,transcriber's ,notes ,obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,the many variations in the transcriptions from the ,chinese have been standardised on the basis of the most frequent occurrence4 ,variations in hyphenation and accents have also been standardised but all other spelling and punctuation remains unchanged4 ,in the quotation3 ,if then this man says1 ',try to make friends with an old woman and inquire of her2 if then this girl does 'not' make friends with an old woman1 and inquire of her1 and this old woman brings ,baga1 or ,shata1 or ,ghnna1 or ,frapta1 or any of the vegetable purgatives1 saying1 ',try to kill this child2' if then the girl does try to kill the child1 then the girl1 the man1 and the old woman are equally criminal4 the 'not' destroys the sense of the passage and has been removed4 ,italics are indicated thus italics and superscripts thus character4 ,footnotes are placed at the end of the book4 ,,an ,,analysis ,,of ,,religious ,,belief4 ,,by ,,viscount ,,amberley4 ,ye shall know the ,truth1 and the ,truth shall make you ,free4 ,from the late ,london ,edition4 ,complete4 ,d4 ,m4 ,,bennett3 ,,liberal ,,and ,,scientific ,,publishing ,,house4 #ada ,,eighth ,,street1 ,,new ,,york4 #ahgg4 ,,american ,,publisher',s ,,preface4 ,the appearance1 a few months ago1 of ,,the ,,analysis ,,of ,,religious ,,belief caused not a little excitement in ,england1 and its introduction into our country had much the same effect here4 ,while many were more or less shocked by the ,viscount's boldness of language in examining the sources of the religious creeds of the world1 and at the freedom with which he removed the sacred mask from many antique myths and superstitions1 the thoughtful and the enquiring were furnished with a fund of material for new thought1 and largely-increased facilities for investigating and comparing the creeds and dogmas which have made up the ruling religious faiths of mankind4 ,when the ,viscount's high birth is remembered2 that he was the son of ,lord ,john ,russell1 one of the first and oldest ,peers of ,england2 that he was thus closely connected with the aristocracy of that country2 that he had been carefully nurtured within the fold of the ,christian ,church2 that he had received the instruction of a pious ,christian mother1 from the days of his early childhood1 that the influence of his parents and his early companions was to draw him under the control of the popular system of religion which rules in his country1 it is not a little remarkable that he had the independence and moral bravery to come out in opposition to all his near friends1 and to avow his unbelief in a code of ethics and opinions unlike those taught him in his childhood and youth1 an unusual interest attaches to the work which he produced4 ,when it is borne in mind that his amiable and sympathetic wife toiled with him and rendered him essential service in collecting and arranging the matter for his two volumes2 that she was taken from him by the hand of death before his work was completed2 that he also sank under the hand of disease and passed away while his work was still in the hands of the printer1 it is indeed invested with peculiar interest4 ,when it is remembered that after his death urgent efforts were made--and from high sources too--to suppress his work2 that the powerful ,duke of ,bedford1 backed by ,lord ,john ,russell himself1 tried to buy up the entire edition issued2 it is enough to make every sympathetic and enquiring person anxious to read the results of his labor of years4 ,if some of the advanced thinkers of the day find that ,viscount ,amberly--as evinced in some of the later chapters of this volume--had not in all respects evolved in the line of ,free-thought so far as they have done they should remember that he had at least made rapid progress for the time he had devoted to the pursuit of truth4 ,he was still a young man at the time of his death1 and had it been his lot to have scored a greater number of years1 with the advantage of the experience which they give1 it is very possible his views might have undergone other modifications4 ,the ,london edition was issued in two volumes1 #hvo and was necessarily sold at a large price4 ,this ,american edition contains the entire work in one volume and is presented to the public at about one-fifth the price at which the ,english edition was sold4 ,it is hoped this feature will be duly appreciated by the ,american public4 ,d4 ,m4 ,b4 ,,new ,,york1 ,march #bjth1 #ahgg4 ,,address ,,to ,,the ,,reader4 ,ere the pages now given to the public had left the press1 the hand that had written them was cold1 the heart--of which few could know the loving depth--had ceased to beat1 the far-ranging mind was forever still1 the fervent spirit was at rest4 ,let this be remembered by those who read1 and add solemnity to the solemn purpose of the book4 ,may those who find in it their most cherished beliefs questioned or contemned1 their surest consolations set at naught1 remember that he had not shrunk from pain and anguish to himself1 as one by one he parted with portions of that faith which in boyhood and early youth had been the mainspring of his life4 ,let them remember that1 however many the years granted to him on earth might have been1 his search after truth would have ended only with his existence2 that he would have been the first to call for unsparing examination of his own opinions1 arguments1 and conclusions2 the first to welcome any new lights thrown by other workers in the same field on the mysteries of our being and of the universe4 ,let them remember that while he assails much which they reckon unassailable1 he does so in what to him is the cause of goodness1 nobleness1 love1 truth1 and of the mental progress of mankind4 ,let them remember that the utterance of that which1 after earnest and laborious thought he deemed to be the truth1 was to him a sacred duty2 and may they feel1 as he would have felt1 the justness of these words of a good man and unswerving ,christian lately passed away3 ,a man's charity to those who differ from him upon great and difficult questions will be in the ratio of his own knowledge of them3 the more knowledge1 the more charity4 ,f4 ,r4 ,,inscribed1 ,with all reverence and all affection1 to the memory of the ever-lamented wife whose hearty interest in this book was1 during many years of preparatory toil1 my best support2 whose judgment as to its merits or its faults would have been my most trusted guide2 whose sympathy my truest encouragement2 whose joyous welcome of the completed work ,i had long looked forward to as my one great reward3 whose nature1 combining in rare union scientific dearness with spiritual depth1 may in some slight degree have left its impress on the page1 though far too faintly to convey an adequate conception of one whose religious zeal in the cause of truth was rivaled only by the ardor of her humanity and the abundance of her love4 ,,ravenscroft1 ,november #ahge4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,page4 ,,general ,,introduction #ai ,,book ,i4 ,,external ,,manifestations ,,of ,,religious ,,sentiment4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,book ,i4 #bg ,,first ,,part4 ,,means ,,of ,,communication ,,upwards4 ,,chap4 ,i4 ,,consecrated ,,actions #ca ,,ii4 ,,consecrated ,,places #hb ,,iii4 ,,consecrated ,,objects #hd ,,iv4 ,,consecrated ,,persons #hh ,v4 ,,consecrated ,,mediators #ii ,,second ,,part4 ,,means ,,of ,,communication ,,downwards4 ,,classification #ajd ,i4 ,,holy ,,events #ajf ,,ii4 ,,holy ,,places #abf ,,iii4 ,,holy ,,objects #acb ,,iv4 ,,holy ,,orders #acf ,v4 ,,holy ,,persons ,,or ,,prophets #aed ,,sect4 #a4 ,confucius #aeg #b4 ,la-ts #afh #c4 ,gautama ,buddha #agj ,,subdivision #a4 ,the ,historical ,buddha #agj #b4 ,the ,mythical ,buddha #age #d4 ,zarathustra #ahb #e4 ,mahomet #ahf #f4 ,jesus ,christ #aii ,,subdiv',n #a4 ,the ,historical ,jesus #bja #b4 ,the ,mythical ,jesus #baf #c4 ,the ,ideal ,jesus #bgg #d4 ,what did the ,jews think of him8 #bhg #e4 ,what did he think of himself8 #caf #f4 ,what did his ,disciples think of him8 #cbf #g4 ,what are we to think of him8 #cbi ,,vi4 ,,holy ,,books1 ,,or ,,bibles #cfi ,,sect4 #a4 ,the ,thirteen ,king #cij ,,subdivision #a4 ,the ,lun ,yu #cib #b4 ,the ,ta ,ho #cic #c4 ,the ,chung ,yung #cid #d4 ,the ,works of ,mng-tsze #cif #e4 ,the ,shoo ,king #djc #f4 ,the ,she ,king #djg #g4 ,the ,ch'un ,ts'w #daj #b4 ,ta-t-,kng #dac ,,appendix4--,translations of the ,ta-t-,kng1 ,chapter ,,xxv #dbc #c4 ,the ,veda #dbe ,,subdivision #a4 ,the ,sanhit #dcj #b4 ,the ,brhmanas #ddc ,,sect4 #d4 ,the ,tripitaka #ddh ,,subdivision #a4 ,the ,vinaya-,pitaka #dea #b4 ,the ,stra-,pitaka #dfg #c4 ,the ,abhidharma-,pitaka #dgc #d4 ,theology and ,ethics of the ,tripitaka #dgf #e4 ,the ,zend-,avesta #dhb ,,subdivision #a4 ,the ,five ,gths #dhd #b4 ,the ,yana of ,seven ,chapters #dhh #c4 ,yana1 ,chapter ,,xii #dij #d4 ,the ,younger ,yana1 and ,vispored #dia #e4 ,vendidad #dif #f4 ,the ,khorda-,avesta1 with the ,homa ,yasht #ejb #f4 ,the ,koran #eaj #g4 ,the ,old ,testament #eah ,,subdivision #a4 ,the ,historical ,books #ecj #b4 ,job1 ,psalms1 ,proverbs1 and ,ecclesiastes #efc #c4 ,the ,song of ,solomon #efi #d4 ,the ,prophets #efi #e4 ,the ,god of ,israel #eij #h4 ,the ,new ,testament #fjd ,,subdivision #a4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles #fjd #b4 ,the ,epistles #fag #c4 ,the ,apocalypse #fcd #d4 ,the ,god of ,christendom #fcf ,,the ,,religious ,,sentiment ,,itself4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,ultimate ,,elements #fdc ,,viii4 ,,the ,,objective ,,element #fdi ,,ix4 ,,the ,,subjective ,,element #fhd ,x4 ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,the ,,objective ,,and ,,subjective ,,elements #fie ,,index #gbi ,,explanation ,,of ,,short ,,titles4 ,in order to avoid encumbering the pages with notes containing the names of books1 many of which would require to be frequently repeated1 ,i have adopted1 in referring to the under-mentioned works1 the following abbreviations3-- ,a4 ,b4444,the ,aitareya ,brhmanam of the ,rig-,veda4 ,edited1 translated1 and explained by ,,martin ,,haug1 ,ph4,d4 ,vol4 i4 ,sanscrit text4 ,vol4 ii4 ,translation1 with notes4 ,bombay1 #ahfc4 ,a4 ,i4 ,c4444,an ,account of the ,island of ,ceylon1 by ,,robert ,,percival1 ,esq41 of ,his ,majesty's #aith ,regiment of ,foot4 ,london1 #ahjc4 ,a4 ,m4444,antiquities of ,mexico 7,,lord ,,kingsborough',s71 comprising fac similes of ,ancient ,mexican paintings and hieroglyphics4 ,together with the ,monuments of ,new ,spain1 by ,,mons4 ,,dupaix2 with their respective scales of measurement and accompanying descriptions4 ,the whole illustrated by many valuable inedited manuscripts1 by ,,augustine ,,aglio4 ,in #i vols4 ,london1 #ahca-dh4 ,a4 ,n4 ,l4444,ante-,nicene ,christian ,library2 translations of the ,writings of the ,fathers down to ,a4,d4 #cbe4 ,edinburgh3 ,t4 ,t4 ,,clark1 #ahgj1 c4 ,a4 ,r4444,algic ,researches1 comprising inquiries respecting the mental characteristics of the ,north ,american ,indians4 ,first ,series4 ,indian ,tales and ,legends4 ,in #b vols4 ,by ,,henry ,,rowe ,,schoolcraft4 ,new ,york1 #ahci4 ,asha4444,ashantee and the ,gold ,coast1 by ,,john ,,beecham4 ,london1 #ahda4 ,a4 ,s4 ,l4444,history of ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature1 by ,,max ,m,,ller4 ,london1 #ahei4 ,as4 ,re4444,researches of the ,asiatic ,society in ,bengal4 ,calcutta1 #aghh-ahci4 ,av4444,avesta1 die ,heiligen ,schriften der ,parsen4 ,aus dem ,grundtexte bersetzt1 mit steter ,rcksicht auf die ,tradition4 ,von ,dr4 ,,fried4 ,,spiegel4 ,erster ,band4 ,der ,vendidad ,leipzig1 #aheb4 ,zweiter ,band4 ,vispered und ,yana4 ,leipzig1 #ahei4 ,dritter ,band4 ,khorda-,avesta4 ,leipzig1 #ahfc4 ,b4 ,a4 ,u4444,bibliotheca ,indica4 ,vol4 ii4 part iii4 ,the ,brihad ranyaka ,upanishad1 with the ,commentary of ,snkara ,a'cha'rya4 ,translated from the ,original ,sanskrit by ,dr4 ,e4 ,,roer4 ,calcutta1 #ahef4 ,bergeron4444,voyages faits principalement en ,asie1 dans les ,,xiie1 ,,xiiie1 ,,xive1 et ,,xve sicles1 par ,benjamin de ,tudle1 ,jean du ,plan-,carpin1 ,n4 ,ascelin1 ,guil4 de ,rubruquis1 ,marc-,paul1 ,haiton1 ,jean de ,mandeville et ,ambroise ,contarini2 accompagns de l',histoire des ,sarrazins et des ,tartares1 par ,p4 ,bergeron4 ,a la ,haye1 #agce4 ,bernard4444,recueil des ,voyages au ,nord4 ,amsterdam1 chez ,,jean ,,fr,d,,ric ,,bernard1 #agbg4 ,bh4 ,g44444,the ,bhagavat-,gta2 or a ,discourse between ,krishna and ,arjuna on ,divine ,matters4 ,a ,sanskrit ,philosophical ,poem2 translated1 with copious notes1 an ,introduction on ,sanskrit ,philosophy1 and other matters1 by ,j4 ,,cockburn ,,thomson4 ,hertford1 #ahee4 ,bib4444,,apollodori ,bibliotheca4 ,b4 ,t4444,buddhism in ,tibet1 by ,,emil ,,schlagintweit1 ,,ll4,d4 ,leipzig and ,london1 #ahfc4 ,c4 ,b4 ,a4444,a ,catena of ,buddhist ,scriptures from the ,chinese1 by ,,sam',l ,,beal4 ,london1 #ahga4 ,c4 ,c4444,the ,chinese ,classics1 with a translation1 critical and exegetical notes1 prolegomena1 and copious indexes1 by ,,james ,,legge1 ,d4,d4 ,in #g vols4 ,vol4 i4 ,confucian ,analects1 the ,great ,learning1 and the ,doctrine of the ,mean4 ,vol4 ii4 ,works of ,mencius4 ,vol4 iii4 #b parts1 ,the ,shoo ,king4 ,vol4 iv4 #b parts1 ,the ,she ,king4 ,vol4 v4 the ,ch'un ,ts'w4 ,london1 #ahfa1 c4 7,in course of publication47 ,ceylon4444,ceylon1 an ,account of the ,island1 physical1 historical1 and topographical1 with notices of its natural history1 antiquities1 and productions1 by ,sir ,,james ,,emerson ,,tennent1 ,k4,c4,s41 ,,ll4,d41 c4 ,london1 #ahei4 ,c4 ,g4444,a new and accurate ,description of the ,coast of ,guinea1 divided into the ,gold1 the ,slave1 and the ,ivory ,coasts4 ,written originally in ,dutch1 by ,,william ,,bosman4 ,the #b;d edition4 ,london1 #agba4 ,chan4 ,up4444,bibliotheca ,indica1 ,nos4 #gh and #aha4 ,the ,chndogya ,upanishad of the ,sma ,veda1 with extracts from the ,commentary of ,skara ,a'cha'rya4 ,translated from the original ,sanskrit by ,r,,jendr,,la ,,mitra4 ,calcutta4 #ahfb4 ,chinese4444,the ,chinese3 a general ,description of ,china and its ,inhabitants1 by ,,john ,,francis ,,davis1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,a new edition4 ,london1 #ahdd4 ,chips4444,chips from a ,german ,workshop1 by ,,max ,m,,ller1 ,m4,a4 #d vols4 ,london1 #ahfg-ge4 ,c4 ,n4 ,e4444,historia ,general de las ,cosas de ,nueva ,espaa1 que en doce libros y dos volumes escribi el ,r4 ,p4 ,,fr4 ,,bernardino ,,de ,,sahagun1 de la ,observancia de ,san ,francisco1 y uno de los primeros predicadores del ,santo ,evangelio en aquellas regiones4 ,dala a luz con notas y supplementos1 ,,carlos ,,maria ,,de ,,bustamante4 ,mexico1 #ahbi4 ,c4 ,o44444,china ,opened1 by the ,rev4 ,,charles ,g,,tzlaff1 revised by the ,rev4 ,,andrew ,,reid1 ,d4,d4 ,in #b vols4 ,london1 #ahch4 ,c4 ,r4444,primera ,parte de los ,commentaries ,reales1 que tratan del ,origen de los ,yncas1 ,reyes que fueron del ,peru1 de su idolatria1 leyes1 y govierno en paz y en guerra2 de sus vidas y conquistas1 y de toto lo que fue aquel ,imperio y su ,republica1 antes que los ,espaoles passan a el4 ,escrito por el ,ynca ,,garcilasso ,,de ,,la ,,vega1 natural del ,cozco1 y ,capitan de su ,magestad4 ,lisbon1 #afji4 ,dervishes444,the ,dervishes2 or ,oriental ,spiritualism1 by ,,john ,p4 ,,brown4 ,london1 #ahfh4 ,e4 ,m4444,eastern ,monachism1 by ,,robert ,,spence ,,hardy4 ,london1 #ahej4 ,e4 ,y4444,eleven ,years in ,ceylon1 by ,major ,,forbes1 #ghth ,highlanders4 ,london1 #ahdj4 ,f4 ,g4444,die fnf ,gth's1 oder ,sammlungen von ,liedern und ,sprchen ,,zarathustra',s1 seiner ,jnger und ,nachfolger4 ,herausgegeben1 bersetzt und erklrt von ,dr4 ,,martin ,,haug4 ,erste ,abtheilung4 ,die erste ,sammlung 7,gth ahunavaiti7 enthaltend4 ,leipzig1 #aheh4 ,zweite ,abtheilung4 ,die vier brigen ,sammlungen enthaltend4 ,nebst einer ,schlussabhandlung4 ,leipzig1 #ahfj4 ,gaudama4444,the ,life1 or ,legend of ,gaudama1 the ,buddha of the ,burmese1 with annotations4 ,the ways to ,neibban1 and notice on the ,phongyies1 or ,burmese ,monks1 by the ,rt4 ,rev4 ,p4 ,,bigandet4 ,rangoon1 #ahff4 ,g4 d4 ,m4444,c4 ,g4 ,a4 ,,oldendorp',s ,geschichte der ,mission der evangelischen ,brder auf den ,caraibischen ,inseln ,st4 ,thomas1 ,st4 ,croix1 und ,st4 ,jean4 ,barby1 #aggg4 ,h4 ,b4 ,i4444,introduction a l',histoire du ,buddhisme ,indien1 par ,e4 ,,burnouf4 ,tome premier4 ,paris1 #ahdd4 ,h4 ,g4444,,david ,,cranz4 ,histoire von ,grnland4 ,nrnberg und ,leipzig1 #aghb4 ,h4 ,i4444,historia natural y moral de las ,indias1 en que se tratan las cosas notables del ciclo1 y elementos1 metales1 plantas1 y animales dellas2 y los ritos1 y ceremonias1 leyes1 y govierno1 y guerras de los ,indios4 ,compuesta por el ,pardre ,,joseph ,,de ,,acosta1 ,religioso de la ,compaia de ,jesus4 ,madrid1 #afjh4 ,h4 ,n4 ,s4444,histoire naturelle et politique du ,royaume de ,siam1 par ,,nicholas ,,gervaise4 ,paris1 #afhh4 ,h4 ,r4 ,c4444,an ,historical ,relation of the ,island of ,ceylon in the ,east ,indies1 together with an account of the detaining in captivity the ,author and divers other ,englishmen now living there1 and of the ,author's miraculous escape1 by ,,robert ,,knox1 a captive there nearly twenty years4 ,london1 #afha4 ,ic4 ,ch4444,iconographie ,chrtienne4 ,histoire de ,diau1 par ,m4 ,,didron4 ,paris1 #ahdc4 ,k44444,the ,koran1 translated from the ,arabic1 the ,suras arranged in chronological order2 with notes and index1 by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,m4 ,,rodwell1 ,m4,a4 ,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahga4 ,kamtschatka4444,,george ,,wilhelm ,,steller',s ,beschreibung von dem ,lande ,kamtschatka1 dessen ,einwohnern1 deren ,sitten1 ,namen1 ,lebensart und verchiedenen ,gewohnheiten4 ,frankfurt und ,leipzig1 #aggd4 ,k4 ,n4444,the ,kafirs of ,natal1 by ,j4 ,,shooter4 ,london and ,guildford1 #aheg4 ,l4 ,l4 ,m4444,das ,leben und die ,lehre des ,mohammad1 nach bisher grsstentheils unbenutzten ,quellen4 ,bearbeitet von ,a4 ,,sprenger4 #c vols4 ,berlin1 #ahfi4 ,lotos4444,le ,lotus de la ,bonne ,loi1 traduit du ,sanskrit1 accompagn d'un commentaire1 et de vingt-et-un mmoires relatifs au ,buddhisme1 par ,m4 ,e4 ,,burnouf4 ,paris1 #aheb4 ,l4 ,t4444,,la-,,ts ,ta-t-,kng4 ,der ,weg zur ,tugend4 ,aus dem ,chinesischen bersetzt und erklrt von ,,reinhold ,,von ,,pl,,nckner4 ,leipzig1 #ahgj4 ,manu4444,institutes of ,hindu ,law1 or the ,ordinances of ,,menu1 according to the ,gloss of ,,cull,,ca4 ,comprising the ,indian system of duties1 religious and civil4 ,verbally translated from the original1 with a preface1 by ,sir ,,william ,,jones4 ,a new edition1 collated with the ,sanskrit text1 by ,,graves ,,chamney ,,haughton1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 c4 ,london1 #ahbe4 ,m4 ,b4444,manual of ,buddhism1 by ,r4 ,,spence ,,hardy4 ,london1 #ahfj4 ,m4 d',o4444,les ,moines d',occident depuis ,saint ,benoit jusqu'a ,saint ,bernard4 ,par le ,comte de ,,montalembert4 ,in #e vols4 ,paris et ,lyon1 #ahfh4 ,misc4 ,essays4444,miscellaneous ,essays1 by ,h4 ,t4 ,,colebrooke4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahcg4 7,the only complete edition1 however1 is the one published in #c vols41 ,london1 #ahgc47 ,m4 ,n4 ,w4444,the ,myths of the ,new ,world2 a ,treatise on the ,symbolism and ,mythology of the red race of ,america1 by ,,daniel ,g4 ,,brinton1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d4 ,new ,york1 #ahfh4 ,n4 ,a4444,an ,account of the ,native ,africans in the neighborhood of ,sierra ,leone1 by ,,thomas ,,winterbottom4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahjc4 ,n4 ,f4444,histoire et ,description gnrale de la ,nouvelle ,france1 avec le journal historique d'un voyage fait par ordre du ,roi dans l',amrique ,septentrionale4 ,par le ,p4 ,,de ,,charlevoix1 de la ,compagnie de ,jsus #c ,vols4 ,paris1 #agdd4 ,n4 ,m4 ,e4444,a ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 with remarks upon the natural history of the ,islands1 origin1 languages1 traditions1 and usages of the inhabitants1 by the ,rev4 ,,john ,,williams4 ,london4 #ahcg4 ,n4 ,s4 ,w4444,an account of the ,english ,colony in ,new ,south ,wales1 from its first settlement in ,january1 #aghh1 to ,august1 #ahja1 by ,lieutenant-,colonel ,,collins1 of the ,royal ,marines4 ,london1 #ahjd4 ,n4 ,y4444,nineteen years in ,polynesia3 ,missionary ,life1 ,travels1 and ,researches in the ,islands of the ,pacific1 by the ,rev4 ,,george ,,turner4 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,n4 ,z4444,new ,zealand and its ,aborigines1 by ,,william ,,brown4 ,london1 #ahde4 ,o-kee-pa4444 ,o-kee-pa3 ,a ,religious ,ceremony2 and other customs of the ,mandans1 by ,,george ,,catlin4 ,london1 #ahfg4 ,o4 ,p4444,the ,speculations on ,metaphysics1 ,polity1 and ,morality of the ,old ,philosopher1 ,,lau-,,tsze1 translated from the ,chinese1 with an ,introduction1 by ,,john ,,chalmers1 ,a4 ,m4 ,london1 #ahfh4 ,o4 ,s4 ,t4444,original ,sanskrit ,texts on the origin and history of the people of ,india1 their ,religion and ,institutions4 ,collected1 translated1 and illustrated by ,j4 ,,muir1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d4 ,volume ,first4 ,mythical and ,legendary ,accounts of the ,origin of ,caste1 with an inquiry into its existence in the ,vedic age4 #b;d edition4 ,london1 #ahfh4 ,volume ,second4 ,inquiry whether the ,hindus are of ,trans-,himalayan ,origin1 and akin to the ,western branches of the ,indo-,european ,race4 #b;d edition4 ,london1 #ahga4 ,volume ,third4 ,the ,vedas3 opinions of their authors and of later ,indian writers on their origin1 inspiration1 and authority4 #b;d edition4 ,london1 #ahfh4 ,volume ,fourth4 ,comparison of the ,vedic with the later representations of the principal ,indian deities4 #b;d edition4 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,volume ,fifth4 ,contributions to a ,cosmogony1 ,mythology1 ,religious ,ideas1 ,life and ,manners of the ,indians in the ,vedic age4 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,p4 ,a4444,an ,examination of the ,pali ,buddhistical ,annals1 by the ,honorable ,,george ,,turnour1 of the ,ceylon ,civil ,service4 ,from the ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society for ,july #ahcg4 ,p4 ,a4 ,b4444,die ,propheten des ,alten ,bundes1 erklrt von ,,heinrich ,,ewald4 ,zweite ,ausgabe in drei ,bnden4 ,erster ,band4 ,jesaja mit den brigen lteren ,propheten4 ,gttingen1 #ahfg4 ,zweiter ,band4 ,jermja und ,hezequiel mit ihren ,zeitgenossen4 ,gttingen1 #ahfh4 ,dritter ,band4 ,die jngsten ,propheten des ,alten ,bundes mit den ,bchern ,barukh und ,daniel4 ,gttingen1 #ahfh4 ,parsees4444,essays on the ,sacred ,language1 ,writings1 and ,religion of the ,parsees1 by ,,martin ,,haug1 ,ph4,d4 ,bombay1 #ahfb4 ,picard4444,the ,ceremonies and ,religious ,customs of the various ,nations of the known ,world1 by ,mr4 ,,bernard ,,picard4 ,faithfully translated into ,english by a gentleman4 ,london1 #agcc4 ,popol ,vuh4444,popol ,vuh4--,le ,livre ,sacr et les ,mythes de l',antiquit ,amricaine1 avec les livres hroiques et historiques des ,quichs4 ,texte ,quich et traduction ,franaise en regard c41 c4 ,compos sur des documents originaux et indits1 par l',abb ,,brasseur ,,de ,,bourbourg4 ,paris1 #ahfa4 ,r4 ,b4444,die ,religion des ,buddha und ihre ,entstehung1 von ,,karl ,,friedrich ,k,,ppon4 ,erster ,band4 ,die ,religion des ,buddha und ihre ,entstehung4 ,berlin1 #aheg4 ,zweiter ,band4 ,die ,lamaische ,hierarchie und ,kirche4 ,berlin1 #ahei4 ,rel4 of ,jews4444,the ,book of the ,religion1 ,ceremonies1 and ,prayers of the ,jews1 as practiced in their synagogues and ,families on all ,occasions2 on their ,sabbath and other ,holidays throughout the year4 ,translated immediately from the ,hebrew1 by ,,gamaliel ,,ben ,,pedazur1 ,gent4 ,london1 #agch4 ,r4 ,i4444,die ,religisen1 ,politischen1 und ,socialen ,ideen der ,asiatischen ,culturvlker und der ,aegypter1 in ihrer historischen ,entwickelung1 dargestellt von ,,carl ,,twesten4 ,herausgegeben von ,prof4 ,dr4 ,m4 ,,lazarus4 #b vols4 ,berlin1 #ahgb4 ,roer4444,bibliotheca ,indica1 ,nos4 #a to #d4 ,the first two ,lectures of the ,rig-,veda-,sanhit4 ,edited by ,dr4 ,e4 ,,roer4 ,calcutta1 #ahdh4 ,r4 ,s4 ,a4444,the ,religious ,system of the ,amazulu1 by the ,rev4 ,canon ,,callaway1 ,m4,d4 ,part i4 ,unkulunkulu2 or the ,tradition of ,creation as existing among the ,amazulu and other tribes of ,south ,africa1 in their own words1 with a translation into ,english1 and notes4 ,part ii4 ,amatongo1 or ,ancestor-,worship4 ,part iii4 ,izinyanga ,zokubula1 or ,divination4 ,natal1 c41 #ahfh-gj4 ,r4 ,t4 ,r4 ,p4444,rgya ,tehr ,rol ,pa1 ou ,dveloppement des ,jeux1 contenant l'histoire du ,bouddha ,cakya-,mouni1 traduit sur la version ,tibtaine du ,bkah ,hgyour1 et revu sur l'original ,sanscrit 7,lalitavistara7 par ,,ph4 ,,ed4 ,,foucaux4 ,premire ,partie4 ,texte ,tibtain4 ,paris1 #ahdg4 ,deuxime ,partie4 ,traduction ,franaise4 ,paris1 #ahdh4 ,r4 ,v4 ,s4444,rig-,veda-,sanhit4 ,the ,sacred ,hymns of the ,brahmans1 translated and explained by ,f4 ,,max ,m,,ller1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 ,vol4 i4 ,hymns to the ,maruts or the ,storm-,gods4 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,s4 ,a4444,savage ,africa2 the ,narrative of a ,tour in ,equatorial1 ,south-,western1 and ,north-,western ,africa1 by ,w4 ,,winwood ,,reade4 ,london1 #ahfc4 ,sale4444,the ,koran1 commonly called the ,alcoran of ,,mohammed2 translated into ,english immediately from the original ,arabic4 ,with explanatory notes1 taken from the most approved ,commentators4 ,to which is prefixed a preliminary discourse1 by ,,george ,,sale1 ,gent4 ,a new edition1 with a memoir of the translator1 and with various readings and illustrative notes from ,savary's version of the ,koran4 ,london1 #ahfg4 ,s4 ,l4444,a ,voyage to the ,river ,sierra ,leone1 on the ,coast of ,africa4 by ,,john ,,matthews1 ,lieutenant in the ,royal ,navy2 during his residence in that country in the years #aghe1 #aghf1 and #aghg4 ,london1 #agia4 ,s4 ,l4 ,a4444,savage ,life and ,scenes in ,australia and ,new ,zealand1 by ,,george ,,french ,,angas4 ,london1 #ahdg4 ,ssabismus4444,die ,ssabier und der ,ssabismus1 von ,dr ,d4 ,,chwolsohn4 ,band ,i4 ,die ,entwickelung der ,begriffe ,ssabier und ,ssabismus und die ,geschichte der harrnischen ,ssabier1 oder der ,syro-hellenistischen ,heiden im nrdlichen ,mesopotamien und in ,bagdd1 zur ,zeit des ,chalifats4 ,band ,,ii4 ,orientalische ,quellen zur ,geschichte der ,ssabier und des ,ssabismus4 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahef4 ,s4 ,v4444,die ,hymen des ,sma-,veda1 herausgegeben1 bersetzt und mit ,glossar versehen1 von ,,theodore ,,benfey4 ,leipzig1 #ahdh4 ,t4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4444,transactions of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society of ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,london1 #ahbg-ce4 ,t4 ,t4 ,k4444,la-ts's ,ta ,t ,kng4 ,aus dem ,chinesischen ins ,deutsche bersetzt1 eingeleitet und commentirt1 von ,,victor ,,von ,,strauss4 ,leipzig1 #ahgj4 ,v4 ,g4444,voyage du ,chevalier ,,des ,,marchais en ,guine1 ,isles voisines1 et ,cayenne1 fait en #agbe4 ,viti4444,viti3 ,an ,account of a ,government ,mission to the ,vitian or ,fijian ,islands in the years #ahfj-fa1 by ,,berthold ,,seemann1 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,cambridge1 #ahfb4 ,wassiljew4444,der ,buddhismus1 seine ,dogmen1 ,geschichte und ,litteratur1 von ,w4 ,,wassiljew4 ,erster ,theil4 ,allgemeine ,uebersicht4 ,aus dem ,russischen bersetzt4 ,st4 ,petersburg #ahfj4 ,w4 ,e4444,the ,world ,encompassed1 by ,sir ,,francis ,,drake1 #aegg-hj4 ,written by ,,francis ,,fletcher2 collated with an unpublished ,,ms4 ,edited with ,appendices and ,introduction by ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 ,,vaux4 #hvo1 map4 ,london1 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahee4 ,wheel4444,the ,wheel of the ,law4 ,buddhism illustrated from ,siamese sources by the ,modern ,buddhist1 a ,life of ,buddha1 and an account of the ,phrabat1 by ,,henry ,,alabaster1 ,esq4 ,london1 #ahga4 ,wilson4444,rig-,veda-,sanhit4 ,translated from the original ,sanskrit1 by ,h4 ,h4 ,,wilson1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,vol4 i4 ,the first ,ashtaka1 or ,book1 of the ,rig-,veda4 #b;d edition4 ,london1 #ahff4 ,vol4 ii4 ,the second ,ashtaka4 ,london1 #ahed4 ,vol1 iii4 ,the third and fourth ,ashtakas4 ,london1 #aheg4 ,vol4 iv4 ,the fifth ,ashtaka4 ,edited by ,e4 ,b4 ,,cowell1 ,m4 ,a4 ,london1 #ahff4 ,w4 u4 ,t4444,der ,weise und der ,thor4 ,aus dem ,tibetischen bersetzt und mit dem ,originaltexte herausgegeben von ,i4 ,j4 ,,schmidt4 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahdc4 ,w4 ,w4444,works by the ,late ,,horace ,,hayman ,,wilson1 #ab vols4 ,london1 #ahfb-ga4 ,y4444,commentaire sur le ,yana1 l'un des ,livres ,religieux des ,parses2 ouvrage contenant le texte ,zend expliqu pour la premire fois2 les variantes des quatre manuscrits de la ,bibliothque ,royale2 et la version ,sanscrite indite de ,nriosengh1 par ,,eug,,ne ,,burnouf4 ,tome i4 ,paris1 #ahcc4 ,tome ii4 ,paris1 #ahce4 ,z4 ,a4444,zend ,avesta1 ,ouvrage de ,zoroastre1 traduit en ,franois sur l'original ,zend1 avec des remarques2 et accompagn de plusieurs traits propres a claircir les matires qui en sont l'objet1 par ,m4 ,,anquetil ,,du ,,perron4 #c vols4 ,paris1 #agga4 ,,an ,,analysis ,,of ,,religious ,,belief4 ,,general ,,introduction4 ,human nature1 among all the phenomena it offers to the curious inquiries of the student1 presents none of more transcendent interest than the phenomenon of ,religion4 ,pervading the whole history of mankind from the very earliest ages of which we have any authentic knowledge up to the present day2 exercising on the wild and wandering tribes1 which seem to have divided the earth among them in those primitive times1 an influence scarcely less profound than it has ever exercised on the most polite and cultivated nations of the modern world2 leading now to peace and now to war2 now to the firmest of alliances1 now to the bitterest enmities2 uniting some in the bonds of a love so enduring as to outlast and put to shame the fleeting unions of earthly passion2 separating others1 even when every motive of interest and natural affection conspired to unite them1 so completely as to impel them to deliver each other up to the ghastliest tortures2 ,religion deserves a foremost place--if not the foremost place of all--among the emotions which have in their several ways affected1 modified1 and controlled the current of human events4 ,forming1 as it does1 so large an element in the constitution of our complex nature2 and playing so vast a part in guiding our actions1 ,religion must well deserve to be made the subject of philosophical inquiry4 ,if we can by any scientific means discover its origin1 lay bare its true character to the gaze of students1 and estimate the value of its pretensions to be in possession of truths of equal1 if not superior1 authority to those of either natural or moral science1 we shall have performed a task which may not be wholly useless or altogether uninstructive4 ,our first business1 in such an inquiry as this1 should be to determine the method on which it ought to be conducted4 ,in analyzing the religious systems of the world1 the question of method is all-important4 ,indeed1 it will be abundantly evident in the course of the ensuing investigations that the conclusions reached by those who have cultivated this field of knowledge have often been unsound1 simply because they have failed to pursue the only proper method4 ,nothing can be easier1 for instance1 than to construct elaborate systems of religious philosophy1 the several parts of which hang so well together that we find it2 difficult to urge any solid objection against them1 while yet the whole edifice rests upon so insecure a foundation that at the least touch of its lowest stones it will fall in ruins to the ground4 ,this too common mistake arises from the fact that the first principles of the system are assumed without adequate warrant1 and will not bear examination4 ,half1 if not many more than half1 the common errors of believers in the various current creeds are due to a similar cause4 ,these persons start from some principle which they conceive to be indisputable1 and proceed to draw inferences from it with the most complete confidence4 ,an extreme instance of this is mentioned by ,dr4 ,sprenger1 who was asked by a ,musselman how he could disbelieve the religion of ,islam1 seeing that ,mahomet's name was written on the gates of paradise4 ,in a less palpable form1 the same mode of reasoning is constantly adopted among ourselves4 ,either we do not take the trouble to submit the evidence of the facts upon which we erect our arguments to a sufficiently rigorous scrutiny1 or we fail to perceive that the axioms we take for granted are in reality neither self-evident1 as our system requires1 nor capable of any satisfactory demonstration4 ,another and perhaps scarcely a less common kind of error arising from defective method is a failure to distinguish between adequate and inadequate evidence of religious truth4 ,a sound and exhaustive method would not fail to disclose1 if not what kind of evidence is sufficient1 at least what kind of evidence is insufficient1 to prove our doctrines4 ,it is plain that if we should find arguments of the same character used by the adherents of different creeds to prove contradictory propositions1 we should be forced to dismiss such arguments as of comparatively little value4 ,supposing1 for example1 that a ,hebrew1 desirous of proving the preminence of the ,jews over the ,gentiles1 should rely for his justification on the miraculous deliverance of the ancient ,israelites from the ,egyptians1 and on their subsequent special protection by the ,deity1 his argument1 however apparently conclusive1 would be considerably weakened if it were found that the annals of other nations contained similar tales evincing a similar exclusive care for their welfare on the part of their local divinities4 ,or if we should claim for our own school the advantage of being supported by the authority of a long succession of able1 wise1 and virtuous men1 fully competent to judge of its truth1 yet if our adversaries can produce an equally imposing list of authorities against us1 we shall have gained but little by our mode of reasoning4 ,these one-sided ways of proving the exclusive claims of a particular creed are as if a person should maintain the vast superiority of his countrymen over foreigners by a reference to the battles they had won1 the territory they had conquered1 and the bravery they had displayed2 forgetful to inquire whether there were not other nations which had gained victories equally transcendent1 made conquests equally extensive1 and evinced a heroism equally admirable4 ,these blunders1 it may be objected1 do not arise exclusively from a faulty method4 ,it is true that they have a deeper source1 yet1 if a correct method were pursued they would be avoided4 ,hence the paramount importance of fixing upon one which shall not be likely to lead us astray4 ,now1 the method which in the natural sciences1 and in the science of language1 has led to such vast results1 may be1 and ought to be pursued here4 ,this method is that of comparison4 ,when the philologist is desirous of discovering what elements1 if any1 a group of languages possesses in common1 and what therefore may be considered as its fundamental stock1 or essence1 he compares them with one another4 ,when the naturalist wishes to arrive at an accurate knowledge of the conformation1 habits1 or character of any class of animals1 he can only do so by a comparison of different members of that class4 ,how misleading our conclusions frequently are in matters like these when they are not based upon a sufficiently wide comparison1 will be familiar to all4 ,and though the analogy between these sciences and religion is far from precise1 yet no good reason can be assigned why a method1 which has been so successful in one case1 should be totally neglected in the latter4 ,nor is it enough to say that this method is capable of application to the subject in hand4 ,religion1 owing to certain characteristics which will now be explained1 lends itself with peculiar facility to an inquiry thus conducted4 ,a merely superficial and passing glance at the phenomena presented to us by the history and actual condition of the world brings clearly to light two facts3 #a4 ,the absolute1 or all but absolute universality of some kind of religious perception or religious feeling4 #b4 ,the countless variety of forms under which that feeling has made its appearance4 ,history and the works of travelers1 amply prove that no considerable nation has ever been without religion1 and that if it has ever been wanting1 it has only been among the rudest savages1 whose mental and moral condition was too low to be capable of any but the most obvious impressions of sense4 ,equally indubitable is the second proposition4 ,we are acquainted with no period in which each country did not possess its own special variety of religious doctrine2 we are acquainted with none in which there were not many and wide divergences within the bosom of each country among individuals1 among sects1 and among churches4 ,in this universality of a certain sentiment1 accompanied by this variety of modes1 we have at least a possible distinction between the ,substance and the ,form1 between the universal emotion known as ,religion1 and the local or temporary coloring it may happen to assume4 ,it will be convenient if we call the substance by the name of ,,faith1 and the form by that of ,,belief4 ,the use of these terms in these senses is no doubt slightly arbitrary1 yet the shade of difference in their ordinary meaning is sufficient to justify it4 ,faith is a term of large and general signification1 referring rather to the feelings than the reason2 whereas ,belief generally implies the intellectual adoption of some definite proposition1 capable of distinct statement in words4 ,the importance of the comparative method in the process of sifting1 classifying1 and ordering the elements of these respective spheres will now be apparent4 ,for it is only by a comparison of the varieties of ,belief that we can hope to arrive at an acquaintance with ,faith4 ,setting one system beside another1 carefully observing wherein they differ and wherein they agree1 we may at length hope to discover what elements1 if any1 are to be set down to the account of ,faith1 and what other elements to that of ,belief4 ,even after a full comparison there will still be considerable danger that we may mistake tenets which are widely held1 but not universal1 for primordial conceptions of the human mind4 ,without such a comparison1 we should most undoubtedly do so1 for we are ever unwilling to recognize how wide are the limits of variation of which the opinions and sentiments of men are capable4 ,should we1 however1 succeed in eliminating by our analysis all that is local1 and all that is temporary1 we shall possess1 in what remains to us after this process1 a universal truth of human nature4 ,observe that ,i speak here of a truth of human nature as distinguished from a truth of external nature4 ,the one does not of necessity imply the other1 for it is conceivable that men might universally entertain certain hopes1 fears1 aspirations1 or convictions which were wholly groundless2 the supposed objects of which had no existence whatever beyond the mind that entertained them4 ,in the present case1 then1 all that the most exhaustive comparison could do would be to lead us up to the scientific fact1 that there is in human beings an irresistible tendency towards certain sentiments of a spiritual kind4 ,whether those sentiments can be the foundation of any rational conviction it is unable to tell us4 ,this question1 however1 is fully as important as the other1 and ,i do not propose to pass it over in silence4 ,it will be one object of our investigation to discover how far we are entitled to treat truths of human nature as identical with objective truths4 ,if we are obliged to confess that no inference can be drawn from the one to the other1 then it will be plain that ,faith1 however profoundly implanted in our hearts1 does not convey to us any assurance of a single religious truth2 for the impressions which we call our ,faith may be as purely illusory as the fancies of delirium1 or the images of our dreams4 ,if1 on the other hand1 an internal sentiment may be accepted1 not so much as a basis for truth1 but as itself true2 as leading1 and not misleading us2 then we must further examine what are the truths which are in a manner contained in ,faith1 and of which ,faith is the warrant4 ,the first ,book1 therefore1 will deal mainly with ,belief4 ,its object will be1 by a comparison of some of the various creeds that are1 or have been1 accepted by men1 to discover the general characteristics of ,belief1 and to separate these from the more special and distinctive elements peculiar to given times1 districts1 and races4 ,these general characteristics will1 however1 belong exclusively to the region of ,belief1 and not to that of ,faith4 ,in other words1 they will have no title to a place in a ,universal ,religion4 ,in the second ,book we shall proceed to investigate the nature of ,faith4 ,we shall endeavor to lay bare the foundation of the vast superstructure of ,theology and ,ritual erected by the piety of the human race4 ,we shall seek to discover1 if that be possible1 the element of unity amid so much variety1 of permanence amid so much change4 ,and should we be successful in the search1 we shall be in a position1 if not absolutely to solve1 at least to attempt the solution of the great problem which ever has interested1 and ever must interest mankind3 ,is there any such thing as positive truth in the sphere of ,religion8 ,and if so1 what is it8 ,or are the human faculties strictly limited to that species of knowledge which is acquired through the medium of the senses1 and doomed1 in all spiritual things1 to be the victims of endless longings for which there is no satisfaction1 and of perpetual questionings to which there is no response8 ,,introduction4 ,religious ,feeling1 like all other human emotions1 makes itself objectively known to us by its manifestations4 ,with its subjective character we are not concerned1 our business in the present book being to treat it merely as an objective phenomenon4 ,thus regarded1 its manifestations appear extremely various1 but on closer examination they will be found to spring from a common principle4 ,this principle is the desire felt by the human race in general to establish a relationship between itself and those superhuman or supernatural powers upon whose will it supposes the course of nature and the well-being of men to be dependent4 ,were it not for this desire1 the ,religious ,idea--if ,i may venture by this term to denominate the original sentiment which is the beginning of positive religion--might remain locked up for ever in the breast of each individual who felt it4 ,but there is innate in human beings--arriving like wanderers in the midst of a world they cannot understand--an overpowering wish to enter into some sort of communication with the mysterious agencies of whose extraordinary force they are continually conscious1 but which appear to be hidden from their observation in impenetrable darkness4 ,any man who seems able to give information as to the nature of these agencies2 who can declare their wishes with regard to the conduct of men2 who can assert1 with apparent authority1 their determination to reward certain kinds of actions1 and to punish others1 is listened to with avidity2 and if he is believed to speak truly his counsels are followed4 ,any tradition which is held to make known the proper manner of approaching these great powers is devoutly conserved1 and becomes the foundation of the conduct of many generations4 ,any writing which is consecrated by popular belief as either emanating directly from these powers1 or as having been composed under their authority and at their dictation1 is regarded with profound reverence2 and no one is allowed to question either its statements of fact or its injunctions4 ,what are the particular characteristics which enable either men1 traditions1 or writings to acquire so extraordinary an authority1 it is difficult1 if not impossible1 to say4 ,some approach to a reply may be made in the course of the inquiry1 but much will still remain unaccounted for3 one of those ultimate secrets of our nature which admit of no complete discovery4 ,certain it is1 however1 that this passionate longing to enter into some kind of relation with the unknown receives its satisfaction in the earliest stages of human society4 ,man1 isolated1 fearful1 struck with wonder at his own existence1 craves to become acquainted with the ,divine will1 to hear the accents of the ,divine voice1 to offer up his petitions to those higher beings who are able to grant them1 and to offer them up in such a manner that they may be willing as well as able4 ,impelled by this craving1 the ,religious ,idea passes out of its condition of vague emotion into that of positive opinion4 ,it becomes manifest1 or1 if ,i may use an appropriate image1 incarnate4 ,the means by which the wished-for intercourse between man and the higher powers is effected are obviously twofold3 such as convey information from the worshipers to their deities1 and such as convey it from the deities back to their worshipers4 ,in other words they might be described as serving for communication upwards1 or communication downwards2 from mankind to ,god1 or from ,god to mankind4 ,in the former case human beings are the agents2 in the latter the patients4 ,in the former1 they consciously and intentionally place themselves1 or endeavor to place themselves1 in correspondence with the unseen powers2 in the latter1 they simply receive the injunctions1 reproofs1 or other intimations with which those powers may think fit to favor them4 ,the methods by which this correspondence is sought to be effected are very various4 ,let us take first those which carry the thoughts of men's hearts upwards4 #a4 ,the earliest1 simplest1 and most universal method is the performance of certain solemnities of a regularly recurrent kind1 which1 as expressive of their object1 ,i will term consecrated actions4 ,such actions are prayer1 praise1 sacrifice1 ceremonies and rites1 offerings1 and1 in short1 all the numerous external acts comprehended under the term ,worship4 #b4 ,the second is the consecration of distinct places for the purpose of carrying on such worship1 or otherwise approaching the ,deity more closely and solemnly than can be done on common and unsanctified ground4 ,these ,i term consecrated places4 #c4 ,thirdly1 we have a large class of objects dedicated expressly to religious purposes4 ,such are votive offerings of all kinds2 pictures1 statues1 vestments1 gifts bestowed on the priesthood for employment in ,divine worship1 or whatever else the piety of the devotees of any deity may induce them to withdraw from their own consumption1 and set apart for his service4 ,these are consecrated objects4 #d4 ,devoutly disposed persons seek to enter into a more than commonly direct relation with their god by dedication of their own persons to him1 such dedication being signified by some special characteristics in their mode of life4 ,such are ascetics of all descriptions1 whether they be known as ,essenes1 ,nazarites1 ,bonzes1 monks1 or any other term4 ,i describe them henceforward as consecrated persons4 #e4 ,lastly1 we have a class of men who are also consecrated1 but who differ from the preceding in that the object of their consecration is not personal but social4 ,they are devoted to the service of the deity not in order that they individually may enter into more intimate relations with him1 but that they may carry on the needful intercourse between the community at large and its gods4 ,to emphasize this distinction1 ,i call them consecrated mediators4 ,the second great division of our subject is that which treats of the several modes by which divine ideas are carried downwards4 ,and here we will follow a classification corresponding as nearly as possible to that adopted in the preceding section4 #a4 ,first1 then1 the ,deity conveys his will or his intention through events2 such as omens1 auguries1 miracles1 dreams1 and many other phenomena4 ,all these may be termed holy events4 #b4 ,secondly1 there are certain spots which are either favorable to the reception of supernatural communications1 or have on some occasion been the scene of such a communication1 which we will call holy places4 #c4 ,thirdly1 certain objects are held to possess mysterious powers1 as that of healing disease4 ,relics1 articles that have been used by holy men1 and such like remains1 come within this category4 ,they may be described as holy objects4 #d4 ,all communities above the very lowest employ professional persons for the express object of conveying to them the will of their ,deity1 or discovering his intentions as to the future4 ,the most usual name for such functionaries is that of ,priest1 and for the sake of embracing all ecclesiastical or quasi-ecclesiastical classes under one designation ,i shall call them holy orders4 #e4 ,the possession of a professional character distinguishes them from the next class1 who serve as the fifth channel between ,god and man1 but who differ from the fourth in the circumstance of being self-appointed4 ,prophets 7for it is of these ,i am speaking7 receive no regular consecration2 nevertheless the part they have played in the religious history of mankind has been of such transcendent importance that they deserve to be placed in a class apart under the title of holy persons4 #f4 ,sixthly1 there remains a mode of communication from ,god to man to which there is nothing corresponding on our side2 it is that of written documents4 ,man has never 7so far as ,i am aware7 imagined himself capable of sending a letter or written composition of any kind to ,god2 but ,god is supposed1 through the medium of human instruments1 to have embodied his thoughts in writing for the benefit of the human race4 ,the result is the very important category of holy books4 ,,external ,,manifestations ,,of ,,religious ,,sentiment4 ,,first ,,part4 ,,means ,,of ,,communication ,,upwards4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,consecrated ,,actions4 ,adoration1 or worship1 is a direct result of one of the most universal of human instincts4 ,after the instincts which impel us to provide for the necessities of the body1 and to satisfy the passion of love1 there is perhaps none more potent or more general4 ,men are driven to pray by an irresistible impulse4 ,differing widely as to the object of worship2 differing not less widely as to its mode2 differing in a minor degree as to the blessings it secures2 they are agreed as to the fundamental ideas which it involves4 ,in the first place it presupposes a power superior to1 or at any rate different from1 the power of man2 in the second place it assumes a belief that this superhuman or non-human power can be approached by his worshipers2 can be induced to listen to their desires1 and to grant their petitions4 ,of the first of the two elements thus implied in prayer1 this is not the appropriate place to speak at length4 ,in a very early and primitive stage of man's existence1 he begins to feel his dependence upon powers invisible to his mortal eyes1 whose mode of action he can but imperfectly comprehend4 ,his way of conceiving these beings will depend upon his mental elevation1 upon historical influences1 upon local conditions1 and other causes4 ,among very rude nations1 the commonest and apparently most unimpressive objects will serve as fetishes1 or incarnations of the mysterious force4 ,pieces of wood1 stones1 ornaments worn on the person1 or almost anything1 may under some circumstances do duty in this capacity4 ,it is a further stage of progress when the more conspicuous objects of nature1 lofty mountains1 rivers1 trees1 fountains1 and so forth1 are deified1 to the exclusion of more insignificant things4 ,still higher is the adoration of bodies which do not belong to this earth at all1 and whose nature is1 therefore1 more mysterious--the sun1 the moon1 the planets or the stars1 the clouds and tempests1 the winds1 and similar imposing phenomena4 ,and this stage passes naturally into one where the gods1 at first merely forces of nature personified1 lose their character of forces1 and become exclusively persons4 ,they are then conceived as beings in human form1 but endowed with much more than human faculties4 ,actual persons1 especially the ancestors of the living generation1 are also the frequent recipients of religious adoration4 ,by other races1 or by the same races at a later period1 the numerous gods of polytheism are merged in one supreme god1 to whom the others are subordinated as agents of his will1 or before whose grandeur they disappear altogether2 while this worship of powers conceived as beneficent is very frequently accompanied1 more or less avowedly1 by a parallel worship of powers conceived as malevolent1 and whom1 by reason of that very malevolence1 it is occasionally deemed the more needful to conciliate4 ,the second element--the conviction that these deities are accessible to human requests--is shown both by the fact of worship being offered and by the mode in which it is conducted4 ,in the first place1 it is plain that prayer would not be offered at all but for the belief that it exercises some influence on the beings prayed to4 ,but the theory does not require that they should be equally amenable to it at all times1 from all persons1 or in whatever way it is uttered4 ,on the contrary1 accessibility to prayer implies in these who receive it an inclination to listen with attention to the language in which they are addressed1 and to be more or less moved by it according to its nature4 ,reasoning from the authorities of earth whom he knows1 to those of heaven whom he does not know1 the primitive man concludes that the best way of obtaining the satisfaction of his wishes from the latter will be to address them in a tone of humble supplication1 intermingled with such laudatory epithets as he deems most suitable to the deity invoked1 or most likely to be agreeable to his ear4 ,hence we have the two devotional acts of prayer and praise1 which in all religions constantly accompany one another1 and constitute the simplest1 most natural1 and most ancient expression on the part of human beings of their consciousness of an overruling power1 and of their desire to enter into relations with that dreaded and venerated agency4 ,prayer in its original form is simply a request for some personal advantage addressed by the worshipers to their god4 ,whatever loftier associations it may afterwards acquire1 its intention at the outset is unquestionably this1 as may be proved by reference to innumerable instances1 quoted by travelers or scholars1 of savage prayer1 where the benefit expected from the deity is demanded in the most barefaced manner4 ,but even after men have long ceased to be savages1 the primary object of prayer may easily be discerned2 sometimes plainly avowed by the persons praying1 sometimes cloaked under complimentary phrases or devotional utterances4 ,however disguised1 the fact remains1 that prayer was originally designed1 and to a large extent is designed still1 to obtain certain advantages for ourselves1 either as individuals1 or as a community4 ,private prayer1 partaking to some extent of the character of a meditation1 may1 and no doubt often does1 form an exception to this rule2 but even this very frequently falls under it1 and of the prayer offered by tribes or nations it always holds good4 ,two excellent specimens of primitive prayer are given by ,brinton in his ,myths of the ,new ,world4 ,according to that writer1 the ,nootka ,indian1 on preparing for war1 thus expresses his wishes3--,great ,quahootzee1 let me live1 not be sick1 find the enemy1 not fear him1 find him asleep1 and kill a great many of him4 ,the next instance1 quoted by him from ,father ,breboeuf1 is equally apposite4 ,it is the prayer of a ,huron3--,oki1 thou who livest in this spot1 ,i offer thee tobacco4 ,help us1 save us from shipwreck1 defend us from our enemies1 give us a good trade1 and bring us back safe and sound to our villages 7,m4 ,n4 ,w41 p4 #big74 ,the ,kafirs1 according to ,shooter1 address the spirits whom they worship in the following style3 ,take care of me1 take care of my children1 take care of my wives1 take care of all my people4 ,remove the sickness1 and let my child recover4 ,give me plenty of children--many boys and a few girls4 ,give me abundance of food and cattle4 ,make right all my people 7,k4 ,n41 p4 #afc74 ,of the negroes on the ,caribbean ,islands1 ,oldendorp says1 ,their concerns which they lay before ,god in their prayers1 even on their knees1 have reference only to the body1 to health1 fine weather1 a good harvest1 victory over their enemies1 and so forth 7,g4 d4 ,m41 p4 #cbe74 ,the ,samoans1 on taking their evening cup of ava1 would thus express their petitions to the gods3 ,here is ava for you1 ,o gods6 ,look kindly towards this family3 let it prosper and increase2 and let us all be kept in health4 ,let our plantations be productive1 let fruit grow1 and may there be abundance of food for us1 your creatures4 ,here is ava for you1 our war-gods6 ,let there be a strong and numerous people for you in this land4 ,here is ava for you1 ,o sailing gods6 ,do not come on shore at this place2 but be pleased to depart along the ocean to some other land 7,n4 ,y41 p4 #bjj74 ,mr4 ,turner1 to whom ,i am indebted for the above prayer1 remarks that in ,tanna1 another of the ,polynesian islands1 the chief of a village repeats a short prayer at the evening meal1 asking health1 long life1 good crops1 and success in battle 7,ibid41 p4 #he74 ,the authors of the ,vedic hymns1 though standing on a far higher level of civilization1 do not differ essentially from these rude people in the character of the objects for which they pray4 ,the several deities are continually invoked to grant health1 wealth1 prosperity1 posterity1 and other temporal blessings4 ,thus 7to quote one instance among many7 in ,mandala #a1 ,skta #fd1 translated by ,max ,mller1 the ,maruts are requested to grant strength1 glorious1 invincible in battle1 brilliant1 wealth-conferring1 praiseworthy1 known to all men2 and again1 wealth1 durable1 rich in men1 defying all onslaughts2 wealth a hundred and a thousandfold1 always increasing 7,r4 ,v4 ,s41 i4 #fd1 #ad1 #ae1--,vol4 i4 p4 #ic74 ,the liturgies of the ,zend-,avesta1 while sometimes assuming a loftier strain1 frequently move upon the same level4 ,the same tone is to be observed in the ,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,solomon's prayer1 for instance1 at the dedication of the temple1 may be taken as an enumeration of the objects commonly prayed for among the ancient ,hebrews4 ,it specifies among the objects to be obtained at the hands of ,jehovah1 the prevention of famine1 of pestilence1 blasting1 mildew1 locust or caterpillar1 plague or sickness 7#a ,kings viii4 #cg74 ,christian liturgies contain the same universal elements1 though intermingled with many others1 and not in general put forward with the same crudity of language4 ,besides these general objects1 there are others of an ephemeral and special kind which are generally drawn within the sphere of prayer4 ,rain is a common object of prayer1 and other changes of weather are equally prayed for if they are held to be important4 ,callaway1 for example1 was informed by a very old man in ,south ,africa that if it does not rain1 the heads of villages and petty chiefs assemble and go to a black chief2 they converse and pray for rain 7,r4 ,s4 ,a41 vol4 i4 p4 #ei74 ,another native described the mode of supplication more particularly4 ,a certain chieftain named ,utshaka came and made his prayers greater than those who preceded him4 ,when he desired rain1 he sang the following song1 which consists of musical sounds merely1 without any meaning3-- ,one ,part--,i ya wu2 a wu2 o ye i ye4 ,second ,part or ,response--,i ya wo4 ,and this prayer1 so touching in its simplicity1 was as successful as the most elaborate composition of ,jewish prophet or ,christian bishop2 for the narrator states that ,utshaka ,sang a song and prayed to the ,lord of heaven2 and asked his forefathers to pray for rain to the ,lord of heaven4 ,and it rained 7,r4 ,s4 ,a41 vol4 i4 p4 #ib74 ,the efficacy of prayer is plainly independent of the creed of him who offers it4 ,the ,mexicans held an important annual festival in the month of ,may1 of which the main purpose was to entreat for water from the sky1 this being the season at which there was the greatest need of rain 7,h4 ,i41 b4 v4 ch4 #bh74 ,they used to address an elaborate prayer to a god named ,tlaloc1 the king of the terrestrial paradise1 to obtain deliverance from drought4 ,they entreated him not to visit the offenses they had committed with such severity as to continue the privation under which they were laboring4#a ,the ,tannese1 when put to much inconvenience by the dust falling from a certain volcano1 were in the habit of praying to their gods for a change of wind 7,n4 ,y41 p4 #ge74 ,certain other ,south ,sea ,islanders used to pray to their gods to avert the supposed calamity of a lunar eclipse4 ,as the eclipse passes off1 they think it is all owing to their prayers1 a mode of reasoning which presents an exact parallel to that employed by many ,christians4 ,sir ,john ,davis gives a very interesting specimen of a prayer for rain employed by ,taou-,kung1 the ,emperor of ,china1 in #ahcb1 on the occasion of a long drought in that country 7,chinese1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ge74 ,as may be expected from so civilized a people1 this prayer rises far above the outspoken begging of savage petitions1 yet it has in substance precisely the same end4 ,the emperor describes himself as scorched with grief1 and pathetically inquires whether he has been remiss in sacrifice1 has been proud or prodigal1 irreverent1 unjust1 or wanting in discretion in the exercise of patronage4 ,here we see the intrusion of the theological idea that calamities are sent as punishments for sin1 which plays no small part in ,christian theology2 but this only serves to veil1 without effacing1 the essential character of the prayer4 ,the very same notion1 that sin is visited by unfavorable weather1 is found in the prayer of ,solomon1 whose mind upon this question seems to have been in the same stage of thought as that attained by the ,chinese emperor4 ,when heaven is shut up1 and there is no rain1 because they have sinned against thee 7#a ,kings viii4 #ce71 is the language of ,solomon3 ,my sins are so numerous that it is hopeless to escape their consequences1 so runs the penitent confession of ,taou-,kung4 ,but whatever may be the cause to which the drought is attributed1 the prayer1 whether uttered by ,chinaman1 ,jew1 or ,christian1 is still simply the petition to the ,amazulu1 the ,south ,sea ,islander1 or the native ,american--a request that ,god will so influence the phenomena of the skies as to suit our convenience4 ,the notion that this object may sometimes be attained by our prayers is not extinct even among ourselves4 ,other special occasions are sometimes held to call for prayer4 ,such are national calamities2 as a pestilence among men or cattle1 the illness of some eminent person1 and other similar misfortunes4 ,a good harvest is very generally prayed for2 so is victory in time of war4 ,the ancient ,aryans1 who composed the ,vedic hymns one thousand years or more before ,christ1 continually prayed for this last blessing2 and we ourselves1 when engaged in warfare1 piously continue the same custom4 ,very frequently the notion of a bargain between the god and his worshiper appears in prayer4 ,the worshiper claims to have rendered some service for which the god ought in equity to reward him2 or he holds out the discontinuance of his former devotion as a motive to induce the concession of his desires4 ,the constant conjunction of praise with prayer is explicable on this principle of a reciprocity of benefits4 ,if the worshiper gains much from the god1 yet the god gains something from him1 being addressed in a strain of unbounded eulogy4 ,his power1 his greatness1 his goodness1 his excellences of all kinds are vaunted in glowing terms1 no doubt sincerely used by the worshiper1 but repeated and accumulated to satiety from an impression that they are pleasing to their object1 and may dispose him to beneficence4 ,titles thus bestowed upon their deities are aptly described by the ,amazulus as laud-giving names 7,r4 ,s4 ,a41 vol4 i4 p4 #gb1 and vol4 ii4 p4 #adi74 ,in the ,vedic hymns and in the ,psalms1 the deities spoken of are constantly addressed by such complimentary epithets4 ,one of the hymns to the ,maruts begins by announcing the poet's intention to praise their ancient greatness4 ,and at the conclusion1 after he has done so1 he says1 ,may this praise1 ,o ,maruts1 444 approach you 7asking7 for offspring to our body1 together with food4 ,may we find food1 and a camp with running water 7,r4 ,v4 ,s41 vol4 i4 pp4 #aig1 #bja74 ,the ,psalmists were never weary of exalting the extraordinary might and majesty of ,jehovah1 mingling petitions with panegyric2 and a large portion of the worship of ,christians consists in expressions of pious admiration at the extraordinary goodness of their ,god1 especially for his redemption of the world which he had himself condemned4 ,all these extravagant eulogies betray a latent impression that the ,deity is1 after all1 a very arbitrary personage1 and may be moved to more merciful conduct than he would otherwise pursue by large doses of flattery4 ,still more clearly does the idea of a commercial relationship with the gods make its appearance in a poet who stands on a higher intellectual and moral level than the writers of the ,hebrew ,psalms1 namely ,aischylos4 ,in the ,seven against ,thebes1 ,eteokles implores ,zeus1 the ,earth1 and the tutelar deities of the city to protect ,thebes2 and subjoins as a motive for compliance1 ,and ,i trust that what ,i say is our common interest2 for a prosperous city honors the gods 7,aisch4 ,sept4 c4 ,th4 #gf1 #gg--;,dindorf74 ,and there is a similar appeal to the divine selfishness further on in the same play1 where the chorus inquires of the gods what better plain they can expect to obtain in exchange for this one1 if they shall suffer it to pass into the enemy's hands 7,aisch41 ,sept4 c4 ,th4 #cjd74 ,in the ,choephor1 ,zeus is distinctly asked in the prayer of ,agamemnon's children whence he can expect to obtain the sacrifice and honors which have been paid him by ,orestes and ,electra if he should suffer them to perish 7,aisch41 ,choeph41 #bee74 ,while in the ,electra of ,sophocles the converse motive of gratitude is appealed to3 the god ,apollon being desired to remember not what he may get1 but what he already has got1 from the piety of his supplicant 7,soph4 ,el41 #acgf--,schneidewin74 ,and ,jacob1 who was a good hand at a bargain1 makes his terms with ,jehovah in a thoroughly business-like spirit4 ,if ,god will be with me1 and will keep me in this way that ,i go1 and will give me bread to eat and raiment to put on1 so that ,i come again to my father's house in peace2 then shall the ,lord be my ,god3 and this stone1 which ,i have set up for a pillar1 shall be ,god's house3 and of all that thou shalt give me ,i will surely give the tenth unto thee4 ,the adoption of ,jehovah as ,jacob's ,god being thus entirely dependent on the performance by that ,deity of his share in the contract 7,gen4 xxviii4 #bj-bb74 ,sometimes it is quaintly suggested that were the worshiper in the place of the god1 he would not neglect the interests of his devotee4 ,thus1 the author of a hymn in the ,rig-,veda-,sanhit1 addressing the ,gods of ,tempest1 exclaims3 ,if you1 sons of ,prisni1 were mortals1 and your worshiper an immortal1 then never should your praiser be unwelcome1 like a deer in pasture grass1 nor should he go on the path of ,yama 7,r4 ,v4 ,s41 vol4 i4 p4 #fe74 ,another unsophisticated poet gives the following hint to the god ,indra1 the ,hindu ,jupiter3 ,were ,i1 ,indra1 like thee1 the sole lord of wealth1 the singer of my praises should be rich in cattle 7,s4 ,v41 i4 #b4 i4 #c4 p4 #bah74 ,and the same god is asked elsewhere in the ,veda3 ,when wilt thou make us happy8 for it is just this that is desired 7,s4 ,v41 i4 #e4 i4 #c4 p4 #bcc74 ,with equal plainness is the expectation of a quid pro quo enunciated in one of the most ancient hymns1 contained in the sacred books of the ,parsees3--,every adoration1 ,o ,true ,one1 consists in actions whereby one may obtain good possessions1 full of security1 and happiness round about 7,f4 ,g4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ed4--,yama #ea4 i74 ,more emphatically still is this conception of a reciprocity of benefits expressed in another consecrated action1 that of ,sacrifice4 ,sacrifice holds a most important place in all religions4 ,it originates in a stage of the human mind which1 if not quite as primitive as that which gives rise to prayer1 is nevertheless so early as to be practicably inseparable from it4 ,wherever we find prayer1 we find sacrifice2 but as the latter is generally found organized under definite forms1 and confined to certain specified objects1 we may conclude that in the state in which we recognize it1 it implies a certain degree of regulation and forethought on the part of religious authorities which we do not meet with in the simplest types of prayer4 ,prayer is often the mere natural outpouring of our wants before a power which is considered capable of fulfilling them3 sacrifice1 though doubtless in the first instance an equally artless offering of gifts to beings who are regarded with veneration and gratitude1 is soon converted into a formal presentation of acknowledged dues1 performed under ecclesiastical supervision4 ,no doubt prayer also tends to assume this formal character2 but we have hitherto considered it in its uncorrupted aspect2 its treatment in its later developments belongs to another portion of this chapter4 ,the idea which presides over sacrifice is obvious4 ,the sacrificer argues that if he can make acceptable presents to the gods1 they will smile upon him and be disposed to promote his ends2 whereas if he keeps the whole of his possessions for worldly purposes1 they will regard him with indignation1 and refuse him their assistance when he may happen to stand in need of it4 ,there is also involved in sacrifice a sense of gratitude3 the gods having given us the fruits of the earth1 behooves us to make some acknowledgment of their bounty4 ,such notions1 once propounded1 were certain to be fertile4 ,every motive of piety and of interest would combine to support them4 ,the piety of the worshipers1 coupled with their hopes of advantage1 would be stimulated by the self-interest of the priests1 who generally share in the sacrifices offered4 ,if any piece of good fortune occurred to one who was devout and liberal in sacrificing1 it would be attributed to the satisfaction felt by the gods at his exemplary conduct4 ,if ill fortune befell those who had neglected to sacrifice1 this would be an equally manifest indication of their high displeasure4 ,as soon1 therefore1 as the step was taken--and it was one of the earliest in the religious history of man--of instituting sacrifices to idols or to deities1 the worshipers vied with one another in the liberality of their offerings4 ,adopted as a mode of propitiating the celestial beings by spontaneous gifts1 it became1 among all nations whose religious belief had arrived at a state of flexity and consolidation1 a positive duty2 much as monarchs have frequently exacted large and burdensome contributions under the guise of voluntary presents4 ,illustrations of this conception1 that sacrifice is a sort of payment for services rendered or to be rendered1 might be found abundantly in many quarters4 ,perhaps it is seldom more quaintly expressed than by the ,amazulus1 who1 when going to battle1 sacrifice to the ,amatongo1 or manes of their ancestors1 in order that these1 in their own language1 may have no cause of complaint1 because they have made amends to them1 and made them bright4 ,on reaching the enemy1 they say1 ,can it be1 since we have made amends to the ,amadhlozi1 that they will say we have wronged them by anything8 ,and when it comes to fighting1 they are filled with valor1 observing that the ,amatongo will turn their backs on us without cause 7,r4 ,s4 ,a41 vol4 ii4 p4 #acc74 ,the objects of sacrifice are very various1 but it is noticeable that they are almost invariably things held in esteem among men1 and either possessing a considerable value as commodities1 or capable by their properties of ministering to their pleasure4 ,all sacrifices of meat and corn or other edibles belong to the former class2 those of flowers to the latter1 for these1 though of little value in the market yet give great pleasure1 and are much esteemed4 ,an exception is indeed presented by the wild hordes in ,kamtschatka1 who1 according to ,steller1 offer nothing to their gods but what is valueless to themselves 7,kamtschatka1 p4 #bfe74 ,if this statement does not originate in a misunderstanding of the traveler1 the fact must be due to the singularly low religiosity of those people1 who seem to have little reverence for the very objects of their worship4 ,the most valuable sacrifice that can possibly be made--that of human beings--has always been common among savage or uncivilized nations4 ,thus1 in some of the ,south ,sea ,islands1 human sacrifices were fearfully common 7,n4 ,m4 ,e41 p4 #edg74 ,they prevailed among some of the negro tribes known to the missionary ,oldendorp 7,g4 d4 ,m41 p4 #cbi74 ,in ,mexico1 where the natives had arrived at a far higher condition1 human sacrifices still prevailed1 though the original brutality of the rite was modified by the fact of the victims being enemies4 ,indeed1 ,montezuma1 when at the height of his power1 expressly refused to conquer a certain province which he might easily have added to his dominions2 assigning as his first reason1 that he desired to keep the ,mexican youth in practice2 as his second and principal one1 that he might reserve a province for the supply of victims to sacrifice to the gods 7,h4 ,i41 b4 v4 ch4 #bj74 ,at the great ,mexican festival of the ,jubilee1 however1 it was not an enemy1 but a slave1 who was offered4 ,this slave had represented the idol during the period of a year1 and had received the greatest honor during his term of office1 at the end of which his head was severed from his body by the priest1 who then held it as high as he could1 and showed it to the ,sun and to the idol 7,h4 ,i41 b4 v4 ch4 #bh74 ,next in value to the human race are cattle1 and these too are frequently immolated in honor of the gods4 ,thus among the ,kafirs1 the animals offered are exclusively cattle and goats4 ,the largest ox in a herd is specially reserved for sacrifices on important occasions2 it is called the ,ox of the ,spirits1 and is never sold except in cases of extreme necessity 7,kafirs1 p4 #afe74 ,here we find it expressly stated that it is the best ox1 in other words1 the most valuable portion of the sacrificer's property1 which is devoted to the gods4 ,and the principle which leads in ,natal to this reservation of the best will be found predominating over sacrifice throughout the world4 ,the ,soosoos1 a people inhabiting the west coast of ,africa1 are so careful to propitiate their deity1 that they never undertake any affair of importance until they have sacrificed to him a bullock 7,n4 ,a41 vol4 i4 p4 #bcj74 ,other domestic and edible animals1 being of great importance to mankind1 are held worthy of the honor of sacrifice4 ,the same writer to whom ,i owe the last quotation tells us of the ,western ,africans1 that before they begin to sow their plantations1 they sacrifice a sheep1 goat1 fowl1 or fish to the ay-min1 to beg that their crop may abound2 for were this neglected1 they are persuaded that nothing would grow there 7,ibid41 vol4 i4 p4 #bbc74 ,oldendorp1 who was particularly familiar with the ,caribbean ,islands1 describes the sacrifices of the negroes as consisting of oxen1 cows1 sheep1 goats1 hens1 palm-oil1 brandy1 yams1 c4 7,g4 d4 ,m41 p4 #cbi74 ,besides porcelain collars1 tobacco1 maize1 and skins1 the ,american ,indians used to offer entire animals1 especially dogs1 on the borders of difficult or dangerous roads or rocks1 or by the side of rapids4 ,these offerings were made to the spirits who presided in these places4 ,the great value attached by the natives of ,america to the dog is well known1 and it is deserving of remark that the dog was the commonest victim1 and that at the war-festival1 which was a sort of sacrifice1 it was always dogs that were offered4 ,in ,china1 the animals slain are bullocks1 heifers1 sheep1 and pigs1 which are duly purified for a certain period beforehand 7,c4 ,o41 vol4 ii4 p4 #aib74 ,among the ,jews1 pigs1 whose flesh was regarded as impure1 were not offered2 bullocks1 goats1 and sheep were the chief sacrificial animals2 and extreme care was taken in their law that they should be entirely without blemish2 that is1 that1 like the ox of the ,kafirs1 they should be the best obtainable 7,lev4 xxii4 #ag-be74 ,this is a remarkable illustration of the tendency to offer only articles of value in human estimation to ,god2 for here that which would be good enough for men is treated as unfit for ,jehovah4 ,animals of lesser magnitude are sometimes offered2 as1 for instance1 the quails which the ,mexicans used to sacrifice 7,h4 ,i41 b4 v4 ch4 #ah74 ,birds are not unfrequently chosen as fitting objects to present to the gods4 ,among the ,ibos1 a negro tribe1 it is the custom for women1 six weeks after childbirth1 to present a pair of hens as an offering1 which1 however1 are not killed1 but liberated after certain ceremonies4 ,in like manner the ,hebrew woman after her delivery was enjoined to bring a lamb and a pigeon or turtle-dove2 or1 if she were unable to bring the lamb1 two young pigeons or two turtle-doves 7,lev4 xii4 #f-h74 ,in addition to animals1 a considerable variety of objects is sacrificed1 generally the fruits of the earth or flowers4 ,there is1 however1 no limit to the number of things which may be held suitable for presentation to the gods4 ,thus1 in ,samoa 7in ,polynesia71 the offerings were principally cooked food 7,n4 ,y4 p4 #bda74 ,in other ,islands the first fruits are presented to the gods 7,ibid41 p4 #cbg71 a practice which corresponds1 as the missionary who records it justly remarks1 to that of the ancient ,israelites4 ,the ,red ,indians used to offer to their spirits petun1 tobacco1 or birds4 ,in honor of the ,sun1 and even of subordinate spirits1 they would throw into the fire everything they were in the habit of using1 and which they acknowledged as received from them 7,n4 ,f41 vol4 iii4 pp4 #cdg1 #cdh74 ,acosta divides the sacrifices of the ,mexicans and ,peruvians into three classes3 the first1 of inanimate objects2 the second1 of animals2 the third1 of men4 ,in the first class are included cocoa1 maize1 colored feathers1 seashells1 gold and silver1 and fine linen 7,h4 ,i41 b4 v4 ch4 #ah74 ,among the sacrifices offered by the ,incas to the sun1 the most esteemed1 according to ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 were lambs1 then sheep1 then barren ewes4 ,besides these1 they sacrificed tame rabbits1 all edible birds 7remark the limitation71 and fat of beasts1 as well as all the grains and vegetables up to cocoa1 and the finest linen 7observe again the care that it should be fine7 7,c4 ,r41 b4 ii4 ch4 #h74 ,at a certain ,hindu festival described by ,wilson1 a goddess named ,varad ,chaturthi is worshipped with offerings of flowers1 of incense1 or of lights1 with platters of sugar and ginger1 or milk or salt1 with scarlet or saffron-tinted strings and golden bracelets 7,w4 ,w41 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ahd1 #ahe74 ,among the ,parsees the sacrifices consist of little loaves of bread1 and of ,haoma1 the sacred plant4 ,the ,indian ,parsees send from time to time to ,kirman to obtain ,haoma-branches from this holy territory 7,z4 ,a41 vol4 ii4 p4 #ece74 ,the ,parsees also offer flowers1 fruits1 rice1 odoriferous grains1 perfumes1 milk1 roots of certain trees1 and meat4 ,the ,jews1 like them1 offered the productions of the soil in sacrifice4 ,beauty1 and even utility1 when not accompanied by considerable value in exchange1 do not suffice to constitute fitness for religious sacrifice4 ,common plants and shrubs1 branches of trees1 wild birds or insects1 are some of them among the most beautiful productions of nature2 yet they are not sacrificed4 ,stones and wood are both useful1 but they are obtained1 as a rule1 at little cost2 and they are not sacrificed4 ,flowers1 which certainly have no high value1 were sometimes offered to idols in the form of wreaths and garlands3 they scarcely constitute an exception to the rule1 for they are prized as ornaments by men1 and the process of plucking and weaving them into appropriate shapes imposes trouble--the equivalent of cost--on the devotee4 ,it is plainly not owing to any accidental circumstance that highly valuable objects have been selected by all the nations of the earth as alone appropriate for religious sacrifice4 ,two reasons may be assigned for this selection4 ,in the first place1 the general assimilation of deities to mankind goes far to account for it4 ,everywhere1 and at all times--as we shall have occasion frequently to observe in this work--men have reasoned as to the divine nature from their knowledge of their own4 ,a noteworthy instance of this is to be seen in ,malachi1 who does not scruple to tell the ,jews that their ,god feels the same kind of offense at the poverty of their offerings as a human governor would do4 ,and if1 says that prophet1 ye offer the blind for sacrifice1 is it not evil8 and if ye offer the lame and sick1 is it not evil8 offer it now unto thy governor2 will he be pleased with thee1 or accept thy person8 saith the ,lord of hosts4 ,a few verses later he recurs to the sorrow felt by ,jehovah at such insults4 ,and ye bring that which is robbed1 and the lame1 and the sick2 thus ye bring an offering3 should ,i accept this of your hand8 saith the ,lord4 ,but cursed be the deceiver1 which hath in his flock a male1 and voweth and sacrificeth unto the ,lord a bad female4 ,it would be difficult to find the theory of ,god's resemblance to man expressed in a cruder form4 ,even as a governor will show the greatest favor to those who approach him with the costliest gifts1 so the mouthpiece of the ,hebrew deity declares in his name that he must have the pick of his servant's flocks--the males1 not the females1 the sound and the perfect1 not the sickly or the maimed4 ,in a precisely similar spirit1 it is enjoined in one of the sacred books of the ,buddhists that no spoilt victuals or drinks may be used in sacrifice 7,wassiljew1 p4 #baa74 ,men's notion of their god was often derived1 like ,malachi's1 not only from human nature1 but from those who were by no means the best specimens of human nature1--the rulers4 ,the religious emotion1 imbued with this conception of its deities1 shrank through a sense of piety from the irreverent1 and1 as it seemed1 sacrilegious act of presenting them with anything but the best4 ,but there was another reason which1 doubtless1 had its weight4 ,not only must the offering be of a kind acceptable to the god to whom it was given2 it must also impose some cost upon the worshiper4 ,religious sentiment imperatively required that there should be an actual sacrifice of something which the owner valued1 and the surrender of which imposed a burden upon him4 ,this seemed to be involved in the very notion of sacrifice4 ,its sense and purpose was1 that the devotee1 coming to his god1 and desiring to obtain some favor from him1 should show the high importance he attached to it by parting with some portion of his possessions4 ,and plainly this portion must be such as to indicate by its character the esteem and reverence felt by the worshiper for the being whom he worshiped4 ,to indicate this1 it must be something which he would unwillingly resign but for his religious feelings4 ,hence a special part of the fruits of the soil would be an appropriate offering4 ,it would involve a real diminution in the wealth of the worshiper1 a real surrender of something useful and valuable to mankind4 ,to these two reasons may be added a third1 which1 no doubt1 must have had its weight4 ,in many cases1 a portion of the sacrifices was the property of the priests4 ,as will be more fully shown hereafter1 the priesthood frequently contrived to transfer to themselves the piety which was felt towards the gods4 ,hence the sacrifices1 originally given to the divine beings1 were in part appropriated by their ministers2 and it was obviously of importance to them that the thing sacrificed should be such as they could profit by and enjoy4 ,it sometimes happens that the sacrifice1 or a portion of it1 is consumed either by the worshipers in general1 or by their priests4 ,a case of the former kind is mentioned by ,oldendorp4 ,when the young men among the ,tembus 7negroes7 are going to battle1 the old men offer sheep and hens to their god ,zioo for their success2 the blood and bowels they bestow upon ,zioo1 and the flesh they eat themselves 7,g4 d4 ,m41 p4 #ccj74 ,sometimes the thing sacrificed is itself regarded as an idol or god1 and is eaten religiously1 under a belief that it is a food of peculiar efficacy4 ,such is the case with the ,christian sacrament2 and such was the case1 too1 with the remarkable custom observed among the ,mexicans at the feast of ,vitziliputzli1 where an idol composed of corn and honey used to be solemnly consecrated1 and afterwards distributed to be eaten by the people1 who received it with extreme reverence1 awe1 and tears1 as the flesh and bones of the god himself 7,h4 ,i41 b4 v4 ch4 #bd74 ,it is an exception1 however1 when the laity partake in the consumption of the sacrifices2 they are generally reserved for the priests4 ,among the ,jews1 it was the privilege of the priests to eat certain portions of the animals brought for sacrifice2 and in like manner the ,parsee priest1 or ,zaota1 eats the bread and drinks the ,haoma 7,av41 vol4 ii4 p4 lxxii74 ,and it deserves especial mention1 that the ,haoma1 a plant of which the juice is thus drunk in certain rites both in the ,indian and the ,parsee religions1 is in both considered a god as well as a plant2 just as the wine of the ,christian sacrament is both the juice of the grape and the blood of the ,redeemer 7,av41 vol4 i4 p4 #h74 ,in the above cases1 food consecrated to the gods is eaten by men4 ,the converse practice1 that of bestowing a portion of the ordinary food of men upon the gods1 is also common4 ,the habit of the ancients of making libations is well known4 ,but the same practice has prevailed1 or prevails still1 in many distinct parts of the world4 ,a traveler who visited ,tartary in the thirteenth century states that it was the custom of the ,tartar chiefs of one thousand or one hundred men1 before they ate or drank anything1 to offer some of it to an idol which they always kept in the middle of their dwelling place 7,bergeron1 ,voyage de ,carpin1 art4 iii41 p4 #cj74 ,in ,samoa1 when a family feast was held in honor of the household gods1 a cup of their intoxicating ava draught was poured out as a drink-offering 7,n4 ,y41 p4 #bci74 ,among the ,soosoos1 on the west coast of ,africa1 a custom prevails which resembles the ancient practice of pouring out a libation3 they seldom or never drink spirits1 wine1 etc41 without spilling a little of it upon the ground1 and wetting the gree-gree or fetish hung round the neck3 at the same time they mutter a kind of short prayer 7,n4 ,a41 p4 #abc74 ,again1 in ,sierra ,leone1 when they want to render their devil propitious to any undertaking1 they generally provide liquor3 a very small libation is made to him1 and the rest they drink before his altar 7,s4 ,l41 p4 #ff74 ,while in ,thibet1 the execution by a ,lama is not required for the usual libations to the personal genii1 nor to those of the house1 the country1 etc41 in whose honor it is the custom to pour out upon the ground some drink or food1 and to fill one of the offering vessels ranged before their images before eating or drinking one's self 7,b4 ,t41 p4 #bdg74 ,great importance is in all religions attached to sacrifice4 ,it is universally supposed to conciliate1 to soften1 or to appease the deity in whose honor it is offered4 ,sometimes it is even conceived to have an actual material power of its own1 the spirits deriving a positive benefit from the food presented to them4 ,spiegel states that the subordinate genii in the ,parsee hierarchy of angels derive from the sacrifices strength and vigor to fulfil their duties 7,av41 vol4 ii4 p4 lxiii74 ,generally1 however1 the conception of the influence of sacrifice is less materialistic4 ,the ,amazulus naively express the general sentiment by saying1 that1 in prospect of a battle1 they sacrifice to their ancestors in order that they may have no cause of complaint4 ,much more mystical were the views entertained on this point by the ancient ,hindus1 among whom the theory of sacrifice was probably more highly elaborated than in any other nation4 ,of a certain sacrificial ceremony it is stated1 that the gods1 after having performed it1 gained the celestial world4 ,likewise a sacrificer1 after having done the same1 gains the celestial world 7,a4 ,b41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bb74 ,and it is added1 that the sacrificer who performs this rite succeeds in both worlds1 and obtains a firm footing in both worlds 7,a4 ,b41 vol4 ii4 p4 #be74 ,while to another rite the following promise is attached3 ,he who1 knowing this1 sacrifices according to this rite1 is born 7anew7 from the womb of ,agni and the offerings1 and participates in the nature of the ,rik1 ,yajus1 and ,sman1 the ,veda 7sacred knowledge71 the ,brahma 7sacred element71 and immortality1 and is absorbed in the deity 7,a4 ,b41 vol4 ii4 p4 #ea74 ,often it is the forgiveness of some offense that is sought to be obtained by pacifying the indignant deity with a gift4 ,in the ,jewish law a large portion of the sacrifices enjoined have this object4 ,they are termed sin-offerings or trespass-offerings4 ,the general idea which leads to sacrifice is in all religions the same4 ,respect is intended to be shown to the deity in whose honor the sacrifice is made by depriving ourselves of some valuable possession1 and bestowing it on him4 ,the pleasure supposed to be felt by ,god on receiving such presents is somewhat coarsely but emphatically expressed in the ,hebrew ,bible by the statement that when ,aaron had made a sacrifice in the wilderness there came a fire from the ,lord and consumed the meat which had been laid upon the altar 7,lev4 ix4 #bd74 ,christianity offers only an apparent exception to the rule of the universal predominance of this idea4 ,we do not1 indeed1 find among ,christians the periodical and stated offerings1 either of animals or of the products of the soil1 which exist elsewhere4 ,nevertheless1 the idea of sacrifice subsists among them in all its force4 ,indeed1 it is the fundamental conception of the ,christian religion itself1 in which the sacrifice of the founder upon the cross embodies all those notions which are held to legitimate the custom of sacrificing among heathen nations4 ,we have first the notion of an angry and exacting deity1 who can only be rendered placable towards mankind by the surrender to him of some valuable thing2 we have1 consequently1 the sacrifice of the most valuable thing that can possibly be offered1 namely1 the life of a human being2 we have1 lastly1 the belief that this sacrifice was accepted1 and that promises of mercy were in consequence held out to the human race4 ,by a peculiar exaltation of the idea1 the life thus given up is declared to be that of his own son--a conception by which the value of the sacrifice1 and consequently the advantages it is capable of procuring1 are indefinitely heightened4 ,thus the idea of sacrifice is carried to its extreme limits in the religion of ,christendom4 ,had it not been for the absolute necessity of some sacrifice being offered to ,god1 there would--according to the theory of the ,christian faith--have been absolutely no reason for the execution of ,christ4 ,he might have taught every doctrine associated with his name1 performed every miracle related in the ,gospels1 have drawn to himself every disciple named in them1 and yet have died1 like the ,buddha1 in the calm of a venerated and untroubled old age4 ,he was obliged to undergo this painful and melancholy death1 if we accept the general belief of ,christendom1 solely because ,god required a sacrifice1 and because without that sacrifice he could not forgive the offenses of mankind4 ,simple prayer and sacrifice are1 then1 the most primitive and most general methods by which man approaches those whom his nature impels him to worship4 ,but as these acts are repeated from time to time1 and as their frequent repetition is supposed to be highly agreeable to their objects1 it naturally happens that some particular mode of performing them comes to be preferred to others4 ,by and by1 the mode of worship usually adopted will become habitual2 and a habit once formed will be strengthened by every repetition of the acts in question4 ,not only will certain forms of prayer1 certain ways of sacrificing1 certain postures1 certain gestures1 and a certain order of proceeding become established as usual and regular1 but they will be regarded as the only appropriate and respectful forms1 every attempt to depart from them being treated as a sacrilegious innovation4 ,the form will be deemed no less essential than the substance4 ,hence ,ritual1 which we do not find in the most primitive religions1 but which is discovered in all of those that have advanced to a higher type4 ,even in the earliest ,vedic hymns--those of the ,rig-,veda-,sanhit--we perceive clear traces of an established ritual from the manner in which the sacrifices are spoken of as having been duly offered4 ,in the ,zend-,avesta1 elaborate ritualistic directions are given for certain specified purposes1 especially for that of purification after any defilement4 ,the oldest books of the ,jewish ,bible are in like manner full of instructions for the due observance of ritual4 ,both the ,buddhists1 who broke off from ,brahminism1 and the ,christians1 who made a schism from ,judaism1 established a ritual of their own2 and this ritual was soon regarded as no less sacred than that which they had abandoned4 ,everywhere1 when religion has passed out of its first unsettled condition1 we find a fixed ritual1 and its fixity is one of its most striking features4 ,dogmas1 in spite of the efforts of sacerdotal orders1 inevitably change4 ,if the words in which they are expressed remain unaltered1 yet the meaning attached to them continually varies4 ,but ritual does not change1 or changes only when some great convulsion uproots the settled institutions of the country4 ,from age to age the same forms and the same prayers remain1 sometimes long after their original meaning has been forgotten4 ,thus prayer1 ceasing to be spontaneous and irregular1 becomes formal1 ceremonial1 and regular4 ,and as there are many occasions besides sacrifice on which men desire to pray1 so there will be many besides this on which the craving for order1 and the readiness to believe that ,god is better pleased with one form of devotion than another1 will lead to the establishment of ritual4 ,rites may be performed daily1 weekly1 or at any other interval4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 they are still more frequent1 haunting the every-day life of the devotee1 and intruding upon his commonest actions4 ,thus the ,parsees are required to repeat certain prayers on rising1 before and after eating1 on going to bed1 on cutting their nails or their hair1 and on several other natural occasions1 besides praying to the sun three times a day 7,z4 ,a41 vol4 ii4 p4 #efd-efg74 ,the ,jews are encompassed with obligations which1 if less minute1 are of a like burdensome character4 ,a devout ,jew has to repeat a certain prayer on rising2 he has to wear garments of a particular kind1 and to wash and dress in a particular order 7,rel4 of ,jews1 p4 #a-h74 ,mussulmans are commanded to pray five times a day1 turning their faces towards ,mecca 7,sale1 prel4 discourse1 pp4 #gf1 #gg74 ,ritual1 however1 is not always of this purely personal nature1 but is generally performed by a congregation to whose needs it refers1 or by priests on their behalf4 ,and in this case1 again1 a longer or shorter interval may elapse between the recurrence of the rites4 ,in the ,mexican temples1 for instance1 the ministering priests were in the habit of performing a service before their idols four times a day 7,h4 ,i41 b4 v4 ch4 p4 #ad74 ,the perpetual exercise of the priests1 says ,acosta1 speaking of these temples1 is to offer incense to the idols4 ,the ritual of the ,catholic ,church1 like that of the ancient ,mexicans1 is repeated every day4 ,the morning and evening services of the ,church of ,england were framed with the same intention2 and the ,ritualistic clergy1 rightly conceiving the teaching of their ,church1 have introduced the practice of so employing them4 ,weekly or bi-monthly observances prevail among ,hindus1 ,singhalese1 ,jews1 and ,christians4 ,with the ,hindus1 the seventh lunar day1 both during the fortnight of the moon's waxing and during that of her waning1 is a festival1 the first seventh day in the month being peculiarly holy1 and observed with very special rites4 ,more than this1 the weekly period is known to them2 for1 according to ,wilson1 a sort of sanctity is1 or was1 attached even to ,sunday1 and fasting on it was considered obligatory or meritorious 7,w4 ,w41 vol4 ii4 p4 #aii74 ,in ,ceylon the people attend divine service twice a week1 on ,wednesdays and ,saturdays2 besides which1 there are in each month four days devoted to religious acts--the #hth1 #aeth1 #bc;d1 and #cjth 7,a4 ,i4 ,c41 pp4 #bbb1 #bbc2 ,h4 ,r4 ,c41 p4 #gf74 ,the ,jewish ritual differs on the ,sabbath-day from that used on week-days2 and such is the solemnity attached to this festival1 that a quasi-personality is attributed to the day itself1 which is exalted in the service for ,friday evening as the bride of ,god1 and which the congregation is invited to go in quest of1 and to meet 7,rel4 of ,jews1 p4 #abh74 ,a similar sanctity is considered by many ,christians to pertain to the ,sunday1 while all of them observe it as an important festival1 and mark it by peculiar rites4 ,friday1 too1 is regarded by the majority of ,christians as a day to be observed with distinctive rites1 of which fasting is the principal4 ,when the interval observed between the performance of certain rites exceeds some very short period--as a day or week--it is generally a year4 ,in this case1 the time1 whether it be a month1 a week1 a few days1 or any other period1 set apart for their performance assumes the character of a ,festival4 ,under the general term ,festival ,i include any annually recurrent season1 whether it be one of mourning or rejoicing1 of fasting or feasting1 which is consecrated by the observance of special ceremonies of a religious order4 ,in all religions above the lowest stage such festivals occur4 ,the time of their occurrence is generally marked out by the seasons of the year4 ,mid-winter1 or the season of sowing2 spring1 or the time when the seed is in the ground or beginning to spring up2 and autumn1 when the harvest has been gathered in1--are the most natural seasons for festivals2 and it is at these that they usually take place4 ,for instance1 ,oldendorp states that nearly all the ,guinea nations have an annual harvest-festival1 at which solemn thank-offerings are presented to the ,gods 7,g4 d4 ,m41 p4 #ccb74 ,in ,china1 this reference to the seasons is obvious4 ,at every new moon1 and the change of the season1 there are festivals4 ,of these1 the most imposing is the emperor's plowing the sacred field4 ,this takes place when the sun enters the fifteenth degree of ,aquarius4 ,but the precise day is determined by astrologers4 ,this is the winter festival1 or that of sowing4 ,the ,leih-chun1 at the commencement of the spring1 continues for ten days4 ,and in autumn the feast of harvest is celebrated with great merriment 7,c4 ,o41 vol4 ii4 p4 #aie-aii74 ,the ,parsees have numerous festivals1 which it would be tedious to enumerate in detail 7,z4 ,a41 vol4 ii4 p4 #egd-eha474 ,after the ,gahanbars1 which refer to creation1 the two principal ones are the ,no rouz and the ,meherdjan1 and of these ,anquetil du ,perron expressly states that the first originally corresponded to spring1 and the second to ,autumn 7,ibid41 vol4 ii4 p4 #fjc74 ,of the ,hindu festivals described by ,wilson1 by far the greatest are the ,pongol1 at the beginning of the year1 and the ,holi1 in the middle of ,march 7,w4 ,w41 vol4 ii4 p4 #aea74 ,compared with these1 the rest are insignificant2 and these plainly refer to the processes of nature4 ,that the great festivals of the ,jews had the same reference1 needs no proof2 for the passover took place in spring1 and the feast of ,pentecost1 as well as the feast of tabernacles1 after harvest4 ,our ,christmas and ,easter correspond to the ,pongol and ,holi of the ,hindus in point of time2 and even the observances usual at ,christmas have1 as ,wilson has pointed out1 much resemblance to those of the ,pongol4 ,there are in ,ceylon five annual festivals1 of which one1 occurring at the commencement of the year 7in ,april71 is marked by the singular circumstance that before ,new ,year's day every individual procures from an astrologer a writing1 fixing the fortunate hours of the approaching year on which to commence duties or ceremonies4 ,of the five festivals the most important was the ,paraherra1 which lasted from the new moon to the full moon in ,july1 and consisted mainly in a series of religious processions1 concluding with one in which the casket containing the ,dalada1 or tooth of ,buddha1 was borne upon an elephant4 ,the fifth festival1 called that of ,new ,rice1 was held at the commencement of the great harvest1 and was the occasion of offerings made with a view to good crops 7,e4 ,y41 vol4 i4 p4 #cad-cah74 ,the consecrated actions by which men seek to recommend themselves to their gods at these special seasons are very various4 ,it would be useless to attempt to enumerate them at length4 ,of the manner in which ,new ,year's day is observed among the ,chinese 7,c4 ,o41 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aid1 #aie71 the commencement of the year among ,hindus 7,w4 ,w41 vol4 ii4 p4 #aeh ff471 and ,christmas among ourselves1 it will be unnecessary to speak at all1 for there is little of a religious character in these festivals4 ,indeed1 ,new ,year's day in ,china seems to be a merely secular festival2 while the ,christmas season in ,european countries1 though varnished over with a religious gloss1 is in reality palpably one of popular rejoicing1 handed down from our pagan ancestors1 and placed in a legendary relation to the birth of ,christ4 ,the religious rites which may accompany this festival have therefore a secondary importance4 ,those observed at other times bear reference either to the frame of mind induced by the season1 or to the particular legend commemorated2 or they may be purely arbitrary and enjoined by ecclesiastical authority4 ,an example of the first kind is the ,jewish feast of tabernacles1 when the harvest had been gathered in1 and the ,jews were enjoined to carry boughs of trees and rejoice seven days 7,lev4 xxiii4 #dj74 ,examples of the second class are common4 ,legends are frequently related in order to account for festivals1 while sometimes festivals may be instituted in consequence of a legend4 ,thus1 the extraordinary story of the manifestation of ,siva as an interminable ,linga1 is told by the ,hindus to account for their worship of that organ on the twenty-seventh of ,february 7,w4 ,w41 vol4 ii4 p4 #baa74 ,in this case1 the rites have reference to the legend2 the setting up a ,linga in their houses1 consecrating1 and offering to it1 are ceremonies which refer to the event present in the minds of the worshipers2 but it is more natural to suppose that the existence of the rites led to the invention of the legend1 than that the legend induced the establishment of the rites4 ,the three essential observances1 says ,wilson1 are fasting during the whole ,tithi1 or lunar day1 and holding a vigil and worshiping the ,linga during the night2 but the ritual is loaded with a vast number of directions1 not only for the presentation of offerings of various kinds to the ,linga1 but for gesticulations to be employed1 and prayers to be addressed to various subordinate divinities connected with ,siva1 and to ,siva himself in a variety of forms 7,ibid41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bab74 ,at another of the ,hindu festivals1 the effigy of ,kama is burnt1 to commemorate the fact of that god having been reduced to ashes by flames from ,siva1 and having been subsequently restored to life at the intercession of ,siva's bride 7,w4 ,w41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bca74 ,in like manner the jesting of the ,greek woman at the ,thesmophoria was explained by reference to the laughter of ,demeter 7,bib41 i4 #e4 #a474 ,the ,jewish passover was eaten with rites which were symbolical of the state of the nation just before its escape from ,egypt1 the time to which their tradition assigned the original passover2 and the ritual in use among ,christians at ,easter bears reference to the story of ,christ's resurrection1 which in this case no doubt preceded the institution of the festival4 ,the third class of rites--those which are purely arbitrary or have a merely theological significance--are the most usual of all4 ,these1 as will be obvious at once1 may vary indefinitely4 ,fasting is one of the most usual of such observances4 ,it is practiced by the ,hindus at many of their festivals1 by ,mussulmans during the month of ,ramadan1 and by ,christians in ,lent4 ,bathing is also a common religious practice of the ,hindus at their festivals4 ,the use of holy water by ,catholics on entering their churches is a ceremony of a similar kind1 and no doubt having the same intention1 that of purification4 ,the ,jews were to sacrifice at all their festivals1 and on one of them to afflict their souls 7,lev4 xxiii4 #bg74 ,christians1 among whom there are very numerous festivals1 vary their ritual according to the character of the day4 ,one or two specimens of the rites observed on festival days will suffice as an illustration4 ,the ,peruvians1 in their pagan days1 used to have festivals every month3 the greatest of these was that of the ,trinity1 celebrated in ,december4 ,in this feast1 says ,acosta1 they sacrificed a great number of sheep and lambs1 and they burnt them with worked and odoriferous wood2 and some sheep carried gold and silver1 and they placed on them the three statues of the ,sun1 and the three of ,thunder2 father1 brother1 and son1 whom they said that the ,sun and ,thunder had4 ,in this feast they dedicated the ,inca children1 and placed the ,guacas1 or ensigns on them1 and the old men whipped them with slings1 and anointed their faces with blood1 all in token that they should be loyal knights of the ,inca4 ,no stranger might remain during this month and feast at ,cuzco1 and at the end all those from without entered2 and they gave them those pieces of maize with the blood of the sacrifice1 which they eat1 in token of confederation with the ,inca 7,h4 ,i41 b4 #e4 ch4 #bg74 ,equally curious are the rites prescribed by the ,catholic ,church for ,holy ,saturday4 ,they are much too long to be described in full1 but the following extract will convey a notion of their character3 ,at a proper hour the altars are covered over1 and the hours are said1 the candles being extinguished on the altar until the beginning of mass4 ,in the meanwhile1 fire is struck from a stone at the church-door1 and coals kindled with it4 ,the none being said1 the priest1 putting on his amice1 alb1 girdle1 stole1 and violet pluvial1 or without his capsula1 the attendants standing by him with the cross1 with the blessed water and incense1 before the gate of the church1 if convenient1 or in the porch of the church1 he blesses the new fire1 saying1 ,the ,lord be with you2 and the attendants reply1 ,and with thy spirit4 ,prayers follow4 ,then he blesses five grains of incense to be placed on the wax1 saying his prayer4 ,after the prayer1 incense is put in the censer1 and sprinkled with water4 ,meanwhile1 all the lights of the church are extinguished1 that they may be afterwards kindled from the blessed fire4 ,the candles are lighted with many ceremonies4 ,the incense having been previously blessed1 the deacon fixes five grains of the blessed incense on the wax in the form of a cross4 ,this wax is then lighted4 ,when the blessing of the wax taper is finished1 the prophets are read1 and the catechumens during the reading are prepared for baptism4#b ,these proceedings1 in which the notion of the sanctity of fire--a notion shared by ,roman ,catholics with ,parsees and others--is apparent1 are particularly interesting1 as showing the community of sentiment and of rites between the ,church of ,rome and her pagan predecessors4 ,in the instances hitherto given1 the consecrated actions have been performed by the whole body of believers for the benefit of all4 ,they are means by which their religious union among each other is strengthened1 as well as their relation to the deity they worship solemnly expressed4 ,but there is another class of consecrated actions which benefit1 not the congregation or sect at large1 but a particular individual for whose advantage they are performed4 ,there are certain moments in the life of the individual at which he seems peculiarly to need the protection of ,god4 ,were these moments suffered to pass unobserved in a single case1 it would appear as if he whose life had been thus untouched by religion stood outside the pale of the common faith1 unhallowed and unblessed4 ,and a total neglect of all these periods1 even among savages1 is1 if not altogether unknown1 at least so rare as to demand no special notice in a general analysis of religious systems4 ,with extraordinary unanimity1 those systems have pitched upon four epochs as demanding consecration by the observance of special rites4 ,two of them are thus consecrated wherever a definite religion exists at all4 ,the other two are generally consecrated1 though in their case exceptions more frequently occur4 ,the four moments1 or periods of life to which ,i refer1 are #a4 ,birth4 #b4 ,puberty4 #c4 ,matrimony4 #d4 ,death4 ,of these1 the first and fourth are never suffered to pass without religious observances1 or at least1 observances which1 by their solemnity and indispensable obligation1 approach to a religious character4 ,the second is usually marked by some kind of rite in the case of males2 in that of females it is often suffered to pass unobserved4 ,the third is always placed under a religious sanction1 except among savages of a very low order4 ,let us proceed to illustrate these propositions in the case of birth4 ,the ceremonies attendant upon this event need not take place immediately after it2 they may be deferred some days1 weeks1 or months2 they will still fall under the same category1 as designed to mark the child's entry into the world4 ,their form will naturally vary according to the state of civilization of the nation observing them2 but notwithstanding this there is a strange similarity among them4 ,in ,samoa1 for instance1 if the little stranger was a boy1 the umbilicus was cut on a club1 that he might grow up to be brave in war4 ,if of the other sex1 it was done on the board on which they beat out the bark of which they make their native cloth4 ,cloth-making is the work of women2 and their wish was1 that the little girl should grow up and prove useful to the family in her proper occupation 7,n4 ,y41 p4 #age74 ,i have added ,mr4 ,turner's observation to render the nature of this ceremony plainer4 ,it appears hardly religious2 yet when we consider the symbolical means by which the end is sought to be attained1 and that among savages so rude as those of ,polynesia religion would have no higher practical aims than to make the boys good warriors1 and the women industrious cloth-makers1 we may admit that even this elementary rite has in it something of a religious consecration4 ,when secular objects are attained by mystical ceremonials1 which have no direct tendency to produce the desired result1 we may generally conclude that religious belief is at the bottom of them4 ,in the present instance this conclusion is still further strengthened by the description given by the same author of a similar ceremony in another island of the ,polynesian group4 ,there1 when a boy is born1 a priest cuts the umbilicus on a particular stone from ,lifu1 that the youth may be stone-hearted in battle4 ,the priest1 too1 at the moment of the operation1 must have a vessel of water before him1 dyed black as ink1 that the boy when he grows up1 may be courageous to go anywhere to battle on a pitch-dark night1 and thus1 from his very birth1 the little fellow is consecrated to war 7,n4 ,y41 pp4 #dbc1 #dbd74 ,here the religious nature of the operation is explicitly proved by the presence of the priest1 the inevitable agent in such communications between ,god and man4 ,another missionary to the same race--the ,polynesian islanders--informs us that among these people mothers dedicated their offspring to various deities1 but principally to ,hiro1 the god of thieves1 and ,oro1 the god of war4 ,most parents1 however1 were anxious that their children should become brave and renowned warriors1 and with this end they dedicated them1 by means of ceremonies beginning before parturition1 and ending after it1 to the god ,oro4 ,the principal ceremony after birth consisted in the priest catching the spirit of the god1 by a peculiar process1 and imparting it to the child4 ,here again the presence of the priest1 and the formal dedication to a god--even though he be a god of questionable morality--render the religious element in the natal ceremonies of these very primitive savages abundantly plain 7,n4 ,m4 ,e41 p4 #edc74 ,baptism1 or washing at birth1 is a common process1 and is found in countries the most widely separated on the face of the earth1 and the most unconnected in religious genealogy4 ,asia1 ,america1 and ,europe alike present us with examples of this rite4 ,it seems to be a rude form of it which prevails in ,fantee in ,africa1 where the father1 on the eighth day after birth1 after thanking the gods for the birth of his child1 squirts some ardent spirits upon him from his mouth1 and then pronounces his name1 at the same time praying for his future welfare1 and that he may live to be old1 and become a stay and support to his family1 and if his namesake be living1 that he may prove worthy of the name he has received 7,asha1 p4 #bbf74 ,a rite of baptism at birth1 says ,brinton1 was of immemorial antiquity among the ,cherokees1 ,aztecs1 ,mayas1 and ,peruvians1 and this rite was connected with the imposing of a name1 done avowedly for the purpose of freeing from inherent sin1 believed to produce a spiritual regeneration1 nay1 in more than one instance1 called by an indigenous word signifying 'to be born again' 7,m4 ,n4 ,w41 p4 #abh74 ,mexico possessed elaborate rites to consecrate nativity4 ,when the ,mexican infant was four days old it was carried naked by the midwife into the court of the mother's house4 ,here it was bathed in a vessel prepared for the purpose1 and three boys1 who were engaged in eating a special food1 were desired by the midwife to pronounce its name aloud1 this name being prescribed to them by her4 ,the infant1 if a boy1 carried with it the symbol of its father's profession2 if a girl1 a spinning-wheel and distaff1 with a small basket and a handful of brooms1 to indicate its future occupation4 ,the umbilical cord was then offered with the symbols2 and in case of a male infant1 these objects were buried in the place where war was likely to occur2 in case of a female infant1 beneath the stone where meal was ground4#c ,the above statements rest on the authority of ,mendoza's collection4 ,a still more complete narrative of these baptismal ceremonies is given by ,bernardino de ,sahagun1 who records the terms of the prayers habitually employed by the officiating midwife4 ,their extreme interest to the study of comparative religion will justify me in extracting some of them1 the more so as they have never 7so far as ,i am aware7 been published in ,english4#d ,suppose that the infant to be baptized was a boy4 ,after the symbolical military apparatus had been prepared1 and all the relatives assembled in the court of the parents' house1 the midwife placed it with the head to the ,east1 and prayed for a blessing from the god ,quetzalcoatl and the goddess of the water1 ,chalchivitlycue4 ,she then gave it water to taste by moistening the fingers1 and spoke as follows3 ,take1 receive2 thou seest here that with which thou hast to live on earth1 that thou mayest grow and flourish3 this it is to which we owe the necessaries of life1 that we may live on earth3 receive it4 ,hereupon1 having touched its breast with the fingers dipped in water1 she continued3 ,omictomx6 ,o my child6 receive the water of the ,lord of the world1 which is our life1 and by which our body grows and flourishes3 it is to wash and to purify2 may this sky-blue and light-blue water enter thy body and there live4 ,may it destroy and separate from thee all the evil that was beginning in thee before the beginning of the world1 since all of us men are subject to its power1 for our mother is ,chalchivitlycue4 ,after this she washed the child's whole body with water1 and proceeded to request all things that might injure him to depart from him1 that now he may live again1 and be born again3 now a second time he is purified and cleansed1 and a second time our mother ,chalchivitlycue forms and begets him4 ,then lifting the child in both hands towards the sky1 she said3 ,o ,lord1 thou seest here thy child whom thou hast sent to this world of pain1 affliction1 and penitence3 give him1 ,o ,lord1 thy gifts and thy inspiration1 for thou art the great ,god1 and great is the goddess also4 ,after this she deposited the infant on the ground1 and then raising it a second time towards the sky1 implored the mother of heaven to endow it with her virtue4 ,next1 having again laid it down1 and a third time lifted it up1 she offered this prayer3 ,o ,lords1 the gods of heaven6 here is this child2 be pleased to inspire him with your grace and your spirit1 that he may live on earth4 ,after a final depositing she raised him a fourth time towards the sky1 and in a prayer1 addressed to the sun1 solemnly placed him under the protection of that deity4 ,taking the weapons she proceeded further to implore the sun on his behalf for military virtues3 ,grant him the gift that thou art wont to give thy soldiers1 that he may go full of joy to thy house1 where valiant soldiers who die in war rest and are happy4 ,while all this was going on1 a large torch of candlewood was kept burning2 and on conclusion of the prayers the midwife gave the infant some ancestral name4 ,let it be ,yautl 7which means valiant man73 then she addressed him thus3 ,yautl6 take thou the shield6 take the dart6 for those are thy recreation1 and the joys of the sun4 ,the completion of the religious office was signalized by the youths of the village coming in a body to the house and seizing the food prepared for them1 which they called the child's umbilicus4 ,as they went along with this food they shouted out a sort of military exhortation to the new-born boy1 and called upon the soldiers to come and eat the 7so-called7 umbilicus4 ,all being over1 the infant was carried back to the house1 preceded by the blazing torch4 ,much the same was the process of baptizing a girl1 except that the clothes and implements were suited to her sex4 ,in her case1 certain formularies were muttered by the midwife during the washing1 in a low1 inaudible tone1 to the several parts of her body3 thus she charged the hands not to steal1 the secret parts not to be carnal1 and so forth with each member as she washed it4 ,moreover1 a prayer to the cradle1 which seems in a manner to personify the universal mother earth1 was introduced in the baptism of females 7,c4 ,n4 ,e4 b4 #f1 chs4 #cg1 #ch74 ,if from heathen ,america we turn to ,asia1 we find that in the vast domain of the ,buddhist faith the birth of children is regularly the occasion of a ceremony at which the priest is present 7,r4 ,b4 vol4 i4 p4 #ehd17 and that in ,mongolia and ,thibet this ceremony assumes the special form of baptism4 ,candles burn1 and incense is offered on the domestic altar2 the priest reads the prescribed prayers1 dips the child three times1 and imposes on it a name 7,r4 ,b4 vol4 ii4 p4 #cbj74 ,a species of baptism prevails also among the ,parsees1 and was even enjoined by the ,parsee ,leviticus1 the ,vendidad4 ,this very ancient code required that the child's hands should be washed first1 and then its whole body 7,av4 vol4 ii4 p4 xix--,vendidad1 xvi4 #ah-bj74 ,the modern practice goes further4 ,before putting it to the breast1 the ,parsee mother sends to a ,mobed 7or priest71 to obtain some ,haoma juice2 she steeps some cotton in it1 and presses this into the child's mouth4 ,after this1 it must be washed three times in cow's urine1 and once in water1 the reason assigned being that it is impure4 ,if the washing be omitted1 it is the parents1 not the child1 who bear the sin 7,z4 ,a41 vol4 ii4 p4 #eea74 ,slightly different in form1 but altogether similar in essence1 is the rite administered by the ,christian ,church to its new-born members4 ,like those which have been just described1 it consists in baptism2 but it offers a more remarkable instance than any of them of the tenacity with which the human mind1 under the influence of religious belief1 insists upon the performance of some kind of ceremony immediately after1 or1 at the most1 at no great interval after birth4 ,christian baptism was not originally intended to be administered to unconscious infants1 but to persons in full possession of their faculties1 and responsible for their actions4 ,moreover1 it was performed1 as is well known1 not by merely sprinkling the forehead1 but by causing the candidate to descend naked into the water1 the priest joining him there1 and pouring the water over his head4 ,the catechumen could not receive baptism until after he understood something of the nature of the faith he was embracing1 and was prepared to assume its obligations4 ,a rite more totally unfitted for administration to infants could hardly have been found4 ,yet such was the need that was felt for a solemn recognition by religion of the entrance of the child into the world1 that this rite1 in course of time1 completely lost its original nature4 ,infancy took the place of maturity2 sprinkling of immersion4 ,but while the age and manner of baptism were altered1 the ritual remained under the influence of the primitive idea with which it had been instituted4 ,the obligations could no longer be undertaken by the persons baptized2 hence they must be undertaken for them4 ,thus was the ,christian ,church landed in the absurdity--unparalleled1 ,i believe1 in any other natal ceremony--of requiring the most solemn promises to be made1 not by those who were thereafter to fulfil them1 but by others in their name2 these others having no power to enforce their fulfillment1 and neither those actually assuming the engagement1 nor those on whose behalf it was assumed1 being morally responsible in case it should be broken4 ,yet this strange incongruity was forced upon the ,church by an imperious want of human nature itself2 and the insignificant sects who have adopted the baptism of adults have failed1 in their zeal for historical consistency1 to recognize a sentiment whose roots lie far deeper than the chronological foundation of ,christian rites1 and stretch far wider than the geographical boundaries of the ,christian faith4 ,the intention of all these forms of baptism--that of ,ashantee perhaps excepted--is identical4 ,water1 as the natural means of physical cleansing1 is the universal symbol of spiritual purification4 ,hence immersion1 or washing1 or sprinkling1 implies the deliverance of the infant from the stain of original sin4 ,the ,mexican and ,christian rituals are perfectly clear on this head4 ,in both1 the avowed intention is to wash away the sinful nature common to humanity2 in both the infant is declared to be born again by the agency of water4 ,another ceremony very frequently practised at the birth of children is circumcision4 ,the wide-spread existence of this rite is one of the most remarkable facts in comparative religious history4 ,we know from ,herodotus1 that it was practised by the ,colchians1 ,egyptians1 ,ethiopians1 and ,phnicians 7,herod41 ii4 #ajd74 ,it has been found in modern times1 not only in many parts of ,africa--to which it may have come from ,egypt--but in the ,south ,sea ,islands and on the ,american continent4 ,thus1 according to ,beecham1 there are some people1 among the ,gold ,coast ,africans1 who circumcise their children 7,asha1 p4 #bbe71 though what proportion these circumcisers bear to the rest of the population1 he does not inform us4 ,another traveler describes the mode of circumcising infants in the ,negro kingdom of ,fida or ,juda1 a country to which he believes that ,islamism has not penetrated 7,v4 ,g4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aei74 ,the operation is very simple1 and appears to be done without any religious ceremony2 but the natives1 when pressed as to the reason of the custom1 can only reply that their ancestors observed it--an answer which would properly apply to a rite of religious origin whose meaning has been forgotten4 ,acosta1 in his account of ,mexican baptism1 adds that a ceremony which in some sort imitated the circumcision of the ,jews1 was occasionally performed by the ,mexicans in their baptism1 principally on the children of kings and noblemen4 ,it consisted in cutting the ears and private members of male infants 7,h4 ,i41 b4 #e1 ch4 #bf ,no4 #b74 ,that the ,jews circumcise their male children on the eighth day ,i need not state4 ,the rite is performed with much solemnity1 and is connected1 as is common in these ceremonies1 with the bestowal of a name on the child1 the name being given by the father after the operation is over4 ,although circumcision is a ceremony which usually applies only to boys1 and although it sometimes happens that the birth of girls is not marked like that of boys by any religious rite1 yet the ,jews do not omit to consecrate their female children as well as those of the stronger sex1 though with less solemnity4 ,the first ,saturday after the end of the month of the mother's lying-in1 she goes to the synagogue with her friends1 where the father of the girl is called up to the law on the altar1 and there after a chapter hath been read to him as usual on the ,sabbath morning1 he orders the reader to say a ,mee-,shabeyrach1 or a prayer for a blessing 7,rel4 of ,jews1 p4 #bg #ast part74 ,it is unnecessary1 after these instances1 to describe the various modes of consecrating the commencement of life which are in use in other countries4 ,enough has been said to show how general1 if not how universal1 such consecrating usages are2 how religion1 supported by the sentiment of mankind1 seizes upon the life of the individual from the first moments of his existence2 and demands1 as one of the very earliest actions to be performed on his behalf1 a solemn recognition of the fact that he stands under the influence1 and needs the protection1 of an invisible and superhuman power4 ,after birth1 the next marked epoch in life is the arrival at manhood or at womanhood4 ,the transition from infancy to maturity1 from dependence on others to self-dependence1 from an unsexual to a sexual physical and mental condition1 has1 like the actual entrance upon life and departure from it1 been appropriated by religion with a view to its consecration by fitting rites4 ,since there is no precise time at which the boy can be said to become a youth1 or the girl a maiden1 the age at which the ceremonies attending puberty are performed varies very considerably in different countries4 ,the range of variation is from eight to sixteen1 though there are exceptional cases both of earlier and later initiation into the new stage of existence4 ,generally speaking1 however1 these ages are the limits within which the religious solemnities of puberty are confined4 ,more clearly1 perhaps1 than any of those occurring at the other crises of our lives1 these solemnities are pervaded by common characteristics4 ,primitive man in ,australia1 in ,america1 and in ,africa1 marks the advent of puberty in a manner which is essentially the same4 ,when we rise to the higher class of religions1 we find ceremonies of a different kind from which the ruder symbolism of the savage creeds is absent4 ,but from the uniformity of the types of initiation into manhood among uncivilized people1 it is highly probable that the progenitors of the ,aryan and ,semitic races also1 at some period of their history1 employed similar methods of rendering this epoch in life impressive and remarkable4 ,two distinguishing features characterize the rites of puberty--cruelty and mystery4 ,there is always some painful ordeal to be undergone by the young men or boys who have attained the requisite age2 and this ordeal is to be passed through in extreme secrecy as regards the opposite sex1 and with a ceremonial of an unknown character1 which is hidden from all but the initiated performers4 ,sometimes the puberty of women is also sanctified by religious ceremonies1 and these follow the same rules1 except that the female sex are not required to undergo such severe suffering as is often inflicted upon men4 ,while1 however1 the cruelty is less1 the mystery is the same4 ,men are not admitted to witness the performances gone through1 and these are conducted in secluded places to which no access is allowed4 ,the meaning of these two features of the rites of puberty is not difficult to divine4 ,young men enter at that age on a period of their lives in which they are expected to display courage in danger and firmness under pain4 ,hence the infliction of some kind of suffering is an appropriate symbolical preparation for their future careers4 ,moreover1 the manner in which they endure their agony serves as a test of their fortitude1 and may influence the position to be assigned to them in the warlike expeditions of the tribe4 ,but the primary motive1 no doubt1 is the apparent fitness of the infliction of pain at an age when the necessary pains of manhood are about to begin4 ,the explanation of the secrecy observed is equally simple4 ,a mysterious change takes place in the physical condition at puberty1 the generative functions1 which are to play so large a part in the life of the individual1 making their appearance then4 ,it is this natural process to which the religious process bears reference4 ,without doubt the rites performed stand in symbolical relation to the new class of actions of which their subject is1 or will be1 capable4 ,it is this allusion to the sexual instinct--a subject always tending to be shrouded in mystery--which is the origin of the jealous exclusion of women from the rites undergone by men1 and of men from those undergone by women4 ,the members of each sex are1 so to speak1 prepared alone for the pleasures they are afterwards to enjoy together4 ,religion1 ever ready to seize on the more solemn moments of our existence1 seeks to consecrate the time at which the two sexes are ready to enter towards one another on a new and deeply important relationship4 ,bearing these characteristics in mind1 we may proceed to notice a few of the ceremonies performed at puberty4 ,let us begin with the most barbarous of all1 those witnessed by ,mr4 ,catlin among the ,mandans1 a tribe of ,north ,american ,indians now happily extinct4 ,the usual secrecy was observed about the ,o-kee-pa1 as this great ,mandan ceremony is termed1 and it was only by a favor1 never before accorded to a stranger1 that ,mr4 ,catlin was enabled to be present in the ,medicine ,lodge1 where the operations were conducted4 ,in the first place a mysterious personage1 supposed to represent a white man1 appeared from the west and opened the lodge4 ,at his approach all women and children were ordered to retire within their wigwams4 ,next day the young men who had arrived at maturity during the last year were summoned to come forth1 the rest of the villagers remaining shut up4 ,after committing the conduct of the ceremonies to a medicine man1 this personage returned to the west with the same mystery with which he had come4 ,the young men were now kept without food1 drink1 or sleep1 for four days and four nights4 ,in the middle of the fourth day two men began to operate upon them1 the one making incisions with a knife in their flesh1 and the other passing splints through the wounds1 from which the blood trickled over their naked1 but painted bodies4 ,the parts through which the knife was passed were on each arm1 above and below the elbow2 on each leg1 above and below the knee2 on each breast1 and each shoulder4 ,the young men not only did not wince1 but smiled at their civilized observer during this process4 ,when these incisions were all made1 and the splints passed through1 a cord of raw hide was lowered down through the top of the wigwam1 and fastened to the splints on the breasts or shoulders1 by which the young man was to be raised up and suspended1 by men placed on the top of the lodge for the purpose4 ,these cords having been attached to the splints on the breast or the shoulders1 each one had his shield hung to some one of the splints3 his medicine bag was held in his left hand1 and a dried buffalo skull was attached to the splint of each lower leg and each lower arm1 that its weight might prevent him from struggling4 ,at a signal1 the men were drawn up three or four feet above the ground1 and turned round with gradually increasing velocity1 by a man with a pole1 until they fainted4 ,although they had never groaned before1 they uttered a heart-rending cry1 a sort of prayer to the ,great ,spirit1 during the turning4 ,having ceased to cry1 they were let down apparently dead4 ,left entirely to themselves1 they in time were able partly to rise1 and no sooner could they do thus much than they moved to another part of the lodge1 where the little finger of the left hand was cut off with a hatchet4 ,but their tortures were not over4 ,the rest of them took place in public1 and were perhaps more frightful than any4 ,the victims were taken out of the lodge1 and1 being each placed between two athletic men1 were dragged along1 the men holding them with thongs and running with them as fast as they could1 until all the buffalo skulls and weights hanging to the splints were left behind4 ,these weights must be dragged out through the flesh1 the candidates having the option of running in the race described1 or of wandering about the prairies without food until suppuration took place1 and the weights came off by decay of the flesh4 ,these horrors concluded1 the young men were left alone to recover as best they might4 ,mr4 ,catlin could only hear of one who had died in the extreme part of this ceremony1 and his fate was considered rather a happy one3 the ,great ,spirit had so willed it for some especial purpose1 and no doubt for the young man's benefit 7,o-kee-pa1 p4 #i-cb74 ,nor were the ,mandans alone on the ,american continent in marking the entrance upon manhood by distinctive observances4 ,on the contrary1 a writer of the highest authority on ,red ,indian subjects1 states that no young man among the native tribes was considered fit to begin the career of life until he had accomplished his great fast4 ,seven days were considered the maximum time during which a young man could fast1 and the success of the devotee was inferred from the length of his abstinence4 ,these fasts1 says ,mr4 ,schoolcraft1 are awaited with interest1 prepared for with solemnity1 and endured with a self-devotion bordering on the heroic4444 ,it is at this period that the young men and young women 'see visions and dream dreams1' and fortune or misfortune is predicted from the guardian spirit chosen during this1 to them1 religious ordeal4 ,the hallucinations of the mind are taken for divine inspiration4 ,the effect is deeply felt and strongly impressed on the mind2 too deeply1 indeed1 ever to be obliterated in after life4 ,it appears that they always in after life trust to1 and meditate on1 the guardian spirit whom they have chosen at this critical moment2 but that the name is never uttered1 and every circumstance connected with its selection1 and the devotion paid to it1 are most studiously and professedly concealed1 even from their nearest friends 7,a4 ,r41 vol4 i4 pp4 #adi1 #aej74 ,mystery is certainly pushed to its highest point1 when the name of the spirit chosen at puberty1 and the very circumstances of the choice1 are preserved as an inviolable secret within the breast of the devotee4 ,new ,south ,wales is distinguished by a ceremony which1 though far less severe than that of the ,mandans1 is nevertheless sufficiently painful4 ,between the ages of eight and sixteen the males and females undergo the operation which they term ,gnanoong2 viz41 that of having the septum of the nose bored to receive a bone or reed4444 ,between the same years1 also1 the males receive the qualifications which are given to them by losing one front tooth4 ,the loss of a tooth is not in itself a very serious matter1 but the intention of the extraction being religious1 the natives contrive to get rid of it in the most barbarous mode4 ,the final event is led up to by a series of performances of a more or less emblematic nature4 ,one of them1 for instance1 is supposed to give power over the dog2 another refers to the hunting of the kangaroo4 ,there is the usual mystery about some part of the proceedings4 ,when the boys were being arranged for the removal of the tooth the author ,collins was not permitted to witness this part of the business1 about which they appeared to observe a greater degree of mystery and preparation than he had noticed in either of the preceding ceremonies4 ,after this1 some of the performers in the rite went through a number of extraordinary motions1 and made strange noises4 ,a particular name1 boo-roo-moo-roong1 was given to this scene2 but of its import very little could be learned4 ,to the inquiries made respecting it no answer could be obtained1 but that it was very good2 that the boys would now become brave men2 that they would see well and fight well4 ,when the tooth was to be taken out1 the gum was first prepared by a sharply-pointed bone2 and a throwing-stick1 cut for the purpose with much ceremony1 was then applied to the tooth1 and knocked against it by means of a stone in the hand of the operator4 ,the tooth was thus struck out of the gum1 the operation taking ten minutes in the case of the first boy on whom the author witnessed this process being performed4 ,after the tooth was gone1 the gum was closed by his friends1 who now equipped him in the style that he was to appear in for some days4 ,a girdle was tied round his waist1 in which was stuck a wooden sword2 a ligature was bound round his head1 in which were stuck slips of the grass-gum tree4 ,the boy was on no account to speak1 and for that day he was not to eat4 ,the sufferers in this ceremonial did not long remain quiescent4 ,in the evening they had fresh duties to discharge4 ,suddenly1 on a signal being given1 they all started up1 and rushed into the town1 driving before them men1 women1 and children1 who were glad to get out of their way4 ,they were now received into the class of men2 were privileged to wield the sword and the club1 and to oppose their persons in combat2 and might now seize such females as they chose for wives4 ,the sexual import of the ceremony is clearly brought into view by the last words of the writer4 ,he adds that1 having expressed a wish to possess some of the teeth1 they were given him by two men with extreme secrecy1 and injunctions not to betray them 7,n4 ,s4 ,w41 p4 #cfd-cgd74 ,another observer has described the same rite as performed in a somewhat different manner1 by the tribes of the ,macquarrie district farther north4 ,when these tribes assemble to celebrate the mysteries of ,kebarrah1 as it is termed1 all hostility which may exist at the time is laid aside for the nonce4 ,when the cooi or cowack sounds the note of preparation1 the women and children in haste make their way towards the ravines and gulleys1 and there remain concealed4 ,the dentistry of these tribes is less scientific than that of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,the tooth is knocked out by boring a hole in a tree1 and inserting into it a small hard twig2 the tooth is then brought into contact with the end1 and one individual holds the candidate's head in a firm position against it1 whilst another1 exerting all his strength1 pushes the boy's head forwards2 the concussion causes the tooth1 with frequently a portion of the gum adhering to it1 to fall out4 ,but this is not all the poor boy has to endure1 for while some men stand over him1 brandishing their waddies1 menacing him with instant death if he utters any complaint1 others cut his back in stripes1 and make incisions on his shoulders with flints4 ,it is an interesting part of these ceremonies1 that the least groan or indication of pain is summarily punished by the utterance1 on the part of the operators1 of three yells to proclaim the fact1 and by the transfer of the boy to the care of the women1 who are summoned to receive him4 ,if he does not shrink1 he is admitted to the rank of a huntsman and a warrior 7,s4 ,l4 ,a41 vol4 ii4 p4 #baf-bbd74 ,in other parts of ,australia1 different ceremonies prevail4 ,thus1 in one of the districts visited by ,mr4 ,angas1 when boys arrive at the age of fourteen or sixteen1 they are selected and caught by stealth1 and the hairs of their body are plucked out1 and green gum-bushes are placed under the arm-pits and over the os pubis4 ,among the privileges conferred on those who have undergone this treatment1 is that of wearing two kangaroo teeth1 and a bunch of emu feathers in their hair4 ,more significant still is the permission to possess themselves of wives1 which the young men now obtain4 ,the scrub-natives vary the initiation again4 ,among them the boy1 brought by an old man1 is laid upon his back in the midst of five fires which are lighted around him4 ,an instrument1 called a wittoo wittoo1 is whirled round over the fires1 with the intention of keeping off evil spirits4 ,lastly1 with a sharp flint1 the old man cuts off the foreskin1 and places it on the third finger of the boy's left hand1 who then gets up1 and with another native1 selected for the purpose1 goes away into the hills to avoid the sight of women for some time4 ,no women are allowed to be present at this rite 7,s4 ,l4 ,a41 vol4 i4 pp4 #ih1 #ii74 ,elsewhere on the same continent1 there are three stages to be passed on the road from boyhood to manhood4 ,at the age of twelve or fifteen the boys are removed to a place apart from the women1 whom they are not permitted to see1 and then blindfolded4 ,among some other ceremonies their faces are blackened1 and they are told to whisper1 an injunction peculiarly characteristic of the mysteriousness which is so constant a feature of the rites of puberty4 ,for several months this whispering continues1 and it is noteworthy1 as a sign of the sexual nature of these proceedings1 that the place where the whispers have been is carefully avoided by the women and children4 ,in the second ceremony1 which occurs two or three years later1 the glans penis is slit open underneath1 from the extremity to the scrotum1 and circumcision is also performed4 ,after this second stage1 the ,partnapas1 as the youths are now styled1 are permitted to take a wife4 ,in the third ceremony each man has a sponsor1 by whom he is tatooed with a sharp quartz4 ,these sponsors1 moreover1 bestow on each lad a new name1 which he retains during the remainder of his life4 ,certain other performances are gone through1 such as putting an instrument termed a witarna round the lads' necks1 and then the ceremony concludes by the men all clustering round the initiated ones1 enjoining them again to whisper for some months1 and bestowing upon them their advice as regards hunting1 fighting1 and contempt of pain4 ,all these ceremonies are carefully kept from the sight of the women and the children2 who1 when they hear the sound of the witarna1 hide their heads and exhibit every outward sign of terror 7,s4 ,l4 ,a41 vol4 i4 p4 #aac-aaf74 ,leaving ,australia1 let us pass to ,africa1 and call ,mr4 ,reade as a witness to some of the rites of puberty existing among the savages of that continent4 ,the following extract is doubly interesting1 as furnishing some account of the application to girls of the general principles involved in these rites1 and also as supplying1 in the author's opinion1 that they are of a ,phallic nature1 a confirmation of the conclusions we had reached from a survey of the evidence as a whole3 ,before they are permitted to wear clothes1 marry1 and rank in society as men and women1 the young have to be initiated into certain mysteries4 ,i received some information upon this head from ,mongilomba1 after he had made me promise that ,i would not put it into a book3 a promise which ,i am compelled to break by the stern duties of my vocation4 ,he told me that he was taken into a fetich-house1 stripped1 severely flogged1 and plastered with goat-dung2 this ceremony1 like those of ,masonry1 being conducted to the sound of music4 ,afterwards there came from behind a kind of screen or shrine uncouth and terrible sounds such as he had never heard before4 ,these1 he was told1 emanated from a spirit called ,ukuk4 ,he afterwards brought to me the instrument with which the fetich-man makes this noise4 ,it is a kind of whistle made of hollowed mangrove wood1 about two inches in length1 and covered at one end with a scrap of bat's wing4 ,for a period of five days after initiation the novice wears an apron of dry palm leaves1 which ,i have frequently seen4 ,the initiation of the girls is performed by elderly females who call themselves ,ngembi4 ,they go into the forest1 clear a place1 sweep the ground carefully1 come back to the town1 and build a sacred hut which no male may enter4 ,they return to the clearing in the forest1 taking with them the ,igonji1 or novice4 ,it is necessary that she should have never been to that place before1 and that she fast during the whole of the ceremony1 which lasts three days4 ,all this time a fire is kept burning in the wood4 ,from morning to night1 and from night to morning1 a ,ngembi sits beside it and feeds it1 singing1 with a cracked voice1 ,the fire will never die out6 ,the third night is passed in the sacred hut2 the ,igonji is rubbed with black1 red1 and white paints1 and as the men beat drums outside1 she cries1 ,okanda1 yo6 yo6 yo6 which reminds one of the ,evohe6 of the ancient ,bacchantes4 ,the ceremonies which are performed in the hut and in the wood are kept secret from the men1 and ,i can say but little of them4 ,mongilomba had evidently been playing the spy1 but was very reserved upon the subject4 ,should it be known1 he said1 that he had told me what he had missing1 the women would drag him into a fetich-house1 and would flog him1 perhaps till he was dead4 ,it is pretty certain1 however1 that these rites1 like those of the ,bona ,dea1 are essentially of a ,phallic nature2 for ,mongilomba once confessed1 that having peeped through the chinks of the hut1 he saw a ceremony like that which is described in ,petronius ,arbiter4444 ,during the novitiate which succeeds initiation1 the girls are taught religious dances--the men are instructed in science of fetich 7,s4 ,a41 p4 #bde-bdg74 ,the ,suzees and the ,mandingoes1 tribes of ,western ,africa1 are distinguished by a rite which1 so far as ,i know1 is peculiar--the circumcision of women4 ,both sexes1 indeed1 are circumcised on reaching puberty1 and in the case of the girls it is done by cutting off the exterior part of the clitoris4 ,with a view to this ceremony1 the girls of each town who are judged marriageable are collected together1 and in the night preceding the day on which the ceremony takes place1 are conducted by the women of the village into the inmost recesses of a wood4 ,surrounded by charms to guard every approach to the consecrated spot1 they are kept here in entire seclusion for a month and a day1 visited only by the old woman who performs the operation4 ,during this close confinement they are instructed in the religion of their country1 which hitherto they have not been thought fit to learn4 ,a most singular scene is enacted at its close4 ,they return to their homes by night1 where they are received by all the women of the village1 young and old1 quite naked4 ,in this condition they go about till morning1 with music playing2 and should any man be indiscreet enough to imitate ,peeping ,tom1 he is punished by death or the forfeiture of a slave4 ,after another month of parading and marching in procession 7no longer nude7 the women are given to their destined husbands2--another plain indication of the nature of these rites4 ,in such veneration is this ceremony held among the women of the country1 that those who have come from other parts1 and are already in years1 frequently submit to it to avoid the reproaches to which uncircumcision exposes them4 ,indeed1 the most vilifying term they can possibly use is applied by the circumcised female population to those who do not enjoy their religious privileges 7,s4 ,l41 p4 #gj-hc74 ,puberty is recognized in much the same way among the ,south ,sea ,islanders4 ,thus1 in ,tanna circumcision is regularly practised about the seventh year 7,n4 ,y41 p4 #hg74 ,in ,samoa a modified form of circumcision prevailed1 which boys of their own accord1 would get performed upon themselves about the eighth or tenth year 7,ib41 p4 #agg74 ,it may be a faint beginning of the religious ceremonies of this period of life that1 in the same island1 when girls are entering into womanhood1 their parents invite all the unmarried women of the settlement to a feast1 at which presents are distributed among them4 ,at least it is worthy of remark that none but females are present on these occasions 7,ib41 p4 #ahd74 ,when we rise higher in the scale of culture1 we no longer find the painful rites by which savage nations mark the appearance of the sexual instinct4 ,the sacred ceremony of investiture with the thread1 which distinguished the twice-born classes among the ,hindus1 was performed at this age4 ,the code of ,manu is explicit on the subject4 ,in the eighth year from the conception of a ,brahman1 in the eleventh from that of ,kshatriya1 and in the twelfth from that of a ,vaisya1 let the father invest the child with the mark of his class4 ,in the case of children who desire to advance more rapidly than usual in their vocation1 the investiture may be made in the fifth1 sixth1 or eighth years respectively4 ,the ceremony of investiture hallowed by the gayatri must not be delayed1 in the case of a priest1 beyond the sixteenth year2 nor in that of a soldier beyond the twenty-second2 nor in that of a merchant beyond the twenty-fourth4 ,further postponement would render those who were guilty of it outcasts1 impure1 and unfit to associate with ,brahmans 7,manu1 ii4 #cf-dj74 ,members of the kindred ,parsee religion become responsible human beings after they have been girt with the kosti1 or sacred girdle4 ,the age at which this took place was formerly fifteen2 and after they had once put them on1 the ,parsees might not remove their girdles1 except in bed1 without incurring serious guilt4 ,this regulation applied equally to both sexes4 ,modern usage has advanced the investiture with the kosti to a much earlier period4 ,it takes place in ,india at seven1 and in ,kirman at nine4 ,in ,india1 the child is held responsible in the eighth or tenth year for one half of its sins1 the parents bearing the burden of the other half 7,av41 vol4 i4 p4 #i2 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ba1 #bb74 ,the young ,jew is looked upon as a man at the age of thirteen1 and is then bound to observe all the commandments of the law4 ,at this age he becomes ,bar-mizva1 or a son of the law2 that is1 he enters on his spiritual majority 7,picard1 vol4 i4 ch4 x4 p4 #hb74 ,christian nations signalize the advent of the corresponding epoch by admitting those who attain it to the ,sacrament of the ,lord's supper1 and to confirmation4 ,at puberty they are considered1 like the young ,parsees1 responsible for the sins which at their birth their sponsors took upon themselves1 and at puberty they are admitted1 like the ,jews1 to the full privileges of their faith1 by being allowed to partake in the mystic benefits conferred by the celebration of the death of ,christ in the ,holy ,communion4 ,after puberty the two sexes enter on a new relation towards one another2 and though the instinct by which this relation is established is extremely apt to break loose from the control of religion1 yet the latter always attempts more or less energetically to bring it within its grasp4 ,this it does by confining the irregular indulgences to which the sexual passion is prone within the legalized forms of matrimony4 ,to matrimony1 and matrimony alone1 it gives its sanction2 and accordingly it confers a peculiar sacredness upon this form of cohabitation1 by the performance of ceremonies at its outset4 ,such ceremonies are not indeed equally universal with those of birth and puberty4 ,among savage and slightly civilized communities we do not find them4 ,but in all the great religions of the world they are firmly established4 ,little of a distinctively religious character is perceptible in ,major ,forbes's account of marriage rites in the island of ,ceylon4 ,yet it is plain that ,singhalese marriages do stand under a religious sanction1 for in the first place an astrologer must examine the horoscopes of the two parties1 to discover whether they correspond1 and then the same functionary is called upon to name an auspicious time for the wedding4 ,on the day of its occurrence a feast is given at the bride's house1 and on the astrologer notifying that the appointed moment is approaching1 a half-ripe cocoa-nut1 previously placed near the board with some mystical ceremonies1 is cloven in two at one blow 7,e4 ,y41 vol4 i4 p4 #cbf-ccb74 ,turning from southern to northern ,buddhism1 we find ,kppen asserting that in ,thibet and the surrounding countries1 marriage consists solely in the private contract1 yet adding that none the less the lamaist clergy find business to do in regard to engagements and weddings4 ,the priests alone know whether the nativity of the bride stands in a favorable relation to that of the bridegroom1 and if not1 by what ceremonies and sacrifices misfortune may be averted2 they alone know the day that is most suitable and propitious for the wedding2 they give the bond its consecration and its blessing by burning incense and by prayer 7,r4 ,b41 vol4 ii4 p4 #cba74 ,the ,code of ,manu is not very clear as to the sort of marriages sanctioned by religion2 some irregular connections apparently receiving a formal recognition1 though regarded with moral disapprobation4 ,the system of caste1 moreover1 introduces a confusing element1 since the nuptial rites are permitted1 by some authorities1 to become less and less solemn as the grade of the contracting parties becomes lower4 ,this opinion having been mentioned1 however1 the legislator adds1 that in this ,code1 three of the five last forms of marriage are held legal1 and two illegal3 the ceremonies of ,pisachas and ,asuras must never be performed4 ,of the two prohibited forms1 the first is merely an embrace when the damsel is asleep1 drunk1 or of disordered intellect2 the second is when the bride's family1 and the bride herself1 have been enriched by large gifts on the part of the bridegroom4 ,strangely enough1 this regulation does not exclude the marriage called ,gandharva1 which is the reciprocal connection of a youth and a damsel1 with mutual desire1 and is contracted for the purpose of amorous embraces1 and proceeding from sexual inclination4 ,nor does it forbid forcible capture4 ,but a little further on1 the code encourages the more regular modes of marrying by promising intelligent1 beautiful1 and virtuous sons to those who observe them2 and threatening those who do not with bad and cruel sons4 ,it is then stated that the ceremony of joining hands is appointed for those who marry women of their own class1 but with women of a different class certain ceremonies1 enumerated in the ,code1 are to be performed 7,manu1 iii4 i4 #dd74 ,it is probable that this ,code was never actually the law of any part of ,india2 but it is none the less interesting to see the legislator striving to bring the lawless passions with which he is dealing under the supervision of religion4 ,an elaborate blessing and exhortation1 beginning with the words ,in the name of ,god1 is appointed in the ,zend-,avesta for the nuptial ceremonial4 ,while marriages among ,jews and ,christians are1 as is well known1 inaugurated by solemn religious rites1 and all unions not thus consecrated are1 at least by the formal judgment of their respective creeds1 pronounced unholy1 sinful1 and impure4 ,death1 like marriage1 is held among all religions but the lowest to call for the performance of befitting rites4 ,in these it is usually noticeable that much regard is paid to the manner in which the deceased is placed in the grave1 this circumstance indicating as a general rule some form of the belief in his continued existence4 ,thus1 ,lieut4-,colonel ,collins1 describing the burial of a boy in ,new ,south ,wales1 observes that on laying the body in the grave1 great care was taken so to place it that the sun might look at it as it passed1 the natives cutting down for that purpose every shrub that could obstruct the view4 ,he was placed on his right side1 with his head to the ,n4 ,w4 7,n4 ,s4 ,w41 p4 #chg-cij74 ,if there is little trace among the rude population of this colony of a religious ceremony at the interment1 we find the position of religion distinctly recognized by the natives of some parts of ,africa4 ,oldendorp tells us of the tribes with which he was acquainted1 that the funeral rites are performed by the priests1 who are richly rewarded for the service4 ,not only are animals sacrificed at the graves1 but in the case of men of rank their wives and servants are 7as is well known7 slaughtered to attend them 7,g4 d4 ,m41 p4 #cac-cag74 ,in ,sierra ,leone1 where every town or village1 which has been long inhabited1 has a common burial-place1 there is the usual attention to position in the grave4 ,the head of the corpse1 if a man1 lies either east or west2 if a woman1 it is turned either to the north or south4 ,an occasional prayer is pronounced over the grave1 importing a wish that ,god may receive the deceased1 and that no harm may happen to him4 ,moreover1 there is a ceremony which appears to be a sort of sacrifice to the manes4 ,a fowl is fastened by the leg upon the grave1 and a little rice placed near it2 if it refuse to eat the rice1 it is not killed2 but if it eat1 the head is cut off1 and the blood sprinkled upon the grave2 after which it is cooked1 and a part placed on the grave1 the remainder being eaten by the attendants4 ,a tribe called the ,soosoos bury their dead with their faces to the west 7,s4 ,l41 vol4 i4 pp4 #bch1 #bci74 ,sometimes we meet with the opinion that the entire removal of the deceased from his accustomed place of abode on earth depends upon due attention to the rites of interment4 ,a primitive form of this wide-spread belief--which lingers as a survival even in ,christendom--is observable in ,polynesia4 ,in ,samoa1 in order to secure the admission of a departed spirit to future joys1 the corpse was dressed in the best attire the relatives could provide1 the head was wreathed with flowers1 and other decorations were added4 ,a pig was then baked whole1 and placed upon the body of the deceased1 surrounded by a pile of vegetable food4 ,the corpse is then addressed by a near relation1 who desires it with the property thus bestowed to make its way into the palace of ,tiki1 and not to return to alarm the survivors4 ,if nothing happened within a few days1 the deceased was supposed to have got in2 but a cricket being heard on the premises was taken as an ill omen1 and led to the repetition of the offering4 ,elsewhere in the same group of islands more costly sacrifices were presented to the gods of the celestial regions4 ,at least at the interment of a chief it was customary for his wives to sit down severally near his body1 to be strangled1 and then buried along with him4 ,the reasons assigned for this are1 that the spirit of the chief may not be lonely in its passage to the invisible world1 and that by such an offering its happiness may be at once secured 7,n4 ,m4 ,e41 pp4 #ade1 #adf74 ,funeral ceremonies in ,mexico were performed by priests and monks1 and varied in splendor according to the rank of the deceased4 ,offices were chanted at the graves1 and at the burial of persons of quality slaves were killed to serve them in the next world4 ,moreover1 so sensible were the ,mexicans to the importance of religion in all states of being1 that even the domestic chaplain was not omitted2 a priest being slaughtered to accompany his lord in that capacity 7,h4 ,i41 b4 v4 ch4 viii74 ,in ,ceylon1 a dying relative is taken to a detached apartment1 where he is placed with his head towards the ,east4 ,after death the body is turned with the head towards the ,west1 and in the grave this position is preserved4 ,bodies of priests1 and persons of the highest rank1 are burned1 and during the process of cremation the officiating priest repeats certain forms of prayer4 ,the same functionary returns to deliver some moral admonitions after seven days1 when the friends revisit the pyre to collect the ashes 7,e4 ,y41 pp4 #ccd1 #cce74 ,notwithstanding the fact that in countries professing the lamaistic form of ,buddhism dead bodies are unceremoniously exposed to the open air1 and left as a prey to birds or dogs1 the mortality of the laity forms1 with their sicknesses1 the richest source of income for the priests4 ,a great deal1 says the author from whom we draw this information1 depends on the separation of soul and body taking place according to rule2 and it is important that the spirit should not injure those who are left1 and should meet with a happy re-birth4 ,the ,lama therefore attends the death-bed1 takes care to place the deceased in the correct position1 and observes the hour of departure4 ,an operation is then performed on the skin of the head1 which is supposed to liberate the soul4 ,what rites are now to be performed1 how the body is to be disposed of1 towards what quarter it is to be turned1 and various other details1 depend on astrological combinations known only to the clergy4 ,but their most important and profitable business is the repetition of masses1 for the dead1 which are designed to pacify the avenging deities1 and to help the soul towards as favorable a career as is possible for it4 ,the length of time during which these masses are said varies with the wealth of the survivors2 poor people obtaining them for a few days only2 the richer classes for seven weeks2 and princes being able to assist the spirits of their relations for a whole year 7,r4 ,b41 vol4 ii4 p4 #cbc-cbe74 ,among the ,parsees the cemeteries consist of desolate1 open places1 on which the corpses are deposited and left exposed to the air4 ,these places are called ,dakhmas1 and are carefully consecrated by the priests with an elaborate ceremonial4 ,the position of the dead in the ,dakhmas is fixed by the religious law4 ,their dying moments and those that succeed upon death are watched over by the ,parsee faith1 which has determined the prayers to be repeated during the last hour of life2 before the body is placed upon the bier2 when it is carried out2 on the way to the ,dakhma1 and at the ,dakhma itself4 ,the ceremonies required on these occasions must be performed by the ,maubads1 or priests4 ,but the due disposal of the body by no means concludes the duties of relations towards the dead4 ,the welfare of the soul also demands numerous prayers4 ,being supposed to linger for three days in the immediate neighborhood of the corpse1 it is the object during that time of especial attention1 and the rites then performed may be of use to it in the judgment which takes place on the fourth day4 ,prayers are to be recited1 and offerings made on the #cjth and #cast day after death1 and even then the ceremonies attending the close of mortal existence are not concluded1 for it is necessary after the lapse of a year again to celebrate the memory of the departed4 ,moreover1 the #bfth chapter of the ,yasna1 a hymn of praise and blessing1 is to be said every day during the year before eating 7,av4 vol4 ii4 p4 xxxii-xlii74 ,masses for the dead are no less common in ,christian countries 7save where the ,protestant faith is professed71 than among ,buddhists and ,parsees4 ,their object also is precisely the same2 namely1 the welfare of the soul which has quitted its earthly home to enter on a new form of being4 ,and although no such prayers are repeated in ,protestant communities1 yet there can be no doubt that interment in due form1 and with due solemnity1 is held by the people1 even in ,england1 to benefit the soul in some undefined way4 ,nor is any portion of the ritual of the ,english ,church more impressive than that passage in the ,burial ,service where the officiating priest consigns earth to earth1 ashes to ashes1 dust to dust1 in sure and certain hope of the resurrection to eternal life1 through our ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,but it is not only the due performance of these last rites which popular opinion associates with the prospect of salvation in the world to come4 ,as in other religions1 so in that of our own country1 the position of the body in the tomb is deemed to be of vast importance4 ,the head must be westward and the feet eastward1 the nominal reason being that the dead person should rise from his temporary abode with his face to the east1 whence ,christ will come2 the real reason being in all probability the survival of a much older custom1 in which that venerable divinity1 the ,sun1 stood in the place of the ,savior of mankind4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,consecrated ,,places4 ,consecrated actions of various kinds being the primary method of approaching the beings in whose honor they are performed1 there remain various secondary methods2 sometimes tending to heighten the effect of the primary method1 sometimes supplementing it4 ,these secondary means of giving effect to the religious sentiment may be divided into three classes3--the consecration of places1 of things1 and of persons2 while the last of these falls into two subdivisions3 the self-dedication of certain individuals to their deity1 and the dedication of a certain class to the more special performance of religious services on behalf of the community4 ,consecration of places evidently confers on the actions performed within them a higher sanctity4 ,prayer offered in a place which has been devoted to the service of ,god is more likely to be successful4 ,praise from within its walls will be more acceptable4 ,wedlock contracted under its influence will be more solemn1 and will possess a more binding character4 ,children may most fitly enter upon life by a profession of faith made in their behalf in a consecrated temple4 ,and the bodies of the dead will rest more peacefully in consecrated earth4 ,it is scarcely needful to offer evidence of the fact that in various lands1 and by many kinds of belief1 the performance of certain ceremonies is held to consecrate places to the purpose of communication between man and the higher powers4 ,from the savage in ,sierra ,leone1 where a small shed of dry leaves presents perhaps the rudest form of temple to be found on earth 7,s4 ,l41 p4 #fe71 to the ,european who worships his ,god in ,st4 ,peter's or ,westminster ,abbey1 the same opinion prevails4 ,everywhere the consecration of places is conceived to render them fitter for the celebration of religious rites1 and unfit for all profaner uses4 ,of the state of feeling with which such localities are endowed by the ordinary worshiper1 an excellent example is offered in ,solomon's speech at the dedication of the temple4 ,he specially requests ,jehovah that when prayers are made to him in this place1 or toward this place1 he will hear such prayers3 that is1 he expects that the sanctity he will confer upon the temple1 by devoting it to ,jehovah1 will add something to the efficacy of petitions in which it is in some way concerned4 ,the manner in which he dedicates the temple may serve1 too1 as a type of this kind of ceremony4 ,solomon1 we are told1 offered a sacrifice of peace-offerings1 which he offered unto the ,lord1 two-and-twenty thousand oxen1 and an hundred and twenty thousand sheep4 ,with this barbaric magnificence he dedicated the house of the ,lord1 and he subsequently hallowed the middle of the court by burnt-offerings1 and meat-offerings1 and the fat of the peace-offerings 7#a ,kings viii74 ,how great was the respect attached to this temple by the ,israelites1 and how anxiously they sought to guard it against such profanation as it received at the hands of ,pompey1 is well known4 ,the lavish splendor with which ,solomon adorned his temple is a common feature of consecrated places4 ,like the ancient ,hebrews1 the ,mexicans and ,peruvians had buildings in honor of their gods1 of extreme magnificence4 ,the temple of ,pachacamac1 or the ,creator1 in ,peru1 was a very large and ancient building1 richly decorated1 which was found to contain an immense wealth of gold and silver vessels 7,h4 ,i41 b4 v41 chs4 iii41 xii74 ,the boundless munificence with which pious ,christians have sought to beautify their places of worship needs no description4 ,along with the more formal consecration given to such sanctuaries of the ,most ,high by special rites1 they have sought to render them more worthy of his habitation by the liberality displayed in their erection and embellishment4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,consecrated ,,objects4 ,besides consecration of places to religious uses1 material things may be consecrated to the deity worshiped by those who thus apply them4 ,these things may be of the most varied description1 from common objects of the most trifling value1 to those of the utmost possible estimation4 ,among consecrated objects are the furniture of temples or churches1 which is reserved for divine service2 the garments worn by priests in their liturgical functions2 the votive tablets in which men record their gratitude for preservation in danger2 pictures1 statues1 endowments of land for monasteries or the support of ecclesiastical offices2 and anything else which the owners may part with from pious motives1 and with the view of bestowing it entirely on their god or his vicegerents on earth4 ,such consecrated objects were seen in abundance by ,lieutenant ,matthews in ,sierra ,leone1 where the natives devoted them to the idols who reigned in the small sheds of dry leaves mentioned in the preceding chapter4 ,the offerings made by the natives to these superhuman beings consisted of bits of cloth1 pieces of broken cups1 plates1 mugs1 or glass bottles1 brass rings1 beads1 and such articles4 ,but a still more precious object was bestowed upon these gods by the people when they wished to render them particularly complaisant4 ,then they generally provide liquor1 of which they make a very small libation to the object of their petitions and drink the rest4 ,moreover1 they have also little genii1 or household gods1 consisting of images of wood from eight to twelve inches long1 to whom they consecrate certain things4 ,these might be of a very miscellaneous order4 ,there might be seen1 for instance1 a brass pan fastened to the stump of a tree by driving a country axe through it--a glass bottle set up on the stump of a tree--a broken bottle placed upon the ground with two or three beads in it1 covered with a bit of cloth1 and surrounded with stones--a rag laid upon small sticks and covered with a broken calabash1 and so forth4 ,as in more civilized countries1 the sanctity conferred upon the objects by religion places them under the special protection of the law4 ,to remove one of them even unknowingly1 continues the author1 is a great offense1 and subjects the aggressor to a palaver1 or action in their courts of law 7,s4 ,l41 p4 #fe-fg74 ,the ,tartar chiefs1 as described by the traveler ,carpin1 kept idols in their places of abode1 to whom they offered not only the first milk of their ewes and mares1 and something of all they ate1 but to whom they even consecrated horses4 ,after this dedication to the idol no one might mount these horses 7,bergeron1 ,voyage de ,carpin1 p4 #cj74 ,among the ,singhalese a curious mode prevails of consecrating fruit to some demon1 in order to prevent its being stolen4 ,a band of leaves is to be seen fastened around the stem of a fruit-tree1 and it is supposed that no thief will be so sacrilegious as to touch the fruit that has been thus hallowed4 ,occasionally1 says ,sir ,emerson ,tennent1 these dedications are made to the temples of ,buddha1 and even to the ,roman ,catholic altars1 as to that of ,st4 ,anne of ,calpentyn4 ,this ceremony is called ,gokbandeema1 'the tying of the tender leaf1' and its operation is to prevent the fruit from pillage1 till ripe enough to be plucked and sent as an offering to the divinity to whom it has thus been consecrated4 ,he adds1 that a few only of the finest are offered1 the rest being kept by the owner 7,ceylon1 vol4 i4 p4 #edj1 #c;d ed474 ,another author1 describing the same custom1 says1 ,to prevent fruit being stolen1 the people hang up certain grotesque figures around the orchards and dedicate it to the devils1 after which none of the native ,ceylonese will dare even to touch the fruit on any account4 ,even the owner will not venture to use it1 till it be first liberated from the dedication4 ,for this purpose1 they carry some of it to the pagoda1 where the priests1 after receiving a certain proportion for themselves1 remove the incantations with which it was dedicated 7,a4 ,i4 ,c41 p4 #aih74 ,here the consecration1 contrary to the usual rule1 is made with an interested motive1 and is of the nature of a direct bargain for temporal advantages4 ,of the common form of consecration among the same people1 another visitor gives evidence2 their temples are1 he says1 adorned with such things as the people's ability and poverty can afford2 accounting it the highest point of devotion1 bountifully to dedicate such things unto their gods1 which in their estimation are most precious 7,a4 ,r4 ,c41 p4 #gc74 ,sometimes consecration is held to confer special powers1 not otherwise possessed1 upon the objects on which it is performed4 ,thus1 among the rude ,mongolians1 the consecrating rites to which sacred writings and images of ,buddha are subjected are described by a word meaning to animate1 which is held by a learned ,orientalist to express their sense of the communication of living power1 of which the religious ceremony is the vehicle 7,g4 ,o4 ,m41 p4 #ccj74 ,thus1 too1 among ,christians1 the consecration of bread and wine by a priest is regarded as the means of a still more extraordinary communication of living power to those lifeless elements4 ,and the writer has been present at the ,vatican when a vast number of rosaries1 and other such trinkets1 were held up by a crowd of devotees to receive the ,papal blessing1 which was evidently considered1 by their owners1 to confer upon them some kind of virtue that was otherwise lacking4 ,naturally it follows from the theory of consecration--which is that of a gift from men to ,god--that the more valuable the objects given1 the more pleasing will they be4 ,hence1 men generally endeavor to consecrate valuable objects1 though instances to the contrary may be found4 ,the horses bestowed by the ,tartars were1 no doubt1 among their most precious possessions4 ,and the large endowments of land devoted in perpetuity to the ,church during the middle ages1 were gifts of the most permanent and most coveted form of property4 ,consecration differs from sacrifice1 in that the objects of sacrifice are intended for the immediate gratification of the deity1 those of consecration for his continued use4 ,hence1 things sacrificed are consumed upon the spot2 things consecrated are preserved as long as their nature permits of it4 ,so strong is the sense of permanence attaching to consecration1 that there are probably even now persons among us1 who would regard it as a sort of crime for the ,state to assume the ownership of lands once devoted to religious purposes1 or to divert the proceeds to some other employment4 ,a like sentiment1 no doubt1 prevails with regard to the material and the furniture of places of worship4 ,with regard to sacrifice the case is different4 ,animals1 fruits1 or other articles intended for sacrifice1 are given to the god or his representative for the single occasion1 and as a requisite in the performance of some momentary rite4 ,if a homely comparison may be permitted on so sacred a subject1 it might be not inaptly said1 that things sacrificed are like the meat and drink placed before a guest who is invited to dinner1 while things consecrated rather resemble the present which he carries away to his own residence1 and keeps for the remainder of his life4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,consecrated ,,persons4 ,we have seen the religious instinct leading to the consecration of actions1 to the consecration of places1 and to the consecration of things4 ,we are now to follow it in a yet more striking exhibition of its power1 the consecration by human beings of their own lives and their own persons 7or sometimes of the lives and persons of their children74 ,not only is such self-dedication to the service of religion common2 it is well-nigh universal4 ,there is no phenomenon more constant1 none more uniform1 than this4 ,differing in minor details1 the grand features of self-consecration are everywhere the same1 whether we look to the saintly ,rishis of ancient ,india2 to the wearers of the yellow robe in ,china or ,ceylon2 to the ,essenes among the ,jews2 to the devotees of ,vitziliputzli in pagan ,mexico2 or to the monks and nuns of ,christian times in ,africa1 in ,asia1 and in ,europe4 ,throughout the various creeds of these distant lands there runs the same unconquerable impulse1 producing the same remarkable effects4 ,this is not the place to attempt a psychological explanation of asceticism as a tendency of human nature4 ,we have now only to notice some of its most conspicuous manifestations1 and thus to assign to it its proper place in a history of the mode in which man endeavors to approach and to propitiate his god4 ,generally speaking1 we may premise that the consecration of individuals to a life in which religion is the predominating element1 means the abandonment of the ordinary pleasures of the world4 ,this is of the very essence of self-devotion4 ,sanctity1 and the enjoyment of all those things in which the body is largely concerned1 have always been regarded as inconsistent and opposite4 ,hence1 in the first line of things prohibited to consecrated persons1 we always discover the pleasures of sex4 ,to indulge in these is usually considered the most flagrant outrage against their rules4 ,next to sexual delights1 or equally with them1 the luxuries of choice food1 rich clothing1 comfortable beds1 well-furnished rooms1 and similar ministrations to physical ease are withheld from the votaries4 ,they are very frequently voluntary paupers or mendicants2 or where this is not the case1 they usually depend on some endowment derived from the liberality of others4 ,where their numbers are large1 they are placed under rules1 and bound to the strictest obedience to their superiors in the same line of life4 ,moreover1 mere abstinence from ordinary pleasures is not enough to prove their devotion2 they are called on to undergo extraordinary pains4 ,these vary with the rule of the order1 or their own fervor4 ,sometimes they are obliged to live in rooms which1 in the coldest weather1 no fire is permitted to cheer2 sometimes their sleep is broken by rising at unseasonable hours to worship their deity2 sometimes the garment they wear is too thick in summer1 and too scanty in winter2 and sometimes they tear their own flesh by scourging and flagellation4 ,fasting1 too1 is often imposed at certain times4 ,and the zeal of individuals always outruns the compulsory hardships of their position4 ,they will show the intensity of their devotion by fasting more rigorously than others1 sleeping on harder couches1 bearing greater inflictions4 ,self-consecration continually tends towards greater and greater self-denial2 but the actual degrees of self-denial vary from the mere observance of some simple rules to the extremest possibility of self-torture4 ,confining ourselves1 however1 to the general marks which characterize this devotion of persons to religion1 we may say that it involves principally two things3 chastity and poverty4 ,when the ,spaniards had established themselves in ,mexico and ,peru1 they were astonished to find1 in the religious customs and practices of the new world they had invaded1 so much that resembled those of the old world they had left behind4 ,especially was this the case with regard to monastic institutions1 in respect of which it seemed that the ,christian missionaries had little to teach their heathen brothers4 ,certainly it is a matter of surprise1 says the ,reverend ,father ,acosta1 that false religious opinion should have so much power with those young men and young women of ,mexico1 that they should do with such austerity in the service of ,satan that which many of us do not do in the service of the most high ,god4 ,which is a great confusion to those who are very proud and very well satisfied with some trifling penance which they perform 7,h4 ,i41 b4 #e1 ch4 #af1 sub fine74 ,in describing more particularly the manner in which the devil had contrived to be served in ,mexico1 he states that around the great temple there were two monasteries1 one of young women and the other of young men1 whom they called monks 7religiosos74 ,those young men who served in the temple of ,vitziliputzli lived in poverty1 chastity1 and obedience2 ministered like ,levites to the priests and dignitaries of the temple1 and had manual labor to do4 ,besides these were others who performed menial services1 and carried the offerings that were made when their superiors went in quest of alms4 ,all these had persons who took charge of them1 and when they went abroad they held their heads low and their eyes on the ground1 not daring to raise them to look at the women they might come across4 ,should they not receive enough by way of alms1 they had the right of going to the sown fields1 and plucking the ears of corn of which they had need4 ,they practised penance1 rising at midnight1 and also cutting themselves so as to draw blood2 but this exercise and penance did not last more than a year 7,h4 ,i41 b4 #e1 ch4 #af74 ,both in ,mexico and in ,peru young girls were consecrated to a religious life1 but this consecration was sometimes only temporary2 a certain proportion of the ,peruvian nuns being drafted off into the harem of the ,inca4 ,acosta1 describing this consecration of virgins1 is again impressed with the abilities of the devil4 ,since1 he observes1 the religious life is so pleasing in the eyes of ,god1 the father of lies has contrived1 not only to imitate it1 but to cause his ministers to be distinguished in austerity and regularity4 ,thus in ,peru there were many convents for girls1 who were placed under the tuition of old women whom they called ,mamaconas4 ,indoctrinated by the ,mamaconas in various things necessary for human life1 and in the rites and ceremonies of their gods1 they were removed1 after they had attained fourteen years1 either to the sanctuaries where they preserved a perpetual virginity1 or to be sacrificed in some religious ceremonial1 or to become wives and mistresses of the ,inca and his friends4 ,the consecration of these damsels was not1 as usual in such cases1 voluntary on their part1 but the same idea of merit inspired the gift on the part of those who made it4 ,for1 while the surrender of female children to the monastery was compulsory when demanded by an officer named the ,appopanaca1 yet many offered their girls of their own free will1 it appearing to them that they gained great merit1 inasmuch as they were sacrificed for the ,inca4 ,if any of the older nuns1 who presided over the children1 had sinned against her honor1 she was invariably buried alive or subjected to some other cruel death4 ,in ,mexico1 continues the pious ,jesuit1 the devil also found his own kind of nuns1 although the profession did not last more than one year4 ,as has been said1 there were two houses1 one for men and another for women4 ,like the monks1 the nuns also wore a distinctive costume1 and dressed their hair in a distinctive fashion4 ,like them1 they had manual labor to perform2 like them1 they rose at midnight for matins4 ,they had their abbesses1 who occupied them in making robes for the adornment of the idols4 ,they also had their penance1 in which they cut themselves in the points of the ears4 ,they lived with honor and circumspection1 and any delinquency1 even the smallest1 was punished with death2 for they said that the sinner had violated the honor of their god 7,h4 ,i41 b4 #e1 ch4 #ae74 ,another author1 describing the religious orders of ,peru1 states that fathers1 anxious that their children's lives should be preserved1 used to dedicate them in infancy to some form of monastic establishment1 to which they were actually committed at the age of fifteen4 ,if1 for instance1 they were promised to the house of ,calmecac1 it was that they might perform penance1 and serve the gods1 and live in purity and humility and chastity1 and be altogether preserved from carnal vices4 ,a ,christian parent could have desired no more4 ,and if it were a woman1 she was a servant of the temple called ,civatlamacazqui2 she had to be subject to the women who governed that order2 she had to live in chastity1 and abstain from every carnal act1 and to live with the virgins who were called the sisters1 who were shut up in the convent4 ,a feast was made when the child was dedicated by its parents1 and the head of the order took it in his arms in token that it was his subject till it was married2 the consecration not being perpetual4 ,its reception was accompanied by a solemn ceremonial1 in which the following prayer was offered to their god3 ,o ,lord1 most merciful1 protector of all1 here stand thy handmaidens1 who bring thee a new handmaid1 whose father and mother promise and offer her1 that she may serve thee4 ,and well thou knowest that the poor thing is thine3 vouchsafe to receive her1 that for a few days she may sweep and adorn thy house1 which is a house of penance and weeping1 where the daughters of the nobles place their hand on thy riches1 praying and weeping to thee with tears and great devotion1 and where they demand with prayers thy words and thy power4 ,vouchsafe1 ,o ,lord1 to show her grace1 and to receive her3 place her1 ,o ,lord1 in the company of the virgins who are called ,tlamacazque1 who do penance and serve in the temple1 and wear their hair short4 ,o ,lord1 most merciful1 protector of all1 vouchsafe to do with her whatever is thy holy will1 showing her the grace which thou knowest to be suited to her4 ,if then the girl was of age1 she was marked in the ribs and breast1 in evidence of her being a nun2 and if she was still a child1 a string of beads was put round her neck1 which she wore until she could fulfil the vow of her parents 7,a4 ,m41 vol4 v4 p4 #dhd-dhf74 ,but in addition to these temporary nuns1 ,peru had others1 whose vows were perpetual4 ,vega relates in his ,commentaries1 that besides the women who entered into monasteries to profess perpetual virginity1 there were many women of the blood-royal who lived in their own houses1 subject to a vow of virginity1 though not in clausura4 ,they went out to visit their relations on various occasions4 ,they were held in the greatest respect for their chastity and purity1 which was by no means feigned1 but altogether genuine4 ,any failure to observe their vow was punished by burning or drowning4 ,the writer knew one of these women when advanced in life1 and occasionally saw her when she visited his mother1 whose great-aunt she was4 ,he bears witness himself to the profound veneration with which this old lady was everywhere received1 the place of honor being always assigned to her1 as well by his mother as by her other acquaintances 7,c4 ,r41 b4 #d1 ch4 #g74 ,thus we find celibacy1 as a mark of piety1 in full force in the new world at the time of its discovery1 no less than in the old2 and religious chastity as much respected by the idolatrous ,mexicans and ,peruvians as by their ,catholic invaders4 ,monasticism1 in countries where ,buddhism reigns supreme1 is a vast and powerful institution4 ,in the early times of ,buddhistic fervor1 it would almost seem from the language of the legends1 that to embrace the faith of ,sakyamuni and to become an ascetic were one and the same thing4 ,at least every convert who aspired to be not only a hearer1 but a doer of the word1 is described as instantly assuming the tonsure and the yellow robe4 ,at the same time the distinction between ,bhikshus1 mendicants1 and ,upsakas1 laymen1 is no doubt an early one2 and we must assume1 that as soon as the religion of the gentle ascetic began to spread among the people at large1 those whose circumstances did not permit them to be monks or nuns were received on easier terms4 ,what1 asked a disciple1 must be done in the condition of a mendicant8--,the rules of chastity must be observed during the whole of life4 ,that is impossible2 is there no other way8--,there is another1 friend2 it is to be a pious man 7,upsaka74 ,what is there to be done in this condition8--,it is necessary to abstain during the whole of life from murder1 theft1 pleasure 7the illicit pleasures of sex must be understood71 lying1 and the use of intoxicating liquors 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #bha74 ,to these five commandments1 binding on every ,buddhist1 the rule imposed upon the mendicants adds five more1 to say nothing of many more special obligations and regulations to which they are subject4 ,murder1 theft1 unchastity1 lying1 and drinking1 are forbidden to them as to all others2 the sixth commandment prohibits eating after mid-day2 the seventh singing1 dancing1 and playing musical instruments2 the eighth adorning the person with flowers and bands1 or using perfume and ointment2 the ninth sleeping on a high and large bed2 the tenth accepting gold and silver4 ,these several prohibitions aim1 as is evident1 at precisely the same objects which the founders of ,christian orders have always had in view2 that1 namely1 of weaning their disciples from the world by keeping from them the enjoyment of its luxuries1 and preventing the acquisition of personal property4 ,the obligation to observe these rules commenced with the novitiate2 a condition which1 in ,buddhist as in ,catholic communities1 precedes that of complete ordination4 ,the novices are termed ,sramanera1 a word meaning little ,sramanas1 while the monks themselves are either ,sramana or ,bhikshu4 ,both these designations serve to express the nature of their vocation2 ,sramana being an ascetic who subdues his senses1 and ,bhikshu one who lives by alms 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 pp4 #bge1 #bgf74 ,the sisters are called ,bhikshun1 and they are said to owe their origin to ,maha ,prajapati1 the aunt of the great ,sramana ,gautama1 who obtained from her nephew1 through the intercession of the beloved disciple ,ananda1 the permission for her sex to follow their brothers in the way of salvation by poverty and chastity 7,ibid41 p4 #bgh74 ,there can be no question that1 according to the original practice of the mendicant orders1 the vow was taken for life2 and this is1 ,i believe1 still the custom in most of the lands where ,buddhism is in the ascendant4 ,but in ,siam1 the monastic vow can at any time be cancelled by the superior of the monastery2 and this rule1 which involves a gross abuse of the original institution1 renders temporary asceticism universal in that country 7,wheel1 p4 #de74 ,another kind of degeneracy has occurred in ,nepaul1 where the ministers of religion1 who elsewhere must be monks1 are permitted to be married 7,hodgson1 ,t4,r4,a4,s41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bde74 ,the objects proposed to themselves by ,buddhists1 in embracing an ascetic life1 are precisely the same as those proposed to themselves by ,christians4 ,by denying themselves the pleasures of this world1 they hope to obtain a higher reward than other mortals2 whether in the shape of birth in a happier condition1 or in that of complete emancipation from all birth whatsoever1 which is the supreme goal of their religion4 ,the means they pursue to attain these ends are also similar4 ,the ,prtimoksha ,stra1 or ,stra of ,emancipation1 which forms the universal regula in all their monasteries1 is worthy of a ,st4 ,benedict or a ,st4 ,francis4 ,it lays down with the minutest elaboration1 not only all the moral precepts that must be obeyed by the monk or nun1 but all the little observances in regard to dress1 eating1 walking1 social intercourse1 and so forth1 to which he must attend4 ,it contains two hundred and fifty rules1 and the breach of any of these is attended with its appropriate penance1 according to the magnitude of the offense4 ,asceticism was deeply rooted in the native land of ,buddhism long before the appearance of the reformer who gave it1 by the foundation of communities1 an organization and a purpose4 ,just as in ,egypt there were many solitary saints before the time of ,pachomius and ,antony1 so in ,india there were holy men who had subdued their senses before the gospel of deliverance was preached by ,gautama ,buddha4 ,some of these dispensed altogether with clothing1 a custom which was frowned upon by ,buddhism and put down wherever its influence was paramount4 ,others lived in lonely places1 exposed to every sort of hardship and avoiding every form of carnal pleasure4 ,the popular mind combined the practice of austerity with the acquisition of extraordinary powers over nature4 ,hence1 no doubt1 an additional motive for its exercise4 ,the ,rmyana abounds with descriptions of holy hermits1 living on roots in the forests1 and practising the utmost austerity4 ,visvamitra1 for example1 the very type of an ascetic1 was a monarch1 who determined to obtain from the gods the title of ,brahman saint1 the highest to which he1 not by birth a ,brahman1 could aspire4 ,this was the manner in which he went to work3-- ,his arms upraised1 without a rest1 ,with but one foot1 the earth he pressed2 ,the air his food1 the hermit stood ,still as a pillar hewn from wood4 ,around him in the summer days ,five mighty fires combined to blaze4 ,in floods of rain no veil was spread1 ,save clouds1 to canopy his head4 ,in the dark dews both night and day ,couched in the stream the hermit lay4#e ,twice did the gods1 alarmed at the power he was likely to acquire1 direct their efforts against his chastity4 ,the first time the perfect nymph deputed on this errand1 seen by him while bathing herself naked in the stream1 caused him to forget his vow and dally with her for ten years4 ,the second time the saint perceived the plot1 but allowed himself to burst forth in words of unholy rage against the damsel who was trying to seduce him1 and thus lost the merit of his former penance4 ,after this he resolved never to speak a word1 and persisted in his resolution1 until the gods1 in a body1 addressed him in the long-desired form3 ,hail1 ,brahman ,saint 7,griffith1 ,the ,ramayan1 vol4 i4 p4 #bgd74 ,visvamitra is of course a mythical character1 and his penance imaginary2 but the ascetic life he is described as leading was taken from models which the writers had before their eyes4 ,all the marvels of the ,thebaid in ,christian times were1 in fact1 anticipated in ,india by at least one thousand years4 ,how deeply the ascetic tendency is implanted in human nature is strikingly shown in the case of the ,essenes1 the ,nazarites1 and the ,therapeut1 who sprang from a religion whose ostensible precepts are eminently opposed to all such courses1 that of the ,jews4 ,judaism powerfully encouraged all those inclinations to which monasticism is fatal3 the propagation of the species1 the acquisition of property1 the maintenance of family ties1 and the enjoyment of the good things which this world has to offer4 ,yet from the bosom of this sober faith sprang bodies of men who neither ate flesh1 nor drank wine1 nor cohabited with women4 ,it may be that the ,jewish ascetics were not very numerous2 but it is clear1 too1 that they were not so few as to be deemed by contemporary observers altogether unimportant4 ,and the fascination which ,john the ,baptist1 pre-eminently an ascetic1 exercised over his countrymen in the first century1 is a sign that this mode of living was conducive among the ,jews to that spiritual supremacy which is so constantly received at the hands of ,christians4 ,that ,christianity should encourage a disposition which even ,judaism could not check was no more than might be expected from the language and conduct of its founder and his earliest disciples4 ,christ was never married1 and probably lived in complete chastity4 ,paul goes so far as to compare marriage unfavorably with celibacy4 ,james upholds poverty as preferable to riches in the eyes of ,god4 ,the whole of the ,new ,testament abounds with passages in which present misery is declared to be the forerunner of future happiness1 and present prosperity of future suffering4 ,this is the very spirit of monasticism1 and it is not surprising that from such a root such fruits have sprung4 ,from a very early age devout ,christians have felt that in renouncing individual property1 marriage1 personal freedom1 and the various other joys which life in the world offers1 they were fulfilling the dictates of their religion and preparing themselves for heaven4 ,to illustrate this proposition effectually would be to write the history of the monastic orders4 ,beginning in the deserts of ,egypt1 these have extended throughout ,europe1 and have exercised a vast and potent influence on the extension of the ,christian faith4 ,monks have been missionaries1 preachers1 martyrs1 persecutors1 bishops and popes4 ,the greatest names who have ranged themselves under the banner of the ,catholic ,church have belonged to one or other of the several orders4 ,and alongside of the monks1 living by the same rule1 helping them in their several tasks1 the nuns have ever been forward in undergoing their share of austerity and undertaking their share of labor4 ,very various have been the immediate motives that have led such large numbers of ,christians to betake themselves to the monastery or the convent4 ,some have fled from riches and luxury2 others from poverty and wretchedness4 ,some have been sick of earthly pleasures2 others have sought to avoid the temptation of ever knowing them4 ,many have been drawn by the irresistible spell of asceticism to flee from opposing parents and unsympathizing friends in order to embrace it2 others have been destined from their infancy1 like the ,mexican and ,peruvian youth1 to wear the cowl or to take the veil4 ,but throughout the history of every order there has been the same fundamental idea sustaining its existence2 the idea1 namely1 that in becoming an ascetic1 the person was consecrated to ,god1 and became by that consecration purer1 holier1 and better than those who continued to pursue the ordinary avocations of secular life4 ,this consecration is not given without due solemnity4 ,it is only after a novitiate1 in which he has full experience of the privations to be undergone1 that the candidate can be received into the order of which he desires to be a member4 ,should his resolution be unshaken after his year's trial as a novice1 he may take the irrevocable vow of obedience1 under which those of poverty and chastity are comprehended4 ,he is now a consecrated person4 ,he has sacrificed himself completely to his divine ,master1 and whatever reward he may hope to receive must be given by that ,master in a future state4 ,it is one of the principal weaknesses of ,protestantism that it has omitted to provide for the ascetic instinct4 ,it has lost thereby the mighty hold which the ,catholic ,church must ever possess over those who feel themselves moved to crucify the flesh and devote themselves wholly to spiritual things4 ,strange to say1 this remarkable instinct has nevertheless broken out afresh within the bosom of ,protestantism in recent times4 ,the ,shakers are but a somewhat novel species of monks and nuns4 ,they abstain from marriage though the two sexes live together in one community4 ,their chastity is said to be perfect4 ,they give up all individual property for the common good4 ,they wear a peculiar dress and are subject to peculiar rules4 ,lastly1 they believe that they stand under the special guidance and protection of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,consecrated ,,mediators4 ,having seen the manner in which individuals devote themselves to the special service of their deities1 we have now to observe the further fact that a whole class of men is devoted to this service by the demands of society4 ,this class is the priesthood4 ,they differ from the persons last treated of1 inasmuch as the consecration of ascetics has reference exclusively to their own personal salvation1 while the consecration of priests has reference exclusively to the salvation of others4 ,a monk or a nun becomes by the act of profession a holier being2 less occupied with the world2 mentally nearer to ,god2 better fitted to communicate with him than ordinary unchaste mortals4 ,a priest becomes by the act of ordination a being endowed with special powers2 better entitled to offer up the public prayers than others2 more likely to be heard when he does so2 more eligible as a channel of communication between men and ,god than unordained mortals4 ,in other words1 his functions are of a public1 those of the monk of a private1 kind4 ,we must not be confused by the fact that among ,buddhists and among ,catholics the two species of consecration are no longer completely distinct1 the monks in both of those great religions being at the same time priests4 ,the early writings of ,buddhism sufficiently evince the fact that no kind of public ministry was at first connected with the profession of a mendicant4 ,he had simply to observe the precepts of his order1 and to aim at such perfection as should ensure the deliverance of his soul4 ,priestly duties are now indeed performed by monks in ,buddhist countries1 but this is an addition to their regular vocation1 not a necessary part of it2 while in ,catholic countries1 the ecclesiastical character which the monks at present enjoy in no way belonged to them when the monastic orders were first established4 ,the monks1 as ,montalembert observes1 were at first an intermediate body between laity and clergy1 in whom the latter were to see an ideal which it was not possible for all to attain4 ,technically1 however1 the monks formed a part of the laity1 and the steps by which they came to be considered as the regular clergy are1 according to the same high authority1 difficult to follow 7,m4 d',o41 vol4 i4 p4 #bhh2 vol4 ii4 p4 #eg74 ,self-consecration1 and consecration to ecclesiastical duties were therefore two very different things1 and the distinction between regular and secular clergy shows that1 though somewhat obliterated in appearance1 the two ideas are still kept apart4 ,in all religions that have risen above the rudest stage1 those who desire to become priests are initiated by certain fixed ceremonies4 ,thus is the consecration given which fits them to convey to ,god the wishes of mortals1 and to mortals the will of ,god4 ,to take an example from a very primitive form of faith1 the ,angekoks1 or priests of the ,greenlanders1 receive their commission only after long and exhausting rites1 in which a familiar spirit is supposed to appear to them1 and to accompany them to heaven and hell4 ,should they fail ten times in obtaining the assistance of such a spirit1 they are compelled to lay down their offices4 ,the spirit1 when he comes1 holds a conversation with the ,angekok1 who is thus installed in his profession by supernatural means 7,h4 ,g41 p4 #bec-bef74 ,so also1 among the ,american tribes in ,new ,france1 we are told that the ,jongleurs by profession never obtained this character till after they had been prepared for it by fasts1 which they carried to a great extent1 and during which they beat the drum1 cried1 shouted1 sung and smoked4 ,their installation was subsequently accomplished in a sort of ,bacchanalia1 with ceremonies of a highly extravagant nature 7,n4 ,f41 vol4 iii4 p4 #cfc74 ,among a certain tribe of negroes1 the priests are taken from a class of men termed living sacrifices 7,g4 d4 ,m41 p4 #cbh71 who live at the expense of others1 taking whatever they require1 and who wear their hair1 like the ,nazarites1 unshorn4 ,here their consecration is marked by these peculiar characteristics1 and appears to be impressed upon them by some dedication made without their own consent4 ,in another negro nation1 there is a priestess of a certain snake1 who is marked in a peculiar way over the whole body1 and held in great esteem4 ,every year some young girls are seized by force and taken to this priestess1 who marks them artistically1 initiates them in religious songs and dances1 marries them in a manner to the snake1 and consecrates them as priestesses of that divinity4 ,with others again the priesthood is hereditary1 the consecration in this case being imprinted once for all on certain families1 and not imparted1 as in the instances given above1 by rites affecting only the individual who undergoes them4 ,a peculiar modification of the hereditary principle is where the preference is given to him1 among several sons1 who dares to pull certain grains 7which have been previously put in7 out of the teeth of his deceased father1 and place them in the mouth of the corpse4 ,here the consecration is partly inherited1 partly personal4 ,elsewhere a priest or fetich-maker is made by all sorts of silly ceremonies at a meal1 and a string with consecrated objects is hung round his neck in token of his condition 7,g4 d4 ,m41 p4 #cbh74 ,both principles1 the hereditary and the personal1 were known in ,mexico4 ,the priests of ,vitziliputzli succeeded by right of birth2 the priests of other idols by election or by an offering made in their infancy4 ,priests were consecrated to their holy office by an unction which1 as ,father ,acosta justly observes1 resembled that of the ,catholic ,church4 ,they were anointed from head to foot1 and the hair was left to hang down in tresses moist from the application of the ointment4 ,but when they were going to perform the offices of their sacred calling on mountains1 or in dark caves1 they were anointed with an altogether different substance1 compounded by a peculiar process from certain venomous reptiles4 ,this was supposed to give them courage 7,h4 ,i41 b4 #e1 ch4 #bf74 ,the consecration of the ,levitical priesthood1 originally personal1 descended from father to son1 and was moreover confined to the members of this single tribe4 ,it could not be repeated after its first performance4 ,hence we have in this case an interesting example1 not only of an hereditary priesthood1 but also of the manner in which its exclusive sanctity was supposed to have been originally established4 ,moses1 who derived his appointment directly from ,jehovah1 was employed to consecrate ,aaron and his sons by means of an elaborate and imposing ritual communicated to him by that deity himself4 ,the means thus taken 7in ,jehovah's own words7 to hallow them1 to minister unto me in the priest's office1 were effectual for all time2 the descendants of ,aaron after that being priests by nature4 ,how great was the value of the consecration thus given1 may be seen by the fact that ,moses was ordered to threaten the penalty of death against any one who should dare to manufacture oil similar to that used in anointing ,aaron and his sons 7,exod4 xxviii4 #bi2 xxx4 #cj-cc74 ,priestly power among ,christian nations is communicated in a solemn ceremonial1 and is conferred only upon the individual recipient4 ,it does not descend in his family1 but it is capable of being imparted by bishops1 who have themselves received a higher grade of priestly consecration4 ,by some it is actually supposed that a mysterious virtue1 derived directly from ,christ through the apostles1 is conveyed to the recipient of holy orders4 ,but whether the apostolical succession be conveyed or not in the ,ordination ,service of the ,church of ,england1 it is certain that a high authority is held to be given to the priest by the laying on of the hands of the ,bishop and of the other priests present at the time4 ,the rights which he receives are thus expressed3-- ,receive the ,holy ,ghost for the office and work of a priest in the ,church of ,god1 now committed unto thee by the imposition of our hands4 ,whose sins thou dost forgive they are forgiven2 and whose sins thou dost retain1 they are retained1 and be thou a faithful dispenser of the ,word of ,god1 and of his holy sacraments4 ,in the name of the ,father and of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,amen4 ,after this the ,bishop delivers the ,bible to each of the candidates1 saying3-- ,take thou authority to preach the ,word of ,god1 and to minister the holy sacraments in the congregation where thou shalt be lawfully appointed thereunto4 ,here it may be observed that there are three powers conveyed by this ordination3 the power of preaching1 the power of administering the sacraments1 and the power of forgiving and retaining sins4 ,since the salvation of ,christians depends upon their admission to the sacraments1 and upon the forgiveness of their sins1 it is obvious that the priest who may debar them from the one1 and refuse the other1 receives in his consecration the keys of the kingdom of heaven4 ,in their communications to the ,almighty through the mediation of such priests1 men are in possession of an instrument of the very highest efficacy4 ,the terrible reality which the belief in the ecclesiastical privilege of forgiving sins may sometimes have1 is graphically exhibited in ,m4 de ,lamartine's touching poem entitled ,jocelyn4 ,therein a bishop1 taken prisoner and condemned to death in the ,french ,revolution1 sends for a young deacon who was living in concealment in the ,alps with a maiden who loved him deeply1 and whom 7since the irrevocable vows of a priest were not yet taken7 he intended to marry4 ,regardless of all his pleading the ,bishop1 under the threat of his dying anathema1 forces the unhappy youth to receive priestly orders at his hands1 solely in order that he may then listen to the episcopal confession and forgive the episcopal sins4 ,marriage was now rendered impossible by the vow he had taken2 and thus two lives were consigned to enduring misery that a bishop might die in peace4 ,surely the morality which could lead to such a consummation is self-condemned6 ,,external ,,manifestations ,,of ,,religious ,,sentiment4 ,,second ,,part4 ,,means ,,of ,,communication ,,downwards4 ,,classification4 ,we proceed now from the several methods by which men1 in all ages and in all countries1 have sought to convey their wishes1 aspirations1 and emotions upwards1 to those by which their several deities have in their opinion conveyed their commands1 decisions1 and intentions downwards4 ,the classification will follow as closely as the subject permits that of the preceding part4 ,consecration1 the quality pertaining to man's instruments of communication with ,god1 will be replaced by holiness1 the quality pertaining to ,god's instruments of communication with man4 ,thus1 corresponding to the consecrated actions of prayer1 sacrifice1 and praise1 we shall have the holy events of omens1 signs1 miracles1 and so forth4 ,corresponding to the consecrated places where men pay their devotions1 we shall find the holy places which some higher being has blessed with tokens of his presence4 ,corresponding to the consecrated objects bestowed by the creature on the ,creator1 we shall discover holy objects through which some peculiar grace is conveyed by the ,creator to the creature4 ,to consecrated men will correspond holy men1 who speak to their fellows with an authority higher than their own2 and these holy men will fall into two classes1 those whose regular work it is to represent the deity on earth and those who are sent on some special occasion for some special purpose4 ,lastly1 a separate division 7having no correlative among means of communication upwards7 must be given to holy books1 for a most important place in the history of religions is occupied by treatises written by the gods for the use of men4 ,to these then the final chapter of this portion of the work must be devoted4 ,pass we now to holy events4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,holy ,,events4 ,manifold beyond the possibility of complete computation are the signs and intimations vouchsafed to the ignorance and weakness of man by the celestial powers4 ,they speak to him through the ordinary phenomena of nature2 they instruct him through her rare and more striking exhibitions2 they guide his footsteps through prodigies and marvels4 ,sometimes addressing him spontaneously1 without any attempt on his part to elicit their intentions1 they open their views or announce the future2 sometimes replying to his anxious inquiries1 they point out the truth and relieve his perplexity4 ,consider first the former class of divine manifestations1 in which the human being is a merely passive recipient of the communication granted4 ,dreams are an excellent example of this class of events4 ,the belief that they are of supernatural origin is both wide-spread and ancient4 ,possibly there is no country in which it has not been held to a greater or less extent1 even though it may not have formed an article in the established creed4 ,among the ,africans in and about ,sierra ,leone1 for example1 a dream is received as judicial evidence of witchcraft1 and the prisoner accused on this slender testimony frequently acknowledges the charge and submits to his sentence without repining 7,n4 ,a41 vol4 i4 p4 #bfj74 ,on the ,american continent1 where dreams 7says ,charlevoix7 are regarded as true oracles and notices from heaven 7,h4 ,n4 ,f41 vol4 iii4 p4 #cdh71 it is plain that the like faith in their intimations prevails4 ,although explained in a variety of ways1 now as the rational soul going abroad1 while the sensitive soul remained behind1 now as advice from the familiar spirits1 now as a visit from the soul of the object dream pt of1 the dream is always regarded as a sacred thing4 ,it was thought to be the most usual way taken by the gods of making their wills known to men4 ,hence they took care to obey the intimations given in dreams2 a savage who had dreamt that his little finger was cut off actually submitting to that operation2 and another1 who had found himself in his dream a prisoner among enemies1 getting himself tied to a stake and burnt in various parts of the body 7,h4 ,n4 ,f41 vol4 iii4 pp4 #cec1 #ced74 ,the ,jews have in their ritual a singular ceremony for removing the influence of bad dreams4 ,the person who has dreamt something which seems to portend evil1 is said to choose three friends1 and standing before them as they sit1 to repeat seven times3 ,a good dream have ,i seen4 ,to which they reply3 ,a good dream thou hast seen2 it is good and shall be good2 the compassionate ,god1 who is good1 make it good4 ,and the conversation between the dreamer and the interpreters continues for some time1 the general effect being to convey ,god's blessing to the former and convert his trouble into gladness4 ,at the end the interpreters say3 ,go eat thy bread with joy1 and drink thy wine with a cheerful heart1 for ,god now accepteth thy works4 ,and penitence and prayers and righteousness will set aside the evil that hath been doomed1 and peace be unto us and unto all ,israel1 ,amen4 ,to this the author of the book appends the remark that the ,jews believe that all dreams come to pass according to the interpretation that is made of them1 for which reason they relate their dreams to none but friends 7,rel4 of ,jews1 p4 #ga-gd74 ,but that they can believe it to be in the power of their friends to change the meaning of the dream by an arbitrary interpretation seems scarcely possible4 ,it may1 therefore1 be the meaning of this passage that an unfavorable interpretation is in itself ominous of misfortune1 or that they are desirous not to hear the worst construction that can be put upon a dream4 ,belief in the prophetic signification of dreams is not only not discountenanced by the ,christian religion1 but is explicitly taught by it4 ,if in the present age this belief has fallen somewhat out of repute1 this is not because there can be any doubt that the inspired writers of the ,christian ,scriptures firmly held it1 but is a feature of the general relaxation of the bonds of dogma which characterizes the modern mind4 ,to take a few instances3 when ,abraham had called ,sarah his sister1 and thus permitted the king of ,gerar to appropriate her1 ,god himself came to ,abimelech by night in a dream1 and told him that she was a married woman 7,gen4 xx4 #c74 ,highly important information as to the future of his race was given to ,jacob in a dream 7,gen4 xxviii4 #aa-ae74 ,his son ,joseph enjoyed an extraordinary faculty1 not only of dreaming true dreams himself1 but also of interpreting the dreams of others4 ,it was his own prophetic dreams which led to his sale into the hands of the traders by his brothers1 and it was his power of correct interpretation which both freed him from his prison in ,egypt1 and led to his promotion to the high office he afterwards held at the ,egyptian court 7,gen4 xxxvii41 #e-aa2 ,gen4 xl41 xli74 ,moreover1 ,joseph1 who must be considered an authority on the subject1 expressly informed ,pharaoh1 when that monarch had related his dreams that ,god had showed him what he was about to do 7,gen4 xli4 #be-bh74 ,a most important dream was granted to ,solomon1 to whom the ,lord appeared in a dream by night1 and told him to ask whatever favor he might wish3 on which occasion the king preferred his celebrated request for wisdom 7#a ,kings iii41 #e-ae74 ,another ruler1 ,nebuchadnezzar1 was also visited by a prophetic dream1 the nature of which was revealed to the interpreter1 ,daniel1 in a night vision1 by ,god himself1 who thus admitted that it was he who had sent it4 ,a further communication was made to ,nebuchadnezzar1 in the dream which he himself has recorded in the proclamation which bears witness at the same time to the fulfillment of its warning 7,daniel ii41 iv74 ,but of all the dreams handed down to us by the ,scriptural writers1 by far the most material1 as evidence of their ,divine character1 is that on which the mystery of the ,incarnation mainly rests4 ,take away the dream in which ,joseph was informed that the ,holy ,ghost was the parent of ,mary's first-born child 7,matt4 i4 #bj71 and that mystery will depend exclusively on a story of an angel's visit1 of necessity related by ,mary herself 7,luke i4 #ce72 for obvious reasons not the most trustworthy witness on so delicate a point4 ,but this is not all2 for it was by a dream that the ,magi1 after their adoration1 were warned to escape the vengeance of ,herod 7,matt4 ii4 #ab72 and by a dream that the life of the infant ,christ was preserved in the massacre of the innocents 7,matt4 ii4 #ac74 ,christianity1 therefore1 may be said to owe its very existence to the celestial intimations conveyed in dreams1 and ,christians cannot consistently embrace any theory which would lead to a denial of their holy and prophetic character4 ,since1 moreover1 we have numerous instances in the ,bible of such dreams being granted to heathens and idolaters it is plain that the ,christian deity does not confine his nocturnal visitations to orthodox believers4 ,if the chief butler1 the chief baker1 ,pharaoh1 and ,nebuchadnezzar dreamt prophetically1 so may any of us at any time according to this teaching4 ,on the other hand1 this power may be due to a special outpouring of the ,holy ,spirit1 as implied in the prediction of ,joel that your sons and your daughters shall prophecy1 your old men shall dream dreams1 your young men shall see visions 7,joel ii4 #bh74 ,so that we may completely endorse the conclusion of the ,rev4 ,principal ,barry1 who discusses this subject with much solemnity in ,smith's ,dictionary of the ,bible1 that the ,scripture claims the dream1 as it does every other action of the human mind1 as a medium through which ,god may speak to man1 either directly1 that is1 as we call it1 'providentially1' or indirectly1 in virtue of a general influence upon all his thoughts2 but whether there is anything to be said in support of the further inference that 'revelation by dreams' may be expected to pass away1 is not equally clear4 ,assuredly no passage can be produced which1 even by implication1 states that this method of communication was temporary or transient2 and considering that it continued in operation from the days of ,abraham to those of ,jesus1 it is hard to see how the ,bible can be made to support the notion that it is to cease entirely at any period of human history4 ,on the contrary1 the ,scriptural writers1 both old and new1 would practically have agreed with ,homer3 ,the dream also is from ,zeus 7,iliad1 i4 #fc74 ,indeed1 the passage in which that deity sends the personified ,dream to bear a message to ,agamemnon 7,ibid41 ii4 #h-ae71 differs only in its mythological coloring from the representations in the ,bible of dreams in which ,god comes or appears to the sleeper1 or in which he charges an angel to convey to him his purpose or his will4 ,and the discrimination commanded to be exercised between prophecies or dreams deserving attention1 and prophecies or dreams contrived merely to test the fidelity of the ,israelites1 and therefore not to be received as true1 fully corresponds to the distinction drawn in the ,odyssey between dreams passing through the iron gate1 and dreams passing through the ivory gate4 ,those that came through the horn gate brought true intimations2 but those that came through the ivory gate were sent to deceive 7,od4 xix4 #efj-efh74 ,another involuntary action through which ,god communicates with man is sneezing4 ,from the lowest savages to the most educated nation on the face of the earth1 this simple physical event is viewed as an omen4 ,a peculiarity attending this particular kind of manifestation is1 that it is usual for those present when it occurs to notice it by saying something of favorable augury4 ,in ,samoa1 one of the ,polynesian islands1 it was common to say1 ,life to you6 7,n4 ,y41 p4 #cdg47 an exclamation which in sense corresponds almost exactly to the ,german ,gesundheit6 7health7 to the ,italian ,salute6 and to our own ,god bless you6 on the same occasion4 ,south ,african savages have the same sentiment of the religious nature of the omen involved in sneezing4 ,thus1 among the ,kafirs we learn that it used always to be said when a man sneezed1 ',may ,utikxo ,god ever regard me with favor4' ,canon ,callaway1 who has acutely noticed the parallelism among various nations in respect of the feeling associated with this action1 further informs us that among the ,amazulu1 if a child sneeze1 it is regarded as a good sign2 and if it be ill1 they believe it will recover4 ,on such an occasion they exclaim1 ',tutuka1' ,grow4 ,when a grown up person sneezes1 he says1 ',bakiti1 ngi hambe kade1' ,spirits of our people1 grant me a long life4 ,as he believes that at the time of sneezing the spirit of his house is in some especial proximity to him1 he believes it is a time especially favorable to prayer1 and that whatever he asks for will be given2 hence he may say1 ',bakwiti1 inkomo1' ,spirits of our people1 give me cattle1 or ',bakwiti1 abntwana1' ,spirits of our people1 give me children4 ,diviners among the natives are very apt to sneeze1 which they regard as an indication of the presence of the spirits2 the diviner adores by saying1 ',makosi1' ,lords1 or ,masters 7,r4 ,s4 ,a41 part i4 p4 #fd74 ,a similar belief prevails among the ,parsees1 who consider a sneeze as a mark of victory obtained over the evil spirits who besiege the interior of the body by the fire which animates man1 and who accordingly render thanks to ,ahuramazda when this event happens 7,z4 ,a41 vol4 ii4 p4 #eih74 ,classical antiquity presents us with an example of a famous sneeze4 ,at a critical moment in the expedition of the ,ten ,thousand against ,artaxerxes1 when they were left in a hostile country surrounded with perplexities and perils1 ,xenophon encouraged them by an address in which he urged that if they would take a certain course1 they had with the favor of the gods1 many and good hopes of safety4 ,just at these words1 somebody sneezes1 and immediately the drooping hearts of the soldiery were comforted by this assurance of divine protection4 ,with one impulse they worshipped the god2 and ,xenophon remarked that since1 when they were in the very act of speaking of safety1 this favorable augury of ,zeus the ,savior had appeared1 it seemed proper to him that they should vow thank-offerings to this deity1 to be presented on their first arrival in a friendly country1 and also that they should make a vow to sacrifice to the other gods according to their ability 7,xen4 ,anab4 iii4 #b4 #i74 ,not only is it customary in ,germany to welcome a sneeze with the above-mentioned exclamation of ,gesundheit6 but a notion is stated to prevail that should one person be thinking of something in the future1 and another sneeze at the moment he is thus engaged1 the thing thought of will come to pass4 ,so that the commonest character ascribed to sneezing is that of an auspicious omen4 ,other phenomena may serve as omens1 and such phenomena may be either natural or preternatural4 ,in the first case their prophetic or significant character is entirely due to the interpretation put upon them by men2 in the second1 it is inherent in their very nature1 which at once renders them conspicuous as exceptions to the usual course4 ,those of the first class have thus a dual function2 contemplated on the other side1 they are merely events belonging to the regular sequence of causes and effects2 contemplated on the other1 they are especially contrived as indications of the divine purposes4 ,hence1 to one observer they may bear the appearance of ordinary phenomena2 to another1 better informed1 they may convey important intimations of the future4 ,tacitus mentions1 for example1 the favorable augury that was granted to the ,romans on the eve of a battle with the ,germans by the flight of eight eagles who sought the woods 7,tac4 ,ann41 ii4 #ag4 #b74 ,the same author informs us of a melancholy omen which occurred to ,paetus when he and his army were crossing the ,euphrates4 ,without apparent cause1 the horse which bore the consular insignia turned backwards 7,ibid41 xv4 #g4 #c74 ,each of these signs was of course followed by its appropriate events4 ,a belief which is thus found in a civilized nation naturally has its prototype among the uncivilized4 ,the ,kafirs believe that the spirits send them omens4 ,thus a wild animal entering a kraal is regarded as a messenger from the spirit to remind the people that they have done something wrong4 ,another omen which is considered very terrible is the bleating of a sheep while it is being slaughtered4 ,a councilor1 to whom it occurred to hear this sign1 was told by a prophet that it foreboded his death4 ,strange to say1 his chief soon after sent soldiers to kill him1 and the man only averted his threatened fate by escaping to ,natal4 ,among other natural events which are omens to the ,kafirs are1 a child born dead2 a woman two days in parturition2 a man burnt while sitting by the fire1 unless he were asleep or drunk 7,k4 ,n4 pp4 #afb1 #afc74 ,an unexpected whirlwind will suggest to the ,chinese the contest of evil spirits2 and the flying of a crow in a peculiar direction fill them with consternation4 ,in such a deplorable state1 gravely observes the missionary who records these facts1 is the heathen mind 7,c4 ,o41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bjh74 ,perhaps he did not consider that there were many in more enlightened countries who would be alarmed at the omen implied by a dinner-party of thirteen1 and who would regard it as of evil augury to begin a journey on ,friday4 ,in such a deplorable state is the ,christian mind4 ,ceylon appears to be remarkable for the faith placed by its inhabitants in omens1 which are even said to regulate their whole conduct and to intimate their destiny from birth onwards4 ,children1 of whose future the astrologers predict evil1 are sometimes destroyed in order to avoid their pre-determined misery4 ,on going out in the morning1 the ,singhalese anxiously remark the object they encounter first1 in order to deduce from it a favorable or unfavorable augury for the business of the day4 ,i1 as a ,european1 says the author who tells us these facts1 was always a glad sight to them2 for a white man or a woman with child were good omens2 but beggars and deformed persons so unlucky1 as even to stop these hapless folk from proceeding in the work they were about during the day on which these boding signs were the first things to meet their gaze 7,a4 ,i4 ,c41 p4 #aid74 ,another phenomenon of a somewhat less ordinary kind serves as an omen to the ,singhalese1 though apparently only in reference to a single fact4 ,there is visible in ,ceylon a peculiar and beautiful meteor1 termed ,buddha rays1 which is supposed by the natives only to appear over a temple or tomb of ,buddha's relics1 and from thence to emanate4 ,the appearance of these rays is taken by believers as a sign that the ,buddhist faith will last for the destined span of five thousand years from its founder's death 7,e4 ,y41 vol4 i4 p4 #ccg72 much as the rainbow is held by ,jews and ,christians to be the token of a promise that ,god will never again punish the world by a universal deluge4 ,the next class of omens need not consist of phenomena which are absolutely beyond the range of physical law1 provided they be sufficiently rare to strike the imagination of observers as marvelous occurrences4 ,for example1 an eclipse of the sun may be an omen to savage or very uninstructed people2 a comet1 being more unusual1 will seem ominous to nations standing on a much higher grade of culture4 ,advancing still higher1 extraordinary and inexplicable sights in the heavens or on earth will stand for portents to all but the scientifically minded4 ,an example of the latter class is found in the temporary withering of the ,ruminal tree1 which had sheltered the infancy of ,romulus and ,remus #hdj years before 7,tac4 ,ann41 xiii4 #eh74 ,at the time at which ,tacitus begins his history1 there were1 he says1 prodigies in the sky and on earth1 warnings of lightnings and presages of future things 7,tac4 ,hist41 i4 #c4 #b74 ,popular imagination1 besides converting natural1 but rare1 phenomena into omens1 invents others which are altogether supernatural4 ,in the disturbed days of ,otho and ,vitellius1 it was rumored that a form of larger than human dimensions had issued from the shrine of ,juno2 that a statue of ,julius on the ,tiberine island had turned round from west to east without any perceptible agency2 that an ox in ,etruria had spoken2 that animals had brought forth strange progeny2 and that other alarming exceptions to the laws of nature had been observed 7,ibid41 i4 #hf4 #a74 ,the supposed contraction of a man's shadow is thought in ,south ,africa to portend his death 7,r4 ,s4 ,a41 pt4 i4 p4 #abf74 ,the ,irish ,banshee is a being who does not belong to any species recognized by science1 and who1 moreover1 is heard to scream only before a death in the family to which she is attached4 ,the ticking sound produced by a small insect in the wooden furniture of a room is termed in ,scotland the death-watch1 and has the same ominous significance4 ,to one family1 a drummer heard to drum outside the castle is significant of death2 in another1 it may be that a particular ghost1 seen by a casual visitor who knows nothing of its meaning1 conveys a similar intimation4 ,the birth of great men is often supposed to be marked by extraordinary signs4 ,at my nativity1 says ,owen ,glendower1 ,the front of heaven was full of fiery shapes1 ,of burning cressets2 and at my birth1 ,the frame and huge foundation of the earth ,shak'd like a coward4 ,and again3-- ,the goats ran from the mountains1 and the herds ,were strangely clamorous to the frighted fields4 ,these signs have marked me extraordinary2 ,and all the courses of my life do show ,i am not in the roll of common men4#f ,from signs which the bounty of nature supplies without effort on the part of human beings1 we proceed to those which are granted only in reply to solicitations on the part of some person or persons in quest of supernatural information4 ,of these1 a leading place must be assigned to those which are obtained through the medium of diviners4 ,divination is in many parts of the world a highly-developed and lucrative art4 ,the natives of ,south ,africa1 being in any perplexity1 resort to the professional diviner to help them out of it4 ,should cattle be lost1 should a goat be too long in giving birth to its kids1 should a relation be ill1 the diviner is asked to inform those who consult him1 both what it is that has happened1 and what they are to do4 ,sometimes his replies are assisted by sticks held by the people1 who beat them vehemently on the ground when he divines correctly1 and gently when he divines incorrectly2 sometimes he himself makes use of small sticks or bones1 which indicate by their movements the thing desired to be known2 sometimes again mysterious voices1 supposed to be those of spirits1 are heard to speak4 ,in a case related by one of ,canon ,callaway's informants 7who was quite sceptical as to that class of diviners who required the people to strike the ground71 a correct answer was given by a diviner who employed bones as his professional instruments4 ,he had gone to inquire about a goat of his brother's1 which had been yeaning some days1 and had not brought forth4 ,the diviner discovered from his bones what was the matter2 he declared that the she-goat had been made ill by sorcerers1 and told them that when they reached home it would have given birth to two kids4 ,the prediction was fulfilled4 ,on reaching home there were two kids1 a white and a grey one2 the very colors the diviner had seen in his inspired vision4 ,i was at once satisfied1 observes the narrator 7,r4 ,s4 ,a41 pt4 iii4 p4 #ccd-ccf74 ,another mode of divining is by the aid of familiar spirits1 who address the consulting party without being themselves visible4 ,a native relates that his adopted father went to inquire of a diviner by spirits 7named ,umancele7 concerning his wife's illness4 ,when the relations of the sick woman entered to salute1 some heard the spirits saluting them1 saying1 ,good-day1 ,so and ,so4 ,the person thus addressed started1 and exclaimed1 ,oh1 whence does the voice come8 ,i was saluting ,umancele yonder4 ,the divination in this case was not successful1 and the narrator pathetically regrets that a bullock was given to the diviner for his false information4 ,in another case a woman1 who likewise divined by means of spirits1 was perfectly correct in all she said4 ,some members of a family in which a little boy suffered from convulsions went to consult her2 and she discovered1 or rather the spirits discovered for her1 what was the matter with him2 what was the relationship of those who had come2 and what were their circumstances4 ,she prescribed a remedy1 and predicted a complete recovery4 ,the cause of the illness was1 according to her1 the displeasure of ancestral spirits4 ,a sacrifice was to be offered to them2 and the village was to be removed to another place4 ,these things done1 she declared that the boy would have no more of the convulsions from which he suffered4 ,if he did1 they might take back their money4 ,all turned out as she had said1 to the very letter 7,r4 ,s4 ,a41 pt4 iii4 p4 #cfa-cgd74 ,the priests of the ,north ,american tribes have a peculiar method of divination4 ,having received a handful of tobacco as a fee1 they will summon a spirit to answer the inquiries of their visitors4 ,this they do by enclosing themselves in lodges1 in which they utter incantations4 ,as may be supposed1 the spirits who obey the summons of the ,indian priest are not much more useful as guides to action than those who figure at the seance of his civilized competitor1 the medium4 ,their replies1 though usually clear and correct1 are usually of that profoundly ambiguous purport which leaves the anxious inquirer little wiser than he was before 7,m4 ,n4 ,w41 p4 #bfh74 ,brinton1 however1 having stated this1 proceeds to speak of cases1 apparently well attested1 in which the diviners have foreseen coming events with unaccountable clearness4 ,for instance1 when ,captain ,jonathan ,carver1 in #agfg1 was among the ,killistenoes1 and that tribe was suffering from want of food1 the chief priest consulted the divinities1 and predicted with perfect accuracy the hour on the following day when a canoe would arrive4 ,brinton adds1 on the authority of ,john ,mason ,brown1 that when ,mr4 ,brown and two companions were pursuing an apparently hopeless quest for a band of ,indians1 they were met by some warriors of that very band1 who declared that the appearance of the white man had been exactly described by the medicine-man who had sent them4 ,and what renders the story remarkable is1 that the description was repeated to ,mr4 ,brown by the warriors before they saw his two companions4 ,the priest was unable to explain what he had done1 except by saying that he saw them coming1 and heard them talk on their journey 7,m4 ,n4 ,w41 pp4 #bgj1 #bga74 ,among the ,ostiacks in former days1 the priests1 when they intended to divine1 caused themselves to be bound1 threw themselves on the ground1 and made all sorts of grimaces and contortions till they felt themselves inspired with a reply to the question that had been put to the idol4 ,those who had come to consult the oracle1 sighed and moaned and struck upon certain vessels so as to make a noise1 till they saw a bluish vapor1 which they conceived to be the spirit of prophecy1 and which1 while spreading over all the spectators1 seized the diviner and caused him to fall into convulsions 7,bernard1 vol4 viii4 p4 #dab74 ,in ancient ,china1 the instruments of divination were the shell of the tortoise and the stalks of a certain grass or reed 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 iii4 ,proleg4 p4 #aif74 ,these are frequently spoken of in the sacred books as the tortoise and milfoil1 and there are historical examples of their employment4 ,the following rules for divination are given by a speaker in the ,shoo ,king3-- ,having chosen and appointed officers for divining by the tortoise and by the milfoil1 they are to be charged on occasion to perform their duties4 ,in doing this1 they will find the appearances of rain1 clearing up1 cloudiness1 want of connection1 and crossing2 and the symbols1 solidity and repentance4 ,in all1 the indications are seven2--five given by the tortoise1 and two by the milfoil1 by which the errors of affairs may be traced out4 ,these officers having been appointed1 when the operations with the tortoise and milfoil are proceeded with1 three men are to obtain and interpret the indications and symbols1 and the consenting words of two of them are to be followed 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 iii4 p4 #cce74 ,further instructions are then given in case the ,emperor1 nobles1 officers1 or people1 and any or all of these1 should disagree with the tortoise and milfoil2 the greater weight being given to the latter 7,ibid41 p4 #cbg74 ,of modern divination in ,china1 ,dr4 ,legge recounts the following story3-- ,i once saw a father and son divining after one of the fashions of the present day4 ,they tossed the bamboo roots1 which came down in the unlucky positions for a dozen times in succession4 ,at last a lucky cast was made4 ,they looked into each other's faces1 laughed heartily1 and rose up1 delighted1 from their knees4 ,the divination was now successful1 and they dared not repeat it6 7,ibid41 ,proleg4 p4 #aig74 ,here it seems that heaven was merely called in to give its sanction to a foregone conclusion4 ,the ,singhalese have a curious method of discovering1 by a species of divination1 what god it is who has caused the illness of a patient4 ,with any little stick1 says ,knox1 they make a bow1 and on the string thereof they hang a thing they have to cut betel-nuts1 somewhat like a pair of scissors2 then holding the stick or bow by both ends1 they repeat the names of all1 both god and devils3 and when they come to him who hath afflicted them1 then the iron or the bowstring will swing 7,h4 ,r4 ,c41 p4 #gf74 ,divination1 as is well known1 was regularly practiced by the ancients1 who read the will of the gods in the entrails of animals1 and who employed1 as a help in foreseeing the future and guiding their conduct1 the class of professional diviners known as augurs4 ,another method1 by which it has often been supposed that ,god entered into communication with man1 is that of the movements of the stars and planets4 ,hence the pseudo-science of astrology1 which was so much cultivated in the middle ages before its supersession by astronomy4 ,in ,india1 observes ,karl ,twesten1 the stars were very early consulted as oracles4 ,manu excludes astrologers from the sacrifices2 and in later times astrology became very general4 ,according to ,twesten1 there is an astrologer in almost every ,hindu community1 who is much consulted1 and determines the favorable moment for every important undertaking 7,r4 ,i41 p4 #bhe74 ,antiquity1 wide extension1 and great persistency may all be pleaded on behalf of the notion that terrestrial events are foreshadowed by a system of celestial signals4 ,there is a touch of astrological belief in the evangelical narrative that the birth of ,christ was intimated to the ,magi by a star in the east4 ,sometimes1 when it was desirable not to ascertain future events1 but to decide between guilt and innocence1 truth and falsehood1 the divine ,being himself was called in as umpire1 and was supposed to convey his judgment by the turn of events in a pre-arranged case4 ,this is the theory of those communications from ,god to man which are made by ordeals4 ,ordeals were of various kinds1 according to the nature of the issue to be tried4 ,did one man charge another with some kind of disgraceful conduct1 the accuser was summoned to put his words to the test of a single combat1 in which truth was held to lie on the side of the victor2 was an old woman suspected of witchcraft1 she was thrown into the nearest pond1 with thumbs and toes tied together1 where her floating was regarded as certain evidence of her guilt4 ,innocence of legal crime1 or in the case of women1 of adultery1 has very frequently been established by the method of ordeals4 ,several authors have noticed the ordeals in use among the natives on the west coast of ,africa4 ,one of them1 writing of ,sierra ,leone1 informs us that if an accused person can find a chief to patronize him1 he is permitted to clear himself by submitting either to have a hot iron applied to his skin1 or to dip his hand in boiling oil to pull out some object put into it1 or to have his tongue stroked with a red-hot copper ring4 ,since his being burnt is considered as a proof of guilt1 it would not appear that the chances of escape were great4 ,upon the ,gold ,coast1 the ordeal consists in chewing the bark of a tree1 with a prayer that it may cause his death if he be not innocent4 ,in the neighborhood of ,sierra ,leone1 a very peculiar ordeal is practiced1 that1 namely1 of drinking water prepared from the bark of a certain tree1 and termed red water4 ,before taking it1 the drinker repeats a prayer containing an imprecation on himself if guilty4 ,should this decoction cause purging or pains in the bowels1 it is a proof of guilt2 should it1 on the contrary1 excite vomiting1 and produce no effect on the bowels for twenty-four hours1 an acquittal ensues1 and the person who has thus successfully undergone the trial is held in higher esteem than he enjoyed before 7,n4 ,a41 vol4 i4 p4 #abi-acc74 ,sometimes this singular mode of trial is employed in cases where a corpse is supposed to have accused some person of causing the death of its former owner 7,s4 ,l41 p4 #abd-abg74 ,on the ,gold ,coast1 every person entering into any obligation is obliged to drink the swearing liquor4 ,thus1 should one nation intend to assist another1 all the chief ones are obliged to drink this liquor1 with an imprecation that their fetiche may punish them with death if they do not assist them with utmost vigor to extirpate their enemy4 ,since1 however1 a dispensing power over such oaths has been exercised by the priests1 some negroes observe the precaution1 before taking oaths1 of causing the priest to swear first1 and then drink the red water1 with an imprecation that the fetich may punish him if he absolves any one without the consent of all the parties interested in the contract 7,d4 ,c4 ,g41 pp4 #abd1 #abe74 ,the sanction of ,scripture is given to an ordeal of precisely this nature is the case of women charged with adultery2 and it is curious to find the very same mode of testing the fidelity of wives employed both by the ancient ,hebrews and modern negroes4 ,the law of ,moses was1 that if a man suspected his wife of unfaithfulness1 and the spirit of jealousy came upon him1 he might take her to the priest 7with an offering1 of course71 and leave him to deal with her in the following manner3 ,taking holy water in an earthen vessel1 the priest was to mix in it some of the dust of the floor of the tabernacle1 and set the woman with her head uncovered1 and the jealousy offering in her hands1 before the ,lord4 ,he was then to charge her with an oath1 saying1 that if she was pure1 she was to be free from the bitter water that caused the curse1 but if not1 the ,lord was to make her a curse and an oath among her people1 causing her hips 7or thighs7 to disappear and her belly to swell4 ,the water was to go into her bowels to produce these effects4 ,hereupon the woman was to say1 ,amen1 amen4 ,according to the effects of the bitter water upon her constitution1 was her guilt or her innocence adjudged to be 7,num4 v4 #aa-ca74 ,now the procedure of the negroes1 in similar cases1 is almost an exact reproduction 7it can scarcely be an imitation7 of that enjoined by ,jehovah4 ,red water is administered1 instead of bitter water2 but with this exception1 precisely the same method is pursued1 and precisely the same doctrine underlies the use of the ordeal4 ,god is expected1 both by ,jews and negroes1 to manifest the truth where human skill is incompetent to discover it4 ,the negroes1 according to ,bosman1 believe that where the red water is drunk by one who makes a false declaration1 he will either be swelled by that liquor till he bursts1 or will shortly die of a languishing sickness2 the first punishment they imagine more peculiar to women1 who take this draught to acquit them of any accusation of adultery3 a belief which curiously reminds us of the old ,jewish superstition1 that the hips will fall away and the belly swell in the case of the adulterous wife who has taken the bitter water on a false pretence4 ,bosman himself has correctly observed on the remarkable similarity of the two procedures 7,d4 ,c4 ,g41 p4 #abe74 ,a slightly different mode of trying suspected adultresses by ordeal prevails among the ,ostiacks 7in ,northern ,asia74 ,should an ,ostiack entertain doubts of his wife's fidelity1 he cuts off a handful of hair from a bear's skin1 and takes it to her4 ,if innocent1 she receives it without hesitation2 but if guilty1 she does not venture to touch it1 and is accordingly repudiated4 ,the conviction reigns among these people1 that were a woman to lie under these circumstances1 the bear to whom the hair belonged would revive in three days and come to devour her 7,bernard1 vol4 viii4 pp4 #dd1 #de74 ,more important1 however1 and more universal than any of the above means of communication from ,god to man1 is the method of communication by miracles4 ,there is probably no great religion in the world1 the establishment of which has been altogether dissociated from miracles4 ,they form the most striking1 most indisputable1 most intelligible proof of the divine will4 ,not indeed that there is any close logical connection between the performance of a wonder1 and the truth of the wonder-worker's doctrines2 but popular imagination jumps readily to the conclusion that a man1 whom rumor or tradition has invested with supernatural powers over nature1 must also be in possession of correct opinions1 or even of superhuman knowledge1 on the mysterious questions with which religion deals4 ,hence ecclesiastical historians1 of all ages and countries1 have sought to show that those from whom they deduced the systems in which they wished their readers to believe1 were either themselves gifted with thaumaturgic faculties1 or were the subjects of special marvels worked upon them4 ,such miracles have always served as their credentials1 indicating their high character1 and entitling them to demand the obedience of mankind to the commands they brought4 ,the establishment of ,buddhism1 for example1 was attended by the performance of extraordinary miracles4 ,not only did the ,buddha himself frequently perform supernatural feats2 not only did his disciples1 when they attained a certain grade of sanctity1 receive the faculty of flying and doing other wonderful things2 but he actually proved the superiority of his claims over those of others by a pitched battle in thaumaturgy4 ,certain ,tirthyas1 or heretical teachers1 had the audacity to challenge him to contend with them in working miracles1 and the trial of skill ended1 of course1 in their ignominious defeat 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #afb-ahi74 ,much in the same way did ,moses enter into a rivalry with ,pharaoh's magicians1 who were overcome by his superior miracles as the ,tirthyas were by those of ,gautama ,buddha4 ,as ,jewish prophets and ,christian saints received by spiritual inheritance the power of performing miracles1 so also did the ,fathers of ,buddhism4 ,of one of the greatest of these1 named ,nagardjuna1 it is related that a ,brahman who had entered into a dispute with him produced a magical pond1 in the middle of which was a lotus with a thousand leaves1 but that ,nagardjuna produced a magical elephant which destroyed the magical pond 7,wassiljew1 p4 #bca74 ,this again may remind us of the serpent of ,moses1 which swallowed up the serpents of the magicians2 or of the fire brought down from heaven by ,elijah in his controversy with the prophets of ,baal4 ,another eminent ,buddhist1 ,asvagosha1 was remarkable as a preacher4 ,the officials at the court of a certain king reproached him with holding this holy man in too high esteem4 ,the king thereupon took seven horses1 kept them six days without food1 and then led them to the place where ,asvagosha was preaching to be fed4 ,the horses would not touch the food that was offered1 but shed tears at the words of the preacher 7,wassiljew1 p4 #bcb74 ,the history of the ,mongols records some equally wonderful performances on the part of a ,lama 7or priest7 named ,bogda4 ,when some messengers came to meet him1 he raised his hand in a threatening way against a river1 the waters of which immediately began to run upwards instead of downwards2 by which miracle1 observes the historian1 an unshakeable faith was established in all minds4 ,no wonder4 ,the division of the ,red ,sea and the ,jordan were child's play to this4 ,the same man caused many others to believe by suddenly producing a spring in a dry place4 ,in another country which he visited1 he subdued all the dragons and other baneful creatures to his will 7,g4 ,o4 ,m41 p4 #bbg74 ,if the founder of the ,mussulman religion did not claim any direct power of performing miracles1 yet the communication to him of the ,suras which compose the ,koran was a standing miracle4 ,he professed to fall into an ecstatic condition1 in which he received the direct instructions of his ,god2 and his care1 when entering the sick-room of a friend1 to avoid treading on the angels' wings which he saw extended in all directions1 indicates a pretension to more than human faculties4 ,the present votaries of the ,mohammedan faith believe in the power of their saints to work miracles1 for we read of the sick being taken to their ,sheik to be cured by the imposition of his feet 7,dervishes1 p4 #cdg74 ,that the ,christian religion was largely indebted to miracles for its success during its early years need hardly be remarked4 ,not only did ,christ himself perform miracles of the most extraordinary kind1 but the power was1 if not wholly1 yet to some extent1 transmitted to his apostles1 and was frequently exercised by the saints and ,fathers of the early ,church4 ,jesus himself1 according to tradition1 relied largely on his miracles as proofs of his divine mission2 for when ,john the ,baptist sent disciples to inquire who he was1 he replied by telling them to report to their master that the blind received sight1 the lame walked1 the lepers were cleansed1 the deaf heard1 the dead were raised up1 and the poor had the gospel preached to them4 ,so that the possession of this unusual gift of healing and re-animating1 was regarded by him 7or1 more accurately1 by his biographers7 as a sufficient answer to the doubt entertained by ,john whether he were really the ,messiah1 or whether another were to come4 ,how great was the importance attached to the possession of miraculous powers by the early ,christian ,church1 may be gathered from a passage in which ,irenus endeavors to cover certain heretics with confusion1 by asserting that they are unable to do the things that are commonly done by the adherents of the true faith4 ,for they can neither confer sight on the blind1 nor hearing on the deaf1 nor chase away all sorts of demons--none1 indeed1 except those that are sent into others by themselves1 if they can even do so much as this4 ,nor can they cure the weak1 or the lame1 or the paralytic1 or those who are distressed in any other part of the body1 as has often been done in regard to bodily infirmity4 ,nor can they furnish effective remedies for those external accidents which may occur4 ,and so far are they from being able to raise the dead1 as the ,lord raised them1 and the apostles did by means of prayer1 and as has been frequently done in the brotherhood on account of some necessity--the entire ,church in that particular locality entreating the boon with much fasting and prayer1 the spirit of the dead man has returned1 and he has been bestowed in answer to the prayers of the saints--that they do not even believe this can possibly be done1 and hold that the resurrection from the dead is simply an acquaintance with that truth which they proclaim4#g ,thus1 the cure of infirmities and diseases by supernatural means were every-day achievements of the early ,christians2 and even the dead were sometimes restored to life1 when sufficient pains were taken to obtain the favorable attention of the ,almighty4 ,it is not possible1 observes the same author in another place1 to name the number of the gifts which the ,church scattered throughout the whole world has received from ,god1 in the name of ,jesus ,christ1 who was crucified under ,pontius ,pilate1 and which she exerts day by day for the benefit of the ,gentiles4#h ,hence the ,mormons1 who claim to possess at the present day the powers which have departed from ,christians in general1 are perfectly in accordance with ,irenus in holding that signs like these are invariably attendant on the kingdom of ,god4 ,revelations1 visions1 the powers of prophecy1 of healing1 of speaking with tongues1 of casting out devils1 and working other miracles1 are 7they contend7 the prerogatives of those who belong to this kingdom4 ,history1 in relating first the miracles of the ,jewish patriarchs and prophets1 then those of the ,christian ,fathers1 powerfully supports this theory4 ,scripture in several unambiguous passages entirely confirms it4 ,and the daily experience of the ,latter-day ,saints1 if we accept their statements1 bears witness to its truth1 by presenting abundant examples of the actual exercise of such supernatural gifts within their own society4 ,thus1 one person is cured of blindness2 another of dislocation of the thigh2 another has his fractured backbone restored2 in the fourth case it is a rupture that is healed2 in the fifth convulsive fits that are stopped4#i ,i have myself been present at a ,mormon meeting for public worship1 and have heard the saints who were gathered together narrate1 with perfect solemnity and apparent good faith1 the miraculous cures which they themselves experienced1 or which they had personally witnessed4 ,one after another rose to bear his testimony to some case of the kind which had fallen within his immediate knowledge4 ,to these uncultivated and fanatical people1 holy events still were what they have long ceased to be to the ordinary ,christian world--living realities2 and we may still study in them the mental condition of those who could accept as phenomena occurring in their own day the restoration of sight1 hearing1 or speech2 the expulsion of devils2 and the resurrection of the dead4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,holy ,,places4 ,draw not nigh hither1 said the occupant of the burning bush to ,moses2 put off thy shoes from off thy feet2 for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground 7,exod4 iii4 #e74 ,this verse embodies the universal theory of holy places4 ,they are spots occupied in a special and peculiar manner by the deity or his representative2 and where he finds it easier to communicate with mankind than it is elsewhere4 ,hence1 those who hope or desire to receive some celestial intimation1 resort to such holy places4 ,the oracles of the ancient world1 and the temple at ,jerusalem1 are instances of holy places where the respective gods worshiped by those who frequented them gave responses1 or manifested their presence4 ,holy places are not always consecrated places4 ,sometimes--as in the case of the ,delphian oracle--the consecration is the work of nature2 the divinity intimates in some unmistakable way his presence in the sanctuary which he has himself selected2 and human beings have nothing to do but humbly to receive such communications as he may desire to make4 ,frequently1 however1 holy places have only become holy by the act of consecration2 the local god has not occupied them until they have been duly prepared for him by human labor4 ,on the other hand1 consecrated places are always holy places4 ,not indeed that there are always conspicuous intimations of the divine presence2 but it is nevertheless vaguely supposed to haunt the buildings where worship is offered1 and rites are performed1 more than it does the outer world4 ,to begin with a few instances of holy places which have not undergone consecration4 ,on the coast of ,guinea almost every village hath a small appropriated grove4 ,offerings are made in these groves1 and they are regarded as so sacred that no one ventures to injure the trees by plucking1 cutting1 or breaking their branches4 ,universal malediction would be one of the consequences of such misconduct 7,d4 ,c4 ,g41 p4 #abh74 ,mr4 ,turner states that as of old in ,canaan1 sacred groves for heathen worship1 with and without temples1 were quite common in the islands of the ,pacific 7,n4 ,y41 p4 #cbi74 ,these are instances of the sacredness so frequently attached to woods and forests by primitive nations4 ,the groves were ,god's first temples4 ,ere man learned ,to hew the shaft1 and lay the architrave1 ,and spread the roof above them2 ere he framed ,the lofty vault1 to gather and roll back ,the sound of anthems1--in the darkling wood1 ,amidst the cool and silence he knelt down4 ,and offered to the ,mightiest solemn thanks ,and supplication4#aj ,natural characteristics in the same manner determine the quality of holiness attributed to certain spots by the natives of ,africa4 ,holy places among them are those where a god dwells either visibly or invisibly2 particular buildings1 huts1 or hills2 or trees which are remarkable for age1 size1 and strength4 ,they have also sacred groves into which no negro1 not being a priest ventures to intrude4 ,one of the tribes asserts that their god has his dwelling-place in the cavern of a rock that is situated in the bushes 7,g4 d4 ,m41 p4 #cbf74 ,a singular example of a holy place in a more advanced religion is the neighborhood of the ,bo tree1 or ,bogaha tree1 in ,ceylon1 under whose shade the people worship at the great festival4 ,this tree derives its sanctity from the circumstance of its having sheltered ,buddha at an eventful crisis of his life4 ,near it ninety kings are interred2 huts are erected around it for the use of the devotees who repair to it2 and as every sort of uncleanness and dust must be removed from the sacred spot1 the approaches are continually swept by persons appointed for the purpose4 ,besides the ,bo tree1 and the pagodas--or public temples--many of the ,singhalese have private holy places in their own houses4 ,they build in their yards private chapels1 which are little houses like to closets1 and in these they place an image of the ,buddha which they worship 7,h4 ,r4 ,c41 p4 #gc74 ,graves of the dead whom we have loved are apt to become holy places to us all2 and in some religious creeds1 such as those of ,islam and ,christianity1 this veneration is extended to the tombs of persons who have been distinguished by their sanctity4 ,mussulmans pray at the tomb of those they repute saints2 and expect by offering vows at such places1 to obtain relief1 through their saintly intercession1 from sickness1 misfortune4 sterility1 c4 ,miracles take place at these tombs1 and supernatural lights float over them 7,dervishes1 pp4 #gi1 #hj74 ,it is believed1 too1 that the merits of the deceased will insure a favorable reception of the prayers which they offer up in such consecrated places 7,dervishes1 p4 #bgb74 ,sometimes1 again1 the place where some striking event in the history of religion has occurred1 acquires a holiness of its own4 ,thus the ,scala ,santa at ,rome enjoys a preminent holiness possessing the merit of procuring a considerable remission of punishment for those who perform the task of ascending it on their knees4 ,the oracle of ,clarius ,apollo at ,colophon1 mentioned by ,tacitus1 is an example of a large and important class of holy places which were not consecrated places4 ,here it was not a woman1 as at ,delphi 7observes ,tacitus71 who gave the responses2 but a priest1 who descended into a cavern1 and drank water from a secret fountain 7,tac4 ,ann41 ii4 #ed74 ,in ,jewish history we meet with a remarkable instance of a place originally hallowed by the actual appearance of ,god1 in the case of ,bethel1 the house of ,god1 where ,jacob was favored with his remarkable dream4 ,how dreadful is this place6 exclaimed the patriarch on waking2 this is none other but the house of ,god1 and this is the gate of heaven 7,gen4 xxviii4 #ag74 ,in the spot whose holiness had thus been rendered manifest1 ,jacob proceeded to perform consecrating rites2 but1 contrary to the usual order1 the holiness preceded and induced the consecration4 ,more generally1 consecration forms a sort of invitation to the deity to inhabit the place which has thus been rendered suited to his abode4 ,of the holy places which are also consecrated1 a conspicuous place is due to ,solomon's temple2 in the dedication of which the theory just stated is clearly embodied4 ,solomon1 or his historians1 perceived the difficulty of causing a being so transcendently powerful as ,jehovah to dwell within local limits4 ,the monarch1 in his consecrating prayer1 explains that he is well aware that even the heaven of heavens cannot contain him2 much less this house that he has built4 ,nevertheless1 he cannot give up the notion that this house may1 in some degree1 be peculiarly favored by having his especial attention directed towards it4 ,his eyes at least may be open towards it1 and if he cannot be there himself1 his name may4 ,moreover1 when prayers are offered in the temple1 he may listen to them more graciously than to other supplications2 and when the asseverations of contending parties are confirmed by oaths taken before the altar it contains1 he may take unusual pains to execute justice between them4 ,jehovah fully approves of his servant's proposals4 ,he emphatically declares in reply that he has hallowed this house which he has built1 to put his name there for ever2 and that his eyes and his heart shall be there perpetually 7,kings viii4 #bb-;ix4 #c74 ,very primitive peoples hold similar views of the relation of their deities to their temples4 ,just as there was an oracle in the ,jewish temple1 where the glory of the ,lord filled the house of the ,lord1 as it had filled the corresponding place in the tabernacle1 so in most of the ,fijian temples there is a shrine1 where the god is supposed to descend when holding communication with the priests2 and there is also a long piece of native cloth hung at one end of the building1 and from the very ceiling1 which is also connected with the arrival and departure of the god invoked 7,viti1 p4 #cic74 ,it seems to have been a general rule in the temples of these islands to have some object specially connected with the deity1 and through which he might manifest his presence in the place4 ,thus1 in one of them there was a conch shell1 which the god was supposed to blow when he wished the people to rise to war 7,n4 ,y41 p4 #bdj74 ,nay1 there was even an altar erected to ,jehovah and ,jesus ,christ in one of the islands1 to which persons afflicted with all manner of diseases were brought to be healed2 and so great was the reputation which this mar obtained1 that the power of ,jehovah and ,jesus ,christ became great in the estimation of the people 7,n4 ,m4 ,e41 p4 #bh74 ,here an altar1 erected of course by a man not yet converted to ,christianity1 received a blessing no less conspicuous than that granted in ancient times to ,solomon's temple4 ,the ,mexicans and ,peruvians entertained a precisely similar belief to that which we have observed among the ,fijians and the ,hebrews4 ,father ,acosta describes the ruins of a very large building in ,peru which had been a place of worship1 where immense plunder had been carried off by the ,christians4 ,in this temple there was a sure tradition that the devil had spoken1 and given responses in his oracle4 ,the fact of the devil speaking and answering in these false sanctuaries is1 according to the learned father1 a very common thing in ,america2 but the father of lies has become silent since the sign of the cross has been raised in those regions of his previous power 7,h4 ,i41 b4 v4 ch4 #ab74 ,not only were the temples holy in ,peru1 but the whole of the imperial city of ,cozco1 the residence of the ,incas1 enjoyed an exceptional holiness4 ,so much was this the case1 that if two natives of equal rank met one another on the road1 the one coming from ,cozco1 and the other going to it1 the one coming from it received respect and reverence from the one going to it1 which was enhanced to a higher degree if he were a native of ,cozco 7,c4 ,r41 b4 iii4 ch4 #bj74 ,in approaching the great temple at ,cozco1 there were certain limits where all who passed were obliged to take off their shoes3 the very same sign of regard for holy places which ,moses was commanded to observe at the burning bush2 which is practiced by ,parsee priests when ministering in their temples1 and by ,mussulmans in reference to their mosques 7,ibid41 b4 iii4 ch4 #bc74 ,prohibition to all but holy persons to enter holy places is not uncommon4 ,the holy of holies in the ,jewish temple might be entered by no one but the high priest1 and the utmost horror was felt by the ,jews at the violation of their sanctuary by ,pompey4 ,a ,european traveler in ,africa1 finding a grove with a mat hung before it1 wished to enter2 but was entreated not to do so by the negroes1 who informed him that a great spirit1 who might kill him if displeased1 dwelt within4 ,he1 however1 went in1 and found a delightful place2 this being one of those to which only priests were admitted 7,g4 d4 ,m41 p4 #cbf74 ,similarly among the ,parsees1 the ,atesch-gh1 or holy place where worship is performed1 may be entered only by the priests1 except under special circumstances1 when laymen may enter it after due observance of preparatory rites1 and with the face covered4 ,such a case would occur if there were no priest to keep up the sacred fire 7,z4 ,a41 vol4 ii4 p4 #efi74 ,in ,mexico1 where there were two important holy places--the ,cu1 or great temple of ,vitziliputzli1 and the temple of ,tezcatlipuca--the priests alone had the right of entry to this last 7,h4 ,i41 b4 #e1 ch4 #ac74 ,we thus find1 among the several nations of the world1 a consistent and all-pervading theory of holy places4 ,these are not always the scenes of divine revelations1 or of striking events produced by the divine agency2 but they are much more likely to be so favored than other places1 and if communications are distinctly sought1 it must generally be by resorting to such local sanctuaries as are commonly reputed to be fitted for the purpose4 ,where no revelation is either given or expected1 the holy place is yet the abiding home of the deity whose worship is celebrated within its enclosure4 ,and although ,christians may consider their ,god as present everywhere1 yet they are conscious on entering a church1 of coming1 in a peculiar sense1 into his presence2 and they indicate that consciousness by removing their hats1 if men1 and keeping the head covered1 if women4 ,for such is the outward indication of respect which the ,christian ,god is supposed to require of those who set their feet within his holy places4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,holy ,,objects4 ,while a highly-exalted conception of the ,first cause of nature would see him equally in everything1 and believe the whole world to be alike natural and divine1 no actual religion1 believed by any considerable number of persons1 has ever reached so abstract an idea4 ,to all of them some things are more sacred than others2 in the more primitive forms of faith these things are either a species of divinities themselves1 or they are the abode of some divinity2 in the more advanced types1 they are held to be sanctified by the power of ,god1 or to be the earthly representatives of his invisible majesty4 ,to the class of holy objects belong all charms1 amulets1 fetishes1 sacred animals1 and other things of whatever kind1 which are believed in any country to possess a different order of powers from those which scientific investigation discovers in them4 ,the theory underlying the use of such objects among the negroes--and it is practically the same as that of more civilized nations--is well explained by a ,german missionary4 ,fetishes1 or ,shambu1 according to him1 are holy things1 which are supposed to have received a particular power from ,god1 both to drive away evil spirits1 as also to be useful in all illnesses and dangers1 especially against sorcery4 ,they cover both themselves and their gods with fetishes4 ,these descend from father to son1 and are preserved with the greatest care4 ,some are kept in sanctuaries of their own4 ,there exists among these negroes 7the ,mavu7 a class of professional fetish-makers1 who are mostly old women1 and who wear a peculiar dress4 ,a man1 who had fetishes at the bottom of his staircase1 informed the writer that their use was to keep the devil from getting into his house4 ,another tribe of negroes prefer to take things which have been struck by lightning for their fetishes3 the lightning-stroke being1 as the missionary justly concludes1 an indication that a divine power has united itself to these objects 7,g4 d4 ,m41 pp4 #cbb1 #cbc74 ,the natives of ,sierra ,leone are described as placing unlimited faith in griggories1 or charms4 ,these are made of goats' skin2 texts of the ,koran are written upon them1 and they are worn upon various parts of the person4 ,they have distinct functions1 each one being designed to preserve the wearer from a certain kind of evil or danger 7,s4 ,l41 p4 #acb74 ,numerous objects were holy in ,peru4 ,rivers1 fountains1 large stones1 hills1 the tops of mountains1 are mentioned by ,acosta as having been adored by the ,peruvians2 indeed1 he says that they adored whatever natural object appeared very different from the rest1 recognizing therein some peculiar deity4 ,a certain tree1 for instance1 which was cut down by the ,spaniards1 had long been an object of adoration to the ,indians1 on account of its antiquity and size 7,h4 ,i41 b4 #e1 ch4 #e74 ,in another part of the ,american continent1 the neighborhood of ,acadia1 a traveler tells us of a venerable tree which was likewise holy4 ,many marvels were recounted of it1 and it was always loaded with offerings4 ,the sea having washed the soil from about its roots1 it maintained itself a long time almost in the air1 which confirmed the savages in their notion that it was the seat of some great spirit2 and even after it had fallen1 its branches1 so long as they were visible above the surface of the water1 continued to receive the worship of the people 7,n4 ,f41 vol4 iii4 p4 #cdi74 ,not unfrequently the holy object is an animal1 and then it may be regarded either as itself a god1 or as sacred to some god1 who either makes it in some sense his abode1 or regards it with favor and takes it under his care4 ,among animals1 there is none more frequently worshiped than the serpent2 and it has been supposed1 with some plausibility1 that the ,hebrew legend of the fall was directed against serpent-worship4 ,however this may be1 that worship is clearly discernible in the story of the brazen serpent which healed the sickness of the ,israelites in the wilderness 7,num4 xxi4 #h74 ,this would seem to be a dim tradition of a time at which the adoration of the serpent was still practiced by the people of ,jehovah4 ,many other countries afford examples of the same worship4 ,to take a single case2 the ,chevalier des ,marchais1 who traveled in the last century1 relates that serpents of a certain kind were worshiped in ,guinea4 ,there was one1 however1 which was called the father of these gods1 and was reputed to be of prodigious size4 ,it was kept in a place of its own1 where it had secret apartments1 and none but the chief sacrificer was permitted to enter this holy of holies4 ,the king himself might only see it once1 when1 three months after his coronation1 he went to present his offerings 7,v4 ,g41 vol4 ii4 p4 #afi74 ,even ,christianity did not entirely put an end to the worship of the serpent2 for an early ,christian writer1 in a treatise against all heresies1 makes mention of a sect of ,ophites who 7he says7 magnify the serpent to such a degree1 that they prefer him even to ,christ himself2 for it was he1 they say1 who gave us the origin of the knowledge of good and evil4 ,his power and majesty 7they say7 ,moses perceiving1 set up the brazen serpent2 and whoever gazed upon him obtained health4 ,christ himself 7they say further7 imitates ,moses' serpent's sacred power in saying3 ',and as ,moses upreared the serpent in the desert1 so it behoveth the ,son of man to be upreared4' ,him they introduce to bless their eucharistic elements 7,adv4 omn4 haereses41 ,,ii4--,a4 ,n4 ,l41 vol4 #ah1 p4 #bfb74 ,holy objects are very often connected with some eminent man1 from whose relation to them they derive their sanctity4 ,such are all the innumerable relics of saints to which so much importance is attached in ,catholic countries4 ,such is that pre-eminently sacred relic1 the tooth of ,buddha1 so carefully preserved and guarded in ,ceylon4 ,when ,major ,forbes witnessed the tooth festival at ,kandy1 fifty-three years had passed since the last exhibition of this deeply revered member of the founder of the faith4 ,it was kept in its temple within six cases2 of which the three larger ones having been first removed1 the three inner ones1 containing it1 were placed on the back of an elephant richly caparisoned4 ,it was shown to the people on a temporary altar1 surrounded with rich hangings2 the festival being attended by crowds of pious worshipers1 who thought that the privilege of seeing the tooth1 so rarely exhibited to the public1 was a sufficient proof of the merits they had obtained in former lives 7,e4 ,y1 vol4 i4 p4 #bij-bic74 ,mussulmans have their holy objects1 consisting of verses of the ,koran1 suspended or written on their dwellings1 which are supposed to insure their protection4 ,such verses1 or short ,suras1 are sometimes carried on the person engraved on stones 7,dervishes1 p4 #cac74 ,conspicuous among holy objects for the extraordinary virtues ascribed to them1 are the bread and wine of the ,lord's supper4 ,these are believed by ,christians either to be or to represent 7according to their several doctrines7 the actual flesh and blood of ,jesus2 and the mere fact of eating and drinking them1 in faith1 is held to exercise a mystic efficacy over the life of the communicant4 ,a more singular instance of the holiness attributed by an act of the imagination to material things can scarcely be produced4 ,another curious case of the same notion is the belief in holy water2 which enjoys so great a power1 that some drops of it dashed upon an infant's forehead contribute to ensure its eternal happiness2 while it has also the gift of conferring some kind of advantage upon the worshipers who1 on entering a church1 sprinkle it upon their persons4 ,images of the gods or saints worshiped in a country form a large and important class of holy objects4 ,such were the teraphim or gods stolen by ,rachel from her father1 and which she concealed in the furniture of her camel 7,gen4 xxxi4 #ai1 #cj-ce74 ,similar images are employed by the ,tartars1 who place them at the heads and feet of their beds in certain fixed positions1 and who carry them about with them wherever they go 7,bergeron1 ,voyage de ,rubruquis1 ch4 #c1 p4 #i74 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,holy ,,orders4 ,rites1 acts of worship and sacrifices1 originally performed by each individual at his own discretion1 or by each household in its own way1 fall 7as we have seen7 with advancing development into the hands of professional persons consecrated for this especial purpose4 ,very great importance attaches to these consecrated persons4 ,the place they occupy in all societies above the level of barbarism is one of peculiar honor2 and their influence on the course of human history has in all ages with which that history is acquainted been conspicuous and profound4 ,once devoted to their religious duties1 they become the authorized representatives of deity on earth4 ,in treating of their consecration1 we consider them as channels of communication from earth to heaven2 we have now to consider them as channels of communication from heaven to earth4 ,endowed by the general wish of all human society with a special right to convey their petitions to the divine beings whom they worship1 they do not fail to claim for themselves the correlative right of conveying to men the commands1 the intentions1 the reproofs1 and the desires of these divine beings4 ,it is the priests alone who can pretend to know their minds4 ,it is the priests alone who can correctly interpret their often enigmatic language4 ,it is the priests alone through whom they generally deign to converse with mortals4 ,such is the ecclesiastical theory throughout the world2 and it is as a general rule accepted by the communities for whose guidance it is constructed4 ,exceptions do indeed present themselves1 above all in the case of the remarkable men whose careers we shall deal with in the ensuing chapter1 who have founded new religions independently of1 or even in spite of1 very powerful existing priesthoods4 ,and1 speaking generally1 the holy class is not always coxtensive with the consecrated class4 ,we shall notice further on an important order among the ,jews who were universally received as holy1 without being consecrated4 ,moreover1 there has often existed a species of men who1 without regular consecration1 have nevertheless served as a channel of communication from ,god or from inferior spirits to man4 ,such were magicians1 astrologers1 et hoc genus omne1 in ancient times2 such are the so-called mediums in the present day4 ,conversely1 consecration1 though by its very nature implying holiness as its correlative1 implies it less and less as we rise in the scale of culture4 ,thus1 in the more advanced forms of ,protestantism1 such as the ,presbyterian or the ,unitarian1 the minister is scarcely more than a mere teacher2 he has little or no more power to convey commands or intimations from ,god than any member of his congregation4 ,so that we should have a rough approximation to the truth were we to say that in the lower grades of religious culture we have holy orders without consecration2 while in the higher grades we have consecrated orders without holiness4 ,between these extremes there lies the great body of regular and qualified priests1 appointed to communicate upwards1 and entitled to communicate downwards4 ,invasions of their authority by irregular pretenders are the exceptions1 not the rule4 ,it is the usual order of things1 that the decisions of priests on matters pertaining to religion should be accepted in submissive faith1 by the societies to which they belong4 ,where1 as in the case of ,jesus of ,nazareth1 some bold individual brushes aside successfully the pretentions of ecclesiastical castes1 the theory is only modified to suit the individual instance4 ,ecclesiastical castes1 deriving their title from the innovator himself1 spring up again at once2 and differ only in so far as the ,god whose will they expound is either another ,god1 or a new modification of the same ,god4 ,numerous privileges are generally accorded to priests4 ,sometimes they enjoy exemptions from the operation of the ordinary laws2 sometimes they are permitted a disproportionate share in the government of their country2 sometimes1 without possessing recognized legislative powers1 they control the destinies of nations by the expression of their views4 ,often1 the whole physical force of the government is at their disposal1 for the propagation and support of the system they uphold2 occasionally1 when their authority has reached its highest point1 the mere solemn declaration of their commands is enough to ensure the acquiescence of monarchs and the obedience of their subjects4 ,corresponding to these considerable rights1 they perform a considerable variety of functions1 which are regarded by the societies who employ them as not only useful1 but indispensable4 ,we find them in all primitive communities acting as the recognized doctors of the people1 treating their diseases by the method of supernatural inspiration4 ,rising a little higher1 they predict that class of events which is so interesting to each individual1 namely1 the prospects of his or her life4 ,in other words1 they become fortune-tellers1 astrologers1 or 7by whatever means7 readers of the future4 ,or they control the weather1 calling down from heaven the needful rain4 ,they are inspired by the deity in whose service they are enrolled1 and they announce his will4 ,in his name they threaten evil-doers with punishment1 and promise rewards to the faithful and obedient4 ,benefits from on high are declared to be the lot of those who pay them honor4 ,they proclaim the fact that their presence is essential to the performance of important rites1 and that their assistance at these must be duly rewarded4 ,sometimes they are in possession of knowledge which is only permitted to be imparted to their own caste4 ,they are at all times the authorized expositors of theological dogma1 and the authorized guardians of public ritual4 ,let us enter on a more detailed account of these several characteristics of the priestly order4 ,first1 it has to be noted that the differentiation of this order from the rest of society is in primitive communities very incomplete4 ,fathers of families1 or any venerable and respected men1 act as priests1 and perform the requirements of divine worship according to their own notions of propriety4 ,thus in ,samoa1 ,mr4 ,turner tells us that the father of the family was the high-priest1 and usually offered a short prayer at the evening meal1 that they might all be kept from fines1 sickness1 war1 and death4 ,he also directed on what occasions religious festivals should be held1 and it was supposed that the god sometimes spoke through the father or another member of the family 7,n4 ,y41 p4 #bci74 ,so in the early period of the history of the ,israelites1 there was no formal and regular priesthood1 and no established ritual4 ,the ,levites were not devoted to the functions they subsequently discharged1 until1 in the course of the ,exodus1 they had proved their qualification by the holy zeal with which they slaughtered their brethren4 ,it was for the perpetration of this massacre that they were promised by ,moses the blessing of ,god 7,exod4 xxxii4 #be-bi74 ,with advancing culture1 the necessity for separating priests from laymen is always felt4 ,the ministrations of unskilled hands are not held to be sufficient4 ,ritual grows fixed2 and for a fixed ritual there must be a special apprenticeship4 ,ceremonies multiply2 and the original family prayer having grown into a more elaborate system of worship1 takes more time1 and demands the attention of a class who make this1 and kindred matters1 their exclusive occupation4 ,while1 however1 the ministers of the gods are thus differentiated from the people at large1 they are not differentiated until a later stage from the ministers of the human body4 ,medicine and priestcraft are for a long time united arts4 ,on this connection1 ,brinton very justly remarks1 that when sickness is looked upon as the effect of the anger of a god1 or as the malicious infliction of a sorcerer1 it is natural to seek help from those who assume to control the unseen world1 and influence the fiats of the ,almighty 7,m4 ,n4 ,w41 p4 #bfd74 ,thus in ,america the native priests were called by the ,european colonists1 medicine men4 ,the ,new ,zealand priests were expert jugglers1 and when called in to the sick would ascribe some diseases to a piece of wood lodged in the stomach2 this they pretended to extract1 and produced it in evidence of their assertion4 ,an acquaintance of the author from whom ,i borrow this fact1 saw one of these doctors tear open the leg of a rheumatic patient1 and 7apparently7 take out of it a knotted piece of wood 7,n4 ,z41 p4 #hj74 ,in the ,fiji islands they occasionally use their medical powers malevolently1 instead of benevolently4 ,in ,tanna1 there was a class of men termed disease-makers1 and greatly dreaded by the people1 who thought that these men could exercise the power of life and death1 the calamity of death being the result of burning rubbish belonging to the sufferer4 ,when a ,tannese was ill1 he believed that the disease-maker was burning his rubbish1 and would send large presents to induce him to stop2 for if it were all burned he would die 7,n4 ,y4 p4 #hi-ia74 ,the ,samoans believed disease to be the result of divine wrath1 and sought its remedy at the hands of the high-priest of the village4 ,whatever he might demand was given2 in some cases1 however1 he did not ask for anything1 but merely commanded the family of the patient to confess1 and throw out4 ,confessing1 and throwing out1 consisted of a statement by each member of the family of the crimes he had committed1 or of the evil he had invoked on the patient or his connections1 accompanied by the ceremony of spurting out water from the mouth towards him 7,n4 ,y41 p4 #bbd74 ,like the ,fijians1 the natives of ,australia employ priests to cure their illnesses4 ,their ecclesiastical practitioners perform incantations over the sick1 and also pretend to suck out the disease1 producing a piece of bone which they assert to be its cause 7,s4 ,l4 ,a41 p4 #bbf74 ,the ,africans have an exactly similar belief in the influence of fetish over disease4 ,reade observes that epileptic attacks are 7as is natural from their mysterious character7 ascribed to demoniacal possession1 and that fetish-men are called in to cure them4 ,this they attempt to accomplish by elaborate dances and festivities1 at the expense of the next of kin1 which sometimes end in driving the patient into the bush in a state of complete insanity4 ,when cured1 he builds a little fetish-house1 avoids certain kinds of food1 and performs certain duties 7,s4 ,a41 p4 #bea74 ,the negroes on the coast of ,guinea1 when ill1 apply to their priest1 who informs them what offerings are required to ensure their recovery 7,d4 ,c4 ,g41 p4 #bac74 ,when an ,amazulu is troubled by bad dreams1 he applies to a diviner1 who recommends certain ceremonies by which the spirit causing the dreams is supposed to be banished4 ,should he be ill1 his friends apply to the diviner1 who discovers the source of the illness1 and probably demands the sacrifice of a bullock4 ,a remarkable sensitiveness about the shoulders indicates the spiritual character of the doctor4 ,if he fail to remove disease1 he is said to have no ,itongo1 or spirit1 in him 7,r4 ,s4 ,a41 pt4 ii4 pp4 #aei1 #afj1 #agb74 ,the ,fida negroes sent to consult their divine snake through a priest when ill1 and the priest 7unless he announced that the disease would be fatal7 received a reward for indicating the remedies to be used4 ,moreover1 the priests were the physicians of the negroes4 ,two theories prevailed among the people as to the origin of illnesses4 ,some tribes held them to be due to evil spirits1 who were accordingly driven away by a prescribed system of armed pursuit4 ,but the priests in other places regarded them as a consequence of discord between spirit and soul1 and required the patient in the first instance to confess his sins4 ,this being done1 they obtain from their deity an indication of the offerings to be made1 or the vows to be fulfilled1 to restore mental harmony4 ,they then undertook the treatment of the body by physical means 7,g4 d4 ,m41 pp4 #cce1 #ccf74 ,in ,sierra ,leone1 as in other parts of ,africa1 the practice of medicine1 and the art of making greegrees and fetishes1 in other words1 amulets 444 is generally the province of the same person4 ,those who practice medicine are looked upon as witches1 and believed not only to converse with evil spirits1 but to exercise control over them 7,n4 ,a41 vol4 i4 p4 #bea74 ,in ,new ,france1 in the eighteenth century1 the principal occupation of the native priests was medicine 7,n4 ,f4 vol4 iii4 p4 #cfd74 ,in ,mexico1 the people came from all parts to the priests to be anointed with the peculiar unguent used in the special consecration mentioned above 7,supra1 p4 #aaf74 ,this they termed a divine physic1 and considered as a cure for their diseases 7,h4 ,i41 b4 #e1 ch4 #bf74 ,such rude notions as these1 implying a supernatural as opposed to a natural theory of the physical conditions of the body1 are not wholly extinct even among ourselves4 ,they exist1 like so many of the crude conceptions of the savage1 in the form of respected survivals wholly inconsistent with our practical habits4 ,true1 we do not call in the clergyman to assist or to direct at the sick-bed4 ,but we do ask him to put up prayers for the recovery of the sick2 and in the case of royal princes1 the clergy throughout the land are set to work to induce the divine ,being to give their illnesses a favorable turn4 ,now1 this proceeding1 however disguised under refined and imposing forms1 is practically on a level with that of the ,amazulu1 who seeks to pacify the offended spirit that has attacked him with pain by the sacrifice of a bullock2 or with that of the ,fijian who1 when his friend is ill1 blows a shell for hours as a call to the disease-maker to stop burning the sick man's rubbish1 and as a sign that presents will speedily reach his hands4 ,nay1 the very missionary who relates this ,fiji custom gives at least one proof of his fitness to understand the native mind1 in a passage showing that in reference to beliefs like these his own was almost on a par with it4 ,a war1 of which the missionaries disapproved1 had been going on for four months1 and the end of it was1 the war was raised against ourselves4 ,after they had been fighting for months among themselves1 contrary to all our entreaties1 ,god commenced to punish them with a deadly epidemic in the form of dysentery4 ,now1 the conviction that diseases are punishments sent by some god1 or at any rate direct results of an intention on the part of some god to harm the sufferer1 is at the root of the priestly1 as opposed to the scientific1 treatment4 ,for if ,god punishes with a deadly epidemic1 it is an obvious inference that the mode of cure and of prevention is not to take physical remedies1 and observe physical precautions1 but to avoid the sin for which the punishment is given4 ,and this is the common conclusion of the savage and the ,christian1 though the superior information of the ,christian renders his conduct self-contradictory and confused1 where that of the savage is logical and simple4 ,nearly related to the supposed influence of priests over physical suffering1 is their supposed power to foretell the future4 ,here1 however1 a number of unauthorized and schismatic priesthoods often enter into competition with those sanctioned by the state4 ,technically1 they would not be termed priests at all2 but tested by the true mark of priesthood1 the gift1 alleged by themselves and admitted by others1 of forming channels of communication from the celestial powers to man1 they are entitled to that name1 and this although they may perhaps receive no regular consecration to their office4 ,the ,roman ,senate during the ,empire came into frequent collision with these irregular priests4 ,it endeavored from time to time to combat the growing belief in the unorthodox practices of astrologers and magi1 by decreeing their expulsion from ,italy1 and occasionally by visiting some of them with severer penalties2 but such endeavors to stem the tide of popular superstition are naturally useless 7,tac4 ,ann41 ii4 #cb2 xii4 #eb74 ,magic of some description is universal4 ,in ,new ,zealand the priest seems to unite in his person the offices of priest1 sorcerer1 juggler1 and physician4 ,he predicts the life or death of members of his tribe 7,n4 ,z41 p4 #hj74 ,by the ,kafirs the prophet is consulted on all kinds of domestic occasions1 and 7while the people beat the ground in assent to what he says7 he is held to see in a vision the event which has led to the consultation 7,k4 ,n41 p4 #afg ff74 ,the inhabitants of ,sierra ,leone have other methods of divining4 ,their diviners make dots and lines in sand spread upon a goat's skin1 which dots and lines they afterwards decipher2 or they place palm-nuts in heaps upon a goat's skin1 and by shifting them about suppose that an answer is obtained 7,n4 ,a41 vol4 i4 p4 #acd74 ,the heathen ,mexican had the habit1 on the birth of a child1 of consulting a diviner in order to ascertain its future4 ,the diviner1 having learnt from the child's parents the hour at which it was born1 turned over his books to discover the sign under which its nativity had occurred4 ,should that sign prove to be favorable1 he would say to the parents3 ,your child has been born under a good sign2 it will be a senor1 or senator1 or rich1 or brave1 or will have some other distinction4 ,in the opposite case he would say3 ,the child has not been born under a good sign2 it has been born under a disastrous sign4 ,in some circumstances there was hope that the evil might be remedied2 but if the sign were altogether bad1 they would predict that it would be vicious1 carnal1 and a thief2 or that it would be dull and lazy2 or possibly that it would be a great drunkard2 or that its life would be short4 ,a third alternative was when the sign was indifferent1 and the expected fortune was therefore partly good and partly bad4 ,the diviner1 in this case and in that of a bad1 but not hopelessly bad1 sign1 assisted the parents by pointing out an auspicious day for the baptism of the infant 7,a4 ,m41 vol4 v4 pp4 #dgi1 #dhj74 ,prediction of coming events was practiced by the priests in ,north ,america1 as it was elsewhere4 ,they persuaded the multitude1 says ,charlevoix1 that they suffered from ecstatic transports4 ,during these conditions1 they said that their spirits gave them a large acquaintance with remote things1 and with the future 7,n4 ,f41 vol4 iii4 p4 #cdg74 ,moreover1 they practiced magic1 and with such effect that ,charlevoix felt himself compelled to ascribe their performances to their alliance with the devil4 ,they even pretended to be born in a supernatural manner1 and found believers ready to think that only by some sort of enchantment and illusion had they formerly imagined that they had come into the world like other people4 ,when they went into the state of ecstasy1 they resembled the ,pythoness on the tripod2 they assumed tones of voice and performed actions which seemed beyond human capacity4 ,on these occasions they suffered so much that it was hard to induce them1 even by handsome payment1 thus to yield themselves to the spirit4 ,so often did they prophesy truly1 that ,charlevoix can only resort again to his hypothesis of a real intercourse between them and the father of seduction and of lies1 who manifested his connection with them by telling them the truth4 ,thus1 a lady named ,madame de ,marson1 by no means an esprit faible1 was anxious about her husband1 who was commanding at a ,french outpost in ,acadia1 and who had stayed away beyond the time fixed for his return4 ,a native woman1 having ascertained the reason of her trouble1 told her not to be distressed1 for that her husband would return on a certain day at a certain hour1 wearing a grey hat4 ,seeing that the lady did not believe in her1 she returned on the day and at the hour named1 and asked her if she would not come to meet her husband4 ,after much pressing1 she induced the lady to accompany her to the bank of the river4 ,scarcely had they arrived1 when ,m4 de ,marson appeared in a canoe1 wearing a grey hat upon his head4 ,the writer was informed of this fact by ,madame de ,marson's son-in-law1 at that time ,governor-,general of the ,french dominions in ,america1 who had heard it from herself 7,n4 ,f41 vol4 iii4 p4 #cei-cfc74 ,the priests of the ,tartars are also their diviners4 ,they predict eclipses1 and announce lucky and unlucky days for all sorts of business 7,bergeron1 ,voyage de ,rubruquis1 ch4 #dg74 ,among the ,buddhist priesthood of ,thibet1 there is a class of ,lamas who are astrologers1 distinguished by a peculiar dress1 and making it their business to tell fortunes1 exorcise evil spirits1 and so forth4 ,the astrologers are considered to have intercourse with ,sadag1 a spirit who is supposed to be lord of the ground1 in which bodies are interred1 and who1 along with other spirits1 requires to be pacified by charms and rites known only to these priests4 ,to prevent them from injuring the dead1 the relations offer a price in cattle or money to ,sadag2 and the astrologers1 when satisfied with the amount1 undertake the necessary conjuration 7,b4 ,t41 pp4 #aef1 #bga74 ,in the ,old ,testament1 this class of unofficial priests is mentioned with the reprobation inspired by rivalry4 ,the ,hebrew legislator is at one with the ,roman ,senate in his desire to expel them from the land4 ,there shall not be found among you any one that 444 useth divination1 or an observer of times1 or an enchanter1 or a witch1 or a charmer1 or a consultor with familiar spirits1 or a wizard1 or a necromancer4 ,for all that do these things are an abomination unto the ,lord3 and because of these abominations the ,lord thy ,god doth drive them out from before thee 7,deut4 xviii4 #aj-ab74 ,the very prohibition evinces the existence of the objects against whom it is aimed2 and proves that1 along with the recognized worship of ,jehovah1 there existed an unrecognized resort to practices which the sterner adherents of that worship would not permit4 ,in addition to their claim to be in possession of special means of ascertaining the occult causes of phenomena 7as in illness71 and of special contrivances for penetrating the future 7as in astrology or fortune-telling71 priesthoods pretend to a more direct inspiration from on high1 qualifying them either to announce the will of their god on exceptional occasions1 or to intimate his purpose in matters of more ordinary occurrence4 ,this inspiration was granted to the native ,north ,american priests at the critical age of puberty1 ,it was revealed to its possessor by the character of the visions he perceived at the ordeal he passed through on arriving at puberty2 and by the northern nations was said to be the manifestation of a more potent personal spirit than ordinary4 ,it was not a faculty1 but an inspiration2 not an inborn strength1 but a spiritual gift 7,m4 ,n4 ,w41 p4 #bgi74 ,so in ,india2 among the several meanings of the word ,brahman1 is that of a person elected by special divine favor to receive the gift of inspiration 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 i4 p4 #bei74 ,the missionary ,turner1 who has an eye for parallels1 observes1 among other just reflections1 that the way in which the ,samoan priests declared that the gods spoke by them1 strikingly reminds us of the mode by which ,god of old made known his will to man by the ,hebrew prophets 7,n4 ,y41 p4 #cdi74 ,although the ,levites were said to be the ,lord's1 and to have been hallowed by him instead of all the first-born of ,israel1 yet it does not appear that they were in general endowed with any high order of inspiration4 ,the high-priest no doubt received communications from ,god by the ,urim and ,thummim4 ,priests were also the judges whom the ,lord chose1 and whose sentence in court was to be obeyed on penalty of death2 but the inspiration that was fitted to guide the ,israelites was supplied not so much by them as by the prophets1 a kind of supplementary priesthood of which the members1 sometimes priests1 sometimes consecrated by other prophets1 were as a rule unconsecrated1 deriving their appointment directly from ,jehovah4 ,while1 therefore1 it was attained in a somewhat unusual way1 the general need of an inspired order was supplied no less perfectly among the ,israelites than elsewhere4 ,christian priests enjoy two kinds of inspiration4 ,in the first place1 they are inspired specially when assembled in general councils1 to declare the truth in matters of doctrine1 or in other words1 to issue supplementary revelations2 in the second place1 they are inspired generally to remit or retain offenses1 their sentence being--according to the common doctrine of ,catholics and ,episcopalian ,protestants--always ratified in the ,court above4 ,consistently with this exalted conception of their authority1 priestly orders threaten punishment to offenders1 and announce the future destiny of souls4 ,thus the ,mexican priests warned their penitents after confession not to fall again into sin1 holding out the prospect of the torments of hell if they should neglect the admonition 7,a4 ,m41 vol4 v1 p4 #cgj74 ,the priests in some parts of ,africa know the fate of each soul after death1 and can say whether it has gone to ,god or to the evil spirit 7,g4 d4 ,m41 p4 #cce74 ,sometimes the priests are held to be protected against injury by the especial care of heaven4 ,to take away a ,brahman's wife is an offense involving terrible calamities1 while kings who restore her to the ,brahman enjoy the abundance of the earth 7#j4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 i4 p4 #beg74 ,a king who should eat a ,brahman's cow is warned in solemn language of the dreadful consequences of such conduct1 both in this world and the next 7,ibid41 vol4 i4 p4 #bhe74 ,the sacred volumes declare that whenever a king1 fancying himself mighty1 seeks to devour a ,brahman1 that kingdom is broken up1 in which a ,brahman is oppressed 7,ibid41 vol4 i4 p4 #bhg74 ,no one who has eaten a ,brahman's cow continues to watch 7i4e41 to rule7 over a country4 ,the ,indian gods1 moreover1 do not eat the food offered by a king who has no 444 ,purohita1 or domestic chaplain 7,a4 ,b41 p4 #ebh74 ,the murder of a king who had honored and enriched the ,buddhist priesthood1 is said to have entailed the destruction of the power and strength of the kingdom of ,thibet1 and to have extinguished the happiness and welfare of its people 7,g4 ,o4 ,m41 p4 #cfb74 ,and ,jewish history affords abundant instances of the manner in which the success or glory of the rulers was connected1 by the sacerdotal class1 with the respect shown towards themselves as the ministers of ,jehovah1 and with the rigor evinced in persecuting or putting down the ministers of every other creed4 ,that the same bias has been betrayed by the ,christian priesthood and their adherents in the interpretation of history needs no proof4 ,the presence of a priest or priests at important rites is held to be indispensable by all religions4 ,with the negroes visited by ,oldendorp1 the priest was in requisition at burials2 for he only could help the soul to get to ,god1 and keep off the evil spirit who would seek to obtain possession of it 7,g4 d4 ,m41 p4 #cbg74 ,for most of the ceremonies 7in ,thibet7 the performance by a ,lama is considered indispensable to its due effect2 and even where this is not so1 the efficacy of the rite is increased by the ,lama's assistance 7,b4 ,t41 p4 #bdg74 ,much the same thing may be said here4 ,for certain ceremonies1 such as confirmation1 the administration of the sacrament1 the conduct of divine service on ,sundays1 the priest is a necessary official4 ,for others1 such as marriage1 the majority of the people prefer to employ him1 and no doubt believe that the efficacy of the rite is increased by the fact that he reads the words of the service4 ,nor is this surprising when we consider that1 until within very recent times1 no legitimate child could be produced in ,england without the assistance of a priest4 ,not only is the ecclesiastical caste required to render religious rites acceptable to the deity1 but they are often endowed with the attribute of ability to modify the course of nature4 ,tanna1 one of the ,fiji group1 there are rain-makers and thunder-makers1 and fly and musquito makers1 and a host of other 'sacred men2' and in another island there is a rain-making class of priests 7,n4 ,y41 pp4 #hi1 #dbh74 ,in ,christian countries all priests are rain-makers1 the reading of prayers for fine or wet weather being a portion of their established duties4 ,naturally1 the members of a class whose functions are of this high value to the community enjoy great power1 are regarded as extremely sacred1 and above all1 are well rewarded4 ,first1 as to the power they enjoy4 ,this is accorded to them alike by savage tribes and by cultivated ,europeans4 ,according to ,brinton1 all ,north ,american tribes appear to have been controlled by secret societies of priests4 ,withal1 says the same authority1 there was no class of persons who so widely and deeply influenced the culture1 and shaped the destiny of the ,indian tribes1 as their priests 7,m4 ,n4 ,w41 p4 #bhe74 ,over the negroes of the ,caribbean ,islands the priests and priestesses exercised an almost unlimited dominion1 being regarded with the greatest reverence4 ,no negro would have ventured to transgress the arrangements made by a priest 7,g4 d4 ,m41 p4 #cbg74 ,on the coast of ,guinea there exists1 or existed1 an institution by which certain women became priestesses2 and such women1 even though slaves before1 enjoyed1 on receiving this dignity1 a high position and even exercised absolute authority precisely in the quarter where it must have been sweetest to their minds1 namely1 over their husbands 7,d4 ,c4 ,g41 p4 #cfc74 ,writing of the ,talapoins in ,siam1 ,gervaise says1 that they are exempted from all public charges2 they salute nobody1 while everybody prostrates himself before them2 they are maintained at the public expense1 and so forth 7,h4 ,n4 ,s41 troisime partie1 chs4 #e1 #f74 ,of the enormous power wielded by the clerical order in ,europe1 especially during the ,middle ,ages1 it is unnecessary to speak4 ,the humiliation of ,theodosius by ,ambrose was one of the most conspicuous1 as it was one of the most beneficent1 exercises of their extensive rights4 ,secondly1 the sanctity attached to their persons is usually considerable1 and may often1 to ambitious minds1 afford a large compensation for the loss 7if such be required7 of some kinds of secular enjoyment4 ,the ,african priestesses just mentioned are as much respected as the priest1 or rather more1 and call themselves by the appellation of ,god's children4 ,when certain ,buddhist ecclesiastics were executed for rebellion in ,ceylon1 the utmost astonishment was expressed by the people at the temerity of the king in so treating such holy and reverend persons4 ,and none heretofore1 adds the reporter of the fact1 have been so served2 being reputed and called sons of ,boddon 7,h4 ,r4 ,c41 p4 #ge71 or ,buddha2 a title exactly corresponding to that of ,god's children bestowed upon the priestesses4 ,in ,siam the ,talapoins1 or priests1 are of two kinds3 secular1 living in the world2 and regular1 living in the forest without intercourse with men4 ,there is no limit to the veneration given by the ,siamese to these last1 whom they look upon as demigods 7,h4 ,n4 ,s41 troisime partie1 p4 #ahd74 ,the ,brahman caste1 according to the sacred books of the ,hindus1 is sprung from the gods 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 i4 p4 #ba72 and the exceptional honor always accorded to them is in harmony with this theory of their origin4 ,the title ,reverend1 man to be revered1 given to the clergy in ,europe1 implies the existence1 at least originally1 of a similar sentiment of respect4 ,lastly1 the services of priests are generally well rewarded1 and they themselves take every care to encourage liberality towards their order4 ,payment is made to them either in the shape of direct remuneration1 or in that of exceptional pecuniary privileges1 or in that of exemptions from burdens4 ,direct remuneration may be1 and often is1 given in the shape of a fixed portion abstracted from the property of the laity for the benefit of the clergy4 ,such are the tithes bestowed by law upon the latter among the ,jews1 the ,parsees1 and the ,christians4 ,or1 direct remuneration may consist in fees for services rendered1 and in voluntary gifts4 ,such fees and gifts are always represented by the priesthood as highly advantageous to the givers4 ,if the relatives of a deceased ,parsee do not give the priest who officiates at the funeral four new robes1 the dead will appear naked before the throne of ,god at the resurrection1 and will be put to shame before the whole assembly 7,av41 vol4 ii4 p4 xli42 iii4 p4 xliv74 ,moreover1 those ,parsees who wish to live happily1 and have children who will do them honor1 must pay four priests1 who during three days and three nights perform the ,yasna for them 7,z4 ,a41 vol4 ii4 p4 #efd74 ,in ,thibet there is great merit in consecrating a domestic animal to a certain god1 the animal being after a certain time delivered to the ,lamas1 who may eat it 7,b4 ,t41 p4 #aeh74 ,giving alms to the monks is a duty most sedulously inculcated by ,buddhism1 and the ,buddhist writings abound in illustrations of the advantages derived from the practice4 ,similar benefits accrue to the clergy from the custom1 prevailing in ,ceylon1 of making offerings in the temples for recovery from sickness2 for when the ,singhalese have left their gift on the altar1 the priest presents it with all due ceremony to the god2 and after its purpose is thus served1 very prudently converts it to his own use 7,a ,i4 ,c41 p4 #bje74 ,of the ,levites it is solemnly declared in ,deuteronomy that they have no part nor inheritance with ,israel1 and that the ,lord is their inheritance4 ,but the ,lord is soon seen to be a very substantial inheritance indeed4 ,from those that offer an ox or a sheep the priests are to receive the shoulder1 the two cheeks1 and the maw2 while the first-fruits of corn1 wine1 and oil1 and the first of the sheep's fleeces are to be given to them 7,deut4 xviii4 #a-e74 ,moreover1 giving to the priest is declared to be the same thing as giving to the ,lord 7,num4 v4 #h74 ,a similar notion1 always fostered by ecclesiastical influence1 has led to the vast endowments bestowed by pious monarchs and wealthy individuals upon the ,christian clergy4 ,occasionally1 the priests enjoy exemptions from the taxes1 or other burdens levied upon ordinary people4 ,a singular instance of this is found in the privilege of the ,parsee priests1 of not paying their doctors 7,j4 ,a41 vol4 ii4 p4 #eee74 ,large immunities used to be enjoyed by ecclesiastics among ourselves1 especially that of exemption from the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts of law4 ,while the life of a priest often entails certain privations1 he is nevertheless frequently sustained by the thought that there is merit in the sacrifices he makes4 ,thus1 it is held by a ,buddhist authority1 that the merit obtained by entering the spiritual order is very great2 and that his merit is immeasurable who either permits a son1 a daughter1 or a slave1 to enter it1 or enters it himself 7,w4 u4 ,t41 p4 #ajg74 ,priesthoods may either be hereditary or selected4 ,the ,brahmins in ,india1 and the ,levites in ,juda1 are remarkable types of hereditary1 the ,buddhist and the ,christian clergy of selected1 sacerdotal orders4 ,curious modifications of the hereditary principle were found among the ,american ,indians4 ,thus1 among the ,nez ,percs of ,oregon1 the priestly office was transmitted in one family from father to son and daughter1 but1 always with the proviso that the children at the proper age reported dreams of a satisfactory character4 ,the ,shawnees confined it to one totem3 but just as the ,hebrew prophets need not be ,levites1 the greatest of their prophets 444 was not a member of this clan4 ,the ,cherokees had one family set apart for the priestly office1 and when they abused their birthright and were all massacred1 another family took their places4 ,with another tribe1 the ,choctaws1 the office of high-priest remained in one family1 passing from father to son2 and the very influential piaches of the ,carib tribes very generally transmitted their rank and position to their children4 ,a more important case of hereditary priesthood is that of the ,incas of ,peru1 who monopolized the highest offices both in ,church and ,state4 ,in ancient ,anahuac there existed a double system of inheritance and selection4 ,the priests of ,huitzilopochtli1 and perhaps a few other gods1 were hereditary2 and the high-priest of that god1 towards whom the whole order was required to observe implicit obedience1 was the hereditary pontifex maximus4 ,but the rest were dedicated to ecclesiastical life from early childhood1 and were carefully educated for the profession 7,m4 ,n4 ,w41 p4 #bha-bia74 ,christianity entirely abandoned the hereditary principle prevalent among its spiritual ancestors1 the ,jews1 and selected for its ministers of religion those who felt1 or professed to feel1 an internal vocation for this career4 ,doubtless this is the most effectual plan for securing a powerful priesthood4 ,those who belong to it have their heart far more thoroughly in their work than can possibly be the case when it falls to them by right of birth4 ,just the most priestly-minded of the community become priests2 and a far greater air of zeal and of sanctity attaches to an order thus maintained1 than to one of which many of the members possess no qualification but that of family1 tribe1 or caste4 ,nothing can be more irrational than the denunciation of priests and priestcraft which is often indulged in by ,liberal writers and politicians4 ,if it be true that priests have shown considerable cunning1 it is also true that the people have fostered that cunning by credulity4 ,and if the clergy have put forth very large pretensions to inspiration1 divine authority1 and hidden knowledge1 it is equally the fact that the laity have demanded such qualifications at their hands4 ,an order can scarcely be blamed if it seeks to satisfy the claims which the popular religion makes upon it4 ,enlightenment from heaven has in all ages and countries been positively demanded4 ,sacrifices have always had to be made2 and when it was found more convenient to delegate the function of offering them to a class apart1 that class naturally established ritualistic rules of their own1 and as naturally asserted 7and no doubt believed7 that all sacrifices not offered according to these rules were displeasing to ,god4 ,and they could not profess the inspiration which they were expected to manifest without also requiring obedience to divine commands4 ,priests are1 in fact1 the mere outcome of religious belief as it commonly exists2 and partly minister to that belief by deliberate trickery1 partly share it themselves1 and honestly accept the accredited view of their own lofty commission4 ,divine inspiration leads by a very logical process to infallibility4 ,a ,church founded on revelation needs living teachers to preserve the correct interpretation of that revelation4 ,without such living teachers1 revealed truth itself becomes 7as it always has done among ,protestants7 an occasion of discord and of schism4 ,but the interpreters of revelation in their turn must be able to appeal to some sole and supreme authority1 as the arbiter between varying opinions1 and the guide to be followed through all the intricacies of dogma4 ,nowhere can such an arbiter and such a guide be found more naturally than in the head of the ,church himself4 ,if ,god speaks to mankind through his ,church1 it is only a logical conclusion that within that ,church there must be one through whom he speaks with absolute certainty1 and whose prophetic voice must therefore be infallible4 ,there cannot be a more consistent application of the general theory of priesthood2 and there is no more fatal sign for the prospects of ,christianity than the inability of many of its supporters to accept so useful a doctrine1 and the thoughtless indignation of some among them against the single ,church which has had the wisdom to proclaim it4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,holy ,,persons4 ,although for the ordinary and regular communications from the divine ,being to man the established priesthoods might suffice1 yet occasions arise when there is need of a plenipotentiary with higher authority and more extensive powers4 ,what is required of these exceptional ambassadors is not merely to repeat the doctrines of the old religion1 but to establish a new one4 ,in other words1 they are the original founders of the great religions of the world4 ,of such founders there is but a very limited number4 ,beginning with ,china1 and proceeding from ,east to ,west1 we find six3-- #a4 ,,confucius1 or ,,khung-,,fu-,,tsze1 the founder of ,confucianism4 #b4 ,,la-,,ts1 the founder of ,taouism4 #c4 ,,sakyamuni1 or ,,gautama ,,buddha1 the founder of ,buddhism4 #d4 ,,zarathustra1 or ,,zoroaster1 the founder of ,parseeism4 #e4 ,,mohammed1 or ,,mahomet1 the founder of ,islamism4 #f4 ,,jesus ,,christ1 the founder of ,christianity4 ,all these men1 whom for convenience sake ,i propose to call prophets1 occupy an entirely exceptional position in the history of the human race4 ,the characteristics1 or marks1 by which they may be distinguished from other great men1 are partly external1 belonging to the views of others about them2 partly internal1 belonging to their own view about themselves4 #a4 ,the first external mark by which they are distinguished is1 that within his own religion each of these is recognized as the highest known authority4 ,they alone are thought of as having the right to change what is established4 ,while all other teachers appeal to them for the sanction of their doctrines1 there is no appeal from them to any one beyond4 ,what they have said is final4 ,they are in perfect possession of the truth4 ,others are in possession of it only in so far as they agree with them4 ,no doubt1 the sacred books are equally infallible with the prophets2 but the sacred books of religions founded by prophets derive their authority in the last resort from them1 and are always held to be only a written statement of their teaching4 ,thus1 the sacred books of ,china are partly of direct ,confucian authorship2 partly by others who recognize him as their head4 ,the only sacred book of the ,tao-ts is by their founder himself4 ,the sacred books of the ,buddhists are supposed discourses of the ,buddha4 ,the ,avesta is the reputed work of ,zarathustra4 ,the ,koran is the actual work of ,mahomet4 ,and lastly1 the ,new ,testament is all of it written in express subordination to the authority of ,christ1 to which it constantly appeals4 ,these books1 then1 are infallible1 because they contain the doctrines of their founders4 ,the same thing is true where there is an infallible ,church4 ,the ,church never claims the same absolute authority as it concedes to its prophet4 ,its infallibility consists in its power to interpret correctly the mind of him by whom it was established4 ,he it is who brought the message from above which no human power could have discovered4 ,it is the ,church's function to explain that message to the world2 and1 where needed1 to deduce such inferences therefrom as by its supernatural inspiration it perceives to be just4 ,beyond this1 the power of the ,church does not extend4 ,a second external mark1 closely related to the first1 is1 that the prophet of each religion is1 within the limits of that religion1 the object of a more or less mythical delineation of his personality4 ,his historical form is1 to some extent1 superseded by the form bestowed upon him by a dogmatic legend4 ,according to that legend there was something about his nature that was more than human4 ,he was in some way extraordinary4 ,the myths related vary from a mere exaltation of the common features of humanity1 to the invention of completely supernatural attributes4 ,but their object is the same3 to represent their prophet as more highly endowed than other mortals4 ,even where there is little of absolute myth1 the representation we receive is one-sided2 we know nothing of the prophet's faults1 except in so far as we may discover them against the will of the biographers4 ,to them he appears all-virtuous4 ,these remarks will be abundantly illustrated when we come to consider the life of ,jesus1 and to compare it with that of his compeers4 #b4 ,the internal mark corresponds to the first external mark1 of which it is indeed the subjective counterpart4 ,these prophets conceive themselves deputed to teach a faith1 and they virtually recognize in the performance of this mission no human authority superior to their own4 ,in words1 perhaps1 they do acknowledge some established authority2 but in fact they set it aside4 ,no ,church or priesthood has the smallest weight with them1 as opposed to that intense internal conviction which appears to them an inspiration4 ,hence it was observed of ,jesus1 that he taught with authority1 and not as the scribes4 ,without being able themselves to give any explanation of the fact1 they feel themselves endowed with plenary power to reform4 ,and it is not1 like other reformers1 in the name of another that they do this2 they reform in their own right1 and with no other title than their own profound consciousness of being not only permitted1 but charged to do it4 ,nevertheless1 it must not be imagined that the prophets sweep away everything they find in the existing religion4 ,on the contrary1 it will be found on examination that they always retain some important element or elements of the older faith4 ,without this1 they would have no hold on the popular mind of their country1 from which they would be too far removed to make themselves understood4 ,thus1 ,allah was already recognized as ,god by the ,arabians in the time of ,mahomet1 whose reform consisted in teaching that he was the only ,god4 ,thus1 the ,messiah was already expected by the ,jews in the time of ,jesus1 whose reform consisted in applying the expectation to himself4 ,prophets take advantage of a faith already in existence1 and making that the foundation of a new religion1 erect upon it the more special truths they are inspired to proclaim4 ,no prophet can construct a religion entirely from his own brain4 ,were he to do so1 he would be unable to show any reason why it should be accepted4 ,there would be no feeling in the minds of his hearers to which he could appeal4 ,a religion to be accepted by any but an insignificant fraction1 must find a response not only in the intellects1 but in the emotions of those for whom it is designed4 ,this1 it appears to me1 is the weak point of ,positivism4 ,auguste ,comte1 having abolished all that in the general mind constitutes religion at all1 attempted to compose a faith for his disciples by the merely arbitrary exercise of his own ingenuity4 ,he perhaps did not consider that in all history there is no example of a religion being invented by an individual thinker4 ,it is like attempting to sell a commodity for which there is no demand4 ,even if his philosophical principles should be accepted by the whole of ,europe1 there can be no reason why the special observances he recommends should be adopted1 or the special saints whom he places in the calendar be adored4 ,those who receive his philosophy will have no need for his ceremonies4 ,while even if ceremonies cannot be entirely dispensed with1 it is not the mere fact of a solitary thinker planning it in his own mind that can ever ensure the adoption of a ritual4 ,very different has been the procedure of the prophets of whom we are now to speak4 ,intellectually1 they were no doubt far inferior to the founder of the ,positive ,philosophy4 ,but emotionally1 they were fitted for the part which he unsuccessfully endeavored to play4 ,they entered into the religious feelings of their countrymen1 and gave those feelings a higher expression than had yet been found for them4 ,instinctively fixing on some conspicuous part of the old religion1 they made that the starting-point for the development of the new4 ,they reformed1 but the reformation linked itself to some conviction that was already deeply rooted in the nature of their converts4 ,they assumed boundless authority2 but it was authority to proclaim a pre-existing truth1 not to spin out of their purely personal ideas of fitness a system altogether disconnected from the past evolution of religion1 and to impose that system upon the remainder of mankind4 ,,section ,i4--,,confucius4#aa ,the life of the prophet of ,china is not eventful4 ,it has neither the charm of philosophic placidity and retirement from the world which belongs to that of ,la-ts1 nor the romantic interest of the more varied careers of ,sakyamuni1 ,christ1 or ,mahomet4 ,for ,confucius1 though a philosopher1 did not object1 indeed rather desired1 to take some share in the government of his country1 but his wishes received very little gratification4 ,rulers refused to acquiesce in his principles of administration1 and he was compelled to rely for their propagation mainly on the oral instruction imparted to his disciples4 ,his life1 therefore1 bears to some extent the aspect of a failure1 though for this appearance he himself is not to blame4 ,another cause1 which somewhat diminishes the interest we might otherwise take in him1 is his excessive attention to proprieties1 ceremonies1 and rites4 ,we cannot but feel that a truly great man1 even in ,china1 would have emancipated himself from the bondage of such trifles4 ,nevertheless1 after all deductions are made1 enough remains to render the career and character of ,confucius deserving of attention1 and in many respects of admiration4 ,descended from a family which had formerly been powerful and noble1 but was now in comparatively modest circumstances1 he was born in ,b4,c4 #eea1 his father's name being ,shuh-leang ,heih1 and his mother's ,ching-,tsae4 ,the legends related of his nativity ,i pass over for the present4 ,his father1 who was an old man when he was born1 died when the child was in his third year2 and his mother in ,b4,c4 #ebh4 ,at nineteen1 ,confucius was married2 and at twenty-one he came forward as a teacher4 ,disciples attached themselves to him1 and during his long career as a philosopher1 we find him constantly attended by some faithful friends1 who receive all he says with unbounded deference1 and propose questions for his decision as to an authority against whom there can be no appeal4 ,the maxims of ,confucius did not refer solely to ethics or to religion2 they bore largely upon the art of government1 and he was desirous if possible of putting them in actual practice in the administration of public affairs4 ,china1 however1 was in a state of great confusion in his days2 there were rebellions and wars in progress3 and the character of the rulers from whom he might have obtained employment was such1 that he could not1 consistently with the high standard of honor on which he always acted1 accept favors at their hands4 ,one of them proposed to grant him a town with its revenues2 but ,confucius said3 ,a superior man will only receive reward for services which he has done4 ,i have given advice to the duke ,ting 7see below71 but he has not obeyed it1 and now he would endow me with this place6 very far is he from understanding me 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 i41 ,prolegomena1 p4 #fh74 ,in the year #ejj the means were at length put within his reach of carrying his views into practice4 ,he was made chief magistrate of a town in the state of ,loo2 and this first appointment was followed by that of assistant-superintendent of works1 and subsequently by that of minister of crime4 ,in this office he is said to have put an end to crime altogether2 but ,dr4 ,legge rightly warns us against confiding in the indiscriminating eulogies of his disciples4 ,a more substantial service attributed to him is that of procuring the dismantlement of two fortified towns which were the refuge of dangerous and warlike chiefs4 ,but his reforming government was brought to an end after a few years by the weakness of his sovereign1 duke ,ting1 who was captivated by a present of eighty beautiful and accomplished girls1 and one hundred and twenty horses1 from a neighboring ,state4 ,engrossed by this present1 the duke neglected public affairs1 and the philosopher felt bound to resign4 ,we need not follow him during the long wanderings through various parts of ,china which followed upon this disappointment4 ,after traveling from ,state to ,state for many years1 he returned in his sixty-ninth year to ,loo1 but not to office4 ,in the year #dgh his sad and troubled life was closed by death4 ,our information respecting the character of ,confucius is ample4 ,from the book which ,dr4 ,legge has entitled the ,confucian ,analects1 a collection of his sayings made 7as he believes7 by the disciples of his disciples1 we obtain the most minute particulars both as to his personal habits and as to the nature of his teaching4 ,the impression derived from these accounts is that of a gentle1 virtuous1 benevolent1 and eminently honorable man2 a man who1 like ,socrates1 was indifferent to the reward received for his tuition1 though not refusing payment altogether2 who would never sacrifice a single principle for the sake of his individual advantage2 yet who was anxious1 if possible1 to benefit the kingdom by the establishment of an administration penetrated with those ethical maxims which he conceived to be all-important4 ,yet1 irreproachable as his moral character was1 there is about him a deficiency of that bold originality which has characterized the greatest prophets of other nations4 ,sakyamuni revolted against the restrictions of caste which dominated all minds in ,india4 ,jesus boldly claimed for moral conduct a rank far superior to that of every ceremonial obligation1 even those which were held the most sacred by his countrymen4 ,mahomet1 morally far below the ,chinese sage1 evinced a far more independent genius by his attack on the prevalent idolatry of ,mecca4 ,confucius did nothing of this kind4 ,his was a mind which looked back longingly to antiquity1 and imagined that it discovered in the ancient rulers and the ancient modes of action1 the models of perfection which all later times should strive to follow4 ,nor was this all4 ,he was so profoundly under the influence of ,chinese ways of thinking1 as to attach an almost ludicrous importance to a precise conformity to certain rules of propriety1 and to regard the exactitude with which ceremonies were performed as matter of the highest concern4 ,in fact1 he could not emancipate himself from the traditions of his country2 and his principles would have resulted rather in making his followers perfect ,chinamen than perfect men4 ,a far more serious charge is indeed brought against him by ,dr4 ,legge--that of insincerity 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 i4--,prolegomena-- p4 #aja74 ,i hesitate to impugn the opinion of so competent a scholar2 yet the evidence he has produced does not seem to me sufficient to sustain the indictment4 ,granting that he gave an unwelcome visitor the excuse of sickness1 which was untrue1 still1 as we are ignorant of the reasons which led him to decline seeing the person in question1 we cannot estimate the force of the motives that induced him to put forward a plea in conformity with the polite customs of his country4 ,it does not appear1 moreover1 that he practiced an intentional deceit4 ,and though on one occasion he may have violated an oath extorted by rebels who had him in their power1 therein acting wrongly 7as ,i think71 it is always an open question how far promises made under such circumstances are binding on the conscience4 ,whatever failings1 however1 it may be necessary to admit1 there can be no question of the preminent purity alike of his life and doctrine4 ,his is a character which1 be its imperfections what they may1 we cannot help loving2 and there have been few1 indeed1 who would not have been benefited by the attempt to reach even that standard of virtue which he held up to the admiration of his disciples4 ,a few quotations from the works in which his words and actions are preserved1 will illustrate these remarks4 ,in the tenth ,book of the ,analects 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 i4 p4 #ia-ajj71 his manners1 his garments1 his mode of behavior under various circumstances1 are elaborately described4 ,there are not many personages in history of whom we have so minute a knowledge4 ,we learn that in his village he looked simple and sincere1 and as if he were not able to speak4 ,his reverence for his superiors seems to have been profound4 ,when the prince was present1 his manner displayed respectful uneasiness2 it was grave1 but self-possessed4 ,when going to an audience of the prince1 he ascended the dais1 holding up his robe with both his hands1 and his body bent2 holding in his breath also1 as if he dared not breathe4 ,when he came out from the audience 7the italics1 here and elsewhere1 are in ,legge71 as soon as he had descended one step1 he began to relax his countenance1 and had a satisfied look4 ,when he had got to the bottom of the steps1 he advanced rapidly to his place1 with his arms like wings1 and on occupying it1 his manner still showed respectful uneasiness4 ,he was rather particular about his food1 rejecting meat unless cut properly1 and with its proper sauce4 ,whatever he might be eating1 however1 he would offer a little of it in sacrifice4 ,when any of his friends died1 if the deceased had no relations who could be depended on for the necessary offices1 he would say1 ',i will bury him4' ,in bed1 he did not lie like a corpse4 ,and it is satisfactory to learn of one who was such a respecter of formalities1 that at home he did not put on any formal deportment4 ,notwithstanding this1 he does not appear to have been on very intimate terms with his son1 to whom he is reported to have said that unless he learned the odes he would not be fit to converse with2 and that unless he learned the rules of propriety his character could not be established4 ,the disciple1 who was informed by the son himself that he had never heard from his father any other special doctrine1 was probably right in concluding that the superior man maintains a distant reserve towards his son 7,lun ,yu1 xvi4 #ac74 ,but with his beloved disciples ,confucius was on terms of affectionate intimacy which does not seem to have been marred by the rules of propriety4 ,for the death of one of them at least he mourned so bitterly as to draw down upon himself the expostulation of those who remained 7,ibid41 xi4 #i74 ,the picture of the ,master1 accompanied at all times by his faithful friends1 who hang upon his lips1 and eagerly gather up his every utterance1 is on the whole a pleasant one4 ,do you think1 my disciples1 he asks1 that ,i have any concealments8 ,i conceal nothing from you4 ,there is nothing that ,i do which is not shown to you1 my disciples2--that is my way 7,ibid41 vii4 #bc74 ,and with all the homage he is constantly receiving1 ,confucius is never arrogant4 ,he never speaks like a man who wishes to enforce his views in an authoritative style on others2 never threatens punishment either here or hereafter to those who dissent from him4 ,there were four things1 his disciples tell us1 from which the ,master was entirely free4 ,he had no foregone conclusions1 no arbitrary predeterminations1 no obstinacy1 and no egoism 7,lun ,yu1 ix4 #d74 ,and his conduct is entirely in harmony with this statement4 ,it is as a learner1 rather than a teacher1 that he regards himself4 ,the ,master said1 ',when ,i walk along with two others1 they may serve me as my teachers4 ,i will select their good qualities1 and follow them2 their bad qualities1 and avoid them' 7,ibid41 vii4 #ba74 ,or again3 ,the sage and the man of perfect virtue1 how dare ,i rank myself with them8 ,it may simply be said of me1 that ,i strive to become such without satiety1 and teach others without weariness 7,ibid41 vii4 #cc74 ,in letters ,i am perhaps equal to other men1 but the character of the superior man1 carrying out in his conduct what he professes1 is what ,i have not yet attained to 7,ibid41 vii4 #cb74 ,notwithstanding this modesty1 there are traces--few indeed1 but not obscure--of that conviction of a peculiar mission which all great prophets have entertained1 and without which even ,confucius would scarcely have been ranked among them4 ,the most distinct of these is the following passage3--,the ,master was put in fear in ,k'wang4 ,he said1 ',after the death of king ,wan1 was not the cause of truth lodged here in me8 ,if ,heaven had wished to let this cause of truth perish1 then ,i1 a future mortal1 should not have got such a relation to that cause4 ,while ,heaven does not let the cause of truth perish1 what can the people of ,k'wang do to me8' 7,lun ,yu1 ix4 #e74 ,these remarkable words would be conclusive1 if they stood alone4 ,but they do not stand alone4 ,in another place we find him thus lamenting the pain of being generally misunderstood1 which is apt to be so keenly felt by exalted and sensitive natures4 ,the ,master said1 ',alas6 there is no one that knows me4' ,tse-kung said1 ',what do you mean by thus saying--that no one knows you8' ,the ,master replied1 ',i do not murmur against ,heaven4 ,i do not grumble against men4 ,my studies lie low1 and my penetration rises high4 ,but there is ,heaven2--that knows me6' 7,ibid41 xiv4 #cg74 ,men might reject his labors and despise his teaching1 but he would complain neither against ,heaven nor against them4 ,if he was not known by men1 he was known by ,heaven1 and that was enough4 ,on another occasion1 the ,master said1 ',heaven produced the virtue that is in me1 ,hwan ,t'uy--what can he do to me8'#ab ,these passages are the more remarkable1 because ,confucius was not in the ordinary sense a believer in ,god4 ,that is1 he never1 throughout his instructions1 says a single word implying acknowledgment of a personal ,deity2 a ,creator of the world2 a ,being whom we are bound to worship as the author of our lives and the ruler of our destinies4 ,he has even been suspected of omitting from his edition of the ,shoo-king and the ,she-king everything that could support the comparatively theistic doctrine of his contemporary1 ,la-ts 7,by ,v4 von ,strauss1 ,t4 ,t4 ,k41 p4 xxxviii74 ,that his high respect for antiquity would have permitted such a procedure is1 to say the least1 very improbable2 and ,dr4 ,legge is no doubt right in acquitting him of any willful suppression of1 or addition to1 the ancient articles of ,chinese faith 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 i4 ,prolegomena1 p4 #ii74 ,for our present purpose it is enough to note that he avoided all discussion on the higher problems of religion2 and contented himself with speaking1 and that but rarely1 of a vague1 and hardly personal ,being which he called ,heaven4 ,thus1 in a book attributed 7perhaps erroneously7 to his grandson1 he is reported as saying1 ,sincerity is the very way of ,heaven 7,chung ,yung1 xx4 #ah74 ,of king ,woo and the duke of ,chow1 two ancient worthies1 he says3 ,by the ceremonies of the sacrifices to ,heaven and ,earth they served ,god 7where he seems to distinguish between ,heaven and ,god1 whom ,i believe he never mentions but here72 and by the ceremonies of the ancestral temple they sacrificed to their ancestors4 ,he who understands the ceremonies of the sacrifices to ,heaven and ,earth1 and the meaning of the several sacrifices to ancestors1 would find the government of a kingdom as easy as to look into his palm 7,ibid41 xix4 #f74 ,elsewhere1 he remarks that he who is greatly virtuous will be sure to receive the appointment of heaven 7,ibid41 xvii4 #e74 ,again3 ,heaven1 in the production of things1 is surely bountiful to them1 according to their qualities 7,ibid41 xvii4 #c74 ,nothing very definite can be gathered from these passages1 as to his opinions concerning the nature of the power of which he spoke thus obscurely4 ,yet it would be rash to find fault with him on that account4 ,his language may have been1 and in all probability was1 the correct expression of his feelings4 ,his mind was not of the dogmatic type2 and if he does not teach his disciples any very intelligible principles concerning spiritual matters1 it is simply because he is honestly conscious of having none to teach4 ,there are1 indeed1 indications which might be taken to imply the existence of an esoteric doctrine4 ,to those1 he says1 whose talents are above mediocrity1 the highest subjects may be announced4 ,to those who are below mediocrity1 the highest subjects may not be announced 7,lun ,yu1 vi4 #ai74 ,we are further told that ,tsze-kung said1 the ,master's personal displays of his principles1 and ordinary descriptions of them may be heard4 ,his discourses about man's nature1 and the way of ,heaven1 cannot be heard 7,ibid41 v4 #ab74 ,this last passage appears to mean that they were not open to the indiscriminate multitude1 nor perhaps to all of the disciples4 ,but we may reasonably suppose that the intimate friends who recorded his sayings were considered by him to be above mediocrity1 and were the depositaries of all he had to tell them on religious matters4 ,yet this1 little as it was1 may not always have been rightly understood4 ,once1 for example1 he says to a disciple1 ,sin1 my doctrine is that of an all-pervading unity4 ,this is interpreted by the disciple 7in the ,master's absence7 to mean only that his doctrine is to be true to the principles of our nature1 and the benevolent exercise of them to others 7,ibid41 iv4 #ae74 ,i can hardly believe that ,confucius would have taught so simple a lesson under so obscure a figure2 and it is possible that the reserve that he habitually practiced with regard to his religious faith may have prevented a fuller explanation4 ,the subjects on which the ,master did not talk were--extraordinary things1 feats of strength1 disorder1 and spiritual beings 7,lun ,yu1 vii4 #bj74 ,and although1 in the ,doctrine of the ,mean 7a work which is perhaps less authentic than the ,analects7 we find him discoursing freely on spiritual beings1 which1 he says1 abundantly display the powers that belong to them 7,chung ,yung1 #af71 there are portions of the ,analects which confirm the impression that he did not readily venture into these extra-mundane regions4 ,heaven itself1 he once pointed out to an over-curious disciple1 preserves an unbroken silence 7,lun ,yu1 xvii4 #ai74 ,interrogated about serving the spirits of the dead1 he gave this striking answer3 ,while you are not able to serve men1 how can you serve their spirits8 ,and when ,ke ,loo added1 ',i venture to ask about death8' he was answered1 ',while you do not know life1 how can you know about death8' 7,ibid41 xi4 #aa74 ,another instance of a similar reticence is presented by his conduct during an illness4 ,the ,master being very sick1 ,tsze-,loo asked leave to pray for him4 ,he said1 ',may such a thing be done8' ,tsze-,loo replied1 ',it may4 ,in the prayers it is said1 ,prayer has been made to the spirits of the upper and lower worlds4' ,the ,master said1 ',my praying has been for a long time' 7,ibid41 vii4 #cd74 ,i am unable to see the satisfaction of ,confucius with himself1 which ,dr4 ,legge discovers in this reply4 ,to me it appears simply to indicate the devout attitude of his mind1 which is evinced by many other passages in his conversation4 ,in short1 though we may complain of the indefinite character of the faith he taught1 and wish that he had expressed himself more fully1 there can scarcely be a doubt that ,confucius had a deeply religious mind2 and that he looked with awe and reverence upon that power which he called by the name of ,heaven1 which controlled the progress of events1 and would not suffer the cause of truth to perish altogether4 ,it is true1 however1 that he confined himself chiefly1 and indeed almost entirely1 to moral teaching4 ,his main object undoubtedly was to inculcate upon his friends1 and if possible to introduce among the people at large1 those great principles of ethics which he thought would restore the virtue and well-being of ancient times4 ,those principles are aptly summarized in the following verse3 ,the duties of universal obligation are five1 and the virtues wherewith they are practiced are three4 ,the duties are those between sovereign and minister1 between father and son1 between husband and wife1 between elder brother and younger1 and those belonging to the intercourse of friends4 ,those five are the duties of universal obligation4 ,knowledge1 magnanimity1 and energy1 these three are the virtues universally binding2 and the means by which they carry the duties into practice is singleness 7,chung ,yung1 xx4 #g74 ,in the ,analects1 ,gravity1 generosity of soul1 sincerity1 earnestness1 and kindness1 are said to constitute perfect virtue 7,lun ,yu1 xvii4 #f74 ,it is as an earnest and devoted teacher1 both by example and by precept1 of these and other virtues1 that ,confucius must be judged4 ,and in order to assist the formation of such a judgment1 let us take his doctrine of ,reciprocity1 to which ,i shall return in another place4 ,tsze-kung asked1 saying1 ',is there one word which may serve as a rule of practice for all one's life8' ,the ,master said1 ',is not ,reciprocity such a word8 ,what you do not want done to yourself1 do not do to others' 7,lun ,yu1 xv4 #bc74 ,on a kindred topic he thus delivered his opinion3 ,some one said1 ',what do you say concerning the principle that injury should be recompensed with kindness8' ,the ,master said1 ',with what1 then1 will you recompense kindness8 ,recompense injury with justice1 and recompense kindness with kindness' 7,ibid41 xiv4 #bf74 ,if in the above sentence he may be thought to fall short of the highest elevation1 there are some among his apothegms1 the point and excellence of which have1 perhaps1 never been surpassed4 ,take for instance these3--,the superior man is catholic and no partizan4 ,the mean man is a partizan and not catholic4 ,learning without thought is labor lost2 thought without learning is perilous 7,ibid41 ii4 #ad1 #ae74 ,or these3--,i will not be afflicted at men's not knowing me2 ,i will be afflicted that ,i do not know men 7,ibid41 i4 #af74 ,a scholar1 whose mind is set on truth1 and who is ashamed of bad clothes and bad food1 is not fit to be discoursed with 7,ibid41 iv4 #i74 ,the superior man is affable1 but not adulatory2 the mean is adulatory1 but not affable 7,ibid41 xiii4 #bc74 ,where the solid qualities are in excess of accomplishments1 we have rusticity2 where the accomplishments are in excess of the solid qualities1 we have the manners of a clerk4 ,when the accomplishments and solid qualities are equally blended1 we then have the man of complete virtue 7,lun ,yu1 vi4 #af74 ,lastly1 ,i will quote one which1 with a slight change of terms1 might have emanated from the pen of ,thomas ,carlyle3 ,there are three things of which the superior man stands in awe3--,he stands in awe of the ordinances of heaven2 he stands in awe of great men2 he stands in awe of the words of sages4 ,the mean man does not know the ordinances of heaven1 and consequently does not stand in awe of them4 ,he is disrespectful to great men4 ,he makes sport of the words of sages 7,ibid41 xvi4 #h74 ,these1 and various other recorded sayings1 go far to explain1 if not to justify1 the unbounded admiration of his faithful follower1 ,tsze-kung3 ,our ,master cannot be attained to1 just in the same way as the heavens cannot be gone up to by the steps of a stair4 ,were our ,master in the position of the prince of a ,state1 or the chief of a family1 we should find verified the description which has been given of a sage's rule3--he would plant the people1 and forthwith they would be established2 he would lead them on1 and forthwith they would follow him2 he would make them happy1 and forthwith multitudes would resort to his dominions2 he would stimulate them1 and forthwith they would be harmonious4 ,while he lived1 he would be glorious4 ,when he died1 he would be bitterly lamented4 ,how is it possible for him to be attained to8 7,ibid41 xix4 #be47 ,,section ,,ii4--,,la-,,ts4#ac ,concerning the life of ,la-ts1 the founder of the smallest of the three sects of ,china 7,confucians1 ,buddhists1 and ,taouists71 we have only the most meagre information4 ,scarcely anything is known either of his personal character or of his doctrine1 except through his book4 ,his birth-year is unknown to us1 and can only be approximately determined by means of the date assigned to his famous interview with his great contemporary1 ,confucius4 ,this occurred in ,b4 ,c4 #eag1 when ,la-ts was very old4 ,he may1 therefore1 have been born about the year ,b4 ,c4 #fjj4ad ,all we can say of his career is1 that he held an office in the ,state of ,tseheu1 that of writer 7or historian7 of the archives4 ,when visited by ,confucius1 who was the master of a rival school1 he is said to have addressed him in these terms3--,those whom you talk about are dead1 and their bones are mouldered to dust2 only their words remain4 ,when the superior man gets his time1 he mounts aloft2 but when the time is against him1 he moves as if his feet were entangled4 ,i have heard that a good merchant1 though he has rich treasures deeply stored1 appears as if he were poor2 and that the superior man1 whose virtue is complete1 is yet to outward seeming stupid4 ,put away your proud air and many desires2 your insinuating habit and wild will4 ,these are of no advantage to you4 ,this is all which ,i have to tell you4 ,after this interview1 ,confucius thus expressed his opinion of the older philosopher to his disciples3--,i know how birds can fly1 how fishes can swim1 and how animals can run4 ,but the runner may be snared1 the swimmer may be hooked1 and the flyer may be shot by the arrow4 ,but there is the dragon4 ,i cannot tell how he mounts on the wind through the clouds and rises to heaven4 ,to-day ,i have seen ,la-ts1 and can only compare him to the dragon 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 i4 ,proleg4 p4 #fe4--,t4 ,t4 ,k41 p4 liii4--,l4 ,t441 p4 iv74 ,troubles in the ,state in which he held office induced him to retire1 and to seek the frontier4 ,here the officer in command requested him to write a book1 the result of which request was the ,ta-t-,kng4 ,no one knows1 says the ,chinese historian1 where he died4 ,la-ts was a hidden sage 7,t4 ,t4 ,k41 p4 lvi74 ,to this very scanty historical information we may add such indications as ,la-ts himself has given us of his personality4 ,one of these is contained in the twentieth chapter of his work1 in which he tells us that while other men are radiant with pleasure1 he is calm1 like a child that does not yet smile4 ,he wavers to and fro1 as one who knows not where to turn4 ,other men have abundance2 he is as it were deprived of all4 ,he is like a stupid fellow1 so confused does he feel4 ,ordinary men are enlightened2 he is obscure and troubled in mind4 ,like the sea he is forgotten1 and driven about like one who has no certain resting-place4 ,all other men are of use2 he alone is clownish like a peasant4 ,he alone is unlike other men1 but he honors the nursing mother 7,t4 ,t4 ,k41 ch4 xx74 ,it is obvious that an estimate so depreciatory is not to be taken literally4 ,to understand its full significance1 it should be compared to the magnificent description in ,plato's ,thetetus of the outward appearance presented by the philosopher1 who1 in presence of practical men1 is the jest alike of ,thracian handmaids1 and of the general herd2 who is unacquainted with his next-door neighbor2 who is ignorant of what is before him1 and always at a loss2 and who is so awkward and useless when called on to perform some menial office1 such as packing up a bag1 or flavoring a sauce1 or fawning speech4 ,yet this philosopher1 like ,la-ts1 honors his nursing ,mother2 he moves in a sphere of thought where men of the world cannot follow him1 and where they in their turn are lost 7,thetetus1 #agd-agf74 ,just such a character as that drawn by ,plato1 ,la-ts seems to have been4 ,living in retirement1 and devoted to philosophy1 he appeared to his contemporaries an eccentric and incompetent person4 ,yet he says that they called him great 7,ch4 lxvii71 which seems to imply that his reputation was already founded in his life-time4 ,one other reference to himself must not be omitted1 for it evinces the sense he had of the nature of his work in the world4 ,my words1 so he writes in his paradoxical manner1 are very easy to understand1 very easy to follow1--no one in the world is able to understand them1 no one is able to follow them4 ,the words have an author1 the works have one who enjoins them2 but he is not understood1 therefore ,i am not understood 7,ch4 lxx74 ,on this ,stanislas ,julien observes1 ,there is not a word of ,la-ts's that has not a solid foundation4 ,in fact1 they have for their origin and basis ,tao and ,virtue 7,l4 ,v4 ,v4 p4 #bfi1 n4 #b74 ,these expressions1 then1 suffice to show that ,la-ts was not destitute of that sense of inspiration of which other great prophets have been so profoundly conscious4 ,,section ,,iii4--,,gautama ,,buddha4#ae ,,subdivision #a4 ,the ,historical ,buddha4 ,were we to write the history of the ,buddha according to the fashion of ,buddhist historians1 we should have to begin our story several ages before his birth4 ,for the theory of his disciples is1 that during many millions of years1 through an almost innumerable series of different lives1 he had been preparing himself for the great office of the savior of humanity which he at length assumed4 ,only by the practice of incredible self-denial1 and unbounded virtue1 during all the long line of human births he was destined to undergo1 could he become fitted for that consummate duty1 the performance of which at last released him forever from the bonds of existence4 ,for the total extinction of conscious life1 not its continuation in a better sphere1 is1 or at any rate was1 the goal of the pious ,buddhist4 ,and it was the crowning merit of the ,buddha1 that he not only sought this reward for himself1 but qualified himself by ages of endurance to enlighten others as to the way in which it might be earned4 ,but we will not encumber ourselves with the pre-historic ,buddha1 the tales of whose deeds are palpable fictions1 but will endeavor to unravel the thread of genuine fact which probably runs through the accepted life of ,sakyamuni in his final appearance upon earth4 ,and here we are met with a preliminary difficulty4 ,that life is not guaranteed by any trustworthy authority4 ,it cannot be traced back to any known disciple of ,buddha4 ,it cannot be shown to have been written within a century after his death1 and it may have been written later4 ,ancient1 however1 it undoubtedly is4 ,for the separation of northern from southern ,buddhism occurred at an early period in the history of the ,church1 probably about two hundred years after the death of its founder2 and this life is the common property of all sections of ,buddhists4 ,it was consequently current before that separation4 ,but its antiquity does not make it trustworthy4 ,on the contrary1 it is constructed in accordance with an evident design4 ,every incident has a definite dogmatic value1 and stands in well-marked dogmatic relations to the rest4 ,there is nothing natural or spontaneous about them4 ,everything has its proper place1 and its distinct purpose4 ,and it is useless to attempt to deal with such a life on the rationalistic plan of sifting the historical from the fabulous2 the natural and possible from the miraculous and impossible elements4 ,the close intermixture of the two renders any such process hopeless4 ,we are1 in fact1 with regard to the life of ,gautama ,buddha1 much in the position that we should be in with regard to the life of ,jesus ,christ1 had we no records to consult but the apocryphal gospels4 ,nevertheless1 while holding that his biography can never now be written1 it is by no means my intention to imply that it is impossible to know anything about him4 ,on the contrary1 a picture not wholly imaginary may unquestionably be drawn of the character and doctrines of the great teacher of the ,asiatic continent4 ,let us venture on the attempt4 ,an imposing array of scholars agrees in fixing the date of his death in ,b4,c4 #edc1 and as he is said to have lived eighty years1 he would thus have been born in ,b4,c4 #fbc4 ,without entering now into the grounds of their inference1 ,i venture to believe that they have thrown him back to a too distant date4 ,i am more inclined to agree with ,kppen1 who would place his death from ,b4,c4 #dhj to #dfj1 or about two centuries before the accession of the great ,buddhist king ,asoka4 ,westergaard1 it is true1 would fix this event much later1 namely about ,b4,c4 #cgj4 ,supposing the former writer to be correct in his conclusions1 the active portion of the ,buddha's life would fall to the earlier years of the fifth century ,b4,c41 and possibly to the conclusion of the sixth4 ,his birth1 about ,b4,c4 #efj-edj1 occurred in a small kingdom of the north of ,india1 entitled ,kapilavastu4 ,of what rank his parents may have been1 the accounts before us do not enable us to say4 ,the tradition according to which they were the king and queen of the country1 ,i regard with ,wassiljew as in all probability an invention intended to shed additional glory upon him4 ,the boy is said to have been named ,siddhartha1 though possibly this also was one of the many titles bestowed on him by subsequent piety4 ,at an early age he felt--as so many young men of lofty character have always done--the hollowness of worldly pleasures1 and withdrew himself from men to lead a solitary and ascetic life4 ,after he had satisfied the craving for self-torture1 and subdued the lusts of the flesh1 he came forth1 full of zeal for the redemption of mankind1 to proclaim a new and startling gospel4 ,india was at that time1 as always1 dominated by the system of caste4 ,the ,buddha1 boldly breaking through the deepest prejudices of his countrymen1 surrounded himself with a society in which caste was nothing4 ,let but a man or even a woman 7for it is stated that at his sister's request he admitted women7 become his disciple1 agree to renounce the world1 and lead the life of an ascetic1 and he or she at once lost either the privileges of a high caste1 or the degradations of a low one4 ,rank depended henceforth exclusively upon capacity for the reception of spiritual truth2 and the humblest individual might1 by attending to and practicing the teacher's lessons1 rise to the highest places in the hierarchy4 ,since the doctrine which ,i teach1 he is represented as saying in one of the ,canonical ,books1 is completely pure1 it makes no distinction between noble and commoner1 between rich and poor4 ,it is1 for example1 like water1 which washes both noblemen and common people1 both rich and poor1 both good and bad1 and purifies all without distinction4 ,it may1 to take another illustration1 be compared to fire1 which consumes mountains1 rocks1 and all great and small objects between heaven and earth without distinction4 ,again1 my doctrine is like heaven1 inasmuch as there is room within it1 without exception1 for whomsoever it may be2 for men and women1 for boys and girls1 for rich and poor 7,w4 u4 ,t41 p4 #bhb74 ,this was the practical side of ,sakyamuni's great reform4 ,its theoretical side was this4 ,life was regarded by ,indian devotees1 not as a blessing1 but as an unspeakable misery4 ,deliverance from existence altogether1 not merely transposition to a happier mode of existence1 was the object of their ardent longing4 ,the ,buddha did not seek to oppose this craving for annihilation1 but to satisfy it4 ,he addressed himself to the problem1 ,how is pain produced1 and how can it be extinguished8 ,and his meditations led him to what are termed the four truths--the cardinal dogma of ,buddhism in all its forms4 ,the four truths are stated as follows3-- #a4 ,the existence of pain4 #b4 ,the production of pain4 #c4 ,the annihilation of pain4 #d4 ,the way to the annihilation of pain4 ,the meaning of the truths is this3--,pain exists2 that is1 all living beings are subject to it2 its production is the result of the existence of such beings2 its annihilation is possible2 and lastly1 the way to attain that annihilation is to enter on the paths opened to mankind by ,gautama ,buddha4 ,in other words1 the way to avoid that awful series of succeeding births to which the ,indian believed himself subject1 was to adopt the monastic life2 to practice all virtues1 more especially charity2 to acquire a profound knowledge of spiritual truths2 and1 in fine1 to follow the teaching of the ,buddha4 ,renounce the world1 and you will--sooner or later1 according to your degree of merit--be freed from the curse of existence2 this seems to sum up1 in brief1 the gospel proclaimed with all the fervor of a great discovery by the new teacher4 ,after about forty-five years of public life devoted to mankind1 he died at the age of eighty1 at ,kusinagara1 deeply mourned by a few faithful disciples who had clustered around him1 and no doubt regretted by many who had found repose and comfort in his doctrines1 and had been strengthened by his example4 ,the names of his principal disciples become almost as familiar to a reader of ,buddhist books as those of ,peter1 ,james1 and ,john1 to a ,christian4 ,maudgalyyana and ,sariputtra1 the eminent evangelists1 and ,ananda1 the beloved disciple1 the close friend and servant of the ,buddha1 are among the most prominent of this little group4 ,with them rested propagation of the faith1 and the vast results1 which in two centuries followed their exertions1 prove that they were not remiss4 ,the stories of the thousands who embraced the proffered salvation in the life-time of the ,buddha are pious fancies4 ,it was the apostles and ,fathers of the ,church who1 while developing his doctrines and largely adding to their complexity and number1 almost succeeded in rendering his religion the dominant creed of ,india4 ,such is1 in my opinion1 the sum total of our positive knowledge with regard to the life lived1 and the truths taught1 by this great figure in human history4 ,the two points to which ,i have adverted--namely1 the formation of a society apart from the world in which caste was nothing1 and the hope held out of annihilation by the practice of virtues and asceticism--are too fundamental and too ancient to be derived from any but the founder4 ,after all1 ecclesiastical biographers1 while they adorn their heroes with fictitious trappings1 do not invent them altogether4 ,a man from whose tuition great results have flowed1 cannot be a small man2 something of those results must needs be due to the impulse he has given4 ,and if the ,buddha must have taught something1 must have inaugurated some reform1 what is he more likely to have taught1 than the way to the annihilation of pain8 what reform more likely to have inaugurated than the creation of a society held together by purely spiritual ties8 ,both are absolutely essential to ,buddhism as we know it4 ,both are closely connected4 ,for ,buddhism would have had nothing to offer without the hope of extinction2 and this hope1 while leading to the practice of an austere and religious life1 can itself be fulfilled only by that life2 implying as it does a detachment from the bonds of carnality which hold us to this scene of suffering4 ,thus1 these corner-stones of ,buddhism--flowing as they must have done from a master-mind--may1 with the highest probability1 be assigned to its author4 ,on one other point there is no reason to call in question the testimony of the legend4 ,we need not doubt he really was the pure1 gentle1 benevolent1 and blameless man which that legend depicts him to have been4 ,even his enemies have not attempted 7,i believe7 to malign his character4 ,he stands before us as one of the few great leaders of humanity who seem endowed with every virtue1 and free from every fault4 ,,subdivision #b4 ,the ,mythical ,buddha4 ,buddhistic authorities divide the life of their founder into twelve great periods1 under which it will be convenient to treat of it3-- #a4 ,his descent from heaven4 #b4 ,his incarnation4 #c4 ,his birth4 #d4 ,his display of various accomplishments4 #e4 ,his marriage1 and enjoyment of domestic life4 #f4 ,his departure from home1 and assumption of the monastic character4 #g4 ,his penances4 #h4 ,his triumph over the devil4 #i4 ,his attainment of the ,buddhaship4 #aj4 ,his turning the ,wheel of the ,law4 #aa4 ,his death4 #ab4 ,his cremation1 and the division of his relics4 #a4 ,following1 then1 the guidance of the accepted legend1 we must begin with his resolution to be born on earth for the salvation of the world4 ,after thousands of preparatory births1 he was residing in a certain heaven called ,tushita1 that being one of the numerous stages in the ascending series of the abodes of the blessed4 ,at length1 the end of his sojourn in this heaven arrived4 ,he determined to quit the gods who were his companions there1 and to be born on earth4 ,careful consideration convinced him that the monarch ,suddhodana1 and his queen1 ,maya ,devi1 alone possessed these preminent qualifications which entitled them to become the parents of a ,buddha4 ,suddhodana lived in the town of ,kapila1 and belonged to the royal family of the ,sakyas1 the only family which the ,bodhisattva 7or destined ,buddha7 had discovered by his examination to be free from faults by which it would have been disqualified to receive him as one of its members4 ,his wife1 in addition to the most consummate beauty1 was distinguished for every conjugal and feminine virtue4 ,here1 then1 was a couple worthy of the honor about to be conferred upon their house4 #b4 ,at this critical moment ,maya had demanded1 and obtained1 the permission of the king to devote herself for a season to the practice of fasting and penance4 ,while engaged in these austerities1 she dreamt that a beautiful white elephant approached her1 penetrated her side1 and entered her womb4 ,at this very time1 ,bodhisattva actually descended in the shape of a white elephant1 and took up his abode within her body4 ,on waking1 she related the dream to her husband1 who called upon the official ,brahmins to interpret it4 ,they declared it to be of good augury4 ,the queen1 they said1 carried in her womb a being who would either be a ,wheel ,king1 or ,sovereign of the whole world2 or if he took to a monastic career1 would become a ,buddha4 ,all things went well during ,maya's pregnancy4 ,according to all accounts she underwent none of the discomforts incidental to that state4 ,one writer states that her soul enjoyed a perfect calm1 the sweetest happiness2 fatigue and weariness never affected her unimpaired health4 ,another remarks that she enjoyed the most perfect health1 and was free from fainting fits4 ,an additional gratification lay in the fact1 that she was able to see the infant ,bodhisattva sitting calmly in his place within her person4 #c4 ,ten months having passed 7a ,buddha always takes ten71 the queen expressed a desire to walk in a beautiful garden called ,lumbini2 and1 with the king's ready permission1 proceeded thither with her attendants4 ,in this garden the hour of her delivery came on4 ,standing under a tree 7the ficus religiosa71 which courteously lowered its branches that she might hold on by them during labor1 she gave birth to the child who was afterwards to be the first of humankind4 ,gods from heaven received him when born1 and he himself at once took several steps forward1 and exclaimed3 ,this is my last birth--there shall be to me no other state of existence3 ,i am the greatest of all beings4 ,ananda1 his cousin1 and afterwards his disciple1 was born at the same moment4 ,maya1 notwithstanding her excellent health1 died seven days after her child's birth4 ,this was not from any physical infirmity1 but because it is the invariable rule that the mother of a ,buddha should die at that exact time4 ,the reason of this1 according to the ,lalitavistara1 is1 that when the ,buddha became a wandering monk her heart would break4 ,other respectable authorities assert1 that the womb in which a ,bodhisattva has lain is like a sanctuary where a relic is enshrined4 ,no human being can again occupy it1 or use it 7,p4 ,a41 ,no4 ,,iii4 p4 #bg74 ,maya was born again in one of the celestial regions1 and the infant was confided to her sister1 his aunt ,prajapati1 or ,gautami1 who was assisted in the care of her charge by thirty-two nurses4 ,he was christened ,sarvarthasiddha1 usually shortened into ,siddhartha4 ,he is also known as ,gautama ,buddha1 by which name he is distinguished from other ,buddhas3 as ,sakyamuni1 the hermit of the ,sakya race2 as the ,tathgata1 he who walks in the footsteps of his predecessors2 as ,bhagavat1 ,lord2 and by other honorific titles4 ,soon after the birth of the ,bodhisattva1 he was visited and adored by a very eminent ,rishi1 or hermit1 known as ,asita 7or ,kapiladevila71 who predicted his future greatness1 but wept at the thought that he himself was too old to see the day when the law of salvation would be taught by the infant whom he had come to contemplate4 #d4 ,when the appropriate age for the marriage of the young prince arrived1 a wife1 possessing all the perfections requisite for so excellent a husband1 was sought4 ,she was found in a maiden named ,gopa 7or ,yasodhara71 the daughter of ,dandapani1 one of the ,sakya race4 ,an unexpected obstacle1 however1 arose4 ,the father of the lovely ,gopa complained that ,siddhartha's education had been grossly neglected1 and that he was wanting alike in literary accomplishments and in muscular proficiency--things which were invariably demanded of the husbands of ,sakya princesses4 ,it does1 indeed1 appear that ,suddhodana had taken little pains to cultivate his son's abilities1 and that he had mainly confined himself to the care of his personal safety by surrounding him with attendants4 ,accordingly1 he asked the prince whether he thought he could exhibit his skill in those branches of knowledge1 the mastery of which ,dandapani had declared to be a necessary condition of his consent4 ,siddhartha assured his father that he could2 and in a regular competitive examination1 which was thereupon held1 he completely defeated the other princes1 not only in writing1 arithmetic1 and such matters1 but in wrestling and archery4 ,in the last art1 especially1 he gained a signal victory1 by easily wielding a bow which none of the others could manage4 #e4 ,gopa was now won1 and conducted by her husband to a magnificent palace1 where1 surrounded by a vast harem of beautiful women1 he spent1 some years of his life in the enjoyment of excessive luxury4 ,but worldly pleasure was not to retain him long in its embrace4 #f4 ,a crisis in his life was now approaching4 ,suddhodana had been warned that ,siddhartha would assume the ascetic character if four objects were to meet his sight2 an old man1 a sick man1 a corpse1 and a recluse4 ,suddhodana1 who would have much preferred his son being a universal monarch to his becoming a ,buddha1 anxiously endeavored to guard him from coming across these things4 ,but all was in vain4 ,one day1 when driving in the town1 he perceived a wrinkled1 decrepit1 and miserable old man4 ,having inquired of the coachman what this strange creature was1 and having learnt from him that he was only suffering the general fate of humanity1 the ,bodhisattva was much affected2 and1 full of sad thoughts1 ordered his chariot to be turned homewards4 ,meeting on two other occasions1 likewise when driving1 with a man emaciated by sickness1 and with a corpse1 he was led to still further reflections on the wretchedness of the conditions under which we live4 ,prepared by these meditations1 he yielded completely to the tendencies aroused within him when1 on a fourth excursion1 he came across a monk4 ,the aspect of this man--his calmness1 his dignity1 his downcast eyes1 his decent deportment--filled him with desire to abandon the world like him4 ,the die was cast4 ,nothing could now retain the ,bodhisattva1 at this time a young man of nine-and-twenty1 from the course that approved itself to his conscience4 ,in vain did his father cause his palace to be surrounded with guards4 ,in vain did the ladies of the harem 7acting under instructions7 deploy their most ravishing arts to captivate and to amuse him4 ,his resolution was finally fixed by a singular circumstance4 ,the beautiful damsels who ministered to him had sought to engage his attention by an exhibition of the most graceful dancing1 accompanied by music1 displaying their forms before his eyes as they executed their varied movements4 ,but the ,bodhisattva1 deep in his meditations1 was wholly unaffected4 ,he fell asleep2 and the women1 baffled in their attempts and wearied out1 soon followed his example4 ,but in the course of the night the prince awoke4 ,and then the sight of these girls1 slumbering in all sorts of ungainly and ungraceful postures1 utterly disgusted him4 ,summoning a courtier1 named ,chandaka1 he ordered him at once to prepare his favorite horse ,kantaka1 that he might quit the city of his fathers1 and lead the life of a humble recluse4 ,but before thus abandoning his home1 there was one painful parting to be gone through4 ,one tie still held him to the world4 ,his wife had just become a mother4 ,anxious to see his infant son1 ,rahula1 before his departure1 he gently opened the door of his wife's apartment4 ,he found her sleeping with one hand over the head of the child4 ,he would fain have taken a last look at his little boy1 but fearing that if he withdrew the mother's hand she would awake and hinder his departure1 he retired without approaching the bed4 ,in the dead of night1 mounted on ,kantaka1 and with the one attendant whom he had taken into the secret1 he managed to leave ,kapilavastu unperceived1 never to return to it again till he had attained the full dignity of a ,buddha4 #g4 ,having sent back ,chandaka with the horse1 the ,bodhisattva commenced1 alone and unaided1 a course of austerities fitted to prepare him for his great duty4 ,he tried ,brahminical teachers1 but was soon dissatisfied with their doctrine4 ,five of the disciples of one of these teachers followed him for six years in the homeless and wandering life he now began4 ,he adopted the most rigid asceticism1 reducing his body to the last degree of feebleness and emaciation4 ,but this too discovered itself to his mind as an error4 ,he took to eating again1 and regained his strength1 whereupon the five disciples left him1 viewing him as a man who had weakly abandoned his principles4 #h4 ,after this period of gradual approach to the required perfection the ,bodhisattva went to ,bodhimanda1 the place appointed for his reception of the ,buddhaship4 ,here he had to withstand a furious attack by the demon ,mara1 who first endeavored to annihilate him by his armies1 and then to seduce him by the fascination of his three daughters4 ,but ,gautama withstood his male and female adversaries with equal calmness and success4 ,of the latter he had possibly had enough in his princely palace4 #i4 ,all these trials having been surmounted1 he placed himself under the ,bodhi 7or ,intelligence7 tree1 and there1 engaging in the most intense meditations1 gradually reached the intellectual and moral height towards which he had long been climbing4 ,he was now in possession of ,bodhi1 or that complete and perfect knowledge which constitutes a ,buddha4 ,he was thus fit to teach the law of salvation1 but the ,lalitavistra represents him as still doubting for a moment whether he should engage in a task which he feared would be thankless and unavailing4 ,men1 he thought1 would be incapable of receiving so sublime a doctrine1 and he would incur fatigue and make exertions in vain4 ,silence and solitude recommended themselves at this moment to his spirit4 ,but from a resolution so disastrous he was turned aside by the intercession of the god ,brahma4 #aj4 ,he proceeded accordingly to turn the ,wheel of the ,law1 or to preach to others1 during the forty-five remaining years of his long life1 the truths he had arrived at himself4 ,the current lives speak1 in their exaggerated manner1 of his magnificent receptions by the kings whose countries he visited1 and of the thousands of converts whom he made by his preaching1 or who1 in technical language1 obtained ,nirvna through him4 ,his father and other members of his family were among his followers4 ,but among the first-fruits of his teaching were the five ,brahmins who had abandoned him when he had relaxed in his ascetic habits4 ,these1 on first perceiving him1 spoke of him with contempt as a glutton and a luxurious fellow spoilt by softness4 ,but his personal presence filled them with admiration1 and they at once acknowledged his perfect wisdom4 ,during this time the two orders of monks and nuns1 with their strict regulations enforcing continence and temperance1 were founded4 ,gautama's aunt and nurse1 ,prajapati1 was the first abbess2 the ,buddha1 who had intended to exclude women from his order1 having consented to admit them at her request4 ,rahula1 his son1 received the tonsure4 #aa4 ,after he had firmly established his law in the hearts of many devoted disciples1 the ,buddha entered ,nirvna at the age of eighty1 at ,kusinagara4 ,that his death was deeply mourned by the friends who had hung upon his lips1 and drawn their knowledge of religious truth from him1 need not be related4 #ab4 ,a pompous account is given of his funeral rites1 of which it will be sufficient to mention here that his body was laid upon a pyre1 and burnt after the manner of burning in use for ,chakravartins1 or ,universal ,monarchs4 ,the princes of ,kusinagara wished to keep his relics to themselves2 but seven kings1 each of whom demanded a share1 made threatening demonstrations against them1 and after some quarrelling it was agreed to distribute the relics among the whole number4 ,they were therefore divided into eight portions1 the royal family of each country taking one4 ,a dagoba1 or monument1 was erected over them in each of the capitals governed by these royal ,buddhists4 ,of the numerous stories that are told with regard to the effects of the ,buddha's preaching1 of the amazing miracles he is said to have performed1 and of the wonders reported to have happened at his death and his cremation1 there will be an opportunity of speaking in another place4 ,for the present1 it is enough to relate the legend of his life in its main features1 according to the version piously believed by the millions of human beings who--in ,china1 ,tartary1 ,mongolia1 ,siam1 ,burmah1 ,thibet1 and ,ceylon--look to him as their law-giver and their savior4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,zarathustra4#af ,slaves1 condemned to make bricks without straw1 would hardly have a more hopeless task than he who attempts to construct1 from the materials now before him1 a life of ,zarathustra4 ,eminent as we know this great prophet to have been1 the details of his biography have been lost forever4 ,his name and his doctrines1 with a few scattered hints in the ,gths1 are all that remain on record concerning the personality of a man who was the teacher of one great branch of the ,aryan race1 and whose religion1 proclaimed many centuries1 possibly even a thousand years1 before ,christ taught in ,galilee1 was a great and powerful faith in the days when ,marathon was fought1 and is not even now extinct4 ,we will gather from these fragmentary sources what knowledge we can of the ,iranian prophet1 but we will refuse to fill up the void created by the absence of historical documents with ingenious hypotheses or subtle speculations4 ,something approaching to a bit of biography is to be found in the opening verses of the fifth ,gth1 which are to this effect3-- ,it is reported that ,zarathustra ,spitama possessed the best good2 for ,ahura ,mazda granted him all that may be obtained by means of a sincere worship1 forever1 all that promotes the good life1 and he gives the same to all those who keep the words and perform the actions enjoined by the good religion4 ,thus may ,kava ,vistaspa1 ,zarathustra's companion1 and the most holy ,frashaostra1 who prepare the right paths for the faith which ,he who ,liveth gave unto the priests of fire1 faithfully honor and adore ,mazda according to his 7,zarathustra's7 mind1 with his words and his works6 ,pourutschista1 the ,hetchataspadin1 the most holy one1 the most distinguished of the daughters of ,zarathustra1 formed the doctrine1 as a reflection of the good mind1 the true and wise one4#ag ,here we find an allusion to the interesting fact that the ,zarathustra had a daughter who contributed to the formation of the ,parsee creed4 ,the phrase1 most distinguished of the daughters1 probably does not mean that the prophet was the father of several daughters1 but merely that this one was celebrated as his coadjutor4 ,spiegel has in vain endeavored to discover the name of this lady's husband1 but it seems to be doubtful whether anything is known of her matrimonial relations4 ,the fact which it concerns us to notice is1 that already in these primitive ages we have a female saint appearing on the scene4 ,in addition to ,st4 ,pourutschista1 mention is made of two disciples1 who were evidently leaders in the apostolic band4 ,the evangelic ardor of ,frashaostra is touched upon in the preceding ,gth1 where it is stated that he wished to visit my ,highlands 7i4 e41 ,bactria7 to propagate there the good religion1 and ,ahura ,mazda is implored to bless his undertaking4 ,rava ,vistaspa is celebrated in the same place as having obtained knowledge which the living ,wise ,one himself had discovered 7,yaspa li4 #af1 #ag4 ,parsees1 p4 #afa74 ,the names of both are well known1 being frequently mentioned in the ,gths4 ,they appear to have been intimate associates of the prophet4 ,thus a supposed inquiry is addressed to ,zarathustra1 ,who is thy true friend in the great work8 who will publicly proclaim it8 and the answer is1 ,kava ,vistaspa is the man who will do this 7,yasna1 xlvi4 #ad74 ,and ,frashaostra is spoken of as having received from ,god1 in company with the speaker 7probably the prophet himself71 the distinguished creation of truth 7,ibid41 xlix4 #h74 ,it is added1 for all time we will be thy messengers1 or in other words1 ,evangelists4 ,not only do we obtain from the ,gths a glimpse of ,zarathustra attended by zealous disciples1 eager to proclaim the good tidings he brought3 we learn something also of the opposition he encountered from the adherents of the older faith4 ,and since he actually names himself in the course of one of these compositions1 which bears every appearance of genuineness and antiquity1 we need not doubt the authenticity of the picture therein given of his relations to these opponents4 ,they were the adherents of the old ,devas1 the gods whom ,zarathustra dethroned2--polytheists1 averse to this unheard-of introduction of monotheism into their midst4 ,and they formed1 at least during a part of the prophet's life-time possibly during the whole of it1 by far the stronger party1 for he refers to them in these terms3-- ,to what country shall ,i go8 where shall ,i take refuge8 what country gives shelter to the master 7,zarathustra7 and his companion8 ,none of the servants pay reverence to me1 nor do the wicked rulers of the country4 ,how shall ,i worship thee further1 living ,wise ,one8 ,i know that ,i am helpless4 ,look at me being amongst few men1 for ,i have few men 7,i have lost my followers or they have left me72 ,i implore thee weeping1 thou living ,god who grantest happiness as a friend gives a present to his friend4 ,the good of the good mind is in thy own possession1 thou ,true ,one6444 ,the sway is given into the hands of the priests and prophets of idols1 who1 by their atrocious actions1 endeavor to destroy the life of man4444 ,to him who makes this very life increase by means of truth to the utmost for me1 who am ,zarathustra myself1 to such an one the first 7earthly7 and the other 7spiritual7 life will be granted as a reward together with all good things to be had on the imperishable earth4 ,thou1 living ,wise ,one1 art the very owner of all these things to the greatest extent2 thou1 who art my friend1 ,o ,wise ,one6 7,yasna4 xlv4 #a1 #b1 #aa1 #ai47 ,and elsewhere we come across this exclamation3 ,what help did ,zarathustra receive1 when he proclaimed the truths8 ,what did he obtain through the good mind8 7,ibid41 xlix4 #ab47 ,and the piteous question is put to ,ahura ,mazda3 ,why has the truthful one so few adherents1 while all the mighty1 who are unbelievers1 follow the ,liar in great numbers8 7,ibid41 xlvii4 #d47 ,these simple and natural verses point to a prophet who was--for a time at least--without honor in his own country4 ,whereas the later representations of his career depict him as the triumphant revealer of a new faith1 before whose words of power the ,devas1 or god of polytheism1 flee in terror and dismay1 we meet with him here in the character of a persecuted and lonely man1 unsupported by the authorities of his nation1 opposed by a powerful majority1 and imploring1 in the distress and desolation of his mind1 the all-powerful assistance of his ,god4 ,such is the reality2 how widely it differs from the fiction we have already seen4 ,but as is always the case with great prophets1 who are rejected in their own days and honored after their death1 the reality is forgotten2 the fiction is universally accepted4 ,little need be said of the doctrines taught by ,zarathustra4 ,his main principle is belief in the one great ,god1 ,ahura ,mazda1 whom he substitutes for the many gods of the ancient ,aryans4 ,he was in fact the author of a monotheistic reformation4 ,the worshipers of these deities are often referred to in opprobrious terms1 more especially as liars1 or adherents of lies1 while the devotees of ,ahura are spoken of as the good1 or as those who are in possession of the truth4 ,it is only through the spirit of lying that the godless seek to do harm2 through the true and wise ,god they cannot do it 7,yasna1 xlvii4 #d74 ,this ,god1 the friend of the prophet1 is honored in language of deep and simple adoration2 not with the mere vapid epithets of praise which become common in the later sections of the ,zend-,avesta4 ,zarathustra feels himself entirely under his protection1 and describes himself ready to preach whatever truths this great ,spirit may instruct him to declare4 ,beyond this great central dogma--which he announces with all the fervor of a discoverer--there is nothing of a very distinctive kind in his theology4 ,the doctrine of a separate evil spirit opposed to ,ahura ,mazda does not hold in the ,gths that place which it afterwards obtained in the sacred literature of the ,parsee4 ,dr4 ,haug considers that ,zarathustra held merely a philosophical dualism1 the two principles of existence--bad and good--being united in the supreme nature of the ultimate ,deity4 ,from this great and all-wise ,being every good thing emanates4 ,he is the inspirer of his prophet2 the teacher of his people2 the counselor in the many perplexing questions that harass the minds of his worshipers4 ,to him the pious souls resort in trouble2 by him both earthly possessions and spiritual life are granted to those who rightly seek him4 ,ahura ,mazda is the true ,god2 and there is no other ,god but ,ahura ,mazda4 ,,section ,v4--,,mahomet4#ah ,the last man who has obtained the rank of a prophet is ,mohammed1 or ,mahomet1 the son of ,abdallah and ,amina4 ,since his time none has succeeded in founding a great1 and at the same time an independent religion4 ,many have wrought changes in prexisting materials2 but no one has built from the foundation upwards4 ,the religion of ,mahomet1 though compounded of heathen1 ,judaic1 and ,christian elements1 is not a mere reformation of any of the faiths in which these constituents were found4 ,it depends for its original sanction upon none of these1 but derives its raison d'etre exclusively from the direct inspiration of its author4 ,this prophet was born at ,mecca in #ega1 and was the posthumous child of ,abdallah1 by his wife ,amina4 ,his mother died when he was six years old1 and he was then taken charge of by his grandfather ,abd-al-,mottalib1 who1 dying in two years1 left the child to the care of his son ,abu ,talib4 ,mahomet was poor1 and had to work for his living in a very humble occupation4 ,in process of time1 however1 he obtained a comfortable employment in the service of a rich widow1 named ,khadija1 who was engaged in business1 and whom he served in the capacity of a commercial traveler2 or at first perhaps in a lower situation4 ,his mercenary relation to her was soon superseded by a tenderer bond4 ,he married her in #eie1 she being then thirty-eight or thirty-nine years of age1 and fifteen years older than himself4 ,she was evidently a woman of strong character1 and retained an unbroken hold upon the affection of ,mahomet until her death in #fai4 ,he subsequently married many wives1 of whom ,ayisha was the most intimate with him2 but none of them appears to have exercised so much influence upon his character as ,khadija4 ,she it was who was the first to believe in the divine inspiration which her husband began to disclose in the year #fab1 at the mature age of forty2 and she it was who encouraged and comforted the rising prophet during his early years of trouble and persecution4 ,his first revelation was received by him in #fab4 ,it purported to be dictated by the angel ,gabriel1 who was ,mahomet's authority for the whole of the ,koran4 ,recite thou1 thus spoke his heavenly instructor1 in the name of thy ,lord who created2--created man from clots of blood3--,recite thou6 ,for thy ,lord is the most beneficent1 who hath taught the use of the pen2--hath taught man that which he knoweth not 7,k41 p4 #a4--,sura xcvi74 ,after this first reception of the word of ,god1 ,mahomet passed through that period of extreme depression and gloom which appears to be the universal lot of thoughtful characters1 and which ,mr4 ,carlyle has designated the ,everlasting ,no4 ,for many months he received no more revelations1 and in his despondency he entertained a wish to throw himself down from high mountains1 but was prevented by the appearance of the angel ,gabriel4 ,in time another communication came to strengthen him in his work2 and revelations now began to pour down abundantly4 ,his earliest disciples1 besides his wife and his daughters1 were his cousin ,ali1 and the slave ,zayd1 whom he had adopted as a son4 ,by and by he obtained other important converts1 among whom were ,abu ,bakr1 ,zobayr1 and ,othman1 afterwards the ,chalif4 ,his earliest revelations were inoffensive to the ,meccans2 and it was only when he began to preach distinctly the unity of ,god1 the resurrection1 and responsibility to the ,deity1 that opposition was aroused4 ,persecution followed upon disapproval4 ,some of ,mahomet's followers were compelled to take refuge in ,abyssinia1 and he himself told the ,meccans instructive legends of nations whom ,god had destroyed for their wickedness in rejecting the prophets who had been sent to them4 ,in #faf1 however1 ,mahomet was guilty of a relapse1 for he published a revelation recognizing three ,meccan idols1 ,lat1 ,ozza1 and ,manah1 as intercessors with ,allah4 ,in consequence of this concession to their faith1 the ,korayschites--his own tribe--fell down on their faces in adoration of ,allah1 and the exiles in ,abyssinia returned to their native land4 ,but the prophet was soon ashamed of the weakness by which he had purchased public support4 ,the verse was struck out of the ,koran1 and the passing recognition of idolatry attributed to the suggestion of the devil4 ,tradition assigns to this occasion the following verses3 ,we have not sent any apostle or prophet before thee1 among whose desires ,satan injected not some wrong desire2 but ,god shall bring to nought that which ,satan had suggested4 ,thus shall ,god affirm his revelations1 for ,god is ,knowing-,wise6 ,that he may make that which ,satan hath injected1 a trial to those in whose hearts is a disease1 and whose hearts are hardened 7,k4 p4 #eic--,sura xxii4 #ea1 #eb74 ,after his renewed profession of ,monotheism1 ,mahomet and his followers were naturally subjected to renewed persecutions4 ,conversions1 however1 did not cease2 and that of ,omar1 in #fag1 was of great importance to the nascent community4 ,yet matters were at last pushed to extremities by the unbelievers4 ,mahomet's family1 the ,haschimites1 were excluded from all commercial and social intercourse by the other ,korayschites1 and compelled to withdraw into their own quarter4 ,this state of quarantine probably lasted from the autumn of #fag to that of #fai4 ,at its conclusion ,mahomet lost his wife ,khadija1 and his uncle ,abu ,talib1 who had given him protection4 ,he was now exposed to many insults and much annoyance4 ,the insecurity in which he lived at ,mecca forced him to seek supporters elsewhere4 ,now the ,caaba or holy stone at ,mecca was the scene of an annual pilgrimage from the surrounding country4 ,mahomet made use of the advent of the pilgrims in #fba to enlist in his cause six inhabitants of ,medina1 who are reported to have bound themselves to him by the following vow3--,not to consider any one equal to ,allah2 not to steal2 not to be unchaste2 not to kill their children2 not willfully to calumniate2 to obey the prophet's orders in equitable matters4 ,paradise was to be the guerdon of the strict observance of this vow1 which from the place where it was taken was called the first ,akaba4 ,in the following year1 #fbb1 ,mahomet met seventy-two men of ,medina by night at the same ravine1 and the oath now taken was the second ,akaba4 ,the believers swore to receive the prophet and to expend their property and their blood in his defense4 ,twelve of the seventy-two disciples were selected as elders1 the prophet following therein the example of ,christ4 ,a place of refuge from the hostility of their countrymen was now open to the rising sect4 ,all the ,moslems who were able and willing gradually found their way to ,medina4 ,at length none of the intending emigrants remained at ,mecca but the prophet himself and his two friends ,abu ,bakr1 and ,ali4 ,the designs of the ,korayschites against ,mahomet's life failed1 and he effected his escape to a cave at some little distance from ,mecca1 and in the opposite direction from ,medina4 ,here he remained in concealment with ,abu ,bakr for three days1 the daughter of the latter bringing food for both4 ,after this time a guide brought three camels with which they proceeded in safety to ,medina4 ,the prophet reached ,koba1 a village just outside it1 on the #adth of ,september #fbb4 ,he remained here three days1 and received the visits of his adherents in ,medina every day4 ,this was the celebrated ,hegira1 or flight1 from which the ,mussulman era is dated4 ,in the course of a year1 the majority of the inhabitants of ,medina had adopted ,islam1 and a little later those who remained heathens were either compelled or persuaded to embrace1 or at least to submit to1 the new creed and its apostle4 ,the ,jews alone retained their ancient religion4 ,but while ,mahomet was thus successful with ,medina1 he was still exposed to the bitter hostility of ,mecca4 ,war between the two cities was the result of the hospitality accorded to him by the former4 ,mahomet1 who now united in his person the temporal and spiritual supremacy in his adopted home1 did not shrink from the contest1 but carried it on with vigor and success4 ,in the year #fbd1 having gone in pursuit of a ,meccan caravan1 he met the army of the ,korayschites at ,badr1 and defeated them2 although he had not much more than three hundred men1 while they commanded from nine hundred to one thousand4 ,in the following year indeed the ,moslems were defeated in the battle of ,ohod2 but in #fbg the siege of ,medina1 undertaken by ,abu ,sofyn at the head of ten thousand men1 was raised after three weeks without serious loss on either side4 ,notwithstanding the enmity of its inhabitants1 ,mecca still retained in the eyes of ,mahomet and his disciples its ancient prerogative of sanctity4 ,the ,kibla1 or point towards which the ,moslem was to turn in prayer1 had for a time been ,jerusalem2 but ,mahomet had restored this privilege to his native town two years after the ,hegira4 ,there too was the sacred stone1 no less venerated by the pious worshiper of ,allah than by the adherents of ,lat1 ,ozza and ,manah2 and thither it was that the religious pilgrimage had to be performed1 for ,mahomet had no intention of giving up this part of his ancestral faith4 ,he was desirous in the spring of #fbh of performing the pilgrimage to ,mecca4 ,the ,koreish1 however1 came out to meet him with an army1 determined to preclude his entrance to the city4 ,the design was therefore abandoned2 but an important treaty was concluded between ,mahomet and ,sohayl1 who acted as envoy from ,mecca4 ,by this compact both parties agreed to abstain from all hostilities for ten years2 ,mahomet was to surrender fugitives from ,mecca1 but the ,meccans were not to surrender fugitives from him2 no robbery was to be practiced2 it was open to any one to make an alliance with either party2 ,mahomet and his followers were to be permitted to enter ,mecca for three days in the following year for the festival4 ,after making this agreement ,mahomet1 yielding to circumstances1 performed the ceremonies of the festival at ,hodaybiya near ,mecca and then withdrew4 ,the treaty caused great dissatisfaction among the ,moslems1 as well it might2 and the humiliation was heightened when the prophet1 shortly after making it1 was compelled to fulfil its provisions by giving up certain proselytes who had fled to him1 from ,mecca4 ,nevertheless his power continued to grow1 and a tribe residing near ,mecca took advantage of the treaty to conclude an alliance with him4 ,mahomet now began to place himself on a level with crowned heads4 ,in #fbh he had a seal made with the inscription upon it3 ,mahomet the messenger of ,god4 ,furnished with this official seal1 he despatched six messengers with letters to the ,emperor ,heraclius2 to the ,king of ,abyssinia2 to the ,shah of ,persia2 to ,mokawkas1 lord of ,alexandria2 to ,harith the ,ghassanite chief2 and to ,hawda in ,yamama1 a province of ,arabia4 ,the purport of all these missives was an exhortation to the various sovereigns and chiefs to embrace the new religion1 and a promise that ,god would reward them if they did1 with a warning that they would bear the guilt of their subjects if they did not4 ,in the same year ,mahomet besieged the town of ,chaybar1 whose inhabitants were ,jews4 ,many of them were killed2 the rest were permitted to withdraw with their families4 ,kinana1 their chief1 was executed2 and his wife ,cafyya was added to the already numerous harem of the victor4 ,the following year1 #fbi1 witnessed the performance by the ,moslems of the pilgrimage to ,mecca for the first time since the ,hegira4 ,the prophet summoned those who had accompanied him to ,hodaybiya the year before to go with him now4 ,the ,koreish1 according to the stipulations of the treaty1 left the city2 the ,moslems entered it1 performed their devotions1 and retired after three days4 ,this year was also marked by a signal victory over a ,ghassanite chief1 who had executed a ,mussulman envoy4 ,in ,january1 #fcj1 taking advantage of the invitation of an allied tribe who had quarreled with ,mecca1 ,mahomet quitted ,medina with a large army for the purpose of taking that city4 ,the exploit was facilitated by the desertion of the general of the ,koreish1 ,abu ,sofyn1 who privately escaped to the ,moslem camp and made his confession of faith4 ,next day the forces of the prophet entered ,mecca with scarcely any resistance4 ,in the following year he laid down the terms upon which the conquered city was to be dealt with4 ,abu ,bakr1 accompanied by #cjj ,moslems1 was sent to ,mecca as leader of the pilgrims4 ,ali was charged to make the proclamation to the people which is found in the #ith ,sura of the ,koran4 ,an ,immunity from ,god and his ,apostle to those with whom ye are in league1 among the ,polytheist ,arabs6 7those who join gods with ,god74 ,go ye1 therefore1 at large in the land four months3 but know that ,god ye shall not weaken2 and that those who believe not1 ,god will put to shame--,and a proclamation on the part of ,god and his ,apostle to the people on the day of the greater pilgrimage1 that ,god is free from any engagement with the votaries of other gods with ,god as is his ,apostle6 ,if therefore ye turn to ,god it will be better for you2 but if ye turn back then know that ye shall not weaken ,god3 and to those who believe not1 announce thou a grievous punishment4 ,but this concerneth not those ,polytheists with whom ye are in league1 and who shall have afterwards in no way have failed you1 nor aided any one against you4 ,observe1 therefore1 engagement with them through the whole time of their treaty3 for ,god loveth those who fear him4 ,and when the sacred months are passed1 kill those who join other gods with ,god wherever ye shall find them2 and seize them1 besiege them1 and lay wait for them with every kind of ambush3 but if they shall convert1 and observe prayer1 and pay the obligatory alms1 then let them go their way1 for ,god is gracious1 merciful4 ,if any one of those who join gods with ,god ask an asylum of thee1 grant him an asylum1 that he may hear the ,word of ,god1 and then let him reach his place of safety4 ,this1 for that they are people devoid of knowledge 7,k41 p4 #faa4--,sura ix4 #a-f74 ,without quoting the proclamation at full length1 we may observe that in substance the terms granted were these4 ,those of the heathen with whom treaties had been made were informed that they should be free for four months4 ,these are the sacred months alluded to in the text1 and which had always been observed as a time of truce by the heathen ,arabs1 but which ,mahomet deprived of their privilege4 ,after this period was past the ,moslems might kill the heathens or take them prisoners wherever they might find them4 ,with other heathens1 with whom there was no treaty in existence1 ,allah announced that he would have nothing further to do4 ,moreover1 the heathen were excluded by this proclamation from approaching the holy places of ,mecca in future4 ,o believers6--such are the words of this last decree--only they who join gods with ,god are unclean6 ,let them not1 therefore1 after this year1 come near the sacred ,temple 7,k41 p4 #fae4--,sura ix4 #bh74 ,the prophet was now at the climax of his power4 ,all ,arabia was his2 both materially and spiritually subdued beneath his authority4 ,the city of his birth1 which had spurned him as one of her humble citizens1 was now compelled to receive him as her lord4 ,no triumph could be more complete2 and it is a rare1 if not a unique1 example of a new religion being persecuted1 imperilled1 well-nigh crushed1 rescued1 strengthened1 contending for supremacy1 and supreme1 within the life-time of its founder4 ,but that life-time was now approaching its end4 ,mahomet in #fcb celebrated the last festival he was destined to witness with the utmost pomp4 ,he went with all his wives to ,mecca1 and thousands of believers assembled around him there4 ,he preached to them from his camel4 ,he sacrificed one hundred camels4 ,on the #hth of ,june1 #fcb1 he expired in the hut of ,ayischa of a remittent fever from which he had been suffering a short time4 ,the character of the prophet ,mahomet is an open question4 ,between the glowing admiration bestowed upon him by ,carlyle1 and the sneering depreciation of ,sprenger1 there lie numerous intermediate possibilities of opinion4 ,his sincerity1 his veracity1 his humanity1 his originality1 are all topics of discussion admitting of varied treatment4 ,the old and simple method of treating ,mahomet as an impostor scarcely merits notice4 ,among serious students of his life it may be pronounced extinct4 ,but between positive imposture and a degree of truthfulness equal to that which all would concede to ,confucius1 or to ,jesus1 there are many degrees1 and a man may be more or less sincere in many particulars which do not involve the fundamental honesty of his conduct4 ,it is in such particulars that the character of ,mahomet is most open to suspicion4 ,few1 ,i believe1 would be able to read the earlier ,meccan ,suras1 instinct as they are with a spirit of glowing devotion to a new idea1 without entire conviction of the sincerity of their author4 ,nor can we reasonably doubt that he himself fully believed in the inspiration he professed to receive4 ,the ,koran is written precisely in that loose1 rambling1 and irregular style1 which would indicate that its author was above the laws of human composition4 ,if 7as is said by some7 there is beauty in the original ,arabic1 that beauty entirely evaporates in translation4 ,the man whose work it is gave utterance to the thoughts of the moment as they were borne in upon him1 in his opinion by an external power4 ,but while he no doubt conceived himself as the instrument of the divine being1 it is also exceedingly probable that in his later life he abused the weapon which he had thus got into his possession4 ,that is to say1 instead of waiting patiently for the revelation1 and allowing ,allah to take his own time1 he in all likelihood put forth as revealed whatever happened to suit the political purpose of the day1 and that at whatever moment was convenient to himself4 ,in other words1 he may have become less of a passive1 and more of an active agent in the composition of the ,koran4 ,take1 for example1 the two following ,suras1 belonging to his earliest period1 as specimens of the inspired poetic style3--,say3 ,o ye unbelievers6 ,i worship not that which ye worship1 and ye do not worship that which ,i worship2 ,i shall never worship that which ye worship1 neither will ye worship that which ,i worship4 ,to you be your religion2 to me my religion4 ,say3 ,he is ,god alone3 ,god the eternal6 ,he begetteth not1 and is not begotten2 and there is none like unto him 7,k41 pp4 #ab1 #ac4--,suras cix41 cxii74 ,contrast these fervent exclamations with such a passage as this1 from one of the latest ,suras3-- ,this day have ,i perfected your religion for you1 and have filled up the measure of my favors upon you3 and it is my pleasure that ,islam be your religion2 but whoso without willful leanings to wrong shall be forced by hunger to transgress1 to him1 verily1 will ,god be indulgent1 merciful4 ,they will ask thee what is made lawful for them4 ,say3 ,those things which are good are legalized to you1 and the prey of beasts of chase which ye have trained like dogs1 teaching them as ,god hath taught you4 ,eat1 therefore1 of what they shall catch for you1 and make mention of the name of ,god over it1 and fear ,god3 ,verily1 swift is ,god to reckon3 ,this day1 things healthful are legalized to you1 and the meats of those who have received the ,scriptures are allowed to you1 as your meats are to them4 ,and you are permitted to marry virtuous women of those who have received the ,scriptures before you1 when you shall have provided them their portions1 living chastely with them without fornication1 and without taking concubines 7,k41 p4 #fcb4--,sura v4 #e-g74 ,the doctrine of direct inspiration1 applied to matters like these1 is almost a mockery4 ,yet ,mahomet may have continued to think that ,god assisted him in the task of laying down laws for the believers1 and we cannot accuse him of positive insincerity1 even though his revelations were no longer the spontaneous outpourings of an overflowing heart4 ,a more difficult question is raised when we inquire how much of his teaching was borrowed from others1 and whether there was any one who acted as his prompter in the novel doctrines he announced4 ,now there is evidence enough1 some of it supplied by the ,koran itself1 that ,mahomet was preceded by a sect called ,hanyfites1 who rejected the idolatry of their countrymen and held monotheistic doctrines4 ,he spoke of himself as belonging to this sect1 of which the patriarch ,abraham was considered the representative and founder4 ,abraham is referred to in the ,koran with the epithet ,hanyf1 and as one of those who do not join gods with ,god 7,e4g41 ,sura iii4 #hi2 vi4 #afb2 xvi4 #aba74 ,a dozen or so of the contemporaries of the prophet renounced idolatry before him1 and were ,hanyfites4 ,three of these became ,christians1 and a fourth1 by name ,zayd1 professed to be neither ,jew nor ,christian1 but to follow the religion of ,abraham4 ,zayd was acknowledged as his forerunner by ,mahomet himself4 ,but besides these sources of conversion which lay open to the prophet1 it is plain from the ,koran itself that he had had much intercourse with a person 7or persons7 of the ,jewish faith4 ,mahomet was not a scholar1 and his continual allusions to events in ,jewish history plainly indicate a personal source4 ,moreover1 the narratives are given in that somewhat perverted form which we should expect to find if they were derived from loose conversation rather than from study4 ,his belief in the unity of ,god is not therefore a peculiarity which cannot be explained by reference to the circumstances in which his youth was passed4 ,what was original with him was not the doctrine so much as the intensity with which it took possession of his mind1 and the fervor which allowed him no rest until he had done his best to impart to others the profound conviction he entertained of this great truth4 ,mahomet in fact began his public career as a simple preacher4 ,the resistance he met with at home1 and the necessity of relying for self-preservation on the swords of the men of ,medina1 converted him from a prophet to a potentate4 ,the change was not one which he could avoid without sacrificing all chances of success2 but it does appear to have exercised an unfortunate influence upon his character4 ,as the governor of ,medina he became tyrannical and even cruel4 ,among the worst features of his life is his conduct to the ,jews after his attempts at conciliation had been shown to be fruitless4 ,for instance1 a ,jewish tribe1 the ,banu ,kaynoka1 with whom a treaty of friendship had been concluded1 were expelled from ,medina4 ,another tribe of the same religion1 the ,banu ,nadhyr1 were blockaded in their quarter1 and driven to capitulate1 on condition of being allowed to leave ,medina with their movable property4 ,on the very day upon which the siege by ,abu ,sofyn in #fbg came to an end1 ,mahomet blockaded the ,banu ,koraytza1 also ,jews1 and compelled them to surrender at discretion4 ,all the men1 six hundred in number1 were put to death1 and the women were sold as slaves2 a punishment which1 even on the supposition that the tribe was hostile to the prophet1 was unpardonably severe4 ,in the ensuing year he marched against ,chaybar1 a town inhabited by ,jews1 besieged and took it4 ,all the ,jews taken in arms were put to death1 whereupon the rest surrendered on condition of being permitted to withdraw with their families and their portable goods1 exclusive of weapons and the precious metals4 ,kinana1 their leader1 was executed1 and it is a suspicious circumstance that ,mahomet married his widow ,cafyya4 ,nor were these the worst of the prophet's misdeeds4 ,he even stooped to sanction1 if not to order1 private assassination4 ,shortly after his victory at ,badr1 a woman and an old man1 both of whom had rendered themselves offensive by their anti-,mussulman verses1 were murdered in the night2 and in both instances the murderers received the protection and countenance of the prophet and his followers4 ,unbridled authority had in fact corrupted him4 ,all those who did not adhere to his cause committed in his eyes the crime of opposing the will of ,god4 ,to a man empowered by a special commission like his1 the ordinary restraints of morality could not apply4 ,hence also1 if he required a larger number of wives than was permitted to any other ,moslem1 a special revelation was produced to justify the excess4 ,this was one of the weakest points in the prophet's character4 ,instead of setting an example to the community1 he was driven to justify his self-indulgence by means which were nothing short of a perversion of religion to his own ends4 ,there would have been nothing reprehensible1 considering his age and country1 in his indulgence in polygamy1 had he observed any kind of moderation as to its extent4 ,where he happened to take a fancy to a woman1 and that woman did not object to him1 the moral sense of his countrymen would not have revolted by his taking her to wife4 ,but it was revolted by the unrestricted freedom with which he added wife to wife1 and concubine to concubine2 a freedom so great as to degenerate into mere debauchery4 ,he married women whom he had never seen1 and who were sometimes already married4 ,mere beauty seems to have justified in his own eyes the addition of a new member to his harem1 and there could be no pretence of real affection in the case of the women whom1 without previous acquaintance1 he took to his matrimonial bed4 ,exclusive of ,khadija1 the total number of his wives was thirteen1 of whom nine survived him4 ,he had also three concubines4 ,that his procedure scandalized the faithful is shown by the necessity he felt of defending it by the pliant instrument of revelation4 ,not only did he obtain from ,god a special law entitling him to exceed the usual number of wives2 other peculiarities in his conduct were justified1 either by an ex post facto decision applicable to all1 or by an appeal to his extraordinary rights in his character of prophet4 ,he had1 for example conceived a desire to possess ,zaynab1 the wife of his adopted son ,zayd4 ,zayd obligingly divorced her1 and received the greatest favor from the prophet for this friendly conduct4 ,zaynab made it a condition of her compliance that the union with ,mahomet should be sanctioned by revelation1 and this sanction was of course procured4 ,marriage with an adopted son's wife was somewhat shocking1 and the following reference in the ,koran indicates the manner in which the affair was regarded3 ,and1 remember1 when thou saidst to him unto whom ,god had shown favor i4 e41 to ,zayd1 and to whom thou also hadst shown favor1 ',keep thy wife to thyself1 and fear ,god2' and thou didst hide in thy mind what ,god would bring to light1 and didst fear man2 but more right had it been to fear ,god4 ,and when ,zayd had settled concerning her to divorce her1 we married her to thee1 that it might not be a crime in the faithful to marry the wives of their adopted sons1 when they have settled the affair concerning them4 ,and the behest of ,god is to be performed4 ,no blame attacheth to the prophet where ,god hath given him a permission 7,k41 p4 #eff4--,sura xxxiii4 #ch1ci74 ,in another case he wished to induce a cousin1 who was already married1 though only to a heathen husband living at ,mecca1 to become his wife2 but she1 believer as she was1 refused to be untrue to her conjugal duties4 ,he permitted himself also to accept the love of women who simply surrendered themselves to him without the sanction of their relations1 conduct which placed them in a highly disadvantageous position1 since in case of dismissal by her husband1 a woman thus informally married was not entitled to the dowry which other married women would receive1 nor could she claim the protection of her family4 ,among the heathen ,arabs1 observes ,sprenger1 a man who accepted such a favor would have been killed by the woman's family 7,l4 ,l4 ,m41 vol4 iii4 p4 #hd74 ,but for the case of the cousin and for the case of such obliging female devotees the ,koran had its suitable provisions3-- ,o ,prophet6 we allow thee thy wives whom thou hast dowered1 and the slaves whom thy right hand possesseth out of the booty which ,god hath granted thee1 and the daughters of thy uncle1 and of thy paternal and maternal aunts who fled with thee to ,medina1 and any believing woman who hath given herself up to the prophet1 if the prophet desired to wed her--a privilege for thee above the rest of the faithful4444 ,thou mayest decline for the present whom thou wilt of them1 and thou mayest take to thy bed whom thou wilt1 and whomsoever thou shalt long for of those thou shalt have before neglected2 and this shall not be a crime in thee4 ,thus will it be easier to give them the desire of their eyes1 and not to put them to grief1 and to satisfy them with what thou shalt accord to each of them4 ,god knoweth what is in your hearts1 and ,god is knowing1 gracious4 ,by a combination of qualities which is not uncommon1 he added to an unrestricted license in his own favor an equally unrestricted jealousy concerning others4 ,he could not bear the thought that any other man might possibly enjoy one of his wives even after his death4 ,his followers were told that they must not trouble the ,apostle of ,god1 nor marry his wives after him1 for ever4 ,this would be a grave offense with ,god4 ,in the same paltry spirit he orders them1 when they would ask a gift of any of his wives1 to ask it from behind a veil4 ,purer will this be for your hearts and for their hearts4 ,lest any stranger should trouble this uneasy husband by obtaining a sight of his wives' naked faces1 he required them invariably to wear a veil in public1 and never to expose themselves unveiled except to near male relations1 slaves1 or women 7,k41 p4 #efi4--,sura xxxiii4 #ea1 #ec1 #ee74 ,texts like these exhibit the degeneracy of the prophet's character in his later days4 ,he wanted the stimulus of adversity to keep him pure4 ,but he had done his work1 and that work was on the whole a good one4 ,not indeed that there was anything very original or striking in the doctrines he announced4 ,the ,koran rings the changes on the unity of ,god1 his power1 his mercy1 and his other well-known qualities2 on the resurrection1 with its delights for the faithful and its terrible judgments for the wicked2 and on the vast importance of belief in the prophet and submission to his decrees4 ,but this religion1 though containing no elements that did not already exist in its two parents1 ,judaism and ,christianity1 was an improvement on the promiscuous idolatry which it superseded4 ,it was less sensual and more abstract2 and its moral tone was higher4 ,greater still than the improvement in the creed of the ,arabs was the improvement in their material status4 ,unity of faith brought with it unity of action4 ,from a number of scattered1 independent1 and often hostile tribes1 the ,arabs became a powerful and conquering nation4 ,other peoples were in course of time converted1 and the religion of ,mahomet was in the succeeding centuries carried in triumph over vast districts where the name of ,christ had hitherto reigned supreme4 ,districts of heathen ,africa have also accepted it4 ,were the prophet able to speak to us now1 he would be entitled to say that the manifest blessing of ,allah had rested upon the work he had begun in obscurity and persisted in through persecution2 and that the partiality of heaven was evident from the fact that ,christianity had never succeeded1 and had no prospect of succeeding1 in regaining the vast territory in ,europe and in ,africa from which ,islam has expelled it4 ,,section ,,vi4--,,jesus ,,christ4 ,when we endeavor to write the life of ,jesus ,christ1 the greatest of the prophets1 we are beset by peculiar difficulties arising from the nature of the materials4 ,while in the case of the ,buddha we receive from authorities a life which1 though largely composed of fiction1 is at least uniform and consistent1 in the case of ,jesus we have biographies from several sources1 all of them partly historical1 partly legendary1 and each in some respects at issue with all the rest4 ,hence the labor of sifting fact from fiction1 as also that of reproducing and classifying the fictitious element itself1 is far more difficult4 ,in sifting fact from fiction we have to judge1 among two1 three1 or four versions of an occurrence1 which is likely to be the most faithful statement of the truth1 and within this statement itself how much we may accept1 how much we must reject4 ,and in reproducing and classifying the fictitious element we have not merely to relate a simple story1 but to combine into our narrative varying1 and sometimes conflicting1 forms of the same fundamental myth4 ,hence further subdivision will be needed in the case of ,jesus than was requisite in treating the lives of any of the other prophets4 ,we may in fact discern in the gospels three distinct strata3 a stratum of fact2 a stratum of miracle and marvel2 and a stratum 7in ,john7 of mere imagination within the realm of natural events4 ,correspondently to these divisions in the sources we will treat ,jesus first as historical2 secondly1 as mythical2 thirdly1 as ideal4 ,the historical ,jesus is the actual human figure who remains after abstraction has been made of the miraculous and legendary portions of his biography4 ,the mythical ,jesus1 who is found in the three first gospels1 is the human subject of legendary narratives2 the ideal ,jesus1 who is found in ,john1 is a completely superhuman conception4 ,finally1 it may be needful to remark that the names affixed to the several gospels are merely traditional1 and that in using them as a brief designation for these works1 no theory as to their actual authorship is intended to be implied4 ,the gospels 7excepting perhaps the fourth7 were the work of many authors1 though ultimately compiled and edited by a single hand4 ,who this editor was is of little moment2 and who the original authors were we never can discover4 ,so that the gospels are to all intents and purposes anonymous2 but it will be convenient1 after noting this fact1 to continue to describe them by their current titles4 ,,subdivision #a4--,the ,historical ,jesus4 ,in attempting to sketch the outline of the actual life of ,jesus--and anything more than an outline must needs be highly conjectural--there are some general principles which it is advisable to follow4 ,recollecting that we have to deal with biographers who have mingled in promiscuous confusion the supernatural with the natural1 impossibilities with probabilities1 fables with facts1 it becomes our duty to endeavor to separate these heterogeneous elements according to some consistent plan4 ,that this can ever be perfectly accomplished is not to be expected4 ,the figure of ,jesus must ever move in twilight1 but we may succeed in reducing the degree of unavoidable obscurity4 ,the first of the maxims to be observed will be furnished by a little consideration of the kind of thing likely to be the earliest committed to writing1 as also to be the most accurately handed down by tradition4 ,this1 it appears to me1 would be sayings1 rather than doings4 ,nothing in the life of ,jesus is more characteristic and remarkable than his oral instruction2 this would impress itself deeply upon the minds of his hearers1 and nothing1 we may fairly conjecture1 would be so soon committed to writing either by them or by their followers4 ,moreover1 the records of discourses and parables would be1 in the main1 more accurate than those of events2 slight differences in the words attributed to a speaker being 7except in special cases7 less material than divergences in the manner of portraying his actions4 ,historical confirmation of this hypothesis is not wanting4 ,there is the well-known statement of ,papias that ,matthew wrote down the sayings of ,christ in ,hebrew ,syro-,chaldaic4 ,and if we look for internal evidence1 we find it in the far greater agreement among the synoptical gospels as to the doctrines taught by ,jesus than as to the incidents of his career4 ,the incidents bear traces of embellishment undergone in passing from mouth to mouth from which the doctrines are free4 ,in some cases1 moreover1 there is concurrence as to the doctrines taught along with divergence as to the place where1 and the circumstances under which1 they were delivered4 ,added to which considerations there is the all-important fact that the events in the life of ,christ are often of a supernatural order1 while his discourses 7excepting those in ,john7 present nothing irreconcilable with his position in regard either to his epoch1 his presumable education1 or his nationality4 ,giving this preference to sayings in general1 over doings in general1 we may next establish an order of preference among doings themselves4 ,of these1 some are natural and probable2 others unnatural and improbable2 others again supernatural and impossible4 ,the first kind will1 of course1 be accepted rather than the second2 while the third kind must be rejected altogether4 ,and as a corollary from this general principle1 it follows that where one narrative gives a simpler version than another of the same event or series of events1 the simpler version is to be preferred4 ,a third rule of the utmost importance is that when any statement is opposed1 either directly or by its implications1 to subsequent tradition1 that statement may be confidently received4 ,for when the whole course of opinion in the ,christian ,church has run in a given direction1 the preservation in one of our ,gospels of an alleged or implied fact conflicting with the established view1 is an unmistakable indication that the truth has been rescued from destruction in a case where succeeding generations would gladly have suppressed it4 ,a fourth maxim1 which is likely to be useful1 is that wherever we can perceive traces of faults or blemishes in the character of ,christ1 we may presume them to have actually existed4 ,for his biographers were deeply interested in making him appear perfect1 and they would have been anxious wherever possible to conceal his weaknesses4 ,where1 therefore1 they suffer such human frailties to be perceived1 their unconscious testimony is entitled to great weight4 ,for although they themselves either do not see or do not acknowledge that what they record is really evidence of faultiness at all1 yet it is plain that circumstances conveying such an impression to impartial minds are not likely to have been invented4 ,the conduct ascribed to ,jesus might be capable of justification from his peculiar mission or his peculiar conception of his duties1 but admiring disciples would not wantonly burden him with a load not rightly his4 ,yet this principle1 though unquestionable in the main1 must be tempered with the qualification that there are cases where his followers may have misunderstood and misrepresented him4 ,it must be added that a similar presumption of truth attaches to the record of faults or blunders in the conduct of the disciples1 whose characters their disciples were likewise anxious to exalt4 ,in the fifth place1 it is a reasonable supposition that the less complete the outline of the life of ,jesus contained in any ,gospel1 the more authentic is that ,gospel4 ,gaps in the story told by one writer which1 in another writer1 have been filled up1 are strong indications of actual gaps in the life as known to the first ,christians4 ,while it is true that the compiler of one ,gospel might1 from ignorance or from design1 omit some historical fact which the compiler of another would insert1 yet it is unlikely that whole years would be passed over in silence1 or remarkable events left out1 where any genuine knowledge of those years or those events was possessed by the biographer4 ,but nothing is more natural than that a space1 subsequently felt to be a serious and almost intolerable void1 should in process of time be removed by the exercise of the imagination craving to fill the empty canvas with living figures4 ,nor even where there is no positive blank1 is it surprising that many actions conformable to the notion formed of ,christ should be fitted into his career1 and made to take their places alongside of others of a more unquestionable nature4 ,we shall therefore prefer the scantiest account of the life of ,jesus to the fullest4 ,a careful comparison of the first three ,gospels--which alone can pretend to an historical character--will establish the fact that the second1 ascribed to ,mark1 is the most trustworthy1 or to speak accurately1 the least untrustworthy1 according to these canons4 ,for in the first place1 it absolutely omits many of the most noteworthy events comprehended by the other ,gospels in the life of ,jesus4 ,secondly1 it sometimes gives a natural version of a circumstance which appears in the others as supernatural2 or a comparatively simple version of a circumstance which the others have converted into something mystical4 ,it surpasses the others in statements1 and still more in omissions1 implying divergence from well-established subsequent tradition2 and in general the far greater scantiness of detail1 the failure to fill up blanks as the other ,evangelists have done1 the almost fragmentary character of this ,gospel1 are points telling largely in its favor4 ,that1 however1 we have the earliest1 or anything approaching the earliest form of the life of ,jesus in ,mark it would be a great error to assume4 ,as much as ,mark differs from ,matthew and ,luke1 so much at least did the primitive story differ from his1 and in the same direction4 ,nay1 it must have differed far more1 for by the time the second ,gospel was committed to its present form1 a cloud of marvels had already surrounded the person of ,jesus1 and obscured his genuine figure4 ,through the mist of this cloud we must endeavor to discern such of his lineaments as have not been totally and forever hidden from our scrutinizing gaze4 ,very little is known of the parents of ,jesus1 and even that little has rather to be inferred from casual references than gathered from direct statements4 ,joseph1 his father1 was a carpenter or builder1 but his status is nowhere clearly defined4 ,he and his family appear1 however1 to have been well known in their native country1 and he was probably1 therefore1 not a mere workman1 but a tradesman in comfortable circumstances4#ai ,at any rate1 he was the father of a considerable family1 consisting of five sons and of more than one daughter 7,mt4 xiii4 #ee1 and xii4 #df2 ,mk4 vi4 #c1 and iii4 #ca2 ,lu4 viii4 #ai74 ,the names of the brothers of ,jesus1--,james1 ,joses1 ,simon1 and ,judas1--have been preserved1 while those of his sisters are unknown4 ,whether there is not some confusion here1 may indeed be doubted1 for we hear also of another ,mary1 the mother of ,james and ,joses 7,mk4 xv4 #dj2 ,mt4 xxvii4 #ef71 and it is possible 7as ,m4 ,renan supposes71 that the names of her children have been substituted for those of the genuine brothers of ,christ which had been forgotten4 ,paul certainly mentions ,james1 the ,lord's brother 7,gal4 i4 #ai71 and it would be natural to interpret this literally4 ,but the question does not admit of any positive decision4 ,of the actual existence1 however1 of both brothers and sisters there can be no reasonable doubt2 for they are spoken of as personages who were familiar to their neighbors1 while the very fact that they play no part in the subsequent history is a guarantee that they have not been invented for a purpose4 ,little is known of his mother ,mary1 her genuine form having been transfigured at a very early period by the ,christian legend4 ,the first and third ,gospels have made her the subject of a story which would force us--if we accept it at all--to consider ,jesus as her illegitimate child1 born of some other father than ,joseph4 ,but there is no adequate ground to ascribe to her such laxity of conduct4 ,for aught we can discern to the contrary1 she seems to have borne a fair reputation among her countrymen1 who undoubtedly1 according to the incidental and therefore unbiased testimony of all four ,evangelists1 believed ,jesus to have been the son of ,joseph1 begotten1 like the rest of his family1 in wedlock 7,mt4 xiii4 #ee2 ,mk4 vi4 #c2 ,lu4 iv4 #bb2 ,jo4 vi4 #db47 ,beyond the fact that ,joseph and ,mary occupied a respectable position in ,nazareth1 we can say little of them4 ,the lineage of both was plainly unknown to the compilers of the ,gospels1 since ,joseph has been endowed with two different fathers1 while the parentage of ,mary has not even been alluded to4 ,all that we can venture to assert is1 that neither of them were reputed to be of the family of ,david1 for ,jesus took pains to prove that the ,messiah need not1 as was commonly believed1 be descended from that monarch 7,mt4 xxii4 #da-df2 ,mk4 xii4 #ce-cg2 ,lu4 xx4 #da-dd74 ,there would have been no occasion for his ingenious suggestion that ,david1 by calling the ,messiah ,lord1 disproved the theory that this ,lord must be his son1 unless he had felt that his belonging to a family which could not claim such a pedigree might be used as an argument against his ,messianic character4 ,we may confidently conclude then that his lineage was obscure4 ,that his birth took place at ,nazareth is abundantly obvious from the very contrivances resorted to in ,matthew and ,luke to take his parents to ,bethlehem for that event4 ,according to either of these narratives one fact is plain3 that the habitual dwelling-place of the family was ,nazareth2 while ,matthew has preserved the valuable information that he was called a ,nazarene 7,mt4 ii4 #bc71 a statement which is confirmed by the manner in which he is alluded to in ,john1 as ,jesus of ,nazareth1 the son of ,joseph 7,jo4 i4 #de74 ,jesus therefore passed in his life-time for a native of ,nazareth1 and as it does not appear that he ever contradicted the current assumption1 as moreover the only two authorities which are at issue with this assumption are also at issue with one another on all but the bare fact of the birth at ,bethlehem1 we need not hesitate to draw the inference that he was born at ,nazareth4 ,in his youth the son of ,joseph was apprenticed to his father's trade1 and he may have practiced it for many years before he took to his more special vocation of a public teacher4 ,he was at any rate known to his neighbors as the carpenter1 and his abandonment of that calling for one in which he seemed to pretend to a position of authority over others1 caused both astonishment and indignation among his old acquaintances4 ,his public career was closely preceded by that of an illustrious prophet1 by whom he must have been profoundly influenced--,john the ,baptist4 ,very little of the doctrine of ,john has been preserved to us1 his fame having been eclipsed by that of his successor4 ,but that little is sufficient to evince the great similarity between his teaching and that of ,jesus4 ,he was in the habit of baptizing those who resorted to him in the ,jordan1 and of inculcating repentance1 because the kingdom of heaven was at hand 7,mt4 iii4 #b74 ,now precisely the same tone was adopted by ,jesus after the captivity of ,john4 ,repentance was inculcated on account of the approaching advent of the kingdom of heaven1 and a mode of instruction similar to that of ,john was practiced4 ,both these prophets1 affected no doubt by the troubled condition of ,judea1 enjoined the simple amendment of the lives of individuals as the means towards a happier state of things4 ,both attracted crowds around them by the force and novelty of their preaching4 ,jesus1 according to a probable interpretation of the narrative1 was so much impressed by the lessons of his predecessor1 and by the baptism received from him1 that he for a time retired to a solitary place1 living an ascetic life1 and pondering the stirring questions that must have burnt within him4 ,during this retirement ,jesus could mature his designs for the future1 and on emerging from it he was able at once to take up the thread of ,john the ,baptist's discourses4 ,possibly ,john himself had perceived the high capacity of the young ,nazarene1 and had appointed him to the prophetic office4 ,but the story of his baptism by ,john has been unfortunately so surrounded with mythical circumstances1 that the true relations between these teachers can no longer be discerned4 ,meditating in the wilderness on the words of ,john the ,baptist1 and on the state of his country1 the notion may have entered the mind of ,jesus that he himself was the destined ,messiah4 ,while the power he felt within him may have given birth to the idea1 the idea once born would react upon his nature and increase the power within him4 ,but whether the conception of his own ,messiahship arose now or at some other period1 it is plain that he was animated by it during his public career1 and that it gave to all his teaching its peculiar tone of independent authority4 ,how far he was completely convinced of his own claim to the ,messianic title will be considered in another place2 it is sufficient to say here that he was plainly anxious that this claim should be acknowledged1 and the rights it conferred upon him recognized4 ,on emerging from his retreat1 he began the public promulgation of his doctrines2 at first1 however1 with caution and reserve1 and keeping within the lines marked out by ,john the ,baptist4 ,attracted by the young enthusiast1 a select band of followers gathered around him1 and while he inspired them with implicit trust1 they no doubt inspired him in their turn with higher confidence4 ,the reticence which modesty or hesitation had produced gradually melted away1 and he began boldly to put forth pretensions which1 while they repelled and scandalized many1 drew others into a closer companionship and a more implicit submission4 ,simon and ,andrew1 ,james and ,john1 were the first1 or among the first1 of his disciples4 ,eight others joined him at about the same period of his life1 their names being ,philip1 ,bartholomew1 ,matthew1 ,thomas1 ,james the son of ,alpheus1 ,thaddeus1 ,simon the ,canaanite1 and ,judas 7,mk4 iii4 #ad-ai2 ,mt4 x4 #a-d74 ,while these formed the inner circle1 we must suppose that he had many other admirers and followers1 who were either less intimate with him1 or less constant in their attendance4 ,and there may even have been others of equal intimacy with the twelve apostles1 whose names have not been handed down to us4 ,for all the apostles did not enjoy an equally close and unreserved friendship with their master4 ,three of their number--,simon1 ,james1 and ,john--stood towards him in an altogether special and peculiar relationship4 ,they are far more prominent than any of the other nine4 ,they were selected to accompany ,jesus when others were left behind4 ,they formed an inmost circle within the circle of his more constant companions4 ,them alone he is said to have distinguished by names of his own invention4 ,on ,simon he conferred the name of ,peter4 ,to ,james and ,john1 the sons of ,zebedee1 he applied the familiar nickname of ,boanerges1 or sons of thunder1 which seems to indicate that they were distinguished by the fervor of their zeal 7,mk4 iii4 #af1 #ag74 ,the admirers of ,jesus were scarcely1 if at all1 less numerous among the female than among the male sex4 ,indeed1 he seems to have exercised a very marked fascination over women4 ,when he went to ,jerusalem1 he was followed by many women from ,galilee1 who had been accustomed to contribute to his wants1 and to give him that personal attention which kindly women know so well how to confer4 ,mary ,magdalene whom he had healed of some mental ailment1 ,mary the mother of ,james1 ,salome the mother of the sons of thunder1 were among the most devoted of these1 while two sisters1 ,mary and ,martha1 ,joanna the wife of ,chuza1 ,herod's steward1 and ,susanna1 are also mentioned 7,mk4 xv4 #dj1 #da2 ,lu4 viii4 #b1 #c1 x4 #ch1 #ci74 ,if we may believe one of the ,evangelists1 who stands alone in this respect1 the homage of women was particularly agreeable to ,jesus1 who received it with words of the highest praise 7,lu4 vii4 #cf-ej1 x4 #ch-db74 ,that some among these many female followers were drawn to him by the sentiment of love is1 at least1 highly probable4 ,whether ,jesus entertained any such feeling towards one of them it is impossible to guess1 for the human side of his nature has been carefully suppressed in the extant legend4 ,supported then by adherents of both sexes1 ,jesus entered upon his career of a public teacher4 ,his own house was at ,capernaum 7,mt4 iv4 #ac71 but he wandered from place to place in the exercise of his vocation1 staying1 no doubt1 with friends and disciples4 ,it is not necessary to follow him in these peregrinations1 of which only the vaguest accounts have been preserved by the ,evangelists4 ,but two remarkable circumstances deserve to be noted2 namely1 that his own family rejected his pretensions1 and that he met with no success in his own district4 ,of the former1 in addition to the negative evidence furnished by the fact that neither ,mary nor the brothers of ,jesus are mentioned among the believers1 we have the positive evidence of ,john that his brothers did not believe 7,jo4 vii4 #e71 confirmed by the statement in the other ,gospels that his family attempted to see him during the earlier part of his career1 and that ,jesus positively refused to have anything to do with them 7,mk4 iii4 #ca-ce2 ,mt4 xii4 #df-ej2 ,lu4 viii4 #ai-ba74 ,this desire on the part of the family to confer with him1 and the manner in which ,jesus1 disavowing all special ties1 adopts all who do the will of ,god as mother1 brother and sister1 admits of but one construction4 ,mary and her other children were anxious to draw him away from the rash and foolish mode of life--as they deemed it--on which he had entered1 and ,jesus1 understanding their design1 avoided an unpleasant interview by simply declining to be troubled with them4 ,and if1 as is highly probable1 it was they who thought him mad 7,mk4 iii4 #ba71 we have further proof that neither his mother nor any of the other members of his family can be counted among his converts1 at any rate during his life-time4 ,the second circumstance1 his complete failure in his own neighborhood1 is attested by a saying of his own1 recorded by all four ,evangelists4 ,a prophet1 he is reported to have said1 is without honor in his own country1 among his own kin1 and in his own house 7,mk4 vi4 #d74 ,to which it was added that he was unable to perform any work of power there1 beyond curing a few sick people4 ,and these cures evidently did not impress the skeptical ,nazarenes1 for we are told that he marveled because of their unbelief 7,mk4 vi4 #e1 #f74 ,leaving1 therefore1 these hard-hearted neighbors1 he proceeded to address the people of ,galilee and ,judea in discourses which excited great attention2 sometimes inculcating moral truths in plain but eloquent language1 sometimes preferring to illustrate them by little stories1 the application of which he either made himself or left to his hearers to discover4 ,had these stood alone1 they would have sufficed to give him a high reputation4 ,but he did not depend on words alone for his success among the people4 ,the peculiar condition of ,palestine at this epoch gave him a favorable opportunity of supplementing words by deeds4 ,the trials and sufferings they had undergone1 both from the ,herodian family and the ,romans2 the constant outrage to their deepest feelings afforded by the presence of an alien soldiery2 the insults1 humiliations1 and cruelties they endured at the hands of their conquerors1 had wrought the people up to a state of almost unbearable tension and extreme excitement4 ,that under the pressure of such a state of things nervous disorders should be widely prevalent1 is not to be wondered at4 ,and these affections1 as is well known1 are peculiarly infectious1 easily spreading through a whole village and raging in a whole country 7,see1 for example1 ,hcker's ,epidemics1 passim74 ,hysteria1 moreover1 takes many forms4 ,now it may show itself as species of madness2 now as the imagination of some positive disease4 ,here it may be violent and outrageous2 there morbid and gloomy4 ,another peculiarity is its tendency to increase the more1 the greater the attention paid to it by friends and onlookers4 ,to be an object of interest to those around is enough to inflame the symptoms of the hysterical patient4 ,and when this interest took shape in a belief that he was inhabited by some bad spirit--which was equally the theory of the ,jews in the time of ,christ1 and of ,christians up to the middle ages--it was natural that the evil should be magnified to the highest degree4 ,there are1 however1 some individuals who exercise a peculiar power over sufferers of this description4 ,their looks1 their touch1 their words1 are all soothing4 ,by addressing the victims of hysteria in tones of authority1 by taking their hands1 or otherwise endeavoring to calm their excited nerves1 these physicians of nature may put a stop to the pain1 or expel the illusion4 ,in modern days they would be called mesmerists1 and though the peculiarities of temperament to which they owe their mesmeric faculty are not yet understood1 their influence is well known to those who have examined into the subject4 ,among the ,jews1 the subjects of these current maladies were said to be possessed by devils4 ,and it was a common profession to cast out these so-called devils1#bj for we are told that it was practiced by the adherents of the ,pharisees4 ,what means they employed we do not know4 ,probably they were not of the mesmeric order1 but consisted in charms and exorcisms which1 being believed by the patients to have the power of curing them1 actually had it4 ,at any rate1 the fact remains that ,jesus and the ,pharisees are reputed to have possessed a similar influence over the demons1 and if we accept the statement as true in the one case we cannot consistently reject it in the other4 ,it remains to be considered1 however1 whether the evidence is such as to induce us to believe it in either4 ,now it is quite true that a great many absurd and impossible miracles are ascribed to ,jesus in the ,gospels4 ,but considering the important place occupied in his life--as it has come down to us--by his cures of sick people2 considering the possibility above suggested that many of these might have taken place by known methods2 considering too the extremely easy field which ,palestine presented for their application1 it would appear more likely that there might be a basis of truth in the numerous accounts of sudden recoveries effected by him1 than that they were all mere inventions4 ,we may then assume1 without here entering into details1 that a number of unfortunate people1 thought to be possessed by devils1 either met him on his way1 or were brought to him by relations1 and were restored to health by the authoritative command addressed to the evil spirit to depart2 mingled with the sympathetic tone and manner towards the tormented subject of possession4 ,individual examples of these apparently miraculous cures may be open to doubt from the very inaccurate character of the records1 and for this reason it will be better for the present to admit the general fact without binding ourselves to this or that special instance of its occurrence4 ,possessing this power himself1 and ignorant of its source1 ,jesus attempted to communicate it to his disciples4 ,it is expressly stated that he gave them power to heal sicknesses and cast out devils 7,mk4 iii4 #ae71 though it is doubtful whether they met with much success in this vocation4 ,on one occasion1 at least1 a signal failure is reported1 and as the fact stated redounds neither to the glory of ,christ1 who had appointed his disciples to the work1 nor of the disciples who had received the appointment1 we may believe it to be true 7,mk4 ix4 #ad-bi74 ,a parent had brought his little son to the apostles to be delivered from some kind of fits from which he suffered4 ,the apostles could do nothing with him4 ,when ,jesus arrived he ordered the spirit to depart1 and the boy1 after a violent attack1 was left tranquil4 ,we are not told indeed how long his calmness lasted1 nor whether the fits were permanently arrested4 ,for the moment1 however1 a remedy was effected1 and the disciples naturally inquired why they had not been equally successful4 ,the extreme vagueness of the reply of ,jesus renders it probable that his remedial influence was due to some personal characteristic which he could not impart to others4 ,this conclusion is confirmed by the noteworthy fact that an unknown person exercised the art of casting out devils in the name of ,jesus1 though not one of his company 7,mk4 ix4 #ch-dj74 ,here the name would be valuable only because of its celebrity1 the expulsion of the devils being due1 as in the case of ,jesus himself1 to the personal endowments of the exorcist4 ,at any rate1 we have the broad facts that the ,pharisees1 ,jesus himself1 and the unknown employer of his name1 were all proficient in the art of delivering patients from the supposed possession of evil spirits4 ,possibly too the apostles did the same1 and it was certainly the intention of ,jesus that they should4 ,such exhibitions of power1 though they might tend to strengthen the influence of ,jesus among the multitude1 were not the principal means on which he depended for acceptance4 ,his sermons and his parables were both more remarkable and more original4 ,in addition to the fact that he taught1 in the main1 pure and beautiful moral doctrines1 he well knew how to exemplify his meaning by telling illustrations4 ,the parables by which he enforced his views have become familiar to us all1 and deserve to remain among our most precious literary possessions4 ,what more especially distinguished his mode of teaching from that of other masters was the air of spiritual supremacy he assumed1 and his total independence of all predecessors but the writers of ,scripture4 ,not indeed that he ventured upon any departure from the accepted tradition with regard to the history of his nation1 or the authority of the ,old ,testament4 ,on the contrary1 he was entirely free from any approach to a critical or inquiring attitude4 ,but in so far he did not teach like the scribes1 that he boldly put forth his own interpretations of ,scripture and his own views of ethics1 without the smallest regard for the established opinions of the schools1 and without seeking support from any authority but his own4 ,in this course he was evidently strengthened by an inward conviction that he was the destined ,messiah of the ,jewish people4 ,deputed1 as he conceived1 directly from ,god1 he could afford to slight the restrictions which others might place upon their conduct4 ,he was not bound by the rules which applied to ordinary men4 ,this assumption1 with its corresponding behavior1 could not fail to give great offense to those by whom his title was not conceded4 ,and we accordingly find that he comes into constant collision with the recognized legal and religious guides of the ,jews4 ,among the first of the shocks he inflicted on their sense of propriety was his claim to be authorized to forgive sins 7,mk4 ii4 #g74 ,to the ,jewish mind this pretension was highly blasphemous2 no one1 they thought1 could forgive sins but ,god1 and they did not understand the credentials in virtue of which this young man acted as his ambassador4 ,further scandal was caused by his contempt for the common customs observed on the ,sabbath day 7,mk4 ii4 #bd1 and iii4 #f71 which appeared to him inconsistent with the original purpose of that institution4 ,the language he was accustomed to use to his disciples1 and to his hearers generally1 was not of a nature to soothe their growing animosity4 ,designating himself by the ,messianic term of the ,son of man1 he announced the approach1 even during the generation then extant1 of a kingdom of heaven wherein he himself was to return clothed with glory1 and his followers were to be gathered round him to enjoy his triumph4 ,along with these promises to his friends1 there flowed forth indignant denunciation of the ,pharisees and ,scribes1 who were held up to the scorn of the populace4 ,having thus provoked them to the utmost1 he imprudently accepted the honor of a sort of triumphal entry into ,jerusalem1 the pomp of which1 however1 has probably been somewhat exaggerated 7,mk4 xi4 #a-aa74 ,nor was this all4 ,he proceeded to an act of violence which it was impossible for the authorities to overlook4 ,the current ,roman money not being accepted at the temple1 the outer court of this building was used by money-changers1 who performed the useful and necessary service of receiving from those who came to make their offerings the ordinary coinage1 and giving ,jewish money instead of it4 ,doves being also required by the law to be offered on certain occasions1 there were persons outside the temple who sold these birds4 ,indignant at what seemed to him a violation of the sanctity of the spot1 ,jesus upset the tables of these traffickers1 and described them all as thieves4 ,it is added in one account that he interfered to prevent vessels being carried through the temple 7,mk4 xi4 #ae-ag74 ,that1 after this1 the spiritual rulers should ask him to produce his authority for such conduct1 was not unnatural4 ,nor is it surprising that1 after his unsatisfactory reply to their inquiry1 they should take steps to prevent the repetition of similar scenes4 ,the efforts of the chief priests to bring about his destruction are described in two of our ,gospels as the direct result of his proceedings about the temple1 the impression he had made on the multitude being a further inducement 7,mk4 xi4 #ah2 ,lu4 xix4 #dh74 ,aware of the indignation he had excited1 ,jesus soon after these events retired into some private place1 known only to his more intimate friends4 ,so at least ,i understand the story of his betrayal4 ,either ,judas never betrayed him at all1 or he was lurking in concealment somewhere in the neighborhood of ,jerusalem4 ,that the conduct attributed to ,judas should be a pure invention appears to me so improbable1 more especially when the history of the election of a new apostle is taken into account1 that ,i am forced to choose the latter alternative4 ,the representation of the ,gospels1 that ,jesus went on teaching in public to the very end of his career1 and yet that ,judas received a bribe for his betrayal1 is self-contradictory4 ,the facts appear to be that ,jesus ate the passover at ,jerusalem with his disciples1 and that immediately after it1 conscious of his growing danger1 he retired to some hidden spot where he had lived before1 and where friends alone were admitted to his company4 ,judas informed the authorities of the temple where this spot was4 ,they thereupon apprehended ,jesus1 and brought him before the ,sanhedrim for trial4 ,so confused and imperfect is the account of this trial given by the ,evangelists1 that we are unable to make out what was the nature of the charge preferred against him1 or of the evidence by which it was supported4 ,it is clear1 however1 that the gravamen of the accusation was that he had put forth blasphemous pretensions to be the ,messiah1 the ,son of the ,blessed ,one4 ,and this was supported by a curious bit of evidence4 ,two witnesses deposed1 either that they had heard him say he would destroy this temple made with hands and build another made without hands within three days1 or that he was able to destroy the temple1 and to rebuild it in three days 7,mt4 xxvi4 #fa2 ,mk4 xiv4 #eh74 ,the witnesses are called false witnesses1 both in ,mark and in ,matthew4 ,but if we turn to ,john 7,jo4 ii4 #ai71 we find the probable source of the charge brought against him by these two witnesses1 and we find reason also to think that they were not perjurers4 ,there we are told that after he had driven the money-changers and traders from the temple1 the ,jews asked him for a sign that might evince his right to do such things4 ,in reply to their demand1 ,jesus is reported to have said1 ,destroy this temple1 and in three days ,i will raise it up4 ,connecting this statement in the one ,gospel with the evidence given on the trial according to others1 we may form a tolerably clear notion of the actual fact4 ,pressed by his opponents for some justification of his extraordinary conduct1 ,jesus had taken refuge in an assertion of his supernatural power4 ,if they destroyed the temple he would be able1 with the favor bestowed on him by ,god1 to rebuild it in three days4 ,these words might possibly be misconstrued by some of his hearers into a threat that he himself would destroy the temple1 an outrage which would in their view have been less difficult to imagine after his violence to those engaged in business in its outer court4 ,but whether so understood or not1 there could be no question about the pretension to something like divinity in the promise to rebuild it in three days4 ,there is not a shadow of probability in favor of the interpretation put upon the words in the fourth ,gospel1 that he spoke of the temple of his body4 ,and even had that been his secret meaning1 the witnesses who appeared against him could have no conception that he was thinking of anything but the material temple1 to which the whole dialogue had immediate reference4 ,they were therefore simply repeating1 to the best of their ability1 words which had actually fallen from the prisoner4 ,the evidence for the prosecution being concluded1 the high priest appealed to ,jesus to know whether he had nothing to reply4 ,jesus being silent1 the high priest proceeded to ask him directly whether he was ,christ1 the ,son of the ,blessed ,one4 ,jesus answered that he was1 and that they would hereafter see him sitting on the right hand of power1 and coming in the clouds of heaven4 ,such an answer was an explicit confession of the very worst that had been alleged against him4 ,after it1 there was no option but to convict him1 and we read accordingly that they all condemned him as worthy of death4 ,but capital punishment could not be inflicted except by ,roman authority4 ,he was accordingly taken before the procurator1 ,pontius ,pilate1 charged with the civil crime of claiming to be king of the ,jews4 ,pontius appears to have regarded him as a harmless fanatic1 and to have been anxious to discharge him1 in accordance with a custom by which one prisoner was released at the festival which fell at this time4 ,but the ,jews clamored for the release of a man named ,barabbas1 who was in prison on account of his participation in an insurrectionary movement in which blood had been shed4 ,barabbas accordingly was set at liberty1 and ,jesus1 though with some reluctance on the part of the procurator1 was sentenced to crucifixion4 ,the sentence was carried into effect immediately4 ,unable1 probably from exhaustion through his recent sufferings1 to carry his own cross1 ,jesus was relieved of the burden by one ,simon1 on whom the soldiery imposed the duty of bearing it4 ,he was crucified along with two thieves1 and an inscription in which he was entitled ,king of the ,jews was placed upon his cross1 apparently in mockery of the ,jewish nation much more than of him4 ,his ordinary disciples had fled in terror from his melancholy end1 but he was followed to the cross by some affectionate women1 who had previously attended him in ,galilee4 ,and after he was dead1 his body was honorably interred by a well-to-do adherent1 named ,joseph of ,arimatha4 ,,subdivision #b4--,the ,mythical ,jesus4 ,the life of the mythical ,jesus is found in the synoptical ,gospels1 but more especially in the first and third4 ,it is by no means pure fiction1 but an indistinguishable compound of fact and fiction1 in which the fictitious elements bear so large a proportion that it is impossible to disentangle from them the elements of genuine history4 ,part of this life moreover is wholly mythical1 and of this wholly mythical portion there are certain sections that are constructed on a common plan1 the biographers in these sections having only fitted the typical incidents in the lives of great men to the special case of ,jesus1 the son of ,joseph4 ,not that this need have been done consciously2 the probability is that the circumstances and mode of thought which led to the invention of such typical incidents in the lives of others1 led to it equally in that of ,jesus4 ,however this may be1 we shall find in the mythical life of ,jesus the following three classes of myths3 #a4 ,myths of the typical order1 common to a certain kind of great men in certain ages1 and therefore purely unhistorical2 #b4 ,myths peculiar to ,jesus1 in which the miraculous element so predominates1 that it is impossible to recognize any1 or more than the very slightest1 admixture of history2 #c4 ,myths1 peculiar to ,jesus1 in which there is a more or less considerable admixture of history2 ,and #d4 ,statements not of necessity mythical1 which may or may not be historical1 but of which the evidence is inadequate4 ,at the outset of our task we are met by the assumed genealogy of ,jesus1 which has caused some trouble to theologians1 and which is mainly important as an indication of the degree of credit due to writers who could insert such a document4 ,for these awkward pedigrees afford an absolute proof of the facility with which the ,christians of the earliest age supplemented the actual life of ,jesus by free invention4 ,we are happily in possession of two conflicting lists of ancestors1 and happily also they are both of them lists of the ancestors of ,joseph1 who1 according to the very writers by whom they are supplied1 stood in no relation whatever to ,christ1 the final term of the genealogies4 ,double discredit thus falls upon the witnesses4 ,in the first place1 both lists cannot be true1 though both may be false2 one of them therefore must be1 and each may be1 a deliberate fiction4 ,in the second place1 both the ,gospels bear unconscious testimony to the fact that ,joseph was originally supposed to be1 by the natural course of things1 the father of ,jesus1 for otherwise why should the early ,christians have been at the trouble to furnish the worthy carpenter with a distinguished ancestry8 ,they thus discredit their own story that ,jesus was the son of ,mary alone4 ,either then ,jesus was the son of ,joseph1 or neither of the two genealogies is his genealogy at all4 ,the solution of these inconsistencies is to be found in the fact that two independent traditions have been blended together by the ,evangelists4 ,the one1 no doubt the more ancient of the two1 considered ,jesus as the child of ,joseph and ,mary1 and the ingenuity of his biographers has not succeeded in obliterating the traces of this tradition 7,mt4 xiii4 #ee74 ,another and much later one1 treated him as the offspring of ,mary without the aid of a human father4 ,those who believed in the first and more authentic story had busied themselves with the discovery of a royal descent for their hero1 in order that he might fulfill what they considered the conditions of the ,messiahship4 ,they had naturally traced his ancestry upwards from his father1 not from his mother1 according to the usual procedure4 ,but the ,gospels of ,matthew and ,luke were written entirely on the hypothesis that he had no father but ,god2 all necessity for showing that ,joseph was of the house of ,david was therefore gone4 ,nevertheless the writers or the editors of these ,gospels did not like to neglect entirely what seemed to them to strengthen their case1 and1 forgetful of the ridiculous jumble they were making1 inserted an elaborate pedigree of ,joseph along with the statement that ,jesus was not his son4 ,let us now examine the genealogies in detail1 placing them in columns parallel to one another4 ,luke begins a stage earlier than ,matthew1 making ,god his starting-point instead of ,abraham4 ,from ,abraham to ,david the two authorities proceed together4 ,matthew1 who has cut his genealogical tree into three sections of fourteen generations each1 makes this his first division4 ,after this the divergence begins3-- ,,matthew4 ,,luke4 #a4 ,solomon4 #a4 ,nathan4 #b4 ,rehoboam4 #b4 ,mattatha4 #c4 ,abia4 #c4 ,menan4 #d4 ,asa4 #d4 ,melea4 #e4 ,jehoshaphat4 #e4 ,eliakim4 #f4 ,joram4 #f4 ,jonan4 ,ahaziah4 ,joash4 ,amaziah4#ba #g4 ,ozias 7or ,uzziah74 #g4 ,joseph4 #h4 ,jotham4 #h4 ,juda4 #i4 ,ahaz4 #i4 ,simeon4 #aj4 ,hezekiah4 #aj4 ,levi4 #aa4 ,manasseh4 #aa4 ,matthat4 #ab4 ,amon4 #ab4 ,jorim4 #ac4 ,josiah4 ,jehoiakim4 #ac4 ,eliezer4 #ad4 ,jeconiah 7or ,jehoiachin74 #ad4 ,jose4 ,here the captivity closes the second period4 ,after the captivity we have-- #a4 ,jeconiah4 #ae4 ,er4 #b4 ,salathiel 7or ,shealtiel74 #af4 ,elmodam4 #c4 ,zerubbabel4 #ag4 ,cosam4 #d4 ,abiud4 #ah4 ,addi4 #e4 ,eliakim4 #ai4 ,melchi4 #f4 ,azor4 #bj4 ,neri4 #g4 ,sadoc4 #ba4 ,salathiel4 #h4 ,achim4 #bb4 ,zorobabel4 #i4 ,eliud4 #bc4 ,rhesa4 #aj4 ,eleazar4 #bd4 ,joanna4 #aa4 ,matthan4 #be4 ,juda4 #ab4 ,jacob4 #bf4 ,joseph4 #ac4 ,joseph4 #bg4 ,semei4 #ad4 ,,jesus4 #bh4 ,mattathias4 #bi4 ,maath4 #cj4 ,nagga4 #ca4 ,esli4 #cb4 ,naum4 #cc4 ,amos4 #cd4 ,mattathias4 #ce4 ,joseph4 #cf4 ,janna4 #cg4 ,melchi4 #ch4 ,levi4 #ci4 ,matthat4 #dj4 ,heli4 #da4 ,joseph4 #db4 ,,jesus4#bb ,various observations offer themselves on these discrepant genealogies4 ,in the first place it will be observed that ,matthew1 in his anxiety to show that the whole period comprised is divisible into three equal parts of fourteen generations each1 has actually omitted no less than four generations contained in the authorities he followed4 ,for since he traced the descent of ,joseph through the royal line of ,judah1 we are enabled to check his statements by reference to the ,book of ,chronicles 7#a ,chron4 iii471 and thus to convict him of positive bad faith4 ,in the first instance he omits three kings1 representing ,uzziah as the son of ,joram1 who was his great great grandfather2 in the second he passes over ,jehoiachim1 making ,jehoiachin the son instead of the grandson of ,josiah4 ,in the third period we have no authority by which to verify his statements beyond ,zerubbabel1 but his determination to carry out his numerical system at all hazards is shown by the double reckoning of ,jehoiachin1 at the close of the second and the beginning of the third division4 ,the latter has in fact but thirteen generations1 and it was only by this trick--a little concealed by the break effected through his allusion to the captivity--that the appearance of uniformity was maintained4 ,luke has adopted a different method4 ,leaving the line of kings1 he connects ,joseph with ,david through ,nathan instead of ,solomon4 ,now beyond the fact that ,nathan was the offspring of ,david and ,bathsheba1 nothing whatever is known about him4 ,indeed it may have been his very obscurity1 and the consequent facility of creating descendants for him1 that led to his selection in preference to ,solomon1 though unless it were that his name stood next above ,solomon's 7#b ,sam4 v4 #ad7--there is no obvious reason for his being preferred to several other children of ,david4 ,however1 he answered the purpose as well as any1 and after him it was not a difficult operation to invent a plausible list of names to fill up the gap between him and ,joseph4 ,the compiler of the list in ,matthew had the advantage in so far that he did not require to draw on his imagination except for nine names between ,zerubbabel and ,joseph1 while the compiler of the list in ,luke had to supply the whole period from ,nathan downwards with forefathers4 ,but the second compiler had the advantage over the first inasmuch as his fraud did not admit of the same easy exposure by reference to its sources1 and it was1 on the whole1 a safer course to desert history altogether than to falsify it in favor of an arithmetical fancy4 ,another discrepancy between the two writers remains to be noted2 it is the enormous disproportion in the number of generations between ,david and ,joseph4 ,matthew has twenty-five generations1 and ,luke forty1 excluding ,joseph himself4 ,a difference of this magnitude--involving something like #djj-dej years--is not to be surmounted by any process of harmonizing4 ,to which it may be added that the two ,evangelists1 by assigning to ,joseph different fathers1 clearly inform us that his true father was unknown4 ,we have here1 in short1 an excellent instance of the first order of myth1 or myth typical4 ,it has been a common practice in all ages1 more especially among ignorant and uncultivated nations1 to endow those who had risen from obscurity to greatness with illustrious ancestors4 ,royal connections have always been regarded with especial favor for such purposes4 ,thus1 the ,buddha is represented as the descendant of the great ,sakya monarchs4 ,thus1 the ancestors of ,zarathustra1 in the genealogy provided for him in ,parsee authorities1 were the ancient kings of ,persia4 ,thus1 ,moslem biographers declare that ,mahomet sprang from the noblest family of the noblest nation1 and many historians give him even a princely lineage 7,l4 ,l4 ,m41 vol4 i4 p4 #adj74 ,thus1 according to ,sir ,john ,davis1 the pedigree or ,confucius is traced back in a summary manner to the mythological monarch ,hoang-ty1 who is said to have lived more than two thousand years before ,christ 7,chinese1 vol4 ii4 p4 #de74 ,thus1 the founder of ,rome was placed by popular legend in a family relationship to neas4 ,leaving these genealogies--which are important only from the light they shed on the literary character of their authors and transmitters--we pass to the first legend directly concerning ,jesus himself1 that of his birth4 ,here again the second and fourth ,evangelists are silent1 leaving us to suppose that ,jesus was the natural son of ,joseph and ,mary1 and certainly never hinting that they entertained any other belief themselves4 ,but the first and third each relate a little fable on this subject1 though unhappily for them the fables do not agree4 ,both had to observe two conditions4 ,the first was that ,jesus should be born of a virgin mother2 the second that he should be born at ,bethlehem4 ,matthew accomplishes this end by informing us that ,mary1 when espoused to ,joseph1 was found to be with child4 ,joseph1 who thereupon contemplated the rupture of his engagement1 was informed by an angel in a dream that his bride was with child by no one but the ,holy ,ghost2 that she was to bear a son1 and that he was to call him ,jesus4 ,being satisfied by this assurance1 he married ,mary1 but respected her virginity until she had brought forth her first-born son1 whom in obedience to his dream he named ,jesus4 ,the child was born in ,bethlehem where it would appear from this account that ,mary lived1 and it is only after a journey to ,egypt that this ,gospel brings the parents of ,christ to ,nazareth where a tradition too firm to be shaken placed their residence 7,mt4 i4 #ah-be2 ii4 #bc74 ,widely different is the treatment of this subject in ,luke4 ,according to him there was a priest named ,zacharias whose wife ,elizabeth was barren4 ,the couple were no longer young1 but they were not old enough to have lost all hope of progeny1 for we are told that when ,zacharias was engaged in his duties in the temple1 an angel appeared to him and informed him that his prayer was heard1 and that his wife was to have a son whom he was to call ,john4 ,zacharias had therefore been praying for offspring1 though when the angel--who announced himself as ,gabriel--appeared1 he was troubled with some impious doubts1 in punishment of which he was struck dumb4 ,after this ,elizabeth conceived1 and went into retirement4 ,from five to six months after the above scene ,gabriel was again despatched from heaven1 this time to a virgin named ,mary1 living at ,nazareth4 ,arrived at her house1 he addressed her thus3 ,hail1 thou that art highly favored2 the ,lord is with thee2 blessed art thou among women4 ,seeing ,mary's confusion he reassured her2 and informed her that she should have a son called ,jesus1 who was to possess the throne of ,david1 and reign over the house of ,jacob forever4 ,like ,zacharias1 ,mary was disposed to raise troublesome questions1 and she accordingly inquired of ,gabriel how she could bear a child1 seeing ,i know not a man4 ,but ,gabriel was ready with his answer4 ,the ,holy ,ghost would come upon her2 moreover1 her cousin ,elizabeth had conceived 7which1 however1 was not a parallel case71 and nothing was impossible with ,god4 ,soon after this visit1 ,mary went to see ,elizabeth1 who interpreted an ordinary incident of pregnancy as a sign that the fruit of ,mary's womb was blessed1 and that ,mary was to be the mother of her ,lord4 ,the virgin replied in a very elaborate little speech1 which if uttered must have been carefully prepared for the occasion4 ,in due time the child of ,zacharias and ,elizabeth was born1 and named ,john by his parents' desire4 ,what ,joseph thought of his bride's condition we are not told1 nor do we know whether she made known to him her interview with the angel ,gabriel4 ,at any rate he did not repudiate her1 for we find him taking her with him1 about five months later1 to ,bethlehem1 for the purpose of the census which took place when ,quirinus was governor of ,syria1 his descent from ,david requiring him to attend at that town4 ,during this census it was that ,jesus was born1 and because of the crowded condition of the inn at this busy time1 he was placed in a manger 7,lu4 i4 #a2 ii4 #g74 ,there let us leave him for the present1 while we compare these narratives with others of a like description4 ,birth in some miraculous or unusual manner is a common circumstance in the lives of great persons4 ,we have here therefore another instance of the typical species of myth4 ,thus1 in classical antiquity1 ,here is said to have produced ,hephaistos without the marriage bed 7,bib41 i4 #c-e74 ,turning to a remote part of the globe1 there was in the present century a person living in ,new ,zealand who1 according to native tradition1 was begotten by the attua1 a species of deity1 his mother being then unmarried4 ,the infant was produced at her left arm-pit1 but there was no visible mark left4444 ,he is held as a great prophet2 when he says there will be no rain there will be none 7,n4 ,z41 p4 #hb74 ,an example of the same kind of legend occurs in the ancient history of ,china4 ,the hero is one ,how-tseih1 who was the founder of the royal house of ,chow4 ,his mother1 it appears1 was barren1 like ,elizabeth1 for she had presented a pure offering and sacrificed1 that her childlessness might be taken away4 ,her devotion received a fitting reward1 for3-- ,she then trod on a toe-print made by ,god1 and was moved1 ,in the large place where she rested4 ,she became pregnant1 she dwelt retired2 ,she gave birth to1 and nourished a son1 ,who was ,how-tseih4 ,his mode of coming into the world was peculiar too3-- ,when she had fulfilled her months ,her first-born son came forth like a lamb4 ,there was no bursting1 nor rending2 ,no injury1 no hurt3-- ,showing how wonderful he would be4 ,did not ,god give her the comfort8 ,had he not accepted her pure offering and sacrifice1 ,so that thus easily she brought forth her son8#bc ,the gestation of the ,buddha was in many ways miraculous4 ,he entered the womb of his mother by a voluntary act1 resigning his abode in heaven for the purpose4 ,at the time of his descent upon earth ,my ,devi dreamt that a white elephant of singular beauty had entered into her1 a dream which portended the future greatness of the child 7,r4 ,t4 ,r4 ,p41 vol4 ii4 p4 #fa74 ,during the time of his remaining in the womb1 his body1 which was visible both to his mother and to others1 had a resplendent and glorious appearance4#bd ,my the queen1 during the time that ,bodhisattva remained in the womb of his mother1 did not feel her body heavy1 but on the contrary light1 at ease and in comfort1 and felt no pain in her entrails4 ,she was nowise tormented by the desires of passion1 nor by disgust1 nor by trouble1 and had no irresolution against desire1 no irresolution against the thought of evil or of vice4 ,she suffered the sensation neither of cold1 nor of heat1 nor of hunger1 nor of thirst1 nor of trouble1 nor of passion1 nor of fatigue3 she saw nothing of which the form1 the sound1 the smell1 the taste and the touch did not seem to her agreeable4 ,she had no bad dreams4 ,the tricks of women1 their inconstancy1 their jealousy1 the defects of women and their weaknesses1 she did not share 7,ibid41 vol4 ii4 p4 #gg74 ,and although it is never expressly stated that the ,buddha's nominal father had no part in his production1 it is remarkable that at the time of her conceiving1 ,my was living in a place apart from him1 having craved permission to retire for a season1 to practice fasting and penance4 ,during this time she had told the king that she would be completely delivered from thoughts of stealing1 desire and pride1 and that she would not yield to one illicit desire 7,r4 ,t4 ,r4 ,p41 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ed1 #ee74 ,some sects of ,buddhists are more explicit1 and maintain that ,bodhisattvas do not pass through the earlier stages of ftal development2 namely1 those of ,kalalam1 mixing up1 the period of the first week1 when the future body is like milk3 arbudam1 the period of the second week1 where a form rises like something inflated2 peci1 thickening3 and ghana1 hardening1 the periods of the third and fourth weeks 7,wassiljew1 p4 #bfj74 ,but all this does not exclude the coperation of a human father4 ,passing to another great religion1 we find that even the sober philosopher ,confucius did not enter the world1 if we may believe ,chinese traditions1 without premonitory symptoms of his greatness4 ,it is said that one day as his mother was ascending a hill1 the leaves of the trees and plants all erected themselves and bent downwards on her return4 ,that night she dreamt the ,black ,te appeared1 and said to her1 ',you shall have a son1 a sage1 and you must bring him forth in a hollow mulberry tree4' ,in another dream she received a prophecy of the importance of her coming progeny 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 i4 p4 #ei--,proleg474 ,another account states that various prodigies1 as in other instances1 were the forerunners of the birth of this extraordinary person4 ,on the eve of his appearance on earth1 two dragons encircled the house1 and celestial music sounded in the ears of his mother4 ,when he was born1 this inscription appeared on his breast--',the maker of a rule for settling the world' 7,chinese1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dd74 ,the mother of ,mahomet is said to have related of her pregnancy1 that she felt none of the usual inconveniences of that state2 and that she had seen a vision in which she had been told that she bore in her womb the ,lord and ,prophet of her people4 ,a little before her delivery the same figure appeared again1 and commanded her to say1 ,i commend the fruit of my body to the ,one1 the ,eternal1 for protection against the envious 7,l4 ,l4 ,m41 vol4 i4 p4 #adb74 ,miraculously born1 it was necessary that ,jesus should also be miraculously recognized as a child of no common order4 ,the story would have been incomplete without some one to acknowledge his superhuman character even in his cradle4 ,matthew and ,luke again accomplish the common end by widely different means4 ,luke's is the simpler narrative1 and it will be more convenient to begin with4 ,he tells us that there were in the same country1 that is1 near ,bethlehem1 shepherds watching their flocks4 ,an angel appeared to them and said that a ,savior1 ,christ the ,lord1 was born in the city of ,david4 ,they were to know him by his being in a manger wrapped in swaddling clothes4 ,in this humility of his external circumstances immediately after birth1 as in the supernatural recognition which he received1 he again resembles the ,chinese hero4 ,how-tseih was placed in a narrow lane1 ,but the sheep and oxen protected him with loving care4 ,he was placed in a wide forest1 ,where he was met by the woodcutters4 ,he was placed on the cold ice1 ,and a bird screened and supported him with its wings4#be ,and suddenly1 the narrative in ,luke proceeds1 there was with the angel a multitude of the heavenly host1 praising ,god and saying1 ',glory to ,god in the highest1 and on earth the peace of good-will among men' 7,lu4 ii4 #h-ad74 ,similar demonstrations of celestial delight were not wanting at the birth of the ,buddha ,sakyamuni4 ,he was received by the greatest of the gods1 ,indra and ,brahma4 ,all beings everywhere were full of joy4 ,musical instruments belonging to men and gods played of themselves4 ,trees became covered with flowers and fruit4 ,there fell from the skies a gentle shower of flowers1 garments1 odoriferous powders1 and ornaments4 ,caressing breezes blew4 ,a marvelous light was produced4 ,evil passions were put a stop to1 and illnesses were cured2 miseries of all kinds were at an end 7,r4 ,t4 ,r4 ,p41 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ij1 #ia74 ,so also we read in ,moslem authorities that at the birth of ,ali1 ,mahomet's great disciple1 and the chief of one of the two principal sects into which ,islam is divided1 a light was distinctly visible1 resembling a bright column1 extending from the earth to the firmament 7,dervishes1 p4 #cgb74 ,but let us complete the narrative in ,luke4 ,urged by the angelic order1 the shepherds went to ,bethlehem and found the infant ,christ1 whose nature1 as revealed by the angels1 they made known to the people with whom they met4 ,returning1 they praised and glorified ,god for all they had heard and seen 7,lu4 ii4 #ae-bj74 ,quite dissimilar is the form in which the same incident appears in ,matthew4 ,here1 instead of shepherds1 we have magi coming from the ,east to discover the ,king of the ,jews4 ,a star in the ,east had revealed to them the birth of this ,king of the ,jews de jure1 and in the search for him they run straight into the very jaws of ,herod1 the king de facto4 ,the author is obliged to make them take this absurdly improbable course for the sake of introducing ,herod1 whom he required for a purpose shortly to be explained4 ,how utterly superfluous the visit to ,herod was is evinced by the fact that1 after that monarch has found out from the chief priests the birthplace of the ,messiah1 the magi are guided onwards by the star1 which had been omitted from the story since its first appearance in order to allow of their journey to ,jerusalem1 a mistake for which the star could not be made responsible4 ,however1 after leaving ,herod1 they were led by that luminary to the very spot where ,christ lay4 ,on seeing the infant they worshiped him1 and offered him magnificent presents1 after which a dream informed them--what their waking senses might surely have discovered--that it was not safe to return to ,herod after having thus acknowledged a rival claimant to the throne4 ,they accordingly went home another way4 ,interwoven with this visit of the magi we have a myth which belongs to a common form1 and which in the present instance is merely adapted to the special circumstances of the age and place4 ,i term it the myth of ,,the ,,dangerous ,,child4 ,its general outline is this3 ,a child is born concerning whose future greatness some prophetic indications have been given4 ,but the life of this child is fraught with danger to some powerful individual1 generally a monarch4 ,in alarm at his threatened fate1 this person endeavors to take the child's life2 but it is preserved by the divine care4 ,escaping the measures directed against it1 and generally remaining long unknown1 it at length fulfills the prophecies concerning its career1 while the fate which he has vainly sought to shun falls upon him who had desired to slay it4 ,there is a departure here from the ordinary type1 inasmuch as ,herod does not actually die or suffer any calamity through the agency of ,jesus4 ,but this failure is due to the fact that ,jesus did not fulfill the conditions of the ,messiahship1 according to the ,jewish conception which ,matthew has here in mind4 ,had he--as was expected of the ,messiah--become the actual sovereign of the ,jews1 he must have dethroned the reigning dynasty1 whether represented by ,herod or his successors4 ,but as his subsequent career belied these expectations1 the ,evangelist was obliged to postpone to a future time his accession to that throne of temporal dominion which the incredulity of his countrymen had withheld from him during his earthly life 7,mt4 xxiv4 #cj1 #ca2 xxv4 #ca ff42 xxvi4 #fd74 ,in other respects the legend before us conforms to its prototypes4 ,the magi1 coming to ,herod1 inquire after the whereabouts of the king of the ,jews1 whose star they have seen in the ,east4 ,herod summons the chief priests and scribes to council1 and ascertains of them that ,christ was to be born at ,bethlehem4 ,this done1 he is careful to learn from the magi the exact date at which the star had appeared to them4 ,he further desires them to search diligently for the young child1 that he also may worship it4 ,they1 as previously related1 returned home without revisiting ,herod1 whereupon that monarch1 in anger at the deception practiced upon him1 causes all the children under two years of age1 in and about ,bethlehem1 to be slaughtered4 ,all is in vain4 ,joseph1 warned by a dream1 had taken his wife and step-son to ,egypt1 where they remained until after the death of ,herod1 when another dream commanded them to return4 ,when afraid to enter the dominions of ,archelaus1 another of these useful dreams guided them to ,galilee1 where they took up their quarters at ,nazareth 7,mt4 ii74 ,how wide-spread and of what frequent recurrence is this myth of the ,dangerous ,child1 a few examples may suffice to show4 ,in ,grecian mythology the king of the gods himself had been a dangerous child4 ,the story of ,kronos swallowing his children in order to defeat the prophecy that he would be dethroned by his own son2 the manner in which ,rhea deceived him by giving him a stone1 and ,zeus1 armed with thunder and lightning1 deposed him from the government of the world1 are familiar to all 7,bib4 #a4 #a4 #e-g1 and #a4 #b4 #a74 ,if we descend from gods to heroes1 we find a similar legend related of ,perseus1 whose grandfather1 ,akrisios1 vainly tried to avert his predicted fate1 first by scheming to prevent his grandson's birth1 and then by seeking to destroy him when born 7,ibid41 #b4 #d4 #a4 #d472 and of ,oidipous1 who in spite of the attempt to cut short his life in infancy1 inevitably and unconsciously fulfilled the oracle by slaying his father and marrying his mother4 ,within historical times1 ,kyros1 the son of ,kambyses is the hero of a similar tale4 ,his grandfather1 ,astyages1 had dreamt certain dreams which were interpreted by the magi to mean that the offspring of his daughter ,mandane would expel him from his kingdom4 ,alarmed at the prophecy1 he handed the child to his kinsman ,harpagos to be killed2 but this man having entrusted it to a shepherd to be exposed1 the latter contrived to save it by exhibiting to the emissaries of ,harpagos the body of a stillborn child of which his own wife had just been delivered4 ,grown to man's estate1 ,kyros of course justified the prediction of the magi by his successful revolt against ,astyages and assumption of the monarchy 7,herodotos1 i4 #ajg-acj74 ,jewish tradition1 like that of the ,greeks and the ,persians1 has its dangerous child in the person of the national hero ,moses1 whose death ,pharaoh had endeavored to effect by a massacre of innocents1 but who had lived to bring upon that ruler his inevitable fate4 ,from these well-known examples it is interesting to turn to the chronicles of the ,east-,mongols1 and find precisely the same tale repeated there4 ,we read that a certain king of a people called ,patsala1 had a son whose peculiar appearance led the ,brahmins at court to prophesy that he would bring evil upon his father1 and to advise his destruction4 ,various modes of execution having failed1 the boy was laid in a copper chest and thrown into the ,ganges4 ,rescued by an old peasant who brought him up as his son1 he in due time learnt the story of his escape1 and returned to seize upon the kingdom destined for him from his birth4 ,this was in ,b4 ,c4 #cac 7,g4 ,o4 ,m41 pp4 #ba1 #bc74 ,this universal myth--of the natural origin of which it would lead me too far to speak--was now adapted to the special case of ,christ1 who runs the usual risk and escapes it with the usual good fortune of dangerous children4 ,having thus preserved the infant ,christ from the dangers that threatened him1 ,matthew tells us absolutely nothing about him until he has arrived at manhood1 and is ready to enter on his public life4 ,luke is much less reticent4 ,true1 he knows nothing whatever of the star that appeared in the ,east2 nothing of ,herod's inquiries as to the birthplace of ,christ2 nothing of the massacre of the innocents1 nor of the flight into ,egypt and the return from that country to ,nazareth4 ,on the contrary1 his narrative by implication excludes all this1 for he makes ,joseph and ,mary go up to ,bethlehem for the census only1 and return to ,nazareth soon after it2 so that ,herod could have had no occasion to kill the infants up to the age of two years1 for ,christ could not have been above a few weeks old at most 7,lu4 ii4 #ci74 ,moreover1 we learn definitely from one verse that his parents went up from ,nazareth to ,jerusalem every year at the passover 7,ibid41 ii4 #da74 ,but the absence of any statements like those just taken from the first ,gospel is amply compensated in the third by several pleasing details relating to his infancy and boyhood4 ,in the first place we learn that after eight days he was circumcised1 and named ,jesus according to the angel's desire 7,ibid41 ii4 #ba74 ,next1 we are told that after his mother's purification--which would last thirty-three days after the circumcision--she and his step-father took him to the temple to be presented1 and to make the customary offering4 ,there was in the temple a man named ,simeon who had been promised by the ,holy ,ghost that he should not die till he had seen ,christ4 ,this man1 who came by the ,spirit into the temple1 took the baby in his arms and gave vent to his emotion in the beautiful little hymn known as the ,nunc ,dimittis3--,now1 ,o ,lord1 thou dost release thy servant according to thy word in peace1 because mine eyes have seen thy salvation1 which thou hast prepared before the face of all nations2 a light for the revelation of the ,gentiles and the glory of thy people ,israel 7,lu4 ii4 #bi-cb74 ,less exquisite in its simplicity1 but not altogether dissimilar in tone1 is the prophecy of the ,rishi ,asita on the infant ,buddha4 ,this old and eminent ascetic had come to see the child whose marvelous gifts had been known to him by supernatural signs4 ,having embraced its feet1 and predicted its future preminence1 he had surprised the king by bursting into tears and heaving long sighs4 ,questioned about the meaning of this he replied3 ,great king1 it is not on account of this child that ,i weep2 truly there is not in him the smallest vice4 ,great king1 ,i am old and broken2 and this young prince 7,literally1 ,sarvarthasiddha7 will certainly clothe himself with the perfect and complete intelligence of ,buddha1 and will cause the wheel of the law that has no superior to turn4444 ,after becoming ,buddha he will cause hundreds of thousands of millions of beings to pass to the other border of the ocean of wandering life1 and will lead them forever to immortality4 ,and ,i--,i shall not see this pearl of ,buddhas6 ,cured of illness1 ,i shall not be freed by him from passion6 ,great king1 that is why ,i weep1 and why in my sadness ,i heave long sighs 7,r4 ,t4 ,r4 ,p41 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ajf1 #ajg74 ,so ,abd-al-mottalib1 ,mahomet's grandfather1 on seeing his grandchild immediately after his birth1 is reported to have exclaimed3 ,praise be to ,allah1 who has given me this glorious youth1 who even in the cradle rules over other boys4 ,i commend him to the protection of ,allah1 the ,lord of the four elements1 that he may show him to us when he is well grown up4 ,to his protection ,i commend him from the evil of the wicked spirit 7,l4 ,l4 ,m41 vol4 i4 p4 #adc74 ,prognostications of greatness in infancy are1 indeed1 among the stock incidents in the mythical or semi-mythical lives of eminent persons4 ,not content with ,simeon's recognition1 ,luke introduces an old prophetess called ,anna1 living in the temple1 and represents her as giving thanks1 and speaking of the child to all who looked for redemption in ,jerusalem 7,lu4 ii4 #cf-ch74 ,twelve years are now suffered to elapse without further account of the young ,jesus than that he grew and strengthened1 filled with wisdom1 and that the grace of ,god was upon him 7,ibid41 ii4 #dj74 ,at twelve years old1 the blank is filled by a single event4 ,his parents had gone to ,jerusalem to keep the passover1 taking ,jesus with them4 ,on their way back they missed him1 and having failed to find him among their traveling companions1 returned to look for him at ,jerusalem4 ,there they found him in the temple sitting among the doctors of the law1 listening to them and putting questions4 ,those who heard him are said to have been astonished at his intelligence4 ,questioned by his mother as to this extraordinary conduct1 he replied1 ,how is it that ye sought me8 wist ye not that ,i must be about my ,father's business8 7,lu4 ii4 #da-ej47 ,were this incident confirmed by other authorities1 and did it stand in some kind of connection with the events that precede and follow it1 we might accept it as a genuine reminiscence of the boyhood of ,jesus4 ,that a precocious boy1 eager for information1 should take the opportunity of a visit to the headquarters of ,hebraic learning to seek from the authorities then most respected a solution of questions that troubled his mind1 would not in itself be so very surprising4 ,and those who are familiar with the kind of inquiries made by clever children1 especially on theological topics1 will not think it strange that his youthful wits should occasionally be too much for those of professed theologians4 ,but the isolation in which this single event stands in the first thirty years of ,christ's life1 and the total absence of confirmation from any other source1 compel us to regard it as an invention designed to show an early consciousness in ,jesus of his later mission1 and also to prove the inability of the doctors to cope with him4 ,we must1 therefore1 reject it along with the other myths of the infancy1 of which some are typical myths1 others 7like this7 myths peculiar to ,jesus1 but none in the smallest degree historical4 ,before entering on the later life of ,jesus1 let us note certain differences between ,matthew and ,luke in their treatment of the infancy1 which will confirm the above conclusion4 ,in the first place1 it is to be observed that they effect the desired end by totally unlike methods4 ,given the problem of getting the infant ,christ born without the assistance of a father1 there were various ways in which readers could be assured of the truth of such a miracle4 ,one was to inform ,joseph in a dream of the coming event2 another was to announce it to ,mary by means of an angel4 ,in choosing between these expedients each ,evangelist is guided by his own idiosyncrasy4 ,matthew selects the dream2 ,luke the angel2 and it is noteworthy that on other occasions they exhibit similar preferences4 ,matthew gets out of every difficulty by a dream4 ,in the course of his two first chapters he uses this favorite contrivance no less than five times2 four times for ,joseph1 and once for the magi 7,mt4 i4 #bj1 and ii4 #ab1 #ac1 #bb74 ,twice1 it is true1 he mentions an angel of the ,lord as appearing in the dream1 but the angel in his narrative plays a very subordinate part1 and is1 indeed1 practically superfluous4 ,with ,luke1 on the contrary1 the principal agent in the events of the infancy is the angel1 who supplies the place of the dream in ,matthew4 ,an angel informs ,zacharias that his wife is to have a son2 an angel declares to ,mary that she is destined to give birth to the ,son of ,god2 an angel announces that event to the shepherds after its occurrence2 and angels appear in crowds above them as soon as the announcement has been made 7,lu4 i4 #aa1 #bf1 and ii4 #i1 #ac74 ,another striking difference is the extreme fondness of ,matthew for ancient prophecies1 and of ,luke for little anthems and for songs of praise4 ,the diverse natures of the two writers are well exemplified by this distinction2 the former being the more penetrated with the history and literature of the ,jewish race2 the latter the more flexible and the more imbued with the spirit of his age4 ,hence1 ,matthew almost avowedly constructs his narrative in such a manner as to ensure the fulfillment of the prophecies4 ,after describing ,mary's miraculous conception1 he says that all this was done to fulfill ,isaiah's words3 ,behold1 a virgin shall conceive 7more accurately2 the maiden has conceived71 and shall bear a son1 and shall call his name ,immanuel 7,mt4 i4 #bc2 ,isa4 vii4 #ad74 ,and this he quotes1 regardless of the fact that ,christ never was called ,immanuel1 and that if the one clause of the prophecy is to be understood literally1 so must the other4 ,thus also he reveals his reason for assigning to ,bethlehem the honor of being ,christ's birthplace1 when he places in the mouths of the priests at the court of ,herod a verse from ,micah1 in which it is asserted that from ,bethlehem ,ephratah shall come a man who is to be ruler in ,israel 7,mt4 ii4 #f2 ,mic4 v4 #b74 ,further1 he massacres the innocents in order to corroborate a saying of ,jeremiah 7,mt4 ii4 #ah2 ,jer4 xxxi4 #ae71 and he takes ,joseph and ,mary to ,egypt to confirm an expression of ,hosea 7,mt4 ii4 #ae2 ,hos4 xi4 #a74 ,in each case1 he perverts the natural sense of the prophets2 for in ,jeremiah1 the children are to return to their own land1 which the innocents could not do2 and in ,hosea1 the son who is called out of ,egypt is the people of ,israel4 ,lastly1 in his exceeding love of quoting the ,old ,testament1 he commits the most singular blunder of all in applying to ,christ the words spoken of ,samson by the angel who announced his birth4 ,if1 indeed1 the allusion be to this passage 7and it can scarcely be to any other71 the ,evangelist is barely honest2 for he converts the angelic words1 he shall be a ,nazarite1 into the words he shall be called a ,nazarene 7,mt4 ii4 #bc2 ,judg4 xiii4 #e74 ,so ,judaic a writer could hardly be ignorant that a ,nazarite was not the same thing as an inhabitant of ,nazareth4 ,but from whatever source the quotation may come1 its object plainly is to lead to the belief that notwithstanding his birth at ,bethlehem1 ,jesus was called by his contemporaries a ,nazarene4 ,luke does not trouble himself with the search for ancient oracles1 but indulges a far freer and more inventive genius4 ,his personages give utterance to their feelings in highly finished songs1 which are sometimes very beautiful1 but most certainly could never have been uttered by the simple people to whom he attributes them4 ,among these are the salutation of ,elizabeth to ,mary1 and the still more elaborate answer of ,mary4 ,zacharias1 the very instant he recovers his speech1 recites a complete hymn of no inconsiderable length 7,lu4 i4 #fh-gi74 ,again1 ,simeon expresses his joy at the birth of the ,savior in a similar manner 7,ibid41 ii4 #bi-cb72 but in his case it may be said that he had so long expected to see the ,christ that his hymn of thanksgiving might well be ready4 ,passing now to the manhood of ,jesus1 we find the four ,evangelists all agreed in recording the baptism by ,john as the earliest known event in his adult career1 and it is unquestionably with this consecration by a great man that his authentic life begins4 ,mark and ,john indeed were unaware of anything previous to this period1 and the former introduces it by the words1 ,the beginning of the gospel of ,jesus ,christ the ,son of ,god 7,mk4 i4 #a71 showing that for him at least the history of his ,master began at this point4 ,as usual1 the myth appears in its simplest form in his pages4 ,after applying to ,john the ,baptist a prophecy by ,isaiah1 he states that this prophet was engaged in baptizing in the wilderness1 and that all ,judea and all the ,jerusalemites went out to him and were baptized1 confessing their sins4 ,he declared that a mightier than he was coming after him1 the latchet of whose shoes he was unworthy to unloose4 ,jesus1 like the rest of the world1 went to be baptized1 and as he came out of the water he saw the heavens opened1 and the ,spirit descending on him like a dove4 ,there was a voice from the heavens1 ,thou art my beloved ,son1 in thee ,i am well pleased4 ,matthew and ,luke describe the baptism of ,john in a similar manner1 ,matthew adding a conversation between ,jesus and ,john4 ,they also mention the baptism of ,jesus1 the descent of the dove1 and the voice1 but with slight variations4 ,for whereas ,mark merely says that ,jesus saw the heavens opened and the ,spirit like a dove descending1 and ,matthew1 in substantial accordance with him1 relates that the heavens were opened to him1 and that he saw the ,spirit descend as a dove1 ,luke going further1 pretends that the heavens were opened1 and that the spirit did descend in a bodily form like a dove upon him 7,mk4 i4 #a-ab2 ,mt4 iii42 ,lu4 iii4 #a-bb74 ,thus is the subjective fact in the consciousness of ,jesus gradually changed into an objective fact1 a transition deserving to be noted as illustrative of the trivial changes of language by which a myth may grow4 ,several other examples of a like process will meet us in the course of this inquiry4 ,the scene at the baptism is described differently again in the fourth ,gospel4 ,there the testimony of ,john the ,baptist to ,christ is rendered far more emphatic2 he receives him with the words1 ,behold the ,lamb of ,god1 who taketh away the sins of the world2 and he explains his knowledge of him by the fact that he has received a special revelation concerning him4 ,on whomsoever he saw the ,spirit descend and remain1 that was he who was to baptize with the ,holy ,ghost4 ,now he had seen the ,spirit descend like a dove on ,jesus1 and therefore had borne witness that he was the son of ,god 7,john i4 #f-cg74 ,of the opening of the heavens and of the voice nothing is said1 and the meaning of the whole story evidently is that this descent of the ,spirit was a private sign arranged between ,god and ,john the ,baptist1 but of which the bystanders either perceived nothing1 or understood nothing4 ,for had they known that the ,holy ,ghost itself was thus bearing witness to ,jesus1 what need was there of the witness of ,john8 ,it is evident1 however1 that even if they saw the dove flying down and alighting upon ,jesus1 they were not informed that it represented the ,holy ,spirit4 ,thus the whole fact is reduced to a peculiar interpretation given by ,john to a natural occurrence4 ,we have then three versions of the baptismal myth3--in the first certain circumstances are perceived by ,jesus2 in the second they are perceived by ,john2 in the third they actually occur4 ,strangely inconsistent with this distinct acknowledgment of ,christ as the son of ,god1 is the inquiry addressed to him at a subsequent period by ,john the ,baptist through his disciples4 ,it appears that on hearing of the extraordinary fame of ,jesus and of the course he was pursuing1 ,john sent two disciples from the prison where he was confined to put this question to him1 ,art thou he that should come1 or do we expect another8 in other words1 ,are you the ,messiah8 ,thus interrogated1 ,jesus replied1 not by appealing to the testimony of the dove at his baptism1 or the voice from heaven1 but by citing the miraculous cures he was then performing4 ,nor did he in the least resent the doubt implied in ,john the ,baptist's query4 ,on the contrary1 he immediately entered upon a glowing panegyric of his precursor1 describing him as the messenger sent before his face to prepare his way1 and as the prophet ,elias who was expected to come--7,mt4 xi4 #a-ae2 ,lu4 vii4 #ah-cj7--;a title which in another ,gospel the ,baptist had expressly repudiated 7,jo4 i4 #ba74 ,this remarkable transaction between the two teachers could not easily have occurred1 if the elder had previously discovered him that should come in the person of ,jesus4 ,for then we must suppose that since the baptism he had seen reason to hesitate as to the correctness of his opinion4 ,and in that case1 could he have referred the question to ,jesus himself for his decision8 ,and could ,jesus have employed the terms of praise here given1 in speaking of one who had lapsed from his former faith into a state of doubt8 ,plainly not4 ,the ,evangelists have overshot the mark in their narrative of the baptism4 ,eager to make ,john bear witness to ,jesus1 they have forgotten that it was only at a later period that he was convinced--if he was convinced at all--of the ,messianic claims of the young man who had passed under his influence1 and derived from him some of his earliest inspirations4 ,his doubts are historical2 his conviction is mythical4 ,temporary retirement into solitude naturally followed upon the consecration administered by ,john in the baptismal rite4 ,jesus spent some time wandering in a lonely place1 the period of forty days assigned to this purpose being naturally suggested by the forty years of ,israel's troubles in the wilderness4 ,if there mingled among his meditations any lingering feelings of reluctance to follow the course pointed out by the ,baptist1 he would have afterwards described such feelings as temptations of the devil4 ,hence1 it may be1 the story of his conversations with ,satan4 ,these are not alluded to at all in ,mark1 who simply mentions the fact that he was tempted by ,satan4 ,neither is there any reference in ,mark to fasting for the whole of the forty days or any part of them4 ,greatly improving upon this bald version1 the other two ,synoptics tell us that he ate nothing during all this time1 and describe the very words of his dialogues with the tempter4 ,satan had besought him to make bread out of stones2 to cast himself down from a high place1 and to accept at his hands all the kingdoms of earth in return for a single act of worship 7,mk4 i4 #ab1 #ac2 ,mt4 iv4 #a-aa2 ,lu4 iv4 #a-ac74 ,jesus1 like the ,buddha at the corresponding period of his life1 emerged triumphant from the trial4 ,it was by no means equal in severity to that which ,sakyamuni underwent4 ,he also was obliged to overcome the devil before he could attain perfection4 ,mr1 the sinner1 the ,indian ,satan1 assailed him not only by force of arms1 despatching an immense army against him2 but finding this onslaught a failure1 he tried the subtler mode of attempting to corrupt his virtue by the seductions of women4 ,his beautiful daughters were despatched with orders to display all their charms1 and employ all their fascinations before the young monk4 ,they faithfully executed the commission1 but all was in vain4 ,calm and unmoved1 the ,bodhisattva regarded them with complete indifference1 and emerged from this severest of trials a perfect ,buddha 7,r4 ,t4 ,r4 ,p41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bhf-cbg74 ,in like manner ,zarathustra was tempted by the ,parsee devil1 ,angra-mainyus1 who held out a promise of happiness if he would but curse the good law4 ,like ,jesus1 ,zarathustra repelled the suggestion with indignation3 ,i will not curse the good ,mazdayasna law1 not even if limbs1 soul1 and life were to part from one another 7,av41 vol4 i4 p4 #bdd4--;,fargard xix4 #bc-bf74 ,not long after his return from the desert1 ,jesus took up his abode at the village of ,kapharnaoum1 or ,capernaum1 in ,galilee1 ,nazareth being in several ways uncongenial to him 7,mk4 ii4 #a2 ,mt4 iv4 #ab-af74 ,in the first place it was the abode of his family1 who did not believe in the pretensions he now began to advance4 ,moreover1 he was well known to the ,nazarenes as the carpenter1 or the carpenter's son1 and it seemed an unwarrantable presumption in their young townsman1 undistinguished by advantages either of birth or education1 to claim to become their teacher 7,mk4 vi4 #c74 ,his relations also not only discredited him by their unbelief1 but occasionally took active measures to stop his proceedings 7,mk4 iii4 #ba1 #ca74 ,from these and perhaps other causes1 he entirely failed to accomplish any important miracle at ,nazareth1 and he had to excuse his failure by the remark that a prophet is not without honor except in his own country1 among his own relations1 and in his own house 7,ibid41 vi4 #d74 ,the more natural version--that of ,mark--adds that he marvelled because of their unbelief4 ,with less simplicity ,matthew relates1 not that he was unable to do1 but that he did not do many mighty works there because of their unbelief 7,mt4 xiii4 #ed-eh74 ,further confirmation of the incredulity of the ,nazarenes is afforded by their reception of a remarkable sermon said to have been delivered by ,jesus in their synagogue4 ,it seems that after he had preached in various parts of ,galilee1 and had been well received1 he came to ,nazareth and1 having read a ,messianic prophecy from ,isaiah1 proceeded to apply it to himself4 ,having noticed the demand which he expected would be addressed to him1 that he should repeat there such works as he was reported to have performed at ,capernaum1 he proceeded to convey by some pointed illustrations from the ,old ,testament the unflattering intimation that ,nazareth was to be less favored by ,god than his adopted home4 ,hereupon a storm arose in the synagogue1 and an effort was made by the enraged audience to cast him from the brow of a hill4 ,but he escaped in safety to his own residence at ,capernaum 7,lu4 iv4 #ad-cj74 ,whether or not any such sermon was preached or any such attempt upon his life was made1 the narrative bears further witness to the fact of ill success in the town where he had been brought up1 and to his possession of a house or lodging at ,capernaum4 ,whether he himself was the owner of the abode1 or whether it belonged to a disciple who received him 7of which latter there is no evidence71 makes little difference2 the representation afterwards made that foxes had holes1 and birds had nests1 but the son of man had not where to lay his head 7,mt4 viii4 #ai1 #bj2 ,lu4 ix4 #eg1 #eh71 is equally negatived by either supposition4 ,mark and ,john know nothing of this condition of the son of man4 ,in ,john's ,gospel1 indeed1 it is distinctly contradicted by the statement that two of the ,baptist's disciples asked him to show them where he lived2 that he did so1 and that they staid with him that day 7,jo4 i4 #ci74 ,indirect evidence of the same kind is afforded by the notice of an entertainment given by ,jesus at his own house1 to which he invited a very promiscuous company4 ,luke1 indeed1 represents this feast as having been given by ,levi1 but this is evidently for the sake of an artistic connection with the summons to ,levi1 which in all three narratives immediately precedes it4 ,for the same reason he departs from both other ,evangelists in making the scribes at this very feast put the question why ,jesus and his disciples did not fast1 which1 according to the more trustworthy version1 is put by the disciples of the ,baptist 7,mk4 ii4 #ah-bb2 ,mt4 ix4 #ad-ag2 ,lu4 v4 #cc-ci74 ,thus ,luke contrives to convert three unconnected stories into a single connected one4 ,that ,jesus received the more degraded classes of his countrymen on equal terms1 and that his habits were not ascetic1 are the important facts which we have to gather from these several statements4 ,the inference from the evidence on the whole is that ,jesus was in comfortable1 though not opulent circumstances2 and even had he been in want1 he had friends enough whose devotion would never have allowed him to remain without a good lodging and sufficient food4 ,these friends he seems to have begun collecting round him as soon as he entered upon his career of preaching in ,galilee4 ,among the earliest were four fishermen1 ,simon and his brother ,andrew1 ,james and his brother ,john4 ,the first pair of brothers ,jesus called away from their occupation1 saying1 ,follow me1 and ,i will make you fishers of men 7,mk4 i4 #af-bj2 ,mt4 iv4 #ah-bb74 ,so say two ,gospels1 but a very different account appears in ,john4 ,there we are told that two of the disciples of ,john the ,baptist having heard ,jesus1 left their master to follow him4 ,one of these two was ,andrew1 ,simon's brother1 and it was ,andrew who went and informed ,simon that he had discovered the ,messiah4 ,on seeing ,simon1 ,jesus addresses him1 ,thou art ,simon the son of ,john2 thou shalt be called ,kephas 7,jo4 i4 #ch-dc74 ,not a word is said here of the calling of fishermen pursued by these brothers1 nor of the remarkable promise to make them fishers of men4 ,moreover it is they who present themselves to ,jesus2 not he who summons them4 ,the two accounts are mutually exclusive4 ,luke has a third version1 not absolutely irreconcilable with that of ,mark and ,matthew1 though inconsistent in all its details4 ,according to him1 ,jesus had once been speaking to the people from ,simon's boat1 which was lying on the lake of ,gennesaret4 ,the address concluded1 he desired ,simon to launch into the lake and let down the nets4 ,simon replied that they had toiled all night and caught nothing2 yet he would obey4 ,on casting out the net it was found to inclose so great a multitude of fishes that it broke4 ,simon called to his partners1 ,james and ,john1 to come to his assistance1 and both vessels were not only filled with fish1 but began to sink with the weight4 ,peter1 ascribing this large haul to the presence of ,jesus1 begged him to depart from him1 for he was a sinful man4 ,jesus told him1 as in the other ,gospels he tells him and his brother ,andrew 7who does not appear here71 that he shall henceforth catch men4 ,hereupon all the three forsook all1 and followed him2 from which it must clearly be understood that they had not followed him before4 ,thus1 that which the simpler version represents as a mere summons1 obeyed at once1 is here converted into a summons enforced upon the fishermen by a professional success so great as to appear to them miraculous1 and to lead in their minds to the inference that since ,jesus had commanded them to let down the nets1 and their obedience had been thus rewarded1 he was in some obscure manner the cause of the good fortune which had attended their efforts 7,lu4 v4 #a-aa74 ,leaving aside for the present all that is peculiar to ,john1 who alone mentions the calling of ,philip1 there is but one other disciple concerning whom we have any information as to the mode in which he was led to join ,jesus4 ,this is ,levi1 or ,matthew1 the publican4 ,jesus found him sitting at the receipt of custom1 and commanded him to follow him1 which he instantly did 7,mk4 ii4 #ad2 ,mt4 ix4 #i2 ,lu4 v4 #bg1 #bh74 ,but we are not compelled to suppose that from this time forward ,levi did nothing but accompany ,jesus or go through the country preaching the new faith4 ,he may have done so1 or he may only have left his business from time to time to listen to the prophet who had so deeply impressed him4 ,for while three ,evangelists mention this circumstance1 only one of them1 and that the least trustworthy1 adds that in following ,jesus he left all things4 ,the names of the other seven disciples are given with but a single variation in all of the synoptical ,gospels 7,mk4 iii4 #ad-ai2 ,mt4 x4 #a-d2 ,lu4 vi4 #ab-af74 ,to these twelve their master gave power to heal diseases and to cast out devils1 and sent them forth into the world to preach the coming of the kingdom of heaven1 giving them instructions as to the manner in which they should fulfill their mission 7,mk4 iii4 #ad1 #ae2 ,mt4 x4 #e-ae2 ,lu4 ix4 #a-f74 ,when not thus engaged1 they were to remain about his person1 and form an inner circle of intimate friends1 to receive his more hidden thoughts1 and help him in the work he had undertaken4 ,the four who were the first to join him seem to have stood towards him in a closer relationship than anyone else1 and to have been in fact his only thorough disciples during the earliest period of his life4 ,for we read that after the cure of a demoniac effected in the synagogue at ,capernaum 7,mk4 i4 #ba-bh2 ,lu4 iv4 #ca-cg71 he retired into the house of ,simon and ,andrew1 with ,james and ,john1 and there healed ,simon's mother-in-law of a fever by the touch of his hands1 a species of remedy which requires no miracle to render it effectual 7,mk4 i4 #bi-ca2 ,mt4 viii4 #ad1 #ae2 ,lu4 iv4 #ch1 #ci74 ,his reputation as a thaumaturgist had now begun to spread1 and crowds of people besieged his door1 whom he relieved of various diseases1 and from whom he expelled many devils 7,mk4 i4 #cb-cd2 ,mt4 viii4 #af1 #ag2 ,lu4 iv4 #dj1 #da74 ,the anxiety of the devils to bear witness to his ,messiahship he repressed1 on this as on other occasions4 ,mentioning these circumstances1 ,matthew1 ever prone to strengthen his case by the authority of a ,hebrew prophet1 cites ,isaiah1 ,he himself took our infirmities1 and bore our sicknesses4 ,certainly not a very happy application of prophecy2 since it nowhere appears that ,jesus bore the diseases he cured1 or was possessed by the devils he expelled4 ,anxious to escape from the pressure of the people1 who clamored for miracles1 he retired to a desert place to pray4 ,but here ,simon and others followed him and told him that all men were seeking him4 ,he replied that he must carry his message to other villages also1 and proceeded on a tour through ,galilee1 preaching and casting out devils 7,mk4 i4 #ce-ci2 ,lu4 iv4 #db-dd74 ,it was on some occasion during this ,galilean journey1 when crowds1 eager to hear his doctrine and see his wonders1 had pressed around him from every quarter that he delivered the celebrated sermon the scene of which is laid by ,matthew on a mountain1 and by ,luke in a plain 7,mt4 chs4 v4-vii41 inclusive2 ,lu4 vi4 #bj-di74 ,a part only of this discourse has been preserved to us1 for ,matthew has evidently collected into one a great number of his best sayings1 which were no doubt actually uttered on many different occasions and in many different places4 ,luke1 with more sense of fitness1 has scattered them about his ,gospel1 assigning to some an earlier1 to others a later date4 ,notably is this unlike arrangement remarkable in the case of the ,lord's prayer1 and in nothing is the untrustworthiness of these ,gospels1 as to all exterior circumstances1 more conspicuous than in their assigning to the communication of this most important prayer totally different times1 different antecedents1 and different surroundings4 ,for whereas ,matthew brings it within his all-comprehensive sermon on the mount1 ,luke causes it to be taught in a certain place where ,jesus was praying4 ,the former makes ,jesus deliver it spontaneously2 the latter in answer to the request of a disciple2 the former to a vast audience2 the latter to the disciples alone 7,mt4 vi4 #i-ac2 ,lu4 xi4 #a-d74 ,discrepancies like these evince the hopelessness of attempting to follow with accuracy the footsteps of ,christ4 ,we can obtain nothing beyond the most general conception of his movements1 if even that2 and of the order of the several events in his life we can have scarcely any notion4 ,discourses1 parables1 conversations1 miracles1 follow one another now in rapid succession4 ,leaving the consideration of the doctrines taught for another place1 we will notice here1 without aiming at a chronological arrangement1 the principal scenes of his life2 and1 beginning with his miracles1 we will take before any others those in which devils are expelled2 or as we should say1 maniacs are restored to sanity4 ,a strange miracle of this kind is related of a man in the country of the ,gadarenes or ,gergasenes4 ,matthew indeed1 according to a common habit of his1 has made him into two men1 but the other two ,evangelists agree that there was but one4 ,this man was a raving lunatic1 who had defeated every effort to confine him hitherto made1 and who lived among tombs1 crying and cutting himself with stones4 ,seeing ,jesus1 he addressed him as the ,son of the ,most ,high ,god1 and adjured him not to torment him4 ,on being asked his name1 he said it was ,legion1 for they were many4 ,having been ordered out by ,jesus1 he begged for leave to enter into a herd of swine which was feeding near at hand2 this was granted1 and the herd ran violently down a steep place into the sea and were all drowned1 their number being about two thousand 7,mk4 v4 #a-bj2 ,mt4 viii4 #bh-cd2 ,lu4 viii4 #bf-ci74 ,after this wanton destruction of property1 it is not surprising that the people began to pray him to depart out of their coasts4 ,jesus on this occasion certainly displayed a singular tenderness towards the devils1 and very little consideration for the unfortunate owners of the pigs4 ,nor did the ,legion gain much by the bargain2 for they lost their new habitation the moment they had taken possession of it4 ,the disciples1 as we have seen1 had received power over devils1 but it appears from a remarkable story that they were not always able to master them4 ,for on returning to them after the transfiguration1 ,jesus found a crowd about them engaged in some disputation4 ,having demanded an explanation1 a man told him that he had brought his son1 who was subject to violent fits1 probably epileptic 7,mark alone makes him deaf and dumb71 and begged the disciples to cure him1 which they had been unable to do4 ,hereupon1 ,jesus1 bursting into an angry exclamation against the faithless and perverse generation with whom he lived1 took the boy and healed him4 ,luke omits the private conversation with the disciples which followed on this scene4 ,they asked him1 it is said1 why they had been thus unsuccessful4 ,the answer is different in ,matthew and in ,mark4 ,in the former ,gospel1 he assigns a plain reason3 because of your unbelief2 adding afterwards1 this kind does not come out except by fasting and prayer4 ,in ,mark1 the latter statement constitutes the whole reply1 no allusion being made to the disciples' unbelief4 ,it is noticeable1 however1 that in ,mark alone the father is required to believe before the boy is healed2 a singular condition to exact1 since belief may generally be expected to follow on a miracle rather than to precede it 7,mk4 ix4 #ad-bi2 ,mt4 xvii4 #ad-ba2 ,lu4 ix4 #cg-dc74 ,in the case of the ,syro-phnician woman1 however1 there was no need to impose it1 for her faith1 founded on the reputation of ,jesus was perfect4 ,this woman came to him when he had gone upon an excursion to the neighborhood of ,tyre and ,sidon1 and begged him to cast out a devil from her daughter1 who was not present4 ,he at first refused on the ground of her being a ,gentile1 but after a remarkable dialogue1 confessed himself convinced by her arguments1 and told her that on her return she would find the daughter cured1 which actually happened 7,mk4 vii4 #bd-cj2 ,mt4 xv4 #ba-bh74 ,here we have an instance of a remedy effected at a distance1 which can scarcely be credited at all unless on the supposition that the daughter knew of her mother's expedition1 and had equal faith in ,jesus4 ,the probability is1 however1 that her recovery is an invention1 though the argument with the woman may possibly be historical4 ,belief in the production of diseases by demoniacal possession1 and in the power of exorcism over diseases so produced1 is the common condition of mind in barbarous or semi-civilized nations4 ,the phenomena which occurred in the first century in ,judea are reproduced at the present day in more than one quarter of the globe4 ,take1 to begin with1 the theory of possession in ,abyssinia1 which ,i find quoted by ,canon ,callaway from ,stern's ,wanderings among the ,falashes4 ,canon ,callaway observes that in ,abyssinia we meet with the word ,bouda1 applied to a character more resembling the ,abatakadi or wizards of these parts ,south ,africa4444 ,the ,bouda1 or an evil spirit called by the same name and acting with him1 takes possession of others1 giving rise to an attack known as ',bouda symptoms1' which present the characteristics of intense hysteria1 bordering on insanity4 ,together with the ,boudas there is1 of course1 the exorcist1 who has unusual powers1 and1 like the inyanga yokubula1 or diviner among the ,amazulu1 points out those who are ,boudas1 that is1 ,abatakati 7,r4 ,s4 ,a41 part iii4 pp4 #bhj1 #bha74 ,describing the diseases of the ,polynesian islanders1 the missionary ,turner says3 ,insanity is occasionally met with4 ,it was invariably traced in former times to the immediate presence of an evil spirit 7,n4 ,y41 p4 #bba74 ,rising somewhat higher in the scale of culture1 the ,singhalese1 as depicted by ,knox1 present the spectacle of patients whose symptoms are an almost exact reproduction of those which afflicted the objects of the mercy of ,jesus4 ,i have many times1 he relates1 seen men and women of this country strangely possest1 insomuch that ,i could judge it nothing else but the effect of the devil's power upon them1 and they themselves do acknowledge as much4 ,in the like condition to which ,i never saw any that did profess to be a worshiper of the holy name of ,jesus4 ,they that are thus possest1 some of them will run mad into the woods1 screeching and roaring1 but do mischief to none2 some will be taken so as to be speechless1 shaking and quaking1 and dancing1 and will tread upon the fire and not be hurt2 they will also talk idle1 like distracted folk4 ,the author proceeds to say that the friends of these demoniac patients appeal to the devil for their cure1 believing their attacks to proceed from him 7,h4 ,r4 ,c41 p4 #gg74 ,the striking successes of ,jesus with maladies of this order naturally brought him the reputation of ability to deal no less powerfully with other diseases4 ,accordingly1 a leper presented himself one day1 and kneeling to him said that if he wished he could make him clean4 ,he did so1 and the leper1 though enjoined to keep silence1 went about proclaiming the power of ,jesus1 who was consequently besieged by still further throngs of applicants and of curious spectators 7,mk4 i4 #dj-de2 ,mt4 viii4 #a-d2 ,lu4 v4 #ab-af74 ,illustrating the manner in which he was pursued1 we find a curious story4 ,jesus was in his own house at ,capernaum1 when a paralytic1 borne upon a couch1 was brought to him to be healed4 ,unable from the concourse about him to penetrate to ,jesus1 his bearers let him down through an opening in the roof4 ,after forgiving the man's sins1 which he claimed a right to do1 he told him to take up his bed and walk4 ,this the paralytic at once did1 to the amazement of the bystanders 7,mk4 ii4 #a-ab2 ,mt4 ix4 #a-h2 ,lu4 v4 #ah-bf74 ,matthew1 telling the same story1 omits the crowd and the circumstance of letting down the patient through the roof2 and these adjuncts may be fictitious in the special case1 but in so far as they bear witness to the thaumaturgic repute of ,jesus1 have in them an element of genuine history4 ,of various other miracles of healing with which ,jesus is credited1 one of the most interesting is the alleged resuscitation of ,jairus' daughter4 ,jairus was a ruler of the synagogue2 a personage therefore of some note in his district2 and his daughter1 a little girl of twelve years old1 was dangerously ill1 and supposed by her friends to be at the point of death4 ,at this critical moment ,jairus repaired to ,jesus1 and requested him to come and lay his hands on the little maid1 that she might live4 ,jesus consented1 but before he could reach the house messengers arrived who informed ,jairus that his child was already dead2 he need not trouble the master4 ,none the less did ,jesus proceed to the house1 taking with him only the most intimate disciples1 ,peter1 ,james1 and ,john4 ,here a strange scene awaited him4 ,about1 and probably in the sick-room had gathered a crowd of people1 relations1 friends1 and dependants of ,jairus1 who were engaged in raising a wild clamor of grief around the child4 ,flute-players were performing on their instruments1 while their lugubrious music was accompanied by the tumultuous wailing and howling of the mourners4 ,jesus1 having entered the place1 declared that the maiden was not dead1 but sleeping2 or as we should say1 in a state of insensibility4 ,the people laughed in derision at the assertion1 but ,jesus at once took the very proper and sensible measure of turning them all out of the room 7which was either the sick-room itself or one close to it71 and taking the damsel's hand1 commanded her to rise4 ,she did so1 and ,jesus 7again exhibiting excellent sense7 ordered that she should have something to eat 7,mk4 v4 #ba-bd1 and #ce-dc2 ,mt4 ix4 #ah1 #ai1 and #bc-bf2 ,lu4 viii4 #dj-db1 and #di-ef74 ,in this case we have a peculiarly valuable instance of the manner in which miracles may be manufactured4 ,analyzed into its elements of fact and its elements of inference1 we find in it nothing which cannot be easily understood without supposing either any exercise of supernatural power or any deliberate fraud in the narrators4 ,observe first1 that in two out of the three versions the girl is reported by ,jairus not to be dead1 but dying4 ,true1 before ,jesus can get to her it is announced that she is actually dead4 ,but ,jesus1 having reached the house1 and having evidently seen the patient 7though this fact is only suffered to appear in ,luke's version71 expressly contradicts this opinion1 declaring that she is not dead1 but unconscious4 ,on what particular symptom he founded this statement we do not know1 but we cannot1 without accusing ,jesus of deliberate untruthfulness1 believe that he made it without reason4 ,at any rate1 the measures taken by him implied a decided conviction of the accuracy of his observation4 ,if she were1 as he asserted1 not dead1 though dangerously ill1 the hubbub in the house1 if suffered to continue1 would very likely have rendered her recovery impossible4 ,quiet was essential2 and that having been obtained1 it was perfectly possible that under the soothing touch and the care of ,jesus she might awake from her trance far better than before1 and to all appearance suddenly restored to health4 ,the crisis of her case was over1 and it may have been by preventing her foolish friends from treating that crisis as death1 that ,jesus in reality saved her life4 ,and when she awoke1 the order to give her food implied a state of debility in which she could be assisted1 not by supernatural1 but by very commonplace measures4 ,observe1 however1 the manner in which in this case the myth has grown4 ,in two of the ,gospels1 ,mark and ,luke1 ,jairus comes to ,jesus1 not when his daughter is dead1 but only when she is supposed to be at the last gasp4 ,there is no reason from their accounts to believe that she died at all1 her friends' opinion on that point being contradicted by ,jesus4 ,but in ,matthew the miracle is enhanced by the statement of the father to ,jesus that she was just dead 7,mt4 ix4 #ah74 ,consistently with this account the message afterwards sent to him from his house is omitted4 ,again1 while it seems from the manner in which ,matthew and ,mark relate what happened1 that the words of ,jesus1 ,the maiden is not dead1 but sleepeth1 preceded his entry into her room1 it is clear from ,luke that they succeeded it4 ,and this is consistent with the requirements of the case4 ,some of the mourners and attendants must obviously have been by the bedside1 and he could not turn them out till he was himself beside it4 ,then clearing the sick-chamber of useless idlers1 he could proceed in peace to treat the patient2 while if we suppose that these people were all outside the door1 there is far less reason for their prompt expulsion4 ,that this is the true explanation of the miracle ,i do not venture to assert2 ,i have only been anxious to show1 by a single instance1 how easily the tale of an astounding prodigy might arise out of a few perfectly simple circumstances4 ,a curious incident took place on the way to the house of ,jairus4 ,a woman who had had an issue of blood for twelve years1 came behind ,jesus and touched his clothes1 whereupon she was instantly healed4 ,jesus1 turning round1 told her that her faith had saved her 7,mk4 v4 #be-cd2 ,mt4 ix4 #bj-bb2 ,lu4 viii4 #dc-dh74 ,such is the fact as related by the first ,evangelist2 but the other two1 magnifying the marvel1 place ,jesus in the midst of a throng of people pressing upon him1 and make him supernaturally conscious that some one has touched him in such a manner as to extract remedial power out of him4 ,discovered by this instinct1 the woman tremblingly confesses her deed4 ,neither contact1 however1 nor even the presence of ,jesus on the spot1 were essential to a miracle of healing4 ,a centurion1 having a paralytic servant1 either went or sent others to ,jesus1 requesting that he would heal him4 ,before ,jesus could reach the house1 he declared that he was unworthy of receiving him within it1 but entreated that the word might be spoken1 adding that his servant would then be healed4 ,this was done2 and ,jesus took occasion to point the moral by contrasting the faith of this heathen with that of the ,jews1 dwelling on the superior strength of the former 7,mt4 viii4 #e-ac2 ,lu4 vii4 #a-aj74 ,this myth1 which appears only in two ,gospels1 and in them with considerable variations1 seems to have been designed to glorify ,jesus by making a ,roman officer acknowledge his powers4 ,this intention is more evident in ,luke than in ,matthew2 for in ,matthew the centurion comes himself2 but in ,luke he sends the elders of the ,jews to prefer his request1 their appearance evincing his importance1 and therefore increasing the honor done to ,jesus by the suppliant attitude in which he stands4 ,when ,jesus is near his house the officer still does not approach in person1 but sends friends1 distinctly stating that he thought himself unworthy to come himself1 and intimating his belief that a mere word will be enough to heal his servant4 ,it is impossible to see why this message might not have been sent in the first instance by the elders1 and the cure effected at once1 but the two embassies to ,jesus make a better story4 ,thus1 in this version the centurion1 who in the other version gives an interesting account of his official status1 and receives the highest praise for his faith1 never actually sees ,jesus at all2 and the eulogy is spoken not to him1 but of him4 ,here1 then1 is another example of the way in which tales of this kind grow in passing from mouth to mouth4 ,sometimes much more materialistic means of healing were adopted4 ,one day1 by the sea of ,galilee1 a deaf and dumb man was brought to ,jesus4 ,in this case he took the man aside1 put his fingers into his ears1 spat1 touched his tongue1 looked up to heaven1 sighed1 and said1 ,ephphatha1 or1 ,be opened 7,mk4 vii4 #ca-cg74 ,when a word was sufficient1 it was singular to go through all these performances1 and the whole proceeding has somewhat the air of a piece of jugglery4 ,at ,bethsaida he dealt in like manner with a blind man1 leading him out of the town1 spitting upon his eyes1 and then putting his hands upon him4 ,asked whether he saw1 the man replied that he saw men as trees walking1 whereupon a further application of the hand to his eyes caused him to see clearly 7,mk4 viii4 #bb-bf74 ,here the remark presents itself that if anything of the sort ever occurred1 the man could not have been born blind1 since he would then have been unable to distinguish either men or trees by sight4 ,it must have been a blindness due to accident or disease of the eyes1 and might not have been total4 ,but the whole story is probably mythical4 ,two more miracles of healing rest on the authority of the third ,gospel alone4 ,by one of them ten lepers1 who had asked for mercy1 were suddenly cleansed after they had gone away4 ,one only of the ten1 a ,smaritan1 turned round to glorify ,god and to utter his gratitude4 ,jesus then observes3 ',were not the ten cleansed8 ,where are the nine8 ,were there none found that returned to give glory to ,god1 except this stranger8' ,and he said to him1 ',arise1 go2 thy faith hath saved thee' 7,lu4 xvii4 #aa-ai74 ,here the intention of exalting the ,smaritan above the ,jews is very evident4 ,another prodigy was worked at the town of ,nain1 where the only son of a widow was just dead1 and his body was being carried out to the burial-place4 ,jesus touched the bier1 and the widow's son rose to life1 to the terror of the spectators1 who declared that a great prophet had been raised up1 and that ,god had looked upon his people 7,lu4 vii4 #aa-ag74 ,though the miracles of ,jesus were principally of a remedial character1 there were others which were rather designed to evince his power4 ,conspicuous among this class is that of feeding a multitude of five thousand people who had followed him into a desert place1 and whose hunger he satisfied by the supernatural multiplication of five loaves and two fishes 7,mk4 vi4 #cj-de1 and viii4 #a-i2 ,mt4 xiv4 #ad-ba1 and xv4 #bi-ch2 ,lu4 ix4 #aj-ag2 ,jo4 vi4 #a-ae74 ,of this wonder a double version1 slightly different in details1 has been embodied in the first two ,gospels4 ,it is plainly the same story coming from different sources4 ,john1 whose miracles are seldom identical with those of the synoptics1 relates this one nearly in the same way2 except that according to him it was a lad and not 7as in the other ,gospels7 the disciples1 who had the food on which the marvel was operated4 ,the number of persons is stated in all four ,gospels to be five thousand 7and on the second occasion in the two first ,gospels four thousand72 but ,matthew alone has striven to enhance the miracle still further by adding to these numbers the words1 besides women and children4 ,immediately after this miracle the disciples entered a boat to cross the lake of ,galilee1 leaving their master on land4 ,a storm overtook them at night1 and as they were laboring through it1 they saw ,jesus walking towards them on the water4 ,alarmed at such an apparition they cried out in fear2 but ,jesus reassured them1 and was received into their boat1 whereupon the wind fell 7,mk4 vi4 #de-eb2 ,mt4 xiv4 #bb-cc2 ,jo4 vi4 #af-ba74 ,to this ,matthew1 unlike ,mark and ,john1 adds that ,peter also attempted the feat of walking on the lake2 but being timid1 began to sink1 and had to be rescued by ,jesus4 ,john alone adds to the first miracle a further one3 namely1 that immediately upon his entrance into the ship1 they were at the land whither they went4 ,a somewhat similar performance is that of stilling a violent storm on the lake of ,galilee1 which seems to have astonished even the disciples in the boat1 accustomed as they must have been to prodigies4 ,at least their exclamation1 ,what sort of man then is this1 that even the wind and the sea obey him8 looks as if all his influence over devils and diseases had failed to convince them of his true character 7,mk4 iv4 #ce-da2 ,mt4 viii4 #bc-bg2 ,lu4 viii4 #bb-be74 ,all doubt upon this score must have been removed in the minds of three at least of the disciples by a scene which occurred in their presence4 ,peter1 ,james and ,john accompanied him one day to a high mountain1 where he was transfigured before them2 his raiment becoming white and shining4 ,elijah and ,moses were seen with him1 and ,peter1 evidently bewildered1 proposed to make three tabernacles4 ,a voice came from heaven3 ,this is my beloved son3 hear him4 ,suddenly the apparition vanished2 ,jesus alone remained with the disciples1 and on the way down charged them to tell no one of what they had seen till after the resurrection 7,mk4 ix4 #b-ac2 ,mt4 xvii4 #a-ac2 ,lu4 ix4 #bh-cf74 ,this is a suspicious circumstance1 which means1 if it mean anything1 that the transfiguration was never thought of till after the death of ,jesus1 and that this order of his was invented to account for the otherwise unaccountable silence of the three disciples4 ,for is it to be imagined that ,peter1 ,james1 and ,john could keep the secret of this marvelous event1 which was so well fitted to confirm the faith of believers1 and to convince the ,jews in general of the ,messianic nature of the prophet8 ,and if they did keep the secret1 what weight is to be attached to their evidence1 given long after the event1 and when exalted views of the divinity of the ,christ who had risen from death were already current8 ,such are some of the mighty works for which ,jesus claimed1 and his disciples yielded1 the title of son of man1 or son of ,god1 and assumed the authority of the ,messiah whom the ,jewish nation expected4 ,but this claim was recognized neither by the spiritual heads of the ,jews1 nor by the great bulk of the people4 ,indeed he had given great offense to their religious sentiment both by putting forward such pretensions1 and by the opinions he had expressed on various topics4 ,the language which had caused their hostility1 as belonging to his historical and not to his mythical personality1 will be considered elsewhere4 ,but the accounts--semi-mythical1 semi-historical--which have reached us of the closing scenes of his life1 must be passed under review now4 ,long before his actual arrest1 the ,gospels tell us that he had predicted to his disciples the sufferings that were to befall him4 ,peter1 according to one of the versions1 had remonstrated with him on these forebodings1 and had received from him in consequence one of the sharpest reprimands he had ever given1 with the opprobrious epithet of ,satan4 ,it is further stated that he prophesied his resurrection1 and his return to earth in glory with the angels of his ,father4 ,to this was added another prediction which proved false1 that there were some standing there who should not taste of death till the son of man came in his kingdom4 ,gloomy expressions as to the necessity of his followers taking up their crosses and being ready to lose their lives also escaped him 7,mk4 viii4 #ca-;ix4 #a2 ,mt4 xvi4 #ba-bh2 ,lu4 ix4 #bb-bg74 ,a little later1 he is said to have distinctly given vent to similar expectations as to his approaching end1 though without being able to make himself understood by his disciples 7,mk4 ix4 #cj-cb2 ,mt4 xvii4 #bb1 #bc2 ,lu4 ix4 #dd1 #de74 ,again1 on the way to ,jerusalem where he intended to celebrate the passover1 he took all his twelve disciples aside1 and distinctly foretold his execution there1 and his resurrection on the third day 7,mk4 x4 #cb-cd2 ,mt4 xx4 #ag-ai2 ,lu4 xviii4 #ca-cd74 ,those portions of his prophecies which related to his death at the hands of the ,jewish rulers1 though not those which related to his return in glory1 were destined to be soon fulfilled4 ,determined to insist publicly upon his title to the ,messianic throne1 ,jesus resolved upon a triumphal entry into ,jerusalem4 ,having sent two disciples from the ,mount of ,olives to fetch a colt1 hitherto unridden1 which he informed them the owners would surrender on hearing that the ,lord had need of it1 he mounted this animal and rode into the city amid the shouts and acclamations of his supporters4 ,many are said to have spread their garments in his path2 others to have cut down branches from trees1 and strewed them before him4 ,those that went before and behind him kept cheering as he rode1 exclaiming3 ,hosanna1 blessed is he who cometh in the name of the ,lord2 blessed is the coming kingdom of our father ,david2 hosanna in the highest 7,mk4 xi4 #a-aa2 ,mt4 xxi4 #a-aa2 ,lu4 xix4 #bi-ci2 ,jo4 xii4 #ab-af74 ,this remarkable scene is described in all the ,gospels2 but while the three first represent ,jesus as sending to fetch the colt1 or the ass and colt1 which he in some mysterious manner knows that the man will give up1 the fourth makes him take the ass and mount it2 not as in the other versions before the triumphal reception1 but after it had begun4 ,so that as to these important circumstances the two accounts are entirely at issue2 that of ,john being the more natural4 ,that ,jesus actually entered ,jerusalem in this fashion is highly probable1 for we find in the ,gospels themselves a motive assigned which might well have led him to select it for his approach to the capital4 ,there was a prophecy in ,zechariah with which he was no doubt familiar3 ,rejoice greatly1 ,o daughter of ,zion3 shout1 ,o daughter of ,jerusalem3 behold1 thy ,king cometh unto thee1 just and victorious is he2 lowly1 and riding upon an ass1 and upon a foal1 the young of asses 7,zech4 ix4 #i74 ,with the views he held as to his ,messiahship1 ,jesus may well have been anxious to show that this prophecy was fulfilled in his person4 ,on the day after his entry on the ass1 on coming from ,bethany he was hungry1 and finding a fig-tree without fruit1 he cursed it4 ,mark says that the disciples found it withered the next day2 ,matthew increasing the marvelous element1 that they saw it wither immediately4 ,mark also adds that it was not the season for figs1 which1 if correct1 would have made it absurdly irrational in ,jesus to expect them 7,mk4 xi4 #ab-ad1 and #bj-bf2 ,mt4 xxi4 #ah-bb74 ,if we accept the more natural supposition that it was the season1 but that this individual tree was barren1 then we may easily understand that the absence of fruit and the withered condition of the tree were both parts of the same set of phenomena1 and that the disciples may have observed them about the same time4 ,human beings were the next victims of the wrath of ,jesus4 ,the money-changers and dove-sellers were turned out of the temple by him2 the fourth ,gospel alone mentioning a scourge of small cords as the weapon employed 7,mk4 xi4 #ab-ad2 ,mt4 xxxi4 #ab1 #ac2 ,lu4 xix1 #de1 #df2 ,jo4 ii4 #ae-ah74 ,a question put by the authorities as to his right to act thus was met by a counter-question1 and finally left unanswered 7,mk4 xi4 #bg-cc2 ,mt4 xxi4 #bc-bg2 ,lu4 xx4 #a-h474 ,the chief priests now consulted together as to the measures to be taken with a view of bringing him to trial1 but hesitated to do anything on the feast-day for fear of popular disturbances4 ,matthew tells us1 what the other two do not know1 that they assembled at the palace of the high priest ,caiaphas1 and also puts in the mouth of ,jesus a distinct prophecy that after two days he will be betrayed to be crucified 7,mk4 xiv4 #a1 #b2 ,mt4 xxvi4 #a-e2 ,luke xxii4 #a1 #b474 ,a similar foreboding is expressed1 according to ,matthew1 ,mark1 and ,john1 in reference to an incident which is variously described by these three ,evangelists4 ,matthew and ,mark agree in saying1 that on this occasion he was taking a repast at the house of ,simon the leper1 when a woman came up to him with a box of very precious ointment and poured it on his head4 ,here1 according to ,mark1 some1 according to ,matthew1 the disciples1 were indignant at the waste of the ointment1 which might1 they said1 have been sold for much1 or for three hundred pence1 and the proceeds given to the poor4 ,but ,jesus warmly took up the woman's cause1 for1 he remarked1 she has wrought a good work on me4 ,for you always have the poor with you1 but me ye have not always4 ,for in pouring this ointment on my body she has done it for my burial4 ,mark now how strangely this simple story has been perverted in the fourth ,gospel to suit the purposes of the writer4 ,the date he assigns to it--six days before the passover--is nearly the same as that given in the second ,gospel1 where it is placed two days before that festival4 ,the place1 ,bethany1 is also identical4 ,but the other circumstances are widely different4 ,in this ,gospel alone is anything known of an intimate friend of ,jesus1 ,lazarus by name4 ,in it alone is there any mention of one of his most astounding miracles1 the restoration of ,lazarus to life4 ,consistently with his peculiar notion of the relations of ,jesus with this man's family he says nothing of ,simon the leper1 but without telling us in whose house ,jesus was1 mentions that ,lazarus was among the guests1 and that his sister ,martha was serving4 ,further1 he asserts that the woman who brought the ointment was ,mary1 the other sister4 ,instead of pouring it on his head1 she is made to anoint his feet1 and wipe them with her hair4 ,instead of the disciples1 or some unknown people1 being angry at the waste1 it is ,judas ,iscariot in whose mouth the obnoxious comment is placed4 ,the sum he names1 three hundred pence1 is the same as that assigned in ,mark as the value of the ointment4 ,but in order to cover ,judas with still further obloquy1 the ,evangelist charges him with a desire to obtain this sum1 not for the poor1 but for himself2 he being the bearer of the common purse1 and being in the habit of dishonestly appropriating some portion of its contents 7,mk4 xiv4 #c-i2 ,mt4 xxvi4 #f-ac2 ,jo4 xii4 #c-h74 ,of such an accusation not a trace is to be found in the other ,gospels1 whose writers were assuredly not likely to spare the reputation of ,judas if it were open to attack4 ,nor does the author of this insinuation offer one particle of evidence in its support4 ,the steps by which a story grows from an indefinite to a definite1 from a historical to a mythical form1 are admirably illustrated in this instance4 ,a tradition is preserved in which1 while the main event is clear1 many of the surrounding circumstances have been suffered to escape from memory4 ,writer after writer takes it up1 and finding it thus imperfect1 adds to it detail after detail until its whole complexion is altered4 ,even the main event may not always be exempted from the transfiguring process2 as here1 where the feet of ,jesus are substituted for the head1 and the interesting picture introduced of ,mary wiping them with her hair1 and consequently placing herself in a situation of the deepest humility4 ,and if the central incident is thus unsafe1 still more so are its adjuncts4 ,first1 the woman is unknown1 as are those who murmur against her4 ,then1 in the second stage1 the woman is still unknown1 but the murmurers are known generally as the disciples4 ,but no bad motive is as yet assigned for their censure4 ,lastly1 in the third stage1 the woman is known1 the murmurer is known specifically as one disciple1 and a bad motive is assigned for his censure4 ,such is the way in which myths grow up4 ,the circumstance we have next to deal with is obscure1 not because too much has been added1 but because something has been omitted4 ,jesus had now drawn upon him the mortal hatred of the priests of the temple4 ,he was well aware of his danger1 as many of his expressions show4 ,he endeavored to avoid it by living in concealment in or near ,jerusalem4 ,not that we are told of this in so many words1 but that the course of the story renders it a necessary assumption4 ,for all the ,gospels inform us that one of his disciples1 ,judas named ,iscariot1 went to the chief priests and betrayed him1 receiving a pecuniary reward for the service thus rendered 7,mk4 xiv4 #aj1 #aa2 ,mt4 xxvi4 #ad-af2 ,lu4 xxii4 #c-f2 ,jo4 xiii4 #b1 #bg74 ,as to this fact there is complete unanimity1 and it is borne out by the manner of his arrest as subsequently depicted4 ,we cannot then treat it as a fiction2 but it is plain that had ,jesus been leading the open and public life described in the ,gospels1 there would have been no secret to betray1 and no reward to be earned4 ,a period1 more or less long1 of retirement to some spot known only to friends1 must therefore be taken for granted4 ,john alludes to something of the sort1 though not distinctly1 when he relates that there was a garden across the brook ,cedron1 to which he often resorted with his disciples1 and which was known to ,judas4 ,but the ,christian tradition did not like to acknowledge that ,christ1 whom it represents as braving death1 ever lurked in hidden places like a criminal1 and at the same time it wished to brand the memory of ,judas with infamy4 ,hence the suppression of a fact without which the story cannot be understood4 ,the expressions1 he sought how he might conveniently betray him 7,mk4 xiv4 #aa72 or he sought opportunity to betray him 7,mt4 xxvi4 #bf71 plainly point to the same inference4 ,there are some differences in the manner in which the proceedings of ,judas are related4 ,all the ,gospels agree that he received money1 but ,matthew alone knows how much4 ,this ,evangelist had in his mind a passage in ,zechariah1 which he erroneously attributes to ,jeremiah1 and which moreover he misquotes 7,mt4 xxvii4 #i74 ,in the original it runs thus3 ,and ,i said unto them the poor of the flock1 ,if it is good in your eyes1 give me my hire2 and if not1 forbear4 ,and they weighed for my hire thirty pieces of silver4#bf ,matthew and ,mark merely state that ,judas betrayed his master1 giving no reason for his conduct4 ,luke1 however1 represents it as a consequence of ,satan having entered into him 7,lu4 xxii4 #c72 while ,john in like manner states that the devil put it into his heart1 and even knows the very moment when ,satan entered into him 7,jo4 xiii4 #b1 #bg74 ,this ,evangelist alone places the first steps taken by ,judas after the last supper1 instead of before it1 and strangely enough so arranges the course of events1 that he only acts upon the resolution to betray him after a distinct declaration by ,jesus that he was about to do so4 ,slightly anticipating the course of the narrative1 we may mention here the singular myth of the unhappy end of the traitor ,judas2 a myth which is of peculiar interest inasmuch as its origin is distinctly traceable to a mistranslation of a verse in ,zechariah4 ,the passage quoted above continues thus3 ,and ,jehovah spoke to me3 ,throw it to the treasure1 the costly mantle with which ,i am honored by them2 and ,i took the thirty pieces of silver and threw them into the temple of ,jehovah to the treasure4 ,but the word here used for the treasure commonly signifies potter1 and was hence interpreted ,throw it to the potter4 ,out of this mistake arose the story that ,judas1 ashamed of his bargain1 returned the money to the chief priests1 who1 deeming it unlawful to put it in the treasury1 bought therewith the potter's field to bury strangers in4 ,thus1 observes ,matthew1 was fulfilled that which was spoken by ,jeremy the prophet4 ,judas1 having parted with his ill-gotten gain1 committed suicide by hanging 7,mt4 xxvii4 #c-aj74 ,so at least says ,matthew2 but ,luke1 making confusion worse confounded1 represents ,judas himself as purchasing the field with the reward of iniquity2 after which he fell headlong1 and bursting in the middle1 his bowels gushed out 7,acts i4 #ah1 #ai74 ,of this notorious fact1 known1 according to the ,acts of the ,apostles1 to all the dwellers at ,jerusalem1 ,matthew at least was wholly ignorant4 ,but both versions equally originate in the defective ,hebrew of the translators of ,zechariah4 ,in all the synoptical ,gospels1 the celebration of the passover by ,jesus and his disciples succeeds the secret arrangement of ,judas with the high priests4 ,he kept it in ,jerusalem1 in the house of a man whose name is not mentioned1 but who must have been one of his adherents4 ,the encounter with this man is represented in two of the three versions as something miraculous4 ,on the first day of unleavened bread ,jesus told two of his disciples 7according to ,mark71 ,james and ,john 7according to ,luke71 to go into ,jerusalem1 where they would meet a man bearing a pitcher of water4 ,him they were to follow1 and wherever he went in1 they were to say to the master of the house1 ,where is the guest-chamber1 where ,i may eat the passover with my disciples8 ,he would then show them a large furnished upper room1 where they were to prepare it4 ,nothing but a perfectly natural version of all this appears in ,matthew4 ,there ,jesus tells his disciples to go into the city to ,so-and-so 7the name therefore having been given71 and tell him that he wished to keep the passover at his house 7,mk4 xiv4 #ab-af2 ,mt4 xxvi4 #ag-ai2 ,lu4 xxii4 #g-ac74 ,here again we see how easily a wondrous tale may originate in a very simple fact4 ,supper was accordingly prepared in the man's house1 and ,jesus ate the passover there with his disciples4 ,at this supper1 according to all the ,gospels1 he mentioned the fact that one of them would betray him4 ,whether in so doing he actually named the traitor is uncertain4 ,mark's account is that when he had predicted that one would betray him1 the disciples in sorrow inquired one by one1 ,is it ,i8 and that ,jesus told them it was the one who dipped with him in the dish4 ,luke leaves it still more indefinite4 ,there ,jesus merely says1 the hand of him that betrays me is with me on the table1 and no further inquiry is made by any one4 ,matthew1 like ,mark1 represents each disciple as asking whether he was the one1 and ,jesus as giving the same indication about the dish4 ,but he adds that ,judas himself asked1 ,is it ,i8 and that ,jesus answered1 ,thou hast said4 ,quite different is the account in ,john4 ,there1 instead of all the disciples inquiring whether it was he1 a single disciple1 leaning on the breast of ,jesus1 asks1 on a sign from ,peter1 who it was to be4 ,jesus does not reply that it was he who dipped in the dish1 but he to whom he should give a sop4 ,he then gives the sop to ,judas1 and tells him to do quickly that which he is about to do2 words understood by no one present4#bg ,the improbability of any of these stories is obvious4 ,in the three first1 ,judas is pointed out to all the eleven as a man who is about to give up their master to punishment1 and probable death1 yet no step was taken or even suggested by any of them either to impede the false disciple in his movements1 or to save ,jesus by flight and concealment4 ,the announcement is taken as quietly as if it were an every-day occurrence that was referred to4 ,john's narrative avoids this difficulty by supposing the intimation that ,judas was the man to be conveyed by a private signal understood only by ,peter and the disciple next to ,jesus4 ,these two may have felt it necessary to keep the secret1 but why then could they not understand the words of ,jesus to ,judas1 or why not at least inquire whether they had reference to his treachery1 which had just before been so plainly intimated8 ,that ,jesus1 with his keen vision1 may have divined the proceedings of ,judas1 is quite possible2 that he could have spoken of them at the table in this open way without exciting more attention1 is hardly credible4 ,it was at this same passover that ,christ1 conscious of his approaching end1 blessed the bread and the cup of wine1 and giving them to his disciples1 told them that the one was his body1 and the other his blood in the new testament1 or the new testament of his blood 7,mk4 xiv4 #bb-be2 ,mt4 xxvi4 #bf-bi2 ,lu4 xxii4 #ad-ba2 ,i ,cor4 xi4 #bc-be74 ,john who was confused about dates in his biography1 supposes that this supper took place before the feast of the passover1 instead of at it1 and1 consistently with this view1 he says nothing of the institution of the ,eucharist1 which had a peculiar reference to the ,jewish feast-day4 ,instead thereof1 he introduces another ceremony1 of which neither the other ,evangelists nor ,paul say a word2 that of washing the disciples' feet by ,jesus4 ,this was done to make them clean every whit 7though it had no such effect on ,judas71 and also to set them an example of mutual kindness 7,jo4 xiii4 #d-ag74 ,the passover eaten1 ,jesus retired with his disciples to the ,mount of ,olives4 ,being in a prophetic mood1 he foretold that all his disciples would forsake him in the hour of danger now approaching1 and that ,peter would deny him4 ,this ,peter resented1 though it was destined to be soon fulfilled4 ,after this ,jesus went to ,gethsemane1 and taking his three principal disciples apart from the rest1 told them that his soul was sorrowful unto death1 and begged them to remain and watch while he prayed4 ,going a little forward1 he prayed earnestly that the coming trial might pass from him1 yet with submission to ,god's will4 ,returning1 he found his three friends asleep1 and this happened twice again1 these devoted men sleeping calmly on until the very moment when the officers of the ,sanhedrim came to arrest their ,lord4 ,luke adorns this scene--which he places at the ,mount of ,olives without mentioning the garden of ,gethsemane--with ampler details4 ,mark and ,matthew know nothing of the exact distance of ,jesus from his disciples2 ,luke knows that it was about a stone's throw4 ,moreover1 all the number are present1 not only ,peter1 ,james1 and ,john4 ,sweat like drops of blood falls from ,christ4 ,an angel appears to strengthen him4 ,all this is new2 as is the representation that the disciples were sleeping from sorrow1--a motive which the ,evangelist no doubt felt it needful to assign in order to vindicate their honor4 ,the other two biographers1 who content themselves with saying that ,their eyes were heavy1 certainly keep more within the limits of probability 7,mk4 xiv4 #cb-db2 ,mt4 xxvi4 #cf-df2 ,lu4 xxii4 #ci-df74 ,no sooner was the prayer concluded than ,judas1 accompanied by a large posse comitatus armed with swords and staves1 came from the ,jewish authorities4 ,resistance to the arrest must have been expected1 and not wholly without reason2 for as soon as the officers1 in obedience to the preconcerted signal of a kiss from ,judas1 had seized ,jesus1 one of his party drew a sword and cut off the ear of the high priest's servant4 ,this incident is related in various ways in all the ,gospels4 ,in ,mark1 ,jesus addresses no rebuke to the disciple who commits this action4 ,in ,matthew1 he tells him to put up his sword1 for all who take the sword shall perish by the sword4 ,in ,luke1 the progress to greater definiteness which has been noted as characterizing these semi-historical myths has begun4 ,in the first place1 before going to the ,mount of ,olives1 the disciples provide themselves with two swords2 and ,jesus1 on their mentioning the fact1 says1 ,it is enough4 ,then the writer knows that it was the right ear which was cut off4 ,more than this1 he gives artistic finish to the whole by making ,jesus touch the place and heal the wound3 though whether a new ear grew1 or the old one was put on again1 he does not tell us4 ,more definite still is the version in ,john4 ,this ,evangelist1 as we saw in another case1 is fond of supplying names4 ,thus1 he pretends to know here that it was ,peter who cut off the ear1 and that its owner was called ,malchus4 ,peter is called to order in his version1 but ,malchus is not healed4 ,plainly it was the sense of justice of the third ,evangelist that made him shrink from leaving an innocent dependent in this mutilated condition1 when he knew that ,christ might so easily have restored the missing member4 ,while in the synoptical ,gospels it is ,judas who by a kiss points out ,jesus1 in ,john it is ,jesus himself who comes forward to declare himself4 ,hereupon the party deputed by the priests go backwards and fall to the ground4 ,they soon recover themselves enough to arrest him4 ,in all the versions he suffers himself to be quietly taken1 while in all but ,john he resents1 with much dignity1 the sending of such a force against him1 as though he had been a thief2 while in fact he had often taught openly in the temple and had not been stopped4 ,their master once taken1 the courage of the disciples was at an end4 ,they all fled4 ,jesus was brought before the ,sanhedrim1 and evidence1 of the tenor of which we are not informed1 was produced against him4 ,lastly1 two witnesses deposed that they had heard him say1 ,i am able to destroy this temple1 and in three days to rebuild it2 or1 ,i will destroy this temple made with hands1 and will build another not made with hands in three days4 ,mark endeavors to depreciate these witnesses by saying that their evidence did not agree2 and he himself is liable to the remark that his report of their evidence does not agree with that of ,matthew1 while in neither ,gospel does the utterance attributed by these men to ,jesus tally exactly with that assigned to him in ,john1 ,destroy this temple1 and in three days ,i will raise it up 7,jo4 ii4 #ai74 ,the agreement1 however1 is close enough to render it probable that some such expression was used1 and some such evidence given4 ,neither ,luke nor ,john know anything of witnesses against ,jesus4 ,but ,luke1 in common with the other synoptical ,gospels1 asserts that he not only admitted1 but emphatically confirmed the charge--distinctly put to him by the high priest--of being the ,son of ,god4 ,on this confession he was unanimously found guilty of blasphemy4 ,wholly different is the conduct of the trial in ,john1 whose account1 moreover1 is confused and ill-written in the extreme4 ,with his usual proneness to give names1 he says that ,jesus was taken first before ,annas1 the father-in-law of ,caiaphas the high priest4 ,annas sent him bound to ,caiaphas4 ,the high priest 7the council is not alluded to7 carried on an informal conversation with ,jesus1 inquiring about his doctrine and disciples2 questions which the latter1 on the plea of the publicity of his teaching1 refused to answer4 ,there is no mention of blasphemy2 no conviction on any charge2 no expression of opinion on the part of ,caiaphas2 though from the fact that he committed the prisoner for trial before the ,roman court1 it may be inferred that he considered him guilty4#bh ,during the trial by the ,sanhedrim1 a singular scene was passing in the ante-room4 ,there ,peter1 who alone of the disciples had followed his master 7for the mention of another is peculiar to ,john71 was warming himself among the attendants4 ,questioned by maids and officers of the court whether he had not been among the disciples of the accused1 he vehemently1 three several times1 repudiated the supposition1 though his ,galilean accent told heavily against him4 ,according to ,john1 the question was put on the third occasion by a relative of ,malchus1 who had seen him in the garden4 ,the other ,evangelists are less specific4 ,now ,jesus had foretold that ,peter would thus deny him1 and that his falsehoods would be followed by the crowing of a cock4 ,immediately after the last denial1 this signal occurred2 and ,peter1 according to all the ,gospels but the fourth1 went out and wept over his meanness4#bi ,convicted by the ,sanhedrim1 the prisoner was now placed at the bar of the civil tribunal4 ,the procurator of ,judea at this time was a man named ,pontius ,pilatus4 ,his character does not stand high4 ,neander terms him an image of the corruption which then prevailed among distinguished ,romans 7,leben ,jesu1 p4 #fhg74 ,appointed in the year #bc1 he was recalled in #cg on account of the slaughter of some ,smaritans in a battle4 ,he had insulted the prejudices of the people he governed by setting up the standards of the ,roman army within the walls of ,jerusalem1 and had threatened an armed attack upon the peaceable ,jews who went to ,csarea to remonstrate against this novel measure4 ,on another occasion he had taken some of the revenues of the temple to construct an aqueduct1 and when the work was interrupted by the people1 had set disguised soldiers upon them1 who killed them without mercy4 ,such a man was not likely to be excessively troubled by scruples about the execution of an innocent victim4 ,on the other hand it is perfectly possible that he might1 comparing the prisoner with the prosecutors1 prefer the former4 ,having no love for the ,jewish people1 an object of their antipathy might become to a certain extent an object of his sympathy4 ,but beyond this1 it would be absurd to suppose that a man of the character of ,jesus would inspire him with any sort of regard1 or that he would hesitate to take his life if it suited his purpose4 ,the simplest account of the trial bears out this expectation4 ,questioned by ,pilate as to the charge preferred against him1 of claiming to be the king of the ,jews1 the prisoner answered by an admission of its truth3 ,thou sayest it4 ,to other accusations urged against him by the priests he made no reply4 ,pilate wondered at his silence1 and endeavored1 but without success1 to extract an answer4 ,while the conduct of the accused man must have appeared to him not a little strange1 ,pilate may also have thought that the pretensions to kingship of a peaceable fanatic1 with but few and obscure followers1 were nowise dangerous to the ,roman government4 ,it was his custom at this festival to release a prisoner1 leaving the people1 or the ,jewish authorities1 to decide whom4 ,he now proposed to release ,jesus1 but the suggestion was not accepted1 and the liberation of a well-known political prisoner1 who had been engaged in an insurrectionary enterprise1 was demanded instead4 ,pilate naturally enough preferred the would-be ,messiah to the actual rebel4 ,the ,jews as naturally preferred the rebel4 ,they clamored for the crucifixion of ,jesus1 and ,pilate--afraid perhaps that by too much anxiety to save him he would expose himself to misrepresentation before ,tiberius--gave way to their demand4 ,so far ,mark2 and as to the charge against ,jesus1 and the procurator's treatment of it1 the other ,evangelists are all at one with him4 ,but each has adorned the trial with additional incidents after his own fashion4 ,matthew has a ridiculous story of an interference with the course of justice by ,pilate's wife1 who on the strength of a dream entreated him to have nothing to do with that just man4 ,matthew1 as we have seen before1 was a great believer in dreams4 ,then he is so desirous of clearing the character of the ,roman1 that he describes him as washing his hands in token of his innocence before the multitude1 who cry out that the blood of ,jesus is to be on them and their children4 ,in ,luke1 there is a new variation4 ,learning that ,jesus was a ,galilean1 ,pilate sent him to ,herod1 who had long been anxious to see him1 but who could not now induce him to answer any of his questions4 ,herod1 like ,pilate1 found no fault in him1 and sent him back after treating him with ridicule4 ,pilate's reluctance to convict ,jesus is much magnified in this ,gospel4 ,he insists on ,herod's inability1 as well as his own1 to discover any capital offense committed by him1 and three several times proposes to the prosecution to chastise him and then dismiss him4 ,in ,john1 the conversation of ,pilate with ,jesus is wholly different4 ,in the first place1 it takes place alone1 or at any rate in the absence of the accusers1 for these had refused to be defiled by entering the court2 and ,pilate is represented as going out to them to inquire into the charge4 ,this is to suit the blunder about dates committed in this ,gospel1 according to which the last supper was before1 and the trial at the very time of1 the passover4 ,the ,jews1 therefore1 stand without1 and the prisoner is within4 ,the prisoner does not refuse1 as in all the other versions1 to answer ,pilate's questions1 but enters at some length into his doctrine1 explaining the unworldly nature of his kingdom4 ,pilate places the purple robe and the crown of thorns upon him before his condemnation1 instead of after it1 and then tells the ,jews that he finds no fault in him4 ,yet after this he desires them to crucify him1 although he was guiltless4 ,hereupon the ,jews tell him that he had made himself the ,son of ,god4 ,at this1 ,pilate is frightened1 and enters into further conversation with ,jesus4 ,after hearing him expound another theory1 he is still very anxious to release him1 but is forced to yield by an intimation that no friend of ,csar's would protect a rival to the throne 7,mk4 xv4 #a-ad2 ,mt4 xxvii4 #a1 #b1 and #aa-be2 ,lu4 xxiii4 #a-bc2 ,jo4 xviii4 #bh-dj74 ,anything more utterly improbable than this scene it is difficult to imagine4 ,the picture of the ,roman governor of ,judea going backwards and forwards between accusers and accused2 listening to the theological fancies of the accused2 helpless against the pressure of the accusers2 alarmed at the pretensions to divinity of a young ,galilean artisan2 are sufficient in themselves to stamp this ,gospel with the mark of unveracity4 ,sentenced to death1 ,jesus was now scourged2 a purple robe was put upon him1 and a crown of thorns about his head 7not upon it as was afterwards said73 he was saluted in mockery as king of the ,jews1 and smitten with a reed upon the head4 ,after this cruel ceremony he was led out to ,golgotha to be crucified1 a man named ,simon being compelled to bear his cross 7,mk4 xv4 #ae-ba2 ,mt4 xxvii4 #bf-cb2 ,lu4 xxiii4 #bd-bf2 ,jo4 xix4 #a-af74 ,luke is singular in the introduction of a large company of women who follow ,jesus to the crucifixion and draw from him a prophecy of terrible evils to come upon them and their children2 for themselves1 and not for him1 they were to weep 7,lu4 xxiii4 #bg-ca74 ,the other versions say nothing of any friends or followers1 male or female1 as being present at this period1 though they do mention many women as looking on from a distance during the crucifixion4 ,these1 however1 were not daughters of ,jerusalem 7like the women in ,luke71 but ,galilean admirers who had followed him to the capital4 ,his mother was certainly not among them1 or she could not fail to have been mentioned in the synoptical ,gospels2 whereas the only names we meet with are those of ,mary ,magdalene2 ,mary1 mother of ,james and ,joses2 and ,salome1 apparently the same person as the mother of ,zebedee's children 7,mk4 xv4 #dj1 #da2 ,mt4 xxvii4 #ee1 #ef74 ,these were among the spectators of the melancholy end of him who had been their teacher and their friend4 ,he was crucified between two criminals1 with an inscription on his cross which is differently reported in every ,gospel1 but of which the substance was that he was the king of the ,jews4 ,a stupifying drink which ,matthew 7in accordance with a supposed prophecy7 7,ps4 lxix4 #ba7 calls vinegar and gall1 was offered him by the executioners2 not as ,luke supposes1 in mockery1 but with the humane intention of allaying the pain4 ,his clothes were divided among the party of soldiers2 a circumstance in which the ,evangelists as usual endeavor to see the fulfillment of prophecy4 ,in ,psalm xxii4 #ah1 we read3 ,they part my garments among them1 and cast lots upon my vesture4 ,the ,synoptics content themselves here with stating that the soldiers drew lots for his clothing1 but ,john anxious to fulfill this prophecy in the most literal manner possible1 pretends that they divided the articles of his apparel into four parts1 but finding the coat without seam1 agreed not to tear it1 but to apportion it by lot4 ,luke is the sole reporter of a saying of ,jesus uttered in his last moments3 ,father1 forgive them1 for they know not what they do 7,mk4 xv4 #bc-bh2 ,mt4 xxvii4 #cd-ch2 ,lu4 xxiii4 #cb-cd1 #cf2 ,jo4 xix4 #ag-bd74 ,the pangs of death must have been greatly embittered to ,jesus if it be true that not only the priests and passers by1 but the very criminals who were crucified with him1 ridiculed his claim to be king of ,israel1 and suggested that he should prove it to demonstration by saving himself from the cross4 ,all the synoptical ,gospels agree in this account1 with the single exception that ,luke includes only one of the malefactors among the scorners4 ,according to this ,gospel1 the other rebuked his fellow-convict for his misbehavior1 and addressed to him a few moral remarks2 which1 however1 were perhaps not quite disinterested1 for at its close he requested ,jesus to remember him in his kingdom1 and received an ample reward in the shape of a promise from the latter that he should be with him that day in ,paradise4 ,but where was the impenitent criminal to be8 ,about his fate there is an ominous obscurity1 and it evidently did not occur to the writer that the forgiveness which ,jesus had just been praying his ,father to grant his enemies1 he might himself have extended to this miserable man 7,mk4 xv4 #bi-cb2 ,mt4 xxvii4 #ci-dd2 ,lu4 xxiii4 #ce-dc74 ,another incident of the closing hours of ,jesus is known to the fourth ,evangelist alone4 ,according to the others1 the women who watched him expire were standing far off4 ,but according to ,john1 his mother ,mary1 her sister1 and ,magdalene were all at the foot of the cross4 ,there also was the disciple whom ,jesus loved1 and who in the three other ,gospels had run away4 ,before he died1 ,jesus committed his mother to the care of this disciple as to a son1 and he afterwards took her home4 ,the dogmatic purpose of this story is evident4 ,mary had not been converted by her son during his life-time1 and it was important to bring her to the foot of the cross at his death1 and to place her in this close connection with one of his principal disciples 7,jo4 xix4 #be-bg74 ,as to the last words of ,jesus1 there is an amount of divergence which shows that no account can be regarded as trustworthy4 ,mark and ,matthew both relate that he called out1 ,eloi1 ,eloi1 lama sabachthani8 an exclamation which he may really have uttered1 or which1 as coming from a prophetic ,psalm1 may have seemed to them appropriate4 ,hereupon a sponge of vinegar was offered him under the impression that he was calling ,elias1 and with a loud cry he gave up the ghost4 ,in ,luke he cries loudly1 and then says1 ,father1 into thy hands ,i commend my spirit4 ,with these words 7also from one of the ,psalms7 upon his lips1 he dies4 ,in ,john he says1 ,i am thirsty3 and after receiving some vinegar1 adds1 ,it is finished2 and bowing his head1 gives up the ghost 7,mk4 xv4 #cd-cg2 ,mt4 xxvii4 #df-ej2 ,lu4 xxiii4 #df2 ,jo4 xix4 #bh-cj74 ,with the death of ,christ1 and indeed immediately before it1 we pass from the region of mixed history and mythology into that of pure mythology4 ,with the exception of his burial1 all that follows has been deliberately invented4 ,the wonders attendant upon his closing hours belong in part to the typical order of myths1 and in part to an order peculiar to himself4 ,the darkness from the sixth to the ninth hour1 the rending of the temple veil1 the earthquake1 the rending of the rocks1 are altogether like the prodigies attending the decease of other great men4 ,the centurion's exclamation1 ,truly this man was just1 or ,truly this man was the son of ,god 7it is differently reported71 is a myth belonging peculiarly to ,christ1 and designed to exhibit the enforced confession of his greatness by an incredulous ,roman4 ,in ,matthew1 where the more modest narratives of ,mark and ,luke are greatly improved upon by additional details1 it is further added that many bodies of saints arose1 and after the resurrection appeared to many in ,jerusalem 7,mk4 xv4 #cc-ci2 ,mt4 xxvii4 #de1 and #ea-ed2 ,lu4 xxiii4 #dd-dg74 ,john1 who knows nothing whatever of the darkness1 the accident to the temple veil1 the revival of the saints1 or the centurion's exclamation1 has a myth of his own constructed for the especial purpose of fulfilling certain prophecies4 ,the next day being a festival1 the ,jews1 he says1 were anxious that the bodies should not remain on the crosses4 ,they therefore requested ,pilate to break their legs and remove them4 ,he ordered this to be done1 and the legs of the two criminals were broken1 but not those of ,jesus1 who was already dead2 one of the soldiers1 however1 pierced his side1 from which blood and water gushed out4 ,the writer adds a strong asseveration of his veracity1 but immediately betrays himself by letting out that in relating the omission to break the legs of ,jesus he was comparing him to the ,paschal lamb1 of whom not a bone was to be broken2 while in telling of the soldier who pierced his side1 he was thinking of a phrase in ,zechariah3 ,they shall look upon me whom they have pierced 7,zech4 xii4 #aj2 ,jo4 xix4 #ca-cg74 ,the burial of the body took place quietly4 ,joseph of ,arimatha1 a secret admirer of ,jesus1 placed it in a new sepulchre of his own4 ,with him ,john associates a character who exists only in his ,gospel1 ,nicodemus1 and whom he introduces here as taking some part in the interment4 ,to the circumstance of the burial in the rock sepulchre1 ,matthew adds an audacious fiction of his own2 namely1 that the chief priests1 remembering ,christ's prediction that he should rise on the third day1 obtained leave to seal the stone of the tomb and keep it watched1 lest the disciples should take the body by night and pretend that he was risen 7,mk4 xv4 #db-dg2 ,mt4 xxvii4 #eg-ff2 ,lu4 xxiii4 #ej-ef2 ,jo4 xix4 #ch-db74 ,certainly if the ,evangelist had meant to convey the impression that no human means could prevent the resurrection of ,christ1 he would have been perfectly right4 ,an actual body was not necessary for the purpose4 ,for the legends appertaining to the resurrection belong to a region in which imagination1 unhampered by the controlling influence of historical fact1 has been permitted the freest play4 ,of the appearances of ,jesus after his death we have accounts by no less than seven different hands1 each story being distinct from1 though not always inconsistent with1 the other six4 ,let us begin with what is probably the oldest of all1 containing but a germ of the rest2 the first eight verses of the last chapter of ,mark4 ,there we are told that on the day after the ,sabbath1 ,mary ,magdalene1 ,mary ,james's mother1 and ,salome went to the sepulchre at sunrise4 ,they found it empty1 the stone having been rolled away4 ,a young man in white clothes was sitting in it4 ,he told them that ,jesus was risen1 and desired them to tell the disciples that he was going to ,galilee1 where they would see him4 ,all that follows in this ,gospel is added by a later hand1 and the very first verse of the addition is plainly written in total disregard of what has just preceded it4 ,observe then that the simplest form of the story of the resurrection contains no mention of any actual appearance of ,jesus whatever1 but merely an assertion that the body was not in the tomb1 and that a man1 sitting inside it1 made certain statements to three women4 ,to this the forger has added that ,jesus appeared first to ,magdalene1 whose account1 given to the disciples1 was disbelieved by them2 secondly1 to two disciples while walking1 whose evidence was also disbelieved2 thirdly1 to the eleven at dinner1 to whom he addressed a discourse 7,mk4 xvi474 ,the writer of the first ,gospel is much more elaborate4 ,he was a little embarrassed by the guards whom he had set to watch the tomb1 whom it was essential to find some convenient method of getting out of the way4 ,like ,mark1 he takes the two ,marys 7not ,salome7 to the sepulchre early on the first day of the week2 unlike ,mark1 he does not make them examine the tomb and find it deserted4 ,on the contrary1 there is an earthquake 7the author is rather fond of these natural convulsions71 and an angel with a face like lightning1 clothed in the purest white1 descends4 ,he rolls back the stone and sits upon it4 ,his appearance so terrifies the keepers that they become like corpses4 ,the angel tells the women that ,jesus is risen1 and that they are to let the disciples know that he would go before them to ,galilee1 where they would see him4 ,as they are engaged on this errand1 ,jesus himself appears and gives them a similar injunction4 ,the second appearance occurred before the eleven disciples1 who saw him at an appointed place in ,galilee1 but some doubted4 ,here ,jesus addressed to them a parting discourse1 and this ,gospel does not state how or when he quitted them4 ,the awkward circumstance of the presence of the guards1 who had certainly not testified to the angel's descent1 had still to be surmounted4 ,this is accomplished by a ridiculous story that they had been heavily bribed by the priests and elders to say that the disciples had stolen the body while they were asleep 7,mt4 xxviii74 ,unlike either of the preceding writers1 ,luke conceives the first appearance of the risen ,christ to have been1 not to the women1 but to two disciples4 ,he does indeed relate that on the morning of the first day of the week ,magdalene1 ,mary1 ,joanna1 and other women went to the tomb1 and found the stone rolled away and the body gone4 ,while they were wondering at this1 two men in shining garments stood by them1 and told them that he whom they sought was risen4 ,they returned to report to the apostles1 to whom their words seemed as idle tales4 ,peter1 however1 ran to the sepulchre to verify their statement1 and found only the clothes in it4 ,two of the disciples were going that same day to ,emmaus4 ,while walking and talking1 a stranger joined them and entered into a conversation1 in which he expounded the prophecies relating to the ,messiah4 ,they requested this man to remain with them for the night at the house where they were lodging4 ,during supper he took bread1 blessed it1 broke it1 and gave it to them2 whereupon they recognized him as ,jesus1 and he vanished from their eyes4 ,on returning to ,jerusalem1 they found the eleven and the rest asserting that ,christ was risen and had appeared to ,peter4 ,the two wanderers related their experiences in their turn4 ,while the disciples were talking1 ,jesus himself appeared in their midst1 and said1 ,peace unto you4 ,some skeptical doubts1 however1 troubled them even now1 for ,jesus thought it necessary to prove his actual carnality by showing his hands and feet1 as well as by eating some broiled fish and a piece of honeycomb4 ,after this he opened their understanding1 by an expository discourse in reference to some of his own sayings and to the ,scriptures2 concluding with an exhortation to remain at ,jerusalem till they were endowed with power from on high 7,lu4 xxii4 #a-di74 ,this last passage is explained by the same author in the ,acts of the ,apostles to refer to the descent of the ,holy ,ghost upon the apostles1 which in that work is much more definitely promised by ,jesus 7,acts i4 #e1 #h74 ,we also find in it an important addition to the details furnished by the ,gospel about the resurrection2 namely1 that ,jesus was seen by his disciples for forty days after his physical death1 during which time he kept speaking to them about matters pertaining to the kingdom of ,god 7,acts i4 #c74 ,directly contradicting ,mark and ,matthew1 ,john states that ,magdalene 7no one else is mentioned7 went to the sepulchre while it was still dark 7not at dawn or sunrise71 and found the stone taken away4 ,making no further inspection1 she ran to ,peter and to the beloved disciple1 saying that the body had been abstracted4 ,the two ran together to the place1 and going in1 found the clothes lying in the tomb1 whereupon the beloved disciple saw and believed1 though what he believed is not stated4 ,magdalene was standing outside2 but after the two men had concluded their examination she entered1 and saw what they had not seen--two angels1 sitting one at each end of the place where the body had been4 ,these angels asked her why she was weeping2 she answered1 because her ,lord's body had been taken4 ,turning round1 she saw a man whom she at first took for the gardener1 but whom she soon recognized as ,jesus4 ,she returned and informed the disciples that she had seen him4 ,the same day1 in the evening1 ,jesus appeared to the disciples1 said1 ,peace unto you1 and showed them his hands and feet4 ,he then breathed the ,holy ,ghost into them1 and gave them authority to remit or retain sins4 ,thomas1 who was not present on this occasion1 roundly refused to believe these facts unless he himself could touch the marks of the nails1 and put his hand into the side4 ,a week later ,jesus again appeared1 and ,thomas was now enabled to dispel his doubts by actual examination of his person4 ,to these three appearances1 with which the genuine ,gospel closed1 a later hand has added a fourth4 ,according to this new writer1 a number of disciples were about to fish on the lake of ,tiberias1 when ,christ was observed standing on the shore4 ,the miraculous draught of fishes is introduced here in a form slightly different from that which it has in ,luke4 ,by acting on a direction from ,jesus1 the disciples caught a vast number4 ,he then bade them come and dine with him1 which they did4 ,after dinner1 he instructed ,peter to feed his flock1 and hinted that the beloved disciple might possibly live till his return in glory 7,jo4 xx41 xxi474 ,completely different from any of these narratives is the account of the resurrection contributed by ,paul4 ,it is somewhat confused and difficult to understand4 ,christ1 he says1 rose on the third day according to the ,scriptures1 and was seen by ,cephas2 then by the twelve2 after that by more than five hundred brethren2 after that by ,james2 next by all the apostles2 and lastly by himself 7#a ,cor4 xv4 #c-h74 ,it is to be noted that since ,paul does not say that ,christ appeared first to ,cephas1 we may if we please combine with this account one of those which make him appear first to ,magdalene1 or to her and other women4 ,but even then the difficulties do not disappear4 ,for how could so notorious an event as the manifestation of ,christ to five hundred people be passed over sub silentio in all the ,gospels and in the ,acts8 ,and granting that ,paul may by an oversight have put the twelve for the eleven1 are we not compelled to suppose that all the apostles are distinct from the twelve1 and if so1 who are they8 ,what1 again1 are we to think of the appearance to ,james1 of which nothing is said elsewhere8 ,above all1 what are we to think of the fact that the purely spiritual vision granted to ,paul1 which was not even seen by his traveling companions1 is placed by him exactly on a level with all the other reappearances of ,christ1 the physical reality of which so much trouble has been taken to prove8 ,comparing now the several narratives of the resurrection with one another1 we find this general result4 ,in ,mark1 ,jesus is said to have appeared three times3-- #a4 ,to ,mary ,magdalene4 #b4 ,to two disciples4 #c4 ,to the disciples at meat4 ,two such appearances only are recorded in ,matthew3-- #a4 ,to the women4 #b4 ,to the eleven in ,galilee4 ,in ,luke he appears3-- #a4 ,to ,cleopas and his companion4 #b4 ,to ,peter4 #c4 ,to the eleven and others4 ,in the two last chapters of ,john the appearances amount to four3-- #a4 ,to ,mary ,magdalene4 #b4 ,to the disciples without ,thomas4 #c4 ,to the disciples with ,thomas4 #d4 ,to several disciples on the ,tiberias lake4 ,paul extends them to six3-- #a4 ,to ,peter4 #b4 ,to the twelve4 #c4 ,to more than #ejj4 #d4 ,to ,james4 #e4 ,to all the apostles4 #f4 ,to ,paul4 ,upon this most momentous question1 then1 every one of the ,christian writers is at variance with every other4 ,nor is this all1 for two of the number bring the earthly career of ,jesus to its final close in a manner so extraordinary that we cannot even imagine the occurrence of such an event1 of necessity so notorious and so impressive1 to have been believed by the other biographers1 and yet to have been passed over by them without a word of notice or allusion4 ,can it be for a moment supposed that two out of the four ,evangelists had heard of the ascension of ,christ--that the most wonderful termination of a wonderful life--and either forgot to mention1 or deliberately omitted it8 ,and may it not be assumed that ,paul1 when detailing the several occasions on which ,christ had been seen after his crucifixion1 must needs1 had he known of it1 have included this1 perhaps the most striking of all1 in his list8 ,in fact the ascension rests entirely on the evidence of two witnesses1 both of them comparatively late ones1 the forger of the last verses of ,mark1 and the third ,evangelist4 ,neither of them stand as near the events described as the true author of ,mark1 as ,matthew1 or as ,paul1 from no one of whom do we hear a word of the ascension4 ,nor do even these two witnesses relate their story in the same terms4 ,the finisher of ,mark merely tells us that after his parting charge to the eleven1 he was received into heaven and sat at ,god's right hand2 a statement couched in such general terms as even to leave it doubtful whether there was any distinct and visible ascension1 or whether ,jesus was merely taken to heaven like any other virtuous man1 though enjoying when there a higher precedence 7,mk4 xvi4 #ai74 ,especially is this doubt fostered by the fact that this ,gospel1 when speaking of the witnesses to ,christ's resurrection1 never alludes to any of the physical proofs of his actual existence so much dwelt upon in ,luke and the last chapter of ,john4 ,very much more definite is the statement at the close of the third ,gospel4 ,there it is related that ,jesus led his disciples out to ,bethany1 where he blessed them and that1 in the very act of blessing1 he was parted from them and carried up into heaven 7,lu4 xxiv4 #ej1 #ea74 ,the same author subsequently composed the ,acts of the ,apostles1 and in the interim he had greatly improved upon his previous conception of the ascension4 ,when he came to write the ,acts1 he was able to supply1 what he had omitted before1 the last conversation of the master with the disciples he was about to leave2 he knows too that after the final words--no blessing is mentioned here--he was taken up and received by a cloud2 that while the disciples were gazing up1 two men in white--no doubt the very couple who had been seen at the sepulchre-- were perceived standing by them1 and that these celestial visitors told them that ,jesus would return from heaven in the same way in which he had gone to it 7,acts i4 #i-aa74 ,unhappy ,galileans6 little could they have dreamt for how many centuries after that day their successors would watch and wait1 watching and waiting in vain1 for the fulfillment of that consoling prophecy4 ,casting a retrospective glance at the stories of the ,resurrection and the ,ascension1 we may perhaps discern at least a psychological explanation of their origin and of the currency they obtained4 ,whatever other qualities ,jesus may have possessed or lacked1 there can be no question that he had one--that of inspiring in others a strong attachment to himself4 ,he had in his brief career surrounded himself with devoted disciples2 and he was taken from their midst in the full bloom of his powers by a violent and early death4 ,now there are some who have been taught by the bitter experience of their lives how difficult1 nay1 how impossible it is to realize in imagination the fact that a beloved companion is in truth gone from them forever4 ,more especially will this mental difficulty be felt when he whom death has parted from our sides is young1 vigorous1 full of promise2 when the infinite stillness of eternal rest has succeeded almost without a break upon the joyous activity of a well-spent life2 when the being who is now no more was but a moment ago the moving spirit of a household1 or the honored teacher of a band of friends who were linked together by his presence4 ,where the association has been close and constant2 where we have been accustomed to share our thoughts and to impart our feelings2 where1 therefore1 we have habitually entwined not only our present lives1 but our hopes and wishes for the future around the personality of the dead1 this refusal of the mind to comprehend its loss is strongest of all4 ,emotion enters then upon a strange conflict with ,reason4 ,reason may tell us but too distinctly that all hope of the return of the beloved one to life is vain and foolish4 ,but ,emotion speaks to us in another language4 ,well nigh does it prevent us from believing even the ghastly realities which our unhappy eyes have been compelled to witness4 ,deep within us there arises the craving for the presence of our friend1 and with it the irrepressible thought that he may even yet come back to those who can scarcely bear to live without him4 ,were these inevitable longings not to be checked by a clear perception that they originate in our own broken hearts1 we should fancy that we saw the figure of the departed and heard his voice4 ,in that case a resurrection would have taken place for us1 and for those who believed our tale4 ,so far from the reappearance of the well-known form seeming to be strange1 it is its failure to reappear that is strange to us in these times of sorrow4 ,we fondly conceive that in some way the dead must still exist2 and if so1 can one1 who was so tender before1 listen to our cry of pain and refuse to come8 can one1 who soothed us in the lesser troubles of our lives1 look on while we are suffering the greatest agony of all and fail to comfort8 ,it cannot be4 ,imagination declines to picture the long future of solitude that lies before us4 ,we cannot understand that we shall never again listen to the tones of the familiar voice2 never feel the touch of the gentle hand2 never be encouraged by the warm embrace that tells us we are loved1 or find a refuge from miserable thoughts and the vexations of the world in the affectionate and ever-open heart4 ,all this is too hard for us4 ,we long for a resurrection2 we should believe in it if we could2 we do believe in it in sleep1 when our feelings are free to roam at pleasure1 unrestrained by the chilling presence of the material world4 ,in dreams the old life is repeated again and again4 ,sometimes the lost one is beside us as of old1 and we are quite untroubled by the thought of parting4 ,sometimes there is a strange and confusing consciousness that the great calamity has happened1 or has been thought to happen1 but that now we are again together1 and that a new life has succeeded upon death4 ,or the dream takes a less definite form4 ,we are united now2 but along with our happiness in the union there is an oppressive sense of some mysterious terror clouding our enjoyment4 ,we are afraid that it is an unsubstantial1 shadowy being that is with us2 the least touch may dissipate its uncertain existence2 the slightest illness may extinguish its feeble breath4 ,granting only a strong emotion and a lively phantasy1 we may comprehend at once how1 in many lands1 to many mourners1 the images of their dreams may also become the visions of their waking hours4 ,they see him again2 they know that he is not gone2 he is beside them still4 ,but for us1 who live in a calmer age1 and see with scientific eyes1 there is no such comfort4 ,not to us can the bodily forms of those who have gone before us to the grave appear again in all the loveliness of life4 ,in the first shock of our bereavement we may indeed indulge in some such visionary hope2 but as day after day passes by and leaves us in a solitude that does but deepen with the lapse of time1 we learn to understand only too well that we are bereft forever4 ,hope gradually dwindling to a fainter and fainter remnant1 is crushed at last by the miserable certainty of profound despair4 ,yet even then1 the mind of man refuses to accept its fate4 ,the scene of the reunion1 which we cannot but so ardently desire1 is postponed to another season and to a better world4 ,many are they to whom this final hope is an enduring consolation1 but if even that should fail us in the hour of darkness1 as the more primitive and simpler hope failed before it2 if here again emotion is reluctantly compelled to yield to reason2 then there is still one refuge in despondency1 and a refuge of which we can never be deprived4 ,it is the thought that death1 so cruel now1 will one day visit us with a kinder touch2 and that the tomb1 which already holds the nearest and the dearest within its grasp1 will open to receive us also in our turn to its everlasting peace4 ,,subdivision #c4--,the ,ideal ,jesus4 ,the ,gospel attributed by the current legend to ,st4 ,john differs from the other three ,gospels in almost every respect in which difference is possible4 ,the events recorded are different4 ,the order of events is different4 ,the conversations of ,jesus are different4 ,his sermons are different4 ,his opinions are different4 ,the theories of the writer about him are different4 ,were it not for the name and a few leading incidents1 we should be compelled to say that the subject of the biography himself is different4 ,a more conspicuous unlikeness than that of the synoptical to the ,johannine ,jesus it is not easy to conceive in two narratives which depict the same hero4 ,in the synoptical ,gospels ,jesus is plain1 direct1 easy of comprehension1 and fond of illustrating his meaning by short and simple parables4 ,in ,john he is obscure1 mystical1 symbolic1 and of his favorite method of teaching by parables there is not a trace4 ,both descriptions cannot be true4 ,it would be monstrous to suppose either that the synoptical ,gospels omitted some of his most extraordinary miracles and some of his most remarkable discourses1 or that the ,gospel of ,john passed over in silence the whole of that side of his character which is portrayed in the ethical maxims1 the parables1 and the exhortations of its predecessors4 ,were it so1 none of the four could be accepted as other than an extremely one-sided and imperfect biography1 and each of them is plainly regarded by its author as complete within itself4 ,none of them refers to extraneous sources to supplement its own deficiencies4 ,the concluding verse of the fourth ,gospel does indeed allude to many unrecorded actions of ,jesus1 which1 if they were all written1 would fill more books than the world could contain4 ,but1 not to rely on the fact that the last chapter is spurious1 these words contain no intimation that a mode of teaching completely different from that here recorded was ever employed by ,jesus4 ,and this is the point in which ,john's narrative is peculiar4 ,again1 to turn to the ,synoptics1 there is no shadow of an intimation in them that1 between the last supper and arrest1 ,jesus addressed to his disciples a long and remarkable discourse1 full of the most interesting revelations4 ,can we suppose that they could have forgotten it1 delivered as it was at such a moment as this1 the very last before their master's condemnation at which he was able to speak to them8 ,such a supposition is utterly untenable4 ,the two traditions embodied in these versions of his life do not therefore1 as some learned men--,ewald1 for example--have supposed1 supplement1 but exclude one another4 ,let us enter into detail into some of the peculiar characteristics of the ,jesus of ,john4 ,in the first place1 we may note that his miracles are altogether new4 ,one of them at least is so astounding that no biographer who had heard of it could have passed it by4 ,the raising of ,lazarus is the greatest feat that ,jesus ever performed4 ,in other cases he brought persons who were supposed to be just dead to life1 but skeptical ,jews might have suspected that they had never in reality died at all4 ,ample precautions against such cavils were taken in the case of ,lazarus4 ,this man lived at ,bethany1 and his sisters1 ,mary and ,martha1 were devoted admirers of ,jesus4 ,these women sent word to ,jesus1 who had retired beyond ,jordan1 to say that their brother was ill4 ,he replied that this illness was for the glory of ,god4 ,after he had heard of it he remained two days in the same place4 ,then1 disregarding the dissuasions of the disciples1 who reminded him that the ,jews had recently sought to stone him1 he proceeded towards ,judea4 ,he informed them in that obscure manner which he almost invariably affects in this ,gospel1 that ,lazarus was asleep2 but on their misunderstanding him1 consented to speak plainly and say that he was dead4 ,he added that for their sakes he was glad he had not been there1 in order that they might believe--even the disciples' faith being apparently still in need of confirmation4 ,on reaching ,bethany1 he found that ,lazarus had been buried four days4 ,martha1 who came to meet him1 observed that had he been there1 her brother would not have died1 and that even now whatever he asked of ,god would be given4 ,jesus told her that her brother would rise again2 a saying which she interpreted as referring to the general resurrection2 but he replied that whoever believed in him would never die1 and required of her an explicit declaration of her faith in this dogma4 ,martha evaded the inquiry by a profession of her conviction that he was the ,christ and went to summon ,mary4 ,she too remarked that if he had been there ,lazarus would not have died4 ,distressed by her distress1 ,jesus himself wept4 ,going to the grave1 he ordered the stone which covered it to be removed1 in spite of ,martha's objection that putrefaction had set in4 ,a curious scene followed4 ,jesus lifted up his eyes and said1 ',father1 ,i thank thee that thou hast heard me4 ,and ,i know that thou hearest me always1 but because of the people which stand by ,i said it1 that they may believe that thou hast sent me4' ,we must suppose these last words to have been spoken sotto voce1 for the people which stood by would have been little likely to believe in him had they known that the thanksgiving to ,god was a mere pious pretence1 offered up for the purpose of impressing their imaginations by the event that was to follow4 ,knowing that his father always heard him1 he certainly had no occasion to thank him on this one occasion2 if indeed he could properly be thanked at all for taking the necessary measures to ensure the credit of his own son1 in whom he desired mankind to believe1 and who is over and over again described as one with himself4 ,this is perhaps the only instance in any of the ,gospels in which something like hypocrisy is ascribed to ,jesus2 in which he is represented as consciously acting a part for the benefit of the bystanders1 and speaking simply with a view to effect4 ,happily for his reputation we are not obliged to believe in the accuracy of his biographer4 ,after this he called loudly1 ,lazarus1 come forth4 ,the dead man accordingly arose1 and came forth from the tomb clad in his grave-clothes 7,jo4 xi4 #a-df74 ,his restoration to life was permanent1 for we find him afterwards among the guests at a supper to which ,jesus was invited 7,jo4 xii4 #b74 ,another singular miracle to which there is no allusion in any other ,gospel is that which is here declared to be the first2 the conversion of water into wine4 ,jesus was at a wedding in ,cana of ,galilee1 and when the wine provided for the entertainment had all been consumed1 his mother informed him of the state of things4 ,he gave her a repelling answer2 but she told the servants to do what he bade them4 ,he then ordered six waterpots to be filled with water1 and the contents to be drawn4 ,it was found that they contained wine of a superior quality to that at first provided 7,jo4 ii4 #a-aa74 ,the second miracle according to ,john is not unlike some of those recorded elsewhere4 ,it consisted in the cure by a mere word1 without visiting the place1 of a nobleman's son who was on the point of death4 ,this time also ,jesus was at ,cana1 though the patient lay at ,capernaum 7,jo4 iii4 #df-ed74 ,another cure was wrought at the pool of ,bethesda1 the healing virtues of which are known only to this ,gospel4 ,a man who had long been lying on its steps1 too infirm to descend at the proper moment1 was enjoined to rise and walk1 which he did 7,jo4 v4 #a-i74 ,it is singular that although a great multitude of impotent folk were waiting at the pool1 many of whom must needs have been kept long1 since only one could be cured each time the water was troubled1 this man alone was selected for the object of a miracle4 ,why were not all of them healed at once8 ,not only are the most wonderful proofs of ,christ's divinity contained in this ,gospel unknown to the rest1 but its dramatis person are in several respects altogether novel4 ,nathanael1 whose difficulties about thinking that any good thing can come from ,nazareth are overcome in a conversation with ,jesus 7,jo4 i4 #de-ea72 ,nicodemus1 the secret adherent who came by night and received instruction in the doctrine of regeneration 7,jo4 iii4 #a-ba71 who at a later period supported him against the attacks of the ,pharisees 7,jo4 vii4 #ea71 and lastly brought spices to his interment 7,jo4 xix4 #ci72 ,lazarus1 brother of ,mary and ,martha1 who owed him his life 7,jo4 xi4 #dd2 xii4 #b72 the woman of ,smaria1 to whom an important prophecy was made1 and whose past life he knew by intuition 7,jo4 iv4 #a-cj72 are all new personages1 and they hold no mean place in the story4 ,the immediate attendants on his person are no doubt the same2 but the representation that there was one disciple whom ,jesus loved above the rest1 and to whom a greater intimacy was permitted 7,jo4 xiii4 #bc71 is uncountenanced by anything in the other ,gospels2 and indicates a fixed purpose of exalting the apostle ,john above his compeers4 ,while the scene1 the persons1 and the plot are thus diverse1 the style of the principal actor is in striking contrast to that which he employs elsewhere4 ,its most conspicuous characteristic is the continual recurrence to symbols4 ,it is true that in the other ,gospels ,jesus frequently exchanges the direct explanation of his views for the indirect method of illustration4 ,but an illustration serves to clear up the meaning of a speaker1 a symbol to disguise it4 ,illustrations cast light upon the principal thesis2 symbols merely darken it4 ,and this is the difference between the synoptical and the ,johannine ,jesus4 ,the one is anxious to be understood2 the other1 in appearance at least1 is seeking to perplex4 ,hence the exchange of the parable for the symbol4 ,the number of such symbols in ,john is considerable4 ,jesus is continually inventing new ones4 ,near the beginning of the ,gospel1 he explains to ,nicodemus that it is needful to be born again2 a statement by which ,nicodemus is considerably perplexed 7,jo4 iii4 #c1 #d74 ,but his symbols are more generally applied to himself or his relations to the ,father4 ,he is the bread of life or the bread of ,god 7,jo4 vi4 #cc-dh72 again1 he is the living water 7,jo4 iv4 #aj71 or he gives a water which prevents all future thirst 7,jo4 iv4 #ad72 he is the true vine1 his ,father the husbandman1 and his disciples the branches 7,jo4 xv4 #a-e72 elsewhere he is both the good shepherd and the door by which the sheep enter the fold 7,jo4 x4 #g-af72 he is the way1 the truth1 and the life 7,jo4 xiv4 #f72 he is the light that came into the world 7,jo4 xii4 #df2 iii4 #ai72 or he is the ,resurrection and the ,life 7,jo4 xi4 #be74 ,john the ,baptist1 also1 unlike the ,john of the other ,gospels1 adopts the same manner4 ,christ is spoken of by him as the ,lamb of ,god1 which takes away the sins of the world 7,jo4 i4 #bi72 or as the ,bridegroom whose voice he rejoiced to hear1 while he himself was but the ,bridegroom's friend 7,jo4 iii4 #bi74 ,sometimes the ,jews1 as they are termed in this ,gospel1 are puzzled by the enigmatical style of ,jesus1 the sense of which they cannot unriddle4 ,thus1 when he tells them that if they destroy the temple he will rebuild it in three days1 they are naturally unable to perceive that he is speaking of the temple of his body 7,jo4 ii4 #ai-ba74 ,they murmured because he spoke of himself as the ,bread that came down from heaven1 nor was any explanation offered them beyond a reiteration of the same statement 7,jo4 vi4 #da-ea74 ,not only the ,jews1 but also many of his own partisans1 were hopelessly perplexed by the statement that no one could have life in him who did not eat his flesh and drink his blood 7,jo4 vi4 #ec1 #fj71 a statement which differs materially from that made at the passover 7in the other ,gospels71 where the bread and wine were actually offered as signs of his flesh and blood1 and the apostles alone 7who were present7 were required to receive them4 ,at other times he confused them by mysterious intimations that he was going somewhere whither they could not come1 and that they should seek him and be unable to find him 7,jo4 vii4 #cc-cf2 viii4 #ba1 #bb74 ,on one occasion1 his auditors were unable to comprehend his assertion that he must be lifted up1 and requested him to explain it4 ,the only reply was another enigma1 namely1 that the light was with them but a little while1 and that they should believe in it while they had it 7,jo4 xii4 #cb-cf74 ,to such language they might well have retorted1 that what they had from him was not light1 but a twilight in which no object could be distinctly seen1 and which never advanced towards clear daylight4 ,closely connected with this tendency to speak in obscure images was his predilection for argument with the ,jews on abstruse theological topics4 ,in the other ,gospels he teaches the people who surround him1 and the subject of his teaching is generally the rules of moral conduct2 comparatively seldom theology4 ,in ,john he does not so much teach as dispute1 and the subject of the dispute is not morals--a field he scarcely ever enters--but his personal pretensions4 ,upon these he carries on a continual wrangle1 supporting his claims by his peculiar views of the divine nature and of his relation to it 7,jo4 v4 #af-dg2 vi4 #da-ei2 vii4 #ad-cf2 viii4 #ab-bi2 ix4 #ci-da2 x4 #ai-cg74 ,in the same spirit the blind man whom he cures enters into a discussion with the ,pharisees on the character of him who had restored his sight 7,jo4 ix4 #bd-cd74 ,the ,jews are depicted as continually occupied about this question4 ,even their own officers receive from them a reproof for making a laudatory remark about him 7,jo4 vii4 #dg1 #dh71 while ,nicodemus1 who interposes in arrest of judgment1 is sharply asked whether he also is of ,galilee 7,jo4 vii4 #ea-eb74 ,the very best instruction of ,jesus is not given1 as in the other ,gospels1 to a multitude1 but is reserved for a select circle of his own followers4 ,it is in the #adth1 #aeth1 and #afth chapters that he rises to the sublimest heights of his doctrine1 and the whole of this remarkable discourse is delivered to the disciples after ,judas has left the supper-table in order to betray him4 ,the substance of his teaching is no less peculiar than its occasions4 ,the writer conceives of him as holding an altogether singular relation to the ,father1 and that relation he represents his ,christ as continually expounding and insisting upon as of vital moment4 ,the ,evangelist himself begins his work by a concise statement of his doctrine on this point4 ,the ,logos1 he says1 was with ,god in the beginning2 the ,logos was ,god4 ,all things were made by it1 and nothing was made without it4 ,in it was life1 and the life was the light of men4 ,this ,light came into the world1 but the world did not know him4 ,even his own1 whoever these may have been1 did not receive him4 ,to those who did receive him1 he gave power to become the sons of ,god2 and these were born1 not of blood1 nor of the will of the flesh1 nor of the will of man1 but of ,god4 ,the ,logos was made flesh1 and dwelt among us1 and we beheld his glory1 as of the only-begotten of the ,father 7,jo4 i4 #a-ad74 ,the language of ,christ is duly adjusted to this very speculative theory4 ,thus1 he scandalizes the ,jews by the bold assertion that he and his ,father are one2 and adds to their horror by further maintaining that he is in the ,father1 and the ,father in him 7,jo4 x4 #cj1 #ch74 ,elsewhere1 ,philip is required to believe in the same truth4 ,in reply to his ignorant request that he may be shown the ,father1 he is told that seeing ,jesus is equivalent to seeing the ,father4 ,moreover1 the ,father who dwells in ,christ performs the works which are apparently done by ,christ alone 7,jo4 xiv4 #i-aa74 ,the disciples1 too1 are included in this mystic unity1 for they are in ,jesus in the same sense in which he is in ,god 7,jo4 xiv4 #bj2 xvii4 #ba1 #bc74 ,his ,father1 nevertheless1 is greater than himself 7,jo4 xiv4 #bh74 ,jesus has been glorified with the ,father before the world existed1 and looks forward to a return to that glory4 ,he wishes that those who have been given him on earth may be with him to behold the glory which ,god1 who loved him before the foundation of the world1 has given him4 ,that glory he has given them1 and they are to be one1 even as he and his ,father are one2 he in them1 and ,god in him 7,jo4 xvii4 #e1 #bb-bd74 ,after these preliminary observations1 we need not dwell long on the historical incidents of the ,gospel1 of which there are but few4 ,the meeting of ,jesus with ,andrew and ,simon1 and his reception of ,nathanael1 related in the first chapter1 have already been noticed4 ,it only remains to be said1 that ,nathanael was deceived by a prophecy which was not fulfilled2 for at the end of the interview1 ,jesus1 referring to his amazement that he had been discovered under the fig-tree1 which had quite put him off his balance1 tells him that he shall see greater things than these1 and especially mentions among them the opening of the heavens and the descent of angels upon the ,son of man4 ,nathanael never saw anything of the kind 7,jo4 i4 #ce-ea74 ,the conversion of water into wine follows next4 ,a peculiarity in the notions of this writer is evinced by the assertion that his mother and brothers went with him to ,capernaum1 for his family do not accompany him1 according to any other statement1 while here his mother not only is with him1 but is aware that he is able to work a miracle 7,jo4 ii4 #a-ab74 ,jesus1 after visiting ,capernaum1 proceeded for the passover to ,jerusalem1 where it is said that many believed in him because of his miracles4 ,his expulsion of the money-changers1 however1 brought him into collision with the authorities of his nation1 who asked him for a sign2 a question to which he replied by the undertaking to rebuild the temple1 if destroyed1 in three days 7,jo4 ii4 #ac-be74 ,but one of the ,jewish rulers1 named ,nicodemus1 was disposed to believe in his pretensions4 ,this man came to him by night1 and heard from him a long theological disquisition 7,jo4 iii4 #a-ba74 ,jesus then went into ,judea1 and remained there with his disciples baptizing his converts4 ,john the ,baptist is made to bear an emphatic testimony to his superiority 7,jo4 iii4 #bb-cf74 ,a visit to ,smaria is the occasion for an interesting dialogue with a ,smaritan woman who had come to draw water at a well2 and her report leads the inhabitants to come out and see the prophet by whom she had been so much impressed4 ,this incident is reproduced with curious fidelity in a ,buddhist story4 ,ananda1 one of ,sakyamuni's disciples1 met with a ,matangi woman1 one of a degraded caste1 who was drawing water1 and asked her to give him some of it to drink4 ,just as the ,smaritan wondered that ,jesus1 a ,jew1 should ask drink of her1 one of a nation with whom the ,jews had no dealings1 so this young ,matangi girl warned ,ananda of her caste1 which rendered it unlawful for her to approach a monk4 ,and as ,jesus nevertheless continued to converse with the woman1 so ,ananda did not shrink from this outcast damsel4 ,i do not ask thee1 my sister1 he replied1 either thy caste or thy family2 ,i only ask thee for water1 if thou canst give me some4 ,the ,buddha himself1 to whom the ,matangi girl afterwards presented herself1 treated her with equal kindness4 ,he contrived to divert the profane love she had conceived for ,ananda into a holy love of religion2 much as ,jesus led the ,smaritan from the thought of her five husbands1 and of him who was not her husband1 to the conception of the universal ,father who was to be worshiped in spirit and in truth4 ,and as the disciples marveled that ,jesus should have conversed with this member of a despised race1 so the respectable ,brahmins and householders who adhered to ,buddhism were scandalized to learn that the young ,matangi had been admitted to the order of mendicants 7,jo4 iv4 #a-db2 ,h4 ,b4 ,i41 pp4 #bje1 #bjf74 ,after two days spent at ,smaria ,jesus went on to ,galilee1 where he healed the nobleman's sons 7,jo4 iv4 #dc-ed74 ,having returned to ,jerusalem for another feast1 he cured the impotent man on the ,sabbath1 which endangered his life at the hands of the indignant ,jews1 and led him to deliver a long vindication 7,jo4 v74 ,the feeding of the five thousand was followed by an attempt to make him king1 from which he prudently escaped4 ,the disciples took ship to go to ,capernaum1 and ,jesus joined them by walking on the water4 ,on the ensuing day he preached to the people who followed him1 and shocked even some of the disciples by the loftiness of the claims he advanced4 ,many of them are said to have left him at this time 7,jo4 vi74 ,a singular proceeding is now mentioned4 ,urged by his brothers1 who were still incredulous1 to go to ,jerusalem for the feast of tabernacles1 he declined on the ground that his time was not yet come4 ,when they were gone he himself went also1 though secretly 7,jo4 vii4 #a-aj74 ,there is no reason assigned for this little stratagem1 and he soon emerged from his incognito and taught openly in the temple4 ,the public mind was much divided about his character1 some maintaining him to be ,christ1 others contending that ,christ could only come from the seed of ,david and the town of ,bethlehem4 ,an attempt to arrest him failed1 owing to the impression he made upon the police 7,jo4 vii4 #aa-ec74 ,a discussion with the ,jews was terminated by their taking up stones to throw at him1 a peril from which he escaped apparently by miracle 7,jo4 viii4 #ab-ei2 verses #a-aa are spurious74 ,further offense was given by the restoration of a blind man's sight on the ,sabbath 7,jo4 ix74 ,a discourse on his title to authority provoked divisions1 and at the feast of the dedication he was plainly asked whether he was the ,christ4 ,his answer again led to an attempt to stone him1 from which he escaped to the place beyond ,jordan where ,john had formerly baptized 7,jo4 x74 ,the raising of ,lazarus and the anointing by ,mary are the next events recorded 7,jo4 xi4 #a-xii4 #i74 ,the passover followed six days after the latter incident1 and his preaching at this festival was interrupted in a singular manner4 ,jesus had used the words1 ,father1 glorify thy name6 whereupon a voice was heard from heaven1 saying1 ,i both have glorified it1 and will glorify it again4 ,thereupon ,jesus observed that this voice came not for his sake1 but for that of the bystanders4 ,it seems1 however1 to have produced but little effect upon them1 for a few verses later we find a complaint that1 in spite of his many miracles1 they did not believe in him 7,jo4 xii4 #ab-ej74 ,the last supper with the disciples was immediately succeeded by a parting discourse of much beauty1 conceived in an elevated tone2 and his last moments of freedom were occupied in a prayer of which the pathos has been rarely equaled 7,jo4 xiii4-xvii74 ,the remainder of his career--his trial1 execution1 and alleged resurrection--have been fully treated in another place4 ,,subdivision #d4--,what did the ,jews think of him8 ,victorious over ,jesus ,christ at the moment1 the ,jewish nation have1 from an early period in ,christian history1 been subject in their turn to his disciples4 ,their polity--crushed under the iron heel of ,vespasian1 scattered to the winds by ,hadrian--vanished from existence not long after it had successfully put down the founder of the new faith4 ,their religion1 tolerated by the heathen ,romans only under humiliating and galling conditions1 persecuted almost to death by the ,christians1 suffered until modern times an oppression so terrible and so cruel1 that but for the deep and unshakeable attachment of its adherents1 it could never have survived its perils4 ,hence the course of events has been such that this unhappy nation has never until quite recently enjoyed the freedom necessary to present their case in the matter of ,jesus the son of ,joseph2 while the gradual decay of the rancor formerly felt against them1 at the same time that it gives them liberty1 renders it less important for them to come forward in what would still be an unpopular cause4 ,thus it happens that one side only in the controversy1 that of the ,christians1 has been adequately heard4 ,they certainly have not shrunk from the presentation of their views4 ,every epithet that scorn1 hatred1 or indignation could suggest has been heaped upon the generation of ,jews who were the immediate instigators of the execution of ,jesus1 while all the subsequent miseries of their race have been regarded--by the party which delighted to inflict them--as exhibitions of the divine vengeance against that one criminal act4 ,nor have even freethinkers shrunk from condemning the ,jews as guilty of gross and unpardonable persecution1 and that towards one who1 if they do not think him a ,god1 nevertheless appears to them singularly free from blame4 ,on the one side1 according to the prevailing conception1 stands the innocent victim2 on the other the bloodthirsty ,jewish people4 ,all good is with the one2 all evil with the other4 ,it is supposed that only their hard-heartedness1 their aversion to the pure doctrine of the ,redeemer1 their determination to shut their eyes to the light and their ears to the words of truth1 could have led them to the commission of so great a crime4 ,whether or not this theory be true1 it at least suffers from the vice of having been adopted without due examination4 ,an opinion can rest on no solid basis unless its opposite has been duly supported by competent defenders4 ,now in the present instance this has not happened4 ,owing to the causes mentioned above1 the ,christian view has been practically uncontested1 and writer after writer has taken it up and repeated it in the unreflecting way in which we all of us repeat assertions about which there is no dispute4 ,yet a very little consideration will show that so simple an explanation of the transaction has at least no a priori probability in its favor4 ,that a whole nation should be completely in the wrong1 and a few individuals only in the right1 is a supposition which can be accepted only on the most convincing evidence4 ,and in order even to justify our entertaining it for a moment1 we must be in possession of a report of the circumstances of the case from the advocates of the nation1 as well as from the advocates of the individuals who suffered by its action4 ,a one-sided statement from the partizans of a convicted person can never be sufficient to enable us to pronounce a conclusive verdict against his judges4 ,the most ordinary rules of fairness prohibit this4 ,yet this is what is commonly done4 ,no account whatever of the trial of ,jesus has reached us from the side of the prosecution4 ,josephus1 who might have enlightened us1 is silent4 ,on the other hand1 the side of the defense has furnished us with its own version of what passed1 and from the imperfect materials thus supplied we must endeavor to discriminate between the two as best we can4 ,to do this justly1 we must bear in mind1 that even though the charges produced against ,jesus should not appear to justify the indignation of his accusers1 it is at least unlikely that that indignation was altogether without reasonable cause4 ,and painful as it may be to be compelled to think that ,jesus was in the wrong1 it would surely--had not long habit perverted our natural sentiments--be quite as painful to believe that a large multitude of men1 impelled by mere malignity against a virtuous citizen1 had conspired to put him to death on charges which were absolutely groundless4 ,the honor of an heroic1 and above all1 of a deeply religious people1 is here at stake4 ,it is no light matter to deal in wholesale accusations of judicial murder against them4 ,it would surely be a happier solution if it could be shown that the individual condemned was not absolutely guiltless4 ,but possibly we may be able to elude either alternative4 ,just as1 according to the able reasoning of ,grote1 the upright character of ,socrates may be compatible with a sense of justice on the part of the ,athenians who condemned him to death1 so it is conceivable that the innocence of ,jesus may consist with the fact that the ,jews who caused him to be crucified were not altogether without excuse4 ,an examination of this question must be conducted with a careful regard to the hereditary feelings of orthodox ,hebrews in matters of religion2 with an attention to the conceptions they had formed of holiness1 and consequently of blasphemy1 its negation2 with a desire to do justice if possible to the very prejudices that clouded their vision1 and to realize the intensity of the sentiment that ruled their national life and bound them to uphold their law in all its severe integrity4 ,we must remember that the ,jews were above all things monotheists4 ,ever since1 after the captivity1 they had put away every remnant of idolatry1 they had clung to the unity and majesty of ,jehovah with a stern tenacity which no alluring temptations1 no extremity of suffering1 had been able to break4 ,if they were now ready to persecute for this faith1 they had at least shown themselves able--they soon showed themselves able again--to bear persecution for its sake4 ,their law1 with its monotheistic dogmas and its practical injunctions1 was to them supremely holy4 ,any attempt to infringe its precepts1 or to question its authority1 excited their utmost horror4 ,to set up any other object of worship than that which it recognized1 to teach any other faith than that which rested on this foundation1 was blasphemy in their eyes4 ,the happiness1 nay1 the very existence1 of the nation was bound up with its strict observance4 ,this may have been a delusion1 but it was one for which the existing generation was not responsible4 ,it had been handed down from their ancestors1 and had reached them with all the sanctity of venerable age4 ,if it were a delusion1 it was one which the compilers of the ,pentateuch2 which ,josiah1 with his reforming measures2 which ,ezra1 with his purifying zeal2 which the prophets and priests of olden times who had fought and labored for the religion of ,jehovah1 had mainly fostered4 ,they had succeeded but too well in impressing upon the mind of the nation the profound conviction that1 in order to ensure the favor of ,god1 they must maintain every iota of the revealed truth they had received1 and that his anger would surely follow if they suffered it to be in the smallest degree corrupted or treated with neglect4 ,nevertheless the utmost efforts of the people to guard the purity of the faith had been rewarded hitherto with little but misery4 ,their exemption from troubles did not last long after the rebuilding of the temple4 ,a prey now to the ,seleucid1 now to the ,ptolemies1 their native land the scene of incessant warfare1 they enjoyed under the ,asmonean kings but a brief period of independence and good government4 ,their polity received a rude shock from the capture of ,jerusalem by ,pompey2 maintained but a shadow of freedom under the tyranny of ,herod2 and fell at last--some time before the public appearance of ,christ--under the direct administration of the unsympathetic ,romans4 ,a more intolerable fate could hardly be imagined4 ,the ,romans had no tenderness for their feelings1 no commiseration for their scruples1 no comprehension of their peculiar practices4 ,hence constant collision between the governors and the governed4 ,it is needless to enter in detail upon the miserable struggles between those who were strong in the material force and those who were strong in the force of conscience4 ,suffice it to say1 that provocation on provocation was inflicted on the ,jews1 until at length the inevitable rebellion came1 to be terminated by the not less inevitable suppression with its attendant cruelties4 ,but in the time of ,jesus the crisis had not yet come4 ,all things were in a state of the utmost tension4 ,it was of the highest importance to the people1 and their authorities were well aware of it1 that there should be nothing done that could excite the anger of their rulers4 ,the ,romans knew1 of course1 that no loyalty was felt towards them in ,palestine4 ,and the least indication of resistance was enough to provoke them to the severest measures4 ,all that remained of independence to the ,jews--the freedom to worship in their own way2 their national unity2 their possession of the temple2 their very lives--depended on their success in conciliating the favor of the procurator who happened to be set over them4 ,the assertion by any one of rights that might appear to clash with those of ,rome1 even the foolish desire of the populace to honor some one who did not pretend to them1 were fraught with the utmost danger4 ,it was necessary for the rulers to prove that they did not countenance the least indication of a wish to set up a rival power4 ,their task was more difficult because the people were continually looking for some great national hero who should redeem them from their subjection4 ,the conception of the ,messiah1 the ,anointed ,one1 the ,king or ,high ,priest who should restore1 and much more than restore1 the ancient glory of their nation1 who should lead them to victory over their enemies and then reign over them in peace1 was ineradicably imbedded in their minds4 ,consequently they were only too ready--especially in those days of overstrung nerves and feverish agitation under a hateful rule--to welcome any one who held out the chance of deliverance4 ,the risk was not imaginary4 ,prophets and ,messiahs1 if they were not successful1 could do nothing but harm4 ,theudas1 a leader who did not even claim ,messiahship1 had involved his followers in destruction4 ,bar-cochab1 who at a later time was received by many as the ,messiah1 brought upon his countrymen not only enormous slaughter1 but even the crowning misfortune of expulsion from ,jerusalem4 ,now1 although the high priests and elders no doubt shared the popular expectation of a ,messiah1 they were bound as prudent men to test the pretensions of those who put themselves forward in that character1 and if they were imperiling the public peace1 to put a stop to their careers4 ,it was not for them1 the appointed guides of the people1 to be carried away by every breath of popular enthusiasm4 ,they would have been wholly unworthy of their position had they permitted floating reports of miracles and marvels1 or the applauding clamor of admirers1 to impose upon their judgment4 ,calmly1 and after examination of the facts1 it was their duty to decide4 ,jesus had professed to be the ,messiah4 ,so much is undisputed4 ,could his title be admitted8 ,now1 in the first place1 it was the central conception of the ,messianic office that its holder should exercise temporal power4 ,he was not expected to be a teacher of religious doctrines1 for this was not what was required4 ,the code of theological truth was1 so far as the ,jews were aware1 completed4 ,the ,revelation they possessed never hinted1 from beginning to end1 that it was imperfect in any of its parts1 or that it needed a supplementary ,revelation to fill up the void which it contained4 ,whatever ,christians1 instructed by the gospel1 may have thought in subsequent ages1 the believers in the ,hebrew ,bible neither had ascertained1 nor possibly could ascertain1 that ,jehovah intended to send his ,son on earth to enlighten them on questions appertaining to their religious belief4 ,this they thought had long been settled1 and he who tried either to take anything from it or add anything to it was in their eyes an impious criminal4 ,such persons1 they knew1 had been sternly dealt with in the palmy days of the ,hebrew state1 and the example of their most honored prophets and their most pious kings would justify the severest measures that could be taken against them4 ,a spiritual reformer1 then1 was not what they needed3 a temporal leader was4 ,and this they had a perfect right to expect that the ,messiah would be4 ,the very word itself--the ,anointed ,one1 a word commonly applied to the king--indicates the possession of the powers of government4 ,their prophecies all pointed to this conception of the ,messiah4 ,their popular traditions all confirmed it4 ,their political necessities all encouraged it4 ,the very disciples themselves held it like the rest of their nation1 for when they met ,jesus after his resurrection we find them inquiring1 ,lord1 wilt thou at this time restore the kingdom of ,israel8 7,acts i4 #f474 ,the conversation may be imaginary1 but the state of mind which such a question indicates was doubtless real4 ,the author represented them as speaking as he knew that they had felt4 ,now1 if ever they1 who had enjoyed the intimate friendship of ,jesus1 could still look to him as one who would restore to ,israel something of her bygone grandeur1 was it to be expected that the less privileged ,jews1 who had inherited from their forefathers a fixed belief in this temporal restoration1 should suddenly surrender it at the bidding of ,jesus of ,nazareth8 ,for he at least did not realize the prevailing notions of what the ,messiah ought to be4 ,for temporal sovereignty he was clearly unfit1 nor does he seem to have ever demanded it4 ,there was a danger no doubt that his enthusiastic followers might thrust it upon him1 and that1 thus urged1 he might be tempted to accept it4 ,but his general character precludes the supposition that he could ever be fit to stand at the head of a national movement4 ,the absence1 moreover1 of all political enthusiasm from his teaching proved him not to be the ,savior for whom they were looking4 ,his assertions that he was the ,son of ,god1 though they might provoke sedition and endanger the security of his countrymen1 could bring them no corresponding good4 ,christians have maintained that the ,jews were entirely wrong in their conception of the ,messiah's character1 and that ,jesus by his admirable life brought a higher and more excellent ideal than theirs into the world4 ,they admire him for not laying claim to temporal dominion1 and laud his humility1 his meekness1 his submissiveness1 the patience with which he bore his sufferings1 and the whole catalogue of similar virtues4 ,it was1 according to them1 the mere blindness of the ,jews that prevented them from recognizing in him a far greater ,messiah than they had erroneously expected4 ,moreover1 they tell us that another of the mistakes made by this gross nation was the expectation of an earthly kingdom in which ,christ was to reign1 whereas it was only a spiritual kingdom which he came to institute4 ,but who were to be judges of the character of the ,messiah if not the ,jews to whom he was to come8 ,the very thought of a ,messiah was peculiarly their own4 ,it had grown up in the course of their national history1 and was embodied in their national prophecies4 ,they alone were its authorized interpreters2 they alone could say whether it was fulfilled in the case of a given individual4 ,it is surely a piece of the most amazing presumption on the part of nations of heathen origin to pretend that they are more competent than the ,jews themselves to understand the meaning of a ,jewish term2 a term1 moreover1 which neither had nor could have before the time of ,jesus any sense at all except that which the ,jews themselves attached to it4 ,christians1 who derive not only their idea of the ,messiah's character1 but their very knowledge of the word1 from the case of ,jesus alone1 undertake to set right the ,jews1 among whom it was a current notion for centuries before he had been conceived in his mother's womb6 ,granting1 however1 that this difficulty might have been surmounted1 supposing that it was a spiritual kingdom which the ancient prophets under uncouth images referred to1 the question still remains whether ,jesus in other respects fulfilled the conditions demanded by ,scripture4 ,for this purpose it will be the fairest method to confine ourselves to the discussion of those prophecies alone which are quoted by the ,evangelists1 and are therefore relied upon by them as proving their case4 ,where1 however1 they have quoted only a portion of a prophecy1 and the remainder gives a somewhat different complexion to the passage extracted1 justice to their opponents requires that we should consider the whole4 ,take first the circumstances of ,christ's birth4 ,it was expected that the ,messiah was to be of the family of ,david1 and born at ,bethlehem ,ephratah4 ,now1 according to two of our authorities1 he fulfilled both of these conditions4 ,but1 without at all discussing the point whether their statement is true1 it is abundantly sufficient for the vindication of the ,jews to observe1 that they neither knew1 nor could know1 anything at all1 either of his royal lineage or of his birth at ,bethlehem4 ,for he himself never stated either of the two capital facts of which ,luke and ,matthew make so much1 nor does it appear that any of his disciples alluded to them during his life-time4 ,he was habitually spoken about as ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,matthew1 in endeavoring to account for the name by misquoting a prophecy1 bears witness to the fact that it expressed the general belief4 ,luke makes him speak of ,nazareth as his own country4 ,nowhere does it appear that he repudiated the implication conveyed by his ordinary title4 ,still less did he ever maintain--what his over-busy biographers maintained for him--that he was of the seed of ,david4 ,quite the reverse4 ,he contends against the ,pharisees that the ,messiah was not to be a descendant of ,david at all4 ,the dialogue as given by ,matthew runs thus3 ',what is your opinion about the ,christ8 whose son is he8' ,they say to him1 ',david's4' ,he says to them1 ',how then does ,david in the spirit call him ,lord1 saying1 ,the ,lord said to my lord1 ,sit on my right hand until ,i place thine enemies under thy feet8 ,if then ,david calls him lord1 how is he his son8' 7,mt4 xxii4 #db-df74 ,no answer was given by the ,pharisees1 nor was any explanation of the paradox ever granted them by ,jesus4 ,in the absence1 then1 of any further elucidation we can only put one interpretation upon his argument4 ,it was clearly intended to show not only that the ,messiah need not1 but that he could not be of the house of ,david4 ,david in that case would not have called him ,lord4 ,the ,pharisees may have been but little impressed by the force of the argument1 but of one thing they could scarcely entertain a doubt4 ,jesus wished it to be thought that he was the ,messiah4 ,he also wished it to be thought that the ,messiah was not a son of ,david4 ,he himself therefore was certainly not a son of ,david4 ,but if anything more were needed to excuse the ignorance--supposing it such--of the ,jewish rulers about the birthplace and family of ,jesus1 we find it even super-abundantly in the work of one of his own adherents--the fourth ,evangelist4 ,not that this writer is to be taken as an authority on the facts1 but he is an authority on the views that were current1 at least in a portion of his own sect1 and on that which he himself--writing long after the death of ,christ--had received by tradition4 ,now1 in the beginning of his ,gospel he describes ,philip the disciple as going to ,nathanael1 and saying1 ,we have found him of whom ,moses in the law and of whom the prophets wrote1 ,jesus the son of ,joseph from ,nazareth4 ,at this ,nathanael skeptically asks1 ,can anything good come from ,nazareth8 and ,philip replies1 ,come and see 7,jo4 i4 #de1 #df74 ,according to this account1 then1 the very disciples of ,jesus believed in his ,nazarene nativity1 as also 7by the way7 in his generation by a human father4 ,nor is this all the evidence4 ,in another chapter an active discussion is represented as going on among the ,jews as to whether ,jesus was the ,christ or not4 ,opinions differed4 ,foremost among the arguments for the negative1 however1 was the appeal to the ,scriptural declaration that the ,christ must be of ,david's seed1 and emanate from the village of ,bethlehem 7,jo4 vii4 #db74 ,no answer to this was forthcoming from the partizans of ,jesus1 nor is any suggested by the ,evangelist4 ,there is but one rational inference to be drawn from his silence4 ,he either had not heard1 or he purposely ignored1 the story of ,christ's birth at ,bethlehem1 and the genealogies which connected him with ,david4 ,his mind 7if he had ever been a ,jew7 was to no small extent emancipated from ,jewish limitations1 and with his highly refined views of the ,logos1 he did not believe in the necessity of these material conditions4 ,it was nothing to him that they were not fulfilled4 ,more orthodox believers in the prophecies of the ,old ,testament may be pardoned if they could not so lightly put them aside4 ,but what shall be said of the conduct of ,jesus8 ,if he really were a descendant of ,david1 born at ,bethlehem1 and wrongly taken for a ,nazarene1 can we acquit him of an inexcusable fraud upon the ,jews in not bringing these facts under their notice8 ,assuredly not4 ,if1 knowing as he did the weight they would have in the public mind1 he kept them back2 knowing that they would overcome some of the gravest objections that were taken against his claim1 he did not urge them in reply2 knowing at the close of his life that he was charged with an undue assumption of authority1 he did not produce them as at least a portion of his credentials1--he played a part which it would be difficult to stigmatize as severely as it deserves4 ,he believed that his reception by his nation would be an immense benefit to themselves1 yet he did not speak the word which might have helped them to receive him4 ,he thought he had a mission from ,god1 yet he failed to use one potent argument in favor of the truth of that idea4 ,he saw finally that he was condemned to death for supposed impiety1 yet he suffered the ,sanhedrim to incur the guilt of his condemnation without employing one of his strongest weapons in his defense4 ,happily we are not obliged to suspect him of this iniquity4 ,the contradictory stories by which his royal descent and his birth at ,bethlehem are sought to be established sufficiently betray their origin to permit us to believe in the honor and honesty of ,jesus4 ,another ,messianic prophecy which he is supposed to have fulfilled is that of birth from a virgin1 the necessity of which was deduced from an expression of ,isaiah's4 ,that the writer of the fourth ,gospel was ignorant of this virgin-birth we have already shown1 and that the ,jewish people in general took him to be the son of ,joseph is obvious enough from their allusions to his father 7,mk4 vi4 #c2 ,mt4 xiii4 #ee1 #ef2 ,lu4 iv4 #bb2 ,jo4 vi4 #db74 ,here again he never contradicted the prevalent assumption4 ,but even had they known of the miraculous conception1 the ,jews might have denied that the passage from ,isaiah bore any such construction as that put upon it by ,matthew4 ,he renders it3 ,behold1 the virgin shall be with child1 and bear a son 7,mt4 i4 #bc74 ,but a more proper translation would be3 ,the maiden shall conceive1 and bear a son1 for the word translated virgin by ,matthew does not exclude young women who have lost their virginity4 ,nay1 it curiously enough happens to be used elsewhere of maidens engaged in the very conduct by which they would certainly be deprived of it4 ,moreover1 the two prophecies quoted by ,matthew1 which were1 no doubt1 familiar to the ,jews1 could by no possibility be applied by them to a person of the character of ,jesus4 ,even the small fragments torn away from their context by the ,evangelist convict him of a misapplication4 ,in the first fragment1 the ,virgin's son is called ,immanuel1 a name which ,jesus never bore 7,mt4 i4 #bc74 ,in the second1 he is described as a ruler1 who shall govern my people ,israel1 which ,jesus never was 7,mt4 ii4 #f74 ,but the unlikeness of the predicted person to ,jesus is still further shown by comparing the circumstances as conceived by the prophet with the actual circumstances of the time4 ,immanuel's birth is to be followed1 while he is still too young to choose between good and evil1 by a terrible desolation of the land4 ,hosts1 described as flies and bees1 are to come from ,egypt and ,assyria1 and camp in the valleys1 the clefts of the rocks1 the hedges and meadows4 ,cultivable land will produce only thorns and thistles4 ,cultivated hills will be surrendered to cattle from fear of thorns and thistles 7,isa4 vii4 #ad-be74 ,nothing of all this happened in the time of ,jesus4 ,but the prophecy of ,micah is still more inappropriate4 ,the ruler who is to be born in ,bethlehem is to lead ,israel to victory over all her enemies4 ,he is to deliver his people from the ,assyrian4 ,the remnant of ,jacob is to be among the heathen1 like a lion among the beasts of the forest1 like a young lion among flocks of sheep4 ,its hand is to be lifted up against its adversaries1 and all its enemies are to be destroyed 7,micah v74 ,these references to prophecy were certainly not happy4 ,an allusion by ,matthew to the words1 ,the people who walk in darkness see a great light1 is not much more to the purpose1 for ,isaiah in the passage in question proceeds to describe the child who is to bring them this happiness as one who shall have the government upon his shoulder1 who is to be on the throne of ,david1 to establish and maintain it by right and justice for ever 7,mt4 iv4 #ae1 #af2 ,is4 ix4 #a-g74 ,another extract from ,isaiah1 beginning1 ,behold my servant whom ,i have chosen1 and depicting a gentler character1 is more appropriate1 but is too vague to be easily confined to any one individual4 ,jesus himself is reported by one of his biographers to have relied on certain words from the pseudo-,isaiah as a confirmation of his mission4 ,if the account be true1 the circumstance is of great importance as showing the view he himself took of his office1 and the means he employed to convince the ,jews of his right to hold it4 ,entering the synagogue at ,nazareth1 he received the roll of the prophet ,isaiah1 and proceeded to read from the sixty-first chapter as follows3 ,the ,spirit of the ,lord ,jehovah is upon me1 because ,jehovah has anointed me to announce glad tidings to the poor2 he has sent me to bind up the broken-hearted2 to cry to the captives1 ,freedom1 and to those in fetters1 ,deliverance2 to cry out a year of good-will from ,jehovah4 ,here ,jesus broke off the reading in the middle of a verse1 and declared that this day this scripture was fulfilled 7,lu4 iv4 #af-ba74 ,but let us continue our study of the prophetic vision a little further4 ,to cry out a year of good-will from ,jehovah1 and a day of vengeance from our ,god3 to comfort all that mourn2 to appoint for the mourners of ,zion1--to give them ornaments for ashes1 the oil of joy for mourning1 a garment of praise for a desponding spirit2 that they may be called oaks of righteousness1 a plantation of ,jehovah to glorify himself4 ,and they will build up the ruins of old times1 they will restore the desolations of former days2 and they will renew desolate cities1 the ruins of generation upon generation4 ,and strangers shall stand and feed your flocks1 and the sons of foreigners shall be your husbandmen and your vine-dressers4 ,and you shall be called ',priests of ,jehovah2' ',servants of our ,god1' shall be said to you2 the riches of the ,gentiles you shall eat1 and into their splendor you shall enter 7,is4 lxi4 #a-f74 ,had ,jesus concluded the passage he had begun1 he could scarcely have said1 ,this day is the scripture fulfilled in your ears4 ,the contrast between the prediction and the fact would have been rather too glaring4 ,perhaps the most striking apparent similarity to ,jesus is found in the man described in such beautiful language by an unknown prophet in the fifty-third chapter of ,isaiah4 ,but these words could hardly be applied to him by the ,jews2 in the first place1 because they would not be construed to refer to him until after his crucifixion1 seeing that they describe oppression1 prison1 judgment1 and execution2 in the second place1 because there was no reason to believe that he bore their diseases1 and took their sorrows upon him4 ,and although the familiar words--doubly familiar from the glorious music of ,handel1--,he was a man of sorrows1 and acquainted with grief1 may seem to us1 who know his end1 to describe him perfectly1 they could hardly describe him to the ,jews1 who saw him in his daily life4 ,in that1 at least1 there was nothing peculiarly unhappy4 ,failing the prophecies1 which were plainly two-edged swords1 ,jesus could appeal to his remarkable miracles4 ,he and his disciples evidently thought them demonstrations of a divine commission4 ,but1 in the first place1 it is clear that the evidence of the most wonderful of these consisted only of the rumors circulating among ignorant peasants1 which the more instructed portion of the nation very properly disregarded4 ,their demand for a sign 7,mt4 xii4 #ch7 proves that they were not satisfied by these popular reports1 if they had ever heard them4 ,and in the second place1 those miracles which were better attested were not convincing from the fact that others could perform them4 ,jesus1 charged with casting out devils by ,bal-zebub1 the prince of devils1 adroitly retorted on the ,pharisees by asking1 if that were so1 by whom their sons cast them out8 7,mk4 iii4 #bb2 ,mt4 xii4 #bd-cj2 ,lu4 xi4 #ad-bd74 ,but thus he admitted that he was not singular in his profession4 ,miracles1 in short1 were not regarded by the ,jews as any proof of ,messiahship4 ,their own prophets had performed them4 ,their own disciples now performed them4 ,others might possibly perform them by diabolic agency4 ,the ,egyptian magicians had been very clever in their contest with ,moses1 though ,moses had beaten them1 and had performed far more amazing wonders than those of ,jesus1 in so far as these latter were known to the ,pharisees4 ,miracles being too common to confer any peculiar title to reverence on the thaumaturgist1 there remained the doctrine and personal character of ,jesus by which to judge him4 ,it must be borne in mind that the impression which these might make upon his antagonist would depend mainly upon his bearing in his relations with them4 ,he might preach pure morals in ,galilee1 or present a model of excellence to his own followers in ,judea2 but this would not entitle him to reception as the ,messiah1 nor would it remove an unfavorable bias created by his conduct towards those who had not embraced his principles4 ,let us see1 then1 what was likely to be the effect on the ,pharisees1 scribes1 and others1 of those elements in his opinions and his behavior by which they were more immediately affected4 ,there existed among the ,jews1 as there still exists among ourselves1 an institution which was greatly honored among them1 as it is still honored1 though in a minor degree1 among ourselves4 ,the institution was that of a day of rest sacred to ,god once in every seven days4 ,this custom they believed to have been founded by the very highest authority1 and embodied by ,moses in the ten commandments which he received on ,sinai4 ,nothing in the eyes of an orthodox ,jew could be holier than such an observance1 enjoined by his ,god1 founded by the greatest legislator of his race1 consecrated by long tradition4 ,now the ordinary rules with regard to what was lawful and what unlawful on this day were totally disregarded by ,jesus4 ,not only did his disciples make a path through a cornfield on the ,sabbath1 but ,jesus openly cured diseases1 that is1 pursued his common occupation1 on this most sacred festival 7,mk4 ii4 #bc;iii4 #g2 ,mt4 xii4 #a-ad2 ,lu4 vi4 #a-aa1 xiii4 #aj-ag1 xiv4 #a-f74 ,when these violations of propriety 7as they seemed to them7 first came under the notice of the ,pharisees1 they merely remonstrated with ,jesus1 and endeavored to induce him to restrain the impiety of his disciples4 ,not only did he decline to do so1 but he expressly justified their course by the example of ,david1 and by that of the priests1 who1 according to his mode of reasoning1 profane the ,sabbath in the temple by doing that to which by their office they were legally bound4 ,such an argument could scarcely convince the ,pharisees1 but they must have been shocked beyond measure when he proclaimed himself greater than the temple1 and asserted his lordship even over the ,sabbath-day4 ,they then inquired of him--a perfectly legitimate question--whether it was lawful to heal on the ,sabbath1 to which he replied that if one of their own sheep had fallen into the pit they would pick it out4 ,confirming his theory by his practice1 he at once healed a man with a withered hand4 ,it is noteworthy that the desire of the ,pharisees to inflict punishment upon ,jesus is dated by all three ,evangelists from this incident2 so that the hostility towards him may be certainly considered as largely due to his unsabbatarian principles4 ,now in this question it is almost needless for me to say that my sympathies are entirely with ,jesus4 ,although ,i do not perceive in his conduct any extensive design against the ,sabbath altogether1 yet it is much that he should have attempted to mitigate its rigor4 ,for that the world owes him its thanks4 ,but surely it cannot be difficult1 in this highly sabbatarian country1 to understand the horror of the ,pharisees at his apparent levity4 ,seeing that it is not so very long since the supposed desecration of the ,sunday in these islands subjected the offender to be treated as a common criminal2 seeing that even now a total abstinence from labor on that day is in many occupations enforced by law2 seeing that a custom almost as strong as law forbids indulgence in a vast number of ordinary amusements during its course1--we can scarcely be much surprised that the sabbatarians of ,judea were zealous to preserve the sanctity of their weekly rest4 ,the fact that highly conscientious and honorable persons entertain similar sentiments about the ,sunday is familiar to all4 ,we know that any one who neglected the usual customs2 who1 for example1 played a game at cricket1 or danced1 or even pursued his commercial avocations on ,sunday1 would be visited by them with perfectly genuine reproaches4 ,yet this was exactly the sort of way in which ,christ and his disciples shocked the ,jews4 ,to make a path through a cornfield and pluck the ears was just one of those little things which the current morality of the ,sabbath condemned1 much as ours condemns the opening of museums or theatrical entertainments4 ,their piety was scandalized at such a glaring contempt of the divine ordinances4 ,nor was the reasoning of ,jesus likely to conciliate them4 ,to ask whether it was lawful to do good or evil1 to save life or to kill on the ,sabbath-day was nothing to the purpose4 ,the question was what was good or evil on that particular day1 when things otherwise good were by all admitted to be evil4 ,nor were the cures effected by ,jesus necessary to save life4 ,all his patients might well have waited till evening1 when the ,sabbath was over4 ,one of them1 for instance1 a woman who had suffered from a spirit of weakness eighteen years1 being unable to hold herself erect1 was surely not in such urgent need of attendance that a few hours more of her disease would have done her serious harm4 ,jesus1 with his principles1 was of course perfectly right to relieve her at once1 but it is not to be wondered at that the ruler of the synagogue was indignant1 and told the people that there were six working days2 in them therefore they should come and be healed1 and not on the ,sabbath4 ,the epithet of hypocrite1 applied to him by ,jesus1 was1 to say the least1 hardly justified 7,lu4 xiii4 #aj-ag74 ,another habit of ,jesus1 in itself commendable1 excited the displeasure of the stricter sects4 ,it was that of eating with publicans and sinners4 ,this practice1 and the fact of his neglecting the fasts observed by the ,pharisees1 gave an impression of general laxity about his conduct1 which1 however unjust1 was perfectly natural 7,mk4 ii4 #ae-bb2 ,mt4 ix4 #aj-ag2 ,lu4 v4 #bi-ci74 ,here again ,i see no reason to attribute bad motives to his opponents who merely felt as church-going people among ourselves would feel about one who stayed away from divine service1 and as highly decorous people would feel about one who kept what they thought low company4 ,eating with unwashed hands was another of the several evidences of his contempt for the prevalent proprieties of life which gave offense4 ,the resentment felt by the ,pharisees at this practice was the more excusable that ,jesus justified it on the distinct ground that he had no respect for the tradition of the elders1 for which they entertained the utmost reverence4 ,this tradition he unsparingly attacked1 accusing them of frustrating the commandment of ,god in order to keep it 7,mk4 vii4 #a-ac2 ,mt4 xv4 #a-i74 ,language like this was not likely to pass without leaving a deep-seated wound1 especially if it be true 7as stated by ,luke7 that one of the occasions on which he employed it was when invited to dinner by a ,pharisee4 ,indifferent as the washing of hands might be in itself1 courtesy towards his host required him to abstain from needless outrage to his feelings4 ,and when1 in addition to the first offense1 he proceeded to denounce his host and host's friends as people who made the outside of the cup and the platter clean1 but were inwardly full of ravening and wickedness1 there is an apparent rudeness which even the truth of his statements could not have excused 7,lu4 xi4 #cg-ci74 ,neither was the manner in which he answered the questions addressed to him1 as to a teacher claiming to instruct the people1 likely to remove the prejudice thus created4 ,the ,evangelists who report these questions generally relate that they were put with an evil intent3 tempting him1 or some such expression being used4 ,but whatever may have been the secret motives of the questioners1 nothing could be more legitimate than to interrogate a man who put forward the enormous pretensions of ,jesus1 so long as the process was conducted fairly4 ,and this1 on the side of the ,jews1 it apparently was4 ,there is nowhere perceptible in their inquiries a scheme to entrap him1 or a desire to entangle him in difficulties by skillful examination4 ,on the contrary1 the subjects on which he is questioned are precisely those on which1 as the would-be master of the nation1 he might most properly be expected to give clear answers4 ,and the judgment formed of him by the public would naturally depend to a large extent on the mode in which he acquitted himself in this impromptu trial4 ,let us see1 then1 what was the impression he probably produced4 ,on one occasion the ,pharisees came to him1 tempting him1 to ascertain his opinion on divorce4 ,might a man put away his wife8 ,jesus replied that he might not1 and explained the permission of ,moses to give a wife a bill of divorce as a mere concession to the hardness of their hearts4 ,a divorced man or woman who married again was guilty of adultery4 ,even the disciples were staggered at this4 ,if an unhappy man could never be released from his wife1 it would be better1 they thought1 not to marry at all 7,mk4 x4 #a-ab2 ,mt4 xix4 #a-ab74 ,much more must the ,pharisees have dissented from this novel doctrine4 ,rightly or wrongly1 they reverenced the law of ,moses1 and they could not but profoundly disapprove this assumption of authority to set it aside and substitute for its precepts an unheard of innovation4 ,another question of considerable importance was that relating to the tribute4 ,some of the ,pharisees1 it seems1 after praising him for his independence1 begged him to give them his opinion on a disputed point3 ,was it lawful or not to pay tribute to the ,emperor8 ,all three biographers are indignant at the question4 ,they attribute it as usual to a desire to catch him in his words1 or1 as another ,evangelist puts it1 to entangle him in his talk4 ,jesus 7they remark7 perceived what one calls their wickedness1 a second their hypocrisy1 and the third their craftiness4 ,why do you tempt me8 he began4 ,bring me a denarium that ,i may see it4 ,the coin being brought1 he asked them1 ,whose image and superscription is this8 ,csar's4 ,then render to ,csar the things that are ,csar's1 and to ,god the things that are ,god's 7,mk4 xii4 #ac-ag2 ,mt4 xxii4 #ae-bb2 ,lu4 xx4 #bj-bf74 ,one of the ,evangelists1 reporting this reply1 rejoices at the discomfiture of the ,pharisees1 who could not take hold of his words before the people4 ,doubtless his decision had the merit that it could not be taken hold of1 but this was only because it decided nothing4 ,taking the words in their simplest sense1 they merely assert what nobody would deny4 ,no ,pharisee would ever have maintained that the things of ,csar should be given to ,god2 and no partizan of ,rome would ever have demanded that the things of ,god should be given to ,csar4 ,but practically it is evident that ,jesus meant to do more than employ an unmeaning form of words4 ,he meant to assert that the tribute was one of the things of ,csar1 and that because the coin in which it was paid was stamped with his image4 ,more fallacious reasoning could hardly be imagined1 and it is not surprising that the ,pharisees marveled at him4 ,nobody doubted that the ,emperor possessed the material power1 and no more than this was proved by the fact that coins bearing his effigy were current in the country4 ,the question was not whether he actually ruled ,judea1 but whether it was lawful to acknowledge that rule by paying tribute4 ,and what light could it throw on this question to show that the money used to pay it was issued from his mint8 ,it must almost be supposed that ,jesus fell into the confusion of supposing that the denarium with ,csar's image and superscription upon it was in some peculiar sense ,csar's property1 whereas it belonged as completely to the man who produced it at the moment as did the clothes he wore4 ,had the ,roman domination come to an end at any moment1 the coin of the ,empire would have retained its intrinsic value1 but the ,romans could by no possibility have founded a right of exacting tribute upon the circumstance of its circulation4 ,either1 therefore1 this celebrated declaration was a mere verbal juggle1 or it rested on a transparent fallacy4 ,after the ,pharisees had been thus disposed of1 their inquiries were followed up by a puzzle devised by the ,sadducees in order to throw ridicule on the doctrine of a future state4 ,these sectaries put an imaginary case4 ,moses had enjoined that if a man died leaving a childless widow1 his brother should marry her for the purpose of keeping up the family4 ,suppose1 said they1 that the first of seven brothers marries1 and dies without issue4 ,the second brother then marries her with the like result2 then the third1 and so on through all the seven4 ,in the resurrection whose wife will this woman be1 for the seven have had her as their wife8 ,to this ,jesus replies3 first1 that his questioners greatly err1 neither knowing the ,scriptures nor the power of ,god2 secondly1 that when people rise from death they do not marry1 but are like angels2 thirdly1 that the resurrection is proved by the fact that ,god had spoken of himself as the ,god of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 and that he is not the ,god of the dead1 but of the living 7,mk4 xii4 #ah-bg2 ,mt4 xxii4 #bc-cc2 ,lu4 xx4 #bg-dj74 ,whether the ,sadducees were or were not satisfied by this answer we are not told1 but it is quite certain that their modern representatives could not accept it4 ,for the inquirers had hit upon one of the real difficulties attending the doctrine of a future life4 ,we are always assured that one of the great consolations of this doctrine is the hope it holds out of meeting again those whom we have loved on earth1 and living with them in a kind of communion not wholly unlike that which we have enjoyed here4 ,earthly relationships1 it is assumed1 will be prolonged into that happier world4 ,there the parent will find again the child whom he has lost1 and the child will rejoin his parent2 there the bereaved husband will be restored to his wife1 and the widow will be comforted by the sight of the companion of her wedded years4 ,all this is simple enough4 ,complications inevitably arise1 however1 when we endeavor to pick up again in another life the tangled skein of our relations in this4 ,not only may the feelings with which we look forward to meeting former friends be widely different after many years' separation from what they were at their death2 but even in marriage there may be a preference for a first or a second husband or wife1 which may render the thought of meeting the other positively unpleasant4 ,and if the sentiments of the other should nevertheless be those of undiminished love1 the question may well arise1 whose husband is he1 or whose wife is she of the two8 ,are all three to live together8 ,but then1 along with the comfort of meeting one whom we love1 we have the less agreeable prospect of meeting another whom we have ceased to love4 ,or will one of the two wives or two husbands be preferred and the other slighted8 ,if so1 the last will suffer and not gain by the reunion4 ,take the present case4 ,assume that the wife loved only her first husband1 but that all the seven were attached to her4 ,then we may well ask1 whose wife will she be of them8 ,will her affections be divided among the seven1 or will they all be given to the first8 ,in the former case1 she will be compelled to live in a society for which she has no desire2 in the latter1 six of her seven husbands will be unable to enjoy the full benefit of her presence4 ,the question is merely evaded by saying that in the resurrection there is neither marriage nor giving in marriage1 but that men are like angels4 ,either there is no consolation in living again1 or there must be some kind of repetition of former ties4 ,still less logical is the argument by which ,jesus attempts to prove the reality of a future state against the ,sadducees4 ,in syllogistic form it maybe thus stated3-- ,god is not the ,god of the dead1 but of the living4 ,god told ,moses in the bush that he was the ,god of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob4 ,therefore they are not dead1 but living 7,mk4 xii4 #ah-bg2 ,mt4 xxii4 #bc-cc2 ,lu4 xx4 #bg-dj74 ,what is the evidence of the major premiss8 ,the moment it is questioned it is seen to be invalid4 ,nothing could be more natural than that ,moses1 or any other ,hebrew1 should speak of his ,god as the ,god of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 meaning that those great forefathers of his race had adored and been protected by the same ,jehovah in their day1 but not therefore that they were still living4 ,the ,sadducees must have been weak indeed if such an argument could weigh with them for a moment4 ,after this a scribe or lawyer drew from ,jesus the important declaration that in his opinion the two greatest commandments were that we should love ,god with the whole heart1 soul1 mind1 and strength2 and our neighbors as ourselves 7,mk4 xii4 #bh-cd2 ,mt4 xxii4 #cd-dj2 ,lu4 x4 #be-cg74 ,how gratuitous the imputations of ill-will thrown out against those who interrogate ,jesus may be1 is admirably shown in the present instance4 ,one ,gospel 7the most trustworthy7 asserts that the question about the first commandment was put by a scribe1 who thought that ,jesus had answered well1 and who1 moreover1 expressed emphatic approval of the reply given to himself4 ,such 7according to this account7 was his sympathy with ,jesus1 that the latter declared that he was not far from the kingdom of ,god4 ,mark now the extraordinary color given to this simple transaction in another ,gospel4 ,the ,pharisees1 we are told1 saw that the ,sadducees had been silenced1 and therefore drew together4 ,apparently as a result of their consultation 7though this is not stated71 one of them who was a lawyer asked a question1 tempting him1 namely1 ,which is the great commandment in the law8 ,diverse1 again1 from both versions is the narrative of a third4 ,in the first place1 all connection with the preceding questions is broken off1 and without any preliminaries1 a lawyer stands up1 and1 tempting him1 inquires1 ,master1 by what conduct shall ,i inherit eternal life8 ,to which ,jesus replies by a counter-question1 ,what is written in the law8 and then1 strange to say1 these two great commandments are enunciated1 not by him1 but by the unknown lawyer1 whose answer receives the commendation of ,jesus4 ,the bias thus evinced by the ,evangelists1 even in reporting the fairest questions1 seems to show that ,christ did not like his opinions to be elicited from him by this method1 feeling perhaps that it was likely to expose his intellectual weaknesses4 ,in this way1 and possibly in others1 a sentiment of hostility grew up between himself and the dominant sects1 which1 until the closing scenes of his career1 was far more marked on his side than on theirs4 ,beautiful maxims about loving one's enemies and returning good for evil did not keep him from reproaching the ,pharisees on many occasions4 ,unfortunately1 a man's particular enemies are just those who scarcely ever appear to him worthy of love1 and this was evidently the case with ,jesus and the men upon whom he poured forth his denunciations4 ,judging by his mode of speaking1 we should suppose that all religious people who did not agree with him were simply hypocrites4 ,this is one of the mildest terms by which he can bring himself to mention the ,pharisees or the scribes4 ,of the latter1 he declares that they devour widows' houses1 and for a pretence make long prayers2 therefore they would receive the greater damnation 7,mk4 xii4 #dj2 ,mt4 xxiii4 #ad74 ,the scribes and the ,pharisees1 it is said1 bind heavy burdens on others1 and refuse to touch them themselves 7surely an improbable charge74 ,they do all their works to be seen of men 7their outward behavior then was virtuous74 ,one of their grievous sins is that they make their phylacteries broad1 and enlarge the borders of their garments4 ,worse still3 they like the best places at dinner-parties and in the synagogues 7to which perhaps their position entitled them74 ,they have a pleasure in hearing themselves called ,rabbi1 a crime of which ,christ's disciples are especially to beware4 ,they shut up the kingdom of heaven1 neither entering themselves1 nor allowing others to enter4 ,they compass sea and land to make one proselyte1 but all this seeming zeal for religion is worthless3 when they have the proselyte1 they make him still more a child of hell than themselves4 ,they pay tithes regularly1 but omit the weightier virtues2 unhappily too common a failing with the votaries of all religions4 ,they make the outside of the cup and platter clean1 but within they are full of extortion and excess4 ,like whited sepulchres1 they look well enough outside1 but this aspect of righteousness is a mere cloak for hypocrisy and wickedness4 ,they honor ,god with their lips1 but their heart is far from him4#cj ,he uses towards them such designations as these3 ,scribes and ,pharisees1 hypocrites2 you blind guides2 you fools and blind2 thou blind ,pharisee2 you serpents1 you generation of vipers4 ,if we may believe that he was the author of a parable contained only in ,luke1 he used a ,pharisee as his typical hypocrite1 and held up a publican--one of a degraded class--as far superior in genuine virtue to this self-righteous representative of the hated order 7,lu4 xviii4 #i-ad74 ,had the ,pharisees been actually guilty of the exceeding wickedness which ,jesus thought proper to ascribe to them1 his career would surely have been cut short at a much earlier stage4 ,as it was1 they seem to have borne with considerable patience the extreme license which he permitted himself in his language against them4 ,nay1 ,i venture to say that had he confined himself to language1 however strong1 he might have escaped the fate which actually befell him4 ,and the evidence of this proposition is to be found in the extreme mildness with which his apostles were afterwards treated by the ,sanhedrim1 even when they acted in direct disobedience to its orders 7,acts iv4 #ae-ba1 and v4 #bg-db74 ,only ,stephen1 who courted martyrdom by his language1 was put to death1 and that for the legal offense of blasphemy4 ,ordinary prudence would have saved ,jesus4 ,for his arrest was closely connected with his expulsion of the money-changers from the temple court4 ,not indeed that he was condemned to death on that account1 but that this ill-considered deed was the immediate incentive of the legal proceedings1 which subsequently ended1 contrary perhaps to the expectation of his prosecutors1 in his conviction by the ,sanhedrim on a capital charge4 ,let us consider the evidence of this4 ,for the convenience of persons going to pay tribute to the temple1 some money-changers--probably neither better nor worse than others of their trade--sat outside for the purpose of receiving the current ,roman coinage and giving the national money1 which alone the authorities of the temple received in exchange4 ,certain occasions in life requiring an offering of doves1 these too were sold in the precincts of the temple1 obviously to the advantage of the public4 ,had ,jesus disapproved of this practice1 he might have denounced it in public1 and have endeavored to persuade the people to give it up4 ,instead of this1 he entered the temple1 expelled the buyers and sellers 7by what means we do not know71 upset the money-changers' tables and the dove-sellers' seats1 and permitted no one to carry a vessel through the temple4 ,is it not written1 he exclaimed1 ',my house shall be called a house of prayer for all nations8' but you have made it a den of thieves 7,mk4 xi4 #ae-ah2 ,mt4 xxi4 #ab1 #ac2 ,lu4 xix4 #de-dh74 ,the action and the words were alike unjustifiable4 ,the extreme care of the ,jews to preserve the sanctity of their temple is well known from secular history4 ,nothing that they had done or were likely to do could prevent it from remaining a house of prayer4 ,and even if they had suffered it to be desecrated by commerce1 was it1 they would ask1 for ,jesus to fall suddenly upon men who were but pursuing a calling which custom had sanctioned1 and which they had no reason to think illegal or irreligious8 ,was it for him to stigmatize them all indiscriminately as thieves8 ,plainly not4 ,he had1 in their opinion1 exceeded all bounds of decorum1 to say nothing of law1 in this deed of violence and of passion4 ,thus1 there was nothing for it now but to restrain the further excesses he might be tempted to commit4 ,no immediate steps were1 however1 taken to punish this outrage4 ,it is alleged that ,jesus escaped because of the reputation he enjoyed among the people4 ,at any rate1 the course of the authorities was the mildest they could possibly adopt4 ,they contented themselves with asking ,jesus by what authority he did these things1 a question which assuredly they had every right to put4 ,he answered by another question1 promising if they answered it1 he would answer theirs4 ,was ,john's baptism from heaven or from men8 ,hereupon the ,evangelists depict the perplexity which they imagine arose among the priests4 ,if they said1 from heaven1 ,jesus would proceed to ask why they had not received him2 if from men1 they would encounter the popular impression that he was a prophet4 ,all this1 however1 may be mere speculation2 we return within the region of the actual knowledge of the ,evangelists when we come to their answer4 ,and they say in answer to ,jesus1 ',we do not know4' ,and ,jesus says to them1 ',neither do ,i tell you by what authority ,i do these things4' 7,mk4 xi4 #bg-cc2 ,mt4 xxi4 #bc-bg2 ,lu4 xx4 #a-h74 ,observe in this reply the conduct of ,jesus4 ,he had promised the priests that if they answered his question1 he would also answer theirs4 ,they did answer his question as best they could1 and he refused to answer theirs6 ,even in the ,english version1 where the contrast between him and them is disguised by the employment of the same word tell as the translation of two very different verbs in the original1 the distinction between ,we cannot tell and ,i do not1 that is will not tell is palpable enough4 ,but it is far more so in the original4 ,the priests did not by any means decline to answer the question2 they simply said1 what may very likely have been true1 that they did not know whence the baptism of ,john was4 ,in the divided state of public opinion about ,john1 nothing could be more natural4 ,they could not reply decidedly if their feelings were undecided4 ,their reply1 ,we do not know1 was then a perfectly proper one4 ,the corresponding reply on the part of ,jesus would have been1 ,i do not know by what authority ,i do these things2 but this of course it was impossible to give4 ,the chief priests1 scribes and elders had more right to ask ,jesus to produce his authority for his assault than he had to interrogate them about their religious opinions4 ,but ,jesus1 though he had for the moment evaded a difficulty1 must have been well aware that he was not out of danger4 ,he found it necessary to retire to a secret spot1 known only to friends4 ,here1 however1 he was discovered by his opponents1 and brought before the ,sanhedrim to answer to the charges now alleged against his character and doctrine4 ,to some extent these charges are matter of conjecture4 ,the ,gospels intimate that there was much evidence against him which they have not reported4 ,now it is impossible for us to do complete justice to the tribunal which heard the case unless we know the nature and number of the offences of which the prisoner was accused4 ,one of them1 the promise to destroy the temple and rebuild it in three days1 may have presented itself to their minds as an announcement of a serious purpose1 especially after the recent violence done to the traders4 ,however this may be1 there was now sufficient evidence before the court to require the high priest to call upon ,jesus for his reply4 ,he might therefore have made his defense if he had thought proper4 ,he declined to do so4 ,again the high priest addressed him1 solemnly requiring him to say whether he was the ,christ1 the ,son of ,god4 ,jesus admitted that such was his conviction1 and declared that they would afterwards see him return in the clouds of heaven4 ,hereupon the high priest rent his clothes1 and asked what further evidence could be needed4 ,all had heard his blasphemy2 what did they think of it8 ,all of them concurred in condemning him to death 7,mk4 xv4 #ec-fd2 ,mt4 xxvi4 #eg-ff2 ,lu4 xxii4 #ff-ga74 ,the three ,evangelists who report the trial all agree that the blasphemy thus uttered was accepted at once as full and sufficient ground for the conviction of ,jesus4 ,now1 ,i see no reason whatever to doubt that the priests who were thus scandalized by his declaration were perfectly sincere in the horror they professed4 ,all who have at all realized the extremely strong feelings of the ,jews on the subject of ,monotheism1 will easily understand that anything which in the least impugned it would be regarded by them with the utmost aversion4 ,and a man who claimed to be the ,son of ,god certainly detracted somewhat from the sole and exclusive adoration which they considered to be due to ,jehovah4 ,as indeed the event has proved2 for the ,christian ,church soon departed from pure ,monotheism1 adopting the dogma of the ,trinity2 while ,christ along with his ,father1 and even more than his ,father1 became an object of its worship4 ,so that if the ,jews considered it their supreme obligation to preserve the purity of their ,jehovistic faith1 as their ,scriptures taught them to believe it was1 they were right in putting down ,jesus by forcible means4 ,no doubt they were wrong in holding such an opinion4 ,it was not1 in fact1 their duty to guard their faith by persecution4 ,they would have been morally better had they understood the modern doctrine of religious liberty1 unknown as it was to ,christians themselves until some sixteen centuries after the death of ,christ4 ,but for their mistaken notions on this head they were only in part responsible4 ,they had inherited their creed with its profound intolerance4 ,their history1 their legislators1 their prophets1 all conspired to uphold persecution for the maintenance of religious truth4 ,they could not believe in their sacred books1 and disbelieve the propriety of persecution4 ,before they could leave ,jesus at large to teach his subversive doctrines1 they must have ceased to be ,jews2 and this it was impossible for them to do4 ,we must not be too hard upon men whose only crime was that they believed in a false religion4 ,according to the dictates of that religion1 ,jesus ought to have been stoned4 ,but the ,roman supremacy precluded the ,jews from giving effect to their own laws4 ,jesus was therefore taken before the procurator1 and accused of many things4 ,the charge of blasphemy of course would weigh nothing in the mind of a ,roman2 and it is evident that another aspect of the indictment was brought prominently before ,pilate3 namely1 the pretension of ,jesus to be king of the ,jews4 ,as to the substantial truth of this second charge1 we are saved the necessity of discussion1 for ,jesus himself1 when questioned by ,pilate1 at once admitted it4 ,but whether it was made in malice1 and in a somewhat different sense from that in which ,pilate understood it1 is not so clear4 ,jesus at no time1 so far as we know1 put forward any direct claim to immediate temporal dominion4 ,at the same time it must be remembered that the ideas of ,messiahship and possession of the kingdom were so intimately connected in the minds of the ,jews1 that they were probably unable to dissociate them4 ,unfit as ,jesus plainly was for the exercise of the government1 they might well believe that1 if received by any considerable number of the people1 it would be forced upon him as the logical result of his career4 ,nor were these fears unreasonable4 ,his entry into ,jerusalem riding on an ass 7an animal expressly selected as emblematic of his royalty71 with palm-branches strewed before him1 and admirers calling ,hosanna6 as he went1 pointed to a very real and serious danger4 ,another such demonstration might with the utmost ease have passed into a disturbance of the peace1 not to say a tumult1 which the ,romans would have quenched in blood unsparingly and indiscriminatingly shed4 ,jesus was really therefore a dangerous character1 not so much to the ,romans1 as to the ,jews4 ,not being prepared to accept him as their king in fact1 they were almost compelled in self-preservation to denounce him as their would-be king to ,pilate4 ,his execution followed4 ,his supposed resurrection1 and the renewed propagation of his faith1 followed that4 ,it has been widely believed that because ,christianity was not put down by the death of its founder1 because1 indeed1 it burst out again in renewed vigor1 therefore the measures taken against him were a complete failure1 and served only to confer additional glory and power on the religion he had taught4 ,but this opinion arises from a confusion of ideas4 ,if they aimed at preserving their own nation from what they deemed an impious heresy--and ,i see no proof that they aimed at anything else--the ,jewish authorities were perfectly successful4 ,christianity1 which1 if our accounts be true1 threatened to seduce large numbers of people from their allegiance to the orthodox creed1 was practically extinguished among the ,jews themselves by the death of ,christ4 ,they could not possibly believe in a crucified ,messiah4 ,only a very small band of disciples persisted in adhering to ,jesus1 justifying their continued faith by asserting that he had risen from the tomb4 ,but it was no longer among the countrymen of ,jesus1 whom he had especially sought to attach to his person and his doctrine1 that this small remnant of his followers could find their converts4 ,neither then1 nor at any subsequent time1 has ,christianity been able to wean the ,jews from their ancient faith4 ,the number of those who1 from that time to this1 have abandoned it in favor of the more recent religion has been singularly small4 ,if1 as is probable1 there was during the earthly career of ,jesus a growing danger that his teaching might lead to the formation of a sect to which many minds would be attracted1 that danger was completely averted4 ,true1 ,christianity1 when rejected by the ,jews1 made rapid progress among the ,gentiles4 ,but it was no business of the authorities at ,jerusalem to look after the religion of heathen nations4 ,they might have thought1 had they foreseen the future of ,christianity1 that a creed which originated among themselves1 and had in it a large admixture of ,hebrew elements1 was better than the worship of the pagan deities4 ,be this as it may1 the particular form of error which the ,gentiles might embrace was evidently no concern of theirs4 ,but they had a duty1 or thought they had one1 towards their own people1 who looked to them for guidance1 and that was to preserve the religion that had been handed down from their forefathers uncorrupted and unmixed4 ,this they endeavored to do by stifling the new-born heresy of ,jesus before it had become too powerful to be stifled4 ,their measures1 having regard to the end they had in view1 were undoubtedly politic1 and even just4 ,for were they not perfectly right in supposing that faith in ,christ was dangerous to faith in ,moses8 ,the event has proved it beyond possibility of question4 ,not indeed that they could perceive the extent of the peril1 for neither ,jesus nor any of his disciples has ventured then to throw off ,judaism altogether4 ,but they did perceive1 with a perfectly correct insight1 that the ,christians were setting up a new authority alongside of the authorities which alone they recognized1--the ,scriptures and the traditional interpretation of the ,scriptures4 ,and it was precisely the adoption of a new authority which they desired to prevent4 ,so completely was their foresight on this point justified1 that not long after the death of ,christ1 his assumed followers received converts without circumcision1 that all-essential rite2 and that1 after the lapse of no long period of time1 ,judaism was entirely abandoned1 and a new religion1 with new dogmas1 new ritual1 and new observances1 was founded in its place4 ,surely the action of the men who sat in judgment upon ,jesus needs no further justification1 from their own point of view1 than this one consideration4 ,they had no more sacred trust1 in their own eyes1 than to prevent the admission of any other object of worship than the ,lord ,jehovah4 ,christ speedily became among ,christians an object of worship4 ,they owned no more solemn duty than to observe in all its parts the law delivered by their ,god to ,moses4 ,that law was almost instantly abandoned by the ,christian ,church4 ,they knew of no more unpardonable crime than apostasy from their faith4 ,that apostasy was soon committed by the ,jewish ,christians4 ,on all these grounds1 then1 ,i venture to maintain that the spiritual rulers of ,judea were not so blameworthy as has been commonly supposed in the execution of ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,judged by the principles of universal morality1 they were undoubtedly wrong4 ,judged by the principles of their own religion1 they were no less undoubtedly right4 ,,subdivision #e4--,what did he think of himself8 ,having endeavored1 as far as our imperfect information will admit1 to realize the view that would be taken of ,jesus by contemporary ,jews1 let us seek if possible to realize the view which he took of himself4 ,in what relation did he suppose himself to stand to ,god the ,father8 ,and in what relation to the ,hebrew law8 ,what was his conception of his own mission1 and of the manner in which it could best be fulfilled8 ,though1 in replying to these questions1 we suffer somewhat from the scarcity of the materials1 we do not labor under the same disadvantages as those we encountered in the preceding section4 ,for there we had to judge between two bitterly hostile parties1 of which only one had presented its case4 ,and from the highly colored statement of this one party we had to unravel1 as best we could1 whatever circumstances might be permitted to weigh in favor of the other4 ,here we have no conflicting factions to obscure the truth4 ,the opinion formed by ,jesus of himself has been handed down to us by his own disciples1 who1 even if they did not perfectly understand him1 must at least have understood him far better than anybody else4 ,and if the picture they give us of the conception he had formed of his own office be consistent with itself1 there is also the utmost probability that it is true4 ,especially will this hold good if this conception should be found to differ materially from that not long afterwards framed about him by the ,christian ,church4 ,consider first the idea he entertained concerning his ,messianic character1 and his consequent relation to ,god4 ,his conviction that he was the ,messiah1 who was sent with a divine message to his nation1 was evidently the mainspring of his life4 ,it was under this conviction that he worked his cures and preached his sermons4 ,probably it strengthened as he continued in his career1 though of this there is no possible evidence4 ,possibly1 however1 the instructions he gave on several occasions to those whom he had healed1 and once to his disciples1 to tell no man about him1 arose from a certain diffidence about the power by which his miracles were effected 7,e4g41 ,mk4 i4 #dd2 ,mt4 ix4 #cj71 and a reluctance to accept the honor which the populace would have conferred upon him4 ,however this may be1 he certainly put forward his belief on this subject plainly enough1 and its acceptance by his disciples no doubt confirmed it in his own mind1 while its rejection by the nation at large1 especially the more learned portion of it1 gave a flavor of bitterness to the tone in which he insisted upon it4 ,the title by which he habitually designates himself is the ,son of man4 ,this was1 no doubt1 selected as a more modest name than ,son of ,god4 ,the latter was never 7if we exclude the fourth ,gospel7 applied by ,jesus to himself1 but when applied to him by others1 he made no objection to it1 but accepted it as his due4 ,the inference from his behavior is1 that he liked to be thought the ,son of ,god 7as indeed is shown by his eulogy of ,peter when that apostle had so described him7 7,mt4 xvi4 #ag2 vers4 #ah and #ai are probably interpolations71 but that he did not quite venture to claim the title for himself4 ,that he was ever imagined1 either by himself or others1 to be the ,son of ,god in the literal1 materialistic sense in which the term was afterwards understood1 it would be an entire mistake to suppose4 ,no such notion had ever been formulated by the ,jewish mind1 and it would1 no doubt1 have filled his earliest disciples with horror4 ,as ,mr4 ,westcott truly observes1 ,years must elapse before we can feel that the words of one who talked with men were indeed the words of ,god 7,canon of ,new ,testament1 p4 #fd74 ,nor was the ,hebrew ,jehovah the sort of divinity who would have had a son by a young village maiden4 ,proceedings of that kind were left to the heathen deities4 ,nor did ,christ1 in claiming a filial relationship to ,god1 ever intend to claim unity with the divine essence1 still less to assert that he actually was ,god himself4 ,this notion of identity would receive no sanction even from the fourth ,gospel1 which does1 quite unlike its predecessors1 lend some sanction to that of unity in nature4 ,the best proof of this is that ,jesus never1 at any period of his life1 desired his followers to worship him1 either as ,god or as the ,son of ,god4 ,had he believed of himself what his followers subsequently believed of him1 that he was one of the constituent persons in a divine trinity1 he must have enjoined his apostles both to address him in prayer themselves1 and to desire their converts to address him4 ,it is quite plain that he did nothing of the kind1 and that they never supposed him to have done so4 ,belief in ,christ as the ,messiah was taught as the first dogma of apostolic ,christianity1 but adoration of ,christ as ,god was not taught at all4 ,but we are not left in this matter to depend on conjectural inferences4 ,the words of ,jesus are plain4 ,whenever occasion arose1 he asserted his inferiority to the ,father 7as ,milton has proved to demonstration71#ca though1 as no one had then dreamt of his equality1 it is natural that the occasions should not have been frequent4 ,he made himself inferior in knowledge when he said that of the day and hour of the day of judgment no one knew1 neither the angels in heaven1 nor the ,son2 no one except the ,father 7,mk4 xiii4 #cb74 ,he made himself inferior in power when he said that seats on his right hand and on his left in the kingdom of heaven were not his to give 7,mk4 x4 #dj72 inferior in virtue when he desired a certain man not to address him as ,good master1 for there was none good but ,god 7,mk4 x4 #ah74 ,the words of his prayer at ,gethsemane1 all things are possible unto thee1 imply that all things were not possible to him2 while its conclusion1 not what ,i will1 but what thou wilt1 indicates submission to a superior1 not the mere execution of a purpose of his own 7,mk4 xiv4 #cf74 ,indeed1 the whole prayer would have been a mockery1 useless for any purpose but the deception of his disciples1 if he had himself been identical with the ,being to whom he prayed1 and had merely been giving effect by his death to their common counsels4 ,while the cry of agony from the cross1 ,my ,god1 my ,god1 why hast thou forsaken me8 7,mk4 xv4 #cd17 would have been quite unmeaning if the person forsaken and the person forsaking had been one and the same4 ,either1 then1 we must assume that the language of ,jesus has been misreported1 or we must admit that he never for a moment pretended to be co-equal1 co-eternal1 or con-substantial with ,god4 ,throughout his public life he spoke of himself as one who was sent by ,god for a certain purpose4 ,what was that purpose8 ,was it1 as the ,gentile ,christians so readily assumed1 to abolish the laws and customs of the ,jews1 and to substitute others in their stead8 ,did he1 for example1 propose to supplant circumcision by baptism8 the ,sabbath by the ,sunday8 the synagogue by the church8 the ceremonial observances of the law of ,moses by observances of another kind8 ,if so1 let the evidence be produced4 ,for unless we find among his recorded instructions some specific injunction to his disciples that they were no longer to be ,jews1 but ,christians1 we cannot assume that he intended any such revolution4 ,now1 not only can no such injunction be produced1 but the whole course of his life negatives the supposition that any was given4 ,for while teaching much on many subjects1 he never at any time alludes to the ,mosaic dispensation as a temporary arrangement1 destined to yield to a higher law4 ,yet it would surely have been strange if he had left his disciples to guess at his intentions on this all-important subject4 ,moreover1 it came directly in his way when he censured the ,pharisees4 ,he frequently accuses them of overlaying the law with a multitude of unnecessary and troublesome rules2 but while objecting to these1 he never for a moment hints that the very law itself was now to become a thing of the past4 ,quite the reverse4 ,the ,pharisees were very scrupulous about paying tithes and disregarded weightier matters2 these1 he says1 they ought to have done1 and not to have left the other undone4 ,if those tithes were no longer to be paid 7at least not for the same objects71 why does he not say so8 ,again1 he charges them with transgressing the commandment of ,god by their tradition2 where it is the accretions round the law1 and not the law itself1 which he attacks4 ,in one case he even directly imposes an observance of the legal requirements on a man over whom he has influence 7,mk4 i4 #dd74 ,moreover1 he himself evidently continued to perform the obligations of his ,jewish religion until the very end of his life1 for one of his last acts was to eat the passover with his disciples4 ,the only institution which he apparently desires to alter at all is the ,sabbath1 and there it is plain that he aims at an amendment in the mode of its observance1 not at its entire abolition4 ,indeed1 he justifies his disciples by invoking the example of ,david1 an orthodox ,hebrew2 and very happily remarks1 that the ,sabbath was made for man1 not man for the ,sabbath--one of his best and most epigrammatic sayings4 ,but an institution made for man was indeed one to be rationally observed1 but by no means one to be lightly tampered with4 ,jesus1 in fact1 was altogether a ,jew1 and though an ardent reformer1 he desired to reform within the limits of ,judaism1 not beyond them4 ,if further proof were needed of this than the fact that he himself neither abandoned the religion of his birth1 nor sought to obtain disciples except among those who belonged to it1 it would be found in his treatment of the heathen woman whose daughter was troubled with a devil4 ,to her he distinctly declared that he was not sent except to the lost sheep of the house of ,israel4 ,in reply to her further persistence1 he told her that it was not well to take the children's meat and throw it to dogs4 ,nothing but her appropriate yet modest answer induced him to accede to her request 7,mt4 xv4 #ba-bh74 ,further confirmation is afforded by his instructions to his disciples1 whom he desired not to go either to the ,gentiles or the ,smaritans1 but to the lost sheep of the house of ,israel 7,mt4 x4 #e1 #f74 ,his own practice was altogether in conformity with these instructions4 ,he markedly confined the benefits of his teaching to his fellow-countrymen4 ,once only is he said to have visited the neighborhood of ,tyre and ,sidon1 and then he was anxious to preserve the strictest incognito 7,mk4 vii4 #bd74 ,even when the ,jews refused to believed in him1 he sought no converts among the ,gentiles4 ,he never even intimated that he would receive such converts without their previous adoption of the ,jewish faith1 and after his decease his most intimate disciples were doubtful whether it was lawful to associate with uncircumcised people 7,acts x4 #bh2 xi4 #b1 #c74 ,not only1 therefore1 had he himself never done so1 but he had left no instructions behind him that such a relaxation of ,jewish scruples might ever be permitted4 ,true1 when disappointed among his own people1 he now and then contrasted them in unflattering terms with the heathen4 ,chorazin and ,bethsaida were worse than ,tyre and ,sidon2 ,capernaum less open to conviction than ,sodom 7,mt4 xi4 #bj-bd74 ,the faith of the heathen centurion was greater than any he had found in ,israel 7,mt4 viii4 #aj74 ,but all these expressions of embittered feeling imply that it was in ,israel he had looked for faith1 towards ,israel that his desires were turned4 ,to discover faith out of it might be an agreeable surprise1 but as a general rule1 was neither to be expected nor sought4 ,having1 then1 determined1 what the purport of his mission was not1 let us try to discover what it was4 ,the quest is not difficult4 ,the whole of his teaching is pervaded by one ever-recurring keynote1 which those who have ears to hear it cannot miss4 ,he came to announce the approach of what he termed the kingdom of heaven4 ,a great revolution was to take place on earth4 ,god was to come1 accompanied by ,jesus1 to reward the virtuous and to punish the wicked4 ,a totally new order of things was to be substituted in lieu of the present unjust and unequal institutions4 ,and ,jesus was sent by ,god to warn the children of ,israel to prepare for this kingdom of heaven4 ,there was but little time to lose1 for even now the day of judgment was at hand4 ,the mind of ,jesus was laden with this one great thought1 to which1 with him1 all others were subordinate4 ,it runs through his maxims of conduct1 his parables1 his familiar converse with his disciples4 ,far from him was the notion of founding a new religion1 to be extended throughout the world and to last for ages4 ,it was a work of much more immediate urgency which he came to do4 ,prepare for the kingdom of heaven1 for it will come upon you in the present generation2 such was the burden of his message4 ,let us hear his own mode of delivering it to men4 ,the very beginning of his preaching1 according to ,mark1 was in this strain3 ,the time is fulfilled1 and the kingdom of ,god has approached2 repent1 and believe the ,gospel 7,mk4 i4 #ae74 ,precisely similar is the purport of his earliest doctrine according to ,matthew 7,mt4 iv4 #g74 ,how thoroughly he believed that the time was fulfilled is shown by his decided declaration that there were some among his hearers who would not taste of death till they had seen the kingdom of ,god come with power 7,mk4 ix4 #a71 a saying which1 as it would never have been invented1 is undoubtedly genuine4 ,he told his disciples that ,elias1 who was expected to precede the kingdom of heaven1 had already come 7,mk4 ix4 #ac74 ,over and over again1 in a hundred different ways1 this absorbing thought finds expression in his language4 ,the one and only message the disciples are instructed to carry to the lost sheep of the house of ,israel is that the kingdom of heaven is at hand 7,mt4 x4 #ag74 ,when a city does not receive them1 they are to wipe off the dust of it against them1 and bid them be sure that the kingdom of ,god is near them 7,lu4 x4 #aa74 ,in the coming judgment1 ,chorazin1 ,bethsaida1 and above all his own place ,capernaum1 were to suffer more than ,tyre and ,sidon4 ,earthly matters assume1 in consequence of this conviction of their temporary nature1 a very trivial aspect4 ,the disciples are to take no thought for the morrow2 the morrow will take thought for itself4 ,nor are they to trouble themselves about food and clothing1 but to seek first the kingdom of ,god 7,mt4 vi4 #ca-cd74 ,they are not to lay up treasure on earth1 but in heaven1 in order that their hearts may be there 7,mt4 vi4 #ai-ba74 ,moreover1 they must be always on the watch1 as the ,son of man will come upon them at an unexpected hour4 ,it would not do then to be engaged as the wicked antediluvians were when overtaken by the flood1 in the occupations of eating and drinking1 or marrying and giving in marriage4 ,instead of this1 they must be like the faithful servant whom his master on returning to his house found watching 7,mt4 xxiv4 #ch1 #db1 #dc2 ,lu4 xii4 #cg1 #ch74 ,preparation is to be made for the kingdom which their ,father will give them by selling what they have and bestowing alms1 so laying up an incorruptible treasure2 by keeping their loins girded and their lights burning 7,lu4 xii4 #cb74 ,neglect of these precautions will be punished by exclusion from the joys of the kingdom1 as shown in the parable of the ten virgins 7,mt4 xxv4 #a-ac74 ,but the indications of the great event are not understood by the people1 who are able to read the signs of the coming weather1 but not those of the times 7,lu4 xii4 #ed-eg72 an inability which might have been due to the fact that they had had some experience of the one kind of signs and none of the other4 ,on another occasion1 he observes that the law and the prophets were till ,john2 since then the kingdom of ,god has been preached1 and every man presses into it 7,lu4 xvi4 #af74 ,here he specially proclaims himself as the preacher of the kingdom2 the man who brought mankind this new revelation4 ,such was the manner in which this revelation was announced1 that some at least of those who heard him thought that the kingdom was to come immediately4 ,to counteract this view he told the parable of the nobleman who went from home to receive a kingdom1 leaving his servants in charge of certain monies1 and rewarded them on his return according to the amount of interest they had obtained by usury1 punishing one of them who had made no use of the sum intrusted to him 7,lu4 xix4 #aa-bg74 ,he himself1 of course1 was the nobleman who received his kingdom and returned again to judge his servants4 ,so urgent was the message he had to deliver1 that 7according to one ,evangelist7 a man who wished to bury his father before joining him was told to let the dead bury their dead1 but to go himself and announce the kingdom of ,god2 while another1 who asked leave to bid farewell to his family1 was warned that no man1 having put his hand to the plough1 and looking back1 was fit for that kingdom 7,lu4 ix4 #eh-fb74 ,the arrival of the kingdom was to be preceded by various signs4 ,there would be false ,christs2 there would be wars1 earthquakes1 and famines2 there would be persecutions of the faithful2 but the ,gospel 7that is1 the announcement of the approach of this new state of things7 must first be published in all nations4#cb ,then the sun and moon would be darkened and the stars fall2 the ,son of man would come in power and glory1 and gather his elect from all parts of the earth4 ,the existing generation was not to pass till all these things were done4 ,not even the ,son knew when this would happen2 but as it might come suddenly and unexpectedly upon them1 they were to be continually on the watch 7,mk4 xiii42 ,mt4 xxiv74 ,the apostles would not even finish the cities of ,israel before the ,son of man had come 7,mt4 x4 #bc74 ,little is said in description of the nature of the kingdom of heaven except by the method of illustration4 ,the main result to be gathered from numerous allusions to it is that justice is to prevail4 ,thus1 the kingdom of heaven is said to be like a man who sowed good seed in his field1 but in whose property an enemy maliciously mingled tares4 ,at the harvest the tares are to be burnt1 and the wheat gathered into the barn4 ,this parable ,jesus himself explained4 ,the tares are the wicked2 the wheat represents the children of the kingdom4 ,and as tares are burnt1 so the ,son of man shall send his angels1 and collect from his kingdom all offenses1 and those who do wickedness1 and shall throw them into the furnace of fire2 there shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth4 ,then the just shall shine out like the sun in the kingdom of their ,father4 ,the same idea is expressed in the illustration of the net cast into the sea1 which gathers good fish and bad4 ,just as the fishermen separate these1 so the angels at the end of the world will separate the wicked from the midst of the just4 ,other comparisons represent the influence on the heart of faith in the kingdom4 ,thus1 the kingdom of heaven is like a grain of mustard seed1 which1 though the smallest of seeds1 becomes the largest of herbs4 ,or it is like leaven leavening three measures of meal4 ,again1 it is like treasure hid in a field1 or a pearl of great price 7,mt4 xiii4 #bd-ej74 ,the best qualification for preminence in the kingdom was humility4 ,when asked who was to be greatest in the kingdom of heaven1 ,jesus replied that it would be he who humbled himself like a little child 7,mt4 xviii4 #a-d74 ,he delights in the exhibition of striking contrasts between the present and the future state of things4 ,the first are to be the last1 and the last first4 ,those who have made great sacrifices now are then to receive vast rewards 7,mk4 x4 #bi-ca74 ,he who has lost his life for his sake is to find it1 and he who has found it is to lose it 7,mt4 x4 #ci74 ,the stone rejected by the builder is to become the head of the corner 7,mk4 xii4 #aj74 ,the kingdom of ,god is to be taken from the privileged nation and given to another more worthy of it 7,mt4 xxi4 #dc74 ,publicans and harlots are to take precedence of the respectable classes in entering the kingdom 7,mt4 xxi4 #ca74 ,it is scarcely possible for rich men to enter it at all1 though ,god may perhaps admit them by an extraordinary exertion of power 7,mk4 x4 #bc-bg74 ,many even who trust in their high character for correct religion will find themselves rejected4 ,but they will be safe who have both heard the sayings of ,jesus and done them4 ,they will have built their houses on rocks1 from which the storms which usher in the kingdom will not dislodge them4 ,those1 however1 who hear these sayings1 and neglect to perform them1 will be like foolish men who have built their houses on sand1 where the storms will beat them down1 and great will be their fall 7,mt4 vii4 #bb-bi74 ,that the kingdom is to be on earth1 not in some unknown heaven1 is manifest from the numerous references of ,jesus to the time when the ,son of man will come2 a time which none can know1 yet for which all are to watch4 ,he never speaks of men going to the kingdom of heaven2 it is the kingdom of heaven which is to come to them4 ,and the most remarkable of the many contrasts will be that between the present humiliation of the ,son and his future glory4 ,he will return to execute his ,father's decrees4 ,his judges themselves will see him sitting on the right hand of power1 and coming in the clouds of heaven 7,mt4 xxvi4 #fd74 ,instead of standing as a prisoner at the bar1 he will then be enthroned as a judge4 ,when the ,son of man shall come in his glory1 and all the angels with him1 then he shall sit on the throne of his glory2 and all the nations shall be collected before him1 and he shall separate them from one another1 as the shepherd separates the sheep from the goats2 and he shall put the sheep on his right hand1 but the goats on his left4 ,the goats1 who have done harm1 are then to go into everlasting punishment2 and the sheep1 who have done good1 are to pass into eternal life 7,mt4 xxv4 #ca-df74 ,this equitable adjustment of rewards and punishments to merit and demerit is the leading conception in the revolution which the kingdom of heaven is to make4 ,the faithful servant is to be made ruler over his master's goods2 the unfaithful one to be cut off and assigned a portion with the hypocrites4 ,the virgins whose lamps are ready burning will be admitted to the marriage festival4 ,the servants who make the best use of the property committed to their charge will be rewarded1 while those who have failed to employ it properly will be cast into outer darkness 7,mt4 xxiv4 #db-xxv4 #cj74 ,so also the wicked husbandmen in the vineyard1 who ill treated their master's servants and killed his heir1 are to be destroyed when he comes1 and the vineyard is to be committed to other cultivators 7,mk4 xii4 #a-i74 ,all those1 on the other hand1 who have made great sacrifices for the sake of ,christ will receive a hundred-fold compensation for all that they have now abandoned 7,mt4 xix4 #bi1 #cj74 ,such was the sort of notion--rude1 yet tolerably definite--which ,jesus had formed of the kingdom his ,father was about to found1 and for the coming of which he taught his disciples to pray4 ,this hope of a reign of justice1 of an exaltation of the lowly and virtuous1 and a depression of the proud and wicked1 animated his teaching and inspired his life4 ,to make known this great event1 so shortly to overtake them1 to mankind1 was a duty with which in his opinion he had been charged by ,god2 to receive this message at his hands was in his judgment the first of virtues1 to spurn it the most unpardonable of crimes4 ,,subdivision #f4--,what did his disciples think of him8 ,there is on record a remarkable conversation which affords us a glimpse1 both of the rumors that were current about ,christ among the people1 and also of the view taken of him by his nearest friends during his life-time4 ,jesus had gone with his disciples into the towns of ,csarea ,philippi4 ,on the way1 being apparently curious about the state of public opinion1 he asked them1 ,whom do men say that ,i am8 ,to this they replied1 ,john the ,baptist2 and some say ,elias1 and others that thou art one of the prophets4 ,to which ,jesus rejoined1 ,but you1 whom say you that ,i am8 ,peter returned the answer1 ,thou art the ,messiah2 or ,thou art the ,messiah1 the ,son of the living ,god4 ,it is remarkable that ,peter alone is represented as replying to this second question1 as if the others had not yet attained to the conviction which this apostle held of the ,messiahship of ,jesus4 ,especially would this conclusion be confirmed if we adopted the version of ,matthew1 where ,jesus expresses his high approbation of ,peter's answer 7,mk4 viii4 #bg-cj2 ,mt4 xvi4 #ac-bj74 ,if this apostle was peculiarly blessed on account of his perception of this truth1 it may be inferred that his companions had either not yet perceived1 or were not yet sure of it4 ,that ,peter did not mean by calling him the ,messiah to state that he was a portion of the deity himself1 is evident from what follows2 for ,jesus having predicted his future sufferings1 ,peter began to rebuke him1 anxious to avert the omen4 ,had he believed that it was ,god himself with whom he was conversing1 he could hardly have ventured to question his perfect knowledge of the future4 ,the doctrine of the divinity of ,christ is not1 in fact1 to be found in the ,new ,testament4 ,even the writer of the fourth ,gospel1 who holds the highest and most mystical view of his nature1 does not teach that4 ,often indeed in that ,gospel does ,jesus speak of himself as one with the ,father4 ,but the dogmatic force of all these expressions is measured by the fact that precisely in the same sense he speaks of the disciples as one with himself4 ,as the ,father and he are in one another1 so he prays that the disciples may be one in them 7,jo4 xvii4 #ba74 ,moreover1 when the ,jews charged him with making himself ,god1 he met them by inquiring whether it was not written in their law1 ,i said1 ,ye are gods4 ,if1 then1 those to whom the word of ,god came were called gods1 was it blasphemy in him1 whom the ,father had sanctified and sent1 to say1 ,i am the ,son of ,god8 7,jo4 x4 #cc-cg74 ,here1 then1 the term which ,jesus appropriates is ,son of ,god1 and this he considers admissible because the ,hebrew people generally had been called gods4 ,evidently1 then1 he does not admit the charge of making himself ,god4 ,the authority of the fourth ,gospel is1 of course1 of no value in enabling us to determine what ,jesus said or did1 but it is of great value as evidence of the view taken about him by those of his disciples who1 at this early period1 had advanced the furthest in the direction of placing him on a level with ,god himself4 ,it is either the latest1 or one of the latest1 compositions in the ,new ,testament1 and it proves that1 at the period when its author lived1 even the boldest spirits had not ventured on the dogma which afterwards became the corner-stone of the ,christian creed4 ,throughout the rest of the canonical books1 ,jesus is simply the ,messiah1 the ,son of ,god2 in whom1 in that sense1 it is a duty to believe4 ,whoever believes this much is1 according to the first epistle of ,john1 born of ,god 7#a ,john v4 #a74 ,clearer still is the evidence that1 in the opinion of those most competent to judge1 ,jesus had no intention of abolishing the observance of the law of ,moses4 ,so far were his disciples from imagining that he contemplated any such change1 that they were at first in doubt whether it was allowable for them even to relax the rules which forbade social intercourse with heathens4 ,the writer of the ,acts of the ,apostles1 however1 informs us that1 when an important convert was to be won over from the pagan ranks1 ,peter had the privilege of a vision which enjoined him not to call anything which ,god had cleansed common or unclean4 ,interpreting this to mean that he might associate with the ,gentiles1 he received the heathen convert1 ,cornelius1 with all cordiality1 and even preached the gospel of ,jesus to the uncircumcised company by whom he was surrounded4 ,that this was a novel measure is plainly evinced by the fact that the ,jewish ,christians who were present were astonished that the gift of the ,holy ,ghost should be poured out upon the ,gentiles4 ,they therefore had conceived that ,christianity was to be confined to themselves 7,acts x74 ,but there is more direct evidence of the same fact4 ,when ,peter returned to ,jerusalem1 the circumcised believers there found fault with him because he had gone in to uncircumcised men1 and had eaten with them4 ,peter1 of course1 related his vision in self-defense1 and since there was no reply to be made to such an argument as this1 they accepted the new and unexpected fact which he announced3 ,well1 then1 ,god has given repentance to life to the ,gentiles also 7,acts xi4 #a-ah74 ,paul1 who was too strong-minded to need a revelation to teach him the best way of promoting ,christian interests1 also received heathen converts without requiring them to come under ,jewish obligations4 ,but the conduct of these apostles was far from meeting with unmixed approbation in the community4 ,some men from ,judea came to ,antioch1 where ,paul and ,barnabas were1 and informed the brethren there that unless they were circumcised they could not be saved4 ,so important was this question deemed1 that ,paul and ,barnabas1 after much disputing with these ,judaic ,christians1 agreed to go with them to ,jerusalem to refer the matter to a council of the apostles and elders4 ,obviously1 then1 it was a new case which had arisen4 ,no authoritative dictum of ,jesus could be produced4 ,the possibility of having to receive heathens among his disciples was one he had never contemplated4 ,called to deal with this supremely important question1 on which the whole future of the ,church turned1 the apostles displayed moderation and good sense4 ,acting on the concurrent advice of ,peter1 ,paul1 ,james1 and ,barnabas1 they wrote to the brethren in ,antioch1 ,syria1 and ,cilicia1 that they had determined to lay no greater burden upon them than these necessary things3--#a4 ,abstinence from meat offered to idols2 #b4 from blood2 #c4 from things strangled2 #d4 from fornication4 ,hence it will be seen that they absolved the heathen believers from all ,jewish observances except two1 those that forbade blood and things strangled4 ,these1 from long habit and the fixed prejudices of their race1 no doubt appeared to them to have some deeper foundation than a mere arbitrary command4 ,these therefore they enjoined even upon pagans 7,acts xv4 #a-ca74 ,be it observed1 however1 that this dispensation applied only to those who were not of ,hebrew blood4 ,the apostles and elders assembled at ,jerusalem had no thought of dispensing themselves from the binding force of the law of ,moses4 ,to observe it was alike their privilege and their duty4 ,they did not conceive that1 in becoming ,christians1 they had ceased to be ,jews1 any more than a ,catholic who becomes a ,protestant conceives that he has ceased to be a ,christian4 ,the question whether those who had been born ,jews should abandon their ancient religion was not even raised at this time among them4 ,the only question was whether those who had not been born ,jews should adopt it4 ,innovation1 however1 is not to be arrested at any given point4 ,liberty having been conceded to the ,gentiles1 it was not unnatural that some of the apostles1 when living among the ,gentiles1 should take advantage of it for themselves4 ,no overt rule was adopted on this subject4 ,it seems to have been tacitly understood that all ,jews should continue to be bound by the rigor of their native customs1 except in so far as they had been modified by common consent3 and the attempt of some to escape from this burden was an occasion of no small scandal to the more orthodox members of the sect 7,acts xxi4 #bj2 ,gal4 ii4 #ab74 ,both ,peter and ,paul indeed1 at separate times1 were compelled to make some concessions to the extremely strong feeling in favor of the law which existed at headquarters4 ,the conduct of these two eminent apostles merits examination4 ,peter1 it appears1 never gave up ,judaism in his own person2 but when staying at ,antioch he mixed freely with ,gentiles1 making no attempt to impose the law upon them1 and approving of the proceedings of ,paul4 ,it so happened1 however1 that there came to ,antioch some brethren from ,james at ,jerusalem4 ,these men were strict ,jews1 and ,peter was so much afraid of them1 that he withdrew and separated himself from his former companions4 ,the other ,jewish ,christians1 and even ,barnabas1 the former friend of ,paul1 were induced to act in the same way4 ,paul1 who was not likely to lose the opportunity of a little triumph over ,peter1 ruthlessly exposed his misconduct4 ,according to his account1 he publicly addressed him in these terms3 ,if thou1 being a ,jew1 livest like a ,gentile and not like a ,jew1 why dost thou compel the ,gentiles to be like ,jews8 7,gal4 ii4 #aa-ad474 ,what answer ,peter returned1 or whether he returned any1 ,paul does not inform us4 ,his charge against ,peter ,i understand to be1 not that the apostle had positively adopted heathen customs1 and then taken up ,jewish ones again1 but that he had relaxed in his own favor the rules which forbade ,jews from eating with ,gentiles4 ,on the appearance of the stricter ,christians from ,jerusalem he put on the appearance of a strictness equal to their own4 ,such conduct was consistent with the character of the disciple who had denied his master4 ,paul himself1 on the other hand1 was a complete freethinker4 ,once converted1 the system of which he had formerly been the zealous upholder no longer had any power over his emancipated mind4 ,his robust and logical intellect soon delivered him from the fetters in which he had been bound4 ,far1 however1 from following his example1 the ,christians at ,jerusalem were shocked at the laxity of his morals4 ,the steps he took to conciliate them are graphically described in the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,on visiting the capital1 ,paul and his companions went to see ,james1 with whom were assembled all the elders2 and ,paul described the success he had met with among the ,gentiles4 ,hereupon the assembled company1 or more probably ,james as their spokesman1 informed ,paul what very disadvantageous reports were current concerning him4 ,thou seest1 brother1 they began1 how many thousands of believers there are among the ,jews1 and all are zealots for the law2 and they have been informed of thee that thou teachest the ,jews among the ,gentiles apostasy from ,moses1 saying that they should not circumcise their children1 nor walk in the customs4 ,what is it1 then8 ,it is quite necessary that the multitude should meet1 for they will hear that thou art come4 ,do then this that we tell thee4 ,we have four men who have a vow upon them2 take these and be purified with them1 and bear the expense with them of having their heads shaven2 and all will know that there is nothing in what they have heard about thee1 but that thou also walkest in the observation of the law 7,acts xxi4 #bj-bd74 ,this sensible advice was adopted by ,paul2 and the zealots for the law1 who composed the ,christian community at ,jerusalem1 had the satisfaction of seeing him purify himself and enter the temple with the men under the vow4 ,on a later occasion1 too1 when charged with crime before ,felix1 ,paul mentioned the fact that twelve days ago he had gone up to worship at ,jerusalem1 as if he had been an orthodox ,jew 7,acts xxiv4 #aa74 ,but although he might think it expedient to satisfy ,james and his friends at ,jerusalem by a concession to public opinion1 the rumor which had reached the brethren there1 if unfounded in the letter1 was in fact an accurate representation of the inevitable outcome of ,paul's teaching4 ,possibly he did not wish to press his own views upon others of his nation1 and therefore did not interfere with such of them as1 though living among heathens1 yet adhered religiously to their national customs4 ,but unquestionably his own feelings were strongly enlisted in favor of the abolition of the law1 and if the ,jewish ,christians read and accepted his writings1 they could hardly fail to adopt his practice4 ,the law in his opinion was no longer necessary for those who believed in ,christ4 ,he is not the true ,jew who is one outwardly1 nor is that the true circumcision which is outward4 ,he is a ,jew who is so internally1 and circumcision is of the heart in the spirit1 not in the letter4 ,if it be asked what advantage the ,jew has1 ,paul replies that he has much3 the first of all1 that to his nation were confided the oracles of ,god 7,rom4 ii4 #bh1 #bi1 iii4 #a1 #b74 ,he knows1 he says1 and is persuaded in the ,lord ,jesus1 that there is nothing unclean in itself1 though to him who thinks it so it may be unclean4 ,it is well to abstain from eating flesh or drinking wine1 or anything else that may give offense to others1 but these things are all unimportant in themselves4 ,one man esteems one day above another2 another man esteems them all alike2 let each be fully persuaded in his own mind4 ,only let us not judge one another1 nor put stumbling-blocks in one another's way 7,rom4 xiv74 ,from these considerations it appears that the suspicions entertained of ,paul at ,jerusalem were substantially true4 ,possibly he did not absolutely teach the ,jews to abandon the law2 possibly he did not even completely abandon it himself4 ,but in his writings he constantly treats it as a thing indifferent in itself2 ,christians might or might not believe in its obligations1 and provided they acted conscientiously1 all was well4 ,along with these very skeptical opinions1 however1 ,paul strongly held to the necessity of worldly prudence4 ,he is very indignant with the false brethren privily introduced1 who slipped in to spy out the liberty we have in ,jesus ,christ1 that they might enslave us2 to whom1 he adds1 we did not yield by subjection even for an hour 7,gal4 ii4 #d1 #e74 ,but whether the brethren at ,jerusalem required him to clear himself from the report that he was not an observer of the law1 there came in another principle of action1 which he has himself explained with praiseworthy frankness4 ,to the ,jews1 he tells the ,corinthians1 ,i became as a ,jew1 that ,i might gain the ,jews2 to those under the law as under the law1 not being myself under the law1 that ,i might gain those under the law2 to those without law1 as without law 7not being without law to ,god1 but law-abiding to ,christ71 that ,i might gain those without law2 to the weak ,i became weak1 that ,i might gain the weak2 ,i became all things to all men1 that by all means ,i might save some 7#a ,cor4 ix4 #bj-bb74 ,acting on this elastic rule1 ,paul might easily comply with all the demands of ,james and his zealots4 ,to the ,jews he became a ,jew for the nonce4 ,it was perhaps in the same spirit of worldly wisdom that he took the precaution of circumcising a young convert who was ,jewish only on the mother's side1 his father having been a ,greek 7,acts xvi4 #a-c74 ,while such was the conduct of this strong-minded reformer1 it is plain that his attitude towards the law was not shared by the personal friends of ,jesus4 ,james at ,jerusalem adhered strictly to ,judaism4 ,the other apostles1 so far as we know1 did the same4 ,the rest of the brethren there did the same4 ,paul was tolerated1 and even cordially received1 as the apostle of the ,gentiles1 but it does not appear that he had any following among the ,jews4 ,had any of the original apostles followed him in his bold innovations1 he would surely have mentioned the fact1 as he has mentioned the partial adhesion of ,peter4 ,on the contrary1 he seems in his epistles1 when attacking the ,judaic type of ,christianity1 to be arguing as much against them as against the unchristian ,jews or the heathen4 ,stronger evidence than mere inference is1 however1 obtainable on this point4 ,the ,jewish ,christians1 who had received their doctrines direct from the companions of ,jesus1 soon came to form a sect apart1 and were known by the name of ,ebionites4 ,of these men1 ,irenus tells us that they use the ,gospel according to ,matthew only1 and repudiate the apostle ,paul1 maintaining that he was an apostate from the law4 ,moreover1 they practice circumcision1 persevere in the observance of those customs which are enjoined by the law1 and are so ,judaic in their style of life1 that they even adore ,jerusalem as if it were the house of ,god 7,adv4 ,hr4 i4 #bf74 ,it was a strange fate that befell these unfortunate people1 when1 overwhelmed by the flood of heathenism that had swept into the ,church1 they were condemned as heretics4 ,yet there is no evidence that they had ever swerved from the doctrines of ,jesus1 or of the disciples who knew him in his life-time4 ,jesus himself had been circumcised1 and he certainly never condemned the rite1 or spoke of it as useless for the future4 ,he was so ,judaic in his style of life that he reverenced the temple at ,jerusalem as a house of prayer for all nations1 and deemed it his special duty to purify it from what he regarded as pollution4 ,but the torrent of progress swept past the ,ebionites1 and left them stranded on the shore4 ,should the position here maintained with reference to the ,judaic character of the early ,christians be thought to require further confirmation1 ,i should find it in the weighty words of a theologian who1 while entirely ,christian in his views1 is also one of the highest authorities on the history of the ,church4 ,neander1 speaking of this question1 observes that the disciples did not at once arrive at the consciousness of that vocation which ,christ 7in his opinion7 had indicated to them1 namely1 that they should form a distinct community from that of the ,jews4 ,on the contrary1 they attached themselves to this community in every respect1 and all the forms of the national theocracy were holy to them4 ,they lived in the conviction that these forms would continue as they were till the return of ,christ1 by which a new and higher order of things was to be founded2 and this change they expected as one that was near at hand4 ,far from them1 therefore1 lay the thought of the foundation of a new cultus1 even if from the light of belief in the ,redeemer new ideas had dawned upon them about that which belonged to the essence of the true adoration of ,god4 ,they took part as zealously in the service of the temple as any pious ,jews4 ,only they believed that a sifting would take place among the theocratic people1 and that the better part of it would be incorporated in their community by the recognition of ,jesus as the ,messiah 7,neander1 ,pflanzung der ,christlichen ,kirche1 vol4 i4 p4 #ch74 ,neander proceeds to point out--and here too his remarks are valuable--that the outward forms of ,judaism gave facilities for the formation of such smaller bodies within the general body1 by means of the division into synagogues4 ,the ,christians1 therefore1 constituted merely a special synagogue1 embraced within the mass of believers who all accepted the law of ,moses1 all worshiped at the temple of ,jerusalem4 ,it will be seen1 however1 that ,i differ from ,neander in so far as he supposes that the members of the ,christian synagogue1 in adhering to ,judaism1 were neglecting any indications given by their founder4 ,on the contrary1 it appears to me a more reasonable explanation of their conduct that the founder himself had never contemplated that entire emancipation from ,judaic forms which was soon to follow4 ,on these two points1 then--the humanity of ,jesus and his ,judaism--the early history of the ,church affords our position all possible support4 ,how is it about the third--his announcement of a kingdom of heaven soon to come8 ,paul must have derived his doctrine on this point1 whatever it was1 from those who were disciples of ,christ before him1 for it does not appear that he had any special revelation on the subject4 ,let us hear what was the impression made upon his mind by their report of the teaching of ,jesus4 ,we do not wish you to be ignorant1 brethren--so he writes to the ,thessalonians--that you may not grieve like the rest who have no hope4 ,for if we believe that ,jesus died and rose again1 thus also will ,god bring those who sleep through ,jesus4 ,for this we say to you by the word of the ,lord 7,paul therefore is speaking with all the authority of his apostolic commission71 that we who are alive and are left for the coming of the ,lord shall not take precedence of those who are asleep4 ,for the ,lord himself shall descend from heaven with the word of command1 with the voice of the archangel1 and with the trumpet of ,god1 and the dead in ,christ will rise first4 ,then we who are alive and are left shall be snatched with them in the clouds to meet the ,lord in the air1 and thus we shall always be with the ,lord 7#a ,thess4 iv4 #ac-ag74 ,clearer than this it is difficult to be4 ,there can be no question whatever1 unless we put an arbitrary significance on these words1 that ,paul looked for the second coming of ,christ and the final judgment long before the existing generation had passed away4 ,some will fall asleep before that day1 but he fully expects that he himself and many of those whom he is addressing will be alive to witness it4 ,so confident is he of this1 that he even describes the order in which the faithful will proceed to join their ,lord1 the dead taking a higher rank than the living4 ,he differs from ,jesus1 and probably from the other apostles1 in placing the kingdom of heaven somewhere in the clouds1 and not on earth4 ,but he entirely agrees with them as to the date of the revolution4 ,quite consistent with the above passage is another 7of which1 however1 the correct reading is doubtful73 ,we shall not all sleep1 but we shall all be changed4 ,filled with the like hope1 he prays that the spirit1 mind1 and body of the ,thessalonians may be preserved blameless to the coming of ,christ 7#a ,thess4 v4 #bc74 ,and he comforts them in a subsequent letter by the promise that they who are troubled shall have rest with us in the revelation of the ,lord ,jesus from heaven with the angels of his power 7#b ,thess4 i4 #g74 ,while1 in writing to the ,corinthians1 he speaks of the existing generation as those upon whom the ends of the ages have come4 ,not less clear is the language of the other apostles4 ,peter on that memorable day of ,pentecost when the apostles exhibit the gift of tongues1 and some irreverent spectators are led to charge them with inebriety1 explains to the assembly that the scene which had just been witnessed was characteristic of the last days1 as foretold by the prophet ,joel4 ,in those days their sons and their daughters were to prophesy1 their young men to see visions1 and their old men to dream dreams2 the ,spirit was to be poured out on ,god's servants and handmaidens2 there were to be signs and wonders2 blood1 fire1 and smoke2 the sun was to be turned into darkness1 and the moon into blood2 and whoever called on the name of the ,lord was to be saved4 ,thus ,peter1 than whom there could be no higher authority as to the mind of ,christ1 applied to his own time the prophetic description of the day of the ,lord given by ,joel 7,acts ii4 #ad-ba74 ,james exhorts his disciples not to be in too great a hurry for the arrival of ,christ4 ,they are to imitate the husbandman waiting for the ripening of his crops4 ,be you also patient3 confirm your hearts2 for the coming of the ,lord draws near 7,james v4 #g1 #h74 ,the author of the first epistle of ,peter distinctly informs the ,christian community that the end of all things is at hand4 ,and he warns them not to think it strange concerning the fiery trial which is to try them1 but rejoice1 inasmuch as you share in the sufferings of ,christ2 that in the revelation of his glory you may also rejoice with exceeding joy 7#a ,pet4 iv4 #g1 #ab1 #ac74 ,further on he promises that when the chief ,shepherd appears1 they shall receive the unfading crown of glory 7#a ,pet4 v4 #d74 ,in the first epistle of ,john the disciples are thus exhorted3 ,and now1 little children1 remain in him1 that when he comes we may have boldness1 and may not be ashamed before him at his coming 7#a ,jo4 ii4 #bh74 ,in the next chapter he tells them that1 when he appears we shall be like him1 for we shall see him as he is 7#a ,jo4 iii4 #b74 ,of the ,apocalypse it cannot be necessary to speak in detail4 ,the one great thought that inspires it from beginning to end is that of the speedy return of ,jesus1 accompanied as it will be by the judgment of the wicked1 the reward of the faithful1 and the establishment of a new heaven and a new earth far more glorious and more beautiful than those that are to pass away4 ,the end of the book is conclusive as to its meaning3 ,i1 ,jesus1 have sent my angel to testify these things to you in the churches4 ,he that testifies these things says1 ',surely ,i come quickly4 ,so be it2 come1 ,lord ,jesus' 7,rev4 xxii4 #af1 #bj74 ,there is another passage bearing on this subject1 which1 as it appears to have been written at a later date than any of those hitherto quoted1 may best be considered last4 ,it is found in the second epistle attributed to ,peter4 ,the epistle was probably written after the first generation of ,christians had passed away1 but the forger endeavors to assume the style of the apostle whose name he borrows4 ,from the language he employs it is evident that there was some impatience among believers in his day on account of what seemed to them the long delay in the second coming of ,christ4 ,scoffers had arisen1 who were putting the awkward question1 ,where is the promise of his coming8 for since the fathers fell asleep1 all things continue as they were from the beginning of creation4 ,such scoffers1 he tells them1 are to come in the last days1 and he warns them how to resist the influence of their specious arguments4 ,for this purpose he reminds them of the former destruction of the earth by water1 and assures them that the present heavens and the present earth are to be destroyed by fire4 ,they are not to let the consideration escape them that with the ,lord one day is a thousand years1 and a thousand years as one day4 ,hence ,god is not really slow about fulfilling his promise1 as some people believe2 he is only waiting out of kindness1 not being willing that any should perish1 but desiring that all should come to repentance4 ,but the day of the ,lord will come unexpectedly1 like a thief in the night2 wherefore the ,christians who are looking for new heavens and a new earth1 according to his promise1 must take care to be ready that they may be found by him spotless and blameless 7#b ,pet4 iii74 ,here1 then1 we have a further proof of the hopes entertained by the early ,christians2 for this writer1 who evidently felt that the promises held out by the original apostles were in danger of being discredited by the long delay in the expected catastrophe1 concerns himself to show that the postponement of its arrival is not after all so great as it may seem1 and seeks to dispel the doubts that had grown up concerning it4 ,he thus bears important testimony to the nature of the expectations entertained by those who had gone before him4 ,but even if we had not this epistle1 we should find some evidence of the same fact in the writings of the earliest fathers4 ,thus1 in the first epistle of ,clement1 the ,christians are warned in the following language3-- ,far from us be that which is written1 ',wretched are they who are of a double mind and of a doubting heart2' who say1 ',these things we have heard even in the time of our fathers2 but behold1 we have grown old and none of them has happened unto us6' ,ye foolish ones6 compare yourselves to a tree2 take for instance the vine4 ,first of all it sheds its leaves1 then it buds1 next it puts forth leaves1 and then it flowers2 after that comes the sour grape1 and then follows the ripened fruit4 ,ye perceive how in a little time the fruit of a tree comes to maturity4 ,of a truth1 soon and suddenly shall his will be accomplished1 as the ,scripture also bears witness1 saying1 ',speedily will he come1 and not tarry2' and1 ',the ,lord shall suddenly come to his temple1 even the ,holy ,one1 for whom ye look' 7,first ,ep4 of ,clement1 ch4 xxiii4--,a4 ,n4 ,l41 vol4 i4 p4 #bd74 ,further on1 the same writer expressly states that what the apostles of ,christ preached was the speedy advent of the new order of things4 ,having therefore received their orders1 and being fully assured by the resurrection of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 and established in the word of ,god1 with full assurance of the ,holy ,ghost1 they went forth proclaiming that the kingdom of ,god was at hand 7,ibid41 ch4 xli4--,a4 ,n4 ,l41 vol4 i4 p4 #cg74 ,here1 then1 we have authority of this very early writer for the statement that such was the view taken of the mission of ,jesus by his original disciples4 ,again1 in the second epistle of ,clement1 this expression occurs3--,let us expect1 therefore1 hour by hour1 the kingdom of ,god in love and righteousness1 since we know not the day of the appearing of ,god 7,second ,ep4 of ,clement1 ch4 xii4--,a4 ,n4 ,l41 vol4 i4 p4 #fb74 ,thus it appears that the apostles received from ,jesus1 and the early ,christians from the apostles1 the doctrine that the return of the ,messiah in his glory would take place soon4 ,,subdivision #g4--,what are we to think of him8 ,we come now to the most important question of all1 namely1 what opinion the evidence we possess should lead us to form of the moral character of ,jesus1 and of the value of his teaching4 ,in considering this subject1 we are met at the threshold of the inquiry by the extreme difficulty of discarding the traditional view which has gained currency among us4 ,not only believers in the ,christian religion1 but freethinkers who look upon ,christ as no more than an extraordinary man1 have united to utter his praises in no measured terms4 ,his conduct has been supposed to present an ideal of perfection to the human race1 and his aphorisms to embody the supreme degree of excellence and of wisdom4 ,some critics1 not being ,christians1 have even gone so far as to assume that whatever items in his reported language or behavior seemed to reflect some discredit upon him could not be genuine1 but must be due to the imaginations of his disciples4 ,all this unbounded panegyric naturally raises in the minds of critics who have freed themselves from the accepted tradition a slight prejudice against him1 and this may lead them to regard his errors with too unsparing a severity1 and to mete out scant justice to the merits he may really possess4 ,no task can be less easy than that of approaching this question with a mind entirely devoid of bias on the one side or on the other4 ,for my own part1 ,i shall endeavor1 if ,i cannot attain perfect impartiality1 at least neither to praise nor to blame without adequate reason4 ,before proceeding1 however1 it may be well to state that ,i shall not attempt to discriminate between the authentic and the unauthentic utterances of ,jesus1 but shall take for granted that his reporters--excluding the fourth ,evangelist--have in the main reported him correctly4 ,no doubt this position is not strictly true4 ,there must be errors1 and there may be grave errors in the record1 since those who transmitted the language of their master trusted only to memory4 ,but it is on the whole much more likely that the parables1 sermons1 and short sayings ascribed to ,jesus represent with some approach to fidelity what he really said1 than that they1 or any considerable portion of them1 were invented by any of his disciples afterwards4 ,they have1 moreover1 a characteristic flavor which it would have been difficult for a forger to give to the fictitious utterances he might have added to the genuine remains4 ,it is1 however1 a question of minor import whether the synoptical writers are or are not faithful reporters4 ,jesus is presented to our admiration by them as the ,son of ,god1 and as a pattern of virtue and of wisdom4 ,therefore1 even if we are not criticising a portrait from life1 we are at least criticising the ideal portrait which they have held up as an object of worship1 and which ,christendom has accepted as such4 ,omitting 7as already considered7 those very considerable portions of his doctrine which refer to himself and to his kingdom1 we may proceed to the more strictly ethical elements which are to be found scattered about in his instructions to his hearers1 sometimes contained in those striking parables which1 following the habit of his nation1 he was fond of relating2 sometimes in the short1 clear1 and incisive sentences of which he was a master4 ,in considering the value and originality of his views1 it will be of advantage to compare them1 where we can1 with those of other great teachers of mankind4 ,perhaps one of the most conspicuous peculiarities is his fondness for impressive contrasts4 ,he has a peculiar pleasure in contemplating the reversal of existing arrangements4 ,the first are to be last2 the humble exalted2 the poor preferred to the rich2 the meanest to become the greatest1 and so forth4 ,strangely similar to this favorite idea1 so continually making its appearance in his moral forecasts1 is the language frequently used by his ,chinese predecessor ,la-ts1 who in more than one respect greatly resembles him4 ,thus ,jesus tells his disciples that he who is greatest among them shall be their servant1 and that he who exalts himself shall be abased1 while he who humbles himself shall be exalted 7,mt4 xxiii4 #aj1 #aa74 ,elsewhere he declares that if any man desire to be first1 he shall be last1 and servant of all 7,mk4 ix4 #ce74 ,presenting a child1 to render his lesson the more impressive1 he tells them that he who humbles himself like this little child is greatest in the kingdom of heaven 7,mt4 xviii4 #d74 ,exactly in the same tone ,la-ts observes that the holy man places himself behind1 and comes to the front2 neglects himself and is preserved 7,t4 t4 k41 ch4 vii74 ,heaven1 according to the same sage1 does precisely as ,jesus expects his ,father to do in the kingdom of heaven4 ,it lowers the high1 it raises the low4 ,the way of heaven is to diminish what is superfluous1 to complete what is deficient4 ,the way of man is not this2 he diminishes what is deficient to add it to what is superfluous 7,t4 t4 k41 ch4 lxxvii74 ,on the same subject of humility1 an opinion of the philosopher ,mang1 or ,mencius1 may be compared with one of ,christ's4 ,there was a strife among the disciples of the latter which should be accounted the greatest4 ,christ said3 ,the kings of the earth have dominion over them1 and they who have authority over them are called benefactors4 ,but be not you so3 but let the greater among you be as the younger1 and he that leads as he that serves 7,lu4 xxii4 #be1 #bf74 ,now ,mang in like manner warns his disciples against the craving for authority4 ,mencius said3 ',the superior man has three things in which he delights1 and to be ruler over the empire is not one of them4 ,that his father and mother are both alive1 and that the condition of his brothers affords no cause for anxiety2--this is one delight4 ,that1 when looking up1 he has no occasion for shame before heaven2 and below1 he has no occasion to blush before men2--this is a second delight4 ,that he can get from the whole empire the most talented individuals1 and teach and nourish them2--this is the third delight4 ,the superior man has three things in which he delights1 and to be ruler over the empire is not one of them' 7,mang1 vii4 #a1 #bj4--;,c4 ,c41 vol4 ii4 p4 #ccd74 ,this definition of the pleasures of the high-minded man is quite equal of its kind to anything that has been said on the same subject by ,jesus4 ,it is true that ,mang ranges over a somewhat wider field1 and that therefore the sentences just quoted do not admit of exact comparison with anything coming from ,jesus4 ,but while both agree in reprobating the desire to exercise power1 ,mang goes beyond ,jesus in proposing to substitute other interests for that of political ambition4 ,and these interests are of the best kind4 ,his superior man rejoices in the prosperity of his family1 in the consciousness of his innocence of any disgraceful conduct1 and in his opportunities of teaching those who are most worthy of his instructions and most likely to carry on his work4 ,the latter is a pleasure which is rarely mentioned1 and it shows much thoughtfulness on the part of the philosopher to have upheld it as an object in life4 ,curiously enough1 another ,chinese sage has anticipated another of the best points in the doctrine of ,jesus4 ,jesus enjoined his hearers not to practice charity in a public and ostentatious manner1 like the hypocrites1 but when thou doest alms1 let not thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth 7,mt4 vi1 #c74 ,in this admirable maxim he would have had the support of all true ,confucians1 for one of their canonical writers had also told them that it is the way of the superior man to prefer the concealment of his virtue1 while it daily becomes more illustrious1 and it is the way of the mean man to seek notoriety1 while he daily goes more and more to ruin 7,c4 ,c41 i4 #bie4--;,chung ,yung1 ch4 xxxiii4 #a74 ,on another question1 that of the admonition of an erring friend1 ,jesus gave an opinion which is in perfect accord with an opinion given by ,confucius4 ,if a man's brother trespass against him1 he is first1 according to ,jesus1 to take him to task in private2 should that fail1 to call in two or three witnesses to hear the charge2 and should the offender still be obdurate1 to inform the ,church4#cc ,if his impenitence continue even after this1 he is to become to him as a heathen and a publican 7,mt4 xviii4 #ae-ag74 ,turning to the conversations of ,confucius1 we find the following3--,tsze-kung asked about friendship4 ,the ,master said1 ',faithfully admonish your friend1 and kindly try to lead him4 ,if you find him impracticable1 stop4 ,do not disgrace yourself' 7,lun ,yu1 b4 xii4 ch4 #cc4--;,c4 ,c41 i4 #abe74 ,the steps inculcated by the two teachers are1 making allowance for difference of country1 almost identical4 ,the thoughts as well as the language of ,jesus are often reproduced with singular fidelity in the sacred works of ,buddhists4 ,as the ,buddha is1 on the whole1 the prophet whose character approaches most closely to that of ,jesus1 so we are almost certain to find in the literature of ,buddhism nearly all the most exalted features of his ethical teaching4 ,thus ,jesus praises the poor widow who contributes her mite to the temple treasury1 because she has given all that she had4 ,in one of the numerous legends supposed to have been related by ,sakyamuni an exactly similar incident occurs4 ,a former ,buddha was traveling through various countries1 accompanied by his attendant monks4 ,the rich householders presented them with all kinds of food as offerings4 ,a poor man1 who had no property whatever1 and lived by collecting wood in the mountains and selling it1 had gained two coins by the pursuit of his industry4 ,perceiving the ,buddha coming from a visit to the royal palace1 he devoutly gave him these two coins2 his sole possession in the world4 ,the ,buddha received them1 and mercifully remembered the donor1 who 7as ,sakyamuni now explained7 was richly rewarded during ninety-one subsequent ages 7,w4 u4 ,th41 p4 #ec74 ,the widow's mite is no less closely reflected in the following anecdote from the same collection4 ,in the time of a former ,buddha1 a certain monk belonging to his train had gone out to collect the offerings of the pious4 ,he arrived at the hut of a miserable couple1 who had nothing between them but an old piece of cotton-wool4 ,when the husband went out to beg1 the wife sat at home naked in the hay2 and when the wife went out1 the husband remained in the same condition4 ,to these people then the monk approached1 crying out as usual1 ,go and prostrate yourself before ,buddha6 present him with gifts6 ,it happened that the wife was wearing the cotton-wool on this occasion4 ,she therefore requested the holy man to wait a little1 promising to return4 ,hereupon she entered the house and requested the permission of her husband to offer the cotton-wool to ,buddha4 ,he1 however1 pointed out that as they had not the smallest property beyond this1 extreme inconvenience would result from the loss of it1 for both of them must then remain at home4 ,to this she replied that they must needs die in any case1 and that their hopes for the future would be much improved if they died after presentation of an offering4 ,she then returned to the monk1 and requested him to turn away his eyes a moment4 ,but he told her to give her alms openly in her hands1 and that he would then recite a benediction over them4 ,the full delicacy of her situation had now to be explained4 ,except this cotton-wool stuff on my body ,i have nothing1 and no other clothing2 since1 then1 it would be improper for thee to behold the foul-smelling impurity of the female body1 ,i will reach thee out the stuff from within4 ,so saying she retired into the house and handed out her garment4 ,when the monk delivered it to ,buddha1 it caused great offense to the king's courtiers1 who surrounded him1 on account of its being old and dirty4 ,but ,buddha1 who knew their thoughts1 said1 ,i find1 that of all the gifts of this assembly1 no single one surpasses this in cleanliness and purity 7,w4 u4 ,th41 p4 #aej74 ,not only in the case of the widow at the treasury did ,jesus dwell upon the value of even trifling gifts made for the sake of religion4 ,another time he declared to those about him that whoever gave them a cup of cold water in his name1 because they belonged to ,christ1 would not lose his reward4 ,in ,buddhist story the very same ideas are to be found2 almost the same words4 ,an eminent member of the ,buddha's circle says that whoever with a purely-believing heart offers nothing but a handful of water1 or presents so much to the spiritual assembly or to his parents1 or gives drink therewith to the poor and needy1 or to a beast of the field2--this meritorious action will not be exhausted in many ages 7,w4 u4 ,th41 p4 #cg74 ,the simile of fishing for men1 employed by ,jesus in his summons to ,simon and ,andrew1 is likewise to be discovered in the works of the great ,asiatic religion4 ,the images of the ,bodhisattvas1 or ,buddhas yet to come1 frequently hold in their hands a snare1 which is thus explained in the ,nippon ,pantheon3--,he disseminates upon the ocean of birth and decay the ,lotus-flower of the excellent law as bait2 with the loop of devotion1 never cast out in vain1 he brings living beings up like fishes1 and carries them to the other side of the river1 where there is true understanding 7,b4 ,t41 p4 #bac74 ,and in the book from which some illustrations have already been taken1 it is said of a believer that he had been seized by the hook of the doctrine1 just as a fish1 who has taken the line1 is securely pulled out 7,w4 u4 ,th41 p4 #aad74 ,hitherto we have noticed a few of the minor points in the doctrine of ,jesus1 and while there has been little in these to object to1 there has also been little to excite excessive admiration4 ,the extreme exaltation of humility1 and the evident anxiety to see1 not equality of conditions1 but a reversal of the actual inequalities1 are not among the best features of his ideal system4 ,we cannot but suspect something of a personal bias4 ,thus1 in the parable of the ,pharisee and the publican1 aimed at a hostile and detested order1 the publican is justified by nothing but his humility2 while in that of ,lazarus and ,dives1 ,lazarus is eternally rewarded for nothing but his poverty4 ,it is no doubt well to be humble1 and we should be glad to see poverty removed2 but it is not to be assumed that the ,pharisee1 conscious of leading an honorable life1 is therefore a bad man2 nor that the rich proprietor should be tormented in hell merely because he does not give alms to all the beggars who throng about his gates4 ,when ,jesus desires that virtuous actions should be done as quietly and even as secretly as possible1 he inculcates an important principle of morals1 and it is devoutly to be wished that we had among us more of this unconspicuous kindness1 and less ostentatious charity4 ,where1 however1 he preaches on the virtue of bestowing alms on his disciples1 he does but echo a sentiment which is natural to religious teachers in all ages1 and to which1 as we have seen1 the emissaries of another and earlier faith1 were equally alive4 ,passing from these comparatively trifling questions1 let us consider some of his decisions on the greater moral problems with which he felt called upon to deal4 ,on a vast social subject--that of divorce--he pronounced an opinion which gives us a little insight into his mode of regarding that most important of all topics1 the relations of the sexes4 ,the ,pharisees1 it appears1 came to him and asked him whether it was permissible for a man to put away his wife1 ,moses having allowed it4 ,jesus explained that this precept had been given for the hardness of their hearts4 ,his own view was1 that man and wife are one flesh1 and that if either should leave the other1 except on account of unfaithfulness1 and marry again1 that one would be guilty of adultery4 ,this severe doctrine he supported by one of his short sayings3 ,what ,god hath joined together1 let not man put asunder 7,mk4 x4 #a-ab2 ,mt4 xix4 #a-ab1 and v4 #ca1 #cb74 ,but surely this judgment assumes the very point at issue4 ,the joining together in wedlock is ascribed to ,god2 the putting asunder to man4 ,but granting the sacredness of the marriage tie1 it would still be no less possible to invoke the divine sanction for its dissolution than for its original formation4 ,and in many instances the maxim might be exactly reversed4 ,so unfortunate is the result of many marriages1 that it would be easy for a religious reformer to say of them1 with perfect sincerity1 ,what man hath joined together1 let ,god put asunder4 ,there is1 in fact1 almost as much to be said on moral grounds for the divorce of unhappy couples as for the marriage of happy ones4 ,nor does ,jesus by any means face the real difficulties of the question by allowing divorce where either of the parties has been guilty of adultery4 ,this1 no doubt1 is the extreme case1 and if divorce is not to be given here1 it can be given nowhere4 ,but why is adultery to be the sole ground of separation8 ,why is an institution which may bring so much happiness to mankind to be converted into one of the most fertile sources of human misery8 ,why1 when both parties to the contract desire separation1 is an external authority1 whether that of opinion or of law1 to enforce union8 ,none of these questions appear to have presented themselves to the mind of ,jesus4 ,supposing even that his decision were right1 he assigns no reasons for it1 but simply lays down the law in a trenchant manner1 without giving us the least clue to the process by which he arrived at so strange a conclusion4 ,nor is it in the least likely that the many perplexities encompassing this1 and all other questions affecting the morals of sex1 had ever troubled him4 ,his mind was not sufficiently subtle to enter into them2 and thus it is that1 throughout the whole course of his career1 he lays down no single doctrine 7if we except this one on divorce7 which can be of the smallest service to his disciples in the many practical troubles that must beset their lives from the existence of a natural passion of which he takes no account4 ,another weak point in the system of ,jesus is his aversion to wealth and wealthy men1 apart from the consideration of the good or bad use they may make of their property4 ,thus1 the only advice he gives to the rich man who had kept all the commandments was to sell everything he had and give the proceeds to the poor2 a measure of very questionable advantage to those for whose benefit it is intended4 ,when the man naturally declined to take this course--practically a mere throwing off of the responsibilities of life--,jesus remarked that it was hard for those who had riches to enter the kingdom of ,god4 ,seeing the amazement of his disciples1 he emphasized his doctrine by adding that it was easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter that kingdom4 ,hereupon his disciples1 excessively astonished1 asked who then could be saved1 and ,jesus left a loophole for the salvation of the rich by the declaration that1 impossible as it might be for men to pass a camel through a needle's eye1 all things are possible with ,god 7,mk4 x4 #ag-bg74 ,a like animus against the wealthier classes is evinced in the story of the king who invited a number of guests to a wedding festivity4 ,those who had received invitations made light of them1 one going to his farm1 another to his merchandise1 and so forth2 or1 according to another version1 alleging their worldly affairs as excuses4 ,seeing that they would not come1 the king bade his servants go out into the highways1 and bring in whomsoever they might find2 or1 as ,luke puts it1 the poor1 the maimed1 the halt1 and the blind 7,mt4 xxii4 #a-aj2 ,lu4 xiv4 #af-bd74 ,more indiscriminately still is this aversion to the rich expressed in the parable of ,lazarus and ,dives4 ,here we are not told that the great proprietor had been a bad man1 or had acted with any unusual selfishness4 ,the utmost we may infer from the language used about him is that he had not been sufficiently sensitive to the difference between his own condition and that of the beggar4 ,but no positive unkindness is even hinted at4 ,nor had the beggar done anything to merit reward4 ,he had only led one of those idle and worthless lives of dependence on others which are too common among ,southern nations4 ,yet in the future life the beggar appears to be rewarded merely because in this life he had been badly off2 and the rich man is punished merely because he had been well off 7,lu4 xvi4 #ai-be74 ,a stronger instance of apparently irrational prejudice it would be difficult to find4 ,in connection with these notions about wealth there is a curious theory of social intercourse deserving to be considered4 ,jesus has expressed it thus3 ,when thou makest a supper or a dinner1 do not invite thy friends1 or thy brothers1 or thy relations1 or thy rich neighbors1 lest they also should invite thee in return1 and thou shouldst have a recompense4 ,but when thou makest a feast1 invite the poor1 the maimed1 the lame1 the blind2 and thou shalt be blessed because they have not the means of making thee a recompense4 ,for thou shalt be recompensed at the resurrection of the just 7,lu4 xiv4 #ab-ad74 ,nobody can object to charitable individuals asking poor people or invalids without rank to dinner at their houses2 indeed1 it is to be wished that the practice were more common than it is4 ,but we cannot admit that this kind action ought to be rendered obligatory1 to the exclusion of other modes of conduct4 ,society1 properly speaking1 cannot exist except by reciprocity4 ,that sort of friendly intercourse between equals which constitutes society implies giving and taking2 and it is eminently desirable that we should do exactly what ,christ would forbid us doing1 namely1 invite our neighbors and be invited by them as circumstances may require4 ,the fear that we may receive a recompense for the dinner-parties we may give is surely chimerical4 ,pleasantness and mutual advantage are alike promoted by this reciprocity1 which1 moreover1 avoids the discomfort produced when the obligation is wholly on one side4 ,jesus1 in fact1 overlooks entirely the more intellectual side of society1 and dwells exclusively on the moral side4 ,what he wishes to establish1 is not converse between men1 but charity4 ,so that a person acting on his views would be excluded from the society of those who might benefit him either materially or morally1 and would be confined to those whom he might benefit4 ,such an arrangement would not in the end be good either for the benefactors or the benefited4 ,his conceptions of justice are seemingly not more perfect than his conceptions of social arrangements4 ,the parable of the laborers is intended to justify the deity in assigning equal rewards to those who have borne unequal burdens1 and also to illustrate his doctrine that the first will be last1 and the last first4 ,a householder hires a number of laborers to work in his vineyard2 some of whom he engages in the morning1 others later in the day1 others towards its close4 ,all of them receive a denarium in payment1 though some had worked the whole day1 and others only an hour4 ,at this result the class which had worked the longer time grumble2 but the householder defends himself by appealing to the strict terms of his contract1 by which he had bound himself to give the same wages to all 7,mt4 xx4 #a-af74 ,no doubt the laborers who had borne the burden and heat of the day had no legal standing-point for their complaint2 but the sentiment that prompted it was none the less a just one4 ,granting the validity of the master's plea that he had honorably fulfilled his bargain1 it may still be urged that the bargain itself was not of an equitable character4 ,plainly1 a sum which is adequate pay for an hour1 is inadequate for ten or twelve2 and that which is sufficient for a day is excessive for an evening4 ,and the same argument applies to a future state4 ,if1 as is so often urged1 it is to be a compensation for the sufferings of this state1 then it ought to bear some proportion to those sufferings4 ,but how can this be effected8 ,jesus saw the difficulty1 and endeavored1 but not successfully1 to meet it by this parable4 ,but the imperfection of his sense of justice is nowhere more conspicuously shown than in the conduct he ascribes to ,god4 ,to recur again to the case of ,lazarus and ,dives4 ,not only is the rich man punished with frightful torture1 but his humble and kindly request that ,lazarus might be allowed to warn his five brothers of their possible fate is met with a peremptory refusal4 ,the only reason alleged for this cruelty is that they have ,moses and the prophets1 who certainly did not inform them that the mere possession of wealth or enjoyment of luxury was punished by everlasting misery 7,lu4 xvi4 #bg-ca74 ,in other places1 too1 the horrible doctrine of unending punishment is asserted by ,jesus1 and all the efforts of his modern disciples will not explain away this fact4 ,the tares are to be bound up in bundles to be burnt4 ,the wicked are to be cast into a furnace of fire1 where there will be wailing and gnashing of teeth 7,mt4 xiii4 #cj1 #db1 #ej74 ,it is better to enter into life mutilated than to be thrown unmutilated into the fire 7,mt4 xviii4 #h1 #i7 of hell which is never quenched 7,mk4 ix4 #dc-df74 ,the servant who had made no money by usury is cast into outer darkness 7,mt4 xxv4 #cj74 ,the righteous go into eternal life2 the wicked to eternal punishment 7,mt4 xxv4 #df74 ,blasphemy against the ,holy ,ghost cannot be forgiven1 but involves eternal damnation 7,mk4 iii4 #bi74 ,it is almost needless to observe that no wickedness could ever justify punishment without an end2 that is1 punishment for punishment's sake2 and that the creation of human beings whose existence terminated in torture would be itself a far more terrible crime than any which the basest of mankind can ever commit4 ,there is one more point as to which his teaching will not bear investigation4 ,it is the doctrine of the power of prayer4 ,he tells his hearers1 in the most absolute manner1 that they will receive whatever they may ask in prayer1 provided they believe 7,mk4 xi4 #bd2 ,mt4 xxi4 #bb74 ,faith is the grand and sole condition of the accomplishment of all desires4 ,this is the explanation of the withered fig-tree4 ,it was faith that had wrought the change4 ,by faith the disciples might effect not only such matters as the destruction of fig-trees1 but far more stupendous miracles 7,mt4 xxi4 #ai-ba74 ,this is the explanation of the disciples' failure with the lunatic child4 ,it was owing to their want of faith4 ,had they but faith as a grain of mustard seed--so ,jesus told them--they would be able to say to a mountain1 ,remove hence thither1 and it would be removed4 ,nothing would be impossible to them 7,mt4 xvii4 #bj74 ,and if they had faith themselves1 if they really believed in their master's words1 and ever attempted the experiment of working such transformations in nature1 they must have experienced the bitter disappointment so graphically described by the authoress of ,joshua ,davidson in the case of that sincere ,christian4 ,but short of this extreme trial of the power of faith over matter1 many generations of pious believers will bear sad witness to the fact that they have asked many things in prayer which they have not received2 not least among the number being moral excellence1 which they have but imperfectly attained4 ,yet this1 it would seem1 might be the most easily granted without interference with the physical universe4 ,and if it be pleaded that no ,christian has ever really succeeded in acquiring the degree of faith required to move mountains1 what becomes of the promise of ,jesus8 ,is it not a mere form of words1 depending for its truth on a condition which human nature never can fulfill8 ,the opinions of ,jesus on the question of the lawfulness of the tribute1 and his reply to the ,sadducean difficulty about due adjustment of matrimonial relations in a future state1 have been already noticed4 ,neither of these decisions1 it has been shown1 can be regarded as evincing wisdom or depth of thought4 ,on the other hand1 his answer to the scribe who asked him which was the first commandment fully deserves the approbation which his questioner bestowed4 ,after this1 remarks the ,evangelist triumphantly1 no man dared to interrogate him4 ,passing from these isolated judgments1 let us consider now the fullest exposition to be found anywhere of the moral system of ,jesus1--the so-called ,sermon on the ,mount 7,mt4 v4-vii4 inclusive74 ,as reported by ,matthew1 this is a vast collection of precepts on many different subjects1 delivered no doubt on many different occasions4 ,taken together1 they contain the concentrated essence of his teaching1 and offer therefore the fairest field for discussion and criticism4 ,he opens his discourse with a series of blessings1 in which his extreme fondness for contrasting the present with the future order is markedly exhibited4 ,those whom he selects as the objects of benediction are the poor in spirit2 mourners2 the meek2 those who hunger and thirst after righteousness2 the merciful2 the pure in heart2 the peace-makers2 those who are persecuted for righteousness' sake2 the disciples when reviled1 persecuted1 and unjustly accused4 ,of the nine classes of those who are thus blessed1 five are composed of those whose present condition makes them objects of pity1 and who are consoled with the assurance that they shall be rewarded in the kingdom of heaven4 ,after this1 the followers of ,jesus are admonished that they are the salt of the earth1 and that they must cause their light to shine before men4 ,this is followed by that remarkable declaration 7already noticed7 as to the permanence of the law1 and by a warning that1 if they wished to enter the kingdom of heaven1 their righteousness must exceed that of those odious people1 the scribes and ,pharisees4 ,hereupon ,jesus takes up three great commandments--not to kill1 not to commit adultery1 not to commit perjury--and proceeds to expand their meaning beyond the literal signification of the words4 ,thus1 it had been said1 ,thou shalt not kill4 ,but he says1 that whoever is angry with his brother shall be liable to the judgment2 that whoever says ,raka to his brother shall be liable to the ,sanhedrim2 but that whoever says ,fool1 shall be liable to hell1 or literally1 to the gehenna of fire4 ,the punishment is of undue severity in proportion to the offense2 but when1 in the following verses1 ,jesus insists on the importance of doing justice to men before performing religious obligations1 he speaks in the truest spirit of humanity4 ,proceeding to the commandment not to commit adultery1 he enjoins an excess of self-discipline4 ,it is not desirable to pluck out the right eye and cut off the right hand because they offend us1 though it is well to train them to obey the higher faculties4 ,the argument of ,jesus rests only on the assumption that the sinful members1 if not destroyed by such violent measures as this1 may land the whole body in hell4 ,dealing next with the question of oaths1 he enlarges the prohibition of perjury into a prohibition of all swearing whatsoever1 assigning the strangest reasons for avoiding the employment1 when taking oaths1 of the names of various objects4 ,they are not to swear by heaven1 because it is ,god's throne2 nor by the earth1 because it is his footstool2 nor by ,jerusalem1 because it is the city of the great king2 nor by the head1 because we cannot make a single hair black or white4 ,granting even that the advice is good1 what is to be said of these reasons8 ,what would be thought of a ,member of ,parliament using an exactly parallel argument3 namely1 that it is wrong to swear by the ,new ,testament1 because the person taking the oath cannot make a single type larger or smaller8 ,the theory embodied in the following verses occupies so cardinal a place in the philosophy of ,jesus1 that in order to do him justice they must be quoted at length4 ,you have heard that it has been said1 ,an eye for an eye1 and a tooth for a tooth4 ,but ,i tell you not to resist evil2 but whoever shall smite thee on the right cheek1 turn to him the other also4 ,and as for him who wishes to sue thee1 and take thy coat1 give him thy cloak also4 ,and whoever shall compel thee to go one mile1 go two with him4 ,give to him that asketh thee2 and turn not away from him that wishes to borrow of thee4 ,you have heard that it has been said1 ,thou shalt love thy neighbor and hate thine enemy4 ,but ,i say unto you1 ,love your enemies1 and pray for them who persecute you1 that you may be sons of your father in heaven2 for he causes his sun to rise on bad and good1 and sends rain on just and unjust 7,mt4 v4 #ch-de74 ,perhaps there is no single point in the moral teaching of ,jesus which has been more celebrated than this4 ,it is thought to represent the very acme of perfection1 and ,christianity takes credit to itself for the embodiment of so magnificent a doctrine in its moral system4 ,and certainly the words of ,jesus are so sublime as almost to extort admiration and disarm criticism4 ,nor would it at all detract from his merits if the principle here laid down should turn out to be no new discovery of his own1 but one already reached by great teachers in other lands2 for it was through him that it was made known to the ,jews of his own age1 and thus to the whole of ,christendom4 ,moreover1 we cannot suppose that he had ever heard of those who had anticipated the sentiments1 and almost the words1 of these beautiful sentences in the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,nevertheless1 these anticipations exist2 and whatever glory this rule may confer on the religion of ,christ must belong equally1 and even by prior right1 to the religion of ,lao-tsze and the religion of ,buddha4 ,thus ,lao-tsze says1 ,return enmity by doing good 7,t4 t4 k41 #fc74 ,or again1 ,i treat the good man well2 the man who is not good ,i also treat well 7,ibid41 #di74 ,the very perfection of patience under injustice1 extending to the length of blessing those who curse1 and turning the other cheek to those who smite the one--is exhibited in the old ,buddhistic legend of ,prna4 ,prna is a convert who spontaneously betakes himself as a missionary to a savage nation4 ,the ,buddha asks him what he will do if they address him in coarse and insolent language4 ,he replies that he will consider them good and gentle people not to strike him with their fists or stone him4 ,should they strike him with their fists or stone him1 he will still think them good and gentle neither to strike him with sticks or swords2 should they strike him with sticks or swords1 he will equally praise them for not killing him2 should they even kill him1 he will still say1 ,they are certainly good people1 they are certainly gentle people1 they who deliver me with so little pain from this body full of impurity 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #bec74 ,this is certainly a most consistent application of the principle of non-resistance to evil1 and of loving one's enemies4 ,no ,christian saint or martyr could have followed his master's precepts more faithfully than this ,buddhist apostle4 ,but whether those precepts admit of general adoption into the scheme of human morals is a much more difficult question than whether in occasional instances here and there they have led to admirable conduct4 ,let us call in another ,chinese philosopher to our assistance on this point4 ,the doctrine of returning good for evil1 proclaimed1 as we have seen1 by ,lao-tsze1 was thus dealt with by his great rival1 ,confucius4 ,some one said1 ',what do you say concerning the principle that injury should be recompensed with kindness8' ,the ,master said1 ',with what1 then1 will you recompense kindness8 ,recompense injury with justice1 and recompense kindness with kindness4' ,how shall we decide between these authorities8 ,none can question the nobility of the conduct enjoined by ,jesus in certain instances4 ,there are cases where the return of good for evil1 of blessing for cursing1 of benevolence for persecution1 is not only the highest practicable virtue1 but also the best punishment of the evil-doers4 ,nevertheless1 there is great force in the observations of ,confucius4 ,if we are to reward injury by kindness1 how are we to reward kindness8 ,is there to be no difference made between those who do us good and those who do us harm8 ,to so pertinent a question we are compelled to answer that the practical results of such conduct on our part would be simply disastrous4 ,unkindness would not receive its natural and appropriate penalty1 nor kindness its natural and appropriate reward4 ,not only should we ourselves be losers by our failure to resist injustice1 but the worst classes of mankind would receive by that non-resistance a powerful stimulus to evil4 ,imagine1 for example1 that1 instead of opposing an extortionate claim1 we give up our cloak also to the man who wishes to take our coat4 ,plainly such conduct can have but one result4 ,we shall become the victims of extortionate claims1 and our property will be squandered among the undeserving instead of being kept for better uses4 ,or suppose that persecution for the sake of our opinions1 instead of being met with armed resistance1 wherever that resistance is likely to be successful1 is received only with blessings showered on the heads of the oppressors2 without doubt1 the hands of the persecuting party will be strengthened1 and liberty1 which is everywhere the result of resisting evil1 will never be established4 ,the freedom we ourselves enjoy1 both as a nation in respect of other nations1 and as individuals in respect of our domestic government1 is the consequence of acting on a principle the direct reverse of that laid down by ,jesus4 ,our ancestors1 who were good ,christians but much better patriots1 would have been amazed indeed at any attempt to persuade them to turn the left cheek to him who smote them on the right4 ,a doctrine more convenient for the purposes of tyrants and malefactors of every description it would be difficult to invent4 ,at the same time it must be conceded that there is in it some truth1 provided we discriminate between fitting and unfitting occasions for its application4 ,it is not the violent man who assaults us1 the unscrupulous man who sues us1 or the persecutor who tramples on our freedom1 who should be met by a benevolent return4 ,but there are offenses of so personal a nature1 affecting our individual interest so largely1 and the public interest so slightly1 that the best way of dealing with them may often be not to resent them1 but to receive them with unruffled gentleness4 ,each person must judge for himself what are the cases to which this possibility applies4 ,but the guiding rule in thus acting must be that we expect by thus returning good for evil to soften the heart of him who has done us wrong1 and in the language of ,paul to heap coals of fire on his head4 ,should the effect be simply to relieve him from the penalty of our resentment without inducing him to change his course1 we shall have done him a moral injury and society a material injury1 and the probability or improbability of such result should be measured in deciding upon the conduct to be pursued4 ,properly guarded1 and borne in mind as the occasional exception1 by no means as the rule1 the return of injustice or ill-will by benevolence and kindly feeling may be of the utmost value1 both in cultivating the best emotions in those who practice it1 and in calling forth the repentance of those towards whom it is practiced2 but as a universal and absolute principle it must be utterly rejected4 ,lao-tsze and ,jesus when they affirmed it undoubtedly struck one of the highest notes in human nature4 ,yet it must be granted that ,khung-tsze took a wider view1 and that his injunction to recompense injury with justice1 and kindness with kindness1 is more consistent with a philosophic regard for the interests of mankind1 and with a practicable scheme of social ethics4 ,jesus proceeds to enjoin his disciples neither to give alms1 nor to pray1 nor to fast in an ostentatious manner2 and in connection with this excellent advice he teaches them the short prayer which has become so famous under his name4 ,the clauses of this prayer may be worth some consideration4 ,it begins with a formula of adoration addressed to ,our father in heaven4 ,then follows a petition full of meaning to ,jesus and those to whom he imparted it1 but of little or no signification in the mouths of the millions of modern ,christians who daily repeat it3 ,thy kingdom come4 ,jesus hoped1 and his disciples caught the hope1 that ,god's kingdom would come very soon2 and this prayer was a request for the early realization of the glories of that kingdom4 ,those who then employed it believed that at any moment it might be granted1 and that at no distant period it certainly would be granted4 ,thy will be done1 as in heaven so also on earth2 a clause embodying the popular conception of another region in which ,god's will is perfectly obeyed1 while here it is met by some counteracting influence4 ,give us this day our daily bread1 for beyond the daily provision they were not to look2 a doctrine which we shall notice shortly4 ,and forgive us our debts 7or1 in ,luke1 our sins7 as we forgive our debtors2 and lead us not into temptation1 but deliver us from evil4 ,passing over the singular conception of ,god as leading men into temptation1 let us rather notice the preceding petition1 on which ,jesus himself has supplied a commentary1 that we may be forgiven1 as we forgive others4 ,in reference to this he tells his hearers1 that if they forgive men their trespasses1 their heavenly father will forgive theirs2 and that if they do not thus behave1 neither will he4 ,a kindred doctrine is laid down in the beginning of the next chapter1 where he tells them not to judge1 that they may not be judged2 that with what measure they mete1 it shall be measured to them again4 ,and this illustrated in another place by the parable of the servant who1 having been excused from the immediate payment of a large debt by his master1 refused to excuse a fellow-servant from the payment of a small one2 whereupon his master flew into a passion1 and delivered him to the tormentors 7,mt4 xviii4 #bc-ce74 ,there is an apparent justice and real emotional satisfaction in the harsh treatment of those who are harsh themselves4 ,but we must not be misled by the immediate gratification we experience at the punishment of the unforgiving servant1 supposing that it is right to mete out to each man the measure he metes out to others4 ,assuredly it does not follow that because a man is unjust or cruel1 he should be treated with injustice or cruelty himself4 ,either it is right to forgive a man's sins1 or it is not4 ,if right1 then his own harshness in refusing forgiveness to another is one of the sins which should be forgiven4 ,if not right1 then neither that nor any other offense should be forgiven by the supreme dispenser of justice4 ,for what reason should the one crime of not forgiving those who trespass against us be selected for a punishment of such extraordinary severity1 while it is implied that the penalty of other and graver crimes may by ,god's mercy be remitted8 ,the fact is1 that ,jesus is misled by a false analogy between the conduct of one man towards another1 in a case where he is personally concerned1 and the conduct of a judge towards criminals4 ,offenses against morality are treated as personal offenses against ,god1 who has therefore the same right to forgive them as a creditor has to excuse his debtor from payment4 ,but in a perfect system of justice1 human or divine1 there could be no question of forgiveness at all4 ,every violation of the law would bring its appropriate penalty1 and no more4 ,the penalty being thus proportioned to the offense1 there could be no question of that sort of forgiveness which implies a suspicion that it is1 or may be1 too severe4 ,no doubt1 the temper of the offender1 and the probability of his repeating the crime1 would be elements to be considered in awarding the sentence4 ,but it must always be borne in mind that either the hope of complete pardon1 or the threat of a punishment far heavier than is needed to deter1 equally tend to neutralize the effects of our system of justice4 ,and thus it has been in ,christendom4 ,the threat of everlasting torture1 accompanied with the expectation of complete forgiveness1 has been less efficacious than would have been the most moderate of earthly penalties1 provided they had been certain4 ,but ,jesus was encumbered with a system in which there were no gradations4 ,thus he represents the deity now as extending complete forgiveness to sins which should have received their fitting retribution2 now as visiting with immoderate severity offenses for which more lenient measures would have amply sufficed4 ,proceeding to another subject1 the speaker dwells upon the comparative unimportance of terrestrial affairs4 ,he advises men not to lay up treasure on earth1 but in heaven1 for where their treasure is1 there will their heart be also2 and he goes on to say1 ,take no thought for your life what you shall eat or what you shall drink1 nor for your body what you shall put on4 ,is not the life more than nourishment1 and the body than raiment8 ,look at the birds of the sky1 for they sow not1 neither do they reap nor gather into barns1 and your heavenly father feeds them4 ,are you not much better than they8 ,and which of you by taking thought can add a single cubit to his stature8 ,and why do you take thought for raiment8 ,consider the lilies of the field1 they toil not1 neither do they spin3 and ,i say to you that not even ,solomon in all his glory was clothed like one of these4 ,and if ,god so clothe the grass of the field which exists to-day and to-morrow is cast into the oven1 will he not much more clothe you1 ,o you of little faith8 ,therefore his disciples are to take no thought about eating1 drinking1 or clothing 7as the ,gentiles do71 for their heavenly father knows that they have need of these things4 ,they are to seek the kingdom of ,god and his righteousness1 and these will be added4 ,they are to take no thought for the morrow1 but let the morrow take thought for itself 7,mt4 vi4 #be-cd74 ,upon which extraordinary argument it would have been interesting to ask a few questions4 ,in the first place1 how did ,jesus suppose that it had happened that men had in fact come to trouble themselves about food1 drink1 and clothing8 ,did he imagine that an inherent pleasure in labor had driven them to do so8 ,would he not rather have been compelled to admit that1 not by any choice of their own1 but just because their heavenly father had not provided these things in the requisite abundance1 they had been forced to take thought for the morrow1 all their primitive inclinations notwithstanding8 ,every tendency of human nature would have prompted men to take no thought either for food or raiment1 had not hunger and cold brought vividly before them the necessity of doing so4 ,but for this they would only have been too glad to live like the birds of the air or the lilies of the field4 ,but let us examine a little more closely the reasoning of ,jesus4 ,birds neither sow nor reap2 ,god feeds them2 therefore he will feed us without sowing or reaping4 ,a more unfortunate illustration of the care of ,providence for his creatures it would be difficult to find4 ,was ,jesus ignorant of the fact that he feeds some birds upon others whom they seize on as their prey1 and these again upon an inferior class of animals8 ,so that1 if he is careful of the hawk1 it is at the expense of the dove2 and if he is careful of the sparrow1 it is at the expense of the worm4 ,cannibalism1 or at least a recourse to wild animals as the only obtainable diet1 must have been the logical results of the doctrine of ,jesus4 ,not less singular would be the effects of his teaching as to clothes4 ,the lily which remains in a state of nature is more beautifully arrayed than was ,solomon4 ,granted2 but does it therefore follow that we are to imitate the lily8 ,we might agree with ,jesus that nudity1 alike in flowers and in human beings1 is more beautiful than the most superb dressing3 yet there are conveniences in clothes which may even justify taking a little thought in order to obtain them1 and those who really omit to do this are generally the lowest types of the human race4 ,that ,god would not give us clothing if we ourselves made no effort to obtain it1 is not only admitted1 but almost asserted1 in the argument of ,jesus2 for he refers us to the grass of the field1 which remains in its natural condition1 as an example of the kind of raiment which our heavenly father provides4 ,so absurd are these precepts1 that no body of ,christians has ever attempted to act upon them4 ,some there have been1 indeed1 who took no thought for the morrow1 and who never exerted themselves to procure the necessaries of life4 ,but then they lived in the midst of societies where these things were provided by the labor of others1 and where they well knew that their pious indolence would not leave them a prey to hunger1 but would rather stimulate the charitable zeal of their more secular brethren4 ,after laying down the rule against judging others1 which has been already referred to1 ,jesus gives the excellent advice to those who would pull the mote out of their brother's eye to attend first to the beam in their own4 ,this is followed by the proverbial warning not to cast pearls before swine4 ,a singular passage succeeds1 in which the doctrine is broadly stated that whatever men desire of ,god they are to ask it1 for every one who asks receives1 and he who seeks finds4 ,and it is added1 that as they give their children good gifts1 so their heavenly father gives good things to those who ask him4 ,but what of those who do not ask him8 ,does he1 like an unwise human parent1 give most to those who are the loudest in their petitions1 neglecting the humble or retiring children who make no noise8 ,these verses allow us no option but to suppose that ,jesus thought he did1 and this inference receives strong confirmation from the parable of the unjust judge1 who yielded to clamor what he would not give from a sense of justice 7,lu4 xviii4 #a-e71 as also from the illustration of the man who was wearied by the importunity of his friend into doing what he would not have done for the sake of friendship 7,lu4 xi4 #e-i74 ,in the former case1 the parable is related for the express purpose of showing that men ought always to pray and not to faint2 in the latter1 the illustration is given in connection with the very verses which we are now criticising4 ,there is1 then1 no escape from the conclusion that the conceptions ,jesus had of the deity were of a nature to lead to the belief that ,god might be worried by continual prayer into concessions and favors which would not otherwise have been granted4 ,excepting a single verse1 the remainder of the sermon is occupied with a warning that the way to life is narrow1 that to destruction broad2 with a caution against false prophets1 and a very fine description of the future rejection from heaven of many who have made loud professions of religion1 and contrariwise1 of the reception of those who have done their father's will1 and whom he likens to one who has built his house upon the solid rock as distinguished from one who has built it on the sand4 ,one verse1 however1 remains1 and that not only the most important in the whole of this discourse1 but ethically the most important in the whole of its author's system4 ,that verse is the well-known commandment3 ,all things whatsoever you may wish men to do to you1 thus also do you to them4 ,for this is the law and the prophets 7,mt4 vii4 #ab2 ,lu4 vi4 #ca74 ,whether ,jesus perceived that in this brief sentence he was enunciating the cardinal principle of all morality is of necessity uncertain4 ,but from the addition of the phrase this is the law and the prophets1 it is probable that he regarded it as a summary of the moral teachings of the religion he professed4 ,if so1 he has rightly laid the foundation of scientific ethics4 ,utilitarians1 who believe that the object of morality is human happiness1 may claim him 7as one of them has already done7 as the father of their system4 ,while ,kant1 who gives the fundamental law1 so to act that the rule of your conduct may be such as you yourself would wish to see adopted as a general principle1 will be equally in agreement with him4 ,nor does it detract from the merits of ,jesus that this very doctrine should have been announced in ,china about five centuries before he proclaimed it in ,judea4 ,he remains not less original2 but we1 while giving him his due1 must be careful to award an equal tribute to his great predecessor1 ,confucius4 ,twice over did that eminent man assert the principle taught in the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,in the first instance1 ,chung-kung asked about perfect virtue4 ,the ,master said1 ',it is1 when you go abroad1 to behave to every one as if you were receiving a great guest2 to employ the people as if you were assisting at a great sacrifice2 not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself2 to have no murmuring against you in the country1 and none in the family' 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 i4 p4 #aae4--,lun ,yu1 xii4 #b74 ,much more strikingly is this law enunciated in the second case4 ,tsze-kung asked1 saying1 ',is there one word which may serve as a rule of practice for all one's life8' ,the ,master said1 ',is not ,,reciprocity such a word8 ,what you do not want done to yourself1 do not do to others' 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 i4 p4 #afe4--,lun ,yu1 xv4 #bc74 ,and we have another statement of the rule in the work ascribed to the grandson of ,confucius1 where he is reported to have said1 ,what you do not like when done to yourself1 do not do to others 7,chung ,yung1 xiii4 #c4--;,c4 ,c41 vol4 i4 p4 #beh74 ,it is true1 as remarked by the translator1 that the doctrine is here stated negatively1 and not positively2 but practically this can make little difference in its application4 ,not to do to others what we wish them not to do to us would amount to nearly the same thing as doing what we wish them to do4 ,obviously it prohibits all actual injury which we should resent if inflicted on ourselves4 ,but it also enjoins active benevolence2 for as we do not like the lack of kindness towards ourselves when in distress or want1 so we must not be guilty of showing such lack of kindness to others4 ,take the parable of the good ,smaritan1 told in illustration of the kindred maxim to love our neighbors as ourselves4 ,plainly we should not like the conduct of the priest and the ,levite were we in the situation of the plundered man4 ,and if so1 the behavior of the good ,smaritan is that which the ,chinese as well as the ,jewish prophet would require us to pursue4 ,much more might be said of the doctrines of ,jesus1 but it is time to bring this over-long section to a close4 ,what answer shall we now return to the query which stands at the head of this final division8 ,what are we to think of him8 ,is our judgment to be mainly favorable or mainly unfavorable8 or must it be a mixture of opposing sentiments8 ,the reply may be given under three separate heads1 relating the one to his work as a prophet1 the next to his intellectual1 and the last to his moral character4 ,considered as a prophet1 he forms one of a mighty triad who divide among them the honor of having given their religions to the larger portion of ,asia and to the whole of ,europe4 ,confucius1 to whom ,eastern ,asia owes its most prevalent faith2 ,buddha ,sakyamuni1 whose faith is accepted in the south and centre of that continent2 and ,christ1 to whom ,europe bows the knee1 are the members of this great trinity not in unity4 ,all three are alike in their possession of prophetic ardor and prophetic inspiration4 ,two of them1 the ,chinaman and the ,jew1 speak as the conscious agents of a higher ,power4 ,the other1 of whom his creed prevents us from saying this1 is yet represented in his story as predestined to a great mission1 becoming aware of that destiny at a certain epoch of his life1 and thenceforth feeling that no temptations and no sufferings can induce him to swerve from his allotted task4 ,of these three men it would perhaps be accurate to say that ,confucius was the most thoughtful1 ,sakyamuni the most eminently virtuous1 and ,christ the most deeply religious4 ,not that a description like this can be regarded as exhaustive4 ,each trespasses to some degree on the special domain of the others4 ,especially is it hard to compare the moral excellence of ,jesus with that of ,buddha4 ,the ,hindu1 as depicted in his biographies1 offers a character of singular beauty1 and free from some of the defects which may be discerned in that of the ,jew4 ,history1 however1 was too much despised by these ,oriental sectaries to enable us to form a trustworthy comparison4 ,all we can affirm is1 that1 assuming the pictures of both prophets to be correctly drawn1 there is in ,sakyamuni a purity of tone1 an absence of violence or rancor1 an exemption from personal feeling and from hostile bias1 which place him even on a higher level than his ,jewish fellow-prophet4 ,supposing1 on the other hand1 that either picture is not historical1 then it must be conceded that primitive ,buddhism attained a more perfect ideal of goodness than primitive ,christianity4 ,both ideals1 however1 are admirable1 and they closely resemble one another4 ,morally not unlike1 ,jesus and ,sakyamuni have another point of similarity in a certain mournfulness of spirit1 a sorrowing regret for the errors of human kind1 and a tender anxiety to summon them from those errors to a better way4 ,each in his own manner felt that life was very sad2 each desired to relieve that sadness1 though each aimed at effecting his end by different means4 ,sakyamuni offered to his disciples the peace of ,nirvna2 ,jesus1 the favor of ,god and the rewards to be given in his kingdom4 ,there is a striking similarity in the manner in which the summons to suffering humanity is expressed in each religion4 ,here are the words ascribed to ,buddha3 ,many1 driven by fear1 seek an asylum in mountains and in woods1 in hermitages and in the neighborhood of sacred trees4 ,but it is not the best asylum1 it is not the best refuge1 and it is not in that asylum that men are delivered from every pain4 ,he1 on the contrary1 who seeks a refuge in ,buddha1 in the ,law and in the ,assembly1 when he perceives with wisdom the four sublime truths1 444 that man knows the best asylum1 the best refuge2 as soon as he has reached it1 he is delivered from every pain 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #ahf74 ,still more beautifully is the like sentiment expressed by ,jesus3 ,come unto me1 all ye that labor and are heavy laden1 and ,i will give you rest4 ,take my yoke upon you and learn of me1 for ,i am meek and lowly of heart1 and you shall find rest unto your souls4 ,for my yoke is easy and my burden is light 7,mt4 xi4 #bh-cj74 ,while in tenderness and sympathy for human sorrow ,christ resembles ,buddha1 in the nature of his moral precepts he sometimes resembles ,confucius4 ,the plain duties of man towards his fellow-man are inculcated in the same spirit by both1 while in ,buddhism it is generally the most extreme and often prodigious examples of charity or self-sacrifice that are held up to admiration4 ,buddhism1 moreover1 teaches by means of long stories2 ,confucius and ,jesus by means of short maxims4 ,to a certain extent1 indeed1 ,jesus combines both methods1 the first being represented in his parables2 but these are much simpler1 and go far more directly to the point1 than the complicated narratives of the ,buddhistic canon4 ,on the whole1 we may safely say that ,jesus is certainly not surpassed by either of these rival prophets1 and that in some respects1 if not in all1 he surpasses both4 ,another comparison is commonly made1 and may be just touched on here4 ,it is that between the ,hebrew prophet and the ,athenian sage1 who1 in the words of ,byron1 lived and died as none can live or die4 ,without fully endorsing this emphatic opinion of the poet1 we may admit that ,socrates is not unworthy to stand beside ,jesus in the foremost rank of the heroes of our race4 ,he shares with the prophets who have been already named the inspiring sense of a divine mission which he is bound to fulfill4 ,at all hazards and under all conditions he will carry on the special and peculiar work which the divine voice commands him to do4 ,and this plenary belief in his own inspiration is not accompanied1 as sometimes happens1 by mental poverty4 ,intellectually his superiority to ,jesus cannot be disputed4 ,it is apparent in the very manner of his instruction4 ,socrates could never have enunciated the truths he had to tell in that authoritative tone which is appropriate to the religious teacher4 ,whatever knowledge he thinks it possible to acquire at all must be acquired by reasoning and inquiry2 and must be tested by comparison of our own mental condition with that of others4 ,nothing must be assumed but what is granted by the hearer4 ,socrates would have thought that there was little gained by the mere dogmatic assertion of moral or spiritual truths4 ,he must carry his interlocutor along with him2 must compel him to admit his errors2 must stimulate his desire of improvement by bringing him face to face with his own ignorance4 ,much as we must value the moral teaching of ,christ1 it must be confessed that the peculiar gift of ,socrates is one of a far rarer kind4 ,the power of inculcating holiness1 purity1 charity1 and other virtues1 either directly by short maxims 7as in the ,confucian ,analects1 in ,mencius1 or in ,marcus ,aurelius71 or indirectly by stories 7as in ,buddhagosha's parables71 is by no means so uncommon as the ,socratic gift of searching examination into men's minds and souls4 ,if ,jesus is unsurpassed in the former--primus inter pares--,socrates is absolutely without a rival in the latter4 ,whether the shock of the elenchus of ,socrates1 or the touching beauty of the parables and the ,sermon on the ,mount1 produced the greatest benefit to the hearers is a question that can hardly be determined4 ,the effect of either method must depend upon the character of those to whom it is applied4 ,outward appearances would lead us to assign more influence to the method of ,jesus2 for ,socrates left no ,socratics1 while ,christ did leave ,christians to hand on his doctrine4 ,but1 in the first place1 it may be confidently asserted that no lasting sect could have been formed upon the basis of the few truths taught by ,jesus himself2 and1 in the second place1 the fact that he became the founder of a new religion must be attributed as much to the state of ,judea at the time as to his personal influence4 ,that the influence of ,socrates was not small in his own life-time might be inferred from the bitterness of the prosecution alone1 even if ,plato had not remained to attest the abiding impress he left upon an intellect by the side of which those of ,peter1 ,james1 and ,john1 are but as little children to a full-grown athlete4 ,we can imagine the havoc that would have been made in the statements and arguments of ,jesus had ,socrates met him face to face and subjected him to his testing method4 ,how ill would his loose popular notions have borne a close examination of their foundations2 how easily would his dogmatic assertions have been exposed in all their naked presumption by a few simple questions2 how quickly would his careless reasoning have been shattered by the dialectic art which would have forced him to exhibit its fallacies himself before the assembled audience6 ,but there was no one competent to the task1 and when his opponents attempted to perplex him by what they thought awkward questions1 he was able to baffle them without much trouble by his superior skill4 ,it is not1 however1 as an intellectual man that we must consider ,jesus4 ,he himself laid no claim to the character1 and1 if we would do him justice1 we must judge him by his own idea of his function and his duties4 ,so judging1 there can be no question that we must recognize in him a man of the highest moral grandeur1 lofty in his aims1 pure in his use of means1 earnest1 energetic1 zealous1 and unselfish4 ,no doubt he was sometimes misled by that very ardor which inspired him with the courage required to pursue his work4 ,no doubt he suffered himself to forget the charity that was due to those who could not accept his mission nor bow before his preaching4 ,no doubt he returned curse for curse1 and hatred for hatred1 with unsparing hand4 ,perhaps1 too1 he was sometimes the first to give way to angry passion1 and to express in scathing words the bitterness he felt4 ,yet his failings are those of an upright and honorable character1 and while they ought not to be extenuated or denied1 neither ought they to outweigh his great and unquestionable merits4 ,appointed1 as he believed1 to a special work1 he bravely and honestly devoted his powers to the fulfillment of that work1 not even shrinking from his duty when it led him to the cross4 ,his unhappy end has cast its shadow over his life4 ,he has been continually spoken of as a man of sorrows and acquainted with grief4 ,there is no reason to suppose that in any special sense he corresponded to the prophetic picture4 ,undoubtedly he had his sorrows2 undoubtedly he was acquainted with grief4 ,but unless there had been in his private life some tragedy of which we are not informed1 those sorrows were not of the bitterest1 nor was that grief of the deepest4 ,there is no doubt in his language a tinge of that sadness which all great natures who are not in harmony with their age must needs experience4 ,he believed that he had great truths to tell1 and he found his countrymen unwilling to receive them4 ,here was one source of unhappiness2 and another he had in common with all who are deeply conscious of the miseries of human existence4 ,but in no special or transcendent sense can he be termed a man of sorrows and acquainted with grief4 ,so far as our evidence goes1 he was exempt from the most terrible calamities that befall mankind4 ,free from all earthly ties but those of friendship with his chosen companions1 he was not exposed to many of the anxieties and trials which afflict more ordinary men4 ,dying young1 he did not suffer 7so far as we know7 from any serious illness1 nor from the troubles1 both physical and mental1 that scarcely ever fail to beset a longer life4 ,bereavement1 the most terrible or human ills1 never afflicted him4 ,whether in his youth he had suffered the pains of unrequited love at the hands of some ,galilean maiden we cannot tell4 ,but there is nothing in his language or his career that would lead us to see in him an embittered or disappointed man4 ,judging by the representation given in the ,gospels1 it does not appear that his life was in any special measure sad or gloomy4 ,on the contrary1 his circumstances were in the main conducive to a fair share of happiness4 ,surrounded by admiring friends of his own sex1 and attended by sympathizing 7perhaps loving7 women1 he passed from place to place1 drawing crowds around him1 speaking his mind freely1 and receiving no inconsiderable homage4 ,granting that he had enemies1 he was able until his prosecution to meet them on equal terms1 and was not prohibited 7as he would have been in most ,christian countries until recent times7 from proclaiming aloud his unorthodox opinions4 ,true1 this liberty was not allowed to continue for ever1 but it was no small matter for him that it had continued so long4 ,true1 he suffered a painful death2 but far less painful than many a humble martyr has undergone for his sake2 far less painful even than those torturing illnesses which so often precede the hour of rest4 ,nor is it possible that his death could reflect its agonies back upon his life4 ,his life1 on the whole1 seems to have been one1 if not of abundant happiness1 yet of a fair and reasonable degree of cheerfulness and of comfort4 ,the notion that he had not where to lay his head is of course utterly unfounded4 ,not only had he his own house at ,nazareth1 but he had friends who at all times were happy to receive him4 ,if he himself ever drew this sad picture of his desolation 7which ,i doubt71 he must have done it for a special purpose1 and without regard to the literal accuracy of his words4 ,while1 then1 ,i see no proof of the peculiar sorrow ascribed to him on the strength of a prophecy1 ,i freely admit that he had the melancholy which belongs to a sympathetic heart4 ,his words of regret over ,jerusalem are unsurpassed in their beauty4 ,at this closing period of his career we may indeed detect the sadness of disappointment4 ,and in the bitter cry that was wrung from him at the end1 ,my ,god1 my ,god1 why hast thou forsaken me8 we look down for a moment into an abyss of misery which it is painful to contemplate2 physical suffering and a shaken faith1 the agonies of unaccomplished purposes1 and the still more fearful agony of desertion by the loving ,father in whom he had put his trust4 ,but ,jesus1 though he knew it not1 had done his work4 ,nay1 he had done more than he himself intended4 ,after-ages saw in him--what he saw only in his ,god--an ideal to be worshiped and a power to be addressed in prayer4 ,we1 who are free from this exaggeration of reverence1 may yet continue to pay him the high and unquestioned honor which his unflinching devotion to his duty1 his gentle regard for the weak and suffering1 his uncorrupted purity of mind1 and his self-sacrificing love so abundantly deserve4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,holy ,,books1 ,,or ,,bibles4 ,vast1 and even immeasurable1 as the influence has been which has been exercised on the course of human development by the great men of whom we have spoken1 it has been equaled1 if not surpassed1 by the influence of the peculiar class of writings which we have grouped together under the designation of ,holy ,books4 ,of this1 the last manifestation of the ,religious ,idea1 it will be necessary to speak in considerable detail2 both on account of its intrinsic importance1 and because it is a branch of the subject which has not hitherto received the attention it deserves4 ,we have been far too much accustomed in ,europe to treat the ,bible as a book standing altogether by itself2 to be admired1 reverenced and loved1 or1 it may be1 to be criticised1 objected to and rejected1 not as one of a class1 but as something altogether peculiar and unparalleled in the literary history of the world4 ,and1 undoubtedly1 if we compare it with ordinary literature of whatever description1 whatever age1 and whatever nation1 this opinion is just4 ,neither in the poetry1 the history1 or the philosophy of any other nation do we find any work that at all resembles it4 ,nevertheless it would be a very rash conclusion to arrive at1 that because in the whole field of ,greek or ,roman1 ,italian or ,french1 ,teutonic or ,celtic literature1 there is nothing that admits of being put in the same category with the ,bible1 therefore the ,bible cannot be placed in any category at all4 ,it is one of a numerous class2 a class marked by certain distinct characteristics2 a class of which some specimen is held in honor from the furthest ,east of ,asia1 to the extreme ,west of ,america1 or1 in other words1 throughout every portion of the surface of the earth which is inhabited by any race with the smallest pretense to civilization and to culture4 ,wherever there is literature at all1 there are ,sacred ,books4 ,if in some isolated cases it is not so1 these cases are exceptions too trifling in extent to invalidate the rule4 ,speaking generally we may say1 that every people which has risen above the conditions of savage life2 every nation which possesses an organized administration1 a settled domestic life1 a religion with developed and complex dogmas1 possesses also its ,sacred ,books4 ,if this truth has been too generally forgotten2 if the ,bible has been too commonly treated as something exceptional and peculiar which it was the glory of ,christianity to possess1 this omission is probably in great part due to the fact that the attention of scholars has been too much confined to the literature1 the religion1 and the general culture of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,from special circumstances these nations had no ,sacred writings among them4 ,their religion was independent of any such authorities2 and our notions of pagan religion have been largely drawn from the religions of ,greece and ,rome4 ,but the ,greeks and ,romans were only an insignificant fraction of the ,aryan race2 and other far more numerous branches of that race had their recognized and authoritative ,scriptures1 containing in some portions those most ancient traditions of the original stock which entered into the intellectual property of the ,hellenic family1 in the form of mythological tales and current stories of their gods4 ,we must not therefore be led by the example of classical antiquity to ignore the existence of these writings1 or to overlook their importance4#cd ,we may classify the ,sacred ,books to which reference will be made in this chapter as follows1 proceeding 7as in the case of prophets7 from ,east to ,west3-- #a4 ,,the ,,thirteen ,,king1 or ,canon of the ,confucians4 #b4 ,the ,,ta-,t-,k,,ng1 or ,canon of the ,ta-s4 #c4 ,the ,,veda1 or ,canon of the ,hindus4 #d4 ,the ,,tripitaka1 or ,canon of the ,buddhists4 #e4 ,the ,,zend ,,avesta1 or ,canon of the ,parsees4 #f4 ,the ,,koran1 or ,canon of the ,moslems4 #g4 ,the ,,old ,,testament1 or ,canon of the ,jews4 #h4 ,the ,,new ,,testament1 or ,canon of the ,christians4 ,the works included in the above list1--which are more numerous than might at first appear1 owing to the vast collections comprised under the titles ,vedas1 and ,tripitaka1--are distinguished1 as has been already stated1 by certain common characteristics4 ,it would be an exaggeration to say that all of these characteristics apply to each one of the writings accepted by any portion of mankind as canonical4 ,this cannot be so1 any more than the peculiar qualities which may happen to distinguish any given race of men can ever belong in equal measure to all its members4 ,hence there will necessarily be some exceptions to our rules1 but on the whole ,i believe we may say with confidence that canonical or sacred books have the following distinctive marks3-- ,a4 ,there are certain external marks1 the presence of which is essential to constitute them sacred at all4 #a4 ,they must be accepted by the sectaries of the religion to which they belong as being either inspired1 or1 if the nature of the faith precludes this idea1 as containing the highest wisdom to which it is possible for man to attain1 and indeed a much higher wisdom than can be reached by ordinary men4 ,nor do those who accept these books ever expect to attain it4 ,they regard the authors1 or supposed authors1 as enlightened to a degree which is beyond the reach of their disciples1 and receive their words as utterances of an unquestionable authority4 ,but wherever a divine being is acknowledged1 these books are regarded as emanating from him4 ,either they have fallen direct from heaven and been merely seen by their human editors1 as was the case with the ,vedic hymns2 or their contents have been communicated in colloquies to holy men by the ,deity himself1 as happened with the ,avesta2 or an angel has revealed them to the prophet while in a fit or a state of ecstacy1 as ,mahomet was made acquainted with the ,suras of the ,koran2 or lastly1 as is held to have been the case with the ,jewish and ,christian ,scriptures1 the mind of the writer has been at least so guided and informed by the ,spirit of ,god1 that in the words traced by his pen it was impossible he should err4 ,such a conviction is expressly stated in the ,second ,epistle to ,timothy1 where it is said that all ,scripture is given by inspiration of ,god4 ,and a claim to even more than inspiration is put forward in the ,apocalypse1 whose author first calls his work the ,revelation of ,jesus ,christ1 which he says ,god sent to him by an angel deputed for the purpose1 and then proceeds to describe voices heard1 and visions perceived2 thus resting his prophetic knowledge not on supernatural information communicated to the mind1 but on the direct testimony of his senses4 #b4 ,with this theory of inspiration1 or of a more than human knowledge and wisdom1 is closely connected an idea of merit to be obtained by reading such books1 or hearing them read4 ,with tedious iteration is this notion asserted in the later works of the ,buddhist ,canon4 ,these indeed represent the degeneracy of the idea4 ,one of them is so filled with the panegyrics pronounced upon itself by the ,buddha or his hearers1 and with the recital of the advantages to be obtained by him who reads it1 that the student searches in vain under this mass of laudations for the substance of the book itself 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #ecf74 ,a ,stra translated by ,schlagintweit from the ,thibetan1 and bearing the marks 7according to its translator7 of having been written at a period of mystic modification of ,buddhism1 promises that1 at a future period of intense and general distress this ,stra will be an ablution for every kind of sin which has been committed in the meantime3 all animated beings shall read it1 and on account of it all sins shall be wiped away 7,b4 ,t41 p4 #aci74 ,in another ,stra1 termed the ,karanda vyuha1 a great saint is introduced as exhorting his hearers to study this treatise1 the efficaciousness of which he highly exalts 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #bbb74 ,another speaker recites in several stanzas the advantages which will accrue to him who either reads the ,karanda vyuha or hears it read 7,ibid41 p4 #bbf74 ,such was the force of the idea that the mere mechanical reading or copying of the sacred texts was in itself meritorious1 that1 by a still further separation of the outward action from its rational signification1 the purely unintelligent process of turning a cylinder on which sentences of ,scripture were printed came to be regarded as equally efficacious4 ,an author who has given an interesting account of these cylinders observes that1 as few men in ,thibet knew how to read1 and those who did had not time to exercise their powers1 the ,lamas cast about for an expedient to enable the ignorant and the much-occupied man also to obtain the spiritual advantages 7namely1 purification from sin and exemption from metempsychosis7 attached to an observance of the practice mentioned2 they taught that the mere turning of a rolled manuscript might be considered an efficacious substitute for reading it4 ,so completely does the one process take the place of the other that each revolution of the cylinder is considered to be equal to the reading of as many sacred sentences or treatises as are enclosed in it1 provided that the turning of the cylinder is done slowly and from right to left2 the slowness being a sign of a devout mind1 and the direction of turning being a curious remnant of the original practice of reading1 in which1 as the letters run from left to right1 the eye must move over them in that direction 7,b4 ,t41 pp4 #bcj1 #bca74 ,similar sentiments1 though not pushed to the same extravagance1 prevail among the ,hindus4 ,one of the ,brhmanas1 or treatises appended to the metrical portion of the ,vedas1 lays down the principle that of all the modes of exertion1 which are known between heaven and earth1 study of the ,veda occupies the highest rank 7in the case of him7 who1 knowing this1 studies it 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 iii4 p4 #bb74 ,manu1 one of the highest of ,indian authorities1 observes that a ,brahman who should destroy these three worlds1 and eat food received from any quarter whatever1 would incur no guilt if he retained in his memory the ,rig ,veda4 ,repeating thrice with intent mind the ,sanhit of the ,rik1 or the ,yajush1 or the ,sman1 with the ,upanishads1 he is freed from all his sins4 ,just as a clod thrown into a great lake is dissolved when it touches the water1 so does all sin sink in the triple ,veda 7,ibid41 vol4 iii4 p4 #be74 ,reading the ,holy ,scriptures is with the ,parsees a positive duty4 ,and these works1 read in the proper spirit1 are thought to exert upon earth an influence somewhat similar to that of the primeval ,word at the origin of created beings 7,z4 ,a4 ,q41 p4 #eie74 ,it is needless to speak of the importance attached among ,jews and ,christians to the reading and re-reading of their ,bibles1 or of the spiritual benefits supposed to result therefrom4 ,it is worth remarking1 however1 that this constant perusal of ,holy ,writ is altogether a different operation from that of studying it for the sake of knowing its contents4 ,people read continually what they are already perfectly familiar with1 and they neither gain1 nor expect to gain1 any fresh information from the performance4 ,and this is a species of reading to which among ,christian nations the ,bible alone is subjected4 ,the genesis of this notion is not difficult to follow4 ,once let a given work be accepted as containing information on religious questions which man's unaided faculties could not have attained1 and it is evident that there is no better way of qualifying himself for the performance of his obligations towards heaven than by studying that work4 ,its perusal and re-perusal will increase his knowledge of divine things1 and render him more and more fit1 the oftener he repeats it1 to put that knowledge into practice4 ,but if it is thus advantageous to the devout man to be familiar with the sacred writings of his faith1 it is plain that the attention he gives to them must be in the highest degree agreeable to the divinity from whom they emanate4 ,for1 to put it on the lowest ground1 it is a sign of respect4 ,it renders it evident that he is not indifferent to the communication which his ,god has been pleased to make4 ,it evinces a pious and reverential disposition4 ,hence not only is the reader benefited by such a study1 but the ,deity is pleased by it4 ,or if the books are not conceived as inspired by any deity1 yet a careful attention to them shows a desire for wisdom1 and a humble regard for the instructions of more highly-gifted men who in these religions stand in the place of gods4 ,thus the action of reading these works1 and becoming thoroughly familiar with their contents1 is for natural reasons regarded as meritorious4 ,but this is not all4 ,an act which at first is meritorious as a means1 tends inevitably to become meritorious as an end4 ,moreover1 actions frequently repeated for some definite reason come to be repeated when that reason is absent4 ,thus1 the reading of ,sacred ,books1 originally a profitable exercise to the mind of the reader1 is soon undertaken for its own sake1 whether the mind of the reader be concerned in it or not4 ,and the action1 having become habitual1 is stereotyped as a religious custom1 and therefore a religious obligation4 ,the words of the holy books are read aloud to a congregation1 without effort or intelligence on their part1 perhaps in a tongue which they do not comprehend4 ,even if the vernacular be employed1 there is not the pretence of an effort to penetrate the sense of difficult passages4 ,holy ,writ has become a charm1 to be mechanically read and as mechanically heard1 and the notion of merit--arising in the first instance from the high importance of understanding its meaning with a view to practicing its precepts--now attaches to the mere repetition of the consecrated words4 #c4 ,the exact converse of this unintelligent reverence for the sacred writings is the excessive and over-subtle exercise of intelligence upon them4 ,it is the common fate of such works to be made the subject of the most minute1 most careful1 and most constant scrutiny to which any of the productions of the human mind can be subjected4 ,the pious and the learned alike submit them to an unceasing study4 ,no phrase1 no word1 no letter1 passes unobserved4 ,the result of this devout investigation naturally is1 that much which in reality belongs to the mind of the reader is attributed to that of the writer4 ,approached with the fixed prepossession that they contain vast stores of superhuman wisdom1 that which is so eagerly sought from them is certain to be found4 ,hence the natural and simple meaning of the words is set aside1 or is relegated to a secondary place4 ,all sorts of forced interpretations are put upon them with a view of compelling them to harmonize with that which it is supposed they ought to mean4 ,statements1 doctrines1 and allusions are discovered in them which not only have no existence in their pages1 but which are absolutely foreign to the epoch at which they were written4 ,this process of false interpretation is greatly favored by distance of time4 ,when an ancient book is approached by those who know but little of the external circumstances1 or of the intellectual and spiritual atmosphere1 of the age in which it was composed1 much that was simple and plain enough to the contemporaries of the writer will be dubious and obscure to them4 ,and when they are determined to find in the venerable classic nothing but perfect truth1 the result of such conditions is an inevitable confusion4 ,their own actual notions of truth must at all hazards be discovered in the sacred pages4 ,the assumption cannot be surrendered2 all that does not agree with it must therefore be suitably explained4 ,are proceedings or actions which shock the improved morality of a later age spoken of with approbation in the canonical books8 ,some evasion must be discovered which will reconcile ethics with belief4 ,are doctrines which the religion of a later age rejects plainly enunciated1 or statements of facts1 which later investigation has shown to be impossible1 unequivocally made8 ,the inconvenient passages must be shown to bear another construction4 ,are there portions whose character appears too trivial or too mundane to be consistent with the dignity of works given for the instruction of mankind8 ,these portions must be shown to possess a mystical significance2 a spirit hidden beneath the letter2 profound instruction veiled under ordinary phrases4 ,are the dogmas cherished as of supreme importance by subsequent generations unhappily not to be found in the text of ,revelation8 ,these dogmas must be read out of them by putting a strain upon words which apparently refer to some other subject4 ,perhaps1 if they are not contained in them totidem verbis1 they may be totidem syllabis3 or if not even totidem syllabis1 at least totidem literis4 ,and the absence of a letter 7like the k in shoulder-knots7 can always be got over somehow4 ,lastly1 are there palpable contradictions8 ,at whatever cost they must be explained away1 for ,holy ,writ1 being inspired1 can never contradict itself4 ,let us consider a few of the most striking examples of these methods of treatment4 ,china1 usually so matter of fact1 has manifested in this field a subtlety of interpretation not altogether unworthy of the more mystical ,india4 ,the ,ch'un ,ts'w1 one of the books of the ,chinese ,canon1 is a historical compilation attributed to ,confucius himself1 and is therefore of more than ordinary authority even for a ,sacred ,book4 ,concerning one of the years of which it contains a record1 the following statements are made3-- ,in the ninth month1 on ,kang-seuk1 the first day of the moon1 the sun was eclipsed4 ,in winter1 in the tenth month1 on ,kang-shin1 the first day of the moon1 the sun was eclipsed 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 v4 p4 #dhi4--;,ch'un ,ts'w1 b4 #i1 ch4 xxi4 p4 #e1 #f74 ,two eclipses in such close proximity were of course an impossibility4 ,chinese scholars were fully aware of this1 and knew1 moreover1 that the second eclipse mentioned did not take place4 ,a similar mistake occurred in another chapter1 so that there were two unquestionable blunders to be got over4 ,no wonder then that the critics1 as ,dr4 ,legge says1 have vexed themselves with the question in vain4 ,but one of them proposes an explanation4 ,in this year1 he remarks1 and in the twenty-fourth year1 we have the record of eclipses in successive months4 ,according to modern chronologists such a thing could not be2 but perhaps it did occur in ancient times6 7,ibid41 vol4 v4 p4 #dia74 ,dr4 ,legge has italicized the concluding words1 and put an exclamation after them1 as if they embodied a surprising absurdity4 ,but his experience of ,biblical criticism must have presented him with abundant instances of similar interpretations of the glaring contradictions to modern science found in ,scripture4 ,is it more ridiculous to suppose that the two eclipses might have occurred in two months than to believe that the sun stood still1 in other words1 that the revolution of the earth on its axis ceased for a space of time8 or that an ass could be endowed with human speech8 or that a man1 instead of dying1 could rise from earth to heaven8 ,and if these and similar strange occurrences be explained as miracles1 then such miracles did occur in ancient times1 and do not now4 ,or if it be attempted1 as it is by interpreters of the rationalistic school to get over the difficulty by supposing a natural event as the foundation of the story--as one writer suggests that the descent of the ,holy ,ghost at ,pentecost was a strong blast of wind--then ,european critics1 like those of ,china1 vex themselves in vain4 ,no country1 however1 has done more than ,india1 possibly none has done so much1 in the peculiar exercise of ingenuity by which all sorts of senses are deduced from sacred texts4 ,the ,veda formed in that highly religious land the common basis on which each variety of philosophy was founded1 and by which each was thought to be justified4 ,dr4 ,muir has collected a number of facts in proof of the diverse interpretations that found defenders among the champions of the several schools4 ,in these facts1 according to him1 we find another illustration 7#a7 of the tendency common to all dogmatic theologians to interpret in strict conformity to their own opinions the unsystematic and not always consistent texts of an earlier age which have been handed down by tradition as sacred and infallible1 and to represent them as containing1 or as necessarily implying1 fixed and consistent systems of doctrine2 as well as 7#b7 of the diversity of view which so generally prevails in regard to the sense of such texts among writers of different schools1 who adduce them with equal positiveness of assertion as establishing tenets and principles which are mutually contradictory or inconsistent 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 iii4 p4 xx74 ,exactly the same methods were applied to the sacred books of ,buddhism4 ,it is in general1 says ,burnouf1 the same texts that serve as a foundation for all doctrines2 only the explanation of these texts marks the naturalistic1 theistic1 moral or intellectual tendency 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #ddd74 ,to meet the case of contradictions occurring in the ,buddhistic ,stras a theory of a double meaning has been invented4 ,the various schools that had arisen in the course of time did not venture to reject the ,stras that failed to harmonize with their own opinions1 as not having emanated from ,buddha1 but maintained he had not expressed them in the form of absolute truth4 ,he had often1 they thought1 adapted himself to the conceptions of his hearers1 and uttered what was directly contradictory to his veritable ideas4 ,hence his words must be taken in two senses2 the palpable and the hidden sense 7,wassiljew1 pp4 #aje1 #cbi74 ,as it has been with the ,chinese ,classics1 with the ,veda1 and with the ,tripitaka1 so it has been with the ,zend ,avesta4 ,speaking of the progress of scholarship in deciphering the sense of that ancient work1 ,professor ,max ,mller justly observes that greater violence is done by successive interpreters to sacred writings than to any other relics of ancient literature4 ,ideas grow and change1 yet each generation tries to find its own ideas reflected in the sacred pages of their early prophets1 and in addition to the ordinary influences which blur and obscure the sharp features of old words1 artificial influences are here at work distorting the natural expression of words which have been invested with a sacred authority4 ,passages in the ,veda or ,zend ,avesta which do not bear on religious or philosophical doctrines1 are generally explained simply and naturally1 even by the latest of native commentators4 ,but as soon as any word or sentence can be so turned as to support a doctrine1 however modern1 or a precept1 however irrational1 the simplest phrases are tortured and mangled till at last they are made to yield their assent to ideas the most foreign to the minds of the authors of the ,veda and ,zend ,avesta 7,chips1 vol4 i4 p4 #acd74 ,it is remarkable that almost identical expressions are employed by a ,roman ,catholic writer in reference to the efforts that have been made by theologians to discover the doctrine of the ,trinity in the pages of the ,hebrew ,bible4 ,i am glad to be able to quote an authority so unexceptionable as that of ,m4 ,didron for the proposition1 that the poverty of the ,old ,testament in texts relating to the ,trinity has caused the commentators to torture the sense of the words and the signification of facts4 ,he adds the interesting information that artists1 pushed on by the commentators1 have represented the signs of the ,trinity in scenes which did not admit of them4 ,thus1 commentators and artists have united to find a revelation of the three persons of the ,godhead in the three angels whom ,abraham met in the plain of ,mamre2 in the three companions of ,daniel who were thrown into the fiery furnace1 and in other passages of equal relevance4 ,no wonder1 when such are the texts relied upon to prove the presence of this cardinal dogma1 that ,m4 ,didron should observe that the ,old ,testament contains very few texts that are clear and precise upon the subject1 and that in this portion of the ,sacred ,books we do not see a sufficient number of real and unquestionable manifestations of the ,holy ,trinity 7,ic4 ,ch41 pp4 #ead-eag74 ,perhaps1 however1 the most conspicuous instance of the power of preconceptions in deciding the sense of ,holy ,writ is the traditional interpretation of the ,song of ,solomon4 ,in this little book1 which is altogether secular in its subject and its nature1 the love of a young damsel to her swain is described in peculiarly plain and sensuous language4 ,but precisely because it was so plain was it necessary to find allegorical allusions under its rather glowing phrases4 ,hence such expressions as let him kiss me with a kiss of his mouth2 thy caresses are softer than wine1 are held to refer to the ,church's love unto ,christ1 and an enthusiastic encomium passed by the ,shulamite upon the physical perfections of her lover is called a description of ,christ by his graces4 ,so1 when another speaker1 in this case a man1 flatters a woman by enumerating the beauties of her form1 the feet1 the joints of her thighs1 the navel1 the belly1 the two breasts so passionately praised by her admirer1 are thought in some mystic way to signify the graces of the ,church4 ,a passage referring to a young girl not yet fully developed is made out to be a foreshadowing of the calling of the ,gentiles1 and the natural and simple appeal to a lover to make haste to come is the ,church praying for ,christ's coming4 ,equal1 or nearly equal1 absurdities are found in the ,chinese interpretations of certain ,odes contained in their classics4 ,these ,odes are1 like the ,song of ,songs1 mere expressions of human love4 ,but the critics find in them profound historical allusions2 history being the staple of the ,chinese sacred books1 as theology is of the ,hebrew ones4 ,now it happened in ,china1 as it has happened in ,europe1 that there was a traditional meaning attached to this portion of the sacred books2 and the traditional meaning was embodied in a ,preface which was generally supposed to have descended from very ancient times1 which came to be incorporated with the ,odes1 and thus appeared to rest on the same authority as the text itself4 ,but a ,chinese scholar1 named ,choo ,he1 who examined the preface in a freer spirit than was usual among the commentators1 formed a very different opinion as to its age and its authority4 ,he believed it to be of much more recent date that was commonly supposed1 and by no means to form an integral portion of the ,odes4 ,the prevailing theory was that the ,preface had existed as a separate document in the time of a scholar named ,maou1 and that he broke it up1 prefixing to each ,ode the portion belonging to it4 ,the natural conclusion1 observes ,choo ,he1 is that the ,preface had come down from a remote period1 and ,hwang 7a scholar who1 in one account1 is said to have written the ,preface7 merely added to it and rounded it off4 ,in accordance with this1 scholars generally hold that the first sentences in the introductory notices formed the original ,preface which ,maou distributed1 and that the following portions were subsequently added4 ,this view may appear reasonable1 but when we examine those first sentences themselves we find some of them which do not agree with the obvious meaning of the ,odes to which they are prefixed1 and give merely the rash and baseless expositions of the writers4 ,choo ,he adds1 that after the prefatory notices were published as a portion of the text1 they appeared as if they were the production of the poets themselves and the ,odes seemed to be made from them as so many themes4 ,scholars handed down a faith in them from one to another1 and no one ventured to express a doubt of their authority4 ,the text was twisted and chiseled to bring it into accordance with them1 and nobody would undertake to say plainly that they were the work of the scholars of the ,han dynasty 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 iv4 ,proleg41 p4 #cc74 ,ample confirmation of the justice of ,choo ,he's opinion will be found on turning to the ,odes and comparing them with the notices in the ,preface1 which bear a family likeness to the headings of the chapters in the ,song of ,songs4 ,here1 for example1 is an ,ode3-- ,if you1 ,sir1 think kindly of me1 ,i will hold up my lower garments1 and cross the ,tsin4 ,if you do not think of me1 ,is there no other person to do so8 ,you foolish1 foolish fellow6#ce ,the second stanza is identical1 with this exception1 that the name of the river is changed4 ,now this young lady's coquettish appeal to her lover is said in the ,preface to be an expression of the desire of the people of ,ch'ing to have the condition of the ,state rectified 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 iv4 ,proleg41 p4 #ea74 ,another ,ode runs thus3-- #a4 ,the sun is in the east1 ,and that lovely girl ,is in my chamber4 ,she is in my chamber2 ,she treads in my footsteps1 and comes to me4 #b4 ,the moon is in the east1 ,and that lovely girl ,is inside my door4 ,she is inside my door2 ,she treads in my footsteps1 and hastens away4#cf ,this simple poem is supposed by the ,preface to be directed against the decay of the times4 ,observe the theory that anything appearing in a sacred book must have a moral purpose4 ,the relation of ruler and minister was neglected4 ,men and women sought each other in lewd fashion2 and there was no ability to alter the customs by the rules of propriety 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 iv4 ,proleg41 p4 #eb74 ,a commentator1 studious to discover the hidden moral1 urges that the incongruous fact of the young woman's coming at sunrise and going at moonrise should satisfy us that1 under the figuration of these lovers1 is intended a representation of ,ts'e1 with bright or with gloomy relations between its ruler and officers 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 iv4 p4 #aec1 note74 ,in another ,ode a lady laments her husband's absence1 pathetically saying that while she does not see him1 her heart cannot forget its grief3 ,how is it1 how is it1 ,that he forgets me so very much8 is the burden of every stanza4 ,this piece1 according to the ,preface1 was directed against a duke1 who slighted the men of worth whom his father had collected around him1 leaving the ,state without those who were its ornament and strength 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 iv4 p4 #bjj1 and the note4--,she ,king1 pt4 i4 b4 #aa1 ode #g74 ,with such methods as these there is no marvel which may not be accomplished4 ,and when1 by the lapse of many centuries1 the very language of the sacred records has been forgotten--as the ,sanscrit of the ,vedas was forgotten by the ,hindus1 the ,zend by the ,parsees1 and the ,hebrew by the ,jews--the process of perversion is still further favored4 ,the original works are then accessible but to a few2 and when these few undertake to explain them in the ordinary tongue1 they will do so with a gloss suggested by their own imperfect comprehension of the thoughts and language of the past4 ,these1 then1 may be accepted as the external marks of ,sacred ,books3 #a4 ,the unusual veneration accorded to them by the adherents of each religion1 on the ground that they contain truths beyond the reach of human intelligence when not specially enlightened2 or in other words1 the theory of their inspiration4 #b4 ,the notion of religious merit attached to reading them4 #c4 ,the application to them of forced interpretation1 in order to bring them into accordance with the assumptions made regarding them4 ,b4 ,passing now to the internal marks by which writings of this class are distinguished1 we shall find several which1 taken together1 constitute them altogether a peculiar branch of literature4 #a4 ,their subjects are generally confined within a certain definite range1 but in the limits of that range there is a considerable portion which has the peculiarity that their investigation transcends the unaided powers of the human intellect4 ,almost the whole of the vast field of theological dogma comes under this head4 ,the sublimer subjects usually dealt with1 and not only dealt with1 but emphatically dwelt upon1 in the ,sacred ,books are1 the nature of the ,deity and his mode of action towards mankind2 the creation of the world and its various constituent parts1 including man himself2 the motives of the ,deity in these exercises of his power2 the dogmas to be believed in reference to the ,deity himself and in reference to other superhuman powers or agencies1 whether good or bad2 and the condition of the soul after death with the rewards and the punishments of vicious conduct4 ,coming down to matters of a less purely celestial character1 but still beyond the reach of the uninspired faculties of ordinary minds1 they treat of the primitive condition of mankind when first placed upon the earth2 of his earliest history2 of the rites by which the divine being is to be worshiped2 of the sacrifices which are to be offered to him2 of the ceremonies by which his favor is to be won4 ,here we move in a region which is at least intelligible and free from mysteries1 though it is plain that we could not arrive at any certain conclusions on such things as these without divine assistance and superhuman illumination4 ,lastly1 the ,sacred ,books of all nations profess to give information on a subject the nature of which is altogether mundane1 and with regard to which truth is accessible to all1 inspired or uninspired2--the rules of moral conduct4 ,these are1 ,i believe1 the main subjects which will be found treated of in the various books that lay claim to the title of ,sacred4 ,these subjects may be briefly classified as1 #a4 ,metaphysical speculations as to the nature of the ,deity4 #b4 ,doctrines as to the past or future existence of the soul4 #c4 ,accounts of the creation4 #d4 ,lives of prophets or collections of their sayings4 #e4 ,theories as to the origin of evil4 #f4 ,prescriptions as to ritual4 #g4 ,ethics4 ,that this does not pretend to be an exhaustive classification1 ,i need hardly say2 other topics are treated in some of them to which no allusion is made1 and all of these topics themselves are not treated at all4 ,but they are those with which the ,sacred ,books are principally concerned2 and more than this1 they are those in the treatment of which these books are especially peculiar4 ,one important feature both of the ,chinese and the ,jewish ,canon is passed over1 namely1 their historical records4 ,if these records were not exceptional appearances in sacred works1 or if1 though exceptional1 they presented some essential singularity marking them off from all ordinary history1 they should be included in the list of subjects4 ,but as the ,chinese ,shoo ,king are perfectly commonplace annals of matters of fact2 and as the ,books of ,samuel1 ,kings1 and ,chronicles are not otherwise distinguished from secular history than by their theological theories--in respect of which they are included under the previous heads--,i see no reason to include history among the matters generally treated in ,sacred ,books4 ,it is right1 however1 to note in passing that in these two instances it is found in them4 #b4 ,since1 however1 it will be obvious to all that these great topics are discussed in many other works which have no pretension to be thought sacred1 we must seek for some further and more definite criterion by which to separate them from general literature4 ,and we shall find it in the manner in which the above-named subjects are treated4 ,the great distinction between sacred and non-sacred writings in their manner of dealing with these great questions is the tone of authority1 and if the expression may be used1 of finality1 assumed by the former4 ,there is no appeal beyond them to a higher authority than their own4 ,having ,god as their author and inspirer1 or being the product of the supreme elevation of reason1 they take for granted that human beings will not question or cavil at their statements4 ,while other writers1 when seeking to enforce the doctrines of any positive religion1 invariably rest their contentions1 implicitly or explicitly1 on some superior authority1 referring their readers or hearers either to the ,vedas1 the ,koran1 the ,bible1 the ,church1 or some other recognized standard of belief and would think it in the last degree presumptuous to claim assent except to what can be found in or deduced from that standard2 while those teachers who are not the exponents of any positive1 revealed religion1 endeavor to prove their conclusions from the common intuitions or the common reasoning faculties of mankind2 the writers of these books do neither4 ,they seem to speak with a full confidence that their words need no confirmation either from authority or from reason4 ,if they tell us the story of the creation of the world1 they do not think it needful to inform us from what sources the narrative is derived4 ,if they reveal the character of ,god1 it is without explaining the means by which their insight has been obtained4 ,if they lay down the rules of religious or moral conduct1 it is not done with the modesty of fallible teachers1 but with the voice of unqualified command emanating from the plentitude of power4 ,of their decisions there can be no discussion2 from their sentences there is no appeal4 #c4 ,it corresponds with this character that ,sacred ,books should very generally be anonymous2 or more strictly speaking1 impersonal2 that is1 that they should not be put forward in the name of an individual1 and that no individual should take credit for their authorship4 ,understanding the expression in this somewhat wider sense1 we may say that anonymity is a general characteristic of this class of writings4 ,their authors do not desire to invite attention to their own personality1 or to claim assent on the ground of respect or consideration towards themselves4 ,on the contrary1 they withdraw entirely from observation2 they appear to be thoroughly engrossed in the greatness of the subject2 and to write not from any deliberate design or with any artistic plan1 but simply from the fullness of the inspiration by which they are controlled4 ,hence not only are the names of the authors in most cases completely lost to us1 but they have left us not a hint or an indication by which we could discover what manner of men they were4 ,even where the name of a writer has been preserved to us1 it is often rather by some accident altogether independent of the book1 and which in no way alters its anonymous character4 ,we happen to know1 on what seems to be good authority1 that ,la-ts composed the ,ta-t-,kng1 but assuredly there is not a syllable in the work itself which indicates its author4 ,we happen to know beyond a doubt that ,mahomet composed the ,koran2 but the theory of the book is that it had no human author at all1 and it was put forth1 not as the prophet's composition1 but as the literal reproduction of revelations made to him from heaven4 ,the most noteworthy exceptions are the prophets of the ,old ,testament and the ,pauline1 ,petrine and ,johannine ,epistles of the ,new4 ,but of the prophets1 though their names are indeed given1 the great majority are little more than a mere name to us2 while large portions of the prophecies1 attributed in the ,jewish ,canon to some celebrated prophet1 are in reality the work of unknown writers4 ,this is notoriously the case with the whole of the latter part of our ,isaiah2 it is the case with parts of ,jeremiah2 it is the case with ,malachi 7whose real name is not preserved72 it is the case with ,daniel4 ,the ,pauline ,epistles offer indeed a marked exception to the rule2 and some of them are of doubtful authenticity4 ,the ,epistles of ,peter1 of ,john1 of ,james and ,jude1 even if their authorship be correctly assigned1 are of too limited extent to constitute an exception of any importance4 ,the rest of the ,christian ,bible follows the rule4 ,like the ,vedic hymns1 like the ,stras of ,buddhism1 like the records of the life and doctrines of ,khung-ts1 like the ,avesta1 all the larger books of the ,bible--except the prophets--are anonymous4 ,the whole of the historical portion of the ,old ,testament1 the four ,gospels1 the ,acts of the ,apostles1 the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 are--whatever names tradition may have associated with them--strictly the production of unknown authors4 ,this characteristic is one of very high importance1 because it indicates--along with another which ,i am about to mention--the spirit in which these works were written4 ,they were written as it were unconsciously and undesignedly2 not of course without a knowledge on the writer's part of what he was about1 but without that conscious and distinct intention of composing a literary work with which ordinary men sit down to write a book4 ,flowing from the depths of religious feeling1 they were the reflection of the age that brought them forth4 ,generations past and present1 nations1 communities1 brotherhoods of believers1 spoke in them and through them4 ,they were not only the work of him who first uttered them or wrote them2 others worked with him1 thought with him1 spoke with him2 they were not merely the voice of an individual1 but the voice of an epoch and of a people4 ,hence the utter absence of any apparent and palpable authorship1 the disappearance of the individual in the grandeur of the subject4 ,this phenomenon is not indeed quite peculiar to ,sacred ,books4 ,it belongs also to those great national epics which likewise express the feelings of whole races and communities of men2 to the ,mahbhrata1 to the ,rmyana1 to the ,iliad and the ,odyssey1 to the ,volsungen and ,nibelungen ,sagas1 to the ,eddas1 to the legends of ,king ,arthur and his knights4 ,these poems1 or these poetical tales1 are anonymous1 and they occupy in the veneration of the people a rank which is second only to that of books actually sacred4 ,in some other respects they bear a resemblance to ,sacred ,books1 but these books differ from them in one important particular1 which of itself suffices to place them in a different category4 ,what that particular is must now be explained4 #d4 ,if ,i were to describe it by a single word1 ,i should call it their formlessness4 ,the term is an awkward one1 but ,i know of no other which so exactly describes this most peculiar feature of ,sacred ,books4 ,like the earth in its chaotic condition before creation1 they are without form4 ,that artistic finish1 that construction1 combination of parts into a well-defined edifice1 that arrangement of the whole work upon an apparent plan1 subservient to a distinct object1 which marks every other class of the productions of the human mind1 is entirely wanting to them4 ,they read not unfrequently as if they had been carelessly jotted down without the smallest regard to order1 or the least attention to the effect to be produced on the mind of the reader4 ,sometimes they may even be said to have neither beginning1 middle1 nor end4 ,we might open them anywhere and close them anywhere without material difference4 ,sometimes there is a distinct progress in the narrative1 but it is nevertheless wholly without methodical combination of the separate parts into a well-ordered whole4 ,herein they differ also from those poetical ,epics which we have found agreeing with them in being virtually anonymous4 ,nothing can exceed the grace1 the finish1 the perfection of style1 of those immortal poems which are known as ,homeric4 ,the northern ,epics are indeed simpler1 ruder1 far more destitute of literary merit4 ,the first part1 for instance1 of the ,edda ,saemundar 7which perhaps ought not to be called an ,epic at all7 is to the last degree uncouth and barbarous4 ,but then the subject-matter of this portion of the ,edda is such as belongs properly to ,sacred ,books1 and had it ever been actually current among the ,scandinavians as a canonical work--of which we have no evidence--it would be entitled to a place among them4 ,when we come to the second or heroic portion of this ,edda1 the case is different4 ,the mode of treatment is still rude and unattractive1 but if1 unrepelled by the outward form1 we study the longest of the narratives which this division contains--the ,saga of the ,volsungs--we shall discover in it a tale1 which for the exquisite pathos of its sentiments1 for the deep and tragic interest which centres round the principal characters1 for the vivid delineation by a few brief touches of the intensest suffering1 is scarcely surpassed even by the far more finished productions of ,hellenic genius4 ,no doubt the foundation of the story is mythological1 and this throws over many of its incidents a grotesqueness which goes far in modern eyes to mar the effect4 ,but the mythological incidents of the ,iliad and the ,odyssey are grotesque also1 and it requires all the genius of the poet to render them tolerable4 ,apart from this groundwork1 the ,volsunga-,saga treats its personages as human1 and claims from its readers a purely human interest in their various adventures4 ,it relates these adventures in a connected form1 it depicts the feelings of the several actors with all the sympathy of the dramatist1 and draws no moral1 teaches no lesson4 ,in the whole range of sacred literature ,i recollect nothing like this4 ,stories are doubtless told in it1 but we are made to feel that they are subservient to an ulterior purpose4 ,in the ,old ,testament and in the ,new1 they serve to enforce the theological doctrines of the writers2 in the works of the ,buddhists they generally impress on the hearers some useful lesson as to the reward of merit1 and the punishment of demerit1 in a future existence4 ,of the genuine and simple relation of a rather elaborate romance1 terminating in itself1 there is probably no instance4 ,such stories as are related are moral tales1 and not romances2 and they are generally too short to absorb1 in any considerable degree1 the interest of the reader4 ,while this is the difference between secular and ,sacred ,books in respect of their narrative portions1 the sacred are as a whole even more decidedly below the secular in all that belongs to style and composition4 ,the dullest historian generally contrives to render his chronicle more lucid1 and therefore more readable1 than the authors of canonical books4 ,in these last there is the most absolute disregard of artistic or literary excellence4 ,hence they are1 with scarcely an exception1 very tedious reading4 ,m4 ,renan observes of the ,koran that its continuous perusal is almost intolerable4 ,burnouf hesitates to inflict upon his readers the tedium he himself has suffered from the study of certain ,tantras4 ,the inconceivable tediousness of the ,buddhistic ,stras--excepting the earlier and simpler ones--is well known to those who have read or attempted to read such works1 as1 for instance1 the ,saddharma ,pundarika4 ,the ,chinese ,classics are less repulsive1 but few readers would care to study them for long together4 ,the ,vedic hymns1 though full of mythological interest1 are yet difficult and unpleasant reading1 both from their monotony and the looseness of the connection between each verse and sentence4 ,the ,brhmanas are barely readable4 ,the ,avesta is far from attractive4 ,the ,bible1 though vastly superior in this respect to all the rest of its class1 is yet not easy to read for any length of time without fatigue4 ,doubtless1 if taken as a special study1 with a view to something which we desire to ascertain from it1 we may without difficulty read large portions at a time2 yet we see that ,christians1 who read it for edification1 invariably choose in their public assemblies to confine themselves to very moderate sections of it indeed1 while they will listen to sermons of many times the length4 ,there can be little doubt that a similar practice is pursued in private devotion4 ,single chapters1 or at most a few chapters1 are selected2 these are perused1 and perhaps made the object of meditation2 but even the most fervent admirers of the ,bible would probably find it difficult to read through its longer books without pausing4 ,they do not1 so to speak1 carry us on4 ,it was essential to dwell on this tediousness of ,sacred ,books1 because it forms one of their most marked characteristics4 ,nor does it arise1 as is often the case1 from indifference or aversion on the part of the reader4 ,other books repel us because we have no interest in the subjects with which they deal4 ,in these1 the keenest interest in the subjects with which they deal will not suffice to render their presentation tolerable4 ,,section ,i4--,,the ,,thirteen ,,king4#cg ,sacred ,books in general are in ,china termed ,king4 ,but as the ,chinese ,buddhists have their own sacred literature1 and as ,taouists are in possession of a sacred work of their founder1 ,la-ts1 ,i call the ,books of the ,state religion1 that is1 of the followers of ,confucius1 the ,king par excellence4 ,for ,confucianism is the official creed of the ,government of ,china1 and the ,confucian ,canon forms the subject of the ,civil ,service examinations which qualify for office4 ,according to a competent authority1 a complete knowledge of the whole of them1 as well as of the standard notes and criticisms by which they are elucidated1 is an indispensable condition towards the attainment of the higher grades of literary and official rank 7,chinese1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dh74 ,the writings now recognized as especially sacred in ,china are the five ,king1 and the four ,shoo4#ch ,king is a term of which the proper signification is the warp1 the chain of a web3 thence that which progresses equally1 that which constitutes a fundamental law1 the normal4 ,applied to books1 it indicates those that are regarded as canonical2 as an absolute standard1 either in general or with reference to some definite object 7,t4 ,t4 ,k41 p4 lxviii74 ,in the words of another ,sinologue1 it is the ,rule1 the ,law1 a book of canonical authority1 a classical book 7,l4 ,t41 p4 ix74 ,the word seems therefore on the whole to correspond most nearly to what we mean by a canonical book4 ,shoo means ,writings or ,books4 ,the four ,shoo1 of which ,i shall speak first1 are these3--,a #a4 ,the ,lun ,yu1 or ,digested ,conversations 7of ,confucius74 ,a #b4 ,the ,ta ,ho1 or ,great ,learning4 ,a #c4 ,the ,chung ,yung1 or ,doctrine of the ,mean4 ,a #d4 ,the ,works of ,mang-tsze1 or ,mencius4 ,the five ,king are these3--,b #a4 ,the ,yih1 or ,book of ,changes 7,noticed in ,pauthier1 p4 #acg74 ,b #b4 ,the ,shoo1 or ,book of ,history4 ,b #c4 ,the ,she1 or ,book of ,poetry4 ,b #d4 ,the ,le ,ke1 or ,record of ,rites4 ,b #e4 ,the ,ch'un ,ts'w1 or ,spring and ,autumn1 a chronicle of events from ,b4 ,c4 #gba-;,b4 ,c4 #dhj4 ,the oldest enumeration specified only the five ,king1 to which the ,yoke1 or ,record of ,music 7now in the ,le ,ke71 was sometimes added1 making six4 ,there was also a division into nine ,king2 and in the compilation made by order of ,te-,tsung 7who reigned in the #gth century ,a4 ,d47 there are specified thirteen ,king1 which consist of3#ci--a-g4 ,the five ,king1 including three editions of the ,ch'un ,ts'w4 #h4 ,the ,lun ,yu 7,a #a74 #i4 ,mang-tsze 7,a #d74 #aj4 ,the ,chow ,le1 or ,ritual of ,chow4 #aa4 ,the ,e ,le1 or ,ceremonial ,usages4 #ab4 ,the ,urh ,ya1 a sort of ancient dictionary4 #ac4 ,the ,heaou ,king1 or ,classic of ,filial ,piety4 ,the apparent omission of the ,ta ,ho 7,a #b7 and the ,chung ,yung 7,a #c7 is accounted for by the fact that both are included in the ,le ,ke 7,b #d74 ,the only works which it is at present in my power to speak of in detail are those classified as ,a #a to ,a #d1 and as ,b #b4 ,the authenticity of these works is considered to be above reasonable suspicion2 for though an emperor who reigned in the third century ,b4 ,c41 did indeed order 7,b4 ,c4 #bab7 that they should all be destroyed1 yet this emperor died not long after the issue of his edict1 which was formally abrogated after twenty-two years2 and subsequent dynasties took pains to preserve and recover the missing volumes4 ,as it is of course improbable that every individual would obey the frantic order of the emperor who enjoined their destruction1 there appears to be sufficient ground for ,dr4 ,legge's conclusion1 that we possess the actual works which were already extant in the time of ,confucius1 or 7in so far as they referred to him7 were compiled by his disciples or their immediate successors4 ,,subdivision #a4--,the ,lun ,yu4 #a4 ,the first of the four ,books is the ,lun ,yu1 or ,digested ,conversations4 ,from internal evidence it seems to have been compiled in its actual form1 not by the immediate disciples of ,confucius1 but by their disciples4 ,its date would be about the end of the fourth1 or beginning of the fifth1 century before ,christ2 that is1 about #djj ,b4,c4 ,it bears a nearer resemblance to the ,christian ,gospels than any other book contained in the ,chinese ,classics1 being in fact a minute account1 by admiring hands1 of the behavior1 character1 and doctrine1 of the great ,master1 ,confucius4 ,since1 however1 it contains no notice of the events of his life in chronological order1 it answers much more accurately to the description given by ,papais of the composed by ,matthew in the ,hebrew dialect than to that of any of our canonical ,gospels4 ,biographical materials may indeed be discovered in it2 but they occur only as incidental allusions1 subservient to the main object of preserving a record of his sayings4 ,in the minute and painstaking mode in which this task is performed there is even a resemblance to ,boswell's ,johnson2 as in that celebrated work1 we have as it were a photographic picture of the great man's conversation1 taken by a reverent and humble follower4 ,and as there is a total absence of that fondness for the marvelous and that tendency to exaggerate the ,master's powers which so generally characterize traditional accounts of religious teachers1 we may fairly infer that we have here a trustworthy1 and in the main1 accurate representation of ,confucius' personality and of his teaching4 ,as ,i have largely drawn upon this work in writing the ,life of that prophet1 ,i need not now detain the reader with any further quotations4 ,,subdivision #b4--,the ,ta ,ho4 ,passing to the ,ta ,ho1 or ,great ,learning1 we find ourselves occupied with a book which bears the same kind of relationship to the ,lun ,yu as the ,epistle to the ,hebrews does to the ,gospels4 ,this work is altogether of a doctrinal character2 and as in the ,epistle1 the exposition of the doctrines is by no means so clear and simple as in the oral instructions of the founder of the school4 ,the ,ta ,ho is attributed by ,chinese tradition to ,k'ung ,keih1 the grandson of ,confucius2 but its authorship is in fact1 like that of the ,epistle1 unknown4 ,it was added to the ,le ,ke1 or ,record of ,rites1 in the second century ,a4,d4 ,it begins with certain paragraphs which are attributed1 apparently without authority1 to ,confucius2 and all that follows is supposed to be a commentary on this original text4 ,the text begins thus3-- #a4 ,what the ,great ,learning teaches1 is--to illustrate illustrious virtue2 to renovate the people2 and to rest in the highest excellence4444 #d4 ,the ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the ,empire1 first ordered well their own ,states4 ,wishing to order well their ,states1 they first regulated their families4 ,wishing to regulate their families1 they first cultivated their persons4 ,wishing to cultivate their persons1 they first rectified their hearts4 ,wishing to rectify their hearts1 they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts4 ,wishing to be sincere in their thoughts1 they first extended to the utmost their knowledge4 ,such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things4 ,after a few more verses of text1 we come to the ,commentary of the philosopher ,tsang1 which is mainly occupied with what purports to be an explanation of the process described in the foregoing verses4 ,for instance1 the sixth chapter explains making the thoughts sincere1 the seventh1 rectifying the mind and cultivating the person2 until at last we arrive at the right manner of conducting the government of the ,state1 and the making of the ,empire peaceful and happy4 ,the object of the treatise is therefore practical1 and the subject a favorite one with the ,chinese ,classics1 that of ,government4 ,great stress is laid on the influence of a good example on the part of the ruler2 and those model sovereigns1 ,yaou and ,shun1 are appealed to as illustrations of its good effect in such hands as theirs4 ,in the course of the exposition of these principles1 we meet with dry maxims of political economy1 worthy of modern times1 such as this3-- ,there is a great course also for the production of wealth4 ,let the producers be many and the consumers few4 ,let there be activity in the production1 and economy in the expenditure4 ,then the wealth will always be sufficient 7,ta ,ho74 ,,subdivision #c4--,the ,chung ,yung4 ,the composition of the ,chung ,yung1 or ,doctrine of the ,mean1 is universally attributed in ,china to ,k'ung ,keih1 or ,tsze-sze1 the grandson of ,confucius4 ,the external evidence of his authorship is1 in ,dr4 ,legge's opinion1 sufficient2 though if that which he has produced be all that is extant1 it does not seem to be at all conclusive4 ,some quotations from it have already been made in the notice of ,confucius1 many of whose utterances are contained in it4 ,its principal object is1 or seems to be1 to inculcate the excellence of what is called the ,mean1 but the explanation of what is intended by the ,mean is far from clear4 ,the course of the ,mean1 however1 is that taken by the sage2 the virtue which is according to the ,mean is perfect2 the superior man embodies it in his practice2 ordinary men cannot keep to it2 mean men act contrary to it2 and ,shun1 a model emperor1 determined the ,mean between the bad and good elements in men1 and employed it in his government of the people4 ,the ,mean1 from the attributes thus assigned to it1 would appear to be a state of complete and hardly attainable moral perfection1 of which they who have offered an example in their conduct have 7at least in modern times7 been rare indeed4 ,in the beginning of the treatise we learn that3-- #a4 ,what ,heaven has conferred is called ,,the ,,nature2 an accordance with this nature is called ,,the ,,path of duty2 the regulation of this path is called ,,instruction4 #d4 ,while there are no stirrings of pleasure1 anger1 sorrow or joy1 the mind may be said to be in the state of ,,equilibrium4 ,when those feelings have been stirred1 and they act in their due degree1 there ensues what may be called the state of ,,harmony4 ,this ,,equilibrium is the great root from which grow all the human actings in the world1 and this ,,harmony is the universal path which they all should pursue 7,the italics1 here and in future quotations1 are in ,legge74 #e4 ,let the states of equilibrium and harmony exist in perfection1 and a happy order will prevail throughout heaven and earth1 and all things will be nourished and flourish 7,chung ,yung74 ,in another part of the work1 the path is described as not being far from the common indications of consciousness2 and the following rule is laid down with regard to it3-- ,when one cultivates to the utmost the principles of his nature1 and exercises them on the principle of reciprocity1 he is not far from the path4 ,what you do not like1 when done to yourself1 do not do to others 7,ibid41 xiii4 #c74 ,a large and important portion of the goodness required of those who would walk in the path is sincerity4 ,sincerity is declared to be the way of ,heaven 7,ibid41 xx4 #ah71 and it is laid down that it is only he who is possessed of the most complete sincerity that can exist under ,heaven1 who can give its full development to his nature4 ,having this power1 he is said to be able to give development to the natures of other men1 animals1 and things1 and even to assist the transforming and nourishing powers of ,heaven and ,earth1 so that he may with ,heaven and ,earth form a ternion 7,chung ,yung1 xx4 #g74 ,the doctrine of ,heaven as a protecting power holds no inconsiderable place in this short treatise4 ,thus it is stated that ,heaven1 in the production of things1 is surely bountiful to them1 according to their qualities 7,ibid41 xvii4 #c74 ,in order to know men the sovereign may not dispense with a knowledge of ,heaven 7,ibid41 xxii74 ,the way of ,heaven and ,earth may be completely declared in one sentence4 ,they are without any doubleness1 and so they produce things in a manner that is unfathomable4 ,the way of ,heaven and ,earth is large and substantial1 high and brilliant1 far reaching and long enduring 7,chung ,yung1 xxvi4 #g1 #h74 ,and in a very high-flown passage on the character of the sage--said to refer to the author's grandfather--he is spoken of as the equal of ,heaven 7,ibid41 xxxi4 #c74 ,heaven1 however1 is not the only superhuman power that is mentioned in the ,chung ,yung4 ,in one of its chapters we are told that ,confucius thus expressed himself3-- ,how abundantly do spiritual beings display the powers that belong to them6 ,we look for them1 but do not see them2 we listen to1 but do not hear them2 yet they enter into all things1 and there is nothing without them4 ,they cause all the people in the ,empire to fast and purify themselves1 and array themselves in their richest dresses1 in order to attend at their sacrifices4 ,then1 like overflowing water1 they seem to be over the heads1 and on the right and left of their worshipers 7,chung ,yung1 xvi4 #a-c74 ,this positive expression of opinion is scarcely consistent with the habitual reserve of ,kung-tse on subjects of this kind 7,lun ,yu1 vii4 #bj71 and were it not that it rests apparently on adequate authority1 we might be tempted to reject it as apocryphal4 ,,subdivision #d4--,the works of ,mang-tsze4 ,the next place in the ,chinese ,scriptures is occupied by the works of ,mang-tsze1 the philosopher ,mang1 or as he is frequently called1 ,mencius4 ,mang lived nearly two hundred years later than ,confucius1 having been born about #cga1 and having died in #bhh ,b4 ,c4 ,he was not an original teacher asserting independent authority1 and has no claim to the title of prophet4 ,on the contrary1 he was an avowed disciple of ,confucius1 to whose dicta he paid implicit reverence1 and whom he quoted with the respect due to the exalted character which the sage had already acquired in the eyes of his school4 ,the so-called ,works of ,mang are not original compositions of this philosopher1 but collections of his sayings1 resembling the ,lun ,yu1 or ,confucian ,analects4 ,whether he compiled them1 or took any part in their compilation himself1 is uncertain4 ,but1 considering their character1 the more probable hypothesis seems to be that they were committed to writing by his friends1 or disciples1 either during his own life1 or immediately after his death4 ,the evidence of their antiquity and authenticity must be very briefly touched upon4 ,the earliest notice of ,mang is antecedent to the ,ts'in dynasty 7#bee-bjf ,b4 ,c471 that is1 within thirty-three years after his death4 ,we are indebted for it to ,seun ,k'ing1 who several times makes mention of ,mang1 and who in one chapter of his works1 quotes his arguments and endeavors to set them aside4 ,in the next place1 we have accounts of him1 and references to his writings1 in ,k'ung ,foo1 prior to the ,han dynasty1 that is1 before #bjf ,b4 ,c4 ,thirdly1 he is quoted by writers from #ahf-agh ,b4 ,c41 under the ,han dynasty4 ,about #ajj ,b4 ,c4 occurs the earliest mention now known of ,mang's works4 ,it emanates from ,sze-ma ,tseen1 who attributes to ,mang himself the composition of seven books4 ,while in a category of the date ,a4 ,d4 #a1 the works of ,mang are entered as being in eleven books2 a discrepancy which has given rise to perplexities among ,chinese scholars1 with which we need not concern ourselves4 ,suffice it to say1 that ,mang's works1 as we now possess them1 consist only of seven books1 and are not known to have ever consisted of more4 ,this evidence would appear to be sufficient to prove the antiquity of the collection1 though not its ,mencian authorship4 ,whoever may have been its author1 it was not admitted among the ,sacred ,books till many centuries after it had been received among scholars as a valuable1 though not classical1 work4 ,under the ,sung dynasty1 which began to reign about ,a4 ,d4 #ifj-igj1 the works of ,mang were at length placed on a level with the ,lun ,yu1 as part of the great ,bible of ,china4 ,on the whole1 ,mang's writings are of little interest for ,european readers1 and ,i shall not trouble mine with any elaborate account of them4 ,they are mainly occupied with the question of the good government of the ,empire4 ,what constitutes a good ruler8 on what principles should the administration of public affairs be carried on8 how can the people be rendered happy and the whole ,empire prosperous8 these are the sort of inquiries that chiefly engaged the attention of ,mang1 and to which he sought to furnish satisfactory replies4 ,at the courts of the monarchs who received him1 he inculcated benevolent conduct towards their subjects1 with a paternal regard for their welfare1 and sometimes boldly reproved unjust or negligent rulers4 ,holding1 in common with the rest of his school1 the doctrine of a superintendence of human affairs by a power named ,heaven1 he asserted in uncompromising terms the theory that ,heaven expresses its will through the instrumentality of the people at large4 ,vox populi1 vox ,dei1 is the sentiment that animates the following passage1 which contains one of the most courageous assertions of popular rights to be found in the productions of any age or country3-- ,wan ,chang said1 ',was it the case that ,yaou gave the empire to ,shun8'#dj ,mencius said1 ',no4 ,the emperor cannot give the empire to another4' ',yes2--but ,shun had the empire4 ,who gave it to him8' ',heaven gave it to him1' was the answer4 ',heaven gave it to him3--did ,heaven confer its appointment on him with specific injunctions8' ,mencius replied1 ',no4 ,heaven does not speak4 ,it simply showed its will by his personal conduct1 and his conduct of affairs4' ',it showed its will by his personal conduct and his conduct of affairs3--how was this8' ,mencius' answer was1 ',the empire 8 emperor can present a man to ,heaven1 but he cannot make ,heaven give that man the empire4 ,a prince can present a man to the emperor1 but he cannot cause the emperor to make that man a prince4 ,a great officer can present a man to his prince1 but he cannot cause the prince to make that man a great officer4 ,yaou presented ,shun to ,heaven1 and the people accepted him4 ,therefore ,i say1 ,heaven does not speak4 ,it simply indicated its will by his personal conduct and his conduct of affairs4' ,chang said1 ',i presume to ask how it was that ,yaou presented ,shun to ,heaven1 and ,heaven accepted him2 and that he exhibited him to the people1 and the people accepted him4 ,mencius replied1 ',he caused him to preside over the sacrifices1 and all the spirits were well pleased with them2--thus ,heaven accepted him4 ,he caused him to preside over the conduct of affairs1 and affairs were well administered1 so that the people reposed under him2--thus the people accepted him4 ,heaven gave the empire to him4 ,the people gave it to him4 ,therefore ,i said1 ,the emperor cannot give the empire to another4 ',shun assisted ,yaou in the government for twenty and eight years2--this was more than man could have done1 and was from ,heaven4 ,after the death of ,yaou1 when the three years' mourning was completed1 ,shun withdrew from the son of ,yaou to the south of ,south river4 ,the princes of the empire1 however1 repairing to court1 went not to the son of ,yaou1 but they went to ,shun4 ,singers sang not the son of ,yaou1 but they sang ,shun4 ,therefore ,i said1 ,heaven gave him the empire4 ,it was after these things that he went to the ,middle kingdom1 and occupied the emperor's seat4 ,if he had1 before these things1 taken up his residence in the palace of ,yaou1 and had applied pressure to the son of ,yaou1 it would have been an act of usurpation1 and not the gift of ,heaven4 ',this sentiment is expressed in the words of ,the great ,declaration1--,heaven sees according as my people see2 ,heaven hears according as my people hear' 7,the ,italics are mine4--,mang-tsze1 b4 #e1 pt4 i4 ch4 v474 ,mang's notion of what a really good government should do is fully explained at the end of the first part of the first book1 in an exhortation to the king of ,ts'e4 ,his ,majesty1 he observed1 should institute a government whose action shall all be benevolent1 for then his kingdom will be resorted to by officers of the court1 farmers1 merchants1 and persons who are aggrieved by their own rulers4 ,the king must take care to regulate the livelihood of people1 in order that all may have enough for parents1 wives1 and children2 for they are only men of education1 who without a certain livelihood1 are able to maintain a fixed heart4 ,as to the people1 if they have not a certain livelihood1 it follows that they will not have a fixed heart4 ,and if they have not a fixed heart1 there is nothing which they will not do1 in the way of self-abandonment1 of moral deflection1 of depravity1 and of wild license4 ,when they have thus been involved in crime1 to follow them up and punish them1--this is to entrap the people4 ,how can such a thing as entrapping the people be done under the rule of a benevolent man8 ,with a view then to their material and moral well-being1 mulberry trees should be planted1 the breeding seasons of domestic animals be carefully attended to1 the labor necessary to cultivate farms not be interfered with1 and careful attention paid to education in schools4 ,and it has never been known that the ruler in whose ,state these things were duly performed did not attain to the ,imperial dignity 7,mang-tsze1 b4 #a1 pt4 i4 ch4 vii4 p4 #ah-bd74 ,the only virtue required for the attainment of ,imperial sway is the love and protection of the people2 with this there is no power which can prevent a ruler from attaining it 7,ibid41 b4 #a1 pt4 i4 ch4 vii4 p4 #c74 ,in accordance with his decided opinions as to the right of the people to be consulted in the appointment of their rulers1 he advised the same king to be guided entirely by popular feeling in assuming1 or not assuming1 the government of a neighboring territory which he had conquered4 ,if the people of ,yen will be pleased with your taking possession of it1 then do so4444 ,if the people of ,yen will not be pleased with your taking possession of it1 then do not do so 7,mang-tsze1 b4 #a1 pt4 ii4 ch4 x4 p4 #c74 ,mang was something of a political economist as well as a statesman4 ,there is in his writings a just and striking defense of the division of labor1 in opposition to the primitive simplicity recommended by a man named ,heu ,hing1 who wished the rulers to cultivate the soil with their own hands4 ,mang's answer to ,heu ,hing's disciple is in the form of an ad hominem argument1 showing that1 as ,heu ,hing himself does not manufacture his own clothes or make his own pots and pans1 but obtains them in exchange for grain1 in order that all his time may be devoted to agriculture1 it is absurd to suppose that government is the only business which can advantageously be pursued along with husbandry1 as ,heu ,hing desired 7,mang-tsze1 b4 #a1 pt4 ii4 ch4 x4 p4 #c74 ,it was not enough1 however1 in ,mang's eyes that a sovereign should conduct the government of his country in accordance with the great ethical and economical maxims he laid down2 he must also pay strict attention to the rules of ,chinese etiquette4 ,on some occasions ,mang insisted even haughtily on the observance towards himself of these rules by the princes who wished to see him1 even though one of his own disciples plainly told him that in refusing to visit them because of their supposed failure to attend to such minuti he seemed to him to be standing on a small point 7,ibid41 b4 #c1 pt4 i4 ch4 iv74 ,in fact the rules of propriety held in his estimation no less a place than in that of his ,master and predecessor4 ,it is gratifying1 however1 to find him admitting that cases may arise where their operation should be suspended4 ,indecorous as it is for males and females to allow their hands to touch in giving or receiving anything1 yet when a man's sister-in-law is drowning he is permitted1 and indeed bound to1 rescue her with the hand4 ,nay1 ,mang in his liberality goes further1 and emphatically observes1 that he who would not so rescue a drowning woman is a wolf 7,mang-tsze1 b4 #d1 pt4 i4 ch4 xvii4 p4 #a74 ,the most important doctrine of a moral character dwelt upon by ,mang is that of the essential goodness of human nature1 on which he lays considerable stress4 ,according to him1 the tendency of man's nature to good is like the tendency of water to flow downwards1 and it is shared by all1 as all water flows downwards4 ,you may indeed force water to go upwards by striking it1 but the movement is unnatural1 and it is equally contrary to the nature of men to be made to do what is not good 7,ibid41 b4 #f1 pt4 i4 ch4 ii4 pp4 #b1 #c74 ,yaou and ,shun were indeed great men1 but all may be ,yaous and ,shuns1 if only they will make the necessary effort 7,ibid41 b4 #f1 pt4 ii4 ch4 ii4 pp4 #a-e74 ,men's mouths agree in having the same relishes2 their ears agree in enjoying the same sounds2 their eyes agree in recognizing the same beauty2--shall their minds alone be without that which they similarly approve8 ,what is it then of which they similarly approve8 ,it is1 ,i say1 the principles of our nature1 and the determinations of righteousness4 ,the sages only apprehended before me that of which my mind approves along with other men4 ,therefore the principles of our nature and the determinations of righteousness are agreeable to my mind1 just as the flesh of grass 8-fed and grain-fed animals is agreeable to my mouth 7,mang-tsze1 b4 #f1 pt4 i4 ch4 vii4 p4 #h74 ,it ought not to be said that any man's mind is without benevolence and righteousness4 ,but men lose their goodness as the trees are denuded by axes and bills4 ,the mind1 hewn down day after day1 cannot retain its beauty4 ,but the calm air of the morning is favorable to the natural feelings of humanity1 though they are destroyed again by the influences men come under during the day4 ,this fettering takes place again and again1 and as the restorative influence of the night is insufficient to preserve the native hue1 the nature becomes not much different from that of the irrational animals1 and then people suppose it never had these original powers of goodness4 ,but does this condition1 continues ,mang1 represent the feelings proper to humanity8 7,ibid41 b4 #f1 pt4 i4 ch4 viii4 p4 #b74 ,what some of these feelings are he has plainly told us4 ,commiseration1 shame1 and dislike1 modesty and complaisance1 approbation and disapprobation1 are according to him four principles which men have just as they have their four limbs4 ,the important point for all men to attend to is their development1 for if they are but completely developed1 they will suffice to love and protect all within the four seas 7,ibid41 b4 #b1 pt4 i4 ch4 vi4 pp4 #e-g74 ,and in another place he insists on the importance of studying and cultivating the nature which he asserts to be thus instinctively virtuous4 ,he who has exhausted all his mental constitution knows his nature4 ,knowing his nature1 he knows ,heaven4 ,to preserve one's mental constitution1 and nourish one's nature1 is the way to serve ,heaven 7,ibid41 b4 #g1 pt4 i4 ch4 i4 pp4 #a1 #b74 ,the moral tone of ,mang's writings is exalted and unbending1 and evinces a man whose character will bear comparison with those of the greatest philosophers or most eminent ,christians of the western world4 ,,subdivision #e4--,the ,shoo ,king4 ,in this work are contained the historical memorials of the ,chinese ,empire4 ,the authentic history of ,china extends1 as is well known1 to an earlier date than that of any extant nation4 ,it possesses records of events that occurred more than two thousand years before the ,christian era1 although these events are intermixed with fabulous incidents4 ,from the time of ,t'ang the ,successful1 however1 ,dr4 ,legge informs us1 commonly placed in the eighteenth century before ,christ1 we seem to be able to tread the field of history with a somewhat confident step 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 iii4 ,proleg41 p4 #dh74 ,the exact dates1 however1 cannot be fixed with certainty till the year #gge ,b4 ,c4 ,twenty centuries before our era the ,chinese nation appears1 beginning to be 7,ibid41 p4 #ij74 ,without entering into the history of the text of the ,shoo ,king1 it may be stated that its fifty-eight books may probably be accepted as substantially the same with those which were known to ,seun-tsze1 ,mencius1 ,mih-tsze1 ,confucius himself1 and others 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 iii4 ,proleg41 p4 #dh74 ,its earliest books--which must be regarded as in great part legendary--contain accounts of three ,chinese ,emperors--,yaou1 ,shun1 and ,yu--whose conduct is held up as a model to future ages1 and who represent the beau idal of a ruler to the ,chinese mind4 ,these admirable sovereigns were succeeded by men of very inferior virtue4 ,t'ae-k'ang 7,b4 ,c4 #bahg71 the grandson of ,yu1 pursued his pleasure and wanderings without any restraint4 ,an insurrection against his authority took place1 and his five brothers took occasion to admonish him by repeating the cautions of the great ,yu in the form of songs4 ,the first of these songs may be quoted as a good specimen of the doctrine of the ,shoo ,king with reference to the imperial duties3-- ,it was the lesson of our great ancestor3-- ,the people should be cherished2 ,they should not be down-trodden3 ,the people are the root of a country2 ,the root firm1 the country is tranquil4 ,when ,i look throughout the empire1 ,of the simple men and simple women1 ,any one may surpass me1 ,if ,i1 the one man1 err repeatedly3-- ,should dissatisfaction be waited for till it appears8 ,before it is seen1 it should be guarded against4 ,in my relation to the millions of the people1 ,i should feel as much anxiety as if ,i were driving six horses with rotten reins4 ,the ruler of men-- ,how can he be but reverent of his duty8#da ,many successive dynasties1 comprising sovereigns of various characters1 succeed these original ,emperors4 ,throughout the ,shoo ,king we find great stress laid on the doctrine1 that the rulers of the land enjoy the protection of ,heaven only so long as their government is good4 ,should the prince become tyrannical1 dissolute1 or neglectful of his exalted duties1 the favor of the ,divine ,power is withdrawn from him and conferred upon another1 who is thus enabled to drive him from the throne he is no longer worthy to fill4 ,the emphatic and reiterated assertion of this revolutionary theory is very remarkable4 ,thus1 a king who has himself just effected the overthrow of an incompetent dynasty1 is represented as addressing this discourse to the myriad regions3-- ,ah6 ye multitudes of the myriad regions1 listen clearly to the announcement of me1 the one man4 ,the great ,god has conferred even on the inferior people a moral sense1 compliance with which would show their nature invariably right 7the same doctrine insisted on by ,mang74 ,but to cause them tranquilly to pursue the course which it would indicate1 is the work of the sovereign4 ,the king of ,hea 7the monarch whom the speaker had superseded17 extinguished his virtue and played the tyrant1 extending his oppression over you1 the people of the myriad regions4 ,suffering from his cruel injuries1 and unable to endure the wormwood and poison1 you protested with one accord your innocence to the spirits of heaven and earth4 ,the way of ,heaven is to bless the good and punish the bad4 ,it sent down calamities on the ,house of ,hea1 to make manifest its crimes4 ,therefore ,i1 the little child1 charged with the decree of ,heaven and its bright terrors1 did not dare to forgive the criminal4 ,i presume to use a dark-colored victim1 and making clear announcement to the spiritual ,sovereign of the high heavens1 requested leave to deal with the ruler of ,hea as a criminal4 ,then ,i sought for the great sage1 with whom ,i might unite my strength1 to request the favor of ,heaven on behalf of you1 my multitudes4 ,high ,heaven truly showed its favor to the inferior people1 and the criminal has been degraded and subjected 7,shoo ,king1 iv4 #c4 #b74 ,it is true that this speech1 proceeding from an interested party naturally anxious to set his own conduct in the fairest light1 is liable to suspicion4 ,but there is abundant evidence in the pages of the ,shoo ,king that the views expressed above were participated in by its writers1 who constantly hold the fate that befalls wicked ,emperors as a punishment from ,heaven1 and laud those who effect their own downfall as ,heaven's agents4 ,they also frequently introduce sage advisers who reprove the reigning ,emperor for his faults1 and admonish him to walk in the ways of virtue in a spirit of the utmost frankness4 ,one of these monarchs candidly confesses the benefit he has derived from the instructions of such a counselor1 whose lessons have led him to effect a complete reformation of his character 7,ibid41 iv4 #e4 pt4 ii74 ,another charged his minister to be constantly presenting instructions to aid his virtue1 and to act towards him as medicine which should cure his sickness 7,ibid41 iv4 #h4 pt4 i4 #e-h74 ,if1 however1 a dynasty persisted in its evil courses1 in spite of all the warnings it might receive1 it was doomed to perish4 ,losing the attachment of the people1 it fell undefended and unregretted4 ,such was the case with the house of ,yin4 ,the ,viscount of ,wei1 who is stated by old authorities to have been a brother of the ,emperor1 thus described its career3-- ,the ,viscount of ,wei spoke to the following effect3--',grand ,tutor and ,junior ,tutor1 the ,house of ,yin1 we may conclude1 can no longer exercise rule over the four quarters of the empire4 ,the great deeds of our founder were displayed in former ages1 but by our being lost and maddened with wine1 we have destroyed the effects of his virtue1 in these after times4 ,the people of ,yin1 small and great1 are given to highway robberies1 villainies1 and treachery4 ,the nobles and officers imitate one another in violating the laws2 and for criminals there is no certainty that they will be apprehended4 ,the lesser people consequently rise up1 and make violent outrages on one another4 ,the dynasty of ,yin is now sinking in ruin2--its condition is like that of one crossing a large stream1 who can find neither ford nor bank4 ,that ,yin should be hurrying to ruin at the present pace6'-- ,he added1 ',grand ,tutor and ,junior ,tutor1 we are manifesting insanity4 ,the venerable of our families have withdrawn to the wilds2 and now you indicate nothing1 but tell me of the impending ruin2--what is to be done8' ,the ,grand ,tutor made about the following reply3--',king's son1 ,heaven in anger is sending down calamities1 and wasting the country of ,yin4' ,and after mentioning the crimes of the ,emperor1 he proceeds3--',when ruin overtakes ,shang1 ,i will not be the servant of another dynasty4 ,but ,i tell you1 ,o king's son1 to go away as being the course for you4444 ,let us rest quietly in our several parts1 and present ourselves to the former kings4 ,i do not think of making my escape' 7,shoo ,king1 iv4 #aa74 ,in another portion of the ,shoo the causes which lead to the preservation or loss of ,heaven's favor are thus described by ,the ,duke of ,chow3--,the favor of ,heaven is not easily preserved4 ,heaven is hard to be depended on4 ,men lose its favoring appointment because they cannot pursue and carry out the reverence and brilliant virtue of their forefathers4 ,again3--,heaven is not to be trusted4 ,our course is simply to seek the prolongation of the virtue of the ,tranquilizing king1 and ,heaven will not find occasion to remove its favoring decree which ,king ,wan received 7,shoo ,king1 xvi4 #a74 ,the paramount importance to the national welfare of a wise selection of ministers and officials receives its full share of attention in the ,chinese ,bible4 ,the ,duke of ,ts'in1 another province of the ,empire1 is represented as speaking thus3-- ,i have deeply thought and concluded2--,let me have but one resolute minister1 plain and sincere1 without other abilities1 but having a simple1 complacent mind1 and possessed of generosity1 regarding the talents of others1 as if he himself possessed them3 and when he finds accomplished and sage-like men1 loving them in his heart more than his mouth expresses1 really showing himself able to bear them3--such a minister would be able to preserve my descendants and my people1 and would indeed be a giver of benefits 7,shoo ,king1 v4 #cj4 ,see also v4 #ai4 #b74 ,these extracts1 without giving an adequate notion of the very miscellaneous contents of the ,shoo ,king1 a work which could not be accomplished without an undue extension of the subdivision referring to it1 will serve to show that its moral tone on matters relating to the government of a nation is not inferior to that of any of the productions of classical or ,hebrew antiquity4 ,,subdivision #f4--,the ,she ,king4 ,whatever sanctity or authority may attach to the ,she ,king in the minds of the ,chinese1 must belong to it solely on account of its antiquity1 for there is certainly nothing in the character of its contents that should entitle it to a place in the consecrated literature of a nation4 ,similar phenomena1 however1 are not unknown among more devout races than the ,chinese4 ,thus the ,hebrews admitted into their ,canon the ,books of ,ruth and ,esther1 and the ,song of ,solomon1 which contain but little of an edifying nature1 though full of human interest4 ,the same may be said of the ,she ,king4 ,the play of human emotions is vividly represented in it1 but there is not much in which moral or religious lessons are to be found1 except by doing violence to the text4 ,the ,she ,king is a collection of ancient poems4 ,tradition attributes the arrangement and selection of the ,odes now contained in it to ,confucius1 who is supposed to have selected them in accordance with some wise design from a much larger number4 ,the present translator1 however1 assigns reasons for rejecting this tradition1 and for believing that the ,she ,king was current in ,china long before his time in a form not very different from that in which we now possess it4 ,at the present day1 its songs have not lost their ancient popularity1 for it is stated that they are the favorite study of the better informed at the present remote period4 ,every well-educated ,chinese has the most celebrated pieces by heart1 and there are constant allusions to them in modern poetry and writings of all kinds 7,davis' ,chinese1 ii4 #fj74 ,the poems1 which were collected from many different provinces1 relate to a great variety of subjects4 ,some are political1 some domestic1 some sacrificial1 others festive4 ,we have rulers addressing the princes of their kingdom in laudatory terms1 and princes in their turn extolling the ruler2 complaints of unemployed politicians1 and groans from oppressed subjects2 husbands deploring their absence from their wives on military service2 forlorn wives longing for the return of absent husbands2 stanzas written by lovers to their mistresses1 and maidens' invocations of their lovers2 along with a few allusions to amatory transactions of a more questionable character4 ,all these miscellaneous matters are treated in short1 simple1 and rather monotonous poems1 which1 if they have any beauty in the original1 have completely lost it in the process of translation4 ,there is sometimes pathos in the feelings uttered2 but the expressions are of the most direct and unornamental kind1 and the whole book partakes largely of that artlessness which we have noted as one of the ordinary marks of ,sacred ,books4 ,a few specimens will suffice4 ,here is the protest of a widow against being urged to marry again3-- #a4 ,it floats about1 that boat of cypress wood1 ,there in the middle of the ,ho4 ,with his two tufts of hair falling over his forehead2 ,he was my mate2 ,and ,i swear that till death ,i will have no other4 ,o mother1 ,o ,heaven1 ,why will you not understand me8 #b4 ,it floats about1 that boat of cypress wood1 ,there by the side of the ,ho4 ,with his two tufts of hair falling over his forehead2 ,he was my only one2 ,and ,i swear that till death ,i will not do the evil thing4 ,o mother1 ,o ,heaven1 ,why will you not understand me8#db ,in the following lines a young lady begs her lover to be more cautious in his advances1 and that in a tone which may remind us of ,nausikaa's request to ,odysseus to walk at some distance behind her1 lest the busybodies of the town should take occasion to gossip3-- #a4 ,i pray you1 ,mr4 ,chung1 ,do not come leaping into my hamlet2 ,do not break my willow-trees4 ,do ,i care for them8 ,but ,i fear my parents4 ,you1 ,o ,chung1 are to be loved1 ,but the words of my parents ,are also to be feared4 #b4 ,i pray you1 ,mr4 ,chung1 ,do not come leaping over my wall2 ,do not break my mulberry-trees4 ,do ,i care for them8 ,but ,i fear the words of my brothers4 ,you1 ,o ,chung1 are to be loved1 ,but the words of my brothers ,are also to be feared4 #c4 ,i pray you1 ,mr4 ,chung1 ,do not come leaping into my garden2 ,do not break my sandal-trees4 ,do ,i care for them8 ,but ,i dread the talk of people4 ,you1 ,o ,chung1 are to be loved1 ,but the talk of people ,is also to be feared4#dc ,the following ,ode1 conceived in a different spirit1 will serve to illustrate one of the most prominent features of ,chinese character as depicted in these ancient books1--its filial piety4 ,it is supposed to be the composition of a young monarch who has just succeeded to the government of his kingdom3-- ,alas for me1 who am as a little child1 ,on whom has devolved the unsettled ,state6 ,solitary am ,i and full of distress4 ,oh my great ,father1 ,all thy life long1 thou wast filial4 ,thou didst think of my great grandfather1 ,seeing him1 as it were ascending and descending in the court4 ,i1 the little child1#dd ,day and night will be so reverent4 ,oh ye great kings1 ,as your successor1 ,i will strive not to forget you4#de ,,subdivision #g4--,the ,ch'un ,ts'w4 ,according to ,chinese tradition1 the ,ch'un ,ts'w1 or ,spring and ,autumn1 was the production of ,confucius himself2 not indeed his original composition1 but a compilation made by him from prexisting sources4 ,the title of ,ch'un ,ts'w was not of his own making4 ,it was the name already in use for the annals of the several ,states4 ,the annals were arranged under the four seasons of each year1 and then two of the seasons--,spring and ,autumn--were used as an abbreviated term for all the four4 ,and so strictly is this principle of parceling out the annals of each year under the several seasons adhered to in the work1 that even when there is no event to be recorded we have such entries as these3 ,it was summer1 the fourth month4 ,it was winter1 the tenth month4 ,the classical ,ch'un ,ts'w was compiled from the ,ch'un ,ts'w of the ,state of ,loo4 ,it is even doubtful whether ,confucius did anything more than copy what he found in the annals of that country4 ,dr4 ,legge evidently inclines to the belief that he altered nothing4 ,at any rate1 the work can only be regarded as very particularly his own4 ,more than this1 it is questionable whether the text we have at present is that of the original ,ch'un ,ts'w at all4 ,this classic is indeed said to have been recovered in the ,han dynasty after the destruction of the book4 ,but there are circumstances which may well make us hesitate before we accept the ,chinese account of this recovery as a fact4 ,mang1 who had the best opportunities of knowing what his master was believed to have written1 if not what he actually had written1 speaks of the ,ch'un ,ts'w in terms wholly inapplicable to the work before us4 ,he asserts expressly that it was composed by him because right principles had dwindled away1 because unseemly language and unrighteous deeds were common1 and he attributes to its completion the result that rebellious ministers and villainous sons were struck with terror4 ,now we may allow what limits we please for the exaggeration natural to a disciple when speaking of the labors of a revered master4 ,but can we believe that ,mang1 a man whose own teaching proves him to have been a moderate and sensible thinker1 would have spoken thus of a compilation which from beginning to end contains absolutely no moral principles whatever8 ,yet such is the case with the ,spring and ,autumn as we possess it4 ,there is not in it the faintest glimmer of an ethical judgment on the historical events which it records4 ,a birth1 an eclipse1 a fall of snow1 a plague of insects1 a murder1 a battle1 the death of a ruler1 are all chronicled in the same dry1 lifeless1 unvarying style4 ,nowhere would it be possible for an unprejudiced critic to detect the opinions of the compiler1 or to gather from his words that he viewed a virtuous action with more favor than an abominable crime4 ,such being the case1 ,i hesitate1 notwithstanding the high authority of ,dr4 ,legge1 to accept the genuineness of this work as beyond cavil4 ,it has in fact been questioned in ,china1 not indeed on very valid grounds1 by a scholar whose letter he has translated in his ,prolegomena1 and he himself candidly acknowledges the extreme difficulty of reconciling the character of our present text with the statement of ,mang4 ,but he considers the external testimony to the recovery of the book sufficiently weighty to dispose of this and other difficulties4 ,yet1 without disputing the strength of the grounds on which this conclusion rests1 we may still permit ourselves to entertain a modest doubt whether this compilation was really the handiwork of such a man as we know ,confucius to have been1 and that doubt will be strengthened when we recall the common tendency of the popular mind to connect the authorship of standard works with names of high repute4 ,and the bare existence of such a doubt will compel us to suspend our judgment on the very serious charges of misrepresentation and falsehood which ,dr4 ,legge has brought against ,confucius in his capacity of historian4 ,if the actual ,ch'un ,ts'w be shown to be identical with that edited by ,confucius1 and if he simply adopted1 without alteration1 or with very trivial alteration1 the labors of his predecessors1 the gravity of these charges will be very considerably diminished4 ,for we know not but what some feeling of respect for that which he found already recorded may have stayed his hand from revision and improvement4 ,passing to the work itself1 we shall find little in it worthy of attention1 unless by those who may be desirous of studying the history of ,china4 ,chinese commentators have indeed discovered all kinds of recondite meanings in it1 as is usually the case with the commentators on ,sacred ,books1 but these are of no more value than the similar discoveries of types and mystic foreshadowings in the ,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,in itself1 the text is profoundly uninteresting4 ,here is one of the shortest chapters as a specimen4 ,the title of the ,book from which it is taken is ,duke ,chwang3-- ,,xxvi4 #a4 ,in his twenty-sixth year1 in spring1 the duke invaded the ,jung4 #b4 ,in summer1 the duke arrived from the invasion of the ,jung4 #c4 ,ts'aou put to death one of its great officers4 #d4 ,in autumn1 the duke joined an officer of ,sung and an officer of ,ts'e in invading ,seu4 #e4 ,in winter1 in the twelfth month1 on ,kwei-hae1 the first day of the moon1 the sun was eclipsed 7,ch'un ,ts'w1 iii4 #bf74 ,the events noted in these annals refer to various ,states--for it appears that the several ,states were in the habit of communicating remarkable occurrences to each other--but they are of a very limited class1 and are invariably recorded in the brief manner of the chapter that has just been quoted4 ,eclipses of the sun are duly registered1 and the record thus acquires a chronological value of high importance in historical researches4 ,among the other facts commonly mentioned are sacrifices for rain1 which occur very frequently2 wars1 with the results of great battles2 the marriages or deaths of rulers and important persons2 their journeys2 occasionally their murder2 meetings of rulers for the purpose of common action in matters of ,state2 diplomatic missions2 invasions of locusts or other troublesome insects2 and lastly1 peculiarities of various kinds in the state of the weather4 ,it is plain that annals of this kind have no religious significance beyond that which they derive from the mere fact of being reputed sacred4 ,and in this aspect the ,ch'un ,ts'w is certainly curious4 ,having been assigned--rightly or wrongly--to the pen of the prophet of ,china1 it seems to have become a point of honor with ,chinese scholars to extract from it1 by hook or by crook1 the profoundest lessons on politics and morals4 ,,section ,,ii4--,,the ,,ta-,t-,k,,ng4#df ,there are in ,china three recognized sects or religiones licit3--,confucianism1 ,buddhism1 and ,tao-ism4 ,we have examined the ,sacred ,books of the first2 those of the second will come under review in another section4 ,there remains the comparatively small and unimportant sect of the ,ta-ts1 or ,doctors of ,reason1 who derive their origin from ,la-ts1 and who possess as their classic the single written composition which emanated from their founder4 ,it is entitled the ,ta-t-,kng4 ,ancient as this book is 7probably about ,b4,c4 #ebj71 there is no reason to doubt its authenticity4#dg ,this is sufficiently guaranteed by quotations from it which are found in authors belonging to the fourth century ,b4,c41 and by the fact that a scholar who wrote in ,b4,c4 #afc made it the subject of a commentary1 which accompanies it sentence by sentence4 ,nor does ,chinese tradition state that it perished in the ,burning of the ,books 7,b4,c4 #bab-bji71 which was a measure leveled against the ,confucian school1 and took place under an ,emperor who was favorable to the ,ta-ts4 ,we may safely conclude that we are in possession of the genuine composition of the ancient philosopher 7,t4 ,t4 ,k41 lxxiii41 lxxiv74 ,of the three words which compose its title1 ,king has already been explained 7,supra p4 #cij-cia74 ,the full meaning of ,ta will appear in the sequel3 we may here term it the ,absolute4 ,te means ,virtue2 and the title would thus imply either that this ,canonical ,book deals with the ,absolute and with ,virtue1 or with that kind of virtue which emanates from1 and is founded upon1 a belief in and a spiritual union with the ,absolute4#dh ,whatever the signification of its name1 its principal subjects undoubtedly are ,ta and ,te3 the ,supreme ,principle and human ,virtue4 ,let us see what is ,la-ts's description of ,ta1 the great fundamental ,being on whom his whole system rests4 ,ta1 if it can be pronounced1 is not the eternal ,ta4 ,the ,name1 if it can be named1 is not the eternal ,name4 ,the ,nameless ,one is the foundation of ,heaven and ,earth2 he who has a ,name is the ,mother of all beings 7,ch4 #a74 ,these enigmatical sentences open the ,ta philosophy4 ,the idea that ,ta is unnameable is a prominent one in the author's mind1 although he seems also to recognize a subordinate creative principle--like the ,gnostic ons--which is nameable4 ,thus we read3 ,ta1 the ,eternal has no ,name4444 ,he who begins to create1 has a ,name 7,ch4 #cb74 ,again3 ,for ever and ever it is unnameable1 and returns into non-existence4 ,or3 ,i know not its ,name2 if ,i describe it1 ,i call it ,ta 7,ch4 #be74 ,we are reminded of ,faust's reply in ,goethe3-- ,ich habe keinen ,namen ,dafr8 ,gefhl ist alles2 ,name ist ,schall und ,rauch ,umnebelnd ,himmelsgluth4 ,nor is ,ta only without a ,name2 it is sometimes described as if devoid of all intelligible attributes4 ,thus1 in one chapter1 we learn that it is eternally without action1 and yet without non-action 7,ch4 #cg74 ,nay1 the entire absence of all activity is not unfrequently predicated of ,ta1 whose great merit is stated to be complete quiescence4 ,ta is moreover incomprehensible1 inconceivable1 undiscoverable1 obscure 7,ch4 #ba74 ,its upper part is not clear1 its lower part not obscure4 ,it returns into non-existence4 ,it is the form of the ,formless2 the image of the ,imageless 7,ch4 #ad74 ,mysterious as this ,being is1 yet in other places attributes are ascribed to it which go far to elucidate the author's conception of its nature4 ,productive energy1 for instance1 is plainly attributed to ,ta1 for it is stated that ,ta produces one1 one two1 and two three1 while three produces all creatures 7,ch4 #cb74 ,the following account is less mystical3 ,ta produces them creatures1 its ,might preserves them1 its essence forms them1 its power perfects them3 therefore of all beings there is none that does not adore ,ta1 and honor its ,might4 ,the adoration of ,ta1 the honoring of its ,might1 is commanded by no one and is always spontaneous4 ,for ,ta produces them1 preserves them1 brings them up1 fashions them1 perfects them1 ripens them1 cherishes them1 protects them4 ,to produce and not possess1 to act and not expect1 to bring up and not control1 this is called sublime ,virtue4#di ,in addition to these creative and preservative qualities1 it has moral attributes of the highest order4 ,thus1 its ,spirit is supremely trustworthy4 ,in it is faithfulness 7,ch4 #ba74 ,all beings trust to it in order to live4 ,when a work is completed1 it does not call it its own4 ,loving and nourishing all beings1 it still does not lord it over them4 ,it is eternally without desire4 ,all beings turn to it1 yet it does not lord it over them 7,ch4 #cd74 ,it is eminently straightforward4 ,it dwells only with those who are not occupied with the luxuries of this world 7,ch4 #ec74 ,nay1 it is altogether perfect 7,ch4 #be74 ,the last assertion is found in a chapter which1 as it is probably the most important in the book for the purpose of understanding the theology of the author1 deserves to be translated in full3--,there existed a ,being1 inconceivably perfect1 before ,heaven and ,earth arose4 ,so still6 so supersensible6 ,it alone remains and does not change4 ,it pervades all and is not endangered4 ,it may be regarded as the ,mother of the ,world4 ,i know not its name2 if ,i describe it1 ,i call it ,ta4 ,concerned to give it a ,name1 ,i call it ,great2 as great1 ,i call it ,immense2 as immense1 ,i call it ,distant2 as distant1 ,i call it ,returning4 ,for ,ta is great2 ,heaven is great2 the ,earth is great2 the ,king is also great4 ,in the world there are many kinds of greatness1 and the ,king remains one of them4 ,the measure of ,man is the earth2 the measure of earth1 ,heaven2 the measure of ,heaven1 ,ta2 ,ta's measure itself4#ej ,such is the picture of ,ta2 but the ,ta-t-,kng is much more than a treatise on theology2 it is even more conspicuously a treatise on morals4 ,ta is indeed the transcendental foundation on which the ethical superstructure is raised2 but the superstructure occupies a much more considerable space than the foundation1 and seems to have been the main practical end for which the latter was laid down4 ,intermingled with the image of ,ta we find the image of the good man1 or1 as we may call him1 in ,scriptural phraseology1 the righteous man2 an ideal of perfect virtue1 whom the author holds up1 not as an actual person1 but as an imaginary model for the guidance of human conduct4 ,by putting together the scattered traits of his character1 we may arrive at a tolerable comprehension of the author's conception of perfect goodness4 ,in the first place1 the righteous man is in harmony in his actions with ,ta2 he becomes one with ,ta1 and ,ta rejoices to receive him 7,ch4 #bc74 ,he places himself in the background1 and by that very means is brought forward 7,ch4 #g74 ,he does not regard himself1 and therefore shines2 he is not just to himself1 and is therefore distinguished2 does not praise himself1 and is therefore meritorious2 does not exalt himself1 and is therefore preminent4 ,as he does not dispute1 none can dispute with him 7,ch4 #bb74 ,if he acts1 he sets no store by his action2 for he does not wish to render his wisdom conspicuous 7,ch4 #gg74 ,he knows himself1 but does not regard himself2 loves himself1 but does not set a high price on himself 7,ch4 #gb74 ,unwilling lightly to promise great things1 he is thereby able to accomplish the more2 by treating things as difficult1 he finds nothing too difficult during his whole life 7,ch4 #fc74 ,inaccessible alike to friendship and enmity1 uninfluenced by personal advantage or injury1 by honor or dishonor1 he is honored by all the world 7,ch4 #ef74 ,he is characterized by quiet earnestness2 should he possess splendid palaces1 he inhabits them or quits them with equal calm 7,ch4 #bf74 ,he clothes himself in wool 7a very coarse material in ,china71 and hides his jewels 7,ch4 #gj74 ,he is ever ready to help others2 for the good man is the educator of the bad1 the bad man the treasure of the good 7,ch4 #bg74 ,the righteous man does not accumulate4 ,the more he spends on others1 the more he has2 the more he gives to others1 the richer he is 7,ch4 #ha74 ,he who knows others is clever2 he who knows himself is enlightened 7,ch4 #cc74 ,thus the sage1 like ,socrates1 makes a main principle of his conduct4 ,should he be called to the administration of the realm1 he adopts a policy of laisser faire1 for he has observed the evils produced by over-legislation4 ,it is his belief that if he be inactive1 the people will improve by themselves2 if he be quiet1 they will become honorable2 if he abstain from intermeddling1 they will become rich2 if he be free from desires1 they will become simple 7,ch4 #eg74 ,compelled to engage in war1 he will not make use of conquest to triumph or exalt himself1 neither will he take violent measures 7,ch4 #cj74 ,mercy is a quality that must not be despised2 the merciful will conquer in battle 7,ch4 #fg74 ,endowed with these characteristics1 the good man need fear nothing4 ,like ,horace's ,integer vit scelerisque purus1 he is preserved from danger4 ,the horn of the rhinoceros1 the claws of the tiger1 the blade of the sword1 cannot hurt him 7,ch4 #ej74 ,he is like a new-born child3 serpents do not sting it1 nor wild beasts seize it1 nor birds of prey attack it4#ea ,a few features1 which do not directly enter into the delineation of the character of the sage1 must still be added to complete that image4 ,and first1 a prominent place must be assigned to a quality which is a large ingredient in ,la-ts's conception of goodness1 both human and divine4 ,it is that of gentleness1 or1 as he would call it1 weakness4 ,it is a favorite principle of his1 that the weak things of the earth overcome the strong1 and that they overcome in virtue of that very weakness4 ,he has an aversion to all conspicuous exercise of force4 ,the deity of his philosophy is one who is indeed all-powerful1 but who never displays his power4 ,the method of ,heaven--and it should also be that of man--is apparent yielding1 leading to real supremacy4 ,it strives not1 yet is able to overcome4 ,it speaks not1 yet is able to obtain an answer4 ,it summons not1 yet men come to it of their own accord2 is long-suffering1 yet is able to succeed in its designs 7,ch4 #gc74 ,the superiority of the weak--or the seeming weak--to the strong1 is further illustrated by ,la-ts in several parallels4 ,we enter life soft and feeble2 we quit it hard and strong4 ,therefore softness and feebleness are the companions of life2 hardness and strength of death 7,ch4 #gf74 ,and does not the wife overcome her husband by her quietness8 7,ch41 #fa47 ,is not water the softest and weakest of all things in the world1 yet is there anything which ever attacks the hard and strong that is able to surpass it8 7,ch41 #gh47 ,thus1 the most yielding of all substances overcomes the most inflexible4 ,hence is manifest the advantage of inactivity and of silence 7,ch4 #dc74 ,it is fully in accordance with these notions that ,la-ts should distinctly deprecate warfare1 and should assert that the most competent general will not be warlike4 ,calmly conscious of his power1 he is not quarrelsome or eager for battle1 and thus possessing the virtue of peaceable and patient strength1 he becomes the peer of ,heaven 7,ch4 #fh74 ,war is altogether to be condemned1 as pregnant with calamity to the state 7,ch4 #cj74 ,the most beauteous weapons are instruments of misfortune2 all creatures abhor them2 therefore he who has ,ta does not employ them4 ,they are not the instruments of the wise man4 ,if he must needs resort to them1 yet he still values peace and quietness as the highest aims4 ,he conquers with reluctance4 ,he who has killed many men1 let him weep for them with grief and compassion4 ,he who has conquered in battle1 let him stand as at a funeral pomp 7,ch4 #ca74 ,another striking characteristic of ,la-ts's moral system is his dislike of luxury1 and his earnest injunction to all men to be contented with modest circumstances4 ,we have seen that the sage is depicted as wearing coarse clothing1 and ,la-ts considers that the very presence of considerable riches indicates the absence of ,ta from the minds of their possessors4 ,as we should express it1 the devotion to worldly wealth is inconsistent with a spiritual life4 ,to wear fine clothes1 to carry sharp swords1 to be filled with drink and victuals1 to have a superfluity of costly gems1 this is to make a parade of robbery 7,or1 this is magnificent robbery1 ,o4 ,p41 p4 #da72 truly not to have ,ta 7,ch4 #ec74 ,moreover1 the very pomp of the palace leads to uncultivated fields and empty barns 7,ibid74 ,la-ts therefore warns every one not to consider his abode too narrow or his life too confined4 ,if we do not think it too confined1 it will not be so 7,ch4 #gb74 ,nay1 he goes further1 and asserts that the world is best known by staying at home4 ,the further a man goes1 the less he knows 7,ch4 #dg74 ,a truly virtuous and well-governed people will never care to travel beyond its own limits4 ,to such a people its food will be so sweet1 its clothing so beautiful1 its dwellings so comfortable1 and its customs so dear1 that it will never visit the territory of its neighbors1 even though that territory should lie so close that the cackling of the hens and the barking of the dogs may be heard across the boundary 7,ch4 #hj74 ,it results from the above exposition of his ethical principles that ,la-ts insists mainly upon three virtues3 ,modesty1 ,benevolence1 and ,contentment4 ,for my part1 he says himself1 ,i have three treasures2 ,i guard them and greatly prize them4 ,the first is called ,mercy1#eb the second is called ,frugality1 the third is called ,not daring to be first in the kingdom4 ,mercy--therefore ,i can be brave2 ,frugality--therefore ,i can give away2 ,not daring to be first in the kingdom--therefore ,i can become the first of the gifted ones 7,ch4 #fg74 99 99 99 99 99 ,of all the sacred books1 the ,ta-t-,kng is the most philosophical4 ,it stands1 indeed1 on the borderland between a revelation and a system of philosophy1 partaking to some extent of the nature of both4 ,since1 however1 it forms the fundamental classic of a religious sect1 and since it has engaged in its interpretation a multitude of commentators1#ec it appears to be fully entitled to a place among ,scriptures4 ,not indeed that the ,chinese regard it as a revelation in the same sense in which nations of a more theological cast of mind apply that term to the books composing their ,canon4 ,but ,i see no reason to doubt that the ,ta-ts1 however little they attend to its precepts1 yet treat it as a work of unapproachable perfection and unquestionable truth4 ,indeed1 the writer of a fabulous life of ,la-ts1 who lived many centuries after his death1 expressly ascribes to it those peculiar qualities which1 as we have seen1 are the special attributes of sacred books 7,l4 ,v4 ,v41 pp4 xxxi41 xxxii74 ,to the ,european reader who approaches it for the first time it will probably appear a perplexing study4 ,participating largely in that disorder and confusedness which characterizes the class of literature to which it belongs1 it presents1 in addition1 considerable difficulties peculiarly its own4 ,the correct translation of many passages is doubtful4 ,the sense of still more is ambiguous and obscure4 ,la-ts is fond of paradox1 and his constant employment of paradoxical antithesis seems specially designed to puzzle the reader4 ,if his doctrine was understood by few1 it must be confessed that this was partly his own fault4 ,moreover1 the reverence with which he speaks of ,ta1 and the care with which he insists that ,ta does nothing1 seem at first sight inconsistent4 ,we feel ourselves in an atmosphere of hopeless mysticism4 ,nevertheless1 these superficial troubles vanish1 or at least retire into the background1 after repeated perusals of the work4 ,there are few books that gain more on continued acquaintance4 ,every successive study reveals more and more of a wisdom and a beauty which we miss at first in the obscurity and strangeness of the style4 ,and first1 ,ta itself turns out to be a less incomprehensible and contradictory being than we originally supposed4 ,for although he may sometimes be spoken of as doing nothing1 or even as destitute of all distinct qualities1 yet other attributes expressly exclude the notion of absolute inaction4 ,a being which creates1 cherishes and loves1 and in which all the world implicitly trusts1 is not the kind of nonentity that can be described as wholly devoid of action1 thought1 judgment1 and intelligence4#ed ,moreover1 it is to be borne in mind that the sage is to imitate ,ta in the quality--for which he is highly lauded--of doing nothing4 ,the two pictures1 that of ,ta and his follower1 must be held side by side in order to be correctly understood4 ,now what is the peculiar beauty1 from a philosophical point of view1 of the order of ,nature8 ,it is that all its parts harmoniously perform their several offices1 without any violent or conspicuous intrusion of the presiding principle which guides them all4 ,other teachers1 indeed1 have seen ,god mainly in violent and convulsive manifestations1 and have appealed to miraculous suspensions of natural order as the best proofs of his existence4 ,not so ,la-ts4 ,he sees him in the quiet1 unobtrusive1 unapparent guidance of the world2 in the unseen1 yet irresistible power to which mankind unresistingly submit1 precisely because it is never thrust offensively upon them4 ,the ,deity of ,la-ts is free from those gross and unlovely elements which degrade his character in so many other religions4 ,he rules by gentleness and love1 not by vindictiveness and anger4 ,so should it be with the holy man who takes him for his model4 ,assuredly we are not to understand those passages which enjoin quiescence so earnestly upon him as a meaning that he is to lead a life of absolute indolence4 ,like ,ta1 he is to guide his fellow-creatures rather by the beauty of his conduct than by positive commands laid imperatively upon them4 ,let him but be a shining example2 they will be drawn towards him4 ,the activity from which a wise ruler is to abstain is the vexatious multiplication of laws and edicts1 which do harm rather than good4 ,but neither ruler nor philosopher is told to do nothing2 for benevolence1 love1 and the requital of good for evil1 to say nothing of other positive virtues1 are most strictly enjoined on all4 ,la-ts himself no doubt lived1 and loved1 a retired contemplative life4 ,this is the kind of existence which he evidently considered the most perfect and the most godlike4 ,he counsels his followers to be wholly unambitious1 and to abstain from all active pursuit of political honor4 ,such counsel might possibly be well adapted to the time in which he lived4 ,but none the less does he lay down rules for the guidance of kings1 statesmen1 and warriors1 in their several spheres4 ,nor is the book wanting in pithy apothegms applicable to all1 and remarkable alike for the wisdom of their substance and the neatness of their form4 ,whether1 in short1 we look to the simplicity and grandeur of its speculative doctrine1 or to the unimpeachable excellence of its moral teaching1 we shall find few among the great productions of the human mind that evince1 from beginning to end1 so lofty a spirit and so pure a strain4 ,,appendix ,,to ,,section ,,ii4 ,translations of the ,ta-t-,kng1 ch4 #be4 ,,abel ,r,,musat4--,avant le chaos qui a prcd la naissance du ciel et de la terre1 un seul tre existait1 immense et silencieux1 immuable et toujours agissant sans jamais s'altrer4 ,on peut le regarder comme la mre de l'univers4 ,j'ignore son nom1 mais je le dsigne par le mot de raison4 ,forc de lui donner un nom1 je l'appelle grandeur1 progression1 loignement1 opposition4 ,il y a dans le monde quatre grandeurs2 celle de la raison1 celle du ciel1 celle de la terre1 celle du roi1 qui est aussi une des quatre4 ,l'homme a son type et son modle dans la terre1 la terre dans le ciel1 le ciel dans la raison1 la raison en elle-mme4#ee ,,stanislas ,,julien4--,il est un tre confus qui existait avant le ciel et la terre4 ,o qu'il est calme6 ,o qu'il est immatriel6 ,il subsiste seul et ne change point4 ,il circule partout et ne priclite point4 ,il peut tre regard comme la mre de l'univers4 ,moi1 je ne sais pas son nom4 ,pour lui donner un titre1 je l'appelle ,voie 7,tao74 ,en m'efforant de lui faire un nom1 je l'appelle grand4 ,de grand1 je l'appelle fugace4 ,de fugace1 je l'appelle loign4 ,d'loign1 je l'appelle 7l'tre7 qui revient4 ,c'est pourquoi le ,tao est grand1 le ciel est grand1 la terre est grande1 le roi aussi est grand4 ,dans le monde1 il y a quatre grandes choses1 et le roi en est une4 ,l'homme imite la terre2 la terre imite le ciel2 le ciel imite le ,tao2 le ,tao imite sa nature 7,l4 ,v4 ,v41 p4 #ce74 ,,john ,,chalmers4--,there is something chaotic in nature which existed before heaven and earth4 ,it was still4 ,it was void4 ,it stood alone and was not changed4 ,it pervaded everywhere and was not endangered4 ,it may be regarded as the ,mother of the ,universe4 ,i know not its name1 but give it the title of ,tau4 ,if ,i am forced to make a name for it1 ,i say it is ,great2 being great1 ,i say that it passes away2 passing away1 ,i say that it is far off2 being far off1 ,i say that it returns4 ,now ,tau is great2 ,heaven is great2 ,earth is great2 a king is great4 ,in the universe there are four greatnesses1 and a king is one of them4 ,man takes his law from the ,earth2 the ,earth takes its law from ,heaven2 ,heaven takes its law from ,tau2 and ,tau takes its law from what is in itself 7,o4 ,p41 p4 #ah74 ,,reinhold ,,von ,,pl,,nckner4--,es existirt ein das ,all erfllendes1 durchaus vollkommenes ,wesen1 das frher war denn der ,himmel und die ,erde4 ,es existirt da in erhabener ,stille1 es ist ewig und unvernderlich1 und ohne ,anstoss dringt es berall hin1 berall da4 ,man mchte es als den ,schpfer der ,welt ansehen4 ,seinen ,namen weiss ich nicht1 ich nenne es am liebsten das ,tao2 soll ich diesem eine bezeichnende ,eigenschaft beilegen1 so wrde es die der hchsten ,erhabenheit sein4 ,ja1 erhaben ist das ,wesen1 um das sich das ,all und ,alles im ,all bewegt1 als solches muss es ewig sein1 und wie es ewig ist1 ist es folglich auch allgegenwrtig4 ,ja das ,tao ist erhaben1 erhaben ist auch der ,himmel1 erhaben die ,erde1 erhaben ist auch das ,ideal des ,menschen4 ,so sind denn vier erhabene ,wesen im ,universum1 und das ,ideal des ,menschen ist ohne ,zweifel eins derselben4 ,denn der ,mensch stammt von der ,erde1 die ,erde stammt vom ,himmel1 der ,himmel stammt vom ,tao4--,und das ,tao stammt ohne ,frage allein aus sich selbst 7,l4 ,t41 p4 #aac74 ,,section ,,iii4--,,the ,,veda4#ef ,the word ,veda is explained by ,sanskrit scholars as meaning knowing or knowledge1 and as being related to the ,greek o4 ,the works comprised under this designation are manifold1 and appertain to widely different epochs4 ,in the first place they fall into two main classes1 the ,sanhit and the ,brhmana4 ,the ,sanhit portion of the ,veda consists of hymns or metrical compositions addressed to the several deities worshiped by their authors1 and expressing religious sentiment2 the ,brhmana portion1 of theological treatises in prose of an expository1 ritualistic and didactic character4 ,across this subdivision into two classes there runs another of the whole ,veda into four so-called ,vedas1 the ,rig-,veda1 the ,yajur-,veda1 the ,sma-,veda1 and the ,atharva-,veda4 ,each of these has its own ,sanhits1 and its own ,brhmanas2 but the ,sanhit1 or hymns1 of the three other ,vedas are not materially different from those of the ,rig-,veda4 ,on the ,rig-,veda they are all founded2 this is the fundamental ,veda1 or great ,veda2 and in knowing this one we should know all4 ,the other three1 according to ,max ,mller1 contain chiefly extracts from the ,rig-,veda1 together with sacrificial formulas1 charms1 and incantations 7,chips1 vol4 i4 p4 #i74 ,it must not therefore be imagined that we have in these four ,vedas four different collections of hymns4 ,they are rather four different versions of the same collection1 the ,sma-,veda1 for instance1 containing but seventy-one verses which are wanting in the ,rig-,veda 7,s4 ,v41 p4 xxviii71 and being otherwise little more than a repetition of the ,soma ,mandala of the ,rich 7,wilson1 vol4 i4 p4 xxxvii71 or of that book of the ,rig-,veda which is devoted to the god ,soma4 ,the ,atharva-,veda-,sanhit is indeed to a certain extent an exception2 belonging to a later age1 it has some hymns altogether peculiar to itself1 and its fifteenth book has something of the nature of a ,brhmana 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 i4 p4 #b74 ,it must be noted1 moreover1 that of the ,yajur-,veda there are two different versions1 the ,black and the ,white ,yajur-,veda1 said to have descended from two rival schools4 ,the hymns of the first are termed the ,taittiriya-,sanhit1 those of the second the ,vjasaneyi-,sanhit4 ,the origin of those four distinct1 yet not different ,vedas1 is thus explained4 ,in certain sacrifices1 formerly celebrated in ,india1 four classes of priests were required1 each class being destined for the performance of distinct offices4 ,to such of these classes was assigned one of the ,vedas1 which contained the hymns required by that class4 ,thus the ,sma-,veda was the prayer-book of the ,udgtri priests1 or choristers1 who chant the hymns4 ,the ,yajur-,veda was the prayer-book of the ,adhvaryu priests1 or attendant ministers1 who prepare the ground1 slay the victims1 and so forth4 ,the ,atharva-,veda was said to be intended for the ,brahman who was1 according to one of the ,brhmanas1 the physician of the sacrifice2 the general superintendent who was to tell if any mistake had been committed in it 7,a4 ,b41 #e4 #e4--vol4 ii4 p4 #cgf74 ,for the fourth class1 the ,hotri priests1 or reciters of hymns1 no special collection was made in the form of a liturgy4 ,they used the ,rig-,veda1 a collection of the hymns in general without any special object1 and they were supposed to know the sacred poetry without the help of a prayer-book 7,a4 ,s4 ,l41 pp4 #age1 #dgc1 and ,chips1 vol4 i4 p4 #i74 ,originally preserved by scattered individuals 7for the ,mantra part of the ,vedas1 or their ,sanhit was composed in an age when writing was not in use71 the hymns were subsequently collected and arranged in their present form3 a task which ,indian tradition assigns to ,vysa1 the ,arranger1 but which was probably the work of many different scholars1 possibly during many generations4 ,the same tradition asserts that each ,veda was collected1 under ,vysa's superintendence1 by a different editor2 and that the collections1 transmitted from these primary compilers to their disciples1 were1 in the course of transmission1 rearranged in various ways1 until the number of ,sanhits of each ,veda in circulation was very considerable4 ,each school had its own version1 but the differences are supposed by ,wilson to have concerned only the order1 not the matter of the ,sktas4 ,the extreme antiquity of our extant ,veda is guaranteed by the amplest testimony4 ,in the indexes compiled by native scholars #ejj or #fjj years before ,christ1 we find every hymn1 every verse1 every word and syllable of the ,veda accurately counted 7,chips1 vol4 i4 p4 #aa74 ,before this was done1 not only was the whole vast collection complete1 but it was ancient2 for had it been a recent composition it would not have enjoyed the preminent sanctity which rendered it the object of this minute attention4 ,and not only is the ,veda ancient1 but it has been shown that1 from the variety of its component strata1 it must have been the growth of no small period of time1 its earliest elements being of an almost unfathomable antiquity4 ,max ,mller1 who has elaborately treated this question1 divides the ,vaidik age--the age during which the ,veda was in process of formation--into four great epochs4 ,the most primitive hymns of the ,rig-,veda he attributes to what he terms the ,chhandas period 7from ,chhandas1 or metre71 the limits of which cannot be fixed in the ascending direction1 but which descends no later than #ajjj ,b4,c4 ,and he thinks that we cannot well assign a date more recent than #abjj to #aejj before our era 7,ibid41 vol4 i4 p4 #ac7 for the composition of these hymns4 ,the ten books of the ,rig-,veda1 however1 comprise the poetry of two different ages4 ,some of the hymns betray a more recent origin1 and must be assigned to the second1 or ,mantra period4 ,these comparatively modern compositions belong to a time which may have extended from about #ajjj to about #hjj ,b4,c4 ,after this we enter on the ,brhmana period1 in which the ,rig-,veda-,sanhit not only existed1 but had reached the stage of being misinterpreted1 its original sense having been forgotten4 ,during this period--which we may place from ,b4,c4 #hjj to #fjj--the national thought took the form of prose1 and the ,brhmanas were written4 ,here the age of actually-inspired literature terminates1 and we arrive at the ,stra period1 which may have lasted till #bjj ,b4,c4 ,works of high authority1 but not in the strict sense revealed works1 were produced during these four hundred years 7,a4 ,s4 ,l41 passim74 ,an equal1 or greater antiquity is usually claimed by other ,sanskritists for these several classes of sacred literature4 ,wilson would place ,manu 7who belongs to the ,stra period7 not lower than the fifth or sixth century2 the ,brhmana literature in the seventh or eighth2 and would allow at least four or five centuries before this for the composition and currency of the hymns1 thus reaching the date of #abjj or #acjj before the ,christian era 7,wilson1 vol4 i4 p4 xlvii74 ,haug1 who believes that a strict distinction between a ,chhandas and ,mantra period is hardly admissible1 and that certain sacrificial formulas1 considered by ,max ,mller to be more recent1 are in fact some centuries older than the finished hymns ascribed by that scholar to the ,chhandas age1 carries back the composition of both ,sanhit and ,brhmana to a much earlier date4 ,the bulk of the ,brhmanas he assigns to ,b4,c4 #adjj-abjj2 and the bulk of the ,sanhits to ,b4,c4 #bjjj-adjj2 while the oldest hymns and sacrificial formulas may be a few hundred years more ancient still1 and thus the very commencement of ,vedic literature might be between ,b4,c4 #bdjj and #bjjj 7,a4 ,b41 vol4 i4 pp4 #dg1 #dh74 ,while ,benfey1 considering that the ,prtiskhyas 7a branch of the ,stras7 must have been composed from ,b4,c4 #hjj to #fjj1 observes that the text of the ,sma-,veda must extend beyond this epoch 7,s4 ,v41 p4 xxix74 ,of the several ,sanhits1 that of the ,rig-,veda 7whose name is derived from a word rich1 praise7 is usually considered the most ancient1 though ,benfey expresses the opinion that the text of the ,sma-,veda may possibly be borrowed from an older version of the ,rig-,veda than before us 7,ibid41 p4 xxix74 ,max ,mller1 on the other hand1 conceives the ,sma and ,yajur-,vedas to have been probably the production of the ,brhmana period 7,a4 ,s4 ,l41 p4 #deg74 ,he even denies to any but the ,rich the right to be called ,veda at all 7,chips1 vol4 i4 p4 #i74 ,whatever claim1 or want of claim1 they may possess to the honor1 it is certain that they have for more than #b1jjj years invariably received it at the hands of the ,hindus themselves4 ,so far from admitting the preminence of the ,rich1 the ancient ,hindus1 according to one of their descendants1 held the ,sma in the highest veneration 7,chhand4 ,up41 introduction1 p4 #a74 ,if a doubt can exist as to the canonicity of any one of them1 it can only apply to the ,atharva-,veda2 for in certain texts we find mention made of three ,vedas only1 the ,atharva1 from its comparatively late origin1 having apparently been long denied the privilege of admission to an equal rank with its compeers4 ,whatever their antiquity1 the sanctity of these works in ,indian opinion is of the highest order4 ,never has the theory of inspiration been pushed to such an extreme4 ,the ,veda was the direct creation of ,brahma2 and the ,rishis1 or ,sages1 who are the nominal authors of the hymns1 did not compose them1 but simply saw them4 ,although1 therefore1 the name of one of these seers is coupled with each hymn1 it must not be supposed that he did more than perceive the divine poem which was revealed to his privileged vision4 ,and the ,veda is distinguished as ,sruti1 ,revelation1 from the ,smriti1 ,tradition1 under which term is included a great variety of works enjoying a high1 but not an independent1 authority4 ,they are to be accepted1 in theory at least1 only when they agree with the ,veda1 and to be set aside if they happen to differ from it2 while no such thing as a contradiction within the body of the ,veda is for a moment to be thought of as possible1 apparent inconsistencies being only due to our imperfect interpretations4 ,the ,sruti class comprises only the ,mantra of each ,veda and its ,brhmanas2 the ,smriti consists of the great national epics1 namely the ,rmyana and ,mahbhrata2 the ,mnava-,dharma-,sastra1 or ,menu2 the ,purnas2 the ,stras1 or aphorisms2 and the so-called six ,vedngas1 a term indicating six branches of study carried on by the help of treatises on the pronunciation1 grammar1 metre1 explanation of words1 astronomy1 and ceremonial of the ,veda4 ,how thoroughly the ,veda was analyzed1 how minutely every word of it was investigated1 is shown by the fact that these ,vedngas all have direct reference to it1 and were intended to assist in its comprehension4 ,and in ancient times it was the duty of ,brahmans to be well acquainted both with the ,sktas 7hymns71 and with their application to ritual4 ,a ,brahman1 indeed1 who wanted to marry was not obliged to devote more than twelve years to learning the ,veda1 but an unmarrying ,brahman might spend forty-eight years upon it 7,a4 ,s4 ,l41 p4 #ejc74 ,,subdivision #a4--,the ,sanhit4 ,passing now to a more detailed consideration of the ,mantra division1 we find that the ,rig-,veda-,sanhit--the most comprehensive specimen of this division--comprises more than a thousand short poems1 of which the vast majority are addressed to one or more of the ,indian gods4 ,a few only1 and those believed to be of later origin1 are of a different character4 ,this collection is divided in two ways2 into ten ,mandalas1 or eight ,ashtakas1 the two divisions being quite independent of one another4 ,under each of these greater heads are several lesser ones1 which it is needless to enumerate4 ,the deities to whom the hymns are devoted are exceedingly various and numerous1 but as this is not an essay specially intended to elucidate the ,veda1 but aiming only at a general comparison of this with other sacred books1 it would be going beyond our scope to attempt a full account of their several names1 attributes1 and honors4 ,a few only of the more conspicuous gods need be noticed4 ,of these1 ,agni1 as the one with whose praises the ,rig-,veda opens1 and who1 next to ,indra1 is the principal character in the ,vedic hymnology1 claims our attention first4 ,he is the god of fire1 or more literally1 he is the fire itself1 and a god at the same time4 ,his name is almost identical with the ,latin ,ignis4 ,he is frequently spoken of as generated by the rubbing of sticks1 for in this manner did the ,rishis kindle the fire required for their sacrifices4 ,the sudden birth of the fiery element in consequence of this process must have impressed them as profoundly mysterious4 ,they allude to it under various images4 ,thus1 the upper stick is said to impregnate the lower1 which brings forth ,agni4 ,he is the bearer of human sacrifices to the gods2 a kind of telegraph from earth to heaven4 ,many are the blessings asked of him4 ,but let the ,rishis speak for themselves4 ,here is the first ,skta of the ,rig-,veda-,sanhit3-- #a4 ,i praise ,agni1 the household priest1 the divine offerer of the sacrifice1 the inviter who keeps all treasures4 #b4 ,agni1 worthy of the praises of the ancient ,rishis1 and also of ours1 do thou bring hither the gods4 #c4 ,by ,agni1 the sacrificer enjoys wealth1 that grows from day to day1 confers renown1 and surrounds him with heroes4 #d4 ,agni1 the sacrifice which thou keepest from all sides uninvaded1 approaches surely the gods4 #e4 ,agni1 inviter1 performer of gracious deeds1 thou who art truthful1 and who shinest with various glories1 come thou1 ,o ,god1 with the gods4 #f4 ,the prosperity1 which thou1 ,o ,agni1 bestowest upon the worshiper1 will be in truth a prosperity to thee1 ,o ,angiras4 #g4 ,we approach thee in our minds1 ,o ,agni1 day after day1 by night and day1 to offer thee our adoration4 #h4 ,thee the radiant guardian of the meet reward of the sacrifices1 who is resplendent and increasing in his sacred house4 #i4 ,be thou1 ,o ,agni1 accessible to us1 as a father is to the son2 be near us for our welfare 7,roer1 p4 #a74 ,even more important than ,agni is ,indra1 the great national god of the ,hindus4 ,he is above all things a combative god4 ,his strength is immense1 and his worshipers implore him to give them victory and power4 ,he slays the demon ,vrittra1 a myth symbolizing the dispersion of clouds by the sun4 ,above all1 he loves the juice of the ,soma plant 7,asclepias acida71 which is poured out to him abundantly in sacrifice1 which he consumes with avidity1 and from which he derives renewed force and energy4 ,these two stanzas1 taken from the ,sma-,veda1 express some of his attributes3-- ,thou1 ,o ,indra1 art glorious1 thou art victorious1 thou art the lord of strength2 thou conquerest the strong enemies singly and alone1 thou unconquered refuge of men4 ,to thee1 living ,one1 we pray2 to thee now the very wise1 for treasures1 as for our share2 may thy blessing be granted us 7,s4 ,v41 ii4 #f4 #b4 #ab74 ,the following hymn brings into especial prominence the more warlike functions of ,indra1 and may be regarded as a prayer in the time of war and tumults3-- #h4 ,may ,indra be the leader of these 7our armies72 may ,brihaspati1 ,largess1 ,sacrifice and ,soma march in front2 may the host of ,maruts precede the crushing1 victorious armies of the gods4 ,may the fierce host of the vigorous ,indra1 of ,king ,varuna1 of the ,adityas1 and the ,maruts 7go before us72 the shout of the great-souled1 conquering1 world-shaking gods1 has ascended4444 #aj4 ,rouse1 ,o opulent god1 the weapons1 rouse the souls of our warriors1 stimulate the power of the mighty men2 may shouts arise from the conquering chariots4 #aa4 ,may ,indra be ours when the standards clash2 may our arrows be victorious3 may our strong men gain the upper-hand2 preserve us1 ,o gods1 in the fray4 #ab4 ,bewildering the hearts of our enemies1 ,o ,apv 7,apv is explained as a disease or fear71 take possession of their limbs and pass onward2 come near1 burn them with fires in their hearts2 may our enemies fall into blind darkness 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 v4 p4 #aaj4--,rig-,veda1 x4 #ajc74 ,indra's ,soma-drinking propensities are not particularly alluded to in these verses3 elsewhere they form the ever-recurring burden of the chants of which he is the hero4 ,thus1 to take but one specimen1 which1 by its resemblance to others1 may fitly stand for all1 he is thus lauded3-- #a4 ,may the ,somas delight thee6 bestow grace1 ,o hurler of lightning6 destroy him who hates the priest4 #b4 ,thou who art praiseworthy1 drink our drink6 thou art sprinkled with streams of honey6 from thee1 ,o ,indra1 glory is derived4444 #d4 ,the ,indus 7the ,somas7 stream into thee1 like rivers1 ,indra6 into the sea1 and never overfill thee 7,s4 ,v41 i4 #a4 #a74 ,indra is1 in fact1 the ,zeus of ,indian mythology2 the thunderer1 the god of the sky1 the all-powerful protector of men and destroyer of the demons of darkness4 ,his functions are easily understood1 but it is curious that the ,soma1 which is offered to him in sacrifice1 and which he drinks with all the avidity of a confirmed toper1 is itself celebrated as a god of very considerable powers4 ,soma appears to be regarded as a sort of mediator between the greatest gods and men1 especially between man and ,indra4 ,he is repeatedly entreated to go to ,indra1 to flow around him1 and thus to conciliate and delight him4 ,but ,soma can confer benefits independently4 ,one poet implores him to stream forth blessing on the ox1 the man1 and the horse2 and1 ,o king1 blessings on plants 7,s4 ,v41 ii4 #a4 #a4 #a74 ,in the hymns devoted to him he is raised to an exalted station among the celestial beings1 while the sacrifice in which he is drunk by the priests is the capital right in the ,brahmanical liturgy 7,a4 ,b41 vol4 i4 p4 #ei74 ,the most eminent virtues are inherent in this divine beverage1 when taken with all the ceremonies prescribed by traditional law4 ,the ,soma juice has1 in the opinion of ,hindu theologians1 the power of uniting the sacrificer on this earth with the celestial ,king ,soma1 and making him an associate of the gods1 and an inhabitant of the celestial world 7,ibid41 vol4 i4 pp4 #dj1 #hj74 ,such was the excellence of this juice1 that none but ,brahmans were permitted to imbibe it4 ,kings1 at their inaugural ceremonies1 received a goblet which was nominally ,soma1 but on account of their inferior caste they were in fact put off with some kind of spirituous liquor which was supposed1 by a mystical transformation1 to receive the properties of that most holy divinity 7,ibid41 vol4 ii4 p4 #ebb74 ,agreeably to this theory of ,soma's extensive powers1 he is invoked in such terms1 for instance1 as these3-- #g4 ,place me1 ,o purified god1 in that everlasting and imperishable world where there is eternal light and glory4 ,o ,indu 7,soma71 flow for ,indra4 #h4 ,make me immortal in the world where king ,vaivasvata 7,yama1 the son of ,vivasvat7 lives1 where is the innermost sphere of the sky1 where those great waters flow 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 v4 p4 #bff4--,rig-,veda1 ix4 #aac74 ,singular as it may seem that the juice of the ,soma-plant should be at once an object sacrificed on the altar to other gods and a god himself1 such a confusion of attributes will be less surprising to those who are familiar with the ,christian theory of the ,atonement1 in which the same ,god is at once the person who decrees the sacrifice1 the person who accepts it1 and the victim4 ,at least the double function of ,soma is less perplexing than the triple function of ,christ4 ,considerable among ,vedic deities are the ,maruts1 or gods of tempest4 ,they are in intimate alliance with ,indra1 to whom their violent nature is closely akin4 ,their attributes are simple4 ,a notion of them may perhaps be gained from these verses3-- #a4 ,what then now8 ,when will you take 7us7 as a dear father takes his son by both hands1 ,o ye gods1 for whom the sacred grass has been trimmed8 #b4 ,whither now8 ,on what errand of yours are you going1 in heaven1 not on earth8 ,where are your cows sporting8 #c4 ,where are your newest favors1 ,o ,maruts8 ,where the blessings8 ,where all delights8444 #f4 ,let not one sin after another1 difficult to be conquered1 overcome us2 may it depart together with lust4 #g4 ,truly they are furious and powerful2 even to the desert the ,rudriyas bring rain that is never dried up4 #h4 ,the lightning lows like a cow1 it follows as a mother follows after her young1 that the shower 7of the ,maruts7 may be let loose4 #i4 ,even by day the ,maruts create darkness with the water-bearing cloud1 when they drench the earth4 #aj4 ,from the shout of the ,maruts over the whole space of the earth1 men reeled forward4 #aa4 ,maruts on your strong-hoofed steeds go on easy roads after those bright ones 7the clouds7 which are still locked up4 #ab4 ,may your felloes be strong1 the chariots1 and their horses2 may your reins be well fashioned4 #ac4 ,speak out forever with thy voice to praise the ,lord of prayer1 ,agni1 who is like a friend1 the bright one4 #ad4 ,fashion a hymn in thy mouth6 ,expand like a cloud6 ,sing a song of praise4 #ae4 ,worship the host of the ,maruts1 the brisk1 the praiseworthy1 the singers4 ,may the strong ones stay here among us 7,r4 ,v4 ,s41 vol4 i4 p4 #fe4--,rig-,veda1 i4 #ch74 ,the most charming member of the ,vedic pantheon1 and the one who seems to have called forth from the ,rishis the deepest poetical feeling1 is ,ushas 771 the ,dawn4 ,her continual reappearance1 or birth1 morning after morning1 seems to have filled them with delight and tenderness4 ,the hymn now to be quoted--too long to be extracted in full--gives expression to the feelings with which they gazed upon this ever-recurring mystery3-- #b4 ,the fair and bright ,ushas1 with her bright child 7the ,sun71 has arrived2 to her the dark 7night7 has relinquished her abodes2 kindred to one another1 immortal1 alternating ,day and ,night go on changing color4 #c4 ,the same is the never-ending path of the two sisters1 which they travel1 commanded by the gods4 ,they strive not1 they rest not1 the prolific ,night and ,dawn1 concordant1 though unlike4 #d4 ,the shining ,ushas1 leader of joyful voices 7or hymns7 has been perceived2 she has opened for us the doors 7of the sky72 setting in motion all moving things1 she has revealed to us riches4 ,ushas has awakened all creatures4444 #f4 7,arousing7 one to seek royal power1 another to follow after fame1 another for grand efforts1 another to pursue as it were his particular object1--,ushas awakes all creatures to consider their different modes of life4 #g4 ,she1 the daughter of the sky1 has been beheld breaking forth1 youthful clad in shining attire3 mistress of all earthly treasures4 ,auspicious ,ushas1 shine here to-day4 #h4 ,ushas follows the track of the ,dawns that are past1 and is the first of the unnumbered ,dawns that are to come1 breaking forth1 arousing life and awaking every one that was dead4444 #aj4 ,how great is the interval that lies between the ,dawns which have arisen1 and those which are yet to arise6 ,ushas yearns longingly after the former ,dawns1 and gladly goes on shining with the others 7that are to come74 #aa4 ,those mortals are gone who saw the earliest ,ushas dawning2 we shall gaze upon her now2 and the men are coming who are to behold her on future morns4444 #ac4 ,perpetually in former days did the divine ,ushas dawn2 and now to-day the magnificent goddess beams upon this world3 undecaying1 immortal1 she marches on by her own will 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 v4 p4 #ahh4--,rig-,veda1 i4 #aac74 ,hardly a trace of a moral element is to be found in those productions of the ,rishis which have hitherto been quoted4 ,and such as these are is the general character of the ,rig-,veda-,sanhit4 ,it consists in petitions for purely material advantages1 coupled with unbounded celebrations of the power of the god invoked1 often under the coarsest anthropomorphic images4 ,but while it must be admitted that the sentiment expressed is rarely of a high order1 it must not be supposed that the old ,hindu gods are altogether destitute of ethical attributes4 ,marked exceptions to the general tenor of the supplications offered to them certainly occur4 ,there are passages which betray a decided consciousness of sin1 a desire to be forgiven and a conviction that certain kinds of conduct entail divine disapprobation1 while other kinds bring divine approbation4 ,thus1 in the hymns addressed to the ,adityas1 a class of gods generally reckoned as twelve in number1 and to ,mitra and ,varuna1 two of these ,adityas1 such feelings are plainly expressed 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 v4 p4 #ef ff74 ,of these two1 ,mitra is sometimes explained as the ,sun1 or the god of ,day1 ,varuna as the god of ,night4 ,varuna--whose name corresponds to that of ,ouranos--is a very great and powerful divinity1 who is endowed by his adorers with the very highest attributes4 ,he is said to have meted out heaven and earth1 and to dwell in all worlds as their sovereign1 embracing them within him 7,ibid41 vol4 v4 p4 #fa74 ,he is said to witness sin1 and is entreated to have mercy on sinners4 ,one penitent poet implores ,varuna to tell him for what offense he seeks to kill his worshiper and friend1 for all the sages tell him that it is ,varuna who is angry with him4 ,and he pleadingly contends that he was not an intentional culprit2 he has been seduced by wine1 anger1 dice1 or thoughtlessness4 ,another begs the god that1 in whatever way mortals may have broken his laws1 he will be gracious4 ,a third admits that he1 who was ,varuna's friend1 has offended against him1 but asks that they who are guilty may not reap the fruits of their sin2 concluding with this amicable hint3 ,do thou1 a wise god1 grant protection to him who praises thee 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 v4 pp4 #ff1 #fg74 ,the attributes and functions ascribed to ,varuna1 observes ,dr4 ,muir1 impart to his character a moral elevation and sanctity far surpassing that attributed to any other ,vedic deity 7,ibid41 vol4 v4 p4 #ff74 ,and while even in the earlier portion of the ,rig-,veda--from which the above expressions have been collected by ,dr4 ,muir--such qualities are ascribed to ,varuna1 we shall find a still higher conception of his character in a later work1 the ,atharva-,veda4 ,here is the description of the ,lord of ,heaven from the mouth of the ,indian ,psalmist3-- #a4 ,the great lord of these worlds sees as if he were near4 ,if a man thinks he is walking by stealth1 the gods know it all4 #b4 ,if a man stands or walks or hides1 if he goes to lie down or to get up1 what two people sitting together whisper1 ,king ,varuna knows it1 he is there as the third4 #c4 ,this earth1 too1 belongs to ,varuna1 the king1 and this wide sky with its ends far apart4 ,the two seas 7the sky and the ocean7 are ,varuna's loins2 he is also contained in this small drop of water4 #d4 ,he who should flee far beyond the sky1 even he would not be rid of ,varuna1 the king4 ,his spies proceed from heaven towards this world2 with thousand eyes they overlook this earth4 #e4 ,king ,varuna sees all this that is between heaven and earth1 and what is beyond4 ,he has counted the twinklings of the eyes of men4 ,as a player throws the dice he settles all things4 #f4 ,may all thy fatal nooses1 which stand spread out seven by seven and threefold1 catch the man who tells a lie2 may they pass by him who tells the truth 7,a4 ,s4 ,l4--,atharva-,veda1 iv4 #af74 ,a consciousness of the unity of ,deity1 under whatever form he may be worshiped1 adumbrated here and there in earlier hymns1 becomes very prominent in the later portions of the ,veda4 ,from the most ancient times1 possibly1 occasional sages may have attained the conception so familiar to the ,hindu thinkers of a later age1 that a single mysterious essence of divinity pervaded the universe4 ,and in the tenth book of the ,rig-,veda1 which is generally admitted to belong to a more recent age than the other nine books1 as also in the ,atharva-,veda1 this essence is celebrated under various names2 as ,purusha1 as ,brahma1 as ,prajapati 7,lord71 or ,skambha 7,support74 ,the hymns in which this consciousness appears are extremely mystical1 but a notice of the ,veda1 however slight1 would be very imperfect without a due recognition of their presence4 ,they form the speculative element partly in the midst of1 partly succeeding to1 the simple1 practical1 naked presentation of the commonplace daily wants and physical desires of the early ,rishis4 ,take the following texts from the first book of the ,rig-,veda4 ,they give utterance to an incipient sentiment of divine unity4 ,the first celebrates a goddess ,aditi3 ,aditi is the sky1 ,aditi is the air1 ,aditi is the mother and father and son4 ,aditi is all the gods and the five classes of men4 ,aditi is whatever has been born4 ,aditi is whatever shall be born 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 v4 p4 #ced4--,rig-,veda1 i4 #hi4 #aj74 ,more remarkable than this--for we may suspect here a sectarian desire to glorify a favorite goddess--is this assertion3 ,they call him ,indra1 ,mitra1 ,varuna1 ,agni2 and he is the celestial 7well-winged7 ,garutmat4 ,sages name variously that which is but one3 they call it ,agni1 ,yama1 ,mtarisvan 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 v4 p4 #cec4--,rig-,veda1 i4 #afd4 #df74 ,in the tenth book of the ,rig-,veda1 the presence of the speculative element in the theology of the ,rishis1--their longing to find a universal ,being whom they could adore1--is much more marked4 ,thus do they express this sentiment3--,wise poets make the beautiful-winged1 though he is one1 manifold by words 7,chips1 vol4 i4 p4 #bi4--,rig-,veda1 x4 #aad4 #e74 ,or more elaborately thus3-- #a4 ,in the beginning there arose the golden ,child--,he was the one born lord of all that is4 ,he established the earth and this sky2--,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 #b4 ,he who gives life1 ,he who gives strength2 whose command all the bright gods revere2 whose shadow is immortality1 whose shadow is death2--,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 #c4 ,he who through his power is the one ,king of the breathing and awakening world2 ,he who governs all man and beast2 ,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 #d4 ,he whose greatness these snowy mountains1 whose greatness the sea proclaims1 with the distant river--,he whose these regions are1 as it were his two arms2--,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 #e4 ,he through whom the sky is bright and the earth firm--,he through whom the heaven was established1--nay1 the highest heaven2--,he who measured out the light in the air2--,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 #f4 ,he to whom heaven and earth1 standing firm by ,his will1 took up1 trembling inwardly--,he over whom the rising sun shines forth2--,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 #g4 ,wherever the mighty water-clouds went1 where they placed the seed and lit the fire1 thence arose ,he who is the sole life of the bright gods2--,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 #h4 ,he who by his might looked even over the water-clouds1 the clouds which gave strength and lit the sacrifice2 ,he who alone is ,god above all gods2--,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 #i4 ,may ,he not destroy us--,he the creator of the earth2 or ,he1 the righteous1 who created the heaven2 ,he also created the bright and mighty waters2--,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 7,chips1 vol4 i4 p4 #bi1 or ,a4 ,s4 ,l41 p4 #efi4--,rig-,veda1 x4 #aba74 ,the same book contains a very important hymn1 entitled the ,purusha ,skta4 ,in it we find ourselves transported from the transparent elemental worship of the ancient ,aryas into the misty region of ,brahmanical subtleties4 ,purusha appears to be conceived as the universal essence of the world1 all existences being but one-quarter of him4 ,the theory of sacrifice occupies1 as in the later ,indian literature generally1 a prominent position4 ,purusha's sacrifice involved the momentous consequences of the creation of the several ,vedas and of living creatures4 ,the four castes sprang from different parts of his person1 the parts corresponding to their relative dignity4 ,the purpose of this portion is obvious1 namely1 to give greater sanctity to the system of caste1 a system to which the earlier hymn makes no allusion1 and which we may suppose to have grown up subsequently to the era of their composition4 ,tedious as it is1 the ,purusha ,skta is too weighty to be quite passed over4 #a4 ,purusha has a thousand heads1 a thousand eyes1 a thousand feet4 ,on every side enveloping the earth1 he overpassed 7it7 by a space of ten fingers4 #b4 ,purusha himself is this whole 7universe71 whatever has been and whatever shall be4 ,he is also the lord of immortality1 since 7or when7 by food he expands4 #c4 ,such is his greatness1 and ,purusha is superior to this4 ,all existences are a quarter of him2 and three-fourths of him are that which is immortal in the sky4 #d4 ,with three-quarters ,purusha mounted upwards4 ,a quarter of him was again produced here4 ,he was then diffused everywhere over things which eat and things which do not eat4 #e4 ,from him was born ,virj1 and from ,virj1 ,purusha4 ,when born1 he extended beyond the earth1 both behind and before4 #f4 ,when the gods performed a sacrifice with ,purusha as the oblation1 the spring was its butter1 the summer its fuel1 and the autumn its 7accompanying7 offering4 #g4 ,this victim1 ,purusha1 born in the beginning1 they immolated on the sacrificial grass4 ,with him the gods1 the ,sdhyas1 and the ,rishis sacrificed4 #i4 ,from that universal sacrifice sprang the rich and sman verses1 the metres and the yajush4 #aj4 ,from it sprang horses1 and all animals with two rows of teeth2 kine sprang from it2 from it goats and sheep4 #aa4 ,when 7the gods7 divided ,purusha1 into how many parts did they cut him up8 what was his mouth8 what arms 7had he78 what 7two objects7 are said 7to have been7 his thighs and feet8 #ab4 ,the ,brahman was his mouth2 the ,rjanya was made his arms2 the being 7called7 the ,vaisya1 he was his thighs2 the ,sdra sprang from his feet4 #ac4 ,the moon sprang from his soul 7manas71 the sun from his eye1 ,indra and ,agni from his mouth1 and ,vyu from his breath4 #ad4 ,from his navel arose the air1 from his head the sky1 from his feet the earth1 from his ear the 7four7 quarters2 in this manner 7the gods7 formed the worlds4 #ae4 ,when the gods1 performing sacrifice1 bound ,purusha as a victim1 there were seven sticks 7stuck up7 for it 7around the fire71 and thrice seven pieces of fuel were made4 #af4 ,with sacrifice the gods performed the sacrifice4 ,these were the earliest rites4 ,these great powers have sought the sky1 where are the former ,sdhyas1 gods 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 i4 p4 #i4--,rig-,veda1 x4 #ij74 ,the wide interval which separates theological theories of this kind from the primitive hymns to the old polytheistic gods1 is also marked by a tendency to personify abstract intellectual conceptions1 and to confer exalted attributes upon them4 ,skambha1 or ,support1 mentioned above2 ,kla1 ,time1 celebrated in the ,atharva-,veda2 ,speech1 endowed with personal powers in the tenth book of the ,rig-,veda2 ,wisdom1 to whom prayer is offered in the ,atharva-,veda1 are instances of this generalizing tendency4 ,as a specimen1 the hymn to ,wisdom may be taken1 and readers may console themselves with the reflection that it is our last quotation from the ,mantra part of the ,veda3-- #a4 ,come to us1 wisdom1 the first1 with cows and horses2 7come7 thou with the rays of the sun2 thou art to us an object of worship4 #b4 ,to 7obtain7 the succor of the gods1 ,i invoke wisdom the first1 full of prayer1 inspired by prayer1 praised by rishis1 imbibed by ,brahmachrins4 #c4 ,we introduce within me that wisdom which ,ribhus know1 that wisdom which divine beings 7asurh7 know1 that excellent wisdom which rishis know4 #d4 ,make me1 ,o ,agni1 wise to-day with that wisdom which the wise rishis--the makers of things existing--know4 #e4 ,we introduce wisdom in the evening1 wisdom in the morning1 wisdom at noon1 wisdom with the rays of the sun1 and with speech 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 i4 p4 #bee note4--,atharva-,veda1 vi4 #ajh74 ,interesting as the ,mantra of the ,vedas is from the fact of its being the oldest ,bible of the ,aryan race1 it is impossible for modern readers to feel much enthusiasm for its contents4 ,the patient labor of these scholars who have engaged in translations of some parts of it for the benefit of ,european readers is highly commendable1 but it is probable that few who have read any considerable number of these hymns will be desirous of a further acquaintance with them1 unless for the purpose of some special researches4 ,indeed1 it may be said that the devoted industry of ,benfey1 ,muir1 ,max ,mller1 and others1 has placed more than a sufficient number of them within reach of the general public to enable us all to judge of their literary value and their religious teaching4 ,with regard to the former1 it would be difficult to concede to them anything but a very modest place4 ,in beauty of style1 expression1 or ideas1 they appear to me to be almost totally deficient4 ,assuming1 as we are entitled to do1 that all the best specimens have been already culled by scholars eager to find something attractive in the ,veda1 it must be confessed that the general run of the hymns is singularly monotonous1 and their language by no means conspicuous for poetical coloring4 ,no doubt1 poetry always loses in translation2 but ,isaiah and ,homer are still beautiful in a ,german or ,english dress2 the ,sktas of the ,rig-,veda are not4 ,a few exceptions no doubt occur1 as in the stanzas to ,ushas1 or ,dawn1 quoted above1 but the ordinary level is not a high one4 ,although1 however1 the literary merit of the ,veda cannot be ranked high1 its value to the religious history of humanity at large1 and of our race in particular1 can hardly be overrated4 ,to the comparative mythologist1 above all1 it possesses illimitable interest1 from the new light it sheds upon the origin and significance of many of those world-wide tales which1 in their metamorphosed ,hellenic shape1 could not be effectually brought under the process of dissection by which their primitive elements have now been laid bare4 ,mythology is beyond the province of this work1 and therefore ,i purposely refrain from entering upon any explanation of the physical meaning of the old ,aryan gods1 or of the stories in which they figure4#eg ,all that ,i have to do with here is the grade attained in the development of religious feeling among those who worshiped them4 ,and this1 it is plain1 was at first a very elementary one4 ,the more striking phenomena of nature--the sun1 the moon1 the sky1 the storms1 the dawn1 the fire--at first attracted their attention1 and absorbed their adoration4 ,to these personal beings1 as they seemed to the awe-struck ,rishis1 petitions of the rudest type were confidently addressed4 ,very little allusion1 if any1 was made to the necessities of the moral nature2 the craving for spiritual knowledge was scarcely felt2 but great stress was laid on temporal prosperity4 ,boons of the most material kind were looked for at the hands of the gods4 ,plenty of offspring1 plenty of physical strength1 plenty of property1 especially in cattle1 and victory over enemies2 such are the requests most commonly poured into the ears of ,indra1 or ,agni1 or the ,maruts4 ,these gods are regarded as the sympathizing friends of men1 and if they should fail to do what may reasonably be expected of a god1 are almost upbraided for their negligence4 ,the conception of their power is a high one1 though that of their moral nature is still rudimentary4 ,their greatness and their glory1 their victories1 their splendor1 are described in vigorous and high-sounding phrases4 ,the changes are rung upon their peculiar attributes or their famous exploits4 ,each god in his turn is a great god2 but all are separate individuals2 there appears in the crude ,aryan mind to be as yet no dawning of the perplexing questions on the unity of the ,divine which troubled its later development4 ,for as it progresses1 the ,hindu religion gradually changes4 ,external calm1 succeeding the wars of the first settlers1 promotes internal activity4 ,the great problem of the ,universe is no longer solved1 five or six centuries after the older ,rishis had passed away1 in the simple fashion which satisfied their curiosity4 ,multiplicity is now resolved into unity2 mystical abstractions take the place of the elementary powers of nature4 ,speech is a goddess2 the ,vedas themselves--as in the ,purusha hymn--acquire a quasi-divinity2 the ,brahmachrin1 or student of theology1 is endowed with supernatural attributes1 due to the sacred character of his pursuits4 ,sacrifice1 fixed and regulated down to the smallest minuti1 has a peculiar efficacy1 and becomes something of far deeper meaning than a merely acceptable present to the gods4 ,every posture1 every word1 every tone acquires importance4 ,there are charms1 there are curses1 there are incantations for good and evil purposes1 for the acquisition of wealth or the destruction of an enemy4 ,it is by its collection of such magical formul that the ,atharva-,veda is distinguished from its three predecessors4 ,it forms the last stone laid upon the edifice of the genuine ,veda1 an edifice built up by the labor of many centuries1 and including the whole of that original revelation to which the centuries that succeeded it bowed down in reverence and in faith4 ,,subdivision #b4--,the ,brhmanas4 ,attached to this edifice as an outgrowth rather than an integral part1 the treatises known as ,brhmanas took their place as appendages of the ,sanhit4 ,although they are reckoned by the ,hindus as belonging to the ,sruti1 although their nominal rank is thus not inferior to that of the true ,veda1 yet it must have taken them many generations to acquire a position of honor to which nothing but tradition could possibly entitle them4 ,for any gleams of poetical inspiration1 of imaginative religious feeling1 of naturalness or simple earnestness that had shone athwart the minds of devout authors in preceding ages1 had apparently passed away when the ,brhmanas were composed4 ,they are the elaborate disquisitions of scholars1 not the outpourings of men of feeling4 ,religion was cut and dried when they were written2 every part of it has become a matter of definition1 of theory1 of classification4 ,if in the ,vedic hymns we are placed before a stage where religious faith is a living body1 whose movements1 perhaps uncouth1 are still energetic and genuine1 the ,brmhanas1 on the other hand1 take us into the dissecting-room1 where the constituent elements of its corpse are exposed to our observation4 ,not indeed that a true or deep faith had ceased in the ,brhmana period2 such an assertion would no doubt be extravagant2 but the ,brhmanas themselves are the products of minds more given to analysis than to sentiment1 and of an age in which the predominant tendency1 at least among cultivated ,brahmans1 was not so much to feel religion as to think about it4 ,it is so everywhere4 ,the ,hebrew ,bible1 once fixed and completed1 gives rise to the ,mishnah4 ,the ,apostles and ,fathers of the ,christian ,church are followed by a race of schoolmen4 ,the simple ,stras of ,buddhism1 replete with plain1 world-wide lessons of moral truth1 give place to the abstruse developments of incomprehensible theology4 ,thus the ,brhmanas mark the epoch when the ,veda had finally ceased to grow1 and its every word and letter had become the object of an unquestioning adoration as the immediate emanation of ,god4 ,but among a people so subtle and so inquisitive in all matters of religious belief as the ,hindus1 opinion could not rest unmoved upon the original foundation4 ,their minds did not1 like those of the ,jews1 stop short for ever in their intellectual progression1 chained to the unshakeable rock of a god-given ,revelation4 ,ever active1 ever attracted to the enigmas of life1 the ,brahmans pushed their speculations into new regions of thought1 pondered upon new problems1 and invented new solutions4 ,not that we are to expect to find in the literature of this period any valuable discoveries or any very striking philosophy4 ,the true philosophical systems came later4 ,but still we do find a restless spirit of inquiry1 ever prompting fresh efforts to conceive the significance of the gods or to penetrate the mysteries of nature1 though the questions discussed are often trifling1 and the results arrived at frivolous4 ,every ,veda has1 as already stated1 its own ,brhmana or ,brhmanas4 ,thus1 two of these treatises appertain to the ,rig-,veda2 three to the ,sma-,veda1 one to the ,black and one to the ,white ,yajur-,veda1 and one to the ,atharva-,veda 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 i4 p4 #e74 ,appended to the ,brhmanas1 and forming1 according to ,dr4 ,muir1 their most recent portions1 are the ranyakas and ,upanishads1 a kind of supplementary works devoted to the elucidation of the highest points of theology4 ,the ,brhmanas present an example of ,ritualism in all its glory4 ,they fix the exact nature of every part of every ceremony2 describe minutely the mode in which each sacrifice is to be offered2 mention the ,mantras to be recited on each occasion2 declare the benefits to be expected from the several rites1 and explain the reasons--drawn from the history of the gods--why they are all to be performed in this particular way and order1 and in no other4 ,they are in fact liturgies1 accompanied by exposition4 ,hence they are totally unfit for quotation in a general work1 for they would be incomprehensible without an accompanying essay on the ,vedic sacrifices1 entering into details which would interest none but professional students of the subject4 ,thus1 the ,aitareya ,brhmana occupies itself entirely with the duties of the ,hotri priests2 for the recitation of the ,rig-,veda1 to which this ,brhmana belonged1 was their province4 ,occasionally1 however1 the ,brhmanas1 ,upanishads1 and ranyakas are enlivened by the introduction of apologues1 intended to illustrate the point of theological dogma to which the author is addressing himself4 ,some of these apologues are curious1 though the style in which they are related is generally so prolix as to preclude extraction4 ,a notion of them may be gathered from condensed statements4 ,thus1 in the ,brihad ranyaka ,upanishad a story is told of a dispute among the vital organs as to which of them was best founded1 i4 e41 most essential to life4 ,to obtain the decision of this controversy they repaired to ,brahma1 who said1 ,he amongst you is best founded by whose departure the body is found to suffer most4 ,hereupon ,speech departed1 and returning after a year's absence1 inquired how the others had lived without it4 ,they said1 ',as dumb people who do not speak by speech1 breathing by the vital breath1 seeing by the eye1 hearing by the ear1 thinking by the mind1 and begetting children1 so have we lived4' ,the eye1 the ear1 the mind1 the organ of generation1 each departed for a year1 and1 mutatis mutandis1 with similar results2 blindness1 deafness1 idiocy1 impotence1 were all compatible with life4 ,lastly1 the vital breath being about to depart1 as a great1 noble horse from the ,sindhu country raises its hoofs1 so it shook these vital organs from their places4 ,they said1 ',do not depart1 ,o ,venerable4 ,we cannot live without thee4' ',if ,i am such1 then offer sacrifice to me4' 7,they answered7--',be it so4' ,all the other organs hereupon admitted that their own existence depended on that of the vital breath 7,b4 ,a4 ,u41 ch4 vi4 p4 #bei74 ,several narratives in various ,brhmanas point to the fact that theological knowledge was not in these early days confined to the single caste by which it was afterwards monopolized1 for they speak of well-read kings by whom ,brahmans were instructed4 ,in the ,chndogya ,upanishad1 for example1 five members of the ,brahmanical caste engaged in a debate upon the question ,which is our soul1 and which is ,brahma8 ,unable to satisfy themselves1 they repaired1 accompanied by another theologian who had been unable to answer them1 to a monarch named ,asvapati1 and declining his proffered gifts1 requested him to impart to them the knowledge he possessed of the ,universal ,soul4 ,he accordingly asked each of them in turn which soul he adored4 ,the first replied that he adored the heaven2 the second1 the sun2 the third1 the winds2 the fourth1 the sky2 the fifth1 water2 the sixth1 the earth4 ,to each of them in turn the king admitted that it was indeed a partial manifestation of the ,universal ,soul which he worshiped1 and that its adoration would confer some advantages4 ,but1 he finally added1 ,you consume food1 knowing the ,universal ,soul to be many2 but he who adoreth that ,universal ,soul which pervadeth the heaven and the earth1 and is the principal object indicated by 7the pronoun7 ,i1 consumeth food everywhere and in all regions1 in every form and in every faculty4 ,of that all-pervading ,soul the several phenomena of the visible ,universe worshiped by the ,brahmans in their ignorance are but parts 7,chhand4 ,up41 ch4 v4 section #aa-ah1 p4 #ib-ig74 ,other ,brhmanas tell similar stories of the occasional preminence of the ,kshattriya caste in the rivalry of learning4 ,thus1 the ,satapatha ,brhmana1 the ,brihad ranyaka ,upanishad1 and the ,kaushtaki ,brhmana ,upanishad1 all refer to a certain king ,ajtasatru1 who proved himself superior in theological disputation to a ,brahman named ,blki1 renowned as a man well-read in the ,veda4 ,let us take the version of the last-named ,upanishad4 ,blki proposed to declare divine knowledge to the king1 who offered to give him a thousand cows for his tuition4 ,but after he had propounded his views on the ,deity1 and had been put to shame by the king's answers1 the latter said1 ,thou hast vainly proposed to me2 let me teach thee divine knowledge4 ,he1 son of ,balaka1 who is the maker of these souls1 whose work that is1--he is the object of knowledge4 ,convinced of his ignorance1 ,blki proposed to become the king's pupil4 ,the king replied1 ',i regard it as an inversion of the proper rule that a ,kshattriya should initiate a ,brahman4 ,but come1 ,i will instruct thee' 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 i4 p4 #dca74 ,both these stories illustrate the striving towards conceptions of the unity of the divine essence which is characteristic of this speculative age4 ,the next1 from the ,satapatha ,brhmana1 has reference to another important point1--the future of the soul4 ,a young ,brahman1 called ,svetaketu1 came to a monarch who inquired whether he had received a suitable education from his father4 ,the youth replied that he had4 ,hereupon the king proceeded to put him through an examination1 in which he completely broke down4 ,one of the questions was this3--,dost thou know the means of attaining the path which leads to the gods1 or that which leads to the ,pitris 7,ancestors 7patres772 by what act the one or the other is gained8 ,in other words did he know the way to heaven8 ,the student did not4 ,vexed at his failure1 the young man hastened to his father1 reproached him with having declared that he was instructed1 and complained that the ,rjanya had asked him five questions1 of which he knew not even one4 ,gautama inquired what they were1 and on hearing them1 assured his son that he had taught him all he himself knew4 ,but come1 let us proceed thither1 and become his pupils4 ,receiving his guest with due respect1 the king offered ,gautama a boon4 ,gautama begged for an explanation of the five questions4 ,that1 said the king1 is one of the divine boons2 ask one of those that are human4 ,but ,gautama protested that he had wealth enough of all kinds1 and added1 ,be not illiberal towards us in respect to that which is immense1 infinite1 boundless4 ,the king accordingly accepted them as his pupils1 saying1 ,do not attach any blame to me1 as your ancestors 7did not74 ,this knowledge has never heretofore dwelt in any ,brahman2 but ,i shall declare it to thee4 ,for who should refuse thee when thou so speakest8 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 i4 p4 #dcd47 ,unhistorical as they probably are in their details1 these traditions are curious both as illustrating the predominant inclination to speculative inquiries1 and the fact that in those inquiries the priestly caste was sometimes outshone by their more secular rivals4 ,the following quotation bears upon another doctrine1 the transcendent merit of patience under trials1 even of the severest kind4 ,manu1 the typical ancestor of mankind1 is represented as resigning his most precious possessions to enable impious priests to perform a sacrifice3-- ,manu had a bull4 ,into it an ,asura-slaying1 enemy-slaying voice had entered4 ,in consequence of this 7bull's7 snorting and bellowing1 ,asuras and ,rkshasas 7these are species of demons7 were continually destroyed4 ,then the ,asuras said1 ',this bull1 alas6 does us mischief2 how shall we overcome him8' ,now there were two priests of the ,asuras called ,kilta and ,akuli4 ,they said1 ',manu is a devout believer3 let us make trial of him4' ,they went and said to him1 ',let us sacrifice for thee4' ',with what victim8' he asked4 ',with this bull1' they replied4 ',be it so1' he answered4 ,when it had been slaughtered1 the voice departed out of it1 and entered into ,manu's wife ,mnav4 ,wherever they hear her speaking1 the ,asuras and ,rkshasas continue to be destroyed in consequence of her voice4 ,the ,asuras said1 ',she does us yet more mischief2 for the human voice speaks more4' ,kilta and ,akuli said1 ',manu is a devout believer3 let us make trial of him4' ,they came and said to him1 ',manu1 let us sacrifice for thee4' ',with what victim8' he asked4 ',with this 7thy7 wife1' they replied4 ',be it so1' he answered 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 i4 p4 #ahh74 ,sometimes1 though not often1 the ,brhmanas contain references to moral conduct4 ,a very theological definition of ,duty is given in the ,chndogya ,upanishad1 where it is stated1 ,threefold is the division of ,duty4 ,sacrifice1 study1 and charity constitute the first2 penance is the second2 and residence by a ,brahmachrin 7a student of theology7 exclusively in the house of a tutor is the third4 ,all those who attend to these duties attain virtuous regions2 the believer in ,brahma alone attains to immortality 7,a4 ,b41 vii4 #b4 #aj74 ,in another ,brhmana it is asserted that the marriage of ,faith and ,truth is a most happy one4 ,for by ,faith and ,truth joined they conquer the celestial world 7,chhand4 ,up41 ch4 ii4 sec4 #bc74 ,and the the story of ,sunahsepa1 which contains an emphatic repudiation of human sacrifice1 has a moral bearing4 ,as a rule1 however1 the ,brhmanas do not concern themselves with ethical questions4 ,the rules of sacrifice1 and the doctrines of a complicated theology1 are their main business2 and the topics they are thus led to debate in elaborate detail must frequently impress the ,european reader as not only uninteresting1 but unmeaning4 ,,section ,,iv4--,,the ,,tripitaka4#eh ,when the master-mind who1 by oral and personal instruction1 has led his disciples to the knowledge of new and invaluable truths passes away--when the lips that taught them are closed forever1 and the intellect that solved the problems of human life is at rest1 when the soul that met the spiritual cravings of their souls is no more near them--a necessity at once arises for the collection of the sayings1 the apologues1 or the parables which can now be heard no more1 and which only live in the memories of those who heard them4 ,the precious possession must not be lost4 ,the light must not be suffered to die out4 ,either the words of the ,departed ,one must be transmitted orally from disciple to disciple1 from generation to generation 7as happens in countries where writing is uncommon or unknown71 or they must be rendered imperishable by being once for all recorded in books4 ,such was the course of events upon the death of ,gautama ,buddha4 ,tradition tells us that immediately after that great ,teacher had entered into ,nirvna1 his disciples assembled in council to collect his 1 and to fix the ,canons of the ,faith4 ,this ,canon consisted of three portions1 and is therefore called the ,tripitaka1 or ,three ,baskets4 ,of these baskets1 his disciple ,upali was appointed to recall to memory1 and edit1 the one termed ,vinaya1 or the ,buddha's instructions on discipline2 ,ananda 7the intimate friend of ,gautama71 the ,stras1 or practical teachings2 and ,ksyapa1 the ,abhidharma1 or metaphysical lectures4 ,into these three classes the ,buddhist ,canon remains still divided4 ,but the text1 as thus established1 did not escape the necessity of further revision4 ,one hundred and ten years after ,sakyamuni's decease1 certain monks brought considerable scandal on the ,church by disregarding his precepts4 ,to meet the difficulty1 a council was held under the ,buddhist king ,asoka1 the orthodox faith was determined1 and a new edition of the ,canonical ,works compiled by seven hundred accomplished priests4 ,divisions and heresies1 however1 could not be prevented4 ,in ,kanishka's reign1 four hundred years after ,buddha1 the ,church was split up into eighteen sects1 and a third council had to issue a third ,revision of the ,sacred ,texts4#ei ,all this is not to be taken as literally true4 ,especially is it impossible to accept the story that a ,text of the ,buddha's precepts and lectures was formed immediately after his death4 ,it is probable that not even the earliest parts of the ,tripitaka were committed to writing till long after that event1 and it is quite certain that its later elements could not have been added till some centuries after it4 ,nevertheless1 there may be1 and indeed it is almost beyond doubt that there are1 some works in this ,canon which were already current as the ,word of ,buddha in the time of ,asoka1 who reigned in the third century before ,christ4 ,in an inscription quoted by ,burnouf1 and indisputably emanating from that monarch1 it is stated that the law embraces the following topics3--,the limits marked by the ,vinaya1 the supernatural faculties of the ,ariyas1 the dangers of the future1 the stanzas of the hermit1 the ,stra of the hermit1 the speculation of ,upatisa 7,sariputtra7 only1 the instruction of ,laghula 7,rahula71 rejecting false doctrines4 ,this1 adds the proclamation1 is what has been said by the blessed ,buddha 7,lotus1 p4 #gbe74 ,in this enumeration we recognize1 as ,burnouf has observed1 the classes ,vinaya and ,stra1 which still form two out of the three baskets1 and we find also that certain texts were accepted by the ,church as containing the genuine teaching of the ,buddha4 ,we must suppose1 therefore1 that at the epoch of the ,council held under ,asoka in ,b4 ,c4 #bdf1 there were already many unquestioned works in circulation4 ,nor is there any reason to doubt that some of these have descended to our times4 ,burnouf divides the ,stras 7in the more general sense of instructions or sermons7 into two kinds3 simple1 and developed ,stras1 of which the simple ones bear marks of antiquity and of fairly representing primitive ,buddhism1 while the developed ,stras contain the fanciful speculations of a later age4 ,two most fortunate discoveries1 the one made by ,mr4 ,hodgson in ,nepaul1 the other by ,csoma ,krsi in ,thibet1 have placed the vast collection forming the ,canon of ,buddhism within the reach of ,european scholars4 ,brian ,houghton ,hodgson was the ,british ,resident in ,nepaul in the early part of the present century1 and he there succeeded in obtaining a large number of volumes in ,sanskrit which he presented to the ,asiatic ,societies of ,london and ,paris4 ,to the latter he presented first twenty-four works1 and subsequently sixty-four ,,mss41 being copies of works he had sent to the ,asiatic ,society in ,london4 ,these books happily fell into the hands of one of the greatest of ,sanskrit scholars1 ,eugne ,burnouf1 who1 in his ,history of ,indian ,buddhism1 translated a sufficient number of them to serve as specimens4 ,about the same time a zealous ,hungarian1 ,csoma ,krs1 undertook an adventurous journey into the heart of ,asia1 with a view of discovering the original stock of the ,hungarian race4 ,failing in this object1 he achieved another of greater value1 that of unearthing the whole of the sacred books known in ,thibet under the name of the ,kah-gyur1 or ,kan-gyur 7properly bkah-hgyur71 which is the ,thibetan translation1 in one hundred volumes1 of the very works of which ,hodgson in ,nepaul had discovered the ,sanskrit originals4 ,such is the nature of our guarantees for the authenticity of the text4 ,,subdivision #a4--,the ,vinaya-,pitaka4 ,let us proceed to consider in detail the division which stands first in the ,buddhist classification1 the ,vinaya-,pitaka1 or basketful of works on ,discipline4 ,these1 according to ,burnouf1 are of very different ages1 some being1 from the details they furnish with reference to ,sakyamuni1 his institutions and his surroundings1 of very ancient date1 and others1 which relate events that did not occur till two hundred years or more after his death1 belonging to a more recent period4 ,one of the most instructive of the legends which form the staple of the works on ,discipline1 is that of ,prna4 ,only a brief extract of it can be attempted here4 ,bhagavat 7that is1 the ,lord1 or ,buddha7 was at ,srvasti1 in the garden of ,antha-pindika4 7,antha-pindika was a householder who had embraced the religion of the ,buddha1 and in whose garden he was accustomed to preach47 ,there resided at this time in the town of ,surparaka a very wealthy householder1 named ,bhava4 ,this ,bhava had three sons by his legitimate wife1 who were christened respectively ,bhavila1 ,bhavatrata1 and ,bhavanandin4 ,after some years he fell into an illness which led to his using language of extraordinary violence4 ,his wife with her three sons deserted him in consequence1 but a young female slave1 reflecting that he had immense wealth1 and that it would not be suitable for her to desert him1 remained in the house and nursed him throughout his malady4 ,seeing that he owed her his life1 ,bhava on his recovery told her that he would give her a reward4 ,the young woman begged that if satisfied she might be admitted to her master's bed4 ,bhava endeavored to get off1 promising a handsome sum of money and her liberty instead1 but the girl was determined1 and obtained her wish4 ,the result was that after eight or nine months she gave birth to a beautiful boy1 to whom the name of ,prna 7the ,accomplished7 was given4 ,the infant ,prna was confided to eight nurses1 and subsequently received a first-rate education4 ,in due time1 the three elder sons were married by their father's desire1 but the father1 seeing them absorbed in mere uxoriousness1 reproved their indolence1 telling them that he had not been married until he had amassed a lac 7#ajj1jjj7 of ,suvarna 7representing about twenty-eight shillings74 ,struck by this reproof1 the three sons went to sea on a mercantile expedition1 and returned after having each made a lac of ,suvarnas4 ,but ,prna1 who had remained at home to manage the shop1 was found to have gained an equal sum in the same time4 ,bhava1 perceiving ,prna's talents1 impressed on his sons the importance of union1 and the duty of disregarding what was said by their wives1 women being the destroyers of family peace4 ,he illustrated his remarks by a striking expedient4 ,having desired his sons to bring some wood1 and to kindle it1 he then ordered them all to withdraw the brands4 ,this being done1 the fire went out1 and the moral was at once understood by the four young men4 ,united the fuel burns2 and thus the union of brothers makes their strength4 ,bhavila in particular was warned by his father never to abandon ,prna4 ,in course of time ,bhava died1 and the three legitimate sons undertook another voyage4 ,during their absence1 the wives of the two younger sons fancied themselves ill-treated by ,prna1 who1 in the midst of his business in the shop1 did not supply their maids fast enough with all they sent for4 ,on the return of their husbands these two complained to them that were treated as happens to those in whose family the son of a slave exercises the command4 ,the two brothers merely reflected that women sowed divisions in families4 ,unhappily1 however1 some trifling incidents1 in which ,bhavila's child appeared to have been treated by ,prna with undue partiality1 gave the sister-in-law a more plausible pretext for their complaints4 ,such was the effect of their jealousy1 that the younger brothers determined to demand a division of the property1 in which ,prna 7as a slave7 was to form one of the lots4 ,bhavila1 as eldest brother1 had first choice1 and remembering his father's advice1 chose ,prna4 ,one of the other brothers took the house and land1 and ejected ,bhavila's wife2 the other took the shop and the property in foreign parts1 and ejected ,prna4 ,bhavila1 his wife1 and ,prna1 retired penniless to the house of a relative4 ,the wife in distress sent out ,prna with nothing but a brass coin1 which had been attached to her dress1 to buy provisions4 ,prna met a man who had picked up some stranded sandal-wood on the sea-shore1 and buying it of him 7on credit7 for five hundred ,krshpanas1 sold a portion of it again for one thousand4 ,with this sum he first paid the man who had sold the wood1 and then obtained provisions for the household4 ,he had still in his possession some pieces of the sandal-wood1 which was of a very valuable species called ,gosirsha4 ,shortly after this1 the king fell ill1 and his doctors having prescribed an unguent of this very wood1 it was found that no one but ,prna had any in his possession4 ,prna sold a piece of it to the ,government at one thousand ,krshpanas1 and the king recovered4 ,hereupon he reflected that he was but a poor sort of king who had no ,gosirsha sandal-wood in his establishment1 and sent for ,prna4 ,prna1 guessing his object1 approached him with one piece in his hand1 and three in his robe4 ,the king1 after ascertaining that the price of the one piece would be a lac of ,suvarnas1 inquired if there was more4 ,prna then showed him the three other pieces1 and the king would have given him four lacs of ,suvarnas4 ,the wily merchant1 however1 offered to present him with one piece1 and when the grateful monarch offered him a boon1 requested that he might henceforth be protected against all insults1 which was at once accorded4 ,about this time five hundred merchants arrived at ,surparaka with a cargo of goods4 ,the ,merchants' ,company passed a resolution that none of them should act independently of the rest in buying any of these goods2 in short1 that there should be no competition4 ,any one dealing with the merchants alone was to pay a fine4 ,prna1 however1 at once went to the vessel and bought the whole cargo at the price demanded1 eighteen lacs of ,suvarnas1 paying the three lacs he had received as security4 ,the ,merchants' ,company1 finding themselves anticipated1 seized ,prna and exposed him to the sun to force him to pay the fine4 ,no sooner was the king informed of this than he sent for the ,merchants' ,company to learn the cause of their proceedings4 ,they told him2 but being obliged to confess that they had never informed ,prna or his brother of the resolution passed1 they had to release him with shame4 ,fortune still favored him4 ,soon after this1 the king happened to require the very articles which ,prna had purchased1 and desired the ,merchants' ,company to purchase them4 ,prna hereupon sold them at double the price he had paid4 ,his next step was to undertake a sea-voyage for commercial purposes1 and the first having been successful1 it was followed by five others1 all equally so4 ,his seventh was undertaken at the instance of some ,buddhist merchants from ,srvasti1 where ,gautama was teaching4 ,during the voyage he was profoundly impressed with their religious demeanor4 ,these merchants1 at night and at dawn1 read aloud the hymns1 the prayers which lead to the other shore1 the texts which disclose the truth1 the verses of the ,sthaviras1 those relating to the several sciences1 and those of the hermits1 as well as the ,stras containing sections about temporal interests4 ,prna1 who heard them1 said to them1 ',gentlemen1 what is that fine poetry which you sing8' ',it is not poetry1 ,o prince of merchants2 it is the very words of the ,buddha4' ,prna1 who had never till now heard this name of ,buddha mentioned1 and who felt his hair stand up all over his body1 inquired with deep respect1 ',gentlemen1 who is he whom you call ,buddha8' ,the merchants replied1 ',the ,sramana ,gautama1 descended from the ,sakya family1 who having shaven his hair and beard1 having put on garments of yellow hue1 left his house with perfect faith to enter upon a religious life1 and who has reached the supreme condition of an all-perfect ,buddha2 it is he1 ,o prince of merchants1 who is called the ,buddha4' ',in what place1 gentlemen1 does he now reside8' ',at ,srvasti1 ,o prince of merchants1 in the wood of ,jetavana1 in the garden of ,antha-pindika4' ,the result of this conversation was that ,prna1 on his return1 announced to his brother his intention of becoming a monk1 and advised him never to go to sea1 and never to live with his two brothers4 ,after this he went straight to ,antha-pindika1 and was by him presented to the ,buddha1 who received him with the remark that the most agreeable present he could have was a man to convert4 ,prna then received the investiture and tonsure by miracle1 and was instructed in the law 7in an abridged version7 by his master4 ,a beautiful1 and very characteristic conversation follows the reception of the new doctrine4 ,the ,buddha inquired of ,prna where he would now reside1 and the latter 7who intended to lead an ascetic life7 replied that he would reside in the land of the ,sronaparantakas4#fj ',o ,prna1' says ,gautama1 'they are violent1 these men of ,sronaparanta3 they are passionate1 cruel1 angry1 furious1 and insolent4 ,when the men of ,sronaparanta1 ,o ,prna1 shall address thee to thy face in wicked1 coarse1 and insulting language1 when they shall become enraged against thee and rail at thee1 what wilt thou think of that8' ',if the men of ,sronaparanta1 ,o ,lord1 address me to my face in wicked1 coarse1 and insulting language1 if they become enraged against me and rail at me1 this is what ,i shall think of that3 ,they are certainly good men1 these ,sronaparantakas1 they are gentle1 mild men1 they who address me to my face1 in wicked1 coarse and insulting language1 they who become enraged against me and rail at me1 but who neither strike me with the hand nor stone me4' ,the rest must be given in an abridged form4 ,but if they do strike thee with the hand or stone thee8 ,i shall think them good and gentle for not striking me with swords or sticks4 ,and if they do that8 ,i shall think them good and gentle for not depriving me entirely of life4 ,and if they do that8 7,what follows is literal47 ,if the men of ,sronaparanta1 ,o ,lord1 deprive me entirely of life1 this is what ,i shall think3 ,there are hearers of ,bhagavat the ,lord who by reason of this body full of ordure1 are tormented1 covered with confusion1 despised1 struck with swords1 who take poison1 who die of hanging1 who are thrown down precipices4 ,they are certainty good people1 these ,sronaparantakas1 they are gentle people1 they who deliver me with so little pain from this body full of ordure4 ,good1 good1 ,prna2 thou canst1 with the perfection of patience with which thou art endowed1 yes1 thou canst live1 thou canst take up thy abode in the land of the ,sronaparantakas4 ,go1 ,prna2 delivered thyself1 deliver2 arrived thyself at the other shore1 cause others to arrive there2 consoled thyself1 console2 having come thyself to complete ,nirvna1 cause others to arrive there4 ,hereupon ,prna took his way to ,sronaparanta1 where he converted a huntsman who had intended to kill him1 and obtained five hundred novices composed of both sexes4 ,after a time1 ,bhavila1 his brother1 was requested by ,bhavatrata and ,bhavanandin to enter into partnership with them2 and his repugnance to the proposal was overcome by the reproaches of his younger brothers1 who said that he would never have dared to go to sea as ,prna had done4 ,stung by this taunt1 he engaged with them in a sea-voyage4 ,the vessel was attacked by a furious storm1 raised by a demon in consequence of the merchants having cut some sandal-wood which was under this demon's protection4 ,bhavila stood dumbfounded2 and when the passengers inquired the reason1 informed them that he was thinking of his brother's advice never to go to sea4 ,it turned out that the merchants on board knew of ,prna's great sanctity1 and they addressed their prayers to him4 ,he came through the air1 after the manner of ,buddhist ascetics1 appeared sitting cross-legged over the vessel1 and allayed the tempest4 ,the vessel1 loaded with sandal-wood1 was brought safety back to ,surparaka4 ,the sandal-wood ,prna took possession of in order to make a palace for the ,buddha1 and desired his brothers to invite that personage and his disciples to a repast4 ,the invitation was miraculously conveyed to the ,buddha 7who was a long way off1 at ,srvasti71 and he told his followers to prepare to accept it4 ,prna returned suddenly to the ,assembly 7around ,buddha7 and performed a miracle4 ,the king of ,surparaka1 on his side1 made preparations on the grandest scale for the reception of the ,buddhist hierarchy1 which came to his city by all kinds of supernatural means4 ,prna1 standing by him1 explained the various prodigies as they occurred4 ,omitting some marvelous conversions wrought by the ,buddha on his way1 it may be mentioned that he descended into the middle of the town of ,surparaka from the air1 and there taught the law1 by which hundreds of thousands of living beings attained the several degrees of knowledge which lead1 sooner or later1 to salvation4 ,passing over a passage in which two royal ,ngas 7or serpent-kings7 make their appearance to receive the law1 and another in which ,gautama proceeds to another universe to instruct the mother of his disciple ,maudgalyyana1 we arrive at the moral which always forms the conclusion of these ,buddhist tales4 ,the monks surrounding the ,buddha inquired what actions ,prna had performed in order1 first1 to be born in a rich family2 secondly1 to be the son of a slave2 and lastly1 when he had entered on a religious life1 to behold the condition of an ,arhat#fa face to face1 after having annihilated all the corruptions of evil8 ,buddha replied1 that in the very age in which we live1 but at a period of it when men lived twenty thousand years1 there was a venerable ,tathgata1 or ,buddha1 named ,ksyapa1 who resided near ,benares4 ,prna1 who had adopted a religious life under him1 fulfilled among the members of the ,church#fb the duties of servant of the law4 ,the servant of a certain ,arhat set himself to sweep the monastery1 but the wind blowing the dirt from side to side1 he gave up the attempt1 intending to proceed when the wind should have abated4 ,the servant of the law coming in1 and finding the monastery unswept1 allowed himself to be carried away by rage1 and to utter these offensive words3 ,this is the servant of some slave's son4 ,when he had had time to recover his calmness1 the ,arhat's servant presented himself1 and asked if he knew him4 ,the servant of the law replied that he did1 and that they both had entered into a religious life under the ,buddha ,ksyapa4 ,the other rejoined that while he had fulfilled all his duties1 the servant of the law had been guilty of a fault in giving way to his temper1 and exhorted him to diminish that fault by confession4 ,the latter repented1 and was thereby saved from re-birth in hell2 but he was doomed to be re-born for five hundred generations in the womb of a slave4 ,in this last existence he was still the offspring of a slave2 but because he had formerly served the members of the ,church1 he was born in a rich and prosperous family2 and because he had formerly read and studied ,buddhist theology1 he now became an ,arhat under ,gautama ,buddha1 after annihilating evil 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #bce ff474 ,such is a favorable specimen of a vast number of legends contained in the ,buddhist ,canon4 ,the following fragment is of a rather different kind4 ,it illustrates the extravagant adoration paid to the person of ,buddha some generations after his death4 ,a king named ,rudrayana had sent to another1 named ,bimbisra1 an armor of marvelous properties and priceless value4 ,bimbisra1 at a loss what present he could send back which would be a fitting return for such a gift1 determined to seek out ,buddha and consult him on the point3-- ,king ,bimbisra addressed him thus3--',in the town of ,rruka1 ,lord1 there lives a king called ,rudrayana2 he is my friend2 though ,i have never seen him1 he has sent me a present of an armor composed of five pieces4 ,what present shall ,i give him in return8' ',have the representation of the ,tathgata traced on a bit of stuff1' answered ,bhagavat1 'and send it him as a present4' ,bimbisra sent for some painters1 and said--',paint on a bit of stuff the image of the ,tathgata4' ,the blessed ,buddhas are not very easy to get at1 which is the reason why the painters could find no opportunity of painting ,bhagavat4 ,so they said to ,bimbisra--',if the king would give a feast to ,bhagavat in the interior of his palace1 it would be possible for us to seize the occasion of painting the blessed one' ,king ,bimbisra having accordingly invited ,bhagavat to his palace1 gave him a feast4 ,the blessed ,buddhas are beings that people are never weary of looking at4 ,whichever limb of ,bhagavat the painters looked at they could not leave off contemplating it4 ,so they could not seize the moment to paint him4 ,bhagavat then said to the king--',the painters will have trouble1 ,o great king2 it is impossible for them to seize the moment to paint the ,tathgata1 but bring the canvass4' ,the king having brought it1 ,bhagavat projected his shadow on it1 and said to the painters--',fill that outline with colors2 and then write over it the formulas of refuge as well as the precepts of instruction2 you will have to trace both in the direct order1 and in the inverse order the production of the successive causes of existence1 which is composed of twelve terms2 and on it will be written these two verses3 ',begin1 go out of the house2 apply yourself to the law of ,buddha2 annihilate the army of death1 as an elephant upsets a hut of reeds4 ',he who shall walk without distraction under the discipline of this law1 escaping birth and the revolution of the world1 will put an end to sorrow4#fc ',if any one asks what these verses are1 you must answer3 ,the first is the introduction2 the second1 the instruction2 the third1 the revolution of the world2 and the fourth1 the effort4' 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #cda74 ,bimbisra1 acting under ,bhagavat's dictation1 then wrote to ,rudrayana that he was about to send him the most precious object in the three worlds1 and that he must adorn the way by which it would arrive for two and a half yojanas4 ,rudrayana was rather irritated by this message1 and proposed immediate war1 but was dissuaded by his ministers4 ,the picture therefore was received with all honor1 and not uncovered till after it had been duly adored4 ,certain foreign merchants who happened to be on the spot1 on seeing the portrait1 cried out altogether3 ,adoration to ,buddha4 ,at this name the king felt his hair stand on end1 and inquired who ,buddha was4 ,his position1 and the meaning of the inscription1 was explained to him by the merchants4 ,the consequence1 as may be supposed1 was his conversion to ,buddhism4 ,he reflected on the causes of existence1 and attained the degree of ,srotpatti 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #cdd47 ,very little allusion is made in these legends to the immediate subject of the ,vinaya-pitaka1 namely1 ,discipline4 ,but a reference to ,csoma's ,analysis of the ,dulva 7the ,thibetan title for the ,vinaya7 will show that it is in fact largely occupied in laying down rules for the guidance of monks and nuns1 these rules being frequently supposed to have arisen out of particular events1 while moral tales are freely intermingled with the treatment of the main business4 ,the hap-hazard manner in which the regulations needful for the government of the ,church were framed--according to the theory of the ,scriptures--may be illustrated by a few specimens4 ,thus1 two persons in debt had taken orders1 ,shakya 7,sakyamuni7 prohibits the admission into the religious order of any one who is in debt 7,as4 ,re41 vol4 xx4 p4 #ec74 ,this rule entirely agrees with the general spirit of ,gautama's proceedings1 as narrated in the ,buddhist books1 and we are warranted in supposing that statements so harmonious rest on a historical foundation4 ,thus1 he is said to have refused to admit young people without the consent of their parents1 or servants of a king without their royal master's sanction4 ,regulations like these may well have been made by ,buddha from a cautious anxiety to avoid all conflict with established authorities4 ,further on in the same volume of the ,dulva the reception of hermaphrodites is likewise prohibited 7,as4 ,re41 vol4 xx4 p4 #ee74 ,on another occasion1 leave is given to learn swimming4 ,indecencies are then committed in the ,ajirapati river4 ,they are prohibited from touching any woman2--they may not save even one that has fallen into the river 7,ibid41 vol4 xx4 p4 #ei74 ,elsewhere we are told of a pious lady who provided the infant community with cloth to make bathing clothes1 since she had heard that both monks and nuns bathed without any garments 7,ibid41 vol4 xx4 p4 #gj74 ,a little further on1 the dress of the priesthood is prescribed4 ,some of the disciples wished to wear one thing1 and some another2 others to go naked4 ,shakya tells them the impropriety and indecency of the latter1 and prohibits it absolutely3 and rebuking them1 adds that such a garb1 or to go naked1 is the characteristic sign of a ,mu-stegs-chan 7,sansk7 ,trthika 7,ibid41 vol4 xx4 p4 #ga74 ,here again we seem to have a historical trait1 for it was one of the distinctive features of ,buddhism that its votaries were never naked1 like the ,trthikas1 or heretical ascetics1 but always wore the yellow robe4 ,in other places there are rules on lodging1 on bedding1 on the treatment of quarrelsome priests1 the use of fragrant substances1 and many other trivial points of ecclesiastical discipline4 ,the volumes containing all these instructions are followed by one in which the same stories are told1 and the same morals deduced from them1 concerning the nuns4 ,then there are some injunctions apparently peculiar to this sex1 as1 for instance1 the restraint imposed on their possession of a multiplicity of garments4 ,another prohibition was called forth by the following conduct of a nun4 ,a king had sent a piece of fine linen cloth as a present to a brother king4 ,it comes afterwards into the hands of ,gtsug-,dgah-,mo 7a lewd or wicked priestess72 she puts it on1 appears in public1 but from its thin texture1 seems to be naked4 ,the priestesses are prohibited from accepting or wearing such thin clothes 7,as4 ,re41 vol4 xx4 p4 #he74 ,it will be observed from these few quotations that according to the ,canon the ,buddha's usual mode of proceeding was to lay down rules as occasion required4 ,some instructive anecdote is related1 and the new order follows as a natural consequence of the event4 ,more probably the rules were in fact made first1 and the anecdotes subsequently composed to account for them4 ,however this may be1 there exist in the ,canon some undoubtedly ancient ordinances not called forth by any special circumstances1 conformity to which was required of the monks1 if not by their founder himself1 at least by the rulers of his ,church in its most primitive condition4 ,such1 for example1 are the thirteen rules by which sin is shaken1 reported by ,burnouf1 which are also found1 with the exception of a single one1 in a ,chinese work entitled the sacred book of the twelve observances 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #cjd74 ,these rules belong1 according to ,burnouf1 to an epoch when the organization of the monks under a powerful hierarchy1 and their residence in settled monasteries1 had scarcely begun4 ,some of them are even inconsistent with the institution of such monasteries1 or ,viharis1 which are nevertheless very ancient4 ,the fact that the above-named ,chinese treatise1 the pentaglot ,buddhist ,vocabulary1#fd and a list current among the ,singhalese1 all contain these articles of discipline 7though with slight variations7 proves1 moreover1 that they appertain to that common fund on which ,northern and ,southern ,buddhists drew alike4 ,the first article 7following the order in the ,vocabulary7 signifies wearing rags found in the dust1 and refers to an injunction addressed to the monks to wear vestments composed of rags picked up in heaps of ordure1 in cemeteries1 and such places4 ,the second1 he who has three garments1 corresponds to an order found in the ,chinese book forbidding monks to have more than three garments4 ,of the third article which is corrupt1 ,burnouf can give no satisfactory explanation2 and the fourth means he who lives by alms1 a practice at all times imposed on the monastic orders4 ,fifthly1 the ascetic is described as he who has but one seat2 sixthly1 as one who eats no sweetmeats after his meal1 all eating for the day having to be finished by noon4 ,seventhly1 he lives in the forest1 that is1 in lonely places2 and eighthly1 he is near a tree1 the ,chinese injunction requiring him to sit near a tree1 and to seek no shelter4 ,the ninth order obliges them to sit on the ground1 that is1 to live in the open air2 the tenth1 to dwell among tombs1 which the ,singhalese interpret as an order to visit cemeteries and meditate on the instability of human affairs2 the eleventh1 to sit1 and not to lie down4 ,of the meaning of the twelfth there is some doubt2 it may signify that the monk is to remain where he is1 or that he is not to change the position of his mat when once laid down4 ,to these twelve the ,singhalese add a thirteenth article1 that the monk is to live by begging from house to house4 ,not less remarkable are the ten commandments of ,buddhism1 which are doubtless also of considerable antiquity4 ,burnouf states that he has found them in the sequel of the ,prtimoksha ,stra in the ,pali-,burman copy of that most important work 7to which reference will shortly be made74 ,these are the ten commandments as given in that authority3-- #a4 ,not to kill any living creature4 #b4 ,not to steal4 #c4 ,not to break the vow of chastity4 #d4 ,not to lie4 #e4 ,not to drink intoxicating liquors4 #f4 ,not to take a meal except at the appointed time4 #g4 ,not to visit dances1 performances of vocal or instrumental music1 or dramatic representations4 #h4 ,not to wear garlands1 or use perfumes and unguents4 #i4 ,not to sleep on a high or large bed4 #aj4 ,not to accept gold or silver 7,lotus1 p4 #ddd74 ,of these commandments1 some are evidently general1 being founded on the fundamental principles of ethics2 others are addressed only to those in orders4 ,such is the case with the last five1 all of which bear reference to certain disciplinary laws imposed upon the monks and nuns4 ,their object is to prohibit luxury of various kinds1 such as the use of a large bed1 and to restrain the love of sensual enjoyments1 such as plays1 music1 and dancing4 ,another list of offenses1 after enumerating the first five of those contained in the preceding list1 adds five more1 namely3-- #a4 ,blasphemy of the ,buddha4 #b4 ,blasphemy of the ,law4 #c4 ,blasphemy of the ,church4 #d4 ,heresy4 #e4 ,violation of a nun 7,lotus1 p4 #dde74 ,such are the leading points of monastic discipline among the primitive ,buddhists4 ,a more elaborate and formal treatise on the subject of the sins to be avoided1 and the penalties to be imposed on their commission1 is the ,prtimoksha ,stra1 or ,stra on ,emancipation4 ,it is the standard work on this subject1 and should be recited before the assembled ,vihra twice in each month1 any guilty brother confessing any transgression of its precepts of which he might be conscious4 ,its antiquity is undoubted1 for in a ,stra known to have been brought to ,china from ,india in ,a4,d4 #gj 7and therefore already of established repute7 the ,prtimoksha is referred to as the two hundred and fifty rules 7,c4 ,b4 ,s41 p4 #ahi74 ,it does1 in fact1 contain two hundred and fifty rules in its ,chinese form1 while the ,thibetan version contains two hundred and fifty-three1 and the ,pali version but two hundred and twenty-seven 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #cjc74 ,while the ,prtimoksha ,stra now to be quoted is destined for monks1 or ,bhikshus1 it is to be noted that there exists likewise a ,bhikshun ,prtimoksha ,stra1 or ,treatise on ,emancipation for ,nuns 7,as4 ,re41 vol4 xx4 pp4 #gi1 #hd74 ,the rules are1 mutatis mutandis1 the same for both sexes4 ,it will be interesting to glance rapidly at the nature of the faults and crimes the confession of which is here imposed on ,bhikshus and ,bhikshuns4#fe ,the ,stra opens with certain stanzas designed to celebrate the ,buddhist ,trinity1--the ,buddha1 the ,law1 and the ,church4 ,then follow some preparatory questions3-- ,are the priests assembled8 7,they are47 ,are all things arranged8 7seats1 water1 sweeping1 c47 7,they are47 ,let all depart who are not ordained4 7,if any1 let them go2 if none are present1 let one say so47 ,does any ,bhikshu here present ask for absolution8 7,let him answer accordingly47 ,exhortation must be given to the priestesses 7but if there are none present1 let one say so74 ,are we agreed what our present business is8 ,it is to repeat the precepts in this lawful assembly4 ,venerable brethren1 attend now6 ,on this 444 day of the month 444 let the assembled priests listen attentively and patiently1 whilst the precepts are distinctly recited4 ,,commencement4 ,brethren6 ,i desire to go through the ,prtimoksha4 ,bhikshus6 assembled thus1 let all consider and devoutly reflect on these precepts4 ,if any have transgressed1 let him repent6 ,if none have transgressed1 then stand silent6 silent6 ,thus1 brethren1 it shall be known that ye are guiltless4 ,now if a stranger ask one of us a question we are bound to reply truthfully3 so1 also1 ,bhikshus1 we who reside in community1 if we know that we have done wrong1 and yet decline to acknowledge it1 we are guilty of prevarication4 ,but ,buddha has declared that prevarication effectually prevents our religious advancement4 ,that brother1 therefore1 who is conscious of transgression1 and desires absolution1 ought at once to declare his fault1 and after proper penance he shall have rest and peace4 ,brethren6 having repeated this preface1 ,i demand of you all--,is this assembly pure or not8 7,repeat this three times47 ,brethren6 this assembly is pure2 silent6 silent6 ye stand6 ,so let it be6 ,brethren1 ,i now proceed to recite the four parajika laws1 ordered to be recited twice every month4 ,these four laws are then repeated1 and the penalty of excommunication1 which attaches to a breach of any of them1 is enunciated4 ,the first of the four prohibits impure conduct2 the second1 theft4 ,the third runs as follows3-- ,if a ,bhikshu cause a man's death1 or hold a weapon and give it a man 7for the purpose71 or if he speak of the advantages of death1 or if he carelessly exhort one to meet death 7saying71 ',tush1 you are a brave man1' or use such wicked speech as this1 ',it is far better to die and not to live1' using such considerations as these1 bringing every sort of expedient into use1 praising death1 exhorting to death3 this ,bhikshu ought to be excluded and cut off4 ,the fourth rule is against pretending to a perfect knowledge of the ,truth which the ,bhikshu does not in fact possess4 ,at the end of the recitation of these four rules it is declared that a brother who has transgressed any one of them has acquired the guilt which demands exclusion1 and ought not to live as a member of the priesthood4 ,the question as to the purity of the ,assembly is then again put1 and the priest 7after declaring it pure7 proceeds to thirteen rules1 the breach of which is punished by suspension4 ,the first restrains a monk from pampering lustful thoughts1 the second from bringing any part of his body in contact with that of a woman1 the third from lewd talk with a woman1 the fourth from obtaining a woman to minister to him4 ,for a violation of this last injunction the highest penance1 as well as suspension1 is appointed4 ,there follow rules against building a residence of illegal size1 or without due consecration1 or on an inconvenient site2 against building a ,vihra on an inconvenient site2 against slander of a ,bhikshu 7two rules71 against causing disunion in a community1 against forming a cabal for mutual protection against just censure1 against disorderly conduct when living in a house1 against a refusal to listen to expostulation or reproof4 ,solitary confinement1 and six days of penance1 are the penalties imposed on these offenses2 after the infliction of the sentence absolution is to be given4 ,next we have two rules not capable of exact definition1 but relating to licentious talk with a faithful laywoman4 ,thirty rules relating to priests' robes and the like matters are now recited4 ,they seem to be aimed at covetousness in receiving or asking gifts4 ,after the usual inquiry as to the purity of the brethren1 ninety rules against offenses requiring confession and absolution are to be read4 ,some of these seem to be repetitions of previous ones belonging to a more serious category1 as the first two1 on lying and slander1 and the eighth1 against pretended knowledge4 ,then the ,prtimoksha proceeds to say that if a ,bhikshu use hypocritical language1 if he occupy the same lodging as a woman1 or the same as a man not yet ordained above two nights1 if he chant prayers with a man not yet ordained1 if he rail at a priest1 if he use water containing insects 7so as to destroy life71 if he give clothes to a ,bhikshun1 or nun1 if he go with a ,bhikshun in any boat except a ferry-boat1 if he agree to walk with a ,bhikshun along the road1 if he gambol in the water while bathing1 if he drink distilled or fermented liquor1 or commit any of the many other faults1 partly against morality in general1 partly against conventual rule1 he is guilty of a transgression of this class4 ,four rules follow against receiving food from a nun1 against allowing a nun in a layman's house to point out certain dishes1 and have them given to certain monks2 against going to dinner uninvited2 against the omission on the part of a monk residing in a dangerous place to warn those who may bring him victuals of the risk they run4 ,a hundred rules1 mostly trifling1 are now entered on4 ,they are such as these3 ,not to enter a layman's house in a bouncing manner4 ,not to munch or make a munching noise in eating rice1 and likewise1 not to make a lapping noise4 ,not to clean the teeth under a pagoda2 with many other minute regulations on a multitude of trivial points4 ,the seven concluding laws refer simply to the mode of deciding cases4 ,,subdivision #b4--,the ,stra-,pitaka4 ,we have thus concluded our notice of the ,prtimoksha ,stra1 and may pass on to the ,stra-pitaka1 the second of the three baskets into which the ,canon is divided4 ,stra is a term signifying a discourse1 or lecture1 and the ,stras of ,buddhism are frequently moral stories1 supposed to emanate from ,gautama ,buddha himself1 and embodying the great features of his gospel1 as the ,sermon on the ,mount and the ,parables do those of the gospel of ,jesus4 ,a very interesting collection of such stories belonging to the ,stra-pitaka is contained in a work translated from the ,thibetan by a ,russian scholar1 and forming1 under the title of the ,hdsangs-blun1 or the ,wise ,man and the ,fool1 a portion of the twenty-eighth volume of the ,mdo1 or ,stra-pitaka4 ,from ,csoma's ,analysis it appears that many other narratives of a similar nature are embodied in this section of the ,canon1 though much of it also consists of more direct dogmatic instruction4 ,from ,the ,wise ,man and the ,fool ,i select a chapter which affords a good illustration of the boundless charity which ,buddhism inculcates4 ,the victoriously-perfect ,one was living at ,srvasti4 ,when the time came to receive alms1 he set out with his disciple ,ananda1 alms-bowl in hand1 along the road4 ,it so happened that he met two men who had been condemned to death for repeated robberies1 and were being led to execution4 ,their mother1 seeing the ,buddha1 thus addressed him3--,o chief of gods1 think of us with mercy1 and vouchsafe to take under thy protection these my sons who are going to execution4 ,buddha accordingly interceded with the king1 who gave them a free pardon4 ,touched with gratitude1 the two men asked leave to become monks1 and on ,buddha's consenting to receive them1 their hair at once fell off from head and face1 and their garments assumed the yellow hue of the order4#ff ,both mother and sons attained high spiritual grades4 ,ananda marveled what good deeds these three could have performed to meet with the victoriously-perfect ,one1 to be saved from such great evils1 and to obtain the prospect of ,nirvna4 ,buddha thereupon informed him that this was not the first occasion on which he had saved their lives1 and on ,ananda's request for a further explanation1 related the following circumstances4 ,countless years ago1 there lived in ,jambudwpa 7,india7 a certain king who had three sons4 ,the youngest son was mild and merciful from his childhood upwards4 ,one day1 when the king1 with his ministers1 wives and sons1 was at a picnic outside the town1 the three sons went into a wood1 where they found a tigress1 with young recently littered1 so nearly starved that she was almost on the point of devouring her own brood4 ,the youngest asked his brothers what food a tigress would eat4 ,newly-killed meat and warm blood4 ,is there any one who would support its life with his own body8 ,no one1 replied the elder brothers2 that would be too difficult 7,i give only the substance of this colloquy74 ,then the youngest prince thought within himself3 ,for a long time ,i have been driven about in the circle of births1 and have thrown away my body and my life innumerable times2 often have ,i sacrificed it for the passion of the desires1 often for that of rage1 often too for folly and ignorance2 what value then has this body1 which has not one single time trodden the field of meritorious actions for the sake of religion6 ,meantime1 all three had walked on2 but the youngest1 pleading some business of his own1 desired them to go on1 leaving him to follow4 ,having returned to the cave of the tigress1 he laid himself down beside her1 but found her too weak to open her mouth4 ,hereupon the prince contrived to bleed himself with a sharp splinter of wood1 and the tigress1 after licking the blood that flowed from him1 was sufficiently refreshed to consume him altogether4 ,the two elder brothers1 wondering at his long absence1 returned to the tiger's hole1 where1 on finding his remains1 they rolled upon the ground and fainted1 overcome with grief4 ,the queen1 who had had an alarming dream1 questioned them anxiously on their return as to their brother1 and she too on learning the sad event1 which their choking voices for some time prevented them from telling1 fell senseless to the ground4 ,soon after1 both king and queen visited the den1 but could find nothing but bones4 ,meantime1 the prince had been born again in the ,tushita heaven4 ,looking about to discover what good action of his had brought him to this place1 he saw the bones of his former body in the tigress's den1 and his parents sighing and groaning around them4 ,he returned from his heavenly abode to give them some consolation and some good advice4 ,they were at length somewhat comforted1 and collecting his bones1 buried them in a costly sarcophagus4 ,buddha then turns to ,ananda and asks him whom he supposes the actors in this tragedy to have been4 ,he tells him1 without waiting for an answer1 that the king was his present father1 the queen his present mother1 the elder princes certain personages named ,maitreya and ,vasumitra1 and the youngest prince no other than himself4 ,the young tigers were1 it need hardly be said1 the condemned felons whom he had now again delivered from death4 ,while this anecdote inculcates charity in its fullest extent1 the one which is now to be quoted illustrates another most conspicuous point in the ethics of ,buddhism1--the regard paid by it to personal purity and the deadening influence it exercised on the senses4 ,the translation of this curious legend is due to ,burnouf3-- ,there was at ,mathur a courtesan called ,vsavadatt4 ,her maid went one day to ,upagupta to buy her some perfumes4 ,vsavadatt said to her on her return3 ',it seems1 my dear1 that this perfumer pleases you1 as you always buy from him4' ,the maid answered her3 ',daughter of my master1 ,upagupta1 the son of the merchant1 who is gifted with beauty1 with talent1 and with gentleness1 passes his life in the observance of the law4' ,on hearing these words ,vsavadatt conceived an affection for ,upagupta1 and at last she sent her maid to say to him3 ',my intention is to go and find you2 ,i wish to enjoy myself with you4' ,the maid delivered her message to ,upagupta2 but the young man told her to answer her mistress3 ',my sister1 it is not yet time for you to see me4' ,now it was necessary in order to obtain the favors of ,vsavadatt to give five hundred ,purnas4 ,thus the courtezan imagined that if he refused her1 it was because he could not give the five hundred ,purnas4 ,for this reason1 she sent her maid to him again to say1 ',i do not ask a single ,krchpana from the son of my master2 ,i only wish to enjoy myself with him4' ,the maid again delivered this new message1 and ,upagupta answered her in the same way3 ',my sister1 it is not time yet for you to see me4' ,however1 the son of a master-workman had come to settle with ,vsavadatt1 when a merchant1 who was bringing from the north five hundred horses which he wished to sell1 came to the town of ,mathur1 and asked who was the most beautiful courtezan4 ,he was answered that ,vsavadatt was4 ,immediately1 taking #ejj ,purnas and a great number of presents1 he went to the courtezan4 ,then ,vsavadatt1 urged by covetousness1 assassinated the son of the master-workman1 who was at her house1 threw his body into the middle of the filth of the town1 and gave herself up to the merchant4 ,after some days1 the young man was extricated from the filth by his parents1 who denounced the murder4 ,the king at once gave orders to the executioners to go and cut off ,vsavadatt's hands1 feet1 ears1 and nose1 and to leave her in the cemetery4 ,the executioners carried out the orders of the king1 and left the courtezan in the place named4 ,now ,upagupta heard of the punishment that had been inflicted on ,vsavadatt1 and at once this idea came into his mind3 ',some time ago1 this woman wished to see me for a sensual object1 and ,i did not consent that she should see me4 ,but now that her hands and feet1 ears and nose1 have been cut off1 it is time she should see me1' and he pronounced these verses3 ',when her body was covered with beautiful attire1 when she shone with ornaments of different sorts1 the best thing for those who aspired to deliverance and who wished to escape the law of renewed birth was not to go and see this woman4 ',to-day1 when she has lost her pride1 her love and her joy1 when she has been mutilated by the edge of the knife1 when her body is reduced to its true nature1 it is time to see her4' ,then sheltered by a parasol carried by a young man who accompanied him as a servant1 he went to the cemetery with a measured step4 ,vsavadatt's maid had stayed with her mistress out of gratitude for her past kindness1 and she prevented the crows from approaching her body4 ,seeing ,upagupta she said to her3 ',daughter of my master1 he to whom you sent me several times1 ,upagupta1 is coming this way4 ,no doubt he comes attracted by the desire for pleasure4' ,but ,vsavadatt1 hearing these words1 answered3 ',when he sees me deprived of beauty1 racked with grief1 lying on the ground all covered with blood1 how can he feel love of pleasure8' ,then she said to her maid1 ',friend1 pick up the limbs that have been severed from my body4' ,the maid picked them up at once1 and hid them under a bit of linen4 ,at this moment ,upagupta arrived1 and he stood up before ,vsavadatt4 ,the courtezan1 seeing him standing up before her1 said to him3 ',son of my master1 when my body was whole1 when it was made for enjoyment1 ,i several times sent my maid to you1 and you answered me3 ,my sister1 it is not time for you to see me4 ,to-day1 when the knife has carried off my hands and feet1 my ears and nose1 when ,i am thrown in the dirt and in blood1 why do you come8' ,and she uttered the following verses3 ',when my body was soft like the lotus flower1 when it was adorned with ornaments and rich clothes1 when it had all which attracted the eye1 ,i was so unhappy as not to see you4 ',to-day why do you come to contemplate a body1 the sight of which the eyes cannot bear1 which games1 pleasure1 joy1 and beauty have abandoned1 which inspires horror1 and is stained with blood and dirt8' ,upagupta answered her3 ',i have not come to you1 my sister1 attracted by the love of pleasure2 but ,i am come to see the real nature of the miserable objects of the enjoyments of man' 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #adf ff474 ,such is the character of the more ancient portions of the ,stra-pitaka4 ,it consists largely of tales1 most of which have much the same outward form1 the details only being varied2 and all of which are intended to impress some kind of moral upon their hearers4 ,but the ,stra collection is composed of two different classes of works1 the one class being named by ,burnouf simple ,stras1 the other developed ,stras4 ,the developed ,stras belong1 according to the same authority1 to a much later period1 and are marked off from the simple ,stras by certain well-defined characters4 ,they are indeed of a kind which absolutely precludes the notion that they can emanate in any way whatever from ,sakyamuni1 or that they could have been composed during the modest beginnings of his ,church1 when his followers were rather intent on practical goodness than on pompous and high-flown descriptions of their ,master's magnificence4 ,not that all the ,stras classed by ,burnouf as simple must needs belong to a very early age2 but that the developed ,stras certainly could not have been written until some centuries after ,sakyamuni's death1 when his disciples1 instead of using their voices in actual conversation1 enjoyed the leisure and the means to employ their pens in attempted fine writing4 ,burnouf has given the public a single specimen of a ,stra of this class1 and they must be very devoted students of ,oriental literature who wish for another4 ,here is a sample of its style3-- ,then the ,bodhisattva ,mahsattva ,akshayamati having risen from his seat1 after throwing his upper garment over his shoulder1 and placing his right knee on the ground1 directing his joined hands1 in token of respect1 to the quarter where ,bhagavat was1 addressed him in these words3 ',why1 ,o ,bhagavat1 does the ,bodhisattva ,mahsattva ,avalokitesvara bear that name8' ,this having been said1 ,bhagavat spoke thus to the ,bodhisattva ,akshayamati3 ',o son of a family1 all the hundreds of thousands of myriads of creatures existing in the world who suffer pains1 have but to hear the name of the ,bodhisattva ,avalokitesvara to be delivered from this mass of pains' 7,lotus1 p4 #bfa74 ,the extraordinary diffuseness of this kind of composition is scarcely credible4 ,not only is every doctrine elaborated in the utmost number of words possible1 but its exposition in prose is regularly followed by a second exposition in verse4 ,add to this peculiar feature of developed ,stras another1 namely1 that innumerable crowds of supernatural auditors 7especially ,bodhisattvas1 or future ,buddhas7 are present at their delivery by the ,buddha1 and take part in the dialogue1 or demand explanations on knotty points1 and some conception may be formed of their wholly unreal and unnatural character4 ,thus1 the ,lotus concludes with the statement that innumerable ,tathgatas 7,buddhas7 come from other universes1 seated on thrones near diamond trees1 innumerable ,bodhisattvas1 and the whole of the four assemblies of the universe1 with ,devas 7gods71 men1 ,asuras1 and ,gandharvas1 transported with joy1 praised what ,bhagavat had said4 ,although the simple ,stras mention the presence of gods at the ,buddha's teaching1 yet they do not 7so far as ,i am aware7 introduce these hosts of ,bodhisattvas and ,buddhas belonging to other worlds than ours4 ,their horizon had not extended itself to such vast limits1 and they confined themselves to the universe in which we live4 ,,subdivision #c4--,the ,abhidharma-pitaka4 ,a third section of the ,canon remains1 the ,abhidharma1 or ,metaphysics4 ,buddhist metaphysics are so absolutely mystical that it would be a waste of time to enlarge upon them in a work not specially consecrated to ,oriental subjects4 ,the subtleties of the ,indian mind would require far more space to explain than would be consistent with the objects in view here1 even if the writer were competent to explain them4 ,the impression left on the mind by the perusal of the ,abhidharma is that we delude ourselves if we believe in the reality of anything whatever4 ,there is no material world2 all we see1 hear1 feel or believe1 is illusion2 our thoughts themselves are no-thoughts2 this doctrine is that of wisdom and truth1 but there is no wisdom and no truth4 ,the ,buddha arrives by his meditations at this sublime knowledge2 but there is no meditation and no knowledge4 ,he conducts living creatures to ,nirvna3 but there are neither creatures to be conducted1 nor a ,buddha to conduct them4 ,all is nothingness1 and nothingness is all4 ,that this nihilism is common to all the schools into which ,buddhists are divided1 ,i do not mean to assert4 ,there are in ,nepaul certain schools which hold a peculiar modification of theism1 and they probably may not embrace these strange and unintelligible systems4 ,but the views--if views they can be called--which have just been described1 do mark the canonical books of the ,abhidharma with which ,i am acquainted2 such as the so-called ,pradjn ,pramit1 or ,perfection of ,wisdom4 ,there is1 however1 one metaphysical theory which is not a mere series of contradictions1 and which1 from its close connection with the deepest roots of the ,buddhistic faith1 deserves more than a mere cursory mention4 ,it is the dogma known as that of the twelve ,nidnas1 or successive causes of existence4 ,it has already been explained that the original aim of ,buddhism--the salvation offered by ,sakyamuni--was deliverance from this painful existence4 ,the four truths which formed the foundation of his system have also been spoken of4 ,it may be well to remind the reader that they are these3--#a4 ,the existence of ,pain2 #b4 ,the production of ,pain2 #c4 ,the annihilation of ,pain2 #d4 ,the way to the annihilation of ,pain4 ,now if existence was1 as the ,buddhists believed1 the source of pain1 it was important to discover the source of existence4 ,this the theory of the ,nidnas professes to do4 ,it is therefore not only intimately related to the four great truths1 but forms an essential supplement to them4 ,a very ancient formula1 discovered not only in books but on images1 declares that1 ,of all things proceeding from cause1 the cause of their procession hath the ,tathgata explained4 ,the great ,sramana has likewise declared the cause of the extinction of all things4 ,whether this formula refers to the four truths1 or to the ,nidnas1 it is impossible to say4 ,the ,nidnas1 however1 might well be referred to in these terms4 ,they are described in a passage which ,burnouf has quoted from the ,lalitavistara1 in which the ,bodhisattva 7afterwards ,buddha7 is stated to have risen through prolonged meditation from the knowledge of each successive consequent to that of its antecedent4 ,the ,bodhisattva1 we are told1 collected his thoughts and fixed his intelligence in the last watch of night1 just before the dawn appeared4 ,then this thought came into his mind3 ,the existence of this world1 which is born1 grows old1 dies1 falls1 and is born again1 is certainly an evil4 ,but he could not recognize the means of quitting this world1 which is nothing but a great accumulation of sorrows1 which is composed but of decrepitude1 illness1 death1 and other miseries1 which are altogether formed of them4 ,this reflection brought the following thought into his mind3 ,what is the thing the existence of which leads to decrepitude and death1 and what cause have decrepitude and death8 ,this reflection came into his mind3 ,birth existing1 decrepitude and death exist2 for decrepitude and death have birth as their cause4 ,a similar process of reasoning led him to see that the cause of birth was existence2 that of existence1 conception2 that of conception1 desire2 that of desire1 sensation2 that of sensation1 contact2 that of contact1 the six seats of sensible qualities2 that of the six seats1 name and form2 that of name and form1 knowledge2 that of knowledge1 the concepts2 that of the concepts1 ignorance4 ,it is thus1 exclaims the ,bodhisattva when this great light had burst upon him1 it is thus that the production of this world1 which is but a mass of sorrows1 takes place4 ,and by an inverse process he went on to reflect that if ignorance did not exist1 neither would the concepts1 and so on through every link of the chain4 ,until at length1 from the annihilation of birth results the annihilation of decrepitude1 of death1 of sufferings1 of lamentations1 of sorrow1 of regret1 of despair4 ,it is thus that the annihilation of this world1 which is but a mass of sorrows1 takes place 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #dhg74 ,this speculation is by no means easy to understand4 ,apparently it means that ignorance1 in the sense of a mistaken notion of the reality of the material world1 leads to a whole series of blunders1 ending inevitably in birth4 ,from this fundamental error or belief in the existence of sensible objects spring certain other false conceptions4 ,knowledge1 which next ensues1 may mean not merely cognition but consciousness1 knowledge of our existence2 and in this sense1 or in something like it1 it must be taken in order to explain the apparent paradox of a deduction of the pedigree of knowledge directly from ignorance4 ,hence name and form1 a still further distinction of the individual--a specialization of the vague knowledge of himself which the last stage brought him to4 ,the next step carries us on to the six seats of sensible qualities2 a phrase expressing the organs by which sensible qualities are perceived--the five senses1 and ,manas1 the heart1 which the ,indians considered as a sixth sense4 ,it appears also from ,burnouf's remarks that the ,sanskrit term includes along with the organs the qualities they perceive1 the ,law being assigned to the heart or internal sense as the object of its perception4 ,the six seats being given1 contact follows2 contact implies sensation1 and sensation naturally leads to desire4 ,conception is represented as the effect of desire1 but another translation of this term by attachment1 fondness for material things1 renders the sequence easier to understand4 ,attachment to anything but the three gems--the ,buddha1 the ,law1 and the ,church--is1 however1 a fatal error1 and leads to the melancholy result of existence4 ,evidently1 however1 the being whose downward progress has thus been described must have existed before1 and the event here alluded to must probably be the passage into the definite condition of the human embryo4 ,and this is rather confirmed by the fact that the next step is that of birth1 followed1 as a matter of course1 by the miseries of human life1 terminating in death4#fg ,and death1 unless every remnant of attachment to1 and desire for1 all worldly things has been purged away1 unless every trace of sinful tendencies has been obliterated1 is but a fresh beginning of the same weary round4 ,,subdivision #d4--,theology and ,ethics of the ,tripitaka4 ,thus we have examined in succession the three great divisions of the ,buddhist ,canon4 ,we may pass over a comparatively late and spurious addition to it1 the ,tantras--full of the worship of strange gods and goddesses1 and of magical formularies--to consider the general features of these sacred works in reference to their theological teaching and to their moral tendency4 ,theology is perhaps a term that will be held to be misplaced in speaking of a system which acknowledges no ,god4 ,yet ,buddhism is so full of supernatural creatures1 and the ,buddha himself occupies a position so nearly divine1 that it would be hard to find a more appropriate word4 ,buddha himself is the central figure of the whole of his system1 far more completely than ,christ is the central figure of ,christianity1 or ,mahomet of ,islam4 ,there is no ,deity above him2 he stands out alone1 unrivaled1 unequaled1 and unapproachable4 ,the gods of the ,hindu pantheon are by no means annihilated in the ,buddhist ,scriptures4 ,on the contrary1 they play a certain part in them1 as when some of the greatest among their number assist at the delivery of ,my4 ,but the part assigned to them is always a subordinate one2 they are practically set aside1 not by the skeptical process of questioning their existence1 but by the more subtle one of introducing them as humbly seated at the ,buddha's footstool1 and devout recipients of his instructions4 ,hostility to ,gautama ,buddha there may be1 but not from them4 ,it proceeds from heretical ,brahmans--rivals in trade--and from those whom they may for a time deceive4 ,the gods are among the most docile of his pupils1 and display a praiseworthy eagerness to acquire the knowledge he may condescend to impart4 ,infinitely above gods and men1 because possessing infinitely deeper knowledge and infinitely higher virtue1 stands the ,tathgata1 the man who walks in the footsteps of his predecessors4 ,his position is the greatest to which any mortal creature can attain4 ,but it has been attained by many before1 and will be by many hereafter4 ,far away into ages separated from ours by millions of millions of years stretches the long list of ,buddhas1 for every age has received a similar light to lighten up its darkness4 ,all have led lives marked by the same incidents1 and have taught the same truths4 ,but by and by the darkness has returned2 the doctrines of the former ,buddha have been forgotten1 and a new one has been needed4 ,then in due season he has appeared1 and has again opened to mankind the path of salvation4 ,thus ,ksyapa ,buddha preceded ,gautama ,buddha1 and ,maitreya 7now a ,bodhisattva7 will succeed him4 ,the ,buddha is an object of the most devout adoration4 ,prayers are addressed to him2 his relics are enshrined in ,stpas1 or buildings erected by the piety of believers to cover them2 his footprints are viewed with reverential awe1 and his tooth1 preserved in ,ceylon1 receives the constant homage of that pious population4 ,thus his position is not unlike that of a true ,deity1 though the theory of ,buddhism would require us to suppose that he is non-existent1 and therefore wholly unable to aid his worshippers4 ,but this theory is not acted upon1 and is probably not held in all its strictness2 for ,buddha--though to some extent superseded in ,northern ,buddhism by other divinities--is the object of a decided worship in both its elements of prayer and praise4 ,but the preminent station occupied by a ,buddha is not reached without a long and painful education4 ,through ages1 the length of which is scarcely to be expressed by numbers1 they are qualifying themselves for their glorious task4 ,during this period they are termed ,bodhisattvas1 that is1 beings who have taken a solemn resolution to become ,buddhas1 and are practicing the necessary virtues4 ,the very fact of taking this resolution is an exercise of exalted benevolence1 for their excellence is such that they might1 if they pleased1 enter at once into ,nirvna4 ,but such is their love for the human race1 that they prefer to be born again and again in a world of woe1 in order to throw open ,nirvna to others besides themselves4 ,to attain their end1 they must make an offering to some actual ,buddha1 wishing at the same time that by virtue of this act they may become ,buddhas themselves2 and they must receive an assurance from the object of their gift that this wish will be fulfilled4 ,thus ,gautama1 who happened at the time to be a prince1 presented a golden vessel full of oil to a ,buddha named ,purana ,dpankara1 with the wish alluded to1 and was assured by him that he would in a future age become a supreme ,buddha 7,m4 ,b41 p4 #ib74 ,the tales of the pains endured1 the sacrifices made1 the virtues practiced by ,gautama during this probationary period are numerous and varied4 ,he himself1 by virtue of his faculty of knowing the past1 related them to his disciples4 ,he had sacrificed wife1 children1 property1 even his own person1 for the good of other living creatures2 he had endured all kinds of sufferings2 he had shown himself capable of the rarest unselfishness1 the most perfect purity1 the most unswerving rectitude4 ,the tale of his endurances might move compassion1 had it not been crowned at last with the highest reward to which a mortal can aspire4 ,while the ,buddha occupies the first rank among human and superhuman beings1 and a ,bodhisattva the second1 the ,scriptures introduce us to others holding very conspicuous places among the spiritual nobility4 ,such1 for instance1 are the ,pratyeka ,buddhas4 ,these are persons of very high intelligence and very extraordinary merit4 ,but they are unable to communicate their knowledge to others4 ,they can save themselves2 others they cannot save4 ,herein lies their inferiority to supreme ,buddhas1--that while their spiritual attainments are sufficient to ensure their entry into ,nirvna1 they are inadequate to enable them to obtain the same privilege for any other person4 ,in addition to these not very interesting ,buddhas1 the legends speak of certain grades of intelligence attained by ,gautama's hearers4 ,thus1 we are often told that many of the audience--perhaps hundreds of thousands--after hearing a sermon from him1 became ,arhats2 others are said to have become ,angmin1 ,sakridgmin1 or ,srotpanna4 ,these degrees are based upon the reception of the four truths4 ,according to the manner in which a man received these truths1 he entered one of eight paths1 each of the four degrees having two classes1 a higher and a lower one4 ,sometimes these paths are called fruits2 a disciple is said to obtain the fruits of such and such a state4 ,an ,arhat is a person of very high station indeed4 ,excepting a ,buddha1 none is equal to him1 either in knowledge or miraculous powers1 both of which he possesses to a preminent extent4 ,the ,arhat after his death enters at once into ,nirvna4 ,the ,angmin enters the third path 7from the bottom71 and is exempt from re-birth except in the world of ,devas1 or gods4 ,he who obtains or sees the fruit of the second path is born once more in the world of gods or in that of men4 ,finally1 the ,srotpanna undergoes re-birth either among gods or men seven times1 and is then delivered from the stream of existence4#fh ,below the fortunate travelers along the path stands the mass of ordinary believers4 ,all of these1 of course1 aim ultimately--or should aim--at that perfection of knowledge and of character which ensures ,nirvna2 but in popular ,buddhism at the present day this distant goal appears to be well-nigh forgotten1 and to have given place to some heaven1 or place of enjoyment1 above which the general hope does not rise4 ,believers in general are divided into two classes1 ,bhikshus and ,bhikshuns1 or monks and nuns2 and ,upsakas1 lay disciples4 ,the distinction between these classes is well illustrated by the following extract from a sacred book1 the consideration of which will lead us from the domain of theology into that of morality3--,what is to be done in the condition of a mendicant8--,the rules of chastity must be observed during the whole of life4--,that is not possible2 are there no other means8--,there are others1 friend2 namely1 to be a devotee 7,upsaka74--,what is to be done in this condition8--,it is necessary during the whole of one's life to abstain from murder1 theft1 pleasure1 lying1 and the use of intoxicating liquors4 ,the injunctions thus stated to be binding on the laity are in fact the first five of the ten commandments1 pleasure being simply a designation of unchastity1 which the layman as well as the monk is here ordered to eschew4 ,the first five commandments are in fact general1 referring to universal ethical obligations1 not merely to monastic discipline1 like the other five4 ,but ,buddhist morality is by no means merely negative4 ,it enjoins not only abstinence from such definite sins as these1 but the practice of positive virtues in their most exalted forms4 ,in no system is benevolence1 or1 as it is termed in the ,english ,new ,testament1 charity1 more emphatically inculcated4 ,exhibited1 as we have seen it is1 in the highest degree by ,buddha himself1 it should be illustrated to the extent of their capabilities by all his followers4 ,chastity is the subject of almost equal praise4 ,and the other virtues come in for their share of recognition1 the general object of the examples held up to admiration being to exhort the faithful to a life spotless in all its parts1 like that of their master4 ,with this aim the legends related generally fall into some such form as this3 ,characters appear who undergo some suffering1 but receive also some great reward1 such as meeting with ,buddha1 and embracing his religion4 ,it is then explained by ,buddha that the sufferings were the result of some bad action done in a former life1 and the benefit received the result of some good action2 while he will probably add that he himself in that bygone age stood in the relation of a benefactor to the recipient of his faith4 ,or a number of persons are introduced playing various parts1 good and evil1 and receiving blessings or misfortunes4 ,one of these is conspicuous by the excellence of his conduct4 ,then1 at the end of the story1 the disciples are told not to imagine that this model of virtue is any other than ,sakyamuni himself1 while the other characters are translated1 according to their special peculiarities1 each into some individual living at the time1 and forming either one of ,buddha's retinue1 or connected with him by ties of kindred1 or 7if wicked7 marked by hostility to his person or doctrine4 ,thus1 the bad parts in these dramas are often allotted to his cousin ,devadatta1 who figures in these ,scriptures as his typical opponent4 ,the essential doctrine of all these moral fictions--the corner-stone of ,buddhist ethics--is that every single act of virtue receives its reward1 every single transgression its punishment4 ,the consequences of our good deeds or misdeeds1 mystically embodied in our ,karma1 follow us from life to life1 from earth to heaven1 from earth to hell1 and from heaven or hell to earth again4 ,karma expresses an idea by no means easily seized4 ,perhaps it may be defined as the sum total of our moral actions1 good and bad1 conceived as a kind of entity endowed with the force of destiny4 ,it is our ,karma that determines the character of our successive existences4 ,it is our ,karma that determines whether our next birth shall be in heaven or hell1 in a happy or miserable condition here below4 ,and as ,karma is but the result of our own actions1 each of which must bear its proper fruit1 the balance1 either on the credit or debit side of our account1 must always be paid2 to us or by us1 as the case may be4 ,let us illustrate this by an instance or two4 ,a certain prince1 named ,kunla1 remarkable for his personal beauty1 had been deprived of his eyes through an intrigue in his father's harem4 ,sakyamuni1 in pointing the moral1 informs his disciples that ,kunla had formerly been a huntsman1 who finding five hundred gazelles in a cave1 had put out their eyes in order to preclude their escape4 ,for this cruelty he had suffered the pains of hell for hundreds of thousands of years1 and had then had his eyes put out in human existences4 ,but ,kunla also enjoyed great advantages4 ,he was the son of a king1 he possessed an attractive person1 and1 above all1 he had embraced the truths of ,buddhism4 ,why was this8 ,because he had once caused a ,stpa of a former ,buddha1 which an unbelieving monarch had suffered to be pulled to pieces1 to be rebuilt1 and had likewise restored a statue of this same ,buddha which had been spoilt 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #dad74 ,the truly ,buddhistic spirit of this young prince is evinced by the circumstance that he interceded earnestly with his father for the pardon of his stepmother who had caused him to be so cruelly mutilated4 ,in another case1 a poor old woman1 who had led a miserable existence as the slave of an unfeeling master and mistress1 was re-born in one of the heavens1 known as that of the three-and-thirty gods4 ,five hundred goddesses descended to the cemetery where she had been heedlessly thrown into the ground1 strewed flowers on her bones1 and offered them spices4 ,the reason of all this honor was1 that on the previous day she had met with ,ktyyana1 an apostle of ,buddhism1 had drawn water and presented it to him in his bowl1 and had consequently received a blessing from him1 with an exhortation to enter her mistress's room after she had gone to sleep1 and sitting on a heap of hay to fix her mind exclusively upon ,buddha4 ,this advice she had attended to1 and had consequently received the above-named reward 7,w4 u4 ,t41 p4 #aec74 ,good and evil1 under this elaborate system1 are thus the seeds which1 by an invariable law1 produce their appropriate fruits in a future state4 ,the doctrine may in fact be best described in the words attributed to its author3--,a previous action does not die2 be it good or evil1 it does not die2 the society of the virtuous is not lost2 that which is done1 that which is said1 for the ,aryas1#fi for these grateful persons1 never dies4 ,a good action well done1 a bad action wickedly done1 when they have arrived at their maturity1 equally bear an inevitable fruit 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #ih74 ,,section ,v4--,,the ,,zend-,,avesta4#gj ,persia was once a great power in the world2 the ,persian religion1 a conquering and encroaching faith4 ,the ,persian ,empire threatened to destroy the independence of ,greece4 ,it held the ,jews in actual subjection1 and its religious views profoundly influenced the development of theirs4 ,through the ,jews1 its ideas have penetrated the ,christian world1 and leavened ,europe4 ,it once possessed an extensive and remarkable sacred literature1 but a few scattered fragments of which have descended to us4 ,these fragments1 recovered and first translated by ,anquetil du ,perron1 have been but imperfectly elucidated as yet by ,european scholars2 and there can be no doubt that much more light remains to be cast upon them by philology as it progresses4 ,such as they are1 however1 ,i shall make use of the translations already before us to give my readers an imperfect account of the character of the ,parsee ,scriptures4 ,these compositions are the productions of several centuries and are widely separated from one another in the character of their thought1 and in the objects of worship proposed to the faithful follower of ,zarathustra4 ,the oldest among them1 which may belong to the time of the prophet himself1 are considered by ,haug to be as ancient as ,b4,c4 #abjj1 while the youngest were very likely as recent as ,b4,c4 #ejj4 ,haug considers the ,avesta to be the most ancient text1 while the ,zend was a kind of commentary upon this already sacred book4 ,taking the several portions of the ,zend-,avesta in their chronological order 7as far as this can be ascertained71 we shall begin with the five ,gths1 which are pronounced by their translator to be by far the oldest1 weightiest1 and most important pieces of the ,zend-,avesta 7,f4 ,g41 xiii74 ,some portions of these venerable hymns are even attributed by him to ,zarathustra himself2 but this--except where the prophet is in some way named as the author--must be considered only as an individual opinion1 which can carry no positive conviction to other minds until it is supported by stronger evidence than any at present accessible4 ,meantime1 we may rest assured that we possess among these hymns some undoubted productions of the ,zarathustrian age4 ,,subdivision #a4--,the ,five ,gths4 ,proceeding to the individual ,gths1 we find that the first1 which begins with the #bhth chapter of the ,yana1 bears the following heading3 ,the revealed ,thought1 the revealed ,word1 the revealed ,deed of the truthful ,zarathustra4--,the immortal saints chanted the hymns4#ga ,the ,gth ,ahunavaiti--such is its title--then proceeds3-- #a4 ,adoration to you1 ye truthful hymns6 #b4 ,i raise aloft my hands in devotion1 and worship first all true works of the wise and holy ,spirit1 and the ,understanding of the pious ,disposition1 in order to participate in this happiness4 #c4 ,i will draw near to you with a pious disposition1 ,o ,wise ,one6 ,o ,living ,one6 with the request that you will grant me the mundane and the spiritual life4 ,by truth are these possessions to be obtained1 which he who is self-illuminated bestows on those who strive for them 7,f4 ,g41 vol4 i4 p4 #bd4--,yana1 xxviii4 #a-c74 ,the most important portion of this ,gth is the #cjth chapter1 because in it we have a vivid picture of the conflict in which the religion of ,ahura-,mazda was born4 ,philological inquiry has rendered it clear beyond dispute1 that ,parseeism took its rise in a religious schism between two sections of the great ,aryan race1 at a period so remote that the occupation of ,hindoostan by an offshoot of that race had not yet occurred4 ,the common ancestors of ,hindus and ,persians still dwelt together in ,central ,asia1 when the great ,parsee ,reformation disturbed their harmony2 the one section adopting1 or adhering to1 the ,vedic polytheism which they subsequently carried to ,india2 the other embracing the more monotheistic creed which afterwards became the national religion of ,persia4 ,the following hymn of the reformers carries us into the very midst of the strife3-- #a4 ,i will now tell you who are assembled here1 the wise sayings of the most wise1 the praises of the living ,god1 and the songs of the good spirit1 the sublime truth which ,i see arising out of these sacred flames4 #b4 ,you shall1 therefore1 hearken to the soul of nature 7i4 e41 plough and cultivate the earth72#gb contemplate the beams of fire with a most pious mind6 ,every one1 both men and women1 ought to-day to choose his creed 7between the ,deva and the ,ahura religion74 ,ye offspring of renowned ancestors1 awake to agree with us 7i4 e41 to approve of my lore1 to be delivered to you at this moment76 7,the prophet begins to deliver the words1 revealed to him through the sacred flames47 #c4 ,in the beginning there was a pair of twins1 two spirits1 each of a peculiar activity2 these are the good and the base1 in thought1 word1 and deed4 ,choose one of these two spirits6 ,be good1 not base6 #d4 ,and these two spirits united created the first 7material things72 the one1 the reality1 the other1 the non-reality4 ,to the liars 7the worshipers of the devas1 i4 e41 gods7 existence will become bad1 whilst the believer in the true god enjoys prosperity4 #e4 ,of these two spirits you must choose one1 either the evil1 the originator of the worst actions1 or the true holy spirit4 ,some may wish to have the hardest lot 7i4 e41 those who will not leave the polytheistic deva-religion71 others adore ,ahura-,mazda by means of sincere actions4 #f4 ,you cannot belong to both of them 7i4 e41 you cannot be worshipers of the one true ,god and of many gods at the same time74 ,one of the devas1 against whom we are fighting1 might overtake you1 when in deliberation 7what faith you are to embrace71 whispering you to choose the no-mind4 ,then the devas flock together to assault the two lives 7the life of the body1 and that of the soul71 praised by the prophets 7,parsees1 pp4 #ada1 #adb4--,yasna1 #cj74 ,in another portion of this ,gth it is interesting to observe the spirit of religious zeal breaking out1 as it so generally does1 into the language of persecution3-- xxxi4 #ah4 ,do not listen to the sayings and precepts of the wicked 7the evil spirit71 because he has given to destruction house1 village1 district1 and province4 ,therefore kill them 7the wicked7 with the sword6 ,the wicked1 as appears from the context1 are those who did not accept the ,zarathustrian revelation4 ,in the second ,gth1 or ,gth ,ustavaiti1 there are some very curious passages4 ,a few have been quoted in the notice of ,zarathustra4 ,the following verses indicate the nature of the worship addressed to ,ahura-,mazda in the most ancient period of the ,parsee religion3-- xliii4 #b4 ,i believe thee to be the best thing of all1 the source of light for the world4 ,everybody shall choose thee 7believe in thee7 as the source of light1 thee1 thee1 holiest spirit ,mazda6 ,thou createst all good true things by means of the power of thy good mind at any time1 and promisest us 7who believe in thee7 a long life4 #d4 ,i will believe thee to be the powerful1 holy 7god7 ,mazda6 ,for thou givest with thy hand1 filled with helps1 good to the pious man1 as well as to the impious1 by means of the warmth of the fire strengthening the good things4 ,for this reason the vigor of the good mind has fallen to my lot4 #e4 ,thus ,i believe in thee as the holy ,god1 thou living ,wise ,one6 ,because ,i beheld thee to be the primeval cause of life in the creation4 ,for thou hast made 7instituted7 holy customs and words1 thou hast given a bad fortune 7emptiness7 to the base1 and a good one to the good man4 ,i will believe in thee1 thou glorious ,god6 in the last 7future7 period of creation 7,parsees1 p4 #adi74 xliv4 #c4 ,that which ,i shall ask thee1 tell it me right1 thou living ,god6 ,who was in the beginning the father and creator of truth8 ,who made the way for the sun and stars8 ,who causes the moon to increase and wane1 if not thou8 ,this ,i wish to know besides what ,i already know4 #d4 ,that ,i will ask thee1 tell it me right1 thou living ,god6 ,who is holding the earth and the skies above it8 ,who made the waters and the trees of the field8 ,who is in the winds and storms that they so quickly run8 ,who is the creator of the good-minded beings1 thou ,wise ,one8 #e4 ,that ,i will ask thee1 tell it me right1 thou living ,god6 ,who made the lights of good effect and the darkness8 ,who made the sleep of good effect and the activity8 ,who made morning1 noon and night1 always reminding the priest of his duties8 7,ibid41 p4 #aej47 xlvi4 #g4 ,who is appointed protector of my property1 ,wise ,one6 when the wicked endeavor to hurt me8 ,who else1 if not thy fire1 and thy mind1 through which thou hast created the existence 7good beings71 thou living ,god6 ,tell me the power necessary for holding up the religion 7,ibid41 p4 #aef74 ,the third ,gth is termed peta-,mainyus4 ,it begins with praise of ,ahura-,mazda as the giver of the two forces of perfection and immortality4 ,from this holiest spirit proceeds all the good contained in the words uttered by the good mind4 ,he is the father of all truth4 ,of such a spirit is he who created this earth with the fire resting in its lap4 ,ahura-,mazda placed the gift of fire in the sticks that are rubbed together by the duality of truth and piety4 ,the following verse refers to ,mazda's prophet1 ,zarathustra3-- xlviii4 #d4 ,he who created1 by means of his wisdom1 the good and the no-mind in thinking1 words1 and deeds1 rewards his obedient followers with prosperity4 ,art thou 7,mazda7 not he in whom the last cause of both intellects 7good and evil7 is hidden8 7,parsees1 p4 #aei74 ,the concluding chapter of this ,gth is a hymn of praise supposed to emanate from the ,spirit of ,earth and to be addressed to the highest genii4 ,it is not without beauty and sublimity1 but ,i forbear to make quotations from it1 as some of its most interesting verses are noticed elsewhere4 ,the fourth and fifth ,gth are much shorter1 and are considered by ,haug as an appendix4 ,the following verse may serve as a specimen of the former3-- lii4 #bj4 ,may you all together grant us this your help1 truth through the good mind1 and the good word in which piety consists4 ,be lauded and praised4 ,the ,wise ,one bestows happiness4 #ba4 ,has not the ,holy ,one1 the living wise one1 created the radiant truth1 and possession with the good mind by means of the wise sayings of rmaiti1 by her actions and her faith8 #bb4 ,the living ,wise ,one knows what is always the best for me in the adoration of those who existed and still exist4 ,these ,i will invoke with mention of their names1 and ,i will approach them as their panegyrist 7,f4 ,g41 vol4 ii4 p4 #ef74 ,of the first three verses of the fifth ,gth ,i have spoken above 7p4 #ahd74 ,the fourth and fifth run thus3-- liii4 #d4 ,i will zealously confess this your faith1 which the blessed one destined to the landlord for the country people1 to the truthful householder for the truthful people1 ever extending the glory and the beauty of the good mind1 which the living ,wise ,one has bestowed on the good faith for ever and ever4 #e4 ,i proclaim formul of blessing to girls about to be married3 ,attend6 attend to them6 ,you possess by means of those formul the life of the good mind4 ,let one receive the other with upright heart2 for thus only will you prosper 7,f4 ,g41 vol4 ii4 p4 #eg74 ,,subdivision #b4--,yana #ce-da1 or the ,yana of seven chapters4 ,the ,yana of seven chapters1 which in the present arrangement of the text is inserted between the first and second ,gths1 is of more recent date than the ,gths1 but more ancient than the rest of the ,zend-,avesta4 ,it appears to be the work of one of the earliest successors of the prophet1 called in ancient times ,zarathustra or ,zarathustrotema1 who1 deviating somewhat from the high and pure monotheistic principles of pitama1 made some concessions to the adherents of the ante-,zoroastrian religion by addressing prayers to other beings than ,ahura-,mazda 7,parsee1 p4 #bai74 ,the seven chapters may be most accurately described as ,psalms of praise1 in which a great variety of objects1 spiritual and natural1 receive a tribute of pious reverence from the worshiper4 ,they are not1 however1 on that account to be considered as gods1 or as in any way the equals of ,ahura-,mazda1 who is still supreme4 ,the beings thus addressed are portions of the good creation1 or of the things created by the good power1 ,ahura-,mazda2 and they are either subjects of his spiritual kingdom1 such as the ,amesha-pentas 7seven very important spirits71 or they are simply portions of the material universe treated as semi-divine1 and exalted to objects of religious worship4 ,thus in the last chapter of this section1 the author directs his laudations to the following1 among other1 genii and powers3 the dwelling of the waters1 the parting of the ,ways1 mountains1 the wind1 the earth1 the pure ass in ,lake ,vouru-,kasha1 this lake itself1 the ,soma1 the flowing of the waters1 the flying of the birds4 ,it is plain from this enumeration that we are already a step beyond the simple adoration of ,ahura-,mazda so conspicuous in the ,gths1 and that the door is opened to the multitude of spirits and divinities that make their appearance in other parts of the ,parsee ritual4 ,this section of the ,yana opens1 however1 with a striking address to ,ahura-,mazda3#gc-- xxxv4 #a4 ,we worship ,ahura-,mazda the pure1 the master of purity4 ,we worship the ,amesha-pentas 7the archangels71 the possessors of good1 the givers of good4 ,we worship the whole creation of the true spirit1 both the spiritual and terrestrial1 all that supports 7raises7 the welfare of the good creation1 and the spread of the good ,mazdayana religion4 #b4 ,we praise all good thoughts1 all good words1 all good deeds1 which are and will be 7which are being done and which have been done7 and we likewise keep clean and pure all that is good4 #c4 ,o ,ahura-,mazda1 thou true happy being6 we strive to think1 to speak1 and to do only those of all actions which might be best fitted to promote the two lives 7that of the body and of the soul74 #d4 ,we beseech the spirit of earth by means of these best works 7agriculture7 to grant us beautiful and fertile fields1 to the believer as well as to the unbeliever1 to him who has riches as well as to him who has no possession 7,parsees1 p4 #afc74 ,the following invocation of fire deserves to be mentioned before we quit this portion of the ,yana3-- xxxvi4 #d4 ,happy is the man to whom thou comest in power1 ,o ,fire1 ,son of ,ahura-,mazda4 #e4 ,friendlier than the friendliest1 more deserving of adoration than the most adorable4 #f4 ,mayest thou come to us helpfully to the greatest of transactions4444 #i4 ,o ,fire1 ,son of ,ahura-,mazda1 we approach thee #aj4 with a good spirit1 with good purity 7,av41 ii4 #acg74 ,,subdivision #c4--,yana1 ,chapter ,,xii4 ,this chapter is stated by ,haug to be written in the ,gth dialect2 it is therefore extremely ancient1 and as it contains the ,confession of ,faith made by ,zarathustrian converts on their abandonment of idolatry1 or worship of the ,devas1 it is of sufficient importance to be quoted at length3-- xii4 #a4 ,i cease to be a ,deva worshiper4 ,i profess to be a ,zoroastrian ,mazdayana 7worshiper of ,ahura-,mazda71 an enemy of the ,devas1 and a devotee to ,ahura1 a praiser of the immortal saints 7,amesha-pentas71 a worshiper of the immortal saints4 ,i ascribe all good things to ,ahura-,mazda1 who is good1 and has good1 who is true1 lucid1 shining1 who is the originator of all the best things1 of the spirit in nature 7gus71 of the growth in nature1 of the luminaries and the self-shining brightness which is in the luminaries4 #b4 ,i choose 7follow1 profess7 the holy rmaiti1 the good2 may she be mine6 ,i abominate all fraud and injury committed on the spirit of earth1 and all damage and destruction of the quarters of the ,mazdayanas4 #c4 ,i allow the good spirits who reside on this earth in the good animals 7as cows1 sheep1 c471 to go and roam about free according to their pleasure4 ,i praise1 besides1 all that is offered with prayer to promote the growth of life4 ,i shall cause neither damage nor destruction to the quarters of the ,mazdayanas1 neither with my body nor my soul4 #d4 ,i forsake the ,devas1 the wicked1 bad1 false1 untrue1 the originators of mischief1 who are most baneful1 destructive1 the basest of all beings4 ,i forsake the ,devas and those who are ,devas-like1 the witches and their like1 and any being whatever of such a kind4 ,i forsake them with thoughts1 words and deeds3 ,i forsake them hereby publicly1 and declare that every lie and falsehood is to be done away with4 #e1 #f4 ,in the same way as ,zarathustra at the time when ,ahura-,mazda was holding conversations and meetings with him1 and both were conversing with each other1 forsook the ,devas2 so do ,i forsake the ,devas1 as the holy ,zarathustra did4 #g4 ,to that party to which the waters belong1 to whatever party the trees1 and the animating spirit of nature1 to that party to which ,ahura-,mazda belongs1 who has created this spirit and the pure man2 to that party of which ,zarathustra1 and ,kava ,vistpa and ,frashaostra and ,jmpa were1 of that party of which all the ancient fire-priests 7,soshyato7 were1 the pious1 who were spreading the truth3 of the same party and creed am ,i4 #h4 ,i am a ,mazdayana1 a ,zoroastrian ,mazdayana4 ,i profess this religion by praising and preferring it to others 7the ,deva religion74 ,i praise the thought which is good1 ,i praise the word which is good1 ,i praise the work which is good4 #i4 ,i praise the ,mazdayana religion1 and the pure brotherhood which it establishes and defends against enemies1 the ,zoroastrian ,ahura religion1 which is the greatest1 best1 and most prosperous of all that are1 and that will be4 ,i ascribe all good to ,ahura-,mazda4 ,this shall be the praise 7profession7 of the ,mazdayana religion4 ,,subdivision #d4--,the ,younger ,yana1 and ,vispered4 ,while the ,gths and the confession just quoted represent the most ancient phase of the ,mazdayana faith1 we enter1 in the remaining portion of the ,yana1 on a much later stage of the growing creed4 ,so many new divinities1 or at any rate1 objects of reverential addresses1 now enter upon the scene1 that we almost lose sight of ,ahura-,mazda in the throng of his attendants4 ,we seem to be some ages away from the days when ,zarathustra bade his hearers choose between the one true ,god and the multitude of false gods worshiped by his enemies4 ,ahura-,mazda is safely enthroned1 and ,zarathustra shines out gloriously as his prophet2 but ,zarathustra's creed is overloaded with elements of which he himself knew nothing4 ,the first chapter of the ,yana1 a liturgical prayer1 brings these elements conspicuously before us4 ,it is an invocation and celebration of a great variety of powers belonging to what is termed the good creation1 or the world of virtuous beings and good things1 as opposed to the malicious beings and bad things who form the realm of evil4#gd ,thus it opens3-- ,i invoke and ,i celebrate the creator ,ahura-,mazda1 luminous1 resplendent1 very great and very good1 very perfect and very energetic1 very intelligent and very beautiful1 eminent in purity1 who possesses the excellent knowledge1 the source of pleasure2 him who has created us1 who has formed us1 who has nourished us1 the most accomplished of intelligent beings4#ge ,every verse1 until we approach the end1 commences with the same formula3--,i invoke and ,i celebrate2 or1 as ,spiegel translates it1 ,i invite and announce it2 the sole difference is in the beings invoked4 ,many of these are powers of more or less eminence in the ,parsee spiritual hierarchy1 but it would be going beyond our object here to enumerate their names and specify their attributes4 ,to a large proportion of them the epithets pure1 lord of purity1 are added1 while some are dignified with more special titles of honor4 ,after the above homage to ,ahura-,mazda1 the writer invokes and celebrates1 among others3 ,mithra 7a very famous god71 who increases oxen1 who has one thousand ears1 and ten thousand eyes2 the fire of ,ahura-,mazda2 the water given by ,ahura-,mazda2 the ,fravashis 7angels or guardian spirits7 of holy men and of women who are under men's protection2 energy1 with a good constitution and an imposing figure2 victory given by ,ahura2 the months2 the new moon2 the full moon2 the time of fecundation2 the years2 all the lords of purity1 and thirty-three genii surrounding ,hvani1 who are of admirable purity1 whom ,mazda has made known1 and ,zarathustra has proclaimed2 the stars1 especially a star named ,tistrya2 the moon1 which contains the germ of the ox2 the sun1 the eye of ,ahura-,mazda2 the trees given by ,mazda2 the ,word made known by ,zarathustra against the ,devas2 the excellent law of the ,mazdayanas2 the perfect benediction2 the pure and excellent man2 these countries and districts2 pastures and houses2 the earth1 the sky1 the wind2 the great lord of purity2 days1 months1 and seasons2 the ,fravashis of the men of ancient law2 those of contemporaries and relations1 and his own2 all genii who ought to be invoked and adored4 ,it is manifest from this invocation1 in which ,i have omitted many names and many repetitions1 how far we are from the stern and earnest simplicity of the ,gths4 ,regular liturgical forms have sprung up1 and these express the more developed and complicated worship which the ,parsee priesthood has now engrafted on the ,zarathustrian monotheism4 ,the concluding verses run as follows3-- ,o thou who art given in this world1 given against the ,devas1 ,zarathustra#gf the pure1 lord of purity1 if ,i have wounded thee1 either in thought1 word1 or deed1 voluntarily or involuntarily1 ,i again address this praise in thine honor2 yes1 ,i invoke thee if ,i have failed against thee in this sacrifice and this invocation4 ,o all ye very great lords1 pure1 masters of purity1 if ,i have wounded you1 c4 as above4 ,may ,i1 a worshiper of ,mazda1 an adherent of ,zarathustra1 an enemy of the ,devas1 an observer of the precepts of ,ahura1 address my homage to him who is given here1 given against the ,devas2 to ,zarathustra1 pure1 lord of purity1 for the sacrifice1 for the invocation1 for the prayer that renders favorable1 for the benediction4 7,may ,i address my homage7 to the lords 7who are7 the days1 the parts of days1 c41 for the benediction2 that is to say3 7may ,i address my homage7 to the lords 7who are7 the days1 the parts of days1 the months1 the seasons of the year 7,gahanbrs71 the years2 for the sacrifice1 for the invocation1 for the prayer that renders favorable1 for the benediction4#gg ,the rest of the ,yana consists mainly of praises or prayers addressed to the very numerous objects of ,parsee adoration1 and most of it is of little interest4 ,the following short section1 however1 deserves remark3-- ,yana #ab4 #a4 ,i praise the thoughts rightly thought1 the words rightly spoken1 and the deeds rightly done4 #b4 ,i seize upon 7or resort to7 all good thoughts1 words and deeds4 #c4 ,i forsake all bad thoughts1 words1 and deeds4 #d4 ,i bring you1 ,o ,amesha-pentas1 #e4 ,praise and adoration1 #f4 ,with thoughts1 words1 and deeds1 with heavenly mind1 the vital force from my own body4#gh ,in the following verses again there is some excellence3-- #a4 ,may that man attain that which is best who teaches us the right way to our profit in this world1 both the material and the spiritual world1 the plain way that leads to the worlds where ,ahura is enthroned1 and the sacrificer1 resembling thee1 a sage1 a saint1 ,o ,mazda4 #b4 ,may there come to this dwelling contentment1 blessing1 fidelity1 and the wisdom of the pure4 #h4 ,in this dwelling may raosha#gi 7obedience7 put an end to disobedience1 peace to strife1 liberality to avarice1 wisdom to error1 truthful speech to lying1 which detests purity 7,av4 ii4 #ahf1 #ahg4--,yana #ei74 ,the prominent position occupied by fire in the ,parsee faith is well known4 ,the presence of fire is indeed an essential part of their ritual1 in which it is treated with no less honor than the consecrated wafer in that of ,catholic ,christians4 ,not only1 however1 is it employed in their rites1 but it is addressed as an independent being1 to whom worship is due4 ,not that its place in the hierarchy is to be confounded with that of ,ahura-,mazda4 ,it is not put upon a level with the supreme being1 but it is addressed as his son1 its rank being thus still more closely assimilated to that of the host1 which is in like manner a part of the liturgical machinery and an embodiment of the son of ,god4 ,a special chapter of the ,yana--the #fast--is devoted to ,fire1 and a summary of its contents will help us to understand the light in which this deity was regarded4 ,the sacrificer begins by vowing offerings and praise and good nourishment to ,fire1 son of ,ahura-,mazda4 ,he trusts that ,fire may ever be provided with a proper supply of wood1 and may always burn brightly in this dwelling1 even till the final resurrection4 ,he beseeches ,fire to give him much property1 much distinction1 holiness1 a ready tongue1 wit and understanding1 activity1 sleeplessness1 and posterity4 ,fire is said to await nourishment from all2 whoever comes1 he looks at his hands1 saying3 ,what does the friend bring his friend1 the coming one to him who sits alone8 ,and this is the blessing he bestows on him who brings him dry wood1 picked out for burning3 ,mayest thou be surrounded with herds of cattle1 with abundance of men4 ,may it be with thee according to the desire of thy heart1 according to the desire of thy soul4 ,be joyous1 live thy life the whole time that thou shalt live4#hj ,the last chapter but one of the ,yana is a hymn in universal praise of the good creation4 ,all the objects belonging to that creation--that is1 made by ,ahura-,mazda1 and standing in contrast with the bad creation of ,agra-,mainyus--are enumerated1 and as a catalogue of these the hymn is interesting4 ,ahura-,mazda himself is named first2 then ,zarathustra2 after this follows the ,fravashi 7angel7 of ,zarathustra1 the ,amesha-pentas1 the ,fravashis of the pure1 and so forth1 through a long list of animate and inanimate beings4 ,each is named with the formula we praise following the title1 as3 ,the whole earth we praise 7,av41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bjb4--,yana1 #gj74 ,so close is the resemblance between the ,vispered and that portion of the ,yana which we have just examined1 that it will be needless to dwell upon the contents of the former4 ,we may therefore at once pass on to a very important section1 for theological purposes1 of the ,zend-,avesta1 namely-- ,,subdivision #e4--,vendidad4 ,totally unlike either the ,yana1 the ,vispered1 or the ,yashts1 the ,vendidad is a legislative code--dealing indeed largely with religious questions1 but not confining itself exclusively to them4 ,it differs from the remainder of the sacred volume much as ,leviticus differs from the ,psalms1 or as the ,institutes of ,menu differ from the hymns of the ,rig-,veda4 ,it is regarded as equally holy with the rest of the ,avesta1 and is recited in divine service along with ,vispered and ,yana1 the three together forming what is termed the ,vendidad-,sade 7,av41 ii4 lxxv74 ,its abrupt termination indicates that the code is not before us in its entirety2 the portion which has been preserved1 however1 does not appear to have suffered great mutilation4 ,let us briefly summarize its contents1 first premising that the form they assume 7with trifling exceptions7 is that of conversations between ,ahura-,mazda and his prophet4 ,the first ,fargard 7or chapter7 is an enumeration of the good countries or places created by ,ahura-,mazda1 and of the evils--such as the serpent1 the wasp1 and various moral offenses1 including that of doubt--created in opposition to him in each case by the president of the bad creation1 ,agra-,mainyus4 ,the second ,fargard is a long narrative of the proceedings of a mythological hero named ,yima 7the ,indian ,yama71 to whom ,ahura-,mazda is stated to have once committed the government of the world1 or of some part of it4 ,thus far we have not entered on the proper subject-matter of the ,vendidad4 ,the third ,fargard1 while still introductory1 approaches more nearly to the subsequent chapters1 alike in its form and its contents4 ,in it ,zarathustra lays certain queries before ,ahura-,mazda1 and the replies given by that deity are of high importance for the comprehension of both the social and moral status of the ,parsees at the time when this dialogue was written4 ,the stress laid upon the virtue of cultivating the soil is especially to be noticed4 ,similar sentiments are frequently repeated in the ,vendidad1 and indicate a people among whom agriculture was still in its infancy1 the transition from the pastoral state to the more settled condition of tillers of the soil being still incomplete4 ,the compilers of this code evidently felt strongly the extreme value to their youthful community of agricultural pursuits1 and therefore encouraged them at every convenient opportunity by representing them as peculiarly meritorious in the sight of ,god4 ,zarathustra begins his inquiries by asking what is in the first place most agreeable to this earth1 and successively ascertains what are the five things which give it most satisfaction1 and what the five which cause it the most displeasure4 ,ahura-,mazda answers that1 in the first place1 a holy man with objects of sacrifice is the most agreeable2 then a holy man making his dwelling-place1 and storing it with all that pertains to a happy and righteous life2 then the production of grain and of fruit trees1 the irrigation of thirsty land1 or the drainage of moist land2 fourthly1 the breeding of live-stock and draught-cattle2 fifthly1 a special incident connected with the presence of such animals on the land4 ,the five displeasing things are1 the meetings of ,daevas and ,drujus 7evil spirits71 the interment of men or dogs 7which was contrary to the law71 the accumulation of ,dakhmas1 or places where the bodies of the dead were left exposed1 the dens of animals made by ,agra-,mainyus1 and lastly1 unbecoming conduct on the part of the wife or son of a holy man4 ,further questions are then put as to the mode of conduct which wins the approbation of the earth1 and it is stated to consist in actions which tend to counteract the evils above enumerated4 ,in the course of these replies occasion is again taken to eulogize the man who vigorously cultivates the soil1 and to censure him who idly leaves it uncultivated4 ,certain penalties are then imposed on those who bury dogs or men1 but the sin of leaving them underground for two years is declared to be inexpiable1 except by the ,mazdayana ,law1 which can purify the worst offenders3-- ,for it 7the ,law7 will take away these 7sins7 from those who praise the ,mazdayana ,law1 if they do not again commit wicked actions4 ,for this the ,mazdayana ,law1 ,o holy ,zarathustra1 takes away the bonds of the man who praises it4 ,it takes away deceit4 ,it takes away the murder of a pure man4 ,it takes away the burial of the dead4 ,it takes away inexpiable actions4 ,it takes away accumulated guilt4 ,it takes away all sins which men commit 7,av41 vol4 i4 p4 #hg1 #hh4--,vendidad1 iii4 #adj-adh74 ,we see from this that the power of the ,law to deliver sinners from the burden of their offenses was in no way inferior to that of the ,atonement of ,christ4 ,it is unnecessary to dwell upon the fourth ,fargard1 which deals with the penalties--consisting mainly of corporal punishment--for breach of contract and other offenses4 ,the fifth and sixth1 being concerned with the regulations to be observed in case of impurity arising from the presence of dead bodies1 are of little interest4 ,a large part of the seventh is occupied with the same subjects1 but its course is interrupted by certain precautions to be attended to in the graduation of students of medicine1 which may be commended to the notice of other religious communities4 ,should a ,mazdayana desire to become a physician1 on whom1 inquires ,zarathustra1 shall he first try his hand1 the ,mazdayana 7orthodox ,parsees71 or the ,daevayanas 7adherents of a false creed78 ,ahura-,mazda replies that the ,daevayanas are to be his first patients4 ,if he has performed three surgical operations on these heretics1 and his three patients have died1 he is to be held unfit for the medical profession1 and must on no account presume to operate on the adherents of the ,law4 ,if1 however1 he is successful with the ,daevayanas1 he is to receive his degree1 and may proceed to practice on the more valuable bodies of faithful ,parsees4 ,so careful a contrivance to ensure that none but infidels shall fall victims to the knife of the unskilful surgeon evinces no little ingenuity4 ,the eighth ,fargard relates chiefly to the treatment of dead bodies1 while the ninth proceeds to narrate the rites for the purification of those who have come in contact with them4 ,a terrible penalty--that of decapitation--is enacted against the man who ventures to perform this rite without having learnt the law from a priest competent to purify4 ,the tenth ,fargard prescribed the prayers by which the ,drukhs1 or impure spirit supposed to attach itself to corpses1 and to come from them upon the living1 is to be driven away3 and the subject is continued in the eleventh1 which contains formularies for the purification of dwellings1 fires1 and other objects4 ,along with injunctions as to the purification of houses where a death has occurred1 the twelfth ,fargard informs its hearers how many prayers they are to offer up for deceased relatives4 ,the number varies both according to their relationship1 being highest for those that are nearest akin1 and according to their purity or sinfulness1 double as many being required for the sinful as for the pure4 ,after a short introduction expounding the merit of killing a certain species of animal and the demerit of killing another 7what they are is uncertain71 the thirteenth ,fargard proceeds to enumerate in detail the various kinds of offenses against dogs1 and the corresponding penalties4 ,dogs were evidently of the utmost importance to the community1 and their persons are guarded with scarcely less care than those of human beings4 ,they are held to have souls1 which migrate after their decease to a canine ,paradise4 ,it seems1 too1 that shades of departed dogs are appointed to watch the dangerous bridge over which men's souls must travel on the road to felicity1 and which the wicked cannot pass2 for we are informed of the soul of a man who has killed a watch-dog1 that the deceased dogs who guard against crime and watch the bridge do not make friends with it on account of its abominable and horrible nature 7,av41 vol4 i4 p4 #aib4--,vendidad1 xiii4 #be72 while a man who has killed a water-dog is required to make offerings for its pious soul for three days and three nights 7,av41 vol4 i4 p4 #bja4--,vendidad1 xiii4 #agc74 ,the place to which the souls of these animals repair is termed the water-dwelling1 and it is stated that two water-dogs meet them on their arrival1 apparently to welcome them to their aqueous heaven 7,av41 vol4 i4 p4 #bjj4--,vendidad1 xiii4 #afg74 ,not only killing dogs1 but wounding them or giving them bad food1 are crimes to be severely punished2 and even in case of madness the dog's life is on no account to be taken4 ,on the contrary1 the utmost care is to be taken1 by fastening him so as to prevent escape1 that he should do himself no injury1 for if he should happen in his madness to fall into water and die1 the community will have incurred sin by the accident4#ha ,the following verses convey an interesting notion of the esteem in which the dog was held among the early ,parsees4 ,the speaker is ,ahura-,mazda3-- ,i have created the dog1 ,o ,zarathustra1 with his own clothes and his own shoes2 with a sharp nose and sharp teeth2 attached to mankind1 for the protection of the herds4 ,then ,i created the dog1 even ,i ,ahura-,mazda1 with a body capable of biting enemies4 ,when he is in good health1 when he is with the herds1 when he is in good voice1 ,o holy ,zarathustra1 there comes not to his village either thief or wolf to carry off property unperceived from the villages 7,av41 vol4 i4 p4 #aig4--,vendidad1 xiii4 #ajf-aac74 ,in the fourteenth ,fargard1 water-dogs are further protected against wounds2 while in the fifteenth1 the preservation of the canine species at large is ensured by elaborate enactments4 ,to give a dog bones which he cannot gnaw1 or food so hot as to burn its tongue1 is a sin2 to frighten a bitch in pup1 as by clapping the hands1 is likewise to incur guilt2 and they are gravely criminal who suffer puppies to die from inattention4 ,if born in camel-stalls1 stables1 or any such places1 it is incumbent on the proprietor to take charge of them2 or1 if the litter should be at large1 at least the nearest inhabitant is bound to become their protector4 ,strangely intermingled with these precautions are rules prohibiting cohabitation with women in certain physical conditions1 and enactments for the prevention of abortion1 and for ensuring the support of a pregnant girl by her seducer1 at least until her child is born4 ,the crime of abortion is described in a manner which curiously reveals the practices occasionally resorted to by ,parsee maidens4 ,should a single woman be with child1 and say1 ,the child was begotten by such and such a man-- ,if then this man says1 ',try to make friends with an old woman and inquire of her2 if then this girl does make friends with an old woman1 and inquire of her1 and this old woman brings ,baga1 or ,shata1 or ,ghnna1 or ,frapta1 or any of the vegetable purgatives1 saying1 ',try to kill this child2' if then the girl does try to kill the child1 then the girl1 the man1 and the old woman are equally criminal4 ,neither the sixteenth nor the seventeenth ,fargard need detain us4 ,they relate1 the one to the above-mentioned rules to be observed towards women1 the other to the disposal of the hair and nails1 which are held to pollute the earth4 ,the eighteenth ,fargard begins1 as if in the middle of a conversation1 with an address by ,ahura-,mazda1 on the characteristics of true and false priests1 some1 it appears1 having improperly pretended to the priesthood4 ,after some questions on other points of doctrine put by ,zarathustra1 we are suddenly introduced to a conversation between the angel raosha and the ,drukhs1 or evil spirit1 in which the latter describes the several offenses that cause her to become pregnant1 or1 in other words1 increase her influence in the world4 ,after this interlude1 we return to ,ahura-,mazda and ,zarathustra4 ,the prophet1 having been exhorted to put questions1 inquires of his god who causes him the greatest annoyance4 ,ahura-,mazda replies that it is he who mingles the seed of the pious and the impious1 of ,daeva-worshipers and of those who do not worship the ,daevas1 of sinners and non-sinners4 ,such persons are rather to be killed than poisonous snakes4 ,hereupon ,zarathustra proceeds to ascertain what are the penalties for those who cohabit with women at seasons when the law requires them to be separate4 ,at the beginning of the nineteenth ,fargard1 we have an account of the temptation of the prophet by the evil one1 to which allusion has been made in another place4 ,zarathustra seeks for information as to the means of getting rid of impurities1 and is taught by ,ahura-,mazda to praise the objects he has created4 ,in the latter part of the chapter we have a remarkable account of the judgment of departed souls4 ,in conclusion1 we have a psalm of praise recited by the prophet in honor of ,god1 the earth1 the stars1 the ,gths1 and numerous other portions of the good creation4 ,there is little in the twentieth ,fargard beyond the information that ,thrita was the first physician1 and a formula of conjuration1 apparently intended to be used in order to drive away diseases4 ,in the twenty-first1 we find praises of the cloud1 the sun1 and other heavenly bodies4 ,the last ,fargard of the ,vendidad differs widely from the rest in its manner of representing ,ahura-,mazda4 ,it is1 no doubt1 as ,spiegel observes1 of late origin4 ,ahura-,mazda complains of the opposition he has encountered from ,agra-,mainyus1 who has afflicted him with illness 7whether in his own person1 or in that of mankind1 is not clear74 ,he calls upon ,manthra-penta1 the ,word1 to heal him1 but that spirit declines1 and a messenger is accordingly sent to ,airyama to summon him to the task4#hb ,airyama commences his preparations on an extensive scale1 but at this point the ,vendidad breaks off1 and we are left in doubt as to the result of his efforts4 ,,subdivision #f4--,the ,khorda-,avesta1 with the ,homa ,yasht4 ,the term ,khorda-,avesta1 or little ,avesta1 is applied1 according to ,spiegel1 to that part of the ,zend-,avesta which includes the ,yashts1 and certain prayers1 some of them of extreme sanctity1 and constantly employed in ,parsee worship4 ,he informs us that1 while the remainder of the sacred texts serve more especially for priestly study and for public reading1 the ,khorda-,avesta is mainly used in private devotion 7,av41 vol4 iii4 p4 #a74 ,some of its prayers belong to a comparatively recent period1 being composed no longer in the ,zend language1 but in a younger dialect2 and we meet in them with the ,persian forms of the old names--,ormazd standing for ,ahura-,mazda1 ,ahriman for ,agra-,mainyus1 and ,zerdoscht for ,zarathustra4 ,the names of the genii have undergone corresponding alterations4 ,we find ourselves in these prayers1 and indeed throughout the ,yashts1 many centuries removed from the age of ,zarathustra and his immediate followers4 ,some of the more celebrated prayers1 however 7not belonging to the class of ,yashts71 must be of considerable antiquity1 if we may judge from the fact of their being mentioned in the ,yana4 ,thus1 in the #aith chapter of the ,yana1 we find an elaborate exaltation of the powers of the ,ahuna-,vairya1 which stands second in the ,khorda-,avesta4 ,zarathustra is represented as asking ,ahura-,mazda1 ,what was the speech which thou spokest to me1 as existing before the sky1 before the water1 before the earth1 before the ox1 before the trees1 before the fire1 son of ,ahura-,mazda1 before the pure men1 before the ,daevas with perverted minds1 and before men1 before the whole corporeal world1 before all things created by ,mazda which have a pure origin8 ,this speech1 existing prior to all created objects1 is declared to have been a part of the ,ahuna-,vairya4 ,the immense benefits of repeating this prayer1 which is stated to ensure salvation1 are then recounted to the prophet4 ,the #bjth chapter is occupied with the merits of another of these short formularies1 the ,ashem-voh4 ,these prayers are in continual use1 not only in the liturgy1 but among the laity4 ,they are sometimes required to recite great numbers of ,ahuna-,vairyas at one time1 and at the commencement of sowing1 or of any good work1 it is proper to repeat it4 ,the ,ashem-voh is to be said on various occasions1 particularly on waking and before going to sleep 7,av41 vol4 ii4 pp4 lxxxii41 lxxxiii74 ,the higher sanctity1 as well as greater antiquity1 of these prayers is evinced by the fact that we find them constantly introduced in the course of others1 to which they form a necessary supplement4 ,there are often several ,ashem-vohs in a single brief prayer4 ,the ,ashem-voh1 in fact1 fulfills a function much like that of the ,lord's prayer in the liturgies of some ,christian ,churches4 ,let us now see what these most sacred forms of adoration contain4 ,the ,ashem-,voh is to this effect3-- ,purity is the best possession4 ,hail1 hail to him3 ,namely1 to the pure man best in purity4#hc ,it is strange that1 in a formulary occupying so conspicuous a place in ,parsee devotion1 there should be no acknowledgment of ,god4 ,but this want is supplied in the ,ahuna-,vairya1 or ,yath-ah-vairyo1 which follows it4 ,yath-ah-vairyo3-- ,as it is the ,lord's will1 so 7is he7 the ruler from purity4 7,we shall receive7 gifts from ,vohu-mano for the works 7we do7 in the world for ,mazda4 ,and 7he gives7 the kingdom to ,ahura who protects the poor 7,av41 vol4 iii4--,khorda-,avesta1 #b74 ,certainly this is not very intelligible1 but the last clause is remarkable1 as implying that the way to advance ,god's kingdom on earth is to confer benefits on the poor4 ,passing over a number of other prayers1 we enter upon the ,yashts1 which are distinguished from all other parts of the ,avesta by the fact that each of them is written in celebration of some particular god or genius4 ,ahura-,mazda1 indeed1 still retains his supremacy1 and every ,yasht begins with a formula1 of which the first words are ,in the name of the ,god ,ormazd1 while the first ,yasht is devoted exclusively to his praise4 ,subject to this recognition1 however1 the inferior potentates are each in turn the object of panegyrics in that exaggerated style in which ,oriental literature delights4 ,we need not stop to recount the particular honors rendered to each4 ,one ,yasht1 however1 is sufficiently curious to merit our attention1 the more so as we possess a translation of it by ,burnouf4#hd ,it is termed the ,homa ,yasht1 and is intended to extol the brilliant qualities of the god whose name it bears4 ,at that period of the day which is termed ,hvani--so it begins--,homa came to find ,zarathustra1 who was cleaning his fire1 and singing the ,gths4 ,zarathustra asked him3 ',what man art thou who in all the existing world appearest to my sight as the most perfect1 with thy beautiful and immortal person8' ,then ,homa1 the holy one1 who banishes death1 answered me3 ',i am1 ,o ,zarathustra1 ,homa1 the holy one1 who banishes death4 ,invoke1 ,o pitama1#he extract me to eat me1 praise me to celebrate me1 in order that others1 who desire their good1 may praise me in their turn4' ,then ,zarathustra said3 ',adoration to ,homa6 ,who is the mortal1 ,homa1 who first in the present world extracted thee for sacrifice8 ,what holiness did he acquire8 ,what advantage accrued to him thereby8' ,homa replies that ,vivanghat was the first to extract him for sacrifice1 and that he acquired the advantage of becoming father to the glorious ,yima1 in whose reign there was neither cold nor 7excessive7 heat1 nor old age nor death1 nor envy produced by the ,deva4 ,fathers and sons alike had the figure of men of fifteen years of age1 as long as ,yima reigned4 ,similar questions are then put by ,zarathustra regarding the second1 third1 and fourth mortals who worshiped ,homa1 and similar replies are given4 ,all had distinguished sons2 but the last1 ,puruchaspa1 was rewarded beyond all others by the birth of ,zarathustra himself4 ,homa thereupon magnifies ,zarathustra in the usual style of the later parts of the ,zend-,avesta1 and ,zarathustra1 who is not to be outdone in the language of compliment1 thus addresses him in return3 ,adoration to ,homa6 ,homa1 the good1 has been well made2 he has been made just2 made good2 he bestows health2 he has a beautiful person2 he does good2 he is victorious2 of the color of gold2 his branches are inclined to be eaten2 he is excellent2 and he is the most celestial way for the soul4 ,o thou who art of the color of gold1 ,i ask thee for prudence1 energy1 victory1 beauty1 the force that penetrates the whole body1 greatness which is spread over the whole figure2 and so forth1 through several other by no means modest petitions4 ,in a more formal manner ,zarathustra then demands of ,homa the following favors3 #ast1 the excellent abode of the saints2 #b;dly1 the duration of his body2 #c;dly1 a long life2 #dthly1 and #ethly1 to be able to annihilate hatred and strike down the cruel man2 #fthly1 that they 7the faithful87 may see robbers1 assassins1 and wolves before being seen by them4 ,after this1 ,homa is praised generally4 ,he gives many good gifts1 among them posterity to sterile mothers1 and husbands to spinsters of advanced years4 ,he is finally requested1 if there should be in the village or the province a man who is hurtful to others1 to take from him the power of walking1 to darken his intelligence1 and to break his heart 7,for another ,yasht1 see ch4 i74 ,the ,yashts are succeeded by various pieces1 of which one relates to ,parsee eschatology1 and the others1 celebrating numerous supernatural objects of worship1 do not call for any special remark4 ,after these we come to the so-called ,patets1 which belong to the most recent portions of the book1 and indicate a highly developed consciousness of sin1 and of the need of divine forgiveness4 ,they correspond in tone and character to the ,general ,confession which has been placed by the ,church of ,england in the forefront of her ,liturgy1 except that they contain long enumerations of the several classes of offenses for which pardon is to be entreated4 ,one of them1 after such a catalogue1 thus addresses the ,deity3-- ,whatever was the wish of the ,creator ,ormazd1 and ,i ought to have thought and did not think1 whatever ,i ought to have said and did not say1 whatever ,i ought to have done and did not do4--,i repent of these sins1 with thoughts1 words1 and works1 both the corporeal and the spiritual1 the earthly and the heavenly sin1 with the three words 7that is1 with thoughts1 words1 and works74 ,forgive1 ,o ,lord2 ,i repent of the sin4 ,whatever was the wish of ,ahriman1 and ,i ought to have thought and yet did think1 whatever ,i ought not to have said and yet did say1 whatever ,i ought not to have done and yet did1--,i repent of these sins with thoughts1 words1 and works1 both the corporeal and the spiritual1 the earthly and the heavenly sins1 with the three words4 ,forgive1 ,o ,lord2 ,i repent of the sin 7,av41 vol4 iii4 p4 #baa4--,khorda-,avesta1 xlv4 #h1 #i74 ,another of these ,patets contains the following comprehensive formula3-- ,in whatever way ,i may have sinned1 against whomsoever ,i may have sinned1 howsoever ,i may have sinned1 ,i repent of it with thoughts1 words1 and works2 forgive6 7,av41 vol4 iii4 p4 #baf4--,khorda-,avesta1 xlv4 #a47 ,the same ,patet contains a confession of faith1 which1 as it alludes to the several dogmas that were held to be of first-rate importance in the creed of the true disciple of ,zarathustra1 may be worth quoting before we quit the subject3-- ,i believe in the existence1 the purity1 and the indubitable truth of the good ,mazdayana faith1 and in the ,creator ,ormazd and the ,amschaspands1 in the exaction of an account1 and in the resurrection of the new body4 ,i remain in this faith1 and confess that it is not to be doubted1 as ,ormazd imparted it to ,zertuscht1 ,zertuscht to ,fraschaostra and ,jmp1 as derbt1 the son of ,mahresfand1 ordered and purified it1 as the just ,paoiryotkaeshas and the ,detrs in family succession have brought it to us1 and ,i thence am acquainted with it 7,av41 vol4 iii4 p4 #bah4--,khorda-,avesta1 xlv4 #bh74 ,in more than one respect this confession is interesting4 ,first1 it asserts the excellence and the unquestionable infallibility of the traditional faith in terms which a ,catholic could hardly improve upon4 ,secondly1 it brings before us in succinct form the leading points included in that faith--the ,creator1 at the head of all the created world2 the seven ,amschaspands or ,amesha-pentas1 heavenly powers of whom ,ormazd himself was chief2 the judgment to be expected after death1 and the strict account then to be required2 lastly1 the general resurrection with its new body4 ,proceeding next to the manner in which this faith had been handed down from generation to generation1 we have first the cardinal doctrine that ,god himself was the direct teacher of his prophet2 after that1 a statement that the prophet communicated it to others1 from whom it descended to still later followers1 one of whom is declared to have ordered and purified it4 ,thus the consciousness of subsequent additions to the original law is betrayed4 ,thus amended1 the priests1 or ,detrs1 are said to have transmitted it to the time of the speaker1 the authority of the ecclesiastical order in the interpretation of the sacred records being thus carefully maintained4 ,how many generations had elapsed before the transmission of the law could thus become the subject of deliberate incorporation among recognized dogmas1 it is impossible to say4 ,undoubtedly1 however1 we stand a long way off--not only in actual time1 but in modes of thought and forms of worship--from the ancient ,iranian prophet4 ,the change from the faith of ,peter to that of ,st4 ,augustine is not greater than that from the faith of ,zarathustra's rude disciples to that of the subtle1 self-conscious priests who composed these later formularies1 or the laity who accepted them4 ,still1 after all has been said1 after it has been freely admitted that subsequent speculation1 or imagination1 or the influence of neighboring creeds1 introduced a host of minor spirits or quasi-gods1 of whom ,zarathustra knew nothing1 it must also be emphatically asserted that the ,god of ,zarathustra never loses1 among the multitude of his associates1 either his supremacy or his unique and transcendent attributes4 ,while in the ,gths ,ahura-,mazda alone is worshiped2 while in the later chapters of the ,yana many other personages receive a more or less limited homage along with him2 while in the ,yashts these personages are singled out one after another for what appears unbounded adoration1--the original ,god invariably maintains his rank as the ,creator2 the one ,supreme ,lord of mankind1 as of all his creatures2 the instructor of ,zarathustra2 the ,being compared to whom all others stand related as the thing made towards its ,maker4 ,theism does not in the ,avesta pass into polytheism4 ,strictly speaking1 its spirit is monotheistic throughout1 though we might often be betrayed into thinking the contrary by the extravagance of its language4 ,nor can ,i discover in its pages the doctrine which some have held to be contained in it1 namely1 that above ,ahura-,mazda1 somewhere in the dark background of the universe1 was a ,god still greater than him1 the ultimate ,power to which even he must yield1 ,zrvna-,akarana1 or ,infinite ,time4 ,the very name of this highly abstract being appears but rarely in the ,avesta1 and never1 so far as ,i am able to discover1 in the character thus assigned to him4 ,ahura-,mazda remains throughout the ,god of ,gods2 his is the highest and most sacred name known to his worshipers1 and none can compare with him1 the ,infinite ,creator1 in greatness1 in glory1 or in power4 ,it is not to be expected that1 in the early stage of social progress at which a great part at least of the ,avesta was written1 its moral doctrines should be altogether faultless4 ,nevertheless1 it may well sustain a comparison in this respect with the codes which have been received as authoritative by other nations4 ,subject to the drawback1 common to all theologically-influenced systems of ethics1 of laying as much stress upon correct belief and the diligent performance of the customary rites as upon the really fundamental duties of men1 the ,zend-,avesta upholds a high standard of morality1 and honestly seeks to inculcate upon believers the immense importance of leading an upright and virtuous life4 ,such a life alone is pleasing to ,god2 such a life alone can insure a safe passage over the hazardous bridge by which the soul must pass to ,paradise4 ,not only are the more obvious virtues--respect for life1 careful observance of promises1 industrious conduct--sedulously enjoined on the faithful ,parsee1 but some others1 less obvious and too frequently overlooked1 are urged upon them4 ,the seducer is bound to provide both for the infant he has called into existence1 and for its mother1 at least for a certain period4 ,domestic animals are not forgotten1 and humanity towards these dependent creatures is commanded in a series of precepts1 the spirit of which would do honor to any age4 ,and1 in general1 the blamelessness required in thoughts1 words1 and works imposed on the devout ,mazdayana a comprehensive attention to the many ways in which he might lapse from virtue1 and held before him an exalted conception of moral purity4 ,yet1 when all this has been said1 it must still be admitted that the ,zend-,avesta hides its light1 such as it is1 under a bushel4 ,such is the number of supra-mundane spirits to be lauded1 such a mass of ceremonies to be attended to1 so great the proportion of space devoted to guarding against legal impurities as compared with that consigned to preventing moral evil1 that the impression left upon the minds of unbelieving readers is on the whole far from favorable4 ,morality has1 in fact1 got buried under theology4 ,the trivialities1 inanities1 and repetitions that abound in the sacred text draw off the mind from the occasional excellences of thought and expression which it contains4 ,thus he who toils through the verbose ,fargards of the ,vendidad1 the obscure chapters of the older and younger ,yana1 or the panegyrical rhapsodies of the ,yashts1 will find but little to reward his search4 ,with the ,gths indeed it is otherwise4 ,these are full of interest1 and not quite devoid of a simple grandeur4 ,but as a whole1 the ,avesta is a mine which1 among vast heaps of rubbish1 discloses but here and there a grain of gold4 ,,section ,,vi4--,,the ,,koran4#hf ,alone among the ,scriptures of the several great religions1 the ,koran is the work of a single author4 ,it is1 therefore1 characterized by greater uniformity of style1 subject1 and doctrine than the sacred collections of other nations4 ,considerable as the difference is between its earlier and its later ,suras1 a consistent line of thought is visible throughout1 and pious ,moslems are free from the difficulty that has always beset ,christian theologians of harmonizing contradictory passages both supposed to emanate from ,god4 ,there are1 indeed1 earlier revelations inconsistent with later ones2 but in this case1 the former are held to have been abrogated by the latter4 ,mediocre in the order of its thought1 diffuse in style1 abundant in repetitions1 there are few books more calculated to task the patience of a conscientious reader4 ,but we must recollect1 in judging it1 that its author did not write it1 and very possibly never contemplated its existence as a complete work4 ,he published it from time to time as occasion required1 much as a modern statesman would announce his views by means of speeches1 pamphlets1 or election addresses4 ,when a revelation arrived1 ,mahomet in the first instance dictated it to his secretary ,zayd1 who wrote it on palm-leaves or skins1 or tablets of any kind that might be at hand4 ,of the remaining ,moslems1 some took copies1 but many more committed the revelations to memory2 the ,arab memory being remarkably retentive4 ,under the reign of ,abu ,bekr1 the prophet's successor1 ,omar1 finding that some one who knew a piece of the ,koran had been killed1 suggested that the whole should be collected4 ,the suggestion was adopted1 and ,abu ,bekr intrusted the work of collection to the secretary ,zayd4 ,the ,koran was then put together1 not only from the leaves that had been left by ,mahomet1 and thrown without any regard to order into a chest1 but also from the fragments1 either written or preserved in the memory1 that were contributed by individual believers4 ,the copy thus made was not published1 but was committed for safe custody to ,hafsa1 daughter of ,omar1 and one of the widows of the prophet4 ,she kept it during the ten years of her father ,omar's caliphate4 ,but as there were no official and authorized copies of this genuine ,koran1 it came to pass that the various missionaries who were sent as teachers to the newly-conquered countries repeated it differently1 and that various readings crept into the transcripts in use4 ,hence serious threatenings of division and scandal among the ,moslems4 ,the caliph ,othman1 foreseeing the danger1 appointed a commission1 with the secretary ,zayd at its head1 to copy the copy of ,hafsa and return it to her1 their duty being to determine on differences of reading1 and to be careful to restore the ,meccan idiom where it had been departed from in any of the versions4 ,several copies were made by the commissioners1 of which one was kept at ,medina1 and the others sent to the great military stations4 ,this was the official text1 prepared about ,a4 ,h4 #be-cj2 and after its establishment1 all private copies or fragments of the ,koran were ordered by ,othman to be destroyed4#hg ,the original ,koran1 which ,mahomet did but reproduce1 is supposed by those who accept it as divine to be preserved in heaven1 in the very presence of its original author1 on an enormous table4 ,in the ,koran1 as arranged by ,zayd1 there is apparently no fixed principle in the order of the ,suras or chapters4 ,in the main1 the longest ,suras come first1 but even this rule is not adhered to consistently4 ,of chronological arrangement there is not a trace1 and it has been left to the ingenuity of ,european scholars to endeavor to discover approximately the date of the several revelations4 ,of some1 the occasions of their publication are known1 but in the case of the great majority1 nothing beyond a conjectural arrangement can be attained4 ,the principal themes with which the ,koran is occupied are the unity of ,god2 his attributes2 the several prophets preceding ,mahomet1 whom he has sent to convert unbelievers2 the joys of ,paradise and the terrors of hell2 and the legislative edicts promulgated for the government of the ,arabs under the new religion4 ,of these several subjects1 the first two occupy a predominant place in the earliest revelations4 ,legends of prophets1 of whom ,mahomet recognized a considerable number1 form one of the standing dishes set before the faithful during all but the very beginning of his career4 ,he was also fond of speaking of the contrast between the position of believers and skeptics in a future state2 but he seems at first to have expected a temporal judgment on his ,meccan opponents1 and afterwards to have been contented with awaiting the divine vengeance in another world4 ,legislation1 of course1 belongs only to that portion of the ,koran which was revealed after the ,hegira4 ,a few specimens will be quite sufficient to give a notion both of the earlier and later style of this sacred volume4 ,here is a ,sura revealed at ,mecca during the first struggles of the prophet's mind1 when it was completely possessed with the awfulness of the new truth3-- ,o thou enfolded in thy mantle1 stand up all night1 except a small portion of it1 for prayer4 ,half2 or curtail the half a little1--or add to it3 and with measured tone intone the ,koran1 for we shall devolve on thee weighty words4 ,verily1 at the coming of night are devout 7,italics1 here and elsewhere1 in ,rodwell7 impressions strongest1 and words are most collected2 but in the daytime thou hast continual employ--and commemorate the name of thy ,lord1 and devote thyself to him with entire devotion4444 ,of a truth1 thy ,lord knoweth that thou prayest almost two-thirds1 or half1 or a third of the night1 as do a part of thy followers 7,k41 p4 #g4--,sura1 #gc74 ,this is the opening ,sura of the ,koran3-- ,praise be to ,god1 ,lord of the worlds6 the compassionate6 the merciful6 ,king on the day of reckoning6 ,thee only do we worship1 and to thee do we cry for help4 ,guide thou us on the straight path1 the path of those to whom thou hast been gracious2 with whom thou art not angry1 and who go not astray 7,k41 p4 #aa4--,sura1 #a74 ,in the ,sura now to be quoted we find an allusion to one of the prophets whom ,mahomet regarded as precursors--the prophet ,saleh1 who had sent them to a people called ,themoud to bid them worship ,god4 ,the legend associated with his name is1 that he appealed to a she-camel as a proof of his divine mission1 commanding the people to let her go at large and do her no hurt4 ,some of the ,themoudites believed2 but they were ridiculed by the skeptical chiefs of the nation1 whose wickedness went so far as actually to hamstring the apostolic camel4 ,hereupon an earthquake overtook them by night1 and they were all found dead in the morning 7,k41 p4 #cgf4--,sura1 #g4 #ga-gg74 ,such things were ,mahomet's stock-in-trade2 and the following ,sura exemplifies the mixture of his early poetic thoughts with the prosaic narratives which did duty so constantly during the maturity of his apostleship3-- ,by the ,sun and his noonday brightness6 by the ,moon when she followeth him6 by the ,day when it revealeth his glory6 by the ,night when it enshroudeth him6 by the ,heaven and him who built it6 by the ,earth and him who spread it forth6 by a ,soul and him who balanced it1 and breathed into it its wickedness and its piety6 blessed now is he who hath kept it pure1 and undone is he who hath corrupted it6 ,themoud in his impiety rejected the message of the ,lord1 when the greatest wretch among them rushed up3--,said the apostle of ,god to them1--,the camel of ,god6 let her drink4 ,but they treated him as an imposter and hamstrung her4 ,so their ,lord destroyed them for their crime1 and visited all alike3 nor feared he the issue 7,k41 p4 #bd4--,sura1 #ia74 ,the same ,sura which contains the history of ,saleh1 prophet of ,themoud1 refers also to various other divine messengers who had fulfilled the same office of announcing the judgments of ,god4 ,mahomet's general view of the prophetic function seems to be expressed in these words3-- ,every nation hath its set time4 ,and when their time is come they shall not retard it an hour2 and they shall not advance it4 ,o children of ,adam6 there shall come to you ,apostles from among yourselves1 rehearsing my signs to you2 and whoso shall fear ,god and do good works1 no fear shall be upon them1 neither shall they be put to grief4 ,but they who charge our signs with falsehood1 and turn away from them in their pride1 shall be inmates of the fire2 for ever shall they abide therein 7,k41 p4 #cga4--,sura1 #g4 #cb-cd74 ,the prophets whom he mentions in this ,sura are ,noah1 who was sent to warn his people of the ,deluge2 ,houd1 sent to ,ad1 an unbelieving nation whom ,god cut off1 with the exception of those who had accepted ,houd2 ,saleh1 sent to ,themoud as above related2 ,lot1 sent to ,sodom to warn it against sin2 ,shoaib1 sent to ,madian1 a people of which the unbelieving members were destroyed by earthquakes2 ,moses1 sent with signs to ,pharaoh and his nobles1 as also to the ,israelites1 of whom some worshiped the calf1 and were overtaken by the wrath of their ,lord 7,k41 p4 #cge-chf4--,sura1 #g4 #eg-aed74 ,in another ,sura he makes mention of other prophets besides these3 namely1 of ,john the ,baptist1 ,jesus of ,nazareth1 ,abraham1 ,ishmael1 and ,enoch 7,k41 p4 #abg ff4--,sura1 #ai74 ,his view of ,jesus ,christ is peculiar and interesting4 ,he invariably treats him with the highest respect as a servant of ,god and his own precursor1 but he is careful to protest that the opinion of his divinity was not held by ,jesus1 and was a baseless invention of his followers4 ,the notion that ,god could have a son seems to him a gross profanation1 and he often recurs to it in terms of the strongest reprobation4 ,thus he endeavors to claim ,christ as a genuine ,moslem1 and to include ,christianity within the pale of the new faith4 ,a ,christian who adopted it might continue1 indeed must continue1 to believe everything in the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 except such passages as expressly assert the incarnation and divinity of ,jesus4 ,yet ,mahomet's own version of this prophet's conception involves a supernatural element1 and only differs from that of ,luke in not asserting the paternity of ,god4 ,and make mention in the ,book1 he says1 of ,mary when she went apart from her family1 eastward1 and took a veil to shroud herself from them1 and we sent our spirit to her1 and he took before her the form of a perfect man4 ,she said3 ',i fly for refuge from thee to the ,god of ,mercy6 ,if thou fearest him begone from me4' ,he said3 ',i am only a messenger of thy ,lord1 that ,i may bestow on thee a holy son4' ,she said3 ',how shall ,i have a son1 when man hath never touched me1 and ,i am not unchaste4' ,he said3 ',so shall it be4 ,thy ,lord hath said3 easy is this with me1 and we will make him a sign to mankind and a mercy from us4 ,for it is a thing decreed4' ,and she conceived him1 and retired with him to a far-off place 7,k41 p4 #abh4--,sura1 #ai4 #af-bb74 ,her virginity is expressly asserted in another place1 where she is described as ,mary1 the daughter of ,imran1 who kept her maidenhood1 and into whose womb we breathed of our spirit4#hh ,when the child was born the woman was accused of unchastity1 but the infant prophet at once opened his mouth and declared his prophetic character4 ,from this narrative it appears that1 in ,mahomet's opinion1 ,jesus was neither begotten by a human father1 nor was the son of ,god4 ,he finds a via media in the doctrine that he was created1 like ,adam1 by an express exertion of the power of the ,almighty4 ,he created him of dust3 ,he then said to him1 ',be1' and he was 7,k41 p4 #ejb4--,sura1 #c4 #eb74 ,and again1 in the ,sura above quoted3 ,it beseemeth not ,god to beget a son1 ,glory be to him6 when he decreeth a thing1 he only saith to it1 ,be1 and it is 7,k41 p4 #acj4--,sura1 #ai4 #cf74 ,he is very indignant against those who hold the doctrine of the incarnation1 which he apparently considers as equivalent to that of physical generation by the ,deity1 and which1 under any aspect1 is certainly shocking to a genuine monotheist4 ,they say3 ',the ,god of ,mercy hath gotten offspring4' ,now have ye done a monstrous thing6 ,almost might the very heavens be rent thereat1 and the earth cleave asunder1 and the mountains fall down in fragments1 that they ascribe a son to the ,god of ,mercy1 when it beseemeth not the ,god of ,mercy to beget a son6 7,k41 p4 #ace4--,sura1 #ai4 #ia-ic47 ,and they say1 ',god hath a son3' ,no6 ,praise be to him6 ,but his whatever is in the heavens and the earth6 ,all obeyeth him1 sole ,maker of the heavens and of the earth6 and when he decreeth a thing he only saith to it1 ,be1 and it is 7,k41 p4 #dde4--,sura1 #b4 #aaj-aaa74 ,mahomet's conception of his own character is most clearly expressed in the seventh ,sura1 where1 after enumerating some of the prophets who had gone before him 7as already related71 he proceeds to describe a supposed dialogue between ,moses and ,god1 in which the ,deity speaks thus3-- ,my chastisement shall fall on whom ,i will1 and my mercy embraceth all things1 and ,i write it down for those who shall fear me1 and pay the alms1 and believe in our signs1 who shall follow the ,apostle1 the unlettered ,prophet--whom they shall find described with them in the ,law and ,evangel4 ,what is right will he enjoin them1 and forbid them what is wrong1 and will allow them healthful viands and prohibit the impure1 and will ease them of their burden1 and of the yokes which were upon them2 and those who shall believe in him1 and strengthen him1 and help him1 and follow the light which hath been sent down with him1--these are they with whom it shall be well4 ,the revelation to ,moses now ceases1 and ,god continues to address ,mahomet with the usual preliminary say3-- ,say to them3 ,o men6 ,verily ,i am ,god's apostle to you all3 whose is the kingdom of the ,heavens and of the ,earth6 ,there is no ,god but he6 ,he maketh alive and killeth6 ,therefore believe in ,god and his apostle--the unlettered ,prophet--who believeth in ,god and his word4 ,and follow him that ye may be guided aright 7,k41 p4 #chf4--,sura1 #g4 #aee-aeh74 ,mahomet liked to describe himself as unlettered1 and thus to obtain for the scriptural knowledge and literary skill displayed in the ,koran the credit of its being due to inspiration4 ,in another place he again describes his prophetic character in the following strain3-- ,muhammed is not the father of any man among you1 but he is the ,apostle of ,god and the seal of the prophets3 and ,god knoweth all things4444 ,o ,prophet6 we have sent thee to be a witness1 and a herald of glad tidings1 and a warner2 and one who1 through his own permission1 summoneth to ,god1 and a light-giving torch 7,k41 p4 #efg4--,sura1 #cc1 #dj1 #dd1 #de74 ,a conspicuous feature of the ,koran to which allusion has not yet been made is its frequent reference to the pleasures of ,paradise to be enjoyed by the faithful1 and the pains of hell to be suffered by the infidels4 ,the day of judgment is continually held out as an encouragement to the former1 and a terror to the latter4 ,the fifty-sixth ,sura contains a description of heaven which is enough to make the mouth of good ,moslems water4 ,the people of the right hand are to be happy2 those of the left hand1 wretched4 ,the former are to have gardens of delight1 with inwrought couches1 whereon reclining1 aye-blooming youths are to bring them flowing wine of the best celestial vintage4 ,they are to enjoy their favorite fruits1 and to eat whatever birds they long for4 ,houris with large dark eyes1 and ever virgins1 never growing old1 are to supply them with the pleasures of love1 so strangely overlooked in the ,christian pictures of heavenly life4 ,on the other side1 we have the people of the left hand1 who are to be tormented with pestilential winds and scalding water1 and are to live in the shadow of a black smoke1 with the fruit of a bitter tree to eat and boiling water to drink 7,k41 p4 #fj4--,sura1 #ef74 ,the prophet delights in warning his enemies of their coming fate4 ,verily1 says ,god in another place1 we have got ready the flame for the infidel 7,k41 p4 #eih4--,sura1 #dh4 #ac74 ,o ,prophet6 we read elsewhere1 make war on the infidels and hypocrites1 and deal rigorously with them4 ,hell shall be their abode6 and wretched the passage to it6 7,k41 p4 #fjf4--,sura1 #ff4 #i74 ,god promiseth the hypocritical men and women1 and the unbelievers1 the fire of hell--therein shall they abide--this their sufficing portion6 7,k41 p4 #fba4--,sura1 #i4 #fi74 ,some1 who had declined to march with the ,prophet from ,medina on account of the heat1 are sternly reminded that a fiercer heat will be the fire of hell 7,k41 p4 #fbc4--,sura1 #i4 #hb74 ,in contradistinction to the deplorable state of the hypocrites and unbelievers--blind in this world and destined to suffer eternally in the next--we have a pleasing picture of the condition of the faithful ,moslems3-- ,muhammed is the apostle of ,god2 and his comrades are vehement against the infidels1 but full of tenderness among themselves4 ,thou mayst see them bowing down1 prostrating themselves1 imploring favors from ,god1 and his acceptance4 ,their tokens are on their faces1 the marks of their prostrations4 ,this is their picture in the ,law and their picture in the ,evangel2 they are as the seed which putteth forth its stalk2 then strengtheneth it1 and it groweth stout1 and riseth upon its stem1 rejoicing the husbandman--that the infidels may be wrathful at them4 ,to such of them as believe and do the things that are right1 hath ,god promised forgiveness and a noble recompense 7,k41 p4 #fja4--,sura1 #dh4 #bi74 ,,section ,,vii4--,,the ,,old ,,testament4 ,before entering upon the comparative examination of the ,hebrew ,canon1 it is necessary to say a few words of the extraordinary race who were its authors4 ,there is probably no other book of which it may be said1 with the same depth and fulness of meaning1 that it is the work of a nation and the reflection of a nation's life4 ,the history of the ,bible and the history of the ,jews are more intimately bound up together than is that of any other nation with that of any other book4 ,during the period of their political existence as a separate people they wrote the ,canon4 ,during the long period of political annihilation which has succeeded1 they have not ceased to write commentaries on the ,canon4 ,this one great production has filled the imaginations1 has influenced the intellect1 has fed the religious ardor of each succeeding generation of ,jews4 ,to name the canonical ,scriptures1 and the endless series of writings suggested by them or based upon them1 would be almost to sum up the results of the literary activity of the ,hebrew race4 ,our first historical acquaintance with the ,hebrews brings them before us as obtaining by conquest1 and then inhabiting1 that narrow strip of territory bordering the ,mediterranean ,sea which is known as ,palestine4 ,their own legends1 indeed1 carry us back to a still earlier period1 when they lived as slaves in ,egypt2 but on these1 from the character of the narrative1 very little reliance can be placed4 ,the story1 gradually becoming less and less mythical1 tells us1 what is probably true1 that they overcame the native inhabitants of ,palestine in war1 and seized upon their land2 that they then passed through an anarchial period1 during which the centre of authority seems to have been lost1 and the national unity was in no small danger of being destroyed1 had not vigorous and able leaders interposed to save it2 that1 under the pressure of these circumstances1 they adopted a monarchial constitution1 by which the dangers of this time of anarchy were at least to a large extent averted1 and the discordant elements brought into subjection to a common centre4 ,thus united1 the ,jewish monarchy rapidly attained a considerable height of splendor and of power4 ,surrounding nations fell under its sway1 and it took rank as one of the great powers which divided ,western ,asia4 ,but this glory was not to last long4 ,the monarchy1 broken up into two hostile parts by the folly of ,rehoboam1 lost alike its unity and its strength2 and after a long series of kings1 whom it is needless to enumerate1 both its branches fell victims1 at separate times1 the one to ,shalmaneser1 king of the ,assyrians1 the other to ,nebuchadnezzar1 king of the ,chaldees4 ,the latter event1 while it put an end to the very existence of the ,jewish nation as an independent political power--for it was but a fitful independence which was recovered under the ,asmoneans--marks an epoch which severs the history of the ,jews into two periods1 distinguished from one another by the completely different character borne by the people in each4 ,it is customary1 for theological purposes1 to represent the religious development of the ,jews as pervaded by a fundamental unity4 ,they are supposed to have known and worshiped the true ,god from the beginning1 to have been sharply marked off from the rest of the world by their strict monotheism1 and to have been unfaithful to their inherited creed only when they refused to recognize ,christ and his apostles as its authorized interpreters4 ,their own records tell a very different story4 ,according to these1 the religion of the ,jews1 like that of other nations1 progressed1 changed1 improved1 underwent purification and alteration1 and was1 in its earlier forms1 not much unlike that of the surrounding heathens4 ,their leaders1 indeed1 and all those whom their ,scriptures uphold as examples of excellence1 worshiped a national ,god1 ,jehovah1 whom they may have considered the only god who enjoyed actual existence and possessed actual power4 ,but whether or not this were the case1 he was1 for all practical purposes1 simply the tutelary deity of the ,hebrews4 ,in his name the conquerors of ,palestine pillaged1 murdered1 and inflicted cruelties on the vanquished2 to him they looked for aid in their belligerent undertakings2 to him they offered the first fruits of victory4 ,it was under his direct leadership that they professed to subdue the heathens1 and to attain national security4 ,the ark was his dwelling1 and it could only bring destruction to the ,philistines1 who were not under the protection of its inmate4 ,and when the ,jews asked to be placed under the rule of a monarch1 they were told by the mouthpiece of ,jehovah that it was his divine government which they were rejecting4 ,the morality of the chiefs who conducted the invasion and subjugation of ,palestine was not one whit superior to that of their enemies1 nor was the god on whose power they relied of an essentially higher nature than many other national or local divinities who were worshiped by other nations4 ,they were the rude leaders of a rude people worshiping a rude deity4 ,his character was such as we might expect the tutelary divinity of a tribe of wandering and unsettled ,bedouins to be4 ,having to establish their right to a permanent home and an organized government by force of arms1 it was only natural that they should represent their ,god as favoring the exploits of those arms1 and even urging them on to the most ruthless exercise of the rights of conquerors4 ,it was natural that even their most revolting acts should be placed under the especial patronage of this approving god4 ,it was natural1 too1 that when the conquest had been at least in great part effected1 while yet the anarchial and semi-savage condition of the victors continued 7as it did more or less until after the accession of ,david71 and internal strife took the place of external warfare1 the national god should become to some extent a party-god2 should favor one section against another1 and even excite the ferocious passion of those to whose side he inclined4 ,the god of ,moses1 of ,joshua1 and the ,judges was thus a passionate1 relentless1 and cruel partisan4 ,no doubt the facts were not precisely such as they are represented to us by the writers in the ,old ,testament1 since in the internecine conflicts which occasionally broke forth we may assume that each side claimed for itself the approbation of ,jehovah4 ,but still the story of the ,hebrew annals is clear enough to show us the semi-savage character of the people in these early days1 and their utter failure to form that lofty conception of the deity with which they have been so largely credited by believers in the supernatural inspiration of their historical records4 ,the primitive conception entertained at this period1 which corresponded with that generally found among uncivilized nations1 was improved and elevated to some extent during the age of comparatively settled government which succeeded4 ,as the ,israelites advanced in the practice of the arts1 in the possession of wealth1 in the cultivation of the literary or musical attainments that refine domestic life1 in the peaceful organization of a society that had become more industrial and less warlike1 their idea of ,jehovah underwent the modifications which these changes imply4 ,the god of ,samuel is widely different from the god of ,isaiah or ,jeremiah4 ,whether the popular notion had risen to the height attained by these prophets may indeed be doubted2 but this too must have altered in order to make such prophets possible4 ,yet1 in spite of the comparative improvement1 there are abundant indications during the kingly period that the old ,hebrew deity still retained the ferocious characteristics by which he had formerly been distinguished4 ,elijah's patron is gracious enough to his own adherents1 but the attributes of mercy or gentleness towards human beings generally are undiscoverable in his character4 ,and the deeds of blood which pious monarchs from time to time were guilty of in his honor1 and which received his approbation1 show that if the process of his civilization had begun1 it was still very far from being completed4 ,but the special glory of the ,jewish race is supposed to consist even more in the fact that this ,god1 such as he was1 stood alone1 than in the excellence of the manner in which they conceived of his nature4 ,the constancy of their monotheism1 amid the polytheism of surrounding nations1 has appeared to subsequent generations so marvelous as to require a revelation to account for it4 ,the facts1 however1 as related to us by the ,jews themselves1 do not warrant the supposition that monotheism actually was the creed of the people until after the ,captivity4 ,it appears1 indeed1 that that form of belief was held by those who are depicted to us as the most eminent and the most virtuous among them1 and it would seem that there was generally a considerable party who adhered to the worship of ,jehovah1 and at times succeeded in forcing it upon the nation at large4 ,but that ,jehovism was the authorized and established national religion1 and that every other form and variety of faith was an authorized innovation1 is a far wider conclusion than the facts will warrant us in drawing4 ,this1 no doubt1 and nothing less than this1 is the contention of the historical writers of the ,old ,testament2 but even their own statements1 made as they are under the influence of the strongest ,jehovistic bias1 point with tolerable clearness to a different conclusion4 ,they inform us that while the most ancient leaders of the ,israelites who conducted them to the promised land1 the distinguished ,judges who from time to time arose1 and all the most virtuous kings1 belonged to the religion of ,jehovah1 the people1 notwithstanding these great examples1 were continually guilty of relapses into idolatry of the most flagrant kind4 ,this tendency manifested itself so early1 and reappeared with such persistence during the whole history of the ,israelites of both branches up to the destruction of their respective monarchies1 that we cannot1 consistently with the admitted facts1 suppose that ,jehovism had at any time taken very deep root in the mind of the people4 ,they seem1 on the contrary1 to have been readily swayed to and fro by the example of the reigning monarch4 ,whether indeed they sincerely adopted monotheism under a monotheistic sovereign1 may perhaps be doubted2 but the emphatic denunciations of the ,biblical writers leave us no room to question the perfect sincerity of their idolatry4 ,all therefore that we can be justified in inferring from what they tell us is1 that a succession of priests and prophets maintained the faith of ,jehovah from age to age1 and that from time to time a sovereign arose who favored their views1 and did all in his power1 sometimes by fair means and not unfrequently by foul1 to advance the interests of the ,jehovistic party4 ,indian history acquaints us with very similar fluctuations in the religion of a province1 according as the priests of one or the other contending sect succeeded in obtaining influence over the mind of the reigning ,rajah4 ,but although we maintain that monotheism was not1 previous to the captivity1 the popular religion of the ,jews1 we need not go the length of asserting that there was no difference in their minds between ,jehovah and the other deities whom they adopted from surrounding nations4 ,jehovah was unquestionably the national god1 who was held to extend a peculiar protection over the ,hebrew race4 ,nor does it follow that those who betook themselves to some idolatrous cultus necessarily abandoned that of ,jehovah4 ,both might well have been carried on together1 and there is abundant evidence that the ,jews of this period had much of that elasticity which characterizes polytheism1 and makes it ever ready to add new members to its pantheon without discarding old favorites4 ,so far as there was a national worship carried on by a national priesthood1 ,jehovah must have been its object4 ,but we are not therefore compelled to imagine that the nation had adopted ,jehovism in so solemn and binding a manner as to render its abandonment a gross violation of their fundamental institutions4 ,no doubt1 according to the ,scriptural writers1 it was a deliberate breach of the original constitution to forsake1 even for a moment1 the exclusive service of the national god for that of any other deity whatsoever4 ,but the supernatural origin assigned by them to this original constitution throws a doubt on their assertions1 while the facts they report serve to increase it4 ,for while we learn that ,jehovah was deserted by one generation after another in favor of more popular rivals1 much to the indignation of his priests and prophets1 we do not perceive any traces of a consciousness on the part of the idolaters that they were guilty of infidelity to fundamental and unchangeable laws4 ,they rather appear to have acted in mere levity1 and the repeated objurgations of the ,jehovistic party would tend to the conclusion that the people were not aware of any binding obligation to adhere to the worship of this deity to the exclusion of that of every other4 ,the efforts of the ,jehovists may indeed show that they believed such an obligation to exist3 but not that their opponents were equally aware of it4 ,moreover1 we are not without some more positive testimony which strongly favors this view of their mutual relations4 ,under the reign of the pious1 and no doubt credulous1 ,josiah1 a certain priest professed to have discovered a book of the law mysteriously hidden in the temple4 ,without discussing in this place what book this may have been1 it is plain that it inculcated ,jehovism under the penalty of curses similar to those found in ,deuteronomy1 and it is plain too that its contents caused the monarch a painful surprise1 which expressed itself by his rending his clothes and sending a commission to inquire of the ,lord concerning the words of this book that is found4 ,now is it possible to suppose that the words of such a book as this could have inflicted on ,josiah so great a shock1 or have required the appointment of a special commission to inquire concerning them1 if it had been a matter of familiar and general knowledge among the ,jews that their forefathers had solemnly adopted ,jehovism as the only lawful national creed1 invoking upon themselves those very curses which the most devout of monarchs was now unable to hear without astonishment and alarm8 ,and how are we to explain the production of this book by the priests as a new discovery8 ,if it had been merely the re-discovery of a lost volume would the language of the narrative have been at all appropriate8 ,must not ,josiah in that case have rejoiced at the restoration to ,judah of so precious a treasure1 however much he might have regretted the failure of the nation to observe its precepts8 ,the difficulty of supposing such facts to have been forgotten is equally great4 ,it would be scarcely possible to imagine that not only the people1 but the priests1 could at any period have lost all memory of the fact that they were bound1 under the most terrible penalties1 to adhere to the faith of ,jehovah4 ,at least the spiritual advisers of so religious a monarch must have been well aware that their own creed formed an essential part of the ,jewish constitution2 and we cannot doubt that they would carefully have impressed this fact on their willing pupil1 not as a startling disclosure made only after he had been seventeen years on the throne and had attained the age of twenty-five1 but as one of his earliest and most familiar lessons4 ,in fact1 this sudden discovery1 in some secret recess of the temple1 of a hitherto unknown volume1 concerning whose claims to authority or antiquity the writers preserve a mysterious silence1 rather suggests the notion of a ,jehovistic coup d'tat1 prepared by the zeal of ,hilkiah the priest and ,shaphan the scribe4 ,a long time had passed since the accession of the king4 ,his favorable dispositions were well known4 ,since the eighth year of his reign at least he had been under the influence of the priests1 and in the twelfth he had entered 7no doubt under their directions7 upon that career of persecuting violence which was usual with pious monarchs in ,judea4#hi ,his mind was undoubtedly predisposed to receive with implicit confidence any statements they might make4 ,hence1 if ,hilkiah and his associates had conceived the idea of compiling1 from materials at their command1 a book which1 while recapitulating some events in the ancient history of ,israel1 should represent those events in a light favorable to their designs1 they could hardly have chosen a better moment for the execution of such a scheme4 ,that they actually did this1 it would be going beyond the evidence in our possession to assert4 ,it may be that the book was an old one2 and in any case1 it is unnecessary to suppose that it was an original composition of ,hilkiah's1 palmed off upon the king as ancient4 ,all that appears to me clearly to follow from the terms of the narrative is1 that the law which this book contained 7evidently the law of ,jehovah7 had not hitherto been regarded as the established law of the country1 and that the production of this volume1 in which its claims to that dignity were emphatically asserted1 and its violation represented as entailing the most grevious curses1 was one of the plans taken by the priestly party to procure for it the recognition of that supremacy which they declared it had actually enjoyed in the days of their forefathers4 ,but although the history of ,israel has been written by adherents of this party1 and we are unfortunately precluded from checking their statements by any document recounting the same events from the point of view of their opponents1 their records1 biased as they are1 clearly show us a nation whose favorite and ordinary creed was not monotheism2 which was ever ready to adopt with fervor the idolatrous practices of its neighbors2 and which was not converted to pure and exclusive monotheism till after the terrible lesson of the ,captivity in ,babylon4 ,this great event was turned to excellent account by the priests and prophets of ,jehovah4 ,instead of regarding it as a natural consequence of the political relations of ,judea with more powerful empires1 they represented it as the fulfillment of the penalties threatened by ,jehovah for infidelity towards himself4 ,and as this view offered a plausible explanation of their unparalleled misfortunes1 it was naturally accepted by many as the true solution of sufferings so difficult to reconcile with the protection supposed to be accorded by their national god4 ,under these circumstances a double process went on during their compulsory residence in heathendom4 ,great numbers1 who were either not ,jehovists1 or whose ,jehovism was but lukewarm1 gradually adapted themselves to their situation among idolaters1 and became at length indistinguishably fused1 as the ten scribes had been1 with the alien races4 ,but a few remained faithful to their ,god4 ,these few it was who formed the whole of the nation which1 when return was possible1 returned to their native soil4 ,those who were not inspired by a deep sense of the sanctity of their national religion2 those to whom the restoration of their national rites was not the one object of overwhelming importance2 those whose hopes of national restoration were of a temporal rather than a spiritual nature1 had no sufficient motive to return to their native soil4 ,jerusalem could have no attractions for them which ,babylon did not possess4 ,thus1 by a natural process1 the most ardent1 the most spiritual1 the most unbending monotheists were weeded out from the mass of the community1 and it was they who accompanied ,zerubbabel or ,ezra on his sacred mission4 ,misfortune1 which had not shaken their faith1 had deepened and purified it4 ,not only were they ,jehovists1 but they were ,jehovists of the sternest type4 ,there was among them none of that admixture of levity1 and none of that facile adaptability to foreign rites1 which characterized the oldest ,jews4 ,from this time forward their monotheism has never been broken by a single relapse4 ,thus the ,captivity forms the turning-point in the character of the ,jews2 for1 in fact1 the nation which was conquered by ,nebuchadnezzar was not the nation which1 in the days of ,kyros and ,artaxerxes returned to re-colonize and rebuild ,jerusalem4 ,the conquered people belonged to a monarchy which1 if it was now feeble and sunken1 was directly descended from one which had been glorious and mighty1 and which had aimed at preserving for ,judea the status and dignity of an independent power4 ,under its influence the ,jews had been mobile1 idolatrous1 deaf to the voice of ,jehovistic prophets1 neglectful of ,jehovistic rites2 desirous of conquest1 and1 when that was impossible1 unwilling on political grounds to submit to foreign domination2 rude if not semi-barbarous in morals1 and distracted by the contention of rival religious parties4 ,but this polity1 of which the ruling motives were mainly political1 was succeeded after the return of the exiles by a polity of which the ruling motives were exclusively religious4 ,all were now adherents of ,jehovah2 all were zealous performers of the rites conceived to be his due4 ,this change must be borne in mind if we would understand ,jewish history2 for the same language is not applicable to the ,jews before and after the ,captivity1 nor can we regard in the same light a struggling and feeble race upholding its unanimous faith in the midst of trials1 and an independent nation in which a party1 from time to time victorious1 endeavors to impose that faith by force4 ,we may without inconsistency censure the violence of the ,jehovistic sectaries1 and admire the courage of the ,jehovistic people4 ,but although there is much in this change that is good1 it must be admitted that it has its bad side4 ,while becoming more conscientious1 more scrupulously true to its own principles1 and more penetrated with a sense of religion1 ,judaism became at the same time more rigid1 more formal1 more ritualistic1 and more unsocial4 ,ewald has remarked that the constitution established after the return from captivity is one that lays undue stress upon the exterior forms of religion1 and may in time even become hostile to what is truly holy4 ,as it claims to be in possession of something holy which temporal governments do not possess1 it cannot submit to their dominion2 hence1 he observes1 ,israel could never become an independent nation again under this constitution4#ij ,nor was this all4 ,even apart from its tendency to magnify external forms1 which was perhaps not of its essence1 the religion of ,jehovah had inherent vices4 ,the ,jews1 believing their god to be the only true one1 and insisting above all on the supreme importance of preserving the purity of his cultus1 were necessarily led to assume a haughty and exclusive attitude towards all other nations1 which could not fail to provoke their hostility4 ,this unloveable spirit was shown immediately after their return by their contumelious rejection of the ,smaritan proposals to aid in building the temple--proposals which seem to have been made in good faith2 by the ,sabbatarian legislation of ,nehemiah2 and even more by the exclusively harsh measures taken by ,ezra for the purification of the race4 ,it was simply inevitable that all heathen nations who came in contact with them should hate a people who acted on such principles4 ,nor were the fears of the heathen altogether without foundation4 ,when the ,jews recovered a temporary independence under the ,maccabees1 their intolerance1 now able to vent itself in acts of conquest1 became a source of serious danger4 ,thus1 ,john ,hyrcanus destroyed the temple of the ,smaritans 7who also worshiped ,jehovah7 on ,mount ,gerizim1 and the ,jews actually commemorated the event by a semi-festival4 ,alexander ,jannasus1 too1 carried on wars of conquest against his neighbors4 ,in one of these he took the town of ,gaza1 and evinced the treatment to be expected from him by letting loose his army on the inhabitants and utterly destroying their city4 ,it was no doubt their unsocial and proud behavior towards all who were not ,jews that provoked the heathens to try their temper by so many insults directed to the sensitive point--their religion4 ,culpable as this was1 it must be admitted that it was in some degree the excessive scrupulosity of the ,jews in regard to things indifferent in themselves that exposed them to so much annoyance4 ,had they been content to permit the existence of ,hellenic or ,roman customs side by side with theirs1 they might have been spared the miseries which they subsequently endured4 ,but the ,scriptures1 from beginning to end1 breathed a spirit of fierce and exclusive attachment to ,jehovah2 he was the only deity2 all other objects of adoration were an abomination in his sight4 ,penetrated with this spirit1 the ,jews patiently submitted to the yoke of every succeeding authority--,chaldeans1 ,syrians1 ,egyptians1 ,romans--until the stranger presumed to tamper with the national religion4 ,then their resistance was fierce and obstinate4 ,the great rebellion which broke out in the reign of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 under the leadership of ,mattathias1 was provoked by the attempt of that monarch to force ,greek institutions on the ,jewish people4 ,the glorious dynasty of the ,asmoneans were priests as well as kings1 and the royal office1 indeed1 was only assumed by them in the generation after that in which they had borne the priestly office1 and as a consequence of the authority derived therefrom4 ,under the semi-foreign family of the ,herods1 who supplanted the ,asmoneans1 and ruled under ,roman patronage1 as afterwards under the direct government of ,rome1 it was nothing but actual or suspected aggressions against the national faith that provoked the loudest murmurs or the most determined opposition4 ,it was this faith which had upheld the ,jews in their heroic revolt against ,syrian innovations4 ,it was this which inspired them to support every offshoot of the ,asmonean family against the odious ,herod4 ,it was this which led them to entreat of ,pompey that he would abstain from the violation of the temple2 to implore ,caligula1 at the peril of their lives1 not to force his statue upon them2 to raise tumults under ,cumanus1 and finally to burst the bonds of their allegiance to ,rome under ,gessius ,florus4 ,it was this which sustained the war that followed upon that outbreak--a war in which even the unconquerable power of the ,roman ,empire quailed before the unrivaled skill and courage of this indomitable race2 a war of which ,i do not hesitate to say that it is probably the most wonderful1 the most heroic1 and the most daring which an oppressed people has ever waged against its tyrants4 ,but against such discipline as that of ,rome1 and such generals as ,vespasian and ,titus1 success1 however brilliant1 could be but momentary4 ,the ,jewish insurrection was quelled in blood1 and the ,jewish nationality was extinguished--never to revive4 ,one more desperate effort was indeed made2 once more the best legions and the best commanders of the ,empire were put in requisition2 once more the hopes of the people were inflamed1 this time by the supposed appearance of the ,messiah1 only to be doomed again to a still more cruel disappointment4 ,jerusalem was razed to the ground2 ,aelia ,capitolina took its place2 and on the soil of ,aelia ,capitolina no ,jew might presume to trespass4 ,but if the trials imposed on the faith of this devoted race by the ,romans were hard1 they were still insignificant compared to those which it had to bear from the ,christian nations who inherited from them the dominion of ,europe4 ,these nations considered the misfortunes of the ,jews as proceeding from the divine vengeance on the crime they had committed against ,christ2 and lest this vengeance should fail to take effect1 they made themselves its willing instruments4 ,no injustice and no persecution could be too bad for those whom ,god himself so evidently hated4 ,besides1 the ,jews had a miserable habit of acquiring wealth2 and it was convenient to those who did not share their ability or their industry to plunder them from time to time4 ,but the ,jewish race and the ,jewish religion survived it all4 ,tormented1 tortured1 robbed1 put to death1 hunted from clime to clime2 outcasts in every land1 strangers in every refuge1 the tenacity of their character was proof against every trial1 and superior to every temptation4 ,in this unequal combat of the strong against the weak1 the synagogue has fairly beaten the ,church1 and has vindicated for itself that liberty which during centuries of suffering its enemy refused to grant4 ,eighteen hundred years have passed since the soldiers of ,titus burned down the temple1 laid ,jerusalem in ashes1 and scattered to the winds the remaining inhabitants of ,judea2 but the religion of the ,jews is unshaken still2 it stands unconquered and unconquerable1 whether by the bloodthirsty fury of the legions of ,rome1 or by the still more bloodthirsty intolerance of the ministers of ,christ4 ,,subdivision ,i4--,the ,historical ,books4 ,it is scarcely necessary to say that no complete account of the contents of the ,old ,testament can be attempted here4 ,to accomplish anything like a full description of its various parts1 and to discuss the numerous critical questions that must arise in connection with such a description1 would in itself require a large volume4 ,in a treatise on comparative religion1 anything of this kind would be out of place4 ,it is mainly in its comparative aspect that we are concerned with the ,bible4 ,hence many very interesting topics1 such1 for instance1 as the age or authorship of the several books1 must be passed over in silence4 ,tempting as it may be to turn aside to such inquiries1 they have no immediate bearing on the subject in hand4 ,whatever may be the ultimate verdict of ,biblical criticism respecting them1 the conclusions here reached will remain unaffected4 ,all that ,i can do is to assume without discussion the results obtained by the most eminent scholars1 in so far as they appear to me likely to be permanent4 ,that the ,book of ,genesis1 for example1 is not the work of a single writer1 but that at least two hands may be distinguished in it2 that the ,song of ,solomon is1 as explained both by ,renan and ,ewald1 a drama1 and not an effusion of piety2 that the latter part of ,isaiah is not written by the same prophet who composed the former1--are conclusions of criticism which ,i venture to think may now be taken for granted and made the basis of further reasoning4 ,at the same time ,i have taken for granted--not as certain1 but as likely to be an approximation to the truth--the chronological arrangement of the prophets proposed by ,ewald in his great work on that portion of ,scripture4 ,further than this1 ,i believe there are no assumptions of a critical character in the ensuing pages4 ,first1 then1 it is to be observed that the problems which occupied the writers of the ,book of ,genesis1 and which in their own fashion they attempted to solve1 were the same as those which in all ages have engaged the attention of thoughtful men1 and which have been dealt with in many other theologies besides that of the ,hebrews4 ,the ,hebrew solution may or may not be superior in simplicity or grandeur to the solutions of ,parsees1 ,hindus1 and others2 but the attempt is the same in character1 even if the execution be more successful4 ,the authors of ,genesis endeavor especially to account for3-- #a4 ,,the ,,creation ,,of ,,the ,,universe4 #b4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,man ,,and ,,animals4 #c4 ,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,evil4 #d4 ,,the ,,diversity ,,of ,,languages4 ,although the fourth of these questions is1 so far as ,i am aware1 not a common subject of consideration in popular mythologies1 the first three are the standard subjects of primitive theological speculation4 ,let us begin with the ,creation4 ,one of the earliest inquiries that human beings address themselves to when they arrive at the stage of reflection is3--,how did this world in which we find ourselves come into being8 ,out of what elements was it formed8 ,who made it1 and in what way8 ,a natural and obvious reply to such an inquiry is1 that a ,being of somewhat similar nature to their own1 though larger and more powerful1 took the materials of which the world is formed and moulded them1 as a workman moulds the materials of his handicraft1 into their present shape4 ,the mental process gone through in reaching this conclusion is simply that of pursuing a familiar analogy in such a manner as to bring the unknown within the range of conceptions applicable to the known4 ,the solution1 as will be seen shortly1 contrives to satisfy one-half of the problem only by leaving the other half out of consideration4 ,this difficulty1 however1 does not seem to have occurred to the ancient ,hebrew writers who propounded the following history of the ,creation of the ,universe3-- ,in the beginning1 they say1 ,god created the heavens and the earth4 ,and the earth was desolate and waste1 and darkness on the face of the abyss1 and the ,spirit of ,god hovering on the face of the waters4 ,and ,god said3 ,let there be light1 and there was light4 ,and ,god saw the light that it was good1 and ,god divided between the light and the darkness4 ,and ,god called the light ,day1 and the darkness he called ,night4 ,and it was ,evening1 and it was ,morning3 one day4 ,and ,god said3 ,let there be a vault for separation of the waters1 and let it divide between waters and waters4 ,hereupon he made the vault1 and separated the waters above it from those below it4 ,the vault he called ,heavens4 ,this was his second day's work4 ,on the third1 he separated the dry land from the sea1 and saw that it was good2 besides which he caused the earth to bring forth herbs and fruit-trees4 ,and ,god said3 ,let there be lights in the vault of the heavens to divide between the day and between the night1 and let them be for signs and for times and for days and for years4 ,hereupon he made the sun for the day1 the moon for the night1 and the stars4 ,and ,god put them on the vault of the heavens to give light to the earth1 and to rule by day and by night1 and to separate between the light and the darkness2 and ,god saw that it was good4 ,and it was evening1 and it was morning2 the fourth day 7,gen4 i4 #a-ai74 ,let us pause a moment here before passing on to the next branch of the subject3 the creation of animals and man4 ,the author had two questions before him2 how the materials of the universe came into being1 and how1 when in being1 they assumed their present forms and relative positions4 ,of the first he says nothing1 unless the first verse be taken to refer to it4 ,but this can scarcely be2 for the expression1 ,god made the heavens and the earth1 cannot easily be supposed to refer to the original production of the matter out of which the heavens and the earth were subsequently made4 ,rather must we take it as a short heading1 referring to the creation which is about to be described4 ,and in any case1 the manner in which there came to be anything at all out of which heavens and earth could be constructed is not considered4 ,we are left apparently to suppose that matter is coeval with the ,deity2 for the author never faces the question of its origin1 which is the real difficulty in all such cosmogonies as his1 but hastens at once to the easier task of describing the separation and classification of materials already in existence4 ,somewhat similar to the ,hebrew legend1 both in what it records and in what it omits1 is the story of creation as told by the ,quichs in ,america3-- ,this is the first word and the first speech4 ,there were neither men nor brutes1 neither birds1 fish1 nor crabs1 stick nor stone1 valley nor mountain1 stubble nor forest1 nothing but the sky2 the face of the land was hidden4 ,there was naught but the silent sea and the sky4 ,there was nothing joined1 nor any sound1 nor thing that stirred2 neither any to do evil1 nor to rumble in the heavens1 nor a walker on foot2 only the silent waters1 only the pacified ocean1 only it in its calm4 ,nothing was but stillness1 and rest1 and darkness1 and the night2 nothing but the ,maker and ,moulder1 the ,hurler1 the ,bird-,serpent 7,m4 ,n4 ,w41 p4 #aif4--,popol ,vuh1 p4 #g74 ,another cosmogony is derived from the ,mixtecs1 also aborigines of ,america3-- ,in the year and in the day of clouds1 before ever were either years or days1 the world lay in darkness2 all things were orderless1 and a water covered the slime and the ooze that the earth then was 7,m4 ,n4 ,w41 p4 #aif74 ,two winds are in this myth the agents employed to effect the subsidence of the waters1 and the appearance of dry land4 ,in another account1 related by some other tribes1 the muskrat is the instrument which divides the land from the waters4 ,these myths1 as ,mr4 ,brinton1 who has collected them1 truly remarks1 are not of a construction1 but a reconstruction only1 and are in that respect altogether similar to the creative myth of the first chapter of ,genesis4 ,in the ,buddhistic history of the ,east ,mongols1 the creation of the world is made1 as in ,genesis1 the starting point of the relation4 ,but the creative forces in this mythology are apparently supposed to be inherent in primeval matter4 ,hence we have a ,lucretian account of the movements of the several parts of the component mass without any consideration of the question how the impulse to these movements was originally given4 ,in the beginning there arose the external reservoir from three different masses of matter2 namely1 from the creative air1 from the waving water1 and from the firm1 plastic earth4 ,a strong wind from ten-quarters now brought about the blue atmosphere4 ,a large cloud1 pouring down continuous rain1 formed the sea4 ,dry land arose by means of grains of dust collecting on the surface of the ocean1 like cream on milk4#ia ,although the sacred writings of the ,parsees contain no connected account of the creation1 yet this void is fully supplied by traditions which have acquired a religious sanction1 and have entered into the popular belief4 ,those traditions are found in the ,bundehesh and the ,shahnahmeh1 works of high authority in the ,parsee system4 ,according to them1 ,ahura-,mazda1 the good principle1 induced his rival1 ,agra-,mainyus1 the evil principle1 to enter into a truce of nine thousand years1 foreseeing that by means of this interval he would be able to subdue him in the end4 ,agra-,mainyus1 having discovered his blunder1 went to the darkest hell1 and remained there three thousand years4 ,ahura-,mazda took advantage of this repose to create the material world4 ,he produced the sky in forty-five days1 the water in sixty1 the earth in seventy-five1 the trees in thirty1 the cattle in eighty1 and human beings in seventy-five2 three hundred and sixty-five days were thus occupied with the business of creation4 ,it will be observed that1 though the time taken is longer1 the order of production is the same in the ,parsee as in the ,hebrew legend4 ,this fact tends to confirm the supposition1 which will hereafter appear still more probable1 of an intimate relation between the two4 ,always prone to speculation1 the ,hindus were certain to find in the dark subject of creation abundant materials for their mystic theories4 ,various explanations are accordingly given in the ,rig-,veda4 ,thus1 the following account is found in the tenth ,book3-- ,let us1 in chanted hymns1 with praise1 declare the births of the gods1--any of us who in this latter age may behold them4 ,brhmanaspati blew forth these births like a blacksmith4 ,in the earliest age of the gods1 the existent sprang from the non-existent3 thereafter the regions sprang from ,uttnapad4 ,the earth sprang from ,uttnapad1 from the earth sprang the regions3 ,daksha sprang from ,aditi1 and ,aditi from ,daksha4 ,then the gods were born1 and drew forth the sun1 which was hidden in the ocean 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 v4 p4 #dh4--,rig-,veda1 x4 #gb74 ,with higher wisdom1 another ,vaidik ,rishi declares it impossible to know the origin of the universe3-- ,there was then neither nonentity nor entity3 there was no atmosphere1 nor sky above4 ,what enveloped all8 ,where1 in the receptacle of what1 was it contained8 ,was it water1 the profound abyss8 ,death was not then1 nor immortality2 there was no distinction of day or night4 ,that ,one breathed calmly1 self-supported2 there was nothing different from1 or above1 it4 ,in the beginning darkness existed1 enveloped in darkness4 ,all this was undistinguishable water4 ,that ,one which lay void1 and wrapped in nothingness1 was developed by the power of fervor4 ,desire first arose in ,it1 which was the primal germ of mind2 and which sages1 searching with their intellect1 have discovered in their heart to be the bond which connects entity with nonentity4 ,the ray or cord which stretched across these worlds1 was it below or was it above8 ,there were there impregnating powers and mighty forces1 a self-supporting principle beneath1 and energy aloft4 ,who knows1 who here can declare1 whence has sprung1 whence1 this creation8 ,the gods are subsequent to the development of this universe2 who then knows whence it arose8 ,from what this creation arose1 and whether any one made it or not1 he who in the highest heaven is its ruler1 he verily knows1 or even he does not know 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 v4 p4 #cef4--,rig-,veda1 x4 #abi74 ,a later narrative ascribes creation to the god ,prajapati1 who1 it is said1 having the desire to multiply himself1 underwent the requisite austerities1 and then produced earth1 air1 and heaven 7,a4 ,b41 vol4 ii4 p4 #cgb74 ,we now return to ,genesis1 which proceeds to its second problem3 the creation of living creatures and of man4 ,this is solved in two distinct fashions by two different writers4 ,the first relates that on the fifth day ,god said1 ,let the waters swarm with the swarming of animals having life1 and let birds fly to and fro on the earth1 on the face of the vault of the heavens4 ,having thus produced the inhabitants of the ocean and air on the fifth day1 he produced those of earth on the sixth4 ,on this day too he made man in his own image1 and created them male and female4 ,the whole of his work was now finished1 and on the seventh day he enjoyed repose from his creative exertions1 for which reason he blessed the seventh day 7,gen4 #a-;ii4 #c74 99 99 99 99 99 ,here the first account of creation ends2 the second begins with a descriptive title at the fourth verse of the second chapter4 ,the writer of this version1 unlike his predecessor1 instead of ascribing the creation of man to the immediate fiat of ,elohim1 describes the process as resembling one of manufacture4 ,god formed the human figure out of the dust of the earth1 and then blew life into it1 a conception drawn from the wide-spread notion of the identity of breath with life4 ,again the narrator of the second story varies from the narrator of the first about the creation of the sexes4 ,in the first1 the male and female are made together4 ,in the second1 a deep sleep falls upon the man1 during which ,god takes out a rib from his side and makes the woman out of it4 ,generally speaking1 it may be remarked that the former writer moves in a more transcendental sphere than the latter4 ,he likes to conceive the origin of the world1 with all its flora and all its fauna1 as arising from the simple power of the word of ,god4 ,how they arise he never troubles himself to say4 ,the latter is more terrestrial4 ,god with him is like a powerful artist2 extremely skilled indeed in dealing with his materials1 but nevertheless obliged to adapt his proceedings to their nature and capabilities4 ,this author delights in the concrete and particular2 and not only does he aim at relating the order of the creation1 but also at making the modus operandi more or less intelligible to his hearers4 ,a somewhat different account of the origin of man is given in the traditions of ,samoa1 one of the ,fiji islands4 ,these traditions also describe an epoch when the earth was covered with water4 ,tangaloa1 the great ,polynesian ,jupiter1 sent his daughter to find a dry place4 ,after a long time she found a rock4 ,in subsequent visits she reported that the dry land was extending4 ,he then sent her down with some earth and a creeping plant1 as all was barren rock4 ,she continued to visit the earth and return to the skies4 ,next visit1 the plant was spreading4 ,next time1 it was withered and decomposing4 ,next visit1 it swarmed with worms4 ,and the next time1 the worms had become men and women6 ,a strange account of man's origin6 ,on which it may be remarked1 as a curious psychological phenomenon1 tending to illustrate the effects of habit1 that the missionary considers it a strange account of man's origin which represents ,god as making him from worms1 but readily accepts another in which he is made out of dust4 ,the third question dealt with in ,genesis is that of the origin of evil4 ,this is a problem which has engaged the attention and perplexed the minds of many inquirers besides these ancient ,hebrews1 and for which most religions provide some kind of solution4 ,the manner in which it is treated here is as follows3-- ,when ,god made ,adam1 he placed him in a garden full of delights1 and especially distinguished by the excellence of its fruit-trees4 ,there was one of these trees1 however1 the fruit of which he did not wish ,adam to eat4 ,he accordingly gave him strict orders on the subject in these words3 ,of every tree of the garden thou mayst eat2 but of the tree of knowledge of good and evil1 of that thou mayst not eat1 for on what day thou eatest thereof1 thou diest the death 7,gen4 ii4 #af1 #ag74 ,this order we must suppose to have been imparted by ,adam to ,eve1 who was not produced until after it had been given4 ,at any rate1 we find her fully cognizant of it in the ensuing chapter1 where the serpent appears upon the scene and endeavors1 only too successfully1 to induce her to eat the fruit4 ,after yielding to the temptation herself1 she induced her husband to do the like2 whereupon both recognized the hitherto unnoticed fact of their nudity1 and made themselves aprons of fig-leaves4 ,shortly after this crisis in their lives ,god came down to enjoy the cool of the evening in the garden2 and ,adam and ,eve1 feeling their guilt1 ran to hide themselves among the trees4 ,god called ,adam1 and the latter replied that he had hidden himself because he was naked4 ,but ,god at once asked who had told him he was naked4 ,had he eaten of the forbidden tree8 ,of course ,adam and ,eve had to confess1 and ,god then cursed the serpent for his gross misconduct1 and punished the man by imposing labor upon him1 and the woman by rendering her liable to the pains of childbirth4 ,he also condescended so far as to become the first tailor1 making garments of skins for ,adam and ,eve4 ,but though he had thus far got the better of them by his superior strength1 he was not without apprehension that they might outwit him still4 ,and ,god1 the ,everlasting1 spoke3 ,see1 the man is become as one of us1 to know good and evil2 and now1 lest he should stretch out his hand and take also of the tree of life1 and eat and live forever6 ,therefore ,god1 the ,everlasting1 sent him out of the garden of ,eden1 to cultivate the ground from which he had been taken 7,gen4 iii4 #bb1 #bc74 ,and in order to make quite sure that the man should not get hold of the tree of life1 a calamity which would have defeated his intention to make him mortal1 he guarded the approach to it by means of ,cherubim1 posted as sentinels with the flame of a sword that turned about4 ,in this way he conceived that he had secured himself against any invasion of his privilege of immortality on the part of the human race4 ,like the myth of creation1 the myth of a happier and brighter age1 when men did not suffer from any of the evils that oppress them now1 is common1 if not universal4 ,common too1 if not equally common1 is the notion that they fell from that superior state by contracting the stain of sin4 ,i need scarcely refer to the classical story of a golden age1 embodied by ,hesiod in his ,works and ,days1 nor to the fable of ,pandora allowing the ills enclosed in the box to escape into the world4 ,but it may be of interest to remark1 that the conception of a ,paradise was no less familiar to the natives of ,america than to those of ,europe4 ,when ,christopher ,columbus1 observes ,brinton1 fired by the hope of discovering this terrestrial paradise1 broke the enchantment of the cloudy sea and found a new world1 it was but to light upon the same race of men1 deluding themselves with the same hope of earthly joys1 the same fiction of a long-lost garden of their youth 7,m4 ,n4 ,w41 p4 #hg74 ,elsewhere he says3 ,once again1 in the legends of the ,mixtecas1 we hear the old story repeated of the garden where the first two brothers dwelt4444 ',many trees were there1 such as yield flowers and roses1 very luscious fruits1 divers herbs1 and aromatic spices' 7,m4 ,n4 ,w41 p4 #ij74 ,corresponding to the golden age among the ,greeks was the ,parsee conception of the reign of ,yima1 a mythological monarch who was in immediate and friendly intercourse with ,ahura-,mazda4 ,yima's kingdom is thus described in the ,vendidad3 ,there was there neither quarreling nor disputing2 neither stupidity nor violence2 neither begging nor imposture2 neither poverty nor illness4 ,no unduly large teeth2 no form that passes the measure of the body2 none of the other marks1 which are marks of ,agra-,mainyus1 that he has made on men 7,av41 vol4 i4 p4 #gf4--,vendidad1 ,fargard ii4 #aaf ff474 ,in another passage1 found in the ,khorda-,avesta1 not only is the happiness of ,yima's time depicted1 but it is also distinctly asserted that he fell through sin4 ,during his rule there was no cold1 no heat1 no old age1 no death1 no envy created by the ,devas1 on account of the absence of lying1 previously1 before he 7himself7 began to love lying1 untrue speeches4 ,then1 when he began to love lying1 untrue speeches1 ,majesty fled from him visibly with the body of a bird 7,av41 vol4 iii4 p4 #age4--,khorda-,avesta1 xxxv4 #cb1 #cd74 ,more elaborately than in any of these systems is the fall of man described in the mythology of ,buddhism4 ,in this religion1 as in that of the ,jews1 man is of divine origin1 though after a somewhat different fashion4 ,a spiritual being1 or god1 fell from one of the upper spheres1 to be born in the world of man4 ,through the progressive increase of this being arose the six species of living creatures in the three worlds4 ,the most eminent of these species1 ,man1 enjoyed an untold duration of life 7another point in which ,buddhistic legends resemble those of the ,hebrews74 ,locomotion was carried on through the air2 they did not consume impure terrestrial food1 but lived on celestial victuals2 and propagation1 since there was no distinction of sex1 was carried on by means of emanation4 ,they did not require sun or moon1 for they saw by their own light4 ,alas6 one of these pure beings was tempted by a fool called earth-butter and ate it4 ,the rest followed its example4 ,hereupon the heavenly food vanished2 the race lost their power of going about the sky1 and ceased to shine by their own light4 ,this was the origin of the evil of the darkening of the mind4 ,as a consequence of these deeds1 sun1 moon1 and stars appeared4 ,still greater calamities were in store for men4 ,another1 at another time1 ate a different kind of food1 an example again followed by the rest4 ,in consequence of this1 the distinctions of sex were established in them2 passion arose2 they began to beget children4 ,this was the origin of the evil of sensual love4 ,on a further occasion1 one of them ate wild rice1 and all lived for a time on wild rice1 gathered as it was needed for immediate consumption4 ,but when some foolish fellow took it into his head to collect enough for the following day1 the rice ceased to grow without cultivation4 ,this was the origin of the evil of idle carelessness4 ,it being now necessary to cultivate rice1 persons began to appropriate and quarrel about land1 and even to kill one another4 ,this was the origin of the evil of anger4 ,again1 some who were better off hid their stores from those who were not so well off4 ,this was the origin of the evil of covetousness4 ,in course of time the age of men began to decline so as to be expressible in numbers4 ,it continues gradually to decline until a turning-point arrives1 at which it again increases 7,g4 ,o4 ,m41 p4 #e-i74 ,several points of similarity between the ,hebrew myth and that just narrated will doubtless occur to the reader4 ,the fall of man is due1 in this1 as in ,genesis1 to the eating of a peculiar food by a single person2 and this example is followed1 in the one case1 by the only other inhabitant2 in the other1 by all4 ,the calamity thus entailed does not terminate in the loss of former pleasures1 but extends to the introduction of crime and sexual relations4 ,eve is cursed by having to bear children2 the same misfortune happened to the ,buddhist women4 ,cain quarreled with ,abel and killed him2 so did the landed proprietors in the ,indian legend quarrel with and kill one another4 ,the fourth question which appeared to have engaged the attention of the authors of ,genesis was that of the variety of languages4 ,how was it1 if all mankind were descended from a single pair1 and if again all but the ,noachian family had been drowned1 that they did not all speak the pure language in which ,adam and ,eve had conversed with their ,creator in ,paradise8 ,embarrassed by their own theories1 the writers attempted to account for the phenomenon of the diverse modes of speech in use among men by an awkward myth4 ,men had determined to build a town1 with a tower which should reach to heaven4 ,jehovah1 however1 came down one day to see what they were about1 and was filled with apprehension that1 if they succeeded in this undertaking1 he might find it impossible to prevent them from carrying out their wishes in other ways also1 whatever those wishes might be4 ,so he determined to confound their language1 that they might not understand one another1 and by this happy contrivance put an end to the construction of the dangerous tower 7,gen4 xi4 #a-i74 ,we have anticipated the course of the narrative in order to consider the solutions offered in ,genesis of the four principal problems with which it attempts to deal4 ,we must now return to the point at which we left the parents of the race1 namely1 immediately after their expulsion from ,eden4 ,they now began to beget children rapidly2 and ,adam's eldest son1 ,cain1 afterwards killed his second son1 ,abel1 for which ,jehovah cursed him as he had previously cursed his parents4 ,adam and ,eve had several other children1 and 7though this is nowhere expressly stated1 but only implied7 the brothers and sisters united in marriage to carry out the propagation of the species4 ,in course of time1 however1 the sons of ,god began to admire the beauty of the daughters of men1 and to take wives from among them4 ,jehovah1 indignant at such a scandal1 fixed the limits of man's life--which had hitherto been measured by centuries--at #abj years4 ,at the same time there were giants on earth4 ,now ,jehovah saw that the human race was extremely wicked1 so much so1 that he began to wish he had never created it4 ,to remedy this blunder1 however1 he determined to destroy it2 and in order that the improvement should be thorough1 to destroy along with it all cattle1 creeping things1 and birds1 who had not 7so far as we are aware17 entered into the same kind of irregular alliances with other species as men4 ,nevertheless1 he had still a lingering fondness for his handiwork1 badly as it had turned out2 and therefore determined to preserve enough of each kind of animal1 man included1 to carry on the breed without the necessity of resorting a second time to creation4 ,acting upon this resolve1 he ordered an individual named ,noah to build an ark of gopher-wood1 announcing that he would shortly destroy all flesh1 but wished to save ,noah and his three sons1 with their several wives4 ,he also desired him to take two members of each species of beasts and birds1 or1 according to another account1 seven of each clean beast and bird1 and two of each unclean beast2 but in any case taking care that each sex should be represented in the ark4 ,when ,noah had done all this1 the waters came up from below and down from above1 and there was an increasing flood for forty days4 ,all terrestrial life but that which floated in the ark was destroyed4 ,at last the waters began to ebb1 and finally the ark rested on the #agth day of the #gth month on ,mount ,ararat4 ,after forty more days ,noah sent out a raven and a dove1 of which only the dove returned4 ,in seven days he sent the dove again1 and it returned1 bringing an olive-leaf2 and after another week1 when he again sent it out1 it returned no more4 ,it was not1 however1 till the #bgth of the #b;d month of the ensuing year 7these chroniclers being very exact about dates7 that the earth was dried1 and that ,noah and his party were able to quit the ark4 ,to commemorate the goodness of ,god in drowning all the world except himself and his family1 ,noah erected an altar and offered burnt-offerings of every clean beast and every clean fowl4 ,the effect was instantaneous4 ,so pleased was ,jehovah with the pleasant smell1 that he resolved never to destroy all living beings again1 though still of opinion that the imagination of man's heart is evil from his youth 7,gen4 vi4 #g1 #h74 ,the myth of the deluge is very general4 ,the ,hebrews have no exclusive property in it4 ,many different races relate it in different ways4 ,we may easily suppose that the partial deluges to which they must often have been witnesses suggested the notion of a universal deluge1 in which not only a few tribes or villages perished1 but all the inhabited earth was laid under water2 or the memory of some actual flood of unusual dimensions may have survived in the popular mind1 and been handed down with traits of exaggeration and distortion such as are commonly found in the narratives of events preserved by oral tradition4 ,let us examine a few instances of the flood-myth4 ,the ,fijians relate that the god ,degei was roused every morning by the cooing of a monstrous bird1 but that two young men1 his grandsons1 one day accidentally killed and buried it4 ,degei having1 after some trouble1 found the dead body1 determined to be avenged4 ,the youths took refuge with a powerful tribe of carpenters1 who built a fence to keep out the god4 ,unable to take the fence by storm1 ,degei brought on heavy floods1 which rose so high that his grandsons and their friends had to escape in large bowls that happened to be at hand4 ,they landed at various places2 but it is said that the two tribes became extinct 7,viti1 p4 #cid74 ,the ,greenlanders have a tolerably distinct tradition of a flood4 ,they say that all men were drowned excepting one4 ,this one beat with his stick upon the ground and thereby produced a woman 7,grnland1 p4 #bdf74 ,kamtschatka has a somewhat similar legend1 except that it admits a larger number of survivors4 ,very many1 according to this version1 were drowned1 and the waves had sunk those who had got into boats2 but others took refuge in rafts1 binding the trees together to make them4 ,on these they saved themselves with their provisions and all their property4 ,when the waters subsided1 the rafts remained on the high mountains 7,kamtschatka1 p4 #bgc74 ,among the ,north ,americans the notion of a universal deluge was1 in the time of the ,jesuit ,de ,charlevoix1 rather wide-spread4 ,in one of their stories1 told by the ,iroquois1 all human beings were drowned2 and it was necessary1 in order to re-populate the earth1 to change animals into men 7,n4 ,f41 vol4 iii4 p4 #cde74 ,the ,tupis of ,brazil are supposed to be named after ,tupa1 the first of men1 who alone survived the flood 7,m4 ,n4 ,w41 p4 #ahe74 ,again1 the ,peruvians imagined that two destructions had taken place1 the first by a famine1 the second by a flood2 according to some a few only escaping1 but1 after the more widely accepted opinion1 accompanied by the absolute extirpation of the race4 ,the present race came from eggs dropped out of heaven 7,ibid41 p4 #bac74 ,several other tribes relate in diverse forms this world-wide story4 ,in one of the versions1 found in an old ,mexican work1 a man and his wife are saved1 by the directions of their god1 in a hollow cypress4 ,in another1 the earth is destroyed by water1 because men did not think nor speak of the ,creator who had created them1 and who had caused their birth4 ,because they had not thought of their ,mother and ,father1 the ,heart of ,heaven1 whose name is ,hurakan1 therefore the face of the earth grew dark1 and a pouring rain commenced1 raining by day1 raining by night 7,ibid41 p4 #bjf ff474 ,the diluvian legend appears in a very singular form in ,india in the ,satapatha ,brhmana4 ,there it is stated1 that in the basin which was brought to ,manu to wash his hands in1 there was one morning a small fish4 ,the fish said to him1 ,preserve me1 ,i shall save thee4 ,manu inquired from what it would save him4 ,the fish replied that it would be from a flood which would destroy all creatures4 ,it informed ,manu that fishes1 while small1 were exposed to the risk of being eaten by other fishes2 he was therefore to put it first into a jar2 then when it grew too large for that1 to dig a trench and keep it in that2 that when it grew too large for the trench1 to carry it to the ocean4 ,straightway it became a large fish1 and said3 ,now in such and such a year1 then the flood will come2 thou shalt therefore construct a ship1 and resort to me2 thou shalt embark in the ship when the flood rises1 and ,i shall deliver thee from it4 ,manu took the fish to the sea1 and in the year that had been named1 he constructed a ship and resorted to him4 ,when the flood rose1 ,manu embarked in the ship4 ,the fish swam towards him4 ,he fastened the cable of the ship to the fish's horn4 ,by this means he passed over this northern mountain4 ,the fish said1 ',i have delivered thee2 fasten the ship to a tree4 ,but lest the water should cut thee off whilst thou art on the mountain1 as much as the water subsides1 so much shalt thou descend after it4' ,he accordingly descended after it as much 7as it subsided74444 ,now the flood had swept away all these creatures2 so ,manu alone was left here 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 i4 p4 #ahc74 ,the story goes on to relate that ,manu1 being quite alone1 produced a woman by arduous religious rites1 and that with this woman1 who called herself his daughter1 he begot this offspring1 which is this offspring of ,manu1 that is1 the existing human race4 ,after the flood1 the history proceeds for some time to narrate the lives of a series of patriarchs1 the mythological ancestors of the ,hebrew race4 ,of these the first is ,abram1 afterwards called ,abraham2 to whom a solemn promise was made that he was to be the progenitor of a great nation2 that ,jehovah would bless those who blessed him1 and curse those who cursed him2 and that in him all generations of the earth should be blessed 7,gen4 xii4 #a-c74 ,when ,abraham visited ,egypt1 he desired his wife ,sarah to call herself his sister1 fearing lest the ,egyptians should kill him for her sake4 ,she did so1 and was taken into ,pharaoh's harem in consequence of her false statement2 but ,jehovah plagued ,pharaoh1 and his house so severely that the truth was discovered1 and ,sarah was restored to her lawful husband4 ,it is remarkable that ,abraham is stated to have subsequently repeated the same contemptible trick1 this time alleging by way of excuse that ,sarah really was his step-sister2 and that ,abraham's son1 ,isaac1 is said to have done the same thing in reference to ,rebekah 7,gen4 xii4 #aj-bj1 xx41 xxvi4 #f-aa74 ,abimelech1 king of ,gerar1 who was twice imposed upon by these patriarchs1 must have thought it a singular custom of the family thus to pass off their wives as sisters4 ,apparently1 too1 both of them were quite prepared to surrender their consorts to the harems of foreign monarchs rather than run the smallest risk in their defense4 ,abraham1 at ninety-nine years of age1 was fortunate in all things but one3 he had no legitimate heir4 ,but this too was to be given him4 ,jehovah appeared to him1 announced himself as ,almighty ,god1 and established with ,abraham a solemn covenant4 ,he promised to make him fruitful1 to give his posterity the land of ,canaan1 in which he then was1 and to cause ,sarah to have a son4 ,at the same time he desired that all males should be circumcized1 an operation which was forthwith performed on ,abraham1 his illegitimate son ,ishmael1 and all the men in his house 7,gen4 xvii74 ,in due time ,sarah had a son whom ,abraham named ,isaac4 ,but when ,isaac was a lad1 and all ,abraham's hopes of posterity were centered in him as the only child of ,sarah1 ,god one day commanded him to sacrifice him as a burnt-offering on a mountain in ,moriah4 ,without a murmur1 without a word of inquiry1 ,abraham prepared to obey this extraordinary injunction1 and was only withheld from plunging the sacrificial knife into the bosom of his son by the positive interposition of an angel4 ,looking about1 he perceived a ram caught in a thicket1 and offered him as a burnt offering instead of ,isaac4 ,for this servile and unintelligent submission1 he was rewarded by ,jehovah with further promises as to the amazing numbers of his posterity in future times 7,gen4 xxi4 #a-h2 xxii4 #a-ai74 ,the tradition of human sacrifice1 thus preserved in the story of ,abraham and ,isaac1 is found also in a curious narrative of the ,aitareya ,brhmana4 ,that sacred book also commemorates an important personage1 in this instance a king1 who had no son4 ,although he had a hundred wives1 yet none of them bore him a male heir4 ,he inquired of his priest1 ,narada1 what were the advantages of having a son1 and learned that they were very great4 ,the father pays a debt in his son1 and gains immortality1 such was one of the privileges to be obtained by means of a son4 ,the ,rishi ,narada therefore advised ,king ,harischandra to pray to ,varuna for a son1 promising at the same time to sacrifice him as soon as he was born4 ,the king did so4 ,then a son1 ,rohita by name1 was born to him4 ,varuna said to him1 ',a son is born to thee1 sacrifice him to me4' ,harischandra said1 ',an animal is fit for being sacrificed1 when it is more than ten days old4 ,let him reach this age1 then ,i will sacrifice him to thee4 ,at ten days ,varuna again demanded him1 but now his father had a fresh excuse1 and so postponed the sacrifice from age to age until ,rohita had received his full armor4 ,varuna having again claimed him1 ,harischandra now said1 ,well1 my dear1 to him who gave thee unto me1 ,i will sacrifice thee now4 ,but ,rohita1 come to man's estate1 had no mind to be sacrificed1 and ran away to the wilderness4 ,varuna now caused ,harischandra to suffer from dropsy4 ,rohita1 hearing of it1 left the forest1 and went to a village1 where ,indra1 in disguise1 met him and desired him to wander4 ,the advice was repeated every year until ,rohita had wandered six years in the forest4 ,this last year he met a poor ,rishi1 named ,ajigarta1 who was starving1 to whom he offered one hundred cows for one of his three sons as a ransom for himself in the sacrifice to be offered to ,varuna4 ,the father having objected to the eldest1 and the mother to the youngest1 the middle one ,sunahsepa1 was agreed upon as the ransom1 and the hundred cows were paid for him4 ,rohita presented to his father the boy ,sunahsepa1 who was accepted by the god with the remark that a ,brahman was worth more than a ,kshattriya4 ,varuna then explained to the king the rites of the ,rajasuya sacrifice1 at which on the day appointed for the inauguration he replaced the 7sacrificial animal7 by a man4 ,but at the sacrifice a strange incident occurred4 ,no one could be found willing to bind the victim to the sacrificial post4 ,at last his father offered to do it for another hundred cows4 ,bound to the stake1 no one could be found to kill him4 ,this act also his father undertook to do for a third hundred4 ,he then whetted his knife and went to kill his son4 ,sunahsepa then got aware that they were going to butcher him just as if he were no man 7but a beast74 ',well1' said he1 ',i will seek shelter with the gods4' ,he applied to ,prajapati1 who referred him to another god1 who did the same2 and thus he was driven from god to god through the pantheon1 until he came to ,ushas1 the dawn4 ,however1 as he was praising ,ushas1 his fetters fell off1 and ,harischandra's belly became smaller2 until at the last verse he was free1 and ,harischandra well4 ,sunahsepa was now received among the priests as one of themselves1 and he sat down by ,visvamitra1 an eminent ,rishi4 ,ajigarta1 his father1 requested that he might be returned to him1 but ,visvamitra refused1 for1 he said1 the gods have presented him to me4 ,from that time forward he became ,visvamitra's son4 ,at this point1 however1 ,ajigarta himself entreated his son to return to his home1 and the answer of the latter is remarkable4 ,sunahsepa answered1 ',what is not found even in the hands of a ,shudra1 one has seen in thy hand1 the knife 7to kill thy son72 three hundred cows thou hast preferred to me1 ,o ,angiras4' ,ajigarta then answered1 ',o my dear son6 ,i repent of the bad deed ,i have committed2 ,i blot out this stain6 one hundred of the cows shall be thine6' ,sunahsepa answered1 ',who once might commit such a sin1 may commit the same another time4 ,thou art still not free from the brutality of a ,shudra1 for thou hast committed a crime for which no reconciliation exists4' ',yes1 irreconcilable 7is this act71' interrupted ,visvamitra6 7,a4 ,b41 p4 #dfj-dfi47 ,on the likeness of this story to the ,hebrew legend of the intended sacrifice of ,isaac1 and on the difference between the two1 ,i shall comment elsewhere4 ,from the days of ,abraham the history proceeds through a series of patriarchal biographies--those of ,isaac and ,rebekah1 of ,jacob and ,rachel1 of ,joseph and his brothers--to the captivity of the ,israelites in ,egypt under the successor of the monarch whose prime minister ,joseph had been4 ,it is at this point that the history of the ,hebrews as a distinct nation may be said to begin4 ,the patriarchs belong to universal history4 ,but from the days of the ,egyptian captivity it is the fortunes of a peculiar tribe1 and afterwards of an independent people that are followed4 ,we have their deliverance from slavery1 their progress through the wilderness1 their triumphant establishment in their destined home1 the rise1 decline1 and fall of their national greatness1 depicted with much graphic power1 and intermingled with episodes of the deepest interest4 ,it would not be consistent with the plan or limits of this work to follow the history through its varied details2 all we can do is to touch upon it here and there1 where the adventures1 institutions1 or imaginations of the ,hebrews present points of contact with those of other nations as recorded in their authorized writings4 ,it was only by the especial favor of ,jehovah that the ,hebrew slaves were enabled to escape from ,egypt at all4 ,that deity appointed a man named ,moses as their leader2 and1 employing him as his mouthpiece1 desired ,pharaoh to let them go4 ,on ,pharaoh's refusal1 he visited ,egypt with a series of calamities2 all of them inadequate to the object in view1 until at length ,pharaoh and all his army were overwhelmed in the ,red ,sea1 which had opened to allow the ,israelites to pass4 ,these last now escaped into the wilderness1 where1 under the guidance of ,moses1 they wandered for forty years1 undergoing all sorts of hardships1 before they reached the promised land4 ,during the course of their travels1 ,jehovah gave ,moses ten commandments1 which stand out from a mass of other injunctions and enactments1 by the solemnity with which they were delivered1 and by the extreme importance of their subject-matter4 ,they are reported to have been given to ,moses by ,jehovah in person on ,mount ,sinai1 in the midst of a very considerable amount of noise and smoke1 apparently intended to be impressive4 ,by these laws the ,israelites were ordered-- #a4 ,to have no other ,god but ,jehovah4 #b4 ,to make no image for purposes of worship4 #c4 ,not to take ,jehovah's name in vain4 #d4 ,not to work on the ,sabbath day4 #e4 ,to honor their parents4 #f4 ,not to kill4 #g4 ,not to commit adultery4 #h4 ,not to steal4 #i4 ,not to bear false witness against a neighbor4 #aj4 ,not to covet4 ,concerning these commandments1 it may be observed that the acts enjoined or forbidden are of very different characters4 ,some of the obligations thus imposed are universally binding1 and the precepts relating to them form a portion of universal ethics4 ,others again are of a purely special theological character1 and have no application at all except to those who hold certain theological doctrines4 ,lastly1 others command states of mind only1 which have no proper place in positive laws enforced under penalties4 ,to illustrate these remarks in detail3 the four commandments against killing1 stealing1 adultery1 and calumny are of universal obligation1 and though they are far from exhausting the list of actions which a moral code should prohibit1 yet properly belong to it and are among its most important constituents4 ,but the first1 second1 third1 and fourth commandments presuppose a nation believing in ,jehovah as their ,god2 and even with that proviso the fourth1 requiring the observance of a day of rest1 is purely arbitrary2 belonging only to ritual1 not to morals4 ,to place it along with prohibitions of murder and theft1 is simply to confuse in the minds of hearers the all-important distinction between special observances and universal duties4 ,again1 the fifth and tenth commandments require mere emotional conditions2 respect for parents in the one case1 absence of covetousness in the other4 ,no doubt both these mental conditions have actions and abstinences from action as their correlatives2 but it is with these last that law should deal1 and not with the mere states of feeling over which no commandment can exercise the smallest control4 ,law may forbid us to annoy our neighbor1 or do him an injury on account of his wife whom we love1 or his estate which we desire to possess2 but it is idle to forbid us to wish that the wife or the estate were ours4 ,these errors are avoided in the five fundamental commandments of ,buddhism1 which relate wholly to matters that1 if binding upon any1 are binding upon all4 ,they are these3-- #a4 ,not to kill4 #b4 ,not to steal4 #c4 ,not to indulge in illicit pleasures of sex4 #d4 ,not to lie4 #e4 ,not to drink intoxicating liquors4#ib ,no doubt the fifth is not of equal importance with the rest2 yet its intention is simply to put a stop to drunkenness1 and this it accomplishes1 like teetotal societies1 by requiring entire abstinence4 ,probably in hot climates1 and with populations not capable of much self-control1 this was the wisest way4 ,the third commandment1 as ,i have presented it1 is somewhat vague1 but this is because the form in which it is given by the authorities is not always the same4 ,sometimes it appears as a mere prohibition of all unchastity2 but the more probable view appears to be that of ,burnouf1 who interprets it as directed against adultery1 in substantial accordance with ,alabaster1 who renders it as an injunction not to indulge the passions1 so as to invade the legal or natural rights of other men4 ,in the eight principal commandments of the ,parsees1 the breach of which was to be punished with death1 there is the the same confusion of theological and natural duties as in the ,hebrew ,bible4 ,the ,parsees were forbidden-- #a4 ,to kill a pure man 7i4 e41 a ,parsee74 #b4 ,to put out the fire ,behram4 #c4 ,to throw the impurity from dead bodies into fire or water4 #d4 ,to commit adultery4 #e4 ,to practice magic or contribute to its being practiced4 #f4 ,to throw the impurity of menstruating women into fire or water4 #g4 ,to commit sodomy with boys4 #h4 ,to commit highway-robbery or suicide 7,av41 vol4 ii4 p4 lx74 ,besides these commandments1 ,jehovah gave his people a vast mass of laws1 amounting in fact to a complete criminal code1 through his mouthpiece ,moses4 ,among these laws were those which were written on the two tables of stone1 commonly though erroneously supposed to have been the ten commandments of the twentieth chapter4 ,the express statement of ,exodus forbids such a supposition4 ,it is there stated that when ,god had finished communing with ,moses he gave him two tables of testimony1 tables of stone1 written with the finger of ,god4 ,this most valuable autograph ,moses had the folly to break in his anger at finding that the ,israelites1 led by his brother ,aaron1 had taken to worshiping a golden calf in his absence 7,ex41 xxxi4 #ah1 and xxxii4 #ai74 ,god1 however1 desired him to prepare other tables like those he had destroyed1 and kindly undertook to write upon them the very words that had been on the first4 ,apparently1 however1 he only dictated them to ,moses1 who is said to have written upon the tables the words of the covenant1 the ten commandments4 ,what these words were there can be no doubt1 for he had begun his address to ,moses by saying1 ,behold1 ,i make a covenant2 and had concluded it by the expression1 ,write thou these words3 for after the tenor of these words have ,i made a covenant with thee and with ,israel 7,ex4 xxxiv4 #a-bh74 ,now the commandments thus asserted to have been written on the tables of stone were very different from the ten given before on ,mount ,sinai1 and resemble more closely still the style of those quoted from the ,parsee books4 ,yet they were evidently deemed by the writers of great importance1 from the honor ascribed to them of having been originally written in ,god's own handwriting on stone4 ,their purport is3--#a4 ,to forbid any covenant with the inhabitants of the land to which the ,israelites were going1 and to enjoin them to destroy their altars1 break their images1 and cut down their groves2--#b4 ,to require the observance of the feast of unleavened bread2--#c4 ,to lay claim to firstlings for ,jehovah1 and demand their redemption2--#d4 ,to command the ,sabbatical rest2--#e4 ,to enjoin the observance of the feast of weeks2--#f4 ,to desire that all males should appear thrice yearly before the ,lord2--#g4 ,to forbid the sacrifice of blood with leaven2--#h4 ,to forbid leaving the sacrifice of the feast of the passover till morning2--#i4 ,to demand the first-fruits for ,jehovah2--#aj4 ,to forbid seething a kid in its mother's milk4#ic ,eminent as ,moses was1 and high as he stood in the favor of his ,god1 he was not permitted to lead his people to ,canaan4 ,jehovah punished him for a momentary weakness by depriving him of that privilege1 which was reserved for ,joshua4 ,just as the waters of the ,red ,sea were cleft in two to allow the ,israelites to quit ,egypt1 so were those of the ,jordan cleft in two to allow them to enter ,canaan4 ,no sooner did the feet of the priests bearing the ark touch the water1 than the portion of the river below was cut off from that above1 the upper waters rising into a heap 7,josh4 iii74 ,striking as this miracle is1 it is not more so than that performed by ,visvamitra1 an ,indian sage4 ,when he arrived at a river which he desired to cross1 that holy man said3 ,listen1 ,o sisters1 to the bard who has come to you from afar with wagon and chariot4 ,sink down2 become fordable2 reach not up to our chariot-axles with your streams4 7,the rivers answer73 ,we shall listen to thy words1 ,o bard2 thou hast come from far with wagon and chariot4 ,i will bow down to thee like a woman with full breast 7suckling her child71 as a maid to a man will ,i throw myself open to thee4 7,visvamitra says73 ,when the ,bharatas1 that war-loving tribe1 sent forward1 impelled by ,indra1 have crossed thee1 then thy headlong current shall hold on its course4 ,i seek the favor of you the adorable4 ,the war-loving ,bharatas have crossed2 the ,sage has obtained the favor of the rivers4 ,swell on1 impetuous and fertilizing2 fill your channels2 roll rapidly 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 i4 p4 #cdj74 ,so that the very same prodigy which1 according to the ,book of ,joshua1 was wrought for the benefit of the ,hebrew people in ,palestine1 was1 according to the ,rig-,veda1 wrought for the benefit of a warlike tribe in ,india4 ,after their arrival and settlement in ,palestine the ,israelites passed through a period of great trouble and disturbance4 ,the government was a direct theocracy2 men appointed by ,god1 that is1 self-appointed1 put themselves at the head of affairs and governed with more or less success under the inspiration1 and in the name of ,jehovah4 ,during this time the people were exposed to great annoyance from their enemies the ,philistines1 by whom they were for a certain space held in subjugation4 ,the legend of the national hero and deliverer1 ,samson1 falls within this period of depression under a foreign yoke4 ,samson is the ,jewish ,herakles1 and his exploits are altogether as fabulous as those of his ,hellenic counterpart2 though it is not impossible that such a personage as ,samson may have lived and may have led the people with some glory against their hereditary enemies4 ,many internal disturbances contributed to render the condition of the ,israelites under their theocracy far from enviable2 and at length1 under the government of ,samuel1 the last representative of this state of things1 the people could bear their distress no longer and united to demand a king4 ,the request was undoubtedly a wise one2 for the authority of a monarch was eminently needed to give internal peace and protection against external attacks to the distracted nation4 ,samuel1 however1 was naturally opposed to such a change4 ,his feelings and his interests were alike concerned in the maintenance of the direct government of ,jehovah1 whose plenipotentiary he was4 ,but all his representations that the proposal to elect a king was a crime in the eyes of ,god1 were unavailing4 ,he was compelled to yield1 and selected1 as the monarch appointed by ,jehovah himself1 a young man named ,saul4 ,before long1 however1 ,jehovah discovered that he had made a mistake1 and that ,saul was not the kind of man he had hoped to find him4 ,samuel was therefore desired to anoint ,david to supplant him4 ,in other words1 ,saul did not prove the obedient instrument which ,samuel had hoped to make of him1 and he therefore entered into a secret conspiracy to procure his deposition4 ,the conduct of ,saul1 and his relations to ,david1 have probably been misrepresented by the ecclesiastical historians1 who persistently favor ,david4 ,nevertheless1 they cannot wholly disguise the lawless and savage career of this monarch before his accession to the throne1 of which at length he obtained possession4 ,nor was his conduct during his occupation of it altogether exemplary4 ,he1 however1 promoted the views of the priestly party1 and this was enough to cover a multitude of sins4 ,his son ,solomon who succeeded him was the most magnificent of the monarchs of ,israel and the last who ruled over the undivided kingdom4 ,he was especially renowned for his wisdom1 which is exemplified by a famous decision4 ,two women came before him to dispute the ownership of an infant4 ,one of them stated that the other1 who was alone in the same house with her1 had killed her own child by lying upon it during the night1 and taken the living child from its mother while that mother was asleep4 ,the other asserted that the living child was hers4 ,having heard the two statements1 the king ordered the living child to be cut in two and half given to each woman4 ,hereupon the one declared that she would prefer to resign it altogether2 but the other professed her acquiescence in the judgment4 ,the king at once awarded it to her who had been willing to resign it rather than see it divided 7#a ,kings1 iii4 #af-bh74 ,equal1 or perhaps even greater wisdom1 was displayed by a monarch whose history is recorded in one of the sacred books of ,buddhism4 ,two women were contending before him about their right to a boy4 ,he desired each of them to take hold of it by one of its hands and to pull at it2 the one who succeeded in getting it to keep it4 ,she who was not the mother pulled unmercifully2 whereas the true mother1 though stronger than her rival1 only pulled gently in order to avoid hurting it4 ,the king perceived the truth1 and adjudged it to the one who had pulled it gently 7,g4 ,o4 ,m41 p4 #cdd74 ,rehoboam1 the son and successor of ,solomon1 failing to conciliate the people at his accession1 brought about the schism between ,smaria and ,judea1 between the ten tribes and the two1 which was never afterwards healed4 ,after this the government in each kingdom may be described as absolute monarchy tempered by prophetical admonition4 ,the prophets1 who formed a kind of professional body of advisers in the interest of ,jehovah1 made it their business to reprove the crimes1 and especially the idolatries of the kings4 ,they exercised the kind of influence which a corps diplomatique may sometimes exercise on a feeble court4 ,the monarchs sometimes attended to their advice2 sometimes rejected it2 and they receive commendation or reproof at the hands of the historians according to their conduct in this respect4 ,two of these prophets1 ,elijah and ,elisha1 were men of great eminence1 and their actions are recorded at length4 ,such was the power of ,elisha that when1 on one occasion1 he cursed some children who had called him bald head1 she-bears came out of the wood and ate forty-two of them 7#b ,kings1 ii4 #bc-be74 ,respect for ecclesiastics or prophets is sometimes inculcated by such decided measures as these4 ,a young ,buddhist monk once laughed at another for the alacrity with which he leapt over a grave1 saying he was as active as a monkey4 ,the man whom he had ridiculed told him that he belonged to the highest rank in the ,church2 that is1 that he was an ,arhat4 ,upon hearing this the young monk was so alarmed that all his hair stood on end1 and he begged for forgiveness4 ,his repentance saved him from being born in hell2 but because he had laughed at an ,arhat he was condemned to be born #ejj times as a monkey 7,g4 ,o4 ,m41 p4 #cea74 ,elisha's powers in other respects were not less wonderful4 ,he could cause iron to swim1 could foretell the course of events in a war1 could restore the dead to life1 and could smite the king's enemies with blindness 7#b ,kings1 vi4 #g74 ,in this last accomplishment he has rivals1 as ,canon ,callaway has correctly noted1 among the ,amazulu priests4 ,the ,amazulus have a word in their language to describe the practice4 ,it is called an umlingo1 they say1 if1 when a chief is about to fight with another chief1 his doctors cause a darkness to spread among his enemies1 so they are unable to see clearly 7,r4 ,s4 ,a41 vol4 iii4 p4 #cch74 ,the kingdom of ,israel1 unfaithful to the worship of ,jehovah1 fell under the yoke of ,shalmaneser1 ,king of ,assyria2 while ,judah1 though attacked and summoned to submit1 by his successor1 ,sennacherib 7or more correctly ,sanherib71 remained independent some time longer4 ,the ,king of ,judah was at this time ,hezekiah1 a man thoroughly imbued with the principles of the ,jehovistic party1 and therefore much lauded by the historians4 ,the prophet of the day was ,isaiah1 one of the most eminent of those who have filled the prophetic office4 ,isaiah warmly encouraged ,hezekiah to resist the designs of conquest cherished by ,sanherib1 and promised a successful issue4 ,the messengers of the ,assyrian monarch had insultingly reproached ,jehovah with his inability to deliver the land1 alleging that none of the gods of the territories which he had conquered had availed them anything4 ,but a signal confutation of this profane belief in large armies as against deities was about to be given1 and that in a manner which gave an equally signal triumph to ,jehovah1 the god of the ,jews1 and ,ptah1 the god of the ,egyptians4 ,sanherib was engaged in an expedition against ,egypt1 which was governed at this time by a priest-king1 resembling ,hezekiah in the piety of his character4 ,this priest was in bad odor with his army1 who refused to assist him against the invaders4 ,during his trouble on this account1 the god whom he served appeared to him in his sleep and promised that he should suffer nothing1 for he would send him his divine assistance1 just as ,jehovah promised deliverance through the mouth of ,isaiah4 ,he therefore went with some followers to ,pelusium1 and when there1 a number of field-mice1 pouring in upon the ,assyrians1 devoured their quivers1 their bows1 and the handles of their shields1 so that on the next day they fled defenseless1 and many were killed4 ,herodotus tells us that in his day there was still to be seen the statue of the king in the temple of ,ptah1 a mouse in his hand1 and this inscription3 ,whoever looks on me1 let him revere the gods 7,herod41 ii4 #ada74 ,in the ,hebrew version of this catastrophe1 the field-mice are converted into the angel of the ,lord1 and the destruction of the weapons into the slaughter by that angel of #ahe1jjj men4 ,sanherib1 it is added1 returned to ,nineveh1 where he was assassinated by his two sons 7#b ,kings1 xix4 #ce-cg74 ,but ,sanherib himself1 in a deciphered inscription1 declares that he had beaten the ,egyptians1 subjected ,judea1 carried off many of its inhabitants1 and only left ,jerusalem to the king 7,r4 ,i41 p4 #cbh74 ,certainly this statement is strongly confirmed1 so far as ,judea is concerned1 by the admission of the historians themselves1 that ,sanherib had taken the fenced cities of the country2 that ,hezekiah had made an unreserved submission to him1 and had even sent him1 by way of tribute1 not only all the treasures in his own palace and in the temple1 but the very gold from the doors of the temple1 and from the pillars which he himself had overlaid 7#b ,kings xviii4 #ac-af74 ,so humiliating a position went far to justify the taunts of the ,assyrian ambassadors1 that the god of ,judea was no more to be trusted as a defense against material weapons than the gods of the subjugated nations4 ,a remarkable instance of the favor of ,heaven towards ,hezekiah was subsequently evinced4 ,the king fell dangerously ill1 and was warned by ,isaiah to make the necessary arrangements in view of his death1 which was about to happen4 ,hezekiah did not bear the announcement with much dignity4 ,he passionately implored ,jehovah to remember his piety and good deeds1 and then wept sore4 ,moved by this pitiable supplication1 ,jehovah sent ,isaiah back again to promise him fifteen years' more life4 ,on ,hezekiah's asking for a sign that he would be healed1 ,isaiah asked him whether he would prefer that the shadow on the dial should advance or go back ten degrees4 ,hezekiah1 thinking that it was a mere trifle for a god to cause it to advance1 desired that it might turn backwards 7#b ,kings1 xx4 #a-aa74 ,a similar grace was shown towards ,king ,woo in ,china1 but in this case it was the prayer of others1 not his own1 that effected his recovery4 ,his brother1 the ,duke of ,chow1 erected four altars1 put certain symbols upon them1 and addressed himself to three departed kings4 ,the grand historian by his order wrote on tablets his prayer to the following effect3-- ,a4 ,b41 your chief descendant1 is suffering from a severe and dangerous sickness2--if you three kings have in heaven the charge of watching over him1 ,heaven's great son1 let me1 ,tan1 be a substitute for his person4 ,i have been lovingly obedient to my father2 ,i am possessed of many abilities and arts which fit me to serve spiritual beings4 ,your chief descendant1 on the other hand1 has not so many abilities and arts as ,i1 and is not so capable of serving spiritual beings4 ,and1 moreover1 he was appointed in the hall of ,god to extend his aid to the four quarters of the empire1 so that he might establish your descendants in this lower world4 ,the people of the four quarters stand in reverent awe of him4 ,oh6 do not let that precious heaven-conferred appointment fall to the ground1 and all our former kings will also have a perpetual reliance and resort4 ,i will now seek for your orders from the great tortoise 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 iii4 p4 #cec4--,shoo ,king1 part #e1 book #f74 ,after this prayer1 the ,duke divined with the tortoises1 which gave favorable indications4 ,the oracular responses were favorable too4 ,accordingly the king recovered1 but the devoted brother1 though he did not die1 suffered for some time from unjust suspicions1 and retired from court4 ,this was after the decease of ,king ,woo4 ,the discovery of the tablets by ,woo's successor led to his restoration to favor4 ,the relation of the reign of ,hezekiah1 one of the most inglorious of ,judah's rulers1 is an example of the use made of a theory which pervades and colors the whole history of the kings from beginning to end4 ,that theory is1 that ,god favored and protected those monarchs who worshiped and obeyed his prophets1 while he punished those who worshiped other gods and neglected his orders4 ,the deposition of ,saul1 the glory of ,david1 the destruction of the families of ,jeroboam and ,baasha1 the miserable fate of ,ahab and his seventy sons1 the exaltation of ,jehu and his milder punishment proportioned to his mitigated idolatry1 are all examples of the prevalence of this theory4 ,some of the facts indeed were rather difficult to deal with2 such1 for instance1 as the palpable decline of ,judea under ,hezekiah1 and the continuance of its previous misfortunes under ,josiah1 the most praiseworthy of the kings1 who1 in spite of his unrivaled piety1 was slain in a battle against a mere pagan4 ,but inconsistencies like these might be glossed over or explained away4 ,the best kings might meet with the greatest calamities1 and the people of ,jehovah might prove even more unfortunate than the heathen4 ,it mattered not4 ,they were still under his protection2 and if they suffered1 it was because they had not worshiped him enough1 or not worshiped him exclusively4 ,with this elastic hypothesis the key to all historical events was found4 ,traces of a similar theory are to be found in the sacred books of ,china1 though in one instance it is placed in the mouth of a successful sovereign desirous of vindicating his supersession of a former dynasty4 ,it is1 however1 precisely in such cases1 where some ,david or ,jehu has deposed a former monarch and taken his throne1 that this theory is useful1 transferring1 as it does1 the responsibility of the issue to a higher power4 ,thus speaks the ,chinese king3--,i have heard the saying--',god leads men to tranquil security1' but the sovereign of ,hea would not move to such security1 whereupon ,god sent down corrections1 indicating his mind to him4 ,ke1 however1 would not be warned by ,god1 but proceeded to greater dissoluteness and sloth and excuses for himself4 ,then ,heaven no longer regarded nor heard him1 but disallowed his great appointment1 and inflicted extreme punishment4 ,hereupon it charged your founder1 ,t'ang the ,successful1 to set ,hea aside1 and by means of able men to rule the empire4 ,from ,t'ang the ,successful down to the ,emperor ,yih1 every sovereign sought to make his virtue illustrious1 and duly attended to the sacrifices4 ,and thus it was that while ,heaven exerted a great establishing influence1 preserving and regulating the house of ,yin1 but its sovereigns on their part were humbly careful not to lose the favor of ,god1 and strove to manifest a good-doing corresponding to that of ,heaven4 ,but in these times1 their successor showed himself greatly ignorant of the ways of ,heaven1 and much less could it be expected of him that he would be regardful of the earnest labors of his fathers for the country4 ,greatly abandoned to dissolute idleness1 he paid no regard to the bright principles of heaven1 nor the awfulness of the people4 ,on this account ,god no longer protected him1 but sent down the great ruin which we have witnessed4 ,heaven was not with him because he did not seek to illustrate his virtue4 ,indeed1 with regard to all states1 great and small1 throughout the four quarters of the empire1 in every case there are reasons to be alleged for their punishment4444 ,the sovereigns of our ,chow1 from their great goodness1 were charged with the work of ,god4 ,there was the charge to them1 ,cut off ,yin4 ,they proceeded to perform it1 and announced the correcting work of ,god4444 ,the thing was from the decree of ,heaven2 do not resist me2 ,i dare not have any further change for you 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 iii4 p4 #dfj4--,shoo ,king1 part #e1 b4 #ad1 ii4 #a-ah74 ,but it was not only by interested parties that this doctrine was proclaimed in ,china4 ,the ,she ,king1 a sacred book corresponding in character to the ,psalms1 distinctly adopts it1 and thus gives it the highest sanction4 ,this is the language of one of the ,odes3-- ,great is ,god1 ,beholding this lower world in majesty4 ,he surveyed the four quarters of the kingdom1 ,seeking for some one to give settlement to the people4 ,those two earlier dynasties ,had failed to satisfy him with their government2 ,so throughout the various ,states ,he sought and considered ,for one on which he might confer the rule4 ,hating all the great ,states1 ,he turned his kind regards on the west1 ,and there gave a settlement to king ,t'4444 ,god having brought about the removal thither of this ,intelligent ruler1 ,the ,kwan hordes fled away2 444 ,god1 who had raised the ,state1 raised up a proper ruler for it4444 ,this ,king ,ke ,was gifted by ,god with the power of judgment1 ,so that the fame of his virtue silently grew4 ,his virtue was highly intelligent1 ,highly intelligent and of rare discrimination2 ,able to lead2 able to rule1-- ,to rule over this great country2 ,rendering a cordial submission1 effecting a cordial union4 ,when the sway came to ,king ,wn1 ,his virtue left nothing to be dissatisfied with4 ,he received the blessing of ,god1 ,and it was extended to his descendants4 ,the ,ode proceeds to relate how completely victorious this virtuous king was over his enemies1 and how perfect was the security from invasion enjoyed by the country while he governed it 7,c4 ,c41 vol4 iv4 p4 #ddh4--,she ,king1 part #c1 b4 #a1 ode #g74 ,feelings like those that inspired the ,jewish chroniclers are still more clearly visible in the history of ,thibet than in that of ,china4 ,here the orthodox compilers frequently inform us that the reign of a king who observed the law and honored the clergy was distinguished in a peculiarly high degree by the prosperity of the land and the happiness of its people4 ,of one1 for instance1 who entered the portals of religion at thirty-eight years of age1 it is noted that he founded the constitution of the whole great nation on order1 and furthered its welfare and peace 7,g4 ,o4 ,m41 p4 #bja74 ,his son made the whole great nation happy by promoting religion and the laws 7,ibid41 p4 #bjc74 ,another monarch receives a still higher panegyric4 ,by the unbounded honor he showed towards the clergy1 he exalted religion1 so that by the religious care which he bestowed on the inhabitants of the snow-kingdom1 the welfare of the people of ,thibet equaled that of the ,tegri 7gods or spirits74 ,a painful contrast is presented by his successor on the throne1 ,lang-,dharma1 who belonged to the heretical black religion1 who destroyed the temples of ,buddhism1 persecuted its adherents1 burnt its books1 and degraded its ministers4 ,so impious was he1 that the very names of the three gems and of the four orders of clergy ceased to be mentioned in the land4 ,he met1 however1 with his well-deserved punishment at the hands of a faithful ,buddhist1 who assassinated him with a bow and arrow1 at the same time using words to the effect that1 as ,buddha overcame the unbelievers1 so he had killed the wicked king 7,ibid41 p4 #di74 ,another king showed respect to the hidden sanctuaries1 whereby his power and the welfare of the land increased 7,ibid41 p4 #cba74 ,comparable to ,josiah in his piety and reverence for the true religion was a king whose reign is described in glowing language by his admiring historians4 ,this powerful ruler1 they say1 who regarded the religion of ,buddha as the most precious gem1 gave great freedoms and privileges to the clergy4 ,he honored temples and respected the pious endowments of his ancestors4 ,not only did he punish thieves1 robbers1 and similar criminals1 but if any man1 of high or low position1 was inimical or ill-disposed towards the faith he was deprived of his property and reduced to the greatest distress4 ,some of those whose heresy was visited with this severe chastisement were so unreasonable as to grumble1 and pointed out that it was only the clergy who were fattening on their misery and oppression4 ,in saying this they pointed at the spiritual men who passed by2 whereupon the faithful king issued a decree1 saying1 ,it is strictly prohibited to look contemptuously at my clergy and to point at them with the finger2 whoever dared to do so was to have his eyes put out and his finger cut off4 ,unfortunately these orders of the pious king led to the formation of a party of malcontents1 by two of whom he was strangled in his sleep4 ,the lamentations of the historian at this untoward event are unmeasured4 ,the power and strength of the ,thibetan kingdom ran away like the stream of spring waters2 the happiness and welfare of the people were extinguished like a lamp whose oil is exhausted2 the royal power and majesty vanished like the colors of the rainbow2 the black religion began to prevail like a destructive tempest2 the inclination to good dispositions and good deeds was forgotten like a dream4 ,moreover1 the translation of religious writings remained unfinished--for this king had also resembled ,josiah in his interest in sacred books2--and those great men who adhered to the true religion could only weep over its decline and fall 7,g4 ,o4 ,m41 p4 #cfa74 ,not less pitiable was the fate of ,judea under the irreligious monarchs who followed upon ,josiah4 ,one was taken prisoner by the king of ,egypt2 two others were carried off to ,babylon by ,nebuchadnezzar2 under the fourth1 the national independence was finally extinguished1 and the people reduced to a condition of captivity in a foreign land4 ,this calamity is distinctly ascribed to their neglect of the true religion1 and their contempt for the messengers of ,god 7#b ,chron4 xxxvi4 #ad-ag74 ,strictly speaking1 the history of the ,jewish nation ends with the ,captivity4 ,but there are still three books of a historical character in the ,old ,testament1 ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 relating the fortunes of a small number of ,jews who returned to the land of their forefathers1 when a change of policy in their rulers rendered this return possible2 and ,esther1 containing the account of the reception of a ,jewish woman into the harem of a heathen king1 and showing how ably she contrived to use her influence in favor of the interests of her race4 ,,subdivision #b4--;,job1 ,psalms1 ,proverbs1 and ,ecclesiastes4 ,the ,book of ,job1 the ,psalms attributed to ,david1 and the ,proverbs and ,ecclesiastes attributed to ,solomon1 resemble one another in teaching religion and morality by the method of short sentences or maxims4 ,they do not1 like the books we have just examined1 convey their moral by means of historical narrative2 nor do they1 like the prophets1 impress it in flowing and continuous rhetoric4 ,between the sober and even course of the history1 and the impassioned emotional torrents poured out by the prophets1 they occupy a medium position4 ,they are more introspective1 more occupied with feelings and reflections1 than the first2 more heedful of external nature1 more able to contemplate facts1 apart from their peculiar construction of those facts1 than the last4 ,job is the story of a wealthy land-owner1 concerning whom ,god and ,satan enter into a sort of wager2 ,god1 in the first instance1 challenging ,satan to consider his piety and general good character1 and ,satan replying that1 if only his prosperity were destroyed1 he would curse ,god to his face4 ,god then gives ,satan leave to put his theory to the test by attacks directed against ,job's property1 desiring at the same time that his person may be spared4 ,job bears the loss of his wealth with resignation2 but at a second colloquy ,satan insinuates that his virtue would give way if his misfortunes extended to his person4 ,hereupon ,god gives ,satan leave to attack him in every respect so long as he spares his life4 ,poor ,job is accordingly covered with boils from head to foot1 and his patience1 proof against poverty1 breaks down under this terrible infliction4 ,he loudly curses the day of his birth1 and wishes he had died from the womb4 ,after this introduction1 which1 in its familiar conversations between ,jehovah and the devil1 resembles the grotesque legends of the middle ages1 the bulk of the book is occupied with the complaints of ,job1 the discourses of his three friends who come to comfort him1 the reproaches directed against his self-righteousness by a person named ,elihu1 and1 finally1 a long address--containing as it were the moral of the tale--from the ,almighty himself4 ,at the close of the book ,job expresses his abhorrence of himself and his profound repentance1 and his former prosperity is then not only restored but amplified to a high degree4 ,he has seven sons and three beautiful daughters1 and dies one hundred and forty years after the events narrated1 having seen four generations of his descendants4 ,what was the effect on the mind of ,satan of this result1 whether he considered himself defeated1 or whether he was confirmed in his malicious opinion that ,job did not fear ,god for nought1 is nowhere stated4 ,but one of the most curious features of this book is the picture it gives of that person1 as a being not altogether bad1 though fond of mischief1 taking a somewhat cynical view of the motives of human conduct1 and anxious1 in the interests of his theory1 to try experiments upon a subject selected for him by his antagonist1 and therefore peculiarly likely to disappoint his expectations4 ,it does not appear that he had any desire to hurt ,job further than was necessary for his purpose1 nor is there a trace of the bad character he subsequently obtained as a mere devil1 longing to involve men's souls in eternal destruction4 ,in the ,psalms we have a series of religious songs of varying character--praising1 blessing1 supplicating1 complaining1 lamenting1 invoking good or evil upon others1 according to the mood of the several writers1 or of the same writer at different seasons4 ,some of them are of considerable beauty1 and express much depth of religious feeling4 ,others1 again1 are inspired by sentiments of malevolence1 and merely appeal to ,god in support of national or private animosities4 ,as examples of the latter class1 take the #aajth ,psalm1 supposed to have been addressed to ,david1 where it is predicted that the ,lord at the right hand shall strike through kings in the day of his wrath1 and that he shall fill the places with the dead bodies2 he shall wound the heads over many countries4 ,in the immediately preceding ,psalm1 the #ajith1 the writer is still more vindictive1 and his enemy is more exclusively his own4 ,he begins by calling him wicked1 and says he has spoken against him with a lying tongue4 ,premising that he is altogether in the act of prayer1 he prays against the adversary in somewhat emphatic language3-- ,set thou a wicked man over him1 and let the accuser stand at his right hand4 ,when he shall be judged1 let him be found guilty1 and let his prayer become sin4 ,let his days be few1 and let another take his office4 ,let his children be fatherless1 and his wife a widow4 ,let his children wander about and beg1 and seek food far from their desolate places4 ,let the creditor catch all that he hath1 and strangers rob the fruit of his industry4 ,let there be none to extend mercy to him1 and let none be merciful to his fatherless children4 ,let his posterity be cut off1 and in the following generation let their name be blotted out4 ,let the iniquity of his fathers be remembered with the ,lord1 and let not the sin of his mother be blotted out4 ,let them be before the ,lord continually1 and let him cut off the memory of them from the earth 7,psalms cix4 #a-ae74 ,in the following verse the enemy is declared to have persecuted the poor and needy1 and this is put forward as the excuse for imprecations evidently inspired by personal ill-will4 ,in another of these ,psalms1 ,jehovah is entreated to persecute the enemies of ,israel with storm and tempest1 as fires burn up woods and flames set mountains on fire 7,psalms lxxxiii4 #ad1 #ae74 ,elsewhere the king is said to trust in the ,lord1 and he therefore hopes that the ,lord will find out his enemies1 and will make them as a fiery oven in the time of his anger2 that the fire will devour them2 and that he will destroy their fruit from the earth and their seed from among the children of men 7,ps4 xxi4 #h-aj74 ,parallels to these ,psalms of cursing may be met with in the ,veda1 just as the ,psalms in general are more nearly paralleled by the ,vedic hymns than by those of any other sacred book4 ,one poet writes as follows3-- ,blinded shall ye be1 ,o enemies1 like headless snakes1 and thus plagued by ,agni1 may ,indra always kill the best of you4 ,whatever relation troubles us1 whatever stranger wishes to kill us1 him may all the gods destroy2 prayer is my powerful protection1 my refuge and powerful protection 7,s4 ,v41 p4 #big4--,sma ,veda1 #b4 #i4 #c4 #h74 ,remarkably close is the similarity between the assertion of the ,hindu ,rishi that prayer is his powerful protection1 and that of the ,hebrew ,psalmist that he is1 or gives himself to1 prayer4 ,in another hymn the aid of a goddess ,apv 7said to mean disease or fear7 is invoked against the enemies of the singer3-- ,bewildering the hearts of our enemies1 ,o ,apv1 take possession of their limbs and pass onwards2 come near1 burn them with fires in their hearts2 may our enemies fall into blind darkness 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 v4 p4 #aaj74444 ,attack1 ye heroes1 and conquer2 may ,indra grant you protection2 may our arm be productive of terror1 that ye may be unconquerable4 ,arrow-goddess1 sharpened by prayer2 fly past as when shot off2 reach the enemies2 penetrate into them2 let not even one escape thee 7,s4 ,v41 p4 #big4--,sma ,veda1 #b4 #i4 #c4 #e74 ,but these expressions of hostility1 directed apparently against enemies who were engaged in actual war with the friends of the writer1 make no approach in the bitterness of their curses to the language of the ,psalmist when dealing with his personal foes4 ,a parallel to this more private enmity may be found in the ,atharva-,veda1 where the god ,kama is invoked to bring down the severest evils upon the objects of the imprecation3-- ,with oblations of butter ,i worship ,kama1 the mighty slayer of enemies4 ,do thou1 when lauded1 beat down my foes by thy great might4 ,the sleeplessness which is displeasing to my mind and eye1 which harasses and does not delight me1 that sleeplessness ,i let loose upon my enemy4 ,having praised ,kama1 may ,i rend him4 ,kama1 do thou1 a fierce lord1 let loose sleeplessness1 misfortune1 childlessness1 homelessness1 and want upon him who designs us evil4444 ,may breath1 cattle1 life1 forsake them4444 ,indra1 ,agni1 and ,kama1 mounted on the same chariot1 hurl ye down my foes2 when they have fallen into the nethermost darkness1 do thou1 ,agni1 burn up their dwellings4 ,kama1 slay my enemies2 cast them down into thick literally1 blind darkness4 ,let them all become destitute of power and vigor1 and not live a single day4444 ,let them 7my enemies7 float downwards like a boat severed from its moorings4444 ,do thou1 ,kama1 drive my enemies from this world by that same weapon or amulet wherewith the gods repelled the ,asuras1 and ,indra hurled the ,dasyus into the nethermost darkness 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 v4 p4 #djd74 ,as corresponding to the many expressions to be found in the ,psalms of trust in ,god1 of pious belief in his protection1 and of sensibility to his all-embracing knowledge1 we may quote the language of a ,chinese monarch in one of the ,odes of the ,she ,king4 ,the first six lines are1 it appears1 held by the current interpretation in ,china to contain the admonition addressed by the ministers to the king1 and the last six the king's reply4 ,but we may more reasonably suppose1 with ,dr4 ,legge1 that the whole ,ode is spoken by the king himself3-- ,let me be reverent1 let me be reverent in attending to my duties2 ,the way of ,heaven is evident1 ,and its appointment is not easily preserved4 ,let me not say that ,it is high aloft above me4 ,it ascends and descends about our doings2 ,it daily inspects us wherever we are4 ,i am but as a little child1 ,without intelligence to be reverently attentive to my duties2 ,but by daily progress and monthly advance1 ,i will learn to hold fast the gleams of knowledge1 till ,i arrive at bright intelligence4 ,assist me to bear the burden of my position1 ,and show me how to display a virtuous conduct4#id ,we may fairly place this simple expression of the author's desire to do his duty1 and of his reverential consciousness that ,heaven is ever about us and inspects us wherever we are1 beside the words attributed to ,david3-- ,o ,jehovah1 thou hast searched me1 and known me4 ,thou knowest my down-sitting and mine uprising1 thou understandest my thought afar off4 ,thou winnowest my path and my lying down1 and art acquainted with all my ways 7,psalm cxxxix4 #a-c74 ,we need not dwell upon the ,proverbs1 traditionally ascribed to ,solomon1 but scarcely worthy of the renowned wisdom of that monarch4 ,some of them are indeed shrewd and well expressed2 others are commonplace2 and others again display more worldly wisdom than religion or virtue4 ,such is the recommendation of bribery3 ,a gift in secret pacifieth anger1 and a reward in the bosom strong wrath 7,prov4 xxi4 #ad72 which1 if written by a king and dispenser of justice1 would be a tolerably broad hint to his loving subjects4 ,it is noteworthy that ,christ had studied this book1 and that it had sunk deep into his mind 7e4 g41 ,prov4 xxv4 #ba1 #bb1 and xxvii4 #a74 ,the two concluding chapters are not by the same author1 at least if we may believe in their superscriptions4 ,in the last of all1 a king named ,lemuel repeats for the benefit of posterity the advice given him by his mother1 and no doubt by many mothers to many sons both before and after him1 to be careful about women and not to drink wine or spirituous liquors4 ,ecclesiastes1 or ,koheleth1 composed 7according to ,ewald7 in the latter end of the ,persian dominion1 is the work of a cynic who has had much experience of the world1 and has found it hollow and unsatisfactory4 ,he is not a man of very devout mind1 and can find no comfort in the ordinary commonplaces about the goodness of ,god1 or the manner in which misfortunes are sent as punishments for sin4 ,there is much good sense mixed with his lamentations over the vanity of life4 ,he has seen all the works done under the sun1 and all are in his opinion vanity and vexation of spirit4 ,wisdom and knowledge do but bring more grief4 ,koheleth tried various kinds of pleasure and found them vain too4 ,he built1 he planted1 he made pools of water4 ,he procured men-servants and maid-servants1 and 7as a natural consequence7 had servants born in his house4 ,all was equally fruitless4 ,but whatever a man does1 he has nothing but sorrow and grief4 ,even wisdom is of little use1 for a dolt may inherit the fruit of the wise man's labors4 ,men are no better than animals2 they all die equally2 all return to the dust4 ,who can say that man's spirit goes upwards1 and the animal's downwards8 ,just men are often rewarded like wicked men1 and wicked men like just ones2 this is one of the many vanities on earth4 ,so then the best thing a man can do is to eat1 drink1 and enjoy life with an agreeable wife2 for this life is all he has4 ,once dead1 there is no further consciousness1 or participation in anything that is going on4 ,whatever a man's hand finds to do1 let him do it with all his might2 for there is neither action nor knowledge in the grave4 ,it is well to remember ,god in youth before the evil days come4 ,words of the wise are as goads1 but book-making and preaching are both of them a bore4 ,lastly1 ,koheleth concludes with the pious advice to the young man whom he is addressing1 to fear ,god and keep his commandments1 for that ,god will judge every action1 be it good or be it bad4 ,,subdivision #c4--,the ,song of ,solomon4#ie ,it is a singularly fortunate circumstance that the ,song of ,songs1 a little work of an altogether secular nature and wholly unlike any other portion of the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 should have been admitted into the ,canon4 ,whatever may have been the delusion1 whether its reputed ,solomonian authorship or some other theory about it1 under which it obtained this privilege1 we owe it to this mistake that the solitary example of the ,jewish drama in existence should have been preserved for the instruction of modern readers4 ,i say modern readers1 because it is not until quite recently that the dramatic character of this piece has been ascertained and established beyond reasonable doubt4 ,thanks to the scholarship of ,germany and ,france1 we are now able to read the ,song in the light of common sense4 ,the stern theology of ,judaism is for once laid aside1 and we have before us a common love-story such as might happen among any ,gentile and unbelieving race4 ,a young girl1 called a ,sulamite1 who is attached to a young man of her own rank in life1 has been carried off to the harem of ,solomon against her will4 ,she is indifferent to the splendor of the royal palace1 and resists the amorous advances of the king4 ,thus she succeeds in keeping her vineyard2 and is rewarded by rejoining her shepherd lover in her native village4 ,the play is not without beauty1 although it evinces a somewhat primitive condition of the drama at the time of its composition4 ,,subdivision #d4--,the ,prophets4 ,we have in the prophetical books a class of writings altogether peculiar to the ,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,the prophets were men who during the whole course of the ,hebrew monarchy1 and even long after its close1 acted as the inspired organs of the ,almighty2 admonishing1 reproving1 warning1 or counseling in his name4 ,at first the method by which the revelations they received were made known by them1 was oral communication4 ,writing was not employed by them as an instrument of prophetic discourse until after the earliest and most flourishing stage of the monarchy was past4 ,perhaps they were the most powerful of the prophets who addressed their exhortations directly to those for whom they were intended in eloquent discourse or timely parable4 ,such prophets were ,samuel1 ,nathan1 ,elijah1 and ,elisha1 at the courts of the several kings in whose days they lived4 ,prophecy had declined a little in its influence on the people when its representatives betook themselves to the calmer method of written composition4 ,nevertheless1 some of the prophets who have left us their works in writing continued at the same time to employ the older instrument of spoken addresses4 ,isaiah and ,jeremiah are conspicuous instances of this employment of the two organs of communication downwards4 ,during this same period there were many prophets who trusted exclusively to writing2 while in the latest stage of prophetical inspiration1 oral instruction was altogether dropped1 and literary means alone were employed to make known the mind of ,jehovah to his chosen people4 ,the constant theme of all the prophets whose works have come down to us is the future greatness of the ,hebrew race2 their complete triumph over all their enemies2 the glory of their ultimate condition1 and the confusion or destruction of those who have opposed their march to this final victory4 ,the human agent by whom this great revolution is to be effected is the ,messiah4 ,he is the destined weapon in the hand of ,god by whom ,jewish religion1 ,jewish institutions1 and ,jewish rulers are to attain that supremacy over heathen religion1 heathen institutions1 and heathen rulers which is their natural birthright4 ,continual disappointment had no effect upon these sanguine expectations4 ,the ,messiah must come1 ,israel must be victorious over every other nation that came in the way3 this was the word of ,god1 and it could not fail to be fulfilled4 ,troubles of many kinds might beset the people in the meantime2 but of the attainment of the goal at last there could be no doubt4 ,of course this ever-recurring burden of the prophetic song is varied by many strains on subordinate or outlying topics4 ,the prophets constantly refer to the events of the day1 and use them for their own purposes4 ,they reprove the sins of kings and people1 endeavoring to show that these bring upon them the misfortunes from which they suffer and which postpone the day of their triumph over the ,gentiles4 ,they connect special calamities with special offenses4 ,they indicate the conduct which under existing circumstances ought to be pursued4 ,they draw eloquent and beautiful pictures of the state of their own and of foreign countries4 ,and they endeavor to raise the popular conceptions of the majesty of ,god1 of his character1 and his requirements1 to the level they have themselves attained4 ,turning now to the individual books which have come down to us in the ,canon1 and which must by no means be taken as comprehending all the works of the prophets who wrote their prophecies1 we find that the oldest of these is that of ,joel1 the son of ,pethuel4#if ,joel is supposed by the highest authority to have lived in the time of ,king ,jehoash1 or ,joash1 who is praised for his devout obedience to ,jehoiada1 the priest 7#b ,kings1 xii74 ,his prophecy was occasioned by a devastation of locusts4 ,locusts had wasted the land for some years1 and there had been drought at the same time4 ,on the occasion of a long drought ,joel feared a fresh invasion of locusts1 and therefore summoned his people to a festival of repentance at the temple4 ,this festival occurred1 and rain soon followed 7,p4 ,a4 ,b41 vol4 i4 p4 #hg ff474 ,here the old notion of a direct connection between the attention paid by the people to ,jehovah and his care for them is almost grotesquely manifested4 ,locusts are to be averted by fasting2 rain obtained by rather more than usual devotion to ,god4 ,on the other hand1 the more spiritual view of religion to which the prophets generally tend1 is shown in the order to the people to rend their hearts and not their garments4 ,after thus attending to immediate necessities1 ,joel in stirring language exhorts the people to war1 hoping that they would thus get rid of the foreign oppressors who had broken into the sunken kingdom of ,david4 ,he bids them beat their plough-shares into swords1 and their pruning-hooks into spears1 and desires the weak to say that they are strong4 ,he promises his people revenge over their enemies1 and holds out the cheering prospect of a time when1 instead of their sons and daughters being sold as slaves to strangers1 they will themselves make slaves of the sons and daughters of the heathen4 ,some short passages subsequently embodied by ,isaiah in his works are considered by ,ewald to belong to the same early age as ,joel4 ,the next complete prophet1 however1 in order of time1 was ,amos1 whose revelations applied to the northern kingdom and threatened it with invasion by the ,assyrians4 ,amos in fact utters a series of threatening predictions against various peoples1 and his tone is mainly that of reproof4 ,while1 however1 he foretells the captivity of ,israel1 and holds out nothing but the most depressing prospects of ruin and misery throughout the bulk of his book1 he falls at the end into the accustomed strain of hopeful exultation4 ,the tabernacle of ,david is to be raised up2 ,israel is to be supreme over the heathen2 and the ,israelites are not to be disturbed again from the land which ,god has given them1 where exuberant prosperity is to be their lot4 ,incidentally1 ,amos tells us a little of his personal history1 which is not without interest4 ,he attributes his consecration to the prophetic office to the direct intervention of ,jehovah4 ,he had originally no connection with other prophets1 but was a simple herdsman1 and was employed to gather sycamore fruit4 ,but ,jehovah took him while he was following the flock1 and said1 ,go1 prophecy unto my people ,israel4 ,his is thus a typical case of the belief in immediate inspiration1 and he is an example of the kind of character which led to the existence among the ,israelites of the peculiar and powerful class who were holy1 but not consecrated4 ,amos also tells us of a quarrel he had had with ,amaziah1 a priest at the court of ,jeroboam4 ,this priest had complained of his dismal predictions to the king1 and had bidden him go to ,judah and prophecy there4 ,in return for this evidence of hostility ,amos informs the priest that his wife is to become a prostitute in the town1 that his sons and his daughters are to fall by the sword1 that his land is to be divided by lot1 and that he himself is to die on polluted soil 7,amos vii4 #aj-ag74 ,such were the courtesies that passed between rival teachers of religion at the court of ,jeroboam4 ,hosea also tells us something of his personal affairs1 more especially of his matrimonial relations1 in which he was far from fortunate4 ,we feel1 in his opening chapters1 the soreness of a husband whose wife has contemned his company and sought the amusement of a troop of lovers4 ,gomer1 in fact1 was shockingly unfaithful1 and ,hosea uses her as a type of the infidelity of ,israel to ,jehovah4 ,at length she deserted him altogether1 and went to another house1 but he brought her back as a slave and put her under strict conjugal discipline4 ,in like manner is ,israel to return to her ,god1 whom she has deserted for a time1 and under the influence of ,god's love1 freely bestowed after his anger has passed away1 is to enjoy a period of great prosperity4 ,hosea1 it will be observed1 belonged to the northern kingdom1 and his book is preminently the ,ephraimitic book of prophecy4 ,but he wrote it in ,judah4 ,he worked in the north at two distinct epochs1 first towards the close of ,jeroboam ,,ii4's reign1 afterwards in the time of ,zachariah1 ,shallum1 and ,menahem 7,p4 ,a4 ,b41 vol4 i4 p4 #aga ff474 ,an anonymous prophet1 contemporary with ,isaiah1 stands next in order of time4 ,he is the author of ,zechariah ix4-xi4 inclusive1 and of ,zechariah chap4 xiii4 ver4 #g-i 7,p4 ,a4 ,b41 vol i4 p4 #bdg ff474 ,these chapters contain the first distinct announcement of the advent of the ,messiah1 who is described in the famous prediction of a ,king coming to ,jerusalem on an ass1 and on a colt1 the foal of an ass4 ,here too we find the curious allegory of the two staves1 ,beauty and ,bands1 whereof one was broken by the prophet in token of the breach of his covenant with all the nations2 the other1 in token of the rupture of fraternal relations between ,israel and ,judah4 ,in the course of this allegory1 the prophet demands his price1 thirty pieces of silver1 and throws it into the temple treasure2 a passage which1 by an accidental obscurity in the ,hebrew1 has been mistranslated as referring1 not to the treasure1 but to the potter in the house of ,lord1 and then misapplied to the betrayal of ,christ and the purchase of the potter's field4 ,in the concluding words of this prophet it is announced that two-thirds of the people will perish1 but that the remaining third will1 after refining and trial1 be accepted by ,god as his own people4 ,we enter now upon the consideration of a prophet who stands in the foremost rank of those distinguished leaders of opinion whose works have been included in the ,canon4 ,there is no greater name among the prophets of ,israel than that of ,isaiah4 ,but in speaking of ,isaiah we must not fall into the confusion of including under his writings the compositions of a prophet of far later date1 which have been mistakenly bound up with his4 ,isaiah himself cannot receive credit for all that is published in his name4 ,but that which he has actually left us is enough to entitle him to admiration as a master of rhetoric4 ,isaiah lived in the reign of ,hezekiah1 and enjoyed a position of high public consideration4 ,some of his prophetic sayings he wrote down soon after he had uttered them2 others not till long after4 ,he had begun to come forward as a prophet in the last year of the reign of ,uzziah4 ,when he had labored a long time in his vocation of teacher1 he determined to collect his sayings in a book4 ,his oldest work was written about the year #gdj ,b4 ,c41 just after the accession of the young and weak ,ahaz at ,jerusalem1 when the ,assyrians had rendered the northern kingdom tributary but had not yet come to ,judea4 ,his second was written apparently in the reign of ,hezekiah1 in #gbd2 and his third in the days of the same king1 when the service of ,jehovah had been restored4 ,such at least are the conclusions of the highest living authority on the literature of the ,hebrew race 7,p4 ,a4 ,b41 vol4 i4 p4 #bga ff474 ,the earliest stratum discernible 7according to that authority7 in the ,book of ,isaiah is from chap4 ii4 #b to chap4 v4 inclusive1 and chap ix4 #g-x4 #d4 ,the last five verses of chap4 v4 should not be taken along with the rest of the chapter1 but should follow upon chap4 x4 #d 7,ibid41 vol4 i4 p4 #bhf ff474 ,these passages begin with a beautiful description of the happiness of the ,israelites in the days of their coming glory1 when the mountain of the ,lord's house will be established on the top of the mountains1 and exalted above the hills2 and when all nations will flow to it1 to worship and to learn the true faith4 ,it is remarkable as evidence of the wide distinction between the view of ,joel and that of ,isaiah1 that ,isaiah exactly reverses the image of his predecessor1 declaring that swords will be beaten into plough-shares and spears into pruning-hooks4 ,joel was looking to the necessities of the immediate present2 ,isaiah to the prospects of the future4 ,these chapters also contain an amusing ironical account of the finery of the ,jerusalem ladies1 which might apply with slight alterations to the rich women of all ages and countries4 ,no doubt it was very offensive to ,isaiah that they should go about with necks erect and wanton eyes1 walking with a mincing gait2 but a prophet who should threaten the women of ,london or ,paris with scab on the head and the exposure of their persons on account of sins like these1 would certainly bring more reprobation on himself than on them4 ,but manners in ,isaiah's days were not so delicate4 ,a time is predicted when ,jehovah will wash away the filth of ,zion's daughters1 and when all in ,jerusalem shall be called holy4 ,in the second part of his book 7chap4 vi4 #a1 chap4 ix4 #f1 and chap4 xvii4 #a-aa7 ,isaiah gives an interesting1 though only figurative1 account of his consecration to the prophetic office4 ,in the year of ,king ,uzziah's death he says he saw the ,lord sitting on his throne with a train so long as to fill the temple4 ,when he cried out that he was undone1 for that he1 a man of unclean lips1 had seen the ,king1 the ,lord of hosts1 a seraph flew up to him with a live coal in a pair of tongs1 laid the coal on his mouth1 and told him that his iniquity was now taken away and his sin purged4 ,after this the voice of the ,lord was heard inquiring whom he should send1 and ,isaiah offered to take the post of his ambassador3 ,here am ,i1 send me4 ,the proposal was accepted1 and he at once received his instructions from headquarters4 ,the prophet began to preach in the manner desired1 and among much discouraging matter he uttered the magnificent description of the ,messiah1 which is familiar to all3-- ,for unto us a child is born1 unto us a son is given3 and the government shall be upon his shoulder3 and his name shall be called ,wonderful1 ,counselor1 the mighty ,god1 the everlasting ,father1 the ,prince of ,peace4 ,isaiah's third work 7composed in the reign of ,hezekiah7 begins at the first chapter of the canonical book4 ,it opens with a pathetic lamentation over the infidelity of the children of ,israel to their ,god1 and proceeds at chap4 xiv4 #bh to recount a burden which came in the death-year of ,king ,ahaz4 ,a prophecy by which a much older prophet 7belonging1 as is supposed1 to the time of ,joel7 is embodied in the burden of ,moab1 and extends through chap4 xv4 and chap4 xvi4 #g-ab1 after which ,isaiah1 having mentioned that this was formerly the word of the ,lord about ,moab1 proceeds to say that his present word is that within three years the glory of ,moab shall be contemned4 ,the latter part of chap4 xxi4 7ver4 #aa-ag71 dealing with ,dumah and ,arabia1 also belongs to this period4 ,further divisions are distinguishable in the writings of ,isaiah after these three parts have been separated from the rest4 ,thus1 we have a fourth division consisting of the #bb;d and #bc;d chapters1 and containing a personal attack on ,shebna and a prediction of the fall of ,tyre4 ,a fifth division1 from chap4 xxviii4 to xxxii4 inclusive1 ends with a beautiful description of the happier time that is to come1 when the fruit of justice will be peace1 and the result of justice quietness and security1 when the people will dwell in sure habitations and untroubled abodes4 ,there is another writing1 the sixth in order1 which begins at chap4 x4 #e1 and extends1 in the first instance1 to the end of chap4 xii4 ,this prophecy is remarkable1 even in this eloquent book1 for the marvelous eloquence with which1 in his visions of future glory1 the inspired seer depicts the government of the rod out of the stem of ,jesse1 the ,branch that is to grow out of his roots1 in whose reign the wild beasts will no longer persecute their prey1 nor ,ephraim and ,judah keep up the memory of their ancient feud2 who will cause his beloved people to put the ,philistines to flight1 to conquer ,edom and ,moab1 and reduce the children of ,ammon to submission4 ,prophecies directed against ,ethiopia and ,egypt 7chap4 xvii4 #ab-xviii4 #g1 and chap4 xx47 belong to the same portion of ,isaiah's collected works4 ,threats against the ,assyrians are contained in additional chapters1 namely1 chap4 xxxiii4 and chap4 xxxvii4 #bb-ce4 ,lastly1 a seventh portion of ,isaiah consists of chap4 xix41 which1 after holding out the prospect of great misfortunes to ,egypt1 ends in a somewhat unusual strain by admitting both ,egyptians and ,assyrians to be equal sharers with the ,israelites in the ultimate prosperity of the earth1 and declaring that the ,lord himself will bless them all1 saying1 ,blessed be ,egypt my people1 and ,assyria the work of my hands1 and ,israel mine inheritance4 ,it should be noted that1 if ,ewald's supposition be correct1 the first four sections of the work1 thus decomposed into its several constituents1 were edited by ,isaiah himself1 while the fifth1 sixth1 and seventh were added by subsequent compilers to the collection he had left behind 7,p4 ,a4 ,b41 vol4 i4 p4 #dhh74 ,a very short prophecy called by ,obadiah's name follows upon the genuine writings of ,isaiah in chronological order4 ,it is in fact anonymous4 ,in its present form it belongs to the time of the ,captivity4 ,the object of the unknown prophet was to reprove the ,idumeans for rejoicing in and profiting by the destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,in his writing he embodied an older prophecy by the actual ,obadiah1 referring to a calamity that had befallen ,edom1 when a part of its territory had been surprised and completely plundered by a people with whom it had just been in alliance4 ,the same old piece was used by ,jeremiah 7chap4 xlix4 #g7 in his prophecy upon ,edom 7,ib41 vol4 i4 p4 #dhi ff474 ,micah1 the next prophet1 was a younger contemporary of ,isaiah1 but lived in the country4 ,when he wrote the northern kingdom was approaching its end1 and he threatens ,judah with chastisement and destruction4 ,he foresaw the fulfillment of ,messianic hopes as arising only from the ruin of the existing order of things4 ,no more than the first five chapters are by ,micah himself 7,ib41 vol4 i4 p4 #dih ff474 ,his book is remarkable for the extremely warlike description he gives of ,messianic happiness4 ,many other prophets conceive it as an important element in that happiness that the ,israelites shall be victorious over their enemies2 but few1 if any1 have come up to ,micah in the fervor with which he foretells the desolation1 the carnage1 the utter suppression of rival nations1 which will accompany that age4 ,the author of the scenes of blood will be the ruler who is to come from ,bethlehem-,ephratah4 ,the prophet who has added the last two chapters also looks forward to an age when ,jehovah will at length perform his promises to ,abraham and ,jacob1 to the terror of the unbelieving nations4 ,next after ,micah stands ,nahum4 ,the occasion of his prophecy was a hostile attack directed against ,nineveh4 ,he must have seen the danger with his own eyes1 and he was therefore a descendant of one of the ,israelites who had been carried off to ,assyria4 ,he evidently lived far from ,palestine1 and was familiar with ,assyrian affairs4 ,elkosh1 where the inscription places his residence1 was a little town on the ,tigris4 ,his book may refer to the siege of ,nineveh by the ,median king ,phraortes about six hundred and thirty-six 7,p4 ,a4 ,b41 vol4 ii4 p4 #a74 ,the interest of ,nahum's prophecy is merely local2 he does not rise beyond the politics of the hour1 and we need not therefore stop to examine his utterances in detail4 ,it may be noted1 however1 that an expression which has become famous through its adoption by a much later prophet1 ,behold1 upon the mountains the feet of him that bringeth good tidings1 that publisheth peace1 is first found in ,nahum4 ,zephaniah's prophecy arose out of a great movement of nations4 ,he lived in the reign of ,josiah1 but wrote before the reformation effected by that monarch4 ,the movement alluded to by him must have been the great irruption of the ,scythians mentioned by ,herodotus as having interrupted the siege of ,nineveh by ,kyaxares1 ,king of the ,medes 7,herod41 i4 #ajc74 ,these last days of the ,assyrian kingdom gave rise to long disturbances in which the ,chaldeans became conquerors 7,p4 ,a4 ,b41 vol4 ii4 p4 #ad74 ,after various threatenings against divers people1 the prophecy of ,zephaniah ends with a beautiful vision of the age to come1 when the suppliants of ,jehovah will come from beyond the rivers of ,ethiopia2 and when a virtuous and happy remnant will be left in ,israel4 ,when ,habakkuk1 the next prophet1 wrote his thoughts1 and composed the public prayer or psalm which forms his concluding chapter1 the ,chaldeans were already in the land4 ,this bitter and hasty nation was quite a new phenomenon there4 ,habakkuk lived after the reformation of ,josiah1 and therefore in the reign of ,jehoiakim 7,ib41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bi74 ,he seems to have written to plead with the ,almighty for deliverance1 and to express unabated confidence in him2 and he hoped that his words1 set to music and sung in public worship1 would induce him to abate his anger as manifested in the ,chaldean scourge4 ,an anonymous prophet 7,ib41 vol4 ii4 p4 #eb7 7,zechariah xiii4 #a-xiii4 #f1 and xiv47 predicts the siege and capture of ,jerusalem1 with all the miserable incidents of conquest3 the rifling of her houses1 the ravishing of her women1 the condemnation to captivity of half her inhabitants4 ,like other prophets1 however1 he looks forward in sanguine anticipation to a day when the heathen nations who now make war upon ,jerusalem will regularly go up there every year to worship ,jehovah1 and keep the feast of tabernacles4 ,at least if any of them do not1 they will have no rain4 ,in that glorious age the very pots in the ,lord's house will be like the bowls for offerings2 nay1 every pot in ,judah and ,jerusalem will be holy to the ,lord of hosts4 ,we pass now to the consideration of a prophet who stands second in eminence only to ,isaiah1 and to the unknown author of the later work which in the ,canon is included in the ,book of ,isaiah4 ,jeremiah began to prophesy in the thirteenth year of ,josiah1 and continued to do so during the reigns of ,jehoiakim and ,zedekiah4 ,his active life1 like that of ,isaiah1 extended over a period of half a century 7,p4 ,a4 ,b41 vol4 ii4 p4 #fc ff474 ,it is noteworthy that ,jeremiah was a priest1 and therefore combined in his person the double qualification of consecration and of exceptional holiness3 that is1 he was consecrated to ,jehovah1 and also appointed expressly by ,jehovah4 ,the manner of his appointment to be a holy person resembles the manner of the appointment of ,isaiah4 ,the word of the ,lord came to him1 saying1 that before ,god had formed him in the belly he had known him1 and before he had come forth from the womb he had sanctified him1 and ordained him a prophet unto the nations4 ,jeremiah objected that he was but a child4 ,but ,jehovah told him not to say he was a child1 for that he was to go where he was sent1 and speak what he was commanded4 ,he was not to be afraid of men's faces1 for he1 the ,lord1 would deliver him4 ,then he touched ,jeremiah's mouth with his hand1 and said3 ,behold1 ,i put my words in thy mouth4 ,see1 ,i appoint thee this day over the nations and over the kingdoms1 to root out1 and to pull down1 and to destroy1 and to throw down1 to build and to plant4 ,after this solemn dedication to his duties ,jeremiah was certainly endowed with the fullest qualifications for the prophetic office4 ,he immediately began to see images2 namely1 a rod of an almond-tree and a seething pot1 and it continued afterwards to be one of his characteristics to employ material imagery of this nature for the purpose of illustrating the truths he had to communicate4 ,after this introduction1 we have a long section of the work1 namely1 from the second chapter to the twenty-fourth1 beginning with the prophecies of the thirteenth year of ,josiah4 ,among other things this portion includes ,jeremiah's bitter imprecation upon his personal enemies1 the men of ,anathoth1 on whom he begs to be permitted to witness the vengeance of ,god1 and concerning whom he receives the consoling assurance that their young men will die by the sword1 and their sons and daughters by famine1 and that there will not be a remnant left4 ,this section contains also the terrible prayer against those who devised devices against ,jeremiah1 in other words1 did not believe in his predictions4 ,in its intense intolerance1 in its unblushing disclosure of private malignity1 in its unscrupulous enumeration of the ills desired for these opponents of the prophet1 it is perhaps unrivaled in theological literature4 ,to do ,jeremiah justice it ought to be quoted at length3-- ,give heed to me1 ,o ,jehovah1 and listen to the voice of my opponents4 ,shall evil be recompensed for good1 that they dig a pit for my life8 ,remember how ,i stood before thee1 to speak a good word for them1 to turn away thy wrath from them4 ,therefore give their sons to famine1 and deliver them into the power of the sword2 and let their wives be bereaved of their children and widowed1 and let their men be put to death2 let their young men be slain by the sword in battle4 ,let a cry be heard from their houses1 when thou suddenly bringest troops upon them2 for they have digged a pit to take me1 and hid snares for my feet4 ,yet thou1 ,jehovah1 knowest all their counsel against me to slay me2 and blot not out their sin from thy sight1 and let them be overthrown before thee2 deal with them in the time of thine anger 7,jer4 xviii4 #ai-bc74 ,in another chapter there is a curious account of an incident with ,pashur1 superintendent of the ,temple1 who had caused ,jeremiah to be put in stocks for a day4 ,jeremiah complains bitterly of the treatment he meets with on account of his prophesying1 and wishes to resign the office1 but the impulse proves too strong for him4 ,he consoles himself with a pious hope that ,jehovah will let him see his vengeance on his enemies 7,jer4 xx4 #a-ab74 ,he continues to predict misfortunes1 but intermingles with his gloomier forebodings a fine vision of the time when ,god shall gather together the remnant of his flock from the countries to which he has driven them1 and raise up a righteous ,branch of the house of ,david1 who will reign and prosper1 who will execute justice and equity1 in whose days ,judah will be saved1 and ,israel dwell secure 7,jer4 xxiii4 #b-f74 ,in a third section of his work 7chap4 xlvi4 #a-ab1 and chap4 xlvii4 #di7 ,jeremiah deals with foreign nations1 and then 7in chap4 xxv47 declares that he has been prophesying a long time without being able to get the ,jews to listen to him1 foretells their subjugation by ,nebuchadnezzar1 and 7rather unfortunately for his own and ,jehovah's reputation for correct foresight7 commits himself to the definite term of seventy years as the duration of the coming captivity4 ,a wise prophet would have kept within the safe region of vagueness1 where he could not come into collision with awkward dates nor drive orthodox interpreters into such pitiable straits as those in which ,ewald1 for example1 finds himself1 when he is compelled to say that seventy years is a perfectly general indication of a future that cannot be more precisely fixed1 and that it merely refers to the third generation from the writer 7,p4 ,a4 ,b41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bcj74 ,the remainder of this section 7chap4 xxvi4-xxix47 relates certain encounters with other prophets whose predictions had turned out false1 and one of whom1 as ,jeremiah exultingly relates1 died during the year1 exactly as ,jeremiah had declared he would4 ,interesting evidence is supplied by these chapters of the existence of numerous prophets who differed from each other1 and between whose claims only the event could decide4 ,in the fourth section 7chap4 xxx4-xxxv47 ,jeremiah prophesies the restoration of ,israel1 and tells his readers how he bought a field from his cousin on the strength of his hopes that the captivity would have an end4 ,a fifth part 7chaps4 xxxvi41 xlv47 relates to ,baruch1 ,jeremiah's secretary2 and an appendix 7chap4 xxxvii4-xliv41 and chap4 xlvi4 #ac-bh7 contains historical matter1 and predictions about ,egypt1 but concludes with the usual promise of the ultimate return of the ,jewish nation to its ancestral home4 ,the last chapter of ,jeremiah is purely historical1 and1 like the historical portions of ,isaiah1 need not be considered under the prophets2 but it must be noted that chaps4 l4 and li4 are not by ,jeremiah1 being the work of a much later writer1 who lived in ,palestine1 and who composed them to show that the words of the genuine ,jeremiah were fulfilled in the destruction of ,babylon by the ,medes1 which was taking place at this time 7,p4 ,a4 ,b41 vol4 iii4 p4 #adj ff474 ,the small ,book of ,lamentations over the unhappy fate of ,jerusalem1 ascribed to ,jeremiah1 is an artistic attempt to embody the grief of the writer in a song of which each verse begins with a new letter1 in alphabetical order4 ,we pass now to the prophet ,ezekiel1 a ,jew who was taken into captivity with ,jehoiachin1 and lived at a small town of ,mesopotamia4 ,he felt the first prophetic impulses in the fifth year of the ,captivity 7,ib41 vol4 ii4 p4 #cbb ff474 ,at this time the heavens were opened2 he saw visions1 and the word of the ,lord came expressly to him4 ,such was the nature of his consecration4 ,the first section of ,ezekiel extends from chap4 i4 to xxiv41 and contains utterances about ,israel before the destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,the second section 7chap4 xxv4-xxxii47 deals with foreign nations1 and the third 7chap4 xxxiii4-xlviii47 holds out promises of restoration4 ,ezekiel is very inferior to his great predecessors1 ,isaiah and ,jeremiah4 ,he has neither the fervid1 manly oratory of the first nor the pathetic1 though rather soft and feminine flow of the second4 ,he takes pleasure in rather coarse images1 such as that of the bread baked with human dung 7,ezek4 iv71 that of ,jehovah with his two concubines1 who bore him sons and vexed him with their licentious conduct 7,ezek4 xxiii71 or that of the child whose navel was not cut1 who grew up into a woman1 over whom ,jehovah spread his skirt and covered her nakedness 7,ezek4 xvi4 #h74 ,and in general1 ,ezekiel is particularly prone to teaching by means of similes and illustrations4 ,sometimes he sees visions in which ,god explains his meaning2 at other times he acts in a manner which is designed to be typical of coming events4 ,thus1 on one occasion1 he openly brings out his furniture for removal1 as a sign to the rebellious house of ,israel 7,ezek4 xii4 #a-g74 ,as in ,jeremiah1 so in ,ezekiel we find traces of hostility towards rival prophets1 whom he denounces in no measured terms4 ,it is interesting1 too1 to observe that there were female prophets in his day1 who prophesied out of their own hearts4 ,to them also he conveys the reprobation of the ,almighty 7,ezek4 xiii74 ,the form in which he looks forward to the restoration of ,israel and ,judah to their homes1 is somewhat different from that in which it was expected by his predecessors4 ,in a very singular vision1 he relates that his ,god took him into a valley which was full of bones1 and told him that these were the bones of the whole house of ,israel4 ,ezekiel is then informed that ,god will open the graves of the dead1 and cause these bones to live again1 and will bring them to the land of ,israel4 ,afterwards1 he is told to join two sticks into one1 this junction representing the future union of ,ephraim and ,judah1 who are to be gathered from among the heathen1 and are to form one nation governed by one king4 ,that king is to be ,david1 who will be their prince forever4 ,god will make an everlasting covenant of peace with them1 and put his sanctuary in their midst for evermore4 ,here the resurrection of the dead1 and the return of ,david1 instead of the appearance of a new king1 are peculiar features4 ,an anonymous prophet is supposed to have written ,isaiah xxi4 #a-aj1 and another ,isaiah xiii4 #b-xiv4 #bc1 the latter referring to ,babylon1 and containing the imaginary exultation of the restored ,israelites over the fallen ,babylonians4 ,after these fragments we have the work of one who is perhaps the greatest of all the prophets1 but who also is unknown to us by name4 ,as the most fitting description we may perhaps call him the anonymous prophet4 ,the whole of the latter portion of ,isaiah1 from chap4 xl4 to the end1 is his work4 ,the anonymous prophet lived in ,egypt4 ,his peculiar conception was that ,israel was the servant of the ,lord for the peace and the salvation of nations1 as ,kyros was his servant in war 7,p4 ,a4 ,b41 vol4 iii4 p4 #bj ff474 ,alike in beauty of language and sublimity of thought he is supreme among the writers of the ,hebrew ,bible4 ,he is the prophet of sorrow3 yet also the prophet of consolation4 ,whether by a curious accident1 or whether by virtue of a tendency 7not uncommon among truly great writers7 to withdraw his personality from observation and confine himself wholly to the message he had to deliver1 he tells us nothing of himself4 ,hence he has for centuries been hidden behind the figure of ,isaiah1 whom nevertheless he surpasses in the purity of his ideal4 ,to him we owe the beautiful passage beginning ,comfort ye1 comfort ye1 my people1 with the description afterwards applied by ,jesus ,christ to ,john the ,baptist4 ,from him also we have the most exalted conceptions of the ,messiah1 the moral element in his character being raised as compared with the element of material power1 to a height hitherto unexampled in prophetic vision4 ,take1 for instance1 this description of his mildness combined with indomitable perseverance3-- ,he shall not cry1 nor lift up1 nor cause his voice to be heard in the street4 ,a bruised reed shall he not break1 and the smoking flax shall he not quench2 he shall bring forth judgment unto truth4 ,he shall not fail nor be discouraged1 till he have set judgment in the earth1 and the isles shall wait for his law 7,is4 xlii4 #b-d74 ,it is the anonymous prophet1 too1 who has given us the familiar passage1 ,he is despised and rejected of men2 a passage describing the career of a great man whose teachings involved him in persecution and ultimately in martyrdom1 but nowise applicable to the ,messiah4 ,that a historical incident1 known to the writer1 is alluded to in this touching account of suffering goodness1 admits of no reasonable doubt4 ,the anonymous prophet is preminently the prophet of consolation4 ,living in the days of ,kyros and of the restoration of the ,temple1 he had the elements of soothing speech ready to his hand2 and as his predecessors had prophesied destruction and woe1 occasionally varied with strains of hope1 so he prophesies in strains of hope1 occasionally varied with sterner language4 ,it is his especial mission to heal the wounds that have been made in the spirit of ,judah4 ,god had indeed forsaken her for a while2 but he will now take her back as a deserted wife1 who had suffered her punishment4 ,he had hidden his face in a little wrath for a moment2 but with everlasting kindness will he now have mercy upon her 7,is4 liv4 #e-g74 ,the concluding chapter of the anonymous prophet contains a magnificent description of the ultimate gathering of all nations and tongues1 when ,jerusalem will be the central point of human worship1 and the glory of ,god will be seen by all4 ,the picture is not indeed unmingled with darker shades1 for great numbers are to be destroyed by ,jehovah in his indignation4 ,on the other hand1 there is a trait exhibiting the superiority of this prophet to his predecessors in toleration for the ,gentiles3 namely1 the remarkable prediction that some of them also are to be priests and ,levites 7,is4 lxvi4 #ab-bd74 ,the man who could utter this sentiment had made a signal advance upon the ordinary narrow and exclusive notions of the prerogatives of the ,jewish race4 ,it was mentioned that the fiftieth and fifty-first chapters of ,jeremiah were added by a later hand4 ,the same hand 7in ,ewald's opinion7 composed the thirty-fourth and thirty-fifth chapters of ,isaiah1 of which the second describes in very eloquent terms the coming glory1 when the ransomed of the ,lord shall return1 and come to ,zion with songs1 and everlasting joy upon their heads2 they shall obtain joy and gladness1 and sorrow and sighing shall flee away 7,is4 xxxv4 #aj74 ,another unknown writer 7,isaiah xxiv4-xxvii47 predicts in the first place the desolation which the ,lord is about to effect1 and then the happiness of the ,jews who will be brought to their own land again1 to worship ,jehovah in the holy mount at ,jerusalem4 ,one of his expressions1 ,he will swallow up death in victory1 has been adopted by ,st4 ,paul2 another1 ,the ,lord ,god will wipe away tears from off all faces1 by the author of the ,apocalypse4 ,the interest of ,haggai's prophecy is purely special3 it refers to the building of the temple at ,jerusalem in the reign of ,darius4 ,it was the unexpected obstacles by which the building was hindered that kindled his zeal2 he made his five speeches in three months of the same year4 ,probably he had not seen the first temple1 and he left his prophetic work to his younger contemporary ,zechariah 7,p4 ,a4 ,b41 vol4 iii4 p4 #agg ff474 ,zechariah also lived in the time of ,darius1 and dealt principally with the building of the temple 7,ib41 vol4 iii4 p4 #ahg ff474 ,a series of visions which he professes to see shows how his mind was running upon this absorbing theme2 and he even expects the ,messiah1 whom ,isaiah and ,jeremiah had called a ,branch of ,david1 and whom he more emphatically terms the ,branch1 to appear at the head of affairs and to carry the works to their completion 7,zech41 #h1 and vi4 #ab74 ,he supposes that he will then sit and rule upon his throne2 a priest will be beside him1 and there will be a counsel of peace between these two--the monarch and his ecclesiastical minister 7,zech41 vi4 #ac74 ,it was probably more than half a century later that the short book bearing the title of ,malachi was written4 ,the true name of its author is unknown1 and that of ,malachi1 my messenger1 was taken by its editor from the first verse of the third chapter 7,p4 ,a4 ,b41 vol4 iii4 p4 #bad ff474 ,he is not a prophet of a high calibre1 as is shown by his denunciation1 already quoted1 of those among the ,jews who offered ,jehovah their least valuable cattle4 ,nor is his conception of the ,messianic epoch in any way comparable to that of the great prophets whose works he might have studied4 ,he says indeed that the ,sun of righteousness will arise with healing in his wings2 but it appears that this healing is to consist in the ,israelites treading down the wicked1 who will be as dust under their feet4 ,he concludes by announcing the return of ,elijah1 before the great and dreadful day of the ,lord1 and says1 in his threatening tone1 that this prophet will turn the hearts of the fathers to the children1 and of the children to the fathers1 lest ,god should come and smite the earth with a curse4 ,the ,book of ,jonah1 which may have been written in the fifth or sixth century ,b4 ,c4 7,p4 ,a4 ,b41 vol4 iii4 p4 #bcc ff471 is a story with a moral rather than a prophecy4 ,jonah was desired by ,jehovah to preach against ,nineveh1 but fled from his duty1 and took passage in the ship to ,tarshish1 duly paying his fare4 ,however1 when a storm arose1 ,jonah knew that it was sent as a penalty for his disobedience1 and told the sailors to throw him overboard4 ,this they did1 but he was swallowed alive by a large fish prepared for the purpose1 and remained within it three days4 ,by this lesson he was prepared to execute ,god's commands1 and was accordingly thrown up by the fish on dry land4 ,he preached to the people of ,nineveh1 as desired1 the coming destruction of their city2 but when they repented1 ,jehovah changed his mind1 much to the annoyance of his prophet1 who represented that his unfortunate tendency to clemency was the very reason why he had not wished to enter his service4 ,but ,jehovah1 by causing him to regret the destruction of a gourd which had sheltered him1 showed him that there would be much more reason to spare so large a city as ,nineveh1 which contained1 not only a vast population1 but also a great deal of cattle4 ,if ,malachi and ,jonah stand in unfavorable contrast to the works composed during the golden age of ,hebrew literature1 ,daniel1 the latest book of the ,old ,testament1 represents the complete degeneracy of prophecy4 ,it is from beginning to end artificial2 professing to be written at one time and by an author whose name and personality are given2 in reality written at another time1 and by an author whose name and personality are concealed4 ,hence it contains pseudo-prophecies1 which are comparatively clear1 extending from the imagined date of the supposed prophet to the actual date of the real prophet2 and it contains genuine prophecies which are obscure1 and which extend from the actual date into the actual future4 ,it contains also much that relates to the politics of the day1 and which1 for obvious reasons1 is cast into an enigmatic form4 ,daniel was written about the year ,b4 ,c4 #afh1 a little before the death of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 and the allusions to that monarch are of course made under the veil of prophecy1 in a style designed to be intelligible1 without being direct4 ,the predictions of the eleventh chapter refer to the wars of the ,syrian and ,egyptian kings1 and especially to ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 who is the vile person mentioned in the twenty-first verse4 ,the purpose of the work was to set an example of fidelity to ,jehovah to the powerful ,jews who were connected with the ,syrian court1 and especially to the younger members of the great ,jewish families1 who were in danger of being corrupted by its seductions 7,p4 ,a4 ,b41 vol4 iii4 p4 #bih ff474 ,the form chosen to effect the writer's object is autobiographical4 ,in this way he was able to utter his political views--which1 directly expressed1 would have been dangerous to his safety--under the guise of sentiments uttered by ,daniel1 the fictitious narrator of the story4 ,daniel was taken as a captive child along with other children of ,jewish race to serve at the court of ,nebuchadnezzar1 and remained at the ,chaldean court until the death of ,nebuchadnezzar's son1 ,belshazzar1 and the subjugation of his empire by the ,medes and ,persians4 ,he continued to hold an honorable position at the ,persian court under ,darius and ,kyros4 ,he first rose to distinction by relating and interpreting to ,nebuchadnezzar a dream which the king had himself forgotten4 ,thus1 from being a mere page he rose to be a sort of astrologer royal4 ,his life was not1 however1 free from trouble4 ,among the children who had been brought with him from ,judea he had three friends1 ,hananiah1 ,mishael1 and ,azariah1 whom the ,chaldeans called ,shadrach1 ,meshach1 and ,abednego4 ,when ,daniel had successfully interpreted the king's dream1 he contrived to obtain lucrative situations in the province of ,babylon for ,shadrach1 ,meshach1 and ,abednego4 ,but these three having refused to worship a golden image which the king had set up in that province were by the king's orders cast into a burning fiery furnace1 heated beyond its usual temperature4 ,but though they fell bound in the midst of it1 they were not burnt1 and were seen walking about at their ease in it1 accompanied by a fourth1 who looked like the ,son of ,man 7,dan4 iii74 ,it is remarkable that a precisely similar prodigy occurred in one of the innumerable previous existences of the ,buddha ,sakyamuni4 ,he was at this time the son and heir of a great king1 and to prove his devotion to the true doctrine he literally obeyed the instructions of a ,brahman1 who desired him to fill a ditch ten yards deep with glowing coals and jump into it4 ,on this condition the ,brahman had consented to teach him the holy doctrine4 ,resisting all entreaties to preserve his life1 the prince caused the pool of fire to be prepared and leapt into it without shrinking for a moment4 ,on the instant it was converted into a basin of flowers1 and he appeared sitting on a lotus-flower in its midst1 while the gods caused a rain of flowers1 that rose knee-deep to fall upon the assembled people 7,g4 ,o4 ,m41 p4 #ad74 ,nor is this the only other example of a wise discrimination being exercised by the fiery element4 ,during the reign of the ,indian king ,asoka1 who in the early part of his career was ferocious and irreligious1 the public executioner enjoyed the singular privilege of being entitled to retain in his house every one1 whatever his position or character1 who might cross the threshold of his door4 ,now the outside of the executioner's house was beautiful and attractive1 though within it was full of instruments of torture1 with which he inflicted on his victims the punishments of hell4 ,one day a holy monk1 named ,samudra1 arriving at this apparently charming house1 entered it1 but on discovering the nature of its interior wished to make his exit4 ,but it was too late4 ,the executioner had seen him1 and told him that he must die4 ,after seven days' respite1 he threw the monk into an iron caldron filled with water mixed with loathsome materials1 and kindled a fire below it4 ,but the fire would not burn4 ,far from experiencing any pain1 the holy man appeared calmly seated on a lotus4 ,the executioner having informed ,asoka of this fact1 the king arrived with a suite of thousands of persons4 ,seeing this crowd1 the monk darted into the air1 and there produced miraculous appearances4 ,the king1 struck by the extraordinary sight1 requested the ascetic to say who he was1 declaring that he honored him as a disciple4 ,samudra1 perceiving that the moment had arrived at which the king was to receive the grace of instruction in the law1 replied that he was a son of ,buddha1 that merciful ,being1 and that he was delivered from the bonds of existence4 ,and thou1 ,o great king1 thy advent was predicted by ,bhagavat1 when he said3 ,a hundred years after ,i shall have entered into complete ,nirvna1 there will be in the town of ,pataliputtra a king called ,asoka1 a king ruling over the four quarters of the world1 a just king1 who will distribute my relics1 and so forth4 ,he proceeded to point out to ,asoka the wickedness of establishing a house of torment like that he was in1 and entreated him to give security to the beings who implored his compassion4 ,hereupon the king accepted the law of ,buddha1 and determined to cover the earth with monuments for his relics4 ,but when the royal party were about to leave the place1 the executioner had the audacity to remind ,asoka of his promise that no one who had once entered his doors might ever go out4 ,what1 cried ,asoka1 do you wish then to put me also to death8 ,yes1 replied the man4 ,on this he was seized and thrown into the torture-room1 where he died in the flames1 and his house was destroyed 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #cfe-cgb74 ,daniel himself met with an adventure of the same perilous nature as that which had befallen his three friends1 though under another government4 ,darius1 by the advice of some counselors who desired to destroy ,daniel1 had made an order that no one should ask a petition of any god or man save himself for thirty days4 ,but ,daniel of course continued to worship ,jehovah as before1 and was sentenced in the terms of the edict to be thrown into a lions' den4 ,but the lions would no more eat ,daniel than the fire would burn his co-religionists2 and just as ,asoka1 when he had witnessed the escape of the ascetic1 worshiped ,buddha1 so ,darius1 having discovered ,daniel uninjured in the lions' den1 immediately ordered that in all parts of his dominions people should tremble and fear before the ,god of ,daniel 7,dan4 vi74 ,of the prophecies contained in this book the most remarkable is that concerning the ,messiah1 who is announced as destined to come at a time fixed by a mystical calculation expressed in weeks4 ,the object of the writer was to fix a date for the ,messiah's appearance1 without expressing himself in such unambiguous terms as would be universally understood4 ,such is the true method of prophecy in all religions1 for a prophet who utters his forecast of the future in such a manner as to render his meaning unmistakable1 exposes himself to the hazardous possibility that the event in history may turn out altogether unlike the event foretold4 ,,subdivision #e4--,the ,god of ,israel4 ,one great question has hitherto been left untreated--that of the theology and morals of the ,hebrew ,bible4 ,theology and morals are so intimately blended in its pages that the one can scarcely be discussed without involving the other4 ,the character of ,jehovah is the pattern of morality2 his will is its fundamental law2 his actions its exemplification4 ,hence to consider the character of ,jehovah is of necessity to consider also the ,hebrew notions of ethics2 while to inquire into the ,hebrew standard of ethics is to enquire into the commands of ,jehovah4 ,let us try then to ascertain what manner of deity ,jehovah is4 ,to do so1 our best course will be to select the salient features of his history1 as related by the sacred writers4 ,now1 at the very outset of his proceedings we observe that he takes up towards mankind a very definite attitude3 that of a superior entitled to demand implicit obedience4 ,whether the fact that he was man's creator justified so extensive a claim it is needless in this place to discuss4 ,suffice it that he had the power to enforce under the severest penalties the submission he demanded4 ,but it might have been expected that a divine being1 who assumed such unlimited rights over a race so vastly his inferiors in knowledge and in strength1 should at least exercise them with discretion and moderation4 ,it might have been expected that where he claimed obedience it would be with a view to the well-being of his creatures2 not merely as an arbitrary exercise of his enormous power4 ,what1 on the contrary1 is the conduct he pursued8 ,his very first act after he had created ,adam and ,eve and placed them in ,paradise was to forbid them1 under penalty of death1 to eat the fruit of a certain tree which grew in their garden4 ,there is not even a vestige of a pretense in the narrative that the fruit of this tree would in itself1 and apart from the divine prohibition1 have done them any harm4 ,quite the contrary2 the fact of eating it enlarged their faculties2 making them like gods1 who know good and evil4 ,and ,jehovah was afraid that they might1 after eating the fruit of the tree of knowledge1 eat also that of the tree of life1 after which he would be unable to kill them4 ,so that it was his deliberate purpose in issuing this injunction to keep mankind feeble1 ignorant and dependent4 ,nor is this by any means the whole extent of his misconduct4 ,one of two charges he cannot escape4 ,either he knew when he created ,adam and ,eve that their nature was such that they would disobey1 or he did not4 ,in the first case1 he knowingly formed them liable to fall1 knowingly placed them amid conditions which rendered their fall inevitable2 and then punished them for the catastrophe he had all along foreseen as the necessary result of the character he had bestowed upon them4 ,in the second case1 he was ignorant and shortsighted1 being unable to guess what would be the nature of his own handiwork2 and should not have meddled with tasks which were obviously beyond the scope of his faculties4 ,and even in this latter case1 the most favorable one for ,jehovah1 he acted with unpardonable injustice towards the man and woman in first creating them with a nature whose powers of resistance to temptation he could not tell1 then placing temptation1 raised to its utmost strength by a mysterious order1 continually under their noses1 then allowing a serpent to suggest that they should yield to it1 and lastly punishing the unhappy victims of this chain of untoward circumstances by expulsion from their garden4 ,a human parent who should thus treat his children would be severely and justly censured4 ,it is a striking proof how rudimentary were the ,hebrew conceptions of justice1 that they should have accepted1 in reference to their deity1 a story which evinces so flagrant a disregard of its most elementary requirements 7,gen4 ii4 #h1 and iii74 ,just as in the case of ,adam and ,eve1 he required implicit obedience to an arbitrary command1 so in the case of ,abraham he required implicit obedience to an immoral one4 ,there was with him no fixed system of morality4 ,submission to his will was the alpha and omega of virtue4 ,observe now how superior is the feeling shown in the ,hindu legend which has been quoted as a parallel to that of the projected sacrifice of ,isaac4 ,although in that story the father was bound by a solemn promise to sacrifice his son1 yet he is never blamed for his reluctance to do so1 though ,abraham is praised for his willingness2 while the ,brahman who is actually prepared to plunge the sacrificial knife into his child's breast is treated with scorn and reprobation for his unfeeling behavior4 ,even the service of the gods is not made supreme over every human emotion4 ,but the conception of the existence of duties independent of the divine will seems not to have entered the minds of the ,hebrew theologians who wrote these books4 ,the further proceedings of ,jehovah are quite in keeping with his beginning in the garden of ,eden4 ,throughout the whole course of the history he shows the most glaring partiality4 ,in its earlier period he is partial to individuals2 in its later1 to the ,hebrew race4 ,let us notice a few cases of this favoritism as shown towards individual favorites4 ,immediately after the curse upon ,adam and ,eve1 and their banishment from ,eden1 we have the instructive story of ,cain and ,abel1 so magnificently dramatized by ,byron4 ,these two brothers1 sons of the original couple1 both brought offerings to ,jehovah2 ,cain1 the fruit of the ground2 ,abel1 the firstlings of his flock4 ,but the ,lord had respect to ,abel and his offering1 but not to ,cain and his offering4 ,why was this difference made8 ,absolutely no reason is assigned for it1 and it is not surprising1 however lamentable1 that it should have excited the jealousy of the brother who was thus ill-treated 7,gen4 iv4 #a-h74 ,again1 it has been remarked above that ,abraham and ,isaac had a singular way of passing off their wives as their sisters4 ,pharaoh was once deceived in this way about ,sarah2 ,abimelech of ,gerar1 once about ,sarah1 and once about ,rebekah4 ,these two monarchs were plagued by ,jehovah on account of their innocent mistake2 the patriarchs were not even reproved for this cowardly surrender of their consorts to adulterous embraces 7,gen4 xii4 #aa-bj1 xx41 xxvi4 #g-aa74 ,jacob is another favorite1 while his brother ,esau is coldly treated4 ,yet the inherent meanness of ,jacob's character1 and the comparative excellence of ,esau's1 are too obvious to escape even a careless reader4 ,what can be more pitiful than the conduct of ,jacob in taking advantage of a moment of weakness in his brother to purchase his birthright8 7,gen4 xxv4 #bi-cd47 ,what more ungenerous than the odious trick by which he imposed upon his father1 and cheated ,esau of his blessing8 7,gen4 xxvii47 ,what again can be more magnanimous than the long subsequent reception by ,esau of the brother whose miserable subserviency showed his consciousness of the wrong he had done him8 7,gen4 xxxiii4 #a-ae74 ,yet this is the man whom ,jehovah selects as the object of his peculiar blessing1 and whose very deceitfulness towards a kind employer he suffers to become a means of aggrandizement 7,gen4 xxx4 #da-dc74 ,the same partisanship which in these cases forms so conspicuous a trait in the character of ,jehovah distinguishes the whole course of his proceedings in reference to the delivery of the ,israelites from ,egypt and their settlement in ,palestine4 ,every other nation is compelled to give way for their advantage4 ,pharaoh and all the ,egyptians are plagued for holding them in slavery1 not in the least because ,jehovah was an abolitionist 7for he never troubled himself about slavery anywhere else71 but because it was his own peculiar people who were thus in subjugation to a race whom he did not equally affect4 ,throughout the long journey from ,egypt to the promised land1 ,jehovah accompanies the ,israelites as a sort of commander-in-chief1 directing them what to do1 and giving them the victory over their enemies4 ,as the ,red ,sea was divided to enable them to escape from their enemies on the one side1 so the ,jordan was cleft in two to enable them to conquer their enemies on the other 7,ex4 xiv4 #ba1 #bb4--;,josh4 iii4 #g-ag74 ,the walls of a fortified city were thrown down to enable them to enter 7,josh4 vi4 #bj74 ,the sun was arrested in his course to enable them to win a battle 7,josh4 x4 #ab-ad74 ,hornets were employed to accomplish the expulsion of hostile tribes without trouble to the ,israelites 7,josh4 xxiv4 #ab74 ,thus1 as ,jehovah afterwards took care to remind them1 he gave them a land for which they did not labor1 and cities which they did not build 7,josh4 xxiv4 #ac74 ,nevertheless the lot of the race who were thus highly favored was far from happy4 ,their ,god was indeed a powerful protector1 but he was also an exacting ruler4 ,his service was at no time an easy one1 and he was liable to outbursts of passion which rendered it peculiarly oppressive4 ,tolerant as he might be towards some descriptions of immorality1 he had no mercy whatever for disloyalty towards himself4 ,on one occasion he characterized himself by the name of ,jealous 7,ex4 xxxiv4 #ad71 which was but too appropriate1 and implied the possession of one of the least admirable of human weaknesses4 ,now the ,israelites were unfortunately prone to lapses of this kind4 ,such was the severity with which these offenses were treated that it is questionable whether it would not have been a far happier fate to be drowned in the ,red ,sea with the ,egyptians than preserved with the children of ,israel4 ,a few instances of what they had to undergo will illustrate this remark4 ,moses had impressed upon the people the importance of having no other deity but ,jehovah1 and had succeeded while he was actually among them in restricting them to his worship alone4 ,but no sooner was he absent for a season than they immediately forsook ,jehovah1 and took to worshiping a golden calf4 ,worst of all1 this new divinity was set up by ,aaron1 the brother of ,moses1 and high priest of the ,jehovistic faith4 ,that ,jehovah should be rather vexed at such ungrateful behavior1 after all the trouble he had taken in plaguing and slaughtering the ,egyptians1 was only natural2 but it was surely an extraordinary want of self-control to propose to consume the whole nation at once1 reserving only ,moses as the progenitor of a better race4 ,here1 as in other cases1 ,moses showed himself more merciful than his ,god4 ,he ingeniously urged as a motive to clemency that the ,egyptians would say extremely unpleasant things if the ,israelites were destroyed2 and after his return to the camp he contrived to appease him by inducing the ,levites to perpetrate a fratricidal massacre1 whereby three thousand people fell4 ,this measure was described by ,moses as a consecration of themselves to the ,lord1 that he might bestow his blessing upon them4 ,it proved successful1 for ,jehovah now contented himself with merely plaguing the people instead of exterminating them 7,ex4 xxxii74 ,thus1 he had scarcely finished plaguing the ,egyptians before he began plaguing the ,israelites in their turn4 ,indeed he was at this period peculiarly prone to sending plagues of one kind or another4 ,some complaints of the ,israelites in the wilderness were visited by fire which burnt up those who were at the extremities of the camp 7,num4 xi4 #a-c74 ,when they began to pine for the varied food they had enjoyed in ,egypt1 and to lament the absence of flesh meat1 he sent them quails indeed1 but accompanied the gift with a very great plague1 of which large numbers perished 7,num4 xi4 #d-cd74 ,when they were dismayed by the reports brought them concerning the inhabitants of ,palestine1 and complained of their ,god for the position he had brought them into1 he again fell into a rage and proposed to destroy them all by pestilence except ,moses4 ,but ,moses a second time appealed to him on what seems to have been his weak side1--his regard for his reputation among the ,egyptians4 ,these had all heard of what he had been doing1 and would not they and the other neighboring nations ascribe the destruction of the ,israelites in the wilderness to his inability to bring them into the promised land8 ,moved by this reasoning1 ,jehovah consented to spare the people1 but determined at the same time to avenge himself upon them by not permitting any of those that had come from ,egypt 7except ,joshua and ,caleb1 who had reported in the proper spirit about ,palestine7 to set foot within the country to which he had solemnly engaged himself to conduct them 7,num4 xiv4 #a-ci74 ,thus1 they were only saved from the ,egyptians to perish in the wilderness4 ,truly1 the tender mercies of the ,lord were cruel4 ,but the miseries of these unfortunate wanderers were by no means ended4 ,when1 oppressed by the troubles and weariness of the way1 they dared to murmur1 and inquired of ,moses why he had brought them out of ,egypt to die in the wilderness1 where there was neither tolerable bread1 nor water1 the resentment of ,jehovah was excited by this audacity4 ,they ought to have been only too grateful that they had remained alive4 ,jehovah had not caused the earth to swallow them as it had done ,korah1 ,dathan1 and ,abiram1 with their wives and little children1 because they had ventured to complain of the government of ,moses2 nor had he destroyed them by plague1 as he had destroyed #ad1gjj people because there had been some expressions of dissatisfaction at the sudden death of those seditious men4 ,if then they had hitherto escaped destruction1 they were certainly foolish in complaining of the hardships of the desert4 ,at any rate ,jehovah soon convinced them that their grumbling was useless4 ,no constitutional opposition was permitted in those days4 ,fiery serpents were despatched to bite them1 and many of them died in consequence4 ,such was the extent of the calamity that ,moses1 always more merciful than his ,god1 interceded for his people2 and was directed to set up a brazen serpent1 by looking at which the bites of the living serpents were healed 7,num4 xxi4 #a-i74 ,the extraordinary cruelty ascribed by the ,hebrews to their national deity is shown in many other instances besides those that have been mentioned4 ,and it is to be noticed that it is cruelty mingled with caprice4 ,no one could tell beforehand precisely what actions he would visit with punishment1 nor what would be the punishment with which he would visit them4 ,everything with him was uncertain4 ,he had no fixed system of laws at all1 and he sometimes condemned a criminal in virtue of ex post facto legislation4 ,the deluge is an example of all these vices combined4 ,it was an excessively cruel punishment2 it was inflicted capriciously1 and once in a way only1 because ,god had changed his mind as to the propriety of having created man2 and it was the result of a resolution arrived at after the offenses it was designed to chastise had already been committed4 ,no human being could possibly have guessed beforehand that his crimes would be punished in that particular way4 ,and after the crimes of the antediluvians had been thus punished1 the survivors received a promise that no misconduct on their part would ever be visited upon them in the same way4 ,so that any conceivable utility which the deluge might have had as a warning for the future was utterly destroyed4 ,equal caprice1 though not equal cruelty1 was shown towards the builders of the tower of ,babel1 who were suffered to begin their labors without hindrance1 but were afterwards stopped by the confusion of their languages4 ,why it was wrong to erect such a tower is never stated4 ,could any of those engaged upon it have guessed that the attempt was one deserving of punishment8 ,still worse was ,jehovah's behavior to the prophet ,balaam1 for he first ordered him to go with the men who were sent for him1 and then was angry with him because he went 7,num4 xxii4 #bj1 #bb74 ,such conduct was on a level with that of a pettish woman4 ,instances of barbarous severity may be found in abundance4 ,nadab and ,abihu1 sons of ,aaron1 were devoured by fire from the ,lord1 because they had taken their censers1 and offered strange fire before him 7,lev4 x4 #a1 #b74 ,a man who on the father's side was ,egyptian1 was ordered to be stoned for blaspheming and cursing the name of the ,lord2 ,jehovah being peculiarly eager in avenging personal affronts 7,lev4 xxiv4 #aj-af74 ,on this occasion no doubt a general law was announced affixing the penalty of stoning to the offense of blasphemy2 but the law was ex post facto so far as the individual who suffered by its operation was concerned4 ,on another occasion the heads of the people were ordered to be all hung for whoredom with the daughters of ,moab1 and for idolatry4 ,phinehas1 ,aaron's son1 seeing an ,israelite with a ,midianitish woman1 ran then both through the body with a javelin2 for which heroic exploit against an unprepared man and a defenseless woman he was specially praised2 was declared to have turned away ,god's wrath from ,israel1 and received a covenant of peace for himself and his posterity 7,num4 xxv4 #a-ae74 ,at a much later period1 when ,david was causing the ark to be brought back from the ,philistines1 an unfortunate man who had put out his hand to touch it because the oxen shook it1 was immediately slain2 an act at which even the pious ,david was displeased1 and which caused him1 not unnaturally1 to be afraid before the ,lord that day 7#b ,sam4 vi4 #f-i74 ,in the reign of ,jeroboam a prophet who had only been guilty of the involuntary error of believing another prophet who had told him a falsehood1 was killed by a lion sent expressly for his punishment1 while the man who had deceived him escaped scot free 7#a ,kings xiii4 #a-cb74 ,another man suffered for refusing to obey the word of a prophet what this one had suffered for obeying it4 ,being desired by one of the sons of the prophets to smite him so as to cause a wound1 and having declined the office1 he was informed that for his disobedience to the voice of the ,lord he would be slain by a lion1 which accordingly happened 7#a ,kings xx4 #ce1 #cf74 ,mercy towards a conquered enemy was sometimes an actual crime4 ,because he spared ,agag1 ,saul was rejected from being king over ,israel1 and the ,lord repented that he had appointed so weak-minded a man4 ,samuel1 who was made of sterner stuff1 had no scruple in carrying out the behests of his ,god1 for he hewed ,agag in pieces before the ,lord 7#a ,sam4 xv74 ,in like manner ,ahab was reproved for sparing the life of ,ben-hadad1 ,king of ,syria 7#a ,kings xx4 #db1 #dc74 ,the same monarch whose leniency had thus brought him into trouble was afterwards the victim of a sanguinary fraud practiced upon him by ,jehovah4 ,tired of his reign1 and eager to effect his destruction1 the ,lord put a lying spirit into the mouth of all his prophets1 who were thus induced to prophesy victory in an engagement which actually terminated in his defeat and death 7#a ,kings xxii4 #a-dj74 ,observe1 that however foolish ,ahab may have been in believing the false prophets and disbelieving ,micaiah1 this does not excuse ,jehovah1 who according to his own chosen spokesman1 deliberately arranged this scheme for the overthrow of the king in the court of heaven4 ,other barbarous deeds followed upon this4 ,to gratify ,elijah1 a hundred men who were guiltless of any crime whatever1 were consumed by fire 7#b ,kings i4 #i-ab74 ,to assuage the wounded vanity of ,elisha1 forty-two little children were eaten by bears 7#b ,kings ii4 #bc1 #bd74 ,to maintain the glory of the true ,god1 ,elijah slaughtered the prophets of ,baal to the number of many hundreds 7#a ,kings xviii4 #ag-dj74 ,to restablish the orthodox faith1 ,jehu got rid of the worshipers of ,baal1 collected together by an infamous trick1 in one indiscriminate massacre2 an atrocity for which he was specially praised and rewarded by the ,lord 7#b ,kings x4 #ah-cj74 ,it is needless to prolong the list of cruelties practiced upon private individuals4 ,but the subject would be incompletely treated1 did we not observe that the same spirit prevailed in the dealings of ,jehovah with nations4 ,thus1 when the ,israelites were about to enter the land of ,canaan1 they were desired utterly to destroy the seven nations who possessed it already 7,deut4 vii4 #b74 ,when they captured ,jericho1 they slew all its inhabitants1 young and old1 except the household of the prostitute with whom their messengers had lodged1 and who had shamelessly betrayed her countrymen4 ,her1 with her family they saved 7,josh4 vi4 #a-be74 ,all the inhabitants of ,ai were utterly destroyed 7,josh4 viii4 #bf74 ,all the inhabitants of ,makkedah were utterly destroyed 7,josh4 x4 #bh74 ,all the inhabitants of many other places were utterly destroyed 7,josh4 x4 #bi-dc1 and xi4 #aa1 #ad74 ,one city alone made peace with ,israel2 all the rest were taken in battle1 and that because ,jehovah had deliberately and of set purpose hardened the hearts of their inhabitants1 that they might be utterly destroyed 7,josh4 xi4 #bj74 ,such a catalogue of crimes--and the number is by no means exhausted--would be sufficient to destroy the character of any pagan divinity whatsoever4 ,i fail to perceive why the ,jews alone should be privileged to represent their ,god as guilty of such actions without suffering the inference which in other cases would undoubtedly be drawn--namely1 that their conceptions of deity were not of a very exalted order1 nor their principles of morals of a very admirable kind4 ,there is1 indeed1 nothing extraordinary in the fact that1 living in a barbarous age1 the ancient ,hebrews should have behaved barbarously4 ,the reverse would rather be surprising4 ,but the remarkable fact is1 that their savage deeds1 and the equally savage ones attributed to their ,god1 should have been accepted by ,christendom as flowing in the one case from the commands1 in the other from the immediate action of a just and beneficent ,being4 ,when the ,hindus relate the story of ,brahma's incest with his daughter1 they add that the god was bowed down with shame on account of his subjugation by ordinary passion 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 i4 p4 #aab74 ,but while they thus betray their feeling that even a divine being is not superior to all the standards of morality1 no such consciousness is ever apparent in the narrators of the passions of ,jehovah4 ,while far worse offenses are committed by him1 there is no trace in his character of the grace of shame4 ,turning now to the legislation which emanated from him1 we shall find evidence of the same spirit which has been seen to mark his daily dealings4 ,it is impossible here to examine that legislation in detail1 and it may be freely conceded that much of it was well adapted to the circumstances under which it was delivered4 ,some of the precepts given are indeed trivial1 such as the order to the ,israelites not to round the corners of their heads1 nor mar the corners of their beards 7,lev4 xix4 #bg71 and others are such as are merely special to the ,hebrew religion4 ,but the mass of enactments may very probably have been wise1 or1 at least1 not conspicuously the reverse4 ,those to which the chief exception must be taken1 are such as demonstrate the essentially inhuman character of the authority from whom they emanated4 ,thus1 death is the penalty affixed to the insignificant offense of ,sabbath-breaking 7,ex4 xxxv4 #b74 ,if the nearest relation1 or even the wife of his bosom1 or the friend who is as his own soul1 secretly entice a man to go and worship other gods1 he himself is to put the tempter to death1 his own hand being the first to fling the stones by which he is to perish 7,deut4 xiii4 #f-aa74 ,the ,inquisition itself could have no more detestable law than this4 ,if it is a city that is guilty of such heresy1 it is to be burnt down1 and all its inhabitants put to the sword 7,deut4 xiii4 #ab-af74 ,the mere worship of pagan divinities1 apart from any effort to seduce others1 is likewise punished with stoning 7,deut4 xvii4 #b-g74 ,in cities not in ,palestine1 taken in war1 all the males only are to be put to death2 but in the cities of ,palestine itself1 nothing that breathes is to be saved alive 7,deut4 xx4 #ac-ah74 ,a stubborn and rebellious son may be put to death by stoning1 and that at the instance of his parents 7,deut4 xxi4 #ah-ba74 ,in appearance this terrible process for dealing with a naughty boy is less severe than the patria potestas of the ,romans1 by which the power of life and death was lodged in the father alone4 ,practically1 however1 the exercise of this unlimited legal right was prevented to a large extent1 for a religious curse rested on the father who even sold his married son1 and he could not pronounce sentence on any child till after consulting the nearest blood-relations on both sides1 without incurring the same anathema 7,mommsen1 ,history of ,rome1 vol4 i4 p4 #fe74 ,no doubt the purely legal power of the head of the family was unaffected by these restraints4 ,human authority still permitted him to expose his children at birth1 to sell them1 or to sentence them to death4 ,but the difference between ,roman and ,jewish institutions was1 that in ,rome1 religion sought to mitigate the cruelty of the civil law2 in ,palestine1 religion not only did nothing to soften1 but positively sanctioned1 by its august commands the most revolting enactments of barbaric legislation4 ,it is true that no instance is known to history of the employment of this law by ,jews against their children1 but this can only show that their parental morality was superior to the morality of the divine law4 ,at a much later time than that at which this enactment was given1 when the ,israelites returned from the ,captivity1 the same harsh and intolerant spirit as we have observed in their earlier legislation broke forth again4 ,by a cruel measure1 enacted by ,ezra1 the representative of ,jehovah1 and taking the form of a covenant with ,god1 the people were forced to repudiate all their wives who were not of pure ,israelitish blood 7,ezra ix1 and x74 ,nehemiah1 who was likewise zealous in the service of ,jehovah1 was no less an enemy to outlandish women1 and took rather strong measures against those who had married them1 such as cursing them1 smiting them1 plucking off their hair1 and making them swear not to give their sons or daughters in marriage to foreigners 7,neh4 xiii4 #bc-bh74 ,such being the moral characteristics of the ,hebrew ,god1 can it be said that the intellectual ideas of the divine nature found in the ,old ,testament are of a highly refined and spiritual order8 ,on the contrary1 as compared with the gods of other races1 ,jehovah is remarkably anthropomorphic and materialistic4 ,he does not approach in spirituality to the higher conceptions of the ,hindus1 nor is he even equal to those of less subtle and speculative nations4 ,he is on a level with the gods of popular mythologies1 but not with those more mysterious powers who often stand above them4 ,the evidence of this proposition is to be found in the whole tenor of the historical books4 ,thus1 in the very beginning of ,genesis1 we find that he rested on the seventh day1 7,gen4 ii4 #b7 as if he were a being altogether apart from the forces of nature1 and might leave the world to go on without him4 ,a little later he is found walking in the garden in the cool of the day 7,gen4 iii4 #h74 ,he clearly had a body resembling that of man1 for on one occasion ,moses was so highly favored as to be permitted to see his back parts1 and was covered with his hand while he was passing by4 ,his face ,moses was not permitted to behold1 as it would have caused his death 7,ex4 xxxiii4 #bj-bc74 ,in order to pass by he descended in a cloud1 implying local habitation1 and at this time he magniloquently proclaimed his own titles and virtues1 which he might more gracefully have employed an angel to do for him4 ,elsewhere it is stated that ,moses and the elders saw the ,god of ,israel1 and that he had some sort of paved work of sapphire stone under his feet4 ,when ,moses went up alone into the mount1 the sight of the glory of the ,lord was like devouring fire4 ,god was at this time supposed to be on the mount1 and there held discourse with ,moses 7,ex4 xxiv4 #aj-be74 ,in the course of it he says that he will commune from above the mercy-seat in the tabernacle1 again 7as in so many other places7 implying occupation of definite space 7,ex4 xxv4 #bb74 ,he promises to dwell among the children of ,israel1 that is1 to be a national and local ,god 7,ex4 xxix4 #de1 #df74 ,confirmation of the view here taken of his limited nature is found in the fact that he thought it necessary to go down to ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 to verify the reports which had reached him concerning the conduct of their inhabitants4 ,and when ,abraham appealed to him for mercy for those of them who were righteous1 his several answers clearly implied that when he went to those cities he would discover how many of them came under that denomination4 ,if ,i find in ,sodom fifty righteous1 and so forth1 is the language of one who does not know a fact1 but is going to ascertain it4 ,and accordingly at the end of the colloquy the ,lord went his way 7,gen4 xviii4 #bj-cc74 ,so completely anthropomorphic is the conception of deity that1 although the expression occurs only in a parable1 it is not at variance with the mode in which he is usually spoken of when wine is said to cheer ,god and man 7,judg4 ix4 #ac74 ,evidently there was nothing shocking to the ,hebrew mind in such an expression4 ,and when they pictured their ,god as walking1 talking1 indignant1 angry1 repenting1 jealous1 showing himself to human beings1 and generally indulging in the passions of mortals1 it was perfectly easy to conceive that wine might exercise the same effect on him as it did on them4 ,no doubt the ,hebrew mythology is free from all that class of stories in which a divine being is represented as making love to or cohabiting with women4 ,or1 to speak more accurately1 they never represent ,jehovah himself as indulging in such amusements4 ,there is a reminiscence of this form of myth in the statement that before the deluge the sons of ,god intermarried with the daughters of men 7,gen4 vi4 #b72 but their supreme ,being was free at least from sexual passion4 ,so far as it goes1 this is well2 but if ,i had to choose between a ,god who was somewhat licentious in his relations with mankind1 and one who did not stick at deeds of bloodshed of the most outrageous character1 ,i confess ,i should see no very powerful reason to prefer the latter4 ,that1 in spite of all these drawbacks1 there are some better elements in the ,hebrew ideal ,i do not at all deny4 ,the poetical description of ,god as a still small voice is both eloquent and spiritual2 and the prayer of ,solomon1 with its admission that the heaven of heavens cannot contain the ,infinite ,power who is entreated to dwell in the ,temple1 is in many respects beautiful and admirable4 ,so also the views of ,jehovah attained and uttered by some of the prophets are far loftier than those generally expressed in the historical books4 ,many of the ,psalms1 again1 are full of beauty in the manner in which they speak of him to whom they are addressed4 ,in a nation so deeply religious as the ,jews1 and so much given to meditation on ,god1 it was inevitable that the higher class of minds should conceive him more spiritually than the lower1 and it is this class to whom we owe the poetical and prophetic writings4 ,it was inevitable also that as civilization advanced1 the grosser elements of the conception1 which belonged to a barbarous people1 should be eliminated1 and that the finer ones should remain4 ,the entire supersession of the older ,god by the newer was prevented by the fact that the ,old ,testament was a sacred book1 and that hence every one of its statements had to be received as absolutely true4 ,the inconsistency between the wrathful monarch of ancient times and the loving ,spirit of more recent ages was sought to be surmounted by those processes of interpretation which have been shown to be invariably adopted when it is desired to bring the infallible ,scriptures of any nation into harmony with the opinions of their readers4 ,but happily the language of the historical portions of the ,old ,testament is singularly plain1 and no ingenious manipulation of the text can with the smallest plausibility put aside the obvious meaning of the broad assertions on which is founded the above delineation of the ,god of ,israel4 ,,section ,,viii4--,,the ,,new ,,testament4 ,since a considerable portion of the ,new ,testament has already been dealt with in the life of ,jesus1 we have only1 in the present section1 to consider the remaining works of which it is composed4 ,these will not require a very elaborate treatment4 ,they consist of one historical book1 continuing the history of the ,christian community from the death of its founder till the imprisonment of ,paul at ,rome1 of letters1 partly genuine1 partly spurious1 bearing the names of eminent apostles as their authors1 and of one composition somewhat akin in its nature to the writings of the ,hebrew prophets4 ,of these several parts of the ,new ,testament 7excluding the ,gospels7 some of the ,epistles are probably the most ancient2 but as it would be difficult to establish any precise chronological sequence among the several books1 it will be most convenient to begin with that which stands first in actual order4 ,,subdivision #a4--,the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,the author of the third gospel1 having written the life of ,jesus1 proceeded to compose1 in addition to it1 a history of the proceedings of his apostles after his decease4 ,we are greatly indebted to him for having done so1 for this book is1 notwithstanding some extravagances1 of considerable value1 and is the most trustworthy of the five historical books in the ,new ,testament4 ,it brought the narrative of events nearer to the date at which it was written than the gospel could do1 and it dealt with events concerning which better evidence was accessible to the writer4 ,there was thus not the same scope for fiction as there had been in the life of ,christ4 ,nevertheless the story of the ,acts of the ,apostles is by no means free from legendary admixture4 ,beginning with the ascension1 which has been already noticed in connection with the gospel1 it proceeds to relate the choice of a new apostle in place of the unfaithful ,judas4 ,the ceremony by which the choice was made evinces a singular superstition on the part of the apostles4 ,having selected two men1 ,joseph and ,matthias1 they simply prayed that ,god would show which he had chosen4 ,they then drew lots1 and the lot fell upon ,matthias 7,acts i4 #ae-bf74 ,the next important event in the history of the ,church thus recruited1 was the reception of the ,holy ,ghost on the day of ,pentecost4 ,on this occasion the ,christians were all assembled1 when suddenly there was a sound like that of strong wind2 cloven tongues appeared and sat upon them2 they were filled with the ,holy ,ghost1 and suddenly acquired the power of speaking foreign languages 7,acts ii4 #a-ac74 ,since the gift of tongues has not been unknown in certain communities in recent times1 we might perhaps form a tolerably correct notion from the reports of modern observers as to what the scene among the disciples was like4 ,even1 however1 without this modern experience1 we should not be altogether in the dark as to the character of the phenomenon of which the author of the ,acts makes mention4 ,for although it is indeed stated that some of the strangers who were present heard each his own language spoken by the disciples1 it is added that the conviction produced upon others was that the ,christians were drunk4 ,it must have been a wild and singular exhibition which could lead to the formation of such an opinion4 ,but if we wanted further explanation we should find it in the words of ,paul1 whose strong practical judgment led him to depreciate the value of the gift of tongues as compared with that of preaching4 ,had this gift consisted in the power of speaking their own languages to foreign nations1 there is none to whom it would have been of greater service than the apostle of the ,gentiles4 ,yet it is he who tells us that at a meeting he would rather speak five words with his understanding1 that he might teach others also1 than ten thousand in a tongue4 ,so that the words spoken in tongues were not spoken with the understanding2 they were mere sounds without a meaning to him who uttered them4 ,equally clear is the evidence of ,paul to the fact that they were without a meaning to him who heard them4 ,his reason for desiring his correspondents to cultivate the gift of prophesying 7or preaching7 rather than that of tongues is that he that speaks in a tongue speaks not to men1 but to ,god1 for nobody understands him1 but in the spirit he speaks mysteries4 ,but he that preaches speaks to men edification1 and exhortation1 and comfort4 ,he that speaks in a tongue edifies himself2 but he that preaches edifies the ,church 7#a ,cor4 xiv4 #b-d74 ,tongues1 he says further on1 are for a sign to unbelievers2 that is1 they are of use merely to impress the senses of those whose minds cannot yet be appealed to4 ,but if the unbelieving or unlearned should happen to enter a meeting where the disciples were all speaking with tongues1 they would consider them mad3 a striking testimony to the tumultuous character of scenes like that presented by the enthusiastic assembly of the ,christians at ,pentecost4 ,hence ,paul desires that two1 or at most three1 should speak with tongues at a time1 and that there should always be somebody to interpret1 in other words1 to translate nonsense into sense4 ,without an interpreter1 he would not sanction any exercise of this peculiar faculty on the part of the inspired linguist 7#a ,cor4 xiv4 #a-bh74 ,to satisfy the doubts of those who attributed the sudden attainments of the apostles to intoxicating drinks1 ,peter delivered a discourse1 which ended in the addition of #c1jjj members to the rising sect4 ,it is remarkable that these new members at once became communists1 both they and all the disciples having all things in common2 a noteworthy indication of what was required by the religion of ,christ as understood by his immediate disciples 7,acts ii4 #ad-dg74 ,further evidence1 if any were needed1 of the communistic character of the ,church is contained at the end of the fourth chapter1 while the fifth informs us of the tolerably severe measures taken to enforce it4 ,there was one heart and one soul among the multitude of those who believed1 nor did a single one say that any of the things he possessed was his own2 but they had all things common4 ,unhappily the one heart and one mind did not extend to ,ananias or to his wife ,sapphira1 for this naughty couple sold a possession and kept back part of the price4 ,but ,peter was not thus to be taken in4 ,it does not appear from the account that ,ananias was asked whether the sum he produced was the whole price of the land1 or that he told any falsehood regarding it4 ,however1 ,peter remarked that he might have kept either the property or its price1 had he thought proper1 and charged him with lying to ,god2 whereupon the poor man fell down dead4 ,about three hours later1 ,sapphira came in2 and she distinctly stated that the sum produced by ,ananias was the full price4 ,peter told her that the feet of those who had buried her husband were at the door1 and would carry her out too4 ,she then fell down at his feet1 and expired in her turn 7,acts4 iv4 #ca-v4 #aa74 ,no wonder that great fear came upon all the ,church when they heard these things4 ,peter's proceedings were indeed alarming1 and could we for a moment accept the account of his historian1 we should have no option but to hold him guilty of the wilful murder of ,sapphira4 ,he knew1 according to his own statement1 what the effect of his words upon this woman would be1 and he should have abstained from any expression that could bring about so terrible a catastrophe4 ,happily1 we may reject the whole story as either a fiction or a perversion of fact4 ,had it been true1 it would have called for very much sterner measures than those taken by the ,sanhedrim1 who1 having already desired ,peter and ,john to keep silence about the new religion1 now merely imprisoned the apostles1 and afterwards1 on the prudent advice of ,gamaliel1 determined to release them2 not indeed till after they had beaten them and again prohibited their propagandist efforts 7,acts v4 #ag-db74 ,it is interesting to observe that ,luke effects the deliverance of the apostles from prison by the intervention of an angel1 and that at a later period1 when ,peter had been imprisoned by ,herod1 he again gets him out by means of an angel who appears to him while sleeping1 and at whose presence his chains fall off 7,acts xii4 #a-ai74 ,this is quite in accordance with the proceedings of the same author in the gospel1 where his partiality for angels as part of his theatrical machinery has been shown to be characteristic4 ,the infant community was now increasing in numbers1 and along with this increase there arose the customary consequences--dissension and mutual distrust4 ,we are fortunate in possessing in the ,acts an account of the very first quarrel in the ,church2 the earliest symptom of those discords and hostilities1 which1 since that time1 have so incessantly raged within her limits4 ,it was on a question of money2 the ,greeks murmuring against the ,hebrews1 because they thought their widows were neglected in the daily ministration4 ,the apostles tided over the immediate difficulty by appointing subordinate officers to attend to matters of business4 ,the plan succeeded2 but their peace was soon to be disturbed again by graver questions 7,acts vi4 #a-h74 ,among those appointed to superintend the pecuniary interests of the ,church was one named ,stephen4 ,this man is reported to have performed great wonders and miracles1 but some of the ,jews accused him of blasphemy1 and after an eloquent defense1 which to ,jewish ears amounted to an admission of the charge1 he was sentenced to death by stoning4 ,foremost in the execution of the sentence was a man named ,saul1 who was conspicuous at this time for the bitterness with which he pursued the ,christians1 entering their private houses1 and causing them to be imprisoned 7,acts vi4 #i-viii4 #c74 ,if any proof were needed of the entire conscientiousness of the ,jewish persecutors of ,christianity at this time we should find it in the character of ,saul4 ,of the honesty of his religious zeal1 of the single-minded sense of duty from which he acted in his anti-,christian period1 his subsequent career makes it impossible to entertain a doubt4 ,men like the apostle ,paul are not made out of selfish1 dishonest1 or cruel natures4 ,he was at the martyrdom of ,stephen as honorable and fearless an upholder of the ancient faith as he was afterwards to the new4 ,he himself several times refers in his writings to his persecution of the ,church1 and always in the tone of a man who had nothing to be ashamed of but a mistake in judgment4 ,as touching the righteousness which is in the law1 he tells us he was blameless 7,phil4 iii4 #f74 ,and although in intellectual power he was doubtless above the average of his class1 in point of genuine devotion to his creed1 he may fairly be taken as a type of the men with whom he consented to act4 ,saul had probably been impressed by the conduct of the ,christians1 whom he had so ruthlessly delivered up to justice4 ,at any rate the subject of the ,christian religion had taken great hold upon his mind1 for on his way to ,damascus he saw a vision which induced him to become himself a follower of ,jesus4 ,it is unfortunate that we have no detailed account of the nature of the event which led to his conversion from ,paul himself4 ,he often alludes to it1 but nowhere describes it4 ,the most important passage bearing upon the subject is in the ,second ,epistle to the ,corinthians1 where he thus mysteriously refers to his experience on this occasion3 ,i knew a man in ,christ above fourteen years ago 7whether in the body ,i do not know1 whether out of the body ,i do not know7 such an one caught up to the third heaven4 ,and ,i knew such a man 7whether in the body1 whether out of the body1 ,god knows71 that he was caught up into paradise1 and heard unspeakable words1 which it is not lawful for a man to utter 7#b ,cor4 xii4 #b-d74 ,so far as it goes1 this account does not very well agree with that of the ,acts1 since there we are told exactly what were the words ,paul heard1 and what he answered4 ,we are left in doubt then whether the conversation between ,christ and the apostle there related rests on the authority of ,paul himself1 or represents merely the imagination of others as to what might have passed between them4 ,but that ,paul saw some kind of vision1 which he himself believed to be a vision of ,christ1 there can be no doubt4 ,from ,luke we have two versions of this incident1 one in the form of historical narrative1 the other in that of a speech put into the mouth of ,paul4 ,according to these he saw a light1 and heard a voice saying1 ,saul1 ,saul1 why persecutest thou me8 ,on inquiry1 he learnt that the voice emanated from ,jesus1 and he was desired to proceed to ,damascus1 where further instructions would be given him4 ,luke has not taken sufficient pains to make his two versions harmonize1 for in the first we are told that his companions heard a voice1 but saw no man2 in the second that they saw the light1 but did not hear the voice of him that spoke 7,acts ix4 #g1 and xxii4 #i74 ,at ,damascus a man named ,ananias1 directed also by a vision1 went to ,saul to restore his sight1 which had been destroyed for the moment by the brilliancy of the celestial light4 ,after this1 ,saul1 subsequently called ,paul1 escaping from the pursuit of the ,jews who had designs upon his life1 began to preach in the name of ,jesus 7,acts ix4 #a-ca74 ,another convert of some consideration1 from his official position and from the fact that he was a heathen1 was added to the community about this time4 ,this was ,cornelius1 the ,centurion of the ,italian band4 ,cornelius was a religious man1 much given to prayer4 ,tired perhaps of visions1 of which there had been two in the last chapter and was to be another in this1 ,luke introduces his angel--a sort of supernumerary ever ready to appear when wanted--to effect the conversion of ,cornelius4 ,the angel told him to apply to ,peter1 now at ,joppa1 for further advice as to what he should do4 ,meanwhile ,peter had on his part been prepared by a vision of unclean beasts1 which he was desired to eat1 for the reception of the ,gentile embassy1 and the admission of ,gentiles to the flock4 ,he accordingly proceeded to ,csarea1 where ,cornelius was1 and baptized both him and other heathens1 upon whom1 to the great astonishment of the ,jews1 the ,holy ,ghost was poured out and the gift of tongues conferred4 ,thus did the ,church of ,christ begin1 timidly and feeling her way with caution1 to extend her boundaries beyond the limits of the ,hebrew people 7,acts x74 ,some scandal was created in the congregation at ,jerusalem by ,peter's violation of ,jewish rules in dining with uncircumcised people1 but there was no gainsaying a vision like that which he produced in reply4 ,shortly after these events the apostle ,james1 one of those two brothers whose mother had petitioned that they might sit on two thrones1 one on each side of ,jesus1 when his kingdom came1 was executed by ,herod1 the tetrarch2 who also imprisoned ,peter1 but was unable to keep him on account of the angelic intervention mentioned above4 ,the death of this monarch from a painful internal disease1 is curiously perverted by the writer into a sudden judgment of ,god1 inflicted upon him because he accepted divine honors at the hands of his flatterers 7,acts xi4 xii74 ,the history now proceeds to follow the fortunes of ,paul4 ,it is stated that there were at ,antioch certain prophets and teachers1 who were inspired by the ,holy ,ghost to appoint ,barnabas and ,saul to the work whereunto they were called4 ,having laid their hands upon them1 they sent them away4 ,paul now began to travel from place to place1 making converts among the heathen4 ,at ,paphos he met with a ,jewish sorcerer named ,elymas1 who he caused to be blind for a season1 thereby inducing the ,roman proconsul ,sergius ,paulus to believe in ,christianity1 which had thus shown itself able to produce more powerful sorcerers than the rival creed 7,acts xiii4 #a-ab74 ,it is a striking proof of the liberality of the ,jews at this period that when ,paul and his companions had gone into the synagogue of ,antioch in ,pisidia1 the rulers of the synagogue invited them to speak2 a freedom which even in the present day would scarcely be granted in any ,christian ,church to those who were regarded as heretics4 ,paul took advantage of the proffered opportunity to deliver a speech which ended in the conversion of some of the ,jews4 ,on the following ,sabbath great crowds came to hear ,paul1 but the ,jews1 as was natural1 opposed him and contradicted him4 ,after this they stirred up pious women and the principal men of the city against ,paul and ,barnabas1 and 7it is stated7 expelled them from their coasts 7,acts xiii4 #ej74 ,these apostles having already determined to go 7,acts xiii4 #df71 it was not a severe treatment that was thus inflicted on them4 ,they1 however1 left ,antioch in no very charitable frame of mind1 for they shook off the dust of their feet against its inhabitants 7,acts xiii4 #ad-eb74 ,the cure of an impotent man at ,lystra led the multitude of that place to adore ,paul and ,barnabas as gods4 ,paul1 as the orator1 they called ,hermes1 and ,barnabas1 ,zeus4 ,the priest of ,zeus brought oxen and garlands1 and intended to sacrifice to them1 an intention which the people were barely prevented1 by the indignant protests of the two apostles1 from carrying into effect 7,acts xiv4 #h-ah74 ,this was not the only occasion on which ,paul was taken for a god2 for when he was cast by shipwreck on the island of ,melita1 his escape from injury by a venomous reptile which had fastened on his hand was regarded by the savages of that island as a proof of divinity 7,acts xxviii4 #a-f74 ,extremely similar to these incidents1 especially to the first1 is a circumstance recounted by ,sir ,francis ,drake in his voyage of circumnavigation4 ,his vessel having sprung a leak1 while he was exploring the coast of ,north ,america1 was brought to anchor to be repaired1 and the sailors landed to build tents and make a fort for purposes of defense4 ,the natives approached them in companies1 armed1 and as if designing an attack1 but it appeared that they had no hostile meaning or intent2 for when they came near1 they stood as men ravished in their minds1 with the sight of such things as they never had seen or heard of before that time3 their errand being rather with submission and feare to worship us as gods1 than to have any warre with us as with mortall men4 ,which thing1 as it did partly show itself at that instant1 so did it more and more manifest itself afterwards1 during the whole time of our abode amongst them4 ,the ,general gave them materials for clothing1 withall signifying unto them we were no gods1 but men1 and had neede of such things to cover our own shame2 teaching them to use them for the same ends1 for which cause wee did eate and drinke in their presence1 giving them to understand that without that wee could not live1 and therefore were but men as well as they 7we also are men of like passions with you7 7,acts xiv4 #ae74 ,notwithstanding nothing could persuade them1 nor remove that opinion which they had conceived of us1 that wee should be gods 7,w4 ,e41 p4 #abj74 ,and1 as the heathens of ,lystra were eager to sacrifice to ,barnabas and ,paul1 so those of this country actually conferred this mark of divinity upon some of the white men in the company of ,drake1 nor were the utmost protests of the travelers of avail to put a stop to what appeared to them1 just as it did to the apostles1 an impious rite1 derogating from the honor due to the true ,god4 ,the people had come in a large body1 accompanied by their king1 to make a formal presentation of the sovereignty to him1 and the king had made over into his hands the insignia of the royal office1 when the scene now described by ,sir ,francis took place4 ,the ceremonies of this resigning and receiving of the ,kingdome being thus performed1 says ,sir ,francis1 the common sort1 both of men and women1 leaving the king and his guard about him1 with our ,generall1 dispersed themselves among our people1 taking a diligent view or survey of every man2 and finding such as pleased their fancies 7which commonly were the youngest of us71 they presently enclosing them about offred their sacrifices unto them crying out with lamentable shreekes and moanes1 weeping and scratching and tearing their very flesh off their faces with their nails2 neither were it the women alone which did this1 but even old men1 roaring and crying out1 were as violent as the women were4 ,we groaned in spirit to see the power of ,sathan so farre prevaile in seducing these1 so harmlesse soules1 and labored by all meanes1 both by shewing our great dislike1 and when that served not1 by violent withholding of their hands from that madnesse1 directing them 7by our eyes and hands lift up towards heaven7 to the living ,god whom they ought to serve2 but so mad were they upon their ,idolatry1 that forcible withholding them would not prevaile 7for as soon as they could get liberty to their hands againe1 they would be as violent as they were before7 till such time1 as they whom they worshiped were conveyed from them into the tents1 whom yet as men besides themselves1 they would with fury and outrage seeke to have again 7,w4 ,e41 p4 #abi74 ,we are again reminded of the ,acts3 ,and with these sayings scarce restrained they the people1 that they had not done sacrifice unto them 7,acts xiv4 #ah74 ,an unfortunate change in the popular mind soon occurred2 for on the arrival of some ,jews who stirred them up to hostility against the ,apostles1 they flew from one extravagance to another1 and stoned ,paul so severely that he was left by them for dead4 ,but as the disciples stood about him he rose1 and was able to continue his journey on the next day4 ,the ,christians at ,jerusalem were now required to consider the difficult question of the circumcision of the ,gentiles2 their decision upon which has already been discussed4 ,after the council ,paul 7who had returned to ,antioch7 proposed to revisit the places where he had formerly preached1 and ,barnabas intended to go with him4 ,but a difference of opinion as to whether they should take ,mark with them led to a violent quarrel between these two apostles2 as the result of which ,paul chose ,silas as his companion1 and left ,barnabas to pursue his own course with his friend ,mark 7,acts xv74 ,the writer now follows the fortunes of ,paul in his missionary work in various countries1 and it is remarkable that in the sixteenth chapter he drops the third person1 and begins to speak in the first person plural1 implying that he himself was one of the company4 ,the fact that from this point onwards the book becomes practically not the ,acts of the ,apostles1 but the ,acts of ,paul1 who is evidently the hero of the story1 indicates an author who belonged to the ,pauline section of the ,church1 and to whom ,paul was the chief living embodiment of the ,christian faith4 ,who this author was--whether ,silas1 or some other companion--it would be hard to say1 but he seems to have written under the direct inspiration of ,paul himself4 ,increased by the addition of ,timotheus1 the party1 guided by a vision seen by ,paul of a ,macedonian entreating them to come1 went into ,macedonia4 ,at ,philippi they met with some success among women1 making particular friends with a purple-seller named ,lydia4 ,but the conversion of a divining girl who was a source of profit to her employers1 led to the imprisonment of ,paul and ,silas1 from which1 however1 an opportune earthquake set them free 7,acts xvi74 ,at ,athens ,paul made a speech on the ,areopagos1 in which he ingeniously availed himself of an altar he had noticed1 inscribed ,to an ,unknown ,god1 to maintain that this unknown ,god was no other than the ,jehovah of the ,jews 7,acts xvii4 #af-cd74 ,at ,corinth he was allowed to preach every ,sabbath in the synagogue 7as he had done at ,thessalonica1 and did again at ,ephesus71 another evidence of the tolerant spirit of the ,jews as compared with ,christians4 ,not1 of course1 that the ,jews were not bigoted adherents of their narrow creed1 or that they had any scruple about supporting it by physical force2 but they were willing to allow those who had a reformation to propose to be heard in the synagogues4 ,the effect1 as might be expected1 was to embitter those who remained orthodox against ,paul4 ,but an attempt on their part to bring him under the jurisdiction of the civil tribunals failed1 and after remaining a long time at ,corinth1 he went on to ,ephesus1 and thence continued his course through ,galatia and ,phrygia 7,acts xviii4 #a-bc74 ,an eloquent and able ,alexandrian1 ,apollos by name1 came to ,ephesus1 after ,paul had left it4 ,he was a believer in ,john the ,baptist1 and was received into the ,church by ,paul's friends1 ,aquila and ,priscilla1 whom he had left behind4 ,a singular incident occurred on a subsequent visit of ,paul's to ,ephesus4 ,he found some disciples there and asked them whether they had received the ,holy ,ghost4 ,they replied that they did not even know whether there was a ,holy ,ghost4 ,such crass ignorance must have astonished ,paul1 who inquired into what they had been baptized4 ,they said1 into ,john's baptism1 and the apostle accordingly baptized them in the name of ,jesus1 with the striking result that they immediately received the ,holy ,ghost and began to speak in tongues 7,acts xix4 #a-g74 ,curious incidental evidence is thus supplied by the case of ,apollos and by that of these ,ephesians of the existence of a ,johannine sect which ,christianity superseded and swept into oblivion2 and it is remarkable1 as affording a presumption that the ,baptist did not regard himself as the mere precursor of ,christ1 that these ,johannists do not appear to have been looking forward to any further development of their principles such as the religion of ,jesus supplied4 ,at ,ephesus ,paul preached for three months in the synagogue1 and then1 meeting with much opposition1 betook himself to a public room1 where he disputed daily4 ,but after he had taught two years1 a dangerous riot was excited by the tradesmen who dealt in silver shrines for the ,ephesian ,artemis1 and ,paul1 after the disturbance had been quelled1 determined to go into ,macedonia 7,acts xix4 #h-xx4 #a74 ,while he was preaching at ,troas1 a young man1 who had fallen asleep1 fell from the window at which he was sitting1 and was supposed to have been killed4 ,paul1 however1 declared that he was still alive1 and told them not to be disturbed4 ,this opinion proved to be correct4 ,to this simple incident the historian1 by stating that he was taken up dead1 has contrived to give the aspect of a miracle4 ,the case exactly resembles the supposed miracle of ,jesus1 discussed above 7,supra1 vol4 i4 p4 #cbj-cbc71 and is another illustration of the facility with which natural occurrences may1 by the turn of a phrase1 be converted into marvels 7,acts xx4 #g-ab74 ,no arguments were now availing to dissuade the apostle from visiting ,jerusalem1 where it was well known that peril awaited him4 ,arrived at the centre of ,judaism1 his first business was to clear himself from the suspicions entertained of his rationalistic tendencies by taking a vow according to the ,mosaic ritual4 ,after this the ,asiatic ,jews raised a clamor against him which ended in a dangerous tumult4 ,from the violent death which threatened him at the hands of the enraged multitude he was rescued by the ,roman troops1 under cover of whose protection he made his defense before the people 7,acts xxi4 #bg-xxii4 #ba74 ,it naturally did not conciliate the ,jews2 and the ,roman officer who had made him prisoner1 having been deterred from the application of torture by ,paul's ,roman citizenship1 desired his accusers to appear in court to prefer their charges on the following day 7,acts xxii4 #bb-cj74 ,but when the case came on1 ,paul ingeniously contrived to set the ,pharisees against the ,sadducees by the assertion that he himself was a ,pharisee1 and that he was charged with believing in a future state4 ,by this not very candid shift he obtained the support of the ,pharisaic party1 and produced among his prosecutors a scene of clamor and discord from which it was thought expedient to remove him4 ,defeated in the courts of law1 the more embittered of his enemies formed a scheme of private assassination which was revealed to the captain of the guard by ,paul's nephew1 and from which he was rescued by being sent by night under a strong military escort to the governor of the province1 a man named ,felix 7,acts xxiii74 ,ananias1 the high priest1 and others of the prosecutors1 followed ,paul to ,csarea in five days1 but the nature of their charges was such that they made little impression upon the mind of the governor4 ,he nevertheless kept ,paul in confinement1 perhaps hoping 7as the narrator suggests7 that he would receive a bribe to set him free 7,acts xxiv74 ,after two years ,festus succeeded ,felix1 and when this governor visited ,jerusalem he was entreated by the priests to send for ,paul1 which1 however1 he refused to do1 and required the prosecutors to come to him at ,csarea4 ,they went1 and charged ,paul with offenses which it is said they could not prove4 ,when ,festus asked him whether he would go to ,jerusalem to be tried by him1 ,paul replied that he ought to be tried at ,csar's judgment-seat1 as he had done the ,jews no wrong1 and that he appealed to ,csar4 ,the policy of this appeal was questionable1 for after a time ,festus was visited by ,king ,agrippa1 to whom he related the facts of the case2 and the king1 having heard the statement of the prisoner himself1 declared that he might have been set at liberty had he not appealed to ,csar 7,acts xxv41 xxvi74 ,paul therefore was now sent with a gang of prisoners to ,rome1 on the way to which the ship he was in was wrecked off the island of ,melita1 where the winter months were accordingly passed4 ,here he cured numerous inhabitants of diseases1 and received high honors in consequence4 ,after three months an ,alexandrine vessel conveyed the shipwrecked company to the capital4 ,arrived at ,rome1 ,paul summoned the ,jews to come to the house where1 guarded by a soldier1 he was allowed to live1 and endeavored to convert them4 ,meeting with indifferent success1 he dismissed them with insulting words drawn from ,isaiah1 and roundly informed them that the salvation of ,god was now sent to the ,gentiles1 and that these would hear it 7,acts xxvii41 xxviii74 ,what was the ultimate fate of this great teacher of ,christianity1 whether his case was ever heard1 and if so1 how it was decided2 whether he lived a prisoner1 or was set free1 or died a martyr1 we have no historical information1 and it is useless1 in the absence of evidence1 to attempt to conjecture4 ,,subdivision #b4--,the ,epistles4 ,in the epistles which have been preserved to us1 and which are no doubt but a few rescued from a much larger correspondence1 the apostolic authors enforce upon their respective converts or congregations the doctrines of ,christianity as understood by them4 ,they explain the relation of ,jesus to the ,jewish law2 they inculcate morality2 they reply to objections2 they hold out the prospect of the speedy revolution which they expect4 ,since their opinions on all the topics upon which they touch cannot1 within the limits of a general treatise1 be discussed in detail1 all that is necessary now is to glance rapidly at the more general characteristics of the several writers4 ,a letter addressed to the twelve tribes scattered abroad1 and traditionally ascribed to the apostle ,james1 may best be taken in connection with an anonymous epistle addressed to the ,hebrews4 ,they have these two features in common1 that they are written to ,jewish ,christians1 and that they discuss the relation of faith to works4 ,it is true that this question is treated by their authors from opposite points of view4 ,theological controversy began early in the history of the ,christian ,church1 and its first controversial treatises have been embodied in the ,canon of its ,sacred ,books4 ,it appears1 moreover1 to be highly probable1 not only that the two epistles were written on opposite sides of a disputed question1 but that the chapter in the one dealing with that question was designed as an answer to the corresponding chapter in the other4 ,it may be difficult to say which was the original statement1 which the reply2 but when we find the very same examples chosen by both1 the one maintaining that ,abraham and ,rahab were justified by faith1 the other that they were justified by works1 it is not easy to believe that so exact a coincidence in the mode of treating their subject was accidental4 ,the more argumentative tone taken by ,james--as of one answering an opponent--induces me to believe that his epistle was the later of the two4 ,the author of the ,hebrews insists upon the paramount necessity of faith2 showing by a number of historical examples that the conduct of the great heroes of the ,hebrew race1 besides that of many inferior models of excellence1 was wholly due to this cause4 ,the author of ,james1 on the contrary1 strenuously maintains that faith is of no value without works1 and1 as if endeavoring to set aside the force of the examples produced on the other side1 selects for his consideration the history of two persons who had been held up as illustrations of the doctrine that we are justified by faith4 ,abraham1 he says1 was not justified by faith only1 but by works2 for he offered ,isaac on the altar1 which was a very practical illustration of his faith 7,james ii4 #ba-bc74 ,rahab again1 who according to you was saved from destruction with the unbelievers by faith1 was in reality justified by works1 for it was a work to receive the messengers and send them out another way 7,james ii4 #be74 ,not that we deny the importance of faith altogether2 but we do deny the exclusive position which you1 in your ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 assign to it4 ,without works faith is a dead1 unproductive thing2 like a body without its animating spirit4 ,indeed a man may say to him who relies upon his faith alone1 ,show me your faith without works1 and ,i will show you mine by my works4 ,what is the use of a faith unaccompanied by works8 can it save any one by itself8 ,certainly not1 answers ,james2 ,certainly1 says the author of the ,hebrews4 ,the whole question turns on those hair-splitting distinctions in which theologians have ever delighted2 for while the one party considers faith as the producing cause of good actions1 the other treats good actions as the evidence of faith4 ,neither the one nor the other really meant to question the necessity of either element in the combination4 ,in other respects there is a broad difference between the two epistles4 ,that to the ,hebrews is ,judaic in tone and spirit2 its main object being to prove that ,christ is a sort of high-priest1 endowed with authority to set aside the old ,jewish institutions and substitute something better4 ,james is more catholic and more practical4 ,he insists upon the necessity of not only hearing1 but doing the word2 of keeping the whole moral law2 of bridling the tongue1 and of showing no respect to persons on account of their worldly position4 ,he is extremely hostile to the rich1 and draws a very unfavorable picture of their conduct 7,james ii4 #f1 #g1 and v4 #a-f74 ,he encourages the poor ,christians to endure patiently till ,christ comes1 which will be very soon 7,james v4 #g1 #h74 ,lastly1 he emphatically urges the duty of proselytism upon his flock2 remarking that one who converts another when wandering from the truth1 both saves the soul of the wanderer and hides a multitude of his own sins 7,james v4 #ai1 #bj74 ,two epistles are attributed to the apostle ,peter1 the first of which1 addressed to the strangers in ,pontus1 ,galatia1 ,cappadocia1 ,asia1 and ,bithynia1 purports to be written from ,babylon4 ,he holds out to his correspondents the hope of salvation which they have through ,jesus1 which is a source of joy1 notwithstanding their present troubles4 ,among other precepts he counsels husbands and wives as to their mutual behavior2 exhorting wives to be obedient1 and not to care too much for dress2 and requiring husbands to honor their wives as the weaker vessels 7#a ,pet4 iii4 #a-g74 ,the ,second ,epistle of ,peter would appear to be by a rather later author1 for he has read the epistles of ,paul4 ,he is troubled about false teachers1 who introduce heresies of destruction1 and denounces them in no measured terms 7#b ,pet4 ii74 ,having1 as above described1 comforted the ,christians for the long delay in the second coming of the ,savior1 he exhorts them not to be led away by the error of the wicked1 but to grow in grace and in the knowledge of their ,lord 7#b ,pet4 iii4 #ag1 #ah74 ,of the three epistles bearing the name of ,john1 the first only is of any considerable length4 ,the style of this epistle is extremely simple1 and it reads like the kindly talk of an old man to children4 ,he tells his flock not to sin1 not to love the world1 and to love one another4 ,so much does he keep to these purely general maxims1 that it would be difficult to gather any really useful instruction from his benevolent garrulity4 ,it is characteristic of him to insist again and again upon love as the cardinal virtue of a ,christian4 ,besides this1 perhaps the most definite advice he gives is to pray for anything desired1 and to entreat of ,god the forgiveness of a brother who has committed a sin not unto death 7#a ,john v4 #ad-af74 ,with great self-complacency he calmly asserts that he and his friends are of ,god1 and that the whole world lies in wickedness 7#a ,john v4 #ai72 a pleasant mode of putting those towards whom it was impossible to practice the love about which he spoke outside of the pale of brotherhood4 ,the writer of ,john's second epistle1 addressed to a lady and her children1 illustrates the kind of charity resulting from such views as this1 when he tells them not to receive into their house1 nor bid farewell to any one who does not hold correct doctrines 7#b ,john #aj74 ,the third epistle1 written to ,gaius1 contains little beyond matters of purely personal interest4 ,the ,epistle of ,jude1 who calls himself brother of ,james1 denounces certain ungodly men1 who have crept in unawares1 and are doing great mischief in the ,church4 ,it is principally interesting from its reference to the legend of the contest of ,michael the archangel with the devil for the body of ,moses1 which popular tale the writer seems to accept as unquestionably authentic 7,jude #i74 ,having thus referred to the writings which bear1 whether correctly or not1 the names of the original apostles of ,jesus1 we come to those of one who was far greater than any of these--the apostle who was not converted until after the death of his ,master4 ,paul1 to whom the great majority of the epistles preserved in the ,new ,testament are ascribed1 and by whom many of them were undoubtedly written1 is the central figure of the apostolic age1 and the one who redeems it from the somewhat unintellectual character it would otherwise have had4 ,through him it principally was that ,christianity passed from the condition of a ,jewish sect to that of a comprehensive religion4 ,what ,christ himself had been unable to do1 he did4 ,what the apostles of ,christ shrunk from attempting1 he accomplished4 ,he himself was not unconscious of the magnitude of his labors4 ,hence there is noticeable now and then in his writings1 though veiled under respectful phrases1 a sort of intellectual contempt for the older apostles1 who were not always prepared for the thorough-going measures which appeared to him so obviously expedient4 ,he is extremely anxious not to be thought one whit inferior to them by reason of his comparatively late appointment to the apostleship4 ,he carefully rebuts the suspicion that he acted in subordination to them1 or even in conjunction with them1 after his conversion4 ,his course1 he is anxious to let every one know1 was taken in entire independence of the ,church at ,jerusalem4 ,moreover1 he insists emphatically upon his personal qualifications4 ,was any one a ,hebrew8 so was he4 ,had others received visions or revelations8 so had he4 ,had others been persecuted8 so had he4 ,he is fond of dwelling upon his individual history in order to support his claims4 ,thus he tells us that in former times he persecuted the ,church of ,god1 and that he was more ,jewish than the ,jews1 being even more zealous than they of the traditions of his fathers4 ,it was therefore entirely by special revelation from ,god1 and not by any human agency whatever1 that he was consecrated to his present work4 ,indeed his revelations were so abundant that it needed a thorn in the flesh to prevent him from being too proud of them--a work1 however1 in which the thorn was not entirely successful4 ,his sufferings for the sake of the gospel afforded him another and more legitimate cause of satisfaction4 ,he says of these that he received thirty-nine stripes from the ,jews on five occasions2 that he was thrice beaten with rods2 once stoned2 thrice shipwrecked2 a day and night in the deep 7in an open boat872 often in all sorts of perils1 in watchings1 cold and thirst1 hunger and nakedness4 ,once too he escaped from arrest at ,damascus1 which does not seem a very serious calamity 7#b ,cor4 xi4 #bb-bh4--;,gal4 i4 #aa-bd74 ,now the object of all these autobiographical statements is evidently to place himself on a level with other apostles who might seem at first to be more highly privileged than he was4 ,not so1 he contends2 if they are ministers of ,christ1 ,i am quite as much so2 if they saw ,christ before his death1 ,i have seen him after it2 if they have labored in his cause1 ,i have labored more2 if they have suffered for his sake1 ,i have suffered more4 ,hence my authority is in every respect equal to theirs1 and should there be a difference of opinion between us you must believe me1 your pastor1 rather than them4 ,nay1 even if an angel from heaven should preach any other gospel than that which ,i have preached1 you must not believe him2 much more then must you disbelieve an apostle4 ,besides1 appearances are deceptive1 and as ,satan may appear in the character of an angel of light1 so the ministers of ,satan may1 and do appear in the character of apostles of ,christ 7#b ,cor4 xi4 #ac-ae4--;,gal4 i4 #h74 ,there was therefore a section of the ,church--probably the ,judaic section1 under the guidance of one of the original apostles--with whom ,paul was at issue1 and whom he considered it incumbent upon him to oppose by every argument in his power4 ,these are they whom he refers to as troubling the ,galatians1 and perverting the ,gospel of ,christ 7,gal4 i4 #g74 ,such was the view taken by ,paul of his function in the rising sect4 ,whatever may have been its logical justification1 it was fully justified by facts4 ,in power of reasoning1 in grasp of principles1 in comprehensiveness of view1 he was not only not a whit behind the chiefest apostles1 but far before them4 ,his letters are by far the most remarkable of the writings which the ,new ,testament contains4 ,they evince a mind almost overburdened by the mass of feelings struggling for expression4 ,he is profoundly penetrated with the new truth he has discovered1 or rather which ,christ has discovered to him1 and he seems to have scarcely time to consider how he may best express it4 ,his mind1 though wealthy in ideas and fertile in applying them to practice1 is not always clear4 ,it seems rather to struggle with its thoughts than to command them4 ,hence a certain confusedness in style1 a crowding together of notions in a single sentence1 and a want of logical arrangement in his presentation of a subject1 which render his epistles not altogether easy reading4 ,it may have been those characteristics which caused another apostle 7or one who wrote in that apostle's name7 to say that there were some things in the writings of his beloved brother ,paul that were hard to be understood 7#b ,pet4 iii4 #af74 ,when1 however1 the uncouth style is surmounted1 the thought will be found well worthy of consideration4 ,of all the writers in the ,new ,testament ,paul is the one who presents the largest materials for intellectual reflection4 ,whether or not we agree in his views1 we can scarcely refuse to consider his arguments4 ,and herein he is peculiar among his associates4 ,he is the only one of the canonical writers who has any notion of presenting arguments for consideration at all4 ,while others dogmatize1 he reasons4 ,he may reason badly1 but he has at least the merit of being able to enter in some degree into the views of his opponents1 and of attempting to reply to them on rational grounds4 ,another striking feature of the mind of ,paul is its robustness4 ,brought up a ,pharisee1 a sect devoted to extending the regulations of the law to the utmost minuti1 he nevertheless rose completely above the domination of trifles4 ,even matters which in most religions are regarded as of capital importance1 he treated as of little moment in themselves4 ,ceremonies1 observances1 outward forms of every kind he held in slight esteem in comparison with moral conduct4 ,not the mere knowledge of the ,jewish law or the power of teaching it to others1 is of any avail1 but the observance of its ethical precepts 7,rom4 ii4 #ag-bc74 ,uncircumcision is just as good as circumcision1 provided the uncircumcised man keep the law4 ,the true ,jew is not he who is a ,jew outwardly1 nor true circumcision that performed upon the flesh4 ,he is the true ,jew who is one inwardly1 and that is true circumcision which is in the heart 7,rom4 ii4 #bd-bi74 ,indeed1 in the renovated condition which is effected by ,christianity1 there is neither ,greek nor ,jew2 neither circumcision nor uncircumcision2 neither barbarian1 ,scythian1 slave1 nor freeman2 but ,christ is everything and in everything 7,col4 iii4 #aa4--;,gal4 iii4 #bh74 ,in the same rationalistic spirit he lays down the admirable rule that external forms are valuable only to those who think them so4 ,one man believes he may eat everything2 another eats only herbs4 ,one man esteems all days alike2 another esteems one day above another4 ,the freethinker must not despise the one who holds himself bound by such things1 nor must this latter condemn the freethinker4 ,the really important matter is that every one should have a complete conviction of his own4 ,in that case1 whatever conduct he pursues in these trivialities1 being dictated by his conscience1 is religious conduct4 ,on the one side1 the more scrupulous must not pass judgment on the less scrupulous1 that being the office of ,christ2 but1 on the other side1 the less scrupulous must endeavor not to give offense to the more scrupulous4 ,in illustration of this doctrine ,paul confesses that to him personally the ,jewish distinction between clean and unclean meat is totally unmeaning2 yet if his brother were grieved by his eating the so-called unclean meats1 he would rather give up the practice than destroy by his meat ones for whom ,christ had died4 ,all things1 indeed1 are pure in themselves1 yet it is not well to eat flesh or drink wine if another is scandalized thereby4 ,we who are strong-minded1 and have surmounted these childish scruples of our forefathers1 must bear the infirmities of the weak rather than please ourselves 7,rom4 xiv41 xv4 #a74 ,certainly when the things are in themselves totally indifferent1 the principle of concession to the superstitions of minds governed by traditional beliefs may sometimes be advantageously adopted4 ,but the importance of protesting against the bondage exercised by such beliefs over human life is also not to be underrated1 and ,paul seems scarcely to give it sufficient weight in the preceding argument4 ,no doubt on the ground of policy1 and in reference to the desirability of keeping the members of the nascent sect from internal quarrels1 ,paul was right2 but a principle which in certain cases may be expedient for a given end1 is not to be set up as a universal rule of ethics4 ,nor is it obvious that ,paul intended to do this4 ,he himself1 if questioned1 would probably have admitted that there were limits beyond which concession ought not to go1 those limits being fixed by the consideration that such concession1 if pushed too far1 must end in the perpetual subordination of the whole of the ,christian body to the weaknesses of its least enlightened members4 ,the morality expressed in the lines ,leave thou thy sister when she prays ,her early heaven1 her happy views1 ,nor thou with shadowed hint confuse ,a life that leads melodious days1 is good morality under certain conditions1 but there is too great a tendency on the part of those who retain their early heaven to press this conduct upon those whose faith has centre everywhere1 nor cares to fix itself to form4 ,it ought not to be forgotten that but for the ,christian disregard of forms1 persevered in in despite of the scandal to the ,jews1 ,christianity must always have remained a branch of ,judaism4 ,a peculiar merit to be set to ,paul's account is1 that he is the only one of all the writers in the ,new ,testament who treats the supremely important question of the relations of the sexes1 a subject so remarkably overlooked by ,christ himself4 ,whether the guidance he affords his converts on this head is good guidance or not1 he does at least attempt to guide them4 ,let us notice first what he considers abnormal relations1 and then proceed to what he lays down as a normal one4 ,in the first ,epistle to the ,corinthians he is loud in his denunciations of a man who cohabited with his father's wife1 the father being1 ,i presume1 deceased4 ,whether the son had married his stepmother1 or merely lived with her1 is not altogether clear1 since1 in either case1 the apostle might brand their connection with the title of fornication4 ,however1 he condemns it utterly and without reference to any accompanying circumstances1 desiring the ,corinthian community to deliver up the man to ,satan for the destruction of the flesh1 in the name and with the power of their ,lord ,jesus1 in order that his spirit might be saved at the day of judgment 7#a ,cor4 v74 ,here then we have an early example of excommunication1 accompanied by the formula to be used in performing the solemnity4 ,that the severe reproof bestowed by ,paul upon the ,corinthians for permitting such conduct greatly affected them1 we gather from the tenderer language employed in the subsequent epistle1 where he admits having at one moment repented that he had caused them so much sorrow1 though he soon saw that it had been for their good 7#b ,cor4 vii4 #h-ac74 ,it is gratifying1 also1 to find that his tone towards the unfortunate individual who had been excommunicated at his desire is greatly softened1 and that he desires the ,corinthians to forgive him1 and receive him back into their body1 lest he should be swallowed up with too much sorrow 7#b ,cor4 ii4 #f1 #g74 ,it would have been interesting had he informed us why he considered cohabitation with a stepmother so terrible a crime1 but such a recurrence to first principles was not to be expected4 ,he1 no doubt1 acted on a purely instinctive sentiment of repugnance to such an arrangement4 ,a second kind of relation between the sexes which the apostle condemns is that of prostitution4 ,here he has not left us equally in the dark as to the grounds upon which his condemnation is founded4 ,not only does he prohibit prostitution to the ,christians1 but he tells them exactly why they ought not to indulge in it2 and his argument upon this subject is sufficiently curious to merit a moment's examination4 ,in the first place1 then1 he tells his disciples that neither fornicators1 nor adulterers1 nor ,sodomites1 nor practicers of various other vices not of a sexual nature1 will inherit the kingdom of ,god 7#a ,cor4 vi4 #i1 #aj2 ,eph4 v4 #e74 ,fornication should not even be named among the ,christians 7,eph4 v4 #c74 ,they must mortify their members upon earth1 for impure connections and sexual license bring down the wrath of ,god 7,col4 iii4 #e1 #f74 ,they must exclude from their society any one who is guilty of such irregularities 7#a ,cor4 v4 #i-aa74 ,the body is not for prostitution1 but for the ,lord1 and the ,lord for the body4 ,the bodies of ,christians are the members of ,christ3 ,shall ,i then take the members of ,christ1 and make them the members of a prostitute8 ,god forbid4 ,what6 do you not know that he who is joined to a prostitute is one body8 for the two he says shall be one flesh 7#a ,cor4 vi4 #ac-af74 ,it was surely a very original notion of ,paul's to extend to the casual connections formed by the temporary passion the solemn sanction bestowed upon the permanent union of man and wife4 ,it is said in ,genesis that a man and his wife are to be one flesh1 and this is obviously an emphatic mode of expressing the closeness and binding character of the alliance into which they enter4 ,but what may appropriately be said of married persons cannot of necessity be said of persons linked together only by the most fleeting and mercenary kind of ties4 ,the very evil of prostitution is1 that the prostitute and her companion are not one flesh in the allegorical sense in which husband and wife are so2 and to condemn it on account of the presence of the very circumstance which is conspicuously absent1 is to cut the ground from under our feet4 ,but let us hear the apostle further4 ,but he that is joined to the ,lord is one spirit4 ,flee prostitution4 ,every sin that a man commits is outside of the body what can this mean81 but the fornicator sins against his own body4 ,what6 do you not know that your body is the temple of the ,holy ,spirit in you8 which you have of ,god1 and you are not your own 7#a ,cor4 vi4 #ag-ai74 ,now in this singular argument it is noticeable that the ground taken up is entirely theological4 ,destroy the theological foundation1 and the ethical superstructure is involved in its ruin4 ,thus1 if we do not believe that our bodies are the members of ,christ1 nor the temples of the ,holy ,spirit1 ,paul has no moral reason to give us against the most unlimited indulgence in prostitution4 ,while1 even if we admit his premises1 it is not very easy to see how his conclusion follows4 ,for why should we not make the members of ,christ those of a prostitute1 unless it be previously shown that it would in any case be wrong to do so with our own members8 ,it would not 7according to ,paul himself7 be wrong to make the members of ,christ members of a wife2 why1 then1 should it be wrong to make them members of any other woman whatever8 ,clearly this question could not be answered without an attempt to prove1 on independent grounds1 the evil of promiscuous indulgence of the sexual passion4 ,but no such attempt is made by ,paul4 ,he has therefore failed completely to make out a case against even the most unbridled license4 ,not that his conclusion need therefore be rejected4 ,on the contrary1 the danger of his arguments is not that his view of morals is fundamentally erroneous1 but that he rests an important precept upon a dangerously narrow basis4 ,pass we now to that which he considers as the normal relation between the sexes4 ,the subject may be divided into three heads3 that of the formation of such relations1 that of their character when formed1 and that of their disruption4 ,upon all of these the apostle has advice to give4 ,in the first place it appears that the ,corinthians had applied to him for a solution of some question that had been raised among them as to the propriety of entering at all into the matrimonial state4 ,in answer to their inquiries he begins by informing them that it is good for a man not to touch a woman4 ,he would prefer it if every one were like himself unmarried4 ,to unmarried people and widows he says that they had better remain as they are4 ,concerning virgins of either sex he delivers his private opinion that their condition is a good one for the present necessity4 ,a married man indeed should not endeavor to get rid of his wife2 but neither should an unmarried man endeavor to obtain a wife4 ,the time is so short till the final judgment of the world that it makes little difference2 before long both married and unmarried will be in the same position4 ,meantime1 however1 celibacy is the preferable state2 and that because celibates care for the things of the ,lord1 how they may please the ,lord2 but married people care for one another1 and study to please one another 7#a ,cor4 vii4 #a-cd74 ,why ,paul should suppose that married people1 even while studying one another's happiness1 might not also endeavor to please the ,lord1 it is hard to understand4 ,he seems in this passage to lend his sanction to the very dangerous doctrine that a due discharge of the ordinary duties of life is incompatible with attention to the service of ,god4 ,as if the highest type of ,christian life was not precisely that in which both were combined in such a manner that neither should be sacrificed to the other4 ,but1 apart from this fundamental objection to his theory it is liable to the remark that the assumptions on which it rests are untrue4 ,unmarried persons1 unless the whole literature of fiction1 dramatic and novelistic1 utterly belies them1 care at least as much to become married as married persons care to promote one another's comfort4 ,indeed1 it would be no less true to nature to say1 that the unmarried in general take more pains to please some persons of the opposite sex than husbands take to please their wives1 or wives their husbands4 ,not to dwell upon the fact that courtship involves a greater effort1 mental and physical1 than the mere continuance of love assured of being returned1 there is the obvious consideration that the mere outward circumstances of the unmarried are far less favorable than those of the married to the enjoyment of their mutual society without considerable sacrifice of time4 ,hence the estimate made by ,paul of the relative advantages of the two states is untrue to facts1 except in the rare cases of those who have firmly resolved upon a life of celibacy1 and who1 in addition to this1 have so perfect a control over their passions1 or so little passion at all1 as to be untroubled by sexual imaginations4 ,that these objections are well founded might be proved by reference to a picture 7drawn either by ,paul himself or by some one who assumed his name7 of the conduct of young widows4 ,having to consider the question what widows may properly be supported by the charity of the ,church1 this writer refuses to admit any of them to the number of pensioners until they are sixty years old1 apparently on the ground that they cannot be trusted to give up flirting altogether before they have reached that age4 ,young widows are to be rejected1 for when they have begun to wax wanton against ,christ1 they wish to marry2 a damnable tendency1 but one which it is so hopeless to get rid of1 that the best thing they can do is to marry1 to have children1 and manage their households4 ,otherwise they will gad about gossiping and tale-bearing from house to house2 not only idle1 but mischievous 7#a ,tim4 v4 #i-ae74 ,so that the ideal conception of unmarried persons caring only to please the ,lord had at least no application to ,christian widows4 ,while recommending celibacy1 ,paul is careful not to encourage breach of promise of marriage4 ,if a man thinks he is behaving unhandsomely towards his betrothed1 who is passing the flower of her age1 he may marry her3 he is not doing wrong4 ,nevertheless1 if he feel no necessity for a sexual relation1 and resolve to keep her a virgin1 he does well4 ,so then marriage is good1 but celibacy is better 7#a ,cor4 vii4 #cf-ch74 ,notwithstanding these views1 ,paul1 or at least the ,pauline ,christian who wrote the first ,epistle to ,timothy1 by no means contemplates a celibate clergy4 ,it is specially enumerated among the qualifications of a bishop that he is to be a good manager of his household1 keeping his children well in order2 for 7it is argued7 if a man cannot rule his own house1 how will he be able to take care of the ,church of ,god8 ,the only limitation placed upon the bishops is that they are not to be polygamists4 ,they1 as well as the deacons1 are to keep to a single wife 7#a ,tim4 iii4 #a-e74 ,notwithstanding his general preference for celibacy1 ,paul recognizes certain reasons as sufficing to excuse the establishment of a sexual relation1 and it is important to note what1 in the apostle's judgment1 these reasons are4 ,now it is remarkable that he seems to perceive no consideration whatever in favor of the matrimonial condition but its ability to satisfy the sexual appetite4 ,to avoid fornication a man is to have his own wife2 if people cannot restrain themselves1 they should marry1 for it is better to marry than to burn4 ,those who marry are not guilty of sin1 although they will have trouble in the flesh 7#a ,cor4 vii4 #b1 #i1 #bh74 ,such a view of the functions of matrimony as this is simply degrading4 ,it treats it as exactly equivalent to prostitution in the uses it fulfills1 and as differing only in the durability of the connection4 ,but if the whole object of the connection is merely to gratify passion1 its greater durability is but a questionable advantage4 ,for exactly as marriage is recommended to avoid fornication1 so divorce might often be recommended to avoid adultery4 ,a union of which the main purpose is to give a convenient outlet to desire1 had better be broken when it ceases to fulfill that office to the satisfaction of both the parties4 ,it is strange that ,paul should seem to have no conception whatever of the intellectual or moral advantages to be derived from the sympathetic companionship of one of the opposite sex4 ,perhaps his age presented him with scarcely any examples of marriages in which that companionship was carried into the higher fields of human thought or action4 ,yet he might still have acknowledged something more in the emotion of love than a special condition of the human body4 ,christianity has done much to raise the character of marriage1 but not one of its achievements in that respect can be credited to the writings of its chief apostle4 ,such being the grounds on which the matrimonial bond was to be contracted1 it was natural that when contracted1 the relation of the parties to each other should not be one of a very exalted order4 ,paul has1 in fact1 little of moment to recommend under the second head 7that of the character of these relations7 except the subjection of women1 and on this he is certainly emphatic enough4 ,wives are to submit themselves to their own husbands3 husbands are to love their wives 7,col4 iii4 #ah1 #ai4--;,eph4 v4 #bb1 #be74 ,an extraordinary reason is given in one epistle 7possibly indeed not written by ,paul7 for requiring women to learn with subjection1 and forbidding them to teach1 or usurp authority over men4 ,it is that ,adam was formed first1 and ,eve after him1 and that ,adam was not deceived1 but ,eve was 7#a ,tim4 ii4 #aa-ad74 ,scarcely less absurd than this is the argument 7and again ,i must note that it occurs in an epistle of doubtful authenticity7 that the husband is the head of the wife1 as ,christ is of the ,church1 and that just as the ,church is subject to ,christ1 so must wives be subject to their husbands4 ,and as ,christ loved the ,church1 so are husbands to love their wives1 considering them as equivalent to their own bodies1 which they cannot hate 7,eph4 v4 #bb-cc7--;although it did not appear that when man became one body with a prostitute he was therefore to love her4 ,these views of the duty of submission on the part of wives are not indeed surprising in that early age1 for they have continued to the present day4 ,the writer of these epistles is only chargeable with not being in advance of his fellow-men4 ,it required all the genius of ,plato1 whom not even the greatest apostle could approach1 to foreshadow for women a position of equality which they are but now beginning to attain4 ,besides these rules there is another laid down by ,paul for the conduct of married parties which evinces his strong common sense4 ,husbands and wives are mutually to render one another their due4 ,they have not absolute power over their own bodies4 ,they must not therefore defraud one another of conjugal rights1 unless for a short time with a view to fasting and prayer1 and then only with mutual consent 7#a ,cor4 vii4 #c-e74 ,paul therefore would have given no sanction to that very questionable form of asceticism in which husbands deserted their wives1 or wives their husbands1 to pursue their own salvation1 regardless of the happiness of their unfortunate consorts4 ,all such persons he would have bidden to return to the more indisputable duties of the marriage-bed4 ,such a doctrine1 however1 to make it properly applicable to practice1 would require to be supplemented by a doctrine of divorce2 otherwise there is no provision for the case of an invincible repugnance arising in one of the parties towards the other1 or in both towards each other4 ,and this brings me to the third head of the apostle's teaching2 his views on the disruption of the marriage-tie4 ,here he has little to say except that the wife is not to quit her husband1 or that1 if she do1 she must remain unmarried or be reconciled to her husband2 and that the husband is not to put away his wife4 ,in cases where one is a ,christian and the other not1 they are not absolutely under bondage3 they may separate1 though it does not appear that they may marry again4 ,but the apostle strongly advises them to keep together1 in the hope that the believing member of the couple may save the other 7#a ,cor4 vii4 #aj-af74 ,it is plain from this summary that the apostle1 no more than his ,master1 faces the real difficulties of the question of divorce4 ,for the case of unhappy unions1 except in the single instance of the one party being a ,christian1 he has no provision whatever4 ,it is remarkable1 however1 that he several times intimates in the course of this chapter that he is not speaking with the authority of ,christ1 but simply expressing his personal opinions2 a proviso which looks as if he himself were unwilling to invest these views with full force of the sanction they would otherwise have derived from his apostolical commission4 ,there is another subject on which the opinions expressed by ,paul are open to considerable comment--the resurrection of the dead4 ,in a chapter which for its beauty and its eloquence is unparalleled in the ,new ,testament1 he discusses the ,christian prospect of another life4 ,had he confined himself to rhetoric ,i should have been contented simply to admire1 but he has unfortunately mingled argument with poetic vision in a very unsatisfactory manner4 ,in the first place1 he attempts to deduce the resurrection of the dead from the resurrection of ,christ4 ,if1 he contends1 there be no resurrection of the dead1 then ,christ is not risen2 our preaching is vain1 and so also is your faith 7#a ,cor4 xv4 #ab-bj74 ,he fails to perceive that the resurrection of ,christ--a man whose whole life1 according to him1 was full of prodigies--could be no guarantee for the resurrection of any other individual whatever4 ,christ had already been restored to life in a manner in which no other person had ever been restored4 ,his body had been reanimated after two days1 before it had had time to suffer decomposition1 and that without the intervention of any other person1 competent like ,christ himself1 to perform a miracle4 ,how then could so unprecedented an occurrence warrant the expectation of the reanimation of those who had been long dead1 and whose bodies had suffered decomposition8 ,plainly there is here a palpable non sequitur4 ,christ might be raised without this fact involving a general resurrection2 and a general resurrection might happen without ,christ having been raised4 ,further on he makes a still more amazing blunder4 ,answering a supposed antagonist1 who puts the natural question1 ,with what body are the dead raised8 he exclaims1 ,fool6 that which thou sowest is not quickened except it die2 7#a ,cor4 xv4 #cf47 implying that he conceived the change undergone by seed dropped into the ground to resemble the death of the human body4 ,now it is needless to point out that the organic processes constituting physical life do not cease in the grain which 7as he says7 grows up into wheat or some other corn2 and that if they did cease1 that body that shall be1 which he compares to the bodies of men in their expected resurrection1 never would appear at all4 ,the grain1 in short1 would not grow4 ,an adversary1 had he been on the alert1 might have retorted upon ,paul 7borrowing his own courteous phraseology73 ,idiot6 that which thou sowest is not quickened if it die4 ,such a retort would have been completely crushing4 ,another very fatal mistake of ,paul's is the contention that if the dead do not rise1 we have no reason to do anything but enjoy the passing hour4 ,let us eat and drink1 for to-morrow we die 7#a ,cor4 xv4 #cb74 ,nothing can be more dangerous than such language as this2 for if a man bases his moral system upon the belief in a future life1 the destruction of that belief will involve the destruction of his moral system4 ,it is founding the more certain upon the less so2 universal conceptions upon special ones2 that which is essential to human existence upon the doctrines of a particular creed held only by a portion of the human race4 ,the argument is a favorite one with theologians1 because it enlists in favor of the doctrine of a future state all the strong attachment by which we cling to principles of morals4 ,none the less is it illegitimate1 and it ought to be sternly rejected4 ,next in beauty to this eloquent description of the future state of man may be reckoned the extremely fine chapter on brotherly love in the same epistle4 ,brotherly love1 according to ,paul1 never fails1 though intellectual gifts1 such as prophecies1 tongues1 and knowledge1 will pass away4 ,hope1 faith1 and brotherly love are joined together by him as a trinity of virtues which now abide2 but the greatest of these is brotherly love 7#a ,cor4 xiii74 ,scattered about in the writings of this apostle there are also some admirable maxims of conduct1 extremely similar in tone to those of ,jesus4 ,thus1 he tells his fellow-,christians to be kindly affectioned one to another2 to bless those that persecute them--to bless and not to curse2 to return no man evil for evil2 give food to a hungry enemy and drink to a thirsty one2 and generally1 not to be overcome by evil1 but to overcome evil by good 7,rom4 xii4 #aj-ba4--a ,thess4 v4 #ae74 ,it were much to be wished that he himself had remembered these beneficent rules of conduct in the case of ,alexander the coppersmith1 who he says did him much evil1 and concerning whom he utters the significant prayer that the ,lord may reward him according to his works 7#b ,tim4 iv4 #ad74 ,,subdivision #c4--,the ,apocalypse4 ,the author of the ,apocalypse1 or ,book of ,revelation1 who professes to have seen the vision he describes at ,patmos1 gives himself the name of ,john2 a circumstance which led in former times to the belief that the work was the composition of ,john the disciple of ,jesus4 ,it is a rather late production1 having been written subsequently to the establishment by ,paul of ,gentile ,christian communities in various parts of ,asia4 ,it also presupposes the existence of a sect of heretics termed ,nicolaitanes1 who had arisen in some places1 and was therefore probably not written until some time after the foundation of these churches by the great apostle4 ,the author endeavors to add lustre to his work by proclaiming at its outset that it was committed to writing under the direct inspiration of ,jesus ,christ himself1 who dictated it to him1 or rather showed it to him1 when he was in the ,spirit on the ,lord's day4 ,notwithstanding this exalted authorship1 it is a production of very inferior merits indeed4 ,it is conceived in that style of overloaded allegory of which the art consists in concealing the thought of the writer under images decipherable only by an initiated few4 ,the ,book of ,daniel is an example of the same kind of thing4 ,a false interest is excited by this style from the mere difficulty of comprehending the meaning4 ,how widely it differs from that mode of allegory which possesses a real literary justification1 may be shown by comparing the ,apocalypse with the ,pilgrim's ,progress4 ,in ,bunyan1 the thought is revealed under clear and transparent images2 in ,john1 it is concealed under obscure and turbid ones4 ,hence there have been endless interpretations of the ,apocalypse2 there has been only one of the ,pilgrim's ,progress4 ,that characteristic which ,holy ,writ has been shown to possess of calling forth a multitude of comments and speculations upon its meaning belongs in a preminent degree to the ,revelation of ,john4 ,after writing by the instructions of ,christ a letter to each of the ,seven ,churches1 the author proceeds to describe his vision4 ,there was a throne in heaven1 upon which ,god himself was seated4 ,he had the singular appearance of a jasper and a sardine stone4 ,beasts1 elders1 angels1 saints1 and a promiscuous company besides were around the throne1 engaged in performing the ceremonies of the celestial court4 ,various works were executed according to orders by the attendant angels4 ,a beast then arises out of the sea1 and is worshiped by those whose names are not in ,christ's book4 ,babylon the ,great1 under the form of a harlot1 is judged and put an end to4 ,an angel comes down from heaven and binds that old serpent1 which is the ,devil and ,satan1 for a thousand years4 ,during this millennium ,christ reigns on earth1 and all who have been martyrs for his sake1 or have not worshiped the beast1 rise from the dead to reign with him4 ,after the thousand years are over ,satan is unfortunately released from prison1 and does a great deal of mischief1 but is ultimately recaptured again and cast into a lake of fire and brimstone4 ,a second resurrection1 for the unprivileged multitude1 now takes place4 ,all the dead stand before ,god1 and are judged by reference to the records which have been carefully kept in heaven in books provided for the purpose4 ,all who are not in the book of life are thrown into the lake of fire1 to which death and hell are consigned also4 ,the inspired seer is now shown a new heaven1 a new earth1 and a new ,jerusalem which comes down from heaven4 ,for a moment he rises from the extremely commonplace level upon which he usually moves to an eloquent picture of that happier world in which ,god shall wipe away all tears from the eyes of men2 when there shall be no more death1 neither sorrow1 nor crying1 neither shall there be any more pain4 ,the book concludes with a curse upon any one who shall in any manner tamper with it1 either by way of addition or erasure1 and with a promise from ,jesus that he will come quickly4 ,,subdivision #d4--,the ,god of ,christendom4 ,although the ,god whom ,jesus thought himself commissioned to represent1 and in whom his disciples believed1 is the historical continuation of the ,jehovah of ,hebrew ,scripture1 yet his character is in many important aspects widely different4 ,no longer the arbitrary and irascible personage who continually interfered with the current of human affairs1 rewarding here1 punishing there2 now overthrowing a monarch1 now destroying a nation2 he exercises a calmer and more equitable sway over the destinies of the world4 ,as the servile occupants of the bench in former days too often combined the functions of prosecutors with those of judges1 so ,jehovah in the ancient times of ,israel had sometimes thrown off the judicial dignity to act with all the animus of a party to the cause4 ,this was natural perhaps where the subject-matter of the inquiry was the worship and honor to be paid to himself4 ,it was natural that he should take a strong personal interest in such cases2 but as all opposition 7among the ,jews at least7 had passed away1 and he remained in exclusive possession of the throne1 he could afford to treat the charges with which he had now to deal--mere infractions of morality1 for example--in a much more impartial spirit4 ,in addition to this cause of transformation1 the natural growth of religious feeling had tended to replace the older deity by a modified conception1 and ,jesus1 falling in in this respect with the course of thought already in progress1 contributed to effect a still further modification in the same direction4 ,hence1 although there is nowhere an absolute break between the old and the new conceptions1 the ,god of the ,new ,testament is practically a very different person from the ,god of the ,old4 ,we cannot conceive him doing the same things4 ,the worst action1 in the way of interference in mundane matters1 of which the ,god of the ,new ,testament is guilty1 is1 perhaps1 the sudden slaughter of ,ananias and ,sapphira4 ,but what is this to such enormities as the deluge1 the destruction of ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 or the commission of bears to devour little children who had ridiculed the baldness of a prophet8 ,horrors like these1 so consistent with the general mode of procedure of the ancient ,jehovah1 are wholly incompatible with the characteristics so often ascribed to the more recent ,god4 ,according to the theories of the ,new ,testament1 the crime committed by the ,jews in executing ,jesus was at least as great as the crimes for which the antediluvians and the ,sodomites had been so ruthlessly exterminated4 ,yet we cannot imagine ,jesus as even wishing for the extermination of his contemporaries by water or by fire4 ,the ,god whose love for mankind he had been teaching could not for a moment be thought of as consenting to such a course4 ,while ,elijah the ,tishbite is represented as positively praying for the instant death of one hundred men who came to him with a message from his king1 ,jesus1 on the contrary1 is depicted as actually healing the only one of his enemies who had been in any way injured in effecting his arrest4 ,plainly when the conduct of the prophets is thus dissimilar1 the deity whom they represent on earth is dissimilar also4 ,another very marked alteration to be observed in passing from the character of ,jehovah to that of ,god1 is the emancipation of the object of worship from the limits of race4 ,jehovah was altogether a ,jew4 ,he kept the ,sabbath-day2 he loved fasts and festivals2 he believed strongly in the virtue of circumcision2 he was interested not so much in the general well-being of the human species1 as in the success of the single people of whom he was the true leader in battle and the ultimate sovereign at home4 ,what happened to all the remainder of mankind was to him a matter of trivial moment1 although it might suit him occasionally to use them as instruments either for the chastisement or the restoration to favor of his beloved ,israel4 ,but ,god in the ,new ,testament has largely cast off the special features of his race1 and although he sometimes betrays his ,judaic origin1 he is in the main cosmopolite in his sympathies and impartial in his behavior4 ,though by no means catholic in religion1 but holding exclusively to a single faith1 he receives all who embrace that faith1 of whatever nation1 within the range of his favor4 ,this great and deeply important change1 though begun by ,jesus1 was in the main the work of ,paul4 ,if it was ,jesus who constructed the tabernacle1 it was ,paul who built the temple4 ,while1 however1 there is an enormous improvement if we compare the administration of human affairs by ,jehovah and by ,god1 there is nevertheless a blot upon the character of ,god which suffices1 if rigorously balanced against the failings of ,jehovah1 to outweigh them all4 ,it is the eternity of the punishment which he inflicts in a future life4 ,no amount of sophistry can ever justify the creation of beings whose lives are to terminate in endless suffering4 ,but while the reality of condemnation to such endless suffering would be a far more gigantic crime than any of the merely terrestrial penalties inflicted by the ,hebrew ,jehovah1 the belief in such endless suffering is quite consistent with a much higher general conception of the divinity than the one that coxisted with the belief in those terrestrial penalties4 ,the explanation of this apparent paradox is to be found in the fact that the necessary injustice of eternal punishment is not very easily perceived2 that1 in fact1 it is not understood at all in the ruder stages of social evolution1 and not by every individual even in so advanced a society as our own4 ,some degree of punishment for offenses is felt to be requisite2 and it is not observed without considerable reflection that that punishment in order to be just must needs be finite2 must needs1 if imposed by absolute power1 aim at the ultimate reformation of the criminal1 not at his ultimate misery4 ,and it takes a far higher degree of mental cultivation to feel this than it takes to feel the injustice of the violent outbursts attributed in the ,old ,testament to ,jehovah4 ,tradition and custom alone could have prevented ,jesus and his disciples from feeling shocked at these2 while it was intellectual capacity which was needed to enable them to reject eternal punishment as incompatible with justice4 ,add to these considerations the very important fact that the conduct conducing to salvation1 and avoiding condemnation in the future state1 was supposed to be known to all men beforehand1 being fixed by unalterable rules2 while the conduct necessary to ensure the terrestrial rewards1 and escape the terrestrial penalties of the ,old ,testament1 was not known till the occasion arose2 sometimes not till after it had arisen4 ,thus1 ,jesus lays down in his teaching both the rules to be observed by human beings if they would obtain the approbation of his ,father1 and the exact manner in which the violation of those rules will be visited upon them if they fail to repent and obtain forgiveness4 ,but ,jehovah only made his rules from time to time1 and never announced beforehand what his punishments would be4 ,who1 for instance1 could tell what he would do to the ,israelites for worshiping the golden calf8 who could say whether he would treat gathering sticks on the ,sabbath1 as to which there was as yet no law1 as a capital crime8 still more1 who could imagine that he would visit the action of a monarch in taking a census of ,israel by a pestilence inflicted on the unoffending people8 ,plainly it was a very rude notion of deity indeed which was satisfied to suppose an arbitrary interposition in all such cases4 ,the ,god of the ,new ,testament may be more cruel1 but he is also more consistent4 ,if ,i may venture on a homely comparison1 ,i should say that the ,jehovah of the ,israelites is like a capricious ,oriental despot1 whose subjects' lives are in his hand1 while the ,god of ,christendom rather resembles a judge administering a ,draconian code in which there should be no gradations between capital punishment and entire acquittal4 ,the laws may in fact demand more bloodshed than the tyrant2 but their existence and administration by fixed rules would undoubtedly imply that a people had reached a higher grade of civilization4 ,moreover1 exactly as government conducted by laws is capable of improvement by modification of the legislative enactments1 while despotic government is essentially vicious1 so the character of ,god admits of easy adaptation to the needs of a more cultivated state1 while that of ,jehovah can by no possibility be rendered consistent with a high ideal of divinity4 ,such adaptation of the ,christian ,god has actually taken place to a very large extent4 ,the doctrine of ,purgatory1 leaving only the most incorrigible offenders to be consigned to hell1 was already a considerable step in advance of the teaching of the ,new ,testament4 ,it got rid of the fundamental weakness in the conception of ,jesus1 wherein there was no proportion of punishment to offense2 every sin1 small or great1 was either absolutely forgiven or punished to the uttermost extent4 ,it effected the same beneficent change as ,romilly effected in the ,english law4 ,precisely as our former code punished even trifling crimes with death or not at all1 so the ,god of ,jesus punished sin either eternally or not at all4 ,precisely as the excessive severity of ,english law led to the entire acquittal of many criminals who should have received some degree of punishment1 so the excessive severity of ,god led to the belief and hope that many sinners would be entirely pardoned who should in justice have received some measure of correction4 ,thus1 in both these cases1 the undue harshness of the threatened penalty tended to defeat the very object in view4 ,but the character of the ,god of ,christendom admits of a much more thorough reformation than that effected by the ,catholic ,church4 ,tender spirits1 offended1 like ,uncle ,toby1 at the notion that even the worst of beings should be damned to all eternity1 have simply refused to accept the notion of endless torture4 ,thinkers1 aiming at a system of abstract justice1 have sought to prove that it could not be4 ,theologians have contrived all sorts of shifts to dispense with the necessity of believing it4 ,modern feeling1 whether on grounds of logic or of sentiment1 has gradually come to suppress it more and more as an inconvenient article in the nominal creed1 to be1 if not consciously rejected1 at least instinctively thrust as much as possible out of sight4 ,there has resulted an idea of the ,deity in which the harsher elements are swept away1 and the gentler ones1 such as his fatherhood1 his care1 and his love1 are left behind4 ,such writers as ,theodore ,parker1 ,francis ,w4 ,newman1 and ,frances ,power ,cobb1 have carried this ideal to the highest point of perfection of which it appears to be capable4 ,their ,god is still the ,god of ,christendom1 but refined1 purified and exalted4 ,the work which the ,jewish prophets began1 which ,jesus carried on1 at which all the nations of ,christendom have labored1 they have most worthily completed4 ,whether the ideal thus attained is destined to be final1 whether it really represents the ultimate possibilities of religious thought that can remain as the corner-stone of a universal faith1 are questions that can be answered only when we have undertaken the complete analysis of those most general constituents of all theological systems which the foregoing examination has disclosed4 ,on that last analysis we are about to enter4 ,ach1 mein ,kindchen1 schon als ,knabe1 ,als ich sass auf ,mutters ,schoss1 ,glaubte ich an ,gott den ,vater1 ,der da waltet gut und gross4 ,der die schne ,erd' erschaffen1 ,und die schnen ,menschen d'rauf1 ,der den ,sonnen1 ,monden1 ,sternen1 ,vorgezeichnet ihren ,lauf4 ,als ich grsser wurde1 ,kindchen1 ,noch vielmehr begriff ich schon1 ,und begriff1 und ward vernnftig1 ,und ich glaub' auch an den ,sohn2 ,an den lieben ,sohn1 der liebend ,uns die ,liebe offenbart1 ,und zum ,lohne1 wie gebruchlich1 ,von dem ,volk gekreuzigt ward4 ,jetzo1 da ich ausgewachsen1 ,viel gelesen1 viel gereist1 ,schwillt mein ,herz1 und ganz von ,herzen ,glaub ich an den heil'gen ,geist4 --,,heine4 ,,the ,,religious ,,sentiment ,,itself4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,ultimate ,,elements4 ,we have now examined and classified the various phenomena manifested by the religious sentiment throughout the world4 ,we have found these phenomena to have been in all ages of history1 and to be now among all races of men1 fundamentally alike4 ,diverse as the several creeds existing on the face of the earth appear to a superficial observer1 yet the rites1 the practices1 the dogmas they contain1 admit of being ranged under certain definite categories and deduced from certain invariable assumptions4 ,the two leading ideas of consecration and of sanctity pervade them all1 and while the mode of consecration1 the objects consecrated1 the things1 places1 men1 or books regarded as sacred1 differ in every quarter of the globe1 the feelings of the religious man remain the same4 ,let us take a rapid survey1 before proceeding further1 of the ground we have already traversed4 ,wherever any religion exists at all1 we have found consecrated actions3 that is1 actions devoted to the service of ,god4 ,such actions1 it is assumed1 have some kind of validity or force1 either in bringing from the deities addressed by the worshipers some species of temporal blessing1 or in ensuring happiness in a future state1 or in improving his moral character in this4 ,secondly1 we no sooner rise above the very rudest forms of religion1 than we find places set apart for worship1 and entirely abstracted from all profaner uses4 ,thirdly1 we find that it is a universal practice to dedicate certain objects to the special use of the divine beings received in the country2 such objects being various in their nature1 but very frequently consisting of gifts to the accredited ministers of the ,god for whom they are intended4 ,fourthly1 we find in all the greater religions--the ,confucians possibly excepted--a number of persons who have devoted themselves to a mode of life supposed to be especially pleasing to ,god1 and carrying with it in their minds the notion of superior sanctity4 ,lastly1 we have in almost every form of faith a special class1 generally of male persons only1 who are set apart1 by some distinctive rite1 to the performance of the consecrated actions required by the community to be done on their behalf2 these actions thus acquiring a double consecration1 derived primarily from their own nature1 and secondarily from the character of those by whom they are performed4 ,passing to the second of our main divisions1 we found the conception of sanctity applied generally where that of consecration had been applied1 the distinction being that while the latter was imparted by man1 the former was the gift of ,god4 ,thus1 in the first place1 just as human beings consecrate some of their actions to the service of ,god1 so he1 in his turn1 sanctifies certain events to the enlightenment of mankind4 ,it is the same in the second case1 that of places2 for here the deity sometimes points out a holy spot by some special mark of his presence1 sometimes 7and more commonly7 condescends to sanctify those which man has devoted to his worship4 ,and1 thirdly1 as men set apart some of their property for him1 so he imparts to some of the objects in their possession a holy character1 which endows them with peculiar powers1 either over external nature1 or over the mind and conscience of those who see1 touch1 or otherwise use them4 ,fourthly1 he endows the class who perform the ceremonies of religion with his peculiar grace2 a grace commonly evinced in their power to consecrate places1 things1 and men1 to forgive sins1 to convey the apostolic succession1 to administer sacraments1 and so forth2 but occasionally manifested in the shape of supernatural endowments4 ,and fifthly1 as there are many of both sexes who give themselves to him1 so there have been a few men to whom he may be said to have given himself1 having invested them with authority to teach infallible truth1 and found religions called after their names4 ,sixthly1 he has revealed himself in a way to which there is nothing corresponding on the human side1 by means of books composed by authors whom he inspired with the words he desired them to write4 ,viewed in the gross1 as we have viewed them now1 these several manifestations of religious feeling cancel one another4 ,that feeling has indeed expressed itself in the same general manner1 but with differences in detail which render all its expressions equally unimportant in the eyes of science4 ,for1 to take the simplest instance1 nothing can be said by a ,christian1 on behalf of the inspiration of his ,scriptures1 which might not be said by the ,buddhist1 the ,confucian1 or the ,mussulman on behalf of the inspiration of theirs4 ,if his appear to him more beautiful1 more perfect1 more sublime1 so do theirs to them2 and even if we concede his claims1 the difference is one of degree1 and not of kind4 ,so it is in reference to miracles4 ,christianity can point to no miracles tending to establish its truth1 which may not be matched by others tending to establish the truth of rival creeds4 ,and if we find believers of every kind in every clime1 attaching the most profound importance to the exact performance of religious rites in certain exact ways1 while1 nevertheless1 those ways differ from age to age and from place to place1 we cannot but conclude that every form of worship is equally good and equally indifferent2 and that the faith of the ,christian who drinks the blood of ,christ on the banks of the ,thames1 stands on the same intellectual level with that of the ,brahman who quaffs the juice of the ,soma on the banks of the ,ganges4 ,but this line of argument seems to tend to nothing short of the absolute annihilation of religion4 ,under the touch of a comparative anatomy of creeds1 all that was imposing and magnificent in the edifice of theology crumbles into dust4 ,systems of thought piled up with elaborate care1 philosophies evolved by centuries of toilsome preparation1 fall into shapeless ruins at our feet4 ,and all this by the simple process of putting them side by side4 ,can we1 however1 rest content in the assumption that so vast a superstructure as that of religion has no solid foundation in the mind of man8 ,and is it destined1 like the theologies it has evolved in the course of its existence to disappear entirely from a world enlightened by scientific knowledge8 ,two questions must be carefully distinguished from one another in replying to the doubt thus suggested4 ,the first is whether religion1 although it may contain no objective truth1 or no objective truth ascertainable by us1 nevertheless possesses1 from some circumstance in its own nature1 or in the nature of the world we live in1 a hold upon the human race1 of which it cannot by any advance of knowledge be deprived4 ,is there1 in short1 if not an everlasting truth1 yet an everlasting dream from which there is to be no awakening1 and in which spectral shapes do duty for external realities8 ,an affirmative reply would admit the existence of religious sentiment to be a necessary result of the constitution of the human mind1 but would not concede the inference that conclusions reached by means of that sentiment had any objective validity1 or any intellectual worth beyond that which they derive from the imagination of those who believe them4 ,the second question is whether there are in the fundamental composition of religious sentiment any elements not only necessary1 but true2 and if so1 what those elements are1 and what is the proof of their credibility1 if proof there be4 ,as a preliminary to answering either of these questions1 it is needful to ascertain whether in the midst of the variety we have passed in review1 there is any fundamental unity2 in other words1 whether the varied forms of religion are all we can ever know of it1 or whether underlying those forms there is a permanent structure upon which they are superposed4 ,for only when we know whether there is in all the creeds of the world a common element1 can we proceed to inquire whether there is an element which is a necessary result of the constitution of our minds4 ,if the phenomena evinced by the several religions to which we have referred in the previous book have no common source in human nature2 if1 while they differ in every article of their theology1 there is nothing beyond theology in which they agree2 then religion is a mere superficial product of circumstances1 having no more solid guarantee than the authority of the particular teachers of each special variety4 ,there is in fact no religion2 there are only religions4 ,there is no universal ,faith2 there is only particular ,belief4 ,these1 then1 are the queries to which our attention must be addressed3-- #a4 ,are there in the several religions of mankind any common elements8 #b4 ,if so1 are those common elements a necessary1 and therefore permanent1 portion of our mental furniture8 #c4 ,if so1 are those elements the correlatives of any actual truths1 or not8 ,it may have been observed that all the phenomena we have examined in the previous ,book imply one assumption1 and cannot be understood without that assumption4 ,all of them imply some kind of power or powers either behind1 beyond1 or external to the material world and the human beings who inhabit it1 or at least involved in and manifested through that world and its inhabitants2 some power whose nature is not clear to us1 but whose effects are perceptible to our senses2 some power to which we ourselves and the material world are equally subject4 ,sometimes indeed the power which religion thus assumes is broken up into several minor forces1 and instead of a single deity we have several deities controlling the operations of nature4 ,but1 without dwelling now upon the fact that polytheistic creeds often look above the lesser beings whom they commonly put forward to a more mysterious and greater ,god1 it may be observed that these minor forces are no more than forms of the one great force from which they are parted off by an imaginative subdivision4 ,to place the ocean under one divinity1 the winds under another1 and the sun under a third1 is practically a mental process of the same kind as to place them all under a single divinity2 and the existence of some such cause of material phenomena being granted1 it is a mere question of less or greater representative capacity whether we range them under numerous chiefs or comprehend them all under one4 ,in either case we assume extra-mundane and superhuman power1 and this is the essential assumption of all religion4 ,the least assumption a religion can make is that of a single such power1 and this 7or more than this7 it always must assume4 ,for without this we should remain within the boundaries of science2 we should examine and classify phenomena1 but we could never pass beyond the phenomena themselves to their mysterious origin or their hidden cause4 ,but this is not the only assumption involved in every possible religion4 ,every religion assumes also that there is in human nature something equally hyperphysical with the power which it worships1 whether we call this something soul1 or mind1 or spirit4 ,and between this human essence and the divine power there is held to be a singular correspondence1 their relationship finding its concrete expression in religious worship on the one side and theological dogma on the other4 ,all the practices and all the doctrines of every positive religion are but the modes in which men have sought to give body to their idea of this relationship4 ,we have then1 strictly speaking1 three fundamental postulates involved in the religious idea3-- ,first1 that of a hyperphysical power in the universe4 ,secondly1 that of a hyperphysical entity in man4 ,thirdly1 that of a relation between the two4 ,the power assumed in the first postulate we may term the objective element in religion2 the entity assumed in the second postulate we may term the subjective element4 ,in the following chapter we shall deal with the objective element in the religious idea4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,objective ,,element4 ,the general result which has thus been reached by the decomposition of religion into its ultimate constituents must now be rendered somewhat more specific by illustrative examples tending to explain the character of the power the idea of whose existence forms the foundation of the religious sentiment1 and such examples will tend to throw light upon the question whether the admission of such a power is or is not a necessity of thought4 ,for the proof of necessity is twofold2 a posteriori and a priori4 ,we may show by the first mode that certain assumptions are always made under certain conditions as a matter of fact2 not that they are always made by every human being1 but that given the appropriate grade of culture1 the beliefs in question arise4 ,and we may show by the second that no effort of ours is able to separate certain ideas which have become associated in our minds2 that the association persists under every strain we can put upon it1 and that the resulting belief is therefore a necessary part of the constitution of the mind4 ,both modes of proof must be attempted here4 ,now1 in the first place1 it must be remarked that few1 if any1 of the nations of the world are wholly destitute of some religious creed2 and that those which have been supposed1 rightly or wrongly1 to be without it1 have generally been savage tribes of the lowest grade of culture4 ,so slender is the evidence of the presence of a people without some theological conception that it may be doubted whether the travelers who have reported such facts have not been misled1 either by inability to comprehend the language1 or unfamiliarity with the order of thought1 of those with whom they conversed4 ,sometimes the absence of religion seems to be predicated of a people which does not present an example of the kind of belief which the ,european observer has been accustomed to consider as religious4 ,an instance of this is afforded in ,angas' account of ,savage ,life in ,australia4 ,of the ,australians he states that they appear to have no religious observances whatever4 ,they acknowledge no ,supreme ,being1 worship no idols1 and believe only in the existence of a spirit whom they consider as the author of ill1 and regard with superstitious dread4 ,so that in the very act of denying a religion to these people he practically ascribes one to them4 ,they1 like ,christians1 appear to acknowledge a powerful spirit2 and if they dwell upon the evil side of his works more than upon the good side1 it is to be remembered that ,christians too consider their deity as the author of ill by his action in cursing ,adam with all his posterity2 and that they too regard him with superstitious dread as a being who will send them to eternal torture if they fail to worship1 to think1 and to act as he enjoins them4 ,immediately after this1 the author informs us that the ,australians constantly carry firesticks at night1 to repel malignant spirits1 and that they place great faith in sorcerers who profess to counteract the influence of the spirits 7,s4 ,l4 ,a41 vol4 i4 p4 #hh74 ,so that their destitution of religious observances is in like manner merely comparative4 ,very little1 if any1 belief in deity appears to exist in ,kamtschatka4 ,steller1 who has described the creed of its inhabitants1 states that they believe in no providence1 and hold that they have nothing to do with ,god1 nor he with them 7,kamtschatka1 p4 #bfi74 ,whether this amounts to a denial of his existence ,i cannot say4 ,they have1 however1 another element of religion1 belief in a future state1 as will afterwards appear4 ,in primitive religions the abstract form of ,deity is often filled up with the concrete figures of departed relatives4 ,indeed this is one of the modes in which that form acquires definiteness1 becoming comprehensible to the savage mind from this limitation of its generality4 ,thus in ,fiji1 although a supreme ,god and various other gods exist1 the ancestors appear to be the most popular objects of worship4 ,deceased relations of the ,fijians 7according to ,seemann7 take their place at once among the family gods 7,viti1 p4 #chi-cia74 ,another author confirms this testimony4 ,in ,sandwich ,island1 in the ,fijian group1 he states that there are no idols4 ,the people worship the spirits of their ancestors 7,n4 ,y41 p4 #cid74 ,in ,savage ,island again they pay their forefathers similar homage1 and remark that they once had an image which they worshiped1 but that they broke it in pieces during an epidemic which they ascribed to its influence 7,ib41 p4 #dgj74 ,among the ,kafirs the spirits of the dead are believed to possess considerable power for good and evil2 they are elevated in fact to the rank of deities1 and 7except where the ,great-,great is worshiped concurrently with them7 they are the only objects of a ,kafir's adoration 7,k4 ,n41 p4 #afa74 ,similar evidence is given by ,acosta in reference to ,peru4 ,in that country there existed a highly-developed and elaborated worship of the dead4 ,the bodies of the ,incas1 or governors of ,peru1 were kept and worshiped4 ,regular ministers were devoted to their service4 ,living ,incas had images of themselves constructed1 termed brothers1 to which1 both during the life-time of their original and after his death1 as much honor was shown as to the ,incas themselves4 ,these images were carried in procession designed to obtain rain1 and fair weather1 and in time of war4 ,they were also the objects of feasting and of sacrifices 7,h4 ,i41 b4 #e1 ch4 vi74 ,but the adoration of the dead was not of such exclusive importance in ,peru as in some countries of inferior culture1 and the most prominent positions in their system were occupied by the ,sun and the soul of the world1 ,pachacamac1 who was in fact their highest ,god 7,c4 ,r4 b4 #b1 ch4 iii74 ,these last examples introduce us to the more general conception of deity which1 in all religions but the very lowest1 is found along with the belief in supernatural beings of an inferior class1 and in some of them overshadows and expels it4 ,the ,peruvians1 as just stated1 assigned the first rank to him whom they conceived to have created and to animate the universe4 ,the ,fijians adored a supreme ,being ,degei or ,tangaroa4 ,lastly1 the ,great-,great1 mentioned in the above quotation from ,shooter1 is a being who seems from the somewhat contradictory evidence of travelers to have been regarded as ,god by some of the ,kafirs1 but to have been wholly neglected by others4 ,thus1 in a passage quoted from a work of ,captain ,gardiner's by ,canon ,callaway1 we find a conversation of the writer's with a native1 in which the latter denies all knowledge of deity whatever1 and expresses a vague notion that the things in the world may come of themselves4 ,of another tribe the same writer asserts that they acknowledged1 indeed1 a traditionary account of a ,supreme ,being1 whom they called ,ookoolukoolu 7literally the ,great-,great71 but knew nothing further respecting him1 than that he originally issued from the reeds1 created men and cattle1 and taught them the use of the assagai4 ,canon ,callaway is apparently of opinion that the word ,unkulunkulu was not in use among the natives of ,south ,africa in the sense of ,god until it was introduced by ,captain ,gardiner 7,r4 ,s4 ,a41 vol4 i4 pp4 #ed1 #ee74 ,considerable suspicion is thus thrown upon any statements in which this name is employed for the ,creator4 ,if1 however1 we may accept a statement of ,shooter's1 the ,kafirs of ,natal have preserved the tradition of a ,being whom they call the ,great-,great and the ,first ,appearer or ,exister4 ,according to this writer he is represented as having made all things1 but this tradition is not universally known among the people4 ,a chief who was asked about ,unkulunkulu1 the ,great-,great1 knew nothing about him1 but one of his old men1 when a child1 had been told by women stooping with age that there was a great being above4 ,there is also a tribe in ,natal which still worships the ,great-,great1 though its recollection of him is very dim4 ,this tribe calls upon ,unkulunkulu in the act of sacrifice and in sickness 7,k4 ,n41 pp4 #aei1 #afj74 ,while this testimony leaves it doubtful whether ,unkulunkulu is worshiped at all1 except by this single tribe1 the traditions collected by ,canon ,callaway in the first volume of his valuable work point to the presence of a well-marked legend of creation in which that deity figures as the originator of human life4 ,true1 he is also spoken of as the first man1 and in this fact we have the probable reconciliation of the view which treats him as the ,supreme ,being1 with that which denies that his name was used with this signification4 ,unkulunkulu was the primval ancestor of mankind1 but he was also the ,creator4 ,ancestor-worship finds its culmination in him4 ,but he has been much neglected in comparison with minor deities1 and the word ,unkulunkulu has been applied to the ancestor of special tribes instead of to the ancestor of all mankind4 ,the general result seems to be that some1 though not all of the ,zulus1 have in their minds a more or less definite idea of a ,first ,cause of existence1 but that this ,first ,cause is not worshiped and is but little spoken of4 ,thus1 an old woman questioned by an emissary of ,canon ,callaway's related this3-- ,when we spoke of the origin of corn1 asking1 ',whence came this8' the old people said1 ',it came from the ,creator who created all things4 ,but we do not know him4' ,when we asked continually1 ',where is the ,creator8 for our chiefs we see8' the old men denied1 saying1 ',and those chiefs too whom we see1 they were created by the ,creator4' ,and when we asked1 ',where is he8 for he is not visible at all4 ,where is he then8' we heard our fathers pointing towards heaven and saying1 ',the ,creator of all things is in heaven4 ,and there is a nation of people there too' 7,r4 ,s4 ,a41 vol4 i4 p4 #eb74 ,but while ,unkulunkulu is generally considered as the ,creator by the ,zulus1 it would appear that a neighboring people1 called the ,amakxosa1 had heard of a lord in heaven even greater than him1 whom they called ,utikxo4 ,according to the evidence of an old native the word ,utikxo is not of foreign origin4 ,utikxo was appealed to when a man sneezed1 and as regards the use of ,utikxo1 we used to say it when it thundered1 and we thus knew that there is a power which is in heaven2 and at length we adopted the custom of saying1 ,utikxo is he who is above all4 ,but it was not said that he was in a certain place in heaven2 it was said he filled the whole heaven4 ,no distinction of place was made 7,ib41 vol4 i4 p4 #fe74 ,in the opinion of this authority1 ,utikxo had been in a manner superseded by ,unkulunkulu1 who1 because he was visible while the original power was invisible1 was mistaken for the ,creator and for ,god 7,ib41 vol4 i4 p4 #fg74 ,testimony of a similar nature is given in regard to other regions of ,africa4 ,in ,juda it is stated that the most intellectual of the great men had a confused idea of the existence and unity of a ,god 7,v4 ,g41 vol4 ii4 p4 #afj74 ,oldendorp states broadly that all negro peoples believe that there is a ,god1 whom they represent to themselves as very powerful and beneficent4 ,he adds that among all the black nations he has known1 there is none that has not this belief in ,god and that does not regard him as the author of the world4 ,they call him by the same name as heaven1 and it is even doubtful whether they do not take heaven for the supreme ,being4 ,but perhaps1 he adds1 they do not even think so definitely 7,g4 d4 ,m41 p4 #cah74 ,so that the conception of the ,highest ,god in the regions visited by this missionary is still vague and indefinite1 like that we have found in ,juda and in ,natal4 ,if now we turn to another quarter of the globe we find the peculiarly degraded and ignorant ,greenlanders asserting that1 although they knew nothing of ,god before the arrival of the missionaries1 yet that those of them who had reflected on the subject had perceived the necessity of creative power1 and had inferred that there must be a being far superior to the cleverest man4 ,they had1 in fact1 used the argument from design1 and thus prepared1 they had gladly believed in the ,god preached by the missionaries1 for they found that it was he whom they had in their hearts desired to know 7,h4 ,g41 p4 #bdj74 ,a similar conviction of the existence of a supreme ,god prevailed in the new world when it was discovered by ,europeans4 ,such a ,god was acknowledged in ,mexico and ,peru1 as also in the less civilized regions of the ,north4 ,speaking of the ,american ,indians1 ,charlevoix observes that nothing is more certain1 yet nothing more obscure1 than the idea which these savages have of a primval ,being4 ,all agree in regarding him as the first ,spirit1 the ,ruler and the ,creator of the world2 but when further pressed1 they have nothing to offer but grotesque fancies1 ill-considered fables1 and undigested systems4 ,nearly all the ,algonquin nations 7he adds7 call the first ,spirit the ,great ,hare2 some term him ,michabou1 and others ,atahocan4 ,he was apparently supposed by some to have been a kind of quadruped1 and to have created the earth from a grain of sand drawn from the bottom of the ocean1 and men from the dead bodies of animals 7,n4 ,f41 vol4 iii4 p4 #cdc74 ,the great religions of the world have all of them 7,buddhism alone excepted7 acknowledged a ,god1 whom they pictured to their minds in various ways according to the degree of their development and their powers of abstract thought4 ,dimly shadowed forth in the ,confucian system under the title of ,heaven1 plainly acknowledged1 yet mystically described by the ,hindoos under many titles1 whereof ,brahma is one of the most usual1 celebrated in plainer language by the classical heathens as ,zeus or ,jupiter1 this great being appears in the three kindred creeds of ,judaism1 ,islam1 and ,christianity1 as ,jehovah1 as ,allah1 and as ,god4 ,in ,buddhism1 however1 there is no article of faith corresponding to the belief in ,god4 ,the ,buddha is himself the most exalted being in the universe1 and he is neither almighty nor eternal4 ,the creation of matter as also of man appears to be unaccounted for4 ,there is no single being who can be regarded as the ruler of all things1 and the highest object of ,buddhist worship4 ,but it must not be supposed that ,buddhism has escaped the universal necessity of admitting spiritual powers superior to human beings4 ,in the first place it retained the ,indian deities1 such as ,brahma1 ,indra1 and others1 and though1 subordinating all of them to ,buddha1 yet left them in possession of enormous capacities4 ,in the second place1 the ,buddha in fact1 though not in name1 assumed the rank of a ,god4 ,practically1 he is far more than human4 ,he himself determines the place1 time1 and manner of his incarnation4 ,he delivers infallible doctrine4 ,he becomes an object of adoration1 receiving divine honors from his followers4 ,and although the reigning ,buddha 7having entered ,nirvna7 is non-existent1 and cannot aid his disciples1 the future ,buddha1 or ,bodhisattva1 can do so1 and he is addressed in prayer for the same purposes for which a ,christian would invoke the intercession of his ,savior4 ,thirdly1 it is to be remarked that ,buddhism1 free from the single idea of ,god1 is not free from the multitudinous idea of supernatural essences4 ,its theology1 so to speak1 is quite full of celestial beings of various ranks and functions1 who swarm around the terrestrial believers and perform all kinds of wonders4 ,to these remarks it may be added that in ,nepaul1 one of the countries where ,buddhism prevails1 the non-theistic form has been superseded by a theistic form1 in which there are divine ,buddhas corresponding to the human ,buddhas2 the highest of these1 ,adi-,buddha1 being equivalent to the highest ,god of other creeds4 ,and it is at least noteworthy1 that in ,ceylon1 where the non-theistic form prevails in all its purity1 the people have a habit of invoking demons to their aid1 and of employing the priests of these demons1 in all the more important emergencies of their domestic lives4 ,it must not be imagined1 however1 that ,i wish to undervalue the importance of the exception which ,buddhism presents to the general rule4 ,far from it4 ,it ought1 in my opinion1 to be always borne in mind as a refutation of the statement that belief in a personal ,god is a necessary element of all religion4 ,europeans are apt to carry with them throughout the world their clear-cut notions of deity as a powerful being who created the world1 put man into it1 governs it in a certain manner1 and assigns punishments and rewards to the souls of men in a future state4 ,this belief appears to them so necessary and so natural that they expect to find it universally prevailing1 and regard it as the indispensable foundation on which all religion must be built4 ,buddhism1 however1 the creed which1 after ,christianity1 has probably exerted the greatest and most wide-spread influence on human affairs1 knows no such article of faith2 and our general ideas of the universal constituents of religion must needs be modified to embrace this fact4 ,some superhuman power must1 however1 be recognized in every religion1 and it is the manner in which this superhuman power is described1 the qualities ascribed to it1 its unity or plurality1 its relation towards man1 and similar distinctions1 which serve to differentiate one form of religion from another4 ,the degree of definiteness is one of the most important features in this differentiation4 ,generally speaking1 the definiteness of this idea and the development of the religion vary inversely as one another4 ,this law1 however1 is obscured by the continual tendency to put forward1 to worship1 and to speak about in ordinary cases1 some inferior deity or deities1 while there is lurking behind the vague idea of a higher entity who is seldom mentioned1 little or never worshiped1 and who possibly has no name in the language4 ,so that the gods or idols who are worshiped by the people must not be taken as embodying the best expression of their religious thoughts4 ,some instances of the occurrence of this phenomenon will serve as illustrations of the foregoing statement4 ,on the coast of ,guinea the people have a faint idea of the true ,god1 and ascribe to him the attributes ,almighty and ,omnipresent2 they believe he created the universe1 and therefore vastly prefer him before their idol-gods2 but yet they do not pray to him1 or offer any sacrifices to him2 for which they give the following reasons4 ,god1 they say1 is too highly exalted above us and too great to condescend so much as to trouble himself1 or think of mankind3 wherefore he commits the government of the world to their idols 7,c4 ,g41 p4 #cdh74 ,the manner in which ,utikxo1 the highest ,god1 is thrown into the shade by the more intelligible and human ,unkulunkulu 7as shown in a previous extract7 is another example of the operation of this law4 ,and it is especially noteworthy that the ,amazulu have also a lord of heaven1 with attributes corresponding to those of ,utikxo1 for whom they have no name4 ,anonymity1 or if not absolute anonymity1 the absence of any name commonly employed in the popular language is1 as we shall see1 one of the most usual features of this most exalted ,being4 ,other travelers give similar accounts of other regions of ,africa4 ,winterbottom1 who was especially acquainted with ,sierra ,leone and its neighborhood1 says that the ,africans all acknowledge a supreme ,being1 the creator of the universe2 but they suppose him to be endowed with too much benevolence to do harm to mankind1 and therefore think it unnecessary to offer him any homage 7,s4 ,l41 vol4 i4 p4 #bbb74 ,of ,dahomey we learn from ,winwood ,reade 7a writer not likely to be partial to theism1 or to discover it where it does not exist71 that the natives erect temples to snakes1 but have also the unknown1 unseen ,god1 whose name they seldom dare to mention 7,s4 ,a41 p4 #di74 ,in another country in ,africa the same writer found that the natives worshiped numerous spirits1 and believed also in an evil ,genius and a good ,spirit4 ,the former they were in the habit of propitiating by religious service2 but the latter they do not deem it necessary to pray to in a regular way1 because he will not harm them4 ,the word by which they express this supreme ,being answers exactly to our word ,god4 ,like the ,jehovah of the ,hebrews1 like that word in masonry which is only known to masters and never pronounced but in a whisper and in full lodge1 this word they seldom dare to speak2 and they display uneasiness if it is uttered before them4 ,the writer states that he only heard it on two occasions2 once when his men cried it out in a dangerous storm1 and once when having asked a slave the name for ,god1 the man raised his eyes1 and pointing to heaven1 said in a soft voice ,njambi 7,ib41 p4 #bej74 ,again1 in a lecture on the ,ashantees1 ,mr4 ,reade informed his hearers that the ,oji people1 although believing in a supreme ,being1 do not worship him3 while they do worship a number of inferior gods or demons1 to whom they believe the superior ,god1 offended with mankind1 has left the management of terrestrial affairs4 ,strange to say1 the peculiarity thus observed in the old world is precisely repeated in the new4 ,of the ,mexicans it is stated that they never offered sacrifices to ,tonacatecotle who was ,god1 ,lord1 ,creator1 ,governor of the ,universe1 and whom they painted alone with a crown1 as lord of all4 ,as their explanation of this conduct they said that he did not regard them4 ,all the others to whom they sacrificed were men once on a time1 or demons 7,a4 ,m41 vol4 vi4 p4 #ajg1 plate #a74 ,concerning the ,peruvians1 ,acosta tells us that they give their deity a name of great excellence1 ,pachacamac1 or ,pachayachacic 7creator of heaven and earth71 and ,usapu 7admirable74 ,he remarks1 however1 with much surprise1 that they had no proper 7or perhaps general7 name in their language for ,god4 ,there was nothing in the language of ,cuzco or ,mexico answering to ,deus1 and the ,spaniards used their own word ,dios4 ,whence he concludes1 somewhat hastily1 that they had but a slight and superficial knowledge of ,god 7,h4 ,i41 b4 #e1 ch4 iii74 ,in reference to ,peru1 however1 we have still more trustworthy evidence from a member of the governing family1 or ,incas4 ,from his statements it appears that the name applied to the ,highest was pronounced only on rare occasions1 and then with extremest reverence4 ,this name was ,pachacamac1 a word signifying he who animates the whole world1 or the ,universal ,soul1 as it would be termed in ,indian philosophy4 ,like other creeds that of ,peru had its secondary deity1 the ,sun1 in whose honor sacrifices were offered and festivals held1 while no temples were erected1 and no sacrifices offered to ,pachacamac1 although the ,peruvians adored him in their hearts and looked upon him as the unknown ,god 7,c4 ,r41 b4 #b1 ch4 iii74 ,ancient religion presents similar facts4 ,in his exhaustive work on ,sabaeism1 ,chwolsohn observes that the fundamental idea of that form of faith was not1 as is often supposed1 astrolatry4 ,to ,shahrastani 7the ,arabian scholar71 and many others who followed him1 ,sabaeism expressed the idea that ,god is too sublime and too great to occupy himself with the immediate management of this world2 that he has therefore transferred the government thereof to the gods1 and retained only the most important affairs for himself2 that further1 man is too weak to be able to apply immediately to the ,highest2 that he must therefore address his prayers and sacrifices to the intermediate divinities1 to whom the management of the world has been intrusted by the ,highest4 ,further on1 the author asks himself whether this conception was peculiar to the ,harranian ,sabaeans1 and replies1 ,certainly not4 ,this fundamental idea is tolerably old1 and in later times found admission to some extent even among the strictly monotheistic ,jews4444 ,in the heathen world this view was universally shared by the cultivated classes1 at least in the first centuries of the ,christian era 7,ssabismus1 vol4 i4 p4 #gbe74 ,indian theology teems with the conception of a sublime but unknowable deity far superior to the deities of popular adoration1 who has no name and whose greatness cannot be adequately expressed in human language4 ,indian philosophy loses itself in a sea of mystic terms when it endeavors to speak of this all-pervading and preminent ,being4 ,take1 for example1 the following from the ,chndogya ,upanishad1 one of the treatises appended to the ,sma ,veda4 ,a father is instructing his son3-- ',dissolve this salt in water1 and appear before me to-morrow morning4' ,he did so4 ,unto him said 7the father71 ',my child1 find out the salt that you put in that water last night4' ,the salt1 having been dissolved1 could not be made out4 7,unto ,swetaketu said his father71 ',child1 do you taste a little from the top of that water4' 7,the child did so4 ,after a while the father inquired71 ',how tastes it8' ',it is saltish' 7said ,swetaketu74 ,the same result followed with water taken from the middle and the bottom4 ',if so 7throwing it away71 wash your mouth and grieve not4' ,verily he did so 7and said to his father71 ',the salt that ,i put in the water exists for ever2 7though ,i perceive it not by my eyes it is felt by my tongue74' 7,unto him7 said 7his father71 ',verily1 such is the case with the ,truth1 my child4 ,though you perceive it not1 it nevertheless pervades this 7body74 ,that particle which is the soul of all this is ,truth2 it is the ,universal ,soul4 ,o ,swetaketu1 ,thou art that' 7,ch4 ,up41 ch4 vi4 sec4 #ac1 p4 #aac74 ,similar notions of an all-pervading and infinite ,being are found in the ,bhagavat-,gta1 a theological episode inserted in the great epical poem known as the ,mahbhrata4 ,there ,vishnu is not merely the ordinary god ,vishnu of ,indian theology2 but the universe itself is expressed as an incarnation of that deity who is seen in everything and himself is everything4 ,i am the soul1 ,o ,arjuna1 thus he addresses his mortal pupil1 which exists in the heart of all beings1 and ,i am the beginning and the middle and also the end of existing things 7,bh4 ,g41 ch4 x4 p4 #ga74 ,again1 ,vishnu thus describes himself in language which translated into ordinary prose1 would serve to convey the idea embodied in ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's ,unknowable3-- ,know that that brilliance which enters the sun and illumines the whole earth1 and which is in the moon1 and in fire1 is of me4 ,and ,i enter the ground and support all living things by my vigor2 and ,i nourish all herbs1 becoming that moisture of which the peculiar property is taste4 ,and becoming fire1 ,i enter the body of the living1 and being associated with their inspiration and expiration1 cause food of the four kinds to digest4 ,and ,i enter the heart of each one1 and from me come memory1 knowledge1 and reason 7,ib41 ch4 xv4 p4 #ajj74 ,nor did the writers of the ,veda and the commentaries thereupon omit to look above the concrete forms of the mythological gods who people their ,pantheon to a more comprehensive and less comprehensible primordial ,source4 ,the gods were unfitted to serve as explanations of the origin of the universe by reason of the theory that they were not eternal1 and that they came into existence subsequently to the creation of the world4 ,the writer of a hymn in the tenth book of the ,rig-,veda asserted that the ,one1 which in the beginning breathed calmly1 self-sustained1 is developed by 444 its own inherent heat1 or by rigorous and intense abstraction4 ,but this ,rishi avowed himself unable to say anything of creation1 or even to know whether there was a creator4 ,even its ruler in the highest heaven may not be in possession of the great secret4 ,explaining this passage1 a commentator1 writing at a much later date1 observes that the last verse of the hymn declares that the ruler of the universe knows1 or that even he does not know1 from what material cause this visible world arose1 and whether that material cause exists in any definite form or not4 ,that is to say1 the declaration that 'he knows1' is made from the stand-point of that popular conception which distinguishes between the ruler of the universe and the creatures over whom he rules2 while the proposition that 'he does not know' is asserted on the ground of that highest principle which1 transcending all popular conceptions1 affirms the identity of all things with the supreme ,soul1 which cannot see any other existence as distinct from itself 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 v4 pp4 #cfc1 #cfd74 ,in this sentence the commentator correctly points out the distinction between the ,unknown ,cause of philosophic thought and the gods of popular theology1 the latter being limited1 and having the universe outside of and objective to them1 the former comprehending it within itself1 and having nothing objective whatever4 ,and he perceives apparently that these are but different modes of conceiving the same ,ultimate ,essence1 dependent on the varying representative capacities of those by whom they are employed4 ,in ,india1 as elsewhere1 this ,ultimate ,essence had no proper name4 ,sometimes it is spoken of as ,that4 ,thus1 in a passage quoted by ,dr4 ,muir from the ,taittirya ,brhmana we find the following3 ,this universe was not originally anything4 ,there was neither heaven1 nor earth1 nor atmosphere4 ,that being non-existent 7asat7 resolved ',let me be4' ,that became fervent1 and so forth4 ,hereupon the commentator states that the ,supreme ,spirit was non-existent only in respect of name and form1 but that nevertheless it was really existing 7sat7 7,o4 ,s4 ,t41 vol4 v4 p4 #cff74 ,prof4 ,max ,mller1 in his essay on the ,veda1 has observed that after naming the several powers of nature1 and worshiping them as gods1 the ancient ,hindu found that there was yet another power within him and around him for which he had no name4 ,this he termed in the first instance ,brahman1 force1 will1 wish4 ,but when ,brahman too had become a person1 he called the mysterious and impersonal power tman1 originally meaning breath or spirit1 subsequently ,self4 ,atman remained always free from myth and worship1 differing in this from ,brahman 7neuter71 who has his temples in ,india even now and is worshiped as ,brahman 7masculine71 together with ,vishnu and ,siva and other popular gods 7,chips1 vol4 i4 pp4 #gj1 #ga74 ,distinguishing these two deities1 for the convenience of ,english readers1 as ,brahm1 the neuter1 and ,brahma1 the masculine ,god1 it is to be observed that even the latter1 who holds in theology the function of ,creator1 is but little worshiped in ,india1 and holds no conspicuous place in the popular mind4 ,thus ,wilson says1 ,it is doubtful if ,brahma was ever worshiped4 ,indications of local adoration of him at ,pushkara1 near ,ajmir1 are found in one ,purana1 the ,brahma ,purana1 but in no other part of ,india is there the slightest vestige of his worship 7,w4 ,w41 vol4 ii4 p4 #fc74 ,elsewhere the same most competent authority states it might be difficult to meet with any ,brahma-worshipers now2 exclusive adorers of this deity1 and temples dedicated to him1 do not now occur perhaps in any part of ,india2 at the same time it is an error to suppose that public homage is never paid to him4 ,hereupon he mentions a few places where ,brahma is particularly reverenced4 ,while1 however1 there may be discovered some faint traces of the worship of ,brahma the ,creator1 and first member of the ,hindu ,trinity1 there does not appear to be any worship whatever of the more impersonal and abstract ,brahm4 ,brahm is related to ,brahma much as the ,absolute or the ,unknowable of philosophy is related to the ,god of the ,hebrew and ,christian ,scriptures4 ,in the conception of ,brahm the idea of deity is pushed to the utmost limits of which human thought is capable1 and we have a being whose very exaltation above the mythological personages who pass for gods among the people precludes him from receiving the adoration of any but philosophic minds4 ,when therefore ,professor ,max ,mller speaks of temples dedicated to ,brahm ,i presume that he is speaking of the temples of ,brahma1 the corporeal form of this unembodied idea4 ,for ,brahm is stated to be immaterial1 invisible1 unborn1 uncreated1 without beginning or end2 to be inapprehensible by the understanding1 at least until that is freed from the film of mortal blindness2 to be devoid of attributes1 or to have only purity1 and to be susceptible of no interest in the acts of man or the administration of the affairs of the universe4 ,conformably to these views1 adds ,wilson1 no temples are erected1 no prayers are even addressed to the ,supreme 7,w4 ,w41 vol4 ii4 p4 #ia74 ,thus ,brahma1 the ,god1 is but little worshiped2 ,brahm1 the infinite being1 and tman1 spirit1 are not worshiped at all4 ,now ,brahma1 the creative and formative power1 corresponds to ,god the ,father2 while ,brahm and tman1 especially the latter1 bear more resemblance to the ,holy ,ghost2 a fact to be especially noted in reference to the comparison hereafter to be made between the positions occupied by the more and the less spiritual members of the ,christian ,trinity4 ,thus we have this singular neglect of the ,supreme ,divinity prevailing among ancient heathens1 among modern ,africans1 among ,hindus of all ages1 and among pre-,christian ,mexicans and ,peruvians4 ,do ,judaism1 and its offshoot1 ,christianity1 offer no sign of a similar relegation of the highest to an invisible background8 ,i think they do4 ,the evidence is not indeed quite so simple as in the other cases4 ,but it is deserving of remark that the ordinary name for ,god in ,hebrew1 ,elohim1 is plural1 and must at one time have signified gods2 while the word which is sometimes used alone1 but more commonly in combination with it1 is regarded as so sacred that the ,jews in reading the ,scriptures never pronounce it1 but substitute ,adonai1 my lord1 in its place4 ,owing to this ancient custom the very sound of the word has been absolutely forgotten1 and ,jehovah1 by which we commonly render it1 has been merely constructed by supplying the vowels from ,adonai4 ,now the existence of a most holy name1 but rarely used1 and then only with great reverence1 is a manifestation of religious feeling exactly corresponding to that related by ,reade concerning the ,african name ,njambi4 ,suppose that with the progress of theological dogmas and ecclesiastical usages the use of the word ,njambi should be entirely dropped1 its pronunciation might then be entirely lost 7if1 as in ,hebrew1 its vowel sounds were never written74 ,and with the adoption of a monotheistic creed some name1 now belonging to an idol1 might be used as synonymous with ,njambi4 ,now something of this kind may have happened with the ,hebrews4 ,there can be little doubt that the ,elohim were originally gods accepted by the ,hebrews as part of a polytheistic system4 ,deep in the minds of ,hebrew thinkers lay the more abstract notion of a single ,god1 more powerful and more mysterious than the ,elohim4 ,they called him ,jahveh1 or whatever else may have been the name expressed by 4 ,but as the monotheistic view triumphed over the polytheistic1 the ,elohim were adopted into the framework of the new religion1 and in a manner subordinated to ,jahveh by a process of fusion4 ,the name of ,jahveh1 which must once have been in common use1 was now treated as too holy to be ever uttered by mortal lips4 ,the ancient ,god who had stood at the head of the system of his party1 was in a certain sense withdrawn from active life1 but retained as the nominal occupant of supreme authority4 ,whether this account is probable or not1 must be left to better judges to decide1 but it tends at least to bring the history of the ,jewish faith into harmony with that of other religions4 ,moreover1 it is interesting to observe that a process extremely similar to that here imagined as occurring in the development of ,judaism1 was actually passed through by its younger rival4 ,christianity1 arising in the midst of a people who had arrived at highly abstract views of deity1 proceeded at once to do what so many other creeds have done1 to embody the conception of divine power in a concrete object4 ,this concrete object was in the ,christian theology a man4 ,and as generally happens in these cases1 the more abstract idea was overshadowed and to some extent driven from the field by the more concrete4 ,christ occupies a larger place both in authorized ,christian worship and in the popular ,christian imagination than does his ,father4 ,the creed no doubt treats them both with equal reverence1 as persons in a single ,god2 but to understand what is truly felt and believed by the people1 we must look not to the letter of their creeds1 but to their actual1 and above all their unconscious practice4 ,doing this we find first an entire absence of any special festival in honor of the ,father4#ig ,look at the large place occupied by the history of ,jesus in ecclesiastical fast-days and feast-days4 ,we have the ,annunciation1 the ,nativity1 the forty days of ,lent1 the ,crucifixion1 the ,resurrection1 the ,ascension1 all referring to him4 ,but we have quite forgotten to celebrate the creation of the human species1 the expulsion from ,eden1 the deluge1 the destruction of ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 and other mighty works due to his ,father4 ,the weekly holiday1 originally a memorial of his repose on the seventh day1 has indeed been retained from ,judaism2 yet even here its reference has been changed from the history of the first person to that of the second by its transfer from the last day of the week to the first4 ,but this is not all4 ,didron remarks that in early works of art ,jesus is made to take the place of his ,father in creation and in similar labors1 just as in heathen religions an inferior divinity does the work under a superior one4 ,dishonorable and even ridiculous positions were assigned to ,god the ,father4 ,the more ancient artists were reluctant to paint the whole of the ,first ,person1 just as ,africans1 ,peruvians and ,hebrews were reluctant to speak his name4 ,a mere hand or an arm is held sufficient to represent him4 ,but in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 ,god the ,father begins to manifest his figure2 at first his bust only1 and then his whole person4 ,in the fourteenth century we take part in the birth and development of the figure of the eternal ,father4 ,at first equal to his ,son in age and station1 he begins in process of time to become slightly different1 until1 towards #acfj1 the notion of paternity is attached irrevocably to him2 he is thenceforth uniformly older than his ,son1 and assumes the first place in the ,trinity4 ,the middle age may be divided 7according to ,didron7 into two periods4 ,in the first1 preceding the fourteenth century1 we have the ,father in the image and similitude of the ,son4 ,in the second1 after the thirteenth century until the sixteenth1 ,jesus ,christ loses his iconographic distinctness1 and is conquered by his ,father4 ,he in his turn puts on the likeness of the ,father1 becoming old and wrinkled like him 7,ic4 ,ch41 p4 #adh-bjc74 ,basing his conclusions on these remarkable disclosures1 ,michelet1 in his ,history of ,france1 observes with considerable reason that from the first century until the twelfth ,god was not worshiped by ,christians4 ,nay1 even for fifteen centuries not a temple1 not an altar was erected to him4 ,and when he did venture to appear beside his ,son in ,christian art1 he remained neglected and solitary4 ,nobody made an offering to him1 or caused a mass to be said in his honor 7,michelet1 ,histoire de ,france1 vol4 vii4 p4 xlix74 ,but while the first ,person of the ,trinity has now obtained1 especially in ,protestant countries1 a degree of recognition which he did not always enjoy1 there remains behind another ,person1 who is more abstract1 more spiritual1 more undefinable than either the ,father or the ,son4 ,formally included in the liturgies of the ,church1 having an office established in his honor1 churches dedicated to his name1 this member of the ,trinity has nevertheless been strangely neglected by all ,christian nations4 ,nobody practically worships the ,holy ,ghost2 nobody pays him especial attention2 nobody appears to be much concerned about his proceedings4 ,artists have treated him with a degree of indifference which they have never manifested towards ,jesus ,christ4 ,not only have they sometimes forgotten to include the ,holy ,ghost in their representations of the ,godhead1 but they have omitted him even from a scene where he had the best possible claim to figure1 namely1 the reception of the ,spirit by the apostles at the feast of ,pentecost4 ,elsewhere they have not completely left him out1 but have placed him in an attitude of subordination and indignity1 evincing but scant respect1 as where an artist had depicted an angel as apparently restraining the impetuosity of the dove by holding its tail in both his hands4 ,while in the ,catacombs it was the ,father who was suppressed1 in the ,trinities of the twelfth1 fifteenth1 and sixteenth centuries it is the ,holy ,ghost who is found to be missing4 ,thus1 observes the ,roman ,catholic author to whom ,i am indebted for these facts1 the ,holy ,ghost has sometimes had reason to complain of the artists 7,ic4 ,ch41 p4 #dhi-die74 ,were this ,person1 in fact1 disposed to be punctilious1 it is not only artists1 mere reflectors of the general sentiment1 but the whole ,christian world of whom he would have reason to complain4 ,so little does he occupy the ordinary thoughts of ,christians1 that ,abailard gave the greatest offense by naming a monastery after him1 and this procedure of the great theologian remains1 ,i believe1 a solitary example in ecclesiastical history of such an honor being paid to the ,paraclete4 ,yet surely he who bears the great office of the ,comforter is deserving of some more express recognition than he now receives6 ,what is the cause of this universal oblivion8 ,i suspect it is that which leads to the neglect by the ,africans of their highest god1 namely1 his entire innocuousness4 ,we saw that various tribes1 while omitting to worship a benevolent deity1 who will never do them any kind of harm1 address their prayers to a class of gods who are described by travelers as demons1 or evil spirits1 but whom they no doubt regard as mixtures of good qualities with bad2 capable of propitiation by prayer1 but resentful of irreverence4 ,now the ,father and the ,son correspond in some degree to these inferior gods4 ,not that they are actively malevolent1 but they have certain characteristics of a terrifying order4 ,god the ,father is throughout the ,bible the author of chastisements and scourges4 ,god the son1 merciful though he be1 yet intimates that he will return to judge the world1 and that he will disavow those who are not truly his disciples1 thus consigning them to the secular arm of ,god the ,father1 who will condemn them to eternal punishment4 ,but ,god the ,spirit has no share in these horrors4 ,whenever he appears upon the scene1 he is quiet1 gentle1 and inoffensive2 and these qualities1 combined with the absence of the more definite personality possessed by his colleagues1 have effectually ensured his comparative insignificance in ,christian worship and in ,christian thought4 ,while this has been the course of affairs in reference to the persons in the ,trinity--who1 though dogmatically one1 are popularly and practically three--a simultaneous displacement of all its members by still more comprehensible objects of worship has been going on4 ,first in rank among these stands the ,virgin ,mary1 so universally worshiped in ,catholic countries4 ,after her come the mass of saints1 some of general1 some of local celebrity2 but who1 no doubt1 receive1 each from his or her particular devotees1 a far larger share of devotional attention than the ,father or the ,son themselves4 ,for they are requested to intercede with these more exalted potentates2 and we naturally pay more regard to our intercessors1 show them more assiduous respect1 feel towards them more gratitude1 than we do to those with whom they intercede1 and who stand too far above us to be approached directly by us4 ,keightley1 in his ,history of ,england1 expresses himself as shocked by the far larger share of the offerings of the pious received at ,canterbury by the altar of ,thomas--,becket than was received by the altars of the ,virgin and of the ,son4 ,the proportion is as follows3--,in one year ,st4 ,thomas received #hcb1 #abs4 #c;d42 the ,virgin #fc1 #es4 #f;d42 ,christ only #c1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,next year the martyr had #ied1 #fs4 #c;d42 ,mary #d1 #as4 #h;d42 and ,christ nothing at all4 ,this relation is perfectly natural4 ,thomas--,becket was the local saint4 ,he stood nearer to the people1 was more intelligible to their minds1 than the ,virgin ,mary2 and the latter1 again1 was more intelligible to them than ,jesus ,christ1 whose mystic attributes she did not share4 ,this fact does but illustrate the common tendency of mankind to neglect the worship of the highest deity recognized in their formal creed1 and to offer their prayers and their sacrifices to idols of lower pretensions and more human proportions4 ,that which1 as the upshot of these speculations1 we are chiefly concerned to note1 is that religion everywhere contains1 as its most essential ingredient1 the conception of an unknown power2 which power1 thus offered by religion to the adoration of mankind1 becomes the object of a double tendency3 a tendency on the one hand to preserve it as a dim idea1 represented to the mind under highly abstract forms2 a tendency on the other hand1 to bring it down to common comprehension by presenting it to the senses under concrete symbols4 ,but under all images1 however material2 under all embodiments1 however gross2 the central thought of a power hidden behind sensible phenomena1 unknown and unknowable1 still remains4 ,so far then as historical inquiry throws light upon the answer to the second question in the previous chapter1 that answer will be in the affirmative4 ,it renders it at least highly probable that the common elements of religion are1 from their universal or all but universal prevalence1 a necessary and therefore permanent portion of our mental furniture4 ,nor is this conclusion invalidated by the hypothetical objection that there are races without a religion at all4 ,granting the fact1 it admits of an explanation quite consistent with this view4 ,for the races which are destitute of the religious idea may be so1 not because they are superior to it1 and can do without it1 but because they are inferior to it1 and have not yet perceived it4 ,thus1 the savage nations who cannot count beyond their fingers1 prove nothing against the necessity of numerical relations4 ,even though they cannot add their ten toes to their ten fingers1 and thus make twenty1 yet the moment we perceive that ten plus ten equals twenty1 we perceive also that this relation is an absolute necessity1 and it remains an unalterable fact in our intellectual treasury4 ,no inability on the part of the savage to understand us can shake our conviction4 ,now the same thing may hold good of the ultimate elements of religious feeling4 ,these also1 when once the conditions are realized in thought1 may prove necessary beliefs4 ,whether they are so or not is a question for philosophy4 ,to the examination of that question we must now proceed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,religion1 as the foregoing analysis has shown1 puts forward as its cardinal truth the conception of a power which is neither perceptible by the senses nor definable by the intellect4 ,for sensible perception requires a material object and a material organ2 and intellectual definition requires an object which can be compared with other objects that are like it1 discriminated from others that are unlike it1 and classified according to that likeness and that unlikeness4 ,in either case therefore the object must be a phenomenon having its place among phenomena1 whether those of the sensible or those of the intelligible sphere4 ,but if the power accepted by religion be neither perceptible nor definable1 are we obliged to believe in the existence of so abstract an entity at all1 or may we reject it as a figment of the human brain8 ,perhaps we shall best be able to discover whether such a belief is necessary or not by endeavoring to do without it1 and to frame a consistent conception of the universe from which it is entirely excluded4 ,there are various ways in which such a conception might be attempted4 ,we may regard the world from the platform of ,realism or from that of ,idealism1 and the nature of our ,realism or of our ,idealism may vary with the special school of thought to which we may belong4 ,realism in the first instance admits of two main subdivisions3 into ,common1 or as ,mr4 ,spencer calls it1 ,crude ,realism1 and into ,metaphysical ,realism2 and these two forms of it require separate treatment4 ,common ,realism is the primitive opinion of uneducated and of unreflecting persons1 and is in fact simply the absence of any genuine opinion at all4 ,they1 ,i imagine1 regard the external objects by which they are surrounded as so many actual entities1 not only having an independent existence of their own1 but an existence like that which they possess in our consciousness4 ,thus1 an egg they would take to be in reality a white1 brittle1 hard thing on the outside1 having a certain shape1 size1 and weight1 and containing inside the shell a quantity of soft whitish and yellowish substance with a given taste4 ,these qualities1 not excepting the taste1 taken along with any other qualities that may be disclosed by more careful inquiry1 they would conceive to constitute the whole of the egg4 ,it is the same with other objects4 ,what we perceive by our senses is thought by them to be a copy of the real things as they exist in nature1 much as the retina of the eye1 regarded from without1 is seen to contain a copy in miniature of the surrounding scene4 ,common ,realism1 however1 while it tacitly takes for granted an infinite number of separate entities1 cannot account either for the origin of those entities or for their nature4 ,nor has it any account to give of the origin of life1 for material things are in this system utterly destitute of life1 and indeed opposed to it4 ,they are precisely what our senses inform us of1 and nothing more4 ,hence they furnish no answers to the questions3 ,how did this world come into being1 and how did it reach its present shape8 ,how do men come to exist in it2 for matter contains no vitality and no power of infusing vitality into itself8 ,therefore it is that the adherents of ,common ,realism are invariably driven back upon a superior being1 whom they term a ,creator1 and who supplies the motive impulse which is wanting in their world4 ,metaphysical ,realism professes to be the improvement of scholars upon the unsifted notions of the vulgar4 ,it is the system to which1 in its earlier and cruder form1 ,berkeley a century ago gave what once appeared to be its death-blow1 but what may perhaps turn out to have been a wound sufficiently severe to cause prolonged insensibility1 but not absolute extinction4 ,it is not1 however1 with the purpose of completing the work of destruction1 but of examining whether it affords a possible escape from the necessity of the religious postulate1 that ,i refer to it here4 ,metaphysical ,realists perceived clearly enough that the apparent qualities of sensible objects could not be the objects themselves4 ,even if they did not recognize this with regard to all the apparent qualities1 they did so with regard to those termed secondary1 such as taste1 smell1 and color4 ,later representatives of the school1 such as ,kant1 extended the process by which this conclusion was reached to all apparent qualities1 whatsoever4 ,below the apparent qualities1 however1 these thinkers assumed a substance1 substantia1 in which they inhered1 and by which they were bound together1 so as to constitute the object4 ,and this substance--something unperceived underlying the qualities perceived--was their notion of matter4 ,observe now the position we have arrived at4 ,no sooner does ,realism abandon the untenable hypothesis that the qualities of the object are the object itself1 than it is driven upon the assumption of an utterly unknowable and inconceivable entity2 a matter which is not perceptible by any of our senses1 which is below1 or in addition to1 phenomena concerning which we can predicate nothing1 and whose relation to the qualities it is supposed to support we cannot understand4 ,but the necessity of some such assumption is the very assertion implied in all forms of religious faith4 ,realism1 then1 does not escape the pressure of this necessity1 even though the entity it assumes is not precisely of the same character4 ,but is the difference in its character one that tells in favor of this variety of ,realism1 or in favor of religion8 ,assuredly substance1 or matter1 imagined as the bond between apparent qualities1 is not an easier1 simpler1 or more intelligible conception than that of a universal power as the origin1 source1 or objective side of all physical phenomena4 ,granting even that the latter conception cannot be represented to the mind1 a representation of the former is equally impossible4 ,but does it explain the facts better8 ,let us see4 ,in the first place1 we must demand an accurate definition of what this supposed matter is4 ,is it passive1 inanimate1 incapable of independent action1 and unable to develop out of itself the living creatures which in some way have come to exist8 ,if so1 we plainly require another entity in addition to matter1 both to account for the active forces of our universe1 and to originate the phenomenon of life4 ,for if the qualities of body need a substratum1 so also do those of mind4 ,if it be held that the power from which mind emanates be the same as that which is evinced in so-called physical forces1 then we have two distinct1 if not independent1 substances1 beings1 or whatever we may prefer to call them3 matter1 pervading material objects in their statical condition1 and force or life1 pervading both consciousness and material objects in their dynamical condition4 ,or if the first be regarded as sufficient to account for motion as well as matter1 then we have still two powers1 one subsisting throughout the physical1 the other throughout the mental world4 ,how are these two substances related to one another8 ,is the substance of mind supreme1 governing its material colleague8 or is that of matter at the head of affairs1 and that of mind subordinate8 or are they equal and cordinate authorities1 as in the ,gnostic philosophy8 ,suppose we endeavor to elude these difficulties by the assertion that there is nothing else but the unperceivable substratum supporting material objects1 and that in this all modes of existence take their rise1 we are met by further and still more troublesome questions4 ,for if1 under the manifestations of this substance we include consciousness1 then the distinction between matter and mind has vanished1 and in calling this substance matter we are simply giving it an unmeaning name4 ,in fact1 it is a substance supporting not only the qualities of bodies1 but also the chemical1 electric1 molar1 molecular1 and other forces throughout the universe1 as well as sensation1 thought1 and emotion4 ,matter in short does everything which deity can be required to do2 it originates motion2 it produces living creatures2 it feels2 it thinks2 it lives4 ,thus we have but stumbled upon ,god in an unexpected quarter4 ,suppose1 however1 that we take what is in this system the easier and more natural hypothesis of a substance of matter1 a substance of mind1 and a still more hidden power superior to both1 and from which both are derived1 then we have but abandoned the perplexing questions raised by metaphysical ,realism to take refuge in the religious position from which it seemed to offer a plausible deliverance4 ,does ,idealism help us8 ,idealism is of several forms4 ,that represented by ,berkeley need not occupy us here1 for ,berkeley not only admitted1 but expressly asserted1 the existence of an all-comprehending ,power1 and without this his philosophy would have appeared to himself unmeaning and incomprehensible4 ,nor need we stop to examine that more recent species of ,idealism1 as ,i hold it to be1 which its illustrious author1 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 has christened ,transfigured ,realism4 ,whatever differences may exist between ,spencer and ,berkeley--and ,i believe them to be more apparent than real--they are at one in the cardinal doctrine that sensible phenomena are but the varied manifestations of this ultimate ,power4 ,all such ,idealism as this is in harmony with religion4 ,but there are two forms which seem to be at variance with it1 one of which ,i will term ,moderate1 and the other ,extreme ,idealism4 ,moderate ,idealism agrees with ,berkeley in dismissing to the limbo of extinct metaphysical creatures the substance supposed to lurk beneath the apparent qualities of bodies4 ,it holds that there is no such substance1 and that these qualities1 and therefore bodies themselves1 exist only in consciousness4 ,but it differs from ,berkeley in omitting to provide any source whatever1 external to ourselves1 from which these bodies can be derived4 ,not only are they in their phenomenal aspect mere states of our own consciousness1 but they have no other aspect than the phenomenal one1 and are in themselves nothing but phenomena4 ,rather inconsistently1 this school of ,idealism does not push its reasoning to its natural results1 but concedes to other human beings something more than a merely phenomenal existence4 ,nothing exists but states of consciousness2 but those peculiar states of my consciousness which ,i term men and women may be shown1 by careful reasoning1 to possess 7in all probability7 an existence of their own1 even apart from my seeing1 hearing1 or feeling them4 ,the process by which we reach this conclusion is exactly parallel to that by which ,newton proved that the force which keeps the planets in their orbits is identical with that by which an apple falls to the ground4#ih ,those peculiar modifications of color1 and that special mode of filling up empty space which ,i term my friend1 do indeed seem1 if we push matters to an extreme1 to come into existence only when he enters my room1 and to cease to exist the moment he quits it4 ,if he has any further vitality1 it is only in the shape of that state of consciousness which is known as recollection4 ,but ,moderate ,idealism escapes from this consequence1 on the ground that modifications of body and outward actions1 since they are connected with feelings in ourselves1 must be connected with feelings also in the case of those other phenomena which we term human beings1 and perhaps in the case of those we term animals4#ii ,but if this be so1 how did so extraordinary a fact as that of consciousness arise8 ,ex hypothesi1 there was nothing before it4 ,did it then suddenly spring into being1 full-grown like ,minerva1 but1 unlike ,minerva1 with no head of ,jupiter to spring from8 ,or was it a gradual growth1 and if so1 from what origin8 ,go back as far as you will1 you can find nothing but consciousness1 and that the consciousness of limited beings 7either men or animals72 and it is no less difficult to conceive the beginning1 from nothing at all1 of the least atom of conscious life1 than to conceive that of the profoundest philosopher4 ,observe1 there is no world of any kind1 and in this no-world 7the contradiction is unavoidable7 there suddenly arises1 from no antecedent1 a consciousness of external objects which are no-objects4 ,geology upon this theory is a myth2 so is that branch of astronomy which treats of the formation of our planetary system from nebular matter4 ,stars1 suns1 planets1 and crust of the earth only arose when they were perceived1 and will cease to be when there is no living creature to perceive them any longer4 ,since1 however1 conclusions like these are in reality unthinkable1 whatever efforts metaphysicians may make to think them1 ,moderate ,idealism must of necessity complete its fabric by the admission of a ,power from which both consciousness and the objects of consciousness have taken their rise4 ,should it persist in denying anything but a mental reality to the objects of consciousness1 it must still suppose an unknown source from which consciousness itself has been derived2 otherwise it will entangle itself in two unthinkable propositions4 ,first1 that before men 7or animals7 existed there was absolute nothingness1 an idea which we cannot frame2 secondly1 that where there was nothing at one moment there was the next moment something1 a process which we cannot realize without supposing a time antecedent to that something1 and which we may not1 without the contradiction of introducing time in the midst of nothingness1 realize by supposing a time antecedent to that something4 ,it was no doubt the vague feeling of these perplexities that forced ,john ,stuart ,mill1 the most eminent defender of this school of thought1 to denominate matter a ,permanent ,possibility of ,sensation4 ,this singular phrase well exemplifies the difficulties of his position4 ,for is matter an external substance1 existing independently1 or not8 ,if it is1 then what becomes of the ,berkeleyan doctrine8 ,mill and his followers are simply metaphysical ,realists4 ,but if not1 what becomes of the permanence8 ,it is not in us1 for our sensations are not permanent2 it is not in the matter1 for there is none4 ,and what is there a possibility of8 ,causing sensation1 or having it8 ,not the former1 for there is nothing to cause it2 not the latter1 for the possibility of our having sensations is a mere fact of our nature1 and cannot serve to define matter4 ,and where is the sensation located8 ,the phraseology would seem to imply1 that matter is in the permanent condition of possible feeling2 just as the nerve may be in the permanent condition of possible excitation4 ,but this would be placing sensation in the wrong quarter4 ,and if sensation be in us1 we have not a permanent possibility1 but a permanent actuality of sensation4 ,so that unless the words be construed to mean that there is outside of us a permanent something which excites sensation1 of which the modes vary 7for this is the sense of possibility71 they have no assignable meaning whatever4 ,mill1 in fact1 had been compelled1 without wishing it1 to recognize an ultimate power in nature2 and his perception of this truth conflicted strangely1 in his candid mind1 with his idealistic prepossessions4 ,a more consistent and rigorous form of ,idealism is that which has been referred to as the strict consequence of ,moderate ,idealism4 ,this form1 which ,i will term ,extreme ,idealism1 denies the existence of persons as well as things4 ,the ,extreme ,idealist believes himself to be the only being in the universe4 ,there is to him no period preceding his own existence2 none succeeding it4 ,past and future1 except in his own life1 have no meaning for him4 ,we cannot reason with him1 for all we may say is only a transient mode of his own sensations4 ,obviously1 to such a philosophy there is no reply but one3 it is simply unthinkable4 ,were any one seriously to defend it1 the very seriousness of his defense would prove that he did not believe it4 ,for against what or whom would he be contending8 ,against a phantom of his own mind4 ,and the more pains he took to prove to us that he believed us to have no existence but as a part of himself1 the less credit should we attach to his assertions4 ,philosophy1 therefore1 is under a logical compulsion to make the same fundamental assumption as ,religion--that of an ultimate1 unknown1 and all-pervading ,power ,origin1 or ,cause4 ,science1 in a variety of ways1 does the same4 ,it does so1 first1 in its belief of a past and a future in the history of the solar system far transcending the past and future of humanity1 or indeed of any form of life whatever4 ,passing at a glance over our brief abode on the face of the earth1 ,geology pushes its researches back into a time preceding by innumerable ages the existence of mankind1 while her elder sister ,astronomy carries her vision to a still remoter age1 when even the planet we now inhabit was but a fragment in one indistinguishable mass4 ,but it is not only these two sciences that assume the continuance of nature quite independently of our presence or absence2 every other science does the like4 ,the botanist1 the chemist1 the physicist1 all believe that the facts they assert are facts in an external nature1 the relations of which as now discovered by their several sciences held good before man existed1 and will hold good after he has ceased to exist4 ,but to say this1 is to say in effect that there is something more than the mere phenomena disclosed by investigation2 namely1 an external reality persisting through all time in which the varied series of phenomena take their rise4 ,more clearly still does ,science assert some such reality in its great modern doctrine of the ,persistence of ,force4 ,not that this doctrine is entirely new2 for regarded in its metaphysical rather than its physical aspect it is but an expression in the language of the day of a truth which has long been realized as a necessity of thought4 ,it is the converse of the ancient axiom1 ,nihil ex nihilo fit1 for if nothing can be made from nothing1 neither can something pass into nothing4 ,the ,persistence of ,force is an expression of the fact that every cause must have an adequate effect2 that in nature nothing can be lost1 no particle of force pass into nonentity4 ,concentrated forces may be dissipated1 and dissipated forces may be concentrated2 or one variety of force may pass into another4 ,but the ultimate fund of force remains ever unchangeable2 nothing is ever created1 nothing destroyed4 ,observe1 then1 that ,science1 however cautiously it may keep within the range of the material world1 however eagerly it may repudiate all investigation of ultimate causes as fruitless and unprofitable1 cannot take one single step towards proving the propositions it advances without tacitly laying down an ontological entity as the basis of its demonstration4 ,for to speak of its discoveries as laws of nature is simply to predicate a constant1 unvarying force1 which under like conditions always produces like results4 ,and to declare the uniformity of nature1 is merely to say that the methods of that force do not change--that it is the same now as it ever was1 and will be the same throughout the eternal ages4 ,thus1 writes ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 by the ,persistence of ,force1 we really mean the persistence of some ,power which transcends our knowledge and conception4 ,the manifestations1 as occurring in ourselves or outside of us1 do not persist2 but that which persists is the ,unknown ,cause of these manifestations4 ,in other words1 asserting the ,persistence of ,force1 is but another mode of asserting an ,unconditional ,reality1 without beginning or end 7,spencer's ,first ,principles1 #fj1 p4 #ahi74 ,philosophy1 or ,reasoned ,thought1 and ,science1 or ,reasoned ,observation1 have both led us to admit1 as a fundamental principle1 the necessary existence of an unknown1 inconceivable1 and omnipresent ,power1 whose operations are ever in progress before our eyes1 but whose nature is1 and can never cease to be1 an impenetrable mystery4 ,and this is the cardinal truth of all religion4 ,from all sides then1 by every mode of contemplation1 we are forced upon the same irresistible conclusion4 ,the final question still remains1 ,is this ultimate element of all religion the correlative of any actual truth or not8 ,but for the prevalence1 in recent times1 of a philosophy which denies all connection between the necessity of a belief and its truth1 ,i should have regarded such a question as scarcely worth the answering4 ,to say that a belief is necessary and to say that it is true1 would appear to all1 but adherents of the extreme experiential school1 one and the same thing4 ,but in the present day this cannot be taken for granted1 and ,i should be the last to complain that even that which seems most obvious should be tested by adverse criticism4 ,ingenious1 however1 as their arguments are1 philosophers of this school1 when driven to reason out their views1 cut their own throats4 ,they commit a logical suicide4 ,for what is the test of truth they hold up to us in lieu of necessity8 ,experience4 ,but what in the last resort does our belief in experience rest upon8 ,simply upon a mental necessity4 ,nobody can tell us why he believes that the laws of nature will hold good to-morrow as they do to-day4 ,he can indeed tell us that he has always found them constant before1 and therefore expects them to remain so4 ,but this is merely to state the belief1 not to justify it4 ,experience itself cannot be appealed to1 to support our confidence in experience4 ,true1 we habitually say that we believe such and such results will follow such and such antecedents because we have always found them follow before4 ,but our past experience is not the whole of the fact involved in the belief4 ,it is our past experience1 conjoined with the mental necessity of thinking that the future will resemble the past1 that forms the convictions on which we act4 ,experience alone1 without that mental necessity1 could teach us nothing4 ,if therefore our necessary beliefs need not be true1 the belief in experience falls to the ground along with the rest1 and experience cannot be put in place of necessity as a test of truth4 ,in fact1 every argument drawn from the past fallibility of the test of necessity might be retorted with tenfold force against the test of experience4 ,observation has constantly misled mankind1 and thousands of alleged facts1 accepted upon imagined experience1 have been disproved by more accurate examination4 ,observation and reasoning combined 7as they often are7 are exposed to the double danger of false premises and false inferences from true premises2 while the addition of an element of testimony 7a circumstance common in scientific inquiries7 exposes every conclusion to a threefold possibility of error4 ,human beings are no more exempt from the possibility of mistaken science than from that of hasty metaphysics4 ,but as1 in matters of physical research1 we do not discredit the use of our eyes because their perceptions are sometimes inaccurate1 so in matters of metaphysical inquiry we need not discredit the use of our minds because their apparent intuitions are now and then fallacious4 ,in the one case1 as in the other1 the proper course is not to cast contempt upon the only instruments of discovery we have1 but to apply those instruments again and again1 omitting no precaution that may serve to correct an observation and to test an argument4 ,but when we have done our utmost to attain whatever certainty the nature of the subject permits1 we cannot reasonably turn round upon ourselves and say3 ,true1 my eyes assure me of this fact1 but human eyes have erred so often that ,i cannot accept their verdict2 or1 ,no doubt my mind forces this conclusion upon me as a necessity of thought1 but so many assumed necessities have turned out not to be necessary at all that ,i must refuse to listen to my mind3 for this is not really the caution of science1 but the rashness of philosophic theory4 ,for we can have no higher conviction than that arising in a necessity of thought4 ,nothing can surpass the certainty of this4 ,grant that we may yet be wrong3 we can never know it1 and we can have no reason to think it4 ,to oppose to a necessary belief such a train of reasoning as this3 ,necessary beliefs 7so-called7 have often proved false3 ,this is a necessary belief 7so-called73 ,therefore it may prove false1 is in reality to seek to overthrow a strong conviction by a weak one2 an intuition by a syllogism2 a proposition felt immediately to be true by an inference open to discussion4 ,arguments like this resemble the procedure of a man who should tell us1 when we meet a friend1 that we cannot possibly be sure of his identity because on some previous occasion in our lives we mistook ,jones for ,thompson4 ,exaggerated as this doctrine of the experiential school is thus seen to be1 yet it has done good service by putting thinkers on their guard1 not to accept as necessary and ultimate some beliefs which are only contingent and dissoluble4 ,two conditions must be fulfilled in order to effect a presumption of necessity4 ,the belief must always arise under certain conditions2 that is1 it must be universal in the only sense in which that term can fitly be applied4 ,having arisen1 it must be incapable of expulsion from the mind2 its terms must adhere together so firmly that they cannot be parted by adverse criticism1 either our own or that of others4 ,both these conditions are fulfilled by the fundamental postulate of religion4 ,given the appropriate conditions--human beings raised even a little above the lowest savagery--and it at once takes possession of their minds4 ,after this1 it persists in spite of every attempt to do without it1 and the highest philosophy is compelled to give it the place of honor in the forefront of its teaching4 ,observe now1 that what this philosophy accepts and incorporates into its system is religion and not theology4 ,these two must be broadly distinguished from one another4 ,religion might be described as the soul of which theology is the body4 ,religion is an abstract1 indefinable1 pervading sentiment2 theology a concrete1 well-defined1 limited creed4 ,the one is emotional2 the other intellectual4 ,the one is a constant element of our nature2 the other fluctuates from generation to generation1 and varies from place to place4 ,theology seeks to bind down religion with immovable forms4 ,against these forms there is constantly arising both an intellectual and an emotional protest4 ,the intellect objects to them as untrue in the name of science 7in the largest sense72 the emotions struggle against them as cramping their freedom in the name of religion itself4 ,thus between the human mind and dogma1 between the religious sentiment and dogma1 there is going on a perpetual warfare4 ,religious sentiment is no sooner born than the tendency to limit and to define makes itself felt4 ,it is confined within a set of dogmas1 and forbidden under every species of pains and penalties to pass over its allotted bounds4 ,sooner or later1 religious sentiment bursts through every restriction2 seems for a moment to breathe the invigorating air of freedom1 but falls again into the hands of new theologians1 with another framework of dogmas2 to be again broken through in its turn when its fettering influence can be no longer borne4 ,in carrying on this continually renovated contest--which is seen in its highest activity in great religious reformations--the religious sentiment seeks the alliance of intellect1 which latter supplies it with deadly weapons drawn from the armories of science1 logic1 and historical research4 ,thus the overthrow of theology is in great part an intellectual work4 ,but it must not be forgotten that the very deepest hostility to theological systems is inspired by the very emotion to which these systems seek to give a formal and definite expression4 ,the historical progress of religion is thus in some degree a counterpart of the progress described by ,heine 7in the lines heading this ,book7 as that of his individual mind4 ,first of all there arises in the mind of man1 so soon as he begins to speculate on the world in which he lives1 the idea of a ,creator4 ,he cannot conceive the existence of the material objects with which he is familiar without conceiving also some being more powerful than himself who has made them what they are4 ,his notions of creation may be1 no doubt often are1 extremely limited4 ,he may confine the operations of his ,god to that small portion of the universe with which he is most familiar4 ,but that the idea of an invisible yet preminent deity arises very early in the mental development of the human race1 and remains brooding dimly above the popular idolatry1 has been abundantly shown4 ,this is the belief in ,god the ,father4 ,the second stage1 so closely interwoven with the first as to be inseparable from it in actual history1 is the incarnation of this idea4 ,the supreme ,creator is too lofty1 too abstract1 too great1 to be held steadily before the mind and worshiped in his unclouded glory4 ,the children of ,israel cannot bear the immediate presence of ,jehovah1 nor can even ,moses meet the brightness of his face4 ,hence the material shapes in which the objects of adoration are embodied4 ,when divine attributes are given to idols2 when a golden calf is taken instead of the invisible ,god2 when the ,father is said to assume the form of a man to live a human life1 and die a human death1 when apostles1 saints1 and virgins are addressed in prayer or celebrated in praise1 an incarnation has occurred4 ,in the language of the traditions we have quoted1 the supreme ,god has gone away and left the government of the world to his inferiors4 ,practically1 such incarnations belong to the earliest period of religion1 and no popular creed has ever been entirely without them4 ,no sooner is the religious idea conceived in the mind1 than it begins to be clothed in flesh and bones4 ,but in the order of thought these two stages are separable4 ,for idols are not worshiped until the notion of some power which is not human1 of which the nature is not understood1 has arisen in the worshipers4 ,then a concrete expression is desired1 and we have in poetical language the belief in ,god the ,son4 ,last of all comes the belief--more properly an emotion than a belief--in the ,holy ,spirit4 ,with this step a far higher grade of religious sentiment is reached4 ,for ,god is now conceived1 not only as creating or as governing the world without1 but as entering into the mind of man to inspire his actions and influence his heart4 ,a relation which up to this point was merely external--like that of the ,creator to the created1 or of superior to inferior--is rendered internal and intimate4 ,the ,holy ,spirit not only speaks to our souls1 but it speaks in them and through them4 ,we receive1 not the arbitrary command of an almighty potentate1 but the inspiring force of a being who1 while raising us above ourselves1 is still a part1 the best part1 of ourselves4 ,this indeed1 in the deep imagination of the poet1 makes all men noble4 ,yet not in such a creed as this1 sublime as it is in comparison with those that have gone before it1 is the final resting-place of religious feeling4 ,for every word or phrase in which we endeavor to give form to that feeling tends to lower and to corrupt it by the admixture of elements which are foreign to its genuine nature4 ,to clothe this sentiment in language is itself an incarnation4 ,for whether we speak of a ,force1 a ,power1 or a ,spirit1 of an ultimate ,cause1 or an all-pervading ,essence2 of the ,absolute1 or of the ,reality beyond phenomena1 these terms are but symbols of the ,supreme1 not the ,supreme itself4 ,name ist ,schall und ,rauch ,umnebelnd ,himmelsgluth4 ,all that we can say is1 that while we know nothing but that which either our senses perceive1 or our minds understand1 we feel that there is something more4 ,both the world without and the world within1 both that which is perceived and that which perceives1 require an origin beyond themselves4 ,both compel us to look1 as their common source1 to a ,being alike unknown and unknowable1 whose nature is shrouded in a mystery no eye can pierce1 and no intellect can fathom4 ,this is the great truth which religion has presented to philosophy1 and which philosophy1 if she be truly 7as her name implies7 the love of wisdom1 will not disdain to incorporate with the more recently discovered treasures belonging to her peculiar sphere4 ,for it is not the part of wisdom to spurn as worthless even the childish lispings prompted by the profound idea that has inspired the faith of men1 from that of the far past to that of the present hour1 from that of the rudest ,african to that of the most enlightened ,european4 ,rather is it the part of wisdom to excavate that idea from amidst the strange incrustations under which it is hidden1 to understand its significance1 and to recognize its value4 ,thus may we assign to it a fitting place within the limits of a system which does equal honor1 and accords equal rights1 to the scientific faculty and to the emotional instinct4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,subjective ,,element4 ,when speaking of the fundamental postulates involved in the religious idea1 we pointed out that1 besides the unknown cause of physical phenomena1 every religion assumes also that there is in human nature something equally hyperphysical with the object which it worships1 whether we call this something soul1 or mind1 or spirit4 ,let us call it soul4 ,and first let us examine what it is that religion says of the soul1 after which we may be in a position to consider what degree of truth1 if any1 is involved in its assertions4 ,now the great fact which presents itself to our notice in this inquiry is the broad line of demarcation which religion has everywhere drawn between the mental and corporeal functions of man1 or in other words1 between his soul and his body4 ,generally1 it expresses this grand distinction by the assertion that the soul continues to live after the body is dissolved4 ,this doctrine is very ancient and very wide-spread4 ,a few illustrations of its prevalence are all that can be given here4#ajj ,the rude people of ,kamtschatka1 who had so little notion of a providence1 believed in a subterranean life after death4 ,the soul they thought was immortal1 and the body would at some time rejoin it1 when the two would live on together1 much as they do here but under happier conditions4 ,their place of abode was to be under the earth1 where there was another earth resembling ours4 ,some of them objected to being baptized1 because they would then be compelled to meet their enemies the ,russians1 instead of living among their own people under ground4 ,animals too were all of them to live again 7,kamtschatka1 p4 #bfi-bgc74 ,the ,tartars1 when visited by ,carpin1 had some notion that after death they would enjoy another life where they would perform the same actions as in this 7,bergeron1 vol4 i4 art4 #c1 p4 #cb74 ,the most intelligent ,greenlanders1 writes a traveler among that people1 assert that the soul is a spiritual being quite different from the body and from all matter1 that requires no material nourishment1 and while the body is decaying in the ground1 lives after death and needs a nourishment that is not corporeal1 but which they do not know 7,h4 ,g41 p4 #bdb74 ,the ,american ,indians firmly believed in the immortality of the soul4 ,they thought it would keep the same tendencies after death as the living man had evinced2 hence their custom--one that is widely spread--of burying the property of the dead along with the body4 ,the souls were obliged after death to take a long journey1 at the end of which they arrived at their appropriate places of suffering and enjoyment4 ,the ,paradise of virtuous ,indians consisted in the very definite pleasures of good hunting and fishing1 eternal spring1 abundance of everything with no work1 and all the satisfactions of the senses 7,n4 ,f41 tome #c1 p4 #cea-cec74 ,the ,kafirs1 as we have already seen1 worship their ancestors1 whose ,amadhlozi1 or spirits1 they believe to continue in existence after death4 ,what they mean by ,amadhlozi they explain with tolerable clearness by saying that they are identical with the shadow4 ,these spirits are the true objects of a ,kafir's worship1 being supposed to possess great power over the affairs of their descendants and relatives for weal or woe4 ,they are believed to reappear in the form of a certain species of harmless snakes1 and should a man observe such a snake on the grave of his deceased relation1 he will say1 ,oh1 ,i have seen him to-day basking on the top of the grave 7,r4 ,s4 ,a41 pt4 #b1 p4 #adb4--,k4 ,n41 pp4 #afa1afb74 ,similar reverence for the dead is shown in other parts of ,africa4 ,in his lecture on the ,ashantees1 ,mr4 ,reade says that1 on the death of a member of the household he is sometimes buried under the floor of the hut1 in the belief that his spirit may occasionally join in the circle of the living4 ,food also is placed upon the grave1 for they think that as the body of man contains an indwelling spirit1 so there exists in the corruptible food an immaterial essence on which the ghost of the departed will feed4 ,to come to races standing higher in the scale of civilization3 the ,peruvians had definite notions of a future state1 with an upper world in which the good lived a quiet life1 free from trouble1 and a lower world in which the bad were punished by suffering all the miseries and troubles of this terrestrial condition without intermission 7,c4 ,r41 b4 #b1 ch4 vii74 ,in ,china the utmost respect is paid to deceased progenitors1 who are the objects of a regular cultus4 ,india has had from early ages its highly-developed and subtle notions of the distinction of spirit from body1 and the former is held to prolong its existence after its separation from the latter1 both as disembodied in heavens or hells1 and embodied in animals or other men4 ,some schools believed in the immortality of the soul2 others asserted that its final destination was extinction4 ,buddhism ranged itself with the latter opinion1 while still maintaining the doctrine of metempsychosis1 and of rewards and punishments both in this world and in numerous others to which spirits went in the course of their wanderings4 ,parsee souls hover about the grave a few days2 then proceed upon a long journey4 ,at its conclusion they pass over a narrow bridge1 which the good traverse in safety to enter ,paradise1 while the bad fall over it and go into hell4 ,in the ,mussulman faith there are likewise but two destinies open to man--eternal happiness and eternal suffering4 ,among the ,jews in the time of ,christ two doctrines prevailed4 ,their ancient religion1 while aware of the distinction between the spirit and the body1 left the continued life of the former an open question4 ,hence the ,pharisees asserted1 while the ,sadducees denied1 a future state4 ,christ was in this respect a ,pharisee of the ,pharisees4 ,he1 however1 like ,mahomet1 provided only two abodes for the souls of men2 one in heaven with his ,father1 the other in hell1 where the fire was never quenched4 ,it was felt1 however1 by the general ,christian world that this sharp separation of all mankind into black and white1 goats and sheep1 was quite untenable4 ,hence the ,catholic institution of ,purgatory1 which1 whatever may be said against it1 is a wise and liberal modification of the harsh doctrine of ,christ1 affording a resource for the vast intermediate mass who are neither wholly virtuous nor wholly wicked1 and providing an agreeable exercise for that natural piety which prompts us to mingle the names of departed friends in our devotions1 whether 7as in ,africa7 to pray to them1 or 7as in ,europe7 to pray for them4 ,from this brief review of the opinions of various races1 it will be evident that some conception of a spirit in man as distinguished from his body prevails and always has prevailed throughout the world4 ,the special characteristic of this spiritual essence has always been held to be its immateriality4 ,all religions conceive it as distinct from the body1 most of them evincing this view by treating it as capable of independent existence4 ,many of them no doubt invest the spirit after death with a material form1 but this is the clothing of the idea1 not the idea itself4 ,the form is received after the spirit has left its terrestrial body1 and does not originally belong to it2 as in the case of the serpents in ,south ,africa1 in which ancestral souls are thought to dwell4 ,this immaterial nature is clearly expressed--so far as such an abstract idea can find clear expression from a rude people--by those ,kafirs who compare the soul to a shadow4 ,nothing in the external world seems to have so purely subjective a character as shadows2 things which cannot be felt or handled1 and which appear to have no independent substance4 ,immateriality then is universally asserted 7or attempted to be asserted7 of the soul4 ,this is of the very essence of the idea4 ,no race believes that any portion of the body1 or the body as a whole1 is the same thing as mind or spirit4 ,but immortality is not equally involved in the idea or inseparable from it4 ,notably the ,buddhistic creed--held by a considerable fraction of mankind--teaches its votaries to look forward to utter extinction as the summum bonum4 ,true1 the masses of average believers may not dwell upon the hope of ,nirvna1 but upon that of heaven4#aja ,but the authorized dogma of the ,church is1 that not enjoyment and not sorrow is our destined end or goal1 but the absolute rest1 if so it may be called1 of ceasing to exist4 ,and that this dogma was fervently accepted and thoroughly believed in as a genuine gospel1 the early literature of ,buddhism amply proves4 ,the ,jews1 a most religious people1 had no settled hope of immortality provided by their creed1 though the account of the creation of ,adam shows how clearly they distinguished mind from matter4 ,warburton indeed infers the authenticity of the ,hebrew ,revelation from the very fact of the absence of the doctrine of immortality2 for no author of a popular religion1 except ,god himself1 could have afforded to dispense with so important an article4 ,the more defective ,judaism was1 the more clearly it was divine4 ,nor were the classical nations of ,greece and ,rome at all more certain4 ,with them also opinions differed--some1 like ,plato and his followers1 asserting the immortality of the soul2 others1 like ,epicurus and his school1 denying it4 ,cicero discusses it as an open question1 though himself holding to the belief in future existence4 ,his two possible alternatives are continued life in a condition of happiness1 or utter cessation of life2 either of which he accepts with equal calmness4 ,the fear of hell did not torment him3 post mortem quidem sensus aut optandus aut nullus est 7,cato ,major1 xx4 #gd74 ,even if we are not to be immortal1 as he hopes1 nevertheless it is a happy thing for man to be extinguished at the fitting season 7,ibid41 xxiii4 #hf74 ,less philosophical people1 however1 were troubled1 like ,christians1 with the notion of a future world of punishment2 and ,lucretius addresses himself with all the ardor of a man proclaiming a beneficent gospel to the dissipation of this popular delusion3-- ,nil igitur mors est1 ad nos neque pertinet hilum1 ,quandoquidem natura animi mortalis habetur4#ajb ,like other thinkers of his time1 he distinguishes between the animus and anima--spirit and soul1 and this threefold division of the nature of man subsisted for a time in the language and ideas of ,christians4 ,but the essential point is that1 whatever further subdivisions may have been made1 all schools1 ancient and modern1 pagan and ,christian1 agreed in the fundamental distinction between the spiritual principle and the material instruments2 between mind and matter1 or soul and body4 ,such1 then1 is the universal voice of the religious instinct4 ,let us test the truth of this second postulate as we did that of the first3 by endeavoring to do without it4 ,then we have matter and motion of matter2 and the problem is3--,given these elements to find the resultant1 mind4 ,motion is merely change of matter from place to place2 therefore the question is1 whether in any kind of matter and any changes of matter we can discover mind4 ,consider the material world statically4 ,as known to science 7and we have no right to go beyond scientific observation now71 it contains certain properties perceptible to the senses1 such as color1 sound1 taste1 and smell1 roughness1 smoothness1 and other tangible qualities1 with extension and resistance1 discoverable by the muscular sense and touch combined4 ,any further properties which a deeper analysis may disclose will still belong to the domain of sensible perception1 the senses being the instruments employed in their discovery4 ,in which of these statical conditions of matter can mind be shown to be involved8 ,or what combination of statical conditions can produce mind as a part of the compound8 ,plainly any attempt to discover it in matter at rest would be an absurdity4 ,now consider the world dynamically4 ,here we have matter in motion1 matter as the recipient and the transmitter of certain qualities of force4 ,the mode of motion may be either molar 7that of masses through space71 or molecular 7that of particles within a mass74 ,in either case it is nothing but a change of position relatively to other objects4 ,now1 how can change of position either be mind1 or result in mind8 ,take the case of a planet whirling through space4 ,does this molar motion1 considered in any conceivable light1 bring us one step nearer to mental phenomena8 ,but all molar motion is of the same kind1 and however completely analyzed1 can lead to nothing but matter changing its position in space4 ,is molecular motion in better case8 ,when light is transmitted to the eye1 the vibrations of the atmosphere1 which form the objective side of this phenomenon1 arriving at the optic nerve1 cause corresponding vibrations in it1 and these transmitted to the brain result in certain movements in its component particles4 ,which of all these vibrations and movements is sensation8 ,at what point does the physical fact of changes in molecules of matter pass into the mental fact of changes in the quantity or quality of the light perceived8 ,evidently no such point of transition can be found4 ,and not only can it not be found1 but the bare hypothesis of its existence is negatived by the fact that every physical movement produces an exactly equivalent amount of physical movement2 so that there is nothing whatever in the resultant which is not accounted for in the antecedents1 and nothing in the antecedents which has not its full effect in the resultant4 ,there is thus no room left for the passage of the objective fact of molecular motion into the subjective fact of feeling4 ,although these considerations practically exhaust the question1 yet another aspect of it may1 for the sake of greater clearness1 be briefly touched upon4 ,if the doctrine of abiogenesis be accepted1 it may be thought to afford some confirmation to the materialistic hypothesis that mind is but a function or property of matter4 ,do we not here see 7it may be asked7 life and sensation arising out of non-sentient materials8 ,and if a single living creature can thus arise1 then1 by the doctrine of evolution1 all mind whatever is affiliated on matter4 ,such a conclusion1 however1 would be quite unwarranted by the facts observed4 ,in abiogenesis unorganic matter is seen to pass into organic matter1 and this is the whole of the process known to science4 ,to assume that at some period in this process the material constituents of the newly-formed creature acquire the property of sensation is1 to say the least1 a very unscientific proceeding4 ,for1 throughout all their permutations1 the component elements can 7or could with improved instruments7 be exactly observed1 measured1 and weighed2 enabling us to say that so and so much1 such and such of the inorganic elements has become so and so much1 such and such of the organic compound4 ,now the factors of this compound do not 7ex hypothesi7 contain sensation4 ,how1 then1 did the compound acquire it8 ,where is your warrant for suddenly introducing a consequent sensation--for which you have no assignable antecedent8 ,thus it is evident that between mind and matter1 between spirit and body1 between internal and external phenomena1 there is a great gulf fixed1 which no scientific or metaphysical cunning can succeed in bridging over4 ,matter is never sensation1 and cannot be conceived as ever becoming sensation4 ,the chain of material phenomena1 with its several series of causes and effects1 is never broken2 no physical cause is without its adequate physical effect1 nor is any physical effect without a physical cause sufficient to produce it4 ,the body is to the mind an external1 material phenomena2 closely connected indeed with mental states1 and always more or less present to consciousness1 but no part of our true selves1 no necessary element in our conception of what we actually are4 ,every portion of the bodily frame can be regarded by us as an outward object1 wholly independent of ourselves1 and logically1 if not practically1 separable from ourselves4 ,many portions1 such as the limbs1 are actually so separable2 and all of them are separable in thought4 ,still more impassable is this chasm in nature seen to be when we remark1 that there are two all-pervading elements in which mind and matter have their being1 and that the phenomena within each element have definite relations to other phenomena within the same element1 but are incapable of being brought into a like relation with those of the other element4 ,these two elements are ,space and ,time4 ,material particles are related to one another in space1 and in space alone4 ,they are nearer to1 or more distant from1 above or below1 to the north1 south1 east1 or west of1 the other material particles with which we compare them4 ,but they are not earlier or later than other particles4 ,the existence of concrete objects may be earlier or later than that of other concrete objects2 but when we talk of their existence as earlier or later1 we are talking of their relation to consciousness1 not of their relation to one another4 ,it is the total framed and classified by the mind that has a relation in time to some other similar total2 each total1 analyzed into its ultimate atoms1 has only relations in space to the other total1 likewise analyzed into its ultimate atoms4 ,contrariwise1 mental objects1 or states of consciousness1 are related to one another in time1 and in time alone4 ,states of consciousness can be compared as earlier or later1 simultaneous or successive4 ,they have no space-relations either to one another or to the material world4 ,it is common indeed to consider the mind as located in the body1 but this is incorrect4 ,for absolutely nothing is meant by saying that anything is in a given place except that it stands in given space-relations to surrounding objects4 ,my body is in a place because it is upon the ground1 in the air1 below the clouds1 amid a certain environment which constitutes the country and locality of that country which it is in4 ,but my mind has no surrounding objects of this nature at all4 ,the thought1 say1 of a distant friend can by no possibility be imagined as enclosed within the grey matter of the brain1 just to the right of a nerve ,a1 and in contact with a ganglion ,b4 ,this thought1 and its accompanying emotion1 could not be found by any vivisection 7if such were possible71 though its correlative physical condition might4 ,hence the mind is not in the body1 but is an independent entity whose phenomena1 successive in time1 run parallel to but never intermingle with the phenomena of body1 extended in space4 ,from the view here stated of the irremoveable distinction between mind and matter an important corollary will be seen to follow4#ajc ,no physical movement 7it has been shown7 can be conceived as passing into a state of consciousness1 for each physical movement begets further physical movement1 and while it is fully spent in its physical consequent is itself fully accounted for by its physical antecedent4 ,the converse of this doctrine must therefore be equally true4 ,that is to say1 no state of consciousness can pass into a physical movement1 for1 if it could1 this movement would have another than a physical antecedent4 ,in other words1 the mind can in no way influence the actions of the body4 ,it cannot stand in a casual relation to any physical fact whatever4 ,hence the doctrine of the will 7not only of free will but of any will7 falls to the ground4 ,for the current conception of a will supposes that a chain of material events passes at some point in its course into a state of consciousness1 and that this state of consciousness again originates a chain of material events4 ,say that ,i hear some one call my name1 and go to the window to ascertain who it is4 ,then the common explanation would be1 not only that the atmospheric undulations1 which are the material correlative of sound passing into the brain by the auditory nerves1 produced the sensation of hearing1 which is true1 but that this sensation in its turn produced those exertions of the limbs which result in my arrival at the window1 which is erroneous4 ,according to the view here adopted1 the atmospheric undulations stand in a direct relation of causation to the affection of the auditory nerve1 and this affection1 in a direct relation of causation1 to the resulting movements4 ,the states of consciousness in like manner stand in a direct relation of simple sequence to each other2 the sensation of sitting in a room being followed by that of hearing my name1 this by the thought that there is some one outside calling me1 this by the sensation of motion through space1 and this last by that of seeing the person from whom the call emanated standing in the expected place4 ,but at no point can the one train of events be converted into the other4 ,and while the train of external sequences does influence the train of internal sequences1 this latter has no corresponding influence upon the former4 ,for this would imply that at some period in the succession physical movements lost themselves in consciousness2 ceased to be physical movements1 and became something of an alien nature4 ,it would imply further that such movements originated de novo from something of an alien nature having no calculable or measurable relation to them4 ,either of which implications would constitute an exception to the ,persistence of ,force4 ,man is1 in short1 as the adherents of this opinion have called him1 a conscious automaton4 ,he does not will his own actions1 nor do external manifestations1 whether those of the unconscious or the conscious orders of existence1 influence his will4 ,but along with the set of objective facts there is always present a parallel set of subjective facts1 and the subjective facts stand in an invariable relation to the objective facts4 ,so that where the material circumstances1 both those of the surrounding world and those of the body1 are of a given character1 the non-material circumstances1 the state of mind1 is also of a given and precisely corresponding character4 ,variations in the one imply variations in the other2 feelings in the one change or remain fixed with changes or fixity in the other4 ,could the friends of dogmatic religion know the things belonging to their peace1 they would bestow upon this doctrine their most earnest support2 for it deals the death-blow to that semi-scientific materialism which derives a certain countenance from the discoveries of the day1 and which is--second to religious dogmas themselves--the most dangerous enemy of the spiritual conception of the universe and of mankind4 ,not that in lifting a voice against materialistic views1 ,i mean for a moment to lend a helping hand to the vulgar and irreverent outcry which is so often raised against matter itself as something gross and degraded1 and deserving only of a contemptuous tolerance at our hands4 ,i should have thought that the endless beauty of the material universe1 and the varied enjoyments to be derived from its contemplation1 as also the profound instruction to be obtained by its study1 would have sufficed to give it a higher place in the estimation of religious minds4 ,with such opposition to materialism as this ,i can have no vestige of sympathy4 ,the form of materialism which ,i contend against1 not as irreligious but as unphilosophic1 is that which confounds the two orders of phenomena--physical and mental--under one idea1 that of matter4 ,matter is supposed in this philosophy to be the parent of mind4 ,a bridge is sought to be thrown across the great gulf which is fixed between us and the world without4 ,but the moment we seek to walk over this imaginary bridge it crashes beneath our feet1 and we are hurled into the abyss below4 ,between that which feels1 thinks1 perceives1 and reasons on the one hand1 and that which is felt1 thought about1 perceived1 and reasoned on1 there is no community of nature4 ,the distinction between these two1 though it need not be ultimate in the order of things1 is absolutely ultimate in the order of thought4 ,in their own undiscoverable nature these two manifestations may be one2 in their relation to us they are for ever two4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,the ,,objective ,,to ,,the ,,subjective ,,element4 ,one final postulate has been found to be involved in all religion1 namely1 that between the human essence spoken of as the subjective element1 and the power spoken of as the objective element1 there is held to be a singular correspondence1 their relationship finding its concrete expression in religious worship on the one side and theological dogma on the other4 ,ritual1 consecration of things and places1 ordination of priests1 omens1 inspiration of prophets and of books1 all of them imply the supposed possibility of such a relation4 ,all of them1 however1 from their contradictory and variable character1 prove that they are but imperfect efforts to find utterance for the emotion which underlies them all4 ,but that this emotion is incapable of an explanation consistent with rational belief is not therefore to be taken for granted4 ,consider1 first1 that in order to be aware of the existence of the ultimate and unknown power1 we must possess some faculty in our constitution by which that power is felt4 ,it must1 so to speak1 come in contact with us at some point in our nature4 ,now1 no sensible perception can lead us to this conception as a generalization4 ,the whole universe1 regarded merely as a series of presentations to the senses1 contains not a single object which can possibly suggest it4 ,nor can any combination of such presentations be shown to include within them any such idea4 ,neither can the existence of such a power be inferred by the exercise of the reasoning faculty4 ,there is no analogical case from which the inference can be drawn4 ,when we reason we proceed from something known to something unknown1 and conclude that the latter1 resembling the former in one or more of its qualities1 will resemble it also in the quality yet to be established4 ,in exploring1 for instance1 some deserted spot1 we find traces of a building4 ,now1 previous experience has taught us that such buildings are only found where human builders have made them4 ,we conclude1 therefore1 that we have stumbled upon a work of human hands4 ,suppose we explore further and find the remains of the building very extensive4 ,we now draw the further inference that it was inhabited by a wealthy man1 because we know that only the wealthy can afford to live in magnificent houses4 ,but if prolonged excavation lead to the discovery of long rows of buildings1 of various sizes and having streets between them1 we confidently assert that we have unearthed a ruined city2 for we are aware that no single man1 however rich or powerful1 is likely to have built so much4 ,of these three inferences1 the first only is1 strictly speaking1 infallibly true4 ,but the others are rendered by familiar analogies so highly probable as to be practically certain4 ,now let the thing sought be1 not some single cause of a single phenomenon1 or the various causes of various phenomena1 but the ultimate cause of all phenomena whatever1--where is the corresponding case on which we can proceed to argue8 ,plainly there is none4 ,there is no other world or system to which we can appeal and say1 ,those stars and those planets were made by a ,god1 therefore our own sun and its planets must have been made by a ,god also4 ,every single argument we can frame to establish the existence of deity assumes in its major premiss the very thing to be proved4 ,it takes for granted that phenomenal objects require a cause1 and were not the idea of this necessity already in the mind it could not take one single step4 ,for if it be contended1 say1 that the world could not exist without a ,creator1 we have but to ask1 ,why not8 and our adversary can proceed no further with his argument4 ,all he can ever do is to appeal to a sentiment in us corresponding to the sentiment of which he himself is conscious4 ,thus it appears that neither direct observation1 nor reasoning1 which is generalized observation1 supplies the material for an induction as to the existence of an ,unknowable ,cause4 ,yet this idea is so persistent in the human race as to resist every effort to do without it4 ,in one form or another it invariably creeps in4 ,there is but one possible explanation of such a fact3 namely1 that it is one of those primary constituents of our nature which are incapable of proof because they are themselves the foundations on which proof must be erected4 ,we cannot demonstrate a single law of nature without supposing a world external to ourselves4 ,and we cannot suppose a world external to ourselves without referring explicitly or implicitly to an unknown entity manifested in that world4 ,the faculty by which this truth is known must be considered as a kind of internal sense4 ,it is a direct perception4 ,and precisely as objects of direct perception by the senses appear widely dissimilar at different distances1 to different men1 and to the same man at different times1 so the object of the religious emotion is variously conceived in different places and ages1 by different men1 and by the same man at different times4 ,moreover1 as the religious sentiment in the mind of man perceives its object1 the ,ultimate ,being1 so that ,being is conceived as making itself known to the mind of man through the religious sentiment4 ,a reciprocal relation is thus established2 the ,unknowable causing a peculiar intuition1 the mind of man receiving it4 ,and this is the grain of fact at the foundation of the numerous statements of religious men1 that they have felt themselves inspired by ,god1 that he speaks to them and speaks through them1 that they enter into communion with him in prayer1 and obey his influence during their lives4 ,we need not discard such feelings as idle delusions4 ,in form they are fanciful and erroneous2 in substance they are genuine and true4 ,and in a higher sense the adherent of the universal religion may himself admit their title to a place in his nature4 ,to use the words of a great philosopher1 he1 like every other man1 may consider himself as one of the myriad agencies through whom works the ,unknown ,cause2 he too may feel that when the ,unknown ,cause produces in him a certain belief1 he is thereby authorized to profess and act out that belief 7,spencer's ,first ,principles1 #b;d ed41 #cd1 p4 #abc74 ,but we may go still deeper in our examination of the nature of the relation between the ,ultimate ,being and the mind of man4 ,to do so we must briefly recur to the philosophical questions touched upon in the eighth chapter of this ,book4 ,we there discussed four possible modes of viewing the great problem presented by the existence of sensible objects3 ,common and ,metaphysical ,realism1 ,moderate and ,complete ,idealism4 ,let us briefly reconsider these several systems to discover whether any of them affords a satisfactory solution4 ,common ,realism is excluded by the consideration that it treats the qualities of external objects as existing in those objects and not in the percipient subject4 ,it requires but little reflection to prove that such qualities are modes of consciousness1 not modes of absolute being4 ,this defect is surmounted in ,metaphysical ,realism1 which1 however1 is liable to the fatal objection1 that it takes for granted an abstract substance in material things1 which substance is like the ,unknowable1 utterly inconceivable1 yet is not the ,unknowable1 and is incapable of accounting for any of the manifestations belonging to the mental order4 ,so that we should have a superfluous entity brought in to form the substance of matter1 of which entity neither our senses1 nor our reason1 nor our emotions1 give us any information4 ,for matter1 in the abstract1 is not the matter perceived by the senses2 nor is it the object of the religious sentiment2 nor is its existence capable of any kind of proof save that which consists in establishing the necessity of some kind of ,permanent ,reality below phenomena4 ,and this ,reality is not only the substratum of material1 but of all phenomena whatsoever4 ,moderate ,idealism is in no better case4 ,for in denying all true existence except to living creatures it fails utterly to give any rational account of that order of events which is universally and instinctively referred to external causes1 nor can it find any possible origin for the living creatures in whose reality it believes4 ,extreme ,idealism recognizes no problem to be dealt with1 and can therefore offer no solution4 ,each of these systems1 however1 while false as a whole1 contains a partial truth4 ,extreme ,idealism is the outcome of the ordinary1 unreflecting ,realism2 for if the ,common ,realist be convinced that appearances do not imply existence1 and if he believe in no existence but appearances1 the ground is cut from under his feet1 and he remains standing upon nothing4 ,he knows only phenomena1 and the phenomena are mere ideas of his own mind4 ,the truth common to these two extremes is that so emphatically asserted by ,berkeley1 that the esse of material objects is percipi2 that we exhaust the physical phenomenon when we describe its apparent qualities1 and need not introduce besides these a material substance to which those qualities are related as its accidents4 ,they are not the accidents1 but the actual thing1 in so far as it is material4 ,metaphysical ,realism and moderate ,idealism are united in the recognition of the truth that the phenomena are not the ultimate realities1 and that the qualities of bodies1 when analyzed1 are subjective1 not objective2 forms of the human mind1 and not independent1 external existences4 ,hence these various philosophies1 like the various religions of which they are in some sort metaphysical parallels1 must be considered as preparing the way for the admission of that all-embracing truth which is the common ground of metaphysics and religion4 ,examine a simple objective phenomenon4 ,then you find that you can separate it into all its component qualities3 its color1 taste1 smell1 extension1 and so forth2 and that after all these qualities have been taken into account nothing of the object remains save the vague feeling of an unknown cause by which the whole phenomenon is produced4 ,all the apparent qualities1 without exception1 are resolvable into modes of consciousness1 but the whole object is not so resolvable4 ,for the question still remains1 ,how did we come to have those modes of consciousness8 ,thus the analysis of the commonest material object leads us straight to an unknowable origin of known manifestations4 ,and each particular phenomenon brings us to the same result4 ,but are we to assume a special ,unknowable for each special object8 ,a little consideration will show that the division and subdivision we make of the objects of sensible perception resembles their apparent qualities in being purely subjective1 and indeed more than subjective1 arbitrary4 ,for ,i consider an object as one or many1 according to the point of view from which ,i regard it4 ,the glass which ,i hold in my hand is at this moment one2 but the next moment it is shivered into a thousand atoms1 and each of these atoms is of complex character1 and resolvable into still simpler parts4 ,the planet we inhabit is1 for the astronomer1 one object2 for the geologist a number of distinct rocks2 for the botanist it is composed of mineral and vegetable constituents1 and of these1 the latter1 which alone engage his attention1 are numerous and various2 for the chemist it consists of an infinite multitude of elementary atoms variously combined4 ,hence unity and multiplicity are mere modes of subjective reflection2 not ultimate modes of objective being4 ,and the ,unknowable cannot1 strictly speaking1 be regarded as either one or many1 since each alike implies limitation and separation from something else4 ,rather is it all-comprehending2 the ,universal ,foundation upon which unity and multiplicity alike are built4 ,material things1 then1 are analyzable into modes of consciousness with an unknown cause to which these modes are due4 ,but what is consciousness itself8 ,like matter1 it has its subjective and its objective aspect4 ,the subjective aspect consists of its various phenomenal conditions2 the sensations which we ascribe to outward objects as their producing causes1 and the emotions1 passions1 thoughts1 and feelings which we conceive as of internal origin4 ,the objective aspect consists of the unknown essence itself which experiences these various states2 of the very self which is supposed to persist through all its changes of form2 of the actual being which is the ultimate ,reality of our mental lives4 ,the existence of this ultimate ,ego is known as an immediate fact of consciousness1 and cannot be called in question without impugning the direct assurance which every one feels of his own being as apart from his particular and transient feelings4 ,nobody believes that he is the several sensations and emotions which he experiences in life2 he believes that he has them4 ,and if the existence of the ,unknowable underlying material manifestations is perceived by a direct1 indubitable inference1 the existence of the ,unknowable underlying mental manifestations is perceived without an inference at all by an intuition from which there is no appeal4 ,for no one can even attempt to reason with me about this conviction without resting his argument upon facts1 and inferences from facts1 which are in themselves less certain than this primary certainty which he is seeking to overthrow4 ,existence1 then1 is known to us immediately in our own case2 mediately in every other--consequently1 the only conception we can frame of existence is derived from ourselves4 ,hence when we say that anything exists1 we can only mean one of two things3 either that it exists as a mode of human consciousness1 as in the case of material things2 or that it exists per se1 and is the very substance of consciousness itself4 ,and the former of these modes of existence is altogether dependent upon a conscious subject4 ,a material object is a congeries of material qualities1 none of which can be conceived at all except in relation to some percipient subject4 ,take away the subject1 and color1 extension1 solidity1 sound1 smell1 and every other quality1 vanish into nothing4 ,the existence of these qualities1 and hence the existence of matter itself in its phenomenal character1 is relative and secondary4 ,there remains therefore only the second of these two modes of existence as absolute and primary4 ,the substance of consciousness1 then1 is the one reality which is known to exist2 and in no other form is existence in its purity conceivable by us4 ,for if we attempt to conceive a something as existent which is neither object nor subject1 neither that which is felt nor that which feels1 neither that which is thought nor that which thinks1 we must inevitably fail4 ,there is no tertium quid which is neither mind nor matter of which we can frame the most remote conception4 ,we may1 if we please1 imagine the existence of such a tertium quid1 but the hypothesis is altogether fanciful1 and would have nothing in science1 nothing in the construction of the human mind1 to render it even plausible4 ,indeed1 it would be making an illegitimate use of the word existence to apply it in such a sense4 ,existence to us means consciousness1 and never can mean anything else4 ,we cannot by any effort conceive a universe previous to the origin of life in which there was no consciousness2 for the moment we attempt to conceive it1 we import our own consciousness into it4 ,we think of ourselves as seeing or feeling it4 ,the effort1 therefore1 to frame an idea of any existing thing without including consciousness in the idea is self-defeating1 and when we predicate ,existence of the ,unknown ,cause1 we predicate its kinship to that ultimate substance of the mind from which alone our conception of absolute existence is derived4 ,here1 then1 we have a second and more intimate relationship between the objective and the subjective elements in the religious emotion4 ,they are found to be of kindred nature2 or1 to speak with stricter caution1 it is found that we cannot think of them but as thus akin to one another4 ,we must ever bear in mind1 however1 that our thoughts upon such a subject as this can be no more than partial approximations to the truth2 tentative explorations in a dark region of the mind rather than accurate measurements of the ground4 ,thus1 in the present instance1 we have spoken of the ,unknowable as more or less akin to the mind of man2 yet we cannot think of the ,unknowable as resembling the fleeting states which are all that we know by direct observation of the constitution of the mind4 ,it is not the passing and variable modes1 but the fixed and unchangeable substratum on which these modes are conceived to be impressed1 which the ,unknowable must be held to resemble4 ,and this substratum itself is an absolute mystery4 ,we can in no way picture it to ourselves without its modes1 which nevertheless we cannot regard as appertaining to its ultimate being4 ,one further consideration will establish a yet closer relationship than that of likeness4 ,the ,unknown ,reality1 which is the source of all phenomena whatsoever1 mental and physical1 must of necessity include within itself that mode of existence which is manifested in consciousness2 for otherwise1 we must imagine yet another power as the originator of conscious life1 and we should then have two unknown entities1 still requiring a higher entity behind them both1 to effect that entire harmony which actually subsists between them4 ,the ,unknowable is1 therefore1 the hidden source from which both the great streams of being1 internal and external1 take their rise4 ,since1 then1 our minds themselves originate in that ,universal ,source1 since it comprehends every form of existence within itself1 we stand to it in the relation of parts to a whole1 in which and by which those parts subsist4 ,there is thus not only likeness but identity of nature between ourselves and our unknown ,origin4 ,and it is literally true that in it we live1 and move1 and have our being4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from the summit to which we have at length attained1 we may survey the ground we have already traversed1 and comprehend1 now that they lie below us1 a few of the intricacies which we met with on our way4 ,the apparent puzzle of automatism1 for example1 may be resolved into a more comprehensive law4 ,it was shown1 at the conclusion of the preceding chapter1 that a train of physical events could in no way impinge upon1 or pass over into1 a train of mental events1 nor a state of consciousness be converted into physical movements4 ,but it was hinted that1 while the distinction between the two great series of manifestations1 those of mind and those of matter1 was ultimate in the order of thought1 it need not be ultimate in the order of things4 ,of this suggested possibility we have now found the confirmation2 for we have seen that material phenomena1 analyzed to their lowest terms1 resolve themselves into forms of consciousness1 and forms of consciousness1 analyzed in their turn1 prove to be the varied modes of an unknown subject2 and this unknown subject has its roots in the ultimate ,being in which both these great divisions of the phenomenal universe find their foundation and their origin4 ,the distinction1 therefore1 between the mental and the material train belongs to these trains in their character of phenomena alone4 ,they are distinguished in the human mind1 not in the order of nature4 ,thus1 if we recur to the illustration used in explaining automatism1 we pointed out that in the circumstance of hearing a call and going to the window1 two series might be thus distinguished3 #a4 ,the material series1 consisting of atmospheric undulations1 affections of the nerves and matter of the brain1 movements of the body2 #b4 ,the mental series1 consisting of the sensations of sitting still1 and hearing of the thought of a person1 of the sensations of motion1 and seeing the person4 ,now1 if we take the trouble to observe the terms of which the first series is composed1 we shall see that they also express states of consciousness1 though states of a different kind from those contained in the terms of the second series4 ,undulations1 nervous affections1 movements1 and so forth1 are only intelligible by us as modifications of our consciousness4 ,to conceive in any degree the atmospheric perturbations which are the physical correlatives of sound1 we must imagine them as somehow felt or perceived--for instance1 as a faint breeze4 ,to conceive the cerebral changes implied in hearing1 we must imagine ourselves as dissecting and examining the interior of the brain4 ,in other words1 the external train of events to which consciousness runs over parallel can only be represented in thought by translating it into terms of consciousness2 and the absolute harmony of both these trains1 the fact that while states of consciousness do not originate the movements of our bodies1 they yet bear so unvarying a relation to them as to be mistaken for their causes1 finds its solution in the reflection that1 when we look below the appearances to the reality pervading both1 it is the same ,universal ,being which is manifested in each alike4 ,hence1 too1 the sense of independent power to produce physical effects in accordance with mental conceptions1 which forms the great obstacle to the general admission of the doctrine of human automatism4 ,reason as we may1 we still feel that we are reservoirs of force which we give out in the shape of material movement whenever we please and as we please4 ,and if the doctrine of the ,persistence of ,force appears1 by showing that every physical consequent has a purely physical antecedent1 to contradict this feeling1 we naturally give the preference to the feeling over the doctrine4 ,but since the ,persistence of ,force is itself no less firmly seated in consciousness than the sense of independent power--since all nature would be a chaos without the ,persistence of ,force--it is the part of true philosophy to give its due to each4 ,and this may be done by admitting the particle of truth contained in the belief that the human will influences the external world4 ,we are indeed reservoirs of force4 ,but it is not our own peculiar force that is exerted through us2 it is the ,universal ,force1 which is evinced no less in the actions of men than in the movements of inanimate nature4 ,and since those actions are in constant unison with their wishes1 there is not1 and cannot be1 the sense of constraint which is usually opposed to voluntary performance4 ,thus1 to take a simple illustration1 the necessities of our physical constitution absolutely compel us to support ourselves by food2 yet no man feels that in eating his meals he is acting under external compulsion4 ,it would be a strange except ion indeed to the universal prevalence of unvarying law1 if human beings were permitted to exert independent influence upon the order of events4 ,not in so slovenly a manner has the work of nature been performed4 ,we are no more free to disturb the harmony and beauty of the universe than are the stars in their courses or the planets in their orbits4 ,our courses and orbits are no less fixed than theirs1 and it is but the imperfection of our knowledge1 if they have not been1 and cannot yet be discovered4 ,but it would be a lamentable blot upon a universe1 where all things are fixed by a ,power in whom there is no variableness nor shadow of turning1 were there permitted to exist a race of creatures who were a law unto themselves4 ,again1 the relation now established between the human mind and the ultimate ,source both of mind and matter1 serves to throw light upon that dark spot in the hypothesis of evolution--the origin of consciousness4 ,for while in this hypothesis there is a continual progression1 of which each step is the natural consequence of another1 from the gaseous to the solid condition of our system1 from inorganic to organic substances1 from the humblest organization to the most complex1 there is absolutely no traceable gradation from the absence to the presence of conscious life4 ,no cunning contrivance of science can derive sensation from non-sentient materials1 for the difference between the two is not a difference in degree of development1 but in kind4 ,there is a radical unlikeness between the two1 and it is unphilosophic1 as well as unscientific1 to disguise the fact that a mere process of material evolution can never lead from the one to the other4 ,the moment of arising of consciousness1 says ,mr4 ,shadworth ,hodgson1 is the most important break in the world of phenomena or nature taken as a whole2 the phenomena above and the phenomena below it can never be reduced completely into each other2 there is a certain heterogeneity between them4 ,but this is not the only instance of such a heterogeneity 7,hodgson's ,theory of ,practice1 vol4 i4 p4 #cdj74 ,i venture to say that it is the only instance1 and that there is nothing else in nature which can properly be compared with it4 ,the instances of similar heterogeneity which ,mr4 ,hodgson gives appear to me less carefully considered than might have been expected from so careful a writer4 ,that between ,time and ,space1 which is his first case1 is involved in that between mind and matter1 and is only another expression of it 7see supra1 p4 #ddg72 while curves and straight lines1 and physical and vital forces1 are not truly heterogeneous at all1 unless under vital forces we include mental effort1 and so again illustrate the primary unlikeness by a case included under it4 ,but the last example is remarkable4 ,until ,mr4 ,darwin propounded his law of natural selection1 it was supposed also that there was heterogeneity between species of living organisms in physiology4 ,now it is the great triumph of the evolutional system to have rid us of this unintelligible break1 and to have shown that the whole of the material universe1 inorganic and organic1 is the result of the unchangeable operation of laws which are no less active now than they have ever been4 ,in other words1 evolution dispenses with the necessity of supposing the existence1 at some point in the history of the planet1 of a special law for the production of species brought into operation ad hoc4 ,but the general principles which apply to the origin of organic products must apply also to the origin of conscious life4 ,this also must be figured as an evolution4 ,this also must take place without the aid of a special law brought into operation ad hoc4 ,like the evolution of material products1 it can only be conceived as taking place from a prexisting fund1 containing potentially the whole of the effects which are afterwards found in actual existence4 ,let us test this by trying to conceive the process in other ways4 ,consciousness might be supposed to arise in two ways3 by special creation1 and by uncaused origin1 from nothing4 ,both possibilities are in absolute contradiction to the fundamental principles of evolution4 ,creation by a superior power is a hypothesis standing on a level with that of the creation of man out of the dust of the earth4 ,to realize it in thought at all we must suppose the very thing intended to be denied1 namely1 the material of mind already existing in the universe1 as that of body existed--in the earth4 ,otherwise1 we should be obliged to admit the unthinkable hypothesis of the origin of something from nothing4 ,this latter difficulty presses with its full force upon the second supposition4 ,mind would thereby be represented as suddenly springing into being without any imaginable antecedent4 ,for no material antecedent can produce it without an exception to the ,persistence of ,force1 which requires a material consequent4 ,and it cannot arise without any antecedent but by a similar exception4 ,neither creation nor destruction can in fact be represented as occurring in nature4 ,we cannot conceive a new being arising out of nothing1 or passing into nothing4 ,as the development of the physical universe takes place by the change1 composition1 decomposition1 and re-composition of prexisting constituents1 so it must be with the development of mind4 ,we cannot suppose the origin of sensation1 its advance to more varied and complex kinds1 through emotions1 passions1 and reasonings to the most subtle feelings and the profoundest thoughts1 without believing that all of these have their source in the ,ultimate ,reality of nature1 which comprehends not these only1 but every further perfection of which we may yet be capable in ages to come4 ,here1 then1 is the solution of the difficulty which was shown 7p4 #fij7 to beset the theory of abiogenesis2 a theory which1 if ultimately accepted by science1 as ,i believe it will be1 will for the first time bring perfect unity into our conceptions of the development of the world we live in4 ,while science will thus show that there is no impassable break between inorganic and organic forms of matter1 philosophy will confirm it by showing1 that there is no real distinction between the universal life which is manifested in the 7so-called7 inanimate forces and constituents of our system and the fragmentary life which comes to light in animated creatures4 ,there is heterogeneity nowhere4 ,there are no breaks in nature4 ,there are no unimaginable leaps in her unbroken course4 ,from the point of view now reached we can understand also--so far as understanding is possible in such a case--the apparent riddle of our knowledge of the existence of the ,unknowable4 ,we can explain the universal sentiment of religious minds that there is some direct relation between them and the object of their worship4 ,the sense of an intuitional perception of that object1 the sense of undefinable similarity thereto1 the sense of inspiration and of guidance thereby1 are included under and rendered intelligible by the actual identity in their ultimate natures of the subject and the object of religious feeling4 ,and the incomprehensibility of the latter is shown to have an obvious reason4 ,for the part cannot comprehend the whole of which it is a part4 ,it can but feel that there is a whole1 in some mysterious way related to itself4 ,but what that whole is1 the conditions of its existence render it impossible that it should even guess4 ,imagine the whole of the atmosphere divided into two great currents3 a hot current continually ascending1 and a cold current continually descending4 ,and let the hot current represent the stream of conscious life1 the cold current the stream of material things4 ,to complete the simile1 conceive that there is a sharp boundary between the two currents1 so that atoms of air can never cross to and fro2 while yet the conscious atoms in the hot current are aware of the existence of the unconscious atoms in the cold one4 ,now if the atoms or particles in the conscious current should be gifted with senses in proportion to their size1 they will see and feel an infinitely minute portion both of the ascending current in which they they themselves are placed1 and of the descending current they are passing by4 ,but of the whole of the atmosphere of which they are themselves fragmentary portions they will be able to form no conception whatever4 ,its existence they will be aware of1 for it will be needed to explain their own4 ,but of its nature they will have no idea1 except that in some undefinable way it is like themselves4 ,nor will they be able to form any picture of the cause which is continually carrying them upwards1 and forcing their homologues in the opposite current downwards4 ,while1 if we suppose these opposite movements to represent the elements of ,time and ,space1 they will be conscious of themselves only in terms of movement upwards1 and of the unconscious particles in terms of movement downwards4 ,they will suppose these two movements to be of the very essence of hot and cold particles1 and will be able to conceive them only under these terms4 ,suppose1 lastly1 that at a certain point in their progress the hot particles become cold and pass into the opposing current1 losing their individual1 particular life1 then their fellow-particles in the hot current will lose sight of them at that point1 and they will be merged in the general stream of being to emerge again in their turn into the stream of conscious being4 ,imperfect as this simile is1 and as all such similes must be1 it serves in some faint measure to express the relation of the mind of man to its mysterious ,source4 ,and it serves also to illustrate the leading characteristics of ,religion and ,theology1 or ,faith and ,belief1 the function of the first having ever been to conceive the existence of that relation1 and the function of the second to misconceive its character4 ,thus there runs through the whole course of religious history a pervading error and a general truth4 ,in all its special manifestations these two have been mingled confusedly together1 and the manifold forms of error have generally obscured from sight the single form of truth4 ,the relation held by ,faith to ,belief1 by the true elements to the false1 in special creeds1 may be thus expressed3 ,that the creeds have sought to individualize1 and thus to limit that which is essentially general and unlimited4 ,thus worship1 in its purest character a mere communing of the mind with its unknown ,source1 has been narrowed to the presentation of petitions to a personal deity4 ,particular places and peculiar objects have been selected as evincing1 in some exceptional manner1 the presence of the infinite ,being which pervades all places and things alike4 ,certain men have been regarded as the exclusive organs of the ultimate ,truth2 certain books1 as its authorized expressions2 whereas the several races of men in their different modes of life1 and in the diverse products of their art and their culture1 are all in their variety1 and even in their conflict1 inspired workers in the hands of that ,truth which is manifested completely in none1 partially in all4 ,and as it has been with the special objects upon which ,theology has fixed its gaze1 so it has been with the general object which underlies them all4 ,this1 too1 has been individualized1 limited and defined4 ,it has been forgotten that we are but forms of that which we are seeking to bring within the grasp of our reason1 and cannot therefore see around it1 above it1 and below it4 ,but this truth1 which ,theology is ever forgetting1 ,religion must ever proclaim4 ,the proclamation of this truth is the title-deed of its acceptance by mankind4 ,without this1 it would sink into the dishonored subject of incessant wranglings and profitless dispute4 ,when it begins to define the ,infinite1 it ceases1 in the purer sense of the word1 to be ,religion1 and can only command the assent of reasonable beings in so far as its assertions comply with the rigorous methods of logical demonstration4 ,but this condition is in fact impossible of fulfillment1 for the nature of the object concerning which we reason1 renders the exact terms of logical propositions misleading and inadequate4 ,the ,unknowable ,reality does not admit of definition1 comprehension1 or description4 ,how should we1 mere fragments of that ,reality1 define1 comprehend1 or describe the ,infinite ,being wherein we have taken our rise1 and whereto we must return8 99 99 99 99 99 ,thus is ,religion analyzed1 explained and justified4 ,its varied forms have been shown to be unessential and temporary2 its uniform substance to be essential and permanent4 ,belief has melted away under the comparative method2 ,faith has remained behind4 ,from two sides1 however1 objections may be raised to the results of this analysis4 ,those who admit no ultimate residuum of truth in the religious sentiment at all1 may hold that ,i have done it too much honor in conceding so much2 while those who adhere to some more positive theology than is admitted here1 will think that ,i have left scarcely anything worth the having in conceding so little4 ,to the first class of objectors ,i may perhaps be permitted to point out the extreme improbability of the presence in human nature of a universally-felt emotion without a corresponding object4 ,even if they themselves do not realize in their own minds the force of that emotion they will at least not deny its historical manifestations4 ,they will scarcely question that it has been in all ages known to history as an inspiring force1 and often an overmastering passion4 ,they will believe the evidence of those who affirm that they are conscious of that emotion now1 and cannot attribute it to anything but the kind of ,cause which religion postulates4 ,the actual presence of the emotion they will not deny1 though the explanation attempted of its origin they will4 ,but those who make the rather startling assertion that a deep-seated and wide-spread emotion is absolutely without any object resembling that which it imagines to be its source1 are bound to give some tenable account of the genesis of that emotion4 ,how did it come into being at all8 ,how having come into being1 did it continue and extend8 ,how did it come to mistake a subjective illusion for an objective reality8 ,these are questions pressing for an answer from those who ask us to believe that one of our strongest feelings exists merely to deceive4 ,but it will be found1 ,i believe1 that all explanations tending to show that this emotion is illusory in its nature assume the very unreality they seek to prove4 ,should it1 for example1 be contended that human beings1 conscious of a force in their own bodies1 extend the conception of this force to a superhuman being1 which extension is illegitimate1 it is assumed1 not proved1 in such an argument as this1 that the force manifested in the universe at large is not in some way akin to that manifested in human beings4 ,again1 should it be urged that man1 being aware of design in his own works1 fancies a like design in the works of nature1 it is a mere assumption that this attribution of the ideas of his own mind to a mind greater than his is an unwarrantable process4 ,the argument from design may be1 and in my opinion is1 open to other grave objections2 but its mere presence cannot be used as explaining the manner in which the religious emotion has come to exist4 ,rather is it the religious emotion which has found expression in the argument from design4 ,the same criticism applies to all accounts of this sentiment which aim at finding an origin for it sufficient to explain its presence without admitting its truth4 ,they all of them assume the very point at issue4 ,but the real difficulty that is felt about religion lies deeper than in the mere belief that a given emotion may be deceptive4 ,it lies in the doubt whether a mere emotion can be taken in evidence of the presence in nature of any object at all4 ,emotions are by their very nature vague1 and this is of all perhaps the vaguest4 ,nor are emotions vague only2 they are inexpressible in precise language1 and even when we express them as clearly as we can1 they remain unintelligible to those who have not felt them4 ,now this general and unspecific character of emotions renders it hard for those who are wanting in any given emotion to understand its intensity in others1 and even fully to believe in their statements about it4 ,were religion a case of sensible perception they would have no such doubt4 ,color-blind persons do not question the faculty of distinguishing colors in others4 ,but while the sharp definitions of these senses compel us to believe in the existence of their objects1 the comparatively hazy outlines drawn by the emotions leave us at least a physical possibility of disputing the existence of theirs4 ,yet the cases are in their natures identical4 ,we see a table1 and because we see it we infer the existence of a real thing external to ourselves4 ,the presence of the sensations is conceived to be an adequate warrant for asserting the presence of their cause4 ,precisely in the same way1 we feel the ,unknowable ,being1 and because we feel it we infer the existence of a real object both external to ourselves and within ourselves4 ,the presence of the emotion is conceived to be an adequate warrant for asserting the presence of its cause4 ,undoubtedly1 the supposed object of the sensations and the supposed object of the emotion might be both of them illusory4 ,this is conceivable in logic1 though not in fact4 ,but there can be no reason for maintaining the unreality of the emotional1 and the reality of the sensible object4 ,existence is believed in both instances on the strength of an immediate1 intuitional inference4 ,the mental processes are exactly parallel4 ,and if it be contended that sensible perception carries with it a stronger warrant for our belief in the existence of its objects than internal feeling1 the reasons for this contention must be exhibited before we can be asked to accept it2 otherwise1 it will again turn out to be a pure assumption1 constituting1 not a reason for the rejection of religion by those who now accept it1 but a mere explanation of the conduct of those who do not4 ,in fact1 however1 the denial of the truth of religion is no less emotional than its affirmation4 ,it is not denied because those who disbelieve in it have anything to produce against it1 but because the inner sense which results in religion is either absent in them1 or too faint to produce its usual consequences4 ,for this of course they are not to blame1 and nothing can be more irrational than to charge them with moral delinquency or culpable blindness4 ,if the ,unknown ,cause is not perceptible to them1 that surely is not a deficiency to be laid to their charge4 ,but when they quit the emotional stronghold wherein they are safe to speak of those to whom that ,unknown ,cause is perceptible as the victims of delusion1 these latter may confidently meet them on the field which they themselves have chosen4 ,first1 then1 it is at least a rather startling supposition that their fellow creatures have always been1 and are still1 the victims of a universal delusion1 from which they alone enjoy the privilege of exemption4 ,presumption1 at all events1 is against a man who asserts that everybody but himself sees wrongly4 ,he may be the only person whose eyes have not deceived him1 but we should require him to give the strongest proof of so extraordinary an assertion4 ,and in all cases which are in the least degree similar1 this condition is complied with without the smallest hesitation4 ,there are1 so far as ,i am aware1 no instances of proved universal delusions1 save those arising from the misleading suggestions of the senses4 ,that the earth is a flat surface1 that the sun moves round it1 that the sun and moon are larger than the stars1 that the blue sky begins at a fixed place1 are inferences which the uninstructed observer cannot fail to draw from the most obvious appearances4 ,but those who have combated these errors have not done so by merely telling the world at large that it was mistaken2 they have pointed out the phenomena from which the erroneous inferences were drawn1 and have shown at the same time that other phenomena1 no less evident to the senses than these1 were inconsistent with the explanation given4 ,they have then substituted an explanation which accounted for all the phenomena alike1 both the more obvious phenomena and the less so4 ,precisely similar is the method of procedure in history and philosophy1 though the methods of proof in these sciences are not equally rigorous4 ,great historical delusions--such as the ,popish plot--are put to rest by showing the misinterpreted facts out of which they have grown1 exposing the misinterpretation1 and substituting true interpretation4 ,imperfect psychological analysis1 say of an emotion1 is superseded by showing from what facts this analysis has been obtained1 and what other facts it fails to account for4 ,observe1 then1 that in all these cases the appeal is made from the first impressions of the mistaken person to his own impressions on further examination2 not to those of another4 ,considerations are laid before him which it is supposed will cause him to change his mind1 and in all that class of cases where strict demonstration is possible actually do so4 ,to a man who believes the earth to be a flat extended surface we point out the fact that the top of a ship's mast is the first part of it to appear1 and that this and other kindred phenomena imply sphericity4 ,our appeal is from the senses to the senses better informed2 not from another man's senses to our own4 ,and we justly assume that were all the world in possession of the facts we have before us1 all the world would be of our opinion4 ,what1 then1 is the conclusion from these analogies8 ,it surely is1 that those who would deny the reality of the object of religious emotion must show from what appearances1 misunderstood1 the belief in that object has arisen1 and must point out other appearances leading to other emotions which are in conflict with it4 ,as the astronomer appeals from sensible perception to sensible perception1 so they must appeal from emotion to emotion4 ,but it must not be their own emotions to which they go as forming a standard for ours4 ,they can demand no hearing at all until they attempt to influence the emotions of those whom they address4 ,generality of belief need not1 for the purposes of this argument1 be taken as even a presumption of truth4 ,we can grant our adversaries this advantage which1 in the parallel cases of the illusions of the senses1 was neither asked nor given4 ,but we must ask them in return to concede to us that1 if the generality of a belief entitles it to no weight in philosophic estimation1 the singularity of a belief entitles it to none either4 ,all mankind may be deluded3 well and good3 a fortiori a few individuals among mankind may be deluded too4 ,grant that the human faculties at large are subject to error and deception1 it follows from this that the faculties of individuals lie under the same disability4 ,no word can be said as to the general liability to false beliefs1 which does not carry with it the liability to false beliefs of the very persons who are seeking to convince us4 ,by whom1 in fact1 are we asked to admit1 in the interests of their peculiar theory1 the prevalence of a universal deception1 and a deception embracing in its grasp not only the ignorant multitude1 but men of science1 thinkers and philosophers of the very highest altitude of culture8 ,by whom is it that the great mass of humankind is charged with baseless thoughts1 illusory emotions1 and untenable ideas8 ,by those who1 in thus denying the capacity of the whole human race to perceive the truth1 nevertheless maintain their own capacity to see over the heads of their fellow men so far as to assert that they are all the victims of an error4 ,by those who1 while bidding us distrust the strongest feelings1 nevertheless require us to trust them so far as to banish1 at their bidding1 those feelings from our hearts4 ,not from our reason to our more instructed reason do they appeal1 only from our reason to their own4 ,but ,i deny the competence of the tribunal2 and ,i maintain that until not merely disbelief1 but disproof1 of the position of ,religion can be offered1 ,religion must remain in possession of the field4 ,yet there is one mistake which1 as it may tend to obscure the issue1 it will be desirable to clear away4 ,it is often contended1 oftener perhaps tacitly assumed1 that the burden of proof must rest on those who in any case maintain the affirmative side of a belief1 while the negative on its side requires no proof1 but can simply claim reception until the affirmative is established4 ,now this principle is true1 where the negative is simply a suspension of judgment2 the mere non-acceptance of a fact asserted1 without a counter-assertion of its opposite4 ,to understand the true application of the rule we must distinguish between what ,i will term substantial affirmations or negations1 and affirmations or negations in form4 ,thus1 to assert that ,a4 ,b4 is six feet tall1 is a substantial affirmation4 ,out of many possible alternatives it selects one1 and postulates that one as true1 while all the rest it discards as false4 ,since1 however1 there are numerous possibilities besides this one with regard to ,a4 ,b4's height--since he may be either taller or shorter by various degrees--the negative1 in the absence of all knowledge on the subject1 is inherently more probable1 for it covers a larger ground4 ,it is a substantial negation4 ,that is1 it affirms nothing at all1 but simply questions the fact affirmed1 leaving the field open to countless other substantial affirmations4 ,so1 in law1 it is the prosecution which is required to prove its case2 for the prosecution affirms that this man was at a given place at a given time and did the criminal action4 ,the opposite hypothesis of this covers innumerable alternatives3 not this man but another1 may have been at that place1 or he may have been there and not done the action charged1 or some other man may have done it1 or the crime may have not been committed at all1 and so forth4 ,these are cases of substantial affirmations2 asserting one alone out of many conceivable possibilities1 and therefore needing proof4 ,and their opposites are substantial negations2 questioning only the one fact affirmed1 and even with reference to that merely maintaining that in the absence of proof there is an inherent probability in favor of the negative side4 ,widely different is the case before us4 ,here the affirmation and negation are affirmative and negative in form alone4 ,the assertions1 ,an ,unknowable ,being exists1 and ,an ,unknowable ,being does not exist1 are not opposed to one another as the affirmative and the negative sides were opposed in the previous cases4 ,the latter proposition does not cover a number of possible alternatives whereof the former selects and affirms a single one4 ,both propositions are true and substantial affirmations4 ,both assert a supposed actual fact4 ,and the latter does not1 as the previous negative propositions did1 leave the judgment in simple suspense4 ,it requires assent to a given doctrine4 ,that the one cast is in a negative form is the mere accident of expression1 and without in any way affecting their substance1 their positions in this respect may be reversed4 ,thus1 we may say for the first1 ,the universe cannot exist without an ,unknowable ,being2 and for the second1 ,the universe can exist without an ,unknowable ,being4 ,there are not here a multitude of alternatives1 but two only1 and of these each side affirms one4 ,each proposition is equally the assertion of a positive belief4 ,thus1 the reason which1 in general1 causes the greater antecedent probability of a denial as against a positive assertion1 in no way applies to the denial of the fundamental postulate of ,religion4 ,the statement that there is nobody in a certain room is not in itself more probable than the statement that there is somebody4 ,and the proposition3 all men are not mortal1 though negative in form1 is truly as affirmative as the counter-proposition3 all men are mortal4 ,but this argument1 inasmuch as it places the denial of all truth in the religious emotion on a level with its affirmation1 fails to do justice to the real strength of the case4 ,there are not here two contending beliefs1 of which the one is as probable as the other4 ,in conceding so much to the skeptical party we have given them a far greater advantage than they are entitled to demand4 ,generality of belief is1 in the absence of evidence or argument to the contrary1 a presumption of truth2 for1 unless its origin from some kind of fallacy can be shown1 its generality is in itself a proof that it persists in virtue of the general laws of mind which forbid the separation of its subject from its predicate4 ,and it is not only that we have here a general belief1 or1 more correctly speaking1 a general emotion1 but we have categories in the human mind which are not filled up or capable of being filled up by the objective element in the religious idea4 ,there is1 for example1 the category of ,cause2 ,nature presents us not with ,cause1 but with causes2 and these causes are mere antecedents1 physical causation in general being nothing whatever but invariable antecedents and invariable sequence4 ,but this analysis of the facts of nature by no means satisfies the conception of causation which is rooted in the human mind4 ,that conception imperiously demands a cause which is not a mere antecedent1 but a ,power4 ,without that1 the idea would remain as a blank form1 having no reality to fill it4 ,and how do we come to be in the firm possession of this idea if there be nothing in nature corresponding to it8 ,from what phenomena could it be derived8 ,akin to our notion of ,cause is our notion of ,force4 ,when the scientific man speaks of a ,force1 he merely means an unknown something which effects certain movements4 ,and ,science cannot possibly dispense with the metaphysical idea of ,force4 ,yet ,force is not only unknowable2 but it is the ,unknowable manifested in certain modes4 ,again1 therefore1 ,i ask1 whence do we derive ineradicable feeling of the manifestation of ,force1 if that feeling be a mere illusion8 ,similar remarks apply to other categories which1 like these1 have no objects in actual existence in the conformity of the religious sentiment to truth be denied4 ,such is the category of ,reality4 ,imagination cannot picture the world save as containing1 though in its essence unknown to us1 some real and permanent being4 ,we know it only as a compound of phenomena1 all of them fleeting1 variable1 and unsubstantial4 ,there is nothing in the phenomena which can satisfy our mental demand for absolute being4 ,as being transient1 and as being relative1 the phenomena in fact are nothing4 ,but our intellectual1 our emotional1 and our moral natures demand the --that which really is1 as the necessary completion of --that which only appears4 ,and it is precisely the unshakeable belief in an unchangeable1 though unknowable ,reality2 an everlasting ,truth amid shifting forms1 a ,substance among shadows1 which forms the universal foundation of religious faith4 ,a ship that has been driven from her intended course is drifting1 with a crew who have no clear knowledge of her whereabouts1 upon an unexplored ocean4 ,suddenly her captain exclaims that he sees land in the distance4 ,the mate1 however1 summoned to verify the captain's observation1 fancies that the black speck on the horizon is not land1 but a large vessel4 ,the sailors and passengers take part1 some with the one1 some with the other2 while many of them form opinions of their own not agreeing with that of either1 one maintaining it to be a whale1 another a dark cloud1 a third something else1 and so forth4 ,minor differences abound4 ,those who take it to be land are at issue as to its being a plain or a mountain1 those who think it a vessel cannot agree as to the description of the craft4 ,one solitary passenger sees nothing at all4 ,instead of drawing what would appear to be the most obvious conclusion1 that he is either more shortsighted or less apt to discover distant objects than the rest1 he infers that his vision alone is right1 and that of all the others1 captain1 passengers1 and crew1 defective and misleading4 ,oblivious of the fact that the mere failure to perceive an object is no proof of its non-existence1 he persists in asserting not only that the speck seen in the distance1 being so variously described1 probably does not resemble any of the ideas formed of it on board the ship1 but that there is no speck at all4 ,even the fact that the crews of many other ships1 passing in this direction1 perceive the same dim outline on the horizon1 does not shake his conviction that it is a mere idol of the tribe4 ,such is the procedure of those who deny the reality of the object of the religious idea4 ,instead of drawing from the diversity of creeds the legitimate inference that the ,being of whom they severally speak is of unknown nature1 they conclude1 from the mere absence of the idea of that ,being in their individual consciousness1 that its very existence is a dream4 ,lastly1 a few words1 and a few only1 must be said in reply to those who will think that the cenception of the ,unknowable resulting from our analysis is too vague and shadowy to form the fitting foundation for religious feeling4 ,they will probably object that the ,being whom that feeling requires is not an inconceivable ,cause or ,substance of the ,universe1 but a ,personal ,god2 not an undefined something which we can barely imagine1 but a definite ,some one whom we can adore and love4 ,there is nothing1 they will say1 in such a conception as this either to satisfy the affections or to impress the moral sentiments4 ,and both purposes were fulfilled by the ,christian ideal of a loving ,father and a righteous ,judge4 ,to these objections ,i would reply1 first of all1 that ,i have simply attempted to analyze religion as ,i found it1 neither omitting what was of the essence of the religious idea1 nor inserting what was not4 ,if this analysis is in any respect defective1 that is a matter for criticism and discussion4 ,but if it has been correctly performed--of which ,i frankly admit there is abundant room for doubt--then ,i am not responsible for not finding in the universal elements of religion that which is not contained within them4 ,the expression found for the ultimate truths must embrace within it1 if possible1 the crude notions of deity formed by the savage1 and the highly abstract ideal formed by the most eminent thinkers of modern times4 ,even then1 if ,i myself held the doctrines of the personality and the fatherhood of ,god1 ,i could not have required from others any admission of these views of mine as universal ingredients in religious faith4 ,the utmost ,i could have done would have been to tack them on as supplementary developments of the idea of the ultimate ,being4 ,and thus it is still open to any one who wishes it to do4 ,difficult as it is to reconcile the ideas of ,love and ,justice with unlimited ,power and absolute ,existence1 yet if there are some who find it possible to accomplish the reconciliation1 it may be well for them so to do4#ajd ,undoubtedly1 however1 all such efforts do appear to me mere hankerings after an incarnation of that idea which1 by its very nature1 does not admit of representation by incarnate forms1 even though those forms be moral perfections4 ,and ,i would reply1 secondly1 to the above objection1 that1 while we lose something by giving up the definite personality of ,god1 we gain something also4 ,if we part with the image of a loving ,father1 we part also with that of a stern monarch and an implacable judge4 ,if we can no longer indulge in the contemplation of perfect virtue1 embodied in an actual ,person1 we are free from the problem that has perplexed theologians of every age3 how to reconcile the undoubted evil in the world with the omnipotence of that ,person4 ,i know that there are some who think it possible to retain the gentler features in the popular conception of deity1 while dropping all that is harsh and repulsive4 ,to them the idea of ,god is as free from terror as the idea of the ,unknowable1 and the first of these gains is therefore no gain to them4 ,but the problem of the existence of evil presses perhaps with greater severity upon them than upon any other class of theologians4 ,to suppose that ,god could not prevent the presence of wickedness1 or could not prevent it without some greater calamity1 is to deny his omnipotence2 to suppose that he could1 and did not1 is to question his benevolence4 ,but even admitting the improvement made by purging from the character of ,god all its severity1 its vindictiveness1 and its tendency to excessive punishment1 the fact remains that the conception thus attained is not that of the popular creed at all1 but that of a few enlightened thinkers4 ,and it is with the former1 not with the latter1 that the doctrine of the ,unknowable must be compared1 in order fairly to estimate its advantages or disadvantages in relation to the current belief in a personal ,god4 ,moreover1 it must be borne in mind that the dim figure we have shadowed out of an inconceivable and all-embracing ultimate ,existence1 if widely different from the more ordinary theological embodiments of the religious idea1 is altogether in harmony with many of its expressions by the most devoutly religious minds4 ,if religion has always had a tendency to run to seed in dogma1 it has also always had a tendency to revert to its fundamental mysticism4 ,the very best and highest minds have continually evinced this tendency to mysticism1 and it has mixed itself up with the logical definitions of others who did not rise to so exalted a level4 ,so that the examination of the writings of religious men will continually disclose that profound impression of the utterly incomprehensible and mysterious nature of the ,supreme ,being which is now1 in its complete development in the form of ,agnosticism1 stigmatized as incompatible with genuine religious faith4 ,that tendency to be deeply sensible of the impossibility of conceiving the ,absolute which ,religion has thus evinced1 it is the result of ,science to strengthen and to increase4 ,science shows the imperfection of all the concrete expressions which have been found for the ,unknowable4 ,it proves that we cannot think of the ,unknowable as entering in any peculiar sense into special objects in nature1 dwelling in special places1 or speaking through special channels4 ,miraculous phenomena1 which were supposed to constitute the peculiar sphere of its manifestations1 are thrown by ,science completely out of the account4 ,but all phenomena whatsoever are shown to manifest the ,unknowable4 ,thus1 while scientific inquiry tends to diminish the intensity of religious ideas1 it tends to widen their extension4 ,they do not any longer cling to partial symbols4 ,they do not attach themselves with the same fervor to individual embodiments4 ,but1 in becoming more abstract1 they become also more pervading4 ,religion is found everywhere and in everything4 ,all nature is the utterance of the idea4 ,and1 as it gains in extension while losing in intensity in reference to the external world1 it goes through a similar process in relation to human life4 ,no longer a force seizing on given moments of our existence1 at one moment inspiring devotional observances1 at the next forgotten in the pleasures or the business of the day2 at one time filling men with the zeal of martyrs or crusaders1 at another leaving them to the unrestrained indulgence of gross injustice or revolting cruelty1 it becomes a calm1 all-pervading sentiment1 shown 7if it be shown at all7 in the general beauty and spirituality of the character1 not in the stated exercises of a rigorous piety1 or in the passionate outbursts of an enthusiastic fervor4 ,but these considerations would lead me on to a subject which ,i had once hoped to treat within the boundaries of the present volume1 but which ,i am now compelled1 owing to the enlargement of the scheme1 to postpone to a future time4 ,that subject is the relation of religion to ethics4 ,it may have struck some readers as an omission that ,i have said nothing of religion as a force inspiring moral conduct1 which is the principal aspect under which it is regarded by some competent authorities4 ,but the omission has been altogether intentional4 ,it would take me a long time to explain what in my judgment has been the actual influence of religion upon morals in the past1 and what is likely to be its influence in the future4 ,meanwhile ,i merely note the fact that this analysis professes to be complete in its own kind2 that ,i have endeavored to probe the religious sentiment to the bottom1 and to discover all that it contains4 ,thus1 if religion be not only an emotion1 but a moral force1 it must acquire this character in virtue of the relation of its emotional elements to human character1 not in virtue of the presence of ethical elements actually belonging to the religious emotion1 and comprehended under it by the same indefeasible title as the sense of the ,unknowable itself4 ,at present1 however1 ,i can attempt no answer to the objection which will no doubt be urged1 that so abstract and cold a faith as that expounded here can afford no satisfaction to the moral sentiments4 ,indeed ,i must to a certain extent admit the reality of the loss which the adoption of this faith entails4 ,there is consolation no doubt in the thought of a ,heavenly ,father who loves us2 there is strength in the idea that he sees and helps us in our continual combat against evil without and evil within2 there is happiness in the hope that he will assign us in another life an infinite reward for all the endurances of this4 ,above all1 there is comfort in the reflection that when we are parted by death we are not parted for ever2 that our love for those whom we have cherished on earth is no temporary bond1 to be broken ere long in bitterness and despair1 but a possession never to be lost again1 a union of souls interrupted for a little while by the separation of the body1 only to be again renewed in far greater perfection and carried on into far higher joys than can be even imagined here4 ,all this is beautiful and full of fascination3 why should we deny it8 ,candor compels us to admit that in giving it up with the other illusions of our younger days we are resigning a balm for the wounded spirit for which it would be hard to find an equivalent in all the repertories in ,science1 and in all the treasures of philosophy4 ,yet it must be borne in mind that every step from a lower to a higher creed involves a precisely similar loss4 ,how much more beautiful was nature 7as ,schiller has shown us in his poem on the gods of ,greece7 when every fountain1 tree and river had its presiding genius1 when the ,sun was driven by a divine charioteer1 when the deities of ,olympus intervened in the affairs of men to prevent injustice and to maintain the right4 ,how cold and lifeless1 nay1 how profoundly irreligious1 would our modern conception of the earth and the solar system have appeared to the worshiper of ,poseidon and ,apollon4 ,and if the loss of the ,christian as compared to the ,pagan is thus great1 how great also is the loss of the enlightened ,protestant as compared to the ignorant ,catholic peasant4 ,what comfort must be found in the immediate intervention of the ,virgin in answer to prayer1 what security afforded by the protection of the local saint4 ,or again1 how great the pleasure of contributing by our piety to the release of a friend from purgatorial torment1 and of knowing that our friends will do us the same kindly service4 ,even without contrasting such broad and conspicuous divisions of ,christianity as these1 we shall find enough of the same kind of difference within the limits of ,protestantism itself4 ,what mere intellectual conviction of a future state can vie with the consoling certainty offered by the ,spiritualistic belief1 that those whom we have lost on earth still hover around us in our daily course2 sometimes even appear to us in bodily form1 and converse with us in human speech4 ,no mere hope of meeting them again can for a moment equal the delight of seeing their well-known shapes and hearing their familiar tones4 ,hence the ,spiritualist has undoubtedly a source of comfort in his faith which more rational creeds can offer nothing to supply4 ,but who that does not share it can envy them so baseless a conviction1 so illusory a joy8 ,it is1 in fact1 the very condition of progress that1 as we advance in knowledge and in culture1 we give up something on the road4 ,but it is also a condition that we do not feel the need of that which we have lost4 ,not only as we become men do we put away childish things1 but we can no longer realize in thought the enjoyment which those childish things brought with them4 ,other interests1 new occupations1 deeper affections take the place of the interests1 the occupations1 and the affections of our early years4 ,so too should it be in religion4 ,men have dwelt upon the love of ,god because they could not satisfy the craving of nature for the love of their fellow men4 ,they have looked forward to eternal happiness in a future life because they could not find temporary happiness in this4 ,it is these reflections which point out the way in which the void left by the removal of the religious affections should hereafter be supplied4 ,the effort of those who cannot turn for consolation to a friend in heaven should be to strengthen the bonds of friendship on earth1 to widen the range of human sympathy and to increase its depth4 ,we should seek that love in one another which we have hitherto been required to seek in ,god4 ,above all1 we should sweep away those barriers of convention and fancied propriety which continually hinder the free expression of affection1 and force us to turn from the restrictions of the world to ,one towards whom there need be no irksome conformity to artificial regulation1 and in speaking to whom we are under no shadow of reserve4 ,were we thus permitted to find in our fellow creatures that sympathy which so many mourners1 so many sufferers1 so many lonely hearts1 have been compelled to find only in the idea of their heavenly ,father1 ,i hesitate not to say that the consolations of the new religion would far surpass in their strength and their perfection all those that were offered by the old4 ,towards such increasing and such deepening of the sympathies of humanity ,i believe that we are continually tending even now4 ,meantime1 while we are still far from the promised land1 the adherents of the universal religion are not without a happiness of their own4 ,their faith is at least a faith of perfect peace4 ,untroubled by the storms of controversy1 in which so many others are tossed about1 they can welcome all men as brothers in faith1 for all of them1 even the most hostile1 contribute to supply the stones of the broad foundation upon which their philosophy is built4 ,those therefore who contend against them1 be it even with vehemence and passion1 yield1 them involuntary help in bringing the materials upon which their judgment is formed4 ,no man can truly oppose their religion1 for he who seems to be hostile to it is himself but one of the notes struck by the ,unknowable ,cause1 which so plays upon the vast instrument of humanity as to bring harmony out of jangling sounds1 and to produce the universal chords of truth from the individual discords of error4 ,scientific discoveries and philosophic inquiries1 so fatal to other creeds1 touch not the universal religion4 ,they who accept it can but desire the increase of knowledge1 for even though new facts and deeper reasoning should overthrow something of what they have hitherto believed and taught1 they will rejoice that their mistakes should be corrected1 and their imperfections brought to light4 ,they desire but the ,truth1 and the ,truth has made them free4 ,and as in their thoughts they can wish nothing so much as to know and to believe that which is true1 so in their lives they will express the serenity which that desire will inevitably bring4 ,they are not pained or troubled because other men see not as they see4 ,they have no vain hope of a unity of thought which the very conditions of our being do not permit4 ,they aim not at conquering the minds of men2 far rather would they stimulate and help them to discover a higher ,truth than they themselves have been permitted to know4 ,and as their action will thus be inspired with hope of contributing their mite to the treasury of human knowledge1 well-being1 and moral good1 so their death will be the expression of that1 peaceful faith which has sustained their lives4 ,even though torn away when1 in their own judgment1 they have still much to do1 they will not repine at the necessity of leaving it undone1 even though they are well aware that their names1 which might have been illustrious in the annals of our race1 will now be buried in oblivion4 ,for the disappearance of a single life is but a ripple on the ocean of humanity1 and humanity feels it not4 ,hence they will meet their end sustained and soothed by an unfaltering trust1 ,like one who wraps the drapery of his couch ,about him1 and lies down to pleasant dreams4 ,but the opposite fate1 sometimes still more terrible1 that of continuing to live when the joys of life are gone1 and its purest happiness is turned into the bitterest pain1 will be accepted too4 ,thus they will be willing1 it need be1 to remain in a world where their labor is not yet ended1 even though that labor be wrought through suffering1 despondency1 and sorrow2 willing also1 if need be1 to meet the universal lot--even though it strike them in the midst of prosperity1 happiness1 and hope2 bowing in either case to the verdict of fate with unmurmuring resignation and fearless calm4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,index4 ,abhidharma-,pitaka1 its metaphysics1 #dgc-dgf ,abiogenesis1 the theory of1 #fij2 its destined functions1 #gjb ,abraham1 a ,hanyf1 #aie2 story of1 #ede-edf ,acts1 the book of1 its value1 #fjd2 review of1 #fjd-fag ,aditi1 the godess1 #dcg ,africa1 burial rites in1 #dcj2 divination in1 #aad2 ordeals in1 #aai ,africans1 western1 sacrifice among1 #db2 drink-offerings among1 #dg ,agag hewn in pieces1 #eih ,age1 a golden1 traditions of1 #ech1 #eci ,agni1 the god1 #dcj ,agnosticism allied to mysticism1 ii4 #dhi ,ahab1 his troubles1 #eih ,ahuna-,vairya1 the1 #ejc1 #ejd ,ahura-,mazda1 and ,zarathustra1 #ahb1 #ahc2 the god of the ,parsees1 #ahe2 ancient worship of1 #dhf1 #dhg2 praise of1 #dhg1 #dhh2 rank and character1 #dhi2 address to1 #dhi1 #dij2 worship of1 #dij-dib2 fire and water given by1 #dic2 questioned by ,zarathustra1 #dig-ejd2 things which please and things which displease1 #dig1 #dih2 prescribes for medical training1 #dii2 the same as ,ormazd1 #eje2 throughout the god of the ,parsees1 #ejh2 creates the world1 #ece ,aischylos1 his conception of the commercial relation between gods and men1 #ch ,akaba1 the vow of the first and second1 #ahh ,ali1 sign at his birth1 #bbf ,amatongo1 sacrifice to the1 #dj ,amuzulus1 sacrifice among the1 #dg sneezing as an omen among1 #aaa ,amos1 his prophecy and history1 #fa2 conduct towards ,amaziah1 #egc ,angmin1 the1 #dgh1 #dgi 7note7 ,analysis1 ultimate metaphysical1 #dfd ,ananda and the ,matangi girl1 #bhe2 and ,buddha1 #acd1 #acf ,ananias and his wife1 story of1 #fjg ,ancestors1 worship of1 in ,fiji and among the ,kafirs1 #fej1 #fea2 in ,peru1 #fea4 ,angekoks1 the1 consecration of1 #ajj1 #aja ,apocalypse1 the1 its author1 #fcd2 its style1 #fcd2 compared with the ,pilgrim's ,progress1 #fcd2 its visions1 #fce1 #fcf ,apollo1 worship of1 #ch2 his sense of gratitude appealed to1 #ch2 oracle of the ,clarian1 #abg ranyakas1 the1 #abg ,arhats1 the1 rank of1 #ddd1 #dde1 #deg1 #deh ,asceticism1 various degrees of1 #hi2 in ,mexico and ,peru1 #ij-ib2 rules of ,chinese1 #dfa ,ashem-,voh1 the1 #ejc1 #ejd ,asiti1 the ,rishi1 the child and ,buddha1 #bca ,asoka1 the ,buddhist king1 #dej1 #dea ,astrology1 #aah ,astrologers in ,thibet1 #add ,asvagosha1 a ,buddhist preacher1 #abb ,atharva-,veda-,sanhit1 the1 #dbf1 #dbg ,atman1 #ffa ,atmospheric currents1 an illustration1 #dga ,automatism1 apparent puzzle of1 resolved1 #dfd-dff ,australia1 burial rites in1 #gg ,babel1 confusion at1 #eig ,balaam1 treatment of1 #eig ,balaki1 the ,brahman1 #ddf ,banshee1 the ,irish1 #aad ,baptism1 a general religious rite1 #eh2 in ,fantee1 #ei2 among the ,cherokees1 ,aztecs1 c41 #ei2 in ,mexico1 #ei2 in ,mongolia and ,thibet1 #fa2 among the ,parsees1 #fa2 in the ,christian ,church1 #fa1 #fb2 meaning of the rite1 #fb1 #fc ,barabbas1 #bae1 #baf ,barnabas1 and ,paul in ,antioch1 #faa2 taken for ,zeus1 #faa2 separation1 #fac ,beatitudes1 the1 #cej1 #cea ,beauty and ,bands1 allegory of1 #egc ,beliefs1 necessary1 vindication of1 #fgh-fhj2 conditions of1 #fhj2 example1 #fie1 #fif ,benfey1 translation of the ,sma-,veda ,sanhit1 #dbe ,bhikshu1 a defined1 #ie ,bhikshus and ,bhikshuns1 the1 #dgi ,bible1 the1 though above1 yet among the sacred books of the world1 #cfi1 #cgj2 forced interpretations of #cgi1 #chj2 mostly anonymous1 #chf2 style of1 #chi1 #cij ,birth1 religious rites at1 among savage nations1 #eg1 #eh2 in ,mexico1 #ei1 #fj2 in ,mongolia and ,thibet1 #fa ,bodhisattva1 #age-ahj2 in the womb1 #bbe2 the nature of1 #dgg1 #dgh2 their sacrifice of ,nirvna1 #dgh ,bogda1 thaumaturgic powers of1 #abb ,books1 sacred1 all civilized nations nearly have1 #cgj1 #cga2 ,greeks and ,romans without1 #cgj2 list of1 #cgj2 their external marks--recognized inspiration1 #cga1 #cgb2 supposed merit of reading or repeating them1 #cgb-cge2 subjection to forced interpretations1 #cge-chc2 internal marks--transcendental-subject-matter1 #chb-chd2 authoritativeness1 #chd1 #che2 general anonymity1 #bc-bf2 formlessness1 #che-chi2 of the ,chinese1 #cij-dbd2 seldom written by the authors of the religion1 #dac2 of ,india1 #dbe-ddh2 of the ,buddhists1 #ddi-dhb2 necessity for1 #ddi2 of the ,parsees1 #dhb-eji2 of the ,moslems1 #ejj-ebj2 of the ,jews1 #eah-fjc2 of ,christianity1 #fjd-fda ,bo-tree1 sanctity of1 in ,ceylon1 #abg ,buddha1 under1 #ahj1 #aha ,brahma1 his incest1 #fjj2 not worshiped1 #dje1 #djf2 and ,brahm1 #djf1 #djg ,brahman1 the caste1 #ahc2 the supreme1 #dje ,brhmanas1 the1 #cgi1 #dbe1 #dbf2 their character1 #ddd1 #dde2 ritualistic appendages to the ,vedas1 #ddd1 #dde2 teaching of apologue1 #dde2 on a universal soul1 #dde1 #ddf2 on the future of the soul1 #ddg2 on patience1 #ddg2 references to moral conduct1 #ddh ,bread and wine in the ,eucharist1 virtue of1 #ace ,buddha1 ,gautama1 a thaumaturgist1 #abb2 the tooth of1 #abd1 #abe2 preparation for his last manifestation1 #agj2 uncertain data to go upon for his life1 #aga2 when he lived1 #agb2 early asceticism1 #agb1 #agc2 abolishes caste1 his theoretic1 #bag2 his four truths1 #agc2 the interpretation of these1 #agc2 his death1 #bgd2 his chief disciples1 #bgd2 spread of his religion1 #bgd2 essential principles1 #agd1 #age2 his blamelessness1 #age2 the mythical twelve periods of his life1 i4 #agf2 resolution to be born1 #agf2 choice of parents1 #agf2 his birth1 #agg2 various names of1 #agg2 adoration by an old ,rishi1 #agh2 qualifies himself for marriage1 #agh2 enjoyment of domestic life1 #agi2 departure from home and assumption of the monastic character1 #agh2 temptations1 #agh2 his horse ,kantaka1 #agh2 his penances1 #ahj2 his triumph over the devil1 #ahj2 becomes perfect ,buddha1 #ahj1 #aha2 turns the ,wheel of the ,law1 #ahj2 his reception by kings1 #ahj2 his first conversions1 #ahj2 founds monastic institutions1 #ahj2 enters ,nirvna1 #ddi2 funeral rites1 #aha2 relics1 #aha2 aristocratic descent1 #bba2 gestation of1 #bbd1 #bbe2 signs at his birth1 #bbf2 infant1 recognized ,simeon-wise by the ,rishi ,asita1 #bca2 his temptations in the wilderness1 #bca2 and the ,matangi girl1 #bhe2 compared with ,christ1 #bdb-cdd2 and the widow's mite1 #cdb1 #cdc2 and the cup of cold water1 #cdd2 as a fisher of men1 #cdd2 exalts humility and poverty1 #cde2 on divorce1 #cde1 #cdf2 and ,christ1 #cfb-cfe2 his sayings collected1 #cdc2 sects in the ,church of #ddi2 extravagant adoration #deh2 painting the picture of1 #deh1 #dei2 and the two condemned felons1 #acf-aci2 central figure of ,buddhism1 #adf2 successive manifestations1 #dgf2 worship of1 #dgg2 training of1 #dgf1 #dgh1 #dha2 disciples of1 #dhj ,buddha ,sakymuni1 leaps into the fire1 #eh ,buddhas1 the1 ,pratyeka1 #dgh4 ,buddhism1 ascetic nature and rules of1 #ic-ie2 fathers of1 miracle workers1 #aba1 #abb2 goal of1 #abj2 its sacred canon1 #ddi-dea2 ten commandments of1 #dfg2 boundless charity of1 #dfh2 regard for personal purity1 #dfi-dga2 its four truths1 #dgc2 ,buddha its central figure1 #dgf2 gods of1 #dgf2 grades in1 #dgh1 #dgi2 morality of1 #dhj-dhc2 five commandments of1 #eej2 not without a god1 ii4 #fee-feg4 ,buddhists1 #ic-ie2 antecedent to ,buddhism1 #ie2 in ,india1 #if1 #ig2 of ,visvamitra1 #if1 #ig ,bunyan's ,pilgrim's ,progress compared with the ,apocalypse1 #cff1 #cfg ,caaba1 the1 #ahh-aij4 ,carlyle1 ,thomas1 forestalled by ,confucius1 #afg2 his ,everlasting ,no4 #ahf2 on ,mahomet1 #aib ,cause1 the notion of1 #dhd2 the known4 ,see ,,power4 ,ceylon1 religious observance in1 #ea2 festivals in1 #ec2 marriage in1 #ge1 #gf2 burial rites in1 #gh2 omens in1 #aab1 #aac2 divination in1 #aag2 the ,bo-tree1 #abg4 ,child1 myth of the dangerous1 #bbg-bcj ,china1 ,emperor of1 praying for rain1 #cf2 sacrifice in1 #db2 divination in1 #aag1 #aah2 in the days of ,confucius1 #aei2 official creed of1 #cia2 sacred writings of1 #ci2 authentic history of1 remote1 #djc2 fate of the early ,emperors of1 as good or bad1 #djc-djf2 its sages and kings1 #dje-djg2 the religiones licit of1 #dac ,chinese1 the1 sacred books once nearly destroyed1 #cia2 their political doctrines1 #cid2 their ethics1 #cie1 #cif2 their loyalty to the heroes as heaven-appointed1 #cih1 #cii ,christ1 ,jesus1 conceived necessity of his death1 #dg2 his appeal to miracles1 #abc2 divinity of1 not found in the ,new ,testament1 #cbf1 #cbg2 ,mahomet's view of1 #eac1 #ead2 worship of1 #ffe4 ,see ,,jesus4 ,christians1 the early1 communists1 #fjg2 first breach among1 #fjh2 severe discipline of1 #fad ,christianity1 fundamental conception of1 #dh1 #di2 festivals of1 #eb2 ascetic spirit of early1 #ig2 ascetic development of1 #ih1 #ii2 powerless over the ,jews since the death of ,christ1 #cad1 #cae2 originally ,judaic1 #ccd2 its worship of ,christ1 #cjh2 its treatment of the ,father and the ,spirit1 #cji1 #caj ,christmas1 a pagan festival1 #ec4 ,church1 the1 necessary infallibility of1 #aeb ,choo ,he1 his criticism of preface to ,chinese odes1 #chj1 #cha ,chow1 the ,duke of1 on the favor of heaven1 #djf ,ch'un ,ts'w1 the1 forced interpretation applied to1 #cgf-cgh1 #daa2 its subject matter and authorship1 #daa-dac2 opinions of ,dr4 ,legge1 #daa-dac1 of ,mang1 #daa1 #dab2 extract1 #dab2 topics1 #dab ,chung ,yung1 the1 authorship of1 #cid2 its doctrine of the ,mean1 #cid1 #cie2 its doctrine of virtue and heaven1 #cie1 #cif ,cicero on immortality1 #fhh4 ,circumcision1 wide-spread practice of1 #fc2 among the ,jews1 #fd2 of women among the ,suzees and ,mandingoes1 #gc1 #gd ,clement1 quotation from1 on second coming1 #cch1 #cci ,clergy1 secular and regular1 #ajj ,cobbe1 ,frances ,power1 #fda ,coming1 the second1 apostolic doctrine on1 #ccd-cci4 ,confucius1 neither an ascetic recluse nor a religious enthusiast1 #aeh1 #aei2 regard for ritual1 #aei-bja2 birth and early life1 #aei2 as a teacher1 #aei2 subject of his doctrines1 #afj2 refuses state endowments1 #afj2 chief magistrate of ,loo1 #afj2 resignation #afj2 death1 #afa2 character1 #afb2 wanting in the bold originality of the other reformers of religion1 #afb2 charge of insincerity1 #afb2 his purity1 #afc2 his courteous manners1 #afd2 formal deportment1 #afe2 relations with his disciples1 #afe2 four virtues of which he was master1 #aff2 sense of a mission1 #aff1 #afg2 pain at being misunderstood1 #afg2 had no theological beliefs1 #afg2 lays all stress upon terrestrial virtues1 #afh2 had an esoteric doctrine1 #afi2 subjects on which he did not talk1 #agj2 minds not things too high for him1 but is silent1 #agj2 summary of moral duties1 #aga2 moral perfection1 #aga2 doctrine of reciprocity1 #agb2 some of his sayings1 #agb1 #agc2 ,carlylean utterances1 #agc2 ,tsge-,kung's admiration for him1 #agc2 interview with and opinion of ,la-ts1 #agd1 #age2 ante-natal signs1 #bbe2 his teachings similar to ,christ's1 #cdb2 doctrine of recompense1 #ced-ceg2 idea of perfect virtue1 #cfa2 and ,christ1 #cfb-cfe2 on unseen spiritual beings1 #cie1 #cif2 left writings1 #dad ,confucianism the official creed in ,china1 #cia ,consciousness1 its rise unaccounted for by material evolution1 #gje2 necessarily of spiritual evolution1 #gjf1 #gjg2 not by creation1 nor from nothing1 #gjg ,consecration1 power of1 among the ,mongolians1 #hf2 among the ,catholics1 #hf2 differs from sacrifice1 #hf2 permanence of1 #hg ,consecrated objects in ,sierra ,leone1 #hd2 among the ,tartars1 #hd2 in ,ceylon1 #hf2 value of1 #hf ,cornelius1 conversion of1 #cbh1 #faj ,creation of the universe1 ,hebrew account of #eca-ecc2 account1 of the ,quichs1 #ecc1 of the ,mixtecs1 #ecc1 #ecd1 of the ,buddhists1 #ecd1 of the ,parsees1 #ecd1 #ece2 of the ,rig-,veda1 #ece1 #ecf2 of animals and man1 ,hebrew account1 #ecf-ech1 ,fijian account1 #ech2 impossible1 #gjg ,creeds1 the error of1 #gji1 #gaj ,cylinders1 rotary1 in ,thibet1 with sacred texts1 #cgc1 #cgd ,dakhmas1 the1 #gi1 #hj ,daniel1 the book of1 #ehf1 #ehg2 the prophet1 #ehg1 #ehh1 #eij ,darwinism1 an epoch1 #gje ,death1 rites at1 in ,new ,south ,wales1 #gg2 in ,western ,africa1 #gg1 #gh2 in ,polynesia1 #gg2 in ,mexico1 #gh2 in ,ceylon1 #gg2 in ,thibet1 #hh2 among ,christians1 #hi1 #ij ,death-watch1 the1 in ,scotland1 #aad ,debt a disqualification in ,buddhism1 #dfj ,delphi1 oracle at1 #abf ,deluge1 the1 ,hebrew account of1 #eda1 #edb2 other traditions1 #bdc1 #bdd2 ,indian tradition1 #bdd1 #bde2 the judgment by1 #eig ,demoniac possession in the days of ,christ1 #baj1 #baa2 in ,judea1 ,abyssinia1 ,polynesia1 and ,ceylon1 #bde1 #bdf ,design1 argument from1 #gaa1 #gab ,destruction1 impossible1 #gjf ,devadatta1 #dha ,devas1 the worship of1 renounced by the ,parsees1 #dij ,didron1 ,m41 on the ,scriptural proof of the ,trinity1 #cgi2 on medival representations of the ,father and the ,son in the ,trinity1 #ffe1 #fff ,disciples1 the1 rebuked by ,christ for not casting out a devil1 #bdd2 and ,judaism1 #cbh-cda1 #cde ,disease1 moral theory of1 #ada ,disease-makers in ,tanna1 #adj ,divination a profession1 #aae2 in ,south ,africa1 #aae2 from sticks and bones1 #aae1 #aaf2 by familiar spirits1 #aaf1 #aag2 among the ,american ,indians1 #aag1 #aah2 among the ,ostiacks1 #aah2 in ,china1 #aah1 #aai2 in ,ceylon1 #aai2 by the stars1 #abj ,diviners1 methods of1 in ,sierra ,leone1 #adc2 in ,mexico1 #adc2 among the ,jews1 #ade ,divorce1 ,christ's doctrine of1 #cjd2 ,paul's doctrine of1 #fcb ,dogs1 ,parsee respect for1 #dji1 #ejj ,drake1 ,sir ,francis1 and his men1 divine honors paid to1 #bef1 #beg ,dreams1 presumed supernatural origin of1 #ajf2 theory of1 #ajg2 interpretation of1 #ajg2 ,jewish ceremony against bad1 #ajg1 #ajh2 in ,scripture1 #ajh1 #aji2 in ,homer1 #aaj2 horn and ivory gates of1 #aaj ,dreams1 ,joseph's1 as a main proof of the incarnation1 #ajh ,dress1 ,buddhist rule for nuns1 #dfg ,duty1 ,chinese definition of1 #cie ,easter1 #ee ,ebionite1 the1 a sect apart1 #ccc2 their fate1 #ccd ,ecclesiastes1 the work of a cynic1 #efh2 account of1 #efi ,eddas1 the ,norse1 #chh ,ego1 consciousness of the1 #gjj ,elisha1 an ,amazulu1 #eef ,elohim1 the1 #ffc1 #ffd ,epistles1 the1 of the ,new ,testament1 general burden of1 #fah1 #fai ,equilibrium of soul1 ,chinese definition of1 #cie ,essenes1 the1 #if ,essence1 the ultimate1 of ,brahminism1 #ffa1 #ffb ,evil1 origin of1 ,hebrew account of2 #ecg1 #ech2 ,buddhist account1 #eci1 #edj ,evolution theory1 its dark spot1 #gje2 its great triumph1 #gjf ,existence the course of evil1 #dgd1 #dge2 at bottom1 what8 #gjb ,exorcism among the ,jews1 #bab2 among the disciples of ,christ1 #bac ,experience as a test of truth1 #fgh1 #fgi ,ezekiel the prophet and his prophecies1 #ehb1 #ehd ,faith and belief distinguished1 #bc2 and works1 ,scripture controversy on1 #fah1 #fai2 and belief1 relations of1 #gji-gaa ,fasting as a religious rite1 #ee ,festivals1 idea of1 #eb2 natural seasons of1 #eb2 in ,guinea1 ,china1 c41 #ec2 ,new ,year's day in ,china1 #ec2 ,christmas1 #ed2 among the ,jews1 #ee2 three kinds of1 #ed1 #ee2 of ,peruvians1 #ef ,fetish1 idea of a1 #acb2 power to charm1 #acc1 priests as healers1 #ada ,fire a sacred symbol1 #ef2 invocation of1 #dhi2 ,parsee worship1 #did1 #die ,force1 persistence of1 #fgb-fgg2 ,herbert ,spencer on1 #fgg1 #gje2 the notion of1 #gag ,frashaostra1 #ahc1 #ahd ,fravashis1 the1 #dic ,gadarene demoniac1 the1 i4 #bdc ,gth1 the fifth1 i4 #ahb2 account of the first1 ii4 #dhg1 #dhh2 the second1 ii4 #dhe1 #dhf2 third1 ii4 #dhf1 #dhg2 fourth and fifth1 ii4 #dhg1 #dhh ,gths1 the five1 antiquity of1 ii4 #dhd2 account of1 ii4 #dhe-dij ,gentleness1 ,la-ts on1 ii4 #dai ,ghost1 the ,holy1 the ,christian art1 ii4 #fff1 #ffg2 generally unworshiped1 #ffh ,god1 personality of1 not an essential element in religious belief1 #gai2 loss of personality of1 a gain1 #gbj ,god of ,israel1 the1 his imperious attitude1 #eij2 arbitrary conduct towards man in ,paradise1 #eia1 #eib2 his command to ,abraham1 #eib2 a ,bramanical contrast1 #eib2 his favoritism for ,abel1 #eic1 for ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 #eid2 partizanship in delivering the ,israelites from ,egypt1 #eid1 and giving them ,canaan1 #eid2 exacting and jealous1 #eid2 anger and the calf idolaters1 #eie2 treatment of the ,israelites in the wilderness1 #eid1 #eie2 capriciousness1 #eie1 #eif1 in the punishment by deluge1 #eif1 towards the builders of ,babel1 #eif2 in regard to ,balaam1 ii4 #eif1 ,nadab and ,abihu1 ii4 #eig1 the man that touched the ark1 ii4 #eig1 his rejection of ,saul1 ii4 #eih2 preference for ,samuel1 #eih2 treatment of ,ahab1 ii4 #eih2 his treatment of alien nations1 #eii2 his legislation1 #fjj1 in regard to the ,sabbath1 #fjj1 idolatry1 #fjj1 filial impiety1 #fjj2 anthropomorphic conceptions of1 #fjb1 #fjc2 better elements in the ideal1 #fjc1 #fjd ,god of ,christendom1 the1 differs from the ,god of ,israel1 #fcf2 his worst action1 #fcg2 the change accounted for1 #fcg1 #fch2 no longer the ,god of a race1 #fch2 one blot on his character1 makes punishment eternal1 #fch1 #fci2 step toward a milder view1 ,purgatory1 #fdj2 recent still milder conceptions1 #fda ,god the ,father in medival art1 #ffe1 #fff ,god1 belief in1 as ,father1 #fhb2 as ,son1 #fhb1 #fhc2 as ,spirit1 #fhc ,god among the ,fijians1 #fej1 #fea2 the ,negroes1 #fec1 #fed2 the ,greenlanders1 #fed2 original ,americans1 #fed1 #fee2 the great religions of the world1 #fee2 of ,buddhism1 and #fec-feg2 interior superior1 #feg ,god1 the highest1 recognized amidst inferior1 worshiped gods1 in ,guinea1 #feg2 among the ,kafirs1 #feg2 in ,sierra ,leone1 #feh2 in ,dahomey1 #feh2 among the ,ashantees1 #feh1 #fei2 in ,mexico and ,peru1 #fei2 in ,sabaeism1 #fei2 among the ,hindus1 #fei-ffd2 in ,judaism1 #ffd1 #ffe2 in ,christianity1 #ffd-fff2 various explanations of the idea of1 #ffi1 of common realism1 #fgj1 #fih1 of metaphysical realism1 #fga1 #fgb1 #fih2 comparative estimate of these theories1 #fgb1 #fgc2 of moderate idealism1 #fgc1 #fgf1 #fih2 philosophical conclusion1 #dgf1 #dgg ,gods appealed to as men1 #ci1 #dj ,goethe1 quotation1 #dae ,gopa1 wife of ,buddha1 #agg-agi ,gospels1 the1 #aii2 criticism of the narratives1 #aii-bjd2 discrepancies in regard to the genealogies1 #bah-bbj2 accounts of ,christ's birth1 #bba1 #bbb2 discrepancies regarding ,christ's habitation1 #bci2 regarding the calling of his first disciples1 #bcj1 #bca2 discrepancies about the sermon on the ,mount1 #bdc2 hopelessness of chronology1 #bdc2 account of ,christ's entry into ,jerusalem1 #bec2 account of the fig-tree1 #bed2 accounts of ,christ's annointing1 #bbe2 accounts of ,christ's betrayal by ,judas1 #bdj1 #bda2 accounts of ,christ's last passover1 #beh1 #bei2 account of ,christ's passion1 #bfj1 #bfa2 account of ,christ's arrest1 #bfa1 #bfb1 of ,jesus before the ,sanhedrim1 #bfb1 #bfc1 of ,jesus before ,pilate1 #bfc-bfe1 of the crucifixion1 #bfe-bfg1 of the resurrection1 #bfi-bge2 account of ,christ's lineage and birthplace1 #bie-bih ,greece1 gods of1 #chf ,groves1 sacred1 ,africa and the ,south seas1 #abg ,habakkuk1 the prophet1 #egi ,haggai1 his prophecy1 #ehe ,hanyfites1 #eej ,haoma1 the plant1 #df1 #dg ,harischandra1 legend of1 #bdf-bdi ,harmony1 ,chinese spiritual1 #cie ,haug1 ,dr1 on the ages of the ,vedas1 #dbh1 #dbi2 his translation of the ,gths1 #dhb ,hea1 decrees against the ,king of1 #djd1 #dje ,heaven and hell1 ,mahometan1 #eaf1 #eag ,heaven1 ,chinese definition of1 ii4 #cif ,hebrews1 the1 its teachings1 as contrasted with that of ,james1 #fah-fbj ,hegira1 the1 #ahi ,here's conception of ,hephaistos1 #bbc ,hermits1 ,indian1 #aie ,herod and the birth of ,christ1 #bbg-bbi ,herod the ,tetrarch1 fate of1 #faa ,heu ,hing1 political economy of1 #djj ,hezekiah1 and ,isaiah1 #eej2 divine favor to1 #eeg2 inglorious reign of1 #eeh ,hilkiah1 and his associates1 and ,josiah1 #ebc-ebe ,hindus1 ritual among the1 #ea2 festivals among the1 #eb-ed ,hodgson1 his discovery in ,nepaul1 #dea ,homa1 the god1 #ejf-ejh ,homa-,yasht1 the1 #ejf ,homer1 poems of1 #chh1 #chi ,horace1 quotation1 #dah ,hosea1 the prophet1 #egc ,how-tseih1 miraculous birth of1 #bbd ,huran1 prayer of a1 #cc ,hymns1 ,vedic1 of cursing1 #efe1 #eff ,hysteria in ,judea in the days of ,christ1 #baj1 #baa ,ibos1 sacrifice among the1 #db ,idealism1 its forms1 #fgc2 moderate1 as a solution1 #fgg-fgf2 extreme1 #fgf ,idolatry1 the crime of1 among the ,jews1 #fjj ,immortality of the soul1 not an article in either the ,buddhist or ,jewish creed1 #fhg2 the ,greek and ,roman philosophers on1 #fhg1 #fhh ,incas1 the worship of1 by images1 #fea ,indian1 ,nootka1 prayer of1 #cb ,indra1 his praises1 #dcc2 his soma-drinking1 #dcc2 the ,indian ,zeus1 #dcc ,infallibility of the clergy1 #aec ,inspiration of sacred books1 #caa1 #cgb2 among the ,chinese1 #chj1 #cha ,instruction1 ,chinese definition of1 #cje ,interpretation1 forced1 of sacred books1 #cge-chc ,isaac1 the sacrifice of1 an ,indian parallel to1 #ede-edh ,isaiah quoted to prove ,messiahship of ,christ1 #big-bii2 #ec;d as a prophecy of ,christ1 #bii2 his rank as a prophet1 #eag2 dates of his prophecies1 #eah2 earliest stratum of his prophecies1 #eah2 contrast with ,joel1 #eai2 on the ,jerusalem ladies1 #eai2 second part1 #eai2 accepts the divine call1 #ebj2 third part1 #ebj2 fourth part1 #ebj1 #eba2 fifth1 sixth1 and seventh parts1 #eba2 vision of the future1 #eba ,jacob1 his bargain with ,jehovah1 #ci2 his conduct to ,esau1 #eid ,jahveh1 the holy name1 #ffd ,james1 the ,epistle of1 its teaching contrasted with that of the ,hebrews1 #fai1 #fbj ,jehovah1 his praises in the ,psalms1 #ch2 and ,adonia1 #ffc1 #ffd ,jeremiah1 the prophet1 #egi2 his call #egi1 #ehj2 denunciatory prophecies1 ii4 #ehj1 #eha2 and ,pashur1 #eha2 analysis of his prophecies1 ii4 #eha1 #ehb2 lamentations of1 #ehc ,jesus ,christ1 the historical 7see ,,christ71 difficulties in regard to materials for his life1 #aii2 compared with the mythical1 and the ideal1 #bjj2 his sayings credibly reported1 #bja2 criticism of his doings1 #bjb2 further tests applied1 #bjb-bjd2 his parents and family1 #bjd-bjf2 his mother1 #bje2 birth at ,nazareth1 #bjf2 originally a carpenter1 #bjg2 influence of ,john the ,baptist1 #bjf1 #bjg2 comes forth a ,messiah1 #bjg2 boldly asserts his claim1 #bjg2 his early disciples1 the three most intimate1 #bjg1 #bjh2 female followers1 #bji2 his own family and neighbors unfriendly to his mission1 #bjh1 #bji2 his public teaching1 #bji2 state of ,judea at the time1 #bji1 #baj2 casts out devils1 #baj1 #baa2 his sermons and parables1 #bab2 authority as a teacher1 #bab1 #bac2 offends the ,jews by forgiving sin1 #bac2 disregard of ,sabbatical customs1 #bac2 claiming ,messiahship1 #bac1 #bad2 abusing his enemies1 #bad2 violent conduct in the ,temple1 #bad2 his betrayal and apprehension1 #bad2 accusation and trial1 #bae1 #baf2 the witnesses and his defense1 #bae1 #baf2 his condemnation1 #baf2 before ,pilate1 #baf2 crucifixion1 #baf2 interment1 #baf ,jesus1 of the ,gospels1 indifference to alleged lineage and birthplace1 #bid2 believed to be of ,nazareth1 #bif2 misapplies a prophecy to himself1 #bih1 #bii2 and the ,jewish ,sabbath1 #cja1 #cjb2 offense taken at the company he kept and free living1 #cjb2 his neglect of the tradition of the elders1 #cjc2 views of divorce1 #cjd2 on paying tribute1 #cjd1 #cje2 and the ,sadducees in regard to the future state1 #cje-cjg2 two chief commandments1 #cjg2 on the denunciation of the ,scribes1 #djh1 #dji2 provokes opposition1 #dji2 expulsion of the money-changers1 #dji1 #daj2 defense of his conduct1 #daj1 #daa2 gives offense to the ,sanhedrim1 #cab2 before the ,sanhedrim1 #cab2 before ,pilate1 #cac2 his faith in his ,messiahship1 #caf2 conscious of being son of ,god1 #caf1 #cag2 comparative modesty of the claim1 #cag2 asserted inferiority to the ,father1 #cah2 his relation to the law1 #cai1 #cbj2 his mission confined to the ,jews1 #cbj1 #cba2 his idea of his mission his one thought1 #cba-cbf2 his warning to his disciples to be ready1 #cba-cbc2 his idea of his kingdom1 #cbc2 his one qualification for admission1 #cbd2 his kingdom to be on earth1 #cbe2 ,peter's confession of1 #cbg2 doctrine of his divinity not found in the ,new ,testament1 #cbg2 not thought to have a design of subverting the ,mosaic law1 #cbh2 modern laudation of1 #cci2 materials for criticism1 #cci1 #cdj2 his fondness for contrasts1 #cdj1 #cda2 his resemblance to ,la-ts1 #cdd2 aversion to wealth and wealthy men1 #ddf1 #ddg2 his doctrine in regard to invitations to feasts1 #ddh2 parable of the laborers in in the vineyard1 #ddi2 his assertion of eternal punishment1 #cej2 his false estimate of the power of prayer1 #cdi2 his sermon on the ,mount1 #dej-dfb2 his doctrine of murder1 adultery1 and perjury1 #dea1 #deb2 of resisting evil by doing good1 #deb1 #dec2 his model prayer1 #cef1 #ceh2 on the superiority of heavenly to temporal interests1 #ceh-dfa2 founder of scientific ethics1 #cfj2 as a prophet1 compared with ,buddha and ,confucius1 #cfb-cfd2 compared with ,socrates1 #dfd1 #dfe2 his transcendent moral grandeur1 #cff2 as a man of sorrows1 #cff-cfh ,jesus ,christ1 ,mahomet's view of1 #eac1 #ead ,jesus1 the ideal1 of ,st4 ,john1 peculiarities of the narrative1 #bgg-bhh2 improbabilities1 #bhh2 raising ,lazarus1 #bhh-bia2 at the marriage feast1 #bgi1 #bhj2 heals by a word1 #bhb2 at the pool of ,bethesda1 #bhb2 interviews with ,nathaniel1 c41 #bhj1 #bha1 #bhc2 symbolic teachings1 #bha-bhc2 last discourse to his disciples1 #bhc2 as the ,logos1 #bhc1 #bhd2 ,oneness with ,god1 as his father1 #bhd2 last days and moments1 #bhf1 #bhg ,jesus1 the mythical1 the accounts of1 #baf1 #bag2 variety of these1 #bag2 the genealogies1 #bag-bba2 conception and nativity1 #bba-bbc2 mythological parallels1 #bbc-bbf2 medival painting of1 in the womb1 #bbe2 recognition by the shepherds1 #bbf1 #bbg2 by the ,magi1 #bbg2 and ,herod1 #bbg1 #bbh2 a dangerous child1 #bbh-bcj2 circumcision1 #bcj2 recognized by ,simeon1 #bca2 by ,anna1 #bca2 in the ,temple1 #bcb-bcc2 called a ,nazarene1 #bcd2 his baptism1 #bcd1 #bcf2 message from ,john the ,baptist1 #bcf2 temptation1 #bcg2 comes to ,capernaum1 #bch2 reasons for leaving ,nazareth #bch1 #bci2 reception in ,nazareth as a preacher1 #bci2 has an abode1 #bci2 no ascetic1 #bdj2 in comfortable circumstances1 #bdj2 collects followers1 #bdj1 #bda2 calls ,peter1 #bda2 calls ,matthew1 #bda2 appoints twelve1 #bda2 his four select1 #bda1 #bdb2 works miracles1 #bdb2 sermon on the ,mount1 #bdb1 #bdc2 heals the ,gadarene demoniac1 #bdc2 expels a devil1 and rebukes his disciples for their want of faith1 #bdd2 heals the ,syrophenician damsel1 #bdd1 #bde2 heals a leper1 #bdf2 a paralytic1 #bdf2 raises ,jarius' daughter1 #bdf1 #bdh2 heals a woman with an issue of blood1 #bdh2 the centurion's servant1 #bdh1 #bdi2 heals a deaf mute1 #bej2 heals a blind man1 #bej1 ten lepers1 #bej2 raises the widow's son1 #bej2 miraculously feeds a multitude1 #bej2 walks on the water1 #bea2 stills the storm1 #bea2 his transfiguration1 #bea1 #beb2 foretells his crucifixion and resurrection1 #bec2 triumphal entry into ,jerusalem1 #bec1 #bed2 blasts the fig-tree1 #bed2 purges the temple1 #bed2 last anointing1 #bed2 betrayal by ,judas1 #beg2 keeps his last passover1 #beh2 institutes the supper1 #bei2 washes his disciples' feet1 #bfj2 in ,gethsemane1 #bfj2 arrest1 #bfa2 before the ,sanhedrim1 #bfa1 #bfb2 before ,pilate1 #bfb-bfe2 before ,herod1 #bfd2 mockery1 #bfe2 crucifixion1 #bfe-bfg2 last words1 #bfg2 wonders accompanying his death1 #bfg2 his burial1 #bfh1 #bfi2 resurrection1 #bfi-bgc2 ascension1 #bge ,jews1 sacrifices among the1 #db-dd2 prayers1 #ej2 festivals of1 #eb1 #ec2 passover among1 #ee2 rite of circumcision among1 #fd2 historical result of their rejection of ,christ1 #bhg1 #bhh2 unjust treatment1 #bhi2 consideration in extenuation1 #bhi2 their provocations1 #bij1 #bia2 credulity of skepticism in regard to ,messianic pretensions1 #bib2 justification of their ,messianic expectations1 #bic-bid2 excusable ignorance as to ,christ's lineage1 #bie1 #bif2 and their own prophecies1 #bif-bii2 treatment of ,christ's miracles1 #bii2 their esteem for the ,sabbath law1 #cjj1 #cja2 their offense at ,christ for his disregard of ceremonial observance1 #cjj-cjc2 their right to interrogate ,christ1 #cjc2 question to ,jesus about tribute1 #cjd1 #cje2 just offense1 as monotheists1 at ,christ1 #cac2 and ,christianity1 #cad-caf2 justification of their rejection of ,christ1 #cae2 identified with their ,bible1 #afb2 settlement in ,judea1 #afb1 #afc2 under kings1 #afc2 in captivity1 #afc2 epoch in their history1 #afc2 their national god1 #afd-aff2 early creed not monotheistic1 #aff2 idolatry1 #afg2 not ,jehovistic1 only the priests1 #afg1 #afi2 effects of the captivity1 #agj-agb2 under the ,maccabees1 #agc2 their pride and intolerance1 #acc1 #agc2 under the ,asmoneans and the ,herods1 #agc2 under the ,romans1 #agd2 in ,christendom1 #age2 their toughness1 #age4 ,job1 story of the book of1 #efc1 #efd ,jocelyn1 ,lamartine's1 #ajb1 #ajc ,joel1 his prophecy1 #ega2 ,isaiah1 #ege ,john1 ,baptist1 asceticism of1 #if1 #bjf1 #bjg2 baptizes ,christ1 #bce2 message from prison to ,christ1 #ccf2 ,christ's estimate of1 #ccf ,john1 ,gospel of1 silence about miraculous conception1 #bba2 account of ,christ's baptism1 #bce2 account of the crucifixion1 #bfh2 on ,christ's ,divinity1 #cbg1 #cbh2 its value in evidence1 #cbh ,john1 the apostle1 the beloved disciple1 #bha2 his ,gospel1 its fondness for symbolic speech1 #bha1 #bhb2 for obscure theological questions1 #chc1 #chd2 doctrine of the ,logos1 #chd1 #che2 his ,gospel as regards ,christ's birthplace and lineage1 #bid1 #bie ,john1 the three epistles of1 #fbj1 #fba ,jonah1 book and story of1 #ehf1 #ehg ,jongleurs1 the1 in ,new ,france1 installation of1 #fja ,jordan1 crossing the1 an ,indian parallel1 #eec ,joseph1 the father of ,jesus1 #bjd1 #bah1 #bba1 #bbi1 #bcc ,josiah1 ,jehovistic coup d'tat under1 #ebc1 #ebe ,judas1 his betrayal of ,jesus1 #bad2 slander against1 #bee2 betrays ,christ1 #bfc2 myth of his unhappy end1 #beg1 #beh2 charged with his intended crime at the last supper1 #beh1 #bei2 arrest of ,christ1 #bfa1 #bfc ,judaism1 antagonism to asceticism1 #if2 of ,john the ,baptist1 #ig2 tendency of ,christianity to encourage1 #ig2 idea of1 #ih2 ,protestant disregard of1 #ii2 and ,christianity1 #cbh2 and the apostle ,paul1 #ccj1 #cca2 and the early ,church1 #ccd ,kafirs1 prayer of1 #cd2 sacrifice among the1 #db1 #dc2 sneezing an omen among1 #aaj2 other omens among1 #aab ,kama1 burning of1 #ee2 invoked to curse1 #eff ,kantaka1 horse of ,buddha1 #agi ,karma1 the1 of ,buddhist ethics1 #dha ,kava-,vistaspa1 #ahc1 #ahd ,keightley1 data from1 on saint worship in ,england1 #ffh ,khadija1 the first wife of ,mahomet1 #ahg2 her relations with the prophet1 #ahg2 her death1 #ahj ,khorda-,avesta1 the1 #ejb-eji2 its use1 #ejb2 subject-matter and date1 #ejc ,king1 the meaning of the term1 #cia2 the five1 #cia1 #cib ,kingdom of heaven1 ,christ's idea of1 #cba-cbd2 ,paul's1 #cce2 ,peter's #ccf ,koran1 style of1 #aid1 #cgh-chi2 the staple of1 #aih2 the single authorship and unity of1 #eaj2 apology for its style1 #eaj2 translations1 #eaj2 origin and formation of1 #eaj2 original copy1 #eaa2 arrangement1 #eaa2 themes1 #eaa1 #eab2 specimens1 #eab2 its paradise1 #eag2 its hell1 #eag ,korosi1 his discovery1 #dea ,kosti1 investure with the1 #gd ,kronos1 his dread of his children1 #bbi ,kunla1 legend of1 #dha ,kyros1 a dangerous child1 #bcj ,lady1 a pious1 #dfj ,la-ts1 probable date of birth1 #afh2 admonition to ,confucius1 #afh2 account of himself1 #afh2 resembled ,plato's philosopher1 #afi2 his style similar to ,christ's1 #cdj2 the ,christianity of1 #cec2 left writings1 #dac2 description of ,tao1 #dad2 conception of goodness1 #dah2 on gentleness1 #dai2 against luxury1 #dai2 has three cardinal virtues1 #dbj2 mysticism1 #dbj2 conception of ,god1 #dba1 #dbb2 his character and teaching1 #dbb ,lazarus1 story of1 peculiar to ,john's ,gospel1 #bee2 his resurrection1 #cdg1 #cdh ,lazarus and ,dives1 #cdd1 #cdg1 #cej ,legge1 ,dr4 ,james1 his ,chinese classics1 #cij2 his opinion of the authorship of ,ch'un' ,tsew1 #ei ,legislation1 ,hebrew1 #fjj-fjc ,libations in sacrifice1 #dg2 in ,tartary1 ,samoa1 ,thibet1 c41 #dg ,life1 vital forces1 ,indian apologue1 #dde1 #ddf ,linga1 the1 worship of1 #ed ,lucretius on immortality1 #fhh ,luke1 his genealogy of ,jesus1 #bah-bba2 account of miraculous conception and birth1 #bbb1 #bbc2 account of the shepherds1 #bbf1 #bbg2 account of ,christ's infancy1 #bcj2 discrepancies with ,matthew1 #bcc-bcf2 his free spirit1 #bcb2 account of the call of ,peter1 #bda2 version of the sermon on the ,mount1 #bdc2 account of lunatic boy1 #bdd2 his partiality for angels1 #beb2 accompanies ,paul1 #beg ,lun ,yu1 the1 date of1 #cib2 subject matter1 #cib2 its ,boswellian minuteness of detail1 #cib ,luxury1 ,la-ts on1 #dai ,magi and the birth of ,christ1 #bbh-bcj ,mahomet1 pretensions of1 to the supernatural1 #abb2 the last of the great prophets1 #ahf2 his religion self-derived1 #ahg2 his parents and birth1 #ahg2 his original social position1 #ahg2 marries ,khadija1 #ahg2 his first revelation1 #ahg2 passes through the period of the ,everlasting ,no4 #ahg2 ,gabriel his guardian angel1 #ahg2 first disciples1 #ahg2 his doctrines provoke persecution1 #ahg2 his momentary relapse into idolatry and repentance1 #ahh2 persecution of his family1 #ahh2 binds by a vow pilgrims from ,medina1 #ahh2 his flight to ,medina1 #ahi2 success there1 #ahi2 war with ,mecca1 #ahi2 truce with the ,meccans1 #aij2 summons crowned heads to submit to his religion1 #aij2 first pilgrimage to ,mecca1 #aij2 enters ,mecca in triumph1 #aia2 proclamation to the inhabitants1 #aib2 final triumph and death1 #aia2 his character an open question1 #aib2 his sincerity1 #aic-aie2 sense of inspiration1 #aic2 time-serving withal1 #aic2 inspired poetic style1 #aic2 his predecessors1 #aie2 his sources of information1 #aie2 takes to the sword1 #aie2 conduct to the ,jews1 #aie1 #aif2 his weak point1 #aif1 #aig2 his harem1 #aig2 his marriages1 #aih2 his jealousy1 #aih2 triumph of his religion1 #aii1 #bjj2 aristocratic descent1 #bba2 ante-natal intimations of his greatness1 #bbf2 the infant recognized by his grandfather1 #bca2 his awe under the new revelation1 #eab2 his stock-in-trade1 #eac2 view of his prophetic function1 #eac2 prophets acknowledged by1 #ead2 views of ,christ1 #ead1 #eae2 of himself1 #eaf1 #eag2 address of ,god to1 #eaf ,malachi on sacrifices to ,god1 #dd2 prophecies of1 #ehf1 #ehg ,man1 the wise and the fool1 chapter from1 #dfh ,mang1 on high-mindedness1 his teaching similar to ,christ's1 #cda2 a disciple of ,confucius1 #cif2 his works1 #cif1 #cig2 late introduction to the canon1 #cig1 #cih2 his democratic philosophy1 #cih2 his view how heaven makes known its will1 #cii1 #djj2 notions of good government1 #cii1 #djj2 a political economist1 #dja2 his regard for propriety1 #dja1 #djb2 his faith in human nature1 #djb1 #djc2 his moral tone1 #djc ,manu1 code of1 on legal and illegal forms of marriage1 #gf1 #gg2 the typical ancestors of men1 #ddg2 and the deluge1 #edc1 #edd ,mark1 ,gospel of1 its credibility1 #bjc2 omits miraculous conception1 #bba2 account of ,christ's baptism1 #bce2 reference to ,christ's temptation1 #bcg ,marriage1 rites at1 peculiar to civilized nations1 #ge2 in ,ceylon1 #ge2 in ,thibet1 #gf2 according to the code of ,manu1 #gf2 among ,parsees1 ,jews1 and ,christians1 #gg2 with strangers1 among the ,jews1 #fjj ,marriage-tie1 the1 ,christ on1 #cde ,maruts1 the1 prayer to1 #ce1 #ch2 their nature1 #dcd ,mary1 the mother of ,jesus1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bah1 #bba-bbc1 #bcc1 #bcd2 at the cross1 #bfg ,masses for the dead1 #hj ,materialism1 unphilosophic1 #fid ,matthew1 his genealogy of ,jesus1 #bah-bba2 account of miraculous conception1 and birth1 #bba1 #bbb2 account of the ,magi1 #bbg2 reticence about infancy of ,christ1 #bcj2 discrepancies with ,luke1 #bcc-bcf2 call of1 #bda2 version of sermon on the ,mount1 #bdc2 his misappropriation of prophecy1 #big1 #bih ,maya ,devi1 her dream1 #agf2 her pregnancy1 #agf2 delivery of a son1 #agg2 death thereafter1 #agg ,maya1 her gestation-time1 #bbe ,mean1 the1 ,chinese doctrine of1 #cid1 #cie ,mencius4 ,see ,,mang ,messiah1 the1 the term1 #bib1 #bic2 ,jewish ideas of1 #bib1 #bic2 these ideas not responded to by ,christ1 #bic2 presumptuous ,christian interpretations1 #bic1 #bid2 predictions as to lineage and birth1 #bid-bif2 as son of ,david1 #bie2 predictions of his birth from a virgin1 #big1 #bih2 in #ec;d of ,isaiah1 #bgi ,metaphysics1 ,buddhist1 #dgc1 #dgd ,mexico1 human and other sacrifices in1 #da1 #db1 #dc2 worship in1 #ea2 burial rites in1 #gh2 monasticism in1 #ia1 #ic ,mexican festival for rain1 #ce ,micah1 the prophecy of1 #egh ,mill1 ,j4 ,s41 a metaphysical realist1 #fgf ,mind1 not resolvable in matter1 or physical cause1 #fhi-fib ,miracles as credentials of the divine1 #abj1 #aba2 of ,buddhism1 #aba2 among the ,mongols1 #abb2 among the ,moslems1 #abb2 of ,christianity1 #abc2 in the early ,church1 #abc1 #abd2 of the ,mormons1 #abd1 #abe2 insufficiency of the evidence in the case of ,christ1 #bii1 #cjj ,mite1 the widow's1 #cdb1 #cdc ,mithra1 the god1 #dfg1 #dga1 #dic ,mitra1 #dce ,moments1 four sacred1 #eg ,monasticism in ,mexico and ,peru1 #hi1 #ib2 among the ,buddhists1 #ic-ie2 in ,siam1 #if2 in ,nepaul1 #ig2 in ,christianity1 #ajd ,monk1 ,buddhist1 condemned1 to monkeyhood1 #eef ,monotheism1 fate of1 #cab ,monteuma and human sacrifice1 #da ,mormons1 the1 claim to supernatural gifts1 #abd1 #abe ,moses1 a dangerous ,child1 #bbi2 address of ,god to1 #eae2 the ten commandments of1 #edi1 #eej2 commandments of the tables of stone given to1 #eie1 #eif2 mercifulness1 #bci2 divine manifestations to1 #fjb ,moslems1 prayer among the1 #ea ,muir1 ,dr41 ,sanskrit texts1 #dbe ,mller1 ,max1 translator of ,rig-,veda-,sanhit1 #dbe2 account1 of the ,vedas1 #dbg1 #dbh2 on the supreme god of the ,hindus1 #ffb1 #ffc ,myths1 three classes of1 about ,jesus1 #bag2 instance of first order1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbd2 of the dangerous child1 #bbg2 ,perseus's birth1 #bbi2 of ,oidipous1 #bbi2 of ,christ's baptism1 #ceb2 illustration of the growth of1 #bcd ,nagardjuna1 thaumaturgic powers of1 #abb ,nahum1 the prophet1 and his prophecy1 #egh ,nathaniel1 #bhj-bhe ,nature1 ,chinese definition of1 #cie ,nausikaa1 a ,chinese1 #dji ,nazareth1 ,christ's reputed birthplace1 #bif ,nazarites1 the1 #if ,neander on the ,judaism of the early ,church1 #ccc1 #ccd ,newman1 ,francis ,w41 #fdj ,nicodemus1 #bfg1 #bhj1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bhe ,nidnas1 the twelve1 #dgc-dge ,nirvna1 theory of1 #dgd1 #dge2 sacrifice of1 #dgh ,obadiah1 prophecy of1 #egg ,objects1 holy1 in ,peru1 #acc2 trees as1 #acd2 animals as1 #acd2 serpents as1 #acd2 images as1 #ace ,odes1 ,chinese1 traditional interpretation of1 #cgi-cha ,offerings1 religious1 in ,sierra ,leone1 #hd2 in ,tartary1 #he ,oidipous1 #bbi ,omar1 his conversion to ,mahometanism1 #ahh ,omens1 divine1 #ajf2 in dreams1 #ajf2 in sneezing1 #aji-aaj2 interpretation of1 #aaa2 from flight of eagles1 #aaa2 from a horse turning back1 #aaa2 from bleating of a sheep1 #aaa2 among the ,kafirs and ,chinese1 #aab2 in ,ceylon1 #aab1 #aac2 in the heavens1 #aac2 in ,tacitus1 #aac1 #aad2 in ,ireland and ,scotland1 #aad2 at birth of great men1 #aad1 #aae ,ophites1 the1 their worship1 #acd ,ordeals1 as a moral test1 #aai2 in ,western ,africa1 #aai2 among the ,hebrews1 #abj2 among the ,negroes1 #abj2 among the ,ostiacks1 #aba ,orders1 holy1 in the ,church of ,england1 #ajb1 #ajc2 ,buddhist monastic rules1 #ajd-ajf ,ormazd4 ,see ,,ahura-,,mazda ,pachacamac1 or the universal soul1 #feh ,palestine1 state of1 in days of ,christ1 #bji1 #baj ,parker1 ,theodore1 #fda ,parsees1 sacrifices among the1 #dd2 prayers1 #ej2 festivals of1 #ec2 baptism among1 #fa1 #fb2 burial rites1 #gh1 #hj ,parseeism1 rise of1 #dhd2 reformers' hymn1 #dhc2 religious zeal of1 #dhf2 objects of worship1 #dhi2 fire-worship1 #dij1 #dia2 confession of faith1 #dij1 #dia2 new divinities1 #dia1 #dic2 respect for dogs1 #dii1 #ejj2 later respect for purity1 #ejj1 #eja2 times of1 #ejg1 #ejh2 eight commandments of1 #eej1 #eea ,passover1 the ,jewish1 #ee ,patets1 the ,parsees1 #ejf1 #ejg ,patria ,potestas1 the1 in ,judea and ,rome1 #fjj1 #fja ,paul1 his independence and concession to ,jewish prejudices1 #ccj1 #cca2 his views of the ,mosaic law1 #ccb1 #ccc2 idea of the coming of ,christ1 #ccd1 #cce2 as a persecutor1 #fjh2 accounts of his conversion1 #fjh-faj2 his consecration1 #faa2 at ,paphos1 #faa2 in ,antioch1 #faa2 at ,lystra1 taken for ,hermes1 #faa2 for a god1 #faa2 parallel in the case of ,sir ,francis ,drake1 #fab1 #fac2 stoned1 #fad2 parts with ,barnabas1 #fad2 chooses ,silas1 #fad2 at ,phillippi1 #fad2 at ,athens1 #fad2 at ,corinth1 #fad2 at ,ephesus1 #fad1 #fae2 at ,troas1 #faf2 at ,jerusalem1 #faf1 #fag2 appeal to ,csar1 #faf2 in ,rome1 #fag2 his equal apostleship1 #fba1 #fbb2 his epistles1 their style and spirit1 #fbc2 his reasoning powers1 #fbc1 #fbd2 his exclusive regard for essential principles1 #fbc1 #fbd2 denunciation of cohabitation with a stepmother1 #fbf2 against prostitution1 #fbf2 views on matrimony1 #fbh1 #fbi1 #fcj1 #fcb2 rules affecting widows1 #fbi2 preference for celibacy1 #fcj2 allows bishops and deacons to marry1 #fcj2 on divorce1 #fcb2 on the resurrection of the dead1 #fcb-fcd2 on brotherly love1 #fcd2 other maxims1 #fcd ,perseus1 myth of his birth1 #bbi ,persia1 power of1 #dhb ,peru1 monasticism in1 #ia1 #ib ,peruvians1 festivals of1 #ee2 baptism among1 #eh ,peter1 call of1 #bdj2 his denial of ,christ1 #bfb2 his confession1 #cbg2 his vision1 #cbh2 and ,judaism1 #cbi1 #ccj2 idea of kingdom of heaven1 #cce1 #ccf2 conduct towards ,ananias and ,sapphira1 #fjf1 #fjg2 deliverance by an angel1 #fjh2 scandal caused by1 #faj2 his epistles1 #fai ,pharisee1 the1 and publican1 #cdd ,pharisees1 and ,christ1 #cjj1 #cje2 denounced by ,christ1 #cjh1 #cji ,phinehas and the ,midianitish woman1 #eig ,pilate1 as governor of ,judea1 #bfb1 #bfc2 treatment of ,christ1 #bfc1 #bfe2 ,christ before1 #cac ,pilgrim's ,progress1 #fce1 #fcf4 ,see ,,bunyan ,places1 holy1 #hb1 #hc2 special haunts of the divine1 #abf1 #abg2 in ,africa and ,south ,seas1 #abg2 in ,ceylon1 7the ,bo-tree71 #abg2 graves as1 #abg1 #abh2 in history1 #abh2 oracles1 #abh2 by consecration--the temple1 #abh1 #abi2 holy of holies1 #acj ,plato1 his description of a philosopher in his ,thetetus1 #agj ,polynesia1 burial rites in1 #gh ,positivism1 weak point in1 #aeg ,pourutschista1 ,st41 #ahc1 #ahd ,power1 the ,unknown1 not a suggestion of sense1 #fif1 or of reason1 #fif1 #fig1 but of religious sentiment1 #fig1 #fih2 idea of1 unaccounted for by ,realism1 common and metaphysical1 #fih2 moderate and extreme ,idealism1 #fih2 neither one nor many1 but all1 #fii1 #gjj2 sense of1 an intuition1 #gjj1 #gja2 of kin to mind1 as in man1 #gja1 #gjb2 includes consciousness1 #gjb2 includes our nature1 #gjb2 the universal solvent1 #gjc1 #gjd2 fountain of all reservoirs of force1 #gje2 allows nothing to be a law to itself1 #gje2 our knowledge of1 no riddle1 #gjg2 illustrations1 #gjh-gab2 the denial of1 an affirmation1 #gag2 faith in1 the foundation of religious faith1 #gah2 answer to charge of vagueness1 #gai1 #gbj2 not a father1 not a judge1 #gbj2 harmony of the idea of1 with deep religious feeling1 #gba ,praise conjoined with prayer1 #cb-cg2 part of worship1 #cg1 #ch2 ,christian and heathen compared1 #ch ,prajapati1 #ece ,prayer1 its influence1 #cb2 its concomitant1 praise1 #cb2 its primitive form and purpose1 #cc2 specimens of primitive1 #cc2 of ,indians1 preparing for war1 #cc2 of a ,huron1 #cc2 of ,kafirs1 #cd2 of ,caribbean ,islanders1 #cd2 of the ,samoans1 #cd2 ,polynesian1 #cd2 ,vedic1 #ce-cg2 ,solomon's1 #ce2 special1 #ce2 efficacy1 #ce2 for rain and other physical benefits1 #cf2 for ,thebes1 #ch2 specimens of1 #ch-dj2 and sacrifice1 #ci2 forms of1 #ej2 ,christ's doctrine of1 #cej2 the ,lord's1 #cef-ceh ,pre-,adamites1 ,buddhist1 #dfj ,priests1 special function of1 #ii2 in relation to the monastic order1 #ii1 #ajj2 consecration of1 in ,greenland1 #ajj2 among the ,american tribes1 #ajj2 among certain ,negroes1 #ajj2 in ,mexico1 #aja2 among the ,jews1 #aja1 #ajb2 in the ,christian ,church1 #ajb1 #ajc2 sanctity of1 #acf2 authority of1 #acf-ach2 grades of1 #acg2 prophets versus1 #ach2 privileges of1 #ach2 primitive1 #ach2 formation as a separate class1 as medical practitioners1 #aci1 #adj2 disease-making1 #adj2 as doctors in ,australia1 ,africa1 c41 #ada2 as healers among the ,negroes1 #adj1 #ada2 as mediators for the sick1 #adb2 irregular1 #adb2 miscellaneous functions1 #adb2 in ,north ,america as soothsayers1 #add2 as fortune-tellers1 c41 in ,thibet1 #ade2 claim to inspiration1 #ade2 ,jewish high1 claims and powers of1 #adf2 protected by heaven1 #adf2 repute of ,brahminical1 #adg2 functions of1 #adg2 as rain makers1 c41 #adh2 power and sanctity of1 #adh1 #adi2 in ,ceylon and ,siam1 #adi2 reward of1 #adi2 tithes to1 #adi2 the duty and privilege of offering1 #aeb2 privileges of1 #aej2 hereditary1 #aea2 internally called1 #aeb2 a demand for1 #aeb2 infallibility1 #aec ,priestesses in ,guinea1 #adh1 #adi ,prophet1 anonymous1 #egd2 another1 #egh2 the anonymous1 his rank among the prophets1 #ehc2 his prophecies1 #ehd2 the prophet of consolation1 #ehd1 #ehe ,prophets of the world1 the1 #aed2 their ultimate authority1 #aee2 mystically invested with superhuman endowment1 #aee2 their absolute consciousness1 #aee1 #aef2 their conservative spirit1 #aef2 the ,hebrew1 civil standing1 #eed1 #eee2 ,elijah and ,elisha1 #eee2 the most powerful1 #egj ,prophecy1 ,hebrew1 originally oral1 then written1 #egj2 constant theme of1 #egj1 #ega2 minor topics1 #ega ,prosperity1 national or royal1 ,jewish1 ,chinese1 and ,thibetan theories of1 #eeh1 #eei ,protestantism and asceticism1 #ih ,proverbs1 the1 a criticism1 #efh ,psalms1 the1 their character1 #efd1 #efe2 of cursing 7cx4 and cix471 #efe2 ,vedic parallels1 #efe1 #eff ,psalmists1 the1 their praises of ,jehovah1 #ch ,puberty1 rites of1 cruel and mysterious1 #fd1 #fe2 meaning of the rites1 #fe1 #ff2 ,catlin's account of the rite among the ,mandans1 #ff1 #fg2 ,schoolcraft's account1 #fh2 rite in ,new ,south ,wales1 #fh-gj2 and in other parts of ,australia1 #gj1 #ga2 of a ,phallic nature in ,africa1 #ga-gc2 in ,south ,seas1 #gc2 among the ,hindus1 #gb1 #gc2 among the ,parsees1 #gd2 among ,jews and ,christians1 #gd ,punishment1 eternal1 doctrine of1 #cej2 in the ,christian system1 #fch-fdj ,purgatory1 a merciful suggestion1 #fdj ,prna1 the ,christianity of1 #ced2 the legend of1 #deb-deh ,purusha ,skta1 the1 a universal essence1 #dch1 #dci ,rain1 prayer for1 #ce1 #cf ,rays of ,buddha1 #aac ,realism1 common1 in relation to ,god1 #fgj1 #fga2 metaphysical1 do41 #fga1 #fgb2 comparative estimate1 #fgb1 #fgc2 and ,idealism1 unable to solve the religious problem1 #fih1 #fii ,reality1 the one1 #gja ,reason1 the process of1 #fif ,relations1 the1 of time and space to mind and matter1 #fia1 #fib ,religion1 interest and importance of the subject1 #ai1 #bj2 fallacious evidences1 #bj1 #ba2 method of inquiry1 #bb1 #bc2 universality and varied phases1 #bb1 #bc2 substance and form1 #bb2 its root principle1 #bg2 craving after1 #bh2 twofold aspect and function1 #bi2 analysis of treatment of the subject in these volumes1 #bh-cj2 two distinct questions regarding1 #fde1 #fdf2 these resolved into three1 #fdf2 essential assumption1 #fdg2 three fundamental postulates1 #fdh2 two kinds of proof1 #fdi2 universal1 #fdi1 #fej2 meagre among the ,australians1 #fej2 in ,kamtschatka1 #fej2 the permanent in1 #ffh1 #ffi2 question suggested by1 as regards ,god1 #ffi2 conclusion of science1 #fgg1 #fgh2 tendency to limit itself in theology1 #fgi1 #fhj2 historical progress of1 #fha1 #fhb2 the great truth in1 offered to philosophy1 #fhc2 involves a faith in the soul1 #fhd-fid2 final postulate1 #fie2 conclusion of1 neither from sense nor reason1 but sentiment1 #fif2 conclusion of1 necessary1 #fif2 a pervading error and a general truth in1 #gji2 real difficulty about1 #gaa2 denial of its truth emotional as well as the affirmation1 #gab2 objections met1 #gaj1 #gbe2 the one universal foundation of1 #gah ,religions1 founders of new1 #aed2 their comparison1 #fde ,resurrection1 of ,christ1 accounts of the1 #bfi2 the germ of these in ,mark1 #bfi1 #bgj2 ,matthew's1 #bfi1 #bgj2 ,luke's1 #bgj2 ,john's1 #bga1 #bgb2 ,paul's1 #bgb1 #bgc2 summary of accounts1 #bgb1 #bgc2 psychological explanation of the myth1 #bge1 #bgg2 of ,lazarus1 #bgh1 #bgi ,reverend1 the title of1 #adi ,review1 general1 #fdc-fde ,rig ,veda1 the1 #dbf1 #dbg1 #dbi ,rig-,veda1 ,sanhit1 its contents1 #dcj1 #dce2 its praise of ,agni1 #dca2 of ,indra and the ,soma1 #dca-dcd2 of the ,maruts1 #dcd2 of ,ushas1 the dawn1 #dcd2 of ,varuna1 #dce1 #dcf2 consciousness of one ,god1 #dcg1 #dch2 speculative element1 #ddj2 on the ,purusha ,skta1 #dch1 #dci2 personification of abstractions1 #dci1 #ddj2 general estimate of1 #ddj1 #dda2 interest to the mythologist1 #dda2 elementary religious ideas1 #ddb1 #ddc ,ritual1 early1 universal development of a fixed1 #di1 #ej2 in prayer1 #ej2 in worship1 #ea2 in ,mexican and other worships1 #ea2 ,griggories1 charms in ,sierra ,leone1 #acc ,rome1 ,church of1 and ,paganism1 #ef ,rudrayana1 legend of his conversion to ,buddhism1 #deh1 #dei ,sabaeism1 god of1 #fei ,sabbath1 the ,jewish1 ,christ's treatment of1 #cji-cjb ,sacrament1 the ,christian1 #df1 #dg ,sacrifice1 idea and origin of1 #ci1 #dj1 #db1 #dc1 #dh2 motive to and duty of1 #di1 #ej2 to the ,amatongo1 #dj2 object of1 #da1 #dd2 in ,kamtschatka1 #db2 human1 #da2 animal1 among the ,kafirs and in ,western ,africa1 #db2 among the ,american ,indians1 #db2 in ,china1 #db2 among the ,jews1 #db1 #df2 the ,ibos1 #db2 in ,south ,sea ,islands1 #dc2 among the ,mexicans1 ,peruvians1 ,incas1 #dc2 among the ,hindus1 #dc2 among the ,parsees1 #dd2 ,malachi on1 #de2 among the ,buddhists1 #de2 a requirement of the religious sentiment1 #de2 part of1 the priests' and worshipers'1 #df2 among the ,tembus1 #df2 by libation1 #df2 supposed effects on the deity1 #dg2 theory of1 among the ,hindus1 #dg2 idea of1 fundamental to ,christianity1 #dh1 #di ,sadducees1 the1 and ,christ1 #cje1 #cjh ,saints1 worship of1 #caj1 #caa ,sakyamuni4 ,see ,,buddha ,saleh1 the legend of the prophet1 #eab-ead ,sma ,veda1 the1 #dbg1 #dbi ,smaria1 the woman of1 #bha-bhd ,samoans1 prayer of the1 #cd2 drink-offerings of1 #dg ,samson1 the ,jewish ,hercules1 #eec ,samudra1 the legend of1 #ehh1 #ehi ,samuel1 government of1 #eec1 #eed ,sanhits1 the1 what8 #dbe1 #dbf ,satan in the book of ,job1 #efc1 #efd ,saturday1 holy1 in the ,catholic ,church1 #ee ,scala ,santa1 the1 #abh ,sect1 ,johannine1 trace of a1 #faf ,self-consecration common to all religions1 #hh2 its nature1 #hi2 its elements1 #hi ,sennacherib1 legend of1 #eef1 #eeg ,sermon on the ,mount1 #cej1 #cea ,shakers1 the1 #ih ,she ,king1 the1 slight religious interest of1 #djg2 popularity of its songs1 #djh2 varied themes of these1 #djg2 the widow's protest1 #djh2 young lady's request to her lover1 #djh2 ode of filial piety1 #daj2 theory of kingly success1 #efj2 ode similar to one of psalmist ,david's1 #efg ,ship adrift1 a parallel1 #gah1 #gai ,shoo1 the four1 #cia ,shoo ,king1 the1 its antiquity1 #djc2 doctrine of imperial duties and rights1 #djc1 #djd2 respect for the popular mind1 #djd2 on the house of ,hea1 #djd1 #dje2 on the house of ,yin1 #djf2 counsels of the ,duke of ,chow1 #djf2 of the ,duke of ,ts'in1 #djf ,shun1 heaven's choice of1 as king1 #cii1 #djj1 #djb1 #djf ,simeon1 his recognition of the infant ,christ1 #bca-bce ,sin1 supposed physical effects of1 #cf ,sincerity1 a ,chinese virtue1 #cie ,sneeze1 a famous1 in ,xenophon1 #aaa ,sneezing1 an omen1 #aaj2 exclamations connected with1 in ,polynesia1 ,germany1 ,africa1 c41 #aaj2 as an omen in ,germany1 #aaa ,socrates1 and ,christ1 his superior gift1 #cfd1 #cff2 a ,chinese1 #dag ,solomon1 prayer of1 #ce2 dedication of ,temple1 #hc2 an ,indian1 #eed ,soma1 a god as well as a juice1 #dca ,son1 the1 in the ,trinity1 #fhb1 #fhc ,song of ,solomon1 traditional interpretation of1 #cgi2 dramatic character of1 #efi1 #egj2 brief account of1 #egj ,sophocles1 prayer to ,apollo1 #ci ,soul1 ,indian conception of a universal1 #dde1 #ddf2 ,indian idea of the future of the1 #ddf2 the universal1 of the ,veda1 #fei1 #ffa2 faith in1 involved in every religion1 #fhd2 in ,kamtschatka1 ,tartary1 ,america1 #fhe2 the ,kafirs1 the ,ashantees1 #fhf2 immateriality of1 #fhg2 faith in its immortality not universal1 #fhg1 #fhh ,space and time as elements1 #fia ,spiegel1 ,dr41 translation of the ,zend-,avesta1 #dhc ,spirit1 the1 in the ,trinity1 #fhc ,spirits1 familiar1 divination by1 #ajh1 #aji ,spiritualism1 #gbd ,sramana1 a1 defined1 #id ,srotpanna1 the1 #dgi 7note7 ,suddhodana and his queen worthy to produce ,buddha1 #agf ,sunday1 ,jewish notions of1 #cja ,serpent1 worship of the1 #acc1 #acd ,suras1 showing how ,mahomet was possessed by his idea1 #eab2 the opening of the ,koran1 #eab2 of the prophet's maturity1 #eac ,stras1 the ,buddhistic1 the interpretation of1 #cgh2 tediousness1 #chi2 the simple and developed1 #dej2 diffuseness and supernatural gear1 #dgb2 the simple1 #dgb ,stra1 ,prtimoksha1 the1 monastic rules of1 #id2 its subject1 #dfc2 antiquity1 #dfc2 monastic rules of1 #dfd-dff ,stra-,pitaka1 the1 #dfg1 #dfh2 stories from1 #dfg1 #dfh2 contents of1 #dfh ,svetaketu1 the ill-educated young ,brahman1 #ddf ,syrophnicia1 woman of1 #bdd1 #bde ,swimming1 mixed1 #dfj ,tables of stone1 commandments of1 #eea1 #eeb ,t'ae-k'ang1 the ,shoo ,king on1 #djc ,ta ,ho1 the1 its doctrinal character1 #bic2 the original text1 #cic1 #cid2 ,tsang's commentary1 #cid2 its politico-practical character1 #cid ,talapoins1 the1 #adh1 #adi ,tantras1 the1 #dgf ,tao1 description of1 #dad1 #dag2 his character1 #dba ,ta-t-,kng1 book of the ,ta-sse1 #dac2 ,european translations1 #dac2 authenticity of1 #dad2 meaning of the title1 #dad2 its principal subjects1 #dad2 on ,tao1 #daf1 #dag2 its ideal man1 #dag1 #dai2 moral doctrines1 #dag1 #dah2 most philosophical of sacred books1 #dad2 a perplexing study1 #dad2 its conception of ,god1 #dba1 #dbb2 extract in ,french and ,german1 #dbc1 #dbd ,tao-ts1 the sect1 #dac ,tartars1 drink-offerings among the1 #dg ,tathgata1 the1 #dgg ,temple1 rudest form of1 known1 #hc2 ,solomon's1 its dedication1 #hc2 usual splendor of such structures1 #hb2 the ,jewish1 as a holy place1 #abi2 ,fijian1 #abi1 #acj2 in ,mexico and ,peru1 #acj1 #aca ,testament1 the ,old1 the sum of the literary activity of the ,jews1 #eah2 historical books1 #ecj1 #efc2 doctrine of creation of the universe1 #eca1 #ecb2 of animals and man1 #ece-ech2 account of the deluge1 #edb1 #edc2 of ,abraham1 #ede1 #edf2 of the ,jews in ,egypt and their deliverance1 #edh1 #edi2 of the law1 #edi2 of the laws of the stone tablets1 #eeb2 of settlement in ,palestine1 #eed2 of the kings1 #eed1 #eee2 of the schism1 #eee2 of the captivity1 #efc ,testament1 ,new1 its contents1 #fjd ,theologians1 royal1 #dde-ddg ,theology and religion1 #fha ,theology1 misconception of1 #gji ,therapeut1 the1 #ie ,thibet1 marriage in1 #gf2 death rites in1 #gi ,thread1 investiture with the1 among the ,hindus1 #gc1 #gd ,tombs1 sacred1 #abg ,tongues1 the gift of1 at ,pentecost1 #fje1 #fjf2 ,paul's view of1 #fjf1 #fjg ,tree1 the ,ruminal1 #aac ,trees1 holy1 #abg1 #acc1 #acd ,tribute1 ,christ on paying1 #cjd-cjf ,trinity1 ,scripture proof of the doctrine1 #cgi2 rationally viewed1 #fha1 #fhb ,tripitaka1 the1 translations of1 #ddi2 its origin1 #dej2 its divisions and their authorship1 #dej2 second and third editions called for1 #dej2 real antiquity1 #dea2 discoveries connected with1 #dea2 theology and ethics of1 #dgf ,tsang1 commentary of1 #cic ,ts'in on the choice of rulers1 #djf ,tsze-,kung1 hero-worship of1 #afh ,unkulunkulu1 the ,great-great of the ,kafirs1 #fea1 #feb ,upagupta and the courtesan1 #dfi1 #dgj ,upanishad1 the1 #ddd1 #dde ,upsakas1 #dgi1 #dhj ,ushas1 the ,indian aurora1 #dcd ,utikxo1 a greater than the ,great-great1 #fec ,utilitarianism sanctioned by ,christ1 #cfj ,utshaka1 his prayer for rain1 #ce ,varuna1 his power and attributes1 #dce1 #dcf ,veda1 the1 merit of studying1 #cgc2 forced interpretation of1 #cgg1 #cgh2 its inspiration1 #dbi ,vedas1 the1 meaning of the term1 #dbe2 subdivisions1 literature1 and versions1 #dbe1 #dbf2 the ,sanhit portion1 #dbe2 the ,brhmana1 #dbe2 origin of the four1 #dbg2 arrangement1 #dbg1 #dbh2 antiquity1 #dbg-dbi2 four epochs of development1 #dbg2 theories of them1 #dbh1 #dbi2 division into ,sruti and ,smriti1 #dbi2 the study of1 #dcj ,vedic hymns1 prayer and praise in1 #cg1 #ch2 the style of1 #ci ,vendidad1 the1 a legislative code1 #dig1 #ejb2 on agriculture1 #dih1 #dii2 on penalties1 #dii2 on surgical training1 #dii ,vinaya-,pitaka1 the date1 #dea1 #deb2 specimen legend of ,prna1 #deb1 #deh2 immediate subject of1 #dfj1 #dfa2 monastic rules1 #dfa-dfc ,virgin1 the term in ,scripture1 #big ,vishnu1 the unknowable of ,spencer1 #fei1 #ffj ,visvamitra1 his merits and trials as an ascetic1 #ie1 #if2 an ,indian ,joshua1 #eec ,vocabulary1 ,pentaglot ,buddhist1 rules1 #dfa1 #dfb ,voice1 the still small1 #fjc ,volsunga-,saga1 #chh1 #cii ,water1 holy1 #ee2 virtues of1 #ace ,wilson1 ,h4 ,h41 translation of first five ,ashtakas1 #dbe2 on the age of the ,vedas1 #dbh ,wisdom1 ,indian hymn to1 #ddj2 worship a universal necessity1 #ca2 its elements1 #ca2 its grades1 #cb2 efficacy of1 #cb2 often selfish1 #cg2 considered as pleasing to deity1 #cg2 matter of commerce1 #ch2 of ,zeus and ,apollo1 #ci2 ritual in1 #abb ,woo1 ,king1 legend of1 #eeg1 #eeh ,xenophon1 encouraged by a sneeze1 #aaa ,yana1 the1 of seven chapters1 antiquity1 #dhh2 theme of1 #dhh-dij2 chapter xi41 #dij1 #dia2 the younger1 #dia1 #dif2 hymn of1 in praise of the good creation1 #die ,yajur-,veda1 the1 #dbf1 #dbg1 #dbh ,yaou1 the ,emperor1 and ,shun1 #cih1 #cii2 a great man1 #djj2 a model ruler1 #djc ,yashts1 the1 #ehb1 #ehc2 nature of1 #ehe ,yin1 the house of1 fate of1 #dje1 #djf1 #eei1 #efj ,yu1 the great1 #cig ,zacharias and ,elizabeth1 story of1 #bbb1 #bcb1 #big ,zarathustra1 absence of documents1 #ahb2 fragment of biography1 #ahb2 his daughter a disciple and apostle of his faith1 #ahc2 his disciples1 #ahc2 the opponents of1 #ahc2 without honor in his own country1 #ahd2 rejected and despised1 #ahe2 chief article of his creed1 #ahe2 faith in ,ahura-,mazda as the one god1 #ahe2 high descent of1 #bba2 his temptation1 #bch2 interrogates ,ahura-,mazda1 #dgi-ejb2 the favors he asks from ,homa1 #ejf ,zayd1 a forerunner of ,mahomet1 #aie ,zealand1 a preternatural birth in1 #bbc1 #bbd ,zechariah1 prophecies of1 #bbi ,zend-,avesta1 the interpretation of1 #cgh1 #cgi2 style1 #chi2 translation of1 #dhc2 chronology of1 #dhc2 ethics of1 #eji2 theology1 #eji ,zephaniah1 the prophecy of1 #egh1 #egi ,zeus1 worship of1 #ch1 #ci ,zoroaster4 ,see ,,zarathustra ,,footnotes3 #a ,this prayer1 which is too long to quote1 may be found in ,aglio1 ,a4 ,m41 v4 #cgb1 and in ,sahagun1 ,c4 ,n4 ,e41 book vi4 chap4 #h4 ,according to ,sahagun1 it contains muy delicada materia4 #b ,lewis1 ,the ,bible1 c41 p4 #dif4 ,for a full account of the ceremonies on ,holy ,saturday at ,rome1 see ,a4 ,m4 ,baggs1 ,d4 ,d41 ,the ,ceremonies of ,holy ,week1 p4 #if4 #c ,a4 ,m41 vol4 v4 p4 #ij 7,spanish71 and vol4 vi4 p4 #de 7,english74 #d ,brinton has given a very imperfect version of two of them in his ,m4 ,n4 ,w41 pp4 #abg1 #abh4 #e ,griffith1 ,the ,ramayan1 vol4 i4 p4 #bfh4 #f ,henry ,,iv41 pt4 #a1 act iii4 scene #a4 #g ,irenus adv4 ,hreses1 ,,ii4 xxxi4 #b4--;,a4 ,n4 ,l41 vol4 v4 p4 #bda4 #h ,ibid41 ,,ii41 xxxii4 #d4--;,a4 ,n4 ,l41 vol4 v4 p4 #bdf4 #i ,for the evidence of these miracles1 see a paper by the author on ,the ,latter-day ,saints1 in the ,fortnightly ,review for ,december1 #ahfi4 #aj ,bryant1 a ,forest ,hymn4 #aa ,after some hesitation1 ,i have determined to adhere to the ,latinized form of the name of the prophet of ,china1 as more familiar to ,english ears4 ,as a general rule1 ,i consider the movement in literature which is restoring proper names to their original spellings1--giving us ,herakles for ,hercules1 and ,oidipous for dipus1--as deserving of all support4 ,but where the common form1 in addition to being the more familiar1 may be considered as ,english proper and not ,latin used in ,english 7as in such names as ,homer1 ,aristotle1 ,jesus ,christ71 ,i conceive it to be more convenient to retain the accustomed designation1 even though it may be regretted that it has come into general use4 ,hence1 ,i think1 we may retain ,confucius1 who would scarcely be recognized by ,english readers under his full name1 ,khung-fu-tsze1 or under his more usual abridged name1 ,khung-tsze1 or under the name elsewhere given him1 ,chung-ne4 ,no similar justification appears to me to exist for the ,greek form ,zoroaster1 as compared with ,zarathustra1 which last form is as easy to pronounce as the other1 and not very dissimilar from it in sound4 ,my authorities for the life of ,confucius have been ,dr4 ,legge's ,chinese ,classics1 vol4 i4 ,proleg4 p4 #ed-aac1 and the ,lun ,yu and ,chung ,yung1 translated in the same volume4 #ab ,ibid41 vii4 #bb4 ,the occasion of this utterance is said to have been an attack by the emissaries of an officer named ,hwan ,t'uy1 with a view of killing the sage4 #ac ,for authorities on ,la-ts1 see vol4 ii4 chap4 vi4 section ii4 #ad ,julien assigns ,b4 ,c4 #fjd as the date1 but confesses that he has no authority but historical tradition4 ,l4 ,v4 ,v4 xix4 #ae ,the following works may be advantageously consulted with reference to the ,buddha ,sakyamuni3--,notices on the ,life of ,shakya1 by ,csoma ,korosi2 ,asiatic ,researches1 vol4 xx4 part ii4 p4 #bhe3 the ,rgya ,tch'er ,rol ,pa1 par ,ph4 ,ed4 ,foucaux2 ,hardy's ,manual of ,buddhism2 ,bigandet's ,life or ,legend of ,gautama1 the ,buddha of the ,burmese2 ,alabaster's ,wheel of the ,law2 and ,koeppen's ,religion des ,buddha1 vol4 i4 p4 #ga1 ff4 ,some information will also be found in my article on ,recent ,publications on ,buddhism1 in the ,theological ,review for ,july1 #ahgb4 #af ,for an account of all that is to be made out concerning this prophet1 see ,haug's ,parsees1 p4 #beh-bfd4 #ag ,yasna liii4 #a-c4 ,the translations contained in this section are taken either from ,dr4 ,haug's ,f4 ,g41 or his ,parsees4 ,here and there ,i have ventured to amend his ,english without altering the sense4 #ah ,the source from which this notice is mainly drawn is ,sprenger1 ,das ,leben und die ,lehre des ,mohammed1 #c vols4 ,in addition to this ,i have consulted ,muir's ,life of ,mahomet2 ,caussin de ,perceval1 ,les ,arabes2 ,gustav ,weil1 ,mohammed der ,prophet1 and other works4 ,the facts here stated will generally be found in ,sprenger4 ,the translations of ,koranic passages are taken from ,rodwell's ,koran4 #ai ,the author of ,the ,messiah 7,london1 #ahgb7 contends that he was not only a master builder1 but the principal builder of ,nazareth4 ,his remarks on this subject 7pp4 #ia ff47 deserve consideration1 though they are not conclusive4 #bj ,lu4 xi4 #ai4 ,i use this verse1 not as evidence that ,jesus actually spoke the words ascribed to him1 but that the practice of casting out devils was common to ,jesus and the disciples of the ,pharisees4 #ba ,kings omitted in the ,gospel are inserted in brackets and italicized4 #bb ,mt4 i4 #a-ag2 ,lu4 iii4 #bc-ch4 #bc ,c4 ,c4 vol4 iv4 p4 #dfe4--,she ,king1 ,part iii4 ,bk4 #b4 i4 #a4 #b4 #bd ,ibid41 vol4 ii4 p4 #gc4 ,it is very remarkable that the same notion is expressed in ,christian paintings of the middle ages4 ,on a painted glass of the sixteenth century1 found in the church of ,jouy1 a little village in ,france1 the virgin is represented standing1 her hands clasped in prayer1 and the naked body of the child in the same attitude appears upon her stomach1 apparently supposed to be seen through the garments and body of the mother4 ,m4 ,didron saw at ,lyons a ,salutation painted on shutters1 in which the two infants1 likewise depicted on their mothers' stomachs1 were also saluting each other4 ,this precisely corresponds to ,buddhist accounts of the ,bodhisattva's ante-natal proceedings4--,ic4 ,chr4 p4 #bfc4 #be ,c4 ,c41 vol4 iv4 p4#dfh4--,she ,king1 ,pt4 iii4 ,bk4 #b4 i4 #c4 #bf ,zech4 xi4 #ab1 #ac4 ,according to ,ewald1 this portion of ,zechariah is by an anonymous prophet contemporaneous with ,isaiah4 #bg ,mk4 xiv4 #ag-ba2 ,mt4 xxvi4 #bj-be2 ,lu4 xxii4 #ba1 #bb2 ,jo4 xiii4 #ba-bh4 #bh ,mk4 xiv4 #dc-fe2 ,mt4 xxvi4 #dg-fh2 ,lu4 xxii4 #dg-ec1 and #fc-ga2 ,jo4 xviii4 #c-ad and #ai-bd4 #bi ,mk4 xiv4 #bf-cj1 and #ff-gb2 ,mt4 xxvi4 #cj-ce1 and #fi-ge2 ,lu4 xxii4 #cc1 #cd1 and #ee-fb2 ,jo4 xiii4 #cg1 #ch1 and xviii4 #ae-ah1 and #be-bg4 #cj ,mt4 xxiii4 #a-cc2 ,mk4 vii4 #f4 ,i omit the concluding verses in ,mt4 xxiii41 as the allusion in verse #ce renders it impossible that ,christ could have uttered them4 ,indeed1 the whole chapter is suspicious2 but as portions of it are confirmed by ,mark1 ,i conclude that the sentiments at least1 if not the precise words1 are genuine4 #ca ,milton1 ,treatise on ,christian ,doctrine1 ,sumner's translation1 p4 #ajj ff4 #cb ,this verse is so inconsistent with other declarations of ,christ1 especially with ,mt4 x4 #bc1 that ,i am disposed to regard it as an interpolation4 #cc ,the use of this word casts suspicion on the authenticity of the verse where it occurs4 #cd ,see on this subject the truly admirable remarks of ,karl ,otfried ,muller1 in his ,prolegomena zu einer ,wissenschaftlichen ,mythologie 7,gttingen1 #ahbe71 pp4 #bhb-bhd4 #ce ,c4 ,c41 vol4 iv4 p4 #adj4--,she ,king1 pt4 i4 b4 #g1 ode #ac4 #cf ,c4 ,c41 vol4 iv4 p4 #aec4--,she ,king1 pt4 i4 b4 #h1 ode #d4 #cg ,in treating of the ,sacred ,books of the ,confucian ,school in ,china1 ,i rely entirely upon the admirable and 7so far as it has yet gone7 complete work of the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,james ,legge4 ,although ,i have consulted other publications1 ,i have not drawn my information from them1 because it was at once evident that ,dr4 ,legge's ,chinese ,classics was immeasurably superior to all that had preceded it on the same subject4 ,unfortunately1 the very thoroughness of the work renders it voluminous2 and it thus happens that the author has not fulfilled more than a portion of the promise held out at its commencement4 ,it must be the earnest hope of all who are interested in these studies that the learned missionary will live to complete his design2 meantime1 we are obliged to confine ourselves to a notice of that portion of the ,classics which he has translated4 ,for ,pauthier's ,french translation of the ,chinese ,classics 7in the ,panthon ,littraire3 ,les ,livres ,sacrs de l',orient7 embraces only that portion of the ,king which is to be found in the hitherto-published volumes of ,dr4 ,legge4 #ch ,of which an ,english translation by ,david ,collie1 entitled ,the ,chinese ,classical ,work1 commonly called the ,four ,books1 was published at ,malacca in #ahbh4 #ci ,sir ,j4 ,davis 7,the ,chinese1 ii4 #dh7 reckons only nine ,king1 those enumerated above4 ,i presume that the remaining four enjoy an inferior degree of veneration4 #dj ,yaou and ,shun are the ideal ,chinese emperors1 and belong to a mythical age4 ,shun was not the legitimate successor of ,yaou1 who had raised him from poverty1 and given him his two daughters in marriage4 ,on ,yaou's death1 his son at first succeeded him1 and ,shun withdrew2 but the latter was soon called to the throne by the general desire4 #da ,shoo ,king1 b4 #c1 pt4 iii4 ch4 i4 pp4 #f1 #g4 #db ,she ,king1 i4 #d4 #a4 #dc ,she ,king1 i4 #g4 #b4 #dd ,not literally a child4 ,little child is the usual style of ,chinese rulers when designing to express feelings of modesty and religious reverence4 #de ,she ,king1 iv4 #a4 iii4 #a4 #df ,by far the best ,european work on the ,ta-t-,kng is that of ,victor von ,strauss1 and ,i have followed his translation1 though not without consulting those of others4 ,i am fully sensible of the inconvenience of a double translation1 and ,i should have preferred to follow ,chalmers' ,english rendering of ,la-ts1 had not the obscurity of his version been so great as to render it almost unintelligible to the general reader4 ,reinhold von ,plnckner's translation errs on the other side by excess of clearness4 ,it is a palpable attempt to force upon the ancient ,chinaman a connected system professedly unraveled from the text by the ingenuity of the modern ,german4 ,it should be used only with extreme caution1 or not at all4 #dg ,it deserves to be noted1 as a peculiarity of the ,chinese prophets--,confucius and ,la-ts--that they alone among their peers have left authentic written compositions4 ,the ,koran can scarcely be said to have been written by ,mahomet1 in the sense in which we talk of writing a book4 ,and neither ,zarathustra1 ,jesus1 nor the ,buddha1 were authors4 ,the calmer ,chinese temperament permitted1 in the case of these two great teachers1 a mode of conveying instructions which is repugnant1 as a rule1 to the fervid prophetic nature4 ,observe that of the ,jewish 7so-called7 prophets1 those who committed their prophecies to writing1 generally belonged to a comparatively late age1 in which oral prophecy was no longer in vogue1 and the state of feeling that had inspired it no longer prevalent4 #dh ,the former view is that of ,stan4 ,julien2 the latter that of von ,plnckner4 #di ,ch4 #ea4 ,i have borrowed some expressions from ,chalmers4 ,o4 ,p4 #ej ,ch4 #be4 ,for the sake of enabling the reader to compare the interpretations of this important chapter given by various ,sinologues1 ,i subjoin in an appendix four other translations4 #ea ,ch4 #ee4 ,von ,strauss explains this to mean that he is like the child in its unconsciousness of danger from these sources4 #eb ,or ,compassionateness4 ,chalmers translates compassion1 but this term denotes the sentiment rather than the virtue4 #ec ,see their names in ,le ,livre de la ,voie et de la ,vertu 7hereafter abbreviated thus--,l4 ,v4 ,v474 ,compos dans le ,,vi ,sicle avant l're chrtienne par le ,philosophe ,la-tsu4 ,traduit en ,franais et publi avec le texte chinois par ,stanislas ,julien4 #hvo4 ,paris1 #ahgb1 xxxvi4 #ed ,such is the description of ,m4 ,julien1 derived from the most ancient ,chinese commentators4 ,i am at a loss to reconcile it even with his own translation1 though it would be presumptuous in me to deny that the learned ,sinologue may have reasons for it of which ,i am not aware4--,see ,l4 ,v4 ,v41 p4 xiii4 #ee ,mmoire sur la ,vie et les ,opinions de ,la-tsu1 par ,m4 ,abel ,rmusat1 ,paris1 #ahbc1 p4 #bg4 #ef ,the literature of the ,veda is now copious4 ,to mention only a few works1 ,h4 ,h4 ,wilson published a translation of the first five ,ashtakas of the ,rig-,veda-,sanhit1 but ,i have forborne to make use of it1 from a conviction that the advance of ,vedic scholarship has to a great degree1 if not wholly1 superseded the methods of interpretation employed by him4 ,benfey has translated the whole of the ,sma-,veda-,sanhit into ,german1 and ,i have studied his translation1 but have preferred to rely mainly on the labors of ,english scholars1 both because the inherent obscurity of these ancient hymns might be increased by the process of re-translation1 and also because ,i might possibly fail to catch the exact shade of meaning of the ,german words4 ,his work should1 however1 be consulted by those who desire to acquaint themselves with the style of the ,veda4 ,max ,mller has unhappily published but one volume of his translation of the ,rig-,veda-,sanhit1 which is doubtless destined 7if completed7 to become the standard ,english version of that portion of the text4 ,the same eminent scholar has translated many of the hymns in his ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature4 ,another source from which ,i have derived valuable assistance is ,dr4 ,muir's laborious work entitled ,original ,sanskrit ,texts4 ,such are the principal authorities on the hymns4 ,of the ,brhmanas1 the whole of the ,aitareya ,brhmana has been translated by ,haug1 and portions of others by ,roer and by ,rajendralal ,mitra4 #eg ,all this will be found admirably treated in ,mr4 ,cox's ,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations4 #eh ,no complete translation of the ,tripitaka exists1 or is ever likely to exist in any ,european language4 ,its vast extent1 and the comparative worthlessness of many of its parts1 would preclude its publication as a whole4 ,but complete treatises1 or portions of treatises1 have been translated by ,burnouf1 in his ,histoire du ,buddhisme ,indien1 and ,lotus de la ,bonne ,loi2 by ,beal1 in his ,chinese ,buddhist ,scriptures2 by ,schmidt1 in ,der ,weise und der ,thor2 by ,hardy1 in his ,manual of ,buddhism1 and by ,alabaster1 in his ,modern ,buddhist4 ,an exact analysis of the contents of the hundred volumes of the great collection called the ,kah-gyur is supplied by ,csoma ,krsi in the #bjth vol4 of the ,asiatic ,researches4 ,the leading features of the books1 and parts of books thus translated1 are so well marked and uniform1 that nothing further is needed to enable us to estimate the general character of each division of the whole ,tripitaka4 #ei ,southern ,buddhists fix the dates of these ,general ,councils somewhat differently4 #fj ,apparently a people living beyond the frontiers 7of the civilized world74 ,see ,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #beb1 n4 #fa ,the state of an ,arhat is the highest of four degrees which the hearers of the ,buddha used to attain2 i4 e41 the one which led most directly to ,nirvna4 ,the other three degrees were those of ,srotpatti1 of ,sakridgmin1 and ,angmin4 ,the ,arhat was not born again2 each of the other three had a smaller or greater number of existences to undergo before ,nirvna4 #fb ,i translate l',assemble by this phrase1 which appears to render its meaning more precisely than a more literal translation4 #fc ,these two verses are a standing formula by which the ,buddha of the ,canon summons the world to receive his law4 #fd ,this ,vocabulary is a ,chinese compilation1 forming one of a class of catalogues drawn up in ancient times by ,buddhist preachers4 ,such catalogues are found in the midst of canonical books1 and are of high authority among ,buddhists4 #fe ,the translation of this ,stra is due to ,mr4 ,beal1 to whose most useful labors on ,buddhism ,i am much indebted4--,c4 ,b4 ,s41 p4 #bjf4 #ff ,this is a standing miracle on the reception of novices by ,buddha4 #fg ,i do not pretend to any certainty that the above interpretation is correct1 but ,i have in the main followed a trustworthy guide1 ,burnouf4 ,see ,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #dia-ejg4 #fh ,the authorities do not entirely agree in the accounts they give of the speed with which these paths lead to ,nirvna4 ,the above statement appears to me unquestionably the oldest and most authentic4 ,it is in agreement with ,eitel1 ,sanskrit-,chinese ,dictionary1 sub vocibus ,sakridgmin1 however1 is omitted1 and with ,hardy1 ,e4 ,m41 p4 #bhj4 ,eitel indeed adds that an ,arhat1 if he does not enter ,nirvna1 may become a ,buddha1 but this is probably a ,northern perversion of the original notion4 ,in the genuine authorities1 a ,bodhisattva is quite distinct from an ,arhat4 ,the account derived by ,burnouf 7,h4 ,b4 ,i41 p4 #bia ff47 from ,northern sources is palpably a corruption of the oldest doctrine1 proceeding from that unbounded love of exaggerated numbers which is the besetting sin of ,buddhist writers4 ,according to this version1 the ,srotpanna must pass through #hj1jjj ages before his seven births2 ,sakridgmin1 after #fj1jjj ages1 is to be born once as a man and once as a god2 the ,angmin1 after #dj1jjj ages1 is exempted from re-birth in the world of desire1 and arrives at supreme knowledge2 which the ,arhat reaches after #bj1jjj ages4 ,poor comfort this to souls longing for their eternal rest4 ,cf4 ,kppen1 ,r4 ,b41 vol4 i4 p4 #dih4 #fi ,aryas is a term comprehending the several classes of believers4 #gj ,there is a complete translation of the ,zend-,avesta by ,spiegel4 ,it contains useful introductory essays2 but in the present state of ,zend scholarship the translation cannot be regarded as final4 ,dr4 ,haug1 in a ,german treatise1 has elucidated as well as translated a small1 but very important1 portion1 of the ,zend-,avesta1 termed the five ,gths4 ,the same scholar has also published a volume of ,essays on the ,parsee language and religion1 which contains some translated passages1 and may be consulted with advantage1 though ,dr4 ,haug's ,english stands in great need of revision4 ,burnouf has translated but a very small part of the ,zend-,avesta1 in a work entitled ,le ,yana4 ,unfortunately ,dr4 ,haug and ,dr4 ,spiegel--both very eminent ,zend scholars--are entirely at variance as to the proper method of translating these ancient documents2 and pending the settlement of this question1 any interpretation proposed must be regarded by the uninstructed reader as uncertain4 ,i cannot refrain from adding an expression of regret that ,dr4 ,haug1 to whose labors in the interpretation of these obscure fragments of antiquity we owe so much1 should have so far forgotten himself as to fall foul of ,dr4 ,spiegel in a tone wholly unbecoming a scholar and inappropriate to the subject4 ,it is not by this kind of learned ,billingsgate that the superiority of his translation to that of his rival1 as he evidently considers him1 or his fellow-laborer as ,i should prefer to call him1 can be established4 #ga ,throughout the ,gths ,i follow ,haug2 and ,i need make no apology for neglecting ,spiegel's translation1 because that scholar himself admits1 with creditable candor1 that even his indefatigable perseverance was baffled by the difficulties of this portion of the ,yana4--,av41 #b4 xi4 #gb ,the sentences enclosed in parentheses are ,haug's explanations of the sense of the text4 #gc ,it is a satisfaction to find that ,spiegel's translation does not differ so widely from ,haug's after we leave the territory of the ,gths4 ,as a specimen1 ,i quote the following verses from his ,avesta1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ace1 which the reader may compare with the ,english rendering of the same passage in the text3-- ,yana ,haptahiti4 xxxv4 #a4 #a4 7,rapi74 ,den ,ahura-,mazda1 den reinen ,herrn des ,reinen1 preisen wir4 ,die ,amesha-penta1 die guten ,herrscher1 die weisen1 preisen wir4 #b4 ,die ganze ,welt des ,reinen preisen wir1 die himmlische wie die irdische1 #c4 mit ,verlangen nach der guten ,reinheit1 mit ,verlangen nach dem guten mazdayanischen ,gesetze4 #d4 7,zaota47 ,der guten ,gedanken1 ,worte und ,werke1 die hier und anderswo #e4 gethan worden sind oder noch gethan werden1 #f4 ,lobpreiser und ,verbreiter sind wir1 damit wir zu den ,guten gehren mgen4 #g4 ,das glauben wir1 ,ahura-,mazda1 ,reiner1 ,schner1 #h4 ,das wollen wir denken1 sagen und thun3 #i4 was das ,beste ist unter den ,handlungen der ,menschen fr beide ,welten4 #aj4 ,durch diese besten ,thaten nun erbitten wir1 dass fr das ,vieh #aa4 ,annehmlichkeit und ,futter gespendet werden mge #ab4 den ,gelehrten wie den ,ungelehrten1 den ,mchtigen wie den ,unmchtigen4 #gd ,i follow ,burnouf's translation1 because the strict accuracy of his method is acknowledged by both ,haug and ,spiegel4 ,there are considerable differences in the text followed by ,burnouf and ,spiegel1 which ,i need not weary the reader by particularizing in detail4 #ge ,y41 p4 #adf4--;,cf4 ,spiegel3 #a4 ,ich lade ein und thue es kund3 dem ,schpfer ,ahura-,mazda1 dem glnzenden1 majesttischen1 grssten1 besten1 schnsten1 #b4 dem strksten1 verstndigsten1 mit bestem ,krper versehenen1 durch ,heiligkeit hchsten4 #c4 ,der sehr weise ist1 der weithin erfreut1 #d4 welcher uns schuf1 welcher uns bildete1 welcher uns erhielt1 der ,heiligste unter den ,himmlischen--,av41 ii4 #ce4 #gf ,no mention of ,zarathustra here in ,spiegel4--,av4 ii4 #dd4 #gg ,y4 pp4 #ehe1 #ehh1 #eib4 ,the concluding stanza is simpler and more intelligible in ,spiegel4--,av41 ii4 #dd4 #gh ,av41 vol4 ii4 p4 #he4--,yana1 #ab4 ,the ch4 xii4 quoted above is ,no4 #ac4 in ,spiegel4 #gi raosha is an important divinity in ,parsee worship1 who is considered by ,spiegel to express the moral quality of obedience4 #hj ,av41 vol4 ii4 p4 #aia4--,yana1 #fa4 ,this blessing is repeated1 ,khorda-,avesta1 #aa4 #ha ,there is1 indeed1 a passage which permits the mutilation of a mad dog by cutting off an ear1 or a foot1 or the tail2 ,spiegel1 however1 regards it as interpolated1 and it is palpably at variance with the remainder of the chapter4 #hb ,spiegel holds that ,airyama is only a certain prayer hypostatized4--,cf4 ,av41 vol4 iii4 p4 #cd4 #hc ,av41 vol4 iii4 p4 #c4--,khorda-,avesta1 #a4 #hd ,in the ,journal ,asiatique1 #dme ,srie1 tom4 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h4 ,i have followed it exclusively4 ,the ,homa ,yasht is not formally included in the ,khorda-,avesta2 it forms the #ith chapter of the ,yana4 ,but the fact that1 while utterly alien to the rest of the ,yana1 it is truly a ,yasht--being in honor of a special personage--induced me to defer its consideration till now4 #he ,the term pitama1 usually coupled with the name of ,zarathustra1 is translated by ,spiegel holy1 but is treated by ,haug and ,burnouf as a proper name4 ,there are indications that it may have been the family name of the prophet4 ,see ,av41 vol4 iii4 p4 #bji1 n4 #hf ,complete translations of the ,koran into ,english have been made by ,sale and by ,rodwell4 ,considerable portions have been rendered into ,german by ,sprenger1 ,das ,leben und die ,lehre des ,mohammed2 and by ,gustav ,weil1 ,mohammed der ,prophet2 and into ,english by ,dr4 ,muir1 in his ,life of ,mahomet4 #hg ,l4 ,l4 ,m41 vol4 iii41 ,vorrede2 ,sale1 preliminary discourse1 p4 #df4--,k41 p4 vii4 #hh ,k41 p4 #fjd4--,sura1 #ff4 #ab4 ,she is called the daughter of ,imran1 by a confusion between ,mary1 mother of ,jesus1 and ,mariam1 sister of ,moses4 #hi ,so in #b ,chron4 xxiv4 #c-g4 ,but in #b ,kings xxii4 #a1 #b1 there is no mention of the period at which he began to seek after the ,god of ,david4 #ij ,ewald1 ,geschichte des ,volkes ,israel1 vol4 iv4--,die ,heiligherrschaft1 #c ,die bestimmtere ,gestaltung der ,zeit der neuen ,wendung4 #ia ,geschichte der ,ost-,mongolen und ihres ,frstenhauses1 verfasst von ,ssanang ,ssetsen ,chungtaidschi4 ,aus dem ,mongolischen bersetzt von ,i4 ,j4 ,schmidt1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahbi4 #dto4 p4 #c4 ,this work will1 in the following pages1 always be referred to under ,g4 ,o4 ,m4 #ib ,r4 ,b41 vol4 i4 p4 #dcd4--,lotus1 p4 #ddg4--,wheel1 p4 xliii4 #ic ,my attention was drawn to the fact that these were the contents of the tables by ,goethe's interesting essay3 ,zwei wichtige1 bisher unerrtete biblische ,fragen4 #id ,c4,c41 vol4 iv4 p4 #eih4--,she ,king1 part #d1 b4 i4 iii4 #c4 #ie ,for information on the character and signification of this book1 see ,le ,cantique des ,cantiques1 par ,ernest ,renan4 #if ,throughout these descriptions of the prophetic books1 ,i follow the chronological arrangement of ,ewald4 #ig ,the remark is not mine1 but is made by ,didron1 a devout ,roman ,catholic writer1 to whom ,i am much indebted for this and other hints4--,ic4 ,ch41 p4 #egb n4 #ih ,mill's ,examination of ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 p4 #bji 7second edition74 #ii ,mr4 ,mill1 in treating the point1 seems to have forgotten the animal world1 but his argument would cover it4--,mill's ,examination of ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 pp4 #bjh1 #bji4 #ajj ,see much interesting evidence in ,dulaure1 ,histoire ,abrge de diffrens ,cultes4 vol4 i4 chs4 xxiv4-xxvii42 and a valuable discussion of the whole subject in ,tylor's ,primitive ,culture4 #aja ,see some evidence bearing on this point in a paper by the author1 entitled ,recent ,publications on ,buddhism4 ,theological ,review1 ,july1 #ahgb1 p4 #cac4 #ajb ,de ,rerum ,nat41 iii4 #hcj4 #ajc ,the doctrine here stated is not my own invention4 ,it was first published 7so far as ,i know7 by ,mr4 ,shadworth ,hodgson in his ,theory of ,practice1 vol4 i4 p4 #daf-dcf1 #eg2 but ,i am indebted for my acquaintance with it to ,mr4 ,d4 ,a4 ,spalding1 who discovered it independently1 and announced it in the ,examiner1 ,december #cj1 #ahga2 ,september #f1 #ahgc2 ,march #ad1 #ahgd2 and in ,nature1 ,january #h1 #ahgd4 #ajd ,see an ingenious attempt to maintain the personality1 along with the moral ,qualities of ,god1 in ,mr4 ,shadworth ,hodgson's ,theory of ,practice1 vol4 i4 p4 #cje ff4