,,practical ,,argumentation ,,practical ,,argumentation ,,by ,,george ,k4 ,,pattee1 ,a4,m4 ,assistant ,professor of ,english and ,rhetoric in ,the ,pennsylvania ,state ,college ,,to ,,fred ,,lewis ,,pattee ,preface ,the author's aim has been to produce a book that is practical1-- practical from the student's standpoint1 and practical from the teacher's standpoint4 ,the study of ,argumentation has often been criticized for being purely academic1 or for being a mere stepping- stone to the study of law4 ,it has even been said that courses in ,argumentation and ,debate have been introduced into ,american colleges and universities for no other purpose than to give the intellectual student the opportunity1 so long monopolized by his athletic classmate1 to take part in intercollegiate contests4 ,the purpose of this book is to teach ,argumentation1 which is not a science by itself but one of the four branches of ,rhetoric1 in such a way as to remove these criticisms4 ,largely by his choice of illustrative material the author has endeavored to show that this subject is confined neither to the class room nor to any one profession4 ,he has drawn his illustrations1 for the most part1 from contemporary and popular sources2 he has had recourse to many current magazines1 newspapers1 books1 and recent speeches1 hoping to show thereby that ,argumentation is a practical subject4 ,on the other hand1 he has carefully avoided taking a majority of his illustrations either from students' work or from legal practice1 criminal cases especially being seldom used on the ground that although they afford the easiest examples a writer can give1 they furnish the least help to the average student1 who1 unless he studies law1 will rarely1 perhaps never1 have occasion to argue upon such subjects4 ,this book cannot justly be called the effort of a single author4 ,it is rather an outgrowth of the work that for many years has been carried on by the ,english department at ,the ,pennsylvania ,state ,college4 ,the book has1 in fact1 gradually developed in the class room4 ,every rule that is given has been tested time and again2 every step has been carefully thought out and taught for several years4 ,the author wishes to acknowledge especial indebtedness to ,professor ,fred ,lewis ,pattee1 who both inspired the writing of the book and assisted in the work4 ,to ,professor ,a4 ,howry ,espenshade are due many thanks for invaluable suggestions and advice1 and for a careful reading of the greater part of the manuscript4 ,mr4 ,william ,s4 ,dye is also to be thanked for valuable assistance4 ,as a student the author studied ,baker's ,principles of ,argumentation2 as a teacher he has taught ,laycock and ,scales' ,argumentation and ,debate1 ,alden's ,the ,art of ,debate1 and ,foster's ,argumentation and ,debating4 ,the debt he owes to these is beyond estimate4 ,,state ,,college1 ,,pa4 ,march #ag1 #aiji ,contents ,i4 ,preliminaries ,,ii4 ,the ,subject ,,iii4 ,the ,introduction--,persuasion ,,iv4 ,the ,introduction--,conviction ,v4 ,the ,introduction--,brief-,drawing ,,vi4 ,the ,discussion--,conviction and ,persuasion ,,vii4 ,the ,discussion--,brief-,drawing ,,viii4 ,methods of ,refutation ,,ix4 ,debate--,some ,practical ,suggestions ,x4 ,the ,conclusion ,,appendix4 ,a4 ,a ,written ,argument and its ,brief ,b4 ,a ,list of ,propositions ,,practical ,,argumentation ,,practical ,,argumentation ,,chapter ,i ,,preliminaries ,argumentation is the art of presenting truth so that others will accept it and act in accordance with it4 ,debate is a special form of argumentation3 it is oral argumentation carried on by opposing sides4 ,a consideration of the service which argumentation performs shows that it is one of the noblest and most useful of arts4 ,by argumentation men overthrow error and discover truth4 ,courts of law1 deliberative assemblies1 and all bodies of people that engage in discussion recognize this fact4 ,argumentation threshes out a problem until the chaff has blown away1 when it is easy to see just what kernels of truth remain and what action ought to be taken4 ,men of affairs1 before entering upon any great enterprise1 call in advocates of different systems1 and by becoming familiar with arguments from every point of view try to discover what is best4 ,this method of procedure presupposes a difference of opinion and belief among men1 and holds that when each one tries to establish his ideas1 the truth will remain1 and that which is false will be swept away4 ,the field of argumentation includes every kind of discourse that attempts to change man's actions or opinions4 ,exposition is explanation when only one theory or one interpretation of the facts is possible2 when views of truth or of policy conflict1 and one course is expounded in opposition to another1 the process becomes argumentation4 ,this art is used not only by professional speakers1 but by men of every occupation4 ,the schoolboy pleading for a holiday1 the workman seeking employment1 the statesman advocating a principle of government are all engaged in some form of argumentation4 ,everywhere that men meet together1 on the street or in the assembly hall1 debate is certain to arise4 ,written argument is no less common4 ,hardly a periodical is published but contains argumentative writing4 ,the fiery editorial that urges voters to the polls1 the calm and polished essay that points out the dangers of organized labor1 the scientific treatise that demonstrates the practicability of a sea-level canal on the ,isthmus are attempts to change existing conditions and ideas1 and thus come within the field of argumentation4 ,the practical benefit to be derived from the study and application of the principles of argumentation can hardly be overestimated4 ,the man who wishes to influence the opinions and actions of others1 who wishes to become a leader of men in however great or however humble a sphere1 must be familiar with this art4 ,the editor1 the lawyer1 the merchant1 the contractor1 the laborer--men in every walk of life--depend for their success upon bringing others to believe1 in certain instances1 as they believe4 ,everywhere men who can point out what is right and best1 and can bring others to see it and act upon it1 win the day4 ,another benefit to be obtained from the study of argumentation is the ability to be convinced intelligently4 ,the good arguer is not likely to be carried away by specious arguments or fallacious reasoning4 ,he can weigh every bit of evidence2 he can test the strength and weakness of every statement2 he can separate the essential from the unessential2 and he can distinguish between prejudice and reason4 ,a master of the art of argumentation can both present his case convincingly to others1 and discover the truth in a matter that is presented to him4 ,argumentation can hardly be considered as a distinct art standing by itself2 it is rather a composite of several arts1 deriving its fundamentals from them1 and depending upon them for its existence4 ,in the first place1 since argumentation is spoken or written discourse1 it belongs to rhetoric1 and the rules which govern composition apply to it as strongly as to any other kind of expression4 ,in fact1 perhaps rhetorical principles should be observed in argumentation more rigidly than elsewhere1 for in the case of narration1 description1 or exposition1 the reader or hearer1 in an endeavor to derive pleasure or profit1 is seeking the author1 while in argumentation it is the author who is trying to force his ideas upon the audience4 ,hence an argument must contain nothing crude or repulsive1 but must be attractive in every detail4 ,in the second place1 any composition that attempts to alter beliefs must deal with reasons1 and the science of reasoning is logic4 ,there is no need for the student of argumentation to make an exhaustive study of this science1 for the good arguer is not obliged to know all the different ways the mind may work2 he must1 however1 know how it should work in order to produce trustworthy results1 and to the extent of teaching correct reasoning1 argumentation includes logic4 ,in the third place1 a study of the emotions belongs to argumentation4 ,according to the definition1 argumentation aims both at presenting truth and compelling action4 ,as action depends to a great extent upon man's emotions1 the way to arouse his feelings and passions is a fundamental principle of this art4 ,argumentation1 then1 which is commonly classified as the fourth division of rhetoric1 consists of two fundamental elements4 ,the part that is based upon logic and depends for its effectiveness upon pure reasoning is called conviction2 the part that consists of an emotional appeal to the people addressed is called persuasion4 ,if the only purpose of argumentation were to demonstrate the truth or falsity of a hypothesis1 conviction alone would be sufficient4 ,but its purpose is greater than this3 it aims both 7#a7 to convince men that certain ideas are true1 and also 7#b7 to persuade them to act in accordance with the truth presented4 ,neither conviction nor persuasion can with safety be omitted4 ,an appeal to the intellect alone may demonstrate principles that cannot be refuted2 it may prove beyond a doubt that certain theories are logical and right1 and ought to be accepted4 ,but this sort of argument is likely to leave the person addressed cold and unmoved and unwilling to give up his former ideas and practices4 ,a purely intellectual discourse upon the evils resulting from a high tariff would scarcely cause a life-long protectionist to change his politics4 ,if1 however1 some emotion such as duty1 public spirit1 or patriotism were aroused1 the desired action might result4 ,again it frequently happens that before the arguer can make any appeal to the logical faculties of those he wishes to influence1 he will first have to use persuasion in order to gain their attention and to arouse their interest either in himself or in his subject4 ,on the other hand1 persuasion alone is undoubtedly of even less value than conviction alone4 ,a purely persuasive argument can never be trusted to produce lasting effects4 ,as soon as the emotions have cooled1 if no reasonable conviction remains to guide future thought and action1 the plea that at first seemed so powerful is likely to be forgotten4 ,the preacher whose sermons are all persuasion may1 for a time1 have many converts1 but it will take something besides emotional ecstasy to keep them in good and regular standing4 ,the proportion of conviction and persuasion to be used in any argumentative effort depends entirely upon the attending circumstances4 ,if the readers or hearers possess a high degree of intelligence and education1 conviction should predominate2 for it is a generally accepted fact that the higher man rises in the scale of civilization1 the less he is moved by emotion4 ,a lawyer's argument before a judge contains little except reasoning2 before a jury persuasion plays an important part4 ,in the next place1 the arguer must consider the attitude of those whom he would move4 ,if they are favorably disposed1 he may devote most of his time to reasoning2 if they are hostile1 he must use more persuasion4 ,also the correct proportion varies to some extent according to the amount of action desired4 ,in an intercollegiate debate where little or no action is expected to result1 persuasion may almost be neglected2 but the political speech or editorial that urges men to follow its instructions usually contains at least as much persuasion as conviction4 ,the aspirant for distinction in argumentation should study and acquire certain characteristics common to all good arguers4 ,first of all1 he should strive to gain the ability to analyze4 ,no satisfactory discussion can ever take place until the contestants have picked the question to pieces and discovered just exactly what it means4 ,the man who does not analyze his subject is likely to seize upon ideas that are merely connected with it1 and fail to find just what is involved by the question as a whole4 ,the man skillful in argumentation1 however1 considers each word of the proposition in the light of its definition1 and only after much thought and study decides that he has found the real meaning of the question4 ,but the work of analysis does not end here2 every bit of proof connected with the case must be analyzed that its value and its relation to the matter in hand may be determined4 ,many an argument is filled with what its author thought was proof1 but what1 upon close inspection1 turns out to be mere assertion or fallacious reasoning4 ,this error is surpassed only by the fault of bringing in as proof that which has no direct bearing at all upon the question at issue4 ,furthermore1 the arguer must analyze not only his own side of the discussion but also the work of his opponent1 so that with a full knowledge of what is strong and what is weak he may make his attack to the best advantage4 ,next to the ability to analyze1 the most important qualification for an arguer to possess is the faculty of clearly presenting his case4 ,new ideas1 new truths are seldom readily accepted1 and it is never safe to assume that the hearer or the reader of an argument will laboriously work his way through a mass of obscure reasoning4 ,absolute clearness of expression is essential4 ,the method of arriving at a conclusion should be so plain that no one can avoid seeing what is proved and how it is proved4 ,lincoln's great success as a debater was due largely to his clearness of presentation4 ,in the third place1 the person who would control his fellow men must assume qualities of leadership4 ,remembering that men can be led1 but seldom be driven1 he must show his audience how he himself has reached certain conclusions1 and then by leading them along the same paths of reasoning1 bring them to the desired destination4 ,if exhortation1 counsel1 and encouragement are required1 they must be at his command4 ,moreover1 a leader who wishes to attract followers must be earnest and enthusiastic4 ,the least touch of insincerity or indifference will ruin all4 ,to analyze ideas1 to present them clearly1 and as a leader to enforce them enthusiastically and sincerely are necessary qualities for every arguer4 ,a debater should possess additional attainments4 ,he ought to be a ready thinker4 ,the disputant who depends entirely upon a set speech is greatly handicapped4 ,since it is impossible to tell beforehand just what arguments an opponent will use and what line of attack he will pursue1 the man who cannot mass his forces to meet the requirements of the minute is at great disadvantage4 ,of course all facts and ideas must be mastered beforehand1 but unless one is to be the first speaker1 he can most effectually determine during the progress of the debate just what arguments are preferable and what their arrangement should be4 ,a debater must also have some ability as a speaker4 ,he need not be graceful or especially fluent1 though these accomplishments are of service1 but he must be forceful4 ,not only his words1 but also his manner must reveal the earnestness and enthusiasm he feels4 ,his argument1 clear1 irrefutable1 and to the point1 should go forth in simple1 burning words that enter into the hearts and understanding of his hearers4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,subject ,the subject of an argument must always be a complete statement4 ,the reason for this requirement lies in the fact that an argument can occur only when men have conflicting opinions about a certain thought1 and try to prove the truth or falsity of this definite idea4 ,since a term--a word1 phrase1 or other combination of words not a complete sentence--suggests many ideas1 but never stands for one particular idea1 it is absurd as a subject to be argued4 ,a debatable subject is always a proposition1 a statement in which something is affirmed or denied4 ,it would be impossible to uphold or attack the mere term1 government railroad supervision1 for this expression carries with it no specific thought4 ,it may suggest that government railroad supervision has been inadequate in the past2 or that government supervision is at present unnecessary2 or that the government is about to assume stricter supervision4 ,the term affords no common ground on which the contestants would have to meet4 ,if1 however1 some exact idea were expressed in such a statement as1 ,further government railroad supervision is necessary for the best interests of the ,united ,states1 an argument might well follow4 ,although the subject of an argument must be a complete thought1 it does not follow that this proposition is always explicitly stated or formulated in words4 ,the same distinction between subject and title that exists in other kinds of writing is found also in argumentation2 the subject is a statement of the matter about which the controversy centers2 the title is the name by which the composition is known4 ,sometimes the subject serves as the title1 and sometimes the subject is left to be discovered in the body of the work4 ,the title of the speech delivered by ,webster in the ,senate1 ,january #bf1 #ahcj1 is ,webster's ,reply to ,hayne2 the subject1 in the form of a resolution1 is found close to the opening sentences3-- ,resolved1 ,that the ,committee on ,public ,lands be instructed to inquire and report the quantity of public lands remaining unsold within each ,state and ,territory1 and whether it be expedient to limit for a certain period the sales of the public lands to such lands only as have heretofore been offered for sale1 and are now subject to entry at the minimum price4 ,and1 also1 whether the office of ,surveyor- ,general1 and some of the land offices1 may not be abolished without detriment to the public interest2 or whether it be expedient to adopt measures to hasten the sales and extend more rapidly the surveys of the public lands4 ,the thirteen resolutions offered by ,burke form the subject of the argument known by the title1 ,burke's ,speech on ,conciliation with ,america4 ,a recent issue of ,the ,outlook contained an article entitled ,russian ,despotism2 careful reading disclosed that the subject was this1 ,the ,present ,government of ,russia has no ,right to ,exist4 ,in legislative proceedings the subject of argument is found in the form of a bill1 or a motion1 or a resolution2 in law courts it is embodied in statements called pleadings1 which set forth with certainty and with truth the matters of fact or of law1 the truth or falsity of which must be decided to decide the case4 ,footnote3 ,laycock and ,scales' ,argumentation and ,debate1 page #ad4 ,in college debate it is customary to frame the subject in the form of a resolution1 and to use this resolution as the title4 ,the generally accepted form is as follows3 ,resolved1 ,that the ,united ,states army should be permanently enlarged4 ,notice the use of italics1 of punctuation marks1 and of capital letters4 ,in all kinds of argumentation1 whether the proposition to be discussed is clearly expressed or not1 the arguer must keep his subject constantly in mind1 that his efforts may all be directed toward a definite end in view--to convince and persuade his audience4 ,in debate the speaker should plainly state the subject1 and constantly hold it up to the attention of the audience4 ,this procedure renders it impossible for an opponent to ignore the question and evade the real issue4 ,only those who are debating for practice experience any difficulty in obtaining a subject4 ,in the business world men argue because they are confronted with some perplexing problem1 because some issue arises that demands discussion2 but the student1 generally speaking1 chooses his own topic4 ,therefore a few suggestions in regard to the choice of a subject and the wording of a proposition are likely to be of considerable service to him4 ,the student should first select some general1 popular topic of the day in which he is interested4 ,he should1 for several reasons1 not the least of which is that he will thus gain considerable information that may be of value to him outside the class room1 select a popular topic rather than one that has been worn out or that is comparatively unknown4 ,he should1 moreover1 choose an interesting topic1 for then his work will be more agreeable and consequently of a higher order4 ,of this general idea he must decide upon some specific phase which readily lends itself to discussion4 ,then he has to express this specific idea in the form of a proposition4 ,as it is not always an easy matter to state a proposition with precision and fairness1 he must take this last step very cautiously4 ,one must always exercise great care in choosing words that denote the exact meaning he wishes to convey4 ,many writers and speakers have found themselves in false positions just because1 upon examination1 it was found that their subjects did not express the precise meaning that was intended4 ,moreover1 in phrasing the proposition1 the debater should so state the subject that the affirmative side1 the side that opens the discussion1 is the one to advocate a change in existing conditions or belief4 ,this method obviously corresponds to the way in which business is conducted in practical affairs4 ,no one has reason to defend an established condition until it is first attacked4 ,the law presumes a man to be innocent until he is proved guilty1 and therefore it is the prosecution1 the side to affirm guilt1 that opens the case4 ,the question about government ownership of railroads should be so worded that the affirmative side will advocate the new system1 and the negative will uphold the old4 ,it should be stated thus3 ,resolved1 ,that all railroads in the ,united ,states should be owned and operated by the ,federal government4 ,this obligation of adducing evidence and reasoning to support one side of a proposition before an answer from the other side can be demanded1 is called burden of proof4 ,the burden always rests upon the side that advocates a change1 and the proposition should be so worded that the affirmative will have to undertake this duty4 ,one more principle must be observed3 nothing in the wording of the subject should give one side any advantage over the other4 ,argument can exist only when reasonable men have a difference of opinion4 ,if the wording of the proposition removes this difference1 no discussion can ensue4 ,for instance1 the word undesirable1 if allowed to stand in the following proposition1 precludes any debate3 ,resolved1 ,that all colleges should abolish the undesirable game of football4 ,from the preceding suggestions it is seen that the subject of an argument is a definite1 restricted thought derived from some general idea4 ,whether expressed or not1 the subject must be a proposition1 not a term4 ,in debate the proposition is usually framed in the form of a resolution4 ,this resolution must always be so worded that the burden of proof will rest upon the affirmative side4 ,nothing in the wording of the proposition should give either side any advantage over the other4 ,these principles have to do with the manner of expression2 subjects will next be considered with respect to the ideas they contain4 ,a common and convenient method of classification divides propositions into two groups3 propositions of policy1 and propositions of fact4 ,the first class consists of those propositions that aim to prove the truth of a theory1 that indicate a preference for a certain policy1 for a certain method of action4 ,the second class comprises those propositions that affirm or deny the occurrence of an event1 or the existence of a fact4 ,propositions of policy usually1 though not always1 contain the word should or ought2 propositions of fact usually contain some form of the word to be4 ,the following illustrations will make the distinction plainer3-- ,,propositions ,,of ,,policy4 ,the ,united ,states should adopt a system of bounties and subsidies for the protection of the ,american merchant marine4 ,state laws prohibiting secular employment on ,sunday should be repealed4 ,a city furnishes a more desirable location for a college than the country4 ,the aggressions of ,england in ,africa are justifiable4 ,,propositions ,,of ,,fact4 ,homer wrote the ,iliad4 ,nero was guilty of burning ,rome4 ,mary1 ,queen of ,scots1 murdered her husband4 ,the most convenient method of studying propositions to see what subjects are desirable for student debates is to consider first those propositions that should be avoided4 #a4 ,,propositions ,,with ,,only ,,one ,,side4 ,as argumentation presupposes a difference of opinion about a certain subject1 evidently it is impossible to argue upon a subject on which all are agreed4 ,sometimes such propositions as1 ,resolved1 ,that ,napoleon was a great soldier1 and ,resolved1 ,that railroads should take every precaution to protect the lives of their passengers1 are found on the programs of literary societies and debating clubs4 ,in such cases mere comment1 not debate1 can follow4 ,only subjects on which reasonable men actually disagree are suitable for argument4 #b4 ,,ambiguous ,,propositions4 ,if a proposition is capable of several interpretations1 those who choose it as a subject for an argument are liable not to agree on what it means1 and one side will debate in accordance with one interpretation1 and the other side in accordance with a totally different interpretation4 ,thus the opponents will never meet in conflict except when they explain their subject4 ,for example1 in a certain debate on the question1 ,resolved1 ,that colleges should abolish all athletic sports1 the affirmative held that only interclass and intercollegiate games were involved2 while the negative maintained that the term athletic sports included all forms of athletic games participated in by college men4 ,manifestly the debate hinged largely on the definition of this term2 but as there was no authority to settle just what was meant1 the debate was a failure4 ,it is usually desirable1 and frequently necessary1 to explain what the subject means1 for unless it has some meaning which both sides are bound to accept1 the argument becomes a mere controversy over the definition of words4 ,another ambiguous proposition would be1 ,republican government in the ,united ,states is preferable to any other4 ,the word republican is open to two legitimate definitions1 and since the context does not explain which meaning is intended1 a debater is at liberty to accept either definition that he wishes4 ,a few alterations easily turn this proposition into a debatable subject1 ,government by the ,republican party in the ,united ,states is preferable to any other4 #c4 ,,too ,,general ,,propositions4 ,it is never wise for a writer or a speaker to choose a subject which is so general or so abstract that he cannot handle it with some degree of completeness and facility4 ,not only will such work be difficult and distasteful to him1 but it will be equally distasteful and uninteresting to his audience4 ,no student can write good themes on such subjects as1 ,war1 ,the ,power of the ,press1 ,race ,prejudice2 nor can he argue well on propositions like1 ,resolved1 ,that wars are justifiable2 ,resolved1 ,that the pen is mightier than the sword2 or ,resolved1 ,that race prejudice is justifiable4 ,these are entirely beyond his scope4 ,but he can handle restricted propositions that have to do with one phase of some concrete1 tangible event or idea4 ,resolved1 ,that ,japan was justified in waging war against ,russia2 ,resolved1 ,that ,bacon wrote the plays commonly attributed to ,shakespeare2 ,resolved1 ,that the segregation of ,japanese school children in ,san ,francisco is for the best interests of all concerned1 are subjects that can be argued with success4 #d4 ,,combined ,,propositions4 ,it sometimes happens that several heterogeneous ideas1 each of which by itself would form an excellent subject for argument1 are embodied in a single proposition4 ,the difficulty of arguing on this kind of subject is apparent4 ,it is none too easy to establish one idea satisfactorily2 but when several ideas must be upheld and defended1 the work is enormous and sometimes open to the charge of inconsistency4 ,moreover1 the principle of ,unity demands that a composition be about a single topic4 ,the proposition1 ,resolved1 ,that ,aaron ,burr was guilty of murder and should have been put to death1 involves two debatable subjects1 each of which is of sufficient importance to stand in a proposition by itself3 ,was ,burr guilty of murder8 and ,should a murderer be punished by death8 ,the error of combining in a compound sentence several distinct subjects for debate is generally detected with ease2 but when the error of combination exists in a simple sentence1 it is not always so obvious4 ,in the case of the subject1 ,resolved1 ,that foreign immigrants have been unjustly treated by the ,united ,states1 there are1 as the same privileges have not been granted all immigrants1 several debatable questions4 ,one who attempts to argue on this subject must take into consideration the treatment that has been accorded the ,chinese1 the ,english1 the ,germans1 the ,italians1 the paupers1 the well-to-do1 and others4 ,in one case the laws may be palpably unfair1 and in another case1 all that can be desired4 ,when two ideas1 however1 are very closely related and are dependent upon each other for interpretation and support1 they may and sometimes should be combined in the same proposition4 ,for example1 ,education should be compulsory to the age of sixteen1 involves two main issues3 ,education should be compulsory1 and ,the age of sixteen is the proper limit4 ,but in this case the one who advocates compulsory education is under obligation to explain some definite system1 and this explanation must include the establishing of some limit4 ,to name this limit in the proposition renders the argument clearer to an audience and fairer to an opponent4 ,for similar reasons1 the proposition1 ,the ,federal government should own and operate the railroads in the ,united ,states1 cannot be condemned on the ground that it is a proposition with more than one main issue4 ,propositions1 then1 adapted to class room argument1 are those which give rise to a conflict of opinion2 which contain a definite and unmistakable thought2 which are specific and sufficiently restricted to admit of thorough treatment2 and which contain a single idea4 ,furthermore1 the student will do well to select subjects that are as nearly as possible like the problems which statesmen1 educators1 professional and business men meet in practical life4 ,he should try to remove his argument as far as he can from the realm of pure academic exercise1 and endeavor to gain some insight into the issues that are now confronting the makers of modern civilization4 ,the student who takes this work seriously is sure to gain information1 form opinions1 and acquire habits of thought that will be of great practical value to him when he takes his place as a man among men4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,narrow each of the following terms into good1 debatable propositions3-- ,election of ,senators2 ,chinese exclusion2 woman suffrage2 temperance2 compulsory manual training2 the honor system2 compulsory education2 vivisection2 reciprocity2 an enlarged army2 the educational voting test2 strikes2 bounties and subsidies2 capital punishment2 ,hamlet's insanity2 municipal government2 permanent copyright2 athletics2 civil service2 military training2 ,panama canal2 jury system2 foreign acquisitions2 ,monroe ,doctrine2 forest reserves2 protective tariff4 ,b4 ,criticise the following propositions3-- #a4 ,the existence and attributes of the ,supreme ,being can be proved without the aid of divine revelation4 #b4 ,more money is spent for luxuries than for necessities4 #c4 ,the growth of large fortunes should be checked by a graduated income tax and an inheritance tax4 #d4 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine should receive the support of every ,american4 #e4 ,hard work is the secret of success4 #f4 ,law is a better profession than medicine4 #g4 ,college football should be abolished and lacrosse adopted in its place4 #h4 ,newspapers exert a powerful influence on modern politics4 #i4 ,the ,united ,states postal system should be under the control of the ,federal government4 #aj4 ,the shortest distance between two points is a straight line4 #aa4 ,immigration is detrimental to the ,united ,states4 #ab4 ,president ----'s foreign policy should be upheld4 #ac4 ,canada should not be annexed to the ,united ,states4 #ad4 ,the cruel banishment of the ,acadians was unjust4 #ae4 ,beauty has practical uses4 #af4 ,the democratic policy of government would be for the best interests of the ,philippines4 #ag4 ,dickens' novels1 which are superior to ,scott's1 effected reforms4 #ah4 ,an unconstitutional income tax should not be levied4 #ai4 ,a majority vote of a jury should not convict or acquit4 #bj4 ,edison is a great inventor4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,introduction--,,persuasion ,every complete argument consists of three parts3 introduction1 discussion1 and conclusion4 ,each of these divisions has definite and specific duties to perform4 ,the work of the introduction is threefold3 7#a7 to conciliate the audience2 7#b7 to explain the subject2 and 7#c7 to outline the discussion4 ,as the conciliation of the audience is accomplished by an appeal to the emotions rather than to the reason1 it is properly classified under persuasion4 ,explaining the proposition and outlining the discussion are of an expository nature and will be discussed under the head of conviction4 ,as has been stated in a previous chapter1 the amount of persuasion to be used in any piece of argumentative work depends entirely upon the attending circumstances4 ,the subject1 audience1 author1 occasion1 and purpose of the effort must be taken into consideration4 ,but whether the amount used be great or small1 practically every argument should begin with conciliation4 ,the conciliation of the audience--the word audience is used throughout this book to designate both hearers and readers--consists of gaining the good will of those to be convinced1 of arousing their interest1 and of rendering them open to conviction4 ,no argument can be expected to attain any considerable degree of success so long as anything about its author1 or anything in the subject itself1 is peculiarly disagreeable to the people it is designed to affect4 ,if the ill will remains too great1 it is not likely that the argument will ever reach those for whom it is intended1 much less produce the desired result4 ,in addressing ,southern sympathizers at ,liverpool1 during the ,civil ,war1 ,beecher had to fight even for a hearing4 ,the speech of an unpopular ,senator frequently empties the ,senate chamber4 ,men of one political belief often refuse to read the publications of the opposite party4 ,obviously1 the first duty of the introduction is to gain the approval of the audience4 ,in the next place1 interest must be aroused4 ,active dislike is less frequently encountered than indifference4 ,how many times sermons1 lectures1 books have failed in their object just because no one took any interest in them6 ,there was no opposition1 no hostility2 every one wished the cause well2 and yet the effort failed to meet with any attention or response4 ,the argument did not arouse interest--and interest is a prime cause of attention and of action4 ,in the third place1 the conciliatory part of the introduction should induce the audience to assume an unbiased1 judicial attitude1 ready to decide the question according to the strength of the proof4 ,this result is not always easy of attainment4 ,longstanding beliefs1 prejudice1 stubbornness must be overcome1 and a desire for the truth substituted for everything else4 ,all this is frequently difficult1 but unless an arguer can gain the good will of the people addressed1 arouse their interest1 and render them willing to be convinced1 no amount of reasoning is likely to produce much effect4 ,now the question arises1 ,how is it possible to conciliate the audience8 ,to this query there is no answer that will positively guarantee success4 ,the arguer must always study his audience and suit his discourse to the occasion4 ,what means success in one instance may bring failure in another4 ,the secret of the whole matter is adaptability4 ,humor1 gravity1 pathos1 even defiance may at times be used to advantage4 ,it is not always possible1 however1 for the orator or writer to know beforehand just the kind of people he is to address4 ,in this case it is usually best for him to follow out a few well established principles that most arguers have found to be of benefit4 ,,modesty4 ,modesty in word and action is indispensable to one who would gain the friendship of his audience4 ,anything that savors of egotism at once creates a feeling of enmity4 ,no one can endure another's consciousness of superiority even though the superiority be real4 ,an appearance of haughtiness1 self-esteem1 condescension1 intolerance of inferiors1 or a desire for personal glory will at once raise barriers of dislike4 ,on the other hand1 modesty should never be carried so far as to become affectation2 that attitude is equally despicable4 ,personal unobtrusiveness should exist without being conspicuous4 ,the arguer should always take the attitude that the cause he is upholding is greater than its advocate4 ,in the following quotations1 compare the overbearing arrogance of ,burke's introduction with the simple modesty of ,proctor's3-- ,mr4 ,speaker1 ,i rise under some embarrassment occasioned by a feeling of delicacy toward one-half of the house1 and of sovereign contempt for the other half4 ,footnote3 ,edmund ,burke1 ,house of ,commons1 ,march #bb1 #agge4 ,mr4 ,president1 more importance seems to be attached by others to my recent visit to ,cuba than ,i had given it1 and it has been suggested that ,i make a public statement of what ,i saw and how the situation impressed me4 ,this ,i do on account of the public interest in all that concerns ,cuba1 and to correct some inaccuracies that have1 not unnaturally1 appeared in reported interviews with me4 ,footnote3 ,redfield ,proctor1 ,united ,states ,senate1 ,march #ag1 #ahih4 ,,fairness4 ,few things will assist an arguer more in securing a respectful hearing from those who do not agree with him1 but whom he would convince1 than the quality of fairness4 ,the arguer should take the position of one seeking the truth regardless of what it may be4 ,if he wishes others to look at the question from his standpoint1 he will have to show that he is willing to consider the question from their point of view4 ,everything' in the shape of prejudice1 everything which would tend to indicate that he had formed conclusions prior to his investigation1 he must carefully avoid4 ,in this connection consider the following3-- ,i very much regret that it should have been thought necessary to suggest to you that ,i am brought here to hurry you against the law and beyond the evidence4 ,i hope ,i have too much regard for justice1 and too much respect for my own character1 to attempt either2 and were ,i to make such attempt1 ,i am sure that in this court nothing can be carried against the law1 and that gentlemen1 intelligent and just as you are1 are not1 by any power1 to be hurried beyond the evidence4 ,though ,i could well have wished to shun this occasion1 ,i have not felt at liberty to withhold my professional assistance1 when it is supposed that ,i may be in some degree useful in investigating and discovering the truth respecting this most extraordinary murder4 ,it has seemed to be a duty incumbent on me1 as on every other citizen1 to do my best and my utmost to bring to light the perpetrators of this crime4 ,against the prisoner at the bar1 as an individual1 ,i cannot have the slightest prejudice4 ,i would not do him the smallest injury or injustice4 ,but ,i do not affect to be indifferent to the discovery and the punishment of this deep guilt4 ,i cheerfully share in the opprobrium1 how great so ever it may be1 which is cast on those who feel and manifest an anxious concern that all who had a part in planning1 or a hand in executing1 this deed of midnight assassination1 may be brought to answer for their enormous crime at the bar of public justice4 ,footnote3 ,works of ,daniel ,webster1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #ea4 ,little1 ,brown ,co41 ,boston1 #aheg4 ,,sincerity4 ,another quality of paramount importance to the arguer is sincerity4 ,this he must really possess if he is to be eminently successful4 ,to feign it is almost impossible2 some word or expression1 some gesture or inflection of the voice1 the very attitude of the insincere arguer will betray his real feelings4 ,if he tries to arouse an emotion that he himself does not feel1 his affectation will be apparent and his effort a failure4 ,there are few things that an audience resents more than being tricked into an expression of feeling4 ,if they even mistrust that a speaker is trying to deceive them1 that he is arguing merely for personal gain or reputation and has no other interest in the case1 no desire to establish the truth1 they will not only withhold their confidence1 but will also become prejudiced against him4 ,it is usually inviting disaster to champion a cause in which one is not interested heart and soul4 ,of course in class room work the student cannot always avoid taking a false position1 and the training he receives thereby is excellent1 but he cannot make his persuasion of the highest type of effectiveness unless he honestly and sincerely believes what he says1 and feels the emotions he would arouse4 ,,an ,,appeal ,,to ,,some ,,emotion4 ,one of the strongest forms of conciliation is the direct appeal to a dominant emotion4 ,if an arguer can find some common ground on which to meet his audience1 some emotion by which they may be moved1 he can usually obtain a personal hold that will overcome hostility and lack of interest4 ,in deciding what emotion to arouse1 he must make as careful and thorough a study of his audience as he can4 ,in general1 the use of conviction need vary but little to produce the same results on different men2 processes of pure reasoning are essentially the same the world around4 ,but with persuasion the case is different2 emotions are varied1 and in each separate instance the arguer must carefully consider the ruling passions and ideals of his audience4 ,the hopes and aspirations of a gang of ignorant miners would differ widely from the desires of an assembly of college students1 or of a coterie of metropolitan capitalists4 ,education1 wealth1 social standing1 politics1 religion1 race1 nationality1 every motive that is likely to have weight with the audience should be taken into consideration4 ,remembering that he has to choose between such diverse emotions as ambition1 fear1 hatred1 love1 patriotism1 sense of duty1 honor1 justice1 self-interest1 pleasure1 and revenge1 the arguer must make his selection with the greatest care1 and then drive home the appeal with all the force and eloquence at his command4 ,the higher and nobler the emotion he can arouse1 the greater and more permanent will be the result4 ,if the audience is such that he can successfully arouse no higher feeling than that of self-interest or revenge1 he will1 of necessity1 have to appeal to these motives2 but whenever he can1 he should appeal to the noblest sentiments of mankind4 ,a famous illustration of the effectiveness of this sort of conciliation is found in ,wendell ,phillips' oration entitled ,the ,murder of ,lovejoy4 ,by appealing to their reverence for the past1 he silenced the mob that had come to break up the meeting1 and in the end he won over the house that had been packed against him4 ,we have met for the freest discussion of these resolutions1 and the events which gave rise to them4 ,i hope ,i shall be permitted to express my surprise at the sentiments of the last speaker1 surprise not only at such sentiments from such a man1 but at the applause they have received within these walls4 ,a comparison has been drawn between the events of the ,revolution and the tragedy at ,alton4 ,we have heard it asserted here1 in ,faneuil ,hall1 that ,great ,britain had a right to tax the colonies1 and we have heard the mob at ,alton1 the drunken murderers of ,lovejoy1 compared to those patriot fathers who threw the tea overboard6 ,fellow citizens1 is this ,faneuil ,hall doctrine84444 ,sir1 when ,i heard the gentleman lay down principles which place the murderers of ,alton side by side with ,otis and ,hancock1 with ,quincy and ,adams1 ,i thought those pictured lips 7pointing to the portraits in the ,hall7 would have broken into voice to rebuke the recreant ,american-- the slanderer of the dead4 ,the gentleman said that he should sink into insignificance if he dared to gainsay the principles of these resolutions4 ,sir1 for the sentiments he has uttered1 on soil consecrated by the prayers of ,puritans and the blood of patriots1 the earth should have yawned and swallowed him up4 ,footnote3 ,american ,orations1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 page #ajb4 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 ,specific directions for arousing the emotions are hard to give4 ,the appeal must suit both the audience and the occasion1 and until these are known1 suggestions are not particularly helpful4 ,when no better plan for conciliating an audience seems practicable1 speakers and writers try to arouse interest in the discussion4 ,there are several convenient methods for accomplishing this result4 #a4 ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,subject4 ,one of the commonest methods of arousing interest in an audience apathetic and indifferent is to impress upon them the importance and gravity of the question at issue4 ,matters thought to be trivial are apt to receive scant attention4 ,this fact is so universally recognized that many writers and speakers attempt at the very outset to show that upon the correct solution of the problem at hand depend serious and far-reaching results4 ,it is seldom enough merely to state that a subject is important2 its seriousness should be made apparent4 ,this method is very popular4 ,whenever one feels it necessary to open an argument with persuasion1 but is at loss to know how to do so1 he may well resort to this device4 ,while it does not1 perhaps1 constitute the strongest possible appeal1 yet it is eminently serviceable1 since1 if handled properly1 it does arouse interest1 and1 moreover1 it applies to many cases4 ,several examples will show how this method is commonly used3-- ,mr4 ,president1 the question now about to be discussed by this body is in my judgment the most important that has attracted the attention of ,congress or the country since the formation of the ,constitution4 ,it affects every interest1 great and small1 from the slightest concern of the individual to the largest and most comprehensive interest of the nation4 ,footnote3 ,j4 ,p4 ,jones1 ,united ,states ,senate1 ,may #ab1 #ahij4 ,no city ever had such a problem in passenger transportation to solve1 and no city of any pretensions has solved it much worse4 ,london is not in the strict sense a town1 but rather a province of houses4 ,the county of ,london1 as everybody knows1 is only a part of the ,metropolis4 ,the four millions and a half of residents enclosed by the legal ring-fence of the ,county are supplemented by two millions more who live in groups of suburbs included within the wide limits of ,greater ,london2 while even beyond that large tract of southeastern ,england1 with its six millions and a half of inhabitants1 are many towns and villages1 populous and increasing1 which are concerned with the question of ,metropolitan locomotion4 ,footnote3 ,the ,fortnightly ,review1 ,jan4 #a1 #aijb4 #b4 ,,timeliness ,,of ,,the ,,subject4 ,to show that a subject is timely is another effective device for arousing interest4 ,as most people wish to keep pace with the times and face the issues of the day1 it is natural and forceful to introduce an argument by showing that the subject is being discussed elsewhere1 or by showing how an event or sequence of events places the problem before the public4 ,the arguer calls attention to the fact that the question does not belong to the past or to the distant future1 but is of immediate interest and must be settled at once4 ,as the day of the ,cuban ,convention for the framing and adoption of a constitution approaches1 the question of ,cuban independence assumes greater1 and still greater1 proportions1 and the eyes of the ,american people are beginning to turn anxiously toward the ,pearl of the ,antilles4 ,by the time this article appears in print1 delegates to the convention will have been elected1 and interest in the convention itself will have become widespread4 ,the task ,i have set before me is briefly to review the situation1 and to discuss the probable results to be expected from a number of causes1 remote as well as proximate4,footnote3 ,charles ,warren ,currier4 ,the ,forum1 ,october1 #aijj4 ,the recent objection made in ,germany that ,american prestige might suffer should there be diminution in our ,berlin ,embassy's social brilliancy has stirred ,congress from apathy regarding ,american representatives abroad4 ,congressmen are coming to realize that brains1 not money1 ought to form the first passport to a candidate's favor1 agreeable adjunct as the money may be4 ,footnote3 ,the ,outlook1 ,april #ah1 #aijh1 p4 #hdd4 #c4 ,,appeal ,,for ,,one',s ,,self4 ,the safest method of stirring the emotions is to make an appeal in behalf of the subject1 but occasionally a writer or speaker who is truly sincere1 who is contending against unfortunate circumstances1 and is not seeking personal aggrandizement1 may arouse interest by making an appeal on his own behalf4 ,he may present some personal reason why the audience should be interested and give him a respectful hearing2 he calls attention not primarily to his subject1 but to his connection with it1 or to some circumstance in his own life4 ,this method is hedged about with several pitfalls3 it may expose one to the charge of egotism1 of insincerity1 or of false modesty2 and it may draw the attention of the audience away from the matter in hand4 ,to use this method successfully one should possess consummate tact and thorough knowledge of human nature4 ,the following opening of a speech by ,abraham ,lincoln at ,columbus1 ,ohio1 shows how he used this device to gain the sympathy of the audience3-- ,fellow-citizens of the ,state of ,ohio3 ,i cannot fail to remember that ,i appear for the first time before an audience in this now great ,state1-- an audience that is accustomed to hear such speakers as ,corwin1 and ,chase1 and ,wade1 and many other renowned men2 and remembering this1 ,i feel that it will be well for you1 as for me1 that you should not raise your expectations to that standard to which you would have been justified in raising them had one of these distinguished men appeared before you4 ,you would perhaps be only preparing a disappointment for yourselves1 and1 as a consequence of your disappointment1 mortification for me4 ,i hope1 therefore1 that you will commence with very moderate expectations2 and perhaps1 if you will give me your attention1 ,i shall be able to interest you in a moderate degree4 ,footnote3 ,complete ,works of ,abraham ,lincoln1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ech4 ,nicolay ,hay4 ,century ,company4 ,these1 then1 are the suggestions offered for conciliating an audience3 ,be modest2 be fair2 be sincere2 and appeal to some strong emotion4 ,to make this appeal successfully1 study your audience4 ,in case of inability to arouse any stronger feeling1 appeal to the interest of the people by showing that the subject is important1 or timely1 or both2 or show that you have some personal claim upon the audience4 ,these directions are far from complete4 ,anything like an exhaustive treatment of this subject would in itself constitute a book4 ,the advice offered here1 however1 should be of considerable value to one who has difficulty in getting a written argument or a debate successfully launched4 ,the student should supplement this chapter with careful study of the work of proficient writers4 ,if he will notice how they have gained success in this particular1 and if he will imitate them1 he is bound to improve his own compositions4 ,the principal dangers to be avoided consist of going to extremes4 ,the conciliatory part of the introduction should not be so meager that it will fail to accomplish its purpose1 nor should it be so elaborate and artificial as to hamper the onward movement of the argument4 ,the important thing is to gain the good will and the attention of the audience1 and1 other things being equal1 the shorter the introduction the better4 ,further directions for the spoken argument may be found in the chapter entitled ,debate4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,criticise the following introductory passages for persuasiveness1 pointing out specifically the methods of conciliation used1 and any defects that may be found3-- #a4 ,the building of the ,panama ,canal is a topic of interest and importance to every ,american4 ,not only do we wish to see our country build the canal successfully1 but we also desire to see built the best canal that the world has ever known4 ,there is no doubt that the canal is necessary2 the great loss of time and money1 the annual sacrifice of ships and lives involved in the passage around the ,horn1 not to mention the expense and congestion of the railroad freight systems across the continent1 plainly show the need of quicker ship communication between the two oceans4 #b4 ,i stand here to raise the last voice that ever can be heard this side the judgment seat of ,god in behalf of the personal honor and judicial integrity of this respondent4 ,i fully realize the responsibilities of my position1 and ,i shall endeavor to meet them as best ,i can4 ,i also realize as deeply as any other man can how important it is not only to my client but to every ,american man1 woman1 and child that justice shall be done and true deliverance made4 #c4 ,the opening of the racing season in ,new ,york1 at the ,aqueduct track on ,long ,island1 gives a fresh opportunity for observation of the conditions under which horse-racing1 and more especially gambling on horse races1 is carried on4 ,the announcement of the racing managers that certain reforms had been inaugurated in the control of the gambling makes the opportunity of especial interest4 #d4 ,i approach the discussion of this bill and the kindred bills and amendments pending in the two ,houses with unaffected diffidence4 ,no problem is submitted to us of equal importance and difficulty4 ,our action will affect the value of all the property of all the people of the ,united ,states1 and the wages of labor of every kind1 and our trade and commerce with all the world4 ,in the consideration of such a question we should not be controlled by previous opinions or bound by local interests1 but with the light of experience and full knowledge of all the complicated facts involved1 give to the subject the best judgment which imperfect human nature allows4 #e4 ,each generation has the power to shape its own destinies2 and had ,washington and his fellow patriots been governed by warnings against a departure from traditions1 our present form of government would never have been established1 the ,constitution would have been rejected by the ,states1 and untold evils would have resulted4 ,madison1 when arguing for the adoption of the ,constitution1 met arguments very like to those now being made in favor of political isolation4 #f4 ,as a race they have withered from the land4 ,their arrows are broken and their springs are dried up2 their cabins are in the dust4 ,their council fire has long since gone out on the shore1 and their war cry is fast dying out to the untrodden ,west4 ,slowly and sadly they climb the mountains and read their doom in the setting sun4 ,they are shrinking before the mighty tide which is pressing them away2 they must soon hear the roar of the last wave1 which will settle over them forever4 ,ages hence the inquisitive white man1 as he stands by some growing city1 will ponder on the structure of their disturbed remains and wonder to what manner of person they belonged4 ,they will live only in the songs and chronicles of their exterminators4 ,let these be faithful to their rude virtues as men1 and pay due tribute to their unhappy fate as a people4 #g4 7,during the ,civil ,war ,england largely favored the ,south4 ,to counteract this feeling ,henry ,ward ,beecher spoke in many of the principal cities in behalf of ,northern interests4 ,in ,liverpool he met an audience that was extremely hostile4 ,the following is the introduction to his speech47 ,for more than twenty-five years ,i have been made perfectly familiar with popular assemblies in all parts of my country except the extreme ,south4 ,there has not been for the whole of that time a single day of my life when it would have been safe for me to go south of ,mason and ,dixon's line in my own country1 and all for one reason3 my solemn1 earnest1 persistent testimony against that which ,i consider to be the most atrocious thing under the sun--the system of ,american slavery in a great free republic4 7,cheers47 ,i have passed through that early period when right of free speech was denied me4 ,again and again ,i have attempted to address audiences that1 for no other crime than that of free speech1 visited me with all manner of contumelious epithets2 and now since ,i have been in ,england1 although ,i have met with greater kindness and courtesy on the part of most than ,i deserved1 yet1 on the other hand1 ,i perceive that the ,southern influence prevails to some extent in ,england4 7,applause and uproar47 ,it is my old acquaintance2 ,i understand it perfectly-7laughter7-and ,i have always held it to be an unfailing truth that where a man had a cause that would bear examination he was perfectly willing to have it spoken about4 7,applause47 ,and when in ,manchester ,i saw those huge placards1 ,who is ,henry ,ward ,beecher8 7laughter1 cries of ,quite right1 and applause71 and when in ,liverpool ,i was told that there were those blood-red placards1 purporting to say what ,henry ,ward ,beecher has said1 and calling upon ,englishmen to suppress free speech1 ,i tell you what ,i thought4 ,i thought simply this1 ,i am glad of it4 7,laughter47 ,why8 ,because if they had felt perfectly secure1 that you are the minions of the ,south and the slaves of slavery1 they would have been perfectly still4 7,applause and uproar47 ,and1 therefore1 when ,i saw so much nervous apprehension that1 if ,i were permitted to speak --7hisses and applause7--when ,i found they were afraid to have me speak--7hisses1 laughter1 and ,no1 no67--when ,i found that they considered my speaking damaging to their cause--7applause7--when ,i found that they appealed from facts and reasonings to mob law-- 7applause and uproar7--,i said1 no man need tell me what the heart and secret counsel of these men are4 ,they tremble and are afraid4 7,applause1 laughter1 hisses1 ,no1 no6 and a voice1 ,new ,york mob47 ,now1 personally1 it is of very little consequence to me whether ,i speak here to-night or not4 7,laughter and cheers47 ,but one thing is very certain1 if you do permit me to speak here tonight1 you will hear very plain talking4 7,applause and hisses47 ,you will not find a man-- 7interruption7--you will not find me to be a man that dared to speak about ,great ,britain three thousand miles off1 and then is afraid to speak to ,great ,britain when he stands on her shores4 7,immense applause and hisses47 ,and if ,i do not mistake the tone and temper of ,englishmen1 they had rather have a man who opposes them in a manly way--7applause from all parts of the hall7--than a sneak that agrees with them in an unmanly way4 7,applause and ,bravo67 ,now1 if ,i can carry you with me by sound convictions1 ,i shall be immensely glad 7applause72 but if ,i cannot carry you with me by facts and sound arguments1 ,i do not wish you to go with me at all2 and all that ,i ask is simply ,,fair ,,play4 7,applause1 and a voice1 ,you shall have it1 too47 ,those of you who are kind enough to wish to favor my speaking1--and you will observe that my voice is slightly husky from having spoken almost every night in succession for some time past1--those who wish to hear me will do me the kindness simply to sit still2 and ,i and my friends the ,secessionists will make all the noise4 7,laughter47 ,b4 ,on the affirmative side of the following propositions1 write conciliatory introductions1 of about two hundred words each1 suited to the audiences indicated3-- ,,an ,,audience ,,of ,,college ,,students4 #a4 ,all colleges should abolish hazing4 #b4 ,fraternities tend to destroy college spirit4 #c4 ,a classical education is not worth while4 #d4 ,all colleges should abolish secret class societies4 #e4 ,intercollegiate athletic contests are harmful to a college4 ,,an ,,audience ,,of ,,workingmen4 #f4 ,strikes are barren of profitable results4 #g4 ,unions are detrimental to the laboring man4 #h4 ,the concentration of great wealth in the hands of a few men benefits industrial conditions4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,introduction--,,conviction ,as soon as the persuasive portion of an introduction has rendered the audience friendly1 attentive1 and open to conviction1 the process of reasoning should begin4 ,first of all1 it is the duty of the arguer to see that the meaning of the proposition is perfectly clear both to himself and to all the people whom he wishes to reach4 ,if the arguer does not thoroughly comprehend his subject1 he is likely to produce only a jumble of facts and reasoning1 or at best he may establish a totally different proposition from the one that confronts him2 if the audience fails to understand just what is being proved1 they remain uninfluenced4 ,the amount of explanation required to show what the proposition means varies according to the intelligence of the people addressed and their familiarity with the subject4 ,,definition4 ,to begin with1 if there are any unfamiliar words in the proposition1 any terms or expressions that are liable to be misunderstood or not comprehended instantly1 they must be defined4 ,at this point the arguer has to exercise considerable judgment both in determining what words to define and in choosing a definition that is accurate and clear4 ,synonyms are almost always untrustworthy or as incomprehensible as the original word1 and other dictionary definitions are usually framed either in too technical language to be easily grasped or in too general language to apply inevitably to the case at hand4 ,,definition ,,by ,,authority4 ,as a rule1 the very best definitions that can be used are quotations from the works of men distinguished for their knowledge in the special subject to which the word to be defined belongs4 ,the eminent economist defines economic terms2 the statesman1 political terms2 the jurist1 legal terms2 the scientist1 scientific terms2 the theologian1 the meaning of religious phraseology4 ,to present these definitions accurately1 and to be sure of the author's meaning1 one should take the quotations directly from the author's work itself4 ,if1 however1 this source is not at hand1 or if time for research is lacking1 one may often find in legal and economic dictionaries and in encyclopaedias the very quotations that he wishes to use in defining a term4 ,it is always well1 in quoting a definition1 to tell who the authority is1 and in what book1 in what volume1 and on what page the passage occurs4 ,another convenient way of using definition by authority is not to quote the entire definition but to summarize it4 ,frequently an authoritative definition is so exhaustive that it covers several pages or even chapters of a book4 ,in such a case the arguer may well condense the definition into his own words1 not omitting1 however1 to name the sources used4 ,the following example is an excellent illustration of this method3-- ,the bearing of the ,monroe ,doctrine on all these contentions and counter contentions is not at once evident to the casual observer4444 ,of course with changing times its meaning has changed also1 for no one attempts to declare it to be as immutable as the law of the ,medes and ,persians4 ,it is applied in various ways to meet varying conditions4 ,nevertheless1 ,i may say ,i believe1 after a perusal of the more important works on the subject1 that during the forescore years of its existence two principles have steadily underlain it3 7#a7 that ,europe shall acquire no more territory for permanent occupation upon this continent2 7#b7 that ,europe shall affect the destinies of1 that is exert influence over1 no ,american state4,footnote3 ,a4 ,b4 ,hart1 ,foundations of ,american ,foreign ,policy1 chap4 ,,vii2 ,j4 ,w4 ,foster1 ,a ,century of ,american ,diplomacy1 chap4 ,,xii2 ,j4 ,a4 ,kasson1 ,the ,evolution of the ,constitution of the ,united ,states of ,america1 pages #bba ff4 ,footnote3 ,nutter1 ,hersey ,greenough1 ,specimens of ,prose ,composition1 p4 #bah4 ,,definition ,,by ,,illustration4 ,since the purpose of each step in the reasoning portion of the introduction is to convey information accurately1 quickly1 and1 above all else1 clearly1 a particularly good method for defining terms is by illustration4 ,in using this method1 one holds up to view a concrete example of the special significance of the word that is being explained4 ,he shows how the law1 or custom1 or principle1 or whatever is being expounded works in actual practice4 ,for example1 if he is advocating the superiority of the large college over the small college1 he should define each term by giving specific examples of large colleges and of small colleges4 ,the advantage of this method lies in its simplicity and clearness1 qualities which enable the audience to understand the discussion without much conscious effort on their part4 ,investigation reveals that the definitions of great writers and speakers are replete with illustration4 ,whenever the student of argumentation has something to define that is particularly intricate or hard to understand1 he should illustrate it4 ,if he fails to find already prepared an illustrative definition that exactly fits his needs1 he will often do well to learn just what the term means1 and then make his own illustration4 ,consider how this method has been used4 ,the ,hon4 ,charles ,emory ,smith defines reciprocity as follows3-- ,its principle1 rightly understood1 is axiomatic4 ,brazil grows coffee and makes no machinery4 ,we make machinery and grow no coffee4 ,she needs the fabrics of our forges and factories1 and we need the fruit of her tropical soil4 ,we agree to concessions for her coffee and she agrees to concessions for our machinery4 ,that is reciprocity4 ,the following is a definition of free silver by ,the ,hon4 ,edward ,o4 ,leech1 former ,director of the ,mint3-- ,it is important to understand clearly and exactly what the free coinage of silver under present conditions means4 ,it may be defined as the right of anyone to deposit silver of any kind at a mint of the ,united ,states1 and have every #cga4be grains of pure silver 7now worth in its uncoined state about #eb cents7 stamped1 free of charge1 ,one ,dollar1 which dollar shall be a full legal tender at its face value in the payment of debts and obligations of all kinds1 public and private1 in the ,united ,states4 ,in upholding his opinion that a majority of the members of the ,house of ,representatives have the right to make the rules governing parliamentary procedure in the ,house1 ,the ,hon4 ,thomas ,b4 ,reed carefully defines the term rights3-- ,it is the fault of most discussions which are decided incorrectly that they are decided by the misuse of terms4 ,unfortunately1 words have very little precision1 and mean one thing to one man and a different thing to another4 ,words are also used with one meaning and quoted with another4 ,when men speak of the rights of minorities and claim for them the sacredness of established law1 they are correct or incorrect according as they interpret the word rights4 ,a man has a right to an estate in fee simple1 a right to land1 and there is no right more indisputable under our system4 ,nothing but the supreme law can take the estate away1 and then only after compensation4 ,the same man has a right of passage over land used as a highway1 but his town or county can take that privilege away from him without his consent and without compensation4 ,in both cases the man has rights1 but the rights are entirely different1 and the difference arises from the nature of things4 ,it is good for the community1 or at least it has been so thought1 that a man should have unrestricted right over his land4 ,on it he can build as high as heaven or dig as deep as a probable hereafter4 ,this is not because it is pleasant for the man1 but because it is best for the community4 ,therefore his right to build or dig is limited by the right of eminent domain--the right of the whole people to take his property at any time for the common benefit on paying its value4 ,for the same reason the right of a man to walk over the land of a roadway is an inferior right which may more easily be taken from him2 for if it be more convenient for the whole community that nobody should walk over that land1 each man's right1 which is a perfect right while it exists1 is taken away from him1 and he alone bears the loss4 ,it is hardly necessary to multiply examples in order to lay a foundation for the assertion that the rights1 so called1 of any man or set of men1 have their foundation only in the common good4 ,,explanation4 ,not only must the arguer define the unfamiliar words that occur in the proposition1 but he must also explain the meaning of the proposition taken as a whole4 ,since an audience often has neither the inclination nor the opportunity to give a proposition careful thought and study1 the disputant himself must make clear the matter in dispute1 and show exactly where the difference in opinion between the affirmative and the negative lies4 ,this process is of great importance2 it removes the subject of dispute from the realm of mere words--words which arranged in a formal statement are to many often incomprehensible--and brings out clearly the idea that is to be supported or condemned4 ,to discover just what the proposition means1 the arguer must weigh each word1 carefully noting its meaning and its significance in the proposition4 ,to neglect a single word is disastrous4 ,an intercollegiate debate was once lost because the affirmative side did not take into consideration the words present tendency in the proposition1 ,resolved1 ,that the present tendency of labor unions is detrimental to the prosperity of the ,united ,states4 ,the negative side admitted everything that the affirmative established1 namely1 that unions are detrimental2 and won by showing that their tendency is beneficial4 ,in another college debate on the subject1 ,resolved1 ,that the ,united ,states should immediately dispose of the ,philippines1 one side failed to meet the real point at issue because it ignored the word immediately4 ,a thorough explanation of the proposition would have shown the limitations that this word imposed upon the discussion4 ,in the next place1 the arguer should usually present to the audience a brief history of the matter in dispute4 ,many debatable subjects are of such a nature that the arguer himself cannot1 until he ,has studied the history of the proposition1 fully understand what constitutes the clash in opinion between the affirmative and the negative sides4 ,to understand the debate1 the audience must possess this same information4 ,a history of the idea contained in the proposition would be absolutely necessary to render intelligible such subjects as3 ,the aggressions of ,england in the ,transvaal are justifiable2 ,the ,united ,states should re-establish reciprocity with ,canada2 ,football reform is advisable4 ,in the last place1 the arguer must give his audience all essential information concerning the matter in dispute4 ,for example1 if the proposition is1 ,naturalization laws in the ,united ,states should be more stringent1 a mere definition of naturalization laws is not enough2 the disputant must tell just what naturalization laws exist at the present time1 and just how stringent they are to-day4 ,again1 if the subject is1 ,the ,united ,states army should be enlarged1 the arguer must tell exactly how large the army is now4 ,if the proposition is1 ,the right of suffrage should be further limited by an educational test1 the arguer must state what limits now exist1 and he must also tell what is meant by an educational test4 ,in a debate the work of the affirmative and of the negative differ slightly at this point4 ,since the proposition reads an educational test1 the advocate for the affirmative has the privilege of upholding any sort of educational test that he wishes to defend1 provided only that it comes within the limits of an educational test4 ,he may say that the test should consist of a knowledge of the alphabet1 or he may advocate an examination in higher mathematics2 but he is under obligation to outline carefully and thoroughly some specific system4 ,the negative1 on the other hand1 must be prepared to overthrow whatever system is brought forward4 ,if the affirmative fails to outline any system1 the negative has only to call attention to this fact to put the affirmative in a very embarrassing position4 ,the following quotations are good illustrations of how a proposition may be explained3-- ,the supremely significant and instructive fact1 in the dealings of society with crime in our day1 and one which has not been fully grasped as yet by the legal profession1 not even by those who practice in criminal courts1 and who should be familiar with it1 is this3 ,we have now two classes of institutions fundamentally distinct in character and purpose1 both of which are designed by society1 erected and conducted at public expense1 for the purpose of dealing with criminals4 ,the most numerous class of these institutions consists of prisons1 in which to confine men for terms specified by the trial courts as penalties for their offenses4 ,the laws1 under which offenders are sentenced to these prisons1 aim at classifying crimes according to the degree of guilt they imply1 and assigning to each of them the penalty which it deserves4 ,thus1 to these prisons are sent men sentenced to confinement for two1 five1 ten1 fourteen1 or thirty years1 or for life1 according to the name which the law attaches to the crime proved upon them2 and each man1 when he has served the prescribed term1 is turned loose upon society4 ,the other class of institutions includes what are known as reformatories4 ,the fundamental principle here is that an offender is sent to them not for a term1 but for a specified work4 ,it is assumed that his character and habits unfit him for social life4 ,for reasons to be found in his own nature1 he cannot yet be trusted with freedom and the responsibilities of citizenship4 ,but he may possess the capacity to become an honest1 industrious1 and useful citizen4 ,to the reformatory1 then1 he is sent to be educated2 to be trained to habits of industry2 above all1 to be disciplined in the habit of looking forward to the future with the consciousness that his welfare and happiness to-morrow depend on his conduct to-day1 and that he is constantly shaping his own destiny4 ,he is expected to remain until it satisfactorily appears that this training is effective1 and he may then go forth with a prospect of leading an honest and respectable life4 ,this1 in brief1 is the distinction between these two classes of institutions4 ,for a generation past1 these two kinds of prisons have been standing side by side in ,new ,york1 ,massachusetts1 and other ,states4 ,each of them has received many thousands of criminals under sentence for grave offenses4 ,each of them has sent out thousands of inmates into the world of human society1 with whatever impress the life1 teachings1 and associations of the institutions could make upon their natures1 as a preparation for their after career4 ,what is the result8 ,footnote3 ,charlton ,t4 ,lewis1 in ,north ,american ,review1 ,august1 #aijd4 ,congress has at last decided that the long-talked-of canal shall be built1 and shall be built at ,panama4 ,those issues no longer confront us4 ,the question now to be decided concerns the kind of canal that shall be constructed4 ,two plans have been suggested3 the lock-canal plan and the sea-level plan4 ,the advocates of the lock-canal plan aim to build a gigantic dam in the valley of the ,chagres ,river2 the enormous artificial lake thus formed being used as part of the passageway for the vessels4 ,they say that this lake will be at an elevation of about eighty-five feet above mean sea-level2 the passage to and from it will be made by means of canals at both ends1 each canal containing three locks4 ,thus there will be1 if this plan is adopted1 six locks in the entire system4 ,the canal will be of sufficient width and depth to accommodate vessels of such size as may be expected to be built when the canal is completed4 ,if the canal is built at sea-level1 it will be of the same depth and width as the lock-canal1 but it will be at the level of the sea throughout its entire length4 ,owing to the fact that the ,atlantic and the ,pacific have a difference in extreme level of twenty feet1 an automatic tide-lock will have to be installed4 ,a small lake will also be built1 merely to divert the ,chagres and to furnish light and power4 ,the question that now confronts us is1 ,which plan should be adopted8 ,,issues4 ,following the discovery of the real meaning of the proposition1 comes the finding of the issues4 ,whenever a man in business1 professional1 or political life1 or in any circumstances whatsoever1 must determine upon some policy or come to some decision regarding theoretical or practical matters1 he formulates his belief and chooses his line of action in accordance with the answers that he makes to certain questions either consciously or unconsciously present in his mind4 ,for instance1 if he considers the purchase of a certain piece of real estate1 he says to himself3 ,is the price fair8 ,have ,i the money to invest8 ,can ,i sell or use the property to good advantage8 ,how much pleasure shall ,i derive from it8 ,if he answers these questions in one way1 the purchase is likely to be made2 if in another1 it is not4 ,again1 a board of college trustees may be considering the abolishment of football4 ,in arriving at a decision1 they are confronted with these questions3 ,is the game beneficial or detrimental to the player8 ,how does it affect the college as a whole8 ,those who favor the game will1 of course1 say that it is a benefit to the player and the whole college2 while those who oppose it will maintain that it is a detriment to all concerned4 ,but evidently the same questions must be met and answered by both sides4 ,these questions are called issues4 ,issues are subdivisions of the subject under discussion1 and are always essentially the same for any given idea4 ,the first requirement for the issues of any proposition is that they be comprehensive2 that is1 the sum of their ideas must equal the main idea expressed in the proposition4 ,to those who are carrying on the discussion and to the audience1 if there be one1 it must be perfectly evident that these questions cover the entire field of controversy2 that if these questions are satisfactorily answered in one way or the other1 the discussion is settled and nothing remains to be said4 ,the second requirement is that the issues consider only disputed matter4 ,a question that gives rise to no disagreement1 that admittedly has but one answer1 is never an issue4 ,issues1 therefore1 may be defined as the questions that must be answered by both the affirmative and the negative sides of the proposition under discussion and that1 if answered in one way1 establish the proposition1 and if answered in another way1 overthrow it4 ,the issues of a proposition exist independently of the side that is being upheld4 ,the affirmative will find the same issues as the negative1 but it rarely happens that two men will divide a proposition in exactly the same manner and thus state the issues in precisely the same language4 ,if1 however1 the work of both has been fair and complete1 their issues will not vary in any important particular4 ,for example1 under the subject1 ,the ,federal government should own and operate the railroads of the ,united ,states1 one person might give as issues3-- #a4 ,has the government the right to take the roads without the consent of the present owners8 #b4 ,is the government financially able to buy the roads8 #c4 ,does the present system contain serious defects8 #d4 ,will the proposed system remove these defects without bringing in new evils equally serious8 ,another might state as issues3-- #a4 ,is the proposed plan practicable8 #b4 ,will it benefit the people8 ,the issues in both instances1 however1 are essentially the same1 as questions one and two of the first list are equivalent to one of the second2 and three and four of the first1 to two of the second4 ,at this point it may be well to mention a common error that must be guarded against4 ,it often happens that a question is stated as an issue which is not a subdivision of the proposition at all1 but is the entire proposition itself1 framed in slightly different language4 ,such would be the error if the question1 ,would the change be desirable8 were used as an issue for the proposition1 ,all state colleges should abolish military drill ,it sometimes happens that one is forced to defend or attack what has been called a combined proposition1 a proposition that contains two distinct subjects for argument4 ,such subjects are to be avoided as much as possible1 but when they must be met1 it is usually necessary to have two separate sets of issues4 ,an example of such a proposition would be1 ,all ,american colleges and universities should adopt the honor system4 ,the only practicable method of finding the issues of a proposition is to question it from all pertinent points of view1 and then to eliminate all questions that have no vital bearing on the subject1 or that are acknowledged to have but one answer4 ,the questions that remain are the issues4 ,in using this method of analysis1 one must be careful to consider the proposition in all its phases and details1 and from both the affirmative and the negative sides4 ,neglect to give the subject thorough consideration often results in one's being suddenly confronted with an issue that he has not previously discovered and consequently cannot meet4 ,failure to cast aside all questions that are not real issues may cause equal embarrassment3 an arguer never wishes to waste time and effort in establishing proof that is not essential to the argument1 or that is admitted by the other side4 ,it is hardly possible even to suggest all the various kinds of questions that may be asked about debatable subjects4 ,an arguer must depend largely upon his own judgment and common sense in analyzing each proposition that he meets4 ,he may1 however1 find the issues of many propositions by carefully questioning them from certain important and comprehensive points of view4 ,the list of standpoints indicated here is not exhaustive2 only the more important and general standpoints are considered4 ,the student should bear in mind that the following instructions are designed to teach him a practical method of analysis2 they do not constitute a formula that can be applied in all instances4 ,first1 the analysis of propositions of policy will be taken up2 secondly1 the analysis of propositions of fact4 ,,propositions ,,of ,,policy4 #a4 ,,is ,,the ,,plan ,,practicable8 ,whenever a plan is proposed1 first ask whether or not it is practicable4 ,if those who oppose the idea can maintain that great obstacles exist which will prevent the undertaking of the project or hinder its execution1 then the question of practicability constitutes an important issue4 ,for instance1 one who contemplates a thorough argument on the proposition1 ,the ,united ,states navy should be greatly enlarged1 must prove that the plan is1 or is not1 practicable4 ,plainly1 such hindrances as enormous expense1 inadequate facilities for building and repairing battleships1 and the increased demand for officers and sailors render questionable the expediency of such a measure4 ,this issue1 however1 is not found in connection with all propositions2 it does not concern propositions that merely approve or condemn existing conditions or assert the occurrence of an event4 ,for example1 practicability does not enter into such subjects as these3 ,strikes are justifiable2 ,the present powers of the ,speaker of the ,house of ,representatives are dangerously great2 ,athletics have been excessively developed in ,american colleges and universities4 ,but all propositions that advocate a change1 that propose some new system of operation1 usually have this issue involved4 ,such subjects are3 ,american cities should own and operate public plants for the furnishing of light1 heat1 and power2 ,military drill should be taught in the public schools2 ,porto ,rico should be given a territorial form of government4 #b4 ,,will ,,the ,,proposed ,,plan ,,be ,a ,,moral ,,benefit ,,or ,,detriment ,,to ,,those ,,concerned8 ,not all propositions1 by any means1 but many1 are of such a character that they must be considered from the standpoint of morality4 ,the arguer must ask whether the idea involved in the subject is morally right or wrong2 whether it is morally beneficial or harmful4 ,this point of view includes more than at first appears4 ,it takes into consideration justice1 duty1 honesty1 faithfulness1 religion1 everything that pertains to what is right or wrong4 ,under the proposition1 ,the treatment of the ,american ,indians by the ,united ,states should be condemned1 appears the moral issue1 ,what is our duty toward the people of this race8 ,the proposition1 ,public libraries1 museums1 and art galleries should be open on ,sunday1 presents this issue1 ,is the method of recreation afforded by the opening of these buildings in accordance with the teachings of the ,christian religion8 ,the proposition1 ,football is an undesirable college game1 must be settled in part by the answer to the question1 ,is the game beneficial or harmful to the player's character8 #c4 ,,will ,,the ,,proposed ,,plan ,,be ,a ,,material ,,benefit ,,or ,,detriment8 ,in the third place the proposition should be questioned from a material point of view1 to determine whether the plan is1 or is likely to be1 a benefit or a detriment4 ,in some form this issue will doubtless be found in connection with almost every proposition of policy4 ,in all systems of government1 of business1 and even of education1 material betterment is invariably one of the ultimate objects sought4 ,the question of national expansion presents the issue1 ,will such a course add to the glory1 the prestige1 or the wealth of the nation8 ,when a boy considers going to college1 he desires to know whether a college education is a valuable asset in business1 social1 or professional life4 ,an issue which puts to the touch the matter of personal gain is sure to involve a substantial portion of the controversy4 ,the arguer who can decisively settle the question of dollars and cents always has a strong argument4 ,usually the issue involving the question of material benefit or detriment is plain and direct2 sometimes1 however1 it is partially concealed4 ,a man debating on the affirmative side of the proposition1 ,resolved1 ,that ,united ,states ,senators should be elected by a direct popular vote of the people1 may urge as a reason that such a method will result in purer politics4 ,this particular line of argument he may carry no farther1 taking it for granted that everyone will recognize the connection between honest office holders and material gain4 #d4 ,,will ,,the ,,proposed ,,plan ,,be ,,an ,,intellectual ,,benefit ,,or ,,detriment8 ,all propositions that deal with education or with other matters that pertain to man's progress and advancement should be viewed from an intellectual standpoint4 ,no person in discussing a measure bearing upon the welfare of an individual1 of a community1 or of a nation1 can afford to neglect questioning its influence for mental advancement or retrogression4 ,propositions relating to schools1 colleges1 and similar institutions1 and propositions dealing with social and industrial conditions present this issue4 ,modern theories of government1 both municipal and national1 are frequently based to some extent upon the idea of teaching the people how to live and how to govern themselves4 ,the policy of the ,united ,states in the ,philippines and in the ,west ,indies has been greatly influenced by the query1 ,how will it affect the intellectual welfare of the people concerned8 #e4 ,,will ,,the ,,proposed ,,plan ,,be ,a ,,physical ,,benefit ,,or ,,dettriment8 ,all subjects that concern the life1 health1 strength1 or in any way bear upon the physical well-being of man present this issue4 ,an argument on government ownership of railroads would have to answer the question1 ,under which system will fewer accidents occur8 ,all such propositions as1 ,eight hours ought legally to constitute a working day2 ,state boards of health should compel all persons afflicted with contagious diseases to be quarantined2 ,football is an undesirable college game1 give rise to the issue of physical welfare4 #f4 ,,will ,,the ,,proposed ,,plan ,,be ,a ,,political ,,benefit ,,or ,,detriment8 ,if a plan is of such far-reaching significance that its adoption or rejection would affect a whole town1 state1 or nation1 then its merits usually depend to some extent upon its political significance4 ,the issue may take some such form as1 ,how will the system affect the country politically8 ,will the system encourage bribery and graft1 or will it tend to do away with these evils8 ,what will be its effect upon bossism8 #g4 ,,how ,,has ,,the ,,plan ,,succeeded ,,where ,,it ,,has ,,been ,,tried8 ,this question frequently occurs as an issue in connection with all sorts of propositions4 ,its importance and significance are so evident that no explanation is needed4 ,the value of precedent is known to every one4 #h4 ,,does ,,the ,,present ,,system ,,contain ,,serious ,,evils8 ,the asking of this question is frequently one of the very best ways to get at the heart of a proposition of policy4 ,to be sure1 this question overlaps and embraces several other questions that have been suggested1 but a comprehensive issue like this is sometimes preferable from the standpoint both of the arguer and of the audience4 ,it removes from the arguer the necessity of classifying each evil under the head of moral1 financial1 intellectual1 etc42 and in many cases it results in an argument more easily understood by the audience4 ,in some form this issue applies to nearly all political1 economic1 and financial propositions4 #i4 ,,if ,,the ,,present ,,system ,,does ,,contain ,,serious ,,evils1 ,,will ,,the ,,proposed ,,system ,,remove ,,them8 ,equal in importance with the question as to whether the existing system is defective1 is the question as to whether the proposed system will remove these defects1 without1 of course1 introducing equally great disadvantages4 ,these two issues almost invariably go together2 they set the system advocated by the affirmative and the system advocated by the negative side by side1 and compare and contrast each with the other4 #aj4 ,,if ,,the ,,present ,,system ,,contains ,,serious ,,evils1 ,,is ,,the ,,proposed ,,system ,,the ,,only ,,remedy8 ,this last question is very closely connected with the two preceding questions4 ,the whole discussion may hinge not on whether evils exist1 but on how they shall be remedied4 ,if the argument takes this turn1 the advocates of a certain system must show that their plan is the only one suitable for adoption1 or1 at least1 is the best plan1 while the negative must introduce and uphold a totally different scheme4 ,for instance1 under the proposition1 ,the ,united ,states army should be greatly enlarged1 the first two issues would probably be these3 ,is the present army adequate to protect the nation8 and ,is the enlargement of the army the only means of rendering the nation safe from invasion8 ,,propositions ,,of ,,fact4 #a4 ,,does ,,the ,,proposition ,,state ,a ,,possible ,,truth8 ,to find the issues of a proposition of fact1 first ask whether the occurrence in question could have happened or the condition alleged in the proposition could possibly have existed4 ,this question is so important that if it can conclusively be answered in the negative the discussion is ended4 ,legal proceedings invariably center around some form of a proposition of fact4 ,in the criminal court a man to prove his innocence has only to establish an alibi or prove physical inability to commit the crime with which he is charged4 ,not always1 of course1 does the question of possibility constitute an issue1 since frequently the possibility is admitted4 ,such would be the case if the following propositions came up for discussion3 ,joan of ,arc was burned at the stake2 ,nero was guilty of burning ,rome4 ,in these instances possibility gives way to probability4 #b4 ,,does ,,the ,,proposition ,,state ,a ,,probable ,,truth8 ,if the question of possibility has been answered affirmatively or inconclusively1 the issue of probability next arises4 ,in connection with many propositions of fact this is the most important issue to be encountered4 ,unless a condition or an event--its possibility being admitted--can be affirmed or denied by reliable witnesses who testify from their own personal knowledge of the matter1 the most that any arguer can do is to establish a balance of probability4 ,those who believe that ,bacon wrote the plays attributed to ,shakespeare try to show how improbable it is that a man like ,shakespeare could have produced such works1 and how very likely it is that ,bacon was the real author4 ,many criminals are convicted or acquitted on evidence that establishes merely a strong probability of guilt or of innocence4 #c4 ,,is ,,there ,,any ,,direct ,,evidence ,,bearing ,,on ,,the ,,proposition8 ,in the third place1 a person who is trying to prove or disprove a proposition of fact must consider the direct evidence involved4 ,indirect evidence tends to establish the possibility or probability that a statement is true or false1 while direct evidence asserts that it is true or false4 ,direct evidence on the question1 ,country roads in ,new ,england are inferior to those of the ,middle ,west1 would not be a description of the topographical and geographical features of both regions1 for this information could at its best establish only a strong probability2 direct evidence on this subject would be the testimony of people who have investigated the roads1 and could thus speak from direct personal knowledge4 ,this issue of direct evidence has two phases4 ,the arguer must ask1 ,is any direct evidence available8 and ,if there is any1 what is its value8 ,it is easily seen that not all evidence is equally reliable4 ,both the man and what he says must be tested3 the man for such qualities as truthfulness1 intelligence1 and experience2 the statements for consistency and general credibility4 ,the tests of evidence are given in detail in another chapter4 ,,tests ,,for ,,issues4 ,after an arguer has secured his list of issues1 he should test his work by asking the four following questions3-- #a4 ,does each issue really bear upon the proposition8 #b4 ,is each issue a subdivision of the proposition1 or is it the proposition itself formulated in different language8 #c4 ,does each issue comprise only disputed matter8 #d4 ,do the issues1 taken collectively1 consider all phases of the proposition8 ,several illustrations will show more plainly just what issues are and how they are used in connection with other parts of an introduction4 ,,shall ,,greek ,,be ,,taught ,,in ,,high ,,schools8 ,in taking up the discussion of ,greek in the high schools1 ,i shall consider these three questions3 ,first1 is ,greek more valuable than other studies in training the mind8 ,second1 does the study of ,greek acquaint us with the best that has been known and said in the world1 and1 therefore1 with the history of the human spirit8 ,and third1 where shall ,greek be taught8 ,footnote3 ,w4,f4 ,webster1 ,the ,forum1 ,december1 #ahii1 page #dei4 ,,does ,,colonization ,,pay8 ,the points to be considered in determining the somewhat mercenary question1 ,does ,colonization ,pay8 as viewed with regard to the interests of the colonizing country1 are3 7#a7 the market that the colonies afford for the goods which the colonizing country has to sell2 and whether control gives to the mother-country a larger share of their market than she would have without that control2 7#b7 the supplies the colonies are able to furnish for use in the mother- country2 and whether the purchase of these supplies from the colonies proves more advantageous to the mother-country than if they should be purchased from other parts of the world2 7#c7 the advantages1 if any1 which accrue to the native population of the country controlled4 ,footnote3 ,o4 ,p4 ,austin1 ,the ,forum1 ,january1 #aijj1 p4 #fbc4 ,the following passage1 taken from ,daniel ,webster's speech in which1 as counsel for the city of ,boston1 he argues that a certain piece of land has not become a public highway1 is a good illustration of an introduction on what was virtually a proposition of fact4 ,notice with what skill he cast aside all irrelevant matter and reduced the proposition to clearly stated and indisputable issues3-- ,if this street1 or land1 or whatever it may be1 has become and now is a public highway1 it must have become so in one of three ways1 and to these points ,i particularly call your honors' attention4 #ast4 ,it must have either become a highway by having been regularly laid out according to usage and law2 or #bnd4 ,by dedication as such by those having the power to dedicate it1 and acceptance and adoption so far as they are required2 or #c;d4 ,as a highway by long user1 without the existence of proof of any original laying out1 or dedication4 ,it is not pretended by any one that the land in question is a highway1 upon the last of these grounds4 ,i shall therefore confine myself to the consideration of the other two questions3 namely4 ,was there ever a formal and regular laying out of a street here8 or was there ever a regular and sufficient dedication and acceptance8 ,footnote3 ,the ,works of ,daniel ,webster1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #ahf4 ,little1 ,brown ,co41 ,boston1 #aheg4 ,,partition4 ,in college debate1 though not frequently elsewhere1 the issues as a rule are immediately followed by a series of statements that show how each issue is to be answered4 ,these statements constitute what is known as the partition4 ,when a partition is made1 each statement becomes a main point to be established by proof in the discussion4 ,the following portion of a student's argument contains both the issues and the partition3-- ,in considering1 then1 whether colleges should adopt the system of exempting from final examinations all students who have attained an average daily grade of eighty-five per cent4 or over1 we have only to consider the effect such a rule would have upon the students1 individually and collectively4 ,would the system raise or lower the standard of scholarship8 ,would it assist or retard the growth of other qualities which a college course should develop8 ,the negative will oppose the adoption of this rule by establishing the three following points3-- #a4 ,such a system will lower the scholarship both of those who are exempted from examinations and of those who are not4 #b4 ,such a system will foster dishonesty1 jealousy1 and conceit4 #c4 ,such a system will deprive those who are exempted from examinations of valuable discipline in preparing for examinations and in taking the examinations4 ,there are several forms in which the partition may be expressed3 it may consist of a single sentence that indicates how the issues are to be answered2 it may consist of the issues themselves turned into declarative sentences so that they read in favor of the side being upheld2 or it may answer each issue by means of several statements4 ,the following will illustrate the several methods3-- ,proposition3 ,resolved1 ,that football is an undesirable college game4 ,issues3 #a4 ,does football benefit or injure the player8 #b4 ,does football benefit or injure the college as a whole8 ,partition 7negative73 ,first method4 #a4 ,we will establish our side of the argument by proving that in each case football is a benefit4 ,second method4 #a4 ,football benefits the player4 #b4 ,football benefits the college as a whole4 ,third method4 #a4 ,football benefits the player physically4 #b4 ,football benefits the player mentally4 #c4 ,football benefits the player morally4 #d4 ,football benefits the students who do not participate in the game4 #e4 ,intercollegiate football games advertise the college4 ,the partition is usually found in college debate because in a contest of this sort absolute clearness is a prerequisite for success4 ,as but little interest customarily centers around the subject itself1 each debater knows that if he is to make any impression on the audience he must so arrange his argument that it will1 with a minimum amount of effort on the part of the listener1 be clear to every one4 ,to one reading an argument1 a partition1 unless of the simplest kind1 will probably seem superfluous2 to one listening to a speech in which he is truly interested1 the partition may seem labored4 ,but when the whole interest centers in the method of presentation1 and in the processes of reasoning rather than in the subject matter1 the partition does increase the clearness of the argument1 and should1 therefore1 be used4 ,by way of summary1 then1 it may be said that the work of conviction in the introduction is to show the relation between the proposition and the proof4 ,the arguer accomplishes this task1 first1 by defining all words the meaning of which is not generally comprehended2 secondly1 by explaining1 in the light of these definitions1 the meaning of the proposition taken as a whole2 thirdly1 by discovering the issues through a careful process of analysis2 and fourthly1 by making a partition when he is engaged in debate and has reason to think that the audience will not see the connection between the issues and the discussion4 ,,how ,,to ,,investigate ,a ,,subject4 ,a student will hardly have reached this point in the study of ,argumentation before finding it necessary to search for information that will assist him in the construction of his argument4 ,to one unfamiliar with a library1 a search after facts bearing upon a given subject is likely to prove tedious4 ,for this reason a few words of advice concerning the proper way in which to use a library may be of great help to a beginner4 ,nothing1 however1 can be given here that will even approximate the value of a few hours' instruction by the librarian of the college in which the student is enrolled4 ,in the absence of such instruction1 one can seldom do better at the outset than to become familiar with indexes to periodical and contemporary literature1 encyclopaedias1 government reports1 and the library catalogue4 ,the best indexes are the ,reader's ,guide1 ,poole's ,index1 ,the ,annual ,library ,index1 and the ,current ,events ,index4 ,these give references to all articles published in the principal magazines and newspapers for many years4 ,in these articles one will find almost limitless material on nearly every popular topic of the day-- political1 economic1 scientific1 social1 educational4 ,the writers1 too1 are often of national and even of international reputation1 and the opinions and ideas given here are frequently as weighty and progressive as can be found4 ,in searching through an index for articles upon a certain subject1 one should invariably look under several headings4 ,for example1 if one is seeking material in regard to the abolishment of baseball from the list of college sports1 he ought not to consult just the one heading baseball2 he should in addition look under athletics1 college sports1 and similar topics4 ,other valuable sources of information are encyclopaedias4 ,they often give broad surveys and comprehensive digests that cannot readily be found elsewhere4 ,although they do not1 as a rule1 discuss subjects that are of mere local or present-day interest1 yet the thorough searcher after evidence will usually do well to consult at least several4 ,a fact worth bearing in mind is that in connection with these articles in encyclopaedias1 references are often given to books and articles that treat the subject very thoroughly4 ,in the next place1 official publications frequently furnish invaluable help in regard to public problems4 ,both state governments and the national government constantly publish reports containing statistics1 the opinions of experts1 and suggestions for economic and political changes4 ,some of the most valuable of these documents for the purposes of the arguer are ,census1 ,immigration1 ,education1 and ,interstate ,commerce ,commission reports1 the messages of the ,presidents1 and the ,congressional ,record4 ,there are indexes to all these1 and one can easily find out how to use them4 ,furthermore1 one should not fail to consult the library catalogue4 ,to be sure1 if the books are catalogued only according to titles and authors1 one will probably get little assistance from this source unless he knows beforehand what particular books or authors to search for4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the books are also catalogued according to the subjects of which they treat1 one can see almost at a glance what books the library has that bear upon the matter under investigation4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,define the following terms3--monopoly1 free trade1 railway pooling1 income tax1 honorary degree1 tutorial system of instruction1 industrial education1 classical education1 ,german university method of study1 vivisection1 temperance1 ,indian agency system1 yellow peril1 graft1 sensational1 mass play1 monarch1 civilization1 autonomy4 ,b4 ,criticise the issues that are given for the following propositions3-- #a4 ,resolved1 ,that in the ,united ,states naturalization laws should be more stringent4 a4 ,are the present laws satisfactory8 b4 ,have the results of the laws been satisfactory8 c4 ,would a change be wise8 #b4 ,resolved1 ,that in the ,united ,states the reformatory system of imprisonment should be substituted for the punitive4 a4 ,is the reformatory system practicable8 b4 ,does it reform the criminal8 c4 ,what has been its success thus far8 d4 ,is it in accordance with modern civilization8 #c4 ,resolved1 ,that education in the ,united ,states should be compulsory to the age of sixteen4 a4 ,is compulsory education practicable8 b4 ,will compulsory education benefit the child8 c4 ,will compulsory education benefit the public8 #d4 ,resolved1 ,that ,american universities should admit women on equal terms with men4 a4 ,is woman's education as important as man's8 b4 ,is coeducation a benefit to both sexes8 c4 ,is coeducation a benefit to the college8 d4 ,is the desirable system of separate education worth the extra money it costs8 #e4 ,resolved1 ,that in the ,united ,states there should be an educational test for voting4 a4 ,is voting a privilege or a natural right8 b4 ,ought illiterates to be excluded from the polls8 c4 ,would the test be unfair to any class of citizens8 d4 ,could such a test be easily incorporated into our laws8 #f4 ,resolved1 ,that vivisection should be prohibited4 a4 ,is vivisection of great assistance to medicine8 b4 ,is vivisection humane8 c4 ,is it right for us as human beings to sanction the many forms of needless and excessive cruelty practised by vivisectors8 ,c4 ,make a brief introduction to each of the following propositions1 defining all words that require definition1 explaining the meaning of the proposition1 stating the issues1 and making the partition3-- #a4 ,all colleges should debar freshmen from participation in intercollegiate athletic contests4 #b4 ,playing baseball with organizations not under the national agreement should not render athletes ineligible for college teams4 #c4 ---- ,college should adopt the honor system of holding examinations4 #d4 ,all colleges should abolish hazing4 #e4 ,the climate of our country is changing4 #f4 ,macbeth's wife was the cause of his ruin4 #g4 ,the ,rhodes scholarships for the ,united ,states will accomplish the objects of its founder4 #h4 ,national expositions are a benefit to the country4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,introduction--,,brief-,,drawing ,preceding chapters have dwelt on the essential characteristics of the introduction and have shown what it should be like when completed4 ,no one but an expert writer1 however1 can hope that his argument1 in either introduction1 discussion1 or conclusion1 will attain any considerable completeness and excellence without first passing through a preliminary form known as the brief4 ,a brief is a special kind of outline3 it is an outline that sets forth in specific language all the ideas to be used in that portion of the argument known as conviction1 and that shows the exact relation these ideas bear to each other and to the proposition4 ,an outline in narrative1 descriptive1 or expository composition is invariably made up of general suggestions1 which seldom indicate the same ideas to different persons2 it is inexact and incomplete4 ,a brief1 on the contrary1 fails in its purpose unless it conveys accurate information4 ,the material composing it is always in the form of complete sentences2 the ideas are expressed in as exact and specific language as the writer is capable of using4 ,a good brief means as much to the one who reads it as to the one who draws it4 ,it is1 too1 a complete work in itself4 ,it does not deal with persuasion2 with this exception1 however1 it contains in condensed form all the material to be used in the finished argument4 ,there are many reasons why an arguer should first cast his material in the form of a brief4 ,to begin with1 this device enables him to grasp1 almost at a glance1 all the material used for the purpose of conviction2 it keeps constantly before him the points that he must explain1 and shows him instantly just how far he has progressed with the proof of each statement4 ,furthermore1 a brief renders the arguer invaluable assistance in preserving the fundamental principles of composition1 especially those of ,unity1 ,coherence1 ,proportion1 and ,emphasis4 ,it greatly simplifies his task of assorting material and assigning each part its proper place and function4 ,it exhibits so clearly every particle of evidence and every process of reasoning employed that it affords great convenience for testing both the quality and the quantity of the proof4 ,in fact1 a good brief is so essential a part of a good argument that a student who neglects to draw the first is bound to meet failure in the second4 ,the rules governing brief-drawing logically divide themselves into four classes3 those which apply to the brief as a whole constitute the first class and are called ,general ,rules2 those rules which apply to each of the main divisions of a brief constitute the three remaining classes and are called ,rules for the ,introduction1 ,rules for the ,discussion1 and ,rules for the ,conclusion4 ,,general ,,rules4 ,in drawing a brief1 the student should first divide his material into three groups1 corresponding to the three divisions of the complete argument3 the ,introduction1 ,discussion1 and ,conclusion4 ,moreover1 since absolute clearness in every particular is the prime requisite for a good brief1 he should label each of these parts with its proper name1 so that there may never be the slightest doubt or confusion as to where one part ends and another begins4 ,hence the first rule for brief-drawing is3-- ,rule ,i4 ,divide the brief into three parts1 and mark them respectively1 ,introduction1 ,discussion1 and ,conclusion4 ,a brief1 as has been explained1 is an outline that contains all the reasoning to be found in the finished argument4 ,reasoning processes are carried on1 not with vague ideas and general suggestions1 but with specific facts and exact thoughts4 ,for this reason1 only complete statements are of value in a brief4 ,mere terms must be avoided4 ,a statement1 it should be remembered1 is a declarative sentence2 a term is a word or any combination of words other than a sentence4 ,the following examples of terms plainly show that no reasoning process can exist without the use of complete statements3-- ,strikes during the past twenty-five years4 ,percentage of strikes conducted by labor organizations4 ,building trades and strikes4 ,since such expressions as these give no information1 they are manifestly out of place in a brief4 ,each term may call to mind any one of several ideas4 ,no one but the author knows whether the first term is intended to indicate that strikes have been of frequent or of infrequent occurrence1 beneficial or detrimental4 ,the second term does not indicate whether the percentage of strikes conducted by labor organizations has been great or small1 increasing or decreasing4 ,the third term is equally indefinite4 ,notice1 however1 that as soon as these terms are turned into complete sentences1 they may well serve as explanation or as proof3-- ,during the twenty-five year period ending in #aije there occurred in the ,united ,states #cf1geg strikes4 ,labor organizations directed about two-thirds of these strikes4 ,the building trades have had more strikes than has any other industry4 ,this explanation gives rise to the following rule3-- ,rule ,,ii4 ,express each idea in the brief in the form of a complete statement4 ,moreover1 each sentence should contain only one idea4 ,every thought expressed has some specific work to do1 and it can do it far more effectively if it stands by itself as a unit4 ,the awkwardness and impracticability of proving the truth or falsity of a statement that makes several assertions has been treated under the head of ,combined ,propositions4 ,obviously1 there are unwarrantable difficulties in grouping explanation or proof about such a statement as1 ,municipal ownership has failed in ,philadelphia1 has succeeded in ,edinburgh1 and is likely to meet with indifferent success in ,new ,orleans4 ,furthermore1 a sentence that contains several distinct thoughts is very ineffective as proof for some other statement4 ,since one part of the sentence may be accepted as true and another part rejected1 the resulting confusion is very great4 ,to avoid all errors of this kind1 the student should use1 as far as possible1 only simple sentences4 ,rule ,,iii4 ,make in each statement only a single assertion4 ,in the next place1 one who draws a brief should take pains to frame all his statements in as concise a form as he can4 ,if he is able to state an idea in six words1 he should not use seven4 ,this principle does not mean that small words like a1 an1 and the should be left out1 or that an obvious subject may be omitted2 it does not mean that the diary style of writing is permissible4 ,it means simply that one should always state his ideas as briefly as possible without violating any of the rules of ,composition4 ,quotations should rarely appear in a brief1 never unless they are very short4 ,when an arguer wishes to make use of another writer's material1 he should condense it into his own language1 and state from what source he derived his information4 ,in an expanded argument the full quotation may appear4 ,the ability to express ideas both concisely and1 at the same time1 clearly1 is attained only by considerable labor1 yet a departure from the principle of brevity is a serious violation of good brief-drawing4 ,hence the rule3-- ,rule ,,iv4 ,make each statement as concise as is consistent with clearness4 ,every brief is primarily a process of explanation4 ,from this fact it is evident that clearness must be sought above all other qualities4 ,not only must the idea expressed be understood1 but the relation between ideas1 must be perfectly plain and evident4 ,the reader should be able to see at a glance what material is of co-ordinate rank and what is of subordinate rank4 ,this perspicuity is especially necessary in the discussion1 where each statement is either being proved by subordinate statements or is serving as proof for some other statement4 ,the device ordinarily adopted for exhibiting at a glance the relation between the ideas in a brief consists of two parts3 first1 all subordinate statements are indented farther than more important statements2 and second1 numbers and letters are used to indicate what statements are of co-ordinate importance and what are of secondary rank4 ,the system of marking most generally adopted is as follows3-- ,i4 ,a4 #a4 a4 #a'4 a'4 ,b4 #a4 a4 ,,ii4 ,a4 etc4 ,thus the fifth rule is3-- ,rule ,v4 ,indicate the relation between statements by indentation and by the use of symbols4 ,in indicating the relation between ideas1 a writer should never put more than one symbol before a statement4 ,it seems almost superfluous to mention an error so apparent as the double use of symbols1 but the mistake is frequently made and much confusion results4 ,the numeral ,i before a heading indicates that the statement is of primary importance2 the letter ,a indicates that it is of secondary importance4 ,if a statement is marked ,,ia1 apparently it is both primary and secondary1 clearly an impossibility4 ,rule ,,vi4 ,mark each statement with only one symbol4 ,,rules ,,for ,,the ,,introduction4 ,it has been seen that a brief is a complete composition in itself1 embodying all the material for conviction that will later be found in the expanded argument4 ,the introduction1 therefore1 must contain sufficient information to make the proof of the proposition perfectly clear4 ,this portion of the brief serves as a connecting link between the proposition and the discussion2 it must explain the nature of the proposition and then show how the proof which is to follow applies to it4 ,the exact work that the introduction to a brief must perform is stated in the following rule3-- ,rule ,,vii4 ,put into the introduction sufficient explanation for a complete understanding of the discussion4 ,this explanation usually involves3-- 7a7 a definition of terms1 7b7 an explanation of the meaning of the proposition1 7c7 a statement of the issues1 and 7d7 the partition4 ,neither an introduction to a brief nor an introduction to a complete argument should contain any statements not admitted by both sides4 ,all ideas that savor of controversy or prejudice have no place in an introduction4 ,the sole purpose of the introduction is to prepare the way for the discussion2 if it contains anything in the nature of proof1 anything which is not admittedly true1 it is no longer pure introduction1 but becomes in part discussion4 ,if explanation and proof are thus thrown together indiscriminately1 confusion will result4 ,accordingly the following rule is of great importance3-- ,rule ,,viii4 ,put into the introduction only statements admitted by both sides4 ,the following introductions to briefs may well serve as models for student's work3-- ,,first ,,model4 ,resolved1 ,that ,england should permanently retain control of ,egypt4 ,,negative ,,brief4 ,,introduction4 ,i4 ,because of the recent rapid development of ,egypt1 the question of the retention of this country is becoming important4 ,,ii4 ,the following explanations will aid in the discussion of the problem3-- ,a4 ,egypt is that strip of country in the northeastern part of ,africa1 drained by the ,nile and its tributaries4 ,b4 ,england has an army of occupation in ,egypt1 and governs it nominally through the ,khedive4 ,c4 ,england has never suggested annexation4 ,d4 ,england has shut out the interference of ,france and other ,european nations4 ,e4 ,england has practically ruled ,egypt as a dependency4 ,,iii4 ,the following facts are agreed upon3-- ,a4 ,some nation had to take charge of ,egypt1 for #a4 ,the country was heavily in debt4 #b4 ,the people were starving4 ,b4 ,it is for the advantage of ,england to retain control of the country4 ,,iv4 ,the conflicting arguments on the question are as follows3-- ,a4 ,those who favor the control of ,egypt by ,england have certain beliefs3-- #a4 ,they believe that the control of ,egypt by ,england is the only practical solution of the problem4 #b4 ,they believe that the present status of affairs is beneficial to ,egypt and to the whole world4 ,b4 ,those opposed to the control of ,egypt by ,england maintain the following3-- #a4 ,they maintain that ,england rules in a selfish manner4 #b4 ,they maintain that ,turkey and not ,england should have control of ,egypt4 ,v4 ,from this conflict of opinion it appears that the points to be determined are3-- ,a4 ,is ,egypt benefited by the control of ,england8 ,b4 ,is the suzerainty of ,england over ,egypt the only practical solution of the problem8 ,c4 ,is the control of ,egypt by ,england a benefit to the whole world8 ,,vi4 ,the negative will attempt to prove that ,england should not permanently retain ,egypt for the following reasons3 ,a4 ,english control is harmful to ,egypt4 ,b4 ,english control is not the only solution to the ,egyptian problem4 ,c4 ,english control is harmful to other nations4 ,,second ,,model4 ,resolved1 ,that the ,president of the ,united ,states should be elected by direct popular vote4 ,,affirmative ,,brief4 ,,introduction4 ,i4 ,the present method of electing the ,president of the ,united ,states has been both praised and condemned ever since the adoption of the ,constitution4 ,a4 ,two methods of electing the ,president are under consideration3 the present system whereby the ,president is elected by the electoral college1 and the proposed system whereby the ,president would be elected by a direct popular vote4 ,,ii4 ,these two systems may be described as follows3-- ,a4 ,the present system has the following characteristics3-- #a4 ,each state elects a number of electors equal to the whole number of ,senators and ,representatives to which the state is entitled in ,congress4 #b4 ,these electors are chosen as the ,legislature of each state may direct4 #c4 ,the electors meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for the ,president4 #d4 ,since the year #ahjj the electors have always voted for the candidate nominated by the national party which elected them1 though the ,constitution does not make this requirement4 #e4 ,the ballots are sent in sealed packages to the ,president of the ,senate1 who counts them and declares the candidate receiving a majority vote elected4 #f4 ,if the electors fail to elect1 the ,house of ,representatives chooses a ,president from the three candidates that receive the greatest number of electoral votes4 ,b4 ,the proposed system has the following characteristics3-- #a4 ,the people vote directly for the ,president1 the candidate receiving a majority of the votes being elected4 #b4 ,if there be no majority1 the ,president is elected as under the present system when the electors fail to elect4 ,,iii4 ,the real question to be answered is1 ,should the direct method be substituted for the present method8 ,a4 ,the comparative value of each method must be judged by the following standards3-- #a4 ,which would be the more practicable8 #b4 ,which would give the voter fuller enjoyment of his right of suffrage8 #c4 ,which method would have the better effect upon the general welfare of the nation8 ,,iv4 ,the affirmative will uphold its side of the proposition by establishing the three following facts3-- ,a4 ,the direct popular vote system would be more practicable4 ,b4 ,the direct popular vote system would be more democratic4 ,c4 ,the direct popular vote system would be better for the general welfare of the nation4 ,,exercises4 ,a4 7#a7 ,criticise the following ,introduction to a brief1 and 7#b7 ,write a suitable ,introduction to a brief on this subject4 ,city ,location for ,college4 ,introduction4 ,a4 ,this question is important4 ,i4 ,the following explanation will aid-- 7a7 ,in the understanding1 and 7b7 ,in the discussion of the question4 #a4 ,primarily men come to college to study4 #b4 ,men can study better in the country4 #c4 ,but is this really the case8 ,b4 ,a college is an institution of learning higher in rank than a high school or an academy4 ,c4 ,the issues of the question are the following3 ,i4 ,which college location is more favorable to health and intellectual development8 ,,ii4 ,is the student able to enter athletics8 ,,iii4 ,does the student in the lonely country college form more lasting friendships8 ,,iv4 ,which is the cheaper8 ,which is the better location8 ,b4 ,put into brief form the ,introduction found above1 ,chapter #c1 ,exercise #g1 dealing with ,henry ,ward ,beecher4 ,c4 ,put the following ,introductions into brief form3-- 7#a7 ,,how ,,trusts ,,affect ,,prices4 ,perhaps no subject in connection with the ,industrial ,combinations of the last few years has been more discussed than that of their influence upon prices4 ,opinions have differed widely1 the opponents of the ,combinations usually believing that they have increased prices materially1 their defenders claiming with equal positiveness that they have reduced prices4 ,differences of opinion have probably originated largely from the fact that the subject has been approached from different points of view2 and mistakes have also1 in many cases1 been made through lack of a careful interpretation of available facts4 ,it by no means follows that the ,trusts have lowered prices because prices have fallen within a few years after their formation2 nor1 on the other hand1 that ,trusts have raised prices because prices have been increased4 ,neither does it follow that1 because the ,industrial ,combinations might through their economies lower prices1 they have1 as a matter of fact1 actually done so2 nor again that1 with the possible ability to increase prices through the exercise of monopolistic power1 they have not found it advisable under certain circumstances really to lower them4 ,any careful discussion of the subject will involve1 first1 what the influence of combination would enable the ,trusts to do regarding prices2 second1 what the ,combinations actually have done2 and1 third1 what effects upon society may be anticipated from any changes in prices made by ,industrial ,combinations4 ,footnote3 ,jeremiah ,w4 ,jenks1 ,north ,american ,review for ,june1 #aija1 p4 #ijf4 7#b7 ,mr4 ,chairman3 ,this bill 7,h4 ,r4 #agjai7 which ,i shall ask this ,house to pass to-day is one of that general class usually called private bills2 and while the usage of this ,house might catalogue it under that head1 it is in reality a public bill1 because it has to do with the interests of many people--indeed1 an entire city of #ge1jjj population4 ,this bill provides that the legal title to a certain tract of land situated near the city of ,tacoma1 the title to which is now in the ,united ,states ,government1 shall be transferred to the city of ,tacoma4 ,however1 ,i wish to assure this ,house that as a matter of fact the ,government practically loses nothing by the passage of this bill4 ,i realize that these two statements placed side by side seem to involve a contradiction4 ,therefore ,i will make a brief explanation of this matter4 ,since the year of #ahff the ,government has owned a tract of land adjoining what is now the city of ,tacoma2 this tract of land contains #fcg4i acres4 ,in the year of #ahhh the ,government gave the city of ,tacoma a right or license to use and occupy this land as a city park1 but retained the legal title in the ,government1 because it was thought that at some future time the ,government might need to use and occupy this land for military purposes4 ,therefore you will observe that the present condition of the title to this land is that the legal title is in the ,government1 with the right in the city to use and occupy the same4 ,this bill1 if it shall pass1 will simply reverse and place the legal title to this land in the city of ,tacoma1 with the right remaining in the ,government for all time to come to take possession or use and occupy any or all of this land that it might need for military1 naval1 or lighthouse purposes4 ,i wish to explain briefly to this ,house why the passage of this bill and this change in the title is not only fair and just1 but the failure to pass this bill would1 in my judgment1 be very unfair to the #ge1jjj people in the city of ,tacoma4 ,footnote3 ,speech of ,hon4 ,francis ,w4 ,cushman of ,washington1 in the ,house of ,representatives1 ,feb4 #bh1 #aije4 7#c7 ,,government ,,management ,,of ,,industrial ,,enterprises4 ,footnote3 ,a4 ,t4 ,hadley1 ,economics1 pp4 #cij-cic4 ,by far the most important part of consumers' co-operation is exemplified in government management of industrial enterprises4 ,this differs in two important particulars from the co-operative agencies already described4 ,in the first place the choice of managers of a government business enterprise is connected with the general political machinery of the country1 and regulated by constitutional law instead of by statutes of incorporation4 ,in the second place1 these managers are likely to fall back on the taxing powers of the ,government to make up any deficit which may arise in the operations of a public business enterprise2 or in the converse case to devote any surplus above expenses to the relief of tax burdens elsewhere4 ,a government enterprise is managed by the people who represent1 or are supposed to represent1 the consumers2 but the good or bad economy of its management does not necessarily redound to the profit or loss of those who most use it4 ,in the beginning of history1 the government is the power that controls the army4 ,when tribes were in a state of warfare with one another defense against foreign enemies was a matter of primary importance4 ,no man could let his private convenience stand in the way of effective military operations4 ,the discipline and subordination necessary to wage successful war were all-important2 and all the powers necessary to maintain such discipline were entrusted to the leaders of the army4 ,somewhat later the military authorities undertook the work of maintaining discipline in time of peace as well as war1 and of defining and enforcing the rights of members of the tribe against one another1 no less than against foreign enemies4 ,this function was not accorded to them without a struggle4 ,the priests1 under whose tutelage the religious sanction for tribal customs had grown up1 tried to keep in their own hands the responsibility of upholding these customs and the physical power connected with it4 ,in some races they succeeded1 but among ,european peoples the military authorities took the work of enforcing and defining laws out of the hands of the priests1 and made it a function of the state as distinct from the ,church4 ,as security from foreign enemies increased1 this law-making power became more and more important4 ,the ,government was less exclusively identified with the army1 and more occupied with the courts1 the legislatures1 and the internal police4 ,its judicial and legislative functions assumed a prominence at least as great as its military function4 ,the growth of private property was also coincident with the development of these domestic functions of government4 ,in fact1 the two things reinforced one another4 ,the production and accumulation of capital1 to which private property gave so vigorous an impulse1 placed the strong men of the community in a position where they had less to gain by war and more by peace4 ,it put them on the side of internal tranquility4 ,it thus made the government more powerful1 and this in turn still further increased the accumulations of capital4 ,but along with this mutual help1 which strong domestic government and strong property right rendered one another1 there was an element of mutual antagonism4 ,the very fulfillment of those functions which made the accumulation of capital possible1 rendered it impossible for the government to do its work except at the expense of the capitalists4 ,it was no longer possible to support armies by booty1 or courts by fines and forfeitures4 ,the expense of maintaining order had to be paid by its friends instead of by its enemies4 ,the growth of private property was followed by the development of a system of taxation1 which1 in theory at any rate1 involved the power to destroy such property4 ,the existence of such a system of taxation1 with the machinery for collecting money in this way1 allows the government more freedom of industrial action than any private individual can command4 ,it can make up a deficit by compulsory payments2 and this gives it a wider range of power in deciding what services it will undertake and what prices it will charge--a power which affords almost unlimited opportunity for good or bad use1 according to the degree of skill and integrity with which it is exercised4 ,every extension of government activity into new fields restricts private enterprise in two ways3 first by limiting the field for investment of private capital1 and second1 by possibly1 if not probably1 appropriating through taxation a part of the returns from private enterprise in all other fields4 ,the question whether a government should manage an industry reduces itself to this3 ,are the deficiencies or evils connected with private management such that it is wise to give government officials the taxing power which constitutes the distinctive feature of public industrial management8 ,d4 ,draw an ,introduction to a brief on each of the propositions given on page #hb4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,discussion--,,conviction ,it has been seen that one who wishes to establish the truth or the falsity of a proposition must answer certain vital questions that are bound to arise in connection with it4 ,then1 as different persons may answer these questions in different ways1 it becomes necessary for him to convince his audience that his answers are correct4 ,he must always beware of assertiveness4 ,this defect occurs whenever a speaker or writer makes a statement but does not establish its truth4 ,as simple denial is always sufficient answer to mere assertion1 an unsupported statement is worthless4 ,no one can hope to win in debate or change another's belief unless he can prove that what he says is true2 he must substantiate with proof every statement that he makes1 and show that no possibility for error or deceit can exist4 ,in argumentation every statement not commonly accented as true must be proved4 ,the following passage is a highly assertive bit of argument2 its worthlessness is apparent4 ,the decision of ,congress to increase still further our already enormous navy is an injustice to every individual who contributes to the support of the national government4 ,it is a crime to squander millions of money on a fleet that we do not need4 ,our navy to-day is more than the equal of any foreign armament that floats4 ,though second in number of ships1 it ranks first in efficiency among all the navies of the world4 ,no other country can boast of such marksmanship as our gunners display2 no other country can boast of such armor plate as is to be found on our first-class battleships2 not even ,england can successfully compete with us in seamanship and in general efficiency4 ,proof is anything which serves either immediately or mediately to convince the mind of the truth or the falsehood of a fact or proposition4 ,footnote3 ,on ,evidence1 ,best1 p4 #de4 ,belief in a specific statement is induced by a presentation of pertinent facts1 and usually by a process of reasoning whereby from the existence of these known facts1 the conclusion1 hitherto unaccepted1 is reached4 ,those facts that have to do with the proposition under discussion are known as evidence4 ,the process of combining facts and deriving an inference from them is known as reasoning4 ,evidence may be made up of the testimony of witnesses1 the opinion of experts1 knowledge derived from experience1 the testimony of documents1 or circumstances that are generally known to have existed4 ,reasoning is the process by which men form opinions1 render judgments1 explain events1 or in any way seek new truths from established facts4 ,in the following bit of proof1 notice the facts that are stated1 and see how1 by a process of reasoning1 they go to substantiate the idea that they are intended to prove3-- ,new ,york hires two policemen where ,nashville hires one1 and pays them double the salary2 yet ,nashville is as peaceable and orderly as ,new ,york4 ,in ,nashville any child of school age can have a seat in the public schools all through the year2 in ,new ,york there has been a shortage of seats for many years4 ,nashville has a filtered water supply2 ,new ,york is going to have one as soon as the #ab1jjj1jjj filtration plant can be built at ,jerome ,park4 ,street car fares are five cents in both cities2 in ,nashville one can always get a seat2 in ,new ,york one has to scramble for standing room4 ,the southern city maintains hospitals1 parks1 food inspectors1 and all other things common to ,new ,york and other large cities4 ,apparently1 ,nashville is giving as much to its inhabitants for six dollars per capita as ,new ,york for thirty-one4 ,these facts can point to but one conclusion--that ,nashville has a superior system of government4 ,since the first step in the generation of proof is the discovery of facts1 the arguer should at the very outset become sufficiently familiar with the various kinds of evidence to estimate the value and strength of each idea that has a bearing upon the subject4 ,i4 ,,evidence4 ,there are two kinds of evidence3 7a7 direct1 and 7b7 indirect or circumstantial4 ,if a man sees a gang of strikers set fire to the buildings of their former employer1 his evidence is direct4 ,if1 however1 he only sees them stealthily leaving the buildings just before the fire breaks out1 his evidence is indirect4 ,in the latter case the man's testimony is direct evidence that the men were in the vicinity of the fire when it started1 but it is indirect evidence that they perpetrated the crime4 ,if a student who has failed to do good work throughout the term1 and who has had little or no opportunity for special preparation1 passes in a perfect paper at the close of an examination1 the presumption is that he has received aid4 ,the evidence on which this supposition rests is entirely circumstantial4 ,but if some one saw the student obtaining aid1 that fact would be direct evidence against him4 ,direct evidence1 as a rule1 is considered more valuable than indirect1 but each kind is frequently sufficient to induce belief4 ,the best possible kind of evidence1 the kind that is least liable to contain error or falsehood1 is a combination of both direct and indirect4 ,either one by itself may be untrustworthy4 ,the unreliability of evidence given by eyewitnesses is shown by the conflicting stories they frequently tell concerning the same incident even when they are honestly attempting to relate the facts as they occurred4 ,also1 it is always possible that the inferences drawn from a combination of circumstances may be entirely wrong4 ,when1 however1 both kinds of evidence are available1 each confirming the other and leading up to the same conclusion1 then the possibility of error is reduced to a minimum4 ,the opportunity of the college student for obtaining evidence in his argumentative work is limited4 ,a lawyer before entering upon an important case often spends weeks and months in investigation2 scientists sometimes devote a whole lifetime in trying to establish a single hypothesis4 ,but the college student in preparing an argument must obtain his evidence in a few days4 ,there are several sources at his disposal4 ,the first available source is his fund of general knowledge and experience4 ,if a man can establish a statement by saying that he personally knows it to be true1 he has valuable proof4 ,then the people with whom the student comes in contact constitute another source of evidence4 ,anyone who can give information on a subject that is being investigated is a valuable witness4 ,especially in discussions on questions which pertain to college life1 the opinions and experiences of college men and of prominent educators are unsurpassed as evidence4 ,but the greatest source of evidence for the student of argumentation is the library4 ,here he may consult the best thought of all time in every branch of activity4 ,he may review the opinions of statesmen1 economists1 educators1 and scientists1 and introduce as evidence their experiences and the results of their investigations4 ,here he may familiarize himself with the current events of the world1 and draw his own conclusions as to their significance4 ,in fact1 a well equipped library treats of all subjects1 however broad or narrow they may be1 and furnishes evidence for all sorts of debatable questions4 ,as not all evidence is equally valuable1 a large part of the work of argumentation consists in applying tests to the evidence at hand for the sake of determining what facts are irrefutable1 what are doubtful1 and what are worthless4 ,moreover1 one engaged in argumentation must test not only his own evidence but also that of the other side4 ,no better method of refuting an opponent's argument exists than to show that the facts on which it rests are untrustworthy4 ,tests of evidence may be divided into two classes3 tests of the source from which it comes1 and tests of the quality of the evidence itself4 ,a4 ,,tests ,,of ,,the ,,source ,,of ,,evidence4 ,since in courts of law1 in college debate1 and in all kinds of argumentation1 facts are established by the testimony of witnesses1 the sources of evidence are the witnesses who give it4 ,the debater and the argumentative writer have not the opportunity1 as has the lawyer1 of producing the witnesses and permitting them to tell their own stories to the audience4 ,he must himself relate the evidence2 and1 in order that it may be believed1 he must tell whence it comes4 ,the sources of evidence may be common rumor1 newspapers1 magazines1 official documents1 private citizens1 or public officials4 ,the extent to which these witnesses are accepted as trustworthy by the people before whom they are quoted determines in a large measure whether or not the evidence will be believed4 ,tests for determining the trustworthiness of witnesses will next be given4 ,the first test of the source of evidence should be3-- 7#a7 ,is the witness competent to give a trustworthy account of the matter under consideration8 ,to answer this question1 first determine whether the facts to be established are such that any ordinary person can speak concerning them with reasonable accuracy1 or whether they can be understood only by persons who have received special training4 ,a landsman could well testify that a naval battle had occurred1 but only a man with nautical training could accurately describe the maneuvers of the ships and tell just how the engagement progressed4 ,a coal heaver's description of a surgical operation would establish nothing1 except perhaps the identity of the people and a few other general matters2 only a person with a medical education could accurately describe the procedure4 ,the testimony of any one but a naturalist would not even tend to prove the existence of an hitherto unknown species of animal life4 ,a witness without technical knowledge cannot give reliable evidence on matters of a technical nature4 ,then1 if it is found that the witness does possess the necessary technical training1 or that no previous training is necessary1 still further test his ability to give reliable evidence by asking whether he has had ample opportunity for investigating the facts to the existence of which he testifies4 ,for even a skilled player sitting in the first base bleachers at a baseball game to criticise an umpire's decisions on balls and strikes is absurd2 the opinion of a transient visitor to ,panama on the methods used in digging the canal is not valuable2 a traveler who has spent a single month in ,japan cannot draw reliable conclusions on the merits and defects of its political structure4 ,in not one of these cases has the opportunity for investigation been sufficient to render the witness able to give reliable evidence4 ,a current magazine in discussing the weakness of testimony that comes from incompetent witnesses says3-- ,generalizations about the tastes and interests of the age are so easy that all except the most wary fall into them1 and the world is full of off-hand opinions touching the condition of society and the state of the world1 which are far more conspicuous for courage than for discretion4 ,there are very few men or women in any particular period who know it intimately enough1 and with sufficient insight and sympathy1 to pass judgment upon it4 ,one hears almost every day sweeping judgments about ,americans1 ,english1 ,french1 ,germans1 ,chinese1 and ,japanese which are entirely valueless1 unless they are based on a very broad and intimate knowledge of these various peoples1 a knowledge which1 in the nature of things1 few people possess4 ,the charming ,american girl who declared that1 since gloves are cheaper in ,paris1 ,american civilization is a failure1 may stand for a type of interesting and piquant oracles1 to be heard with attention1 but under no circumstances to be followed4 ,americans are so familiar with the ,european traveler who arrives and makes up his opinion over night in regard to men1 morals1 and manners in the ,western world and have so often been the victim of this self-confident critic1 that they ought not to repeat the same blunder in dealing with other peoples4 ,footnote3 ,the ,outlook1 ,july #bj1 #aijg4 ,in the court room1 where witnesses are present and can be carefully examined by the lawyers on both sides1 it is customary to apply both mental and physical tests4 ,the witness who testifies to knowledge of some event that occurred a long time before is given a memory test2 the senses1 also1 through which occurrences are perceived are frequently examined4 ,but as writers and debaters in general seldom have the opportunity to apply tests of this sort to their sources of information1 and as these tests are seldom important outside of the law courts1 they are not taken up in detail in this book4 ,the second test of the source of evidence should be3-- 7#b7 ,is the witness willing to give an accurate account of the matter8 ,one important influence that may cause a witness to give false evidence is self-interest4 ,not only individuals1 but social and industrial organizations1 political parties1 communities1 and states are frequently swayed by this emotion to the extent of deliberately perverting the truth4 ,the evidence found in newspapers and other publications is often false1 or at least misleading1 because it has been tampered with by those who put their selfish interests before all else4 ,the owner of an industry protected by a high tariff would scarcely be considered a reliable witness in matters affecting tariff reform4 ,the opinion of a railroad magnate on the subject of a compulsory two-cent rate law would not be considered as unbiased4 ,no disinterested seeker after truth would accept the political conclusions of a newspaper owned by a politician or recognized as the organ of a certain party4 ,in all such cases1 self-interest may prompt the witness to make statements not in strict accordance with the truth4 ,perjury in the court room is not uncommon2 falsehood elsewhere must be guarded against4 ,the arguer should always carefully scrutinize the testimony of a witness that has any special interest in the matter for which evidence is being sought4 ,though the self-interest is strong1 the witness may be willing to state the matter accurately2 but1 as long as human nature remains as it is1 this willingness should not be taken for granted4 ,the third test of the source of evidence should be3-- 7#c7 ,is the witness prejudiced8 ,another emotion that frequently keeps a witness from telling the exact truth is prejudice4 ,every one is familiar with instances of how this passion warps men's morals and corrupts their judgment4 ,if a man is prejudiced for or against a person or a system1 he cannot be accepted as a trustworthy witness in matters where his prejudice comes into play4 ,should an economist known to favor socialism write a treatise advocating municipal ownership of public utilities1 his evidence and his reasoning would not be convincing2 it would be taken for granted that he looked at the subject through socialistic spectacles4 ,a person who sets out with the expectation and intention of finding flaws in anything usually succeeds4 ,though he is willing to tell the exact truth1 yet because of his prejudice he is sure to see only that which will coincide with his preconceived opinions4 ,for this reason1 political speeches and intensely partisan books and papers are invariably unreliable sources of evidence even though they are not intentionally dishonest4 ,the fourth test of the source of evidence is3-- 7#d7 ,does the witness have a good reputation for honesty and accuracy8 ,the human conscience is so constituted that many people deviate from the truth for no apparent reason whatever4 ,some are given to exaggeration2 some habitually pretend to know that of which they are entirely ignorant2 others are so inaccurate that everything they say is open to grave suspicion4 ,if a witness is known to have been repeatedly dishonest or inaccurate in the past1 little reliance should be placed in his testimony4 ,yellow journalism1 which is largely the reflection of common rumor1 affords constant examples of witnesses that give questionable evidence4 ,ability and willingness to give exact evidence1 an unprejudiced attitude1 and a good reputation for honesty and accuracy are the qualities that should characterize the sources of evidence4 ,if a writer or speaker is securing testimony from friends or acquaintances1 the application of these tests is not difficult4 ,if1 however1 the sources are books and periodicals1 his work is harder2 but to be successful1 he must not shirk it4 ,when one procures evidence from books1 he should investigate the character and standing of the author4 ,when one obtains it from signed articles in papers and magazines1 he must consider both the author and the character of the publication4 ,in the case of newspaper stories and editorials1 one should find out on what general policy and principles the paper is conducted4 ,a cautious arguer will always avoid1 as far as he can1 the use of evidence that comes from a doubtful source4 ,if one finds that an opponent has used the testimony of questionable witnesses1 he can1 by exposing the fact1 easily refute the argument4 ,,necessity ,,of ,,stating ,,sources4 ,it sometimes happens that an arguer fails to state the source of his evidence4 ,this omission is usually fatal to success4 ,no one is likely to put much confidence in statements that are introduced by such flimsy preambles as1 ,a certain statesman has declared2 ,i have read somewhere2 ,an acquaintance told me4 ,not only must evidence come from sources that seem good to the writer1 but those sources must be satisfactory to the audience4 ,in the last analysis the audience is the judge of what is credible and what is not4 ,moreover1 if the evidence is of great importance1 or is liable to be disputed1 the arguer should show in a few words why the witness is especially reliable4 ,b4 ,,internal ,,tests ,,of ,,evidence 7#a7 ,is the evidence consistent with 7a7 other evidence in the same argument2 7b7 known facts2 7c7 human experience8 ,the requirement that every separate bit of evidence in an argument shall be consistent with every other bit of evidence in the same argument is too well understood to need explanation4 ,one familiar with courts of law knows that a witness who contradicts himself is not believed4 ,furthermore1 if the testimony of several witnesses for the same side is inconsistent1 the case for that side is materially weakened4 ,so it is in general debate3 the arguer who wishes to succeed must not use evidence that is self-contradictory4 ,his proof must hang together2 his facts must all go to establish the same conclusion4 ,a flagrant violation of this principle once occurred in a class-room debate4 ,the speaker for the negative on the proposition1 ,resolved1 ,that freshmen should be ineligible for college teams1 said that such a rule would deprive the freshmen of much- needed physical exercise4 ,later on1 he said that just as many freshmen would receive injuries under this rule as without it1 since they would take part in equally dangerous contests as members of freshmen teams4 ,this contradiction ruined his argument4 ,in the next place1 evidence to be of any value whatever1 must be consistent with what is known about the case4 ,if an arguer is so careless as to make statements contradictory either to well- established facts or to facts easily proved1 he cannot hope to attain the slightest measure of success4 ,only one guilty of gross neglect or absolute falsehood is likely to fall into such an error4 ,at one time the story was circulated that1 during his early life1 ,lincoln had been insane4 ,in the following passage ,ida ,m4 ,tarbell shows that the testimony on which this belief was founded is inconsistent with the known facts of the case1 and is1 therefore1 palpably untrue3-- ,mr4 ,thornton went on to say that he knew beyond a doubt that the sensational account of ,lincoln's insanity was untrue1 and he quoted from the ,house journal to show how it was impossible that1 as ,lamon says1 using ,herndon's notes1 ',lincoln went crazy as a loon1 and did not attend the legislature in #ahda-ahdb1 for this reason'2 or1 as ,herndon says1 that he had to be watched constantly4 ,according to the record taken from the journals of the ,house by ,mr4 ,thornton1 which have been verified in ,springfield1 ,mr4 ,lincoln was in his seat in the ,house on that 'fatal first of ,january' when he is asserted to have been groping in the shadow of madness1 and he was also there on the following day4 ,lincoln himself was an expert at detecting inconsistency wherever it existed4 ,he won many of his lawsuits by the straightforward method of showing that the one or two vital statements on which the whole case of the opposition rested were false1 inasmuch as they were inconsistent with well-established and incontrovertible facts4 ,an instance of this sort is here described3-- ,the most damaging evidence was that of one ,allen1 who swore that he had seen ,armstrong strike ,metzker about ten or eleven o'clock in the evening4 ,when asked how he could see1 he answered that the moon shone brightly4 ,under ,lincoln's questioning he repeated the statement until it was impossible that the jury should forget it4 ,with ,allen's testimony unimpeached1 conviction seemed certain4 ,lincoln's address to the jury was full of pathos4 ,it was not as a hired attorney that he was there1 he said1 but to discharge a debt of friendship4444 ,but ,lincoln was not relying on sympathy alone to win his case4 ,in closing he reviewed the evidence1 showing that all depended on ,allen's testimony1 and this he said he could prove to be false4 ,allen never saw ,armstrong strike ,metzker by the light of the moon1 for at the hour when he said he saw the fight1 between ten and eleven o'clock1 the moon was not in the heavens4 ,then procuring an almanac1 he passed it to the judge and jury4 ,the moon1 which was on that night only in its first quarter1 had set before midnight4 ,footnote3 ,the ,life of ,abraham ,lincoln1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bgb4 ,ida ,m4 ,tarbell4 ,the ,doubleday ,mc,clure ,co4 ,an arguer should also be extremely careful to use evidence that on its face appears reasonable4 ,only an extremely credulous audience will accept ideas that run counter to human belief and experience4 ,to attribute the occurrence of an event to supernatural causes would bring a smile of derision to any but a most ignorant and superstitious person4 ,to attribute to men qualities and characteristics that human experience has shown they do not possess will bring equal discredit4 ,no one is likely to accept evidence that contradicts his habits of thinking1 that is contrary to what his life and experience have taught him is true4 ,for this reason savage people are slow to believe the teachings of the ,christian religion4 ,for this reason it is difficult to make an audience believe that any one will deliberately and consistently work against his own interests1 or follow any other unusual line of action4 ,evidence contrary to human experience may be true1 but unless the exigencies of the argument demand its use1 the arguer will do well to omit it entirely4 ,if he is obliged to use it1 he should make it appear as reasonable as he can1 and also substantiate it with careful proof4 ,huxley appreciated the fact that evidence1 to be believed1 must be in accordance with man's experience when he wrote the following3-- ,if any one were to try to persuade you that an oyster shell 7which is also chiefly composed of carbonate of lime7 had crystallized out of sea-water1 ,i suppose you would laugh at the absurdity4 ,your laughter would be justified by the fact that all experience tends to show that oyster-shells are formed by the agency of oysters1 and in no other way4 ,the ease with which an argument that does not satisfy this requirement may be overthrown is clearly shown in the following extract from a student's forensic3-- ,to say that the ,cuban reconcentrados sunk the ,maine in an effort to embroil the ,united ,states in a conflict with ,spain is the veriest foolishness4 ,there is not one scrap of documentary evidence to show that such was the case4 ,moreover1 such an act would be unparalleled in the annals of history4 ,it is unreasonable1 contrary to all experience1 that those oppressed people should have brought disaster1 involving the destruction of property and the loss of many lives1 upon the very nation that they were looking to for assistance4 7#b7 ,is the evidence first-hand or hearsay evidence8 ,it is universally recognized that hearsay evidence is unreliable4 ,a narrative is sure to become so garbled by passing from mouth to mouth that unless a witness can testify to a fact from his own personal knowledge the evidence he gives is worthy of little credence4 ,there is sufficient chance for error when the person who witnessed the event relates the account himself2 if the story is told by a second1 and perhaps by a third person1 it is likely to reflect but little of what really happened4 ,every one is familiar with the exaggerations of common rumor2 it distorts facts so that they are unrecognizable4 ,the works of ,herodotus are untrustworthy because he frequently believed hearsay evidence4 ,since second-hand evidence both fails to establish anything worth while1 if allowed to stand1 and is easily overthrown even by a very little first-hand evidence1 an arguer will do well to follow the custom of the law courts1 and1 as a rule1 exclude it altogether4 7#c7 ,can the evidence be considered as especially valuable8 7a7 ,hurtful admissions constitute an especially valuable kind of evidence4 ,since men are not wont to give evidence detrimental to their personal interest unless impelled to do so by conscientious scruples1 any testimony damaging to the one who gives it is in all probability not only truthful1 but also the result of careful investigation4 ,when a practising physician admits that half the ailments of mankind are imaginary or so trivial as to need no medical attention1 he is making a statement that is likely to injure his business2 for this reason he is probably stating the result of his experience truthfully4 ,if a railroad president says that in his opinion government supervision of railroads will benefit the public in the matter of rates and service1 it may be taken for granted that he has given his honest belief1 and that his natural reluctance to surrender any authority of his own has kept him from speaking carelessly4 ,if a member of the ,united ,states ,senate admits that that body is corrupt1 and selfish1 and untrustworthy1 he is lowering his own rank2 therefore it is reasonable to believe that he is speaking the truth according to his honest belief4 ,the following is an example of this kind of evidence3-- ,it was stated during the ,manchurian campaign that the ,jewish soldiers1 of whom ,kuropatkin had about #ce1jjj1 not only failed to hold their ground under fire1 but by their timidity threw their comrades into panic4 ,but good evidence can be cited from the correspondents of the ,novoye ,vremya1 an ,anti-,semitic organ1 to the effect that among the ,jews were found many intrepid and intelligent soldiers1 and that a number of them were awarded the ,st4 ,george's cross for gallantry4 ,footnote3 ,the ,nation1 ,june #aa1 #aijh4 ,it is hardly necessary to add that one who places especial reliance on this kind of evidence must be sure that the admission is really and not merely apparently contrary to the interest of the one who gives it4 7b7 ,another particularly valuable kind of evidence is negative evidence1 or the evidence of silence4 ,whenever a witness fails to mention an event which1 if it had occurred1 would have been of such interest to him that he might reasonably have been expected to have mentioned it1 his silence upon the matter becomes negative evidence that the event did not occur4 ,for many years no one suggested that ,bacon wrote the ,shakespearean plays2 this absence of testimony to the belief that ,bacon wrote them is strong evidence that such belief did not exist until recently1 a fact that tends to discredit the ,baconian theory of authorship4 ,the fact that in the writings of ,dickens and ,thackeray no mention is made of the bicycle is negative evidence that the bicycle had not then come into use4 ,that ,moses nowhere in his writings speaks of life after death is negative evidence that the ,hebrews did not believe in the immortality of the soul4 ,if admittedly capable and impartial officials do not inflict penalties for foul playing during a football game1 there is strong presumption that little or no foul playing occurred4 ,the following paragraph1 taken from a current magazine1 shows how this kind of evidence may be handled very effectively3-- ,a sharp controversy has been raging in the ,european press over the question whether ,gambetta secretly visited ,bismarck in #ahgh4 ,francis ,laur1 ,gambetta's literary executor1 has published an article asserting that he did1 and giving details 7rather vague1 it must be admitted7 of the conversation between the two statesmen4 ,but he offers not a scrap of documentary proof4 ,he is not even sure whether the interview took place at ,friedrichsruh or at ,varzin4 ,this is rather disconcerting1 especially in view of the fact that ,bismarck never made the slightest reference in his reminiscences or letters to the visit of ,gambetta1 if it occurred1 and that the minute ,busch never mentioned it4 ,footnote3 ,the ,nation1 ,september #e1 #aijg ,,argument ,,from ,,authority4 ,there is a particular kind of evidence frequently available for debaters and argumentative writers known as argument from authority4 ,this evidence consists of the opinions and decisions of men who are recognized1 to some extent at least1 as authorities on the subjects of which they speak4 ,an eminent scientist might explain with unquestioned certainty the operation of certain natural phenomena4 ,a business man of wide experience and with well recognized insight into national conditions might speak authoritatively on the causes of business depressions4 ,in religious matters the ,bible is the highest authority for orthodox ,christians2 the ,koran1 for ,mohammedans4 ,in legal affairs the highest authorities are court decisions1 opinions of eminent jurists1 and the ,constitution4 ,if a certain college president is considered an authority in the matter of college discipline1 then a quotation from him on the evils of hazing becomes valuable evidence for the affirmative of the proposition1 ,hazing should be abolished in all colleges4 ,if the arguer wishes to strengthen his evidence1 he may do so by giving the president's reasons for condemning hazing2 but he then departs from pure argument from authority4 ,pure argument from authority does not consist of a statement of the reasons involved2 it asserts that something is true because some one who is acknowledged to be an authority on that subject says it is true4 ,argument from authority differs from other evidence in that it involves not merely investigation but also the exercise of a high degree of judgment4 ,the statement that in #aijb1 in the ,united ,kingdom1 two hundred and ninety-five communities of from #h1jjj to #be1jjj inhabitants were without street-car lines is not argument from authority2 the discovery of this truth involved merely investigation4 ,on the other hand1 if some reputable statesman or business man should say that street-car facilities in the ,united ,states excelled those of ,england1 this evidence would be argument from authority2 only through both investigation and judgment could such a statement be evolved4 ,this kind of evidence is very strong when those addressed have confidence in the integrity1 ability1 and judgment of the person quoted4 ,if1 however1 they do not know him1 or if they do not consider him reliable1 the evidence is of little value4 ,therefore1 the test that an arguer should apply before using this kind of evidence is as follows3-- ,is the witness an acknowledged authority on the subject about which he speaks8 ,sometimes a short statement showing why the witness quoted is able to speak wisely and conclusively will render the evidence more valuable in the eyes of the audience4 ,in the following example1 notice how ,judge ,james ,h4 ,blount used authority in proving that the ,filipinos desired self-government3-- ,senator ,dubois1 of ,idaho1 who was a member of the ,congressional party that visited the ,philippines1 has since said in the ,new ,york ,independent3 ,all the ,filipinos1 with the exception of those who were holding positions under and drawing salaries from our ,government1 favor a government of their own4 ,there is scarcely an exception among them4444 ,there is nobody in the islands1 no organization of any kind or description1 which favors the policy of our ,government toward them4 ,senator ,newlands1 of ,nevada1 also a member of the ,congressional party aforesaid1 has declared1 in the number of this ,review for ,december1 #aije1 that practically the whole people desire independence4 ,congressman ,parsons1 also a member of the same party1 has since said3 ,there is no question that all the ,filipino parties are now in favor of independence4 ,captain ,j4 ,a4 ,moss1 of the ,twenty-fourth ,infantry1 a member of ,general ,corbin's staff1 is quoted by ,mr4 ,bryan1 in the ,commoner of ,april #bgth1 #aijf1 as saying in an article published in a ,manila paper while ,mr4 ,bryan was in the islands1 with reference to the wishes of the great majority of ,filipinos1 that to please them1 we cannot get out of the islands too soon4 ,footnote3 ,north ,american ,review1 ,vol4 ,,clxxxiv1 p4 #acf4 ,,ii4 ,,reasoning4 ,as has been said1 proof consists of evidence and reasoning4 ,evidence has been considered first because this order corresponds to the way in which proof is usually generated2 obviously1 the discovery of facts precedes the process of reasoning which shows their significance4 ,in some instances1 however1 this order is reversed3 a man may form a theory and then hunt for the facts on which to base it2 but in general1 facts precede inferences4 ,since all people when they reason do not reach the same conclusion1 it is very essential for a student to investigate the various processes of reasoning4 ,given exactly the same evidence1 some men will draw one conclusion1 some another4 ,a current periodical recognizes this fact when it says3-- ,how widely divergent may be conclusions drawn from the same source can be judged by contrasting these two statements3 ,messrs4 ,clark and ,edgar declare that where municipal ownership has been removed from the realm of philosophic discussion and put to the test of actual experience it has failed ingloriously2 ,professor ,parsons and ,mr4 ,bemis on the contrary assert1 to use ,professor ,parsons' words1 it is not public ownership1 but private ownership1 that is responsible for our periodic crisis and the ruin of our industries1 and it is not impossible that the elimination of the public service corporations through public ownership is one of the things that would do more to help along the process of making our cities fit4 ,footnote3 ,outlook1 ,july #bg1 #aijg4 ,because of the divergencies in the results produced by reasoning1 a student should study with considerable care the various processes of arriving at a conclusion1 so that he may be able to tell what methods are strong1 what are weak1 and what are fallacious4 ,according to a common classification1 there are two methods of reasoning3 the inductive process1 and the deductive process4 #a4 ,,inductive ,,reasoning4 ,when one carefully investigates his reasons for believing as he does1 he often finds that he accepts a certain statement as true because he is familiar with many specific instances that tend to establish its truth4 ,the belief that prussic acid is poisonous is based upon the large number of instances in which its deadly effect has been apparent4 ,the fact that railroad men are exposed to injury is unquestioned because every one is familiar with the many accidents that occur each year4 ,the statement that water freezes at thirty-two degrees ,fahrenheit has been proved true by innumerable tests4 ,this process of reasoning by which1 from many specific instances1 the truth of a general statement is established1 is called induction4 ,an example of inductive reasoning is found in the following passage3-- ,does the closing of the saloons affect appreciably the amount of drunkenness in the community8 ,a comparison of the same town or city in successive years--one year under one system1 and the next year under the other--furnishes a basis for accurate judgment4 ,evidence of this sort is all one way1 and it seems to be conclusive4 ,the tables prepared by the ,massachusetts ,bureau of ,statistics of ,labor1 in #aije1 under special instructions from the legislature1 show that in ,haverhill the average number of arrests per month under license was #ha4fc1 under no-license1 #bf4ej2 in ,lynn1 under license1 #cae1 under no-license1 #aag4fc2 in ,medford1 under license1 #bj4ab1 under no-license1 #ac4be2 in ,pittsfield1 under license1 #ic4be1 under no-license1 #cf4ge2 and in ,salem1 under license1 #adj4ej1 under no-license1 #bi4fc4 ,such comparisons might be multiplied1 but it is unnecessary4 ,there is no escaping the conclusion that the closing of the saloons1 under the ,local ,option system1 does sensibly diminish the volume of drunkenness4 ,footnote3 ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,vol4 ,,xc1 p4 #dcg4 ,in using inductive reasoning1 one must always be on his guard against drawing conclusions too hastily4 ,it is never correct to conclude from a consideration of only a few instances that a general truth has been discovered4 ,further examination may show that the opinion first formed will not hold4 ,some people call all men dishonest because several acquaintances have not kept faith with them4 ,others are ready to believe that because they have made money in the stock market all can do likewise4 ,most superstitions arise through generalization from too few instances3 those who have several times met misfortune on the thirteenth day of the month are apt to say that the thirteenth is always an unlucky day4 ,such reasoning as this shows the weakness of inductive argument3 a conclusion is worthless if it is drawn from too few examples4 ,professor ,fred ,lewis ,pattee1 in writing on ,errors in ,reasoning1 says3-- ,children and even adults often generalize from a single experience4 ,a little boy cautioned me at one time to keep away from a certain horse1 for white horses always kick4 ,an old ,pennsylvania farmer laid down the law that shingles laid during the increase of the moon always curl up4 ,he had tried it once and found out4 ,a friend will advise you to take ,blank's ,bitters3 ,i took a bottle one spring and felt much better2 they always cure4 ,physicians base their knowledge of medicines upon the observations of thousands of trained observers through many years1 and not upon a single experience4 ,most people are prone to judge their neighbors from too slight acquaintance4 ,if a man is late at an appointment twice in succession1 someone is sure to say3 ,oh1 he's always late4 ,this is poor thinking because it is bad judgment4 ,judgments should be made with care and from fullness of experience4 ,footnote3 ,the ,adult ,bible ,class and ,teacher ,training ,monthly1 ,may1 #aijh1 page #bie4 ,the following quotation illustrates how often hasty generalizations create prejudice and sway public judgment3-- ,there is an impression shared by many that the relation between the white and black races in this country is becoming less amicable and more and more surcharged with injustice4 ,the basis for this impression is to be found in certain dramatic and sensational events1 in particular the riots in ,springfield1 ,illinois1 and in ,atlanta1 ,georgia4 ,the memory of those events is becoming faint in many minds2 but the impression they created remains4 ,a dramatic event will have an effect upon public opinion which statistics1 more significant but less picturesque1 will altogether fail to produce4 ,in the horror at the brief work of a mob the diminution in the annual number of lynchings is forgotten4 ,the fundamental mistake in this is in the picking out of a startling episode or a reckless utterance and regarding it as typical4 ,we do not arrive at the truth in that way4 ,the ,black ,hand assassin does not furnish a true index to the ,italian character4 ,aaron ,burr is not an exhibit of the product of ,american ,puritanism4 ,so1 if we wish to find out what ,american democracy has done with the negro1 we do not search1 if we are wise1 into the chain-gang of ,georgia or into the slums of ,new ,york4 ,footnote3 ,the ,outlook1 ,april #d1 #aijh4 ,the value of inductive reasoning depends upon the number of instances observed4 ,very seldom is it possible to investigate every case of the class under discussion4 ,of course this can sometimes be done4 ,for instance1 one may be able to state that all his brothers are college graduates1 since he can speak authoritatively concerning each one of them4 ,but usually an examination of every instance is out of the question1 and whenever induction is based on less than all existing cases1 it establishes only probable truth4 ,from the foregoing it is seen that the tests for induction are two3-- 7#a7 ,have enough instances of the class under consideration been investigated to establish the existence of a general law8 7#b7 ,have enough instances been investigated to establish the probable existence of a general law8 #b4 ,,deductive ,,reasoning4 ,deductive reasoning is the method of demonstrating the truth of a particular statement by showing that some general principle1 which has previously been established or which is admitted to be true1 applies to it4 ,a stranger on coming to the ,united ,states might ask whether our postal system is a success4 ,the answer would perhaps be1 ,yes1 certainly it is1 for it is maintained by the government1 and all our government enterprises are successful4 ,when the metal thurium was discovered1 a query doubtless arose as to whether it was fusible4 ,it was then reasoned that since all metals hitherto known were fusible1 and since thurium was a metal1 undoubtedly it was fusible4 ,stated in clearer form1 the reasoning in each case would be3-- ,a4 ,all our government enterprises are successful4 ,b4 ,the ,united ,states postal system is a government enterprise4 ,c4 ,therefore the ,united ,states postal system is successful4 ,a4 ,all metals are fusible4 ,b4 ,thurium is a metal4 ,c4 ,therefore thurium is fusible4 ,such a series of statements is called a syllogism4 ,a syllogism always consists of a major premise 7,a71 a minor premise 7,b71 and a conclusion 7,c74 ,the major premise always states a general law2 the minor premise shows that the general law applies to the particular case under consideration2 and the conclusion is1 in the light of the two premises1 an established truth4 ,the strength of deductive argument depends on two things3 the truth of the premises and the framing of the syllogism4 ,the syllogism must always be so stated that a conclusion is derived from the application of a general law to some specific instance to which the law obviously applies4 ,in the next place1 the premises must be true4 ,if they are only probably correct1 the conclusion is a mere presumption2 if either one is false1 the conclusion is probably false4 ,but if the syllogism is correctly framed1 and if both premises are true1 the conclusion is irrefutable4 ,as premises are facts that have first been established by induction1 the relation between inductive and deductive reasoning is very close4 ,in fact1 deduction depends on induction for its very existence4 ,to overthrow a deductive argument all that is necessary is to show the error in the inductive process that built up either one or both of the premises4 ,the tests for deduction are3-- 7#a7 ,are both premises true8 7#b7 ,is the fact stated in the minor premise an instance of the general law expressed in the major premise8 ,in practical argumentation it is not always necessary or desirable to express a deductive argument in full syllogistic form4 ,one premise is frequently omitted2 the syllogism thus shortened is called an enthymeme4 ,the reasoning then takes some such form as1 ,this man will fail in business because he is incompetent4 ,the major premise1 ,all incompetent men fail in business1 is understood1 but is not expressed4 ,the enthymeme constitutes as strong and forceful an argument as the syllogism1 provided the suppressed premise is a well- established fact2 but whenever this premise is not accepted as true1 it must be stated and proved4 ,the argument will then consist of the full syllogistic process4 ,the following outline illustrates the chief difference between induction and deduction3-- ,the game of football benefits the players physically1 because 7,induction47 #a4 ,football is known to have benefited ,henry ,harvey4 #b4 ,football is known to have benefited ,frank ,barrs4 #c4 ,football is known to have benefited ,penn ,armstrong4 7,deduction47 #a4 ,the game affords the players regular exercise4 #b4 ,the game takes them out in the open air4 #c4 ,the game develops the lungs4 ,the deductive reasoning expressed in full would be3-- 7#a7 ,a4 ,all games that afford the players regular exercise benefit them physically4 ,b4 ,football affords the players regular exercise4 ,c4 ,therefore football benefits the players physically4 ,the reasoning given in 7#b7 and 7#c7 may be expressed in similar syllogisms4 ,to test the inductive part of this argument1 one should determine how well the three examples show the existence of a general law4 ,to test the deductive part1 he should ask whether the premises1 both those stated and those suppressed1 are admitted facts1 or whether they need to be proved4 ,if all reasoning were purely inductive or purely deductive1 and if it always appeared in as simple a form as in the preceding illustration1 one would have little difficulty in classifying and testing it4 ,but frequently the two kinds appear in such obscure form and in such varied combinations that only an expert logician can separate and classify them4 ,because of this difficulty1 it is worth while to know a second method of classification1 one which is often of greater practical service than the method already discussed in assisting the arguer to determine what methods of reasoning are strong and what are weak4 ,a knowledge of this classification is also very helpful to one who is searching for ways in which to generate proof4 ,this method considers proof from the standpoint of its use in practical argument2 it teaches not so much the different ways in which the mind may work1 as the ways in which it must work to arrive at a sound conclusion4 #a4 ,,argument ,,from ,,antecedent ,,probability4 ,the process of reasoning from cause to effect is known as the argument from antecedent probability4 ,whenever a thinking man is asked to believe a statement1 he is much readier to accept it as true if some reasonable cause is assigned for the existence of the fact that is being established4 ,the argument from antecedent probability supplies this cause4 ,the reasoning may be from the past toward the present1 or from the present toward the future4 ,if an inspector condemns a bridge as unsafe1 the question arises1 ,what has made it so8 ,if some one prophesies a rise in the price of railroad bonds1 he is not likely to be believed unless he can show an adequate cause for the increase4 ,in itself1 the establishment of a cause proves nothing4 ,a bridge may have been subjected to great strain and still be unimpaired4 ,though at present there may be ample cause for a future rise in the securities market1 some other condition may intervene and prevent its operation4 ,the assignment of a cause can at best establish merely a probability1 and yet the laws of cause and effect are so fundamental that man is usually loath to believe that a condition exists or will exist1 until he knows what has brought it about or what will bring it about4 ,a course of reasoning which argues that a proposition is true because the fact affirmed is the logical result of some adequate cause is called argument from antecedent probability4 ,simple examples of this kind of reasoning are found in the following sentences3 ,it will rain because an east wind is blowing2 ,as most of our officers in the standing army have been ,west ,point graduates1 the ,united ,states military system has reached a high standard of efficiency4 ,the following are more extended illustrations3-- ,it appears to have been fully established that1 in certain industries1 various economies in production--such as eliminating cross freights1 concentrating the superintending force1 running best plants to full capacity1 etc4--can be made from production on a large scale1 or1 in other instances1 through the combination of different establishments favorably located in different sections of the country4 ,it is1 of course1 not to be expected that any one source of saving will be found applicable in all industries1 nor that the importance of any will be the same in different industries2 but in many industries enough sources of saving will be found to make combination profitable4 ,this statement does not ignore the fact that there may be1 in many instances1 disadvantages enough to offset the benefits2 but experience does seem to show that1 in many cases1 at least1 the cost of manufacture1 and distribution is materially lessened4 ,granting that these savings can be made1 it is evident that the influence of ,industrial ,combinations might readily be to lower prices to consumers4 ,footnote3 ,jeremiah ,w4 ,jenks1 ,north ,american ,review1 ,june1 #aija1 page #ijg4 ,in attempting to prove that operas can be successfully produced in ,english1 ,francis ,rogers says3-- ,we have a poetic literature of marvelous richness4 ,only the ,germans can lay claim to a lyric wealth as great as ours4 ,the language we inherit is an extraordinarily rich one4 ,a ,german authority credits it with a vocabulary three times as large as that of ,france1 the poorest1 in number of words1 of all the great languages4 ,with such an enormous fund of words to choose from it seems as if we should be able to express our thoughts not only with unparalleled exactness and subtlety1 but also with unequalled variety of sound4 ,further it is probable that ,english surpasses the other three great languages of song1 ,german1 ,italian1 and ,french1 in number of distinguishable vowel sounds1 but in questions of ear authorities usually differ1 and it is hazardous to claim in this an indubitable supremacy4 ,it seems certain1 however1 that ,english has rather more than twice as many vowel sounds as ,italian 7the poorest language in this respect71 which has only seven or eight4 ,footnote3 ,scribner's1 ,january1 #aiji1 p4 #db4 ,since reasoning from antecedent probability can at best establish only a strong presumption1 and since it is often not of sufficient weight to accomplish even this1 an arguer1 to be successful1 must know the tests that determine how strong and how weak an argument of this sort is4 ,he may apply these tests both to his own reasoning and to the reasoning of others4 ,the first test is3-- 7#a7 ,is the assigned cause of sufficient strength to produce the alleged effect8 ,the significance of this question is at once apparent4 ,in the case of a criminal prosecution1 it asks whether the accused had sufficient motive for performing the deed4 ,in connection with political and economic propositions that advocate a change in existing conditions1 this test asks whether the new method proposed is sufficiently virile and far-reaching actually to produce the excellent results anticipated4 ,a few years ago the advocates of free silver were maintaining that sixteen to one would be a sure cure for all poverty and financial distress4 ,a careful application of this test would have materially weakened such an argument4 ,believers in reformatory rather than punitive methods of imprisonment say it is antecedently probable that kind treatment1 healthful surroundings1 and instruction in various directions will reclaim most criminals to an honest life4 ,before accepting or rejecting this argument1 one should decide in his own mind whether or not such treatment is adequate to make a released convict give up his former criminal practices4 ,if the argument stands the first test1 the next question to ask is3-- 7#b7 ,may some other cause intervene and prevent the action of the assigned cause8 ,during the spring of #aijh it was generally known that the ,erie ,railroad had no money with which to pay the interest that was about due on its outstanding bonds4 ,wall ,street prophesied that the road would go into a receiver's hands4 ,this result was extremely probable4 ,mr4 ,harriman1 however1 president of the ,union ,pacific1 stepped in and by arranging for the payment of the interest saved the road from bankruptcy4 ,this was an example of how an intervening cause prevented the action of the assigned cause4 ,when ,congress passed the ,fifteenth ,amendment to the ,constitution1 many people said that this legislation would inevitably cause the social1 political1 and financial ruin of the whole ,south4 ,since they did not take into consideration the intervening action of another cause1 namely1 drastic measures for negro disfranchisement by the white inhabitants of the ,south1 their reasoning from antecedent probability was entirely erroneous4 #b4 ,,argument ,,from ,,sign4 ,,argument ,,from ,,effect ,,to ,,cause4 ,the process of reasoning from effect to cause is called argument from sign4 ,since every circumstance must be the result of some preceding circumstance1 the arguer tries to find the cause of some fact that is known to exist1 and thereby to establish the existence of a hitherto unknown fact4 ,for instance1 when one sees a pond frozen over1 he is likely to reason back to the cause of this condition and decide that there has been a fall in temperature1 a fact that he may not have known before4 ,the sight of smoke indicates the presence of fire4 ,human footprints in the snow are undoubted proof that someone has been present4 ,in the following quotation1 the recent prohibition movement in the ,south is said to be a sign that the voters wish to keep liquor away from the negro3-- ,what is the cause of this drift toward prohibition in the ,south8 ,the obvious cause1 and the one most often given in explanation1 is the presence of the negro4 ,it is said that the vote for prohibition in the ,south represents exactly the same reasoning which excludes liquor from ,indian reservations1 shuts it out by international agreement from the islands of the ,pacific1 and excludes it from great areas in ,africa under the ,british flag2 and that1 wherever there is an undeveloped race1 the reasons for restrictions upon the liquor traffic become convincing4 ,footnote3 ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,may1 #aijh1 p4 #fcb4 ,the strength of this kind of reasoning depends upon the closeness of the connection between the effect and the assigned cause4 ,in testing argument from sign1 one should ask3-- 7#a7 ,is the cause assigned adequate to produce the observed effect8 ,this test is precisely the same as the test of adequacy for antecedent probability4 ,one could not maintain that the productiveness of a certain piece of ground was due entirely to the kind of fertilizer used on it1 nor that a national financial upheaval was caused by the failure of a single unimportant bank4 ,in each of these cases the cause suggested may have assisted in producing the result1 but obviously it was not of itself adequate to be the sole cause4 7#b7 ,could the observed effect have resulted from any other cause than the one assigned8 ,if several possible causes exist1 then it is necessary to consider them all1 and show that all the causes except the assigned cause did not produce the observed effect4 ,if an employer who has been robbed discovers that one of his clerks has suddenly come into possession of a large sum of money1 he may surmise that his clerk is a thief4 ,this argument is valueless1 however1 unless he can show that his employee did not receive his newly acquired wealth through inheritance1 fortunate investment1 or some other reasonable method4 ,but if no other reason than burglary or embezzlement can explain the presence of this money1 the argument is very strong4 ,one might greatly weaken the argument 7quoted earlier7 which assigned the cause of the recent prohibition movement in the ,south to the presence of the negro by showing that this action was not the result of the assigned cause1 but largely of another cause4 ,he might prove that during the debate in the ,georgia ,legislature upon the pending prohibitory bill1 the negro was not once mentioned as a reason for the enactment of prohibition2 and that the chief arguments in favor of prohibition were based upon the fact that the saloon element had formed a political ring in the ,south and were controlling the election of sheriffs1 mayors1 aldermen1 and legislators4 ,,argument ,,from ,,effect ,,to ,,effect4 ,argument from sign also includes the process of reasoning from effect to effect through a common cause4 ,this method consists of combining the process just described with the argument from antecedent probability4 ,a reduction of wages in one cotton mill is a sign that there may be a reduction in other cotton mills4 ,here the reasoning goes from effect to effect1 passing1 however1 though perhaps the reasoner is not aware that the process is so complex1 through a cause common to both effects4 ,in full1 the reasoning would be3 a reduction in the first mill is the result of the cause hard times2 it is then antecedently probable that this cause will produce a similar reduction of wages in other mills4 ,this method may be represented by the following figure3-- ,cause _/ _/ _/ _/ ,effect ,effect ,only one effect is known2 the other effect is inferred1 first1 by a process of reasoning from a known effect to an unknown cause1 and secondly1 by the process of reasoning from this assumed cause to an unknown effect4 ,this method of reasoning is sound and legitimate when both effects have the same cause4 ,its weakness lies in the fact that it may be attacked on two sides3 on the reasoning from effect to cause1 and on the reasoning from cause to effect4 ,if the connection can be broken in either process1 the argument is overthrown4 ,the tests to be used have already been given4 #c4 ,,argument ,,from ,,example4 ,argument from example is the name given to the process by which one reasons that what has been true under certain circumstances will again be true under the same or similar circumstances4 ,in using this method of reasoning one argues that whenever several persons or things or conditions are alike in some respects1 any given cause operating upon them will in each case produce the same effect2 any line of action adopted by them will in each case have the same result4 ,there are two divisions of argument from example4 ,when the resemblance between the things compared is close1 the process is called argument by generalization2 when the resemblance is so slight that there can be no direct comparison1 but only a comparison of functions1 the process is called argument from analogy4 ,,argument ,,by ,,generalization4 ,if one finds that a certain mastiff becomes with training an excellent watch dog1 he may reasonably take it for granted that training will produce the same result in another dog of the same breed4 ,if a college student with certain pronounced physical and mental characteristics is known to be an exceptionally good football player1 the athletic trainer is sure to reason by generalization that another student with these same characteristics would be a valuable addition to the team4 ,burke in his ,speech on ,conciliation uses this kind of reasoning when he says that just as ,turkey and ,spain have found it necessary to govern their distant possessions with a loose rein1 so1 too1 ,england will be obliged to govern the ,american ,colonies leniently4 ,benjamin ,harrison used this method of argument in the following quotation3-- ,that we give back to ,porto ,rico all the revenue derived from the customs we levy1 does not seem to me to soften our dealings with her people4 ,our fathers were not mollified by the suggestion that the tea and stamp taxes would be expended wholly for the benefit of the colonies4 ,it is to say3 ,we do not need this money2 it is only levied to show that your country is no part of the ,united ,states1 and that you are not citizens of the ,united ,states1 save at our pleasure4 ,footnote3 ,north ,american ,review1 ,january1 #aija1 p4 #ag4 ,argument by generalization very rarely constitutes absolute proof4 ,in dealing with things1 it may do so in rare cases2 in dealing with human actions1 almost never4 ,the reason why it can establish only a strong probability lies in a weakness in the process of reasoning4 ,notice that while this kind of argument apparently reasons directly from the example cited to the case in hand1 there is in reality an intermediate step4 ,this step is a general truth of which both the known fact and the fact to be proved must be instances4 ,when it is argued that since one mastiff makes a good watch dog another mastiff will also make a good watch dog1 the reasoning passes through the general statement1 ,all mastiffs make good watch dogs4 ,graphically the process might be represented thus3-- ,general ,law _/ _/ _/ _/ ,known ,fact ,fact to be ,proved ,this method is very much like the method of reasoning from effect to effect1 except that here the intermediate step does not cause1 but merely accounts for the facts4 ,in the illustration taken from ,burke1 the known fact is that neither ,turkey nor ,spain can govern their distant provinces despotically4 ,the general law is that no country can govern a distant dependency harshly4 ,the fact proved is that ,england cannot play the despot with the ,american ,colonies4 ,the weakness of this sort of reasoning is now easily seen4 ,in the first place1 there are few general laws governing human action that always hold true4 ,in the second place1 unless there is a very strong resemblance between the cases compared1 unless they are alike in all essential particulars1 they will not both be examples of the working of one general law4 ,the following quotation points out an error that might be made from too hasty reasoning by example3-- ,on ,august #bc;d the ,southern ,railway1 which since #aijb had been paying #e per cent4 annual dividends on its preferred stock1 voted to reduce those dividends from a #e per cent4 annual rate to one of #c4 ,five days later1 on ,august #bhth1 the ,erie ,railroad1 which had been paying #d per cent 444 announced that it would pay no cash dividend this time1 but would issue to the amount of the usual #d per cent4 dividend1 what it called dividend warrants1 which were practically notes at #d per cent4 redeemable in cash in #aijg4 ,it was natural that this action regarding dividends should have awakened much uneasiness4444 ,to predict a similar cutting of dividends by other railway companies would1 however1 be unwarranted4 ,the case of the ,southern ,railway and the ,erie was peculiar4 ,each had been classed among the financially weak railways of the country4 ,both were reorganized from absolute railway wrecks1 and in each the new scheme of capitalization was proposed to the markets at a time when recovery from the depression of #ahic had not made such progress as it had achieved when the greater companies1 like the ,union ,pacific1 were reorganized4 ,the result was that1 with both these railways1 provisions of working capital and adjustment of liabilities to the possible needs of an active industrial future were inadequately made4 ,footnote3 ,alexander ,d4 ,noyes1 ,the ,forum1 ,october-,december1 #aijg1 p4#aih4 ,an excellent illustration of how to refute argument by generalization is found in the following quotation4 ,it has been said that since ,england finds free trade beneficial1 the ,united ,states should adopt the same policy4 ,mr4 ,reed1 a leading advocate of protection1 points out the weakness of this argument4 ,according to the usual story that is told1 ,england had been engaged with a long and vain struggle with the demon of protection1 and had been year after year sinking farther into the depths1 until at a moment when she was in her distress and saddest plight1 her manufacturing system broke down1 protection1 having destroyed home trade by reducing1 as ,mr4 ,atkinson says1 the entire population to beggary1 destitution1 and want4 ,mr4 ,cobden and his friends providentially appeared1 and after a hard struggle established a principle for all time and for all the world1 and straightway ,england enjoyed the sum of human happiness4 ,hence all good nations should do as ,england has done and be happy ever after4 ,suppose ,england1 instead of being a little island in the sea1 had been the half of a great continent full of raw material1 capable of an internal commerce which would rival the commerce of all the rest of the world4 ,suppose every year new millions were flocking to her shores1 and every one of those new millions in a few years1 as soon as they tasted the delights of a broader life1 would become as great a consumer as any one of her own people4 ,suppose that these millions1 and the #gj1jjj1jjj already gathered under the folds of her flag1 were every year demanding and receiving a higher wage and therefore broadening her market as fast as her machinery could furnish production4 ,suppose she had produced cheap food beyond all her wants1 and that her laborers spent so much money that whether wheat was sixty cents a bushel or twice that sum hardly entered the thoughts of one of them except when some democratic tariff bill was paralyzing his business4 ,suppose that she was not only but a cannon shot from ,france1 but that every country in ,europe had been brought as near to her as ,baltimore is to ,washington--for that is what cheap ocean freights mean between us and ,european producers4 ,suppose all those countries had her machinery1 her skilled workmen1 her industrial system1 and labor forty per cent4 cheaper4 ,suppose under that state of facts1 with all her manufactures proclaiming against it1 frantic in their disapproval1 ,england had been called upon by ,cobden to make the plunge into free trade1 would she have done it8 ,not if ,cobden had been backed by the angelic host4 ,history gives ,england credit for great sense4 ,footnote3 ,thomas ,b4 ,reed1 ,speech in ,house of ,representatives1 ,feb4 #a1 #aijd4 ,,argument ,,from ,,analogy4 ,when two instances of objects which are unlike in themselves1 but which perform similar functions or have similar relations1 are compared for the sake of showing that what is true in one case is true in the other1 the process is called argument from analogy4 ,the following quotation is a good illustration of this kind of argument3-- ,mr4 ,pinchot compared our present consumption of wood to the case of a man in an open boat at sea1 cut adrift from some shipwreck and with but a few days' supply of water on board4 ,he drinks all the water the first day1 simply because he is thirsty1 though he knows that the water will not last long4 ,the ,american people know that their wood supply will last but a few decades4 ,yet they shut their eyes to the facts4 ,water and wood are not alike in themselves2 they cannot be directly compared1 but they are alike in the relations they bear to other circumstances4 ,when ,president ,lincoln refused to change generals at a certain time during the ,civil ,war1 saying that it was not wise to swap horses while crossing a stream1 he reasoned from analogy4 ,since the horse in taking its master across the stream and the general in conducting a campaign are totally unlike in themselves but have similar relations1 the argument is from analogy and not from generalization4 ,it is easy to see that such reasoning never constitutes indubitable proof4 ,if argument from generalization1 where the objects compared differ from each other in only a few respects1 is weak1 plainly1 argument from analogy is much weaker1 since the objects are alike merely in the relations they bear4 ,though argument from analogy does not constitute proof1 yet it is often valuable as a means of illustration4 ,truths frequently need illumination more than verification1 and in such cases this sort of comparison may be very useful4 ,many proverbs are condensed arguments from analogy1 their strength depending upon the similarity between the known case and the case in hand4 ,it is not hard to find the analogy in these expressions3 ,lightning never strikes twice in the same place2 ,don't count your chickens before they are hatched2 ,a fool and his money are soon parted4 ,the student who has carefully read this chapter up to this point should have a fairly clear idea of the nature of proof2 he should know that proof consists of evidence and reasoning2 he should know the tests for each of these2 and he should be able to distinguish between strong and weak arguments4 ,the next step for him to take will be to apply these instructions in generating proof for any statement that he wishes to establish4 ,a common fault in argumentation is the failure to support important points with sufficient proof4 ,one or two points well established will go farther toward inducing belief in a proposition than a dozen points that are but weakly substantiated4 ,a statement should be proved not only by inductive reasoning1 but1 if possible1 by deductive4 ,if one uses argument from antecedent probability in establishing a statement1 he should not rest content with this one method of proof1 but he should try also to use argument from sign1 and argument from example1 and1 whenever he can1 he should quote authority4 ,notice that in the following outline three kinds of proof are used4 ,the amount of proof here given is by no means sufficient to establish the truth of the proposition being upheld2 the outline1 however1 does illustrate the proper method of building up the proof of a proposition4 ,the present condition of the ,united ,states ,senate is deplorable4 ,,antecedent ,,probability4 ,i4 ,the present method of electing ,senators is ample cause for such a condition1 since ,a4 ,senators are not responsible to any one1 as #a4 ,they are not responsible to the people1 for a4 ,the people do not elect them4 #b4 ,they are not responsible to the legislature1 for a4 ,the legislature changes inside of six years4 ,,sign4 ,,ii4 ,there is ample evidence to prove that the condition is deplorable4 ,a4 ,states are often unrepresented in the ,senate4 7,haynes' ,election of ,senators1 page #aeh47 ,b4 ,many ,senators have fallen into disrepute1 for #a4 ,one out of every ten members of the ,fifty-eighth ,congress had been before the courts on criminal charges4 7,harper's ,weekly1 ,vol4 ,,xliv1 page #aac47 ,c4 ,many ,senators have engaged in fist fights on the floor of the ,senate ,chamber4 ,,authority4 ,,iii4 ,prominent men testify to its deplorable condition4 7,a4 ,m4 ,low1 ,north ,american ,review1 ,vol4 ,,clxxiv1 page #bca2 ,d4 ,g4 ,phillips1 ,cosmopolitan1 ,vol4 ,,xl1 page #dhg47 ,,persuasion4 ,though it has been stated in a previous chapter that the persuasive portions of an argument should be found for the most part in the introduction and the conclusion1 still persuasion in the discussion is extremely important4 ,it is true that the real work of the discussion is to prove the proposition2 but if conviction alone be used1 there is great danger1 in most cases1 that the arguer will weary his audience1 lose their attention1 and thus fail to drive home the ideas that he wishes them to adopt4 ,since everything depends upon how the arguer has already treated his subject1 and how it has been received by the audience1 specific directions for persuasion in the discussion cannot possibly be given4 ,suggestions in regard to this matter must be even more abstract and general than were the directions for persuasion in the introduction4 ,to begin with1 persuasion in the discussion should usually be of a supplementary nature4 ,unless the arguer has won the attention and1 to some extent at least1 the good will of his audience before he commences upon his proof1 he may as well confess failure and proceed no farther4 ,if1 however1 the persuasiveness of his introduction has accomplished the purpose for which it exists1 he may introduce his proof without hesitation1 taking care all the time to interweave enough persuasion to maintain the favorable impression that he has already made4 ,in general1 the directions for doing this are the same as those for securing persuasion in the introduction4 ,in both divisions modesty1 fairness1 and sincerity1 are the characteristics that make for success4 ,the same conditions that demand these qualities in one place require their use throughout the whole argument4 ,then1 too1 it is often effective to make occasionally an appeal to some strong emotion4 ,as a rule1 the attitude of the modern audience is essentially one of indifference1 of so great indifference that special effort must be made first to gain1 then to hold1 their attention4 ,the direct emotional appeal1 when the subject1 the occasion1 and the audience are such that there is no danger of its being ludicrous1 will usually accomplish this result4 ,if such a method1 however1 is manifestly out of place1 other means must be sought for producing a similar effect4 ,one of the very commonest devices for gaining attention is to relate a short anecdote4 ,everybody enjoys a good story1 and if it is chosen with proper regard for its illustrative value1 the argument is sure to be strengthened4 ,on the whole1 humorous stories are best4 ,they often relieve the tedium of an otherwise dry speech1 and not only serve as persuasion1 but drive home a point with greater emphasis than could the most elaborate course of reasoning4 ,this method is so familiar to every one that detailed explanation is unnecessary4 ,owing to the limited amount of time at their command1 student debaters can1 as a rule1 use only the very shortest stories1 and these should be chosen for their illustrative rather than for their persuasive value2 in written arguments greater latitude is possible4 ,another method that often finds favor in both written and spoken arguments is the introduction of a paragraph showing the importance of the topic under consideration4 ,oftentimes the arguer can show that this particular phase of the subject is of wider significance than at first appears4 ,perhaps he can draw a picture that will turn a seemingly uninteresting and commonplace subject into one that is teeming with romance and wonderment4 ,for example1 consider the following extract from ,burke's speech on ,conciliation with the ,american ,colonies3-- ,this is the relative proportion of the importance of the colonies at these two periods3 and all reasoning concerning our mode of treating them must have this proportion as its basis2 or it is a reasoning weak1 rotten and sophistical4 ,mr4 ,speaker1 ,i cannot prevail on myself to hurry over this great consideration4 ,it is good for us to be here4 ,we stand where we have an immense view of what is1 and what is passed4 ,clouds1 indeed1 and darkness rest upon the future4 ,let us1 however1 before we descend from this noble eminence1 reflect that this growth of our national prosperity has happened within the short period of the life of man4 ,it has happened within sixty-eight years4 ,there are those alive whose memory might touch the two extremities4 ,for instance1 my ,lord ,bathurst might remember all the stages of the progress4 ,he was in #agjd of an age at least to be made to comprehend such things4 ,he was then old enough acta parentum jam legere1 et quae sit poterit cognoscere virtus4 ,suppose1 sir1 that the angel of this auspicious youth1 foreseeing the many virtues which made him one of the most amiable1 as he is one of the most fortunate1 men of his age1 had opened to him in vision1 that when in the fourth generation the third prince of the ,house of ,brunswick had sat twelve years on the throne of that nation which 7by the happy issue of moderate and healing counsels7 was to be made ,great ,britain1 he should see his son1 ,lord ,chancellor of ,england1 turn back the current of hereditary dignity to its fountain and raise him to an higher rank of peerage1 whilst he enriched the family with a new one2 --if1 amidst these bright and happy scenes of domestic honor and prosperity1 that angel should have drawn up the curtain and unfolded the rising glories of his country1 and1 whilst he was gazing with admiration on the then commercial grandeur of ,england1 the genius should point out to him a little speck1 scarcely visible in the mass of the national interests1 a small seminal principle rather than a formed body1 and should tell him1--,young man1 there is ,america1 which at this day serves for little more than to amuse you with stories of savage men and uncouth manners2 yet shall1 before you taste of death1 show itself equal to the whole of that commerce which now attracts the envy of the world4 ,whatever ,england has been growing to by a progressive increase of improvement1 brought in by varieties of people1 by succession of civilizing conquests and civilizing settlements in a series of seventeen hundred years1 you shall see as much added to her by ,america in the course of a single life6 ,if this state of his country had been foretold to him1 would it not require all the sanguine credulity of youth and all the fervid glow of enthusiasm to make him believe it8 ,fortunate man1 he has lived to see it6 ,fortunate indeed1 if he lives to see nothing that shall vary the prospect and cloud the setting of his day6 ,excuse me1 sir1 if1 turning from such thoughts1 ,i resume this comparative view once more4 ,footnote3 ,speech in ,house of ,commons1 ,march #bb1 #agge4 ,these devices an arguer will often find helpful for bringing an element of persuasion into his proof1 but he should aim at a type of persuasion much more effective1 yet much harder to attain1 than is the result of any mere device4 ,proof is the strongest when each separate bit of it appeals both to the reason and the emotions4 ,if an arguer can connect his subject with the feelings of his audience and then introduce reasoning processes that will at the same time both convince them and play upon their feelings1 he is certain to attain a large measure of success4 ,although not all subjects readily lend themselves to this method of treatment1 yet if the debater will go to the very bottom of his subject and consider the real significance of the question he is arguing upon1 he can usually succeed in making his conviction persuasive and his persuasion convincing4 ,undoubtedly the best way for a student to train himself in this respect is to study great arguments4 ,the following quotation from ,beecher's speech in ,liverpool1 delivered before an audience composed mostly of men engaged in manufacturing1 is an excellent example of persuasive proof3-- ,the things required for prosperous labor1 prosperous manufactures1 and prosperous commerce are three3 first1 liberty2 secondly1 liberty2 thirdly1 liberty--but these are not merely the same liberty1 as ,i shall show you4 ,first1 there must be liberty to follow those laws of business which experience has developed1 without imposts or restrictions1 or governmental intrusions4 ,business simply wants to be let alone4 ,then1 secondly1 there must be liberty to distribute and exchange products of industry in any market without burdensome tariffs1 without imposts1 and without vexatious regulations4 ,there must be these two liberties--liberty to create wealth1 as the makers of it think best according to the light and experience which business has given them2 and then liberty to distribute what they have created without unnecessary vexatious burdens4 ,the comprehensive law of the ideal industrial condition of the world is free manufacture and free trade4 ,i have said there were three elements of liberty4 ,the third is the necessity of an intelligent and free race of customers4 ,there must be freedom among producers2 there must be freedom among the distributors2 there must be freedom among the customers4 ,it may not have occurred to you that it makes any difference what one's customers are2 but it does1 in all regular and prolonged business4 ,the condition of the customer determines how much he will buy1 determines of what sort he will buy4 ,poor and ignorant people buy little and that of the poorest kind4 ,the richest and the intelligent1 having the more means to buy1 buy the most1 and always buy the best4 ,here1 then1 are the three liberties3 liberty of the producer1 liberty of the distributor1 and liberty of the consumer4 ,the first two need no discussion--they have been long1 thoroughly1 and brilliantly illustrated by the political economists of ,great ,britain1 and by her eminent statesmen2 but it seems to me that enough attention has not been directed to the third1 and1 with your patience1 ,i will dwell on that for a moment1 before proceeding to other topics4 ,it is a necessity of every manufacturing and commercial people that their customers should be very wealthy and intelligent4 ,let us put the subject before you in the familiar light of your own local experience4 ,to whom do the tradesmen of ,liverpool sell the most goods at the highest profit8 ,to the ignorant and poor1 or to the educated and prosperous8 ,the poor man buys simply for his body2 he buys food1 he buys clothing1 he buys fuel1 he buys lodging4 ,his rule is to buy the least and the cheapest that he can4 ,he goes to the store as seldom as he can1--he brings away as little as he can--and he buys for the least he can4 ,poverty is not a misfortune to the poor only who suffer it1 but it is more or less a misfortune to all with whom they deal4 ,on the other hand1 a man well off--how is it with him8 ,he buys in far greater quantity4 ,he can afford to do it2 he has the money to pay for it4 ,he buys in far greater variety1 because he seeks to gratify not merely physical wants1 but also mental wants4 ,he buys for the satisfaction of sentiment and taste1 as well as of sense4 ,he buys silk1 wool1 flax1 cotton2 he buys all metals--iron1 silver1 gold1 platinum2 in short1 he buys for all necessities and of all substances4 ,but that is not all4 ,he buys a better quality of goods4 ,he buys richer silks1 finer cottons1 higher grained wools4 ,now1 a rich silk means so much skill and care of somebody's that has been expended upon it to make it finer and richer2 and so of cotton1 and so of wool4 ,that is1 the price of the finer goods runs back to the very beginning1 and remunerates the workman as well as the merchant4 ,indeed1 the whole laboring community is as much interested and profited as the mere merchant1 in this buying and selling of the higher grades in the greater varieties and quantities4 ,the law of price is the skill2 and the amount of skill expended in the work is as much for the market as are the goods4 ,a man comes to the market and says1 ,i have a pair of hands2 and he obtains the lowest wages4 ,another man comes and says1 ,i have something more than a pair of hands--,i have truth and fidelity2 he gets a higher price4 ,another man comes and says1 ,i have something more2 ,i have hands and strength1 and fidelity1 and skill4 ,he gets more than either of the others4 ,the next man comes and says1 ,i have got hands and strength1 and skill1 and fidelity2 but my hands work more than that4 ,they know how to create things for the fancy1 for the affections1 for the moral sentiments2 and he gets more than any of the others4 ,the last man comes and says1 ,i have all these qualities1 and have them so highly that it is a peculiar genius2 and genius carries the whole market and gets the highest price4 ,so that both the workman and the merchant are profited by having purchasers that demand quality1 variety1 and quantity4 ,now1 if this be so in the town or the city1 it can only be so because it is a law4 ,this is the specific development of a general or universal law1 and therefore we should expect to find it as true of a nation as of a city like ,liverpool4 ,i know it is so1 and you know that it is true of all the world2 and it is just as important to have customers educated1 intelligent1 moral1 and rich1 out of ,liverpool as it is in ,liverpool4 ,they are able to buy2 they want variety2 they want the very best2 and those are the customers you want4 ,that nation is the best customer that is freest1 because freedom works prosperity1 industry1 and wealth4 ,great ,britain1 then1 aside from moral considerations1 has a direct commercial and pecuniary interest in the liberty1 civilization1 and wealth of every people and every nation on the globe4 ,you have also an interest in this1 because you are a moral and a religious people4 ,you desire it from the highest motives1 and godliness is profitable in all things1 having the promise of the life that is1 as well as of that which is to come2 but if there were no hereafter1 and if man had no progress in this life1 and if there were no question of moral growth at all1 it would be worth your while to protect civilization and liberty1 merely as a commercial speculation4 ,to evangelize has more than a moral and religious import--it comes back to temporal relations4 ,wherever a nation that is crushed1 cramped1 degraded under despotism1 is struggling to be free1 you1 ,leeds1 ,sheffield1 ,manchester1 ,paisley1 all have an interest that that nation should be free4 ,when depressed and backward people demand that they may have a chance to rise--,hungary1 ,italy1 ,poland--it is a duty for humanity's sake1 it is a duty for the highest moral motives1 to sympathize with them2 but beside all these there is a material and an interested reason why you should sympathize with them4 ,pounds and pence join with conscience and with honor in this design4 ,footnote3 ,the ,world's ,famous ,orations1 ,vol4 ,x1 p4 #ab4 ,funk and ,wagnalls ,company4 ,,exercises ,a4 ,in the following passage point out all assertions that are made1 note whether the source of the evidence is definitely stated1 and test the witnesses that give the evidence4 ,reciprocity is the only remedy for the commercial antagonism which is fast separating ,canada and the ,united ,states4 ,canada has long waited in vain for the culmination of treaties whereby she can trade with us on equal terms4 ,now1 angered by our long evasion of the question1 she is1 according to prominent ,canadian statesmen1 contemplating the passage of high protective tariff laws1 which will effectually close the doors of ,canadian trade to us4 ,canada is young1 but she is growing fast4 ,the value of her imports is steadily growing larger1 and if we do not make some concession to her we shall lose this vast trade4 ,she makes and sells many things of which we do not have a home supply4 ,why not then open our doors to her and admit her products8 ,would it not be of distinct advantage to us8 ,the ,american ,press is almost unanimous in declaring that the sum of the advantages attending this step would far offset any disadvantages4 ,for instance1 the supply of lumber in the ,united ,states is fast becoming exhausted2 experts say that in fifteen years we shall have a lumber famine4 ,if we turn to ,canada1 however1 we see her mountain slopes green with trees and her wooded valleys covered with millions of feet of lumber4 ,why1 then1 not get our lumber from ,canada and preserve what few forests we do have8 ,because of the exorbitant tariff on imported lumber4 ,lumber at its present high prices is even cheap compared with the price of imported lumber4 ,moreover1 lumber is not the only article that is expensive here1 though it is cheap just across the line in ,canada4 ,the ,world's ,work1 ,vol4 ,v1 page #bigi1 says that reciprocity with ,canada would cheapen many articles that are now costly4 ,b4 ,point out the kind of reasoning found in each of the following arguments3-- #a4 ,the wholesale destruction of the forests in many ,states portends the loss of our whole timber supply4 #b4 ,his faithful performance of every duty assures him an early promotion4 #c4 ,since he succeeded well in his college work1 it is an assured fact that he will make a brilliant reputation for himself in business4 #d4 ,caesar had his ,brutus1 ,charles ,i his ,cromwell1 and ,george ,,iii--may profit by their example4 #e4 ,the well-tilled fields1 the carefully-trimmed hedges1 and the sleek appearance of the stock bespoke a thrifty and industrious farmer4 #f4 ,you tried in ,wales to raise a revenue which the people thought excessive and unjust3 the attempt ended in oppression1 resistance1 rebellion1 and loss to yourselves4 ,you tried in the ,duchy of ,lancaster to raise a revenue which the people believed unjust3 this effort ended in oppression1 rebellion1 vexation1 and loss to yourselves4 ,you are now trying to raise in ,america a revenue which the ,colonists disapprove4 ,what must be the result8 #g4 ,then1 sir1 from these six capital sources3 of descent2 of form of government2 of religion in the northern provinces2 of manners in the southern2 of education2 of the remoteness of situation from the first mover of government--from all these causes a fierce spirit of liberty has grown up4 #h4 ,collective bargaining is an advantage to working men2 it tends to give them some share in the control of the industry to which they contribute4 #i4 ,that a free labor union is not the impractical dream of an idealist is to be found in the fact that some of the greatest and most successful of the labor organizations have always adhered to the principle of the open shop4 ,in the ,pennsylvania coal-mines union and non-union miners labored together in the same mine and reaped the same benefits from the collective bargaining carried on for them by ,john ,mitchell4 ,in the recent anarchy in ,colorado1 the one mine which went on with its work peacefully1 prosperously1 and without disturbance1 until it was closed by military orders1 was a mine which maintained the principle of the open shop1 and in which union and non-union men worked peacefully together4 #aj4 ,suppose that all the property you were worth was in gold1 and you had put it in the hands of ,blondin1 the famous rope-walker1 to carry across the ,niagara ,falls on a tight rope4 ,would you shake the rope while he was passing over it1 or keep shouting to him1 ,blondin1 stoop a little more6 ,go a little faster6 ,no1 ,i am sure you would not4 ,you would hold your breath as well as your tongue1 and keep your hand off until he was safely over4 ,now the government is in the same situation4 ,it is carrying an immense weight across a stormy ocean4 ,untold treasures are in its hands4 ,it is doing the best it can4 ,don't badger it6 ,just keep still and it will get you safely over4 ,c4 ,prove or disprove the following statements1 using1 wherever it is possible1 argument from antecedent probability1 sign1 example1 and authority4 ,give references for all evidence except generally admitted facts4 #a4 ,the negro is not prepared to receive the same kind of education that the white man receives4 #b4 ,railway pooling lowers freight rates4 #c4 ,the election of ,senators by ,state ,legislatures is undemocratic4 #d4 ,the present commercial relations between ,canada and the ,united ,states are detrimental to the industries of the ,united ,states4 #e4 ,the influence of labor unions has greatly diminished child labor in the ,united ,states4 #f4 ,woman suffrage would purify politics4 #g4 ,egypt is benefited by the control of ,england4 #h4 ,strikes benefit the working man4 #i4 ,the municipal ownership of street railways is a financial failure4 #aj4 ,lumber companies threaten the extermination of the forests in the ,united ,states4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,discussion--,,brief-,,drawing ,the second division of a brief1 corresponding to the second division of a complete argument1 is called the discussion4 ,in this part of his brief the arguer logically arranges all the evidence and reasoning that he wishes to use in establishing or overthrowing his proposition4 ,illustrative material1 rhetorical embellishment1 and other forms of persuasion that may enter into the finished argument are omitted1 but the real proof is complete in the brief4 ,there are two possible systems of arranging proof4 ,for the sake of convenience they may be called the because method and the therefore method4 ,these methods derive their names from the connectives that are used4 ,when the because method is used1 the proof follows the statement being established1 and is connected to this statement with some such word as3 as1 because1 for1 or since4 ,to illustrate3-- ,i4 ,expenses at a country college are less than at a city college1 because ,a4 ,at the country college room rent is cheaper4 ,b4 ,table board costs less4 ,c4 ,amusement places are less numerous4 ,under the therefore method1 the proof precedes the statement being established2 the connectives are hence and therefore4 ,the previous argument arranged in this form would read as follows3-- ,a4 ,since room rent is cheaper at the country college than at the city college1 and ,b4 ,since table board costs less1 and ,c4 ,since amusement places are less numerous1 therefore4 ,i4 ,expenses at a country college are less than at a city college4 ,the student should always use the because method of arrangement4 ,it is preferable to the therefore method since it affords a much easier apprehension of the argument advanced4 ,if the reader of the brief has the conclusion in his mind at the very start1 he can test the strength and adequacy of the proof very quickly1 and can1 perhaps1 the first time he reads the argument form an opinion as to its worth4 ,but he will almost always have difficulty in grasping the significance of evidence and reasoning before he knows what the proof is expected to prove4 ,the therefore method usually obliges a careful reasoner1 after finally reaching the conclusion1 to go over the whole proof a second time4 ,to assist the student in carrying out the proper arrangement of his proof1 two rules have been formulated4 ,one rule deals with main headings1 the headings marked with the ,roman numerals2 the other deals with subordinate headings4 ,rule ,,ix4 ,phrase each principal statement in the discussion so that it will read as a reason for the truth or the falsity of the proposition4 ,rule ,x4 ,phrase each subordinate statement in the discussion so that it will read as a reason for the truth of the statement to which it is subordinate4 ,the connectives to be used are3 as1 because1 for1 and since4 ,in connection with the first of these rules1 notice that principal headings read as reasons for the truth or the falsity of the proposition4 ,obviously they read as reasons for the truth if the brief is on the affirmative side1 and for the falsity if the brief is on the negative side4 ,headings and subheadings should always be supported1 not demolished4 ,the error of making unsupported statements in a complete argument has already been discussed4 ,assertion in a brief is equally faulty4 ,to insure belief1 all statements must rest ultimately either upon the testimony of witnesses or upon statements admitted to be true4 ,notice how unconvincing is the following portion of a brief3-- ,proposition--,american cities should own and operate all street-car lines within their limits4 ,i4 ,the present system of operating street-car lines is efficient1 for ,a4 ,the street-car service in the ,united ,states is the best in the world4 ,b4 ,street-car fare in the ,united ,states is remarkably low4 ,the insertion of testimony1 however1 to substantiate ,a and ,b turns this bit of brief into excellent proof4 ,i4 ,the present system of operating street-car lines is efficient1 for ,a4 ,the street-car service in the ,united ,states is the best in the world1 because #a4 ,it is best in respect to extent1 since a4 ,james ,w4 ,garner says that ,england has less than a quarter of the street-car facilities found in the ,united ,states4 7,dial1 ,feb4 #aijh1 p4 #bj47 b4 ,in #aijb1 two hundred and ninety-five communities in the ,united ,kingdom of from #h1jjj to #be1jjj inhabitants were without street cars2 while in the ,united ,states there were only twenty-one such communities4 7,municipal and ,private ,operation of ,public ,utilities1 ,w4 ,j4 ,clark1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dde47 #b4 ,it is best in regard to equipment and accommodation1 since a4 ,the cars are the best equipped in the world4 7,ibid47 b4 ,the cars are run with shorter intervals between them than anywhere else in the world4 7,ibid47 ,b4 ,the fare in the ,united ,states is remarkably low1 because #a4 ,although the fare in ,glasgow1 a leading exponent of municipal ownership1 is but twopence1 yet it will carry one only eight miles2 but five cents in ,new ,york will carry one fifty miles4 ,rule ,,xi4 ,make no unsupported statements unless they are generally admitted to be true4 ,it has already been shown that the arguer must reveal to his audience the sources from which he gathered his evidence4 ,if he gained certain information from magazines1 he should state definitely the name1 the volume1 and the page2 if he gained his information elsewhere1 he should be equally explicit4 ,since this knowledge of the source of the evidence is essential to the success of the proof1 a statement of the sources is a part of the work of conviction4 ,accordingly1 these sources must be stated in the brief as well as in the expanded argument4 ,thus the rule3-- ,rule ,,xii4 ,after all evidence state in parentheses the source from which it came4 ,in addition to establishing the side of the proposition which it advocates1 a good brief almost invariably refutes the main arguments of the opposite side4 ,the way in which this refutation is expressed is very important4 ,a brief on the affirmative side of the proposition1 ,resolved1 ,that the ,panama canal should be built at sea-level1 would be weak and ludicrous1 if1 when answering the argument for the negative that the cost of a sea-level canal would be enormous1 it should contain the following reasoning3-- ,the ,panama ,canal should be built at sea-level1 7for7 ,i4 ,the cost would not be much greater than for a lock canal4 ,one might think from this statement that the drawer of the brief considered the contention that the sea-level type would cost a little though not much more than the other type1 a positive argument in favor of the sea-level canal4 ,in reality it is nothing of the sort4 ,the arguer is merely trying to destroy his opponent's argument to the effect that expense is an obstacle in the way of the sea-level type4 ,this refutation should be expressed in such a manner as to show that it is refutation and not positive proof4 ,it might well read something like this3-- ,the ,panama ,canal should be built at sea-level1 7for7 ,i4 ,the contention of the negative that a sea-level canal would cost enormously more than a lock-canal is unsound1 since1 ,a4 ,etc4 ,notice that this form of refutation states clearly the argument to be answered4 ,no doubt can arise from such a statement as to the direction the argument is taking2 no confusion can occur between refutation and positive proof4 ,hence the rule3-- ,rule ,,xiii4 ,phrase refutation so that the argument to be answered is clearly stated4 ,,the ,,conclusion4 ,as there is but one rule for brief-drawing that applies to the conclusion1 it may well be given at this point4 ,the purpose and the value of this rule are so apparent that no explanation is necessary4 ,rule ,,xiv4 ,put into the conclusion a summary of the essential points established in the discussion4 ,,rules ,,for ,,brief-,,drawing4 ,,general ,,rules4 ,i4 ,divide the brief into three parts1 and mark them respectively1 ,introduction1 ,discussion1 and ,conclusion4 ,,ii4 ,express each idea in the brief in the form of a complete statement4 ,,iii4 ,make in each statement only a single assertion4 ,,iv4 ,make each statement as concise as is consistent with clearness4 ,v4 ,indicate the relation between statements by indentation and by the use of symbols4 ,,vi4 ,mark each statement with only one symbol4 ,,rules ,,for ,,the ,,introduction4 ,,vii4 ,put into the introduction sufficient explanation for a complete understanding of the discussion4 ,this explanation usually involves 7a7 a definition of terms1 7b7 an explanation of the meaning of the proposition1 7c7 a statement of the issues1 and 7d7 the partition4 ,,viii4 ,put into the introduction only statements admitted by both sides4 ,,rules ,,for ,,the ,,discussion4 ,,ix4 ,phrase each principal statement in the discussion so that it will read as a reason for the truth or the falsity of the proposition4 ,x4 ,phrase each subordinate statement in the discussion so that it will read as a reason for the truth of the statement to which it is subordinate4 ,the connectives to be used are3 as1 because1 for1 and since4 ,,xi4 ,make no unsupported statements unless they are generally admitted to be true4 ,,xii4 ,after all evidence state in parentheses the source from which it came4 ,,xiii4 ,phrase refutation so that the argument to be answered is clearly stated4 ,,rule ,,for ,,the ,,conclusion4 ,,xiv4 ,put into the conclusion a summary of the essential points established in the discussion4 ,,model ,,brief4 ,resolved1 ,that immigration to the ,united ,states should be further restricted by an educational test4 ,,affirmative ,,brief4 ,,introduction4 ,i4 ,the question of further restricting immigration to the ,united ,states by an educational test gains in importance from the alleged impairment of ,american institutions and standards by immigration4 ,,ii4 ,the following explanations will aid in the discussion of the question3-- ,a4 ,immigration to the ,united ,states means the migrating of people into the ,united ,states for the purpose of permanent residence4 7,century ,dictionary47 ,b4 ,the restrictive measures now in force are as follows3-- #a4 ,idiots1 insane persons1 paupers1 convicts1 diseased persons1 anarchists1 polygamists1 women for immoral purposes1 assisted aliens1 contract laborers1 and the ,chinese are excluded4 7,statutes of the ,united ,states47 #b4 ,a head tax of four dollars is imposed4 7,ibid47 ,c4 ,the proposed restrictive measure is as follows3-- #a4 ,every immigrant to the ,united ,states between the ages of fifteen and fifty must be able to read and write a few sentences of some language4 7,congressional ,record1 ,vol4 ,,xxviii1 page #edba474 ,,iii4 ,the points to be determined seem to be3-- ,a4 ,is there a need for further restriction of immigration8 ,b4 ,if there is such a need1 would the educational test accomplish this further restriction in a proper manner8 ,,discussion4 ,i4 ,there is great need for further restriction of immigration1 because ,a4 ,the character of the immigrants since #ahhj has greatly changed for the worse1 for #a4 ,before #ahhj most of the immigrants were earnest1 energetic people from northern and western ,europe4 7,international ,encyclopaedia1 under ,immigration47 #b4 ,at the present time seventy and one-half per cent4 of the total number of immigrants are from the unenergetic people of southern and eastern ,europe4 7,ibid47 #c4 ,more immigrants have become paupers than was formerly the case1 for a4 ,prior to #ahhj there were comparatively few paupers among the immigrants4 7,ibid47 b4 ,at present the percentage of pauperism among the foreigners here is four times as great as among the natives4 7,ibid47 #d4 ,while the ,germans1 ,english1 and other immigrants from northern ,europe who came here before #ahhj were moral and upright1 the present immigrants from southern ,europe have a low code of morals1 for a4 ,the moral degeneracy of the races of southern ,europe is well known4 7,henry ,rood1 ,forum1 ,vol4 ,,xiv1 page #aaf47 #e4 ,crime among foreigners in this country has increased immensely1 for a4 ,in #aije twenty-eight per cent1 of our criminals were of foreign birth4 7,report of the ,commissioner-,general of ,immigration for #aije47 #f4 ,illiteracy among immigrants has greatly increased1 for a4 ,in #aije the percentage of illiterates of foreign birth was twenty-six4 7,ibid47 b4 ,many of the present immigrants are illiterates from southern ,italy4 7,s4 ,e4 ,moffett1 ,review of ,reviews1 ,vol4 #bh1 page #ee47 ,b4 ,the condition of the cities and especially of their slum districts is alarming1 for #a4 ,the number of immigrants is increasing astonishingly1 inasmuch as1 a4 #h1che immigrants arrived in #ahbj4 b4 #ghh1iib immigrants arrived in #ahhb4 c4 #a1jbf1dii immigrants arrived in #aije4 7,report of ,commissioner-,general of ,immigration1 #aije4 page #db47 #b4 ,two-thirds of the total number of immigrants in #aijb settled in the cities4 7,editorial in ,outlook1 ,vol4 ,,lxxi1 page #aed47 #c4 ,these congested districts foster unsanitary conditions1 physical degeneration1 and crime4 7,deputy ,clerk of ,children's ,court1 ,new ,york ,city1 ,north ,american ,review1 ,vol4 ,,clxxix1 page #gca47 #d4 ,charitable organizations are unable to cope with the problems in congested districts1 for a4 ,the number of immigrants is increasing too rapidly4 7,report of ,commissioner-,general of ,immigration1 #aije47 ,c4 ,the present immigration is politically harmful1 for #a4 ,immigrants of the kind that are now coming in do not make good citizens1 because a4 ,they are indifferent to civic manners1 for #a'4 ,they cannot appreciate the spirit of ,american government1 as has previously been shown4 b4 ,they are easily influenced in all political affairs by pecuniary persuasion1 for #a'4 ,their sole object in this country is to acquire wealth4 7,prescott ,f4 ,hall1 ,secretary of the ,immigration ,restriction ,league1 ,annals of ,american ,academy1 ,vol4 ,,xxiv1 page #agb47 ,d4 ,the number of immigrants is too great to be assimilated properly1 since #a4 ,most of the immigrants are extremely clannish1 for a4 ,little ,italies1 ,little ,hungaries1 and ,ghettos1 exist in great numbers and size throughout the ,united ,states4 7,henry ,rood1 ,forum1 ,vol4 ,,xiv1 page #aad47 #b4 ,most of the immigrants never try to learn the ,english language1 for a4 ,they have no need for it1 since #a'4 ,they seldom come in contact with ,english-speaking people4 7,ibid47 #c4 ,their tendency is not to become citizens1 for a4 ,thirty-one per cent4 of the immigrants return home after having been here a few years4 7,report of the ,commissioner-,general of ,immigration1 #aije47 b4 ,those who remain cannot for the most part appreciate our government1 for #a'4 ,they have been continually trodden upon in their home countries4 #b'4 ,they have had no opportunity to interest themselves in government4 7,n4 ,s4 ,shaler1 ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,vol4 ,,lxxi1 page #fdf47 #d4 ,the argument that because we were able to assimilate the immigrants in the past we shall be able to do so in the future1 is unsound1 for a4 ,the character of the present immigrants has changed1 as shown previously4 b4 ,in the future we may expect a much larger immigration4 7,prescott ,f4 ,hall1 ,annals of ,american ,academy1 ,vol4 ,,xxiv1 page #agb47 ,e4 ,immigrants lower the standards of ,american labor1 because #a4 ,they create harmful competition1 since a4 ,more immigrants are coming now than we really need1 for ,i'4 ,in #aijf at least #bjj1jjj aliens came here who were of no use whatever4 7,commissioner of ,immigration for ,new ,york1 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,vol4 ,,lxvi1 page #age47 b4 ,they work for lower wages than do ,americans1 for #a'4 ,they are able to live more cheaply4 7,henry ,rood1 ,ibid47 #b'4 ,they place a lower value on their labor4 7,t4 ,v4 ,powderly1 ,north ,american ,review1 ,vol4 ,,cxlvii1 page #afe47 #b4 ,they tend to destroy the independence of the ,american laborer1 for a4 ,they work under conditions that no ,american laborer will tolerate1 for #a'4 ,they create degrading forms of employment4 7,w4 ,h4 ,wilkins1 ,nineteenth ,century1 ,vol4 ,,xxx1 page #ehh47 b4 ,their selfish desires keep them from organizing with ,american laborers for protection4 ,,ii4 ,the educational test would accomplish the further restriction of immigration in a proper manner1 for ,a4 ,it would change the character of the immigrants for the better1 since #a4 ,it would keep out the unenergetic races of southern and eastern ,europe1 because a4 ,ninety-three per cent1 of illiterates come from southern and eastern ,europe4 7,international ,encyclopaedia1 under ,immigration47 #b4 ,it would decrease the amount of pauperism1 for a4 ,the southern ,italians1 who are the most illiterate1 produce the most pauperism4 7,ibid47 #c4 ,it would raise the standard of morality1 since a4 ,ignorance is closely coupled with immorality1 for #a'4 ,the southern ,italians have a very low standard of living in the ,united ,states4 7,henry ,rood1 ,forum1 ,vol4 ,,xiv1 page #aaf47 b4 ,the educational test would exclude such people4 #d4 ,it would decrease the amount of crime1 for a4 ,it would keep out most of the immigrants from southern ,europe1 for #a'4 ,ninety-three per cent1 of the illiterates come from this source4 b4 ,the criminal tendencies of people from southern ,europe are well known4 7,henry ,rood1 ,ibid47 ,b4 ,the educational test would improve the condition of the cities1 for #a4 ,they would be more sanitary and less criminal1 since a4 ,these evils are due largely to congestion4 b4 ,under this test the cities would be less congested1 for #a'4 ,immigration would be reduced twenty-two and six tenths per cent4 #b'4 ,educated immigrants are not likely to settle in the slums4 c4 ,if the cities were less congested1 charitable societies could remove more evils from the slums1 and in time even eliminate the slums4 ,c4 ,the educational test would aid the country politically1 for #a4 ,we should receive only those immigrants who are intellectually capable of becoming good citizens1 for a4 ,education enables a man to become interested in the government in which he lives4 #b4 ,bribery would cease1 for a4 ,greed for small amounts of money is not so strong among the intelligent4 7,prescott ,f4 ,hall1 ,ibid47 ,d4 ,the educational test would aid the work of assimilation1 for #a4 ,it would bar to a great extent the clannish immigrants1 as a4 ,clannishness is largely a result of superstition and ignorance4 7,henry ,rood1 ,ibid47 #b4 ,it would practically force the immigrants to learn the ,english language1 for a4 ,their clans broken up1 they would naturally come in contact more and more with ,english-speaking people4 #c4 ,it would produce among the foreign-born element of the ,united ,states a wider interest in civic affairs1 for a4 ,those who have some education can better appreciate our government than those who are illiterate4 b4 ,it would admit only those who1 by reason of their education1 small though it may be1 have had the chance to study somewhat their home governments4 7,n4 ,s4 ,shaler1 ,ibid47 ,e4 ,the educational test would tend to raise the standards of ,american labor1 for #a4 ,it would cut down competition1 since a4 ,it would shut out many laborers1 for #a'4 ,most of those affected by this test would be common laborers4 b4 ,it would tend to equalize the rate of wages1 because #a'4 ,immigrants would not be willing to work for lower wages1 for a'4 ,the slums being gone1 they would need more money for existence4 #b4 ,it would aid the independence of ,american labor1 for a4 ,immigrants would no longer be so reluctant to cooperate with ,american laborers for protection1 for #a'4 ,it is well known that1 as a rule1 only the most ignorant classes refuse to join unions4 b4 ,the low industrial competition would be removed1 as previously shown4 ,f4 ,the educational test would be practical1 for #a4 ,it is not a test depending upon the representations of immigrants or the decisions of inspectors4 7,prescott ,f4 ,hall1 ,forum1 ,vol4 ,,xxx1 page #efd47 #b4 ,the educational test has worked well in ,australia4 7,professor ,frank ,parsons1 ,annals of ,american ,academy1 ,vol4 ,,xxiv1 page #bae47 ,g4 ,it would lessen the burden of education for the government1 for #a4 ,it would force prospective immigrants to get their elementary education in ,europe4 #b4 ,the immigrants would have some education as a foundation for more4 ,,conclusion4 ,the affirmative has proved the following3-- ,i4 ,there is great need for further restriction of immigration4 ,,ii4 ,the educational test would accomplish the further restriction of immigration in a proper manner4 ,therefore1 immigration to the ,united ,states should be further restricted by an educational test4 ,,exercises ,state the propositions upheld in the following arguments1 and put the material into brief form3-- #a4 ,at all events1 this is clear3 that throughout those six months the government knew perfectly well the danger in which ,general ,gordon was placed4 ,it has been said that ,general ,gordon did not ask for troops4 ,well1 ,i am surprised at that defense4 ,one of the characteristics of ,general ,gordon was the extreme abnegation of his nature4 ,it was not to be expected that he should send home a telegram to say1 ,i am in great danger1 therefore send me troops4 ,he would probably have cut off his right hand before he would have sent such a telegram4 ,but he did send a telegram that the people of ,khartum were in danger1 and that the ,mahdi must win unless military succor was sent forward1 and distinctly telling the government--and this is the main point--that unless they would consent to his views the supremacy of the ,mahdi was assured4 ,my lords1 is it conceivable that after that--two months after that--in ,may1 the prime minister should have said that the government was waiting to have reasonable proof that ,gordon was in danger8 ,by that time ,khartum was surrounded1 and the governor of ,berber had announced that his case was desperate1 which was too surely proved by the massacre which took place in ,june4 ,and yet in ,may ,mr4 ,gladstone was waiting for reasonable proof that they were in danger4 ,apparently he did not get that proof till ,august4 ,a general sent forward on a dangerous expedition does not like to go whining for assistance1 unless he is pressed by absolute peril4 ,all those great qualities which go to make men heroes are such as are absolutely incompatible with such a course1 and lead them to shrink as from a great disgrace from any unnecessary appeal for exertion for their protection4 ,it was the business of the government not to interpret ,general ,gordon's telegrams as if they had been statutory declarations1 but to judge for themselves of the circumstances of the case1 and to see that those who were surrounded1 who were the only three ,englishmen among this vast body of ,mohammedans1 who were already cut off from all communication with the civilized world by the occupation of every important town upon the river1 were in real danger4 ,i do not know any other instance in which a man has been sent to maintain such a position without a certain number of ,british troops4 ,if the ,british troops had been there treachery would have been impossible2 but sending ,gordon by himself to rely on the fidelity of ,africans and ,egyptians was an act of extreme rashness1 and if the government succeed in proving1 which ,i do not think they can1 that treachery was inevitable1 they only pile up an additional reason for their condemnation4 ,i confess it is very difficult to separate this question from the personal matters involved4 ,it is very difficult to argue it on purely abstract grounds without turning for a moment to the character of the man who was engaged and the terrible position in which he was placed4 ,when we consider all that he underwent1 all that he sacrificed in order to save the government in a moment of extreme exigency1 there is something infinitely pathetic in reflecting on his feelings1 as day after day1 week after week1 month after month passed by--as he spared no exertions1 no personal sacrifice1 to perform the duties that were placed upon him--as he lengthened out the siege by inconceivable prodigies of ingenuity1 of activity1 of resource--and as1 in spite of it all1 in spite of the deep devotion to his country1 which had prompted him to this great risk and undertaking1 the conviction gradually grew upon him that his country had abandoned him4 ,it is terrible to think what he must have suffered when at last1 as a desperate measure to save those he loved1 he parted with the only two ,englishmen with whom during those long months he had any converse1 and sent ,stewart and ,power down the river to escape from the fate which had become inevitable to himself4 ,it is very painful to think of the reproaches to his country and to his country's government that must have passed through the mind of that devoted man during those months of unmerited desertion4 ,in ,gordon's letter of the fourteenth of ,december he said3 ,all is up4 ,i expect the catastrophe in ten days' time2 it would not have been so if our people had kept me better informed as to their intentions4 ,they had no intentions to inform him of4 ,they were merely acting from hand to mouth to avert the parliamentary censure with which they were threatened4 ,they had no plan1 they had no intentions to carry out4 ,if they could have known their intentions1 a great hero would have been saved to the ,british army1 a great disgrace would not have fallen on the ,english government4 ,footnote3 ,on the ,desertion of ,gordon in ,egypt1 ,lord ,salisbury1 ,the ,world's ,famous ,orations4 ,funk ,wagnalls1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #aaa4 #b4 ,for any ,state to make sex a qualification that must ever result in the disfranchisement of one entire half of the people is to pass a bill of attainder1 or an ex post facto law1 and is therefore a violation of the supreme law of the land4 ,by it the blessings of liberty are forever withheld from women and their female posterity4 ,to them this government has no just powers derived from the consent of the governed4 ,to them this government is not a democracy4 ,it is not a republic4 ,it is an odious aristocracy2 a hateful oligarchy of sex2 the most hateful aristocracy ever established on the face of the globe2 an oligarchy of wealth1 where the rich govern the poor4 ,an oligarchy of learning1 where the educated govern the ignorant1 or even an oligarchy of race where the ,saxon rules the ,african1 might be endured2 but this oligarchy of sex1 which makes father1 brothers1 husband1 sons1 the oligarchs over the mother and sisters1 the wife and daughters of every household--which ordains all men sovereigns1 all women subjects1 carries dissension1 discord and rebellion into every home of the nation4 ,webster1 ,worcester and ,bouvier all define a citizen to be a person in the ,united ,states1 entitled to vote and hold office4 ,the only question left to be settled now is3 ,are women persons8 ,and ,i hardly believe any of our opponents will have the hardihood to say they are not4 ,being persons1 then1 women are citizens2 and no ,state has a right to make any law1 or to enforce any old law1 that shall abridge their privileges or immunities4 ,hence1 every discrimination against women in the constitutions and laws of the several ,states is to-day null and void4 ,footnote3 ,on ,woman's ,right to the ,suffrage1 ,susan ,b4 ,anthony4 ,the ,world's ,famous ,orations4 ,funk ,wagnalls1 ,vol4 ,x1 p4 #ei4 #c4 ,the ,legal ,intelligencer prints the full text of the recent decision of ,judge ,sulzberger in the case of ,claus ,basher vs4 the ,rapid ,transit ,company1 which deals with a phase of the question concerning the use of the streets in obstructing public travel4 ,the ,judge1 in denying the plaintiffs a rule for a new trial1 put the matter under review into his customary concise logic1 as follows3 ,the plaintiff contends that the direction for defendant was erroneous1 because the jury should have been given the opportunity to pass upon the question whether he was or was not negligent in placing his wagon in such a position that it encroached three or four feet upon the transit company's track1 without which encroachment the accident could not have happened4 ,his reasons are as follows3 #a4 ,that a driver1 for the purpose of watering his horses1 has the right to encroach on the trolley track4 #b4 ,that even if he has not1 it is negligence for a motor-man not to stop his car in time to prevent a collision in broad daylight with a conspicuous obstacle like a wagon in front of him4 ,as to the first point3 ,an obstruction of the highway which is temporary and partial may be justified in cases of plain1 evident necessity1 but not where that necessity is argumentative and supposititious3 ,com4 vs4 ,passmore1 #a ,s4 ,r4 #bag2 ,rex v4 ,russell1 #f ,east4 #dbg4 ,there was no necessity on the plaintiff to water his horses in the way he did4 ,two other ways1 both perfectly safe1 were open to him4 ,he chose the easiest and the riskiest4 ,but if there had not been two safe ways open for him1 he would still have been guilty of negligence in drawing his wagon across a trolley track1 on a busy city street1 on which cars were running every minute or two4 ,the primary use of the car track is for public travel1 not for watering horses4 ,a permanent watering-trough on a sidewalk1 so constructed as not to be usable without stopping the running of the cars1 would be a nuisance4 ,the supposed analogy to the right of an abutter to load and unload a necessary article fails entirely4 ,a passing driver is not in the position of an abutter1 the reasonableness of whose action is determined by the degree of momentary necessity1 and the limit of whose right is that his obstruction must be temporary4 ,here1 however1 the watering-trough and not the driver is in the abutter's position4 ,the watering-trough is a public utility1 which every one may use4 ,on a warm day1 in a busy city street1 hundreds of vehicles may stop there1 and the quantity of obstruction is not the time occupied by each1 but the sum of the times occupied by all4 ,the effect must necessarily be a serious hindrance to public travel1 which might sometimes result in complete stoppage4 ,to use the thought of ,mr4 ,justice ,dean1 in ,com4 vs4 ,forrest1 #agj ,pa4 #dg1 the law would soon be invoked to decide whether the car track was for the cars or for vehicles stopped thereon for the purpose of watering horses2 whether the driver of such vehicles was in the exercise of a lawful right or was a usurper of the rights of others4 ,in the case of ,attorney-,general vs4 the ,sheffield ,gas ,consumers' ,company1 #ai ,eng4 ,law ,eq4 #fci1 ,lord ,chancellor ,cranworth1 considering a similar question1 used this illustration3 ,no doubt that it would be a nuisance1 and a very serious nuisance1 if a person with a barrel organ1 or the bagpipes1 were to come and station himself under a person's window all day4 ,but when he is going through a city1 you know that he will stop ten minutes at one place and ten minutes at another1 and you know he will so go on during the day4 ,the watering- trough1 however1 is stationary4 ,as to the second point3 ,the general rule in ,pennsylvania is that contributory negligence prevents recovery4 ,this rule1 it is true1 does not apply where the defendant is guilty of negligence so wanton and gross as to be evidence of voluntary injury2 ,wynn vs4 ,allord1 #e ,w4 ,s4 #ebe2 ,mc,knight vs4 ,ratcliff1 #dd ,pa4 #aef4 ,there is1 however1 nothing in the testimony to indicate that the defendant's motorman did anything wanton4 ,coming down a steep hill1 he failed for a moment to see an obstacle which he had a right to expect would not be on the track4 ,no one says that he did not do his best to prevent the collision after he had seen the wagon4 ,the question at bottom is one of public policy4 ,should the motorman anticipate that persons of mature age will station their wagons across the tracks8 ,if the rights of the traveling public are to be preserved1 the answer must be in the negative4 #d4 ,aside from the money question1 the most serious problem that confronts the people of ,america to-day is that of rescuing their cities1 their ,states and the federal government1 including the federal judiciary1 from absolute control of corporate monopoly4 ,how to restore the voice of the citizen in the government of his country2 and how to put an end to those proceedings in some of the higher courts which are farce and mockery on one side1 and a criminal usurpation and oppression on the other4444 ,in as much as no government can endure in which corrupt greed not only makes the laws1 but decides who shall construe them1 many of our best citizens are beginning to despair of the republic4 ,others urge that we should remove the bribe-givers--that is1 destroy this overwhelming temptation by having the government take all these monopolies itself and furnish the service which they now furnish1 and thus not only save our institutions1 but have the great profits which now go into the pockets of private corporations turned into the public treasury4444 ,let us see what civilized man is doing elsewhere4 ,take the cities of ,great ,britain first1 for they have the same power of self-government that ,american cities have4 ,in all that pertains to the comfort and enterprise of the individual we are far in the lead2 but in the government of cities we are far behind4 ,glasgow has to-day nearly one million inhabitants and is one of the great manufacturing and commercial cities of the world4 ,thirty years ago there was scarcely a city that was in a worse condition4 ,private corporations furnished it a poor quality of water1 taken from the ,clyde ,river1 and they charged high rates for it4 ,the city drained into the ,clyde1 and it became horribly filthy4 ,private corporations furnished a poor quality of gas1 at a high price2 and private companies operated the street railroads4 ,private companies had the same grip on the people there that they have in most ,american cities4 ,owing to the development of great shipbuilding and other industries in the valley of the ,clyde1 the laboring population of ,glasgow became very dense and the means of housing the people were miserable4 ,poorly lighted1 poorly ventilated1 filthy houses brought high rents4 ,in many cases two families lived in one room4 ,cleanliness was impossible1 the sanitary conditions were frightful and the death rate was high4 ,as for educational facilities1 there were none worth mentioning for these people4 ,the condition of the laboring classes was one of degradation and misery2 children were growing up mentally1 morally and physically diseased2 a generation was coming which threatened to be an expense and a menace to the country4 ,it was a great slum city4 ,but patriotic and public-spirited men came to the front and gave the city the benefit of their services free4 ,in fact1 none of the high city officials in ,great ,britain received any pay other than the well being of humanity and the good opinions of their country4 ,the city rid itself of the private companies by buying them and then brought fresh water from the highlands1 a distance of sixty miles4 ,it doubled the quantity of water furnished the inhabitants1 and reduced the cost to consumers by one-half4 ,and yet the department now yields over two hundred thousand dollars a year net income over all fixed charges4 ,the municipality1 after much difficulty1 bought the gas plants and gradually reduced the price of gas from #a4ad to #eh cents1 and it now illuminates not only the streets and public places1 but all passageways and stairways in flat buildings1 experience having shown that a good lamp is almost as useful as a policeman4 ,the total debt of the city for plants1 extensions1 etc41 to illumine perfectly all the city had reached nearly five and a half millions of dollars4 ,notwithstanding the low price at which gas is sold1 this sum has gradually been reduced to less than two and a half millions of dollars out of the earnings of the system1 and it will soon be wiped out and the entire revenue go into the city treasury4 ,the street railways were owned by the city1 but1 until #ahid1 they were leased out under an arrangement which paid the city full cost of construction1 with interest1 besides a yearly income of #gej per street mile4 ,in #ahid the city began to operate the lines itself4 ,the fares were reduced #cc per cent41 besides special tickets to laborers1 so that the average is under two cents1 and over one-third of all fares are one cent each4 ,the private company had worked its men twelve and fourteen hours a day and paid irregular and unsatisfactory wages4 ,the city at once reduced the number of hours to ten1 and fixed a satisfactory scale of wages4 ,and1 compared with what it formerly was1 the service has been greatly improved4 ,in spite of all these acts for the benefit of the public1 the roads which had cost the city nothing1 now net over all charges for improvements1 etc41 one-fourth of a million annually4 ,in #ahib the city bought out a private electric light company1 and now has the monopoly of furnishing electric light and power4 ,this promises to be a source of enormous revenue for the city4444 ,manchester has within its narrow limits only a little over half a million people1 but within a radius of twenty miles from her city hall there are over three million inhabitants4 ,these have to be considered in discussing ,manchester1 which is essentially a manufacturing and commercial city4 ,its history is in many respects a parallel of that of ,glasgow4 ,it seemed to be a great city of slums1 degradation and misery1 and was in the grip of private monopolies4 ,to-day the city furnishes all the service that is furnished here by private corporations1 and does it at about one-half cost4 ,it furnishes gas at fifty-six cents a thousand1 and after deducting all that is used to illuminate perfectly the streets and after applying #bjj1jjj a year on the original cost of plants1 etc41 it still turns #cjj1jjj a year into the public treasury1 altho the aim in nearly all ,english cities is not to make money1 but to serve the public4 ,the city constructed an aqueduct ninety miles to secure pure water and furnishes this for a little more than half what the private company had charged for a poor quality of water4 ,it owns street railways1 and besides giving greatly reduced rates and giving half-fare tickets to workingmen1 the city derives a large revenue from this source4 ,like ,glasgow and ,birmingham1 the city owns large cemeteries in which there are separate sections for the different religious denominations1 and prices are so arranged that while those who desire to do so can get lots costing from ten to thirty dollars1 yet a decent burial with inscription on stone over a grave can be had at about four dollars for adults and three dollars for children4 ,this charge includes all cemetery fees and expenses4 ,the city owns the markets and slaughter houses4 ,it has provided parks and swimming baths and1 like ,birmingham and ,glasgow1 it maintains large technical schools in which thousands of young men are instructed in the industrial arts and sciences1 so as to be able to maintain ,manchester's greatness4 ,birmingham has over half a million of people1 and its experience resembles that of ,glasgow and ,manchester4 ,formerly private corporations controlled almost everything and charged very high rates for very poor service1 and the sanitary conditions were frightful4 ,but here again municipal statesmen came to the front1 the most prominent among whom was ,the ,honorable ,joseph ,chamberlain1 who has since been in the ,british government4 ,not going further into detail1 let me say there are at present in the ,united ,kingdom #ahe municipalities that supply their inhabitants with water1 with gas and electric light1 and one-third of the street railway mileage of ,great ,britain is owned by the municipalities4 ,leaving out ,london it amounts to two-thirds4 ,and in most instances in which they do not own the street railways1 they have compelled the companies to grant low fares and divide profits4 ,every business reason applicable to the municipalities and governments of ,europe is applicable here4 ,we want as pure water1 as good drainage1 as cheap service as they have1 and we want the same privilege of supplying ourselves as they exercise2 and when it is apparent that1 by acting collectively1 we can do business more successfully1 can serve ourselves better in every way1 and can secure for the public treasury these millions which now go into the pockets of grasping individuals1 have we not a right to do it8 ,if we find that1 in this manner1 we can give steadiness to labor1 and can elevate its standards and improve the conditions of our people1 dare we not do it8 ,every one of the reforms carried out in ,england and on the continent met with fierce opposition from the same classes that oppose them here1 but the business sense and patriotic impulse of the people prevailed1 and ,i believe1 will prevail here4 ,footnote3 ,on ,municipal and ,government ,ownership1 ,altgeld ,the ,world's ,famous ,orations4 ,funk ,wagnalls ,co41 ,vol4 ,x1 p4 #bjh4 #e4 ,draw a brief of ,beecher's speech found on page #aff4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,methods ,,of ,,refutation ,a complete argument consists of two kinds of proof3 constructive proof and refutation4 ,constructive proof is that part of an argument which sets forth direct reasons for belief in a certain proposition2 refutation is that part which destroys the reasons for belief in the opposite side4 ,in general1 each of these divisions is of about equal importance1 at times the value of one predominating and at times the value of the other4 ,if one is addressing an audience unacquainted with his views or hostile towards them1 he is not likely to make much progress in getting his own beliefs accepted until he has1 at least in part1 shattered the opinion already existing4 ,if1 however1 the audience is predisposed or even willing to accept the doctrine advocated1 very little but constructive proof may be necessary4 ,in debate1 the side that has the burden of proof will usually have more use for constructive argument1 and the opposite side will have more use for refutation4 ,this statement will not always hold true1 however1 for the rule will vary under different circumstances2 a debater must1 therefore1 hold himself in readiness to meet whatever contingencies arise4 ,debate may be likened to the play of two boys building houses with blocks2 each boy builds the best house he can1 and at times attempts to overthrow the work of his playmate4 ,the one that has the better structure when the game ends comes off victorious4 ,thus it is in debate2 each debater must do his best both to build up his own argument and to destroy his opponent's4 ,to handle refutation successfully1 either in written argument or in debate1 one must know what to refute and what to leave alone4 ,the general rule governing this matter is3 ,refute only those arguments which are essential to the proof of the other side4 ,all trivial ideas1 even all misstatements which if refuted would not destroy any fundamental process of an opponent's proof1 should pass unnoticed4 ,to mention them means waste of time and effort4 ,it is not uncommon for a debater to make trivial errors intentionally1 in the hope that his opponent will consume valuable time in refuting them and thus allow his main argument to go unscathed4 ,when this stratagem succeeds1 the one who made the mistakes can acknowledge that he was wrong in those unimportant details1 and yet show that his fundamental arguments have not been overthrown4 ,while arguing on a political question1 an intercollegiate debater once laid considerable stress on an opinion expressed by ,woodrow ,wilson1 ,president1 as he stated1 of ,harvard ,university4 ,his opponent1 of course1 might have held this statement up to ridicule1 but such an exposure would have been impolitic1 in that it would have in no wise impaired the value of ,mr4 ,wilson's opinion as evidence4 ,another debater1 not so wise1 once spent considerable time in correcting an opponent who had said that the ,steel ,trust was formed in #ahia instead of in #aija1 as was the case4 ,as these dates had no vital bearing on the question at issue1 the error should have been allowed to pass4 ,the temptation to point out the flaws that are most obvious is always great1 but unless by so doing one can knock out the props on which an opponent's proof rests1 such an attack accomplishes nothing4 ,another common error in refutation consists in answering one's self4 ,a person is guilty of this fault whenever he misstates an opponent's argument1 either because he does not understand it or through design1 and then refutes this misstatement4 ,the folly of such procedure is made apparent by merely calling attention to the fact that the original argument has been garbled but in no wise refuted1 ,an opponent can convict the one who has answered himself either of unpardonable ignorance about the subject or of downright dishonesty4 ,to guard against these errors of refuting unimportant details and of answering one's self1 it is always well to reduce an opponent's argument to the form of a brief4 ,if the argument is in print1 this task is comparatively simple2 if the argument is oral1 the task will be harder but will still present no serious difficulties to one who is used to drawing briefs4 ,when all the ideas have been arranged in the form of headings and subheadings1 and the relation between the ideas has been indicated by means of numbers and letters1 then the arguer can quickly decide what points he ought to refute and what ones he can refute4 ,it goes without saying that the headings marked with the ,roman numerals contain the most important ideas1 and should1 therefore1 be overthrown as far as possible4 ,there are three ways of disposing of them3 one way is to state that the headings are false and then bring on new proof to show their falsity2 the second way is to call attention to the subheadings with which the opponent has bolstered up the main headings1 and then1 by proving these subheads false1 allow the main heads to fall to the ground2 the third way is to admit that the subheads are true and then show that the inferences drawn from them are unwarranted4 ,to illustrate3 ,a part of an argument on the affirmative side of the proposition1 ,resolved1 ,that students in ,american colleges should be excused from final examinations in all subjects in which they have attained a daily grade of at least eighty-five per cent41 might be reduced to the following brief form3-- ,i4 ,this rule would be of great intellectual benefit to college students1 for ,a4 ,they would master their work more thoroughly1 because #a4 ,they would study harder during the term4 ,the first method of overthrowing the heading indicated by 7,i7 would be to attack it directly4 ,this attack might consist of opinions of prominent educators who1 on theoretical grounds1 do not believe an intellectual benefit would result from the adoption of such a rule2 of the opinions of educators who have tried the rule and declare that it is an intellectual detriment2 and of a course of reasoning which would show that this system would rob the students exempted of the great intellectual benefit that is derived from the preparation for an examination and from the taking of an examination4 ,the second method would be to show that 7#a7 is not true2 therefore 7,a7 would be false1 and 7,i7 would be left entirely unsupported4 ,under the third method the arguer would admit the truth of 7#a71 but would deny that the truth of 7,a7 is established by it2 therefore 7,i7 would be unsupported4 ,whenever a subheading is attacked1 it is always very essential to show that the attack is made simply because this subheading serves as a foundation for the main heading4 ,in this particular argument1 refutation according to the second and third methods might read about as follows3 ,the contention of the affirmative that the eighty-five per cent4 rule should be adopted because it would result in an intellectual improvement among college students1 rests on the supposition that students would study harder during the term1 and for that reason would more thoroughly master their subjects4 ,this reasoning is erroneous because1 in the first place1 as ,i will show1 but very few students1 if any1 would study harder during the term2 and1 in the second place1 even if they did1 those exempted would not have mastered their work so completely at the end of the year as they would have if they had taken an examination4 ,from the preceding1 it is apparent that refutation consists of discrediting evidence and attacking reasoning4 ,the ways to overthrow evidence will be considered first4 ,,evidence4 ,it is taken for granted that the evidence mustered by the opponent is sufficient1 if not overthrown1 to establish his side of the discussion4 ,of course1 if enough evidence for this purpose is lacking1 one has only to call attention to this fundamental weakness in order to overthrow the argument then and there4 ,the rules1 therefore1 for testing evidence assume that the opponent has cited facts that1 if not combated1 will establish his case4 ,these tests are the same as those given in ,chapter ,,vi2 a hasty review of them1 however1 may be serviceable at this point4 ,i4 ,tests of the sources of evidence4 ,a4 ,is the witness competent to give a trustworthy account of the matter8 ,b4 ,is the witness willing to give an accurate account8 #a4 ,does he have any personal interest in the case8 ,c4 ,is the witness prejudiced8 ,d4 ,does the witness have a good reputation for honesty and accuracy8 ,,ii4 ,internal tests of evidence4 ,a4 ,is the evidence consistent 7a7 with itself1 7b7 with known facts1 7c7 with human experience8 ,b4 ,is it first-hand evidence8 ,c4 ,can the evidence be classed as especially valuable8 #a4 ,does it consist of hurtful admissions8 #b4 ,is it undesigned evidence8 #c4 ,is it negative evidence8 ,,iii4 ,test of argument from authority4 ,a4 ,is the witness an acknowledged authority on the subject about which he testifies8 ,to overthrow or weaken argument from authority1 one may either discredit its source or bring to light some inconsistency in the statement itself4 ,usually the former method alone is possible4 ,to accomplish this result1 one may show that the witness spoke from insufficient knowledge of the matter1 or was prejudiced1 or had some personal interest in the case4 ,counter authority will also be of assistance4 ,the following quotation taken from a college debate furnishes the student a good example of how to handle this sort of refutation4 ,the argument has been advanced that the ,south does not need the foreign laborer1 and this argument has been supported by the words of ,mr4 ,prescott ,f4 ,hall4 ,we would call the attention of the audience and the judges to the fact that since ,prescott ,f4 ,hall is ,secretary of the ,immigration ,restriction ,league1 it would be to his interest to make this assertion4 ,why do not our opponents refer to impartial and unprejudiced men1 men like ,dr4 ,allen ,mc,laughlin1 a ,united ,states immigration official1 who makes just the opposite statement8 ,,reasoning4 ,i4 ,induction4 ,a4 ,have enough instances of the class under consideration been investigated to establish the existence of a general law8 ,b4 ,have enough instances been investigated to establish the probable existence of a general law8 ,,ii4 ,deduction4 ,a4 ,are both premises true8 ,b4 ,is the fact stated in the minor premise an instance of the general law expressed in the major premise8 ,,iii4 ,antecedent probability4 ,a4 ,is the assigned cause of sufficient strength to produce the alleged effect8 ,b4 ,may some other cause intervene and prevent the action of the assigned cause8 ,,iv4 ,sign4 ,a4 ,argument from effect to cause4 #a4 ,is the assigned cause adequate to produce the observed effect8 #b4 ,could the observed effect have resulted from any other cause than the one assigned8 ,b4 ,argument from effect to effect4 #a4 ,do the combined tests of argument from effect to cause and from cause to effect hold8 ,v4 ,example4 ,a4 ,is there any fundamental difference between the case in hand and the case cited as an example8 ,,fallacies4 ,a fallacy is an error in reasoning4 ,the preceding part of this chapter has already suggested tests that will expose many such faults1 but there are a few errors which1 because of their frequency or their inadaptability to other classification1 demand separate treatment4 ,this book follows the plan of most other texts on argumentation1 and treats these errors under a separate head marked fallacies4 ,to detect a fallacy in another's argument is to weaken1 if not to destroy1 his case2 to avoid making a fallacy in one's own argument means escape from humiliation and defeat4 ,hence1 a knowledge of fallacies is one of the most essential parts of a debater's equipment4 ,the classification given here does not pretend to be exhaustive2 it does1 however1 consider the most common and insidious breaches of reasoning that are likely to occur1 and the following pages should be studied with great care4 ,i4 ,,begging ,,the ,,question4 7,,petitio ,,principii47 #a4 ,,mere ,,assumption4 ,begging the question means assuming the truth of that which needs proof4 ,this fallacy is found in its simplest form in epithets and appellations4 ,the lawyer who speaks of the criminal on trial for his life1 begs the question in that he assumes the prisoner to be a criminal before the court has rendered a verdict4 ,those writers who have recently discussed the brutal game of football without having first adduced a particle of proof to show that the game is brutal1 fall into the same error4 ,an unpardonable instance of question-begging lies in the following introduction1 once given by a debater who was attacking the proposition1 ,resolved1 ,that the federal government should own and operate the railroads in the ,united ,states3-- ,we of the negative will show that the efficient and highly beneficial system of private ownership should be maintained1 and that the impracticable system of government ownership can never succeed in the ,united ,states or in any similarly governed country4 ,private ownership and government ownership may possess these qualities attributed to them1 but the debater has no right to make such an assumption2 he must prove that they have these qualities4 #b4 ,,assumption ,,used ,,as ,,proof4 ,such barefaced assumptions as the preceding usually do little damage except to the one who makes them4 ,they are not likely to lead astray an audience of average intelligence2 on the other hand1 they do stamp the arguer as prejudiced and illogical4 ,but when assumptions are used as proof1 hidden in the midst of quantities of other material1 they may produce an unwarranted effect upon one who is not a clear thinker1 or who is off his guard4 ,if1 without showing that football is brutal1 one calls it an extremely brutal game1 and then urges its abolishment on the ground of its brutality1 he has used an assumption as proof1 and has1 therefore1 begged the question4 ,the debater who stated1 without proving1 that vast numbers of unskilled laborers were needed in the ,united ,states1 and then urged this as a reason why no educational test should be applied to immigrants coming to this country1 furnished an example of the same fallacy4 #c4 ,,unwarranted ,,assumption ,,of ,,the ,,truth ,,of ,a ,,suppressed ,,premise4 ,the student is already familiar with the enthymeme4 ,the enthymeme constitutes a valid form of reasoning only when the suppressed premise is recognized as true4 ,therefore1 whenever an arguer makes use of the enthymeme without attempting to establish a suppressed premise whose truth is not admitted1 he has argued fallaciously4 ,this is a third method of begging the question4 ,to illustrate3 ,in advocating the abolishment of football from the list of college athletic sports1 one might reason1 ,football should be abolished because it obviously exposes a player to possible injury4 ,the suppressed premise in this case would be3 ,all sports which expose a player to possible injury should be abolished4 ,failure to prove the truth of this unadmitted statement constitutes the fallacy4 #d4 ,,assumption ,,equivalent ,,to ,,the ,,proposition ,,to ,,be ,,proved4 ,it is not surprising that a man carried away with excitement or prejudice should make assumptions that he does not even try to substantiate1 but that anyone should assume the truth of the very conclusion that he has set out to establish seems incredible4 ,such a form of begging the question1 however1 does frequently occur4 ,sometimes the fallacy is so hidden in a mass of illustration and rhetorical embellishment that at first it is not apparent2 but stripped of its verbal finery1 it stands out very plainly4 ,the following passage written on the affirmative side of the proposition1 ,resolved1 ,that the college course should be shortened to three years1 will serve as a particularly flagrant illustration3-- ,it is a well-known fact that in the world of to-day time is an essential factor in the race for success4 ,no young man can afford to dawdle for four long years in acquiring a so-called higher education4 ,three-fourths of that time is1 if anything1 more than sufficient in which to attain all the graces and culture that the progressive man needs4 ,it is evident that the argument in this case consists of nothing more than a repetition of the proposition4 #e4 ,,arguing ,,in ,a ,,circle4 ,another phase of begging the question consists of using an assumption as proof of a proposition and of then quoting the proposition as proof of the assumption4 ,two assertions are made1 neither of which is substantiated by any real proof1 but each of which is used to prove the other4 ,this fallacy probably occurs most frequently in conversation4 ,consider the following 3-- ,a4 ,the proposed system of taxation is an excellent one4 ,b4 ,what makes you think so8 ,a4 ,because it will be adopted by the legislature4 ,b4 ,how do you know it will8 ,a4 ,because it is a good system and our legislators are men of sense4 ,this fallacy occurs when one proves the authority of the church from the testimony of the scriptures1 and then establishes the authenticity of the scriptures by the testimony of the church4 ,a similar fallacy has been pointed out in the works of ,plato4 ,in ,phaedo1 he demonstrates the immortality of the soul from its simplicity1 and in the ,republic1 he demonstrates the simplicity of the soul from its immortality4 ,the following fragment of a brief argues in a circle3-- ,i4 ,this principle is in accordance with the principles of the ,democratic party1 since ,a4 ,the leader of the ,democratic party believes in it1 for #a4 ,as the leader of the party1 he naturally believes in ,democratic principles4 ,,ii4 ,,ambigous ,,terms4 7,,equivocation2 ,,confusion ,,of ,,terms47 ,the fallacy of ambiguous terms consists of using the same term in two distinct senses in the same argument4 ,thus if one were to argue that no designing person ought to be trusted2 engravers are by profession designers2 therefore they ought not to be trusted1 it is quite apparent that the term design means totally different things in the two premises4 ,the same fallacy occurs in the argument1 ,since the ,american people believe in a republican form of government1 they should vote the ,republican ticket4 ,again3-- ,interference with another man's business is illegal2 ,underselling interferes with another man's business2 ,therefore underselling is illegal4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill in his ,system of ,logic discusses the fallacy of ambiguous terms with great care4 ,in part he says3-- ,the mercantile public are frequently led into this fallacy by the phrase scarcity of money4 ,in the language of commerce1 money has two meanings3 currency1 or the circulating medium2 and capital seeking investment1 especially investment on loan4 ,in this last sense1 the word is used when the money market is spoken of1 and when the value of money is said to be high or low1 the rate of interest being meant4 ,the consequence of this ambiguity is1 that as soon as scarcity of money in the latter of these senses begins to be felt1--as soon as there is difficulty of obtaining loans1 and the rate of interest is high1--it is concluded that this must arise from causes acting upon the quantity of money in the other and more popular sense2 that the circulating medium must have diminished in quantity1 or ought to be increased4 ,i am aware that1 independently of the double meaning of the term1 there are in the facts themselves some peculiarities1 giving an apparent support to this error2 but the ambiguity of the language stands on the very threshold of the subject1 and intercepts all attempts to throw light upon it4 ,as countless words and expressions have several meanings1 there is almost no limit to the confusion which this fallacy can cause4 ,some of the most common terms that are used ambiguously are right1 liberty1 law1 representative1 theory1 church1 state1 student4 ,by carefully defining all terms that have more than one meaning and by insisting on a rigid adherence to the one meaning wherever the term is used1 a debater can easily avoid fallacies of this sort in his own argument and expose those of his opponent4 ,,iii4 ,,false ,,cause4 ,the fallacy of false cause occurs whenever that which could in no way bring about the effect that is being established is urged as its cause4 ,this fallacy in its most obvious form is found only in the arguments of careless and illogical thinkers4 ,some college students occasionally draw briefs that contain such reasoning as the following3-- ,i4 ,the ,panama canal should be of the sea-level rather than of the lock type1 because ,a4 ,the ,panama canal will do away with the long voyage around the ,horn4 ,i4 ,southerners are justified in keeping the franchise away from the negro1 for ,a4 ,negroes should never have been brought to ,america4 ,b4 ,the ,fifteenth ,amendment to the ,constitution ought not to have been passed4 ,the error of such plainly absurd reasoning as occurs in the preceding illustrations needs no explanation4 ,there is one form of the fallacy of false cause1 however1 that is much more common and insidious and therefore deserves special treatment4 ,,post ,,hoc ,,ergo ,,propter ,,hoc4 7,after this1 therefore1 on account of this47 ,this phase of the fallacy consists of the assumption that since cause precedes effect what has preceded an event has caused it4 ,the most frequent occurrence of the error is to be found in superstitions4 ,if some one meets with an accident while taking a journey that began on ,friday1 many people will argue that the accident is the effect of the unlucky day4 ,some farmers believe their crops will not prosper unless the planting is done when the moon is in a certain quarter2 sailors often refuse to embark in a renamed vessel4 ,because in the past1 one event has been known to follow another1 it is argued that the first event was the cause of the second1 and that the second event will invariably follow the first4 ,but this fallacy does not find its only expression in superstitions4 ,to post hoc reasoning is due much of the popularity of patent medicines4 ,political beliefs1 even1 are often generated in the same way2 prosperity follows the passing of a certain law1 and people jump to the conclusion that this one law has caused the good times4 ,some demagogues go so far as to say that education among the ,indians is responsible for the increased death rate of many of the tribes4 ,a slightly different phase of the post hoc fallacy consists in attributing the existence of a certain condition to a single preceding event1 when at the most this event could have been only a partial cause of what followed1 and may not have been a cause at all4 ,a medicine that could not have effected a cure may have been of some slight benefit4 ,a law that could not possibly have been the sole cause of good times may have had a beneficial effect4 ,to avoid this fallacy1 one must be sure not only that the assigned cause is operative1 but that it is also adequate4 ,in the following passage1 ,harpers ,weekly1 for ,march #e1 #ahid1 points out the error in the reasoning made by several college presidents who1 after compiling statistics1 stated that a college education increased a man's chance of success from one in ten thousand to one in forty3-- ,not many persons doubt any longer that an ,american college education is an advantage to most youths who can get it1 but in these attempts to estimate statistically what college education does for men there is a good deal of confusing of post hoc and propter hoc4 ,define success as you will1 a much larger proportion of ,american college men win it than of men who don't go to college1 but how much college training does for those successful men is still debatable4 ,remember that they are a picked lot1 the likeliest children of parents whose ability or desire to send their children to college is evidence of better fortune1 or at least of higher aspirations than the average4 ,and because their parents are1 as a rule1 more or less prosperous and well educated1 they get and would get1 whether they went to college or not1 a better than average start in life4444 ,if one boy out of a family of four goes to college1 it is the clever one4 ,the boys who might go to college and don't are commonly the lazy ones who won't study4 ,the colleges get nowadays a large proportion of the best boys of the strongest families4 ,the best boys of the strongest families would win far more than their proportionate share of success even if there were no colleges4 ,an exposure of similarly fallacious reasoning is made by ,edward ,m4 ,shepard in ,the ,atlantic ,monthly for ,october1 #aijd4 ,the ,republican argument is that the whole edifice of our prosperity depends upon high protective or prohibitive duties1 and that to them is due our industrial progress4 ,is it not1 indeed1 a disparagement of the self-depending faculties of the ,american people thus to affirm that1 in spite of their marvelous advantages1 they would have failed in industrial life unless by force of law they could have prevented the competition with them of other peoples8 ,it is only by the sophistry to which ,i have referred that this disparagement is justified4 ,it is that old argument of veritable folly that1 because event ,z follows event ,w1 as it follows events ,a and ,b and many besides ,a1 therefore ,w is the sole cause of ,z4 ,theory or no theory1 the ,republican says that we have in fact grown rich by protection1 because in our country prosperity and protective duties have existed together4 ,they ignore every inconvenient fact4 ,they would have us forget that each of the industrial depressions of #ahgc-gh and #ahic-if followed long operation of a high protective tariff4 ,they ignore the contribution of soil and climate to our prosperity1 the vast increase which modern inventions and improved carrying facilities have1 the world over1 brought to the productivity of labor1 and here in the ,united ,states have brought more than anywhere else4 ,they ignore the superior skill and alertness of the ,american workman and the wonderful extent to which he has been stimulated by the conditions and ideals of our democracy4 ,they ignore the freedom of trade1 which1 since #aghi1 the ,federal ,constitution has made operative over our entire country1-- by far the most important area of free trade ever known1--and which everyone to-day knows to be a prime condition of the prosperity of our forty-five commonwealths4 ,from what has been said it is obvious that it is never safe to account for an occurrence or a condition by merely referring to something that accompanies it or precedes it4 ,there must be a connection between the alleged cause and the effect1 and this connection must be causal2 otherwise1 both may be the result of the same cause4 ,the cause must also be adequate2 and it must1 moreover1 be evident that the result has not been produced1 wholly or partially1 by some other cause or causes4 ,,iv4 ,,composition ,,and ,,division4 ,,composition4 ,the fallacy of composition consists of attributing to a whole that which has been proved only of a part4 ,to condemn or to approve of a fraternity because of the conduct of only a few of its members1 to say that what is advantageous for certain states in the ,union would therefore be beneficial for the ,united ,states as a whole1 to reason from the existence of a few millionaires that the ,english nation is wealthy1 would be to fall into this fallacy4 ,furthermore1 it is fallacious to think that because something is true of each member of a class taken distributively1 the same thing holds true of the class taken collectively4 ,it is not logical to argue that because each member of a jury is very likely to judge erroneously1 the jury as a whole is also very likely to judge erroneously4 ,because each witness to an event is liable to give false or incorrect evidence1 it is unreasonable to think that no confidence can be placed in the concurrent testimony of a number of witnesses4 ,,division4 ,the fallacy of division is the converse of the fallacy of composition4 ,it consists of attributing to a part that which has been proved of the whole4 ,for instance1 ,lancaster county is the most fertile county in ,pennsylvania1 but that fact by itself does not warrant the statement that any one particular farm is exceptionally fertile4 ,because the people of a country are suffering from famine1 it does not follow that one particular person is thus afflicted4 ,again1 it would be fallacious to say3 ,it is admitted that the judges of the court of appeal cannot misinterpret the law2 ,richard ,rowe is a judge of the court of appeal2 therefore he cannot misinterpret the law4 ,v4 ,,ignoring ,,the ,,question4 7,,ignoratio ,,elenchi47 ,an arguer is said to ignore the question1 or to argue beside the point1 whenever he attempts to prove or disprove anything except the proposition under discussion4 ,this fallacy may arise through carelessness or trickery4 ,an unskilled debater will often unconsciously wander away from his subject2 and an unscrupulous debater1 when unable to defend his position1 will sometimes cunningly shift his ground and argue upon a totally new proposition1 which is1 however1 so similar to the original one that in the heat of controversy the change is hardly noticeable4 ,a discussion on the subject1 ,the boycott is a legitimate means of securing concessions from employers1 which attempted to show the effectiveness of the boycott1 would ignore the question4 ,likewise1 in a discussion on the proposition1 ,the average college student could do in three years the work now done in four1 any proof showing the desirability of such a crowding together of college work would be beside the point4 ,in the following passage ,macaulay holds up to scorn certain arguments which contain this fallacy3-- ,the advocates of ,charles1 like the advocates of other malefactors against whom overwhelming evidence is produced1 generally decline all controversy about facts1 and content themselves with calling testimony to character4 ,we charge him with having broken his coronation oath2 and we are told that he kept his marriage vow6 ,we accuse him of having given up his people to the merciless inflictions of the most hot-headed and hard- hearted of prelates2 and the defence is1 that he took his little son on his knees and kissed him6 ,we censure him for having violated the articles of the ,petition of ,rights1 after having1 for good and valuable consideration1 promised to obey them2 and we are informed that he was accustomed to hear prayers at six o'clock in the morning6 ,whenever an arguer avoids the question at issue and makes an attack upon the character1 principles1 or former beliefs or personal peculiarities of his opponent1 he commits the special form of this fallacy known as argumentum ad hominem4 ,it is obviously fallacious to reason that a principle is unsound because it is upheld by an untrustworthy advocate1 or because it is inconsistent with the advocate's former beliefs and practices4 ,honesty is a worthy principle1 even though advocated by a thief4 ,the duty of industry is no less binding because it is advocated by an idler4 ,lawyers often commit this error by seeking to discredit the opposing attorney4 ,campaign speakers frequently attempt to overthrow the opposing party's platform by showing that it is inconsistent with the party's previous measures and declarations4 ,to bring in such irrelevant matter is to ignore the question4 ,closely allied to argumentum ad hominem is another phase of ignoring the question called argumentum ad populum4 ,this fallacy consists of using before a certain audience statements which will strongly appeal to their prejudices and partisan views1 but which are not generally accepted facts and which would undoubtedly meet with strong opposition elsewhere4 ,a speaker who brings in this kind of argument makes use neither of reasoning nor of legitimate persuasion4 ,he neglects his proposition and attempts to excite the feelings of his audience to such an extent as to render them incapable of forming a dispassionate judgment upon the matter in hand4 ,in general1 it is necessary only to point out a fallacy to weaken an argument4 ,sometimes1 however1 the error is so involved and so hidden that1 though it is apparent to one who is arguing1 yet it is not easily made apparent to the audience4 ,in overcoming this difficulty1 arguers often resort to certain peculiar devices of arranging and presenting the material for refutation4 ,long experience has shown that the two methods given here are of inestimable value4 ,,vi4 ,,reductio ,,ad ,,absurdum4 7,,reducing ,,to ,,an ,,absurdity47 ,the method of refuting an argument by reductio ad absurdum consists of showing that the argument to be refuted1 if true1 proves not only the conclusion given1 but also other conclusions which are manifestly absurd4 ,for example1 a debater once contended that colleges should not seek to root out professionalism in athletic sports1 because1 by coming in contact with college life1 professional players receive considerable benefit4 ,his opponent answered him by showing that the same argument carried out to its logical conclusion would prove that a college should encourage the attendance of criminals and degenerates on the ground that they will be benefited thereby4 ,thus he reduced the argument to a manifest absurdity4 ,at one time the officers of a national bank permitted their institution to be wrecked by certifying1 and thereby practically guaranteeing1 the checks of a firm of stock-holders when the brokers did not have the money represented by the checks deposited in the bank4 ,this was distinctly a criminal offense4 ,the brokers failed1 and1 the bank having closed its doors in consequence1 the president of the bank was brought to trial4 ,the ,atlantic ,monthly reduces to an absurdity the chief argument used for the defense4 ,a jury having been empaneled to try him1 he pleaded guilty1 his counsel urging1 as a reason for clemency1 that the violation of this statute was a habit of the ,new ,york banks in the ,wall ,street district1 and that if the wrecked bank had not followed this law-breaking custom of its competitors the stock brokers would have withdrawn their account4 ,the plea was successful1 and the officer escaped with a small fine4 ,imagine a burglar or a pickpocket urging a plea for clemency based on the general business habits and customs of his criminal confrres6 ,footnote3 ,the ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,vol4 #id1 p4 #agc4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,freeman1 the historian1 once made the statement that ,english literature cannot be taught4 ,his course of reasoning was to the effect that it is impossible to teach a subject in which one cannot be examined2 and he maintained that it is impossible to hold satisfactory examinations in ,english literature1 since this is a subject which is studied for the purpose of cultivating the taste1 educating the sympathies1 and enlarging the mind4 ,if this reasoning proves anything1 it has been pointed out1 it proves too much4 ,what ,mr4 ,freeman says of ,english literature may equally well be said of ,latin1 ,greek1 and every other kind of literature4 ,but as ,latin and ,greek literature have been successfully taught for hundreds of years1 ,mr4 ,freeman's argument is absurd4 ,college students are continually urging as a defense of professionalism in their own athletic teams the argument that since other colleges employ professional players it is necessary for them to do likewise4 ,by carrying this argument a step farther1 one could show1 with equal reason1 that since drinking1 stealing and cheating are prevalent in other colleges1 these same practices should also be indulged in at the college in question4 ,in the same way one may refute by reductio ad absurdum all such arguments as1 ,custom has rendered the spoils system desirable2 ,the prevalency of the high license law shows its superiority to prohibition2 and ,since in the past all college students were required to study ,latin and ,greek1 these subjects should be required at the present time4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,dilemma4 ,another device an arguer will often find useful in refuting an opponent's statement is the dilemma4 ,in the dilemma the arguer shows that the statement he wishes to disprove can be true only through the truth of at least one of several possibilities4 ,he then proves that these possibilities are untenable1 and therefore the original statement is false4 ,to represent the dilemma with letters3 ,the truth of ,a rests upon the truth of either x or y2 but as x and y are both false1 ,a is false4 ,once when it was believed in certain quarters that ,japan was about to undertake a war against the ,united ,states1 many people maintained that if ,japan desired to go to war she was amply able to finance such an undertaking4 ,in reply to this contention1 a certain newspaper1 making use of the dilemma1 said that since ,japan had no money in the treasury she could meet the expenses of war in only three ways3 either by contracting a large debt1 or by increasing taxation1 or by indemnifying herself at the expense of the enemy4 ,the paper then went on to prove that ,japan was not in a position to float a large loan1 that taxes in ,japan were already as heavy as the people could bear1 and that she could not hope1 at least for a long time1 to secure any indemnity from the enemy4 ,therefore ,japan was not in a financial position to enter upon a war with the ,united ,states4 ,in attempting to show that municipalities do not have the moral right to own and operate public utilities1 ,t4 ,carpenter ,smith uses the dilemma4 ,he says3-- ,any commercial business is carried on either at a profit1 or at a loss1 or in such a way that the expenses equal the income4 ,if the city business of gas or electric lighting is to be carried on at a profit1 then those citizens who use gas or electric light will be charged a high price for that light1 in order to pay the profit1 not only to themselves1 but also to those who do not use it4 ,if the works are to be carried on at a loss1 then the citizens who do not use the gas or electric light will pay taxes to furnish a convenience or economy to those citizens who do use it4 ,if the works are to be operated exactly at cost1 then the city will carry on a business from which it will get nothing1 but in which it will have to take the labor and risk incident to such a business in order to benefit only some of its citizens1 furnishing a commodity not desired by all4 ,in conversation and debate1 the dilemma is frequently introduced by means of a question4 ,the debater1 wishing to trap his opponent1 asks him a pertinent question which previous investigation has shown can possibly be answered in only two or three ways1 and which the opponent cannot afford to answer at all4 ,a good illustration of this device occurs in the ,new ,testament4 ,and it came to pass1 on one of the days1 as he was teaching the people in the temple1 and preaching the gospel1 there came upon him the chief priests and the scribes with the elders2 and they spake1 saying unto him1 ,tell us3 ,by what authority doest thou these things8 or who is he that gave thee this authority8 ,and he answered and said unto them1 ,i also will ask you a question2 and tell me3 ,the baptism of ,john1 was it from heaven1 or from men8 ,and they reasoned with themselves1 saying1 ,if we shall say1 ,from heaven2 he will say1 ,why did ye not believe him8 ,but if we shall say1 ,from men2 all the people will stone us3 for they be persuaded that ,john was a prophet4 ,and they answered1 that they knew not whence it was4 ,and ,jesus said unto them1 ,neither tell ,i you by what authority ,i do these things4 ,footnote3 ,luke xx1 #a-h4 ,during the ,lincoln-,douglas debates in #aheh1 when both men were seeking the ,united ,states senatorship from ,illinois1 ,lincoln1 wishing either to kill ,douglas's senatorial prospects or to head him off from the presidency two years later1 asked him a question which put him in a dilemma4 ,ida ,m4 ,tarbell describes the question as follows3-- ,can the people of a ,united ,states territory in any lawful way1 against the wish of any citizen of the ,united ,states1 exclude slavery from its limits prior to the formation of a ,state ,constitution8 ,lincoln had seen the irreconcilableness of ,douglas's own measure of popular sovereignty1 which declared that the people of a territory should be left to regulate their domestic concerns in their own way subject only to the ,constitution1 and the decision of the ,supreme ,court in the ,dred ,scott case that slaves1 being property1 could not under the ,constitution be excluded from a territory4 ,he knew that if ,douglas said no to this question1 his ,illinois constituents would never return him to the ,senate4 ,he believed that if he said yes1 the people of the ,south would never vote for him for ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,in the last example1 ,lincoln1 by forcing ,douglas to answer this question1 sought to destroy1 and1 as history shows1 did destroy1 the popular conception of ,douglas's fitness for public office4 ,before one can safely use the dilemma he must carefully investigate every phase of the statement that he wishes to refute4 ,if he is to use the dilemma directly1 he must consider every possibility--commonly called the horns of the dilemma--upon which the truth of the statement may rest4 ,if there is a single possibility which he is not ready to meet and overthrow1 his whole effort is fruitless4 ,for instance1 a debater1 in attempting to rebut the statement that college fraternities are harmful1 said that his opponent must show that fraternities are either morally1 socially1 financially or intellectually detrimental to their members2 he then proved as best he could that in these respects fraternities are beneficial rather than harmful1 and sat down thinking that he had gone a long way toward winning the debate4 ,his opponent then arose and admitting nearly everything that had been said1 based his argument on the idea that fraternities were harmful to the college as a whole4 ,the first speaker had not considered every alternative4 ,if an arguer is to approach a dilemma through the medium of a question1 he must be sure that he knows every reasonable answer that his opponent can make4 ,when one has satisfied these conditions1 he can use the dilemma with great effect4 ,by way of summary it may be said that the successful arguer must both build up his own proof and destroy his opponent's4 ,to accomplish the latter one has to know what to refute and what to leave alone2 he must distinguish between the important and the unessential1 and he must take care not to refute himself4 ,since proof consists of evidence and reasoning1 the first step for him to take in refuting an argument is to apply the tests for each1 and if possible show where his opponent has erred4 ,in the next place1 he should see whether he can discover and point out any of the more important fallacies2 the ones mentioned here are begging the question1 ambiguous terms1 false cause1 composition and division1 and ignoring the question4 ,should the arguer find any of these fundamental weaknesses1 it is ordinarily sufficient merely to call attention to them2 for the sake of emphasis1 however1 one may make use of two especially effective methods of refutation1 reductio ad absurdum and the dilemma4 ,,exercises4 ,a4 ,criticize the following arguments and point out the fallacies they contain3-- #a4 ,four thousand men have taken examinations at ,princeton under the honor system1 and only six of these were found guilty of cribbing4 ,this record shows conclusively that the honor system restrains dishonest work in examinations4 #b4 ,athletics do not injure a man's scholarship2 one of the best players on last year's football team attained such a high grade that he was awarded a fellowship4 #c4 ,during the decade from #ahgj to #ahhj1 illiteracy among the negroes decreased ten per cent41 but the race grew more criminal by twenty- five per cent42 from #ahhj to #ahij1 illiteracy decreased eighteen per cent41 but criminality increased thirty-three and one-third per cent4 ,who can now say that education does not injure the negro8 #d4 ,since the honor system failed at ,franklin and ,marshall1 it will fail at ---- ,college4 #e4 ,frequent athletic games benefit a college because they tend to take the students' attention away from their studies4 #f4 ,the fixed curriculum of studies is effective in making a specialist1 because the specialist takes up only one kind of work4 #g4 ,southerners are justified in keeping the franchise from the negro1 because the ,fifteenth ,amendment to the ,constitution ought never to have been passed4 #h4 ,since the negro's devotion to the church is as great as that of most white people1 he is of as high moral standing as the average unintelligent white4 #i4 ,ireland is idle and therefore she starves2 she starves and therefore she rebels4 #aj4 ,every one desires virtue1 because every one desires happiness4 #aa4 ,the present term of four years is so short a time that the ,president does not have opportunity to become acquainted with his duties1 for just as he is becoming acquainted with them he has to step out of office4 #ab4 ,this doctrine cannot be proved from the ,gospels1 nor from the ,acts of the ,apostles1 nor from the ,epistles1 nor from the ,revelation of ,st4 ,john2 therefore it cannot be proved from the ,new ,testament4 #ac4 ,crime is a violation of the laws of our country2 piracy is a crime2 this man belongs to a band of lawless men1 and this band has been taken in the very deed of piracy4 ,therefore he has violated the laws of our country4 #ad4 ,since all presuming men are contemptible1 and since this man presumes to believe his opinions are correct1 he is not worthy of our consideration4 #ae4 ,to prove to you that our standing army should be permanently enlarged1 ,i will show that every nation of any prominence whatsoever keeps a standing army4 #af4 ,the elective system of studies is preferable to the prescribed system1 because ,a4 ,the student can elect those studies which will do him the most good1 for #a4 ,he can elect what he pleases4 #ag4 ,strikes benefit the working man1 because ,a4 ,they benefit him financially1 for #a4 ,if they did not1 he would not strike4 #ah4 ,when thirteen sit at table together1 one of them always dies within the year4 #ai4 ,to decide whether or not strikes are justifiable it is necessary to see if they have for the most part been successful in the past4 #bj4 ,all the trees in the park make a thick shade2 this is one of them1 therefore this tree makes a thick shade4 #ba4 ,italy is a ,catholic country and abounds in beggars2 ,france is also a ,catholic country1 and therefore abounds in beggars4 #bb4 ,pitt was not a great and useful minister2 for though he would have been so had he carried out ,adam ,smith's doctrines of free trade1 he did not carry out those doctrines4 #bc4 ,all criminal actions ought to be punished by law4 ,prosecutions for theft are criminal actions1 and therefore ought to be punished by law4 #bd4 ,books are a source both of instruction and of amusement2 a table of logarithms is a book2 therefore it is a source both of instruction and of amusement4 ,b4 ,on each of the following arguments from authority write a paragraph that will weaken its effect3-- #a4 ,the ,senate for more than a century has demonstrated the wisdom of the mode of its constitution4 ,senator ,g4 ,f4 ,hoar4 #b4 ,mine disasters are largely due to the intoxication of miners1 or to carelessness caused by the after effects of a 'spree1' says ,dr4 ,jesse ,k4 ,johnson1 superintendent of one of the largest mines in the ,pittsburg district4 #c4 ,both ,mark ,hanna and ,grover ,cleveland have stated that a six year ,presidential term would be of great benefit to the ,united ,states4 #d4 ,senator ,la ,follet1 who has made a thorough study of many of the principal monopolies in the country1 states that the ,standard ,oil trust charges exorbitant rates4 #e4 ,mr4 ,francis ,walker1 in the ,political ,science ,quarterly1 ,volume twenty1 page fourteen1 says that legislation against trusts has improved conditions1 and would therefore improve conditions in the ,united ,states4 #f4 ,president ,hadley1 of ,yale ,university1 has said that the subsidizing of ships on a large scale has been detrimental to ,france4 #g4 ,the ,indian who is not obliged to labor for his maintenance becomes a lazy vagabond4 ,lyman ,abbott4 ,c4 ,put the following article into the form of a brief and show exactly what methods of refutation are used3-- ,,the ,,old ,,frigate ,,constitution4 ,the pretexts for removal of ,old ,ironsides from the waters in which that historic ship had her birth are now reduced to two4 ,one of these is that the old boat takes up room at the ,navy ,yard which is needed for the work of that establishment4 ,the other is that since the money expended in the restoration of the frigate--less than #bjj1jjj--;came out of the ,federal ,treasury1 the people of distant ,states ought to have the pleasure of seeing what their money paid for without coming to ,boston in order to enjoy it4 ,as for crowding the ,navy ,yard1 that is an absurdity4 ,his ,excellency ,curtis ,guild1 ,jr41 in his letter to the ,navy ,department protesting against the removal1 quoted the officers in command at the ,navy ,yard as declaring that the ship in no way interferes with the work of the yard1 taking up no space that is needed for other purposes4 ,the ,governor would not make such a statement in an official communication without the clearest authority4 ,indeed1 he adds as his own opinion1 the strip of wharf occupied is but a trivial portion of the long water front controlled by the government4 ,there is the other pretext1 namely1 that because the ,constitution has been repaired at national cost1 therefore any special claim that ,massachusetts may have upon this relic of ,massachusetts patriotism is removed4 ,this idea has found crude and unmannerly expression in the words of one of the committee of ,congress looking over our navy yards4 ,the agitation to keep the ship in ,boston seems selfish1 he is quoted as saying4 ,it was the money of the whole people of the ,united ,states that paid for its repair1 and the people in other sections are as justly entitled to see the ship as in ,boston4 ,coming from a representative of the ,state of ,kansas1 this is almost amusing4 ,his proposition to tow the ship around from place to place1 as it may be wanted for a show1 suggests the practicability of a canal1 say1 to ,topeka1 or to ,fort ,hayes4 ,the alternative proposition1 namely1 that ,massachusetts shall repay to the general government the cost of the repairs of the ,constitution1 would have some standing were it a commercial affair4 ,massachusetts has expended many times the cost of the repairs of ,old ,ironsides in preserving for the nation the revolutionary sites and monuments upon our soil4 ,payment for the repair and restoration of ,old ,ironsides would be a bagatelle if the people of the ,united ,states were to demand that this monument also shall be purchased by the people of ,massachusetts under threat of its removal4 ,but it is not a question of money2 that is a contemptible suggestion4 ,nor is it a question of bureaucracy4 ,it is a simple1 reasonable1 entirely practical demand of the historic sentiment of patriotism which still warms the hearts and inspires the souls of ,massachusetts men4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,debate--,,some ,,practical ,,suggestions ,debate has been defined as the oral presentation of argument under conditions that allow both sides to be heard4 ,in both class room and intercollegiate debating each side usually makes two speeches1 a main speech and a rebuttal speech4 ,the main speech ordinarily extends over a period of from seven to twelve minutes1 according to the rules governing the contest1 and is largely constructive in nature4 ,the rebuttal speech1 commonly called the rebuttal1 is usually a little less than half the length of the main speech1 and is for the most part destructive4 ,it is almost superfluous to add that both sides are allowed exactly the same amount of time in which to present their arguments2 that the affirmative side speaks first1 the order being1 when there are several debaters1 affirmative1 negative1 affirmative1 negative1 and so on2 and that all the main speeches are given before either side makes a rebuttal speech4 ,if there be only one debater on each side1 it is undoubtedly best for the affirmative to offer the first rebuttal2 if there be several debaters1 the order is usually reversed4 ,the debaters on either side may or may not speak in rebuttal in the same order as in the main argument4 ,,how ,,to ,,prepare ,,for ,,debate4 ,in several ways the work of the debater differs from the work of one who is preparing a written argument or who is to speak without being confronted by an opponent4 ,as far as the completion of the brief1 the work in all cases is the same1 but at this point the debater has to decide what special preparation he shall make for handling and presenting to the audience the material that he has collected4 ,he is puzzled to know whether it will be worth while to expand his brief2 and if he does expand it1 he is in doubt as to just what he should do with the expanded argument4 ,a debater has his choice of several possible methods of procedure4 ,the simplest1 though not the most effective method1 is to write out the argument in full1 and to memorize it word for word4 ,the weakness of such a course lies in the immobility of its attack and defense4 ,the first speaker for the affirmative may decide beforehand exactly what he will say and the order in which he will say it1 but all those who are to follow should adapt their arguments1 to some extent at least1 to the exigencies of the debate4 ,they will find it desirable to make a change in one place in order to join their arguments harmoniously to those of their colleagues2 they will wish to make changes in another place for the sake of assailing an obviously weak spot or in order to ward off an unexpected attack4 ,this versatility is practically impossible if one is delivering an argument that he has memorized word for word4 ,again1 a memorized argument cannot carry with it the force and the conviction that may be found in an effort of a more spontaneous character4 ,furthermore1 if a debater should be so unfortunate as to forget even a few words of a memorized selection1 he would probably be forced to sit down with his speech only partially completed4 ,another method that some debaters follow is to memorize portions of their argument and to extemporize the rest4 ,this is open to two great objections3 first1 it is difficult to join together gracefully the memorized passages and the extemporized2 and the second1 the very smoothness with which the memorized passages are delivered betrays the crudeness and awkwardness of the extemporized parts4 ,a third method1 and undoubtedly the best one for the student to adopt1 is not to expand the brief before he debates1 but to memorize the greater part of it as a brief4 ,in this way a debater has his ideas well in hand1 and1 without being tied down to any particular manner of expression or obliged to follow any set order of procedure1 he can use his material as opportunity requires4 ,his language should be at least partially extemporaneous2 he may have a fairly clear conception of how he is to frame his sentences1 but he should have nothing learned word for word4 ,thus his speech may have an element of spontaneity that will give it a tone of sincerity and earnestness unattainable when one is repeating a memorized passage4 ,too much1 however1 must not be left to the inspiration of the moment2 no student should ever try to debate without first attempting in his room to expand his brief orally4 ,he is sure to meet with considerable difficulty the first time he tries to formulate his ideas in clear1 forceful1 and elegant language2 but several attempts will produce a remarkable change4 ,after a few endeavors he will discover ways of expressing himself that he will remember1 even though the words vary greatly each time4 ,the superiority of this method is marked4 ,it enables the debater to become perfectly familiar with all his material1 and it gives him a fairly good idea of what language he shall use4 ,he is not1 however1 bound down to any set speech2 he can alter his argument to suit the occasion4 ,should he unexpectedly find that his opponent has admitted a certain idea1 he can merely call attention to this fact and not waste valuable time in giving superfluous proof4 ,if he sees that his opponent has made such a strong argument that some refutation is necessary at the outset in order to gain the confidence of his audience1 he can instantly change the order of his proof and begin with a point that he had1 perhaps1 intended to use in another part of his speech4 ,in fact1 this method enables one to debate rather than to declaim4 ,in most debating contests it is permissible for the contestants to make use of a few notes written on small cards that can be carried in a pocket or held unobtrusively in the hand4 ,such a practice1 if not abused1 is commended by some teachers of argumentation4 ,on these cards the debater can put down the main headings of his brief1 all statistics that are difficult to remember1 and all quotations4 ,he had better not refer to these cards for the headings of his brief if he can possibly avoid doing so4 ,it will be a great stimulus1 however1 for him to know that he has this help to rely on in case of necessity4 ,statistics and quotations he may read without hesitation4 ,one should speak his debate many times by himself1 not only for the purpose of gaining facility in expression1 but also for the sake of condensing his material to an argument that will approximately occupy the exact time allowed him for debating4 ,it is a deplorable fact that many debaters try to say so much that when their allotment of time has expired they find themselves in the very midst of their argument4 ,such an ending leaves the audience confused and unimpressed4 ,no debater should ever omit his conclusion4 ,if there is only one contestant on each side1 a conclusion is certainly necessary both for the sake of clearness and emphasis1 and because an unfinished argument is not a unit4 ,if there are several contestants on each side1 the fact that the opposing speakers intervene and distract the attention of the audience makes it even more necessary that each debater end his argument with a formal conclusion1 and by means of it bind his work to that of his colleagues4 ,,refutation4 ,as much time1 if not more1 should be spent in preparing the destructive as in preparing the constructive portion of an argument4 ,one can determine beforehand almost exactly how he will establish his side of the proposition1 but just what material he will need to overthrow his opponent's proof will depend upon how that proof is constructed4 ,ordinarily one can predict what lines of reasoning an opponent will take2 in fact1 no one should ever attempt to debate until he has studied the proposition so thoroughly that he can anticipate practically all the arguments that will be advanced4 ,yet until he sees on what points the emphasis is placed1 what arguments are ignored1 and what evidence is used1 he cannot tell for sure what facts and what inferences will be most valuable as refutation4 ,therefore1 a debater who wishes to offer good refutation must have a wealth of material at his command and be able to select instantly the ideas that will be of the greatest value4 ,this necessity for an abundance of information precludes the idea1 held by some1 that good debaters depend for their refutation on the inspiration of the moment4 ,great speakers often spend incalculable time in preparing to answer the arguments of the opposition4 ,webster's ,reply to ,hayne1 which is a recognized masterpiece of oratory1 and which is almost entirely refutation1 was at first thought to have been composed over night1 but ,webster declared that all the material he had used had lain in his desk for months4 ,refutation should come for the most part1 though not entirely1 in the rebuttal4 ,unless one has made a thorough study of both sides of the question1 and is thus sure of his ground1 anticipatory refutation is dangerous4 ,it is sometimes an excellent plan to take the wind out of an opponent's sails by overthrowing an argument of his before he has a chance to present it1 but in doing this the debater must use the greatest caution4 ,to begin with1 he must be sure that the argument he refutes is of such a fundamental nature that it is essential to the case of the other side1 for if his opponent fails to use this point1 the debater not only has exposed himself to ridicule1 but has wasted valuable time4 ,when one does refute in advance a point that must be upheld by the opposition1 a skillful opponent often can1 by calling attention to the fact that even those on the other side recognize the importance and strength of this argument1 destroy much of the advantage that has been gained4 ,to refute an argument before it is advanced1 sometimes brings failure and sometimes brings success4 ,a debater must exercise judgment4 ,one must also exercise a high degree of judgment in deciding where he can most advantageously answer the arguments that have actually been given4 ,whenever a debater presents so thorough and so strong proof that the audience is likely to think that he has settled the question and won the debate1 the succeeding speaker on the opposite side will have great difficulty in making any impression unless he can at the start at least partially discredit the preceding argument4 ,the attitude of the audience will compel him to use refutation before beginning his constructive work4 ,on the other hand1 if the preceding argument has apparently produced but little effect1 he may at once begin to build his own proof4 ,he should1 however1 show good reason for postponing his refutation4 ,to ignore the previous arguments entirely1 or arbitrarily to postpone answering them1 is likely to give the audience an unfavorable impression4 ,,common ,,errors ,,in ,,refutation4 ,a common error in refutation is the failure to attack an opponent's main arguments4 ,students especially are wont to neglect fundamental principles1 and instead of overthrowing the points that count1 occupy invaluable time with trivial matters4 ,to rebut unimportant details1 admitted matter1 mere illustrations1 and errors obviously due to haste in speaking1 is a fault that every debater should carefully avoid4 ,such trivialities the audience immediately forgets1 and to bring them up again and refute them serves no worthy purpose whatever4 ,another serious fault common to refutation in student debates is lack of coherence4 ,the student falls into this error when he rebuts a miscellaneous lot of points without having first ascertained the function of each and differentiated the main ideas from the subordinate ones4 ,instead of looking at the argument as a whole and attacking it with the concerted strength of all his forces1 he fires scattering shots1 and does but little damage4 ,in refutation a debater must first see clearly the relation between each point that he rebuts and the proposition1 otherwise his work is wasted4 ,secondly1 he must make this relation perfectly plain to the audience4 ,instead of overthrowing isolated statements1 a debater should take up his opponent's case as a whole and weaken it as much as he can4 ,he should attack each main point4 ,coherent refutation adds much to the effectiveness of a debate4 ,,availability ,,of ,,material ,,for ,,refutation4 ,in offering refutation1 every inexperienced debater has difficulty in laying his hands on just the material that he desires to use4 ,possibly he remembers that he has seen somewhere an article that proves the insincerity of a man who has just been quoted as an authority2 but if he can neither produce this article nor state its substance1 he might as well not know about it4 ,perhaps he remembers having seen a table of statistics showing that his opponent has erred in regard to the death rate in the ,spanish- ,american ,war2 but unless he can produce the table1 his knowledge is of no avail4 ,there is scarcely any time for searching through books or unorganized notes2 material to be of use must be instantly available4 ,some definite system of arranging rebuttal material is absolutely indispensable4 ,one method that has been tried with great success consists of putting down on cards of a uniform size all the material that can possibly be of use in refutation4 ,these cards the debater then groups1 in alphabetical order1 under headings that correspond to the main divisions of the subject under discussion1 and if it seems advisable in any particular instance1 he may group them under subdivisions of the proposition4 ,to be more explicit1 if a debater thinks that the opposition may question the financial success of a plan that he is advocating1 he should write out on as many cards as are necessary1 usually putting only one idea on each card1 all the material that goes to show why the plan should succeed and where it has succeeded4 ,furthermore1 if the plan has failed anywhere1 he should put down1 providing he is able1 explanations that will account for the failure without condemning the system4 ,these cards1 then1 would naturally be arranged under some such heading as ,finance or ,success4 ,if the debater wishes1 he may also arrange his cards under subheadings4 ,for instance1 those cards that go to show why the plan ought to succeed could be put under the subheading1 ,antecedent ,probability2 those that show where the plan has succeeded1 under ,sign1 and those that account for failure of the plan in certain places1 under the heading ,failures4 ,any one at all familiar with a library card catalogue will at once see the various possibilities for arranging these cards4 ,cards for rebuttal should be made out about as follows3-- ,proposition3--,resolved1 ,that profit-sharing and co-operative methods generally afford the most promising solution of the labor problem4 7,affirmative47 ,,practicability ,the ,union ,polishing ,metal ,plating ,company has been successfully operated under this method since #aijb4 7,c4 ,h4 ,quinn1 ,outlook1 ,vol4 ,,lxxiii1 page #deb47 ,,practicability ,the great iron works of ,evansville1 ,wis41 are operated under this method4 7,g4 ,l4 ,mc,nutt1 ,ind41 ,vol4 ,,lv1 page #fai47 ,the advantages of such a system are obvious4 ,this method gives not only one debater1 but the whole team1 almost instant command of all the material that has been collected4 ,one can find what he wants1 and find it hastily2 he is not obliged to spend much valuable time in hunting after needed evidence and thus neglect large portions of the speech that is being delivered4 ,a debater should begin on the classification of rebuttal material almost as soon as he begins to read on his subject4 ,in this way he will save all the material that he gathers1 and his catalogued information will be of assistance to him in drawing his brief and in constructing his main argument as well as in making refutation at the time of the debate4 ,,what ,,each ,,debater ,,must ,,do4 ,,the ,,first ,,speaker ,,for ,,the ,,affirmative4 ,upon the first speaker for the affirmative falls the duty of interpreting the proposition4 ,since the subject of analysis has already been fully discussed1 but few directions need be given here4 ,it may be well1 however1 to emphasize the qualities of clearness and fairness4 ,a debate1 unlike a written argument1 cannot be studied and re-read time and again4 ,for this reason1 unless the proposition is explained in the very simplest language and by means of the very clearest definitions and illustrations1 many people in the audience will not understand what the debate is about4 ,long words and high-sounding phrases have no place here4 ,the debater must aim to reach not merely those who are familiar with the subject1 but also those to whom the question is absolutely new4 ,if1 when the first speaker has finished1 any attentive listener of average intelligence fails to understand both the subject of the debate and the attitude of the affirmative side1 the speech has been a failure4 ,then1 too1 the analysis of the proposition must be fair and just to both sides4 ,a debater has no right to strain or twist the meaning of the proposition so as to gain any advantage for himself4 ,in the first place1 this practice is dishonest1 and an honorable debater does not wish to win by trickery or fraud4 ,secondly1 such an act almost always brings defeat4 ,the fact that a debate is being held1 presupposes a subject about which reasonable men may differ4 ,if a debater interprets the proposition so that only one reasonable side exists1 manifestly he must be in error1 and upon the exposure of this error he is sure to lose the decision4 ,in debate1 therefore1 clearness and fairness should especially characterize the four steps that are taken in analyzing the proposition3 to define terms1 to explain the proposition as a whole1 to discover the issues1 and to make the partition4 ,upon the completion of the introduction1 the first debater for the affirmative proceeds to the discussion1 and later1 should he be the only contestant on the affirmative side1 to the conclusion4 ,but if1 as is usually the case1 there be several debaters on each side1 he takes up only one or two main points of the proof4 ,in handling this proof he must be sure so to correlate his work with the work of his colleagues that1 in the minds of the audience1 it will all hang together as a united whole4 ,to accomplish this object1 he may1 as he finishes with his partition1 state what points he will discuss himself1 and what points will be handled by the affirmative speakers that are to succeed him2 and he must1 without fail1 when he nears the end of his allotted time1 hastily summarize the proof that he has given1 and outline the proof that is to follow4 ,in this way he may keep the intervening speeches of his opponents from entirely destroying the continuity that should exist between his speech and the speeches of his colleagues4 ,,the ,,first ,,speaker ,,for ,,the ,,negative4 ,it rests with the first speaker for the negative to determine whether the introduction as presented by the affirmative is satisfactory1 whether the analysis of the proposition is clear1 adequate1 and fair4 ,if the affirmative has erred in any respect1 it is the duty of the first negative debater to supply the deficiency or make the correction2 otherwise he errs equally with the affirmative4 ,if the affirmative has failed to explain the proposition so that it is generally understood1 the negative is sure to win favor with the audience by spending a few moments in elucidating the subject of controversy4 ,if the affirmative debater has analyzed the question inadequately or unfairly1 the negative debater should not begin to establish proof until he has set these preliminaries straight4 ,in correcting an unfair analysis1 it is never enough that one merely make objections or even give an introduction of his own2 he must1 in brief form--and often a single sentence is sufficient--show to the satisfaction of the audience that his opponent has not interpreted the proposition correctly4 ,on the other hand1 if the first speaker for the negative considers the introduction given by the affirmative perfectly fair and satisfactory1 he can pass by it without comment1 and begin his own argument either with refutation or with a statement of the points that the negative side will establish in attacking the proposition4 ,it is thus apparent that a debater who opens a negative argument must depend for the beginning of his speech rather on a thorough understanding of the subject in all its details and fundamental principles than on a speech that he has to deliver word for word4 ,to repeat an introduction that has already been given is absurd2 to fail to correct an introduction that1 as a whole1 is obscure or is unfair1 is to merit defeat4 ,it may be added1 by way of caution1 that when a debater supplies any deficiencies in the speech of his predecessor1 he should do this without any appearance of smartness or personal antagonism4 ,even if the affirmative debater has been manifestly unfair1 the negative speaker will do well to correct this unfairness in a friendly1 though in a forceful manner4 ,as soon as the introduction is out of the way1 the negative speaker proceeds to the discussion4 ,two courses are open to him3 he may at once refute his predecessor's arguments1 or he may proceed to take up his constructive proof1 giving reason for postponing the refutation4 ,as this matter has already been discussed1 it is only necessary to say that the course he should choose depends largely upon the strength of the preceding argument4 ,the same directions that have been given to the affirmative debater for connecting his work to his colleagues' apply equally to the negative4 ,summaries and outlines aid greatly in binding the arguments of a debating team into one compact mass4 ,,the ,,other ,,speakers4 ,about the only practical suggestion which can be made to the other speakers is that they adapt their constructive work to that of their colleagues1 and deploy their refutation so as to hammer the principal positions of their opponents4 ,each debater may or may not begin his speech with refutation1 but he should always begin his main argument with a terse1 clear summary of what has been said on his side1 and in closing he should not only summarize his own arguments1 but he should also give again1 in very brief form1 the gist of what has been proved by his colleagues4 ,in addition1 any speaker except the last one on each side1 may1 if he thinks best1 give an outline of the argument to follow4 ,in making these summaries1 a debater must always avoid stating them in so bald and crude a form as to make them monotonous and offensive4 ,he ought rather to use all the ingenuity at his command in an attempt to make this repetition exceedingly forceful4 ,it often happens that an inexperienced debater never reaches his conclusion4 ,while he is still in the midst of his proof1 his allotment of time expires1 and he is forced to sit down1 leaving his speech hanging in the air4 ,such an experience is both awkward and disastrous2 a skillful debater never allows it to happen4 ,the peroration is the most important part of an argument1 and on it the debater should lavish his greatest care4 ,to omit it is almost the same as to have made no speech at all4 ,as soon as the debater perceives that he has but a short time left1 he should at once bring this main speech to a close1 and even though he may have to omit important ideas1 begin at once on his conclusion4 ,as is pointed out in ,chapter ,x1 the conclusion consists both of a summary and an emotional appeal4 ,what emotion shall be aroused and how it shall apply to the summarized headings can largely be determined beforehand4 ,some debaters go so far as to commit this conclusion to memory4 ,this practice is not recommended except in special cases1 and yet a debater should be so familiar with his peroration that he will have no difficulty in putting it into vigorous and pleasing language4 ,,rebuttal ,,speeches4 ,a rebuttal speech usually furnishes an excellent test of a debater's mastery of his subject4 ,it shows whether or not he comprehends the fundamental principles that underly the argument4 ,if he does not understand fundamentals1 he cannot distinguish between what is worth answering and what is trivial4 ,if he is not perfectly familiar with the arguments on both sides of the question1 his refutation will be scattering2 that is1 he will rebut only a few of his opponent's headings1 those for which1 in his scanty preparation1 he has discovered some answer4 ,on the other hand1 if he really understands the subject1 he will deal largely with main ideas2 and if his knowledge of the subject is as extensive as it should be1 he will almost invariably be able to offer some opposition to every main heading used by the opposition4 ,when a debate is held between only two contestants1 each one has to refute the whole argument of his opponent4 ,in this case there are no complications2 but when two teams are debating1 the members of each must decide among themselves as to how the rebuttal shall be handled4 ,one way is for each member to refute all he can1 working independently of his colleagues4 ,much better results are secured1 however1 when a team works systematically4 ,in the first place1 a team should always resolve the opposing arguments into a hasty brief4 ,the main points of the opposition can then be assigned for rebuttal to the various members of the team1 and each debater can give thorough treatment to his assignment4 ,in this way every point is sure to be covered1 and there will be little1 if any1 duplication of work4 ,such a course presupposes very careful preparation on the part of the debaters4 ,it means that each member of the team must have sufficient knowledge and material at his command to oppose with credit any argument that may be advanced4 ,in general1 the assignment of headings for rebuttal may be such that each debater will refute those points of which he took an opposite view in his main speech1 but as it is usually desirable to rebut arguments in the same order in which they were originally given1 no member of the team can afford to shirk mastering each detail that in any way has a vital bearing upon the proposition4 ,,the ,,last ,,rebuttal ,,speaker4 ,the work of the last speaker on each side differs somewhat from the work of his colleagues4 ,all the speakers try to overthrow the opposing arguments1 and by means of summaries keep their case as a whole before the audience4 ,the last speaker devotes far less time to pure refutation1 gives a more detailed summary1 and1 in addition1 compares and contrasts the arguments of his side with the arguments of the opposition4 ,this last process is called amplifying and diminishing4 ,it is not always necessary to prove a main heading false in order to destroy its effectiveness4 ,a debater may of necessity have to admit that the opposition has successfully established the points it set out to prove4 ,in such a case1 he cannot do better than to acknowledge the correctness of his opponent's proof1 and then remembering that an audience awards a decision by a comparison of the relative weight of the proof of each side1 amplify the importance of his own arguments1 point by point1 and diminish the importance of the arguments advanced by the other side4 ,for instance1 in a debate on the question as to whether immigration should be restricted1 the affirmative might maintain that unrestricted immigration brings serious political evils1 and the negative might show that the policy of nonrestriction greatly increases the wealth of the country4 ,if neither of these contentions be successfully refuted1 the favor of the audience will incline towards the affirmative or the negative1 as far as those two points are concerned1 according as they think that political purity or economic prosperity is the more important4 ,plainly1 it would be for the interest of the affirmative to convince the audience that the preservation of political integrity is of greater moment than any mere material gain4 ,in many respects the last rebuttal speeches on each side are the most conspicuous and decisive parts of a debate4 ,if the last speech is hesitating and weak1 it is liable to ruin all preceding efforts1 even though they were of the highest order2 if it is enthusiastic and strong1 it will often cover up preceding defects1 and turn defeat into victory4 ,because of its importance this portion of the work usually falls to the best debater on the team1 and if he is wise he will give it his greatest thought and care4 ,in this speech he should strive in every possible way to attain perfection4 ,his delivery should be emphatic and pleasing2 his ideas should be logically arranged2 and his knowledge of what he has to say should be so complete that there will be no hesitation1 no groping for words4 ,furthermore1 he should introduce an element of persuasion2 to reach both the minds and the hearts of his hearers is essential for the greatest success4 ,all this has to be done in a short time1 yet to be of a high rank even the shortest closing speeches must contain these characteristics4 ,,special ,,features ,,of ,,debate4 ,an argument1 like other kinds of composition1 should possess the qualities of style known as ,clearness1 ,force1 and ,elegance1 and should in all respects observe the principles of ,unity1 ,selection1 ,coherence1 ,proportion1 ,emphasis1 and ,variety4 ,since the student from his study of ,rhetoric is already familiar with these matters1 it would be superfluous to dwell upon them in this book4 ,a good written argument1 however1 does not always make a good debate2 limited time for speaking1 lack of opportunity for the audience to grasp ideas and to reflect upon them1 the presence of strong opposing arguments that must be met and overthrown with still stronger arguments1--these conditions render the heightening of certain characteristics indispensable in a debate4 ,above all else the successful debater is forceful4 ,he uses every possible device for driving home his arguments4 ,he bends every effort toward making his ideas so plain and so emphatic that the audience will understand them and remember them4 ,realizing that the audience cannot1 like the reader of a written article1 peruse the argument a second time1 he uses words and expressions that cause his thoughts to stick fast wherever they fall4 ,,statistics4 ,statistics improperly used are dry and uninteresting2 they often spoil an otherwise forceful and persuasive debate4 ,the trouble often lies1 strange to say1 in the accuracy with which the figures are given4 ,a brain that is already doing its utmost to accept almost instantaneously a multitude of facts and comprehend their significance1 or a brain that is somewhat sluggish and lazy1 refuses to be burdened with uninteresting and unimportant details4 ,for this reason1 when a debater speaks of #aj1efd1gib people1 the brain becomes wearied with the numbers and in disgust is apt to turn away from the whole matter4 ,on the other hand1 the round sum #aj1jjj1jjj not only does not burden the brain1 but also1 under ordinary conditions1 gives in a rather forceful manner the information it was intended to convey4 ,about five hundred presents a much more vivid picture than four hundred and eighty-six or five hundred and eighteen2 fifteen per cent4 is stronger than fifteen and one-tenth per cent42 the expression eighty years seems to indicate a longer period of time than eighty-two years1 seven months1 and twenty-nine days4 ,if one is to quote statistics1 he should always1 unless the circumstances be very unusual1 use round numbers4 ,figures themselves1 however1 are often less emphatic than other methods of expression4 ,the ordinary mind can not grasp the significance of large numbers4 ,that the state of ,texas contains over a quarter of a million of square miles means little to the average person2 he neither remembers the exact area of other states nor can he realize what an immense territory these figures stand for4 ,the following quotation gives the area of ,texas in much more vivid and forceful language3-- ,if you take ,texas by the upper corner and swing it on that as a pivot1 you will lop off the lower end of ,california1 cut through ,idaho1 overlap ,south ,dakota1 touch ,michigan1 bisect ,ohio1 reach ,west ,virginia1 cut through ,north ,carolina and ,south ,carolina1 lop off all the western side of ,florida1 and blanket the greater part of the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,to say that the ,american farmer produced in #aijg a crop worth1 at the farm1 seven and one-half billions of dollars1 conveys little idea of the magnitude of the harvest4 ,a current magazine has couched the same estimate in less exact but in far more emphatic language3-- ,suppose that all of last year's corn had been shipped to ,europe2 it would have required over four thousand express steamers of #ah1jjj tons register to deliver it4 ,suppose that the year's wheat had all been sent to save the ,far ,east from a great famine3 the largest fleet in the world1 with its four hundred vessels of all sizes1 would have required fifteen round trips to move it4 ,take tobacco1--such a minor crop that most people never think of it in connection with farming3-- if last year's tobacco crop had been made into cigars1 the supply would have lasted #aec1jjj men for fifty years1 each man smoking ten cigars a day4 ,the officials of the forestry service1 in speaking of the great devastation caused by forest fires1 make the startling assertion that a new navy of first-class battle-ships could be built for the sum lost during a few weeks in the fires that raged from the pines of ,maine to the redwoods of ,california4 ,figures used in this way are most effective1 and yet probably nothing in argumentation is more tedious than too many of these descriptions of statistics coming close together4 ,if numbers absolutely have to be indicated a great many times1 even figures are likely to be less tiresome4 ,,concreteness4 ,general statements and abstract principles invariably weary an audience4 ,theories and generalities are usually too intangible to make much impression4 ,specific instances and concrete cases1 however1 are usually interesting4 ,a vivid picture of real persons1 things1 and events is necessary to arouse the attention of an audience and cause them both to understand the argument and to give it their consideration4 ,the slogan of a recent political campaign was not1 ,improved economic conditions for the laboring man2 it was1 ,the full dinner pail4 ,the political orator who is urging the necessity for a larger navy on the ground that war is imminent does not speak of possible antagonists in such general terms as foreign powers2 he specifies ,germany1 ,japan1 and the other nations that he fears4 ,the preacher who would really awaken the conscience of his church does not confine himself to such terms as original sin and weaknesses of the flesh2 he talks of lying1 stealing1 and swearing4 ,compare the effectiveness of the following examples3-- ,people of the same race are more loyal to each other than to foreigners4 ,blood is thicker than water4 ,western farmers are demanding political recognition4 ,no1 ,i am not going to vote a straight ticket this year4 ,if ,i do1 my candidate must be in favor of some things ,i want4 ,that was the dictum of ,franklin ,taylor1 ,farmer1 on ,rural ,route ,no4 #ab1 ten miles from a western town4 ,he is a type of thousands of other farmers in the ,west4 ,business streets that were once commodious and impressive are now smoky and filthy4 ,business streets that ten years after the great fire promised to be almost grant in the width and perspective are now mere smoky tunnels under the filth-dripping gridirons of the elevated railways4 ,the ,west is becoming more densely populated4 ,the center of population1 now in ,indiana1 is traveling straight toward the middle point of ,illinois4 ,the center of manufacturing has reached only eastern ,ohio1 but is marching in a bee-line for ,chicago4 ,in the following quotation ,mr4 ,crisp1 laying aside for the moment abstractions and generalities1 and bringing his case down to a specific instance1 gives a concrete illustration of how the protective tariff affects a single individual3 ,will you tell how this protective tariff benefits our agricultural producers8 ,i can show you--,i think ,i can demonstrate clearly--how the tariff hurts them2 and ,i defy any of you to show wherein they are benefited by a protective tariff4 ,suppose a farmer in ,minnesota has #e1jjj bushels of wheat and a farmer in ,georgia has #ajj bales of cotton4 ,that wheat at eighty cents a bushel is worth #d1jjj1 and that cotton at eight cents a pound is worth #d1jjj4 ,let those producers ship their staples abroad4 ,the ,minnesota wheat-grower ships his wheat to ,liverpool2 whether he ships it there or not1 that is where the price of his wheat is fixed4 ,the ,georgia cotton-raiser ships his cotton to ,liverpool2 whether he ships it there or not1 that is where the price of his cotton is fixed4 ,the wheat and the cotton are sold in that free trade market4 ,the wheat is sold for #d1jjj2 the cotton brings the same amount4 ,the ,minnesota farmer invests the #d1jjj he has received for his wheat in clothing1 crockery1 iron1 steel1 dress goods1 clothing1--whatever he may need for his family in ,minnesota4 ,the ,georgia cotton-raiser invests the proceeds of his cotton in like kind of goods4 ,each of those men ships his goods to this country and they reach the port of ,new ,york4 ,when either undertakes to unload them he is met by the collector of customs1 who says1 ,let me see your invoice4 ,the invoice is exhibited1 and it shows #d1jjj worth of goods4 ,those goods represent in the one case #e1jjj bushels of wheat1 in the other case #ajj bales of cotton4 ,the collector at the port says to either of these gentlemen--the man who raises the wheat in ,minnesota or him who raises the cotton in ,georgia1 ,you cannot bring into this market those goods for which you have exchanged your products unless you pay to the ,united ,states a tariff by the ,mc,kinley law--a tax of #b1jjj4 ,,figures ,,of ,,speech4 ,the use of figurative language is also an aid to clearness and to force4 ,simile1 metaphor1 personification1 antithesis1 balance1 climax1 rhetorical question1 and repetition are all effective aids in the presentation of argument4 ,the speeches of great orators are replete with expressions of this sort4 ,burke1 in his ,speech on ,conciliation1 says1 ,despotism itself is obliged to truck and huckster2 ,the public1 he said1 would not have patience to see us play the game out with our adversaries2 we must produce our hand2 ,men may lose little in property by the act which takes away all their freedom4 ,when a man is robbed of a trifle on the highway1 it is not the twopence lost that constitutes the capital outrage4 ,in speaking of certain provisions of the ,constitution1 ,webster says that they are the keystone of the arch4 ,the following paragraph is taken from his ,reply to ,hayne3-- ,and1 sir1 where ,american liberty raised its first voice1 and where its youth was nurtured and sustained1 there it still lives in the strength of its manhood and full of its original spirit4 ,if discord and disunion shall wound it2 if party strife and blind ambition shall hawk at and tear it2 if folly and madness1 if uneasiness under salutary and necessary restraint1 shall succeed to separate it from that ,union by which alone its existence is made sure2 it will stand1 in the end1 by the side of that cradle in which its infancy was rocked2 it will stretch forth its arm with whatever of vigor it may still retain1 over the friends who gather round it2 and it will fall at last1 if fall it must1 amidst the proudest monuments of its own glory1 and on the very spot of its origin4 ,the ,outlook1 in a recent issue1 first states a vital question in literal and then1 to drive home the meaning of the problem1 in figurative language3-- ,is the ,constitution of the ,united ,states a series of inflexible rules which can be changed only by the methods which those rules themselves prescribe1 or is it the expression of certain political principles by which a living and growing ,nation has resolved to guide itself in its life and growth8 ,is it an anchor which fastens the ship of state in one place1 or a rudder to guide it on its voyage8 ,sometimes figures of speech are used to such excess or in such incongruous combinations that they detract from the effectiveness of the debate in which they occur rather than add to it4 ,the distance from a forceful figure to an absurd figure is so short that a debater has to be on his guard against using expressions that will impress his audience as ridiculous or even funny4 ,a mixture of highly figurative language with literal language and commonplace ideas1 and a mixture of several figures are especially to be guarded against4 ,as an example of the extent to which figures may be mixed the following will serve3-- ,i'm up a tree1 admitted the bolting ,senator1 but my back is to the wall and ,i'll die in the last ditch1 going down with flags flying1 and from the mountain top of ,democracy1 hurling defiance at the foe1 soar on the wings of triumph1 regardless of the party lash that barks at my heels4 ,,delivery4 ,to be a successful debater one must understand how to talk and how to act in the presence of an audience4 ,uncouthness in appearance and awkwardness in speech have often brought defeat4 ,moreover1 it is not enough that a debater refrain from offending his audience2 his bearing and his voice should be of positive assistance to him both in pleasing them and in interpreting to them the ideas that he wishes to convey4 ,first of all1 a good delivery is one that assists in making the argument clear4 ,its next most important function is to make the argument forceful4 ,a speaker should never rest content with being able to present his argument merely with clearness2 he should strive to be interesting and impressive also4 ,these qualities depend in no small measure upon the way a speech is delivered4 ,the best story or the best argument will fall flat unless it is full of the fire of enthusiasm1 unless the personality of the speaker vivifies it and makes it a living reality4 ,unfortunately1 this intangible quality in a speaker1 often called personality or magnetism1 cannot1 to any great extent1 be taught4 ,in the main1 one must seek this and develop it for himself4 ,a text-book can point out what constitutes good form1 what is pleasing and impressive to the eye and to the ear1 and1 in a word1 what make up the externals of a good delivery2 but beyond these mechanical directions it cannot go4 ,a student should observe the following fundamental directions as his first step toward becoming a successful speaker4 ,afterwards1 he should cultivate earnestness1 enthusiasm1 perception1 a sense of humor1 and all other such qualities as go to make up a really great speaker4 ,,position4 ,the best position for a debater to take on the stage is in the centre well toward the front4 ,he should take the centre because in that position he can best see the entire audience1 and the entire audience can best see him4 ,he should stand near the front edge of the platform for several reasons3 first1 he can make himself more easily understood2 his voice need not be so loud in order to be heard distinctly in every part of the hall4 ,this is no small advantage for one who is not gifted with unusual powers of speech4 ,in the next place1 if a debater stands close to his audience1 he can adopt a more conversational style of delivery4 ,he can establish a direct personal connection between himself and his hearers and talk to them as man to man4 ,if the hall is not too large1 he need scarcely raise his voice from its accustomed tone2 he can look his audience in the eye1 receiving the stimulus of whatever interest they express2 and at the same time he can let them see in his features the earnestness and sincerity that he feels4 ,to stand near the back of the stage is undoubtedly easier for one who is diffident or inexperienced2 perhaps he will then be able partially to forget where he is and to imagine that he is alone2 but such an attitude both severs all personal connection between speaker and hearer1 and shows that the debater does not trust himself1 that he has no great belief in his subject1 and that he fears his audience4 ,an impression of this sort is a great handicap even to the strongest case4 ,if one would inspire confidence1 he must appear confident2 if one would make friends1 he must be friendly1 avoiding even a suggestion of aloofness4 ,to accomplish these purposes as far as is possible by action1 a debater should come close to his audience1 having every appearance of being glad that he is to speak and confident in the strength of the side that he is to uphold4 ,the next thing for a speaker to learn is how to stand4 ,he should not take a natural posture1 as some writers say1 unless that posture is one of strength and1 to some degree1 of grace4 ,a student without training will usually stand with his head protruding forward1 his shoulders drooping1 his body twisted1 and his feet far apart1 with all his weight on one leg4 ,such an attitude is enough to condemn one even before he begins to speak4 ,a slipshod appearance suggests slipshod thinking and reasoning4 ,a speaker should always stand erect1 with his head back1 chin in1 shoulders rolled back and down2 either the feet should be near together with the weight of the body on both1 or one foot should be slightly in advance of the other with the weight of the body entirely on the rear foot4 ,in the latter case1 the leg on which the body rests must form a straight line with the body1 there being no unsightly bulging at the hip2 and the leg on which the body does not rest must be slightly bent at the knee4 ,this posture is not difficult to attain if one will practise it frequently1 endeavoring in his everyday life to walk and stand in a soldierly manner4 ,on the other hand1 erectness should not be carried to such an extreme as to become stiffness4 ,a debater's object is to be forceful and pleasing4 ,in striving for this end1 he should always remember that he can very easily err in either of two directions4 ,a debater should allow his hands1 for the most part1 to hang naturally at his sides4 ,there may be a great temptation for him to put them in his pockets1 but he should resist this for two reasons3 such a procedure is not considered good form1 and his hands are less available for instant use in the making of gestures4 ,if one is delivering a lengthy argument1 there is no particular harm in putting one hand behind the back for a short time1 or even in front of the body along the waist line1 provided this can be done in an easy1 natural manner2 but in the case of a short speech1 one will do well to keep his hands at his sides4 ,they must hang naturally in order not to attract attention1 being neither closed tightly nor held rigidly open4 ,if one will follow these directions1 his hands and arms may feel awkward1 but they will not appear so4 ,another important principle in the matter of position requires that a debater shall keep his eyes fixed on his audience4 ,he must not look at the floor1 at the ceiling1 or at the walls4 ,he must look at the people he would convince4 ,only in this way can he hope to hold their attention4 ,only in this way can he win their confidence and reach their feelings4 ,to look into space means to debate into space4 ,in the next place1 a speaker must beware of falling into ludicrous and disgusting habits of deportment4 ,nervousness will often cause one in the presence of an audience to keep making an unsightly gesture1 a peculiar twitch or step that will absolutely ruin his whole speech4 ,some speakers have been known to change their weight from one foot to the other as often as twenty or thirty times a minute4 ,other speakers have adopted a peculiar jerk of the head or a constant shrugging of the shoulders that is most disagreeable to see4 ,still others keep constantly opening and shutting their hands4 ,for years one speaker of some small prominence spent the greater part of his time while on the platform in tugging at his coat1 apparently in an effort to make it fit better around the collar4 ,all such actions as these are to be carefully guarded against4 ,a debater1 however1 is not expected to stand perfectly still3 he should use considerable interpretative and emphatic action4 ,to begin with1 he ought not to stand all the time in exactly the same spot4 ,monotony of position is to be avoided as well as monotony of action or of voice4 ,he will rest himself and his audience if he will occasionally move about1 taking two or three steps at a time4 ,in doing this he must never go backward2 he must never retreat4 ,if1 for any reason1 he began his speech while standing near the rear or the centre of the stage1 he should move forward2 if he cannot go forward1 he may move back and forth near the edge of the platform4 ,the best time for one to change his position is at the conclusion of a paragraph4 ,a paragraph division1 it will be remembered1 indicates a change in thought4 ,if a debater1 therefore1 makes a longer pause than usual at this point1 and in addition alters his position slightly1 he helps interpret his argument4 ,he does for the hearer exactly what indentation does for the reader4 ,,gestures4 ,so much has been said and written about gestures that a student is often puzzled to know whose advice to follow and what to do4 ,some writers say that no gestures at all are desirable2 others deem them necessary1 but declare that they should never be made unless they are spontaneous and natural4 ,in the light of such conflicting advice1 what will determine the proper course for a student to follow8 ,the answer to this question lies in a consideration of the ultimate object of a course in debating4 ,if it is to give students some facility in expressing their thoughts before an audience1 if it is to train students for practical work in business and professional life1 then those men who are recognized as the polished and powerful speakers of the day should be taken as models4 ,most of these1 it will be found1 use gestures4 ,there is but one reasonable course1 then1 for the student to follow3 he should make gestures4 ,they may be crude and awkward at first1 but only by practice can he ever hope to improve them4 ,the best method of procedure1 undoubtedly1 is for the beginner to become familiar with two or three of the most common gestures1 learning how to make them and just what they signify4 ,he should then use them4 ,they may seem mechanical and ungainly at first1 but constant practice both in private and before a class will soon enable him to make them with considerable emphasis and ease4 ,from this point on1 the road is clear4 ,the knowledge that he can use his hands to good advantage1 even in a limited way1 will soon cause him to make gestures spontaneously4 ,nor will he be limited to the few with which he started4 ,in the midst of an explanation and in the heat of an impassioned plea1 he will find himself using gestures that he had not thought of before4 ,the awkward and premeditated gesture with which he began will have become forceful and spontaneous4 ,the gestures that a student should first learn to use must be illustrated to him by his instructor4 ,to see a gesture made several times gives one a better idea of how to make it and of what it means than could a dozen pages in a text-book4 ,the choice of gestures1 too1 may rest with the instructor4 ,it makes no particular difference with what ones a debater begins1 provided that they are simple in execution and are such as he will wish to use in practically every debate into which he enters4 ,ordinarily1 the best ones for a beginner to practice on are those indicating emphasis4 ,if he wishes for a wider field1 he might also try to use gestures indicating magnitude and contrast4 ,when he has finished with these1 he should hesitate before deliberately introducing many others4 ,a debate is not a dramatic production1 and it should in no wise savor of melodrama4 ,,voice4 ,correct position and forceful gestures are very important1 but upon no one thing does the success of a debater1 aside from his argument1 depend so much as upon his voice4 ,one may move his audience in spite of an awkward posture and in the absence of all intelligent gestures1 but unless his voice meets certain requirements1 his case is almost hopeless4 ,above all else a speaker's voice must be distinct4 ,distinctness depends upon several things4 ,first1 the voice must be loud enough to be heard without difficulty in every part of the room4 ,to produce this result1 one should speak especially to those in the rear1 carefully watching to see whether he holds their attention2 at the same time he must be careful not to shout in a manner unpleasant to those sitting nearer him4 ,the stress laid by public speakers upon the matter of loudness is well illustrated by a story told of one of the foremost orators of the day4 ,it is said that he invariably stations some one in the back of the audience to signal to him when his voice is either too low or unnecessarily loud4 ,in the next place1 distinctness depends upon enunciation4 ,the debater who drops off final syllables1 slurs consonants1 runs words together1 or talks without using his lips and without opening his mouth is hard to understand4 ,it often requires considerable conscious effort to pronounce each syllable in a word distinctly1 but the resulting clearness is worth a strenuous attempt4 ,one great cause of poor enunciation is too rapid talking4 ,a fairly slow delivery is preferable not only because the words can be more easily understood1 but also because it gives a debater the appearance of being more careful and accurate in his reasoning4 ,great rapidity in speech may be due to nervousness or inexperience2 whatever its cause1 it is usually fatal to distinctness4 ,a pleasing tone of voice is not of so great moment as distinctness of utterance1 yet its cultivation is by no means to be neglected4 ,harsh1 rasping sounds and nasal twangs are disagreeable to hear1 and no speaker can afford to offend his audience in this way4 ,an unpleasant voice may be the result of some physical defect2 more often it is caused by sheer carelessness4 ,in most cases a little practice will produce a wonderful change4 ,a very common breach of elegance in speaking is the habit of drawling out an er sound between words4 ,the constant repetition of this is exceedingly annoying4 ,it is usually caused by an attempt to fill in a gap while the speaker is groping about for the next word4 ,the best way to correct this blunder is to be so familiar with what one is going to say that there will be no gap to fill in2 but in case one does have to hunt for words1 it is a thousand times preferable to leave the gap unfilled4 ,each word should stand out by itself1 even though there is a pause of many seconds4 ,to offend the ears of an audience with a crude tone of voice or with meaningless sounds is a bad violation of propriety4 ,the first step to be taken in the cultivation of a distinct and pleasing voice is to acquire the habit of standing correctly4 ,under the subject of position it was stated that the body should be kept erect1 the head thrown back1 and the shoulders rolled back and down4 ,this posture is the best not only because it is the most graceful but because it gives the speaker the greatest command of his vocal organs4 ,stooping shoulders and a bowed trunk contract the lungs and diminish the supply of breath1 and a bent neck renders the cords of the neck less controllable4 ,after taking the proper position1 one should next endeavor to breathe as deeply as he can4 ,the louder he has to speak1 the deeper should be his breathing4 ,remembering that he does not wish to talk fast1 he will do well to fill his lungs at the close of each sentence1 always inhaling1 in order not to make an unpleasant gasping noise1 through the nose4 ,while speaking1 he should control his supply of breath not by contracting the chest but by elevating the diaphragm4 ,this procedure will give his voice a richness and a resonance that it otherwise could not have4 ,breathing merely from the top of the lungs means squeakiness of tone and poor control4 ,one who breathes incorrectly will find it necessary to shout to make himself heard at a distance2 one who breathes correctly can usually be heard under the same conditions by merely talking4 ,the superiority of the round1 deep tone over the shout is too obvious to need comment4 ,in the next place1 a speaker must think about this voice4 ,thought and study are as essential in the training of a voice as in the mastery of any art4 ,a natural voice is not usually pleasing2 it becomes so only through cultivation4 ,much of this training can be done by the speaker unaided4 ,few people are so insensible to qualities of sound that they cannot detect harshness and impurities even in their own utterance1 provided that they will give the matter their attention4 ,it is not enough1 however1 for one to watch his voice only while he is debating or while he is repeating his arguments in preparation for a debate2 he must carry constant watchfulness even into his daily conversation4 ,the services of a good instructor are invaluable1 but at best they can be only auxiliary4 ,all improvement must come through the efforts of the speaker himself4 ,,attitude ,,toward ,,opponents4 ,if one will bear in mind that the fundamental purpose of argument--whether written or spoken--is to present truth in such a way as to influence belief1 he will at once understand that a debater should always maintain toward his opponents the attitude of one who is trying to change another's belief1 the attitude of friendship1 fairness1 and respect4 ,such a point of view precludes the use of satire1 invective1 or harsh epithets4 ,these never carry conviction2 in fact1 they invariably destroy the effect that an otherwise good argument might produce4 ,ridicule and bluster may please those who already agree with the speaker1 but with these people he should be little concerned2 a debater worthy of the name seeks to change the opinions of those who disagree with him4 ,for this reason he is diplomatic1 courteous1 and urbane4 ,a debater should1 moreover1 keep to this same attitude even though his opponent introduce objectionable personalities4 ,one will find it for his own best interest to do so4 ,good humor makes a far better impression than anger2 it suggests strength and superiority1 while anger1 as everyone knows1 is often the result of chagrin1 and is used to cover up weaknesses4 ,besides1 an audience always sympathizes with the man who is first attacked4 ,all this does not mean that a debater should calmly submit to unfairness and vilification4 ,on the contrary1 he should defend himself spiritedly2 but he should not meet abuse with abuse4 ,to do so would be to throw away an invaluable opportunity4 ,he should remain dignified1 self-controlled1 and good-humored2 then by treating his opponent as one who has inadvertently fallen into error1 and by pointing out the mistakes1 the unfairness1 and the way in which the real question has been ignored1 he can gain an inestimable advantage4 ,the following quotations show what attitude a debater should maintain toward his opponents3-- ,as ,i do not precisely agree in opinion with any gentleman who has spoken1 ,i shall take the liberty of detaining the committee for a few moments while ,i offer to their attention some observations4 ,i am highly gratified with the temper and ability with which the discussion has hitherto been conducted4 ,it is honorable to the ,house1 and1 ,i trust1 will continue to be manifested on many future occasions4 7,henry ,clay47 ,mr4 ,president1 ,i had occasion a few days ago to expose the utter groundlessness of the personal charges made by the ,senator from ,illinois against myself and the other signers of the ,independent ,democratic ,appeal4 ,i now move to strike from this bill a statement which ,i will to-day demonstrate to be without any foundation in fact or history4 ,i intend afterwards to move to strike out the whole clause annulling the ,missouri prohibition4 ,i enter into this debate1 ,mr4 ,president1 in no spirit of personal unkindness4 ,the issue is too grave and too momentous for the indulgence of such feelings4 ,i see the great question before me1 and that question only4 7,salmon ,p4 ,chase47 ,compare the attitude of ,mr4 ,naylor in the following quotation with the attitude of ,mr4 ,lincoln in his debates with ,senator ,douglas4 ,it is needless to point out which must have had the better effect upon the audience4 ,the gentleman has misconceived the spirit and tendency of ,northern institutions4 ,he is ignorant of ,northern character4 ,he has forgotten the history of his country4 ,preach insurrection to the ,northern laborers6 ,preach insurrection to me6 ,who are the ,northern laborers8 ,the history of your country is their history4 7,charles ,naylor47 ,my ,fellow-,citizens3 ,when a man hears himself somewhat misrepresented1 it provokes him--at least1 ,i find it so with myself2 but when misrepresentation becomes very gross and palpable1 it is more apt to amuse him4 ,the first thing ,i see fit to notice is the fact that ,judge ,douglas alleges1 after running through the history of the old ,democratic and the old ,whig parties1 that ,judge ,trumbull and myself made an arrangement in #ahed by which ,i was to have the place of ,general ,shields in the ,united ,states ,senate1 and ,judge ,trumbull was to have the place of ,judge ,douglas4 ,now all ,i have to say upon that subject is that ,i think no man--not even ,judge ,douglas--can prove it1 because it is not true4 ,i have no doubt he is conscientious in saying it4 ,as to those resolutions that he took such a length of time to read1 as being the platform of the ,republican party in #ahed1 ,i say ,i never had anything to do with them1 and ,i think ,trumbull never had4 7,abraham ,lincoln in the ,ottawa ,joint ,debate47 ,judge ,douglas has told me that he heard my speeches north and my speeches south--that he heard me at ,ottawa and at ,freeport in the north1 and recently at ,jonesboro in the south1 and that there was a very different cast of sentiment in the speeches made at the different points4 ,i will not charge upon ,judge ,douglas that he willfully misrepresents me1 but ,i call upon every fair-minded man to take those speeches and read them1 and ,i dare him to point out any difference between my speeches north and south4 7,lincoln in the ,charleston ,joint ,debate47 ,,how ,,to ,,judge ,a ,,debate4 ,three judges usually award the decision in a debating contest4 ,their sole duty is to determine which side had the better of the argument4 ,sometimes the method that they shall follow in arriving at a decision is marked out for them2 they are given printed slips indicating the relative importance of evidence1 reasoning1 delivery1 and the other points that must be considered4 ,most commonly1 however1 each judge is instructed to decide for himself what constitutes excellence in debate4 ,according to the rules governing any particular debate1 the judges may cast their ballots with or without previous consultation with each other4 ,the following outline gives in condensed form the main points that a judge should consider4 ,it will be of service not only to the judges of a debate but to the contestants1 as it gives a comprehensive view of just what is expected of a debater4 ,i4 ,which side has the better analysis8 ,,ii4 ,which side has the stronger proof8 ,a4 ,consider the preponderance of the evidence4 ,b4 ,consider the quality of the evidence4 ,c4 ,consider the skill used in reasoning4 ,,iii4 ,which side offers the better refutation8 ,a4 ,see which side has the more main points left standing after the refutation has been given4 ,,iv4 ,which side has the better delivery8 ,a4 ,consider general bearing1 voice1 and language4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,conclusion ,most arguments have a more or less formal ending4 ,both writers and speakers1 when seeking to influence the beliefs and acts of others1 have usually deemed it advisable1 upon completing their proof1 to add a few summarizing words and to make a final appeal to the emotions4 ,this part of the argument that comes at the close and that contains no new proof is called the conclusion1 or the peroration4 ,in spoken argument1 occasionally1 the conclusion is wholly ignored4 ,if at any time1 regardless of the point he may have reached1 an arguer clearly perceives that he has won his case1 he is wise to stop immediately and avoid the danger of adding anything that might possibly detract from his success4 ,such an experience may frequently happen to a salesman1 a preacher1 a lawyer4 ,arguments1 however1 that are written or that are delivered before large audiences cannot be curtailed in this way4 ,under such conditions the arguer is unable to tell when he has won his case3 he must use all his proof and make it emphatic in every way possible4 ,therefore the student who is arguing for the sake of practice will do well to disregard exceptions and to close all his arguments1 both written and spoken1 with a peroration4 ,the same two elements--conviction and persuasion--that make up the introduction and the discussion are ordinarily found also in the conclusion4 ,the general principles that govern the proportionate amount of each to be used in the first two divisions of an argument apply equally to the third division4 ,in every case the relative amount of space to be devoted to conviction and to persuasion depends upon the nature of the subject and the attitude of the audience4 ,in some instances a conclusion should consist wholly of conviction2 in other instances persuasion should predominate2 most commonly there should be a judicious combination of both4 ,in concluding an argument before the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court on the question of whether or not a certain law passed in ,new ,york was repugnant to the ,constitution or consistent with it1 ,webster spoke as follows3-- ,to recapitulate what has been said1 we maintain1 first1 that the ,constitution1 by its grants to ,congress and its prohibitions on the ,states1 has sought to establish one uniform standard of value1 or medium of payment4 ,second1 that1 by like means1 it has endeavored to provide for one uniform mode of discharging debts when they are to be discharged without payment4 ,third1 that these objects are connected1 and that the first loses much of its importance1 if the last1 also1 be not accomplished4 ,fourth1 that1 reading the grant to ,congress1 and the prohibition on the ,states together1 the inference is strong that the ,constitution intended to confer exclusive power to pass bankrupt laws on ,congress4 ,fifth1 that the prohibition in the tenth section reaches to all contracts1 existing or future1 in the same way that the other prohibition in the same section extends to all debts existing or future4 ,sixth1 that1 upon any other construction1 one great political object of the ,constitution will fail of its accomplishment4 ,footnote3 ,the ,case of ,ogden and ,saunders4 ,webster's ,great ,speeches1 page #ahh4 ,little1 ,brown ,co4 ,in this conclusion1 it will be noticed1 there is no persuasion4 ,apparently the subject was of such a nature that only clear and logical reasoning was required4 ,an appeal to the emotions would undoubtedly have been out of place4 ,in direct contrast to the preceding method of summarizing a speech a good example of a persuasive conclusion may be found in ,the ,dartmouth ,college ,case1 which ,webster argued before this same tribunal1 and which also involved the constitutionality of a ,state law4 ,in this peroration ,webster's emotional appeal was so strong that1 it is said1 there was not a dry eye in the court room4 ,in writing as well as in speaking one must allow common sense to decide what shall be the nature of his peroration4 ,the following is a typical example of a conclusion into which persuasion cannot well enter4 ,it is taken from the close of a chapter1 selected at random1 in ,darwin's ,structure and ,distribution of ,coral ,reefs4 ,it has1 ,i think1 been shown in this chapter1 that subsidence explains both the normal structure and the less regular forms of those two great classes of reefs which have justly excited the astonishment of all the naturalists who have sailed through the ,pacific and ,indian oceans4 ,the necessity1 also1 that a foundation should have existed at the proper depth for the growth of the corals over certain large areas1 almost compels us to accept this theory4 ,but further to test its truth a crowd of questions may be asked4444 ,these several questions will be considered in the following chapter4 ,a type of conclusion far more common and usually far more effective is one that not only refers to the preceding arguments but also contains considerable persuasion4 ,the peroration marks the final opportunity for the arguer to move his audience4 ,here he should make his greatest effort4 ,since belief and action ordinarily depend upon both the intellect and the will1 the arguer who would attain success must appeal to both4 ,merely to call to mind the proof that he has advanced is seldom enough3 he must arouse the emotions4 ,the peroration of an argument is like the finish of a race or the last charge in a battle4 ,in the conclusion the arguer should use his greatest skill1 his strongest eloquence4 ,here are found the most inspiring passages in the masterpieces of oratory4 ,some of the various ways for reaching the emotions have been pointed out in the chapter dealing with persuasion in the introduction4 ,these same suggestions apply equally well to persuasion in the conclusion4 ,the best advice that can be given1 however1 is for one to use his common sense4 ,he must consider his subject1 his audience1 his ability1 and his own interest in the case--all the circumstances in connection with his argument--and then depend1 not upon some set formula1 but upon his judgment to tell him in what way he can best be persuasive4 ,the following illustrations will give some idea of how successful writers and speakers have concluded their arguments with persuasion4 ,notice the patriotic appeal in the first quotation3-- ,whether we have or have not degenerated compared with 7say7 fifty or a hundred years ago may be a question difficult to settle1 but it is quite clear that we are pitifully1 disastrously below the normal standard of manhood and womanhood which a great nation should set itself4 ,adequate nourishment for our children1 immunity from exhausting and mechanical employments at the most critical period of adolescence1 an extension of educational influences--can there be any objects of expenditures more likely than these to repay themselves a thousandfold in the improved vigor and intelligence which form the only sure basis of a nation's greatness8 ,footnote3 ,frances ,e4 ,warwick1 ,fortnightly ,review1 ,vol4 ,,lxxix1 p4 #eae4 ,in the following the speaker points out the awful responsibility resting upon the jury and exhorts them to render justice3-- ,let me1 therefore1 remind you1 that though the day may soon come when our ashes shall be scattered before the winds of heaven1 the memory of what you do cannot die4 ,it will carry down to your posterity your honor or your shame4 ,in the presence1 and in the name of that everliving ,god1 ,i do therefore conjure you to reflect that you have your characters1 your consciences1 that you have also the character1 perhaps the ultimate destiny1 of your country in your hands4 ,in that awful name ,i do conjure you to have mercy upon your country and upon yourselves1 and so to judge now as you will hereafter be judged2 and ,i do now submit the fate of my client1 and of that country which we have yet in common to your disposal4 ,footnote3 ,john ,philpot ,curran1 ,on the ,liberty of the ,press4 ,in the following extract from the conclusion of ,webster's plea in ,the ,dartmouth ,college ,case consider how he showed the magnitude of the question that was at issue3-- ,the case before the court is not of ordinary importance1 nor of everyday occurrence4 ,it affects not this college only1 but every college1 and all the literary institutions of the country4 ,they have flourished hitherto1 and have become in a high degree respectable and useful to the community4 ,they have all a common principle of existence1 the inviolability of their charters4 ,it will be a dangerous1 a most dangerous experiment1 to hold these institutions subject to the rise and fall of popular parties1 and the fluctuation of political opinions4 ,if the franchise may at any time be taken away1 or impaired1 the property also may be taken away1 or impaired1 or its use perverted4 ,benefactors will have no certainty of effecting the object of their bounty2 and learned men will be deterred from devoting themselves to the service of such institutions1 from the precarious title of their offices4 ,colleges and halls will be deserted by all better spirits1 and become a theatre for the contentions of politics4 ,party and faction will be cherished in the places consecrated to piety and learning4 ,these consequences are neither remote nor possible only4 ,they are certain and immediate4 ,footnote3 ,webster's ,great ,speeches1 p4 #bc4 ,as a rule1 most of the criticisms that can be made of any conclusion pertain to matters of taste and judgment4 ,a writer or speaker may have made too detailed or too brief a summary2 he may have erred in choosing the best method of persuasion2 he may have injured his argument in almost countless other ways4 ,in these matters a text-book can give only general and rather vague instruction4 ,each argument must be suited to the particular case in hand4 ,there are several common errors in students' work1 however1 that should always be avoided and that can definitely be pointed out4 #a4 ,an argument should not have an abrupt and jerky ending4 ,it is not uncommon especially in class room debate1 to hear a student at the close of his discussion say1 ,this is my proof2 ,i leave the decision to the judges2 or ,thus you see ,i have established my proposition4 ,such an ending can in no way be called a conclusion or a peroration4 #b4 ,a conclusion should contain no new proof4 ,violations of this principle brand an arguer as careless1 and greatly weaken his argument4 ,proof is most convincing when arranged in its proper place and in its logical order4 ,furthermore1 the purpose of the conclusion is to review the points that have already been established4 ,if the arguer forgets this fact and mixes proof with summary1 the audience is liable to become badly confused and not know what has been established and what has not4 #c4 ,a conclusion should not refer to a point that has not already been established4 ,a careless writer or debater will sometimes state that he has proved an argument which he has not previously touched upon4 ,such a procedure smacks of trickery or ignorance1 and is sure to be disastrous4 ,not only will the audience throw out that particular point1 but they will be highly prejudiced against both the arguer and his argument4 ,it is permissible for one to maintain that he has proved a point even though the proof be somewhat inadequate1 but for one to refer in his conclusion to a point that he then mentions for the first time is unpardonable4 #d4 ,a conclusion must reaffirm the proposition exactly as stated at the beginning4 ,sometimes a writer1 discovering at the close of his argument that he has not stuck to his subject but has proved something different1 or at best has proved only a part of his subject1 states as his decision a totally different proposition from that with which he started4 ,to illustrate1 a student once attempted to argue on the affirmative side of the proposition1 ,the ,united ,states should discontinue its protective tariff policy2 but he gave as his concluding sentence1 ,these facts1 then1 prove to you that our present tariff duties are too high4 ,this last sentence embodied the real proposition which he had discussed1 and if he had taken as his subject1 ,our present tariff duties are too high1 his argument would have been successful4 ,as it was1 his failure to support the proposition with which he started rendered his whole effort worthless4 ,a conclusion that is weaker than the proposition is commonly called a qualifying conclusion4 ,when one has fallen into this error there are two possible ways of removing it3 one is to change the whole argument so that the conclusion will affirm the truth or falsity of the proposition2 the other is to change the proposition4 ,in a debate1 of course1 or whenever a subject is assigned1 the latter method cannot be followed4 ,as a final example of what a good peroration should be1 consider the following conclusion of ,webster's speech1 delivered in the ,united ,states ,senate1 on ,the ,presidential ,veto of the ,united ,states ,bank ,bill4 ,notice the skillful interweaving of conviction and persuasion1 and remember in connection with the principle of proportion that this is the conclusion of a speech containing about #ad1jjj words4 ,mr4 ,president1 we have arrived at a new epoch4 ,we are entering on experiments1 with the government and the ,constitution of the country1 hitherto untried1 and of fearful and appalling aspect4 ,this message calls us to the contemplation of a future which little resembles the past4 ,its principles are at war with all that public opinion has sustained1 and all which the experience of the government has sanctioned4 ,it denies first principles2 it contradicts truths1 hitherto received as indisputable4 ,it denies to the judiciary the interpretation of law1 and claims to divide with ,congress the power of originating statutes4 ,it extends the grasp of executive pretension over every power of the government4 ,but this is not all4 ,it presents the chief magistrate of the ,union in the attitude of arguing away the powers of that government over which he has been chosen to preside2 and adopting for this purpose modes of reasoning which1 even under the influence of all proper feeling towards high official station1 it is difficult to regard as respectable4 ,it appeals to every prejudice which may betray men into a mistaken view of their own interests1 and to every passion which may lead them to disobey the impulses of their understanding4 ,it urges all the specious topics of ,state rights and national encroachment against that which a great majority of the ,states have affirmed to be rightful1 and in which all of them have acquiesced4 ,it sows1 in an unsparing manner1 the seeds of jealousy and ill-will against that government of which its author is the official head4 ,it raises a cry1 that liberty is in danger1 at the very moment when it puts forth claims to powers heretofore unknown and unheard of4 ,it affects alarm for the public freedom1 when nothing endangers that freedom so much as its own unparalleled pretences4 ,this1 even1 is not all4 ,it manifestly seeks to inflame the poor against the rich2 it wantonly attacks whole classes of the people1 for the purpose of turning against them the prejudices and the resentment of other classes4 ,it is a state paper which finds no topic too exciting for its use1 no passion to inflammable for its address and its solicitation4 ,such is this message4 ,it remains now for the people of the ,united ,states to choose between the principles here avowed and their government4 ,these cannot subsist together4 ,the one or the other must be rejected4 ,if the sentiments of the message shall receive general approbation1 the ,constitution will have perished even earlier than the moment which its enemies originally allowed for the termination of its existence4 ,it will not have survived to its fiftieth year4 ,footnote3 ,webster's ,great ,speeches1 page #cch4 ,,appendices4 ,,appendix ,a ,a ,,written ,,argument ,,and ,,its ,,brief4 ,,should ,,immigration ,,be ,,restricted8 ,footnote3 ,the ,north ,american ,review1 ,may1 #ahig1 page #ebf4 ,,simon ,,greenleaf ,,croswell ,during recent years there has been a growing interest in plans for further checking or limiting the tide of immigration whose waves sweep in upon the ,united ,states almost daily in constantly increasing volume4 ,several restrictive measures are already in force3 paupers1 idiots1 contract laborers1 the ,chinese1 and several other classes of people are prohibited from entering our ports4 ,the subject has been discussed in legislatures1 in political meetings1 from pulpits1 in reform clubs1 and among individuals on every hand4 ,the reason for the interest which the subject now excites is easily found in the recent enormous increase of immigration4 ,the problem divides itself at the outset into two distinct questions3 ,first1 is it for the advantage of the ,united ,states that immigration be further checked or limited8 ,second1 if so1 in what way should the check or limit be applied8 ,it is evident that these questions cover two distinct fields of inquiry1 the industrial and the political4 ,nor can the two fields be examined simultaneously1 for the reasons1 if there are any1 from a political point of view1 why immigration should be limited1 would not apply to the questions viewed on its industrial side1 and vice versa4 ,taking up first the industrial question1 we may assume that the entrance of the swarms of immigrants into our country represents the introduction of just so much laboring power into the country1 and we may also assume as a self-evident proposition that the introduction of laboring power into an undeveloped or partially developed country is advantageous until the point is reached at which all the laborers whom the country can support have been introduced4 ,adam ,smith says that labor is the wealth of nations4 ,if this is true1 the laborer is the direct and only primary means of acquiring wealth4 ,the facts of the history of our country bear out this view4 ,beginning with the clearing of the forests1 the settlements of the villages1 the cultivation of farms1 proceeding to the establishment of the lumber industries1 the cultivation of vast wheat and corn fields1 the production of cotton1 the working of the coal and oil fields of ,pennsylvania1 the development of the mining districts of the ,west1 culminating in the varied and extensive manufactures of the ,eastern and ,central ,states1 the laborer has been the ,midas whose touch has turned all things to gold4 ,there is1 however1 a limitation to the principle that the introduction of laborers into a partially developed country is advantageous4 ,a point is finally reached which may be called the saturation point of the country2 that is1 it has as many inhabitants as it can supply with reasonably good food and clothing4 ,this saturation point may be reached many times in the history of a country1 for the ratio between the food and clothing products and the population is constantly varying4 ,new modes of cultivation1 and the use of machinery1 as well as natural causes affecting the fertility of land1 which are as yet obscure1 render a country at one time capable of supporting a much larger number of inhabitants than at another time4 ,still1 there is a broad and general truth that1 time and place and kind of people being considered1 some countries are over-populated1 and some are under- populated4 ,we are accustomed to say that some of the countries of ,europe are over-populated1 and there are among us some who are beginning to say that the ,united ,states has reached the same point4 ,this is far from being the case1 and a single glance at the comparative average density of population of the principal ,european nations and of the ,united ,states will be sufficient to drive this idea out of any fair-minded person's head4 ,the most thickly settled country of modern ,europe is the ,netherlands1 which had1 in the year #ahij1 the very large average of three hundred and fifty-nine inhabitants per square mile of territory4 ,great ,britain came next1 with the almost equally large average of three hundred and eleven inhabitants per square mile of territory4 ,germany had two hundred and thirty-four and ,france one hundred and eighty-seven4 ,taking in for purposes of comparison1 though not of much force in the argument1 ,china1 we find there an average population of two hundred and ninety-five inhabitants per square mile of territory4 ,it is a question of some difficulty to decide in any specific case whether a country has reached the point of over-population4 ,we may admit that ,great ,britain1 with its average of three hundred and eleven inhabitants per mile1 is over-populated1 though the conditions of life do not seem to be wholly intolerable1 even to the lowest classes there4 ,if ,great ,britain is over-populated1 a fortiori are the ,netherlands1 and we may even go so far as to admit that ,germany1 with its average of two hundred and thirty-four inhabitants per square mile1 is over-populated4 ,but when we come to ,france1 with its one hundred and eighty-seven inhabitants per square mile1 we may pause and see what are the conditions of the ,french people4 ,so far as it is possible to judge of a people in the lump1 it would seem that the population of ,france is not excessive for the area4 ,the land holdings are divided up into very small lots1 but are held by a great number of people4 ,mackenzie1 in his history of the nineteenth century1 says that nearly two-thirds of the ,french householders are landowners1 while only one ,british householder in every four is an owner of land4 ,this condition results partly from the difference in the system of inheritance of land in the two countries1 but would be impossible if the country were over-populated4 ,moreover1 there are five millions of people in ,france whose possessions in land are under six acres each4 ,taking1 then1 the population of ,france1 averaging #ahg per square mile1 as being at least not above the normal rate of population1 what do we find in comparing it with the population of the ,united ,states8 ,we find over here vast tracts of country1 amounting to nearly one- third by actual measurement1 of the whole area of the ,united ,states1 and including all the ,states west of the ,missouri and ,mississippi valleys 7except a portion of ,california71 having a population of less than six individuals per square mile4 ,it would seem as if the mere statement of this fact were alone sufficient to disprove any proposition which asserts that the saturation point of population has been reached in the ,united ,states4 ,while that immense expanse of country averages only six individuals to the square mile1 there can be no reason for saying that this country is over-populated4 ,coming now to the more thickly settled portions of the ,united ,states1 we find a large area spread out over various parts of the ,states having a population between seven and forty-five individuals per square mile4 ,in a very few ,states1 ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 ,michigan1 ,ohio1 and ,indiana1 the population of the whole ,state averages over forty-five and under ninety individuals per square mile1 and the same average holds in parts of ,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1 ,illinois1 ,kentucky1 and isolated spots in the ,south4 ,in a small territory1 made up of parts of ,massachusetts1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,new ,jersey1 the population averages over ninety per square mile4 ,the contrast between these averages of population in various portions of the ,united ,states1 the highest of which is about ninety individuals per mile 7and that over very small portions of the area of the ,united ,states7 and the average densities of the ,european countries1 previously examined1 shows how very far the ,united ,states is from complete population4 ,this appears still more clearly when the average population of the ,united ,states taken as a whole1 is considered1 which is the extraordinary low figure of twenty individuals per square mile of territory ,what a striking contrast6 ,can the most ardent advocate of the ,malthusian doctrine claim that the ,united ,states already has too many inhabitants1 or is in danger of having too many in the immediate future8 ,do we not rather need to encourage immigration1 to fling wide open the gates of our country and secure as large an addition to our working force as possible8 ,when we come to the political aspect of the problem1 however1 a wholly different series of considerations present themselves4 ,the question now is not how many citizens1 but what sort of citizens4 ,the theory of our government is not limited to any number of people4 ,it provides for expansion in the number of representatives in ,congress in proportion to the increase in population1 and increases the number of ,senators as new ,states are formed and added to the ,union4 ,similarly each ,state government has elastic provisions which enable it to cover a population of #djj1jjj as well as a population of #dj1jjj4 ,but the one critical test in determining whether or not our immigration should be limited for political reasons is the character of the people whom we are admitting to the privilege of citizenship in the ,united ,states4 ,in order to investigate successfully the political effect of the immigration1 it is necessary1 at the outset1 to divide it into its constituent nationalities1 so that taking up each nationality in turn1 we may see what fitness it has from its previous political training in its native country for undertaking the duties of ,american citizenship4 ,the disintegration of the tide of immigration into these constituent parts affords some interesting information which will be seen to have a bearing1 in several directions1 on the questions under consideration in this article4 ,taking the statistics of the year #ahia as a typical year of recent immigration1 the tide of immigration amounted in round numbers to #ejj1jjj individuals4 ,the largest feeder of this enormous stream came from ,germany1 which sent1 roughly speaking1 #ajj1jjj4 ,but a noticeable point about this nationality is the great decrease in the number of immigrants it has sent us in the last fifteen years4 ,in the year #ahhb the total ,german immigration into the ,united ,states amounted to no less than #bej1jjj1 but in #ahhc and #ahhd there was a great decrease1 and since then the average has remained in the neighborhood of #ajj1jjj4 ,we shall see later that on the other hand1 the immigration from the ,latin and ,slav nations of ,europe1 particularly ,italy1 ,poland1 and ,austria1 shows an enormous rate of increase in the same period1 although1 of course1 the absolute amounts are much less than those of the ,german immigration4 ,the next largest feeder to our stream of immigration in the year #ahia1 the typical year of our examination1 was ,italy1 which contributed #gf1jjj immigrants to our population4 ,it is noteworthy to remark1 in this connection1 that ,italy has more than doubled her annual rate of contributions to our people in the ten years under consideration1 the immigration from her shores in #ahhb being only #cb1jjj4 ,the next largest contributor is ,austria1 which in #ahia furnished #ga1jjj new members of our community4 ,austria1 too1 has doubled her rate of contribution1 sending us in #ahhb only #cb1jjj4 ,next come1 side by side1 in their offerings to our population1 ,england and ,ireland1 each of which countries sends us about #ej1jjj new inhabitants each year1 and has continued to do so for the last fifteen years4 ,russia1 exclusive of ,poland1 sent #dg1jjj in #ahia1 this being three times the number which she sent in #ahhb1 a large increase4 ,sweden came next with #cf1jjj immigrants and that country shows a woeful falling-off of nearly one-half in the ten years under consideration1 for in the year #ahhb it sent #fd1jjj4 ,poland in #ahia sent us #bg1jjj immigrants1 showing an enormous increase of nearly sevenfold over its contribution of #d1jjj in #ahhb4 ,scotland and ,norway and ,denmark all send about the same number1 that is1 about #ab1jjj each2 ,norway showing a diminution in the decade ending #ahia1 from #bi1jjj in #ahhb1 but the other two remaining about stationary4 ,switzerland in #ahia sent #f1jjj1 a diminution from #aj1jjj in #ahhb4 ,the ,netherlands sent #e1jjj in #ahia1 a decrease from #i1jjj in #ahhb4 ,france sent #f1jjj and ,belgium #c1jjj1 these figures being about the same during all the years covered by our investigation4 ,i have left out of account the only other important factor in our immigration in the ten years considered1 namely1 ,china1 because the door was shut in its face with considerable emphasis in #ahhc1 and the immigration from ,china to the ,western ,states1 which in #ahhb amounted to #dj1jjj fell in #ahhc to #h1jjj1 and in #ahhd to #bgi individuals1 and may1 therefore1 be neglected at the present time4 ,now1 an examination of the political institutions in the countries from which these immigrants come would show that in almost no case1 that of ,russia and ,poland alone excepted1 are the elements of representative government wholly unknown to the common people4 ,in most of these countries1 some form of popular government has1 either wholly or partially1 gained a footing1 with the inevitable result of accustoming people more or less to representative institutions4 ,yet the short time that this has been the case in many of the countries which pour half or over of the total flood of immigration into the ,united ,states1 and the long centuries of despotism which preceded this partial and recent enlightenment1 make it painfully evident that there can be1 in the large part of our immigrants1 little knowledge of the republican form of government1 and little inherited aptitude for such government4 ,it would at first seem as if the results of such immigration must be disastrous to our country4 ,and yet the situation is not so hopeless4 ,there is nothing mysterious1 or even very complicated1 about republican institutions4 ,a little time1 a little study1 a little experience with the practical workings of elections1 is sufficient to convey to any person of ordinary intelligence as much familiarity with these matters as is necessary for the intelligent appreciation of their objects and purposes4 ,nor is the material out of which the prospective citizen is to be made wholly unfitted for its purpose4 ,to be sure1 the ,latin races1 the ,slavs1 ,hungarians1 ,poles1 and others have no inherited aptitude1 nor if we may judge from the history of the races1 any inherent capacity for self-government and free institutions1 but1 as ,i have before said1 in almost every case they have had in their own country a partial training in the forms of representative government4 ,all that is needed is to amalgamate this heterogeneous mass1 to fuse its elements in the heat and glow of our national life1 until1 formed in the mould of everyday experience1 each one shall possess the characteristic features of what we believe to be the highest type of human development which the world has seen1 the ,american citizen4 ,the process of acquiring ,american citizenship is regulated by acts of ,congress4 ,it is a simple process4 ,practically all that is required is a continuous residence of five years in the ,states1 and one year in the special ,state in which citizenship is applied for1 and the declaration of intention to become a citizen may be made immediately upon landing4 ,this last point will be seen later to be very important4 ,citizenship in the ,united ,states1 however1 under the act of ,congress1 does not carry with it the right to vote4 ,this right is entirely a matter of ,state regulation1 and the ,constitution or statutes of each ,state settle who shall have the right to vote in its elections4 ,the underlying idea of the whole system is universal male suffrage1 and the franchise is granted 7after a certain residence1 which will be discussed later7 with only certain general limitations of obvious utility1 such as that the voter must be twenty-one years of age1 that he must not be an idiot or insane1 and generally1 that he must not have been convicted of any felony or infamous crime1 although in many ,states a pardon1 or the serving of a sentence1 will restore a felon to his civil rights4 ,in a few of the ,states paupers are also excluded from voting4 ,with the question of woman suffrage we have nothing to do1 as its settlement1 one way or the other1 does not affect the subject we are discussing4 ,the important qualification1 however1 in relation to the subjects which we are discussing1 is that which requires residence in the ,state previous to the exercise of the franchise4 ,and on this point the ,states may be divided into two great classes4 ,one class allows no one to vote who is not1 under the laws of ,congress1 a citizen of the ,united ,states1 either native or naturalized4 ,as we have seen that five years' residence is a requisite to ,united ,states citizenship1 these ,states1 therefore1 require five years' residence as a prerequisite to acquiring the right to vote4 ,these ,states are ,california1 ,connecticut1 ,georgia1 ,illinois1 ,iowa1 ,kentucky1 ,maine1 ,maryland1 ,massachusetts1 ,michigan1 ,montana1 ,nevada1 ,new ,jersey1 ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 ,pennsylvania1 ,rhode ,island1 ,south ,carolina1 ,tennessee1 ,vermont1 ,virginia1 and ,washington4 ,this requirement is admirably calculated to secure that preliminary training in the practical working of our institutions which must be necessary to most of the immigrants before they can intelligently exercise the rights which are conferred upon them by ,american citizenship and we cannot but admire the sagacity and judiciousness of those who framed our naturalization laws in selecting this period of time for the pupilage of the intending citizen4 ,the period is long enough even for one who is engrossed in the cares of earning a support for himself and his family1 amid all the excitement and novelty of a changed residence1 to acquire in the five succeeding annual elections a sufficient knowledge of republican government for all practical purpose4 ,to delay him longer in the exercise of his political rights would be an injustice2 to admit him to them sooner would be an imprudence4 ,there are in a few ,states other qualifications required of a voter4 ,the most important of these is the educational qualification1 which exists only in ,connecticut and ,massachusetts4 ,in neither of these is it very severe4 ,in ,connecticut the voter must be able to read any article in the ,state ,constitution1 and any section of the statutes4 ,in ,massachusetts he must be able to read the ,constitution and to write his name4 ,too much praise can hardly be given to these requirements4 ,the whole edifice of our national life is founded upon education1 and to this potent factor must we look for many of the improvements necessary to the proper development of our national life4 ,in quite a number of ,states a pecuniary qualification exists in the shape of the payment of some tax1 generally a poll tax1 within two years previous to the date of the election4 ,this requirement does not seem to be so germane to the spirit of our institutions as the other4 ,the great present danger of our country is the danger of becoming a plutocracy1 and while there is no doubt that a widespread interest in property develops stability of institutions1 yet there is also great danger of capital obtaining so firm and strong a hold upon political institutions as to crush out the life of free government and to convert the national government into a species of close corporation1 in which the relative wealth of the parties alone controls4 ,this qualification is found in ,delaware1 ,florida1 ,georgia1 ,mississippi1 ,nevada1 ,pennsylvania1 ,tennessee1 and ,texas4 ,we have now examined with some thoroughness the component parts of the tide of immigration as it arrives at our shores2 we have seen what nationalities go to make up the grand total and what previous training they have had in the political institutions of their native countries to fit them for ,american citizenship1 and what additional requirements are imposed upon them by our statutes before they can participate in voting and government in this country4 ,what are the conclusions to which the view of these facts brings us8 ,they seem to me to be these3 first1 that the growth of immigration is a desirable thing for this country from an industrial point of view2 second1 that the immigrants who arrive at our shores are for the most part good material out of which to make ,american citizens4 ,applying these conclusions to the questions which were stated at the outset of this article2 first1 is it for the advantage of the ,united ,states that immigration should be checked or limited8 second1 if so1 in what way should the check or limit be applied8 the answer would be that no further check or limit should be applied1 but that a check should be placed upon the exercise of the franchise by immigrants in all ,states by requiring a residence of five years in this country before they can vote1 and by also requiring some moderate educational test4 ,with these safeguards established we might look without any serious apprehension upon the increase of our population4 ,the founders of our state moulded the outlines of its form in large and noble lines4 ,the skeleton has grown and clothed itself with flesh with almost incredible rapidity in the hundred years of its existence4 ,but it is still young4 ,we should avoid any measures which would stunt or deform its growth and should allow it to develop freely and generously till the full-grown ,american nation stands forth pre-eminent among the nations of the earth1 in size1 as well as in character and organization1 and man's last experiment in government is clearly seen to be an unequivocal success4 ,,argument ,,and ,,brief ,,should ,,immigration ,,be ,,restricted8 ,,negative ,,brief4 ,,introduction4 ,i4 ,the enormous increase in immigration gives rise to a growing interest in some plan for further limiting the number of immigrants coming to the ,united ,states4 ,a4 ,paupers1 idiots1 contract laborers1 the ,chinese1 and several other classes of people are already excluded4 ,b4 ,the subject has been discussed in legislatures1 in political meetings1 from pulpits1 in reform clubs1 and among individuals4 ,,ii4 ,the problem divides itself into two distinct questions3-- ,a4 ,is it for the advantage of the ,united ,states that immigration be further checked or limited8 ,b4 ,if so1 in what way should the check or limit be applied8 ,,iii4 ,these questions must be considered1 first1 from the industrial point of view2 and1 secondly1 from the political point of view4 ,,discussion4 ,immigration should not be further restricted1 for ,i4 ,from an industrial point of view1 the ,united ,states needs immigrants1 for ,a4 ,without question1 immigrants represent laboring power4 ,b4 ,the ,united ,states needs more laboring power1 for #a4 ,admittedly1 the introduction of laboring power into an undeveloped or partially developed country is advantageous up to the saturation point4 a4 ,adam ,smith says that labor is the wealth of nations4 b4 ,the history of ,america has borne out this statement1 for #a'4 ,the laborer has turned the forests1 fields1 and mines into wealth4 #b4 ,the ,united ,states is still under-populated1 for a4 ,there is a smaller population to the square mile than in many ,european countries1 for #a'4 ,in #ahij the ,netherlands had the average of three hundred and fifty-nine inhabitants to the square mile #b'4 ,great ,britain had the average of three hundred and eleven4 #c'4 ,germany had two hundred and thirty-four4 #d'4 ,france had one hundred and eighty-seven4 #e'4 ,in about one-third of the whole area of the ,united ,states1 the average is less than six4 #f'4 ,in certain more thickly settled portions the average is from seven to forty-five4 #g'4 ,in ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 ,michigan1 ,ohio1 and ,indiana1 the average is from forty-five to ninety4 #h'4 ,in a small territory made up of parts of ,massachusetts1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,new ,jersey1 the average is over ninety4 #i'4 ,in the ,united ,states as a whole1 the average is twenty4 ,,ii4 ,from a political point of view1 the immigrants who are arriving at our shores make good citizens1 for ,a4 ,their previous political training has been such as to render them capable of learning how to perform the duties of ,american citizenship1 for #a4 ,of the #ejj1jjj immigrants that arrived in #ahia1 ,germany sent approximately #ajj1jjj4 #b4 ,italy sent #gf1jjj4 #c4 ,austria sent #gh1jjj4 #d4 ,england and ,ireland sent #ej1jjj each4 #e4 ,russia1 exclusive of ,poland1 sent #dg1jjj4 #f4 ,sweden sent #cf1jjj4 #g4 ,poland sent #bg1jjj4 #h4 ,scotland1 ,norway1 and ,denmark sent #ab1jjj each4 #i4 ,switzerland sent #f1jjj4 #aj4 ,the ,netherlands sent #e1jjj4 #aa4 ,france sent #f1jjj4 #ab4 ,belgium sent #c1jjj4 #ac4 ,except in ,russia and ,poland1 the elements of representative government are not wholly unknown to these people1 for a4 ,in most of these countries some form of popular government has either wholly or partially gained a footing4 ,b4 ,the duties of the ,american citizen are not hard to learn1 for #a4 ,republican institutions are not very complicated4 ,c4 ,the political ignorance of the immigrant can be remedied1 for #a4 ,before extending immigrants the franchise1 ,states can insist on requirements that will secure some preliminary training in free political institutions1 since a4 ,the right to vote is entirely a matter of ,state regulation1 for #a'4 ,citizenship1 which is regulated by ,congress1 does not carry with it the franchise4 b4 ,already twenty-two ,states allow no one to vote who has not been in the ,united ,states at least five years4 c4 ,massachusetts and ,connecticut have an educational test4 d4 ,eight ,states insist on a pecuniary qualification4 ,,conclusion4 ,the following points have been proved3-- ,i4 ,the growth of immigration is a desirable thing for this country from an industrial point of view4 ,,ii4 ,the immigrants who arrive at our shores are for the most part good material out of which to make ,american citizens4 ,therefore1 no further check or limit should be applied to immigration4 ,,appendix ,b ,a ,,list ,,of ,,propositions4 #a4 ,the ,united ,states army should be greatly enlarged4 #b4 ,japan was justified in waging war against ,russia4 #c4 ,a formal alliance between the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain for the protection and advancement of their common interests would be expedient4 #d4 ,military tactics should be taught in the public schools4 #e4 ,the ,united ,states navy should be greatly enlarged4 #f4 ,the aggressions of ,england in ,south ,africa are justifiable4 #g4 ,the nations of ,europe should combine to bring about drastic reforms in the ,congo ,free ,state4 #h4 ,ireland should be granted home rule4 #i4 ,japanese control will promote the political and economic interests of ,corea more than would ,russian control4 #aj4 ,armed intervention on the part of any nation to collect private claims against any other nation is not justifiable4 #aa4 ,the annexation of ,canada by treaty with ,great ,britain would be economically advantageous to the ,united ,states4 #ab4 ,the ,united ,states should establish commercial reciprocity with ,canada4 #ac4 ,the ,united ,states should maintain a system of subsidies for the protection of ,american merchant marine4 #ad4 ,congress should have decided in favor of a sea-level canal at ,panama4 #ae4 ,woman suffrage should be adopted by an amendment to the ,constitution4 #af4 ,the practice of relieving financial stringency by temporary deposits of ,united ,states ,treasury funds in selected banks should be discontinued4 #ag4 ,labor unions are detrimental to the best interests of the workingman4 #ah4 ,free trade should be established between the ,united ,states and the ,philippine ,islands4 #ai4 ,state boards of arbitration1 with compulsory powers1 should be appointed to settle disputes between employers and employees4 #bj4 ,the ,united ,states should discontinue the protective tariff policy4 #ba4 ,the ,federal government should own and operate the interstate railroads within its borders4 #bb4 ,railroad pooling should be legalized4 #bc4 ,the tax on the issues of state banks should be repealed4 #bd4 ,the ,united ,states should adopt one-cent postage4 #be4 ,american municipalities should own and operate their street-car systems4 #bf4 ,the ,president of the ,united ,states should be elected for a term of six years and be ineligible for re-election4 #bg4 ,the ,president of the ,united ,states should be elected by popular vote4 #bh4 ,ex-,presidents of the ,united ,states should be ,senators-at-large for life4 #bi4 ,united ,states ,senators should be elected by popular vote4 #cj4 ,the powers of the ,speaker of the ,house of ,representatives should be restricted4 #ca4 ,the ,united ,states should institute a system of responsible cabinet government4 #cb4 ,judges should be elected by direct vote of the people4 #cc4 ,all cities in the ,state of ----1 having at least ten thousand inhabitants should adopt the ,des ,moines plan of government4 #cd4 ,the right of suffrage should be limited by an educational test4 #ce4 ,the ,state of ---- should adopt the initiative and referendum system of government4 #cf4 ,congress should repeal the ,fifteenth ,amendment4 #cg4 ,members of ,state legislatures should be forbidden by law to accept free passes on any railroads4 #ch4 ,corporations engaged in interstate commerce should be required to take out a ,federal license4 #ci4 ,women who pay taxes should be permitted to vote at municipal elections4 #dj4 ,the annexation of ,cuba to the ,united ,states would be for the best interests of ,cuba4 #da4 ,the ,united ,states should grant full citizenship to the people of ,porto ,rico4 #db4 ,the ,united ,states should establish an old age-pension system similar to the one in operation in ,germany4 #dc4 ,political union with ,cuba would be for the advantage of the ,united ,states4 #dd4 ,the ,united ,states should permanently retain the ,philippines4 #de4 ,the ,house of ,representatives should elect its standing committees4 #df4 ,the white citizens of the ,southern ,states are justified in maintaining their political supremacy4 #dg4 ,congress should prohibit corporate contributions to political campaign funds4 #dh4 ,the present powers of courts to grant injunctions should be curtailed4 #di4 ,in all criminal cases three-fourths of a jury should be competent to render a verdict4 #ej4 ,the ,united ,states government is treating the ,indians unjustly4 #ea4 ,capital punishment should be abolished4 #eb4 ,education should be compulsory to the age of sixteen4 #ec4 ,the fully elective system of studies should be introduced into all colleges4 #ed4 ,college students receiving an average daily grade of eighty-five per cent1 in a subject should be excused from final examination in that subject4 #ee4 ,class rushes should be abolished at ---- ,college4 #ef4 ,hazing should be abolished at all colleges4 #eg4 ,freshmen should be debarred from intercollegiate athletic contests4 #eh4 ,athletics1 as conducted at present1 are detrimental to ---- ,college4 #ei4 ,the ,federal government should maintain a college for the education of men for the diplomatic and consular service4 #fj4 ,a large city affords a better location for a college than does the country4 #fa4 ,the honor system should prevail at ---- ,college4 #fb4 ,american universities should admit women on equal terms with men4 #fc4 ,american colleges should admit students only on examination4 #fd4 ,american colleges should confer the degree of ,bachelor of ,arts in three years4 #fe4 ,public schools should not furnish free textbooks4 #ff4 ,secret societies should not exist in public high schools4 #fg4 ,the education of the ,american negro should be industrial rather than liberal4 #fh4 ,for the average student1 the small college is preferable to the large college4 #fi4 ,american colleges should adopt the recommendations of the ,simplified ,spelling ,board4 #gj4 ,for the ,united ,states1 the type of the ,german university is preferable to the type of the ,american university4 #ga4 ,fraternities are undesirable in colleges4 #gb4 ,the ,united ,states ,army canteen should be restored4 #gc4 ,there should be national laws governing marriage and divorce4 #gd4 ,high ,license is preferable to ,prohibition4 #ge4 ,the ,federal government should take action to prevent children under the age of fourteen from working in mines and factories4 #gf4 ,the elimination of private profits offers the best solution of the liquor problem4 #gg4 ,employers are justified in refusing recognition to labor unions4 #gh4 ,the ,united ,states should grant permanent copyright4 #gi4 ,the ,chinese should be excluded from the ,philippines4 #hj4 ,states should prohibit vivisection involving great pain4 #ha4 ,the ,united ,states should establish a parcels post4 #hb4 ,the ,united ,states should establish a postal savings bank4 #hc4 ,the veto power of the ,house of ,lords should be annulled4 #hd4 ,abdul ,hamid was unjustly deposed4 #he4 ,the present laws relating to ,chinese immigration should be amended to include the ,japanese4 #hf4 ,the ,united ,states should admit the ,chinese on equal terms with other immigrants4 #hg4 ,further centralization in the power of the ,federal government is contrary to the best interests of the ,united ,states4 #hh4 ,the present tendency of government conservation of natural resources is contrary to the best interests of the ,united ,states4 #hi4 ,commercial reciprocity between the ,united ,states and ,brazil would benefit the ,united ,states4 #ij4 ,at present the ,united ,states should maintain no navy yard on the ,gulf ,coast4 #ia4 ,the ,united ,states should admit all raw materials free of duty4 #ib4 ,the ,united ,states should admit sugar free of duty4 #ic4 ,the date of the ,presidential inauguration should be changed4 #id4 ,postmasters should be elected by popular vote4 #ie4 ,all cities in the ,united ,states should establish and enforce a curfew law4 #if4 ,the three term system is preferable to the semester system at ---- ,college4 #ig4 ,the products of prison labor should not be allowed to compete in the open market4 #ih4 ,new ,york ,city should establish a dramatic censorship4 #ii4 ,convicts should not be farmed out to private contractors4 #ajj4 ,the ,state of ---- should establish a property qualification for voting4