lead it into their sanctuary as we lead it to the eyepiece4 ,to keep the light that passes into the eyepiece of a modern telescope pure1 we have between the object-glass and the eyepiece a series of what are called diaphragms2 that is1 a series of rings right along the tube1 the inner diameters of the rings being greatest close to the object-glass1 and smallest close to the eyepiece2 these diaphragms must so be made that all the light from the object-glass shall fall upon the eyepiece1 without loss or reflection by the tube4 ,these apertures in the pylons and separating walls of ,egyptian temples exactly represent the diaphragms in the modern telescope4 ,what then was the real use of these pylons and these diaphragms8 ,it was to keep all stray light out of the carefully roofed and darkened ,sanctuary2 but why was the ,sanctuary to be kept in darkness8 ,the first point that ,i wish to make is that these temples--whatever view may be entertained with regard to their worship or the ceremonial in them--were undoubtedly constructed among other reasons for the purpose of obtaining an exact observation of the precise time of the solstice4 ,the priests having this power at their disposal1 would not be likely to neglect it1 for they ruled by knowledge4 ,the temples were1 then1 astronomical observatories1 and the first observatories that we know of in the world4 ,if we consider them as horizontal telescopes used for the purpose ,i have suggested1 we at once understand the long axis1 and the series of gradually narrowing diaphragms1 for the longer the beam of light used the greater is the accuracy that can be obtained4 ,independently of ceremonial reasons--there is a good deal to be said under that head--it is quite clear that the darker the sanctuary the more obvious will be the patch of light on the end wall1 and the more easily can its position be located4 ,it was important to do this on the two or three days near the solstice1 in order to get an idea of the exact time at which the solstice took place4 ,we find that a narrow beam of sunlight coming through a narrow entrance some #ejj yards away from the door of the ,holy of ,holies would1 provided the temple were properly orientated to the solstice1 and provided the solstice occurred at the absolute moment of sunrise or sunset according to which the temple was being utilised1 practically flash into the sanctuary and remain there for about a couple of minutes1 and then pass away4 ,the flash would be a crescendo and diminuendo1 but the whole thing would not last above two minutes or thereabouts1 and might be considerably reduced by an arrangement of curtains4 ,supposing the solstice did not occur at the precise moment of sunrise or sunset1 and provided the ,egyptians by any means whatever were able to divide the days and the nights into more or less equal intervals of time1 two or three observations of the sun rising at the solstice on three different mornings1 or of the sunset at the solstice on three different evenings1 would enable a careful observer to say whether the solstice had occurred at the exact moment of sunrise or sunset1 or at some interval between two successive sunrises or sunsets1 and what that interval was4 ,we may conclude that there was some purpose of utility to be served1 and the solar temples could have been used undoubtedly1 among other things1 for determining the exact length of the solar year4 ,i now come to my next point1 which is that here we have the true origin of our present means of measuring time2 that our year as we know it was first determined in these ,egyptian temples and by the ,egyptians4 ,the magnificent burst of the light at sunset into the sanctuary would show that a new true solar year was beginning4 ,it so happens that the summer solstice was the time when the ,nile began1 and still begins1 to rise2 so that in ,egypt the priests were enabled to determine1 year after year1 not only the length of the year1 but the exact time of its commencement4 ,this1 however1 they apparently kept to themselves1 for the year in use1 called the vague year1 began at different times of the true year through a long cycle1 as ,i shall show in subsequent chapters4 ,if the ,egyptians wished to use the temple for ceremonial purposes1 the magnificent beam of light thrown into the temple at the sunset hour would give them opportunities and even suggestions for so doing2 for instance1 they might place an image of the god in the sanctuary and allow the light to ,hash upon it4 ,we should have a manifestation of ,r with a vengeance during the brief time the white flood of sunlight fell on it2 be it remembered that in the dry and clear air of ,egypt the sun casts a shadow five seconds after the first little point of it has been seen above the horizon4 ,so that at sunrise and sunset in ,egypt the light is very strong1 and not tempered as with us4 ,they did this3 we not only find the exact allocation of words the manifestation of ,r1 but what happened is described4 ,one of the inscriptions relating to the manifestation of ,r has been translated by ,de ,roug as follows3-- ,il vint en passant vers le temple de ,r2 il entra dans le temple en adorant 7deux fois74 ,le er-heb celebrant invoqua 7celui qui7 repousse les plaies du roi2 il remplit les rites de la porte2 il prit le seteb1 il se purifia par l'encens2 il fit une libation2 il apporta les fleurs de ,habenben a part of the temple2 il apporta le parfum 7874 ,il monta les degrs vers l'adytum grand1 pour voir ,r dans ,habenben2 lui-mme se tint seul2 il poussa le verrou2 il ouvrit les portes2 il vit son pre ,r dans ,habenben2 il vnra la barque de ,r et la barque de ,tum4 ,il tira les portes1 et posa la terre sigillaire 7qu'il7 scella avec le sceau du roi4 ,lui-mme ordonne aux prtres1 ',j'ai plac le sceau2 que n'entre pas quelqu'un dedans de tout roi qui se tiendra 7l74'#cj ,in the quotation the apparatus of doors is referred to1 and it is not difficult to understand that by a particular arrangement of them it would be easily possible to allow the hash which lighted up the image of the god to be of very brief duration4 ,remember that the sanctuary was dark1 that the king stood with his back to the pylon 7and therefore to the sun74 ,under these circumstances1 to an excited imagination it would be the god himself and not his image which appeared4 ,maspero#ca adduces much evidence to show that the priests were not above pious frauds even in the worship connected with the ,holy of ,holies3-- ,the shrines in the sanctuary are little chapels of wood or stone1 in which the spirit of the deity was supposed at all times to dwell1 and which on ceremonial occasions contained his image4 ,the sacred barks were built after the model of the ,bari1 or boat in which the sun performed his daily course4 ,the shrine was placed amidships of the boat and covered with a veil or curtain1 to conceal its contents from all spectators4444 ,we have not as yet discovered any of the statues employed in the ceremonial1 but we know what they were like1 what part they played1 and of what materials they were made4 ,they were animated4444 ,they spoke1 moved1 acted--not metaphorically1 but actually4444 ,interminable avenues of sphinxes1 gigantic obelisks1 massive pylons1 halls of a hundred columns1 mysterious chambers of perpetual night--in a word1 the whole ,egyptian ,temple and its dependencies were built by way of a hiding-place for a performing puppet1 of which the wires were worked by a priest4 ,in an inscription which covers1 according to ,brugsch1 an entire wall near the ,holy of ,holies in the temple of ,amen-,r it is stated that a beautiful harp1 inlaid with silver and gold and precious stones1 on which to sing the praises of the god1 statues of the god himself1 and numerous gates 7,selkhet7 with locks of copper and dark bronze1 to protect the ,holy of ,holies from intrusion1 were among the gifts to the priests4#cb ,thothmes ,,iii41 in his account of his embellishments at ,karnak1 says of the statues of the gods and of their secret place 7possibly the ,adytum7 that they were more glorious than what is created in heaven1 more secret than the place of the abyss1 and more invisible than what is in the ocean4#cc ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,amen-,r ,,at ,,karnak4 ,if it be accepted that the arguments already put forward justify us in regarding the temple of ,amen-,r as a solstitial solar temple1 we are brought face to face with the fact that if it be of any great antiquity its orientation should be such that it will no longer receive the light of the setting sun at the summer solstice along its axis4 ,this results from the fact that there is a slow change in what is called the obliquity of the ecliptic--that is1 the angle between the plane of the earth's equator and the plane of the ecliptic2 this change is brought about by the attraction of the other planetary bodies affecting the plane of the ecliptic4 ,if these planes approach each other1 the obliquity will be reduced2 the present obliquity is something like #bc #bg2 we know that #e1jjj ,b4,c4 it was #bd #bb1 nearly a degree more4 ,a difference of #a means1 then1 a difference of time of about seven thousand years4 ,it may go down to something below #ba4 ,since the obliquity has been decreasing for many thousand years1 a temple directed to the rising or setting sun at the solstice some thousands of years ago had a greater amplitude than it requires now4 ,it will be readily understood that if the orientation of the temple and the height of the hills towards which it points be accurately known1 knowing also the precise obliquity of the ecliptic at different epochs1 we have an astronomical means of determining the date of the original foundation of the temple1 supposing1 of course1 that it was founded to observe the solstice4 ,but before ,i go into these matters it is essential that the evidence of ,egyptologists should be considered4 ,very fortunately for us in these inquiries the temple of ,amen-,r is one of those most carefully studied by ,mariette1 so that the dernier mot of the archologist is at our disposal4 ,mariette1 in his magnificent memoir on ,karnak1#cd surpassed himself in the care and sagacity which he displayed in endeavouring to fix dates for the various structures in that wonderful temple-field1 and among them the various parts of the temple of ,amen-,r4 ,in his maps1 to which ,i now refer1 each part of the temple is coloured according to the supposed date of its building4 ,he points out first of all that the inscriptions on the walls must be disregarded1 as they could have been put there at any date after the temples were built4 ,on this point ,i quote ,mariette's own words3--#ce ,les couleurs marques sur le plan servent indiquer1 au moyen de la lgende explicative place en marge1 les poques diverses de la construction des temples et de leurs parties4 ,quelques mots d'explication sont ici ncessaires4 ,un mur porte les cartouches de ,menephtah2 mais il peut avoir t construit deux-cent-cinquante ans plus tt par ,thoutms ,,iii4 ,les poques de la dcoration ne sont ainsi pas toujours les poques de la construction4 ,pour avoir les poques de la dcoration1 il ne s'agit que de regarder les murs et les inscriptions dont ils sont couverts4 ,pour avoir les poques de la construction1 tout un travail de confrontation1 de comparaison1 est ncessaire4 ,il faut s'assurer si les mmes mains qui ont construit le mur l'ont dcor2 dans le cas contraire1 il faut faire intervenir l'archologie dans toutes les branches de cette science qui touchent l'observation des lieux1 au mode de construction1 l'agencement des pierres1 au choix et l'appareillage des matriaux4 ,taking the temple in its generality1 he finds that1 so far as his inquiries had carried him1 parts were certainly built at a time an ancient as the twelfth dynasty--say #bdjj or #cjjj ,b4,c41 according to the authority in these matters that we may prefer4 ,then again we have dates given and indications of kings through the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties1 and then again on to the times of the ,ptolemies4 ,in such an inquiry we must have archological dates on which we can rely4 ,in the date assigned to the time of ,mena by various ,egyptologists we find a difference of nearly--in fact1 rather more than--a thousand years in our authorities4 ,in the twelfth dynasty we find a difference of five hundred years2 but in the later dynasties1 such as the eighteenth1 the difference is reduced in some cases to ten years or so4 ,so that in the later dynasties we know pretty well what time is in question4 ,we are therefore on firm ground4 ,the first point to which ,i wish to call attention is that according to ,mariette the building dates change along the open axis of the temple4 ,from photographs ,i took when in ,egypt ,i found reason to believe that the direction of the axis has been slightly changed at the west end4 ,if we refer to the plan of the temple1 the point of importance to us in our present inquiry has relation to the circumstances connected with the buildings of the temple itself4 ,we have in the outer court to the north-west certain pillars which were built by one of the ,ethiopian kings4 ,these ,i mark #a1 #a 7see page #aah74 ,there is the temple ,m1 built by ,rameses ,,iii1 according to ,mariette4 ,there are walls with columns1 marked #b1 #b1 built by the twenty-second dynasty1 north and south of this outer court2 and then there is the temple ,l in the outer court1 supposed to have been built by ,seti ,,ii4 ,the western part of the temple1 therefore1 is of no high antiquity4 ,to find this we have to go some #bjj yards to the south-east4 ,near the central portion of the temple 7marked #d7 there are traces of the twelfth or possibly the eleventh dynasty4 ,what existed then might have been a shrine with nothing to the north-west or south-east of it4 ,this seems almost to have been its condition at the time of ,thothmes ,,iii4 even4 ,according to an inscription quoted by ,brugsch1#cf ,the king 7,thothmes ,,iii47 found it in the form of a brick building1 in a very dilapidated condition1 being a work of his predecessors4 ,the king with his own hand performed the solemn laying of the foundation stone for this monument4 ,from this point1 indeed1 the temple seems to have extended in both directions--that is1 north-west and south-east--the sanctuary being thrown back to the eastward and pylons added to the westward4 ,it follows from the above very brief sketch that the original orientation of the original shrine is to be gathered from the walls towards the centre of the present ruins4 ,let us agree to this4 ,the ,egyptologist already gives us eleventh-dynasty time1 say #bejj ,b4,c4 for a part of the existing temple4 ,let us now pass to the astronomical problem4 ,lepsius and others have measured the amplitude of this part of the temple4 ,it is given as #bj or #bj #cj ,n4 of ,w4 ,when there ,i measured the height of the opposite hills 7near the tombs of the kings7 roughly at #b4 ,if we1 therefore1 deal with the amplitude1 considering the height of the hills as #b1 we find that1 as the horizon was above the sea horizon and the sun travels down an inclined path from south to north1 it would meet the hill sooner than the sea horizon2 the apparent amplitude would1 therefore1 be less than the true one1 so that we get an amplitude of #be instead of #bf1 and if we correct that for refraction we get #be4 ,let us take the lower amplitudes4 ,we can construct the following table3-- ,with present obliquity #bc #cj we have at ,thebes1 lat4 #be #dj amplitude on horizon 7sun's centre7 #bf ,corrected for refraction #bf #cj ,the amplitude behind hill1 #b high1 will be #be ,making correction for refraction #be #e ,so that1 taking the lowest amplitude1 the temple axis points almost #a too much to the north4 ,i have already mentioned that the photographs ,i had taken of the temple axis towards1 and from the outside of1 the ,ptolemaic pylon indicated a twist in the temple axis4 ,this was a question that in the absence of accurate measurements could only be determined by an actual observation of the solstice4 ,this being so1 ,i begged the intervention of ,col4 ,sir ,colin ,scott-,moncrieff1 the ,under ,secretary of ,state of the ,public ,works ,department in ,egypt1 to detail one of his officers to make observations of the summer solstice of #ahia4 ,he was good enough to accede to my request1 and ,i proceed to give extracts from the report of the officer in question1 ,mr4 ,p4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wakefield1 to ,mr4 ,allan ,joseph1 the ,director of ,works and ,irrigation3-- ,in accordance with instructions received1 ,i made the following observations at ,karnak on ,june #bast1 #ahia3-- ,i found that the points which ,i have marked ,a1 ,c1 ,d on the photographic plan 7being the centres of the ,pylon of ,rameses ,i41 the ,pylon of ,thothmes ,i41 and the shrine or sanctuary of ,philip ,,iii4 of ,macedon 787 respectively7 were all in a straight line4 ,b is a point midway between the only two opposite pillars of which the bases are intact 7one set up by ,rameses ,i41 and the other by ,seti ,i471 and was very nearly in line2 probably the true centre between the pillars 7which is difficult to obtain7 would be exactly so4 ,the centre of the ,great ,pylon 7,ptolemaic7 is not in line at all with these points1 there being #a difference between ,d ,a prolonged and ,a ,e2 ,i therefore accepted the line ,d ,c ,a as the true axis4 ,from an inspection made on ,june #bjth1 it appeared to me that the setting sun would not be visible from any of the points indicated by ,professor ,norman ,lockyer4 ,i therefore placed the theodolite at ,a4 ,i regret to say that my above supposition was correct1 as even from ,a ,i was only able to see a portion of the setting sun1 the remainder being hidden behind the south wall of the ,great ,pylon4 ,i obtained1 however1 one reading1 the right limb at1 as nearly as ,i could judge1 the moment of impact of the sun's diameter with the hill4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,amen-,r1 ,,showing ,,the ,,points ,,referred ,,to ,,in ,,the ,,present ,,chapter4 ,of the measures given the most important are the angle between the axis of the temple looking south-east from ,a and the north point #aaf #bc #dj 7amplitude #bf #bc7 and the angle between the top of the hills and the horizontal #b #cf #bj 4#cg ,these measures1 therefore1 entirely justified the result of the calculations ,i have before given1 and prove that the interval of over #ejjj years is sufficient to cause us to detect the change in the obliquity of the ecliptic by this method of observing the sunset at a solstice with an instrument built on so large a a scale4 ,taking the orientation as #bf1 and taking hills and refraction into consideration1 we find that the true horizon sunset amplitude would be #bg #cj4 ,this amplitude gives us for ,thebes a declination of #bd #ah4 ,this was the obliquity of the ecliptic in the year #cgjj ,b4,c41 and this is therefore the date of the foundation of the shrine of ,amen-,r at ,karnak1 so far as we can determine it astronomically with the available data2 but about these there is still an element of doubt1 for1 so far as ,i learn1 the recent magnetic readings have not been checked by astronomical observations4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,stars--,,their ,,risings ,,and ,,settings4 ,from what has been stated it is not too much to assume that the ,egyptians observed1 and taught people to observe1 the sun on the horizon4 ,this being so1 the chances are that at first they would observe the stars on the horizon too1 both stars rising and stars setting2 this indeed is rendered more probable by the very careful way in which early astronomers defined the various conditions under which a star can rise or set1 always1 be it well remembered1 in relation to the sun4 ,it must not be forgotten that the ancients had no telescopes1 and had to use their horizon as the only scientific instrument which they possessed4 ,they spoke of a star as rising or setting cosmically1 achronically1 or heliacally4 ,the cosmic rising meant that the star rose1 and the cosmic setting meant that the star set1 at the same moment as the sun--that is1 that along the eastern horizon we should see the star rising at the moment of sunrise1 or along the western horizon a star setting at the moment of the sun setting2 but unless certain very obvious precautions were taken it is clear that neither the rising nor the setting star would be seen1 in consequence of the presence of daylight4 ,the achronical rising or setting is different from the cosmic in this respect--that we have the star rising when the sun is setting1 or setting when the sun is rising4 ,finally we have the heliacal rising and setting2 that is taken to be that the star appeared in the morning a little in advance of the sunrise1 or set at twilight a little later than the sun4 ,it is quite clear that if we observe a star rising in the dawn1 it will get more and more difficult to observe the nearer the time of sunrise is approached4 ,therefore1 what the ancients did was to determine a time before sunrise in the early dawn at which the star could be very obviously and clearly seen to rise4 ,the term heliacal rising was coined to represent a star rising visibly in the dawn1 therefore1 before the sun4 ,generally throughout ,egypt the sun was supposed to be something like #aj below the horizon when a star was stated to rise heliacally4 ,the following table from ,biot should make matters quite clear3-- ,true or ,cosmic ,sun rising4 ,sun not yet risen1 but ,morning ,apparent or depressed below horizon ,heliacal sufficiently to enable the star to be seen4 ,star at ,eastern ,true or ,achronic ,sun setting4 ,horizon 7,rising7 ,sun set1 and depressed ,evening ,apparent or below horizon sufficiently ,heliacal to enable the star to be seen4 ,true or ,cosmic ,sun setting4 ,sun set and depressed ,evening ,apparent or below horizon sufficiently ,star at ,western ,heliacal to enable the ,horizon 7,setting7 star to be seen4 ,true or ,achronic ,sun rising4 ,sun not yet risen1 but ,morning ,apparent or depressed below horizon ,heliacal sufficiently to enable the star to be seen4 ,it is ,ideler's opinion that1 in ,ptolemy's time1 in the case of stars of the first magnitude1 for heliacal risings and settings1 if the star and sun were on the same horizon1 a depression of the sun of #aa was taken2 if on opposite horizons1 a depression of #g4 ,for stars of the second magnitude these values were #ad and #h4 ,but if temples were employed as ,i have suggested1 even cosmic and achronic risings and settings could be observed in the case of the brightest stars4 ,but it must not be imagined that1 even in ,egypt1 all stars can be observed the moment they are above the horizon4 ,in the morning1 especially1 there are mists1 so that all but the brightest stars are often invisible till they are #a or #b high4 ,on this point ,i quote ,biot3-- ,comme le rapporte ,nouet1 l'astronome de l'expdition franaise1 on n'y aperoit jamais leur lever les toiles de #b et de #c grandeur mme dans les plus belles nuits1 cause d'une bande constant de vapeurs qui borde l'horizon4#ch ,aussi en expliquant le calcul des levers hliaques dans l',almageste1 ,ptolme a-t-il soin de remarquer#ci que les annonces qu'on voudrait faire de ces phnomnes seront toujours trs-incertaines1 cause de l'tat des couches d'air dans lesquelles on les observe1 et cause de la difficult optique qu'on prouve saisir la premire apparition1 comme il dit lui-mme en avoir fait l'exprience4#dj ,before we begin to consider the question of stars at all1 we must be able to describe them--to speak of them in a way that shall define exactly which star is meant4 ,we can in these days define a star according to its constellation1 or its equatorial or ecliptic co-ordinates1 but all these means of reference were unknown to the earliest observers4 ,still we may assume that the ,egyptians could define some of the stars in some fashion2 and it is evident that we here approach a matter of the very highest importance for our subject1 to which ,i shall have to return in a subsequent chapter4 ,so far as we have been dealing with the sun and the observations of the sun at rising and setting1 we have taken for granted that the amplitude of the sun at the solstices does not change2 the amplitude of #bf at ,thebes for the solstices is practically1 though as we have seen not absolutely1 invariable for a thousand years2 but one of the results of astronomical work is that the stars are known to behave quite differently4 ,in consequence of what is called precession the stars change their place with regard to the pole of the equator2 and further1 in consequence of this movement1 the position of the sun among the stars at the solstices and equinoxes changes also4 ,in reference to the sun's path we considered what are called the ecliptic and the equatorial co-ordinates4 ,the ecliptic defines the plane in which the earth moves round the sun1 and #ij from that plane we have the pole of the heavens2 celestial latitude we found reckoned from the plane of the ecliptic north and south up to the pole of the heavens1 and celestial longitude was reckoned along the plane of the ecliptic from the first point of ,aries4 ,we had also declination reckoned from the equator of the earth prolonged to the stars1 and right ascension reckoned along the equator from the first point of ,aries4 ,the pole of the heavens or of the ecliptic1 then1 we must regard as practically1 but not absolutely1 fixed2 but the pole of the earth's equator is not fixed1 it slowly moves round the pole of the heavens4 ,in consequence of that movement there is a change of declination in a star's place4 ,going back to the diagram 7p4 #di71 we find that the amplitude of a body rising or setting at ,thebes or anywhere else depends upon its declination2 so that if from any cause the declination of a star changes1 its amplitude must change4 ,that is the first point where we meet with difficulty1 because if the amplitude changes it is the same as saying that the place of star-rising or star-setting changes2 that is1 a star which rises in the east in a certain amplitude this year will change its amplitude at some future time4 ,in the last chapter ,i referred to one of the difficulties of modern inquiries into the orientation of ancient temples1 which arises from the fact that the sun has not always1 at the solstices1 risen or set at exactly the same points of the horizon4 ,we now find ourselves face to face with the fact that the stars do not rise or set at the same points century after century4 ,we saw that the change in the position of the sun on the horizon at the solstices is due to a very small change of obliquity of the ecliptic1 so that in a matter of something like #f1jjj years the position of the sun at sunrise and sunset on the horizon may be varied by1 roughly speaking1 #a degree4 ,but in the case of the stars the matter is very much more serious1 because in the course of something like #ac1jjj years the rising-or setting-places of a star may vary by something like #dg along the horizon north or south4 ,so that in the cases both of sun and stars there is no real fixity in the places of rising or setting1 although of course those who made the first observations and built the first temples were not in a position to know this4 ,the real cause of this precessional movement which causes the stars to change their places lies in the fact that the earth is not a sphere1 its equatorial diameter being longer than its polar diameter1 so that there is a mass of matter round the equator in excess of what we should get if the earth were spherical4 ,suppose that matter to be represented by a ring4 ,the ring is differently presented to the sun1 one part being nearer than the other1 the nearer part being attracted more forcibly4 ,if we take the point in the ring nearest the sun where there is the greatest attraction1 and draw a line to the opposite point where the attraction is least1 we can show that the case stands in this way3 the sun's pull may be analysed into two forces1 one of them represented by the line joining the centre of the sun and the centre of the ring1 and another at right angles to it let fall from the point most strongly attracted on to the first line4 ,the question is1 what will that force at right angles do8 ,the figure below represents a model illustrating the rotation of the earth on its axis1 and the concurrent revolution of the sun round the earth once a year4 ,to represent the downward force it is perfectly fair if ,i add a weight4 ,the moment this is done the axis of the gyroscope representing the earth's axis1 instead of retaining its direction to the same point as it did before1 now describes a circle round the pole of the heavens4 ,illustration3 ,,model ,,illustrating ,,the ,,precession ,,of ,,the ,,equinoxes4 ,it is now a recognised principle that there is1 so to speak1 a wobble of the earth's axis round the pole of the heavens1 in consequence of the attraction of the sun on the nearer point of this equatorial ring being greater than on the part of the ring further removed from it4 ,that precessional movement is not quite so simple as it is shown by the model1 because what the sun does in this way is done to a very much larger extent by the moon1 the moon being so very much nearer to us4 ,in consequence1 then1 of this luni-solar precession we have a variation of the points of intersection of the planes of the earth's equator and of the ecliptic2 in consequence of that we have a difference in the constellations in which the sun is at the time of the solstices and the equinoxes2 and1 still more important from our present point of view1 we have another difference1 viz41 that the declinations1 and therefore the amplitudes1 and therefore the places of setting and rising of the stars1 change from century to century4 ,now that we have thus become acquainted with the physical cause of that movement of the earth's axis which gives rise to what is called the precession of the equinoxes1 we have next to enter with somewhat greater detail into some of the results of the movement4 ,the change of direction of the axis in space has a cycle of something between #be1jjj and #bf1jjj years4 ,as it is a question of the change of the position of the celestial equator1 or rather of the pole of the celestial equator1 amongst the stars in relation to the pole of the heavens1 of course the declinations of stars will be changed to a very considerable extent2 indeed1 we have seen that the declination of a star can vary by twice the amount of the obliquity1 or say #dg1 so that a star at one time may have zero declination--that is1 it may lie on the equator--and at another it may have a declination #dg ,n4 or ,s4 ,or1 again1 a star may be the pole star at one particular time1 and at another it will be distant from the pole no less than #dg4 ,although we get this enormous change in one equatorial co-ordinate1 there would from this cause alone be practically no change with regard to the corresponding ecliptic co-ordinate--that is to say1 the position of the star with reference to the earth's movement round the sun4 ,this movement takes place quite independently of the direction of the axis1 so that while we get this tremendous swirl in declination1 the latitudes of the stars or their distances from the ecliptic north or south will scarcely change at all4 ,illustration3 ,,star-,,map4 ,,representing ,,the ,,precessional ,,movement ,,of ,,the ,,celestial ,,pole ,,from ,,the ,,year #djjj ,b4,c4 ,,to ,,the ,,year #bjjj ,a4,d4 7,from ,piazzi ,smyth47 ,symbols adapted to represent the magnitudes or brightnesses of the stars1 #ast4 1 #bnd4 1 #crd4 1 #dth4 4 ,among other important results of these movements dependent upon precession we have the various changes in the pole-star from period to period1 due to the various positions occupied by the pole of the earth's equator4 ,we thus see how in this period of #be1jjj years or thereabouts the pole-stars will change1 for a pole-star is merely the star near the pole of the equator for the time being4 ,at present1 as we all know1 the pole-star is in the constellation ,ursa ,minor4 ,during the last #be1jjj years the pole-stars have been those lying nearest to a curved line struck from the pole of the heavens with a radius equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic1 which1 as we have seen1 is liable to change within small limits2 so that about #aj1jjj or #ab1jjj years ago the pole-star was no longer the little star in ,ursa ,minor that we all know1 but the bright star ,vega1 in the constellation ,lyra4 ,of course #be1jjj years ago the pole-star was practically the same as it is at present4 ,associated with this change in the pole-star1 the point of intersection of the two fundamental planes 7the plane of the earth's rotation and the plane of the earth's revolution7 will be liable to change1 and the period will be the same--about #be1jjj years4 ,where these two planes cut each other we have the equinoxes1 because the intersection of the planes defines for us the vernal and the autumnal equinoxes2 when the sun is highest and lowest half-way between these points we have the solstices4 ,in a period of #be1jjj years the star which is nearest to an equinox will return to it1 and that which is nearest a solstice will return to it4 ,during the period there will be a constant change of stars marking the equinoxes and the solstices4 ,the chief points in the sun's yearly path then will change among the stars in consequence of this precession4 ,it is perfectly clear that if we have a means of calculating back the old positions of stars1 and if we have any very old observations1 we can help matters very much1 because the old observations--if they were accurately made--would tell us that such and such a star rose with the sun at the solstice or at the equinox at some special point of ancient time4 ,if it be possible to calculate the time at which the star occupied that position with regard to the sun1 we have an astronomical means of determining the time1 within a few years1 at which that particular observation was made4 ,fortunately1 we have such a means of calculation1 and it has been employed very extensively at different periods1 chiefly by ,m4 ,biot in ,france1 and quite recently by ,german astronomers1 in calculating the positions of the stars from the present time to a period of #bjjj years ,b4,c4 ,we can thus determine with a very high degree of accuracy the latitude1 longitude1 right ascension1 declination1 and the relation of the stars to an equinox1 a solstice1 or a pole1 as far back as we choose4 ,since we have the planes of the equator and ecliptic cutting each other at different points in consequence of the cause which ,i have pointed out--the attraction of the sun and moon--we have a fixed equator and a variable equator depending upon that4 ,in consequence of the attraction of the planets upon the earth1 the plane of the ecliptic itself is not fixed1 so that we have not only a variable equator1 but also a variable ecliptic4 ,what has been done in these calculations is to determine the relations and the results of these variations4 ,the calculations undertaken for the special purposes of this book will be referred to later4 ,a simpler1 though not so accurate a method consists in the use of a processional globe4 ,in this we have two fixed points at the part of the globe representing the poles of the heavens1 on which the globe may be rotated2 when this is done the stars move absolutely without any reference to the earth or to the plane of the equator1 but purely with reference to the ecliptic4 ,we have1 then1 this globe quite independent of the earth's axis1 flow can we make it dependent upon the earth's axis8 ,we have two brass circles at a distance of #bc from each pole of the heavens 7north and south72 these represent the circle described by the pole of the earth in the period of #be1jjj years4 ,in these circles are forty-eight holes in which ,i can fix two additional clamping screws1 and rotate the globe with respect to them by throwing out of gear the two points which produced the ecliptic revolution4 ,if ,i use that part of the brass circle which is occupied by our present pole-star1 we get the apparent revolution of the heavens with the earth's axis pointing to the pole-star of to-day4 ,if we wish to investigate the position of things1 say #h1jjj years ago1 we bring the globe back again to its bearings1 and then adjust the screws into the holes in the brass circles which are proper for that period4 ,when we have the globe arranged to #fjjj years ,b4,c4 7i4e41 #h1jjj years ago71 in order to determine the equator at that time all we have to do is to paint a line on the globe-in some water-colour1 by holding a camel's-hair pencil at the east or west point of the wooden horizon4 ,that line represents the equator #h1jjj years ago4 ,having that line1 of course1 the intersection of the equator with the ecliptic will give us the equinoxes1 so that we may affix a wafer to represent the vernal equinox4 ,or if we take that part of the ecliptic which is nearest to the ,north ,pole1 and1 therefore1 the ,n4 declination of which is greatest1 viz41 #bc ,n41 we have there the position of the sun at the summer solstice1 and #bc ,s4 will give us the position of the sun at the winter solstice4 ,so by means of such a globe as this it is possible to determine roughly the position of the equator among the stars1 and note those four important points in the solar year1 the two equinoxes and the two solstices4 ,i have taken a period of #h1jjj years1 but ,i might just as easily have taken a greater or a smaller one4 ,by means of this arrangement1 therefore1 we can determine within a very small degree of error1 without any laborious calculations1 the distance of a star north or south of the equator1 i4e41 its declination1 at any point of past or future time4 ,the positions thus found1 say1 for intervals of #ejj years1 may be plotted on a curve1 so that we can1 with a considerable amount of accuracy1 obtain the star's place for any year4 ,thus the globe may be made to tell us that in the year #ajjj ,a4,d4 the declination of ,fomalhaut was #ce ,s41 in #ajjj ,b4,c4 it was #db1 in #bjjj it was about #dd1 in #djjj it was a little over #db again1 but in #fjjj ,b4,c4 it had got up to about #cc1 and in #hjjj ,b4,c4 to about #bb4 ,the curve of ,capella falls from #da ,n4 at #j ,a4,d4 to #aj at #eejj ,b4,c41 so we have in these #eejj years in the case of this star run through a large part of that variation to which ,i have drawn attention4 ,i have ascertained that the globe is a very good guide indeed within something like #a of declination4 ,considering the difficulty of the determination of amplitudes in the case of buildings1 it is clear that the globe may be utilised with advantage1 at all events to obtain a first approximation4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,egyptian ,,heavens--,,the ,,zodiacs ,,of ,,denderah4 ,we can readily understand that in the very beginning of observations in all countries1 the moment man began to observe anything1 he took note of the stars1 and as soon as he began to talk about them he must have started by defining1 in some way or other1 the particular stars he meant4 ,observers would first consider the brightest stars1 and separate them from the dimmer ones2 they would then discuss the stars which never set1 and separate them from those which did rise and set2 then they would take the most striking configurations1 whether large or small4 ,they would naturally1 in a ,northern clime1 choose out the constellation the ,great ,bear1 or ,orion1 and for small groups the ,pleiades4 ,these would attract attention1 and be named before anything else4 ,then1 later on1 it would be imperative1 in order to connect their solar with their stellar observations1 that they should name the stars which lay along the sun's path in the heavens1 or those the rising of which heralded the sunrise at their festivals4 ,they would confine their attention to a belt round the equator rather than consider the configuration of stars half-way between the equator and the north pole4 ,in all countries--,india1 ,china1 ,babylonia1 ,egypt--they had eventually such a girdle round the heavens1 called by different names in different countries1 and the use of this girdle of stars1 which sometimes consisted of twenty-eight stations1 sometimes of twenty-seven1 and sometimes of less1 was to enable them to define the place of the sun1 moon1 or of any of the planets in relation to any of these stars4 ,not very many years ago1 when the literature of ,china and ,india was as a sealed book1 and the hieroglyphics of ,egypt and the wedges of ,babylonia were still unread1 we had to depend for the earliest traces of astronomical observation upon the literatures of ,greece and ,syria1 and according to these sources the asterisms first specialised and named were as follows3-- ,the ,great ,bear ,job 7xxxviii4 #ca71 ,homer4 ,orion ,job 7ix4 #i71 ,homer1 ,hesiod4 ,pleiades1 ,hyades ,job 7xxxviii4 #ca71 ,homer1 ,hesiod4 ,sirius and the ,great ,dog ,hesiod 7viii471 the name2 ,homer called it the ,star of ,autumn4 ,aldebaran1 the ,bull ,homer1 ,hesiod4 ,arcturus ,job 7ix4 #i2 xxxviii4 #cb71 ,homer1 ,hesiod4 ,the ,little ,bear ,thales1 ,eudoxus1 ,aratus4 ,the ,dragon ,eudoxus1 ,aratus4 ,in the ,book of ,job we read1 ,canst thou bind the sweet influences of ,pleiades1 or loose the bands of ,orion8 ,canst thou bring forth ,mazzaroth in his season8 or canst thou guide ,arcturus with his sons8 ,here we have the difficulty which has met everybody in going back into these old records1 because there was no absolute necessity for a common language at the time2 it was open to everyone to call the stars any name they chose in any country1 therefore it is difficult for scholars to find out what particular stars or constellations were meant by any particular words4 ,in the ,revised ,version1 ,arcturus has given place to the ,bear with its train1 and even our most distinguished scholars do not know what ,mazzaroth means4 ,i wrote to ,professor ,robertson ,smith to ask him to give me the benefit of his great knowledge1 and he tells me that ,mazzaroth is probably that band of stars round the ecliptic or round the equator to which ,i have referred1 but he will only commit himself to the statement that it is a probable enough conjecture2 other people believe that it was a reference to the ,milky ,way4 ,i mention this to show how very difficult this inquiry really is4 ,the seven stars are held by many to mean the ,pleiades1 and not the ,great ,bear2 but this1 ,i think1 is very improbable4 ,much is to be hoped from the study of the ,babylonian records in relation to the ,egyptian ones4 ,this is a point ,i shall return to in the sequel4 ,in observing stars nowadays1 we use a transit circle which is carried round by the earth so as to pick up the stars in different circles round the axis of the earth prolonged1 and by altering the inclination of the telescope of this instrument we can first get a circle of one declination and then a circle of another4 ,the ,egyptians did not usually employ meridian observations4 ,did the ,egyptians make star maps8 ,they certainly did1 as we shall see4 ,the first bit of solid information specially bearing upon ancient ,egyptian constellations was gained at the temple of ,denderah1 a place which the traveller up the ,nile reaches before he arrives so far as ,thebes4 ,perhaps among the reasons why so great attention was given to the so-called zodiacs of ,denderah was the fact that one of them1 having been rudely wrenched from its resting-place in the platform of one of the temples1 had been carried to the museum in ,paris1 so that the thing itself was en vidence and capable of being examined by experts whose opinions were of value1 and by all the world besides4 ,the chief temple1 when explored by the ,french expedition1 was deeply buried in the sand4 ,in the front part of it1 covering the ceiling1 before one enters the temple itself1 there is displayed the square zodiac1 so called1 to which ,i shall have to refer briefly4 ,the temple was pointed within a few degrees of north2 at the north-east corner of the zodiac is a device1 since found to represent the sunlight falling upon a statue of the ,goddess of the ,shrine4 ,investigations have shown that the zodiac includes a reference to a great many celestial phenomena of the utmost importance4 ,there is no difficulty in recognising some of the zodiacal signs1 but there the resemblance to the modern zodiac ends1 for the reason that each of the strange processions of mythological personages represents not only constellations1 with some of which we may be familiar1 but a great deal more4 ,it is noteworthy that the illustration of the very first astronomical point which we have to consider brings out the fact that it is impossible to disconnect ,egyptian mythology from astronomy4 ,in the southern half of the zodiac1 the lower part is occupied by stars represented in the guise of different mythological personages1 sailing along in boats2 and above them we get half of the zodiac with the signs of the ,fish1 the ,ram1 the ,bull and the ,twins represented4 ,in the middle section the sun's course in different parts of the day1 and different parts of the year1 is given3 whilst1 outermost of all1 we get the twelve solar positions1 occupied by the sun each hour from rising to setting1 represented by twelve boats4 ,it may be here mentioned that in ancient ,egypt1 as in the modern ,eastern world1 both day and night always consisted of twelve hours2 unequal1 of course1 the length of the hours varying according to the time of the year4 ,illustration3 ,,northern ,,half ,,of ,,the ,,so-,,called ,,square ,,zodiac ,,of ,,denderah4 ,now1 if we take the opposite side1 that is the north-west corner1 we find that we have to do chiefly with the opposite part of the sky1 including the signs of the ,lion1 the ,scales1 and ,sagittarius1 and below them other stars are represented as mythological personages in boats4 ,the courses of the sun and moon are next given1 and some of the lunar mythology is revealed to us4 ,we see ,osiris represented by the moon1 and by an eye at the top of fourteen steps1 which symbolise the fourteen days of the waxing moon4 ,in the square zodiac1 then1 there is an immense amount of astronomy4 ,in the round zodiac1 found in another temple 7see p4 #ah71 there are some points which at once claim our attention4 ,there is1 first1 a mythological figure of a cow in a boat1 and1 near it1 another mythological figure1 which the subsequent reading of inscriptions has proved to represent the constellation ,orion4 ,in the centre of the zodiac we have a jackal1 and there is very little doubt that it represents the constellation which we now call the ,little ,bear1 which then1 as now1 was near the pole4 ,not far away1 we get the leg of an animal2 this1 we now know1 was a constellation called the ,thigh1 and there seems to be absolutely no question that it represents the constellation which we now call the ,great ,bear4 ,again1 close by is another mythological form1 which we know represents the ,hippopotamus4 ,this was made up out of some of the group of stars which forms the present constellation ,draco4 ,there are also two hieroglyphs which subsequent research has proved to represent setting stars and rising stars1 so that1 whatever may have been the date of this round zodiac of ,denderah1 it is clear that we are dealing with a time when the stars had been classed in constellations1 one of which1 the constellation ,orion1 even survives to our own day4 ,it is little to be wondered at that1 when these revelations first burst upon the scientific world1 great excitement was produced4 ,it was obvious that we had to do with a nation which had very definite ideas of astronomy1 and that the astronomy was very closely connected with worship4 ,it was also certainly suggested by so many animal forms1 that we had to do with a people whose condition was not unlike that of the ,american ,indians--to take a well-known instance--at the beginning of this century1 one in which each tribe1 or clan1 had chosen a special animal totem4 ,it so happened that1 while these things were revealing themselves1 the discussions concerning them1 which took place among the scientific world of ,france1 were partly influenced by the writings of a man of very brilliant imagination and of great erudition4 ,i refer to ,dupuis1 according to whose views an almost fabulous antiquity might be assigned to ancient traditions in general and astronomical traditions in particular4 ,it is needless to say1 however1 that there were others to take the extreme opposite view--who held the opinion that his imagination had run away with his learning4 ,with all this new work before them1 and with a genius like ,champollion's among them1 it was not long before the ,french savans compelled the hieroglyphs to give up some of their secrets4 ,first one word gave two or three letters1 then another two or three more1 and finally an alphabet and syllabary were constructed4 ,so it was not long before some of the inscriptions at ,denderah were read4 ,then it was found that the temple1 as it then stood1 had certainly been1 partly at all events1 embellished so late as the time of the ,roman ,emperors4 ,naturally there was then a tremendous reaction from the idea of fabulous antiquity which had been urged by the school of ,dupuis4 ,there were two radically opposed camps1 led by ,letronne1 a distinguished archologist1 and ,biot1 one of the most eminent astronomers of his day1 and both of these savans brought papers before the ,academy of ,inscriptions4 ,biot's first paper was read in #ahbb1 and was replied to by ,letronne in #ahbd2 ,biot wrote his next paper in #ahdd1 in which he held to everything that he had stated in his first memoir2 and this was replied to1 the next year1 by ,letronne4 ,illustration3 ,,sirius ,,and ,,orion 7#ah,,th ,,dynasty74 7,from ,brugsch47 ,biot had no difficulty whatever in arriving at the conclusion that1 precisely as in the case of the sphere of ,eudoxus1 a prior bone of contention1 however true it might be that1 the circular zodiac had been sculptured in the time of the ,roman emperors1 still it certainly referred to a time far anterior2 and he suggested that we have in it sculptures reproducing very old drawings1 which had been made long before on parchment or on stone4 ,he pointed out that in the condition of astronomy one would expect to be extant in ancient times1 it was far easier to reproduce old drawings than to calculate back what the positions of the stars had been at some prior date1 so that in his magnificent summing-up of the case in his last paper1 he rested his scientific reputation on the statement that the sculptures of ,denderah represent the celestial sphere on a plane round the north pole of the equator at a year not far removed from #gjj ,b4,c4 ,more than this1 he stated that the time of the year was the time of the summer solstice1 and the hour was midnight4 ,he also showed that1 calculating back what the position of the stars would have been at midnight on the #bjth of ,june 7,gregorian71 #gjj ,b4,c41 the constellations1 and even many of the separate stars shown in the medallion1 would occupy exactly the places they did occupy in the projection employed4 ,illustration3 ,,astronomical ,,drawings ,,from ,,bib,n ,,el-,,mul,k 7#ah,,th ,,dynasty74 7,from ,description de l'gypte47 ,let us then1 for the moment1 assume this to be true4 ,what does it tell us8 ,that #gjj years ,b4,c4 in ,egypt the solstice was recognised2 a means of determining the instant of midnight with more or less precision was known2 observations of the stars were regularly made2 the risings of some of them were associated with the rising of the sun1 and many of them had been collected into groups or constellations4 ,this is a wonderful result4 ,i suppose that ,biot is universally held to have proved his case2 in fact1 ,brugsch1 who is now regarded as one of the highest authorities in ,egyptian history1 has shown that almost every detail seen in the zodiac of ,denderah reproduces inscriptions or astronomical figures1 unearthed since the date of ,biot's memoir1 which1 without doubt1 must be referred to the time of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty--that is1 #agjj ,b4,c4 or thereabouts2 so that practically the ,egyptologist has now chapter and verse for many things in the zodiac of ,denderah dating #a1jjj years before the period assigned to it by ,biot4 ,the next point to notice is connected with the astronomical drawings which have been found in the ,ramesseum at ,thebes--drawings which also have very obvious connections with the zodiac of ,denderah4 ,on these we find the hieroglyphics for the different months--the constellations ,orion1 ,hippopotamus1 and ,jackal1 as we saw them at ,denderah1 and another form of the constellation of the ,thigh4 ,there is certainly the closest connection between the two sets of delineations4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,ramesseum1 ,,where ,,the ,,month-,,tables ,,were ,,found4 ,biot set himself to investigate what was the probable date to which the inscriptions in the ,ramesseum referred4 ,when we have the months arranged in a certain relationship to certain constellations we have an opening for the discussion of the precessional movements2 in other words1 for the consideration of the various changes brought about by the swinging of the pole of the equator round the pole of the ecliptic4 ,here1 again1 there was no uncertain sound given out by the research4 ,biot pointed out that we are here in presence of records1 no longer of a summer solstice1 as in the case of ,denderah1 but of a spring equinox1 the date being #cbhe ,b4,c4 ,he further suggested that1 in all probability1 one of the mythological figures might be a representation of the intersection of the ecliptic and the equator in the constellation ,taurus at the date mentioned4 ,this undoubtedly1 to a large extent1 justifies what ,dupuis had long before pointed out--that the perpetual reference to the ,bull found in ancient records and mythologies arose from the fact that this constellation occupied an important position at a critical time in the year1 which would indicate a very considerable lapse of time4 ,this idea was justified by the researches of ,biot1 because we are driven back by them to a date preceding #cjjj years ,b4,c4 ,we find in the table at the ,ramesseum distinct references to the ,bull1 the ,lion and the ,scorpion1 and it is also clearly indicated that at that time the star ,sirius rose heliacally at the beginning of the ,nile-rise4 ,the month-table at ,thebes tells us that the sun's journey in relation to some of the zodiacal constellations was perfectly familiar #ejjj years ago4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,circumpolar ,,constellations3 ,,the ,,myth ,,of ,,horus4 ,there was to all early peoples all the difference in the world1 of course1 between day and night1 while we1 with our firm knowledge1 closely associate them4 ,there was no artificial illumination such as we have1 and the dark night did not so much typify rest as death2 so that the coming of the glorious morning of tropical or sub-tropical climates seemed to be a re-awakening to all the joys and delights and activities of life2 thus the difference between night and day was to the ancient ,egyptians almost the difference between death and life4 ,we can imagine that darkness thus considered by a mythologically-thinking people was regarded as the work of an enemy1 and hence1 in time1 their natural enemies were represented as being the friends of darkness4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,god ,,of ,,darkness--,,set4 ,here a very interesting astronomical point comes in4 ,with these views1 there must have been a very considerable difference in the way the ,egyptians regarded those stars which were always visible and those which rose and set4 ,the region occupied by the stars always visible depends1 of course1 upon the latitude of the place4 ,taking ,thebes1 with its latitude of #bf1 as representing ,egypt1 the area of stars always visible was about one-fourth of that visible to us1 so that there would be a very sharp distinction between the stars constantly seen at night1 and those which rose and set1 the rising stars being regarded as heralds of the sunrise4 ,it seems very probable that the circumpolar stars were quite early regarded as representing the powers of darkness1 because they were there1 visible in the dark1 always disappearing and never appearing at sunrise4 ,if that were so1 no doubt prayers would be as necessary to propitiate them as those powers or gods which were more beneficent2 and1 as a matter of fact1 one finds that the god ,set--identified sometimes with ,typhon1 ,anubis1 and ,tebha--was amongst the greatest gods of ancient ,egypt4 ,illustration3 ,,various ,,forms ,,of ,,anubis4 ,the female form of ,typhon--his wife--was called ,taurt or ,thoueris1 represented generally as a hippopotamus4 ,illustration3 ,,forms ,,of ,,typhon4 ,it is probable that the crocodile was a variant of the hippopotamus in some nomes1 both having reference to our modern constellation ,draco4 ,if we return for a moment to the zodiac of ,denderah1 we find that the constellations which ,i indicated--the ,thigh1 the ,hippopotamus and the ,jackal--represent our present constellations of the ,great ,bear1 ,draco1 and the ,little ,bear1 which were all of them circumpolar2 that is1 they neither rose nor set at the time of the inscription of the zodiac of ,denderah4 ,it therefore will not surprise us1 with the above suggested explanation in mind1 to hear that the ,hippopotamus was called the ,wife of ,set1 the ,thigh the ,thigh of ,set1 and the ,jackal the ,jackal of ,set4 ,in the ,book of the ,dead1 ,chapter ,,xvii41 we read the following reference to some of the northern stars and constellations3 ,the gods ,mestha1 ,hpi1 ,tuamutef1 and ,qebhsennuf are those1 namely1 which find themselves behind the constellation of the ,thigh in the northern heavens4 ,illustration3 ,,mestha4 ,h,,pi4 ,,tuam,,utef4 ,,qebhsennuf4 ,again1 inscribed in the kings' graves at ,thebes we read3 ,the four ,northern ,genii are the four gods of the follower some constellation4 ,they keep back the conflict of the terrible one ,typhon4 ,he is a great quarreller4 ,they trim the foresail and look after the mizen in the bark of ,r1 in company with the sailors1 who are the four constellations#da aemu-sek1 which are found in the northern heavens4 ,the constellation of the ,thigh appears at the late rising4 ,when this constellation is in the middle of the heavens1 having come to the south1 where ,orion lies ,orion typifying the southern part of the skies1 the other stars are wending their way to the western horizon4 ,regarding the ,thigh2 it is the ,thigh of ,set1 so long as it is seen in the northern heavens there is a band of stars8 to the two sword handles8 in the shape of a great bronze chain4 ,it is the place of ,isis in the shape of a ,hippopotamus to guard4 ,in the square zodiac at ,denderah we find an illustration of the ,hippopotamus and the ,thigh1 and the chain referred to in the inscription is there also4 ,it will be quite worth while to see whether this chain is not justified by some line of stars between the chief stars in ,draco and those in the ,great ,bear4 ,let us now turn to the associated mythology4 ,we see that the astronomical ideas have a most definite character2 we learn also from the inscriptions dating from the ,eighteenth ,dynasty1 that the ,egyptians at that time recognised three different risings4 ,there was the rising at sunset1 the rising at midnight1 and the rising at dawn4 ,plutarch says that the ,hippopotamus was certainly one of the forms of ,typhon1 and a reference to the myth of ,horus1 so beautifully told twenty years ago and illustrated by ,naville by the help of inscriptions at ,edf1 will show how important this identification is4 ,naville rightly pointed out how vital the study of mythology becomes with regard to the advancement of any kind of knowledge of the thoughts and actions of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,mythology1 as ,bunsen said1 is one of the poles of the existence of every nation2 hence it will be well not to neglect the opportunity thus afforded of studying the astronomical basis of one of the best-known myths4 ,first a word about the mythology of ,horus4 ,generally we begin with the statement usually made that ,horus meant the young 7or rising7 sun4 ,but inquiry shows that ,horus was something more than this2 the ,egyptians were great generalisers4 ,if we put the facts already known into diagrammatic form1 we find that the condition of things is something like the following3-- ,,horus ,,sun1 ,,planet1 ,,or ,,constellation ,,rising4 ,,sun4 ,,planets4 ,,constellations4 ,horus ,mars as ,orion ,northern constellations ,hor-uti ,sah-,horus ,set-,horus4 7,laughing ,horus7 7,red ,horus7 ,the table shows that1 although the ,egyptians undoubtedly called the rising sun ,horus1 the planets and constellations when rising were in certain cases called ,horus too4 ,we do not get any individual star rising referred to as ,horus2 they were always considered as goddesses4 ,hence1 ,horus seems to include constellations--that is1 groups of stars rising--but not single stars4 ,since the northern constellations were symbolised by the name of ,set1 the god of darkness1 we should take ,set-,horus to mean that the stars in the ,dragon were rising at sunrise4 ,this may explain the meaning of a remarkable figure which has set ,egyptologists thinking a great deal4 ,it is the combination of ,horus and ,set--a body of ,horus with two heads1 those of the hawk and jackal4 ,illustration3 ,,set-,,horus4 ,now then for the myth4 ,the reason why ,naville went to the temple of ,edf for his facts is that in the later-time temples--and this is one of them--the inscriptions on the walls have chiefly to do with myth and ritual1 whereas in the period covered by the earlier dynasties the temple inscriptions related chiefly to the doings of the kings4 ,when we come to read the story which ,naville brings before us1 it looks as though the greatest antiquity must be conceded to it from the fact that the god ,horus--the rising sun--is accompanied by the ,hor-shesu1 the followers or worshippers of ,horus4 ,these people are almost prehistoric1 even in ,egyptian history4 ,de ,roug says of them1 as ,i have previously pointed out1 ,c'est le type de l'antiquit la plus recule4 ,they represent1 possibly1 the old sun-worshippers at a time when as yet there was no temple of the sun4 ,now1 in this famous myth of ,horus1 ,horus1 accompanied and aided by the ,hor-shesu1 does battle with ,typhon1 the god of darkness1 who had killed his father ,osiris1 and ,horus avenges his father in the manner indicated in the various inscriptions and illustrative drawings given in the temple of ,edf4 ,how does he do it8 ,we find that in this conflict to revenge his father ,osiris1 he is represented in a boat killing a hippopotamus with ten darts1 the beast being ultimately cut up into eight pieces4 ,in some drawings it is a hippopotamus that he is slaying2 in others1 possibly for some totemic reason1 a crocodile has been selected1 but we can only see that it has been a crocodile by the fact that a little piece of the tail remains4 ,doubtless the reference had been found objectionable by some crocodile-worshipping people4 ,in very many inscriptions the constellation which1 as ,i have stated1 represents the hippopotamus1 is really represented as a crocodile1 or as a crocodile resting on the shoulders of a hippopotamus1 so that there is no doubt that the crocodile and the hippopotamus were variants2 and we can quite understand1 further1 that the hippopotamus must have been brought into ,egypt by a tribe with that totem1 who must have come from a very long way up the ,nile1 since the hippopotamus was never indigenous in the lower reaches of the river2 so that we have in the myth to do with a hippopotamus-worshipping tribe1 which1 for that reason1 probably came from a region very far to the south4 ,there is evidence of local tribes in ,egypt among which the crocodile was sacred4 ,illustration3 ,,illustration ,,from ,a ,,theban ,,tomb1 ,,showing ,,the ,,association ,,of ,,the ,,crocodile ,,and ,,hippopotamus1 ,,and ,,horus ,,slaying ,,the ,,crocodile1 ,,and ,,the ,,constellation ,,of ,,the ,,thigh4 ,the astronomical explanation of this myth is1 ,i think1 very clear4 ,the inscriptions relating to one of the very earliest of the illustrations refers to ,horus1 the great god1 the light of the heavens1 the lord of ,edf1 the bright ray which appears on the horizon4 ,the myth1 therefore1 ,i take it1 simply means that the rising sun destroys the circumpolar stars4 ,these stars are represented in the earliest forms of the myth either by the crocodile or the hippopotamus2 of course they disappeared 7or were killed7 at sunrise4 ,horus1 the bright ray on the horizon1 is victorious by destroying the crocodile and the hippopotamus1 which represent the powers of darkness4 ,illustration3 ,,horus ,,and ,,crocodiles4 ,this is a general statement4 ,i should not make it if ,i could not go a little further4 ,there is an astronomical test of its validity1 to which ,i must call attention4 ,the effect of precession is extremely striking on the constellations near the pole1 for the reason that the pole is constantly changing1 and the changes in the apparent position of the stars there soon become very obvious4 ,the stars in ,draco were circumpolar1 and could1 therefore1 have been destroyed 7or rendered invisible71 as the hippopotami were destroyed in the myth by the rising sun1 about #ejjj years ,b4,c42 and be it noted that at that time there was only one star in the ,great ,bear 7or the ,thigh7 which was circumpolar4 ,but at #bjjj years ,b4,c4 the stars in ,ursa ,major were the circumpolar ones1 and the chief stars in the constellation ,draco1 which formed the ancient constellation of the ,hippopotamus1 rose and set2 so that1 if there is anything at all in the explanation of the myth which ,i have given1 and if there is anything at all in the idea that the myth is very ancient and refers to the time when the constellation of the ,hippopotamus was really circumpolar--a time #gjjj years ago--we ought to find that as the myth existed in more recent times1 we should no longer be dealing with ,draco or the ,hippopotamus1 because ,draco was no longer circumpolar4 ,as a matter of fact1 in later times we get ,horus destroying no longer the ,hippopotamus or the ,crocodile1 but the ,thigh of ,set2 and1 as ,i have said1 #bjjj years ,b4,c4 the ,thigh occupied exactly the same position in the heavens with regard to the pole as the ,hippopotamus or the ,crocodile did #cjjj years before4 ,illustration3 ,,horus ,,and ,,crocodiles4 ,thus1 ,i think1 we may claim that this myth is astronomical from top to bottom2 it is as old as1 and probably rather older than1 ,naville thought1 because it must certainly have originated in a period somewhere about #ejjj years ,b4 ,c41 otherwise the constellation of the ,hippopotamus would not have figured in it4 ,the various illustrations of ,horus on the crocodiles are a reference to the myth we have just discussed4 ,it is easy to understand that if the myth were astronomical in origin there was no reason why it should be limited to ,horus representing the rising sun2 we accordingly find it extended to the god ,ptah4 ,illustration3 ,,ptah ,,and ,,crocodiles4 ,but although ,i hold that the astronomical meaning of the myth is that the rising sun kills the circumpolar stars1 ,i do not think that is the last word4 ,a conflict is suggested between a people who worship the rising sun and another who worship the circumpolar stars4 ,i shall show in the sequel that there is an astronomical suggestion of the existence of two such distinct races1 and that the companions of the sun-god of ,edf must probably be distinguished from the northern ,hor-shesu4 99 99 99 99 99 ,here we may conclude our reference to the stars which1 in the latitude of ,egypt1 do not rise and set--or1 rather1 did not rise and set at the epochs of time we have been considering4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,temples ,,directed ,,to ,,the ,,stars4 ,i have now to pass from the circumpolar stars to those which both rise and set4 ,the difference between the two groups--those that do not rise and set and those which do--was fully recognised by the ,egyptians1 and many references are made to the fact in the inscriptions4 ,in a previous chapter ,i have given reasons to show that some of the earliest solar temples in ,egypt were not oriented to the solstice4 ,the temple of ,amen-,r at ,karnak1 however1 and others elsewhere were built in such a manner that at sunset at the summer solstice--that is1 on the longest day in the year--the sunlight entered the temple and penetrated along the axis to the sanctuary4 ,i also pointed out that a temple oriented in this manner truly to a solstice was a scientific instrument of very high precision1 as by it the length of the year could be determined with the greatest possible accuracy1 provided only that the observations were continued through a sufficient period of time4 ,all the temples in ,egypt1 however1 are not oriented in such a way that the sunlight can enter them at this or any other time of the year4 ,they are not therefore solar temples1 and they cannot have had this use4 ,the critical amplitude for a temple built at ,thebes so that sunlight can enter it at sunrise or sunset is about #bf north and south of east and west1 so that any temples facing more northerly or southerly are precluded from having the sunlight enter them at any time in the year4 ,it is imperative to be perfectly definite and clear on the question of the amplitudes above #bf at ,thebes4 ,i repeat1 therefore1 that any amplitude within #bf means that up to that point the sun at sunrise or sunset could be observed some day or days of the year--once only in the year if the amplitude is exactly at the maximum1 twice if the maximum is not reached4 ,but in the case of these temples with greater amplitudes than #bf1 it is quite clear that they can have had nothing to do with the sun4 ,this being so1 we have the problem presented to us whether or not temples were built so that starlight might fall along their axes in exactly the same way that the sunlight could fall along the axes of the solar temples when the sun was rising in the morning or setting in the evening4 ,it is abundantly clear that temples with a greater amplitude than #bf were oriented to stars if they were oriented at all by astronomical considerations4 ,how can this question be studied8 ,what means of investigation are at our disposal8 ,suppose that the movements of the stars are absolutely regular2 that there is no change from year to year1 from century to century1 from on to on2 then1 of course1 the question as to whether or not these temples were pointed to a star1 at rising or setting1 would be easily and sufficiently settled by going to see2 because if the stars did not change their apparent places in the heavens--accurately speaking1 their declinations--and1 therefore1 the amplitudes at which they appear to rise and set1 then1 of course1 a temple consecrated to ,sirius ten thousand years ago would view the rising or setting of ,sirius now as it did then4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 astronomy tells us1 as we have seen1 that the apparent positions of the stars are liable to change4 ,the change is much greater in the case of the stars than it is in the case of the sun1 referred to in ,chapters ,,vi4 and ,,xi42 but still we have seen that the latter is one which has to be reckoned with the moment it becomes a question of inquiry into any time far removed from the present4 ,hence1 although in the case of the sun1 there is1 of course1 no processional movement1 and although a temple once oriented to the sun would remain so for a long time2 still1 after some thousands of years1 the change in the obliquity of the ecliptic would produce a small change in the amplitude at which a solstice is observed4 ,but while1 in the case of the sun1 we have to deal with a change of something like #a in seven thousand years2 we have to face in the case of the stars a maximum change of something like #dg in a period of thirteen thousand years4 ,the change of declination must be accompanied by a change of amplitude1 and therefore by a change in the direction of the temples4 ,illustration3 ,,ground ,,plan ,,of ,,edf4 ,hence1 when we get a temple of known date1 with an amplitude which has been accurately measured1 we can determine from that amplitude the exact declination of the body the temple was intended to observe1 supposing1 of course1 that the temple was oriented upon any astronomical considerations at all4 ,if the declination of the body turns out to be #bc #cj or less1 the temple may have been1 in all probability was1 a solar one2 if the declination is greater it cannot have had anything to do with the sun directly4 ,illustration3 ,,ground ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,hathor ,,at ,,denderah4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,seti ,,at ,,abydos4 ,this being so1 it will be understood why in an inquiry of this kind it is obviously desirable to begin with a region in which the number of temples is considerable4 ,such a condition we have in the region near ,thebes2 and the directions of the axes of the different temples--that is1 the orientation of each of them1 or1 in other words1 the amplitude of the direction in which each temple points--have all been tabulated4 ,chief among these we have the large temple of ,karnak1 showing that the amplitude of its orientation is #bf north of west1 and the temple of ,mut1 showing that its orientation is #gb north of east4 ,there is a temple at right angles to the temple at ,karnak1 and again another with an amplitude of #fc south of west1 and so on4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,ramses ,,ii4 ,,in ,,the ,,memnonia ,,at ,,thebes 7,,from ,,lepsius7 ,,showing ,,the ,,pylon ,,at ,,the ,,open ,,end ,,and ,,the ,,sanctuary ,,at ,,the ,,closed ,,one4 ,it may be stated generally that at ,karnak itself1 not to go farther afield1 there are two well-marked series of temples which cannot1 for the reason given1 be solar1 since one series faces a few degrees from the north1 and the other a few degrees from the south4 ,there are similar temples scattered all along the ,nile valley4 ,when we come to examine these non-solar temples1 the first question is1 ,do they resemble the solar ones in construction8 ,are the horizontal telescope conditions retained8 ,the evidence on this point is overwhelming4 ,take the ,temple of ,hathor at ,denderah4 ,it points very far away from the sun2 the sun's light could never have enfiladed it2 in many others pointing well to the north or south the axis extends from the exterior pylon to the ,sanctuary or ,naos1 which is found always at the closed end of the temple2 we have the same number of pylons1 gradually getting narrower and narrower as we get to the ,naos1 and in some there is a gradual rise from the first exterior pylon to the part which represents the section of the ,naos1 so that a beam of horizontal light coming through the central door might enter it over the heads of the people flocking into the outer courts of the temple1 and pass uninterruptedly into the ,sanctuary4 ,in this way the ,egyptians had1 if they chose to use it1 a most admirable arrangement for observing1 with considerable accuracy1 either the rising or the setting of any celestial body1 whether it were sun or star1 and especially the possibility of observing a cosmical rising1 as the eye was shielded from the sunrise light1 and the place of rising was completely indicated4 ,in these1 as at ,karnak1 we have a collimating axis4 ,we have the other end of the temple blocked2 we have these various diaphragms or pylons1 so that1 practically1 there is absolutely no question of principle of construction involved in this temple that was not involved in the great solar temple of ,amen-,r itself4 ,we made out that in the case of the temples devoted to sun-worship and to the determination of the length of the year1 there was very good reason why all these attempts should be made to cut off the light1 by diaphragms and stone ceilings1 because1 among other things1 one wanted to find the precise point occupied by the sunbeam on the two or three days near the winter or summer solstice in order to determine the exact moment of the solstice4 ,but if a temple is not intended to observe the sun1 why these diaphragms8 ,why keep the astronomer1 or the priest1 so much in the dark8 ,there is a very good reason indeed4 ,from the account given by ,herodotus#db of the ceremonials and mysteries connected with the temple of ,tyre1 it is suggested that the priests used starlight at night for some of their operations1 very much in the same way as they might have used sunlight during the day4 ,according to ,herodotus1 in the temple in question there were two pillars--the one of pure gold1 and the other of an emerald stone of such size as to shine by night4#db ,now1 there can be little doubt that in the darkened sanctuary of an ,egyptian temple the light of ,lyr1 one of the brightest stars in the northern heavens1 rising in the clear air of ,egypt1 would be quite strong enough to throw into an apparent glow such highly-reflecting surfaces as those to which ,herodotus refers4 ,supposing such a ceremonial as this1 the less the worshippers--who1 reasoning from the analogy of the ceremonial termed the manifestation of ,r1#dc would stand facing the sanctuary1 with their backs to the chief door of the temple--knew about the question of a bright star which might probably produce the mystery1 the better4 ,again1 the truer the orientation of the temple to the star1 and the greater the darkness the priest was kept in1 the sooner would he catch the star quivering in the light of either early or late dawn4 ,in the first place1 the diaphragms would indicate the true line that he had to watch2 he would not have to search for the star which he expected2 and obviously the more he was kept in the dark the sooner could he see the star4 ,is there any additional line of evidence beyond the structural conditions of the temples that the ,egyptians used these temples to observe the stars8 ,here a very interesting question comes in3 a temple built at one period to observe a star could not go on for ever serving its purpose1 for the reason that the declination of the star must change1 as we have seen1 by precession4 ,therefore a temple built with a particular amplitude to observe a particular star at one period would be useless later on4 ,we have here possibly a means of testing whether or not any of these temples were used to observe the stars4 ,in those very early days1 #cjjj or #djjj years ,b4,c41 we must assume that the people who observed the stars had not the slightest idea of these possible precessional changes2 they imagined that they were just as safe in directing a temple to a star as they were in directing a temple to the sun4 ,but with a star changing its declination in an average way1 the same temple could not be used to observe the same star for more than #bjj or #cjj years2 so that at the end of that time1 if they still wished to observe that particular star1 they must either change the axis of the old temple1 or build a new one4 ,i have mentioned an average time as the change of the star's declination is involved4 ,now this change of direction is one of the most striking things which have been observed for years past in ,egyptian temples4 ,as a matter of fact1 we find that the axes of the temples have been changed1 and have been freely changed2 that there has been a great deal of work done on many of the temples which are not oriented to the sun1 in order to give them a twist4 ,once a solar temple1 a solar temple for thousands of years2 once a star temple1 only that star temple for something like #cjj years1 so that the conditions were entirely changed4 ,we get cases in which the axis of a temple has had its direction changed1 and others in which1 where it has been difficult or impossible to make the change in a temple1 the change of amplitude has been met by putting up a new temple altogether4 ,we are justified in considering such temples as a series in which1 instead of changing the orientation of a pre-existing temple1 a new temple has been built to meet the new condition of things4 ,that1 ,i think1 is a suggestion which we are justified in making to ,egyptologists on astronomical grounds4 ,for an instance1 ,i may refer to the well-known temple at ,mednet-,hab4 ,we have there two temples side by side--a large temple1 which was built later1 with its systems of pylons and sanctuaries2 a smaller temple1 with outside courts1 and1 again1 a sanctuary built much earlier4 ,the direction of these two temples is very different2 there is a difference of several degrees4 ,it is very difficult indeed to understand why these two structures should have been built in that way if there were not some good reason for it4 ,the best hitherto found is the supposed symmetrophobia of the ,egyptians4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,two ,,temples ,,at ,,med,,net-,,hab4 ,we find the same thing in ,greece4 ,there is the old ,parthenon1 a building which may have been standing at the time of the ,trojan war1 and the new ,parthenon1 with an outer court very like the ,egyptian temples1 but with its sanctuary more nearly in the centre of the building4 ,it was by the difference of direction of these two temples at ,athens that my attention was called to the subject4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bent ,,axis ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,luxor1 ,,looking ,,toward ,,the ,,sanctuary4 ,if we study the orientation of these1 we find that1 like those at ,mednet-,hab1 they are not parallel2 there is a difference of orientation4 ,this method of coping with the changes of amplitude of the star apparently represents that adopted where there has been ample space to build another temple by the side of the old one when the star could no longer be seen from end to end of the old one4 ,but another way was found where the space was more circumscribed1 and that is well represented by the temple at ,luxor1 in which the addition is made end on4 ,the suggestion is that1 after the temple at ,luxor had been built a certain number of years1 the amplitude of the star had got a little out of the initial line1 and the direction was changed at the time when it was determined to make the temple more beautiful and to amplify it by adding an outer court4 ,there is another outer court and another very considerable change4 ,there are four well-marked deviations4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,further ,,inquiries ,,with ,,regard ,,to ,,the ,,stellar ,,temples4 ,in the preceding chapter ,i discussed the suggestion1 quite independently of any records the ,egyptians may have left on the subject1 that certain of the temples were oriented to stars2 and ,i applied one test1 that1 namely1 of the change of direction which was imperative if stars were observed for any lengthened period4 ,in such an inquiry we must proceed with great caution4 ,we cannot make a statement regarding every particular temple with absolute certainty1 for the reason that in the case of most of the temples the best ,egyptologists cannot give us the most precious piece of information which we require from the astronomical point of view--that is1 the date of the foundation of the temple4 ,if in the case of these temples it were absolutely certain that each temple was built at a certain time with a certain orientation1 we could tell at once whether or not that temple was pointed to any particular star4 ,in the absence of this precise information a general attack on the question has been necessary4 ,the method adopted in the search has been as follows3-- 7#a7 ,to tabulate the orientations of some of the chief temples described by the ,french ,commission1 by ,lepsius and others4 ,several interesting facts were soon revealed by this tabulation4 ,the first point that ,i have to note is that1 in the case of some of these temples1 we get the same1 or nearly the same1 amplitudes in different localities4 ,to show this clearly it will be convenient to compare together the chief temples near ,karnak and those having the same amplitudes elsewhere4 ,we can do this by laying down along a circle the different amplitudes to which these various temples point4 ,to begin with and to make the story complete1 ,i draw attention to the temples which we have already discussed with an amplitude of #bg1 or #bf1 at ,thebes1 ,karnak1 and elsewhere4 ,these1 of course1 are solar temples4 ,next we have non-solar amplitudes at ,karnak and ,thebes1 associated with temples having the same amplitude at ,denderah1 ,annu1 and other places4 ,another point is that we have the majority of the non-solar temples removed just as far as they can be in amplitude from the solar ones1 for the reason that they are as nearly as possible at right angles to them1 so that if the sun were observed in one temple and a star in the other1 there would be a difference of #ij between the position of the sun and the position of the star at that moment4 ,this would1 of course1 apply also to two stars4 ,sometimes this rectangular arrangement is in the same temple1 as at ,karnak1 sometimes in an adjacent one1 as at ,denderah4 ,if we study ,denderah we find that we have there a large temple enclosed in a square temenos wall1 the sides of which are parallel to the sides of the temple2 and also a little temple at right angles to the principal one4 ,it is hardly fair to say that a rectangular arrangement1 repeated in different localities1 is accidental2 it is one which is used to some extent in our modern observatories4 ,the perpetual recurrence of these rectangular temples shows1 ,i think1 that there was some definite view in the minds of those who built all the pairs of temples which are thus related to each other2 what that view was ,i shall endeavour to discuss in the sequel4 ,a third circumstance is that1 when we get some temples pointing a certain number of degrees south of east1 we get other temples pointing the same number of degrees south of west1 so that some temples may have been used to observe risings and others settings of stars in the same declination4 ,it is then natural1 of course1 to suggest that these temples were arranged to observe the rising and setting of the same stars2 but further inquiry has shown that there are mythological objections to this explanation4 ,finally1 we have temples with the same amplitudes high north and high south1 in different places--temples which could not have been built with reference to the sun2 just as we have at different places temples with the same amplitudes which could have been used for solar purposes4 99 99 99 99 99 7#b7 ,to extend and check some of these observations with special reference to my new point of view in ,egypt itself4 ,in connection with the possible astronomical uses of these temples1 ,i find that when one of the temples has been built1 the horizon has always been very carefully left open2 there has always been a possibility of vision along the collimating axis prolonged4 ,lines of sphinxes have been broken to ensure this2#dd at ,mednet-,hab1 on the opposite side of the river to ,karnak1 we have outside this great temple a model of a ,syrian fort4 ,if we prolong the line of the temple from the middle of the ,naos through the systems of pylons1 we find that in the model of the fort an opening was left1 so that the vision from the sanctuary of the temple was left absolutely free to command the horizon4 ,it may be said that that cannot be true of ,karnak1 because we see on the general plan that one of the temples1 with an azimuth of #gb,n41 had its collimating axis blocked by numerous buildings4 ,that is true2 but when one comes to examine into the date of these buildings1 as ,i propose to do in a subsequent chapter1 it is found that they are all very late2 whereas there is evidence that the temple in question was one of the first1 if not the very first1 of the temples built at ,thebes4 99 99 99 99 99 7#c7 ,to determine the declinations to which the various amplitudes correspond4 ,in this direction ,i have made use of the ,german ,catalogue of star places from #ahjj ,a4,d4 to #bjjj ,b4,c41 the places for dates beyond this1 and for southern stars1 having been calculated chiefly by my son1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,j4 ,s4 ,lockyer1 ,b4,a4 ,some places for ,sirius and ,canopus have been obligingly placed at my disposal by ,mr4 ,hind1 and approximate values obtained by the use of a precessional globe constructed for me by ,mr4 ,newton4 ,this globe differs considerably from that previously contrived by ,m4 ,biot1 about which ,i was ignorant when ,i began the work1 and enables right ascensions and declinations1 but especially the latter1 to be determined with a fair amount of accuracy for forty-eight equidistant points occupied by the pole of the equator round the pole of the ecliptic 7assumed to be fixed7 in the precessional revolution4 ,some simple astronomical considerations may here come to our help4 ,if the north polar distance of a star is increasing--that is1 if a star is increasing its distance from the north pole--its declination if north or south will be decreased or increased respectively1 and the orientation of the temple would be gradually becoming more and more parallel to an ,e4 and ,w4 line2 if the declination north or south of the star be increasing1 then the orientation of the temple would have to be likewise increased4 ,the change in the orientation1 therefore1 gives us information towards determining in which quarter of the heavens each particular star might have been4 99 99 99 99 99 7#d7 ,in cases where the date of the foundation of a temple dedicated to a particular divinity has been thoroughly known1 there was no difficulty in finding the star the declination of which at the time would give the amplitude2 and1 in the case of series of temples dedicated to the same divinity1 an additional check was afforded if the changes of amplitude from the latest to the newest temple agreed with the changes of the declinations of the same star4 99 99 99 99 99 7#e7 ,having the declinations of the stars thus determined for certain epochs1 ,i have next plotted them on curves1 showing the amplitude for any year up to #ejjj ,b4,c4 at ,thebes for a true horizon and when the horizon is raised #a or #b by hills or mist2 and1 finally1 a table has been prepared showing the declination proper to the amplitude of each of the chief temples when the needful information was available4 ,although1 however1 these matters can be discussed in a way that will indicate that the inquiry is raised1 ,i do not wish for one moment to speak of it as being settled1 because the observations which have been made already in ,egypt with regard to the orientation of these temples have not been made from such a very special point of view2 and1 further1 considerable alteration in the amplitude would be made by the presence of even a low range of hills miles away in the case of stars rising or setting not many degrees from the north or south4 ,no one would care to make the assertion with absolute definiteness until it was known whether or not the horizon in each case was interfered with by hills or any intervening objects--was or was not one1 in fact1 which might be regarded as a sea horizon from the point of observation2 if there were impediments1 the angular height of them must1 of course1 be exactly known2 but this information is almost entirely lacking4 ,now1 however1 that the question has been raised by observations of the temples themselves1 it becomes interesting to ask of the inscriptions if there are records that these temples were directed to stars8 ,it will be seen in the next chapter that the inscriptions give out no uncertain sound on this point4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,building ,,inscriptions4 ,numerous references to the ceremonial of laying the foundation-stones of temples exist1 and we learn from the works of ,chabas1 ,brugsch1 ,dmichen1#de and others1 that the foundation of an ,egyptian temple was associated with a series of ceremonies which are repeatedly described with a minuteness which1 as ,nissen has pointed out1#df is painfully wanting in the case of ,greece and ,rome4 ,amongst these ceremonies1 one especially refers to the fixing of the temple-axis2 it is called1 technically1 the stretching of the cord1 and is not only illustrated by inscriptions on the walls of the temples of ,karnak1 ,denderah1 and ,edf--to mention the best-known cases--but is referred to elsewhere4 ,another part of the ceremony consisted in the king proceeding to the site where the temple was to be built1 accompanied mythically by the goddess ,sesheta1 who is styled the mistress of the laying of the foundation-stone4 ,each was armed with a stake4 ,the two stakes were connected by a cord4 ,next the cord was aligned towards the sun or star1 as the case might be2 when the alignment was perfect the two stakes were driven into the ground by means of a wooden mallet2 there was no difference of procedure in the case of temples directed to the sun4 ,one boundary wall parallel to the main axis of the temple was built along the line marked out by this stretched cord4 ,if the moment of sun--or star-rise or--set were chosen1 as we have every reason to believe was the case seeing that all the early observations were made on the horizon1 it is obvious that the light from the body towards which the temple was aligned would penetrate the axis of the temple thus built from one end to the other in the original direction of the cord4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,laying ,,of ,,the ,,foundation-,,stone ,,ceremonial4 ,we learn from ,chabas that the ,egyptian word which expresses the idea of founding or laying the foundation-stone of a temple is ,senti--a word which still exists in ,coptic4 ,but in the old language another word1 ,put-ser1 which no longer remains in ,coptic1 has been traced4 ,it has been established that put means to stretch1 and ser means cord2 so that that part of the ceremonial which consisted in stretching a cord in the direction of a star was considered of so great an importance that it gave its name to the whole ceremonial4 ,i will next refer to some of the inscriptions2 one1 dating from the last half of the third thousand ,b4,c41 occurs in the document describing the building of the temple of ,annu 7,heliopolis74 ,we read3--,arose the king1 attired in his necklace and the feather crown2 all the world followed him1 and the majesty of ,amenemht first king of the ,twelfth dynasty4 ,the ,kher-heb read the sacred text during the stretching of the measuring-cord and the laying of the foundation-stone on the piece of ground selected for this temple4 ,then withdrew ,his ,majesty ,amenemht2 and ,king ,usertsen son and co-regent wrote it down before the people4 ,nissen1 from whom 7loc4 cit47 ,i quote the above1 adds3--,on account of the stretching of the measuring-cord1 the ,egyptian engineers were called by the ,greeks whose art ,democritus boasts of having acquired4 ,we next turn to ,abydos1 possibly one of the oldest temple-fields in ,egypt4 ,there is an inscription relating to the rebuilding of one of them in the time of ,seti ,i4 7about #achj ,b4,c474 ,in this the goddess ,sesheta addresses the king as follows3--,the hammer in my hand was of gold1 as ,i struck the peg with it1 and thou wast with me in thy capacity of ,harpedonapt4 ,thy hand held the spade during the fixing of its the temple's four corners with accuracy by the four supports of heaven4 ,on the pictures the king appears with the ,osiris crown1 opposite the goddess4 ,both hold in their right hand a club1 and with it they each hammer a long peg into the ground4 ,round the two pegs runs a rope1 which is stretched tight1 the ends being tied together4 ,in two cases the star used for the alignment is actually named4 ,of these ,i will take1 first1 the record of the ceremony used in the building of the temple of ,hathor at ,denderah4 ,,the ,,alignment ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,hathor ,,at ,,denderah4 ,the inscriptions state that the king while stretching the cord had his glance directed to the k of the constellation of the ,thigh--the old name of the constellation which we now recognise as the ,great ,bear--and on this line was built the new temple1 as had been done there before4 ,the actual inscription has been translated as follows3--,the living ,god1 the magnificent son of ,asti a name of ,thoth1 nourished by the sublime goddess in the temple1 the sovereign of the country1 stretches the rope in joy4 ,with his glance towards the k the middle8 of the ,bull's ,thigh constellation1 he establishes the temple-house of the mistress of ,denderah1 as took place there before4 ,at another place the king says3 ,looking to the sky at the course of the rising stars and recognising the k of the ,bull's ,thigh constellation1 ,i establish the corners of the temple of ,her ,majesty4 ,here1 then1 we have more than evidence of the stretching of a cord towards a star2 an actual constellation is named1 and it may be easily imagined that in connection with this many interesting questions arise of the utmost importance to the subject we are considering4 ,dmichen1 in his references to this passage1 discusses the meaning of the word k in relation to some ,theban grave-inscriptions1 in which it is suggested that k is used to represent the middle course of a star1 or1 astronomically speaking1 its culminating point as it passes the meridian4 ,but such a meaning as this will never do in this connection2 for if a cord was stretched towards a star on the meridian it would lie north and south1 and therefore the temple would be built north and south4 ,but this is by no means the orientation of the temple--a point to which ,i shall return presently4 ,but it may be suggested that the word k1 used in relation to the king's observation1 more probably referred to the brightest star1 ,dubhe 7 ,urs ,majoris7 in the asterism1 or the middle point of the constellation1 which would be about represented by the star 1 which lies nearly in the centre of the modern constellation of the ,great ,bear1 supposing1 indeed1 that the same stars were included in the old constellation4 ,on this point we unfortunately have no definite knowledge1 as the ,thigh is so variously represented2 sometimes there is a hind-quarter1 represented evidently by the well-known seven stars2 at others the body of a cow 7with horns and disk7 is attached4 ,however this may be1 without such a reference to some particular part of the constellation it is obvious that the stretched cord may have had a most indeterminate direction4 ,in order to leave no stone unturned in attempting to explain this description--supposing it to represent an undoubted fact of observation--we may consider another possible interpretation of the word k4 ,the amplitude of the temple being #ga ,n4 of ,e41 shows conclusively that we cannot be dealing with the meridian1 but may we be dealing with the most eastern elongation of the star in its journey round the ,pole8 ,i have inquired into this matter for the time of the last building of the temple in the time of the ,ptolemies1 and find that the amplitude of the temple1 instead of being #ga1 would have been about #gj4 ,it seems probable1 then1 that this interpretation will not hold1 and it may be further stated that1 in the case of a star at a considerable angle above the horizon1 the stretching of a cord in the building ceremonial--the ,ausspannung der ,strickes1 as the words put-ser are translated by ,dmichen--would really have been no stretching of the cord at all2 for the star being many degrees above the horizon1 another method must have been employed1 and in all probability would have been distinctly referred to in the careful statements of the ceremonies which exist1 ,i think1 then1 that we are perhaps justified in dismissing this possible explanation1 especially as rising stars are referred to4 ,we now come to considerations of a different order4 ,the inscription which we have quoted is put into the mouth of the ,emperor ,augustus1 though he never was at ,denderah4 ,this suggests that the temple built in the time of ,augustus carried forward the account of the old foundation4 ,there is evidence of this4 ,the constellation of the ,thigh neither rose nor set in the time of ,augustus--it was circumpolar4 ,the same statement may be made regarding the restoration in the time of ,thothmes ,,iii4 ,so we are driven to the conclusion that if we regard the inscription as true1 it must refer to a time preceding the reign of ,thothmes4 ,i shall return to this subject in a subsequent chapter4 ,,the ,,alignment ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,edf4 ,a reference to the same constellation 7the ,thigh7 is also made in the account of the ceremonial used at the laying of the foundation-stone of the temple at ,edf4 ,the king's glance was directed--in the case of the building of that temple--to the ,thigh1 but no precise reference to any star or to any point k is given4 ,as before1 ,i give the full translation of the inscription1#dg remarking that the last restoration was made ,b4,c4 #bcg-eg4 ,the king is represented as speaking thus3--,i have grasped the wooden peg and the handle of the club2 ,i hold the rope with ,sesheta2 my glance follows the course of the stars2 my eye is on ,meset that is1 the ',bull's ,thigh constellation1' or ,great ,bear2 7mine the part of time of the number of the hour-clock72 ,i establish the corners of thy house of ,god4 ,and in another place3--,i have grasped the wooden peg2 ,i hold the handle of the club2 ,i grasp the cord with ,sesheta2 ,i cast my face towards the course of the rising constellations2 ,i let my glance enter the constellation of the ,great ,bear 7the part of my time stands in the place of his hour-clock72 ,i establish the four corners of thy temple4 ,the translation is ,brugsch's4 ,the phrases in parentheses are interpreted differently by ,dmichen1 who translates them3--,standing as divider of time by his measuring instrument1 or representing the divider of time 7i4e4 the god ,thoth7 at his measuring instrument4 ,the word merech or merchet1 in which ,brugsch suspects hour-or water-clock1 does not occur elsewhere4 ,in this case1 seeing that the temple lies with its axis very nearly north and south1 as ,i determined by my own 7magnetic7 observations1 the stretching of the cord was certainly in or very near the meridian2 and it may be remarked that in the ,naos there is an opening in the roof1 over the side of the second or third door from the sanctuary1 and inclined at an angle of #dj 7unlike any other opening that ,i have seen in the roof of any ,egyptian temple71 which may have been used to observe the transit of some particular star4 ,the angle ,i was not able to determine with absolute accuracy1 as the vertical circle of the theodolite ,i had with me was out of adjustment4 ,taking the latitude of ,edf as #be1 and assuming the angle of #dj to be not far from the truth1 the ,north ,polar distance of the star observed would be #ae4 ,within a degree or so--and this is as near as we can get till more accurate observations have been made on the spot--this satisfies ,dubhe1 the chief star in the ,great ,bear in the time of the ,ptolemies4 ,supposing the temple was originally oriented to ,dubhe1 its amplitude1 #hf ,s4 of ,w41 gives us the date #cijj ,b4,c4 ,i shall show1 however1 that it is more probable that the temple was oriented on some southern star4 ,i may here remark that1 so far as ,i know1 ,edf is the temple in ,egypt nearest the meridian4 ,if1 therefore1 it were used as1 on my theory1 all other temples were1 it could only have picked up the light from each of the southerly stars1 as by the precessional movements they were brought into visibility very near the southern horizon4 ,in this respect1 then1 it is truly a temple of ,horns1 in relation to the southern stars--the southern eyes of ,horus4 ,but it was not a sun-temple in the sense that ,karnak was one2 and if ceremonies were performed for which light was required1 perhaps the apparatus referred to by the writer ,dupuis#dh was utilised4 ,he mentions that in a temple at ,heliopolis--whether a solar temple or not is not stated--the temple was flooded all day long with sunlight by means of a mirror4 ,i do not know the authorities on which ,dupuis founds his statement1 but ,i have no doubt that it is amply justified1 for the reason that doubtless all the inscriptions in the deepest tombs were made by means of reflected sunlight1 for in all freshly-opened tombs there are no traces whatever of any kind of combustion having taken place1 even in the inner-most recesses4 ,so strikingly evident is this that my friend ,m4 ,bouriant1 while we were discussing this matter at ,thebes1 laughingly suggested the possibility that the electric light was known to the ancient ,egyptians4 ,with a system of fixed mirrors inside the galleries1 whatever their length1 and a movable mirror outside to follow the course of an ,egyptian sun and reflect its beams inside1 it would be possible to keep up a constant illumination in any part of the galleries1 however remote4 ,dupuis quotes another statement that the greatest precautions were taken that the first rays of sunlight should enter a temple 7of course1 he means a solar temple74 ,but it is possible that there might have been another temple at right angles1 facing nearly due east4 ,in this case1 the larger temple would have been named after the worship to which the smaller one was dedicated4 ,if so1 unlike the solar temples at ,heliopolis1 ,abydos1 and ,thebes1 the ,edf temple was sacred to the ,equinoctial ,sun1 or1 at all events1 to the ,sun very near an equinox4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,star-,,temples ,,at ,,karnak4 ,when ,i began my studies of the ,egyptian temples the building inscriptions referred to in the preceding chapter lay forgotten in the ,egyptologist's archives4 ,i purpose now to give some account of my work at ,thebes1 where ,i made a special study of the temples1 because there is a very great number there1 and many are in a fair state of preservation4 ,these investigations convinced me that temples were oriented to stars before the inscriptions in question were known to me1 although the whole temple field is so crowded with temples1 each apparently blocking up the fair-way of the other1 that it seems well-nigh impossible that any such process as that described in the last chapter could have been applied4 ,this difficulty will be gathered from the accompanying folding plate giving a reproduction of ,lepsius's general maps of the temple region of ,karnak1 showing his reference letters and also the true north and the orientation of the chief temples4 ,we have already dealt with the solar temple of ,amen-,r4 ,we find1 beginning at the south1 a large temple with a long line of sphinxes1 the temple of ,mut 7,x7 facing the large temple of ,amen-,r 7,k74 ,to the north of the latter is another temple system 7,a and ,b and ,c71 also with an avenue of sphinxes4 ,on the east side of ,k another temple 7,o7 is only slightly indicated4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,temples ,,at ,,karnak 7,,from ,,lepsius71 ,,following ,,their ,,orientations4 ,to face p4 #ahc4 ,to the south of the large temple ,k is another one--that of ,khons 7,t71 also with its sphinxes4 ,connected with ,k are two other temples1 ,l1 nearly1 and ,m1 exactly1 at right angles to it4 ,there is also such a rectangular temple 7,y7 added to the temple of ,mut4 ,i also call attention to the temples ,v and ,w1 chiefly to point out that when ,i went over the ground with ,m4 ,bouriant it seemed to us as if the temple ,v faced ,s4,e4 and not ,n4,w4 as indicated by ,lepsius4 ,very few traces of the temple are left4 ,since the labours of the ,french and ,prussian ,governments gave full records of ,karnak a memoir on the temples has been published by ,mariette1 which gives us not only plans1 but precious information relating to the periods at which1 and the kings by whom1 the various parts of the temples were constructed or modified4 ,no doubt those which are still traceable form only a very small portion of those which once existed2 but however that may be1 ,i have now only to call attention to some among them4 ,i have previously shown that the magnificent work of ,mariette has supplied us with building dates for the solar temple to which reference has been made2 so that we have1 with more or less accuracy1 the sequence of the various parts of the completed building4 ,if we consider the plan without any reference to the building dates at all1 the idea that the smaller temples were built for observations of stars seems to be entirely discountenanced4 ,the temple ,l1 for instance1 instead of having a clear horizon1 is blocked by the very solid wall 7#b7 and its accompanying columns2 the temple ,m1 instead of having a clear horizon1 is absolutely blocked by two of the line of pillars 7#a7 very carefully built in front of it4 ,but if we consult ,mariette1 we find in both cases that the wall was built long after one temple1 and the pillars were built long after the other4 ,this result is satisfactory1 inasmuch as it indicates that a natural objection to the orientation hypothesis is invalid4 ,but can we strengthen it by supporting ,mariette's statement as to the dates8 ,mariette states that the temple ,m was built by ,rameses ,,iii41 a king of the twentieth dynasty4 ,with this datum1 we consider the orientation of the temple4 ,the problem is one of this kind3--,taking the ,egyptologist's date for ,rameses ,,iii4 at #abjj ,b4,c41 and taking the amplitude of the temple as #fc ,n4 of ,e41 was there1 when that temple was built1 any star opposite to it1 any star to which it accurately pointed8 ,we can translate the amplitude of that temple into the declination of a star1 making a slight correction for the stated conditions of observation in ,egypt1 which would make the apparent amplitude less than the true one1 because the star would appear to rise more to the south4 ,in the absence of precise information1 we are justified in taking the mean of the values referred to by ,biot--that is1 an apparent amplitude due to a stratum of haze #a high1 especially as the temple looked away from the ,nile4 ,searching the astronomical tables1 we find that there was a star visible along the temple axis4 ,the star was ,draconis4 ,so much for the temple ,m4 ,we now proceed to the other one lettered ,l1 the temple of ,seti ,,ii4 ,the amplitude of temple ,l is #fc ,s4 of ,w41 and the date1 according to ,mariette1 #acjj ,b4,c4 ,we find the declination1 proceeding as before1 and assuming hills #a high1 to be #ec ,s41 and about that date the bright star ,canopus set on the alignment of the temple4 ,it will hence be gathered that just as truly as the temple ,m seems to have been pointed to the northern star ,draconis rising1 the temple ,l was pointed to the southern star ,canopus1 setting4 ,but this is not all4 ,there is another temple to which ,i have already directed attention--the temple of ,khons 7,t of ,lepsius71 founded by ,rameses ,,iii41 though as it comes to us it is a ,ptolemaic structure1 it having been enlarged and restored by the ,ptolemies4 ,it is very nearly1 but not quite1 parallel to the temple of ,seti ,,ii4 ,my measures and those of ,lepsius give1 approximately1 amplitudes as under-- ,temple of ,seti 7,t7 #fc ,s4 of ,w4 ,temple of ,khons 7,l7 #fb ,continuing1 therefore1 the same line of inquiry1 and assuming that ,mariette was right1 and that the temple was really finally completed 7and no doubt its axis revised7 by the ,ptolemies1 and that they flourished about #bjj ,b4,c41 we have the same problem4 ,was there a star towards which that temple could have been directed1 and which could have been seen in that temple with its actual orientation8 ,calculation shows that the change of amplitude of ,canopus due to the precessional movement between #acjj ,b4,c4 and #bjj ,b4,c4 is almost exactly #a1 the difference in the amplitude of the temples4 ,we seem1 then1 to have in the temples ,l and ,t two temples directed to the same star at different times4 ,these statements must be taken as provisional only4 ,to render them absolute1 careful measurements must be made1 on the spot1 of the heights of the hills towards which the temples point4 ,leaving this for the moment on one side1 we get in this manner astronomical dates of the reigns of ,seti ,,ii4 and ,rameses ,,iii4 within a very few years of those given by the ,egyptologists4 ,more than this1 the application of this method entirely justifies ,mariette's view with regard to these more modern temples at ,thebes1 and shows that when they were built the outlook was clear1 so that the building ceremonials referred to in the last chapter might have been performed4 ,i am next anxious to point out that not only is this so1 but1 accepting it1 we can explain exactly why the walls and temples and columns were erected in the sequence which ,mariette indicates4 ,we not only know when they were built1 but we can presently understand why they were built4 ,the first point to which ,i draw attention in this matter is the following3--,referring to the plan1 we find that before the time of ,rameses ,,iii4 the temple of ,seti ,,ii4 was right out in the open4 ,it thus represented just one of those external rectangular temples which have been found at ,denderah and at very many other places in ,egypt4 ,it was one of the ,egyptian ideas to have two temples at right angles to each other4 ,that temple1 then1 stood alone4 ,the next change seems to have been this3 ,the star ,canopus1 the setting of which it was built to watch1 was1 through the processional movement to which ,i have referred1 no longer conveniently observed in that temple4 ,to obviate this the temple ,t was built by ,rameses ,,iii4 with a change of amplitude equivalent to the actual precessional change of the star's declination1 to carry on the observations4 ,further1 at the same time another temple 7,m7 was built to observe ,draconis4 ,it is now easy to understand what the #bast--a ,theban--dynasty did4 ,seti's temple 7,l7 had been superseded2 the temple ,m was a second rectangular temple outside the great temple of ,karnak 7,k74 ,they said to themselves3 ,we will make ,karnak more beautiful1 and we will extend it4 ,we can now build walls in continuation of the old walls1 and we can build still another pylon1 because ,seti's temple is no longer being used1 the worship having been transferred to the temple of ,rameses ,,iii4 7,khons74 ,by building the northern wall we prevent the use of temple ,m1 sacred to our enemy ,sutech4 ,i should add that the opening in the wall1 in prolongation of the axis of temple ,m1 is not directly opposite the temple ,m1 but a little to the east2 it was probably made later1 possibly by the twenty-second dynasty1 who were ,set worshippers4 ,again1 coming to the time of ,taharqa1 returning at the end of the exile of the priests of ,amen in ,nubia1 the temple1 ,m was again thrown out of use4 ,pillars were built in front of it1 right in the fair-way1 affording an instance that when a temple was thrown out of use1 not by the precessional movement of the star to which it had been directed1 but by the partisans of another creed1 the fact of its being no longer in operation was insured by something being built in front of it1 to prevent observation of the stellar divinity no longer in vogue4 ,it may be added that long after the temple of ,seti ,,ii4 fell out of astronomical use1 and was on that account blocked by the walls of the twenty-first dynasty1 the ,ptolemies built a new temple of ,osiris1 which1 if built before1 would have been in the fair-way of the temple of ,seti4 ,thus1 there is a reason for all the changes made at all the dates referred to by ,mariette4 ,i think we find in this result of the inquiry a valuable corroboration of ,mariette's conclusions1 and another reason why we should not cease to admire his magnificent works4 ,so far ,i have only referred to the relatively modern parts of ,karnak4 ,i now pass to the more ancient ones1 in which we ought to note the same laws holding good1 if there be any value in the view we are discussing4 ,we find that some of the most important temples given by ,lepsius and ,mariette 7,b1 ,x1 and ,w7 are just as effectively blocked by the mass of the temple of ,amen-,r as those we have already considered were by the walls of the twenty-first dynasty and ,taharqa's columns2 and1 looking at the plan1 it seems at first perfectly absurd to continue to hold for one moment the idea that these temples were built for observations of stars on the horizon4 ,the temple ,x 7,mut7 is blocked by the pylon marked #c1 the temple ,b by the eastern end of the great temple1 the temple ,w by the temple ,o4 ,mariette here again comes to our rescue to a certain extent4 ,he shows1 as ,i have stated in ,chapter ,,xi41 that in the beginning of things1 certainly in the twelfth dynasty1 possibly in the eleventh dynasty1 and possibly even before that1 only the central part1 marked #d1 of the solar temple existed1 less as a temple than as a shrine1 with nothing to the west of it and nothing to the east of it4 ,that being so1 the temple ,b gets its fair-way to the south1 and the temple of ,mut 7,x7 and the smaller temple 7,w7 to the north4 ,mariette in his two plates shows the growth of the temple of ,amen-,r in a most admirable way1 from the central portion of the temple to which ,i have referred--that1 is1 the small central court1 which1 he is careful to note1 existed before ,thothmes ,i42 how much before1 he does not say4 ,afterwards1 the pylons are added2 then they are elaborated2 then the sanctuary is thrown back to the eastward1 and the temple ,o built1 and ,b thereby blocked1 and then thrown forward to the westward1 thus blocking ,x and ,z4 ,if there is anything in these considerations at all1 it is suggested that all the temples to which #a have referred were founded before these easterly and westerly extensions1 of which ,mariette gives us such ample evidence4 ,in a subsequent chapter it is suggested that this great lengthening of the original shrine of ,amen-,r was undertaken for the purpose of blocking temples ,x1 ,z1 and ,w1 all dedicated to ,set4 ,thothmes ,,iii4 and ,taharqa had precisely the same objects in view1 apparently4 ,here1 however1 we meet a real difficulty4 ,mariette states that1 so far as he has been able to find1 the temple ,b1 a temple of which the worship is ,amen1 and the temple ,x1 in which the worship is ,mut1 were built by ,amen-hetep ,,iii4 ,if that were so1 they would have been built blocked2 none of the usual ceremonials could have been employed at their foundation4 ,they could not have been used at all for astronomical purposes1 because their horizons were blocked by these extensions of the temple of ,amen-,r4 ,here ,i must refer specially to temple ,b4 ,its amplitude is1 according to ,lepsius1 #fc ,s4 of ,w4 ,i have already shown that the amplitudes of temples ,l 7,khons7 and ,t 7,seti ,,ii47 are #fb and #fc ,s4 of ,w41 and that in the times of the ,ptolemies and ,seti ,,ii41 each faced the star ,canopus in turn4 ,hence the probability that we have three temples of nearly equal orientation sacred to the same divinity4 ,temple4 ,orientation4 ,declination4 ,date4 ,khons #fb #eb #cjj ,b4,c4 ,seti ,,ii4 #fc #ec #acej ,b4,c4 ,b #fc #ed #ahjj ,b4,c4 ,the statement is that the part of the temple of ,amen-,r1 the building of which blocked ,b1 was commenced by ,thothmes ,,iii41 whose date1 according to ,brugsch1 is #afjj ,b4,c41 and continued by ,amen-hetep ,,iii4 7#aejj ,b4,c474 ,unless1 then1 some other provision was made1 the observations of ,canopus were not continued until another shrine was built4 ,we know that another shrine was built1 that of ,seti ,,ii41 and that its orientation gives a date of #acej ,b4,c4 ,it might have been commenced by ,seti ,i4 after the ,khu-en-,aten troubles1 and finished by ,seti ,,ii4 ,one is therefore tempted to ask whether we have not here one of those crucial cases which ,mariette himself contemplated1 in which the true foundation is so far anterior to the last restoration or the last decoration1 from which1 for the most part1 the archologist gets his information1 that one is absolutely misled by the restorations or decorations as to the true date of the original foundation of the shrine4#di ,if the archologists are right in attributing the granite temple of ,osiris 7871 near the sphinx1 to a date anterior to1 or even contemporaneous with1 the second pyramid1 we have evidence that in the early dynasties the temple building in stone1 and even in granite brought from ,aswn1 was as perfect in the matter of workmanship as in the eighteenth dynasty2 and that it was not then the fashion to inscribe walls1 but only statues and stelas4 ,may it possibly be that the fashion in question came in1 or reached its greatest development1 during the eighteenth dynasty1 and that on this account so many temples are ascribed to that period1 whereas they were actually in existence before8 ,if the prior dynasties built no temples1 why did they not do so8 and if they did1 where are they1 if some of those inscribed by the eighteenth dynasty be not they8 ,in the absence of final archological evidence--that is1 admitting ,mariette's own doubt as to the mere existence of inscriptions--are there any astronomical considerations which may possibly help us8 ,assuming that the temples were astronomically oriented1 we have one registering for us the time elapsed since the original direction of the axis was laid down1 in terms of the change in the obliquity of the ecliptic4 ,we have others registering time in like manner in terms of the change due to precession1 if we can get any light as to the stars towards which the temples were oriented4 ,i have already dealt with the temple of ,amen-,r in ,chapter ,,xi41 and we found a foundation date of #cgjj ,b4,c4 for the original shrine1 so far as the rough observations already available can be trusted4 ,assuming the accuracy of this determination1 it is clear that we must look for stars with appropriate amplitudes between that date and say #bejj ,b4,c4 ,let us take the temple of ,mut 7,x of ,lepsius72 its amplitude is #gb ,n4 of ,e4 ,this was the amplitude of ,draconis about #cejj ,b4,c4 ,this temple1 then1 bore the same relation to ,m as ,t did to ,l6 ,we have two cases of two temples erected at different dates to the same star4 ,although it has been convenient to begin with ,thebes for the reasons given1 the records concerning any one temple there are far more restricted than those which relate to some temples elsewhere2 while the cult can only be determined in few instances4 ,i propose1 therefore1 for the present to content myself with the above general considerations showing the first application of the method of investigation adopted1 and to pass on to ,denderah1 where we are sure of the cult and where many particulars are given4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,personification ,,of ,,stars--,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,isis ,,at ,,denderah4 ,we have now to pass from the building ceremonials and a general consideration of the temples at ,karnak1 to the worships to which the various temples were dedicated4 ,and to do this we must face the problems of ,egyptian mythology1 so far as the names and origins of the various gods and goddesses are concerned4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,denderah4 7,mariette47 ,there is ample evidence that each temple was sacred to some god or goddess1 although in many cases the name of the patron divinity has been lost4 ,fortunately1 at ,denderah the patron divinities are well known1 so it will be well to begin with the temples there4 ,we find a general plan of ,denderah among the magnificent drawings which we owe to the ,french expedition of #agih4 ,this shows the wall round the temple-space containing the temple of ,hathor1 the great temple2 and the smaller temple of ,isis at right angles to it4 ,we find1 roughly1 that the great temple points to the north-east2 the smaller temple of ,isis points to the south-east4 ,a later plan has been published by ,mariette in his work on ,denderah4 ,these1 then1 are the main conditions of the temples at ,denderah4 ,but we can go a little more closely into them by referring to the map which accompanies ,biot's memoir1 to which ,i have previously referred4 ,he gives the axis of the ,hathor temple pointing1 not merely to the north-east1 but to #ah ,e4 of ,n4 ,since the other temple lies at right angles to the great one1 its direction1 according to ,biot1 is #ah ,s4 of ,e4 ,to show the uncertainty in these inquiries brought about by the absence of a proper survey1 ,i may give the following later values3-- #a4 ,,lepsius1 #ahdd-- ,magnetic azimuth of the axis ,n4 #be ,e4 amplitude #fe ,n4 of ,e4 ,correction #h ,astronomical amplitude #gc ,n4 of ,e4 #b4 ,,mariette1 #ahgj-- ,astronomical azimuth ,n4 #ae ,e4 amplitude #ge ,n4 of ,e4 #c4 ,,lockyer1 #ahia-- ,magnetic azimuth of axis ,n4 #bc ,e4 amplitude #fg ,n4 of ,e4 ,assumed correction #d ,astronomical amplitude #ga ,as my value agrees closely with that of ,biot1 ,i adhere to it2 and it gives1 for the amplitude of the temple of ,isis at right angles to the ,hathor temple1 #ah ,s4 of ,e4 ,now1 it is stated distinctly in the inscriptions that the place of the birth of ,isis is to the north-west of the temple of ,hathor1 its portal is turned to the east1 and the sun shines on its portal when it rises to illuminate the world4#ej ,we learn from this that the small temple was locally celebrated as the birthplace of ,isis4 ,it is1 then1 a temple of ,isis4 ,who was ,isis8 ,let us begin by considering the temple1 remarking that the inscriptions1 apparently relating to both temples1 are found in one only4 ,on this point1 ,i1 for the present1 content myself with quoting ,plutarch's statement#ea that ,isis and ,hathor were the same divinities--at all events1 in later ,egyptian times4 ,if we study the inscriptions--and this1 thanks chiefly to ,mariette's magnificent book on ,denderah1 we can do--we find that they give out a very certain sound4 ,here is one of them3-- ,she i4e4 her ,majesty ,isis shines into her temple on ,new ,year's ,day1 and she mingles her light with that of her father ,r on the horizon4 ,here we have nothing more nor less than a distinct and perfectly accurate statement relating to the cosmical rising of a star1 i4e41 as ,i have before explained1 of the sun and the star both rising at the same instant of time4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,mamisi 7,,place ,,of ,,birth7 ,,or ,,temple ,,of ,,isis ,,at ,,denderah4 ,further1 in the inscriptions the rising of ,hathor is mentioned distinctly4 ,la grande desse ,sefekh ,sesheta apport les crits qui se rapportent ton lever1 ,hathor1 et au lever de ,r4#eb ,everybody knows that ,r means the sun1 and therefore the rising of ,r is at once accepted by everybody as obviously meaning sunrise4 ,but if we find ,hathor treated in the same way as the sun1 then ,hathor must be a celestial body rising like the sun4 ,i consider this a very important conclusion to arrive at1 for many reasons4 ,but1 further1 ,hathor was also worshipped1 according to the inscriptions1#ec under the name of ,sothis4 ,now we know1 quite independently of all mythology1 that ,sothis is simply the ,greek form of the ,egyptian name 7,sept7 of the star ,sirius4 ,taking1 then1 all these inscriptions together1 we have an absolute astronomical demonstration of the fact that the rising of ,hathor1 which is referred to mythologically in the inscriptions given by ,mariette1 was the rising of ,sirius2 that the star which shone into the temple1 and which mingled her light with the light of her father ,r1 was really the star ,sirius4 ,we get the demonstration of the fact that mythologically the star ,sirius was ,hathor1 or otherwise ,isis4 ,in other words1 we find a star personified2 ,sirius being personified as ,hathor or ,isis4 ,but we can go much further than this4 ,it is possible1 as ,i have shown1 to determine the position of ,sirius in past times1 and therefore to determine whether the light of that star ever did fall along the axis of the temple4 ,we know its orientation approximately--#ah ,s4 of ,e4--so that any celestial body which rose at that amplitude would shine upon any object enshrined in the sanctuary4 ,in the case of ,sirius1 the conditions are such that1 owing to the precessional movement1 the distance of the star from the equator has been gradually lessening from the earliest times4 ,its declination in #hjjj ,b4,c4 was #ej ,s42 it became something more than #ag ,s4 in ,a4,d4 #ajjj4 ,knowing the declination1 it is easy to determine the amplitude--and given the conditions at the temple of ,isis at ,denderah1 viz41 that we are practically dealing with a sea horizon1 we find that the temple really pointed to ,sirius about #gjj ,b4,c41 which is the date ,biot found for the construction of the zodiac in the temple of ,osiris1 referred to in ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,further1 it is easy to show that ,sirius at that date rose with the sun on the ,egyptian ,new ,year's ,day2#ed in mythological language1 she mingled her light with that of her father ,r on the great day of the year4 ,as this is the first instance of such personification that we have come across1 it behoves us to study it very carefully4 ,why was ,sirius personified and worshipped8 ,the summer solstice--that is1 the #bjth of ,june1 the longest day--was the most important time of the ,egyptian year1 as it marked the rise of the all-fertilising ,nile4 ,it was really ,new ,year's ,day4 ,it has been pointed out1 times without number1 that the inscriptions indicate that by far the most important astronomical event in ,egyptian history was the rising of the star ,sirius at this precise time4 ,now it seems as if among all ancient peoples each sunrise1 each return of the sun--or of the sun-god--was hailed1 and most naturally1 as a resurrection from the sleep--the death--of night3 with the returning sun1 man found himself again in full possession of his powers of living1 of doing1 of enjoying4 ,the sun-god had conquered death2 man was again alive4 ,light and warmth returned with the dawn in those favoured ,eastern climes where man then was1 and the dawn itself was a sight1 a sensation1 in which everything conspired to suggest awe and gratitude1 and to thrill the emotions of even uncivilised man4 ,what wonder1 then1 that sunrise was the chief time of prayer and thankfulness8 ,but prayer to the sun-god meant1 then1 sacrifice2 and here a practical detail comes in1 apparently a note of discord1 but really the true germ of our present knowledge of the starry heavens which surround us4 ,to make the sacrifice at the instant of sunrise1 preparations had to be made1 beasts had to be slaughtered1 and a ritual had to be followed2 this required time1 and a certain definite quantity of it4 ,to measure this1 the only means available then was to watch the rising of a star1 the first glimmer of which past experience had shown to precede sunrise by just that amount of time which the ritual demanded for the various functions connected with the sunrise sacrifice4 ,this1 perhaps1 went on every morning1 but beyond all question the most solemn ceremonial of this nature in the whole year was that which took place on ,new ,year's morning1 or the great festival of the ,nile-rising and summer solstice1 the #ast of ,thoth4 ,besides the morning ceremonial there were processions of the gods during the day4 ,how long these morning and special yearly ceremonials went on before the dawn of history we1 of course1 have no knowledge4 ,nor are the stars thus used certainly known to us4 ,of course any star would do which rose at the appropriate time before the sun itself1 whether the star was located in the northern or in the southern heavens4 ,but in historic times there is no doubt whatever about the star so used4 ,the warning-star watched by the ,egyptians at ,thebes1 certainly #cjjj ,b4,c41 was ,sirius1 the brightest of them all1 and there is complete evidence that ,sirius was not the star first so used4#ee ,illustration3 ,,ceremonial ,,procession ,,in ,,an ,,egyptian ,,temple4 7,from a ,restoration by the ,french ,commission47 ,the astronomical conditions of the rising of this star have1 fortunately for us1 been most minutely studied both by ,biot and1 in more recent times1 by ,oppolzer1 and from their labours it seems to be abundantly clear that the rising of ,sirius at the solstice was carefully watched certainly as early as #cbhe ,b4,c41 according to ,biot's calculations2 and1 further1 that the rising of the same star was still studied in a relatively modern time4 ,at the earlier date its heliacal rising was observed1 but in later times means had been secured of noticing its cosmical rising1 because although it rose long before the sun on the longest day #cjjj ,b4,c41 it rose with the sun on the same day in the later times referred to4 ,this cosmical rising observation was doubtless secured by the construction of their temples1 as ,i have shown4 ,we are1 then1 astronomically on very firm ground indeed4 ,we have got one step into the domain of mythology4 ,i assume it is agreed that we have arrived at the certain conclusion that the goddess ,hathor or ,isis personified a star1 ,sirius1 rising at the dawn2 and that the temple of ,isis at ,denderah was built to watch it4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,the ,,personification ,,of ,,stars 7,,continued7--,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,hathor ,,at ,,denderah4 ,in ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,i quoted from the inscriptions relating to the alignment of the axis of the temple of ,hathor at ,denderah4 ,it will be remembered that the king1 while stretching the cord1 had his glance directed to the k of the constellation of the ,thigh4 ,further1 we saw in the last chapter that the amplitude of the temple axis is #ga ,n4 of ,e4 ,a copy of ,biot's plan giving his value of the orientation is given on the next page4 ,i have shown how truly the temple of ,isis was pointed to ,sirius4 ,we have now to try to find a star towards which the temple of ,hathor may have been pointed in like manner4 ,it will be generally understood that in an inquiry of this kind there are very many difficulties1 chiefly depending upon the uncertainty of the building-date of the original foundation1 and upon the indeterminate nature of the information available4 ,but although we meet with these difficulties in the case of the temple of ,hathor1 there are many from which we are free4 ,in the case of many of the temples in ,egypt we have no knowledge of the tutelary divinity4 ,for a great many temples no observational data exist2 they have not been properly measured--that is1 we do not know exactly in what direction they point or what their amplitudes are2 and1 further we do not know anything of the horizon at the temple building1 so as to be able to make the necessary corrections due to heights of hills4 ,illustration3 ,,orientation ,,of ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,hathor ,,at ,,denderah 7,,biot74 7,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,osiris ,,on ,,the ,,roof ,,is ,,also ,,shown ,,on ,a ,,larger ,,scale47 ,this premised1 ,i will now return to the statement regarding the temple of ,hathor1 to see what can be made of it on the view that either the middle or the chief point1 that is1 the brightest star1 of the constellation of the ,great ,bear as we now know it1 was the one referred to1 and that the cord was stretched to the star on the horizon4 ,the first question which arises is1 ,was there any reason why ,urs ,majoris at the centre1 or the brightest1 should have been used as the orientation point at any time8 ,was there any reason why any special sanctity should have been associated with either8 ,certainly not1 in the case of 1 on account of its magnitude1 because ,dubhe1 not far from it1 is much brighter2 and possibly not1 in the case both of and 1 on account of the time of their heliacal rising4 ,we seem therefore in an impasse along this line of inquiry2 but a further consideration of the question brings out the remarkable fact that at three widely-sundered points of time the stars ,lyr1 ,urs ,majoris1 and ,draconis have been the brightest stars nearest the ,north ,pole1 and with such declinations that ,lyr would be visible at one of the dates1 ,urs ,majoris at another1 and ,draconis at another still--all rising in nearly the same amplitude far to the north4 ,in ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,i have shown that one of the temples1 and possibly a series of them1 at ,thebes were directed to ,draconis4 ,it is interesting1 then1 to carry the inquiry further4 ,it may possibly explain how it is that we get a definite statement about the k of the ,great ,bear in one case and a certain sure orientation to ,draconis in the other4 ,in the first place1 it has to be borne in mind that when a star is circumpolar--that is1 never sets--no temple can be directed to its rising4 ,now1 accepting the k as the brightest star 7and as ,i stated in ,chapter ,,xvii41 it might1 indeed1 have been the central one as well in the old constellation1 for we do not know its limits71 we have to deal with the facts concerning ,urs ,majoris1 called by the ,arabians ,dubhe4 ,the latitude of ,denderah is a little over #bj ,n41 therefore all stars with a less polar distance than that--or1 to put it another way1 all stars with a declination greater than 7#ij-bf #fd4 ,n47--will be circumpolar4 ,now1 the declination of ,dubhe was greater than #fd between #djjj ,b4,c4 and #aejj ,a4,d4 7,i neglect refractions and hills72 hence1 if there is any truth in the statements made in the building ceremonials1 the temple could not have been founded between those dates4 ,but what are the records concerning this temple8 ,we know that the structure as we see it was built in the time of the last ,ptolemies and the first ,roman emperors1 and ,i have already shown that at those dates the ,great ,bear 7the old ,thigh7 did not rise at all1 as it was circumpolar4 ,it is also known that there was a temple here in the time of ,thothmes ,,iii41 and even earlier1 going back to the earliest times of ,egyptian history4 ,king ,pepi1 of the ,sixth ,dynasty 7circ4 #cbcc ,b4,c471 is portrayed over and over again in the crypts4 ,even this is not all the evidence in favour of a high antiquity4 ,in one of the crypts 7,no4 #i71 according to ,ebers and ,dmichen1 there are two references to the earliest plans of the temple4 ,one inscription states that the great ground-plan 7,senti7 of ,ant 7,denderah7 was found in old writing on parchments of the time of the followers of ,horus 7sun-worshippers7 preserved in the walls of the temple during the reign of ,king ,pepi4 ,another inscription goes further1 referring to the restoration by ,thothmes ,,iii4 7circ4 #afjj ,b4,c47 of the temple to the state in which it was found described in old writings of the time of the ,king ,chufu 7,cheops7 of the ,fourth ,dynasty 7circ4 #cgcc ,b4,c474 ,if any faith is to be placed in this inscription1 it seems to me to suggest a still higher antiquity4 ,there would have been more reason for describing an antique shrine than a brand new one4 ,still another inscription runs3-- ,king ,tehuti-mes ,,iii4 has caused this building to be erected in memory of his mother1 the goddess ,hathor1 the ,lady of ,an 7,denderah71 the eye of the ,sun1 the heavenly queen of the gods4 ,the ground plan was found in the city of ,an1 in archaic drawing on a leather roll of the time of the ,hor-,shesu3 it was found in the interior of a brick wall in the south side of the temple in the reign of ,king ,pepi4#ef ,but let us see what the facts are regarding the date supplied by the temple itself1 accepting the statement made regarding the actual operations at the laying of the foundation stone originally4 ,to determine the dates approximately1 we find that an amplitude of #ga ,n4 of ,e4 in the latitude of ,denderah gives a declination of #eg ,n41 with a sea horizon 7correcting for refraction7 #eh ,n4 with hills #a high1 and #ei ,n4 with hills #b high1 which is not far from the exact conditions4 ,the star ,dubhe had the declination of #fj ,n4 in #ejjj ,b4,c4 ,if1 then1 ,i am right in my suggestion as to the word k referring to ,urs ,majoris1 we find the closest agreement between the astronomical orientation2 the definite statement as to a certain star being used in the building ceremonies2 the inscriptions in the crypts referring to ,cheops as the earliest historical personage who describes the building1 and to the ,shesu-,hor as the original designers of the building4 ,according to most authorities1 #ejjj ,b4,c4 lands us in the times of the ,shesu-,hor before ,mena4 ,i must confess that this justification of the double record strikes me as very remarkable1 and ,i think it will be generally conceded that further local observations should be made in order to attempt to carry the matter a stage beyond a first approximation4 ,we have got so far1 then4 ,if we take the history as we find it1 and further take the trouble to work out the very definite statements made1 we find that the temple was founded pointing to the rising of ,dubhe before it became circumpolar1 and that in those times this star was symbolised by the name of ,hathor4 ,we may accept1 then1 the possibility that as the temple of ,isis was oriented to ,sirius1 that dedicated to ,hathor was directed to ,dubhe4 ,it will have been obvious from what has preceded1 that if the worship of ,hathor was to go on at all1 and if it were in any way connected with the observations of a star rising near the north point of the horizon1 a new star must be chosen when ,urs ,majoris became circumpolar4 ,that is the first point4 ,i have already stated that ,urs ,majoris began to be circumpolar at ,denderah #djjj ,b4,c4 ,i may now add that ,draconis ceased to be circumpolar about #ejjj ,b4,c4 ,they had the same declination 7#fb ,n47 and the same amplitude 7#gh ,n47 #ddjj ,b4,c4 ,mariette's plan shows a second temple oriented to ,n4 #f ,e41 which we may perhaps be justified in taking as ,n4 #i ,e41 since his azimuth of the great temple differs from ,biot's and my own by #c4 ,the corresponding declination would be #fh ,n4 of ,e41 the declination of ,dubhe in #dbjj ,b4,c4 and of ,draconis in #dcjj ,b4,c4 ,the temple may well1 therefore1 have been erected when both stars had the same amplitude1 the apparent difference of #ajj years being due to the uncertainty of the measures available4 ,the second point1 then1 is that when ,dubhe1 which1 while it rose and set1 was the brightest star near the pole which did so1 became circumpolar2 ,draconis1 when it ceased to be circumpolar1 fulfilled these conditions2 astronomically1 then1 it became the natural successor of ,urs ,majoris4 ,i have before pointed out that it is not impossible that a temple once oriented to a certain star1 and long out of use on account of the precessional movement1 may be utilised for another1 and be rehabilitated in consequence1 when that same movement brings another conspicuous star into the proper rising amplitude4 ,this consideration at once leads to my third point1 which is1 that after ,dubhe became circumpolar the temple of ,hathor at ,denderah would become useless--there would be no star to watch--unless a new star was chosen4 ,now1 let us suppose this to have been so1 and that the natural successor of the star in question were chosen4 ,studying the facts as before approximately1 as final data are not yet available1 we have the declination #ei ,n4 ,this was the declination of ,draconis about #cejj ,b4,c41 assuming hills #b high1 which ,i think is too much2 #ccjj ,b4,c41 with hills #a high4 ,in the present case the orientation fits ,draconis in the historic period1 but it also fits ,dubhe in the times of the ,hor-shesu1 the dimly-seen followers of ,horus1 or sun-worshippers1 before the dawn of the historic period4 ,next let us go back to the inscriptions4 ,we found that ,king ,pepi is portrayed over and over again in the crypts1 and1 which is more important1 that the plan of the temple on parchment1 dating from the times of the ,shesu-,hor1 had actually been walled up in the temple during the reign of the same king1 no doubt at the ceremony of restoration or laying a new foundation stone1 as is sometimes done to this day4 ,now1 ,pepi's date1 according to the chronologists1 is #cbjj ,b4,c41 a difference of #ajj years only from the rough orientation date4 ,we see1 therefore1 the full importance of the work done in ,pepi's reign4 ,the k of the ,thigh was no longer of use2 but a new star was now available4 ,hathor was rehabilitated4 ,perhaps even the priests alone knew that the star had been changed4 ,by the temple of ,hathor1 then1 if we assume that the record is absolutely true 7and ,i1 for one1 believe in these old records more and more71 and that ,cheops only described a shrine founded by the ,hor-shesu1 we are carried back to circ4 #ejjj ,b4,c4 ,i am indebted to my friend ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge for the suggestion that the position of ,denderah as the terminus of the highway from the ,red ,sea--which may soon again be reached by a railway from ,keneh to ,kosseir6--would have made it one of the most important places in ancient ,egypt4 ,it is important to note that at a very early date the traffic between the ,nile ,valley and the ,red ,sea1 and thence probably with ,arabia and ,south ,africa1 flourished1 and grew to be a by no means insignificant commerce4 ,according to ,ebers1#eg the oldest and most famous of all these highways is that which led from ,koptos 7,keneh1 ,denderah7 to the ,red ,sea1 through the valley now known as the ,wady ,hammamt1 and called by the ancient ,egyptians ,rohanu4 ,it was a busy high-road1 not alone for trading caravans1 but from time to time for stonemasons and soldiers1 whose task it was to hew the costly building materials from the hard rocks1 which here abound1 and to prepare the vast monoliths which were finished in situ1 and then to convey them all to the residence of the ,pharaohs4 ,a remarkably beautiful kind of alabaster1 of a fine honey yellow or white as snow1 is found in these mountains4 ,another road led from ,esneh or ,edf to the ancient port of ,berenice4 ,we shall see in the sequel that the temple of ,redisieh on this route was dedicated to the same cult as that at ,denderah4 ,if the above results be confirmed1 we have a most definite indication of the fact that in the rebuilding in the times of ,pepi1 ,thothmes ,,iii41 and the ,ptolemies1 the original orientation of the building was not disturbed2 and that in the account of the building ceremonies we are dealing as surely with the laying of the first foundation-stone as with the original plan4 ,in any case the consideration has to be borne in mind that the series of temples with high northern 7and southern7 amplitudes at ,denderah1 ,thebes1 and possibly other places1 were nearly certainly founded before the time at which the heliacal rising of ,sirius1 near the time of the summer solstice1 was the chief event of the year1 watched by priests1 astronomers--if the astronomers were not the only priests--and agriculturists alike4 ,now we know1 from ,biot's calculations1 that this became possible circ4 #cbhe ,b4,c41 and that ,sirius--though1 as ,i am informed by ,prof4 ,maspero1 not its heliacal rising--is referred to in inscriptions in pyramid times4 ,subsequent research may possibly show that these temples had to do with the heralding of sunrise throughout the year1 the ,sirian temples being limited to ,new ,year's ,day4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,star-,,cults4 ,the last two chapters1 then1 have brought us so far4 ,there are two principal temples at ,denderah4 ,the smaller is called the temple of ,isis4 ,it is oriented #ah ,s4 of ,e4 ,the inscriptions tell us that the light of ,sirius shone into it1 and that ,sirius was personified as ,isis4 ,we can determine astronomically that the statement is true for the time about #gjj ,b4,c41 which was the date determined independently by ,biot for the circular zodiac referred to on page #ah4 ,the larger temple is called the temple of ,hathor4 ,it is oriented #ga ,n4 of ,e4 ,the inscriptions very definitely tell us what star cast its light along its axis1 and give also definite statements about the date of its foundation1 which enable us to determine astronomically that in all probability the temple was oriented to ,dubhe somewhat later than #ejjj ,b4,c4 ,now we are certain that ,isis personified ,sirius4 ,that ,her ,majesty of ,denderah was ,sirius1 at all events in the later times referred to in the inscriptions1 is not only to be gathered from the inscriptions1 but has been determined astronomically4 ,it is also probable that ,hathor personified ,dubhe4 ,now this looks very satisfactory1 and it seems only necessary to test the theory by finding temples of ,isis and ,hathor in other places1 and seeing whether or not they were oriented to ,sirius and ,dubhe respectively4 ,but1 unfortunately for us1 we have already learned from ,plutarch that ,isis and ,hathor are the same goddesses1 although they certainly personify different stars1 if they personify stars at all4 ,we seem1 then1 in a difficulty1 and at first sight matters do not appear to be made any clearer by the fact that ,hathor 7and1 therefore1 ,isis7 was worshipped under different names in every nome4 ,lanzoni1 in his admirable volumes on ,egyptian mythology1 gives us1 not dealing with the matter from this point of view at all1 no less than twenty-four variants for ,hathor6 ,in the temple at ,edf no less than #cjj names are given with the various local relations and forms used in the most celebrated shrines4#eh ,in the inscriptions at ,denderah itself a great number of variants is given4#ei ,it is important to give some of them in this place2 the full value of the information thus afforded will be seen afterwards4 ,hathor of ,denderah ,sekhet of ,memphis4 ,neith ,sas4 ,saosis ,heliopolis4 ,nehem-an ,hermopolis4 ,bast ,bubastis4 ,bes-t ,anub-et ,lycopolis4 ,amen-t ,thebes4 ,bouto ,unas4 ,sothis ,elephantine4 ,apet ,mena-t ,horus ,edf4 7female7 ,one variant is of especial importance in the present connection1 and is emphasised in a special inscription in one of the chambers of the temple of ,hathor--not1 be it remarked1 in the temple of ,isis4 ,elle est la ,sothis de ,denderah1 qui remplit le ciel et la terre de ses bienfaits4 ,elle est la rgente et la reine des villes4444 ,au ,sud elle est la reine du matre divin2 au nord elle est la reine des divins anctres4 ,rien n'est tabli sans elle4444 ,elle est la grande dans le ciel1 la reine parmi les toiles4#fj ,well may ,mariette remark on this3 ,cette invocation ,sothis1 dans une chambre consacre la conscration de certains produits de la terre1 n'a rien qui doit surprendre4 ,sothis est le symbole du renouvellement de l'anne et de la rsurrection de la nature4 ,au lever hliaque de ,sothis1 le ,nil sort de son lit4 ,jusqu' ce moment la terre de l'gypte est strile et nue4 ,fconde par la fleuve1 elle va se couvrir d'une verdure nouvelle4 ,but the ,sothis here in question is ,sirius1 the star to the rising of which the temple of ,isis1 and not the temple of ,hathor1 was directed6 ,we have1 then1 at ,denderah a temple not pointed to ,sirius1 the worship in which is that of ,hathor1 and there can be little doubt that we have astronomically determined the fact that ,her ,majesty of ,denderah was really the star ,sirius4 ,we can pass from ,denderah to the temple of ,hathor at ,thebes4 ,the general plan of ,thebes prepared by ,lepsius indicates the orientation of the temple of ,dr el-,bahari1 to which ,i refer1 the temple in the western hills of ,thebes1 embellished by ,queen ,hatshepset 7circ4 #afjj ,b4,c474 ,this temple1 instead of being-oriented #ga ,n4 of ,e41 lies #bd ,s4 of ,e42 it can never1 therefore1 have faced the star observed in the temple of ,hathor at ,denderah4 ,there is also another temple annexed to the temple of ,amen-,r1 which received the light of ,sirius in former years4 ,these temples were1 in all probability1 intended to observe the same star which was subsequently observed in the temple of ,isis at ,denderah4 ,that is one point2 here is another4 ,we have it from ,plutarch#fa that ,isis ,mut ,hathor ,methuer4 ,the amplitude of the temple at ,denderah dedicated to ,hathor is #ga ,n4 of ,e4 7#ei ,n4 declination74 ,that of the temple dedicated to ,mut at ,karnak is #gb ,n4 of ,e4 7#eh ,n4 declination71 which1 assuming for a moment the same star to have been used1 corresponds to a date 7according to the height of the horizon7 of circ4 #cjjj to #cejj ,b4,c4 ,this is therefore later than the original foundation of the ,hathor temple of ,denderah1 but not far from the date of its restoration by ,pepi4 ,it is fundamental to the orientation theory that the cult shall follow the star4 ,but we have here the same cult1 according to ,plutarch2 we are hence permitted to suggest that in dealing with the temples of ,hathor at ,denderah and ,mut at ,thebes we are dealing with local names of the same goddess personifying the same star4 ,two lines of argument may be followed to strengthen this conclusion4 ,the first has to do with the orientation of the temple of ,mut at ,thebes4 ,there is no statement of its great antiquity1 as in the case of the temple of ,hathor at ,denderah4 ,here we find again one of the great difficulties in our way1 the impossibility of running back to the original foundation among the many restorations effected of the most important among the ,egyptian temples4 ,the temple of ,mut is ascribed to ,amen-hetep ,,iii41 but ,i cannot hold this to be the original foundation1 for the following reasons3-- #a4 ,with its orientation in the time of ,amen-hetep ,,iii4 it pointed to no star in particular4 #b4 ,there is a series of four temples at ,thebes turned to the same part of the horizon nearly1 their amplitudes ranging from #fb to #gb ,n4 of ,e4 ,of these temples that of ,mut has the highest amplitude2 the one with the lowest but one is the temple lettered ,m by ,lepsius4 ,there is no question about the real founder of this temple1 and there is not much question as to the date of the founder1 ,rameses ,,iii4 ,now in the time of this king a temple erected with the orientation given pointed precisely to ,draconis4 7,see ,chapter ,,xviii47 ,the amplitude was #fb ,n4 of ,e42 the time1 #abjj ,b4,c4 ,if we take the simplest case in the orientation theory--that the amplitudes #fb ,n4 of ,e4 #fc #fh #gb were given to the various temples to enable observations to be made of the same star1 which was being carried nearer the equator by the precessional movement1 we can not only date the temple of ,mut1 but find an explanation of ,plutarch's equation ,hathor ,mut4 ,in other words1 we watch the ,mut-,hathor worship provided for from #cjjj ,b4,c4 to the times of the ,ptolemies4 ,so that here we have a very concrete case of the cult following the star1 not only in the same place1 but at different places1 and we are driven to the conclusion that ,hathor at ,denderah and ,mut at ,thebes1 exoterically different goddesses1 were esoterically the same star1 ,draconis4 ,we are not1 however1 limited to a comparison between ,denderah and ,thebes4 ,we have ,annu and ,abydos1 and other places1 to appeal to1 since there are temples remaining there also facing ,n4,e4 ,those at ,abydos1 however1 we must leave out of consideration here1 as their exact orientation is not determined4 ,with regard to ,heliopolis1 and dealing with the obelisk which tradition tells us was erected by ,usertsen ,i41 the orientation of its ,n4,e4 face1 according to my own observations1 taking the present variation at #d ,w41 is #gg ,n4 of ,e4 ,this corresponds approximately to a declination of #eg ,n41 which was the declination of ,draconis in #bejj ,b4,c4 ,the date given to ,usertsen ,i4 by ,brugsch is #bdcc ,b4,c4 ,this is very satisfactory so far1 but we can go further4 ,here we are landed evidently in the worship of one of the local divine dynasties1 that of ,set2 and we may justly1 therefore1 ask if ,usertsen did not do at ,heliopolis what it is very probable ,pepi did at ,denderah--namely1 embellish an old temple which had in the first instance been used for observations of ,dubhe and appropriate it to the use of the new ,hathor ,draconis4 ,if this were so1 then the original foundation stone was laid about #eajj ,b4,c4 ,the next line of argument is furnished by the emblems which are associated with the various goddesses4 ,these obviously indicate that they arose in a time of totemism1 when each tribe or nome had its special totem1 which would be certain to be associated with the local goddesses or the stars which they personified4 ,the local totem of the special warning-star in use at any time or place may be anything3 hippopotamus1 crocodile1 hawk1 vulture1 lion1 or even some other common living thing into which the totem degraded when the supply of the original fell short4#fb ,hence1 as the number of warning-stars was certainly very restricted1 they--or1 rather1 the goddesses which typified them--had different names in almost every nome4 ,hence ,egyptian mythology should be1 as it is in fact1 full of synonyms2 each local name being liable to be brought into prominence at some time or another1 owing to adventitious circumstances relating either to dynasties or the popularity of some particular shrine4 ,applying this test of symbolism1 we find in the case of ,hathor that the symbolism was double4 ,the ,denderah ,hathor was connected with the hippopotamus1 while at ,thebes ,mut was represented by a hippopotamus4 ,now this symbol of the hippopotamus helps us greatly1 because it allows evidence to be gathered from a consideration of the old constellations4 ,i do not think it is saying too much to remark that among these the attention of the ,north ,egyptians was almost exclusively confined to the circumpolar ones4 ,further1 the mean latitude being1 say1 #be1 the circumpolar region was a restricted one2 #ej in diameter1 instead of over #ajj1 as with us4 ,but not quite exclusively1 for to them in later times1 as to us now1 the ,great ,bear and ,orion were the two most prominent constellations in the heavens2 for them1 as for us1 they typified the northern and southern regions of the sky4 ,illustration3 ,,capital1 ,,with ,,masks ,,of ,,hathor ,,with ,,cows' ,,ears4 ,there can be no question that the chief ancient constellation in the north was the ,great ,bear1 or1 as it was then pictured1 the ,thigh 7,meset74 ,after this came the ,hippopotamus4 ,i had come to the conclusion that this had been replaced on our maps by part of ,draco before ,i found that ,brugsch and ,parthey had expressed the same opinion4 ,the female hippopotamus typified ,taurt1 the wife of ,set 7represented by a jackal with erected tail1 or hippopotamus71 and one of the most ordinary forms of ,hathor is a hippopotamus4 ,there is evidence that the star we are considering1 ,draconis1 occupied the place of the head or the mythical head-gear4 ,here1 then1 in the actual symbolism of ,hathor we find ,draconis as distinctly pointed to as by the orientation of the temples4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cow ,,of ,,isis4 ,the other symbolism is quite different2 instead of a hippopotamus we deal with a cow4 ,in the inscriptions at ,denderah we find the star ,sirius represented by a cow in a boat4 ,in the circular zodiac we have the cow in the boat1 the point of the beginning of the year1 and the constellation ,orion1 so located as to indicate clearly that1 at that time1 the beginning of the year fell between the heliacal rising of ,sirius and of the stars in ,orion4 ,sirius was ,isis-,sothis4 ,if we go to ,thebes1 we pass there from the cow ,isis-,sothis to ,isis-,hathor1 and there we find the mythology retains the idea of the cow1 the cow gradually appearing from behind the western hills4 ,there is not a doubt1 ,i think1 that the basis of this mythological representation was1 that the temple which was built to observe the rising of the star at a time perhaps somewhat later than that given by ,biot 7#cbhe ,b4,c47 was situated in the western hills of ,thebes1 so that ,hathor1 the goddess on which the light was to fall in the sanctuary1 was imaged as dwelling in the western hills4 ,at ,phil we get no longer either ,isis-,sothis or ,isis-,hathor1 but ,isis-,sati4#fc ,illustration3 ,,hathor ,,as ,a ,,cow4 ,now just as certainly as the hippopotamus had to do with the constellation ,draco1 the cow had to do with ,sirius1 for ,sirius was represented as a cow in a boat4 ,illustration3 ,,hathor1 ,,the ,,cow ,,of ,,the ,,western ,,hills4 ,it may be gathered from this how truly astronomical in basis was the mythologic symbolism to which we have been driven in the effort to obtain more light2 and1 indeed1 it is necessary for us to consider it still more closely4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,star-,,cults 7,,continued7--,,amen-,t ,,and ,,khons4 ,when ,i had the privilege of discussing at ,thebes the orientation hypothesis with ,m4 ,bouriant1 the distinguished head of the ,french ,school of ,archology in ,egypt1 he suggested that ,i should accompany him one day to ,mednet-,hab1 at which place he was then superintending excavations1 and where there are three temples dedicated to ,amen4 ,m4 ,bouriant1 from the first1 saw that if there were anything in the new views1 the cult must follow the star2 and it was natural1 therefore1 that the three temples dedicated to the same divinity at the same place should be directed to the same star4 ,the three temples to which ,i refer are the two well-known temples the lack of parallelism of which has been so often remarked1 and a third much smaller one1 built more recently1 lying to the south-west4 ,the amplitudes ,i found to be as follows3-- ,amplitude ,s4 of ,e4 ,ethiopian or ,ptolemaic ,temple #de ,great ,temple #df ,ancient ,temple #ea ,on the orientation hypothesis we were dealing with a star the ,s4,e4 amplitude of which was decreasing like that of ,sirius2 it was therefore in the same quarter of the heavens4 ,but which star8 ,to investigate this it was best to deal in the first instance with the orientation of the great temple1 since its building date was supposed to be that most accurately known2 and there is not much danger in doing this in the present case1 because the king obviously had not expanded an old temple1 for there it still is alongside4 ,the king was ,rameses ,,iii41 the date1 according to ,brugsch1 #abjj ,b4,c41 and the hills to which the temples are directed may be taken as #a high4 ,with these data we get the declination appropriate to the amplitude of the temple #dj ,s4 ,now1 this was nearly the declination of the star ,phact or ,columb in the time of ,rameses ,,iii42 the orientation date is #abej ,b4,c4 ,taking this star1 then1 and correcting for heights of hills and refraction1 we get approximately the following dates3-- ,b4,c4 ,modern ,temple #ijj ,great ,temple #abej ,ancient ,temple #bebe ,if the hills are taken as #a high1 these dates will stand #gej1 #aaej1 and #bdjj4 ,the date #gjj ,b4,c4 we have already found as the probable date of the undertaking of the restoration at ,denderah4 ,it is the time of the victorious march of the ,theban priests northwards from their exile at ,gebel ,barkal4 ,the date #bdjj ,b4,c4 lands us in the times of the great solstitial king1 ,usertsen ,i41 about whom more in a subsequent chapter4 ,although the more ancient temple is generally ascribed to ,thothmes ,,iii41 traces of the work of ,amen-hetep ,i4 have been discovered4 ,i think we have a case here where the eighteenth dynasty enlarged and embellished a shrine erected by the twelfth dynasty1 precisely as the temple of ,amen-,r at ,karnak has been traced back to the twelfth dynasty4 ,if ,i am right1 then1 it follows that temples erected to stars associated in any way with the chief cult1 such as that of ,amen-,r1 may either be dedicated to the god or goddess personified by the star or to the associated solar deity4 ,thus at ,thebes we have the temple of ,mut1 so-called1 though ,mut was the wife of ,amen-,r2 and the temples now under consideration1 called temples of ,amen1 though they are dedicated to the goddess ,amen-t1 the wife of ,amen4 ,this may or may not be connected with the fact that the first of them was dedicated possibly before the cult of ,amen alone had been intensified and expanded by the ,theban priests--probably in the eighteenth dynasty--into the cult of the solstitial sun-god ,amen-,r4 ,there is evidence1 indeed1 that ,amen-t replaced ,mut in the ,theban triad4 ,with regard to these triads1 a few words may be said here from the astronomical point of view1 though the subject1 ,i am told1 is one on which a great diversity of opinion exists on the part of ,egyptologists4 ,i have collected all the most definite statements ,i can find on this head1 and it is certainly interesting to see that in many cases1 though not in all1 the triad seems to consist of a form of the sun-god1 together with two stellar divinities1 one of them certainly associated with the heliacal rising of the sun at some time of the year1 and therefore a recognised form of ,isis or ,hathor4 ,thus we have3-- ,place4 ,triad4 ,thebes ,amen-,r 7,greater ,triad7 ,mut onsu 7,lesser ,triad7 em-,r ,tamen 78 ,amen-t7 ,harka ,denderah ,atmu ,isis ,hathor ,memphis ,atmu ,sekhet ,ptah ,hermonthis ,menu-,r ,ra-,ta 7 ,hathor7 ,hor-,para ,not only may this table enable us to see how ,amen-t was sunk at ,mednet-,hab in the term ,amen1 but it enables us to consider a similar case presented by those temples at ,thebes1 some of them associated with ,khons and another with ,amen1 referred to in ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,the temple of ,khons is among the best known at ,karnak2 the visitor passes it before the great temple of ,amen-,r is reached4 ,m4 ,bouriant was able to prove1 while we were together at ,karnak1 that the temple of ,seti ,,ii41 nearly parallel to it1 was also dedicated to ,khons2 but the temple ,b of ,lepsius1 nearly parallel to both1 is sacred to ,amen4 ,it is seen at once that the main cult is the same1 although the amount of detail shown in the reference is different--we have the generic name of the triad in one case1 the specific name of the member of the triad in the other4 ,as this is the first time a setting star has been in question1 it is well to point out that in this case the ancient ,egyptians no longer typified the star as a goddess but as a god--and1 more than this1 as a dying god2 for ,khons is always represented as a mummy--the ,osiris form4 ,egyptologists state that both ,thoth and ,khons were moon-gods4 ,perhaps the lunar attributes were assigned prior to the establishment of sun-worship4 ,i shall show1 subsequently1 that the temples now being considered find their place in continuous series stretching back in the case of ,amen-t to #cgej ,b4,c41 and in the case of ,khons to possibly a long anterior date4 ,in the case of ,amen-t and ,khons1 therefore1 where we are free from the difficulties connected with the interchange of the titles of ,isis and ,hathor at ,denderah1 the star-cults stand out much more clearly1 and we get a step further into the domain of mythology4 ,but what did the cults mean8 ,what was the utility of them8 ,what their probable origin8 ,the cult of ,sirius we already understand4 ,i will deal with ,amen-t first4 ,no doubt it will have been already asked how it came that such an unfamiliar star as ,phact had been selected4 ,here the answer is overwhelming4 ,this star1 although so little familiar to us northerners1 is one of the most conspicuous of the stars in the southern portion of the heavens1 and its heliacal rising heralded the solstice and the rise of the ,nile before the heliacal rising of ,sirius was useful for that purpose6 ,in ,phact we have the star symbolised by the ancient ,egyptians under the name of the goddess ,amen-t or ,tei1 whose figure in the month table at the ,ramesseum leads the procession of the months4 ,amen-t1 the wife of the solstitial sun-god ,r1 symbolised the star the rising of which heralded the solstice2 and the complex title ,amen-,r signified in ancient times1 to those who knew1 that the solstitial sun-god ,r1 so heralded1 was meant4 ,the answer is clear1 though not so simple in the case of ,khons4 ,the setting of ,canopus marked the autumnal equinox about #ejjj ,b4,c4 ,we have found that the first ,khons temple at ,karnak was possibly built as late as #bjjj ,b4,c41 when the utility of the observations of ,canopus from this point of view had therefore ceased2 but it is also known that ,khons was a late addition to the ,theban triad1 and ,i shall subsequently give evidence that the worship was introduced from the south1 where it had been conducted when the condition of utility held4 ,the time of introduction to ,thebes was the beginning of the eighteenth dynasty1 when the priests wished to increase their power by conciliating all worships2 and we now see that with their local sun-god ,amen-,r and the goddess ,amen-t1 with the ,northern ,mut 7,isis7 and the ,southern ,khons1 the ,theban triad represented the worship of ,central1 ,northern and ,southern ,egypt4 ,it is an important fact to bear in mind that in the ,north of ,egypt in early times the stellar temples were more particularly directed to the north1 while south of ,thebes1 so far as ,i know1 there is only one temple so directed4 ,it is suggested1 therefore1 that the ,theban priests amalgamated the northern and southern cults1 probably for political purposes4 ,there is evidence that the priests were at heart more sympathetic with the southern cults1 and a further investigation of this matter may eventually help us in several points of ,egyptian history4 ,it will have been noticed also that so far as we have gone1 whether discussing solar or stellar temples1 we have had to associate the cults carried on in most of them with some particular season of the year4 ,if ,i am right1 in the worships at ,denderah1 ,mednet-,hab1 and ,karnak1 we have a strict reference to the year1 and in ,egypt the year was always1 as it is now1 associated with the rise of the river4 ,the sacred river must now occupy our attention for a while2 we must become familiar with its phenomena1 and the divisions of time and the calendar systems which were associated with them4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,egyptian ,,year ,,and ,,the ,,nile4 ,our researches so far leave no doubt upon the question that a large part of the astronomical activity of the earliest ,egyptians had reference to observations connected especially with ,new ,year's ,day4 ,it has been made abundantly clear1 too1 that in very early times the ,egyptians had a solar year commencing at the ,summer ,solstice1 and that this solstice was then1 and is now1 coincident with the arrival of the ,nile flood at ,heliopolis and ,memphis1 the most important centres of northern ,egyptian life during the early dynasties4 ,in the dawn of civilisation it was not at all a matter of course that the sun should be taken as the measurer of time1 as it is now with us2 and in this connection it is worth while to note how very diverse the treatment of this subject was among the early peoples4 ,thus1 for instance1 it was different in ,egypt from what it was in ,chalda and ,babylonia1 and later among the ,jews4 ,in the ,egyptian inscriptions we find references to the moon1 but they prove that she occupied quite a subordinate position to the sun1 at least in the later times4 ,the week of seven days was utterly unknown amongst the ,egyptians4 ,everything that can be brought forward in its favour belongs to the latest periods4 ,the passage quoted by ,lepsius from the ,book of the ,dead proves nothing1 since1 according to ,krall1 an error has crept into his translation4 ,in ,babylonia it would seem that the moon was worshipped as well as the sun2 and it was thus naturally used for measuring time2 and1 so far as months were concerned1 this1 of course1 was quite right4 ,in ,babylonia1 too1 where much desert travel had to be undertaken at night1 the movements of the moon would be naturally watched with great care4 ,an interesting point connected with this is that1 among these ancient peoples1 the celestial bodies which gave them the unit period of time by which they reckoned were practically looked upon in the same category4 ,thus1 for instance1 in ,egypt the sun being used1 the unit of time was a year2 but in ,babylonia the unit of time was a month1 for the reason that the standard of time was the moon4 ,hence1 when periods of time were in question1 it was quite easy for one nation to conceive that the period of time used in another was a year when really it was a month1 and vice vers4 ,it has been suggested that the years of ,methuselah and other persons who are stated to have lived a considerable number of years were not solar years but lunar years--that is1 properly1 lunar months ,this is reasonable1 since1 if we divide the numbers by twelve1 we find that they come out very much the same length as lives are in the present day1 and there is no reason why this should not be so4 ,there seems little doubt that the country in which the sun was definitely accepted as the most accurate measurer of time was ,egypt4 ,r1 the sun1 was the chief god of ancient ,egypt4 ,he was worshipped throughout the various nomes4 ,even the oldest texts 7cf4 that of ,menkaur in the ,british ,museum7 tell of the brilliant course of ,r across the celestial vault and his daily struggle with darkness4 ,the ,egyptians1 says ,ranke in the first chapter of his ,universal ,history1 which is devoted to ,egypt1 have determined the motion of the sun as seen on earth1 and according to this the year was divided1 in comparison with ,babylon1 in a scientific and practically useful way1 so that ,julius ,csar adopted the calendar from the ,egyptians and introduced it into the ,roman ,empire4 ,the other nations followed suit1 and since then it has been in general use for seventeen centuries4 ,the calendar may be considered as the noblest relic of the most ancient times which has influenced the world4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,annual ,,rise ,,and ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,nile4 7,from ,horner47 ,wherever the ancient ,egyptians came from--whether from a region where the moon was the time-measurer or not--so soon as they settled in the valley where the ,nile then1 as now1 like a pendulum slowly beat the years by its annual inundation at the ,summer ,solstice1 the solar basis of their calendar was settled4 ,hence it was ,nature1 the ,nile--on the regulation of which depended the welfare of the country--which facilitated the establishment of the ,egyptian year4 ,solstice and ,nile-flood are the turning-points of the old ,egyptian year4 ,that ,egypt is the gift of the ,nile is a remark we owe to the ,father of ,history1 who referred not only to the fertilising influence of the stream1 but to the fact that the presence of the ,nile1 and its phenomena1 are the conditions upon which the habitability of ,egypt altogether depends4 ,that the ,egyptian year and that part of ,egyptian archology and myth which chiefly interests astronomers are also the gift of the ,nile1 is equally true4 ,the heliacal rising of ,sirius and other stars at the time of the commencement of the inundation each year2 all the myths which grew out of the various symbols of the stars so used2 are so many evidences of the large share the river1 with its various water-levels at different times1 had in the national life4 ,it was1 in fact1 the true and unique basis of the national life4 ,in this the ,nile had a compeer or even compeers4 ,what the ,nile was to ,egypt the ,euphrates and ,tigris were to a large region of ,western ,asia1 where also we find the annual flood a source of fertility1 a spectacle which inspired poets1 and an event with which astronomers largely occupied themselves4 ,what more natural than that ,euphrates1 ,tigris1 and ,nile were looked upon as deities2 that the gods of the ,nile valley on the one hand1 and of the region watered by the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 on the other1 were gods to swear by2 that they were worshipped in order that their benign influences might be secured1 and that they had their local shrines and special cults8 ,the god sacred to the ,euphrates and ,tigris was called ,ea4 ,illustration3 ,h,,pi1 ,,the ,,god ,,of ,,the ,,nile4 ,the god sacred to the ,nile was called ,hpi4 ,the name is the same as that of the bull ,apis1 the worship of which was attributed to ,mena4#fd ,certainly ,mena1 ,mini1 or ,menes1 as he is variously called1 was fully justified in founding the cult of the river-god1 for he first among men appears to have had just ideas of irrigation1 and ,i have heard the distinguished officers who have lately been responsible for the irrigation system of to-day speaking with admiration of the ideas and works of ,mena4 ,whether the ,tigris had a ,mena in an equally early time is a point on which history is silent2 but1 according to the accounts of travellers1 the ,tigris in flood is even more majestic than the ,nile1 and yet the latter river in flood is a sight to see--a whole fertile plain turned1 as it were1 into an arm of the sea1 with here and there an island1 which1 on inspection1 turns out to be a village1 the mud houses of which too often are undermined by the lapping of the waves in the strong north wind4 ,there is no doubt that the dates of the rise of these rivers not only influenced the national life1 but even the religions of the dwellers on their banks4 ,the ,euphrates and ,tigris rise at the ,spring ,equinox--the religion was equinoxial1 the temples were directed to the east4 ,the ,nile rises at a solstice--the religion was solstitial and the solar temples were directed no longer to the east4 ,to the ,egyptians the coming of the river to the parched land was as the sunrise chasing the darkness of the night2 the sun-god of day conquering the star-gods of night2 or again the victorious king of the land slaughtering his enemies4 ,egypt1 in the words of ,amru1 first appears like a dusty plain1 then as a fresh sea1 and finally as a bed of flowers4 ,it might be imagined at first sight that as the year was thus determined1 so to speak1 by natural local causes1 the divisions or seasons would be the same as those which ,nature has given us4 ,this is not so4 ,the river and land conditions are so widely different4 ,by no one1 perhaps1 have the actual facts been so truly and poetically described as by ,osborn1 who thus pictures the low ,nile#fe3-- ,the ,nile has shrunk within its banks until its stream is contracted to half its ordinary dimensions1 and its turbid1 slimy1 stagnant waters scarcely seem to flow in any direction4 ,broad flats or steep banks of black1 sun-baked ,nile mud1 form both the shores of the river4 ,all beyond them is sand and sterility2 for the hamseen1 or sand-wind of fifty days' duration1 has scarcely yet ceased to blow4 ,the trunks and branches of trees may be seen here and there through the dusty1 hazy1 burning atmosphere1 but so entirely are their leaves coated with dust that at a distance they are not distinguishable from the desert sand that surrounds them4 ,it is only by the most painful and laborious operation of watering that any tint approximating to greenness can be preserved at this season even in the pleasure-gardens of the ,pacha4 ,the first symptom of the termination of this most terrible season is the rising of the north wind 7the ,etesian wind of the ,greeks71 blowing briskly1 often fiercely1 during the whole of the day4 ,the foliage of the groves that cover ,lower ,egypt is soon disencumbered by it of the dust1 and resumes its verdure4 ,the fierce fervours of the sun1 then at its highest ascension1 are also most seasonably mitigated by the same powerful agency1 which prevails for this and the three following months throughout the entire land of ,egypt4 ,then comes the inundation3-- ,perhaps there is not in ,nature a more exhilarating sight1 or one more strongly exciting to confidence in ,god1 than the rise of the ,nile4 ,day by day and night by night1 its turbid tide sweeps onward majestically over the parched sands of the waste1 howling wilderness4 ,almost hourly1 as we slowly ascended it before the ,etesian wind1 we heard the thundering fall of some mud-bank1 and saw1 by the rush of all animated ,nature to the spot1 that the ,nile had overleapt another obstruction1 and that its bounding waters were diffusing life and joy through another desert4 ,there are few impressions ,i ever received upon the remembrance of which ,i dwell with more pleasure than that of seeing the first burst of the ,nile into one of the great channels of its annual overflow4 ,all ,nature shouts for joy4 ,the men1 the children1 the buffaloes1 gambol in its refreshing waters1 the broad waves sparkle with shoals of fish1 and fowl of every wing flutter over them in clouds4 ,nor is this jubilee of ,nature confined to the higher orders of creation4 ,the moment the sand becomes moistened by the approach of the fertilising waters1 it is literally alive with insects innumerable4 ,it is impossible to stand by the side of one of these noble streams1 to see it every moment sweeping away some obstruction to its majestic course1 and widening as it flows1 without feeling the heart to expand with love and joy and confidence in the great ,author of this annual miracle of mercy4 ,illustration3 ,,different ,,forms ,,of ,,thoth4 ,after the flood comes the sowing time4 ,the effects of the inundation1 as ,osborn shows in another place1 exhibit themselves in a scene of fertility and beauty such as will scarcely be found in another country at any season of the year4 ,the vivid green of the springing corn1 the groves of pomegranate-trees ablaze with the rich scarlet of their blossoms1 the fresh breeze laden with the perfumes of gardens of roses and orange thickets1 every tree and every shrub covered with sweet-scented flowers4 ,these are a few of the natural beauties that welcome the stranger to the land of ,ham4 ,there is considerable sameness in them1 it is true1 for he would observe little variety in the trees and plants1 whether he first entered ,egypt by the gardens of ,alexandria or the plain of ,assouan4 ,yet is it the same everywhere1 only because it would be impossible to make any addition to the sweetness of the odours1 the brilliancy of the colours1 or the exquisite beauty of the many forms of vegetable life1 in the midst of which he wanders4 ,it is monotonous1 but it is the monotony of ,paradise4 ,the flood reaches ,cairo on a day closely approximating to that of the ,summer ,solstice4 ,it attains its greatest height1 and begins to decline near the ,autumnal ,equinox4 ,by the ,winter ,solstice the ,nile has again subsided within its banks and resumed its blue colour4 ,seed-time has occurred in this interval4 ,beginning with the inundation 7,summer ,solstice7 we have-- 7#a7 ,the season or tetramene of the inundation1 ,july-,october4 7#b7 sowing1 ,november-,february4 7#c7 harvest1 ,march-,june4 ,from the earliest times the year was divided into twelve months1 as follows1 the leading month being dedicated to the ,god of ,wisdom1 ,thoth 7,tehuti73-- ,thoth ,end of ,june 7,gregorian74 ,inundation ,phaophi ,july4 ,athyr ,august4 ,choiak ,september4 ,tybi ,october4 ,seed-time ,menchir ,november4 ,phamenoth ,december4 ,pharmouthi ,january4 ,pachons ,february4 ,harvest ,payni ,march4 ,epiphi ,april4 ,mesori ,may4 ,the terms for the seasons and months are found even on the building material of the largest pyramid of ,dashr1 and in the oldest records we already find calendar indications4 ,on the steles of the ,mastbas1 in which the deceased prays ,anubis for a good sepulture1 we find a list of the festal days on which sacrifices are to be offered for the dead4 ,a modern calendar 7given both by ,brugsch and ,de ,roug7 is1 doubtless1 a survival from old ,egyptian times4 ,it is good for the neighbourhood of ,cairo1 and the relation of the important days of the inundation to the solstice1 in that part of the river1 is as follows3-- ,night of the drop #aa ,payni #ae ,summer solstice4 ,beginning of the inundation #ah #c days after4 ,assembly at the nilometer #be #aj ,proclamation of the inundation #bf #aa ,marriage of the ,nile #ah ,mesori #fc ,the ,nile ceases to rise #af ,thoth #if ,opening of the dams #ag #ig ,end of the greater inundation #g ,phaophi #aag ,in order to show how the astronomy of the ancient ,egyptians--to deal specially with them--was to a large extent concerned with the annual flood and all that depended upon that flood2 and how the first tropical year used on this planet1 so far as we know1 was established1 it is important to study the actual facts of the rise somewhat closely1 not only for ,egypt generally1 but for several points in the line1 some thousand miles in extent1 along which in the earliest times cities and shrines were dotted here and there4 ,time out of mind the fluctuations in the height of the river have been carefully recorded at different points along the river4 ,in the ,description de l'gypte we find a full description of the so-called nilometer at ,aswn 7,first ,cataract71 which dates from a remote period1 perhaps as early as the fifth dynasty4 ,in ,ebers' delightful book on ,egypt space is given to the description of the much more modern one located at ,rda4 ,the nilometer1 or mikys1 on the island of ,rda1 now visible1 is stated to have replaced one which was brought thither from ,memphis at some unrecorded date4 ,makrz in #adag1 according to ,ebers1 saw the remains of the older nilometer4 ,the present mikys is within a covered vault or chamber1 the roof being supported on simple wooden pillars4 ,in a quadrangular tank in communication with the river by a canal is an octagon pillar on which the ,arabic measurements are inscribed4 ,these consist of the pic 7variously called ell or cubit7 #jed metre1 which is divided into twenty-four kirats4 ,in consequence of the rise of the river bed in relatively recent times1 the nilometer is submerged at high ,nile to a depth of two cubits4 ,illustration3 ,,scale ,,of ,,the ,,nilometer ,,at ,r,,da4 ,the rise of the ,nile can now be carefully studied1 as gauges are distributed along the river4 ,we have the ,aswn gauge from #ahfi1 the ,armant gauge from #ahhg1 the ,suhag gauge from #ahhi1 and the ,asyt gauge from #ahib4 ,the distances of these gauges from ,aswn are as follows3-- ,kilometres4 ,aswn #j ,armant #bjj ,suhag #ddg ,asyt #eej ,rda #ida ,the ,rda gauge is not to be depended on1 as the movements of the barrage regulation destroy its value as a record4 ,the heights of these gauges above mean sea-level are as follows3-- ,metres4 ,aswn #hdaeh ,armant #fiece ,suhag #efjj ,asyt #ecaj ,rda #acad ,illustration3 ,,the ,,island ,,of ,r,,da4 ,great vagueness arises in there being no very obvious distinction between the gauge readings reached in summer and that from which the rise is continuous4 ,there are apparently rainfalls in the end of spring of sufficient power to raise the ,nile visibly in summer1 just as muddy rises have been seen in winter to pass down the valley1 leaving a muddy mark on the rocks at ,aswn and ,manfalt4 ,independently of the actual gauge-reading of the rise1 there are facts about it which strike every beholder4 ,at the commencement of the rise we have the green water4 ,this occurs in ,june1 but varies in date as much as the top of the flood varies4 ,from the fact that modern observations show that the very beginning of the rise1 and the first flush1 second flush and final retirement vary1 it seems evident that the ancient ,egyptians could not have had any fixed zero-gauge or time for the real physical fact of the rise1 but must have deduced from a series of observations either a mean period of commencement1 or a mean arrival of the red water1 or a mean rising up to a certain gauge4 ,first1 to deal with the green water4 ,generally when the rise of an inch or two is reported from the nilometer at ,rda1 the waters lose the little of clearness and freshness they still possessed4 ,the green colour is the slimy1 lustreless hue of brackish water within the tropics1 and no filter that has yet been discovered can render such water clear4 ,the colour is really due to alg4 ,happily1 the continuance of this state of the water seldom exceeds three or four days4 ,the sufferings of those who are compelled to drink it in this state1 from vesical disease1 even in this short interval1 are very severe4 ,the inhabitants of the cities generally provide against it by ,nile water stored in reservoirs and tanks4 ,colonel ,ross1 ,r4,e41 noticed in #ahhg and in #ahij1 when1 owing to the slow retreat of the ,nile1 the irrigation officers had to hold back many basins in the ,gzeh province1 and also in #ahhh when the water remained long stagnant1 that the basin water got green--showed the alg and smelt marshy--just as the ,june green water does4 ,hence it has been argued that1 as the ,nile water in the bed of the stream--even in very slow-flowing back-waters--does not become green1 the greenness must be produced by an almost absolute stagnation of the water4 ,we know of great marshes up above ,gondokoro1 and hence it is thought that the green water of summer1 which comes on suddenly1 is this marsh-water being pushed out by the new water from behind1 and that is why it heralds the rise4 ,no one has so far minutely observed the gradual intrusion of the green water4 ,the rise of the river proceeds rapidly1 and the water gradually becomes more turbid4 ,ten or twelve days1 however1 elapse before the development of the last and most extraordinary of all the appearances of the ,nile1 thus described by ,mr4 ,osborn#ff3-- ,it was at the end of--to my own sensations--a long and very sultry night1 that ,i raised myself from the sofa upon which ,i had in vain been endeavouring to sleep1 on the deck of a ,nile boat that lay becalmed off ,benisoueff1 a town of ,middle ,egypt4 ,the sun was just showing the upper limb of his disc over the eastern mountains4 ,i was surprised to see that when his rays fell upon the water a deep ruddy reflection was given back4 ,the depth of the tint increased continually as a larger portion of his light fell upon the water1 and before he had entirely cleared the top of the hill it presented the perfect appearance of a river of blood4 ,suspecting some delusion1 ,i rose up hastily1 and1 looking over the side of the boat1 saw there the confirmation of my first impression4 ,the entire body of the water was opaque and of a deep red colour1 bearing a closer resemblance to blood than to any other natural production to which it could be compared4 ,i now perceived that during the night the river had visibly risen several inches4 ,while ,i was gazing at this great sight the ,arabs came round me to explain that it was the ,red ,nile4 ,the redness and opacity of the water1 in this extraordinary condition of the river1 are subject to constant variations4 ,on some days1 when the rise of the river has not exceeded an inch or two1 its waters return to a state of semi-transparency1 though during the entire period of the high ,nile they never lose the deep red tinge which cannot be separated from them4 ,it is not1 however1 like the green admixture1 at all deleterious2 the ,nile water is never more wholesome or more deliciously refreshing than during the overflow4 ,there are other days when the rise of the river is much more rapid1 and then the quantity of mud that is suspended in the water exceeds1 in ,upper ,egypt1 that which ,i have seen in any other river4 ,on more than one occasion ,i could perceive that it visibly interfered with the flow of the stream4 ,a glassful of it in this state was allowed to remain still for a short time4 ,the upper portion of it was perfectly opaque and the colour of blood4 ,a sediment of black mud occupied about one-quarter of the glass4 ,a considerable portion of this is deposited before the river reaches ,middle and ,lower ,egypt4 ,i never observed the ,nile water in this condition there1 and indeed no consecutive observations exist of the reddening of the water4 ,it is quite clear that the reddening cannot come from the ,white ,nile1 but must be the first floods of the ,blue ,nile and ,bahral ,azral coming down4 ,one of the most important matters for the purposes of our present inquiry is connected with the influence upon local calendars1 in different parts of the ,nile valley1 of the variations of the phenomena upon which the ,egyptians depended for the marking of ,new ,year's ,day4 ,if the solstice had been taken alone1 the date of it would have been the same for all parts of the valley2 but certainly the solstice was not taken alone1 and for the obvious reason1 that they wanted something to warn them of the ,nile rise1 and in the lower reaches of the river the rise precedes the solstice4 ,nor was the heliacal rising of ,sirius1 of which more presently1 taken alone4 ,but it was chiefly a question of the arrival of the ,nile flood1 and the date of the commencement of the ,nile flood was by no means common to all parts of ,egypt4 ,now it is to be gathered from the modern gauges that it takes the flood some time1 as we can easily imagine1 to pass down the #fjj miles between ,elephantine and ,cairo4 ,in the early flood1 rising from1 say1 one cubit ,aswn to six cubits1 where there are many dry sandbanks1 and the spreading out of the river is considerable1 and there is an absence of overlapping flushes from behind1 the rate goes up to fifteen days1 and the earliest indication of the rise may take longer still1 but this is very difficult to observe4 ,the rate in ,hood is #a days from ,wdy ,halfa to ,aswn1 and six days from ,aswn to ,rda 7#ida kilometres74 ,in very high ,niles this is perhaps accelerated to five days4 ,there is1 therefore1 a very great difference in time and rate between ,green and ,red ,nile4 ,the rise is #de ft4 at ,aswn1 #ch at ,thebes1 and #be at ,cairo4 ,from the data obtained at the gauges named1 which have been kindly forwarded to me by ,mr4 ,garstin1 the ,under ,secretary of ,state of the ,public ,works ,department of ,egypt1 ,i have ascertained that the average time taken by the first indication of the flood to travel between ,thebes and ,memphis is now about nine days4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that the river-bed is now higher than formerly2 the land around ,thebes1 according to ,budge1 has been raised about nine feet in the last #a1gjj years4 ,if1 therefore1 at each great city1 such as ,thebes and ,heliopolis1 ,new ,year's ,day depended absolutely on the arrival of the inundation1 not only would the day have been uncertain1 but the difference of time in the arrival of the ,hood at various places along the river would represent a difference in the ,new ,year's ,days of those places1 compared to which our modern differences of local time sink into insignificance1 for they only touch hours of the day4 ,the great difficulty experienced in understanding the statements generally made concerning the ,nile-rise is due to the fact that the maximum flood is1 as a rule1 registered in ,cairo upwards of forty days after the maximum at ,aswn4 ,for the following account of how this is brought about ,i am indebted to the kindness of ,colonel ,ross1 ,r4,e43-- ,the behaviour of the flood at the ,aswn gauge is as follows3 ,between ,august #bj and #cj a good average gauge of #af cubits is often reached1 and between ,august #bg and ,september #c there is often a drop of about #cj centimetres4 ,the ,august rise is supposed to be mostly due to the ,blue ,nile and ,atbara ,river4 ,between ,september #a and #h the irrigation officers generally look for a maximum flood-gauge of the year at ,aswn4 ,this is supposed to be the first flush of the ,white ,nile4 ,in the middle of ,september there are generally two small flushes1 but the last twenty days of ,september are generally distinctly lower than that of the first week4 ,the final flush of the ,nile is seldom later than the #bast to #beth ,september4 ,all this water does not merely go down the ,nile2 it floods the different basins4 ,the opening of these basins begins from the south to the north4 ,this operation is generally performed between the #bith ,september and the #bbnd ,october4 ,the great ,central ,egypt basins are not connected with the ,nile for purposes of discharge into the river between ,asyt and near ,wasta1 or a distance of #cie-ij kilometres #cje kil4 ,the country in the middle or ,central ,egypt is broad1 and thus there is an enormous quantity of water poured out of these basins into the lower reaches of the river about the #bjth ,october1 which seriously raises the ,nile at ,cairo1 and in a good average year will bring the ,cairo gauge 7at ,rda7 up to the maximum of the year on or about ,october #bb1 and hence it is that the guide-books say the ,nile is at its highest in the end of ,october4 ,a gauge of #af cubits at ,aswn while the basins are being filled does not give more than #ba cubits at ,rda 7,cairo71 but1 as the basins with a #af gauge will fill by the #ajth ,september1 it follows that a #af to #af cubit gauge at ,aswn will not give a constant ,cairo gauge1 as the great mass of water passes by the basins and reaches ,cairo4 ,hence we have frequently the paradox of a steady or falling gauge at ,aswn showing a steady rise at ,cairo4 ,if the gauge at ,aswn keeps above #af cubits to near the end of ,september1 the basin-emptying is much retarded1 as the emptying at each successive basin fills the ,nile above the #af cubit level2 hence the lower halves of the basins do not flow off1 and thus1 when the great ,middle ,egypt basins are discharged1 they do not raise the ,nile so much as they do when the last half of ,september ,nile is below #af at ,aswn4 ,in years like #ahhg and #ahib1 which differ from each other only in date of maximum gauge at ,aswn1 the river1 having filled the basins in fifteen to twenty days instead of in twenty-five to thirty days1 comes down to ,cairo in so largely increased a volume that a really dangerous gauge of #be cubits at ,cairo is maintained for over a fortnight 7the average ,october gauge in ,cairo is about #bc cubits71 and from ,september #aj to ,october #be the river remains from #bd cubits to #be cubits1 and the ,middle ,egypt basins discharge so slowly that the opening day is hardly traceable on the ,cairo gauge4 ,in the #ahgh flood1 which was the most disastrous flood possible1 the river rose in the most abnormal fashion1 and on ,october #c attained #ah cubits at ,aswn4 ,this breached the ,delta1 and in addition so delayed the ,upper ,egypt basins emptying1 from the reason before given1 that the wheat was sown too late1 and got badly scorched by the hot winds of ,march and ,april4#fg ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,years ,,of #cfj ,,and #cfe ,,days4 ,whether the ,egyptians brought their year with them or invented it in the ,nile valley1 there is a belief that it at first consisted of #cfj days only1 that is1 #e days too little4 ,it is more likely that they brought the lunar month with them1 taking it roughly as #cj days 7#cj #ab #cfj71 than that they began with such an erroneous notion of the true length of the solar year1 seeing that in ,egypt1 above all countries in the world1 owing to the regularity of the inundation1 the true length could have been so easily determined1 so soon as that regularity was recognised4 ,we must not in these questions forget to put ourselves in the place of these pioneers of astronomy and civilisation2 if we do this1 we shall soon see how many difficulties were involved in determining the true length of such a cycle as a year1 when not only modern appliances1 but all just ideas too1 were of necessity lacking4 ,since #cfj days do not represent the true length of the year1 it is clear that any nation which uses such a year as that will find the seasons and festivals sweeping through the year4 ,further1 such a year is absolutely useless for the agriculturist1 or the gardener1 because after a time the same month1 to say nothing of the same day of the month1 will not mean reaping-time1 will not mean sowing-time1 or anything else4 ,still1 it is right that ,i should state that all authorities are not agreed as to the use of this year of #cfj days2 at all events1 during the times within our ken4 ,maspero#fh states3-- ,des observations nouvelles1 faites sur le cours du soleil1 dcidrent les astronomes intercaler chaque anne1 aprs le douzime mois1 et avant le premier jour de l'anne suivante1 cinq jours complmentaires1 qu'on nomma les cinq jours en sus de l'anne ou jours epagomnes 7epacts74 ,l'poque de ce changement tait si ancienne que nous ne saurions lui assigner aucune date1 et que les ,egyptiens eux-mmes l'avaient reporte jusque dans les temps mythiques antrieurs l'avnement de ,mini4 ,ideler#fi is of the same opinion as ,maspero3-- ,i do not hesitate 444 to declare that the existence of such a time cycle--used without reference to the course of the sun or moon simply for the sake of simple figures--is extremely doubtful to me4 ,krall remarks 7p4 #ag73-- ,it is probable that the year of #cfj days dates from the time before the immigration into the ,nile valley1 when the ,egyptians were unguided by the regular recurrence of the ,nile flood4 ,in any case1 this must soon have convinced the priests that the #cfj-;days year did not agree with the facts4 ,but it is well known to everybody familiar with these things how long a period may be required before such determinations are practically realised1 especially with a people so conservative of ancient usages as the ,egyptians4 ,and on this ground1 apparently1 he joins issue with the authorities already quoted3-- ,the ,egyptian monuments have contradicted ,ideler in this respect4 ,the trilingual inscription of ,tanis testifies expressly that it has only 'later become usual to add the five epagomenes2' that1 therefore1 the year originally had #cfj days1 which were divided into twelve months of thirty days each4 ,krall also argues that the expressions great and little year and their hieroglyphics referred to the rears of #cfe and #cfj days respectively1 and adds3-- ,if we inquire into the time at which the epagomenes were introduced1 we can only fix approximate dates4 ,if the calendars of the ,mastabas1 complete as they are1 do not mention the epagomenes1 whereas inscriptions of the period of the ,amenamhts refer to them1 this can only be due to the circumstance that the epagomenes were only introduced in the meantime1 but probably nearer the upper than the lower limit4444 ,for the sake of completeness1 we may mention that1 according to ,censorinus1 the five epagomenes were introduced by the ,king ,arminon4444 ,louth conjectures that ,arminon is identical with ,amenamht ,i41 under whom the epagomenes are first met with4 ,but since1 between ,nitokris and ,amenamht ,i41 there is a period of #ejj years void of records1 and the name ,arminon has nothing to do with ,amenamht1 we can hardly share this view4 ,however this knotty point may subsequently be settled by ,egyptologists1 from the astronomers point of view the words of ,ideler#gj--;,had ignorance lead to the establishment of a year of #cfj days1 yet experience would have led to its rejection in a few years--will carry conviction with them4 ,indeed1 one may ask whether it is not possible that the use of the #cfj-;day year1 and the complications which it involved1 may have had something to do with the foundation of the solar temples4 ,let us attempt to put ourselves1 in imagination1 in the place of the ancient ,egyptians after the use of this #cfj-;day year had been continued for any length of time4 ,it is perfectly certain that now in this part of the ,nile valley1 now in that1 everybody1 from ,pharaoh to fellah1 must have got his calendar into the most hopeless confusion1 compared with which the year of confusion was mere child's-play1 and that the exact determination of the times1 either of state functions or sowing1 reaping1 or the like1 by means of such a calendar would have been next to impossible4 ,as each year dropped #e days1 it is evident that in about seventy years 7#cfebeebe7 a cycle was accomplished1 in which ,new ,year's ,day swept through all the months4 ,the same month 7so far as its name was concerned7 was now in the inundation time1 now in the sowing time1 and so on4 ,of fixed agricultural work for such months as these there could be none4 ,it must have been1 then1 that there were local attempts to retain the coincidences between the true and the calendar year--intercalation of days or even of months being introduced1 now in one place1 now in another2 and these attempts1 of course1 would make confusion worse confounded1 as the months might vary with the district1 and not with the time of year4 ,that this is what really happened is1 no doubt1 the origin of the stringent oath required of the ,pharaohs in after times1 to which ,i shall subsequently refer4 ,to acknowledge that the calendar year was wrong implied that they knew the length of the true one4 ,how had they found it out8 ,i think there can be no question that this knowledge had come to them by observations either of the solstices or the equinoxes4 ,it is true they had the inundation2 but1 as we have seen1 the rise is not absolutely regular1 and the inundation takes many days to travel from ,phil to ,cairo 7,memphis74 ,if1 then1 the inundation had fixed the beginning of the year1 each nome would have its special ,new ,year's ,day1 and this would never have been tolerated by a settled government embracing the whole ,nile valley1 especially as each king's reign was supposed to commence on ,new ,year's ,day4 ,it seems1 then1 that the solstitial temples and the pyramids were1 if not actually requisite for settling the matter1 at all events all that was necessary1 if they existed4 ,but now comes in a most interesting and important point4 ,if observations of the sun at solstice or equinox had been alone made use of1 the true length of the year would have been determined in a few years4 ,but the next scene in ,egyptian history shows us that the true length of the year was not determined1 but only an approximation to it4 ,how was this8 ,the astronomical answer is very simple4 ,i have already referred to the common practice of all ancient peoples that we know of to make sacrifices at dawn1 and have shown how1 in order to do this1 they took their time from a star rising before the sun4 ,an observation of the so-called heliacal rising of a star--if the star were properly chosen--would give them the interval necessary for their preparations before the sun itself appeared2 and1 as the highest festival of all was that of ,new ,year's ,day1 it was especially important that the work should be well done then4 ,now1 if the stars had no precessional movement1 the sun and stars1 after each interval of a true year1 would be in exactly the same position2 but in consequence of the stars having the precessional movement to which ,i have before referred1 the star so observed and the sun will not be in exactly the same position after the interval of a true year4 ,on this account1 then1 the difference of time between the heliacal risings will not represent the length of a true year4 ,but1 further1 the heliacal rising of the star will not take place on the same day for the whole of ,egypt1 the difference between ,thebes and ,memphis1 depending upon their latitudes1 amounting to about four days2 and1 further still1 the almost constant mists in the mornings in the ,nile valley prevent accurate observations of the moment of rising4 ,still1 as a matter of fact1 the ,egyptians defined their new year by the rising of a star1 and the length of it by the interval separating two heliacal risings4 ,such a year could not be accurate2 and again1 as a matter of fact1 their correction was not accurate1 for the year was defined now as consisting of #cfe days4 ,it seems clear from this that the correction was made before the solar temples were in use4 ,in any case the year of #cfj days had naturally to give way1 and it ultimately did so1 in favour of one of #cfe4 ,the precise date of the change is1 as we have seen1 not known4#ga ,the five days were added as epacts or epagomena2 the original months were not altered1 but a little month of five days was interpolated at the end of the year between ,mesori of one year and ,thoth of the next1 as already stated4 ,when the year of #cfe days was established1 it was evidently imagined that finality had been reached2 and1 mindful of the confusion which1 as we have shown1 must have resulted from the attempt to keep up a year of #cjj days by intercalations1 each ,egyptian king1 on his accession to the throne1 bound himself by oath before the priest of ,isis1 in the temple of ,ptah at ,memphis1 not to intercalate either days or months1 but to retain the year of #cfe days as established by the ,antiqui4#gb ,the text of the ,latin translation preserved by ,nigidius ,figulus cannot be accurately restored2 only thus much can be seen with certainty4 ,to retain this year of #cfe days1 then1 became the first law for the king1 and1 indeed1 the ,pharaohs thenceforth throughout the whole course of ,egyptian history adhered to it1 in spite of their being subsequently convinced1 as we shall see1 of its inadequacy4 ,it was a ,macedonian king who later made an attempt to replace it by a better one4 ,we may reckon upon the conservatism of the priests of the temples retaining the tradition of the old rejected year in every case4 ,thus even at ,phil in late times1 in the temple of ,osiris1 there were #cfj bowls for sacrifice1 which were filled daily with milk by a specified rotation of priests4 ,at ,acanthus there was a perforated cask into which one of the #cfj priests poured water from the ,nile daily4 ,indeed1 these temple ceremonials are an evidence of their antiquity1 and the further we put back the change from the #cfj to #cfe days1 the greater the antiquity we must assign to them1 and therefore to the temples themselves4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,vague ,,and ,,the ,,sirian ,,years4 ,during three thousand years of ,egyptian history the beginning of the year was marked by the rising of ,sirius1 which rising took place nearly coincidently with the rise of the ,nile and the ,summer ,solstice4 ,i have insisted upon the regularity of the rise of the ,nile affording the ancient ,egyptians1 so soon as this regularity had been established1 a moderately good way of determining the length of the year1 but we have seen they did not so employ it4 ,it is also clear that so soon as the greatest northing and southing of the sun rising or setting at the solstices had been recognised1 and the intervals between them in days had been counted1 a still more accurate way would be open to them4 ,the solstice must have occurred with greater regularity than the rise of the river1 so that as accuracy of definition became more necessary the solstice would be preferred4 ,the solstice was common to all ,egypt2 the commencement of the inundation was later as the place of observation was nearer the mouth of the river4 ,this means they also did not employ1 at all events in the first instance4 ,of the three coincident1 or nearly coincident1 phenomena1 the rise of the ,nile1 the ,summer ,solstice1 and the rising of ,sirius1 they at first chose the last4 ,according to ,biot the heliacal rising of ,sirius at the solstice took place on ,july #bj 7,julian71 in the year #cbhe ,b4,c42 and according to ,oppolzer it took place on ,july #ah 7,julian71 in the year #cjjj ,b4,c4 ,but this is too general a statement1 and it must be modified here4 ,there was a difference of seven days in the date of the heliacal rising1 according to the latitude1 from southern ,elephantine and ,phil1 where the heliacal rising at the solstice was noted first1 to northern ,bubastis4 ,there was a difference of four days between ,memphis and ,thebes1 so that the connection between the heliacal rising and the solstice depended simply upon the latitude of the place4 ,the further south1 the earlier the coincidence occurred4 ,here we have an astronomical reason for the variation in the date of ,new ,year's ,day4 ,there no doubt was a time when the ,egyptian astronomer-priests imagined that1 by the introduction of the #cfe-;days year1 marking its commencement1 as ,i have said1 by the rising of one of the host of heaven1 they had achieved finality4 ,but1 alas1 the dream must soon have vanished4 ,even with this period of #cfe days1 the true length of the year had not been reached2 and soon1 whether by observations of the beginning of the inundation1 or by observations of the solstice in some of the solar temples when these had been built1 it was found that there was a difference of a day every four years between the beginning of the natural and of the newly-established year1 arising1 of course1 from the fact that the true year is #cfe days and a quarter of a day 7roughly7 in length4 ,with perfectly orientated temples they must have soon found that their festival at the ,summer ,solstice--which festival is known all over the world to-day--did not fall precisely on the day of the ,new ,year1 because1 if #cfe days had exactly measured the year1 that flash of bright sunlight would have fallen into the sanctuary just as it did #cfe days before4 ,but what they must have found was that1 after an interval of four years1 it did not fall on the first day of the month1 but on the day following it4 ,recurrent solstices ,recurrent #ast4 of ,thoth ,the true year and the newly-established year of #cfe days1 then1 behaved to each other as shown in the following diagram1 when the solstice1 representing the beginning of the calendar year1 occurred on the #ast ,thoth of the newly-established calendar year4 ,we should have1 in the subsequent years1 the state of things shown in the diagram4 ,the solstice would year by year occur later in relation to the #ast of ,thoth4 ,the #ast of ,thoth would occur earlier1 in relation to the solstice2 so that in relation to the established year the solstice would sweep forwards among the days3 in relation to the true year the #ast of ,thoth would sweep backwards4 ,let us call the true natural year a fixed year3 it is obvious that the months of the #cfe-;day year would be perpetually varying their place in relation to those of the fixed year4 ,let us1 therefore1 call the #cfe-;day year a vague year4 ,now if the fixed year were exactly #cfe days long1 it is quite clear that1 still to consider the above diagram1 the #ast of ,thoth in the vague year would again coincide with the solstice in #a1dfj years1 since in four years the solstice would fall on the #bnd of ,thoth1 in eight years on the #crd of ,thoth1 and so on 7#cfe #d #adfj74 ,but the fixed year is not #cfe days long exactly4 ,in the time of ,hipparchus #cfebe did not really represent the true length of the solar year2 instead of #cfebe we must write #cfebdbcib--that is to say1 the real length of the year is a little less than #cfe days4 ,now the length of the year being a little less1 of course we should only get a second coincidence of the #ast of ,thoth vague with the solstice in a longer period than the #adfj-years cycle2 and1 as a matter of fact1 #aejf years are required to fit the months into the years with this slightly shortened length of the year4 ,in the case of the solstice and the vague year1 then1 we have a cycle of #a1ejf years4 ,the variations between the fixed and the vague years were known perhaps for many centuries to the priests alone4 ,they would not allow the established year of #cfe days1 since called the vague year1 to be altered1 and so strongly did they feel on this point that1 as already stated1 every king had to swear when he was crowned that he would not alter the year4 ,we can surmise why this was4 ,it gave great power to the priests2 they alone could tell on what particular day of what particular month the ,nile would rise in each year1 because they alone knew in what part of the cycle they were2 and1 in order to get that knowledge1 they had simply to continue going every year into their ,holy of ,holies one day in the year1 as the priests did afterwards in ,jerusalem1 and watch the little patch of bright sunlight coming into the sanctuary4 ,that would tell them exactly the relation of the true solar solstice to their year2 and the exact date of the inundation of the ,nile could be predicted by those who could determine observationally the solstice1 but by no others4 ,but now suppose that1 instead of the solstice1 we take the heliacal rising of ,sirius1 and compare the successive risings at the solstice with the #ast of ,thoth4 ,but why1 it will be asked1 should there be any difference in the length of the cycles depending upon successive coincidences of the #ast of ,thoth with the solstice and the heliacal rising of ,sirius8 ,the reason is that stars change their places1 and the star to which they trusted to warn them of the beginning of a new year was1 like all stars1 subject to the effects brought about by the precession of the equinoxes4 ,not for long could it continue to rise heliacally either at a solstice or a ,nile flood4 ,among the most important contributors to the astronomical side of this subject are ,m4 ,biot and ,professor ,oppolzer4 ,it is of the highest importance to bring together the fundamental points which have been made out by their calculations4 ,we have determinate references to the heliacal rising of ,sirius1 to the #ast of ,thoth1 to the solstice1 and to the rising of the ,nile in connection with the ,egyptian year2 but1 so far as ,i have been able to make out1 we find nowhere at present any sharp reference to the importance of their correlation with the times of the tropical year at which these various phenomena took place4 ,the question has been complicated by the use by chronologists of the ,julian year in such calculations2 so the ,julian year and the use made of it by chronologists have to be borne in mind4 ,unfortunately1 many side-issues have in this way been raised4 ,the heliacal rising of ,sirius1 of course--if in those days a true tropical year was being dealt with--would have given us a more or less constant variation in the time of the rising over a long period1 on account of its precessional movement2 and ,m4 ,biot and others before him have pointed out that the variation1 produced by that movement1 in the time of the year at which the heliacal rising took place was almost exactly equal to the error of the ,julian year as compared with the true tropical or ,gregorian one4 ,the ,sirius year1 like the ,julian1 was about eleven minutes longer than the true year1 so that in #c1jjj years we should have a difference of about #bc days4 ,biot showed by his calculations1 using the solar tables extant before those of ,leverrier1 that from #cbjj ,b4,c4 to #bjj ,b4,c4 in the ,julian year of the chronologists1 ,sirius had constantly1 in each year1 risen heliacally on ,july #bj ,julian ,june #bj ,gregorian4 ,oppolzer1 more recently1 using ,leverrier's tables1 has made a very slight correction to this1 which1 however1 is practically immaterial for the purposes of a general statement4 ,he shows that in the latitude of ,memphis1 in #afjj ,b4,c41 the heliacal rising took place on ,july #ahf1 while in the year #j it took place on ,july #aig1 both ,julian dates4 ,the variation from the true tropical year brought about by the processional movement of ,sirius or any other star1 however1 can be watched by noting its heliacal rising in relation to any physical phenomenon which marks the true length of the tropical year4 ,such a phenomenon we have in the solstice and in the rising of the ,nile1 which1 during the whole course of historical time1 has been found to rise and fall with constancy in each year1 the initial rise of the waters1 some little way above ,memphis1 taking place very nearly at the ,summer ,solstice4 ,again1 ,m4 ,biot has made a series of calculations from which we learn that the heliacal rising of ,sirius ,,at ,,the ,,solstice occurred on ,july #bj 7,julian7 in the year #cbhe ,b4,c41 and that in the year #bge ,b4,c41 the solstice occurred on ,june #bg 7,julian71 while the heliacal rising of ,sirius took place1 as before1 on ,july #bj 7,julian71 so that in ,ptolemaic times1 at ,memphis1 there was a difference of time of about #bd days between the heliacal rising of ,sirius and the solstice1 and therefore the beginning of the ,nile flood in that part of the river4 ,this1 among other things1 is shown on the next page4 ,illustration3 ,,conditions ,,of ,,the ,,heliacal ,,rising ,,of ,,sirius ,,from #djjj ,b4,c4 ,,to #fjj ,a4,d4 ,the diagram shows 7#a7 by white horizontal lines the ,gregorian and ,julian dates for the rising at ,thebes and at ,memphis2 7#b7 by the full diagonal line the ,julian date of the solstice or beginning of the inundation in each century1 at a point of the river near ,memphis4 ,the fainter lines show the ,julian dates for other places where the time of the beginning of the flood differs by three days from the ,memphis dates4 ,the interval between each line represents a difference of three days in the arrival of the flood2 7#c7 the interval in days between the heliacal rising and the inundation at different periods and at different points of the river4 ,this can be determined for each century by noticing the interval between the proper diagonal line and that indicating the heliacal rising2 7#d7 by dots at the top of the diagram the commencement of the ,sothic period as determined by ,oppolzer1 ,biot1 and the author4 ,we learn from the work of ,biot and ,oppolzer1 then1 that the precessional movement of the star caused successive heliacal risings of ,sirius at the solstice to be separated by almost exactly #cfe days--that is1 by a greater period than the length of the true year4 ,so that1 in relation to this star1 two successive heliacal risings at the #ast of ,thoth vague are represented by a period of 7#cfe #d 7 #adfa years1 while in the case of the solstices we want #aejf4 ,now in books on ,egyptology the period of #adfa years is termed the ,sothic period1 and truly so1 as it very nearly correctly measures the period elapsing between two heliacal risings at the solstice 7or the beginning of the ,nile flood7 on the #ast of ,thoth in the vague year4 ,but it is merely the result of chance that #cfe #d represents it4 ,it was not then known that the precessional movement of ,sirius almost exactly made up the difference between the true length of the year and the assumed length of #cfe days4 ,it has been stated that this period had not any ancient existence1 but was calculated back in later times4 ,this seems to me very improbable4 ,i look upon it rather as a true result of observation1 the more so as the period was shortened in later times1 as ,oppolzer has shown4 ,it will be seen that our investigations land us in several astronomical questions of the greatest interest1 and that the study is one in which modern computations1 with the great accuracy which the work of ,leverrier and others gives to them1 can come to the rescue1 and eke out the scantiness of the ancient records4 ,to consider the subject further1 we must pass from the mere question of the year to that of chronology generally4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,sothic ,,cycle ,,and ,,the ,,use ,,made ,,of ,,it4 ,although it is necessary to enter somewhat into the domain of chronology to really understand the astronomical observations on which the ,egyptian year depended and the uses made of the year1 ,i shall limit myself to the more purely astronomical part4 ,to go over the already vast literature is far from my intention1 nor is it necessary to attempt to settle all the differences of opinion which exist1 and which are so ably referred to by ,krall in his masterly analysis1#gc to which ,i own myself deeply indebted4 ,the tremendously involved state of the problem may be gathered from the fact that the authorities are not yet decided whether many of the dates met with in the inscriptions really belong to a fixed or a vague year6 ,let us1 rather1 put ourselves in the place of the old ,egyptians1 and inquire how1 out of the materials they had at hand1 a calendar could be constructed in the simplest way4 ,they had the vague year and the ,sirius year1 so related1 as we have seen1 that the successive coincidences of the #ast ,thoth in both years took place after an interval of #adfj years4 ,now1 for calendar purposes1 they wanted not only to know the days of the years1 but the years of the cycle4 ,this latter is the only point we need consider here4 ,how were they to do this8 ,the easiest way would be to conceive a great year or annus magnus1 consisting of #adfj years1 each day of which would represent four years in actual time2 and further1 to consider everything that happened1 which had to be thus chronicled1 to take place on the #ast of ,thoth in each year4 ,how would this system work8 ,during the first four years1 at the beginning of a cycle1 the #ast ,thoth vague would happen on the #ast ,thoth of the cycle4 ,during the next four years the #ast ,thoth of the vague year would fall on the fifth epact1 and so on2 so1 as the cycle swept onward1 each group of four years would be marked by a date in the cycle1 which would allow the place of the group of years in the cycle to be exactly defined4 ,but as the cycle swept onward1 the date would sweep backward among the months of the great sacred year until its end4 ,to make this clear1 it will be well to construct another diagram somewhat like the former one4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,the #a,,st ,,of ,,thoth 7,,representing ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,sirius7 ,,among ,,the ,,egyptian ,,months ,,in ,,the #adfj-,,year ,,sothic ,,cycle4 ,let us map out the #adfj years which elapsed between two successive coincidences between the #ast of ,thoth in the vague year and the heliacal rising of ,sirius at the solstice1 so that we can see at a glance the actual number of years from any start-point 7 #j7 at which the #ast of ,thoth in the vague year occurred successively further and further from the heliacal rising1 until at length1 after a period of #adfj years1 it coincided again4 ,as the ,sirius-year is longer than the vague one1 the first vague year will be completed before the first ,sirius-year1 hence the second vague year will commence just before the end of the fixed year1 and that is the reason ,i have reversed the order of months in the diagram4 ,now it is clear that1 if the ,egyptians really worked in this fashion1 the date of the heliacal rising of ,sirius1 given in this way1 would enable us to determine the number of years which had elapsed from the beginning of the cycle4 ,this calendar system1 it will be seen1 is good only for groups of four years4 ,now1 a system which went no further than this would be a very coarse one4 ,we find1 however1 that special precautions were taken to define which year of the four was in question1 and the fact that this was done goes some way to support the suggestion ,i have made4 ,brugsch1#gd indeed1 shows that a special sign was employed to mark the first year of each series of four4 ,next1 as a matter of fact it is known 7,i have the high authority of ,dr4 ,krall for the statement7 that each king was supposed to begin his reign on the #ast ,thoth 7or #ast ,pachons7 of the particular year in which that event took place1 and the fact that this was so further supports the suggestion we are considering4 ,during the reign its length and the smaller events might be recorded in vague years and days so long as the date of its commencement had been referred to a cycle4 ,the diagram will show how readily the cycle year can be determined for any vague year4 ,if1 for instance1 the #ast ,thoth in the vague year falls on #a ,tybi of the cycle1 we see that #ihj years must have elapsed since the beginning of the cycle1 and so on4 ,here1 then1 we have a true calendar system4 ,if the ,egyptians had not this1 what had they8 ,dealing1 then1 with the matter so far as we have gone1 we find that the system suggested enabled the place of the beginning of each vague year and of each king's reign to be dated in terms of the cycle of #adfj years2 and further that1 if they had not such a system as this1 they had no means of recording any lapse of time which exceeded a year4 ,it is not likely that any nation would put itself in such a position1 least of all the ancient ,egyptians4 ,the existence of periods of #cfe years and of #abj years among the ,egyptians is easily explained when the existence of this great year is recognised2 the #cfe years' period1 marking approximately the intervals from solstice to equinox and equinox to solstice1 in the natural year4 ,let us next try to get a little further by assuming the supposed method of dating to have been actually employed1 and finding the year of the beginning of one or more of these cycles thus obtained4 ,this should eventually help us to determine whether or not the ,egyptians acted on this principle1 or used one widely different4 ,in such an investigation as this1 however1 we are terribly hampered by the uncertainty of ,egyptian dates2 while1 as ,i have said before1 there is great divergence of opinion among ,egyptologists as to whether1 from very early times1 there was not a true fixed year4 ,but let us suppose that the vague year was in common use as a civil year1 and that the rising of ,sirius started the year2 then1 if we can get any accepted date to work with1 and use the diagram to see how many years had elapsed between that date and the start-point of the cycle1 we shall see if there be any cyclical relation2 and if we find it1 it will be evidence1 so far as it goes1 of the existence not only of a vague year1 but of the mode of reckoning we are discussing4 ,now it so happens that there are three references1 with dates given1 to the rising of ,sirius in widely different times2 and1 curiously enough1 the month references are nearly the same4 ,i begin with the most recent1 as in this case the date can be fixed with the greater certainty4 ,it is an inscription at ,phil1 described by ,brugsch 7p4 #hg71 who states that1 when it was written1 the #ast of ,thoth #bhth of ,epiphi4 ,that is1 according to the view we are considering1 the heliacal rising of ,sirius--that is1 the #ast ,thoth of the vague year fell on the #bhth ,epiphi of our cycle4 ,he fixes the date of the inscription between #abg and #aag ,b4,c4 ,let us take it as #abb4 ,next1 referring to our diagram to find how many years had elapsed since the beginning of the cycle1 we have-- ,days4 #e ,epacts4 #cj ,mesori4 #b ,epiphi4 #cg #d #adh years elapsed4 ,the cycle1 then1 began in 7#aah #abb 7 #bgj ,b4,c4 ,we next find a much more ancient inscription recording the rising of ,sirius on the #bhth of ,epiphi4 ,obviously1 if the ,sothic cycle had anything to do with the matter1 this must have happened #adeh years earlier1 i4e41 about 7#adeh #abb 7 #aehj ,b4,c4 ,under which king8 ,thothmes ,,iii41 who reigned1 according to ,lepsius1 #afjc-aefe ,b4,c42 according to ,brugsch1 #afbe-aegg4 ,now1 the inscription in question is stated to have been inscribed by ,thothmes ,,iii41 and1 it may be added1 on the temple 7now destroyed7 at ,elephantine4 ,there is yet another inscription1 also known to be of a still earlier period1 referring to the rising of ,sirius on the #bgth of ,epiphi4 ,we may neglect the difference of one day in the cycle 7representing four years72 and again1 if the use of the ,sothic cycle were the origin of the identity of dates1 we have this time1 according to ,oppolzer1 a period of #adfj years to add3 this gives us 7#aehj #adfj 7 #cjdj ,b4,c4 ,again under which king8 ,here we are face to face with one of the difficulties of these inquiries1 to which reference has already been made4 ,it may be stated1 however1 that the inscription is ascribed to ,pepi1 and that1 according to various authorities1 that king reigned some time between #cjjj and #cgjj ,b4,c4 ,we come1 then1 to this3 that one of the oldest dated inscriptions known seems to belong to a system which continued in use at ,phil up to about #ajj ,b4,c41 and it was essentially a system of a vague year1 the #ast ,thoths of which were represented as days on a #adfj-years' cycle4 ,now1 assuming that the approximate date of the earliest inscription is #cjdd ,b4,c41 and that it represented the heliacal rising of ,sirius on the #bgth of ,epiphi1 the year #cjdd must have been the 7#e #cj #c7 x #d #aebnd after the beginning of the cycle4 ,the cycle1 then1 must have commenced 7#cjdd #aeb 7 #caif ,b4,c4 ,if we assume that the real date of ,pepi1 who1 it is stated1 reigned #ajj years1 included the year #cjdd ,b4,c41 it may be1 then1 that the inscriptions to which ,i have directed attention give us three ,sothic cycles beginning-- #abb #adh #bgj ,b4,c4 #aehj #adh #agbh ,b4,c4 #cjdd #adh #caib ,b4,c4 ,according to ,biot's calculation1 the first heliacal rising of ,sirius at the solstice took place in the year #cbhe ,b4,c42 it is possible1 then1 that the ,egyptians utilised this heliacal rising within a hundred years of the date on which it would have been first possible for them to do so4 ,this shows how keenly alive they were in these matters1 and also1 ,i think1 that they had been trained by watching some other star previously4 ,it would also follow that the vague year was in common use4 ,there is ample evidence to show1 however1 that by this time the priests were fully acquainted with the true year1 which was called the sacred year1 and that every four years an additional epact was interpolated4 ,their solar temples1 then1 at last had been utilised4 ,one argument which has been used to show that a vague year was not in use during the time of the ,ramessids has been derived from some inscriptions at ,silsilis which refer to the dates on which sacred offerings were presented there to the ,nile-god4 ,as the dates #aeth of ,thoth and #aeth of ,epiphi are the same in all three inscriptions1 although they cover the period from ,rameses ,,ii4 to ,rameses ,,iii4--#abj years--it has been argued by ,brugsch that a fixed year is in question4 ,brugsch points out that the two dates are separated by #fe days2 that this is the exact interval between the ,coptic festivals of the commencement of the flow and the marriage of the ,nile--the time of highest water2 and that1 therefore1 in all probability these are the two natural phenomena to commemorate which the offerings on the dates in question were made4 ,but ,brugsch does not give the whole of the inscription4 ,a part of it1 translated by ,de ,roug1#ge runs thus3-- ,i 7the king7 know what is said in the dept of the writings which are in the ,house of the ,books4 ,the ,nile emerges from its fountains to give the fulness of life-necessaries to the gods1 etc4 ,de ,roug justly remarks3 ,le langage singulier que tient le ,pharaon ddicateur pourrait mme faire souponner qu'il ne s'agit pas de la venue effective de l'eau sainte du ,nil l'une des deux dates prcites4 ,krall 7loc4 cit41 p4 #ea7 adds the following interesting remarks3-- ,consider1 now1 what these ',scriptures of the ,house of ,life' were like4 ,in a catalogue of books from the temple of ,edf we find1 besides a series of purely religious writings1 ',the knowledge of the periodical recurrence of the double stars 7sun and moon71' and the ',law of the periodical recurrence of the stars4' 444 ,the knowledge embodied in these writings dated from the oldest times of the ,egyptian empire1 in which the priests placed1 rightly or wrongly1 the origin of all their sacred rolls 7cf4 ,manetho's ,history1 p4#acj74 ,now1 to investigate this question we have to approach some considerations which at first sight may seem to be foreign to our subject4 ,i shall be able to show1 however1 that this is not so4 ,imprimis we must remember that it is a question of ,silsilis1 where we know1 both from tradition and geological evidence1 in ancient times the first cataract was encountered4 ,the phrase the ,nile emerges from its fountains would be much more applicable to ,silsilis1 the seat of a cataract1 than as it is at present4 ,we do not know when the river made its way through this impediment1 but we do know that after it took place and the ,nile stream was cleared as far as the cataract that still remains at ,elephantine1 a nilometer was erected there1 and that during the whole of later ,egyptian history1 at all events1 the time of the rise of the river has been carefully recorded both there and at ,rda4 ,from this it is fair to infer that in those more ancient times the same thing took place at ,silsilis2 if this were so1 the reason of the record of the coming of the inundation at ,silsilis is not far to seek1 and hence the suggestion lies on the surface that the records in question may state the date of the arrival in relation to ,memphis time4 ,it has been rendered1 ,i hope1 quite clear in ,chapter ,,xxiii4 that there is a difference of fifteen or sixteen days between the arrival of the inundation at ,elephantine and at ,memphis4 ,hence1 if in ,pepi's time a ,nile rise were observed at ,silsilis1 there might easily be a difference of fifteen days between the rise of the ,nile at ,silsilis and the ,memphic #ast of ,thoth4 ,if both at ,silsilis and ,memphis the ,nile rise marked #ast ,thoth1 the day of the rise at ,memphis would correspond to #aeth ,thoth at ,silsilis1 so that a king reaching ,silsilis with ,memphis local time would be struck with this difference1 and anxious to record it4 ,may not this1 then1 have been the important datum recorded in the sacred books8 ,if so1 it would not touch the question of the fixed or vague year at all4 ,let it1 then1 be for the present conceded that there was a vague year1 and that at least some of the inscriptions which suggest the use of only a fixed year in these early times may be explained in another way4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,calendar ,,and ,,its ,,revision4 ,in the last chapter the so-called ,sothic cycle was discussed1 and dates of the commencement of the successive cycles were suggested4 ,these dates were arrived at by taking the very simplest way of writing a calendar in pre-temple times1 and using the calendar inscriptions in the most natural way4 ,the dates for the coincidence of the heliacal rising of ,sirius and the #ast ,thoth of the vague year at1 or near1 the solstice1 were-- #bgj ,b4,c4 #agbh ,b4,c4 #caib ,b4,c4 ,here1 in limine1 we meet with a difficulty which1 if it cannot be explained1 evidently proves that the ,egyptians did not construct and use their calendar in the way we have supposed4 ,we have it on the authority of ,censorinus that a ,sothic period was completed in #aci ,a4,d41 and that there was then a vague year in partial use4 ,it is here that the work of ,oppolzer is of such high value to us2 he discussed all the statements made by ,censorinus1 and comes to the conclusion that his account is to be depended upon4 ,it has followed from the inquiries of chronologists that in this year the #ast of ,thoth took place on ,july #bj 7,julian71 the date originally of the heliacal rising of ,sirius1 the beginning of the year4 ,this being so1 then1 in the year #bc ,a4,d4--in which the ,alexandrine reform of the calendar1 of which more presently1 was introduced--the #ast of ,thoth would take place on ,august #bi1 a very important date4 ,censorinus also said that in his own time 7,a4,d4 #bch7 the #ast of ,thoth of the vague year fell on ,june #be4 ,the diagram will show the connection of these three dates in reference to the vague year4 ,the relations of the statements made as to the years #aci and #bch are very clearly discussed by ,prof4 ,oppolzer4 ,illustration3 ,,julian ,,dates ,,of ,,the #a,,st ,,of ,,thoth 7,,vague7 ,,from #bc ,a4,d4 ,,and #bdj ,a4,d4 ,oppolzer1 then1 being satisfied as to the justice of taking the year #aci ,a4,d4 as a time of coincidence of the fixed and vague years--the latter being determined alone by the heliacal rising of ,sirius1 and1 be it remembered1 not by the solstices--calculated with great fulness1 using ,leverrier's modern values1 the years in which1 in the various ,egyptian latitudes1 chiefly taking ,memphis 7lat4 #cj7 and ,thebes 7lat4 #be71 the coincidence between the two ,thoths occurred in the previous periods of ,egyptian history4 ,he finds these dates for latitude #cj as follow3-- ,julian year4 ,historical year4#gf #j -#dbce -#dbcf #a -#bggd -#bgge #b -#acaf -#acag #c #aci #aci #d #aeia #aeia #e #cjci #cjci ,now1 the date which ,oppolzer gives for the coincidence which is nearest the date we had previously determined at #bgj ,b4,c4 is #aci ,a4,d4 ,there is a difference of #dji years4 ,the question is1 ,can this fundamental difference be explained8 ,i think it can4 ,in the first place1 it is beyond doubt that1 in the interval between the ,ramessids and the ,ptolemies1 the calendar1 even supposing the vague year to have been used and to have been retained1 had been fundamentally altered1 and the meanings of the hieroglyphics of the tetramenes had been changed--in other words1 the designations of the three seasons had been changed4 ,on this point ,i quote ,krall#gg3-- ,it is well known that the interpretation of the seasons and the months given by ,champollion was opposed by ,brugsch1 who propounded another1 which is now universally adopted by experts4 ,something has happened here which is often repeated in the course of ,egyptian history--the signs have changed their meaning4 ,under the circumstance that the vague year during #adfa years wanders through the seasons in a great cycle1 it is natural that the signs for the tetramenes should have changed their significations in the course of millenniums4 ,while ,thoth was the first month of the inundation in the documents of the ,thutmosids and ,ramessids1 we have in the time of the ,ptolemies the month ,pachons as the first month of the flood season4 ,whilst ,brugsch's explanation is valid for the time of the ,ramessids1 it is not so for that of the ,ptolemies1 to which ,champollion's view is applicable4 ,the signs used for the tetramenes are supposed to represent water1 a field with growing plants1 and a barn2 the natural order would be that the first should represent the inundation1 the second the sowing which succeeds it1 and the last harvest-time4 ,if this be conceded1 the initial system would have had the month ,thoth connected with the water sign1 as ,thoth in early ,egyptian times was the first inundation month4 ,but in the times of the ,ramessids even this is not so4 ,thoth has the sowing sign assigned to it4 ,in the time of the ,ptolemies the ,hood is no longer in ,thoth1 but in ,pachons1 and ,pachons has the barn sign attached to it1 while the month ,thoth is marked by the water sign1 thereby bringing back the hypothetical relation between the name of the month and the sign1 although1 as we have seen1 ,thoth is no longer the flood month4 ,egyptologists declare that all1 or at least part1 of this change took place between the periods named2 they are undoubtedly justified as regards a part4 ,at one point in this interval we are fortunately supplied with some precise information4 ,in the year #bch ,b4,c4 a famous decree was published1 variously called the decree of ,canopus and the decree of ,tanis1 since it was inscribed on a stone found there4 ,it is perfectly clear that one of the functions of this decree was to change1 or to approve an already made change in1 the designation of the season or tetramene in which the inundation commenced1 from ,thoth to ,pachons4 ,another function was to establish a fixed year1 as we shall see presently4 ,we must assume1 then1 that a vague year was in vogue prior to the decree4 ,now the decree tells us that at its date the heliacal rising of ,sirius took place on #a ,payni4 ,assuming that this date had any relation to the system we have been considering1 the cycle to which it belonged must have begun ,days4 #e ,epacts #cj ,mesori #cj ,epiphi #cj ,payni #ie #d #chj years previously--that is1 in the year #fah ,b4,c4 ,here at first sight it would seem that the ,sothic cycles we have been considering have no relation to the one now in question2 for1 according to my view1 the last ,sothic cycle began in #agbh ,b4,c4 ,a little consideration1 however1 will lead to the contrary view1 and show that the time about #fjj ,b4,c4 was very convenient for a revision of the calendar4 ,in the first place1 nearly a month now elapsed between the coming of the flood and the heliacal rising2 and in the second1 by making the year for the future to begin with the flood1 a change might be made involving tetramenes only4 ,thus1 commencement of cycle #agbh ,b4,c4 ,epacts #e ,two tetramenes #bdj ,month between flood and rising of ,sirius #cjgh ------ #bge #d #aajj -------- #fbh ,b4,c4 ,nor is this all4 ,a very simple diagrammatic statement will #agbh ,b4,c4 ,thoth ,phaophi ,hieroglyph ,athyr ,choiach ,tybi ,menchir ,hieroglyph ,phamenoth ,pharmuti ,pachons ,payni ,hieroglyph ,epiphi ,mesori show what might also have happened about #fah ,b4,c4 if a reformer of the calendar 7and one especially of conservative tendencies7 appeared upon the scene1 who believed that the ancient sign for the inundation-tetramene was the water sign1 and that the ancient name was ,thoth4 ,finding the cycle beginning in #agbh ,b4,c4 with the signs as shown above-- ,b4,c4 #fah ,thoth ,phaophi ,hieroglyph ,athyr ,choiach ,tybi ,menchir ,hieroglyph ,phamenoth ,pharmuti ,pachons ,payni ,hieroglyph ,epiphi ,mesori when starting fresh1 he would seize the opportunity of effecting a change1 not only by dealing with a tetramene1 but he would change the names of the tetramenes allocated to the signs2 as ,krall remarks1 it was almost merely a question of a change of the sign6 ,it really was more1 because the new tetramene began with the flood4 ,assuming this1 we can see exactly what was done in #bch ,b4,c41 i4e41 about #chj years later4 ,we have seen that the #chj years is made up of #e ,epacts #cj ,mesori #cj ,epiphi #cj ,payni #ie #d #chj --the heliacal rising of ,sirius occurring on #a ,payni1 having swept backwards along the months in the manner already explained4 ,we had1 to continue the diagrammatic treatment-- ,b4,c4 #bch ,pachons ,payni ,hieroglyph ,epiphi ,mesori ,thoth ,phaophi ,hieroglyph ,athyr ,choiach c4 ,to sum up1 so far as we have gone1 we have the three inscriptions at ,phil1 ,elephantine and the still more ancient one of ,pepi 7871 indicating on the simple system we have suggested beginnings of ,sothic cycles on the #ast ,thoth about the years #bgj #agbh ,b4,c4 #caib ,on the other hand1 we have the decree of ,canopus1 giving us by exactly the same system a local revision of the calendar about #fjj ,b4,c4 ,i say about #fjj ,b4,c4 because it must be remembered that a difference of #b days in the phenomena observed will make a difference of #aj years in the date1 and we do not know in what part of the valley the revision took place1 and therefore at what precise time in relation to the heliacal rising the ,nile-rise was observed4 ,whenever presumably it took place1 ,new ,year's ,day was reckoned by the ,flood1 and the rising of ,sirius followed nearly1 if not quite1 a month afterwards4 ,the equivalent of the old #ast ,thoth was therefore #a ,payni4 ,in months1 then1 the old #ast ,thoth was separated from the new one 7 #a ,payni7 by three months 7,payni1 ,mesori1 ,epiphi7 and the ,epacts4 ,in this way1 we can exactly account for the difference of #dji years referred to above as the dates assigned by ,censorinus and myself for the beginning of the ,sirius cycle4 ,difference between #bgj and #bci #ca years4 #c months #ij days #d #cfj #e epacts #d #bj #daa ,the difference of two years is equal only to half a day6 ,it seems1 then1 pretty clear from this that the suggestion ,i have ventured to make on astronomical grounds may be worth consideration on the part of ,egyptologists4 ,if our inquiries have really led us to the true beginnings of the ,sothic periods1 it is obvious that those who informed ,censorinus that the year #aci ,a4,d4 was the end of a cycle omitted to tell him what we now can learn from the decree of ,tanis4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,fixed ,,year ,,and ,,festival ,,calendars4 ,the reformation of the ,egyptian calendar1 to be gathered1 as ,i suggested in the last chapter1 from the decree of ,tanis1 is not1 however1 the point to which reference is generally made in connection with the decree4 ,the attempt recorded by it to get rid of the vague year is generally dwelt on4 ,although the system of reckoning which was based on the vague year had advantages with which it has not been sufficiently credited1 undoubtedly it had its drawbacks4 ,the tetramenes1 with their special symbolism of flood-1 seed-1 and harvest-time1 had apparently all meant each in turn2 however the meanings of the signs were changed1 the winter season occurred in this way in the height of summer1 the sowing-time when the whole land was inundated and there was no land to plant1 and so on4 ,each festival1 too1 swept through the year4 ,still1 it is quite certain that information was given by the priests each year in advance1 so that agriculture did not suffer2 for if this had not been done1 the system1 instead of dying hard1 as it did1 would have been abolished thousands of years before4 ,before ,i proceed to state shortly what happened with regard to the fixing of the year1 it will be convenient here to state a suggestion that has occurred to me1 on astronomical grounds1 with regard to the initial change of sign4 ,it is to be noted that in the old tables of the months1 instead of ,sirius leading the year1 we have ,tei with the two feathers of ,amen4 ,in later times this is changed to ,sirius4 ,i believe it is generally acknowledged that the month-table at the ,ramesseum is the oldest one we have2 there is a variant at ,edf4 ,they both run as follows1 and no doubt they had their origin when a #ast ,thoth coincided with an heliacal rising and ,nile flood4 ,egyptian month4,tropical month4 ,ramesseum4 ,edf4 #a4 ,thoth ,june-,july ,tei ,tei #b4 ,phaophi ,july-,aug4 ,ptah 7,ptah-res-aneb-f7,ptah ,men #c4 ,athyr ,aug4-,sep4 ,hathor 8 #d4 ,choiach ,sep4-,oct4 ,pat ,kehek #e4 ,tybi ,oct4-,nov4 ,min ,set-but #f4 ,menchir ,nov4-,dec4 ,jackal 7rekh-ur7 ,hippopotamus 7rekh-ur7 #g4 ,phamenoth ,dec4-,jan4 7rekh-netches7 ,hippopotamus 7rekh-netches7 #h4 ,pharmuthi ,jan4-,feb4 ,rennuti ,renen #i4 ,pachons ,feb4-,mar4 ensu ensu #aj4 ,payni ,mar4-,ap4 ,horus 7onti7 ,horus 7,hor-ent-ati7 #aa4 ,epiphi ,ap4-,may ,apet ,apet #ab4 ,mesori ,may-,june ,horus 7,hor-m-ut7 ,horus 7,hor-ra-m-ut7 ,i am informed that ,tei1 in the above month-list1 has some relation to ,thoth4 ,in the early month-list the goddess is represented with the two feathers of ,amen1 and in this early stage ,i fancy we can recognise her as ,amen-t2 but in later copies of the table the symbol is changed to that of ,sirius4 ,this1 then1 looks like a change of cult depending upon the introduction of a new star--that is1 a star indicating by its heliacal rising the ,nile-rise after the one first used had become useless for such a purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,month-,,table ,,at ,,the ,,ramesseum4 ,i have said that the ,ramesseum month-list is probably the oldest one we have4 ,it is considered by some to date only from ,rameses ,,ii41 and to indicate a fixed year2 such1 however1 is not ,krall's opinion4#gi ,he writes3-- ,the latest investigations of ,dmichen show that the calendar of ,mednet-,hab is only a copy of the original composed under ,ramses ,,ii4 about #abj years before4444 ,but the true original of the calendar of ,mednet-,hab does not even date from the time of ,ramses ,,ii4 ,it is known to every ,egyptologist how little the time of the ,ramessids produced what was truly original1 how much just this time restricted itself to a reproduction of the traditions of previous generations4 ,in the calendar of ,mednet-,hab we have 7p4 #dh7 not a fixed year instituted under ,ramses ,,ii41 but the normal year of the old time1 the vague year1 as it was1 to use ,dschewhari's words quoted above 7p4 #heb7 in the first year of its institution1 the year as it was before the ,egyptians had made two unwelcome observations3 ,first1 that the year of #cfe days did not correspond to the reality1 but shifted by one day in four years with regard to the seasons2 secondly--which1 of course1 took a much longer time--that the rising of ,sirius ceased to coincide with the beginning of the ,nile flood4 ,we are led to the same conclusion by a consideration of the festivals given in the calendar of ,mednet-,hab4 ,they are almost without exception the festivals which we have found in our previous investigation of the calendars of ,esne and ,edf to be attached to the same days4 ,we know already the ,uaya festival of the #agth and #ahth ,thoth1 the festival of ,hermes of the #aith ,thoth1 the great feast of ,amen beginning on the #aith ,paophi1 the ,osiris festivals of the last decade of ,choiak1 and that of the coronation of ,horuz on the #ast ,tybi4 ,festivals somehow differing from the ancient traditions and general usage are unknown in the calendar of ,mednet-,hab1 and it is just such festivals which have enabled us to trace fixed years in the calendars of ,edf and ,esne4 ,we are as little justified in considering the mythologico-astronomical representations and inscriptions on the graves of the time of the ,ramessids as founded on a fixed year1 as we can do this in the case of the ,mednet-,hab calendar4 ,in this the astronomical element of the calendar is quite overgrown by the mythological4 ,not only was the daily and yearly course of the sun a most important event for the ,egyptian astronomer1 but the priest also had in his sacred books many mythological records concerning the god ,r1 which had to be taken into account in these representations4 ,the mythological ideas dated from the oldest periods of ,egyptian history2 we shall therefore be obliged1 for their explanation1 not to remain in the thirteenth or fourteenth century before ,christ1 but to ascend into previous centuries4 ,i should think about the middle of the fourth millennium before ,christ1 that is the time at which the true original of the ,mednet-,hab calendar was framed4 ,further1 we must in these mythological and astronomical representations not overlook the fact that we cannot expect them to show mathematical accuracy--that1 on the contrary1 if that is a consideration1 we must proceed with the greatest caution4 ,we know now how inexact were the representations and texts of tombs1 especially where the ,egyptian artist could suppose that no human eye would inspect his work2 we also know how often representations stop short for want of room1 and how much the contents were mutilated for the sake of symmetry4 ,sirian1 ,pre-,sirian #caib ,b4,c4 ,tei ,thoth ,phaophi ,hieroglyph ,athyr ,choiach ,thoth ,tybi ,phaophi ,menchir ,hieroglyph ,athyr ,phamenoth ,choiach ,pharmuthi ,tybi ,pachons ,menchir ,payni ,hieroglyph ,phamenoth ,epiphi ,pharmuthi ,mesori ,pachons ,payni ,epiphi ,mesori ,,syrian ,,and ,,pre-,,syrian ,,tetramene-,,signs4 ,there is also1 as ,i have indicated1 temple evidence that ,sirius was not the first star utilised as a herald of sunrise4 ,we have1 then1 this possibility to explain the variation from the true meaning of the signs in ,ramessid times4 ,and it may be gathered from this that the calendar was reorganised#hj when the ,sirius worship came in1 and that the change effected in #fai ,b4,c4 brought the hieroglyphic signs back to their natural meaning and first use4 ,the whole story of calendar revision may1 therefore1 possibly have been as follows3-- ,illustration3 ,each group of four linked to a ,hieroglyph ,pre-,sirian ,tei ,thoth ,phaophi ,athyr ,choiach ,tybi ,menchir ,phamenoth ,pharmuthi ,pachons ,payni ,epiphi ,mesori ,sirian1 #caib ,b4,c4 #ast4 ,cycle ,thoth ,phaophi ,athyr ,choiach ,tybi ,menchir ,phamenoth ,pharmuthi ,pachons ,payni ,epiphi ,mesori #bnd4 ,cycle4 #agbh ,b4,c4 ,thoth ,phaophi ,athyr ,choiach ,tybi ,menchir ,phamenoth ,pharmuthi ,pachons ,payni ,epiphi ,mesori ,b4,c4 #fah ,thoth ,phaophi ,athyr ,choiach ,tybi ,menchir ,phamenoth ,pharmuthi ,pachons ,payni ,epiphi ,mesori ,b4,c4 #bch ,pachons ,payni ,epiphi ,mesori ,thoth ,phaophi ,athyr ,choiach c4 ,the revision of #fah ,b4,c4 was not universally accepted1 so from that time onward there was an old and a new style in force4 ,before ,i pass on1 it may be convenient1 in connection with the above month-tables1 to refer in the briefest way to the mythology relating to the yearly movement of the sun1 in order to show that when this question is considered at all1 if it helps us with regard to the mythology connected with the rising and setting of stars1 it will as assuredly help us with regard to the mythology of the various changes which occur throughout the year4 ,we have1 as we have seen1 in the ,egyptian year really the prototype of our own4 ,the ,egyptians1 thousands of years ago1 had an almost perfect year containing twelve months2 but1 instead of four seasons1 they had three--the time of the sowing1 the time of the harvest1 and the time of the inundation4 ,unfortunately1 at various times in ,egyptian history1 the symbols for the tetramenes seem to have got changed4 ,the above-given inscriptions show that they had a distinct symbolism for each of the months4 ,gods or goddesses are given for ten months out of the twelve1 and where we have not these we have the hippopotamus 7or the pig7 and the jackal1 two circumpolar constellations4 ,i think there is no question that we are dealing here with these constellations1 though the figures have been supposed to represent something quite different4 ,there are also myths and symbols of the twelve changes during the twelve hours of the day2 the sun being figured as a child at rising1 as an old man when setting in the evening4 ,these ideas were also transferred to the annual motion of the sun4 ,in ,macrobius1 as quoted by ,krall1 we find the statement that the ,egyptians compared the yearly course of the sun also with the phases of human life4 ,little child ,winter ,solstice4 ,young man ,spring ,equinox4 ,bearded man ,summer ,solstice4 ,old man ,autumnal ,equinox4 ,with the day of the ,summer ,solstice the sun reaches the greatest northern rising amplitude1 and at the ,winter ,solstice its greatest southern amplitude4 ,by the solstices the year is divided into two approximately equal parts2 during one the points of rising move southwards1 during the other northwards4 ,this phenomenon1 it is stated1 was symbolised by the two eyes of ,r1 the so-called ,utchats1 which look in different directions4 ,they appear as representing the sun in the two halves of the year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have next to discuss the fixed year1 to which the ,egyptian chronologists were finally driven in later ,egyptian times4 ,the decree of ,tanis was the true precursor of the ,julian correction of the calendar4 ,in consequence of this correction we now add a day every four years to the end of ,february4 ,the decree regulated the addition1 by the ,egyptians1 of a day every four years by adding a day to the epacts1 which were thus six every four years instead of being always five1 as they had been before4 ,in fact1 it replaced the vague year by the sacred year long known to the priests4 ,but if everything had gone on then as the priests of ,tanis imagined1 the ,egyptian ,new ,year's ,day1 if determined by the heliacal rising of ,sirius1 would not always afterwards have been the #ast of ,payni1 although the solstice and ,nile flood would have been clue at ,memphis about the #ast of ,pachons2 and this is1 perhaps1 one among the reasons why the decree was to a large extent ignored4 ,hence1 for some years after the date of the decree of ,tanis1 there were at least three years in force--the new fixed year1 the new vague year1 reckoning from ,pachons1 and the old vague year1 reckoning from ,thoth4 ,but after some years another attempt was made to get rid of all this confusion4 ,the time was #bc ,b4,c41 #baf years after the decree of ,tanis1 and the place was ,alexandria4 ,hence the new fixed year introduced is termed the ,alexandrine year4 ,this new attempt obviously implied that the first one had failed2 and the fact that the vague year was continued in the interval is sufficiently demonstrated by the fact that the new year was #bafd #ed days en retard4 ,in the year of ,tanis it is stated that the #ast ,pachons1 the new ,new ,year's ,day1 the real beginning of the ,hood1 fell on the #aith of ,june 7,gregorian71 the ,summer ,solstice1 and hence the #ast of ,thoth fell on the #bbnd of ,october 7,gregorian74 ,in the ,alexandrine year the #bbnd of ,october is represented by the #bith of ,august1 and the #aith of ,june by the #bjth of ,april4 ,it is noteworthy that in the ,alexandrine year the heliacal rising of ,sirius on the #bcrd of ,july 7,julian7 falls on the #bith of ,epiphi1 nearly the same date as that to which ,i first drew attention in the inscriptions of the date of ,thothmes and ,pepi4 ,this1 however1 it is now clearly seen1 is a pure accident1 due to the break of continuity before the ,tanis year1 and the slip between that and the ,alexandrine one4 ,it is important to mention this1 because it has been thought that somehow the ,alexandrine year was in use in ,pepi's time4 ,it would seem that the ,alexandrine revision was final1 and that the year was truly fixed1 and from that time to this it has remained so1 and must in the future for ever remain so4 ,it must never be forgotten that we owe this perfection to the ,egyptian ,festival ,calendars4 ,one of the chief uses of the ,egyptian calendar that has come down to us was the arrangement and dating of the chief feasts throughout the year in the different temples4 ,the fact that the two great complete feast-calendars of ,edf and ,esne refer to the only fixed years evidenced by records--those of ,tanis and ,alexandria--one of which was established over #bjj years after the other1 is of inestimable value for the investigation of the calendar and chronology of ancient ,egypt4 ,in an excellent work of ,brugsch1 ,three ,festival ,calendars from the ,temple of ,apollinopolis ,magna 7,edf7 in ,upper ,egypt1 we have two calendars which we can refer to fixed years1 and can date with the greatest accuracy4 ,in the case of one of these1 that of ,esne1 this is universally recognised2 as to the other1 that of ,apollinopolis ,magna1 we are indebted to the researches of ,krall1 who points out1 however1 that it is only when the province of ,egyptian mythology has been dealt with in all directions that we can undertake a successful explanation of the festival catalogues4 ,even externally they show the greatest eccentricities1 which are not diminished1 but increased1 on a closer investigation4 ,about some points1 however1 there is no question4 ,the ,summer ,solstice is attached in the ,edf calendar to the #fth ,pachons1 according to ,krall1 while the beginning of the flood is noted on the #ast of that month4 ,in the ,esne calendar the #bfth ,payni is ,new ,year's ,day4 ,we read3--#bfth ,payni1 ,new ,year's ,day1 ,feast of the ,revelation of ,kahi in the ,temple4 ,to dress the crocodiles1 as in the month of ,menchir1 day #h4 ,peculiar to the ,esne calendar1 according to ,krall1 is the mentioning of the ,new ,years ,festival of the ,ancestors on the #ith of ,thoth2 to the ,edf calendar1 publication ,no4 #a of ,brugsch1 the festival of the offering of the first of the harvested fruits1 after the precept of ,king ,amenemha ,i41 on the #ast ,epiphi1 and the celebration of the feast of the ,great ,conflagration on the #ith of ,menchir4 ,in feast-calendar ,no4 #a1 the reference to the peculiar ,feast of ,set is also remarkable2 this was celebrated twice1 first in the first days of ,thoth 78 #ith71 then1 as it appears1 in ,pachons 7#ajth74 ,this feast is well known to have been first mentioned under the old ,pharaoh ,pepi ,merinr4 ,it is a question whether in the new year of the ancestors and the feasts of ,set1 all occurring about the #ith ,thoth and ,pachons1 we have not ,memphis festivals which gave way to ,theban ones2 for1 so far as ,i can make out1 the flood takes about nine days to pass from ,thebes to ,memphis1 so that in ,theban time the arrival of the flood at ,memphis would occur on #ith or #ajth ,thoth4 ,there is no difficulty about the second dating in ,pachons1 for1 as we have seen1 this followed on the reconstruction of the calendar4 ,it is also worthy of note that the feast of the ,great ,conflagration took place very near the ,spring ,equinox4 ,let us dwell for a moment on the ,edf inscriptions to see if we can learn from them whether or not they bear out the views brought forward with regard to this reconstruction4 ,as we have seen1 it is now acknowledged that the temple inscriptions at ,edf 7which are stated to have been cut between #aag and #ha ,b4,c4#ha7 are based upon the fixed year of ,tanis2 hence we should expect that the rising of ,sirius would be referred to on #a ,payni1 and this is so4 ,but here1 as in the other temples1 we get double dates referring to the old calendars1 and we find the wounding of ,set referred to on the #ast ,epiphi and the rising of ,sirius referred to under #a ,mesori4 ,now this means1 if the old vague year is referred to1 as it most probably is1 that #e ,epacts #cj ,mesori #ce #d #adj years had elapsed since the beginning of a ,sothic cycle1 when the calendar coincidences were determined1 which were afterwards inscribed on the temple walls4 ,we have1 then1 #adj years to subtract from the beginning of the cycle in #bgj ,b4,c4 ,this gives us #acj ,b4,c41 and it will be seen that this agrees as closely as can be expected with my view1 whereas the inscription has no meaning at all if we take the date given by ,censorinus4 ,i quote from ,krall#hb another inscription common to ,edf and ,esne1 which seems to have astronomical significance4 #a4 ,phamenoth4 ,festival of the suspension of the sky by ,ptah1 by the side of the god ,harschaf1 the master of ,heracleopolis ,magna 7,al74 ,festival of ,ptah4 ,feast of the suspension of the sky 7,es74 ,under the #ast ,phamenoth1 ,plutarch1 de ,iside et ,osiride1 c4 #dc1 b1 notices the 4 ,these are festivals connected with the celebration of the ,winter ,solstice1 and the filling of the ,uza-eye on the #cjth ,menchir4 ,perhaps the old year1 which the ,egyptians introduced into the ,nile valley at the time of their immigration1 and which had only #cfj days1 commenced with the ,winter ,solstice4 ,thus we should have in the 'festival of the suspension of the sky1' by the ancient god ,ptah--venerated as creator of the world--a remnant of the time when the ,winter ,solstice 444 marked the beginning of the year1 and also the creation4 ,the reconstruction of the calendar naturally enhanced the importance of the month ,pachons2 this comes out very clearly from the inscriptions translated by ,brugsch4 ,on this point ,krall remarks3-- ,it is1 therefore1 quite right that the month ,pachons1 which took the place of the old ,thoth by the decree of ,tanis1 should play a prominent part in the feast-calendars of the days of the ,ptolemies1 and the first period of the ,empire in general1 but especially in the ,edf calendar1 which refers to the ,tanitic year4 ,the first five days of ,pachons are dedicated in our calendar to the celebration of the subjection of the enemies by ,horus2 we at once remember the above-mentioned 7p4 #g7 record of ,edf of the nature of a mythological calendar1 describing the advent of the ,nile flood4 ,on the #fth of ,pachons--remember the great importance of the sixes in the ,ptoleman records--the solstice is then celebrated4 ,the ,uza-eye is then filled1 a mythical act which we have in another place referred to the celebration of the solstice1 and 'everything is performed which is ordained' in the book 'on the ,divine ,birth4' ,next let us turn to ,esne4 ,the inscriptions here are stated to be based on the ,alexandrine year1 but we not only find #ast ,thoth given as ,new ,year's ,day1 but #bf ,payni given as the beginning of the ,nile flood4 ,now ,i have1 already stated that the ,alexandrine year was practically a fixing of the vague ,tunis year--that is1 a year beginning on #ast ,pachons in #bci ,b4,c4 ,if we assume the date of the calendar coincidences recorded at ,esne to have been #ae ,b4,c4 7we know it was after #bc ,b4,c4 and at the end of the ,roman dominion71 we have as before1 seeing that1 if the vague ,tunis year had really continued1 it would have swept forward with regard to the ,nile flood1 ,pachons #cj ,payni #bf #ef #d #bbd years after #bci ,b4,c4 ,this double dating1 then1 proves the continuation of the vague year of ,tunis if the date #ae ,b4,c4 of the inscription is about right4 ,can we go further and find a trace of the old cycle beginning #bgj ,b4,c48 ,in this case we should have the rising of ,sirius #bgj - #ae #d7bee years #fd say1 five ,epacts and two months4 ,this would give us #a ,epiphi4 ,is this mentioned in the ,esne calendar8 ,yes1 it is1 #a ,epiphi4 ,to perform the precepts of the book on the second divine birth of the child ,kahi4 ,now the #bfth ,payni1 the new ,new ,year's ,day1 is associated with the revelation of ,kahi1 so it is not impossible that the second divine birth may have some dim reference to the feast4 ,it is not necessary to pursue this intricate subject further in this place2 so intricate is it that1 although the suggestions ,i have ventured to make on astronomical grounds seem consistent with the available facts1 they are suggestions only1 and a long labour on the part of ,egyptologists will be needed before we can be said to be on firm ground4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,mythology ,,of ,,isis ,,and ,,osiris4 ,a long parenthesis has been necessary in order to inquire fully into the yearly festivals of the ,egyptian priests1 the relation of the feasts to the rising of stars1 and the difficulties which arose from the fact that a true year was not in use till quite late4 ,it is now time to return to the subject-matter of ,chapters ,,xix4-,,xxii4 in order to show that since the goddesses chiefly worshipped at ,denderah and ,thebes were goddesses whose cult was associated with the year1 it is open to us to inquire whether we may not use the facts with which we are now familiar to obtain a general idea of that part of mythology which refers to them4 ,i will begin by taking a certain group of goddesses4 #a4 ,there is evidence that many of the goddesses under discussion personified stars in exactly the same way that ,isis personified ,sirius and ,mut ,draconis4--,if we leave ,denderah and ,thebes for the moment1 and consider the pyramid region of ,gzeh1 we find that the temples there1 which are associated with each of the pyramids1 are not oriented to ,sirius2 but yet they are temples of ,isis1 pointing due east2 therefore they could not have pointed to the same ,isis worshipped at ,denderah1 or the same ,hathor worshipped at ,thebes4 ,thus1 in the case of the temple of ,mut at ,thebes1 of ,isis at ,denderah1 and the temples of ,isis at the pyramids1 and in many towns facing ,east1 obviously different stars were in question1 whatever the mythology might have been4 ,illustration3 ,,black ,,granite ,,statue ,,of ,,sekhet ,,from ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,mut ,,at ,,thebes4 ,further1 it seems quite certain that the star symbolised as ,isis in the pyramid worship was the star ,antares 7,serk-t7 heralding the autumnal equinox1 and it is probable that the ,pleiades 7,nit7 were so used at the vernal equinox4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,goddess ,,taurt4 ,,the ,,goddess ,,serk-,t ,,or ,,selk-,t4 7,both with horns and disk47 #b4 ,there is evidence that many of the names of these goddesses are pure synonyms4--,that is to say1 we have the same goddess 7or the same star7 called different names in different places1 and associated with different animal emblems1 in consequence of the existence of different totems in different nomes4 ,i have already referred to the symbolism of the goddess ,mut4 ,in one form she is a hippopotamus2 in another she has a cow's horns and disk4 ,the temple of ,hathor at ,denderah was probably associated with the crocodile or the hippopotamus2 so that from the symbolism referred to we get the suggestion that the goddess ,mut was really the ,theban form of the goddess ,hathor at ,denderah4 ,there is another delineation which shows that even more clearly3 it is a drawing of the goddess with both the lion's and crocodile's head4 ,one of the most wonderful things to be seen at ,thebes is that marvellous collection of the statues of ,sechet in the temple of ,mut1 all of them lion-headed4 ,from evidence of this kind in addition to the temple inscriptions already referred to1 we get a clear indication of the fact that ,apet1 ,mut1 ,taurt1 ,sechet1 ,bast1 were the same goddess under different names1 and ,i may add that they1 in all probability1 symbolised the star ,draconis4 ,illustration3 ,,nit4 ,,nit 7,,another ,,form74 ,,bast4 #c4 ,all these goddesses have a special symbol4--,hathor wears the cow's head and the horns with the disk4 ,taurt1 the hippopotamus-goddess1 is also represented with horns and disk4 ,the horns and disk are also worn by ,serk-t1 ,sati and ,r-t1 the wife of the sun-god ,r2 many other goddesses might be added to this list4 ,indeed1 it looks as if all the goddesses who are stated to be variants either of ,isis or ,hathor have this same symbol4 ,this generic symbolism suggests that the names ,isis and ,hathor are themselves generalisations1 meaning an accompaniment of sunrise1 whether that light be the dawn1 or an heliacally-rising star1 or even the moon4 ,the generic symbol is the sun's disk and horns1 which1 ,i think1 may not impossibly be a poetic development of the sign for sunrise4 ,isis and ,hathor are two different ways of defining or thinking about a rising star--that is1 a star heralding the sunrise1 for such were the rising stars par excellence4 ,illustration3 ,,anuqa4 ,,sati4 ,all the goddesses so symbolised are either different forms of ,isis or ,hathor1 or represent goddesses who personify or bring before us mythologically stars the rising of which was observed at the dawn at some time of the year or another4 ,but it must be added that these goddesses are not always represented with this head-gear1 possibly because they had other functions besides their astronomical one4 ,the extent of this variation may be gathered from the two forms of ,neith or ,nit given on page #bij4 ,illustration3 ,,isis ,,nursing ,,horus4 7,the last form is ,serk-t-,isis1 the scorpion goddess47 #d4 ,many of the goddesses are represented as ,isis nursing ,horus4--,it is very important not to forget that stars were chiefly observed rising in the dawn1 and that mythologically such an event was represented by the ,egyptians as ,isis 7the rising star-goddess7 nursing ,horus 7the rising sun-god74 ,the sun was supposed to be a youth in the morning1 to be very young therefore at the moment of rising1 and the goddess ,isis was supposed to be then nursing him4 ,many of the goddesses are thus portrayed4 ,i may mention ,renen-t1 ,serk-t1 ,r-t1 ,amen-t1 as instances4 ,thus ,i hold that we get in this series of goddesses the statement1 put mythologically1 that certain stars to which the goddesses were sacred rose heliacally at some time of the year or another4 ,of course the record is far from complete1 and probably it will become more complete when inquiries are made from this point of view4 ,the original symbolism is that ,isis or ,hathor is a star rising in the dawn1 watching over the sun or taking him from his cradle2 and the young ,horus1 the rising sun1 is1 of course1 the son of ,isis4 ,the emblem of the mother and child is thus shown to have been in established use for the expression of high religious thought at least #ejjj years ago4 ,these and other facts may be brought together in a tabular form1 to show what apparently the complete mythology of ,isis meant4 ,,isis ,,anything ,,luminous ,,to ,,the ,,eastward ,,heralding ,,sunrise4 ,,dawn4 ,,moon4 ,,draconis4 ,,antares4 ,,columb4 7#cjjj ,b4,c47 7#cgjj ,b4,c47 7,before #cjjj ,b4,c47 ,isis ,isis ,isis ,serk-t ,tei ,hathor 7hawk and 7,n4 ,egypt7 ,amen-t hippopotamus7 ,mut 7vulture7 ,sechet ,lion or ,centauri ,bast cat #cgjj ,b4,c4 ,menkh 7,s4 ,egypt7 ,tafnet ,apet ,nebun ,,sirius4 ,,doubtful4 7,after #cjjj ,b4,c47 7,probably late47 ,isis ,anuqa ,hathor 7cow7 ,hak ,r-t ,haka ,hak-t ,hequet ,maloul ,it will be seen that in the case of ,isis we are not dealing merely with a rising star1 while1 so far as ,i know1 ,hathor is limited to stars4 ,if we accept the general statement regarding ,isis1 namely1 that it was a term applied to anything appearing to the eastward and heralding sunrise1 many of our difficulties at once disappear4 ,the ,isis of the pyramid-temples and of the smaller temple of ,denderah symbolised different celestial bodies1 though they served the same purpose4 ,the ,hathor of the greater temple of ,denderah1 and the ,hathor of ,dr el-,bahari1 symbolised different celestial bodies1 but their function was the same4 ,on the other hand1 the ,hathor of ,denderah and the ,mut of ,thebes were neither different divinities1 nor did they personify different stars2 they were simply local names of ,draconis4 ,we are thus enabled to understand the doubling of the symbolism in the case of ,hathor4 ,the hippopotamus and the cow generically are dealt with as rising stars2 specifically we deal with ,draconis in one case1 and ,sirius in the other4 ,the evidence goes to show that these two stars were those to the risings of which very great importance was attached1 but they did not stand alone4 ,we get another form of ,isis 7referring1 it is possible1 to the star ,columb1 before even ,sirius was used71 so that we have a northern star and a southern star observed at the same time--the two eyes of ,r4 ,idle other goddesses which have not yet been worked out probably refer to one or other of these stars1 or to others which lie more to the south4 ,these are represented rather in the temples above the first cataract than in those below4 ,this fact will be enlarged upon in the sequel4 ,the study of orientation1 then1 combined with mythology1 supplies us with other rising stars besides ,sirius1 and1 indeed1 although the date given by ,riot for the first heliacal rising of ,sirius at the solstice--#cbhe ,b4,c4--seems a very remote one1 it is practically certain that ,columb was previously used1 because before that time it was conveniently situated to give warning of the sunrise at the ,summer solstice1 as ,sirius was subsequently4 ,the worship would be kept up after the utility had gone4 ,dmichen's view with regard to the local cult of ,hathor and its astronomical origin is not very different from mine4 ,he writes3-- ,der ,cult der ,gttin ,hathor geht in die ltesten ,zeiten der gyptischen ,geschichte zurck4 ,schon die ,pyramideninschriften erwlmen eine ,heliopolitische ,hathor und ,priester und ,priesterinnen dieser ,gttin werden in denselben ,grabkapellen nicht selten genannt4 ,die ,hathor war keine speciell lokalisirte ,gottheit1 sondern eine allgemein in smmtlichen ,tempeln ,aegyptens verehrte ,form eines ,cultes1 dessen ,urgedanke1 im weitesten ,sinne1 die ,auffassung des weiblichen ,principes gegenuber dem mnnlichen ,principe der ,gottheit war4 ,in dieser ,auffassung erscheint sie geradezu identisch mit der ,isis1 weshalb auch beiden ,gttinnen die ,kuh das geheiligte ,thier war4 ,da in jeder ,stadt1 vor allen aber in jeder ,nomos-,hauptstadt eine ,hathor als ,schutzgttin des betreffenden ,ortes aufgefhrt wird1 so ist es erklrlich1 dass die lokalen ,formen dieser ,gttin in den ,inschriften der ,tempel in grsster ,anzahl aufgefhrt werden4 ,im ,tempel von ,edfu werden ,beispiels halber an der ,decke des ,pronaos ber #cjj ,namen der ,gttin mit ihren lokalen ,beziehungen hergezhlt mit besonderer ,bevorzugung derjenigen lokalen ,formen1 welche in den einzelnen ,nomos-,hauptstdten sich eines hervorragenden ,cultes erfreuten4 ,die letzteren berhren vorzglich eine ,sieben-,zahl von ,hathoren1 welche als die grossen bezeichnet werden und von denen fast in allen grsseren ,tempeln ,listen an den ,wnden zu lesen sind4 ,in der lteren ,zeit bezeichnet ,hathor einen kosmischen ,urbegriff4 ,schon ihr ,name verrth aufs ,deutlichste die kosmogonische ,wurzel4 ,ha4 t4 hor wrtlich bersetzt ,wolnung des ,horus--,behausung ,gottes d4 i4 die ,welt1 die ,darstellung ,gottes in der sichtbaren ,welt1 die ,natur1 in welcher die ,gottheit wirksam ist4#hc ,before ,i pass on1 it will1 ,i think1 be well to point out that the argument ,i have used to show that ,isis was really a generic name is enforced when we consider the allied points relating to ,osiris4 ,it is quite clear that some of the gods symbolised setting stars4 ,we already know that the setting sun became ,osiris1 ,atmu1 or ,tmu1 and1 whatever the names1 they were all represented as mummies4 ,but the sun was not the only body that was symbolised as ,osiris2 the moon and stars were at times symbolised in the same way4 ,we may1 indeed1 venture to make the following generalised statement3-- ,,osiris ,,any ,,celestial ,,body ,,becoming ,,invisible4 ,,sun ,,moon ,,planet ,,stars ,,bodies ,,paling ,,at ,,dawn4 ,,setting4 ,,waning4 ,,setting4 ,,setting4 ,stars4 ,planets4 ,osiris ,osiris ,venus ,khons-,osiris ,sah-,osiris ,venus as ,osiris ,ptah-,osiris ,star of ,osiris ,min-,osiris ,it will be observed with what fulness the antithesis of ,isis is indicated4 ,i have already pointed out that the possible temple of ,osiris at the pyramids points to the westward1 but our special reference now is to stars4 ,when we come to look for this mummy-symbolism among the gods other than sun-gods 7it is entirely and remarkably absent among the goddesses71 we find ,khons1 ,ptah1 and ,khem pictured as mummies2 that is1 they become a sort of ,osiris4 ,supposing that these gods were worshipped1 there would probably be temples dedicated to them2 still1 the absence of such temples would not be decisive1 since they might have been destroyed4 ,however1 very fortunately for this inquiry1 there are two temples still extant at ,thebes1 known as the temples of ,khons and ,ptah4 ,if there is anything1 then1 in the idea that there must be some relation with the western horizon in the case of these gods represented as mummies1 these temples should point to the west4 ,they do point to the west4 ,very fortunately1 also1 these temples have a pretty good history3 that is1 one knows1 within some hundreds of years at all events1 when they were founded4 ,therefore1 by help of those astronomical methods to which ,i have previously referred1 it is not difficult to get at the stars4 ,they turn out to be a southern star--,canopus--in the case of the temple of ,khons1 and ,capella in the case of the temple of ,ptah4 ,now1 there is another very important temple at ,thebes1 it is a temple without a name1 at right angles to the temple of ,mut4 ,this also points to the west4 ,although the evidence is not complete1 it clearly suggests that this temple was dedicated to the god ,min or ,khem1 and was oriented to the star ,spica2 so that at ,thebes alone it looks as if the three gods represented by mummies--different stellar forms of ,osiris--,khons1 ,ptah and ,min1 have all been run to earth in the three stars ,canopus1 ,capella1 and ,spica4 ,provisionally1 we way hazard the assertion that the mummy form marks a setting star1 as the horns and disk mark a rising one4 ,we get the antithesis between ,osiris and ,isis4 ,illustration3 ,,isis1 ,,osiris ,,and ,,horus4 ,we gather1 then1 that the wonderful old-world myth of ,isis and ,osiris is astronomical from beginning to end1 although ,osiris in this case is not the sun1 but the moon4 ,but ,i have not yet finished with the mummy form2 the waning moon is also ,osiris4 ,it is supposed to be dying from the time of full moon to new moon4 ,the ,egyptians in their mythology were nothing if not consistent2 the moon was called ,osiris from the moment it began to wane1 as the sun was ,osiris so soon as it began to set4 ,a constellation paling at sunrise was also ,osiris4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,change ,,of ,,cult ,,at ,,luxor4 ,i have previously noted the symbolism of ,sirius-,hathor as a cow in a boat associated with the constellation of ,orion4 ,there is a point connected with this which ,i did not then refer to1 but which is of extreme importance for a complete discussion of the question now occupying us4 ,we get associated with the cow in the boat1 ,orion 7,sah7 as ,horus1 but in other inscriptions we get ,orion as a mummy--that is to say1 in the course of ,egyptian history the same constellation is symbolised as a rising sun at one time and a setting sun at another4 ,now1 that must have been so if the ,egyptian mythology were consistent and rested on an astronomical basis1 because ,sah rose in the dawn in one case and faded at dawn in the other4 ,from the table giving a generalised statement with regard to ,osiris1 similar to that we have already considered for ,isis1 it looks as if the mythology connected with ,osiris is simply the mythology connected with any celestial body becoming invisible4 ,we have the sun setting1 the moon waning1 a planet setting1 stars setting1 constellations fading at dawn4 ,we see1 therefore1 that the ,egyptian mythology was absolutely and completely consistent with the astronomical conditions by which they were surrounded2 that1 although it is wonderfully poetical1 in no case is the poetry allowed to interfere with the strictest and most accurate reference to the astronomical phenomena which had to be dealt with4 ,the argument1 then1 for the use of ,isis as a generic name is greatly strengthened by the similar way in which the term ,osiris1 which is acknowledged to be a generic name1 is employed4 ,now to return to ,denderah in the light of the preceding discussion4 ,a curious and interesting thing is that we find that the temple of ,isis1 which is very much ruined1 does not contain emblems of the ,sirius worship2 but that all these appear in the temple of ,hathor1 which1 of course1 pointing as it does to the north-east1 could never have received any light from a star south of the equator4 ,there has been a change of cult4 ,on the other hand1 the temple of ,isis presents so many emblems thought to relate to the worship connected with ,draconis1 to which the temple of ,hathor was in all probability directed1 that it was named the ,typhoneum by the ,french ,commission4 ,there has been an apparent change of rle and cult1 due either to the fact that in time the observation of the rising of ,sirius superseded that of the rising of ,draconis1 or that the worship of ,set was replaced4 ,with regard to this change of cult1 we moderns should have no difficulty4 ,we go to ,constantinople and see ,mahommedans worshipping in ,st4 ,sophia2 we go to ,greece or ,sicily and find ,christian worship in many of the old temples4 ,thus the change of cult in ,egypt1 which ,i claim to have demonstrated on astronomical grounds at ,denderah1 is a thing with which we are perfectly familiar nowadays4 ,the great point1 however1 is that in ,egypt the change of cult might depend upon astronomical change--upon the precession of the equinoxes1 as well as upon different schools of religious or astronomical thought4 ,we gather from this an idea of the wonderfully continuous observations which were made by the ,egyptians of the risings and settings of stars1 because1 if the work had not been absolutely continuous1 they would certainly never have got the very sharp idea of the facts of precession which they undoubtedly possessed2 and it is also1 ,i think1 pretty clear that future astronomical study will enable us to write the history of those changes which are now hidden by that tremendous mythological difficulty1 which has not yet been faced4 ,that1 of course1 is not the only difficulty1 because the question is clouded by the absence of authentic dates and the perpetual reference to the past which is met with in all the monuments4 ,the ,egyptians were much more anxious to bring back to knowledge what happened #ajjj years before than to give an idea of the current history of the country4 ,we have1 then1 at length arrived at a possible explanation of the difficulties acknowledged in regard to the temples of ,denderah in ,chapters ,,xix4 and ,,xx4 ,it is1 briefly1 that at some epoch observations of the star ,sirius replaced1 or were added to1 those made of ,draconis4 ,mythologically1 a new ,isis would be born4 ,this point will be referred to later2 one of the longest-lasting astro-theological strifes in ,egypt was the fight for supremacy between the priests of ,amen and the priests of ,set4 ,at ,denderah the former were ultimately victorious1 and hence the change of cult4 ,this suggestion is based on the following considerations3-- 7#a7 ,while the ,denderah ,hathor was represented by the disk and horns on a hippopotamus1 at ,thebes 7the city of the ,bull ,amen7 ,hathor is represented by a cow with a like head-dress4 7#b7 ,isis1 represented originally as a goddess with the two feathers of ,amen1 standing in a boat1 is now changed to a cow with the disk and horns4 7#c7 ,hathor was the cow of the western hills of ,thebes4 ,it is in these hills that the temple ,dr el-,bahari lies2 and this temple1 if oriented originally to ,sirius1 would have been founded about #hjjj ,b4,c41 when ,sirius at rising would have an amplitude of #bj ,s4 of ,e4 7#d7 ,a temple was built or restored later at ,denderah1 and ,sirius with the cow's horns and disk became the great goddess there2 and when her supremacy all over ,egypt became undoubted1 her birthplace was declared--at ,denderah--to have been ,denderah4#hd 7#e7 ,in the month-list at the ,ramesseum the first month is dedicated to ,sirius1 the third to ,hathor4 ,this is not1 however1 a final argument1 because local cults may have been in question4 7#f7 ,set seems to have been a generic name applied to the northern 78 circumpolar7 constellations1 perhaps because ,set darkness1 and these stars1 being always visible in the night1 may have in time typified it4 ,taurt1 the hippopotamus1 was the wife of ,set4 ,the ,thigh was the thigh of ,set1 etc4 ,draconis was associated therefore with ,set1 and the symbolism for ,set-,hathor was the hippopotamus with horns and disk4 ,now if1 as is suggested1 ,sirius replaced ,draconis1 and the cow replaced the hippopotamus1 the cult of ,set might be expected to have declined2 and as a matter of fact the decline of the worship of ,set1 which was generally paramount under the earlier dynasties1 and even the obliteration of the emblems on the monuments1 are among the best-marked cases of the kind found in the inscriptions4 7#g7 ,the ,isis temple of ,denderah was certainly oriented to ,sirius2 the ,hathor temple was as certainly not so oriented4 ,and yet1 in the restorations in later times 7say1 ,thothmes ,,iii4--,ptolemies71 the cult has been made ,sirian1 and the references are to the star which rises at the rising of the ,nile4 ,so far1 then1 mythology is with me2 but there is a difficulty4 ,according to the orientation theory1 the cult must follow the star2 this must be held to as far as possible4 ,but suppose the processional movement causes the initial function of a star to become inoperative1 must not the cult--which1 as we assume1 had chiefly to do with the heralding of sunrise at one time of the year or other--change8 ,and if the same cult is conducted in connection with another star1 will not the old name probably be retained8 ,i do not see why the ,egyptians should have hesitated to continue the same cult under a different star when they apparently quite naturally changed ,orion from a form of ,osiris 7,sah-,osiris7 and a mummy 7as he was represented when the light of his stars was quenched at dawn at the rising of ,sirius7 to that of ,sah-,horus 7when in later times the constellation itself rose heliacally74 ,and1 moreover1 the antagonism of rival priesthoods has to be considered4 ,it is extremely probable that the change of a ,set temple at ,denderah into a ,theban ,hathor-temple was only one example of a system generally adopted1 at least in later times4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,temple-,,stars4 ,the two preceding chapters should have suggested that if there be any truth in the astronomical and mythological views therein put forth1 there should be other stars to deal with besides ,sirius and ,draconis1 and other temples besides those at ,annu1 ,denderah and ,thebes which have to be studied4 ,this is so1 and ,i now propose to give a general account of the conclusions so far arrived at1 but ,i must in limine state that the account must be a brief one and more suggestive than final1 for the reason that the lack of accurate local data stops the way4 ,in an inquiry of this kind it is well to work slowly out from the known4 ,the facts which have been given will1 ,i think1 cause it to be generally agreed that in the temple of ,isis at ,denderah we have a structure which the inscriptions1 as well as astronomical inquiry1 show was certainly a temple oriented to ,sirius4 ,the other fact that ,new ,year's ,day in the ,nile valley was determined for thousands of years by the heliacal rising of that star1 is among the most familiar in the domain of ,egyptology4 ,obviously1 then1 the first inquiry must refer to the possible existence of other ,sirian temples4 ,from #cbhe ,b4,c41 when ,sirius rose heliacally at the solstice1 its declination has varied from #bd ,s4 to #af ,s4 in #ejj ,b4,c4 ,the corresponding amplitudes for ,thebes being #bf and #ah ,s4 of ,e4 ,between these amplitudes we find the following temples3-- ,,sirius4 ,sea ,hills #a ,hills #b ,amp4 ,horizon4 ,high4 ,high4 ,place and ,temple4 ,re- ,s4 ,dec4 ,years4 ,dec4,years4 ,dec4,years4marks4 of ,e4 ,s4 ,s4 ,s4 ,karnak see 7,temple ,o7 below 7,gr47 #bf #bd #ccjj #bccaej #bc #cjej #a ,dr el-,bahari 7,gr47 #bd #bb #bhej #babgjj #ba #bege ,dosche #ba #bj #bbbe #aibjej #ai #bjjj ,karnak 7,temple ,d7 7,gr47 #ba #ai #bjjj #ai #ahjj #ah #afjj ,naga 7,temple ,g7 7,gr47 #ai #ah #aejj #ah #adjj #ag #abej ,phil 7,ethiopian ,temple7 #ai #ah #adjj #ag #aajj #ag #hjj #b ,denderah 7,n4,w4 ,temple7 #ah #c ,remarks #a ,this may have been a solar temple1 as its amplitude is nearly equal to that of the sun at the winter solstice4 ,remarks #b ,hills high4 at least #b ,remarks #c ,hills very low4 ,it is quite clear that we must not look for ,sirian temples before #cbjj ,b4,c41 because the heliacal rising of ,sirius at ,thebes before that time did not take place near the solstice4 ,the above table shows that the earliest ,sirian temple really dates from about #cjjj ,b4,c4#he ,but what star did ,sirius replace8 ,an inspection of a precessional globe shows at once that the star which rose heliacally at the solstice before ,sirius was ,columb 7,phact74 ,its declination has varied from #eg ,s4 at #ejjj ,b4,c4 to #cg ,s4 at #j4 ,we have the following temples which might have been oriented to this star2 and here ,i must repeat that once a star has been symbolised as a god or a goddess on account of its astronomical utility1 the cult would be continued after the utility had ceased--that is1 in this case1 after ,sirius had replaced ,phact astronomically4 ,,phact4 ,sea ,hills #a ,hills #b ,amp4 ,horizon4 ,high4 ,high4 ,place and ,temple4 ,re- ,s4 ,dec4 ,years4 ,dec4,years4 ,dec4,years4marks4 of ,e4 ,s4 ,s4 ,s4 ,memnonia 7,western ,temple7 #eh #ej #cgej #dicgjj #di #ceej #a4 ,barkal 7,temple ,b7 #ec #ej #cbej #di #cfjj #dh #cejj ,karnak ,v #ef #di #ceej #dh #cdjj #dg #cbej ,abu ,simbel 7,hathor ,temple7 #ed #dh #cejj #dh #ccej #dgcbej #b4 ,dr el-,medinet 7,gr47 #ed #dg #cbej #dfcjej #df #bijj ,saboa #ea #df #bijj #debgej #de #bfej ,karnak 7,temple ,j7 7,gr47 #ea #de #bgjj #dd #bebe #dc #bcjj ,mednet ,hab 7,small ,j ,j7 7,gr47 #ea #de #bgjj #ddbebe #dc #bcjj ,barkal 7,temples ,j and ,h7 #dg #dd #bebe #dd #bdjj #dc #bbej ,surarieh #ea #dc #bbej #dbbjej #db #ahej ,mednet ,hab 7,palace ,k ,k7 7,gr47 #df #dj #aejj #dj #abej #ci #ajej ,mednet ,hab 7,ethiopian ,temple7 #de #dj #abej #ci #ijj #ch #ejj #c4 ,remarks #a ,hills low4 ,remarks #b ,hills nearly #b high4 ,remarks #c ,the hills may be taken as a little over #a high4 ,the temple of ,hathor at ,abu ,simbel1 embellished by ,rameses ,,ii41 was in all probability a shrine dedicated to ,amen-t-,hathor about #cbjj ,b4,c4 ,amen-t seems to have been an ,ethiopian goddess1 for we hear nothing of her at ,heliopolis or ,memphis4 ,it follows that if this be so1 ,sirius succeeded to ,columb precisely as ,draconis succeeded to ,dubhe2 but temples could still be dedicated to the old ,hathor ,columb1 while this was not possible for ,dubhe1 because it became circumpolar and never rose4 ,illustration3 ,,curves ,,showing ,,the ,,declinations ,,of ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,stars ,,used ,,by ,,the ,,egyptian ,,astronomers ,,at ,,different ,,epochs4 ,it may also be pointed out that the temple ,v of ,lepsius at ,karnak finds its place in a series by supposing it to have been oriented to the ,s4,e4 instead of the ,n4,w4 as shown in ,lepsius' maps4 ,such a mistake might easily have arisen in consequence of its ruined condition4 ,it may be stated in favour of my view that ,i am acquainted with no temple in ,egypt directed between the amplitudes #ce and #ij ,n4 of ,w4 ,but so far we have dealt only with the summer solstice1 and yet in ,egypt there were people who lived in towns with ,e4 and ,w4 walls who1 ,i take it1 must have had a worship depending upon the equinoxes4 ,about #cejj ,b4,c41 ,antares 7 ,scorpii7 rose heliacally at the autumnal equinox as ,columb did1 as we have seen1 at the summer solstice4 ,there is not much doubt1 from the symbol of ,serk-t that this goddess represented a star in the ,scorpion4 ,further1 at that date its rising took place due east1 so any ,e4 and ,w4 temple--and many existed in ,lower ,egypt--might have been then used for observations of this star4 ,but about the same time the southern star1 ,centauri1 could have been used to herald the sunrise at the autumnal equinox4 ,,centauri4 ,sea ,hills #a ,hills #b ,amp4 ,horizon4 ,high4 ,high4 ,place and ,temple4 ,re- ,s4 ,dec4 ,years4 ,dec4,years4 ,dec4,years4marks4 of ,e4 ,s4 ,s4 ,s4 ,barkal ,e #cc #ca #chbe #ca #cgjj #cj #chjj ,krnah 7,seti ,i47 #ce #ca #cfbe #ca #cgjj #cj #chjj ,hills ,krnah low4 7,palace7 #cf #cb #cejj #cacfbe #ca #cgej ,hills ,wady ,halfa low4 7,thothmes ,,ii47 #ch #ce #bijj #ce #cjjj #cd #cjge ,barkal ,l #ch #cf #bhej #cebiej #ce #cjcj ,wady ,halfa 7,thothmes ,,iii47 #dj #cf #bgbe #cf #bhjj #ce #bijj ,wady ,e4 ,sofra #ch #cg #bfge #cfbgjj #cf #bhjj ,memnonia ,rameses ,,ii4 7,mean of ,fr4 ,gr47 #dc #ch #bdge #cgbfjj #cg #bgj ,hills ,kom ,ombo low4 7,little ,temple7 #dc #ci #bcge #chbdej #cg #bege ,it would appear that several temples were directed to this star in ,upper ,egypt from #cgjj ,b4,c4 onward4 ,the series of them is shown in the preceding table4 ,for the vernal equinox1 so far1 ,i have found no temples besides those directed due ,e4 in which the rising of the ,pleiades may have been watched4 ,it is more than probable that the worship of the sacred bull by the ,memphitic inhabitants of ,egypt may have been connected with this constellation4 ,certainly in pyramid times ,neith and ,serk-t were both worshipped1 and the goddesses under whose protection the ,canopic vases were supposed to be--,isis1 ,nephthys1 ,neith1 and ,serk-t--may have symbolised the two solstices and the two equinoxes4 ,we may next consider the complete series of ,n4,e4 temples represented at ,heliopolis1 ,denderah and ,thebes4 ,these we must1 as ,i have shown in ,chapter ,,xx41 divide into two series1 dealing with ,urs ,majoris before it became circumpolar1 and ,draconis afterwards4 ,i have already 7p4 #bjh7 stated that ,lyr may possibly have preceded both ,urs ,majoris and ,draconis as a representative of ,set1 but no table is necessary4 ,the first series1 dealing with ,urs ,majoris1 is as follows3-- ,,urs ,,majoris4 ,sea ,hills #a ,hills #b ,amp4 ,horizon4 ,high4 ,high4 ,place and ,temple4 ,re- ,s4 ,dec4 ,years4 ,dec4,years4 ,dec4,years4marks4 of ,e4 ,s4 ,s4 ,s4 ,annu #gg #egebjj #eh #ejej #ei #dijj #a4 ,denderah #ga #eg #eajj #eh #diej #eidhjj #b4 ,denderah #gh #fj #dfjj #fb #ddjj #fc #dbjj #c4 ,remarks #a4 ,hills low4 ,remarks #b and #c ,hills #b high4 ,the second series1 dealing with ,draconis1 is naturally much fuller4 ,,draconis4 ,sea ,hills #a ,hills #b ,amp4 ,horizon4 ,high4 ,high4 ,place and ,temple4 ,re- ,s4 ,dec4 ,years4 ,dec4,years4 ,dec4,years4marks4 of ,e4 ,s4 ,s4 ,s4 ,redesieh #gg #fa #dbej #fbdfjj #fc #dhej ,karnak 7,z and ,x7 #gb #eh #cajj #eicejj #fj #cjjj ,dakkeh #fi #eh #cajj #eicejj #fj #chjj ,denderah #ga #eg #bfej #eh #cajj #eicejj ,annu 7,restoration7 #gg #eg #bcjj #eh #bhjj #ei #cbjj ,karnak ,w #fh #ef #bajj #egbeej #eh #bijj ,karnak #hf;,a ,m ,c #fc #ec #cjj #ed #ajjj #ee #adjj ,remark #a4 ,hills #b high4 ,remark #b4 ,hills #a high4 #hf #ed4 #abjj4 ,the table brings before us the remarkable fact that at ,redesieh and ,denderah1 which both lie on the two old roads from the ,red ,sea into ,upper ,egypt1 we have the first traces of the worship of ,set3 in other words1 of observations during the night in that region1 as we found it at ,annu4 ,as ,urs ,majoris and ,draconis were observed in the extreme north1 so several stars appear to have been observed near the south point1 among them ,canopus 7 ,args71 towards which star the temples shown in the following table seem to have been directed1 among them the well-known temple of ,khons at ,karnak1 so that provisionally we may take that divinity as a personification of the star4 ,granting this1 it will be noted that the introduction of this cult into ,thebes was late2 this is quite in harmony with the statements of ,egyptologists1 who point out that this god has the side-lock1 indicating youth1 and that he was the latest addition to the ,theban ,triad4 ,in later times the curve of declination of this star is so flat that most accurate measures are required4 ,,canopus4 ,sea ,hills #a ,hills #b ,amp4 ,horizon4 ,high4 ,high4 ,place and ,temple4 ,re- ,s4 ,dec4 ,years4 ,dec4,years4 ,dec4,years4marks4 of ,e4 ,s4 ,s4 ,s4 ,karnak ,b #fc #ed #baej #ec #acjj #a4 ,naga 7f7 #eg #ec #agjj #ec #acjj #eb #cjj #b4 ,karnak7,seti ,,ii47 #fc #ec #agjj #ec #ajjj ,karnak 7,khons7 #fb #ec #ajjj #eb #cjj #c4 ,a4,d4 ,remark #a4 ,hills #a high give us #ahjj ,b4,c4 ,remark #b4 ,hills #a high give us #adjj ,b4,c4 ,remark #c4 ,hills #a high give us #cjj ,b4,c4 ,when we attempt to trace the most southerly stars to which temples were erected in ,upper ,egypt1 we find a series of temples which are very remarkable in several respects from the orientation point of view4 ,their amplitudes are all above #gd1 one being as high as #hf4 ,they all face ,south of ,west1 and when their latitudes are taken into account1 the very striking thing comes out that the declination of the star observed was very nearly the same--that is1 that probably all the temples were founded at about the same time to observe the same star4 ,the facts are as follows3-- ,temple4 ,amplitude ,s4 of ,w4 ,declination ,s4 ,edf #hf #fd ,hills #a high4 ,phil ,y #gf #fd ,hills #b high4 ,semneh #gf #fd ,amada #gd #fd ,local conditions not known4 ,with regard to the ,phil temple1 the amplitude is uncertain1 as the measures do not agree2 but if we reject ,phil the other coincidences are too remarkable to be neglected4 ,it is to be hoped that a complete survey of the island will soon be undertaken4 ,now1 ,i cannot find any important stars to fit this declination since #gjjj ,b4,c4 except ,canopus and ,phact1 and the latter is barred because it was used as a rising star1 and indeed was the first solstitial ,isis4 ,if we inquire into the conditions relative to ,canopus1 we find that star had the declination of #fd about #fdjj ,b4,c41 and that1 as determined by the processional globe1 it then set heliacally at the autumnal equinox4 ,if we assume that ,canopus is in question1 the break between the dates #fdjj ,b4,c4 and #baej ,b4,c4 has to be explained4 ,there may have been temples at ,thebes now destroyed4 ,there seems no doubt that the temple at ,phil1 lettered ,y by the ,french and ,l in ,baedeker's ,handbook1 was the most ancient one on the island1 and that the cult was similar to that at ,edf4#hg ,it will be most interesting to see whether the suggestion that ,canopus was observed in early times at ,phil and ,edf especially1 be confirmed4 ,it is clear that for these and other southern temples an examination of the local conditions and a determination of the places of the southern stars are necessary before the other southern gods and goddesses can be worked out4 ,we next come to the ,n4,w4 quadrant4 ,here1 apparently1 we have only to deal with ,capella and ,spica4 ,summarising the information detailed in a previous chapter1 we find the following temples probably erected to these stars3-- ,,capella4 ,sea ,hills #a ,hills #b ,amp4 ,horizon4 ,high4 ,high4 ,place and ,temple4 ,re- ,s4 ,dec4 ,years4 ,dec4,years4 ,dec4,years4marks4 of ,e4 ,s4 ,s4 ,s4 ,memphis #ab #aj #eejj #ajecej #aa #ecjj ,annu #ac #aa #ecbe #aa #cbej #ab #ebjj ,karnak ,u #bg #bd #cbej #bd #caej #be #cjej ,thebes 7,petit ,temple #ca #bg #bfjj #bh #bejj #bi #bdjj du ,sud7 ,karnak ,g #ce #cj #bjej #ca #aibe #cb #ahej #a4 ,remark #a4 #cb4 #agej4 ,hills #c high ,,spica4 ,sea ,hills #a ,hills #b ,amp4 ,horizon4 ,high4 ,high4 ,place and ,temple4 ,re- ,s4 ,dec4 ,years4 ,dec4,years4 ,dec4,years4marks4 of ,e4 ,s4 ,s4 ,s4 ,karnak ,y #ag #ae #bhej #af #biej #afcjej #a4 ,tell el-,amarna #ac #aj #aijj ,remark #a4 #ag4 #cbjj4 ,hills #c4 ,the temples oriented to ,capella and ,spica are discussed in the next chapter4 ,the information given in the present chapter may be completed by a table showing the warning stars available for heralding sunrise about the times when the orientations suggest that the various temples were originally founded4 ,to prepare this table ,i have used the precessional globe previously referred to4 ,the results are therefore rough1 as the ecliptic has been taken as fixed2 but they are useful for the purpose of a reconnaissance4 ,the table shows the stars on the horizon1 or near it1 at the equinoxes and solstices when the sun was #aj below the horizon4 ,when the star was not exactly on the horizon when the sun was #aj below1 its position above or below at that moment is indicated in the table by giving the number of degrees the star was above 77 the horizon or below it 7-7 at the time4 ,the dates taken are those most conveniently given by the globe1 being those in fact occupied by the pole of the equator at some one or other of twenty-four equidistant points on a circle round the pole of the ecliptic starting from #ahhj ,a4,d4 as zero4 ,it will be seen that all the stars referred to in the preceding tables occupied positions of great importance between #fjjj ,b4,c4 and #bejj ,b4,c41 and that there are several southern stars indicated which eventually may be useful in the discussion of the southern temples4 ,,table ,,of ,,heliacal ,,risings ,,and ,,settings4 ,date ,spring ,equinox4 ,summer ,solstice4 ,b4,c4 ,rising4 ,setting4 ,rising4 ,setting4 #efge ,phact #dfjj ,aldebaran ,phact #cebe ,phenicis ,antares ,phact #b ,pleiades #c #cbjj ,sirius #bdej ,pavonis ,sirius ,altair #c ,date ,autumnal ,equinox4 ,winter ,solstice4 ,b4,c4 ,rising4 ,setting4 ,rising4 ,setting4 #efge ,vega4 ,canopus ,phenicis ,musc - #a #dfjj ,draconis ,capella ,trianguli ,canopus #c #cebe ,antares ,aldebaran - #a #b ,centauri #c #bdej ,argus #c ,the real precedence of ,capella and ,spica in temple-building is not shown in the above table1 because these stars were not used either at the solstices or the equinoxes4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,sun-,,worship ,,at ,,annu ,,and ,,thebes4 ,now that we have been able to discuss with more or less fulness the stars--very few in number--to which the temples in both ,upper and ,lower ,egypt were probably oriented1 and further1 the astronomical requirements which they were intended to fulfil1 we are in a position to consider several questions of great interest in relation to the earliest observations of the sun and stars4 ,one of the first among these questions is whether the complete inquiry throws any light upon the suggestion made on page #he1 that in different temples we seem to be dealing with at least two different kinds of astronomical thought and methods2 as if1 indeed1 we were in presence of ideas so differently based that the assumption of different races of men1 rather than different astronomical and religious ideas1 is almost necessary to account for them4 ,let us begin with the apparent result of the inquiry into sun-worship as practised at ,annu and ,thebes4 ,it was suggested that1 although in the matter of simple worship the sun would come before the stars1 in temple-worship the conditions would be reversed in consequence of the stable rising-and setting-places of the latter as compared with those of the sun at different times of the year4 ,another suggestion was hazarded that sun temple-worship might have been an accidental result of the sunlight entering a temple which had really been built to observe a star2 and that such temple sun-worship might possibly have preceded the time at which the solstices and equinoxes1 and their importance1 had been made out4 ,i think it is possible to show that this really happened1 and we owe the demonstration of this important fact to the ,egyptian habit of having two associated temples at right angles to each other1 because this habit justifies the assumption that at ,annu the mounds and single obelisk which now remain not only indicate the certain existence in former times of one temple1 but1 in all probability1 of two at right angles to each other4 ,the next question we have to consider is whether the researches at ,annu bear this surmise out4 ,let me refer to what has already been stated4 ,as ,i have shown in ,chapter ,,viii4 7p4 #gg71 the north and south faces bear #ac north of west--#ac south of east4 ,i have elsewhere shown 7,chap4 ,,xxi41 p4 #bae7 that there is good reason for believing that the original foundation of the temple at ,annu dates from the time when the north-pointing member of such a double system was directed to ,urs ,majoris4 ,this was somewhat earlier than #ejjj ,b4,c4 ,bearing in mind the facts obtained with regard to other similar rectangular systems1 we are led to inquire whether at that date a temple oriented to declination #aa north1 that is the declination proper to the amplitude of the member looking west1 was directed to any star4 ,we find that the important star ,capella was in question4 ,now1 so far in my references to stars1 little mention has been made of ,capella4 ,it is obvious that the first thing to be done on the orientation hypothesis is to see whether any other temple--and if of known cult1 so much the better--is found oriented to ,capella4 ,there is one such temple2 it was erected by ,thothmes ,,iii4 7,time of ,thothmes1 #afjj ,b4,c4 ,amplitude of temple1 #ce west of north with hills #c high1 #cb north declination2 ,capella #cc north declination about #agjj ,b4,c47 ,it is the temple of ,ptah at ,karnak4 ,and now it appears there is another4 ,during the year #ahib the officers of the ,museum of ,gzeh1 under the direction of ,m4 de ,morgan1 excavated a temple at ,memphis to the north of the hut containing the recumbent statue of ,rameses1 and during their work they found two magnificent statues of ,ptah1 les plus remarquables statues divines qu'on ait encore trouves en gypte1#hh and a colossal model in rose granite of the sacred boat of ,ptah4 ,these discoveries have led the officers in question to the conclusion that the building among the ruins of which these priceless treasures have been found is veritably the world-renowned temple of ,ptah of ,memphis4 ,it may1 therefore1 be accepted as such for the purpose of the present inquiry1 although it is difficult to reconcile its emplacement in relation to the statues with the accounts given by the ,arab historians4 ,in ,january1 #ahic1 ,captain ,lyons1 ,r4,e41 was good enough to accompany me to determine the orientation of the newly uncovered temple walls4 ,we had already1 two years previously1 carefully measured the bearings of the statues of ,rameses4 ,we found the temple in all probability facing westwards1 and not eastwards2 this we determined by a seated statue facing westwards2 and we concluded its orientation1 assuming a magnetic variation of #d west1 to be #ab north of west1 and the hills in front of it1 assuming the village of ,mt-,rahneh non-existent1 to be #ej high4 ,here1 then1 we get reproduced almost absolutely the conditions of the obelisk at ,heliopolis in a ,ptah temple oriented to ,capella #ebjj ,b4,c4 ,we are driven1 then1 to the conclusion that the star ,capella is personified by ,ptah1 and that as ,capella was worshipped setting1 ,ptah is represented as a mummy4 ,if this be so1 we must also accept another conclusion3 the temples both at ,annu and ,memphis were dedicated to ,ptah4 ,about #ecjj ,b4,c4 we seem almost in the time of the divine dynasties1 and begin to understand how it is that in the old traditions ,ptah precedes ,r and is called the father of the beginnings1 and the creator of the egg of the ,sun and ,moon4#hi ,we are driven to the conclusion that this worship at ,annu and ,memphis was the worship of the sun's disc when setting1 at the time of the year heralded by ,capella1 when it had the declination of #aj north4 ,the dates on which the sun had this declination were1 as already stated1 about ,april #ah and ,august #bd of our ,gregorian year4 ,the former1 in ,egypt1 dominated by the ,nile1 was about the time of the associated spring and harvest festivals4 ,so much for the ,ptah mummy form of the ,sun-,god1 to which the ,theban priests erected no important temples4 ,there was still another mummy form of the ,sun-,god1 the worship of which existed at ,thebes1 but which they did their best to abolish by the intensification of the worship of ,amen-,r4 ,at ,thebes1 as we have seen1 the temple of ,mut is associated with one at right angles to it1 facing north-west4 ,the amplitudes are #gb north of east and #ag north of west4 ,i have shown that the temple of ,mut would allow ,draconis to be seen along its axis about #cbjj ,b4,c4 ,i now state that ,spica would be seen along the axis of the rectangular temple at the same time4 ,the cult in this temple-system there can be no doubt1 ,i think1 was the worship of ,min1 otherwise read ,amsu1 or ,khem in ithyphallic mummy form4 ,this was associated possibly with a harvest-home festival on ,may #a4 7,amplitude of temple1 #ag north of west declination #ae sun's ,n4 declination on ,may #a47 ,both at ,annu and ,thebes1 therefore1 before the temple of ,amen-,r at the latter place became of importance1 the sun was worshipped in a temple pointed neither to a solstice nor to an equinox4 ,it seems1 then1 that the suggestion that possibly sun-worship existed before any great development of the solstitial solar worship is amply justified4 ,we have next to consider what had taken place at ,thebes1 so far as we can trace it on the orientation hypothesis after #cbjj ,b4,c41 when apparently the ,spica temple and the associated ,mut temple were founded4 ,to do this it is important to study the masterly essay by ,m4 ,virey1 entitled ,notices ,gnrales1 on the discoveries made at ,dr el-,bahari by ,,mm4 ,maspero and ,grbaut1 which is to be found in the new edition of the ,gzeh ,catalogue4#ij ,m4 ,virey makes us acquainted with the politics of the ,theban priests1 or rather of the confraternity of ,amen which they had founded4 ,from his account of the confraternity and of the various attempts made by it to acquire political power1 however1 we gather that it was not only intended to intensify the cult of ,amen-,r at the expense of the sun-worship previously existing at ,thebes 7in the ,spica temple71 but that one of the chief aims of the confraternity of ,amen was to abolish the worship of ,set1 ,sit1 ,sut1 or ,sutech2 that is1 as ,i think ,i have proved1 generically1 the stars near the ,north ,pole1 and1 as it can be shown1 in favour of the southern ones4 ,the temple of ,mut was the chief temple at ,karnak in which the cult of the northern stars was carried on1 and this was associated with the ,spica temple2 so both these temples had to go4 ,we can now realise what the ,theban priests got ,thothmes to do4 ,they were strong measures1 since in his day the cult of ,spica 7the solar disc1 ,aten1 ,min1 ,khem71 and ,draconis 7the ,hippopotamus-and-,lion ,isis7 was supreme4 ,the little shrine of the ,theban ,amen was enlarged and built right across the fair-way of the temple of ,mut1 so that the worship was as effectively stopped as the worship of ,isis 7when it was prohibited by law7 was stopped at ,pompeii by the town authorities bricking up the window by which the star was observed4#ia ,further1 the shrine so restored was to be of such magnificence that the ,spica temple1 which had hitherto held first rank1 became an insignificant chapel in comparison4 ,nor was this all3 in order still to emphasise the supremacy of ,amen-,r1 a third-rate temple was erected to ,ptah4 ,it is clear from this that we must date the great supremacy of the cult of ,amen-,r in and after the time of ,thothmes ,,iii41 and that the cult superseded at ,thebes was largely based upon the old worship at ,annu4 ,now1 one of the most remarkable events in ,egyptian history was the so-called apostasy of ,amen-hetep ,,iv41 some hundred and fifty years after ,thothmes ,,iii4 ,in the time of ,thothmes ,,iii4 the alliance between the royal and the sacerdotal power was of the closest1 and in no time of the world's history have priests been more richly endowed than were then the priests of ,amen4 ,not content1 however1 with their sacred functions1 they aimed at political power so obviously that ,thothmes ,,iv4 and ,amen-hetep ,,iii41 to check their intentions1 favoured the cults and priesthoods of ,annu and other cities of the north4 ,amen-hetep ,,iii4 and his son1 ,amen-hetep ,,iv41 also looked for alliances out of ,egypt altogether1 and entered into diplomatic relations with the princes of ,asia1 including even the king of ,babylon4 ,this brought him and the priests to open warfare4 ,he replied to their anger by proscribing the cult of ,amen1 and the name of ,amen was effaced from the monuments2 still the priestly party was strong enough to make it unpleasant for the king in ,thebes2 and1 to deal them yet another blow1 he quitted that city and settled at ,tell el-,amarna1 at the same time1 according to the statement of ,m4 ,virey1 reviving an old ,heliopolitan cult4 ,he took for divine protection the solar disk ,aten1 which was one of the most ancient forms of one of the most ancient gods of ,egypt1 ,r of ,heliopolis4#ib ,now let us say that the time of ,amen-hetep ,,iv41 according to the received authorities1 was about #adej ,b4,c4 ,the lines of the ,temple of the ,sun at ,tell el-,amarna are to be gathered from ,lepsius' map1 reproduced in the illustration on the next page4 ,the orientation is #ac north of west4#ic ,this gives us a declination of #aa north1 and the star ,spica at its setting would be visible in the temple4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,temples ,,at ,,tell ,,el-,,amarna4 ,a1 ,the ,aten 7,spica7 ,temple2 ,b1 the ,set ,temple4 ,still the light would not enter it axially if the orientation is correct4 ,this would have happened in #bjjj ,b4,c41 that is1 #fjj years before the time of ,amen-hetep ,,iv4 ,this is a point which ,egyptologists must discuss2 it is quite certain that such a pair of temples as those of which ,lepsius gives us the plans could not have been completely built in his short reign1 and they would not perhaps have been commenced on heretical lines in any previous reign during the ,eighteenth dynasty4 ,they must therefore have been commenced before #agjj ,b4,c41 perhaps in the ,seventeenth dynasty4 ,in any case they were certainly finished by ,khu-en-,aten4 ,professor ,flinders ,petrie has been good enough1 in reply to an inquiry1 to state his opinion that the temple was entirely built by ,khu-en-,aten4 ,should this be confirmed1 it may have been oriented directly to the sun1 on the day named1 or was probably built parallel to some former temple1 for traces of other temples are shown on ,lepsius' plan1 and ,i presume ,khu-en-,aten is not supposed to have built all of them4 ,what1 then1 was this worship which had been absent from ,thebes1 but which had held its own to the north to such an extent that ,amen-hetep ,,iv4 went back to it so eagerly8 ,it could not have been the worship of ,capella as a star alone1 for such worship had been provided for by ,thothmes ,,iii4 by building temple ,g4 ,nor could it have been the worship of ,spica as a star alone1 for in that case the precedent of ,annu would not have been appealed to4 ,the worship he emphasised there exactly resembled that which had in early times been paramount at ,heliopolis4 ,one based on it1 but not identical with it1 had been in vogue at ,thebes from #cbjj ,b4,c4 to the time of ,thothmes ,,iii41 who1 as the tool of the confraternity of ,amen1 intensified the solstitial worship1 and did his best to kill that which had been based upon the ,heliopolis cult4 ,i say exactly resembled1 because ,amen-hetep ,,iv41 or some one of the preceding kings of ,egypt1 when reintroducing the old worship at ,tell el-,amarna1 orients the solar temple #ac north of west according to the data available4 ,now when we take the difference of latitude between ,heliopolis and ,tell el-,amarna into account1 we find that the same declination 7within half a degree7 is obtained from both4 ,hence1 at ,annu in the old days1 and at ,tell el-,amarna afterwards1 the sun was worshipped on the same day of the year4 ,at both places the sunlight at sunset would enter the temple on ,april #ah and ,august #bd of the ,gregorian year2 hence both temples were probably built really to observe the sunset on a special day4 ,in this view how appropriate was the prayer of ,ahmes1 ,khu-en-,aten's chief official-- ,beautiful is thy setting1 thou sun's disk of life1 thou ,lord of ,lords and ,king of the worlds4 ,when thou unitest thyself with the heaven at thy setting1 mortals rejoice before thy countenance and give honour to him who has created them1 and pray before him who has formed them1 before the glance of thy son who loves thee the ,king ,khu-en-aten4 ,the whole land of ,egypt and all peoples repeat all thy names at thy rising1 to magnify thy rising in like manner as thy setting4#id ,as may be gathered from ,lepsius' maps and plans1 this temple of the ,sun was not built alone4 ,set was again brought to the front4 ,there was another at right angles to it1 and while ,spica was seen setting in one1 a star near ,draconis was rising in the other4 ,it may be added that it was not apparently till ,rameses ,,ii4 built his temple ,m that ,set again had an available temple at ,karnak3 one1 however1 again to be blocked when the victorious ,tirhaqa and the ,theban priests returned after their exile4 7,see page #ahf47 ,we see1 then1 that in a detailed study of the sun-worship at ,thebes alone1 we distinctly trace two schools of astronomical thought associated with different religious tendencies4 ,as a protest against the ,southern worship of the ,theban priests1 ,khu-en-,aten goes back to a ,northern cult4 ,this point is evidently worth further inquiry4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,early ,,temple ,,and ,,great ,,pyramid ,,builders4 ,in previous chapters ,i have referred to the difference in astronomical thought evidenced by the solstitial solar worship at ,thebes as opposed to the non-solstitial solar worship at ,annu1 and again by the observations of southern stars above ,thebes as opposed to observations of high northern stars below4 ,there is still another fundamental difference to be signalised1 and that is the building in some cases of pyramids1 with or without associated temples1 east and west true4 ,it will perhaps be generally conceded that the differences in thought indicated by the building or non-building of colossal pyramids are greater than those indicated by the two other differentia to which ,i have referred1 and on this ground ,i propose to enter upon this point at some length4 ,we may first inquire if there be any other class of considerations which can be utilised to continue the discussion of the question thus raised on astronomical grounds4 ,it is obvious that if sufficient tradition exists to permit us to associate the different classes of structures which have been studied astronomically with definite periods of ,egyptian history1 a study of the larger outlines of that history will enable us to determine whether or not the critical changes in dynasties and rulers were or were not associated with critical changes in astronomical ideas as revealed by changes in temple-worship and pyramid building4 ,if there be no connection the changes may have been due to a change of idea only--a variation in astronomical thought--and the suggestion of a distinction of race falls to the ground4 ,in a region of inquiry where the facts are so few and difficult to recognise among a mass of myths and traditions1 to say nothing of contradictory assertions by different authors in their exposition of the inscriptions1 the more closely we adhere to a rigidly scientific method of inquiry the better4 ,i propose to show1 therefore1 that there is one working hypothesis which seems to include a great many of the facts1 and ,i hope to give the hypothesis and the facts in such a way that if there be anything inaccurately or incompletely stated it will be easy at once to change the front of the inquiry and proceed along the new line indicated4 ,i may begin by remarking that it is fundamental for the hypothesis1 that the temple of ,annu or ,heliopolis existed1 as stated by ,maspero and other high authorities1 before the times of ,mini 7,mena7 and the pyramid builders4 ,before ,mini1 according to ,maspero1 ,on et les villes du ,nord avaient eu la part principale dans le dveloppement de la civilisation gyptienne4 ,les prires et les hymnes1 qui formrent plus tard le noyau des livres sacrs1 avaient t rdigs ,an4 ,my observations of the orientation of the obelisk at ,annu show that the temple of which it formed part may have possibly been an early member of the series which includes the temple of ,mut at ,thebes1 and of ,hathor at ,denderah2 that is1 the worship of ,set was in question1 to speak generically4 ,now1 according to ,maspero1 ,sit or ,set formed one of the divine dynasties1 being associated with the sun and air gods at ,annu1 i4e4 with ,r1 ,atmu1 ,osiris1 ,horus1 and ,shou4 ,it is also certain that the solar temple at ,annu at right-angles to the ,sit temple1 was pointed north-west1 and probably to ,capella setting1 about #ejjj ,b4,c4 ,so much for the astronomical antiquity of ,annu4 ,but there are other northern towns besides ,annu for which a very high antiquity is claimed4 ,on this point here is the opinion of ,ebers and ,dmichen1 two of our highest authorities3 ,dies ist die lteste ,stadt in ,aegypten1 und das mit ihm verbundene ,abydos kann nicht viel junger gewesen sein1 denn schon im alten ,reiche wird es vielfach als heilige ,stadt erwhnt4#ie ,the sacred character of ,abydos is also pointed out by ,maspero4#if ,c'est comme ville sainte qu'elle tait universellement connue4 ,ses sanctuaires taient clbres1 son dieu ,osiris vnr1 ses ftes suivies par toute l'gypte2 les gens riches des autres nomes tenaient honneur de se faire dresser une stle dans son temple4 ,if it be found that the references to ancestors1 and divine ancestors1 occur after the eleventh dynasty1 the race represented by ,annu1 or the one which immediately followed it 78 the ,hor-,shesu7 may be referred to 7see the chapters on the ,egyptian year74 ,of ,abydos astronomically ,i can only say very little1 as the various statements as to the orientation of the north-east temples there by various authors are so conflicting that nothing certain can be made out4 ,as they stand they are suggestive that these temples may possibly be associated with that at ,luxor1 and it may be gathered from the description of them by ,ebers and ,dmichen in ,baedeker that many references to ,set 7,anubis7 occur in the inscriptions4 ,if subsequent measurements indicate that ,abydos and ,luxor are to be treated together1 then astronomically both these places may represent a cult more ancient than that at ,annu1#ig since it would appear that in these cases ,lyr was the star personified by ,anubis1 as ,urs ,majoris and ,draconis were subsequently4 ,but if the cult were more ancient the temple foundations were not1 the first length of ,luxor having been built1 on this supposition1 about #dijj ,b4,c4 ,the last length built by ,ramses ,,ii4 was certainly oriented to ,lyr1 by which ,i mean that if the building date given by ,egyptologists is correct1 ,lyr rose in the axis prolonged--another instance of the long persistence of a cult1 and of the fact that the temples that we see are but shrines restored4 ,on the assumption that the above view is true for ,luxor and that ,abydos followed suit1 as is suggested by the imperfect orientations1 we are led to the conclusion that1 taking existing temple foundations1 ,annu preceded ,abydos4#ih ,the astronomical results1 then1 are certainly in harmony with the historical statement1 which ,i take as fundamental1 that ,annu preceded ,memphis and pyramid times4 ,these times were not only remarkable on account of the building of the great pyramids2 there was a vast change in the cult4 ,i have already pointed out that at ,annu we seemed limited to ,set as a stellar divinity2 so soon as pyramid times are reached1 however1 this is changed4 ,the number of gods is increased1 and there is apparently a mixture1 as if some influence had been at work besides that represented by ,annu and the pyramid builders4 ,i have given before the list of the gods of ,heliopolis1 and have shown that with the exception of ,sit none are stellar4 ,but we find in pyramid times the list is increased2 only the sun gods ,r1 ,horus1 ,osiris1 are common to the two4 ,as new divinities we have#ii-- ,isis4 ,hathor4 ,nephthys4 ,ptah4 ,serk-t4 ,sokhit4 ,of these the first two and the last two undoubtedly symbolised stars1 and there can be no question that the temples of ,isis built at the pyramids1 ,bubastis1 ,tanis and elsewhere1 were built to watch the rising of some of them4 ,the temple of ,sas1 as ,i have said1 had east and west walls1 and so had ,memphis1 according to ,lepsius4 ,the form of ,isis at ,sas was the goddess ,nit1 which1 according to some authorities1 was the precursor of ,athene4 ,the temple of ,athene at ,athens was oriented to the ,pleiades4 ,there is also no question that the goddess ,serk-t symbolised ,antares4 ,we find ourselves1 then1 in the presence of the worship of the sun and stars in the ecliptic constellations in ,egypt during pyramid times1 and in constellations connected with the ,equinox2 for if we are right about the ,pleiades and ,antares1 these are the stars which heralded the sunrise at the ,vernal and ,autumnal ,equinox respectively1 when the sun was in ,taurus and ,scorpio4 ,now1 associated with the introduction of these new worships in pyramid times was the worship of the bull ,apis1 this worship preceding the building of pyramids4 ,mena is credited by some authors with its introduction1#ajj but at any rate ,kakau of the second dynasty issued proclamations regarding it1#aja and a statue of ,hapi was in the temple of ,cheops4#ajb ,illustration3 ,,apis4 ,,apis4 ,the ground being thus cleared1 ,i now state the working hypothesis to which ,i have referred above4 #a4 ,the first civilisation as yet glimpsed1 so far as temple building goes1 in ,northern ,egypt1 represented by that at ,annu or ,heliopolis1 was a civilisation with a non-equinoctial solar worship1 combined with the cult of a northern star4 #b4 ,memphis 7possibly also ,sas1 ,bubastis1 ,tanis and other cities with east and west walls7 and the great pyramids were built by a new invading race1 representing an advance in astronomical thought4 ,the northern stars were worshipped possibly on the meridian1 and a star rising in the east was worshipped at each equinox4 #c4 ,the subsequent blank in ,egyptian history was associated with conflicts between these and other races1 which were ended by the victory of the representatives of the old worship of ,annu1 reinforced from the south1 as if north-star and south-star cults had combined against the equinoctial cult4 ,illustration3 ,,mnevis4 ,after these conflicts1 east and west pyramid building practically ceased1 ,memphis takes second place1 and ,thebes1 a southern ,annu1 so far as the form of solar worship and the cult of ,sit are concerned1 comes upon the scene as the seat of the twelfth dynasty4#ajc #d4 ,the subsequent historical events were largely due to conflicts with intruding races from the north-east4 ,the intruders established themselves in cities with east and west walls1 and were on each occasion driven out by solstitial solar worshippers who founded dynasties 7eighteenth and twenty-fifth7 at ,thebes4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,two ,,great ,,pyramids ,,at ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,the ,,inundation4 ,some detailed remarks are necessary on several points connected with the above generalisation4 ,i will take them seriatim4 ,we find at ,memphis1 ,sas1 ,bubastis1 and ,tanis1 east and west walls which at once stamp those cities as differing in origin from ,annu1 ,abydos and ,thebes1 where1 as ,i have shown1 the walls trend either north-west--south-east or north-east--south-west4 ,for ,memphis1 ,sas and ,tanis the evidence is afforded by the maps of ,lepsius4 ,for ,bubastis it depends upon the statement of ,naville1 that the walls run nearly from east to west1 and with the looseness too often associated with such statements1 it is not said whether this bearing is true or magnetic4 ,associated with these east and west walls there is1 moreover1 evidence of great antiquity4 ,bubastis1 according to ,naville1#ajd has afforded traces of the date of ,cheops and ,chephren1 and it is stated by ,manetho to have existed as early as the second dynasty4 ,it is a matter of common knowledge that the pyramids in ,egypt are generally oriented east and west4#aje ,nor is this all2 there has been a distinct evolution in their method of structure4 ,one of the oldest1 if not the oldest pyramid known is the so-called step-pyramid of ,sakkarah4 ,the steps are six in number1 and vary in height from thirty-eight to twenty-nine feet1 their width being about six feet4 ,the dimensions are 7#ceb north and south7 7#cij east and west7 #aig feet4 ,some authorities think this pyramid was erected in the first dynasty by the fourth king 7,nenephes of ,manetho1 ,ata of the tablet of ,abydos74 ,the arrangement of chambers in this pyramid is quite special4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,step-,,pyramid ,,of ,,sakkarah4 ,the claim to the highest antiquity of the step-pyramid is disputed by some in favour of the false pyramid of ,mdm4 ,it also is a genuine step-pyramid1 #aae feet high2 its outline1 which conceals some of the steps1 shows three stages1 seventy1 twenty1 and twenty-five feet high2 but in its internal structure it is really a step-pyramid of six stages4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pyramid ,,of ,m,d,m4 ,this pyramid must1 according to the important and conclusive researches of ,professor ,flinders ,petrie1#ajf be attributed to ,seneferu1 although ,de ,roug had furnished evidence to the contrary4#ajg ,seneferu was a king of the fourth dynasty4 ,we have at ,dashr the only remaining abnormal pyramid1 called the blunted pyramid1 for the reason that the inclination changes at about one-third of the height4 ,this pyramid forms one of a group of four1 two of stone1 and1 be it carefully borne in mind1 two of brick2 their dimensions are #gjj #gjj #cbf feet2 #fbj #fbj #cba feet2 #cej #cej #ij feet2 and #cdc #cdc #aef feet4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,blunted ,,pyramid ,,of ,,dash,r4 ,one of these pyramids was formerly supposed to have been built by ,seneferu2 if any of them had been erected by ,king ,usertsen ,,iii4 of the twelfth dynasty1 as was formerly thought1 the hypothesis we are considering would have been invalid4 ,only after ,seneferu1 then1 do we come to the normal ,egyptian pyramid1 the two largest at ,gzeh built by ,cheops 7,chufu7 and ,chephren 7fourth dynasty7 being1 so far as is accurately known1 the oldest of the series4 7,according to ,mariette the date of ,mena is #ejjd ,b4,c41 and the fourth dynasty commenced in #dbce47 ,associated with the cities with east and west walls and these pyramids are temples facing due east1 fit1 therefore1 to receive the rays from a star on the equator or of the morning sun rising at an equinox4 ,according to ,professor ,flinders ,petrie1 at the pyramid of ,mdm there is a small temple open to the west on the east side of the pyramid4 ,at sunset at the equinox the sepulchral chamber and the sun were in line from the adytum4 ,the priest faced a double ,osiris4 ,other pyramids were built at ,sakkarah during the sixth dynasty1 but it is remarkable that such a king as ,pepi-,meri-,r should not have imitated the majestic structures of the fourth dynasty4 ,he is said to have built a pyramid at ,sakkarah1 but its obscurity is evidence that the pyramid idea was giving way1 and it looks as if this dynasty were really on the side of the southern cult1 for the authority of ,memphis declined1 and ,abydos was preferred1 while abroad ,sinai was reconquered1 and ,ethiopia was kept in order4#ajh ,the sphinx 7oriented true east7 may possibly be ascribed to the earliest pyramid builders2 it could only have been sculptured by a race with an equinoctial cult4 ,the ,buildings of the ,eleventh and ,twelfth ,dynasties4 ,we have next to consider what happened after the great gap in ,egyptian history between the sixth and twelfth dynasties1 #cejj ,b4,c4--#bhea ,b4,c4 7,mariette72 from ,nitocris to ,amenemht ,i4 ,we pass to the ,middle ,empire1 and here we have merely to deal with the worships previously referred to in ,northern ,egypt4 ,amenemht ,i4 built no pyramids1 he added no embellishments to ,memphis2 but he took ,annu under his care1 and now we first hear of ,thebes4#aji ,usertsen ,i4 built no pyramids1 he added no embellishments to ,memphis1 but he also took ,annu under his care1 and added obelisks to the temples1 one of which remains to this day4 ,further1 he restored the temple of ,osiris at ,abydos1 and added to the temple of ,amen-,r at ,thebes4#aaj ,surely it is very noteworthy that the first thing the kings of the twelfth dynasty did was to look after the only three temples in ,egypt of which traces exist1 which ,i have shown to have been oriented to the ,sun not at an equinox4 ,it is right1 however1 to remark that there seems to have been a mild recrudescence of pyramid building towards the end of the twelfth dynasty1 and immediately preceding the ,hyksos period1 whether as a precursor of that period or not4 ,usertsen's views about his last home have come down to us in a writing by his scribe ,mirri3--#aaa ,mon matre m'envoya en mission pour lui prparer une grande demeure ternelle4 ,les couloirs et la chambre intrieure taient en maonnerie1 et renouvelaient les merveilles de construction des dieux4 ,il y eut en elle des colonnes sculptes1 belles comme le ciel1 un bassin creus qui communiquait avec le ,nil1 des portes1 des oblisques1 une faade en pierre de ,rouou4 ,there was nothing pyramidal about this idea1 but one hundred and fifty years later we find ,amenemht ,,iii4 returning both to the gigantic irrigation works and the pyramid building of the earlier dynasties4 ,the scene of these labours was the ,fayym1 where1 to crown the new work1 two ornamental pyramids were built1 surmounted by statues1 and finally the king himself was buried in a pyramid near the ,labyrinth4 ,the ,buildings of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty4 ,the blank in ,egyptian history between the twelfth and eighteenth dynasties is known to have been associated with the intrusion of the so-called ,hyksos4 ,it is supposed these made their way into ,egypt from the countries in and to the west of ,mesopotamia2 it is known that they settled in the cities with east and west walls4 ,they were finally driven out by ,ahmes1 the king of solstitial-solar ,thebes1 who began the eighteenth dynasty4 ,on page #cch ,i have shown what happened after the first great break in ,egyptian history--a resuscitation of the solar worship at ,annu1 ,abydos and ,thebes4 ,i have next to show that precisely the same thing happened after the ,hyksos period 7,dyn4 #ac 787 ,mariette1 #bbcc ,brugsch2 ,dyn4 #ah1 #agjc ,b4,c41 ,mariette1 #agjj ,b4,c4 ,brugsch7 had disturbed history for some five hundred years4 ,it is known from the papyrus ,sellier 7,g4,c4 #beg7 that ,ahmes1 the first king of the eighteenth dynasty1 who re-established the independence of ,egypt1 was in reality fighting the priests of ,sutech in favour of the priests of ,amen-,r1 the solstitial-solar god1 a modern representative of ,atmu of ,annu4 ,amen-,r was the successor of ,menthu4 ,so close was the new worship to the oldest at ,annu1 that at the highest point of ,theban power the third priest of ,amen took the same titles as the ,grand ,priest of ,annu1 who was the head of the first priesthood in ,egypt4 ,the ,grand ,priest of ,annu1 who was also called the ,great ,observer of ,r and ,atmu1 had the privilege of entering at all times into the ,hahenben or ,naos4 ,the priest ,padouamen1 whose mummy was found in #ahia1 bore these among his other titles4 ,the assumption of the title was not only to associate the ,theban priesthood with their northern confrres1 but surely to proclaim that the old ,annu worship was completely restored4 ,the ,buildings of the ,twenty-fifth ,dynasty4 ,there was another invasion from ,syria1 which founded the twenty-second dynasty1 and again the government is carried on in cities with east and west walls 7,sas1 ,tanis and ,bubastis74 ,the solstitial-solar priests of ,thebes withdraw to ,ethiopia4 ,they return1 however1 in #gjj ,b4,c41 drive out the ,syrian invaders1 and1 under ,shabaka and ,taharqa1 found a dynasty 7the twenty-fifth7 at ,thebes1 embellish the temples there1 and at ,phil1 ,mednet-,hab1 and ,denderah4 ,conclusion4 ,we see1 then1 that every important change of cult was associated either with invasions from without or with some disturbance in ,egypt itself1 for in no other way can the gaps in ,egyptian history be explained4 99 99 99 99 99 ,so far we have considered the equinoctial temples as opposed to the non-equinoctial ones in ,northern ,egypt4 ,we have next to go farther afield1 and include the southern temple worship and the possible influence of southern races even in the very earliest times4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,the ,,cult ,,of ,,northern ,,as ,,opposed ,,to ,,southern ,,stars4 ,so far as my inquiries have yet gone1 there is not above ,thebes1 with the exceptions of ,redesich and ,dakkeh1 any temple resembling those at ,annu1 ,thebes1 ,denderah and ,abydos1 to which ,i have directed attention as having a high north-east amplitude4 ,similarly1 with one or two exceptions which are probably late1 there are no temples facing the south-east below ,thebes4 ,in short1 in ,lower ,egypt the temples are pointed to rising stars near the north point of the horizon or setting north of west4 ,in ,upper ,egypt we deal chiefly with temples directed to stars rising in the south-east or setting low in the south-west4 ,here again we are in presence of as distinct differences in astronomical thought and purpose of observation as we found among those who directed temples to the sun at the equinox1 as opposed to those who worshipped that luminary at some other time of the year4 ,now with regard to the northern stars observed rising in high amplitudes1 we have found traces of their worship in times so remote that in all probability at ,annu and ,denderah ,urs ,majoris was used before it became circumpolar4 ,we deal almost certainly with #ejjj ,b4,c4 ,since undoubtedly new temples with nearly similar amplitudes 7such as that denoted by ,m at ,karnak7 were built in late times1 we find so long a range of time indicated that the utility of the stellar observations from the yearly point of view could scarcely have been in question1 for the reason that the same star could not herald an equinox or a solstice for four thousand years4 ,it may be suggested1 therefore1 that the observations made in them had ultimately to do with the determination of the hours of the night2 this seems probable1 for in ,nubia at present1 time at night is thus told4 ,it may be that such stars as ,canopus were used by the southern peoples for the same purpose as ,urs ,majoris first and then ,draconis were used by the northerners4 ,in other words1 the question arises whether the extreme north and south stars were not both used as warners of the dawn all the year round1 after the cult had been established for use at some special time4 ,canopus1 for instance1 was of use to herald the autumnal equinox1 #f--ejjj ,b4,c42 but it is quite natural to suppose that its utility for night work at all times of the year during which it was visible would soon suggest itself1 and the same remarks apply to the ,northern star ,draconis4 ,it is well known that in quite early times means had been found of dividing the day and night into twelve hours4 ,in the day shadows cast by the sun1 or sundials1 might have been used1 but how about the night8 ,we have seen that the ,egyptians chiefly1 if not exclusively1 observed a heavenly body and the position of other bodies in relation to it1 when it was rising or setting1 so that it was absolutely essential that the body which they were to observe should rise and set4 ,everybody knows that as seen in ,england there are many stars which neither rise nor set4 ,the latitude of ,london being #ea1 the elevation of the pole is #ea4 ,hence1 any star which lies within that distance from the pole cannot set1 but sweeps round without touching the horizon at all4 ,the latitude of ,thebes being #be1 the distance from the pole to the horizon is much smaller1 and so the number of stars which do not rise and set is much smaller4 ,the stars which do not rise or set are stars near the pole1 and therefore stars which move very slowly1 and the stars which rise most to the north and most to the south are those bodies which are moving most slowly while they yet rise or set4 ,can this slow rate of motion have had anything to do with such stars being selected for observation1 the brightest star to the north most slowly moving1 the brightest star to the south most slowly moving8 ,it is possible that observations of these stars might have been made in such a way that at the beginning of the evening the particular position of ,draconis1 for instance1 might have been noted with regard to the pole-star2 and seeing that the ,egyptians thoroughly knew the length of the night and of the day in the different portions of the year1 they could at once--the moment they had the starting-point afforded by the position of this star--practically use the circle of the stars round the north pole as the dial of a sort of celestial clock4 ,may not this really have been the clock with which they have been credited8 ,however long or short the night1 the star which was at first above the pole-star1#aab after it had got round so that it was on a level with it1 would have gone through a quarter of its revolution4 ,in low northern latitudes1 however1 the southern stars would serve better for this purpose1 since the circle of northern circumpolar stars would be much restricted4 ,hence there was a reason in such latitudes for preferring southern stars4 ,with regard both to high north and south stars1 then1 we may in both cases be in presence of observations made to determine the time at night4 ,so that the worship of ,set1 the determination of the time at night by means of northern stars1 might have been little popular with those who at ,gebel ,barkal and elsewhere in the south had used the southern ones for the same purpose1 and this may be one reason why the ,theban priests1 representing ,nubian astronomical culture and methods1 were pledged to drive the cult of ,sutech out of the land4 ,since1 then1 the observations of ,draconis might be used to herald the sunrise almost all the year round2 and since the modern constellation ,draco is the old ,hippopotamus1 we can readily understand ,plutarch's statement that ,taurt presides over the birth of the sun1 and why ,taurt or ,mut should be called the ,mistress of ,darkness4#aac ,it does not seem too much to hope that the continuation of such inquiries may ultimately enable us to solve several points connected with early ,egyptian history4 ,we read in ,brugsch3--#aad ,according to ,greek tradition1 the primitive abode of the ,egyptian people is to be sought in ,ethiopia1 and the honour of founding their civilisation should be given to a band of priests from ,mero4 ,descending the ,nile1 they are supposed to have settled near the later city of ,thebes1 and to have established the first state with a theocratic form of government4 ,but it is not to ,ethiopian priests that the ,egyptian ,empire owes its origin1 its form of government1 and its high civilisation2 much rather was it the ,egyptians themselves that first ascended the river to found in ,ethiopia temples1 cities1 and fortified places1 and to diffuse the blessings of a civilised state among the rude dark-coloured population4 444 ,strange to say1 the whole number of the buildings in stone1 as yet known and examined1 which were erected on both sides of the river by ,egyptian and ,ethiopian kings1 furnish incontrovertible proof that the long series of temples1 cities1 sepulchres1 and monuments in general1 exhibit a distinct chronological order1 of which the starting-point is found in the pyramids1 at the apex of the ,delta4 ,it must be emphatically stated that the results obtained from these monuments1 studying them from the astronomical point of view1 lead to a very different conclusion4 ,instead of one series1 there are distinctly two 7leaving out of consideration the great pyramid builders at ,gzeh7 absolutely dissimilar astronomically2 and instead of one set of temple-builders going up the river1 there were at least two sets1 one going up the river building temples to north stars1 the other going down building temples to south stars2 and the two streams practically met at ,thebes1 or at all events they were both very fully represented there1 either together or successively4 ,the double origin of the people thus suggested on astronomical grounds may be the reason of the name of double country1 used especially in the titles of kings1 of the employment of two crowns1 and finally of the supposed sovereignty of ,set over the north1 and of ,horus over the south divisions of the kingdom4#aae ,only by the time of ,seneferu was there anything like an amalgamation of the peoples4 ,he first was ,king of the two ,egypts1#aaf while later ,chephren called himself ,horus and ,sit#aag--;a distinct indication1 ,i take it1 that the influence of ,upper ,egypt was already felt as early as ,seneferu1 and1 ,i think1 much earlier1 although all temple trace of it is lost4 ,illustration3 ,,ship ,,of ,h,t-,,shepset ,,laden ,,with ,,produce ,,from ,,pun-,t4 7,dr el-,bahari ,inscriptions47 ,with regard to the start-point of the temple-builders who came down the river1 there is no orientation evidence1 for the reason that there is little or no information from the regions south of ,naga4 ,at ,naga 7lat4 #af #ah ,n471 ,mero 7lat4 #af #ee ,n471 ,gebel ,barkal and ,nuri 7both in lat4 #ah #cj ,n471 there is information of the most important kind1 but beyond ,naga there is a gap2 but since important structures were erected at the places named in early times 7my inquiries suggest #cjjj-djjj ,b4,c471 it is probable that the peoples who built them stretched further towards the equator4 ,but although the orientation evidence is lacking for the lower latitudes1 the inscriptions are by no means silent1 and over and over again it is stated that those particular gods whom ,i have found to be associated with southern stars came from a locality called the land of ,pun-t4 ,illustration3 ,,huts ,,built ,,on ,,piles ,,in ,,pun-,t4 7,dr el-,bahari ,inscriptions47 ,pun-t was always considered a ,holy ,land4 ,hathor was ,queen of the ,holy ,land1 ,mistress and ,ruler of ,pun-t4 ,amen-,r was ,hak or ,king of ,pun-t1 and ,horus was the ,holy ,morning ,star which rose to the west 787 of the land of ,pun-t4#aah ,maspero refers to an ancient tradition that the land of ,pun-t could be reached by going up the ,nile1 where eventually one came to an unknown sea which bathed the land of ,pun-t4 ,was this one of the great lakes8#aai ,brugsch#abj is of opinion that ,pun-t occupied the south and west coasts of ,arabia ,felix1 but ,maspero and ,mariette do not agree with him4 ,the two latter authorities identify it with that part of the ,somali-land which borders on the ,gulf of ,aden4 ,it is the ,cinnamonifera regio or ,aromatifera regio of the ancients4#aba ,the inscriptions at ,dr el-,bahari make it quite certain that ,pun-t is in ,africa4 ,hottentot ,venuses1 pile dwellings1#abb elephants1 to say nothing of the products of the country referred to as among the freight of the ships on their homeward voyage1 distinctly point to ,africa1 and ,i think a southern part of it4 ,the ,cynocephalus ape1 perhaps1 is more doubtful4 ,the first organised expedition to ,pun-t of which we hear anything is that organised by ,se-n-ka-,r1 the last king of the #aath ,theban dynasty4 ,this was a new traffic by way of the ,red ,sea4 ,there was then no canal in existence joining the sea with the ,nile2 the expedition went by land to ,coptos4#abc ,they further indicate1 as ,maspero suggests1 that the expedition of ,ht-shepset anchored up a river1 and not on the sea-shore4 ,this1 again1 makes ,africa much more probable than ,arabia4 ,if we agree that ,pun-t is really in ,africa1 south of ,somali-land1 there is a great probability that the tradition referred to by ,maspero is a true one4 ,it is also to be pointed out that there is no trace of the southern star temples along the various roads to the ,red ,sea1 while1 on the other hand1 the earliest traces of northern star worship1 with the exception of ,annu or ,on1 occur along one or other of them4 ,there is distinct evidence that ,osiris1 ,horus1 ,hathor1 ,chnemu1 ,amen-,r1 and ,khons1 are worships coming from the south4 ,with regard to ,horus1 it is necessary to discriminate1 since there were two distinct gods--,horus in ,northern and ,horus in ,southern ,egypt1 and ,horus of the south was the elder of the two4 ,illustration3 ,,cynocephalus ,,ape ,,with ,,moon ,,emblem4 ,the ,hawk-god of ,edf1 ,harhouditi1 the southern ,horus1 had for servants a number of individuals called ,masniu or ,masnitiu blacksmiths4 ,the ,hawk-god of the ,delta1 the northern ,horus1 ,harsiisit1 had for his entourage the ,shesu ,horu4 ,now ,maspero has recently pointed out#abd that the southern ,horus may have been imported1 not from ,arabia ,felix or ,somali-land1 but from ,central ,africa6 and in a most interesting paper has called attention to some customs still extant among the castes of blacksmiths in ,central ,africa1 which have suggested to him that the followers of the ,edf ,horus may have come from that province4 ,he writes3-- ,c'est du sud de l'gypte que les forgerons sont remonts vers le nord2 leur sige primitif tait le sud de l'gypte1 la partie du pays qui a le plus des rapports avec les rgions centrales de l',afrique et leurs habitants4 ,then1 after stating the present conditions of these workers in ,equatorial ,africa1 where they enjoy a high distinction1 he concludes3-- ,je pense qu'on peut se reprsenter l',horus d',edfou comme tant au dbut1 dans l'une de ses formes1 le chef et le dieu d'une tribu d'ouvriers travaillant le mtal1 ou plutt travaillant le fer4 ,on ne saurait en effet se dissimuler qu'il y a une affinit relle entre le fer et la personne d',horus en certains mythes4 ,horus est la face cleste 7horou71 le ciel1 le firmament1 et ce firmament est de toute antiquit1 un toit de fer1 si bien que le fer en prit le nom de ba-ni-pit1 mtal du ciel1 mtal dont est form le ciel3 ,horus l'an1 ,horus d',edfou1 est donc en ralit un dieu de fer4 ,il est1 de plus1 muni de la pique ou de la javeline point de fer1 et les dieux qui lui sont apparents1 ,anhouri1 ,shou1 sont de piquiers comme lui1 au contraire des dieux du nord de l'gypte1 ,r1 ,phtah1 etc41 qui n'ont pas d'armes l'ordinaire4 ,la lgende d',harhouditi conqurant l'gypte avec les masniou serait-elle donc l'cho lointain d'un fait qui se serait pass au temps antrieurs l'histoire8 ,quelque chose comme l'arrive des ,espagnols au milieu des populations du ,nouveau ,monde1 l'irruption en gypte de tribus connaissant et employant le fer1 ayant parmi elles une caste de forgerons et apportant le culte d'un dieu belliqueux qui aurait t un ,horus ou se serait confondu avec l',horus des premiers ,egyptiens pour former ,harhouditi4 ,ces tribus auraient t ncessairement d'origine ,africaine1 et auraient apport de nouveaux lments ,africains ceux que renfermait dj la civilisation du bas ,nil4 ,les forgerons auraient perdu peu peu leurs privilges pour se fondre au reste de la population3 ,edfou seulement et dans les villes ou l'on pratiquait le culte de l',horus d',edfou1 ils auraient conserv un caractre sacr et se seraient transforms en un sorte de domesticit religieuse1 les masniou du mythe d',horus1 compagnons et serviteurs du dieu guerrier4 ,if we are to accept ,maspero's suggestion that the elder ,horus really came from ,central ,africa1 traces of the cult of his followers should be found high up the river4 ,but such a search is now denied us1 while in the time of ,thothmes ,,iii4 it is supposed that the south frontier ,kali of the inscriptions is probably connected with ,kolo in #d #ae ,n4 lat4 according to ,ptolemy4#abe ,as a matter of fact1 there is distinct evidence of the cult of the southern stars coming down the river in the region we can get at2 ,centauri1 e4g41 seems to have been observed at ,gebel ,barkal before ,thebes--,sirius is too modern to be considered--and above all there is the remarkable series of temples1 apparently oriented to ,canopus before #fjjj ,b4,c41 which come down no lower than ,edf4 ,the general statement is1 then1 that there were two distinct groups of stellar temples1 probably built by different races1 or at all events by peoples having very different astronomical methods4 ,it is well to inquire here whether the dates of the various temples as determined by the methods dwelt on in previous chapters can throw any light upon the inquiry4 ,here ,i must re-state that in almost every case the date of foundation so determined precedes the generally-received date1 which invariably has reference to a stone building1 while in all probability the first structure was a brick shrine merely4 ,in support of this view ,i may state that the looking after ruined shrines was recognised as one of the duties of kingship4 ,i have caused monuments to be raised to the gods2 ,i have embellished their sanctuaries that they may last to posterity2 ,i have kept up their temples2 ,i have restored again what was fallen down1 and have taken care of that which was erected in former times4#abf ,not only did ,thothmes ,,iii4 find the original temple of ,amen-,r built in brick1 but he found the temple at ,semneh in brick also1 and he rebuilt it in memory of ,usertsen ,,iii4#abg ,in the following table ,i bring together the foundation dates ,i have found most probable1 bearing the above and many other considerations in mind4 ,the dates are1 of course1 only provisional1 since local data are in many cases wanting4 ,where no information is forthcoming as to the height of the horizon visible along the temple axis1 ,i have assumed hills #a high1 and used the dates printed in heavy type in ,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,table ,,of ,,temples ,,built ,,to ,n4 ,,and ,s4 ,,stars4 ,northern ,stars4 ,southern stars4 ,years ,ursa ,b4,c4 ,maj- ,drac-,cap- ,spica4,phact4,cent-,can- ,sir-,remarks4 oris4onis4ella4 auri4opus4ius4 #fdjj #a1 #b1 #a #b #c1 #d4 8,edf1 ,phil14 #c #d #edjj ,amada1 ,semneh #ecjj #a #a4 ,memphis4 #b #b4 ,annu4 #ebjj #a #a4 ,annu4 #eajj #ejjj #dijj #dhjj #a #a4 ,denderah4 #dgjj #dfjj #a #a4 ,redesieh4 #dejj #ddjj #dcjj #dbjj #a #b #a1 #b4 ,denderah 7temple built #dajj when both stars #djjj had an equal #cijj amplitude74 #chjj #cgjj #a #a4 ,barkal 7,e74 #b #b4 ,krnah 7,seti ,i474 #c #c4 ,memnonia 7,western ,temple74 #cfjj #a #a4 ,krnah 7,palace74 #b #b4 ,barkal 7,b74 #cejj #a #a4 ,karnak 7,z and ,x74 #b #b4 ,dakkeh4 #c #c4 ,denderah4 #cdjj #a #a4 ,karnak 7,v74 #ccjj #cbjj #a #a4 ,abu ,simbel 7,hathor ,temple74 #b #b4 ,karnak 7,y74 #cajj #a #a4 ,karnak 7,temple ,o7 ,gr4 #b #b4 ,dr el- ,medinet 7,gr474 #cjjj #a #a4 ,karnak 7,u74 #b #b4 ,wady ,halfa 7,thothmes ,,ii474 #bijj #a #a4 ,barkal 7,l74 #bhjj #a #a4 ,wady ,halfa 7,thothmes ,,iii474 #b #b4 ,sabooa4 #bgjj #a #a4 ,dr el-,bahari4 #b #b4 ,wady ,e4 ,sofra4 #bfjj #a #a4 ,memnonia 7,rameses ,,ii47 7,mean of ,fr4 and ,gr474 #bejj #a #a4 ,karnak 7,w74 #b #b4 ,karnak 7,j74 #c #c4 ,mednet ,hab 7,,jj74 #bdjj #a #a4 ,kom ,ombo 7,little ,temple74 #b #b4 ,petit ,temple du ,sud 7,memnonia74 #c #c4 ,barkal 7,j and ,h74 #bcjj #a #a4 ,annu #bbjj 7,restoration74 #bajj #a #a4 ,karnak 7,b74 #b #b4 ,semneh4 #bjjj #a #a4 ,dosche4 #aijj #a #a4 ,tell el-,amarna4 #ahjj #a #a4 ,karnak 7,d7 ,gr4 #agjj #a #a4 ,karnak 7,g74 #b #b4 ,karnak 7,seti ,,ii474 #afjj #aejj #adjj #a #a4 ,naga 7,temple g71 ,gr4 #acjj #a #a4 ,naga 7,temple f74 #abjj #a #a4 ,karnak1 7,a4,m4,c74 #b #b4 ,mednet ,hab 7,palace ,k ,k74 #aajj #ajjj #a #a4 ,karnak 7,khons74 #ijj #hjj #a #a4 ,phil 7,ethiopian ,temple74 #b #b4 ,mednet ,hab 7,ethiopian ,temple74 #gjj #a #a4 ,denderah 7,isis ,temple74 ,gr4 ,german values of ,orientation4 ,fr4 ,french ,the following general conclusions may be drawn from the table3-- ,i4 ,at the earlier periods there are well-marked epochs of temple-building revealed by the table4 ,,ii4 ,if we can accept the possible ,canopus temples referred to in ,chapter ,,xxx41 the oldest foundations in ,egypt yet traced are to southern stars4 ,they are limited to ,upper ,egypt1 and date from before #fjjj ,b4,c4 ,,iii4 ,the temples to the north stars1 ,urs ,majoris1 ,draconis1 and ,capella 7,set and ,ptah71 begin in the ,delta and about #ajjj years later4 ,the series is then broken till about #cejj ,b4,c4 ,,iv4 ,the south star temples to ,phact at the summer solstice1 and ,centauri at the autumnal equinox1 begin about #cgjj ,b4,c4 ,v4 ,draconis replaces ,urs ,majoris at ,denderah2 north-star temples are for the first time erected in the south at ,karnak and ,dakkeh in #cejj ,b4,c4 ,,vi4 ,for the first time about #cbjj ,b4,c41 north-and south-star temples are built simultaneously4 ,,vii4 ,after this the building activity is chiefly limited to temples to southern stars4 ,if we take ,brugsch's dates1 we find that the foundations of the greatest number of temples were laid about the time of ,seneferu1 ,pepi1 and the twelfth dynasty4 ,the more modern kings founded few temples--their functions were those of expanding1 restoring1 and annexing4 ,even ,thothmes ,,iii4 seems to have laid no new foundations except perhaps that of the ,ptah temple at ,karnak1 and that is doubtful4 ,the wonderful ,hall of ,columns called ,khu-mennu 7,splendid ,memorial71 in the temple of ,amen-,r1 was dedicated by ,thothmes ,,iii4 not only to ,amen-,r1 but to his ancestors4 ,it is important to see who these were in the present connection4 ,i give them with approximate dates4#abh ,brugsch4 ,mariette4 ,b4,c4 ,b4,c4 ,seneferu1 fourth dynasty #cgff #dbce ,assa1 fifth dynasty #ccff #ciea ,pepi1 sixth dynasty #cbcc #cgjc ,the ,antefs1 eleventh dynasty #bejj #cjfd ,the most famous sovereigns of the twelfth dynasty #bdcc-bcjj #bhea ,thirty princes of the thirteenth dynasty #bbcc 787 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,pyramids ,,at ,,nuri4 ,it is interesting to note that in this list the builders of the great pyramids at ,gzeh1 and all the kings who in the last chapter were suggested as being given to equinoctial worship1 are passed over without notice4 ,it would appear1 then1 that the ancestors named were of southern origin1 precursors of ,thothmes in cult as well as in time4 ,of these ancestors1 the first--if ,brugsch's dates can be taken1 which1 ,i think1 is doubtful--limited himself to southern temples2 the majority of temples built near ,pepi's time were oriented to the south4 ,the twelfth dynasty was more catholic4 ,the more we inquire1 the more interesting does this inquiry into the north-star temples as opposed to the south-star temples become4 ,these considerations are not limited to the temples--they apply also to pyramids4 ,at ,gzeh we find both temples and pyramids oriented east and west4 ,at ,gebel ,barkal1 ,nuri1 and ,mero1 in ,upper ,egypt1 we find both temples and pyramids facing south-east1 and at the first of these places1 where both exist together1 we find well-marked groups of pyramids connected by their orientations with each temple4 ,i can1 however1 find no information as to the probable dates of these pyramids2 in the absence of facts1 it seems fair to assume that they follow the dates of the temples which agree in orientation4 ,in the following tables ,i give the values for ,nuri1 ,mero1 and ,gebel ,barkal2 a west variation of #h has been assumed4 ,,nuri4#abi ,magnetic ,astronomical ,cult4 ,azimuth4 ,amplitude4 ,decl4 ,pyramids #aj1 #aa1 #ab ,n4 #acf ,e4 #cg ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #ce ,pyramids #a1 #d ,n4 #acg ,e4 #ch ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #cf ,pyramids #ac1 #ad1 #ae ,n4 #aci ,e4 #dj ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #ch ,pyramids #b1 #c1 #af1 #ag ,n4 #ade ,e4 #dg ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #dc ,pyramids #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i ,n4 #adf ,e4 #dh ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #dd ,,mero4#acj ,magnetic ,astronomical ,cult4 ,azimuth4 ,amplitude4 ,decl4 ,pyramid #af ,n4 #ajb ,e4 #c ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #c ,pyramid #bj ,n4 #ajc ,e4 #d ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #d ,temple near ,watercourse ,n4 #aab ,e4 #ac ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #ab ,pyramid #ae ,n4 #aab ,e4 #ac ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #ab ,pyramids #ad1 #cg ,n4 #aac ,e4 #ad ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #ac ,pyramid #aj ,n4 #aaf ,e4 #ag ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #af ,pyramid #ci ,n4 #aah ,e4 #ai ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #ah ,pyramid #ai ,n4 #hc ,e4 #ae ,n4 of ,e4 ,n4 #ad ,,gebel ,,barkal4#aca ,magnetic ,astronomical ,cult4 ,azimuth4 ,amplitude4 ,decl4 ,temple ,e ,n4 #acb ,e4 #cc ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #ca ,pyramid #ah ,n4 #acb ,e4 #cd ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #cb ,temple ,l ,n4 #acf ,e4 #ch ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #ce ,pyramids #i1 #ac ,n4 #acf ,e4 #cg ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #ce ,pyramid #aa ,n4 #adj ,e4 #da ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #ci ,pyramids #a1 #b ,n4 #ada ,e4 #dj ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #ci ,temples ,j and ,h ,n4 #adf ,e4 #dg ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #dd ,pyramid #bj ,n4 #adf ,e4 #dg ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #dd ,pyramids #b1 #ae1 #af1 #ag ,n4 #adg ,e4 #dh ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #de ,temple ,b ,n4 #aeb ,e4 #ec ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #di ,pyramids #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #aj ,n4 #aec ,e4 #ed ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #ej ,pyramid #ai ,n4 #aef ,e4 #eg ,s4 of ,e4 ,s4 #ec ,it seems quite justifiable from the above facts to conclude that the pyramids and temples oriented ,s4,e4 and1 as ,i hold1 to ,centauri when it heralded the autumnal equinox1 were not built by people having the same astronomical ideas1 worships1 and mythology as those who built at ,gzeh due ,e4 and ,w41 and marked the autumnal equinox by the heliacal rising of ,antares4#acb ,the only thing in common was noting an equinox1 and so far as this goes we may infer that neither people dwelt originally in the ,nile ,valley1 but came by devious ways from a country or countries where the equinoxes had been made out4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,temples ,,and ,,pyramids ,,at ,,gebel ,,barkal4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,egyptian ,,astronomy--,,the ,,northern ,,schools4 ,so far we have dealt with the dawn of astronomy in ,egypt4 ,we have found that from the earliest times there were astronomical observations carried on1 and that practically there were three schools of thought4 ,to all three schools sun-worship was common1 but we may clearly separate them by the associated star-worship4 ,we have found worshippers of northern stars1 east and west stars1 and southern stars4 ,the northern star-worshippers we may associate with ,annu1 the east and west star cult with the pyramid fields at ,gzeh1 and the southern star-worshippers with ,upper ,egypt4 ,what we have to do in the present chapter is to see whether the orientation of the structures helps us with any suggestions touching the question whether we have to stop at the places named and acknowledge ,egypt to be the true cradle of astronomical science2 or whether the facts we have considered compel us to go a stage further back1 and to recognise that the true origin was elsewhere2 that1 in short1 astronomy1 instead of taking its rise in ,egypt1 was simply imported thither4 ,it would appear from the recent work of the students of the languages of ,babylonia and ,assyria that in these countries1 if anywhere1 there might have been civilisations more ancient than the ,egyptian1 which have already been glimpsed4 ,but before ,i go further something must be said about ,babylonia itself1 for the reason that it also was the meeting-ground of at least two different schools of astronomical thought4 ,the facts connected with this subject are still to a certain extent involved in obscurity1 which is little to be wondered at when we think how recently any knowledge has been available to throw light upon the past of these regions4 ,i need1 however1 only briefly refer to them1 and for this purpose shall use the two most recently published books dealing with the question which at present concerns us4 ,i refer to ,prof4 ,sayce's ,hibbert ,lectures and ,prof4 ,jensen's ,kosmologie der ,babylonier4 ,but what period are we to take8 ,it follows from the investigation into the orientation of ,egyptian temples that the stars ,urs ,majoris1 ,capella1 ,antares1 ,phact1 and ,centauri were carefully observed1 some of them as early as #ejjj ,b4,c41 the others between #djjj and #cjjj ,b4,c4 ,i have also shown that it is possible that at ,edf and ,phil the star ,canopus may have been observed as early as #fdjj ,b4,c4 ,further1 that the constellations of the ,thigh 7,ursa ,major71 the ,hippopotamus 7,draco71 the ,bull1 and the ,scorpion had been established in pyramid times4 ,it becomes important1 therefore1 if we recognise this as the dawn of astronomy in ,egypt1 to see if any information is extant giving us information concerning ,babylonia1 so that we may be able to compare the observations made in the two regions1 not only with a view of tracing the relative times at which they were made1 but to gather from these any conclusions that may be suggested in the course of the inquiry4 ,the inquiry must be limited to certain detailed points2 we know quite well already1 as ,i have stated before1 that the omen tablets1 which mention a king called ,sargon 7probably ,sargon ,i4 of ,agade71 who reigned in ,babylon about #cgjj ,b4,c41 prove unquestionably that astronomy had been cultivated for thousands of years before the ,christian ,era4#acc ,but to institute a comparison we must leave the general and come to the particular4 ,i will begin with the northern constellations1 as it follows from my researches that very early at ,annu and ,denderah temples were erected for their worship--the worship of ,anubis or ,set1 as ,i have shown before2 that is1 of ,urs ,majoris and ,draconis4 ,,the ,,annu ,,school4 ,,the ,,worship ,,of ,,set4 ,according to ,maspero1 ,set formed one of the divine dynasties at ,annu1 and the northern stars seem to have been worshipped there4 ,i suppose there is now no question among ,egyptologists that the gods ,set1 ,sit1 ,typhon1 ,bes1 ,sutekh1 are identical4 ,to this list possibly ,ombo and ,nubi should be added4#acd ,it is also equally well known that ,sutekh was a god of the ,canaanites1#ace and ,bes is identified with ,set in the ,book of the ,dead4#acf ,it is also stated by ,maspero that at ,memphis#acg 7time not given7 there were temples dedicated to ,sutekh and ,baal4 ,in the chapter on the circumpolar stars ,i have suggested that they were taken as typifying the powers of darkness and of the lower world1 and ,i believe it is conceded by ,egyptologists that ,anubis in jackal form was either contemporaneous with or preceded ,osiris in this capacity4 ,in the exact centre of the circular zodiac of ,denderah we find the jackal located at the pole of the equator2 it obviously represents the present ,little ,bear4 ,now1 do we get any ,babylonian connection so far as we have gone8 ,we learn1 to begin with1 from ,pierret#ach that the hippopotamus1 the emblem of ,set and ,typhon1 was the hieroglyph of the ,babylonian god ,baal4 ,do we get the jackal constellation in ,babylonian astronomy8 ,of this there is no question1 and in early times4 ,jensen refers#aci to the various readings jackal and leopard1 and states that it is only doubtful whether by this figure the god ,,anu or the pole of the ecliptic ,,anu is meant4 ,either will certainly serve our present purpose1 and a leopard in ,babylonia might as easily symbolise the night as a jackal in ,northern ,egypt4 ,there seems little doubt that the jackal1 leopard1 hyna1 black pig 7wild boar71 and hippopotamus were chosen as the representatives of the god of evil and darkness 7associated with the circumpolar constellations71 on account of their ravages on flocks and herds and crops4 ,if this be agreed1 nothing is more proper than that the jackal should be associated with ,north ,egypt1 the hippopotamus with ,south ,egypt1 and the wild boar with a latitude to the north of ,egypt 7and perhaps of ,nineveh7 altogether4 ,the representative of the god of darkness1 then1 depended upon the latitude4 ,in this connection ,i may state that ,drs4 ,sclater and ,salvin have quite recently referred me to an interesting paper by the late ,mr4 ,tomes#adj on the habit of the hippopotamus when it comes out of the water to exude a blood-coloured fluid from special pores in its skin4 ,this explains at once why ,typhon took the form of a red hippopotamus1 and why ,mr4 ,irving1 on the modern stage1 couples ,mephistopheles1 the modern devil1 with red fire4 ,i know not whether the similarity in the words ,anu1 ,annu and ,an results merely from a coincidence1 but it is certainly singular that the most ancient temples in ,lower ,egypt 7,heliopolis and ,denderah7 should be called ,annu or ,an#ada if there be no connection with the ,babylonian god ,anu4 ,with regard to ,anubis1 it is quite certain that the seven stars in ,ursa ,minor make a very good jackal with pendent tail1 as generally represented by the ,egyptians 7see page #bgf71 and that they form the nearest compact constellation to the pole of the ecliptic4 ,the worship of ,anubis as god of the dead1 or the night god1 whether associated with the ,babylonian ,anu or not1 was supreme till the time of ,men-,kau-,r1 the builder of the third pyramid of ,gzeh#adb 7#cfcc ,b4,c41 ,brugsch2 #dajj ,b4,c41 ,mariette74 ,osiris is not mentioned4 ,the coffin-lid of this king with the prayer to ,osiris marks a new religious development in the annals of ,egypt4 ,the absorption of the justified soul in ,osiris1 the cardinal doctrine of the ,ritual of the ,dead1 makes its appearance here for the first time4 ,it seems extremely probable1 therefore1 that the worship of the circumpolar stars went on in ,babylonia as well as in ,egypt in the earliest times we can get at4 ,a very wonderful thing it is that1 apparently in very early times1 the ,babylonians had made out the pole of the equator as contradistinguished from the pole of the ecliptic4 ,this they called ,bl4 ,with this ,jensen finds no star associated1#adc but #fjjj ,b4,c4 this pole would be not far removed from those stars in the present constellation ,draco1 out of which ,i have suggested that the old ,egyptian asterism of the hippopotamus was formed4 ,nor was this all2 movements in relation to the ecliptic had been differentiated from movements in relation to the equator4 ,we have inscriptions running3-- ,the way in reference to ,anu1 that is the ecliptic with its pole at ,anu4 ,the way in reference to ,bl1 the equator with its pole at ,bl4 ,in other words1 the daily and yearly apparent movements of the heavenly bodies were clearly distinguished1 while we note also ,kabal ami1 the middle of the heavens1 defining the meridian4 ,so far as ,i can make out1 when ,anubis was supreme in ,egypt1 the only sun-gods at ,memphis and ,annu were ,r and ,atmu4 ,ptah appears to have been a mixed sun-star god1 i4e41 ,capella heralding the sunrise in the ,harvest ,time4 ,now ,i learn from ,prof4 ,sayce#add that in ,babylonia ,anu and ,bl ranked as two members of a triad from the commencement of the ,semitic period1 the third member being probably a southern star symbolised as we shall see in the sequel2 it is only in later times in ,babylonia apparently that we get a triad consisting of sun1 moon1 and ,venus1#ade ,venus being replaced at ,babylon by ,sirius4#adf ,to the two northern divinities temples were built2 both were worshipped in one temple at ,babylon1#adg which must therefore have been oriented due north2 and the pole of the equator 7the altitude of which is equal to the latitude of the place7 was probably in some way indicated4 ,here there was no rising or setting observation1 for ,eridu1 the most southern of the old ,babylonian cities1 had about the same latitude as ,bubastis1 in ,egypt4 ,the pole of the ecliptic 7,anu7 would revolve round the pole of the equator 7,bl7 always above the horizon4 ,so that since ,sutekh ,anu and ,baal ,bl1 the temple at ,memphis to those divinities reported by ,maspero 7see ante7 must have been oriented in the same way as the one at ,babylon1 that is to the north2 and if the above evidence be considered strong enough to enable us to associate the ,babylonian ,bl with the ,egyptian ,taurt1 we have not only ,ursa ,minor but ,draco represented in the early worship and mythology both of ,egypt and of ,babylonia4 ,according to ,prof4 ,sayce#adh there is distinct evidence of a change of thought with regard to ,anu in ,babylonia--there certainly were great changes of thought in ,egypt with regard to ,anubis4 ,observations of stars near the pole of the ecliptic appear to have been utilised before they were taken as representing either the superior or inferior powers--before1 in fact1 the ,anubis or ,set stage qu ,egypt was reached4 ,after this had been accomplished there was still another advance1 in which ,anu assigns places to sun1 moon1 and evening star1 and symbolises the forces of nature4 ,there is evidence1 though unfortunately it is very meagre1 that the temple worship was very similar in the two countries4 ,in the ceremonials in the temples the statues of the gods in boats or arks were always carried in procession4#adi ,the same rectangular arrangement of temples which held in ,egypt1 held also in ,babylonia1 and this perhaps may be the reason why ,bl seems so often to refer to the sun1 whereas it was the name given to the combined worship4 ,sometimes1 on the other hand1 the worship of the stars is distinctly referred to as taking place in a solar temple4 ,thus at ,marduk's temple1 ,e-,sagili1 we are told that two hours after nightfall the priest must come and take of the waters of the river2 must enter into the presence of ,bl1 and putting on a stole in the presence of ,bl must say this prayer1 etc4#aej ,the temple1 then1 will probably have been oriented to the north4 ,night prayers in a sun-temple afford pretty good indications of a mixed cult4 ,the evidence1 then1 seems conclusive that by the time of the founding of the temple at ,annu a knowledge of the stars near the pole of the equator1 and of the importance of observing them1 was common to ,n4 ,egypt and to the region ,n4,e4 of it4 ,whether the worship of ,set was introduced into ,egypt from this region1 or whether there was a common origin1 must for the present1 then1 remain undetermined4 ,,the ,,equinoctial ,,school--,,the ,,worship ,,of ,,the ,,spring-,,sun4 ,the ,east and ,west orientation1 as we have seen1 is chiefly remarkable at the pyramids of ,gzeh and the associated temples1 but it is not confined to them4 ,the argument in favour of these structures being the work of intruders is that a perfectly new astronomical idea comes in1 one not represented at ,annu and quite out of place in ,egypt1 with the solstitial rising river1 as the autumnal equinox was at ,eridu1 with the river rising at the spring equinox4 ,we are justified from what is known regarding the rise of the ,nile as dominating and defining the commencement of the ,egyptian year at the solstice1 in concluding that other ancient peoples placed under like conditions would act in the same way2 and if these conditions were such that spring would mean sowing-time and autumn harvest-time1 their year would begin at an equinox4 ,now what the valley of the ,nile was to ,egypt those of the ,tigris and the ,euphrates were to the ,babylonian empire4 ,like the ,nile1 these valleys were subject to annual inundations1 and their fertility depended1 as in ,egypt1 upon the manner in which the irrigation was looked after4 ,but unlike the ,nile1 the commencement of the inundation of these rivers took place near the vernal equinox2 hence the year1 we may assume1 began then1 and1 reasoning by analogy1 the worship in all probability was equinoctial4 ,a people entering ,egypt from this region1 then1 would satisfy one condition of the problem4 ,but is there any evidence that this people built their solar temples and temple walls east and west1 and that they also built pyramids8 ,there is ample evidence 7referred to in ,chapter ,,ix47--although1 alas6 the structures in ,babylonia1 being generally built in brick and not in stone1 no longer remain1 as do those erected in ,egypt4 ,still1 in spite of the absence of the possibility of a comparative study1 research has shown that in the whole region to the north-east of ,egypt the temenos walls of temples and the walls of towns run east and west2 and though at present actual dates cannot be given1 a high antiquity is suggested in the case of some of them4 ,further1 as has been already pointed out1 the temples which remain in that region where stone was procurable1 as at ,palmyra1 ,baalbek1 ,jerusalem1 all lie east and west4 ,but more than this1 it is well known that from the very earliest times pyramidal structures1 called ziggurats1 some #aej feet high1 were erected in each important city4 ,these were really observatories2 they were pyramids built in steps1 as is clearly shown from pictures found on contemporary tablets2 and one with seven steps and of great antiquity1 it is known1 was restored by ,nebuchadnezzar ,,ii4 about #fjj ,b4,c4 at ,babylon4 ,illustration3 ,,statue ,,of ,,chephren1 ,,found ,,in ,,the ,,temple ,,near ,,the ,,sphinx4 ,a careful study of the historical references to the various pyramids built in ,egypt1 leaves it beyond doubt that the step pyramids are the oldest4 ,they could1 then1 most easily have been constructed on the ,babylonian model1 and in this fact we have an additional argument for the intrusion of the pyramid builders into ,egypt from ,babylonia4 ,but did this equinox-worshipping1 pyramid-building race live at anything like the time required8 ,there is no doubt now in the minds of scholars that the evidence is conclusive that among the kings of ,babylonia were the following3--#aea ,b4,c4 ,entenna #dbjj ,naram-,sin #chjj ,sargon ,i4 #cgej ,the date of the earliest known pyramid in ,egypt may perhaps be put down as about #cgjj ,b4,c4 7,brugsch71 or #dbjj ,b4,c4 7,mariette74 ,hence it seems that a third line of evidence is in favour of the ,babylonian intrusion4 ,there was undoubtedly an equinox-worshipping1 pyramid-building race existing in ,babylonia at the time the ,egyptian pyramids are supposed to have been built4 ,another connecting link is found in the statues of ,chephren discovered in the temple at the pyramids1 and at ,tel-loh 7ancient ,lagash7 by ,m4 de ,sarzec in #ahha4 ,this last find consisted of some large statues of diorite1 and the attitude is nearly identical with that of ,chephren himself as represented in the statues in the museum of ,gzeh4 ,this indicates equality in the arts1 and the possession of similar tools1 in ,chalda and ,egypt about the time in question4 ,further it is supposed that the diorite out of which both series of statues were fashioned came out of the same quarry in ,sinai4 ,the characters in which the inscriptions are written are in what is termed line ,babylonian--i4e41 they resemble pictures more than cuneiform characters2 and the standard of measurement marked upon the plan of the city1 which one of the figures of ,tel-loh holds upon his knees1 is the same as the standard of measurement of the ,egyptian pyramid builders--the cubit of #bjfc1 not the ,assyro-,babylonian cubit of #baf4aeb ,now1 although with regard to the cult of the northern stars it was impossible to decide whether the ,egyptian school of astronomers came from ,babylonia or from a source common to both countries1 it is clear that with regard to the equinoctial cult we are limited absolutely to ,babylonia as the special source4 ,the coincidence in time of the same kind of buildings and the same art in the two countries puts a common origin out of the question4 ,to sum up1 then1 so far as we have gone1 both the north-star worship and the equinoctial worship were imported into ,egypt4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,egyptian ,,astronomy 7,,continued7--,,the ,,thebes ,,school4 ,the next question which arises now that we have considered the facts relating to the astronomy of ,northern ,egypt is one connected with the cults which we have proved to come down the ,nile4 ,were they indigenous or imported8 ,although ,i have put it forward with all reserve1 there is evidence which suggests that the temples so far traced sacred to the southern cult are of earlier foundation than those to the north2 and they are associated with ,edf and ,phil1 which are known to be of high antiquity4 ,this is one point of difference4 ,another is that the almost entire absence of ,set temples and east and west pyramids up the river indicates that1 so far as these structures go1 we lack the links which astronomically and mythologically connect the ,delta with ,babylonia either directly or by common origin4 ,from ,prof4 ,sayce it is to be gathered that the most ancient people yet glimpsed there inhabited the region at the head of the ,persian ,gulf1 one of the chief cities being ,eridu1 now represented by the mounds of ,abu ,shahrn on the eastern bank of the ,euphrates4 ,it was founded as a maritime city1 but is now far inland1 owing to the formation of the delta1 the alluvium of which at the present time advances about sixty-six feet a year4#aec ,this alone is an argument in favour of its high antiquity4 ,along with the culture of ,eridu went the worship of the god of ,eridu1 the primal god of ,babylonia1 ,ea1 a1 or ,oannes1 symbolised as a goat-fish1 and connected in some way with the sun when in ,capricornus4 ,this1 ,jensen1 by his wonderful analysis 7would that ,i could completely follow it in its marvellous philological twistings1 pages #gc-ha7 puts beyond question2 and he clinches the argument by showing that our tropic of ,capricorn of to-day--the goat still represented on our globes of to-day with a fish's tail6--was called by the ,babylonians the path followed by a or in relation to a4 ,this a was such a great god that to him was assigned the functions of ,maker of ,men2 he was also a great potter and art workman 7p4 #bic71 a point ,i shall return to presently4 ,he eventually formed a triad with ,anu and ,bl1 that is1 the poles of the heavens and the equator4#aed ,the ,god of ,eridu4 ,let us assume that the earliest sun-god traced at ,eridu was the sun-god of those early argonauts who founded the colony4 ,we are told that this god was the son of a1 and that his name was ,tammuz2 he was in some way associated with ,asari 78 ,osiris7 7,sayce1 p4 #add71 who1 according to ,jensen1 represented the ,earth 7p4 #aie72 of the ,moon we apparently hear nothing4 ,this ,tammuz 7,dumuzi71 we find1 ultimately became the ,nergal of ,southern ,chalda1 the sun-god of winter and night1 who rules1 like ,rhadamanthos1 in the lower world 7,sayce1 p4 #bde71 and as lord of ,hades he was made son of ,mul-lil 7,sayce1 p4 #aig74 ,this was at first4 ,but what do we find afterwards8 ,nergal is changed into the ,midsummer ,sun6 7,jensen1 p4 #dhd74 ,and finally he is changed into the ,spring ,sun ,marduk at ,babylon 7,sayce1 p4 #add7aee where he is recognised as the son of a and ,duazag1 that is the ,eastern ,mountain 7,jensen1 p4 #bcg74 ,now1 however difficult it may be to follow these changes from the religious point of view1 from the astronomical side they are not only easily explained1 but might have been predicted1 provided one hypothesis be permitted1 namely1 that the colony who founded ,eridu were originally inhabitants of some country where the chief agricultural operations were carried on about the time of the ,autumnal ,equinox in the northern hemisphere4#aef ,this country might lie south of the equator1 and indeed we find one which answers the requirements in the region of the great lakes and on the coast opposite ,zanzibar4 ,such an hypothesis may at first sight appear strange1 but the view that ,eridu was colonised from ,cush has been supported by no less an authority than ,lepsius4#aeg ,the boundaries of ,cush are not defined1 but they may possibly include the ,land of ,pun-t1 from which certainly part of the ,egyptian culture was derived4 ,among all early peoples the most important times of the year must necessarily have been those connected with seed-time and harvest in each locality4 ,now the spring equinox and summer solstice south of the equator are represented by the autumnal equinox and the winter solstice to the north of it4 ,if the colonists who came to ,eridu came from a region south of the equator1 they would naturally have brought not only their southern stars1 but their southern seasons with them2 but their springtime was the northern autumn1 their summer solstice the northern winter4 ,this could have gone on for a time1 and we see that their sun-god was the god of the winter solstice1 ,tammuz-,nergal4 ,but it could only have gone on for a time2 the climatic facts were against such an unnatural system1#aeh and the old condition could have been brought back by calling the new winter summer1 or in other words making the winter-god into the summer sun-god--in short1 changing ,nergal into a midsummer sun-god4 ,this it seems they did4#aei ,but why the further change of ,nergal to ,marduk8 ,because the northern races were always tending southwards1 being pushed from behind1 while the supply of ,eridu culture was not being replenished4 ,the religion and astronomy of the north were continually being strengthened1 and among this astronomy was the cult of the sun at the vernal equinox1 the springtime of the northern hemisphere1 sacred to ,marduk4 ,nergal1 therefore1 makes another stage onward1 and is changed into ,marduk6 ,it is also interesting to find that in ,ninib1 another sun-god1 we have almost the exact counterpart of the ,egyptian ,horus4 ,he is the eastern morning sun1 the son of ,asari 78 ,osiris71 and the god of agriculture4#afj ,i append here the most recent translation of the hymn to the sun-god1 referred to in the ,introduction3-- ,o ,sun 7god76 on the horizon of heaven thou dawnest1 ,the bolt of the pure heaven thou openest1 ,the door of heaven thou openest4 ,o ,sun 7god76 thou liftest up thy head to the world2 ,o ,sun 7god76 thou coverest the earth with the majestic brightness of heaven4 ,marduk1 then1 the son of ,ea1 or a1 was finally as definite a spring equinox sun-god as ,amen-,r in ,egyptian mythology was a summer solstice sun-god4 ,we have1 then1 the undoubted facts that in ,southern ,babylonia1 to start with1 the sun-worship had to do with the winter half of the year4 ,as the ,babylonian culture advanced northward from ,eridu and met the ,semitic culture1 the winter season was changed for the spring equinox--that is1 a worship identical with that of the pyramid builders who intruded into ,northern ,egypt4 ,the ,myths of ,horus and ,marduk4 ,in my references to the myth of ,horus in ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,i have shown that in all probability an astronomical meaning is that the rising sun puts out the northern stars4 ,it was also indicated that the myth was one of great antiquity1 as it was formulated when ,draco was circumpolar2 was not simple in its nature1 and probably had reference to a sun-worshipping race abolishing the cult of ,set representing the northern stars4 ,the facts brought together in subsequent chapters show that if there were not such a myth1 there should have been2 for the temple evidence alone showing the antithesis between ,osiris-worship and the worship of ,set is overwhelming4 ,i have also indicated that temples built to northern stars are geographically separated from those built to southern ones1 and that the former have had their axes blocked to prevent the worship4 ,the ,horus of ,edf1 who is represented as leading the victorious hosts who revenge the killing of ,osiris by ,set1 is the ally of the southern-star worshippers whom we have traced from ,thebes1 possibly to ,central ,africa 7see page #cej72 and if we associate the myth with the records on the walls of the temple of ,edf1 and agree to the possibility of that temple having been founded in #fdjj ,b4,c4 7see page #caa71 then there must have been an invasion of the southern peoples about that date--an invasion which reached ,northern ,egypt1 where eventually they were conquered by the ,set-worshipping race1 who came1 as ,i think ,i have proved1 from a country to the ,n4,e4 of the ,delta4 ,the question is3 ,did this first colony represent the original ,hor-,shesu1 so-called specially because perhaps as a novelty they had added the worship of the sun to the worship of the moon8 and was the moon the first ,osiris brought in by moon-worshippers with a year of #cfj days8 ,in ,accad and ,sumer1 where also1 according to ,hommel and others1 the word ,osiris 7,asari7 has been traced1 the sun-god was the daughter of the moon-god4 ,an eye forms part both of the hieroglyphic and of the cuneiform name1 and the eye was one of the symbols in the name of ,osiris in ,egypt4 ,be this as it may1 we have temple evidence to show that in ,egypt the worship of ,set was the worship of a northern race1 and that it was finally abolished by a southern one4 ,now in ,babylonia exactly the opposite happened4 ,the proto-,chaldan south-star and winter-sun cult of ,eridu was ultimately changed1 absorbed1 and buried in the ,semitic cult of the northern stars ,anu and ,bl and the spring sun1 first ,marduk and afterwards ama4 ,had there been then myth-makers in ,babylonia1 the myth would have been the converse of the ,egyptian one4 ,there were myth makers1 and precisely such a myth6 ,it is called the ,myth of ,marduk and ,timat4 ,the chief change had been in the sun-god4 ,when the northern cult conquered1 the exotic worship of the autumn and winter constellations was abolished1 and they were pictured as destroyed under the form of ,timat1 although the worship was once as prominent as that of ,set in ,egypt4 ,we have the later developed northern spring-sun ,marduk destroying the evil gods or spirits of winter2 and chief among them1 of course1 the ,goat-fish1 which1 from its central position1 would represent the winter solstice4 ,the myth1 then1 has to do with the fact that the autumn-and winter-sun-worship of ,eridu was conquered by the spring-sun-worship of the north4 ,if we accept this1 we can compare the ,egyptian and ,babylonian myths from the astronomical point of view in the following manner2 and a wonderful difference in the astronomical observations made1 as well as in the form1 though not in the basis1 of astronomical mythology in ,egypt and in ,babylonia is before our eyes4 ,astronomically in both countries we are dealing with the dawn preceding sunrise on ,new ,year's ,day1 and the accompanying extinction of the stars4 ,but which stars8 ,in ,egypt there is no question that the stars thus fading were thought of as being chiefly represented by the stars which never set--that is1 the circumpolar ones1 and among them the ,hippopotamus chiefly4 ,in ,babylonia we have to do with the ecliptic constellations4 ,now ,i believe that it is generally recognised that ,marduk was relatively a late intruder into the ,babylonian pantheon4 ,if he were a god brought from the north by a conquering race 7whether conquering by craft or kraft does not matter71 and his worship replaced that of a1 have we not1 mutatis mutandis1 the exact counterpart of the ,egyptian myth of ,horus8 ,in the one case we have a southern star-worshipping race ousting north-star worshippers1 in the other a northern equinoctial sun-worshipping race ousting the cult of the moon and solstitial sun4 ,in the one case we have ,horus1 the rising sun of every day1 slaying the ,hippopotamus 7that is1 the modern ,draco71 the regent of night2 in the other1 ,marduk1 the spring-sun-god1 slaying the animals of ,timat--that is apparently the origin of the ,scorpion1 ,capricornus1 and ,pisces1 the constellations of the winter months1 which formed a belt across the sky from east to west at the vernal equinox4 ,the above suggested basis of the ,babylonian mythology regarding the demons of ,timat1 established when the sun was in ,taurus at the spring equinox1 enables us to understand clearly the much later 7though similar7 imagery employed when the sun at the equinox had passed from ,taurus to ,aries--when the ,zend ,avesta was written1 and after the twelve zodiacal constellations had been established4 ,we find them divided equally into the kingdoms of ,ormazd and ,ahriman4 ,here ,i quote ,dupuis3-- ,l'agneau est aux portes de l'empire du bien et de la lumire1 et la balance celles du mal et des tnbres2 l'un est le premier des signes suprieurs1 et l'autre des signes infrieurs4 ,les six signes suprieurs comprennent les six mille de ,dieu1 et les six signes infrieurs les six mille du diable4 ,le bonheur de l'homme dure sous les premiers signes1 et son malheur commence au septime1 et dure sous les six signes affects ,ahriman1 ou au chef des tnbres4 ,sous les six signes du rgne du bien et la lumire1 qui sont agneau1 taureau gmeaux1 cancer1 lion et vierge ou pi1 nous avons marqu les tats varis de l'air et de la terre1 qui sont le rsultat de l'action du bon principe4 ,ainsi on lit sous l'agneau ou sous le premier mille ces mots1 printemps1 zephyr1 verdure2 sous le taureau1 sve et fleur2 sous les gmeaux1 chaleurs et longs jours2 sous le cancer1 t1 beaux temps2 sous le lion1 pis et moissons2 et sous la vierge1 vendanges4 ,en passant la balance1 on trouve les fruits2 la commence le rgne du ma aussitt que l'homme vient cueillir les pommes4 ,la nature quitte sa parure2 aussi nous avons crit ces mots1 dpouillement de la nature2 sous le scorpion on lit froid2 sous le sagittaire1 neiges2 sous le capricorne1 glace et brouillard1 sige des tnbres et de longs nuits2 sous le verseau1 pluies et frimas2 sous les poissons1 vents imptueux4 ,since the great pyramids were built in the time of the fourth dynasty1 it is quite clear that ,eridu must have been founded long before if the transitions were anything like those ,i have stated4 ,the ,argument touching ,argus4 ,but there is not only evidence that at ,eridu the sun-worship was at first connected with the winter solstice4 ,it is known that there was star-worship as well2 and there must have been moon-worship too1 judging by the moon-god of the adjacent town of ,ur4 ,associated with a was an a-star1 which ,jensen concludes may be ,args4 ,this we must consider4 ,jensen concludes that the a-star is ,args on the ground that many of the texts suggest a darkening of it now and again2 he very properly points out that a variability in the star is the only point worth considering in this connection1 and by this argument he is driven to 1 which is one of the most striking variables in the heavens1 outshining ,canopus at its maximum4 ,speaking generally1 everybody would agree that obscuration by clouds1 etc41 would not be recorded2 but if the star were observed just rising above the southern horizon only1 then its absence1 due to such causes1 would1 ,i should fancy1 be chronicled1 and it must not be forgotten that this is precisely the region where the a star would be observed1 if all of the inscriptions referred to by ,jensen are to be satisfied2 its place was in ussersten ,sden 7page #aec74 ,it was das ,pendant des im ,nordpol des ,aequators sitzenden ,himmels-,bi'l 7page #adh72 a's ',ort' am ,himmel liegt im ,sden 7page #bf74 ,there is another argument4 ,professor ,sayce in his lectures reproduces 7page #dcg7 ,mr4 ,george ,smith's account of the ,temple of ,bel derived from a ,babylonian text4 ,the temple was oriented east and west4 ,in a description of one of the enclosures we read that on the northern side was a temple of a1 while on the southern side there was a temple of ,bl and ,anu4 ,this not only shows that a was regarded as sacred to the true south1 but that the temple buildings were planned like the ,egyptian ones1 the light either from sun or star passing over the heads of the worshippers in the courts into the temples4 7,compare temple ,m in the temple of ,amen-,r1 page #aah ante47 ,but ,args never rose or set anywhere near the south4 ,i have ascertained that its declination was approximately #cb ,s4 in #ejjj ,b4,c41 and increased to #db ,s4 by about #bjjj ,b4,c4 ,hence between these dates at ,eridu its amplitude varied between #ch and #ea ,s4 of ,e4 or ,w4 ,now here we are far away from the ,s4 point1 though very near the ,s4,e4 or ,s4,w4 point1 to which it is stated some of the ,babylonian structures had their sides oriented4 ,the question arises whether there was a star which answers the other conditions4 ,there was a series of such stars4 ,it may be here mentioned generally that the precessional movement must1 after certain intervals1 cause this phenomenon to be repeated constantly with one star after another4 ,beginning with perhaps a sufficiently remote period1 we have3-- ,achernar #hjjj ,b4,c4 ,phact #edjj ,b4,c4 ,canopus #dgjj ,b4,c4 ,these stars would appear very near the south point of the horizon at ,eridu at the dates stated1 and describe a very small arc above it between rising and setting at certain times of the year4 ,now to go a stage further in the study of the a--,ea or ,eridu--star1 it is desirable to quote the legend concerning a or ,oannes derived from ,brssos through ,alexander ,polyhistr4#afa ,in the first year there appeared in that part of the ,erythraean sea which borders upon ,babylonia a creature endowed with reason1 by name ,oannes1 whose whole body 7according to the account of ,apollodros7 was that of a fish2 under the fish's head he had another head1 with feet also below similar to those of a man subjoined to the fish's tail4 ,his voice1 too1 and language were articulate and human2 and a representation of him is preserved even to this day4 ,this being was accustomed to pass the day among men1 but took no food at that season2 and he gave them an insight into letters and sciences and arts of every kind4 ,he taught them to construct houses1 to found temples1#afb to compile laws1 and explained to them the principles of geometrical knowledge4 ,he made them distinguish the seeds of the earth1 and showed them how to collect the fruits2 in short1 he instructed them in everything which could tend to soften manners and humanise their lives4 ,from that time nothing material has been added by way of improvement to his instructions4 ,now1 when the sun had set1 this being ,oannes used to retire again into the sea1 and pass the night in the deep1 for he was amphibious4 ,after this there appeared other animals like ,oannes4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,temples ,,at ,,phil4 ,it is not necessary to give the string of other animals enumerated by ,eusebius1 but one of them is important4 ,a companion of ,andaphas and ,odakn shows the true reading to have been ,andakn--that is1 ,anu and ,dagon4 ,this other animal1 then1 clearly refers to the introduction of the northern ,semitic cult1 and hence the suggestion is strengthened that some of the earlier other animals who subsequently appeared1 like a 78 ,oannes71 may really have been new southern stars making their appearance in the manner ,i have shown1 and perhaps varying the cult4 ,the whole legend is1 ,i think1 clearly one relating to men coming from the south 787 to ,eridu in ships4 ,the boat is turned into a fish-man1 and the star to which they pointed to show whence they came is made a god4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,temple ,,at ,,amada4 ,it is evident the intrusion was from the south1 because otherwise extreme south stars would not have been in question4 ,we have1 then1 got so far4 ,the worshippers of the southern star and of the winter months1 including the solstice1 were certainly not indigenous at ,eridu4 ,they were probably introduced from the south1 and they were sea-borne4 ,the next question which concerns us is1 was this worship in any way connected with ,egypt8 ,one of the most definite and striking conclusions to which the study of temples has led1 is that in ,southern ,egypt the temple worship was limited to southern stars1 and1 further1 that there is a chain of temples1 possibly dating from #fdjj ,b4,c41 and oriented to ,canopus4 ,this certainly is an argument in favour of a worship similar to that traced at ,eridu4 ,but is there any trace of a or of his son1 the sun-god8 ,this god was1 as we have seen1 associated in some way with ,asari4 ,i am told that students will probably agree that the connection between this word and the ,egyptian ,osiris is absolute4 ,professor ,sayce informs me that the cuneiform ideograms and the hieroglyphs have the same meaning1 and indicate the same root-words4#afc a was represented as a goat-fish1 and was a potter and maker of men4 ,this being so1 ,i confess the facts relating to the southern ,egyptian god ,chnemu strike me as very suggestive4 ,he is represented goat-headed1 and not ram-headed1 as generally stated2 he is not only the creator of mankind1 but he is a potter1 and he is actually represented at ,phil as combining these attributes in making man out of clay on a potter's wheel4 ,nay1 according to ,bunsen1 he is stated to have formed on his wheel the divine limbs of ,osiris1 and is styled the sculptor of all men4#afd ,i give the following extracts from ,lanzoni 7p4 #ief73-- ,,num4--num ,chnemu significa 'fabbricatore1 modellatore4' 444 ,questo demiurgo apparisce come una delle pi it antiche divinit dell' ,egitto1 ed aveva un culto speziale nello ,nubia nell' isola di ,file di ,beghe e di ,elephantina4444 ,esso era il dio delle cataratte1 identificato al dio ,nun1 il ,padre degli dei1 il principio ,umido4 ,il grande testo geografico di ,edfu parlando di ,elephantina1 quale metropoli del primo ,nomo dell' ,alto ,egitto1 ne ricorda la divinit1 come una personificazione dell' ,acqua dell' inondazione4 ,he is also ,hormau1 the god of the universe3 ,the father of the father of the gods3 ,creator of heaven1 earth1 water1 and mountains2 a local form of ,osiris4 ,his wife was the frog-goddess1 ,hekt 78 ,serk-t74 ,further1 he was also regarded as presiding in some special way over water1#afe and1 unlike ,amen-,r1 though like a1 he has a position among the gods of the lower world4 ,a sun-god1 with urus and disk1 he is closely associated with ,amen-,r1 and if he were one of the earliest of the ,south ,egyptian gods this could only be by ,amen-,r being an emanation from him2 the temples in any case do not afford us traces of ,amen-,r before #cgjj ,b4,c41 and ,chnemu is recognised as one of the oldest gods in ,egypt1 on the same platform as ,ptah in the ,north4 ,if we assume a connection with ,eridu1 then we are driven to the conclusion that the ,eridu culture came either from ,egypt or from a common source4 ,illustration3 ,,chnemu4 ,here for the present the question must be left4 ,i must be content to remark that many of the facts point to a common origin south of the equator4 ,it is clear that if ,chnemu were a sun-god of the ,winter1 brought into ,egypt from without1 the change to ,amen-,r is precisely what would have been certain to happen1 for in ,egypt the ,summer ,solstice1 over which ,amen-,r presided1 was all-important4 ,anthropological ,evidence4 ,it will be seen1 then1 that a general survey of ,egyptian history does suggest conflicts between two races1 and this of course goes to strengthen the view that the temple-building phenomena suggest two different worships1 depending upon race distinctions4 ,we have next to ask if there is any anthropological evidence at our disposal4 ,it so happens that ,virchow has directed his attention to this very point4 ,premising that a strong race distinction is recognised between peoples having brachycephalic or short1 and dolichocephalic or long1 skulls1 and that the ,african races belong to the latter group1 ,i may give the following extract from his paper3-- ,the craniological type in the ,ancient ,empire was different from that in the middle and new4 ,the skulls from the ,ancient ,empire are brachycephalic1 those from the new and of the present day are either dolichocephalic or mesaticephalic2 the difference is therefore at least as great as that between the dolichocephalic skulls of the ,frankish graves and the predominantly brachycephalic skulls of the present population of ,south ,germany4 ,i do not deny that we have hitherto had at our disposal only a very limited number of skulls from the ,ancient ,empire which have been certainly determined2 that therefore the question whether the brachycephalic skull-type deduced from these was the general or a least the predominant one cannot yet be answered with certainty2 but ,i may appeal to the fact that the sculptors of the ,ancient ,empire made the brachycephalic type the basis of their works of art too4 ,it will be seen1 then1 that the anthropological as well as the historical evidence runs on all fours with the results to be obtained from such a study of the old astronomy as the temples afford us4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,general ,,conclusions ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,north ,,and ,,south ,,races4 ,it is now time to summarise the evidence concerning the north and south temple builders1 including those who built pyramids as well4 ,to do this we must deal not only with the buildings1 but with the associated mythology1 or1 rather1 with the astronomical part of the mythology1 for there seems to be very little doubt that in the earliest times1 before knowledge replaced or controlled imagination1 everything was mythologically everything else in turn4 ,it is for this reason that trusting to genealogies especially seems like building on sand4 ,that ,father-ship and ,son-ship in the earliest days were mythologically something quite different from what the words in their strict sense imply to-day will be agreed to by everybody2 and there is evidence that many of the absolute contradictions met with1 and statements which it is impossible to reconcile1 may all depend upon the point of view from which the mythological statements were made4 ,but when astronomy helps us to the point of view1 the mythological statements1 and even the genealogies1 become much clearer and unmistakable1 and contradiction vanishes to a great extent2 and it would seem as if genealogies en bloc were never propounded1 hence it was a commonplace either that a god should be the father of his mother1 or that he should have no father4 ,thus1 in one sense1 ,r is father of all the gods2 but in another ,ptah is the creator of the egg of the sun because ,capella setting heralded sunrise at a particular time of the year2 and ,isis is the mother of ,horus because ,phact ,columb1 ,serk-t ,centauri1 ,mut ,draconis1 and other stars 7,isis7 did precisely the same2 while in another connection ,isis is the sister of ,osiris1 and therefore the mother of ,horus4 ,but here the relationship depends upon the association of the moon and warning star in the morning sky4 ,i only offer these as suggestions2 similar variations might be multiplied ad nauseam4 ,but while all this proves that genealogies may be manufactured without either end or utility1 we gather that the association of mythological personages with definite astronomical bodies may in time be of great help in such inquiries1 and ultimately enable us to raise the veil of mystery by which these old ideas have of set purpose1 and partly by these means1 been hidden4 ,there seems no doubt that we have got definite evidence that the very oldest mythological personages were closely connected either with the sun at some special time of the year1 with the moon1 or with the rising and setting of some star or another4 ,hence we ought to be able from the temple evidence to classify the northern and southern gods4 ,northern ,gods and ,goddesses4 ,,god4 ,,goddess4 ,ptah ,capella1 ,april sun 7#a7 ,bast-,isis ,urs ,majoris4 ,anubis ,northern constellations4 ,taurt-,isis ,urs ,majoris4 ,draconis4 ,min3 ,khem ,may ,sun 7#b74 ,menat-,isis ,spica4 ,autumn ,sun ,serk-t-,isis ,antares4 ,spring ,sun ,nit-,isis ,pleiades4 ,southern ,gods and ,goddesses4 ,osiris ,moon-god4 ,chnemu ,sun-god1 autumnal equinox4 ,khonsu ,canopus1 autumnal equinox1 warner4 ,west horizon followed by ,serk-t ,centauri east horizon4 ,amen-,r ,a combined north and ,tei-,isis ,phact 7#a7 south god1 established ,amen-t-,isis ,sirius 7#b7 about #cgjj ,b4,c4 ,hathor-,isis ,the establishment of ,amen-,r gives us a fair indication of the changes which must have taken place among the early civilisations when the beginning of the year was altered4 ,there can be no doubt1 ,i think1 that ,chnemu was the first ,sun-god of ,southern ,egypt2 the cryosphinxes at ,thebes are alone sufficient to prove it2#aff and if so1 then the southern people must have come from a region where the autumnal equinox marked the most important time of the year for their agricultural operations4 ,and this year had eventually to give way1 as we know it did1 about #cgjj ,b4,c41 for one beginning at the summer solstice4 ,in the above list ,i have indicated ,osiris as a ,moon-god4 ,many inscriptions might be quoted similar to the following one3-- ,salute a te1 ,hesiri1 il signore dell' eternit4 ,quando tu sei in ,cielo1 tu apparisci come sole1 et tu rinnuovi la tua forma comme ,luna4#afg ,it has also to be borne in mind that the complicated head-dress1 including the goat's horns1 is represented in connection with ,thoth ,chnemu and ,osiris4#afh ,later he was unquestionably a sun-god1 but this would be certain to happen if the southern intruders worshipped the moon in the first line4 ,further1 if in later times he represented both sun and moon1 as he certainly did1 it is not probable that he did so from the beginning4 ,all the special symbolism refers to him as a ,moon-god2 he is certainly a ,moon-god in the myth of ,isis and ,osiris1 for he was cut into fourteen pieces1 the number of days of the waning moon4 ,now1 we can easily understand an evolution beginning with a ,moon-god and ending with a ,sun-god4 ,but the contrary is almost unthinkable2 besides1 we know that in ,egypt it did not happen2 the solar attributes got hardened as time went on4 ,the calendar evidence1 as we have seen1 in relation to the original year of #cfj days is in favour of ,moon-worship1 and therefore of a ,moon-god in the earliest times4 ,further1 if we accept this1 the myth of ,horus becomes a complete historical statement1 of which parts have already been shown to refer to astronomical facts past all dispute4 ,it is well here to give ,naville's remarks upon it4 ,it will be seen that they strengthen my view4#afi ,la #cfcme anne de son rgne1 le dieu part avec son fils pour l'gypte4 ,voil donc une date prcise de l'un de ces rois qui1 selon les traditions gyptiennes1 avaient occup le trne de l'gypte avant les souverains indignes4 ,cette anne-l1 ,horhut chass ,typhon de l'gypte1 et s'tablit en roi sur tout le pays4 ,cela concorderait donc avec ce que nous disent ,manthon et ,eusbe1 que1 dans la premire dynastie des dieux1 ,typhon prcda immdiatement ,horus4 ,la succession se serait faite par droit de conqute4 ,horus a avec lui des compagnons qui sont nomms partout ses suivants3 les ,schesou ,hor4 ,m4 de ,roug a dj fait remarquer que1 dans plusieurs inscriptions1 ces hommes sont considrs comme les habitants primitifs de l'gypte1 les contemporains des dynasties divines4 ,ce sont ces ,mesennou dont il a dj t question dans la srie prcdente4 ,le rle qu'ils jouent dans ce rcit montre1 plus clairement encore1 que l'poque dont il s'agit est la fin des temps mythologiques auxquels ,mna devait succder4 ,c'est une tradition relative aux vnements qui ne doivent avoir prcd que de peu les temps historiques4 ,horhut monte dans la barque de son pre1 qui le suit pendant toute l'expdition1 et lui donn son appui et ses conseils4 ,les dieux poursuivent ,typhon tout le long du fleuve2 ,horhut livre plusieurs batailles dans des lieux qui recevront des noms propres rappeler ses exploits1 et qui seront plus particulirement vous son culte4 ,c'est ,edfon qu'ont lieu les premiers combats1 puis dans le #afme nome de la ,haute-gypte4 ,le nome de ,mert1 celui du ,fayoum et du lac ,moeris1 est le thtre de plusieurs pisodes de la lutte4 ,c'est dans la ville de ,sutenchenen1 appele ici ,nanrutef1 un sanctuaire important d',osiris1 que s'tablissent les ,schesou ,hor4 ,enfin1 lorsque ,set a t chass du nome de ,chent-ab1 le #adme de la ,basse-gypte1 le pays est dlivr1 et la royaut est assure ,horhut4 ,son pre1 qui1 chaque nouvelle victoire1 lui a dcern quelque honneur special1 lui accorde d'tre reprsent sous la form du disque ail1 ou du scarabe1 sur tous les temples de la ,haute et de la ,basse-gypte4 ,horus devient le seigneur des deux rgions1 s'assied dans un sanctuaire ou il est ador comme ,horchuti1 avec qui il finit par se confondre4 ,telle est cette seconde lgende1 bien mieux caractrise que la premire1 car elle est rattache des localits connues et une poque dtermine4 ,elle me semble mme assez claire pour qu'on puisse y voir une tradition1 qui aurait sa base un fait historique4 ,set est un dieu bien connu dans l'histoire d'gypte2 c'est le dieu des ennemis1 et particulirement des populations smitiques1 qui conquirent une fois le pays et le mirent souvent en danger4 ,si nous considrons qu'il est chass par ,horus1 le dieu qui lui a succd dans la royaut1 et par les habitants primitifs du pays un moment donn des annales divines1 n'est-il pas naturel d'expliquer ce mythe par une guerre entre les gyptiens venus de ,nubie1 et les ,smites qui auraient t chasss du pays2 soit que cette guerre soit plus ancienne que les temps historiques1 soit que1 venue plus tard1 elle ait pass dans le domaine de l'histoire lgendaire8 ,les textes relatifs aux dynasties divines sont encore trop rares pour que nous puissions pousser trs-loin ces recherches4 ,le temple d',edfou nous fournira peut-tre un jour de nouvelles indications sur ces poques prhistoriques1 et sur l'origine si mysterieuse de la civilisation de l'gypte4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,winged ,,solar ,,disk4 ,in another passage ,naville remarks3 ,typhon n'est pas simplement le dieu du mal1 l'adversaire personnel d',osiris1 c'est un souverain qui occupe avec ses allis la plus grande partie de l'gypte depuis ,edfou jusqu'a l',orient du ,delta4#agj ,it was suggested 7page #aed7 that ,horus slaying ,set represented by a hippopotamus was a reference to a time antecedent to #ejjj ,b4,c41 when the constellation of ,draco was circumpolar2 and we now learn from ,chapter ,,xxxii4 that ,set represented the ,northern-,star worship brought in from the ,n4,e4 ,horus1 then1 represented a conquering force coming from the ,south4 ,he was recognised as a ,southern god4 ,naville remarks3 ,horchuti est par excellence le dieu de la ,nubie2 c'est lui que sont consacrs plusieurs des temples pharaoniques qui existent le long du ,nil entre ,ouadi-,halfa et ,phil4#aga ,but this is not all4 ,the sequence of the ,divine ,dynasties is as follows1 according to ,maspero3--#agb ,atmu4 ,r ,shou ,sibou ,seb ,osiris ,set ,horus ,neglecting the first four1 we find ,osiris preceding ,set1 and are driven to the conclusion that in ,osiris1 in this connection1 we are dealing with the ,moon1 for the ,sun-gods ,atmu and ,r head the list4 ,besides1 the worship of ,set did not kill the worship of the ,sun1 for the power of ,r finally became paramount4 ,we must hold1 then1 that the ,southern ,sun-god ,horus1 the son of ,osiris1 was the son of a ,moon-god1 and it becomes necessary to inquire if such an idea occurred to other early peoples4 ,professor ,sayce#agc tells us-- ,according to the official religion of ,chalda1 the ,sun-god was the offspring of the ,moon-god1 and he adds1 ,such a belief could have arisen only where the ,moon-god was the supreme object of worship4444 ,to the ,semite the ,sun-god was the lord and father of the gods4#agd ,if we1 then1 with this precedent1 are prepared to take ,osiris as the ,moon-god of the ,southern race1 there is no doubt that the first ,sun-god was ,chnemu1 and the first ,southern ,star-god--the star which heralded sunrise at the ,autumnal ,equinox--,khonsu 7,canopus74 ,thoth also must be named1 for it is certain that the ,calendar which he leads was of ,southern origin1 because ,new ,year's ,day at the ,summer ,solstice was heralded first by ,phact and afterwards by ,sirius1 both ,southern stars4 ,there is likewise ample temple evidence to show that the ,autumnal ,equinoctial ,sun was also heralded1 and in even earlier times1 first by ,canopus and next by ,centauri1 and it becomes a question whether the original moon-calendar of ,thoth did not refer to a year beginning at the ,autumnal ,equinox4 ,this is a suggestion resulting from later inquiries1 and hence ,i have not referred to it in the chapters on the year4 ,and here1 perhaps1 in their dependence upon the ,moon-god ,osiris1 we find the real reason that ,khonsu and ,thoth have lunar instead of solar emblems2 ,thoth led the initial lunar year1 ,khonsu only heralded the advent of the son of the ,moon4 ,if this be so1 before the foundation of the temple of ,annu by la grande tribu des ,anou1#age the ,southern 7originally ,moon-worshipping7 race had already made its appearance in force in ,northern ,egypt1 otherwise the divine dynasties would not have included ,osiris2 we need not be astonished that the temple evidence has disappeared there4 ,the most northern ancient temple of ,osiris was at ,abydos2 that also has gone1 while those at ,phil and ,edf remain1 the latter1 at some time subsequent to its original foundation1 dedicated to a female ,horus4 ,these things being presumed1 we can now bring together in a working hypothesis the temple evidence so far as it bears upon the mythology and interaction of the ,north-and ,south-,star worshippers4 ,date ,b4,c4 ,osiris #fdjj ,a swarm from the south with ,thoth ,moon ,gods4 ,khonsu ,chnemu 7,sun ,god74 come down the ,river4 ,they find a population worshipping ,r and ,atmu4 ,possibly they were merely worshippers of the dawn and twilight4 ,the ,moon worship is accepted as an addition1 and the divine dynasty of ,osiris begins4 ,the swarm brings a lunar year of #cfj days with it1 and the ,egyptian ,calendar beginning ,i4 ,thoth commences4 ,they build temples at ,amada1 ,semneh1 ,phil1 ,edf1 and probably ,abydos4 ,all these were probably ,osiris temples1 so called because ,osiris1 the ,moon-god1 was the chief deity1 and they were used for the determination of the ,sun's place at the ,autumnal ,equinox1 at which time their lunar year probably began4 #edjj ,a swarm1 or swarms1 from the ,n4,e4 ,one certainly comes by the ,red ,sea1 and founds temples at ,redisieh and ,denderah2 another may have come over the isthmus and founded ,annu4 ,they bring the worship of ,anu4#agf ,the ,divine dynasty of ,set is founded1 and we can imagine religious strifes between the partisans of the new northern cult and the southern moon-worshippers4 ,these people might have come either from ,north ,babylonia1 or other swarms of the same race may have invaded ,north ,babylonia at the same time4 #ejjj ,this date is fixed by ,hippopotamus not being circumpolar after it4 ,it might have been much earlier1 but not much later4 ,horus with his blacksmiths comes down the river to revenge his father ,osiris by killing his murderer ,set 7the ,hippopotamus74 ,the #fdjj ,b4,c4 people1 who came from the ,south1 had been worsted by the last 7#edjj ,b4,c47 swarm from the ,n4,e41 and have sent for southern assistance4 ,the ,south people by this time had become ,sun-worshippers1 and ,osiris now means ,sun as well as ,moon4 ,the ,n4,e4 people are beaten1 and there is an amalgamation of the ,original and ,southern cults4 ,the ,n4,e4 people are reduced to second place1 but ,set is retained1 and ,anubis looks after sepulchres1 soon to be replaced by ,osiris as ,southern priestcraft prevails4 ,the priestly headquarters now are at ,annu and ,abydos4 ,at the former place we have an amalgamated cult representing ,sun and ,n4 ,star gods4 ,at ,abydos ,osiris 7changed into a ,sun-,god7 is supreme4 ,sidenote3 ,pyramid ,times ,mariette #dbjj1 ,brugsch #cgjj4 ,another ,swarm from ,n4,e41 certainly from ,babylonia this time1 and apparently by isthmus only1 since no ,e4-,w4 temples are found on ,red ,sea roads4 ,they no longer bring ,anu alone4 ,there is a ,spring ,equinox ,sun-,god4 #cgjj ,southern people at ,barkal and ,thebes in force2 temple-building on a large scale4 ,chnemu begins to give place to ,amen-,r4 ,still more blending between original and ,southern peoples4 #cejj ,final blending of ,north and ,south cults at ,thebes4 ,temples founded there to ,set and ,min1 on the lines of ,annu and ,an4 #cbjj ,establishment of worship of ,amen-,r at ,thebes4 ,supremacy of ,theban priests4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,the ,,egyptian ,,and ,,babylonian ,,ecliptic ,,constellations4 ,i have already1 in ,chapter ,,xxxii41 pointed out that at ,annu we seemed limited to ,set as a stellar divinity2 so soon as pyramid times are reached1 however1 this was changed1 and we found the list of the gods increased1 and the worship of the sun and of stars in the constellations of the ,bull and ,scorpion went on1 if it was not begun1 in ,egypt1 in pyramid times4 ,these constellations were connected with the equinoxes2 and associated with the introduction of these new worships in pyramid times was the worship of the bull ,apis4 ,the first question which now arises is1 ,when were any ecliptic constellations established in ,babylonia8 and next1 ,which were they8 ,jensen1 in his ,kosmologie der ,babylonier1 tells us that there is some very definite information relating not only to ,taurus and ,scorpio1 but to ,capricornus and other winter constellations2 and1 as in ,egypt so in ,babylonia1 for the first references to the constellations we have to refer to the religion and the mythology4 ,so far as ,i have been able to gather1 any myth like the ,egyptian myth of ,horus1 involving combats between the sun and circumpolar star gods1 is entirely lacking in ,babylonia1 but a similar myth in relation to some of the ecliptic constellations is among the best known4 ,jensen shows that the first notions of the ,babylonian constellations are to be got by studying the sun-gods1 and especially the mythic war between the later sun-god ,marduk and the monster ,timat4 ,i have already referred to ,marduk2 he is the ,spring ,sun-,god1 and it has also been stated that the greatest god of ancient ,babylonia1 a of ,eridu1 was connected with the constellation of ,capricornus4 ,marduk represented the constellation of the ,bull4 ,here ,i quote ,jensen3--#agg ,it has already been suggested that the ,bull is a symbol of the ,spring-,sun ,marduk2 that he was originally complete2 that he at one time extended as far as the ,fish of a1 i4e4 the western ,fish2 that the ,fish of a1 out of which the sun emerged at the end of the year in ancient times to enter ,taurus1 is to represent a1 the ,god of the ,ocean1 out of which his son ,marduk1 the early sun1 rises daily2 finally1 that a series of constellations west of the ,fish7es7 is intended to represent symbolically this same ocean4 ,marduk is on the one hand1 as early sun of the day 7and the year71 the son of a1 the god of the world-water4 ,as to the sun-god ,marduk1 then1 he represents the sun at the vernal equinox1 when the sunrise was heralded by the stars in the ,bull4 ,but what1 then1 are the fish of a and the other constellations referred to8 ,they are all revealed to us by the myth4 ,they are the ,southern ecliptic constellations4 ,timat4 ,timat1 according to ,jensen1 means initially the ,eastern ,sea 7p4 #cjg74 ,this was expanded to mean the ,weltwasser 7p4 #cae71 which may be taken to mean1 ,i suppose1 the origin of the ,greek 1 and possibly the overlying firmament of waters4 ,these firmamental waters contain the southerly ecliptic constellations1 the winter and bad-weather signs--the ,scorpion1 the ,goat-fish1 and the ,fish among them4 ,it must be pointed out that these southerly constellations were associated with the ,god of ,eridu in his first stage4 ,the ,constellations referred to in the ,myth of ,marduk and ,timat4 ,we are indebted to the myth1 then1 for the knowledge that when it was invented1 not only the constellations ,bull and ,scorpion1 but also the ,goat and ,fishes had been established in ,babylonia4 ,this argument is strengthened by the following considerations suggested by ,jensen3-- ,we look in vain among the retinue of ,timat for an animal corresponding to the constellations of the zodiac to the east of the vernal equinox4 ,this cannot be accidental4 ,if1 therefore1 we contended that the cosmogonic legends of the ,babylonians stood in close relationship to the phenomena of sunrise on the one hand and the entrance of the sun into the vernal equinox on the other--that1 in fact1 the creation legends in general reflect these events--there could not be a more convincing proof of our view than the fact just mentioned4 ,the three monsters of ,timat1 which ,marduk overcomes1 are located in the 'water-region' of the heavens1 which the ,spring-,sun ,marduk 'overcomes' before entering the 7ancient7 ,bull4 ,if1 as cannot be doubted1 the signs of the zodiac are to be regarded as symbols1 and especially if a monster like the goat-fish1 whose form it is difficult to recognise in the corresponding constellation1 can only be regarded as a symbol1 then we may assume without hesitation that at the time when the ,scorpion1 the ,goat-,fish1 and the ,fish were located as signs of the zodiac in the water-region of the sky1 they already played their parts as the animals of ,timat in the creation legends4 ,of course they were not taken out of a complete story and placed in the sky1 but conceptions of a more general kind gave the first occasion4 ,it does not follow that all the ancient myths now known to us must have been available1 but certainly the root-stock of them1 perhaps in the form of unsystematic and unconnected single stories and concepts4 ,there is still further evidence for the constellation of the ,scorpion4 ,a ,scorpion-,man plays also another part in the cosmology of the ,babylonians4 ,the ,scorpion-,man and his wife guard the gate leading to the ,mu mountain7s71 and watch the sun at rising and setting4 ,their upper part reaches to the sky1 and their irtu 7breast87 to the lower regions 7,epic of ,gistubar #fj1 #i74 ,after ,gistubar has traversed the ,mu ,mountain1 he reaches the sea4 ,this sea lies to the east or south-east4 ,however obscure these conceptions may be1 and however they may render a general idea impossible1 one thing is clear1 that the ,scorpion-,men are to be imagined at the boundary between land and sea1 upper and lower world1 and in such a way that the upper or human portion belongs to the upper region1 and the lower1 the ,scorpion body1 to the lower4 ,hence the ,scorpion-,man represents the boundary between light and darkness1 between the firm land and the water region of the world4 ,marduk1 the god of light1 and vanquisher of ,timat1 i4e4 the ocean1 has for a symbol the ,bull ,taurus1 into which he entered in spring4 ,this leads almost necessarily to the supposition that both the ,bull and the ,scorpion were located in the heavens at a time when the sun had its vernal equinox in ,taurus and its autumnal equinox in ,scorpio1 and that in their principal parts or most conspicuous star groups2 hence probably in the vicinity of ,aldebaran and ,antares1 or at an epoch when the principal parts of ,taurus and ,scorpio appeared before the sun at the equinoxes4 ,if my suggestion be admitted that the ,babylonians dealt not with the daily fight but with the yearly fight between light and darkness--that is1 the antithesis between day and night was expanded into the antithesis between the summer and the winter halves of the year--then it is clear that at the vernal equinox ,scorpio setting in the west would be watching the sunrise2 at the autumnal equinox rising in the east1 it would be watching the sunset2 one part would be visible in the sky1 the other would be below the horizon in the celestial waters4 ,if this be so1 all obscurity disappears1 and we have merely a very beautiful statement of a fact1 from which we learn that the time to which the fact applied was about #cjjj ,b4,c41 if the sun were then near the ,pleiades4 ,jensen1 in the above-quoted passage by implication1 and in a subsequent one directly1 suggests that not all the zodiacal constellations were established at the same time4 ,the ,babylonians apparently began with the easier problem of having six constellations instead of twelve4 ,for instance1 we have already found that to complete the present number1 between ,scorpio ,capricornus ,pisces we must interpolate ,sagittarius ,aquarius4 ,aries and ,libra seem also to be late additions according to ,jensen1 who writes3-- ,we have already above 7p4 #ij7 attempted to explain the striking phenomenon that the ,bull and ,pegasus1 both with half-bodies only1 1 enclose the ,ram between them1 by the assumption that the latter was interposed later1 when the sun at the time of the vernal equinox was in the hind parts of the ,bull1 so that this point was no longer sufficiently marked in the sky4 ,another matter susceptible of a like explanation may be noted in the region of the sky opposite to the ,ram and the ,bull4 ,although we cannot doubt the existence of an eastern balance1 still1 as already remarked 7p4 #fh71 the ,greeks have often called it 'claws' 7of the ,scorpion71 and according to what has been said above 7p4 #cab71 the sign for a constellation in the neighbourhood of our ,libra reads in the ,arsacid inscription 'claw7s7' of the ,scorpion4 ,these facts are very simply explained on the supposition that the ,scorpion originally extended into the region of the ,balance1 and that originally and ,libr represented the 'horns' of the ,scorpion1 but later on1 when the autumnal equinox coincided with them1 the term ,balance was applied to them4 ,although this was used as an additional name1 it was only natural that the old term should still be used as an equivalent4 ,but it also indicates the great age of a portion of the zodiac4 ,let us suppose that what happened in the case of ,aries and ,libra happened with six constellations out of the twelve3 in other words1 that the original zodiac consisted only of six constellations4 ,taurus ,gemini ,crab 7or ,tortoise7 ,lion ,virgin 7or ear of corn7 ,libra ,scorpion ,sagittarius ,capricornus ,aquarius ,pisces ,aries ,the left-hand list not only classifies in an unbroken manner the ,fish-,man1 the ,goat-,fish1 the ,scorpion-,man1 and ,marduk of the ,babylonians1 but we pick up all or nearly all of the ecliptic stars or constellations met with in early ,egyptian mythology1 ,apis1 ,the ,tortoise1#agh ,min1 ,serk-t1 ,chnemu1 as represented by appropriate symbols4 ,further1 the remarkable suppression or small representation of the ,lion in both the more ancient ,babylonian and ,egyptian mythology is explained4 ,i have shown before how the ,babylonians with an equinoctial year would take slight account of the solstice1 while it also follows that the ,egyptians1 who were wise enough not to use zodiacal stars for their warnings of sunrise1 for the reason that stars in the brighter light of dawn near the sun are more difficult to see1 might easily neglect the constellation of the ,lion1 as first ,phact and then ,sirius1 both southern stars1 marked for them the advent of the summer solstice2 on different grounds1 then1 the ,lion might well have been at first omitted in both countries4 ,since there is a doubt as to the existence of the ,lion among the first ,babylonian constellations1 the argument in the following paragraph would appear to refer to observations made at a later time1 when totemism was less prevalent3-- ,the ,lion in the heavens must represent the heat of the summer4 ,he does this most effectually when the summer solstice coincides with the constellation--that is1 when its principal stars appear before the sun at the summer solstice4 ,this happened at the time when the vernal equinox lay in ,taurus1 and when the principal star-group of the ,bull appeared before the sun at the time of the vernal equinox4 ,the ,water-jug 7,amphora71 ,aquarius1 must represent symbolically the watery season of winter4 ,it does this most effectually when the winter solstice coincides with it1 or its principal star-group appears before the sun at the winter solstice4 ,this happened about the time when the vernal equinox lay in ,taurus1 and its principal star-group rose before the sun at the time of the vernal equinox4 ,thanks to ,jensen's researches1 then1 we have the important conclusion before us that the ,babylonians1 as well as the ,egyptians1 in early times symbolised the following constellations3-- ,taurus ,bull4 ,cancer ,tortoise4 ,virgo ,ear of corn or other product representing fertility4 ,scorpio ,scorpion4 ,capricornus ,goat-man or goat-fish4 ,pisces ,fish-man4 ,but what time was this8 ,we have seen that in ,egypt the ,bull constellation had been established possibly in the time of ,mena1 and that certainly both the ,bull and the ,scorpion had been established in pyramid times4 ,i have also given evidence to show that the ,e4 and ,w4 pyramid worship was brought from ,babylonia4 ,now1 about this date we know that ,sargon ,i4 was king of that country1 and reigned at ,accad or ,agade1 lat4 #cc ,n41 on the right bank of the ,euphrates1 ,sippara being across the river4 ,here it may be mentioned that the latitudes of ,eridu and ,babylon are #ca ,n4 and #cb ,n4 respectively1 so that ,agade was to the north of both4 ,although the worship of ,marduk--that is1 the vernal equinox ,sun-god--in ,babylon was much intensified when ,khammurabi reigned about #bbjj ,b4,c41 it is known that it existed long before2 how long ,i cannot find4 ,it is also very remarkable that the deities of ,eridu1 whenever that city was pre-eminent1 were guarded by sacred bulls4 ,we must leave it undetermined1 therefore1 at what date the ,bull sun-god was established2 but it seems certain1 on the above grounds1 that it must have been before pyramid times4 ,but we are not limited to the above line of evidence4 ,there are astronomical considerations which will help us4 ,for the purpose of noting the validity of the argument based upon them1 a slight reference is necessary to the change of the equinoctial point along the ecliptic4 ,by the processional movement1 the position of the sun in the ecliptic at an equinox or solstice sweeps round the ecliptic in about #be1jjj years4 ,now if we suppose twelve ecliptic constellations of equal size--that is1 #cj long 7#cj #ab #cfj7--the time it would take the sun's place at the vernal equinox to pass through one constellation would be 7#bejjjab 7 #bjhc years4 ,if the constellation of the ,bull were twice as long formerly as it is now 7when the constellations are twice as numerous71 of course this period would be doubled4 ,so that the statement that the sun at the equinox was in the ,bull does not help us very much to an actual date1 and the constellation of the ,lion could have been established #bjjj years after the ,bull1 and yet have marked the summer solstice4 ,further1 if all the stars of the ,bull 7speaking generally7 are seen at dawn--that is1 before the sun rises--the sun has not yet reached the ,bull4 ,we can then1 at all events1 fix a minimum of time4 ,the sun's longitude at the vernal equinox being always #j1 the longitude of the most easterly part of the constellation1 assuming this part not to have been changed1 will give us the number of years that have elapsed4 ,i now go on to state ,jensen's view as to the date of the introduction of the god ,marduk into ,babylonian mythology1 or1 in other words1 of the worship of the spring-tide sun4 ,jensen remarks3-- ,it may safely be assumed that the constellations of the ,scorpion and the ,bull actually originated at the latest at a time when the autumnal and vernal equinoctial points respectively coincided with their principal stars4 ,but this was the case more than #dijj years ago4 ,but if we assume that ,taurus and ,scorpio were given their names at a time when their main stars rose before the sun at the time of the vernal and autumnal equinoxes respectively1 we should obtain as the date of the establishment of the constellations of ,taurus and ,scorpio in the skies about the year-#ejjj4agi ,according to ,dr4 ,tetens1 the sun stood at the tips of the horns of the ,bull at the commencement of spring #fjjj years ago4 ,at this time1 therefore1 ,taurus had completely risen above the eastern horizon at sunrise4 ,since it is not inconceivable that in the delineation of the first signs of the zodiac a name was attached to a constellation of the ecliptic emerging from behind the sun1 and apparently more or less connected1 the name being such as to indicate symbolically the beginning of the spring then occurring1 the time1 about #adjj ,b4,c41 might also be that of the introduction of the ,bull 7and the ,scorpion74 ,but it is1 of course1 not necessary that this should have occurred at one of the three epochs mentioned2 this is1 indeed1 highly improbable1 and the process must be regarded as follows3 ,when the idea was conceived of indicating symbolically the beginning of spring in the sky--whether the idea originated in the brains of the masses or in that of a learned scholar1 whether it had a mythological or a more scientific basis--a name was given in the first instance to the region in which the sun was at the beginning of spring1 or to that west of it1 the name denoting symbolically the beginning of spring4 ,this1 of course1 does not exclude the possibility that more eastward portions of the ecliptic1 whose stars were less prominent1 were included in this name4 ,from this we may conclude that ,taurus did not originate later than-#cjjj1 for at that time ,aldebaran1 its principal star1 stood east of the sun at the beginning of spring4 ,hence it would follow that our creation legends are1 at least in part1 just as old4#ahj ,it may1 then1 be gathered from the above that the constellations of the ,bull and the ,scorpion were recognised as such at the same early date both in ,babylonia and ,egypt2 and to these we may add the ,tortoise 7our present ,cancer7 and some of the southern constellations4 ,further1 that the date of their establishment was certainly not later than1 say1 #djjj ,b4,c41 and probably much earlier4 ,with regard to the complete ecliptic1 the information seems meagre both from ,babylonia and from ,egypt in early times4 ,i have already referred to the ,egyptian decans1 that is1 the lists of stars rising at intervals of ten days4 ,the lists will be found in ,lepsius and in ,brugsch's ,astronomische und ,astrologische ,inschriften1 but the stars have not been made out4 ,in later times in ,babylonia--say #ajjj ,b4,c4--the following list represents the results of ,jensen's investigations3-- 7#a7 ,perhaps ,aries 7 leading sheep74 7#b7 ,a ,bull 7of the ,heavens7 ,aldebaran or 7and7 our ,taurus4 7#c7 ,gemini4 7#d78 7#e7 ,perhaps ,leo4 7#f7 ,the constellation of the ,corn in ,ears the ,ear of ,corn4 ,spica4 7#g7 ,probably ,libra1 whose stars are1 however1 at least in general1 called ,the ,claw7s7 7i4e41 of the ,scorpion74 7#h7 ,the ,scorpion4 7#i7 ,perhaps ,sagittarius4 7#aj7 ,the ,goat-fish ,caper4 7#aa78 7#ab7 ,the ,fish with the ,fish band4 ,a few hundred years later1 we learn from the works of ,strassmeyer and ,epping1 a complete chain of twenty-eight stars along the ecliptic had been established1 and most careful observations made of the paths of the moon and planets1 and of all attendant phenomena4 ,the ecliptic stars then used in ,babylonia were as follows3--#aha #a4 ,piscium4 #b4 ,arietis4 #c4 ,arietis4 #d4 ,tauri4 #e4 ,tauri4 #f4 ,tauri4 #g4 ,tauri4 #h4 ,geminorum4 #i4 ,geminorum4 #aj4 ,geminorum4 #aa4 ,geminorum4 #ab4 ,geminorum4 #ac4 ,cancri4 #ad4 ,leonis4 #ae4 ,leonis4 #af4 ,leonis4 #ag4 ,leonis4 #ah4 ,virginis4 #ai4 ,virginis4 #bj4 ,virginis4 #ba4 ,libr4 #bb4 ,libr #bc4 ,scorpionis4 #bd4 ,scorpionis4 #be4 ,ophiuchi4 #bf4 ,capricorni4 #bg4 ,capricorni4 #bh4 ,capricorni4 ,in ,egypt1 dating from the twentieth dynasty 7#aajj ,b4,c471 is a series of star tables which have puzzled ,egyptologists from ,champollion and ,biot downwards4 ,these observations are recorded in several manuscripts found in tombs2 they seem to have been given as a sort of charm to the people who were buried1 in order to enable them to get through the difficulties of the way in the nether world4 ,the hieroglyphs state that a particular star of a particular ,egyptian constellation is seen at a particular hour of the night4 ,we have twelve lines representing the twelve hours of the night1 and it is stated that we have in these vertical lines the equivalent of the lines in our transit instruments1 and that the reference in the middle1 over the right eye1 over the right shoulder1 or over the left ear1 as the case may be1 is simply a reference to the position of the star4 ,were this confirmed1 one of the remarkable things about the inquiry would be that the ,egyptians did not hesitate in those days to make a constellation cover very nearly #ij of right ascension1 showing that they wished to have as few constellations1 including as many stars1 as possible4 ,but the best authorities all agree that these are tables of stars rising at different hours of the night1 and a small constellation near the pole might have taken many hours to rise4 ,the observations were made on the #ast and #afth of every month4 ,the chief stars seem to be twenty-four in number1 and it looked at first as if we had really here a list of priceless value of twenty-four either ecliptic or equatorial stars1 similar to the decans to which reference has already been made4 ,unfortunately1 however1 the list has resisted all efforts to completely understand it4 ,whether it is a list of risings or meridian passages even is still in dispute4 ,quite recently1 indeed1 one of the investigators1 ,herr ,gustav ,bilfinger1#ahb has not hesitated to consider it not a list of observations at all1 but a compilation for a special purpose4 ,the star-table is intended to carry the principle of time into the rigid world of the grave1 and represents over the sepulchral vault 'the eternal horizon1' as the ancient ,egyptians so aptly styled the grave1 an imitation of the sky1 a compensation for the sky of the upper world with its time-measuring motion2 yet the idea here is bolder1 the execution is more artificial and complicated1 since the sculptor endeavoured to combine the daily and the annual motion of the celestial vault in one picture2 wanted to transfer into the grave the temporal frames in which all human life is enacted4 ,this endeavour to represent by one configuration both motions and both chronological units explains all the peculiarities and imperfections of our star-table4 ,the simplest means of representing both motions was found in the stars1 which circle the earth in the course of a day1 and indicate the year by the successive appearance of new stars in the morning twilight4 ,if the same stars were to serve both purposes in one representation1 it was necessary to take twenty-four stars which rose at intervals of fifteen days1 since only such followed each other at an average distance of #ae1 and were therefore useful for showing the hours4 ,if the calendar-maker really possessed a list of the twenty-four principal 7zodiacal7 stars1 the course of the year was indicated thereby2 but since he also wanted to represent the daily motion1 he might with some justice have composed each night out of eleven of these stars1 since the stars' risings are only visible during the ten middle hours of the night4 ,but ten hours would not have adequately represented the night1 since this was thought of as a twelve hours' interval4 ,there was a way out of it--viz41 to call hora #j 'sunset1' hora #ab 'sunrise1' which would have been a simple and correct solution if the division of the night into twelve parts for practical purposes had been aimed at4 ,but this expedient he could not adopt1 because he could or would only operate with stars1 and the notions of sunrise and sunset found no place in his tables4 ,thus he was forced to falsify the customary division of the hours1 by squeezing the twelve hours of the night into the time during which star risings are visible--viz41 the dark night exclusive of twilight4 ,on the other hand1 he could not1 with his principal stars at intervals of #ae1 divide his night1 shortened as it was by two hours1 into twelve parts1 and thus he was obliged to make use of two or three auxiliary stars1 as we have proved in detail above1 and thus yet more to disfigure the hour-division1 since thereby the lengths of the hours were made very variable4 ,these are then two things which we must not regard as peculiarities of ancient ,egyptian reckoning1 but as a consequence of the leading idea of our table1 which did not intend to facilitate the division of the night into twelve parts by star observations1 but was calculated1 by the connection of thirteen stars with thirteen successive moments1 to create the idea of the circling host of stars and thence the course of the night4 ,i give an abstract of the list of the twenty-four principal stars and the ,egyptian constellations in which they occur3-- #a4 ,sahu ,orion4 #b4 ,sothis ,sirius4 #c4 ,the two stars4 #d4 ,the stars of the water4 #e4 ,the lion4 #f4 ,the many stars4 #g4 ,mena's herald4 #h4 ,mena4 #i4 ,mena's followers4 #aj4 #aa4 #ab4 ,hippopotamus4 #ac4 #ad4 #ae4 #af4 #ag4 ,necht4 #ah4 #ai4 #bj4 #ba4 ,ari4 #bb4 #bc4 ,goose4 #bd4 ,sahu ,head of ,orion4 ,it will be seen that even this ,egyptian star-list is very indeterminate4 ,it is known that ,sahu is the name for the constellation of ,orion4 ,the hippopotamus represents ,draco1 and probably ,necht another northern constellation4 ,there are indications1 too1 that ,mena may symbolise ,spica1 with which star we have seen ,min-worship associated4 ,further than this the authorities do not venture at present to go4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,egypt ,,upon ,,temple-,,orientation ,,in ,,greece4 ,in the final pages of this book ,i have to show that recent investigations have put beyond all doubt the fact that the astronomical observations and temple-worship of the ,egyptians formed the basis first of ,greek and later of ,latin temple-building4 ,i have indicated in a former chapter that in our own days1 and in our own land1 the idea of orientation which ,i have endeavoured to work out for ,egypt still holds its own4 ,it was more than probable1 therefore1 that we should find the intermediate stages in those countries whither by universal consent ,egyptian ideas percolated4 ,among these1 ,greece holds the first place1 as it was the nearest point of ,europe to the ,nile ,valley4 ,before we study the orientation of the ,greek temples1 let us endeavour to realise the conditions of those ,greek colonists who1 filled with the ,egyptian learning2 impressed with the massive and glorious temples in which they had worshipped2 favoured1 perchance1 moreover1 with glimpses of the esoteric ideas of the priesthood2 and finally1 fired with ,greek ideals of the beautiful1 determined that their new land should not remain altarless4 ,what would they do8 ,they would naturally adapt the ,egyptian temple to the new surroundings1 climatic among others4 ,the open courts and flat roofs of ,egyptian temples would give way to covered courts and sloping roofs to deal with a more copious rainfall2 and it is curious to note that the chief architectural differences have this simple origin4 ,the small financial resources of a colony would be reason good enough for a cella not far from the entrance1 with courts surrounding it under the now necessary roof4 ,the instinctive love of beauty would do the rest1 and make it a sine qu non that the rosy-fingered dawn should be observable1 and that the coloured light of the rising sun in the more boreal clime should render glorious a stately statue of the divinity4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,greek ,,temple ,,restored--,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,poseidon ,,at ,p,,stum4 ,it is well to take this opportunity of emphasising the transition from the ,egyptian form of temple to the ,greek one1 in order to show how completely among many apparent changes the astronomical conditions were retained4 ,the entrance door and the cella are always in the axis of the temple2 the number of columns in the front is always even2 the door is never blocked4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,theseus ,,at ,,athens3 ,,the ,,acropolis1 ,,with ,,the ,,parthenon1 ,,in ,,the ,,background4 ,i have already pointed out that in both groups of ,egyptian temples1 whether furnished with a pylon or not1 one goes from the entrance to the other end1 which held the sanctuary1 through various halls of different styles of architecture and different stages of magnificence4 ,but in the ,greek temple this is entirely changed2 the approach to the temple was outside--witness the glorious propylum of the ,parthenon at ,athens--the temple representing1 so to speak1 only the core1 the ,holy of ,holies1 of the ,egyptian temple2 and any magnificent approach to it which could be given was given from the outside4 ,be it further remarked that the propylum was never in the fair-way of the light entering the temple4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,east ,,front ,,of ,,the ,,parthenon1 ,,facing ,,the ,,rising ,,of ,,the ,,pleiades4 ,the massive pylons of some of the ,egyptian temples were useful for shading the roofless outer courts4 ,in ,greece these were no longer useful4 ,the east front of the ,parthenon very much more resembles the temple of ,denderah than it does the early ,egyptian temple--that is to say1 the eastern front is open2 it is not closed by pylons4 ,the view as to the possibility of temple-orientation being dominated by astronomical ideas first struck me at ,athens and ,eleusis1 and when ,i found that the same idea had been held by ,nissen1 and that the validity of it seemed to be beyond all question1 ,i consulted my friend ,mr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,penrose specially with regard to ,greece1 as ,i knew he had made a special study of some of the temples1 and that1 he being an astronomer as well as an archologist 7for1 alas6 they are not1 as ,i think they should be1 convertible terms71 it was possible that his observations with regard to them included the requisite data4 ,i was fortunate enough to find that he had already determined the orientation of the ,parthenon with sufficient accuracy to enable him to agree in my conclusion that that temple had been directed to the rising of the ,pleiades4 ,he has subsequently taken up the whole subject with regard to ,greece in a most admirable and complete way1#ahc and has communicated papers to the ,society of ,antiquaries 7,february #ah1 #ahib71 and more recently to the ,royal ,society 7,april #bg1 #ahic7 on his results4#ahd ,these results are so numerous and complete that it is now quite possible to trace the transition from ,egyptian to ,greek temple-worship1 and this1 with ,mr4 ,penrose's full permission1 ,i propose to do in this chapter4 ,but1 in the first instance1 ,i am anxious to state that ,mr4 ,penrose was soon convinced that in ,greece1 as in ,egypt1 the stars were used for heralding sunrise4 ,he writes3-- ,the object the ancients had in using the stars was to employ their rising and setting as a clock to give warning of the sunrise1 so that on the special feast days the priests should have timely notice for preparing the sacrifice or ceremonial1 whatever it may have been3 ',spectans orientia solis ,lumina rite cavis undam de flumine palmis ,sustulit1' etc4 ,i may further give an extract from a letter received from him in which he deals with the demonstration of the orientation hypothesis furnished by the ,greek temples alone4 ,in my paper sent to the ,royal ,society there was a passage which seems to make it practically certain that heliacal stars were connected with the intra-solstitial temples as derived from ,greek sources alone1 independent of the powerful aid of the ,egyptian cases4 ',that the first beam of sunrise should fall upon the statue centrally placed in the adytum of a temple or on the incense altar in front of it on a particular day1 it would be requisite that the orientation of the temple should coincide with the amplitude of the sun as it rose above the visible horizon1 be it mountain or plain4 ',that a star should act as time-warner it was necessary that it should have so nearly the same amplitude as the sun that it could be seen from the adytum through the eastern door1 if it was to give warning at its rising1 or to have a similar but reversed amplitude towards the west1 if its heliacal setting was to be observed2 and it follows that in the choice of the festival day and the corresponding orientation1 on these principles1 both the amplitude of the sun at its rising and that of the star eastwards or westwards1 as the case might be1 would have to be considered in connection with one another4 ',from what has been said it is obvious that in the intra-solstitial temples the list of available bright stars and constellations is in the first instance limited to those which lie within a few degrees of the ecliptic1 and it will be found that in the list above given and those which follow1 if we omit ,eleusis1 where the conditions were exceptional1 all but one of the stars are found in the zodiacal constellations4 ,a very great limit is imposed1 in the second place1 by one of the conditions being the heliacal rising or setting of those stars from which the selection has to be made4 ,so that1 when both these combined limitations are taken into account1 it becomes improbable to the greatest degree that in every instance of intra-solstitial temples of early foundation of which ,i have accurate particulars1 being twenty-eight in number and varying in their orientation from #ba ,n4 to #ah #be ,s4 of the true east1 there should be found a bright heliacal star or constellation in the right position at dates not in themselves improbable unless the temples had been so oriented as to secure this combination4' ,i have just been looking into the number of possible stars which could have been used1 i4e4 within the limits of the greatest distance from the ecliptic that could have been utilised4 ,the stars which could have been utilised in addition to the seven which serve for nearly thirty temples are ten only1 viz43-- ,aldebaran4 ,pollux4 ,arietis4 ,tauri4 and ,capricorni as a group4 ,libr4 ,libr4 ,leonis4 ,leonis4 ,leonis4 ,if the orientations had been placed at random1 would not our thirty temples have made many misses in aiming at these seventeen stars1 it being necessary also to hit exactly the heliacal margin8 ,and would they have secured anything like a due archological sequence8 99 99 99 99 99 ,another point is this3-- ,whenever a star less than first magnitude is used 7,pleiades only excepted7 it has been necessary1 to secure coincidence1 to give it several more degrees of sun depression than in the cases of ,spica and ,antares4 ,the problem in ,greece was slightly different from that in ,egypt4 ,we had not such a great antiquity almost without records to deal with1 and moreover the feast-calendars of the various temples presented less difficulty4 ,there was no vague year to contend with1 and in some cases the actual dates of building were known within a very few years4 ,in ,greece1 not dominated by the rise of the ,nile1 we should not expect the year to begin at a solstice1 but rather at the vernal equinox4 ,i have shown that even in pyramid times in ,egypt the risings of the ,pleiades and ,antares were watched to herald the equinoctial sun2 it is not surprising1 therefore1 to find the earliest temples in ,greece to be so oriented4 ,mr4 ,penrose has found the following3-- ,b4,c4 ,tauri ,archaic temple of ,athens ,r#ahe #aecj 7,the ,pleiades7 ,minerva ,asclepieion ,epidaurus ,r #abge ,the ,hecatompedon ,athens ,r #aaej 7site of ,parthenon7 ,temple of ,bacchus ,athens ,r #ajcj ,temple of ,minerva ,sunium ,s #hde ,b4,c4 ,antares ,herum ,argos ,r #agfj ,earlier ,erechtheum ,athens ,s #ajgj ,temple at ,corinth ,s #ggj ,temple on the ,mountain gina ,s #fcj ,jupiter ,panhellenius ,here we find the oldest temple in a spot which by common consent is the very cradle of ,greek civilisation4 ,it has also been shown that in ,khu-en-,aten's time the sun-temple at ,tell el-,amarna was oriented to ,spica4 ,spica1 too1 we find so used in ,greece in the following temples3-- ,b4,c4 ,spica ,the ,herum at ,olympia ,r #adde ,nike ,apteros ,athens ,s #aacj ,themis ,rhamnus ,r #ajib ,nemesis ,rhamnus ,r #gdg ,apollo ,bass ,r #gbh ,eastern doorway4 ,diana ,ephesus ,r #gae ,when the sun at the spring equinox had left ,taurus and entered ,aries1 owing to precession1 in ,egypt the equinoxes were no longer in question1 since the solstitial year was thoroughly established1 and consequently we find no temples to the new warning star ,arietis4 ,in ,greece1 however1 where the vernal equinox had now been established as the beginning of the year1 we find a different state of things4 ,no less than seven temples oriented to ,arietis are already known3-- ,b4,c4 ,arietis ,minerva ,tegea ,r #aehj ,jupiter ,olympius ,athens ,r #abjb ,jupiter ,olympia ,r #gij ,temple 7perhaps ,juno7 ,platea ,s #fej ,jupiter ,megalopolis ,s #fje ,temple at the ,harbour gina ,s #ehj ,temple on ,acropolis of ,mycen ,r #edj ,eastern doorway4 ,the ,metroum ,olympia ,s #cfj ,illustration3 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,jupiter ,,olympius ,,below ,,the ,,acropolis1 ,,at ,,athens1 ,,oriented ,,to ,,arietis4 ,the above are all intra-solstitial temples--that is1 the sunlight as well as the light of the star can enter them--and this enables us to note a certain change of thought brought about in all probability by the artistic spirit of the ,greeks4 ,the ,egyptian temples were all dark1 often with a statue of a god or a reptile obscure in the naos1 and many were oriented so that sunlight never entered them4 ,mr4 ,penrose points out that almost all the ,greek temples are oriented so that sunlight can enter them4 ,of such temples we have the following twenty-nine3-- #g examples from ,athens4 #c ,olympia4 #b ,epidaurus4 #b ,rhamnus4 #b gina4 #b ,tegea4 #a ,nemea4 #a ,corcyra4 #a ,sunium4 #a ,corinth4 #a ,bass4 #a ,ephesus4 #a ,plata4 #a ,lycosura4 #a ,megalopolis4 #b ,argos4 ,now in all these ,greek temples1 instead of the dark naos of the ,egyptian building1 we find the cella fully illumined and facing the entrance4 ,frequently1 too1 there was a chryselephantine statue to be rendered glorious by the coloured morning sunlight falling upon it1 or1 if any temple had the westerly aspect1 by the sunset glow4 ,it was perhaps this1 combined eventually with the much later invention of water-clocks for telling the hours of the night1 which led to the non-building of temples resembling those at ,thebes and ,denderah facing nearly north2 of these1 however1 there are scattered examples2 one of very remarkable importance1 as it is a temple oriented to ,draconis #aacj ,b4,c41 built therefore not very long after the temple ,m at ,karnak1 and this temple is at ,botian ,thebes6 ,a better proof of the influence exerted by the ,egyptians over the temple-building in ,greece could scarcely be imagined4 ,as ,mr4 ,penrose remarks3-- ,thebes was called the ,city of the ,dragon1 and tradition records that ,cadmus introduced both ,phnician and ,egyptian worship4 ,it would be very surprising1 if we assume1 as we are bound to do1 that these temples to stars were built under ,egyptian influence1 that ,sirius should not be represented among them1 that being the paramount star in ,egypt at a time when we should expect to find her influence most important in ,greece4 ,still1 ,i have shown already that1 as the ,greek year ignored the solstice1 the use of ,sirius as a warning star for all purposes of utility would not come in4 ,mr4 ,penrose finds1 however1 that1 in spite of this1 ,sirius was used for temple-worship4 ,leaving the solar temples1 we find that the star which was observed at the great temple of ,ceres must have been ,sirius1 not used1 however1 heliacally--although this temple is not extra-solstitial--but for its own refulgence at midnight4 ,the date so determined is quite consistent with the probable time of the foundation of the ,eleusinian ,mysteries1 and the time of the year when at its rising it would have crossed the axis at midnight agrees exactly with that of the celebration of the ,great ,mysteries4 ,it is reasonable to suppose that when1 as in the case of ,sirius at ,eleusis1 brilliant stars were observed at night1 the effect was enhanced by the priests by means of polished surfaces4 ,another question4 ,does the star follow the cult in ,greece as it does in ,egypt8 ,in ,greece we find the following3-- ,the star ,arietis is the brightest star of the first sign of the ,zodiac1 and would therefore be peculiarly appropriate to the temple of ,jupiter4 ,the heliacal rising of this star agrees both with the ,olympieium at ,athens and that at ,olympia4 ,there is a considerable difference in the deviation of the axes of these two temples from the true east2 but this is exactly accounted for by the greater apparent altitude of ,hymettus over the more distant mountain at ,olympia4#ahf ,the ,pleiades are common to the following temples of ,minerva--viz41 the ,archaic temple on the ,acropolis1 the ,hecatompedon1 and ,sunium4 ,in the two former it is the rising1 the latter the setting star4 ,there must have been something in common between the temples at ,corinth1 gina1 and ,nemea4 ,the two last1 at any rate1 are reputed temples of ,jupiter4 ,the ,greek side of the inquiry becomes more interesting when the connection between the orientation of the intra-solstitial temples and the local festivals is inquired into2 in ,egypt this is all but impossible at present4 ,a temple oriented to either solstice can only be associated with the longest or with the shortest day2 if the temple points to the sunrise or sunset at any other period of the year1 the sunlight will enter the temple twice1 whether it points to the sunrise or sunset place4 ,now ,mr4 ,penrose finds that in ,greece1 as in ,egypt1 the initial orientation of each intra-solstitial temple was to a star1 and this would1 of course1 secure observations of the star and the holding of an associated festival at the same time of the year for a long period4 ,but when the precessional movement carried the star away1 they would only have the sun to depend on1 and this they might use twice a year4 ,it is possible1 as ,mr4 ,penrose remarks1 that there would have been no reason for preferring one of these solar coincidences to the other1 and the feast could have been shifted to a different date if it had been thought more convenient4 ,he goes on to add3-- ,it would appear that something of this sort may have taken place at ,athens1 for we find on the ,acropolis the archaic temple1 which seems to have been intended originally for a vernal festival1 offering its axis to the autumnal sunrise on the very day of the great ,panathenaia in ,august4 ,the chryselephantine statue of the ,parthenon1 which temple followed on the same lines as the earlier ,hecatompedon 7originally founded to follow the rising of the ,pleiades after that constellation had deserted the archaic temple alongside71 was lighted up by the sunrise on the feast to the same goddess in ,august1 the ,syncia1 instead of some spring festival1 for which both these temples seem at first to have been founded4 ,the temple at ,sunium1 already quoted for its ,october star-heralded festival to ,minerva1 was oriented also axially to the sun on ,february #ba1 the feast of the ,lesser ,mysteries4 ,i have had to insist again and again that in the case of the ,egyptian temples the stated date of foundation of a temple is almost always long after that in which its lines were laid down in accordance with the ritual4 ,no wonder1 then1 that the same thing is noticed in ,greece4 ,in about two-thirds of the cases which ,i have investigated the dates deduced from the orientations are clearly earlier than the architectural remains now visible above the ground4 ,this is explained by the temples having been rebuilt upon old foundations1 as may be seen in several cases which have been excavated1 of which the archaic temple of ,minerva on the ,acropolis of ,athens and the temple of ,jupiter of ,olympius on a lower site are instances4 ,there are temples also of the middle epoch1 such as the examples at ,corinth1 gina1 and the later temples at ,argos and at ,olympia 7the ,metroum at the last-named71 of which the orientation dates are not inconsistent with what may be gathered from other sources4 ,the problem is1 moreover1 helped in ,greece by architectural considerations1 which are frequently lacking in ,egypt3 of two temples it can be shown1 on this evidence alone1 that one is older than the other4 ,such an appeal strengthens my suggestion that two of the temples of the ,acropolis ,hill were oriented to the ,pleiades1 by showing the older temple to point to an earlier position of the star group4 ,to these ,mr4 ,penrose adds another pair at ,rhanmus1 where he has found that there are two temples almost touching one another1 both following 7and with accordant dates7 the shifting places of ,spica1 and still another pair at ,tegea4 ,,index4 ,a ,ahmes1 ,king1 #cci ,abd el-,latf1 #ab ,abu ,shahrn1 #cga ,abu ,simbel1 #af1 #cjf ,abydos1 mounds and temples at1 #gd1 #ii1 #age1 #bad1 #cch1 #cic sanctity of1 #cbg ,achernar1 #cha ,adytum4 ,see ,sanctuary ,africa ,e41 #cgc ,agni1 god of fire1 #g ,ahura-,mazda or ,ormuzd1 #f ,air1 god of1 #cc k1 #agf1 #bje ,amada1 #caa ,amen1 confraternity of1 #cai worship of1 #ahi temples dedicated to1 #bbj1 #bbb ,amen-t1 ,hathor ,temple1 #cjf wife of ,amen1 #bbb star symbol1 #bbc ,amen-,r1 ,hak of ,pun-t1 #cdg obelisks to1 #ajf ,southern worship1 #cai temples of1 #be1 #ge1 #gh1 #ii1 #bbc1 #cea1 #ced date of1 #aai direction of axis of1 #gh growth of1 #ahh restoration of1#ajh ,see also ,karnak ,amenemht ,i41 #gg1 #age1 #cch ,amen-hetep ,i41 #bba ,amen-hetep ,,iii41 ,mut ,temple1 #bac ,karnak ,temple ,b1 builder of1 #ahi quarrel with ,theban priests1 #cba ,amen-hetep ,,iv41 date of1 #cba conservatism of1 #cbj leaves ,thebes1 #cba builds ,tell el-,amarna1 #cbc ,amenti1 #ce ,amplitude1 #df ,amplitudes1 of temples1 #ei1 #fg1 #agj1 #cji at ,annu1 #afh at ,denderah1 #afh1 #baj at ,karnak1 #dg1 #afj1 #afh1 #aga1 #ahi tables of1 #cje1 #cjf1 #caa1 #cab1 #cah ,amru1 description of ,egypt1 #bcj ,amsu4 ,see ,min ,an1 and god ,anu1 #cfc ,anaximander1 #h ,ancestors1 divine1 #cbg ,annu1 #gd grand priest of 7title of ,theban priest71 #cdj list of gods at1 #cbi ,nile flood at1 #bbf obelisk and mounds at1 #bad1 #caf temples at1 #gh1 #id1 #afh1 #age1 #bad1 #cji1 #caf1 #cbf1 #cbg walls at1 #gf worship at1 #cah1 #cai1 #cbf1 #cei ,antares1 symbolised by ,serk-t1 #cbi1 #cfj temples in ,greece1 #dai ,anu1 ,babylonian1 astronomical meaning for1 #cfc1 #cfe1 #cgb1 #cgg ,anubis4 ,see ,set ,ap1 god of the waters1 #g ,apet1 #bij ,apis1 bull1 also ,hapi1 #bbi1 #ccj1 #cif ,apollinopolis ,magna4 ,see ,edf ,argus 1 #cgd ,aries1 first point of1 #ec ,arietis 1 temples oriented to1 ,grecian1 #dbj ,armant1 ,nile gauge at1 #bce ,asari1 #cgb1 #chd ,asti1 name of ,thoth1 #agf ,aswn1 nilometer at1 #bcd1 #bce distances of gauges from1 #bce ,nile flood1 maximum time of1 #bdj to ,rda1 ,nile flood1 rate of1 between1 #bdj ,aten1 most ancient god1 #cba ,athene1 temple of1 #cbi ,athens1 ,parthenon at1 propylum of1 #dae ,atmu1 ,tmu1 or ,osiris1 #be1 #bf1 #bie ,axis of temples1 #afi1 #agc changes in1 #afc ,azimuths1 #df ,azimuth compass1 #fg ,b ,baal1 hieroglyph for1 #cfa1 #cfb ,baalbek1 structural origin1 #ib1 #id1 #cfg ,babylonia1 ancient cities in1 modern sites of1 #hf ,anu and ,bl1 #cfe kings of1 #cfi state of astronomy #cjj ,b4,c41 #c temple structures in1 #cfg unit of time in1 #bbg ziggurats1 #cfg ,bast1 symbolised star ,draconis1 #bij ,bear1 ,great1 represented by ,thigh1 #acg1 #adf1 #baf ,little1 represented by ,jackal1 #acg1 #adf ,bel1 temple of1 #chj ,berenice1 road between ,edf and1 #bjh ,brssus1 #cha ,bes1 #bh1 #cfh ,bl1 #cfc1 #cgb1 #cgg ,bilfinger1 star tables1 #dji ,biot1 ancient star places1 calculation of1 #abi ,denderah1 inscriptions1 #aci1 #aic observing conditions in ,egypt1 #abb precessional globe of1 #agj ,ramesseum inscriptions1 date of1 #adc risings1 heliacal1 of ,sirius1 #bjj1 #baj1 #bdi1 #bec1 #bed1 #bfb ,boeckh1 date of ,king ,mena1 #bb ,botta1 #hg ,bouriant1 #ahc1 #bbj ,boussard1 #aaa ,brugsch1 ,amen-,r's ancestors1 #cee book on calendars1 #bhb ,denderah inscriptions1 #ada date of ,mena1 #bb ,rameses ,,iii41 #bba ,thothmes ,,iii1 #ahi1 #bfa ,usertsen ,i41 #bae ,edf1 temple at1 alignment of1 #agi ,egyptian history1 #cdd furniture of sanctuaries1 #aab ,gzeh-pyramids1 #cfc ,hippopotamus1 constellation1 #baf ,hyksos period1 #cci inscription at ,phil1 #bfa ,silsilis1 #bfc ,karnak temple1 #aaf location of ,pun-t1 #cdh pyramid1 oldest1 date of1 #cfi ,sothic ,cycle1 #bei temple-foundations1 #ced ,bubastis1 antiquity of1 #hb1 #ccc ,isis temple at1 #cbi ,budge1 ,dr4 ,wallis1 #he1 #bjh1 #bdj ,bull1 constellation of1 pyramid period1 #cfj1 #djc1 #djd ,bunsen1 #bb1 #adh1 #chd ,c ,cairo1 ,nile flood1 time of1 #bcc1 #bdj ,calah1 ancient ,nimrd1 #hf ,calendar1 ,alexandrine reform1 date of1 #bha ,egyptian1 chief use of1 #bhb ,canopus1 decree of1 #bgj ,canopus 7 ,argus71 #bhj1 #bha early observations1 #cab1 #cfj heralded autumnal equinox1 #cdb temples to1 amplitudes of1 #caa ,capella observed at ,annu1 #caf1 #cfj personified by ,ptah1 #cah temples to1 amplitudes and dates1 #cab1 #ced ,capricornus1 #cgb1 #cgh ,censorinus1 #bfg ,centauri 1 temples to1 #cjh1 #cea1 #ced1 #cfj ,chabas1 #agc1 #agd ,champollion1 #aj1 #aa1 #gc ,cheops4 ,see ,chufu ,chephren1 #cbg1 #cdf1 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,pun-t1 #cdh ,seb1 the god1 #cc1 #ce ,sebak-,r1 #be ,sekhet1 goddess1 #ca symbolised ,draconis1 #bij statues of1 at ,thebes1 #bij ,semneh1 temple at1 #caa1 #cea ,seneferu1 ,dashr pyramid1 #ccf ,king1 title of1 #cdf ,mdm pyramid1 #cce temple foundations1 #ced ,senti1 #agd ,sept1 #aif ,serk-t ,antares and ,centauri1 #ceh in pyramid times1 #cbi symbol of1 #bij1 #cbi ,sesheta1 goddess1 #bi1 #agc1 #age ,set1 ,sit1 ,sut1 ,typhon1 ,sutech1 god of ,darkness1 #bg1 #ade1 #adg and ,horus1 #adi associated with ,draconis1 #cjb conquered by ,horus4 ,see ,myth of ,horus4 emblem of1 #bh1 #adh1 #cfb feast of1 #bhc form of1 #cfa hated by ,theban priests1 #cai jackal of1 #adf ,n4 ,egypt1 #cde symbolised by northern constellations1 #adi temple at ,tell el-,amarna1 #cbd at ,annu1 #cbf temples absent in ,s4 ,egypt1 #cga thigh of1 #adf1 #adg wife of1 #adf1 #baf worship of1 #bae1 #cdd1 #cfa1 #cgg ,seti ,,ii41 #aae1 #ahe1 #ahi1 #bbc ,shabaka1 #cdj ,shesu-,hor1 #eg1 #gd1 #aej1 #bae ,shu1 #cc1 #cf ,silsilis1 inscriptions at1 #bfc ,sirius-,hathor1 #aif1 #bab1 #bii temples to1 in ,greece1 #cje1 #dbb ,sit4 ,see ,set ,sky1 god of1 #g1 #cc ,smith1 ,george1 on temple of ,bel1 #chj ,smith1 ,robertson1 on ,mazzaroth1 #acc ,sokhit in pyramid times1 #cbi ,solstices1 #ee1 #eg determination of1 #fb et seq4 by ,chinese1 #fc relation to inundation1 #bcd summer1 festival of1 #aih temples oriented to1 #gh and vague year cycle1 #beb ,sothis1 ,greek form of ,sirius1 q4v4 ,sowing1 season of1 #bcc ,sphinx1 object of1 #hb ,spica1 associated with ,mut temple1 #cbj observed at ,thebes1 #cah temples to1 #cac in ,greece1 #dai1 #dbd ,st4 ,peter's1 ,rome1 #if1 #ajb ,stars1 apparent paths of1 #da how used to tell time at night1 #cdc non-rising at ,thebes1 #dd non-setting at ,thebes1 #dd northern1 antiquity of worship of1 #cda risings of1 achronic1 #aba cosmical1 #aba1 #afj heliacal of ,sirius1 #aba1 #bjj1 #bji1 #baj1 #bdi1 #bej1 #bed1 #bfb rising with sun1 #fj risings at sunset1 #adh settings1 achronic1 #aba heliacal1 #aba table of1 #cad southern1 used in upper ,egypt1 #cdc southern1 worship of1 as opposed to northern1 #cbe table of1 #cad ,storms1 god of1 #g ,stonehenge1 #hi1 #ij ,strassmeyer1 #c1 #djg ,suhag1 ,nile gauge at1 #bce ,sun1 course of1 mythology of1 #bgi the midnight1 #fe temples to1 at solstices1 #gh yearly path of1 #ec ,sun-gods1 names for1 #g1 #cgc ,sunlight1 god of1 #cc1 #cf ,sunrise1 herald of1 first star used1 #bgg in ,greece1 #daf ,sunset1 explanation of red colour of1 #cb represented by ,nephthys1 #ca ,sut4 ,see ,set ,sutech4 ,see ,set god of ,canaanites1 #cfa temple at ,memphis1 #cfa ,syria1 invaders from1 found #beth dynasty1 #cdj ,t ,tables of dates of foundations1 #ceb of stars1 #bjth dynasty1 #djh1 #daj ,taharqa1 #ahg1 #cdj ,tammuz1 associated with ,asari1 #cgb son of a1 #cgb son of ,mul-lil1 #cgb ,tammuz-,nergal1 sun-god1 #cgb1 #cgd son of a1 #cgb ,mul-lil1 #cgb ,tanis1 decree of1 #bgj temple of1 #hb1 #bha1 #cbi ,taurus1 constellation of1 #adc1 #cgh in pyramid times1 #cbi ,taurt1 goddess1 #bh1 #adf1 #cjb mistress of darkness1 #cdd represented by hippopotamus1 #adf symbol of1 #baf1 #bij symbolised star ,draconis1 #bij ,tebha1 #ade ,tefnut1 #ca1 #cf ,tel ,hakoab1 mounds at1 #hf ,tell el-,amarna1 ,spica temple1 #cac temples at1 #cbb1 #dai ,temples in ,lower ,egypt1 as opposed to those in ,upper ,egypt1 #cda series of1 in ,southern ,egypt1 #caa diversity of1 due to different races1 #cae ,tetramenes1 #bgb ,tei1 #bbc1 #bge ,thebes1 amplitudes at1 #dg1 #aga astronomical thought at1 #cbd two schools of1 #cbe city of ,dragon in ,greece1 #dbb first appearance of in ,egyptian history1 #cca1 #cch history of cults at1 #cbj month table at1 #adc ,nile flood1 #bdj rising of land about1 #bdj statues of ,sechet1 #bij temples at1 amplitudes of1 #aef1 #afh1 #cji of ,amen ,r1 #ii modern1 #ahf ,m1 #bac solstitial1 #gh ,thigh1 k of1 #agf 7,meset71 #agi1 #baf constellation1 #acg1 #adc1 #cjb in pyramid times1 #cfj of ,set1 #adf1 #adg represents ,great ,bear1 #adf ,this1 antiquity of1 #cbg ,thistleton-,dyer1 on ,myrrh from ,pun-t1 #cdh ,thoth ,asti1 #agf #ast of1 dates of1 #bfh festival of1 #aih lunus1 #bi1 #cic month of1 sign of1 #bfi relation to ,tei1 #bge sign of1 in ,ramessids' time1 #bfi ,thothmes ,i41 #ahh ,thothmes ,,iii41 date of1 #bfa and the ,theban priests1 #cba ,ptah temple1 #ced ,karnak1 embellishments at1 #aab restoration of temple of ,amen-,r1 #ajh temples at ,mednet-,hab1 #bba ,thoueris4 ,see ,taurt ,timat and ,marduk1 myth of1 #cgh1 #cih ,tigris1 god sacred to1 #bbi inundation1 time of1 #he1 #bcj1 #cfg ,tmu4 ,see ,atmu ,tomes on red hippopotamus1 #cfb ,totemism1 #bae ,triads1 #bbb ,tuamutef1 #adg ,tum4 ,see ,atmu ,twilight1 representation of1 ,isis1 #bi representation of1 ,nephthys1 #ca ,typhon4 ,see ,set ,tyre1 temple of1 #afa ,u ,unger1 date of ,mena1 #bb ,ur of the ,chaldees1 #cgi ,urs ,majoris 1 temples to1 #cji1 #cda1 #ced1 #cfj ,usertsen ,i41 #agi1 #bba1 #bae obelisk at ,annu1 #bad1 #cch ,ushas1 #g ,utchats1 #bhj ,v ,varuna1 #g ,vedas1 #d1 #e1 #f ,virchow1 on race distinctions1 #chf ,virey1 ,dr el-,bahari discoveries1 #cai on cult of ,aten1 #cba ,vitruvius1 on temple orientation1 #eh ,vyse1 ,col4 ,howard1 #ab ,w ,wady ,halfa to ,aswn1 rate of ,nile flood1 #bdj ,capt4 ,lyons' work at1 #ceh ,wady ,hammamt1 #bjh ,wakefield1 measurements at ,karnak1 #aag ,worship of ,n4 star1 imported into ,egypt1 #cgj ,y ,year1 anomalistic1 #ec calendar1 #bdf definition of1 #bdg fixed1 #bea length of1 #bea length of1 #bdd1 #bdg true1 #bej fixed and vague1 time of coincidence1 #bfg variation between1 #beb great1 ,annus ,magnus1 #beg measure of length of1 first1 #aaj new1 indications1 #bdg sidereal1 #ec ,sirian1 length of1 #bec tropical1 #ec vague1 #bea beginnings of1 #aaj and solstice1 cycle1 #beb in time of ,ramessids1 #bfc ,young1 ,thomas1 ,rosetta stone1 #aa ,z ,zend-,avesta1 #f ,ziggurats1 erection of1 #cfg ,zodiac1 the signs of1 #acg ,zodiacs1 of ,denderah1 #ace1 #adf discovery of1 #ah ,,printed ,,by ,,cassell ,,company1 ,,limited1 ,,la ,,belle ,,sauvage1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,my lectures1 given in ,november1 #ahij1 were printed in ,nature1 ,april-,july1 #ahia1 under the title ,on some ,points in the ,early ,history of ,astronomy1 with the following note3--,from shorthand notes of a course of lectures to working men delivered at the ,museum of ,practical ,geology1 ,jermyn ,street1 in ,november1 #ahij4 ,the notes were revised by me at ,aswn during the month of ,january4 ,i have found1 since my return from ,egypt in ,march1 that part of the subject-matter of the lectures had been previously discussed by ,professor ,nissen1 who has employed the same materials as myself4 ,to him1 therefore1 so far as ,i at present know1 belongs the credit of having first made the suggestion that ancient temples were oriented on an astronomical basis4 ,his articles are to be found in the ,rheinisches ,museum fr ,philologie1 #ahhe4 #b ,maspero1 ,histoire ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient4 p4 #acf4 #c ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahgi4 #d ,see ,rawlinson's ,history of ,egypt1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #acd1 for references on this subject4 #e ,the temples of the gods ought to be so placed that the statue1 which has its station in cella1 should1 if there be nothing to interfere with such a disposition1 face the west2 in order that those who come to make oblations and offer sacrifices may face the east4444 ,when temples are built in the neighbourhood of a river1 they should command a view of its banks1 like the temples of ,egypt upon the borders of the ,nile4--,vitruvius1 ,civil ,architecture1 ,section ,i41 ,chapter ,v4 #f ,see ,biot1 tudes sur l',astronomie ,indienne1 p4 #bic4 #g ,see ,biot1 ,sur divers points d',astronomie ancienne3 ,mmoires1 ,acadmie des ,sciences1 #ahdf1 p4 #dg4 #h ,for a detailed account of the way in which the formula in use has been obtained1 the reader had better turn to ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bec1 of ,chauvenet's ,spherical and ,practical ,astronomy4 ,if we denote the latitude by 1 and let p the star's polar distance1 a right ascension1 sidereal time of observation1 h the star's altitude1 t hour angle2 then1 knowing that t - a1 the formula may be written as follows3-- h - p cos4 t p sin4 #a0 sin4 t tan4 h4 ,the ,nautical ,almanac gives tables to facilitate the computations involved1 but greater exactness is obtained by direct computation4 #i ,since ,i left ,egypt1 in ,february1 #ahic1 ,captain ,lyons has been good enough to comply with my request to repeat the observations4 ,i give the following extract from his letter3-- ,the mounds are only within a degree1 as it is only the general direction which can be taken4 ,south mound old temenos wall1 #bhi mag4 bearing #ai ,n4 of ,w4 ,wall at right angles #ahi mag4 bearing #ga ,s4 of ,w4 ,going to the ,west mound there are two higher humps with an opening between them1 tons of limestone chips1 sandstone blocks with ,rameses ,,ii4's name2 so that ,i take this for the site of the great pylon4 ,it is exactly opposite the obelisk1 and distant1 ,i should guess1 #fjj yards4 ,site of ,s4 pylon to obelisk1 #ajf mag4 bearing #af ,s4 of ,e4 ,pole of ,n4 pylon to obelisk1 #aji mag4 bearing #ai ,s4 of ,e4 ,so ,i think probably the remaining obelisk is the northern one 7cf4 ,horner1 ,phil4 ,trans41 ,,mdccclv41 pp4 #abd and #aca71 and the temple axis was directed #bhi mag4 bearing with corr4 #e #bhd #ad ,n4 of ,west true amplitude4 #aj ,amenenemt ,i41 the founder of the sanctuary of the sun1 entreats1 after he has begun the great work 7which was not finished till the time of his son1 ,usertesen71 ,may it not perish by the vicissitudes of time1 may that which is made endure6 ,this desire of a great king which has come down to us through the leathern roll now preserved at ,berlin1 has not been fulfilled2 for of his magnificent structure1 built for all eternity1 nothing remains but the obelisk we have seen1 and a few blocks of stone scarcely worth mentioning4 ,the ,persian ,cambyses is unjustly accused of having destroyed the temple and city of the sun1 for the city was minutely described in detail long after his time1 and the temple was still flourishing2 nay1 many remains of the sanctuary1 that have now long since vanished1 were described even by ,arab authors4--,ebers1 ,egypt1 p4 #aij4 #aa ,ninive et l',assyrie1 par ,victor ,place4 ,imprimerie ,imperiale1 #ahfg4 #ab ,monument de ,ninive1 par ,botta and ,flandin4 ,imprimerie ,nationale1 #ahdi4 #ac ,from a magnetic chart which has been prepared for me by the kindness of ,captain ,creak1 ,r4,n41 ,f4,r4,s41 of the ,hydrographic ,department of the ,admiralty1 it seems that the variation at ,nineveh and ,babylon may be taken as follows3-- ,nineveh4 ,babylon4 #ahjj #h #be ,w4 #h #be ,w4 #aijj #j #j #be ,w4 ,the values for intermediate dates may be roughly arrived at by an interpolation curve4 #ad ,journeys in ,north ,china1 ,williamson4 ,vol4 ,,ii41 chap4 xvi41 by ,edkins4 p4 #bec4 #ae ,stonehenge3 ,plans1 ,descriptions1 and ,theories1 #ahhj1 p4 #bj4 #af ,ferguson3 ,rude ,stone ,monuments4 #ag ,see especially ,the ,golden ,bough1 by ,j4 ,g4 ,fraser1 for the midsummer and ,beltaine fires4 #ah ,antiquities1 b4 #h1 c4 #d1 p4 #dja1 ,whiston's edition4 #ai ,josephus1 ,antiquities ,,iii41 c4 #h1 #i4 #bj ,the italics are mine--,j4 ,n4 ,l4 #ba ,antiquities ,,iii41 c4 #h1 #i4 #bb ,warren3 ,underground ,jerusalem4 #bc ,acosta1 in his ,history of ,indies1 lib4 vi41 p4 #dei4 quoted by ,maurice 7,observations ,connected with ,astronomy and ,ancient ,history and ,ruins of ,babylon71 states that some of the stones in the ,mexican temples to sun and moon measure #ch feet by #ah feet by #f feet4 #bd ,see ,palmyra and ,baalbek4 ,r4 ,wood1 #ahbg4 ,plates4 #be ,on this point ,i gather the following information from the article ,orientation in the ,grand ,dictionnaire ,universel du #ai ,sicle1 by ,m4 ,pierre ,larousse3--,from the fifth century to the time of the ,renaissance1 the orientation of churches was generally carried out4 ,the mystical reasons furnished by the sacred writers--according to ,st4 ,john of ,damascus and ,cassiodorus--were that ,jesus on the ,cross had ,his face turned towards the ,west1 hence ,christians during prayer must turn to the ,east to see it4 ,further1 in the sacred writings ,jesus is called the ,east 7,oriens ex alto74 ,again1 ,christians hope to see ,christ descending in the ,east on the last day4 ,finally1 the faithful when turning to the ,east during prayer establish a difference between themselves and the ,jews and heretics1 for the ,jews when praying turn ,west1 and certain heretics ,south1 and others ,north1 hence the heathen said they were sun-worshippers4 ,in the ninth century there was a strong protest against orientation4 ,catholic churches were built any way1 and it was said1 ,nunc oremus ad omnem partem quia ,deus ubique est4 #bf ,see ,builder1 ,jan4 #b1 #ahib4 #bg ,brugsch1 ,egypt1 p4 #agd4 #bh ,inscription south side of obelisk quoted in ,records of the ,past1 ,vol4 ,,xii4 7,letter from ,capt4 ,lyons74 #bi ,brugsch1 ,egypt1 p4 #agg4 #cj ,chrestomathie gyptienne1 ,do ,roug1 iii41 p4 #fj4 #ca ,egyptian ,archology1 ,english edition1 p4 #aje4 #cb ,brugsch1 ,egypt1 p4 #agd4 #cc ,brugsch1 op4 cit41 p4 #ahg4 #cd ,karnak4 tude topographique et archologique4 #ce ,mariette1 op4 cit41 text1 p4 #b4 #cf ,history p4 #age4 #cg ,nissen in his important memoir does not refer to this hill2 his conclusions1 therefore1 are not absolutely justified by the facts as he states them4 #ch uvres de ,volney1 vol4 v41 p4 #dca4 #ci ,ptolemy ,almagest ,,viii41 chap4 vi4 #dj ,recherches sur l'anne vague des ,egyptiens1 by ,m4 ,biot4 ,acadmie des ,sciences #dth ,april1 #ahca4 #da ,i4e41 the stars which never set4 #db ,herodotus ,,ii41 #dd4 7,i am indebted to my friend ,prof4 ,robertson ,smith for this reference47 #dc ,see ante1 p4 #aaa4 #dd ,for instance1 in the line of sphinxes in front of temple ,x1 shown in the folding plate inserted in ,chap4 ,,xviii41 the line was left incomplete to preserve the fair-way of the ruined temple north of ,y outside the temenos wall4 #de ,baugeschichte des ,dendera-,tempels1 #ahgg4 #df ,rheinisches ,museum fr ,philologie1 #ahhe1 p4 #ci4 #dg ,quoted from ,nissen1 op4 cit4 #dh ,origine des ,cultes1 vol4 i41 p4 #dej4 #di ,on this point ,i am permitted by ,professor ,maspero to print the following extract from a letter ,i received from him3--,tous les temples ptolmaques et la plus grande partie des temples pharaoniques sont des reconstructions4 ,ce que vous avez observ de ,dendrah1 est vrai d',esnh1 d',ombos1 d',assouan1 de ,phil1 etc4 ,or1 si les premiers constructeurs d'un temple--ou chez nous d'une glise--peuvent choisir presque leur gr l'emplacement1 et par suite l'orientation1 la plus convenable1 il en est bien rarement de mme des reconstructeurs4 ,les maisons accumules autour du temple les gnaient1 d'ailleurs les habitudes du culte et de la population taient prises2 on rebtissait le temple--comme d'ordinaire chez nous on rebtit l'glise--sur la mme orientation et sur les mmes fondations4 ,j'ai constat le fait ,kom-,ombo1 o les dbris du temple dcor par ,amenhotpou ,i4 et ,thoutmosis ,,iii4 sont orients exactement comme ceux du temple ptolmaque actuel1 bti sur les ruines du prcdent4 ,vous avez donc le droit de dire1 non seulement pour ,dendrah1 mais pour beaucoup d'autres temples1 qu'ils ont t reconstruits sur l'orientation du temple qu'ils remplaaient1 quand mme cette orientation ne rpondait plus la ralit des choses4 #ej ,mariette1 ,denderah1 vol4 i41 p4 #bfc4 #ea ,mariette1 op4 cit41 p4 #adb4 ,plutarch wrote in the first century ,a4,d4 #eb ,mariette1 op4 cit41 p4 #bjf4 #ec ,mariette1 op4 cit41 p4 #adb4 #ed ,hathor is termed ,la matresse du commencement de l'an4 ,mariette1 loc4 cit41 p4 #bjg4 #ee ,besides the solstice and the beginning of the ,nile flood1 there was an event in the sky which was too striking not to excite the general attention of the ,egyptian priesthood4 ,we also know from the newly-discovered inscriptions from the ancient empire that the risings of ,orion and ,sirius were already attentively followed and mythologically utilised at the time of the building of the pyramids4--,,krall4 #ef ,brugsch1 ,egypt1 ,edition #ahia1 p4 #ahi4 #eg ,ebers1 ,egypt1 p4 #cce4 #eh ,mariette1 pp4 #afh and #agh4 #ei ,dmichen1 ,bauurkunde der ,tempelanlagen von ,dendera1 p4 #bj4 #fj ,mariette1 p4 #aef4 #fa ,isis and ,osiris1 ,parthey1 cap4 #ef4 #fb ,have we such instances of degradation in the cat replacing the lion and the black pig the hippopotamus1 to give two instances8 #fc ,it has been assumed by several authorities in ,egyptology that ,sati is a variant for ,sirius4 ,it is quite certain that in late times there was a temple at ,phil oriented to ,sirius2 but there are many grounds for supposing that both ,sati and ,anuqa referred to special southern stars4 ,there were several points of dissimilarity between ,phil 7and ,elephantine7 and ,thebes4 #fd ,maspero1 ,hist4 ,anc4 xi4 #aj4 #fe ,monumental ,egypt1 chapter i4 #ff ,monumental ,egypt1 chapter i4 #fg ,the modern ,egyptians still hold to the old months for irrigation4 #g ,taba ,january #ae1 is commencement of wheat irrigation2 #cj ,misra is the last safe date for sowing maize in the ,delta2 #ast ,tut is the date of regulating the bridges ,september #h in ,upper ,egypt4 #fh ,histoire ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient1 p4 #gb4 #fi ,chronologie1 i41 p4 #gj4 #gj ,op4 cit41 p4 #ahg4 #ga ,krall1 loc4 cit41 p4 #bj4 #gb ,mommsen1 ,chronologie1 p4 #beh4 #gc ,studien zur ,geschichte der ,alten ,aegypten1 ,i4 ,wien1 #ahha4 #gd ,matriaux pour servir la ,reconstruction du ,calendrier1 p4 #bi4 #ge ,aeg4 ,zeit41 #ahhf1 p4 #e1 quoted by ,krall4 #gf ,it should be observed that a distinction is made between the ,julian and the historical year4 ,this comes from the fact that when astronomical phenomena are calculated for dates ,b4,c41 it must be remembered that chronologists are in the habit of designating by #a1 or rather by-#a1 the first year which precedes the instant of time at which the chronological year commenced1 while astronomers mark this year in their tables by #j4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that the rank of any year ,b4,c4 is always marked by an additional unit in the chronological dates4 ,for the ,christian era1 of course1 chronologists and astronomers work in the same way4 ,the following table1 given by ,biot1 exhibits the connection between these two methods4 ,in the latter ,biot shows the leap-years marked ,b1 and the corresponding years in the ,scaligerian chronological period are also given4 ,,dates ,,of ,,julian ,,years ,,commencing ,,on ,,january #a4 ,according to ,according to ,corresponding ,chronologists4 ,astronomers4 years of the period of ,scaliger4 -#f -#e #dgjh -#e;,b -#d;,b #dgji -#d -#c #dgaj -#c -#b #dgaa -#b -#a #dgab -#a;,b -#j;,b #dgac;,b ,physical instant when the era commenced4 #a #a #dgad #b #b #dgae #c #c #dgaf #d;,b #d;,b #dgag;,b #e #e #dgah #gg ,loc4 cit41 p4 #bi4 #gh ,probably too great a value by two or three days4 #gi ,op4 cit41 p4 #dh4 #hj ,goodwin has already asked1 ,does the ,smith ,papyrus refer to some rectification of the calendar made in the fourth dynasty1 similar to that made in ,europe from the old to the new style8 ,quoted by ,riel1 ,sonnen-und ,sirius-,jahr1 p4 #cfa4 #ha ,on the #gth ,epiphi of the tenth year of ,ptolemy ,,iii4 the ceremony of the stretching off the cord took place4 ,dmichen1 ,aeg4 ,zeit41 #b1 #ahgb1 p4 #da4 #hb ,op4 cit41 p4 #cg4 #hc ,dmichen1 ,bauurkunde der ,tempelanlagen von ,dendera1 p4 #bj4 #hd ,brugsch thus translates one of the inscriptions3--,horus in weiblicher ,gestalt ist die ,frstin1 die ,mchtige1 die ,thronfolgerin und ,tochter eines ,thronfolger4 ,ein fliegender ,kfer wild 7sie87 geboren am ,himmel in der uranfnglichen ,stadt 7,denderah7 zur ,zeit der ,nacht des ,kindes in seiner ,wiege4 ,es strahlt die ,sonne am ,himmel in der ,dmmerung1 wann ihre ,geburt vollbracht wird4 ,brugsch1 ,astron4 ,inscript41 p4 #ig4 #he ,in this and the following tables the dates connected with the heights of hills where they are known are given in heavy type4 ,where the local conditions are unknown1 hills #a high have been assumed4 #hf ,with regard to the temple ,a of ,lepsius1 it may be stated that in the time of the ,ptolemies it received considerable and curious enlargements and embellishments which make it unique among ,egyptian temples4 #hg ,baedeker1 ,ober-,aegypten1 p4 #cbj4 #hh ,new ,gzeh ,catalogue1 p4 #fa4 #hi ,brugsch1 ,religion und ,mythologie1 p4 #aaa4 ,pierret1 ,salle ,historique de la ,galerie gyptienne 7du ,louvre71 p4 #aii4 #ij ,notices des ,principaux ,monuments ,exposs au ,muse de ,gzeh1 p4 #bfj4 7#ahic47 #ia ,the little temple of ,isis at ,pompeii and the associated frescoes in the ,naples ,museum are well worth careful study1 especially with regard to the arrangements made for the stellar observations 7and their final stoppage by the drastic proceeding referred to in the text71 and the evolution of ,horus in ,greek times4 ,the ,hippopotami are most carefully drawn4 #ib ,gzeh ,catalogue1 #ahic1 p4 #fc4 #ic ,professor ,flinders ,petrie has been good enough to send me his recent measurements4 ,they justify those obtained from ,lepsius' plan4 #id ,brugsch1 ,egypt1 #ahia1 p4 #bbj4 #ie ,ebers and ,dmichen1 in ,baedeker's ,ober-,aegypten1 p4 #ei4 #if ,op4 cit41 p4 #ba4 #ig ,that is1 if we take the temple as oriented originally to ,urs ,majoris4 #ih ,no sun temple is closely associated with the ,set temples either at ,luxor or ,abydos1 and one on the ,annu model would not be so associated1 for a right angle would carry its axis outside the ecliptic limits4 #ii ,maspero1 op4 cit41 p4 #fd4 #ajj ,maspero1 op4 cit41 p4 #dd1 note4 #aja ,maspero1 op4 cit41 p4 #fd4 #ajb ,maspero1 op4 cit41 p4 #df4 #ajc ,maspero1 op4 cit41 p4 #da4 #ajd ,bubastis1 preface1 p4 iv4 #aje ,there are1 however1 notable exceptions to this rule1 which will be discussed further on4 #ajf ,mdm1 chap4 i4 #ajg ,maspero1 op4 cit41 p4 #ei4 #ajh ,further1 it is known that there was some connection between ,pepi-,meri-,r and the eleventh dynasty of ,thebes4 ,maspero1 op4 cit41 p4 #ia4 ,and it must also be mentioned that in the later pyramids texts are introduced4 #aji ,maspero1 op4 cit41 p4 #aab4 #aaj ,maspero1 op4 cit41 p4 #aab4 #aaa ,maspero1 op4 cit41 p4 #aac4 #aab ,it is worthy of inquiry whether the northern star so observed is not the true ,nephthys 7,nebt-het74 ,if so1 the triad ,nephthys1 ,isis and ,horus represents daily astronomical observations4 #aac ,rawlinson1 i4 #ccg4 #aad ,egypt under the ,pharaohs1 ed4 #ahia1 p4 #c4 #aae ,brugsch1 ,history1 p4 #f4 #aaf ,maspero1 ,histoire ancienne1 p4 #ei4 #aag ,idem1 p4 #fc4 #aah ,rawlinson1 ii41 p4 #acd4 #aai ,maspero1 ,histoire ancienne1 p4 #e4 #abj ,brugsch1 ,history of ,egypt1 #ahia1 p4 #ed4 #aba ,mariette1 ,dr el-,bahari1 p4 #ca4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,thistleton-,dyer1 the director of the ,royal ,gardens1 ,kew1 agrees in this view4 ,he permits me to print the following extract from a letter written to me3--,the only positive fact that ,i can deal with is the representation in the pictures of a small scrubby tree1 which seems to have been about four feet high4 ,it appears to have yielded a gummy or resinous exudation from its trunk4 ,mariette supposes this to be myrrh4 ,pount to be ,somali-land1 and ,to ,nuter the ,socotran ,archipelago4 ,all this fits in very well with botanical facts4 ,myrrh-producing plants exist both in ,somali-land and ,arabia1 and also in ,socotra1 as ascertained by ,bayley ,balfour4 ,the two former places still are1 as they always have been1 the place of origin of myrrh1 and we know that it was largely used by the ,egyptians in embalming4 ,there is no evidence that myrrh1 or anything in any way resembling it1 was ever found south of the ,equator4 ,i cannot carry you further south than ,berbera4 #abb ,on this point ,i am permitted to print the following extract from a letter received from my friend ,sir ,john ,kirk1 ,k4,c4,b43--,i send you a photo1 taken in #aheh1 in the delta of the ,zambezi1 of a house built on high poles4 ,the people there live in such houses4 ,there is a ladder by which they mount1 and all their belongings are kept above4 ,such houses ,i have since seen at the mouth of the ,river ,rufiji1 opposite the island of ,monfia1 to the south of ,zanzibar4 ,the reason in both cases for such a type of house is that the country at one time is flooded1 and also to avoid mosquitoes4 ,similar structures are used1 ,i am told1 in ,madagascar4 ,at ,lake ,nyassa ,i believe there are village communities living in the lake1 on artificial islands of piles4 #abc ,rawlinson1 ii41 p4 #aca4 #abd ,l',anthropologie1 #ahia1 ,no4 #d4 #abe ,brugsch1 ,egypt1 p4 #ahd4 #abf ,inscription of ,thothmes ,,iii41 translated by ,brugsch1 ,egypt1 p4 #ahh4 #abg ,brugsch1 ,egypt1 p4 #ahd4 #abh ,brugsch1 ,egypt1 p4 #ahj4 #abi ,for plans1 see ,lepsius1 vol4 ii41 p4 #acj4 #acj ,for plans1 see ,lepsius1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #acc and #acd4 #aca ,for plans1 see ,lepsius1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #abe and #abg4 #acb ,there is a point of great interest here4 ,it would seem from ,captain ,lyons' examination of the temples at ,wady ,halfa1 which ,i make out to have been oriented to ,centauri1 that when the two races were amalgamated in later times1 both the stars to which ,i have referred as heralding the equinox were personified by the same goddess1 ,serk-t4 #acc ,besides the book on omens we have ,the observations of ,bel1 or ,illumination of ,bel 7,mul-lil71 seventy-two books dealing with conjunctions of ,sun and ,moon1 phases 787 of ,venus1 and appearance of comets4 7,sayce1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #bi47 ,the complete materials for the study of ,babylonian and ,assyrian astronomy cannot be available until the catalogue of the ,kouyunjik ,collection1 now in course of publication by the ,british ,museum1 is finished4 #acd ,rawlinson1 vol4 i41 p4 #caf4 #ace ,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne1 p4 #afe4 #acf ,pierret1 ,le ,panthon gyptien1 p4 #dh4 ,i have before referred to a doubt on this point4 #acg ,maspero1 op4 cit41 p4 #ceg4 #ach ,le ,panthon gyptien1 p4 #d4 #aci ,kosmologie der ,babylonier1 p4 #adg4 #adj ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc41 #ahej1 p4 #afj4 #ada ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge informs me that ,an was an old name of the sun-god4 #adb ,rawlinson1 vol4 ii41 p4 #fd4 #adc ,kosmologie der ,babylonier1 p4 #adg4 #add ,sayce1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhg1 p4 #aic4 #ade ,sayce1 p4 #aic4 #adf ,jensen1 p4 #adi4 #adg ,sayce1 p4 #dci4 #adh ,sayce1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #aij4 #adi ,sayce1 p4 #bhj4 ,there is a bas-relief in the ,british ,museum showing this ceremonial4 #aej ,sayce1 p4 #aja4 #aea ,see ,guide to the ,british ,museum1 p4 #ga4 #aeb ,sayce1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #cc4 ,flinders ,petrie1 ,nature1 ,aug4 #i1 #ahhc1 p4 #cda4 #aec ,sayce1 op4 cit41 p4 #ace4 #aed ,one gets the idea1 from reading ,professor ,sayce's work1 that there might have been in the earliest times a north-star-worshipping race up the valley before a and ,sun and ,moon worship were established at ,eridu2 and that the addition of a to the ,bl-,anu-worship to make one triad1 and the addition of ,bl to the a-,asari-worship to make another1 were both compromises4 ,see ,sayce1 pp4 #cbj1 #cdg1 #djj4 #aee ,prof4 ,sayce has been good enough to inform me that he is of opinion that ,marduk or ,merodach was originally a local god of ,babylon1 and that he was identified with the son of ,ea when a colony came to ,babylon or founded that city1 bringing with it the culture and theology of the south4 ,in this way the sun-god of ,babylon became confounded with the sun-god of ,eridu4 ,i should add that ,assyriologists are not all agreed about the transitions to which ,i have referred4 #aef ,i owe to the kindness of ,sir ,arnold ,kemball1 ,k4,c4,b41 the perusal of a valuable report on the agriculture of ,british ,east ,africa1 prepared for him by ,mr4 ,w4 ,w4 ,a4 ,fitz-,gerald4 ,he has permitted me to print the following abstract3--,the whole of the eastern coast is affected in a greater or lesser degree by the ,s4,w4 and ,n4,e4 monsoons4 ,the following notes deal only with the extent of coast-land lying opposite and to the north of ,zanzibar and ,pemba islands4 ,the agricultural seasons on the coast-lands are two in number1 and correspond with the advent of the ,n4,e4 and ,s4,w4 monsoons respectively4 ,they are distinguished locally as the 'greater rains1' or ',masika ,m',ku2' the 'lesser rains1' or ',masika ,m'dogo4' ,the greater rains inaugurate the most important cultivating season1 commencing in ,march with the ,s4,w4 monsoon4 ,some years the sowing commences as early as the #gth1 but generally speaking the average period may be given as beginning from the middle of the month1 and by the first week in ,april all sowings of ,indian corn1 rice and 'mfmah' 7,millet or ,sorghum vulgare71 the chief and staple food-stuffs of the people1 are generally finished1 though sowings may continue till the end of ,april4 ,the heaviest fall of rain occurs in ,april and ,may1 and the rain continues with gradually diminishing force to ,september4 ,harvest takes place in ,july and ,august1 and once the grain is off the field the land is immediately cleared and prepared for sowing1 in anticipation of the coming of the 'lesser rains' in ,october4 ,the season of the lesser rains is chiefly the time for the cultivation of ,gingelly oil seed1 beans1 and such other lesser food-stuffs4 ,the season of the 'lesser rains' is deemed more uncertain and less to be depended upon1 and the rainfall is decidedly very much smaller in comparison4 ,the 'lesser rains' practically end in ,november1 for though the wind continues steadily from the ,n4,n4,e41 the rainfall in ,december1 ,january1 and ,february is slight and uncertain1 and it is during these three months1 especially the two last1 that the greatest heat prevails4 ,the influence of the monsoons is considerably less than on ,zanzibar ,island1 and the difference of rainfall may be put down as about #bj to #cj inches4 #aeg ,introduction to ,nubische ,grammatik1 #ahhj4 #aeh ,just in the same way that the ,equinoctial ,pyramid cult gave way in ,egypt1 dominated by the rise of the ,nile at the solstice4 #aei ,i shall show subsequently that a similar change seems also to have been made at ,thebes4 ,amen-,r1 the ,summer ,sun-god1 was a late invention4 #afj ,jensen1 pp4 #aie-aih4 #afa ,sayce1 p4 #aca4 #afb ,the italics are mine4--,j4 ,n4 ,l4 #afc ,professor ,sayce also tells me that ,asari was subsequently identified by the ,semitic ,babylonians with ,merodach4 #afd ,egypt's ,place1 vol4 i41 p4 #cgg4 #afe ,rawlinson's ,ancient ,egypt1 vol4 i41 p4 #cbh4 #aff ,lanzoni also states that ,amen-,r sometimes appears with the four heads of the goat1 once special to ,chnemu1 q4v4 #afg ,lanzoni1 p4 #fib4 #afh ,rawlinson1 vol4 i41 p4 #cga4 #afi ,naville1 ,mythe d',horus1 p4 #h4 #agj ,mythe d',horus1 p4 #g4 #aga ,mythe d',horus1 p4 #g4 #agb ,hist4 ,anc41 p4 #cc4 #agc ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #aee4 #agd ,in modern ,german1 even1 the ,moon is masculine and the ,sun feminine4 #age ,maspero1 op4 cit41 p4 #ad4 #agf ,annu and ,an 7,denderah73 78 la grande ,tribu des ,anou of ,maspero87 #agg ,op4 cit41 p4 #cae4 #agh ,i think ,i am right about the ,tortoise1 for ,i find the following passage in ,jensen1 p4 #fe1 where he notes the absence of the ,crab3--,ganz absehend davon1 ob dasselbe fr unsere ,frage von ,wichtigkeit werden wird oder nicht1 muss ich daran erinnern1 das unter den ,emblemen1 welche die sogenannten ',deeds of ,sale' hufig begleiten1 verschiedene ,male wie der ,scorpion so die ,schildkrte abgebildet gefunden wird4 #agi ,according to a communication of ,dr4 ,tetens1 ,aldebaran rose heliacally at the beginning of spring for ,babylon #fijj years ago4 #ahj ,with regard to these legends ,jensen writes3 ,now it is remarkable that the oldest historical king about whom the ,babylonians know anything1 ,sargon of ,agadi 787 is said to have lived about #cgej ,b4,c4--i4e41 #efci years ago--and that his son is called ,narm-,sn 'favourite of ,sn1' the moon-god4 ,and if we bear in mind that the zodiac with its signs plays into the ,babylonian legends of creation1 and that the ,hebrew cosmogonic legends are derived from these1 it is for us even more remarkable that the ,jews place the creation of the world #efdi years ago1 however much the figures derived from the ,bible1 according to other computations and traditions1 may depart therefrom4 ,whether this is accidental or not1 ,i do not profess to judge4 #aha ,astronomisches aus ,babylon1 pp4 #aag-acc4 #ahb ,die ,sterntafeln in den gyptischen ,konigsgrbern von ,bibn el-,molk1 von ,gustav ,bilfinger 7p4 #fi74 #ahc ,in the lists of temples which follow1 all the orientations were obtained from azimuths taken with a theodolite1 either from the sun or from the planet ,venus4 ,in almost every case two or more sights were observed1 and occasionally also the performance of the instrument was tested by stars at night4 ,the heights subtended by the visible horizon opposite to the axes of the temples were also observed4 #ahd ,see ,nature1 ,february #be1 #ahib1 and ,may #aa1 #ahic4 #ahe ,r indicates a rising1 and ,s a setting observation4 #ahf ,with regard to a temple of ,minerva using ,arietis at ,tegea1 ,mr4 ,penrose writes3--,minerva is allowed by the poets to have been able to use ,jupiter's thunder1 so this is no misappropriation of the star4 ,juno also seems to have claimed the use of ,arietis as at ,samos1 and at ,girgenti it suits the orientation of the temple of ,juno better than ,spica4 ,but ,spica seems to have been connected with the worship of ,juno and ,diana in their more strictly female capacity4