,,magic ,,shadows ,,magic ,,shadows ,the ,story of the ,origin of ,motion ,pictures by ,,martin ,,quigley1 ,,jr4 ,illustration ,,quigley ,,publishing ,,company ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 #aifj ,copyright1 #aidh-aifj1 by ,martin ,quigley1 ,jr4 ,all rights reserved4 ,no part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission except in the case of brief quotations included in reviews4 ,library of ,congress ,catalog ,card ,number3 #fj-adgig ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america ,,contents ,,foreword #g ,,introduction #i ,i ,,it ,,started ,,with 8,a0 #ac ,,ii ,,friar ,,bacon',s ,,magic #bd ,,iii ,,da ,,vinci',s ,,camera #bi ,,iv ,,porta1 ,,first ,,screen ,,showman #cf ,v ,,kepler ,,and ,,the ,,stars #dc ,,vi ,,kircher',s #ajjth ,,art #dh ,,vii ,,popularizing ,,kircher',s ,,projector #fb ,,viii ,,musschenbroek ,,and ,,motion #gj ,,ix ,,phantasmagoria #ge ,x ,,dr4 ,,paris' ,,toy #hj ,,xi ,,plateau ,,creates ,,motion ,,pictures #he ,,xii ,,the ,,baron',s ,,projector #ih ,,xiii ,,the ,,langenheims ,,of ,,philadelphia #ajf ,,xiv ,,marey ,,and ,,movement #aae ,,xv ,,edison',s ,,peep-,,show #acj ,,xvi ,,first ,,steps #aci ,,xvii ,,world ,,premieres #adi ,,appendix ,i ,,chronology #afc ,,appendix ,,ii ,,bibliography #agg ,,index #ahe ,,illustrations facing page ,,athanasius ,,kircher #i ,,archimedes' ,,burning ,,glasses #cb ,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci #cc ,,camera ,,obscura #dj ,,johannes ,,kepler #da ,,kircher',s ,,giant ,,wheel #dh ,,the ,,story ,,disk #dh ,,the ,,magic ,,lantern #di ,,zahn',s ,,lanterns #fd ,,time and ,,wind ,,projectors #fe ,,joseph ,,plateau #hh ,,plateau',s ,,motion ,,device #hi ,,dancing ,,girl--,,phenakisticope #hi ,,franz ,,uchatius #ajd ,,first ,,action ,,projectors #aje ,,langenheim ,,brothers #aab ,,etienne ,,jules ,,marey #aac ,,muybridge ,,battery ,,camera ,,system #abj ,,marey',s ,,outdoor ,,studio #aba ,,gun ,,camera #aba ,,edison ,,and ,,eastman #acf ,,the ,,kinetoscope ,,parlor #acg ,,reynaud',s ,,theatre ,,optique #adh ,,anschutz',s ,,electrical ,,tachyscope #adi ,,louis ,,lumiere #afj ,,robert ,w4 ,,paul #afj ,,the ,,vitascope #afa ,,foreword ,ask almost anyone about the origins of the motion picture1 and you'll get a glib and automatic answer4 ,it will include a fast1 indefinite reference to ,edison and ,eastman and will move on1 with more-or-less authentic nostalgia1 to ,mack ,sennett1 ,fatty ,arbuckle1 ,d4 ,w4 ,griffith and maybe a few others4 ,with luck1 one or two titles--,the ,great ,train ,robbery1 for example--may creep in4 ,the fact is1 most of us simply do not know much about it4 ,it is good1 therefore1 to take a long look at the people1 the events1 and the discoveries--accidental and otherwise--which combined1 during the years of many centuries1 to produce the motion picture as we know it today4 ,this book gives us the long look1 the authentic perspective4 ,it may tend to slow down our glibness1 to clothe our fancy with fact1 and to deflate any notion that the movies belong exclusively to our own well-publicized #bjth ,century4 ,it is sobering1 but it is necessary4 ,for1 unless we brace ourselves with some knowledge of what has gone before1 we cannot be adequately prepared for what lies ahead4 ,the industry1 as we have known it in the past1 is undergoing great changes4 ,it is difficult to predict exactly what form it will eventually take4 ,one thing is certain1 however--the 8,magic ,shadows0 in one form or another will continue to entertain and instruct the millions in every land for generations to come4 ,,edward ,p4 ,,curtis ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,july #b1 #aifj ,illustration3 ,ars ,magna ,lucis et ,umbrae1 #afga ,,athanasius ,,kircher1 the first person to project pictures4 ,his magic lantern originated the screen art-science in ,rome circa #afde4 ,,introduction ,the art of magic shadows1 which just before the dawn of the twentieth century evolved into the modern motion picture1 was born three centuries ago1 at ,rome4 ,there ,athanasius ,kircher1 a ,german priest1 first showed his invention1 the magic lantern1 to friends1 and enemies1 at the ,collegio ,romano1 where he was a professor of mathematics4 ,the world premiere of the first real 8magic shadow0 performance passed without public notice4 ,in those days there were no press agents or publicists4 ,there were no newspapers4 ,the people did not care what the nobles and scholars were doing in their idle moments2 the intellectuals paid little attention to the people4 ,history has not recorded the day and month in which ,kircher presented his projector1 the fundamental instrument of all screen shows1 then and now4 ,the occasion can be set only approximately--some time in the year #afdd or #afde4 ,the hour of the performance presumably was in the evening1 for the light and shadow pictures had to be shown in darkness1 just as today films must be exhibited in darkened theatres4 ,we may be sure that the score or more of invited guests--,romans and distinguished foreigners--eagerly accepted an opportunity to see what ,kircher was up to4 ,rome had been buzzing with rumors4 ,the energetic little ,jesuit priest who earned for himself the title1 8,doctor of a ,hundred ,arts10 had even been suspected of necromancy and working in league with the devil4 ,after the showing of the magic lantern and its projected pictures some were certain that he practiced the 8black arts40 ,the audience for the first screen performance was as distinguished as any that has since graced a ,hollywood production4 ,other professors of the ,roman ,college were there to note for themselves on which one of his 8hundred arts0 ,kircher had been busy4 ,these men were among the most learned in ,europe and had made the ,jesuit ,university1 established in #aehb1 already an influence in all circles of thought4 ,a selected group of students1 young ,romans of noble birth1 surely were also invited4 ,until the hour of the demonstration1 these stood outside in the large ,piazza di ,collegio ,romano before the main entrance4 ,three centuries later1 from ,june1 #aidd to late #aide1 ,american ,army ,m,ps raced through this same ,piazza on jeeps and motorcycles to their headquarters in ,rome1 just across the square from the entrance to the ,collegio ,romano4 ,just at the appointed hour for ,kircher's show1 a few distinguished monsignori1 in flowing purple were driven to the entrance in their carriages with mounted escort4 ,perhaps1 too1 a hush went through the small group1 assembled in an upper hall1 when a ,prince of the ,church1 such as ,cardinal ,barberini who had summoned ,kircher to ,rome a decade before1 came to see for himself4 ,after all the monsignori and other visitors had been greeted with ceremony and salutation in keeping with their rank1 the candles and lamps were extinguished2 ,kircher slipped behind a curtain or partition where his projector was concealed and the first light and shadow screen show was on4 ,for a moment ,kircher's audience could see nothing4 ,then slowly their eyes became accustomed to the darkness and a faint light appeared on a white surface set up in front of the few rows of seats4 ,as the flames in ,kircher's lantern began to burn more brightly and he adjusted the crude projection system1 the picture of his first glass slide was thrown upon the screen4 ,the young men with keen eyesight were the first to note that the light and shadow on the screen1 like some ghostly figment1 began to take form into a recognizable picture4 ,then the older ecclesiastics saw or thought they saw4 ,the incredulous murmured prayerful ejaculations4 ,the wonder increased as successive pictures were projected4 ,kircher was enough of a showman to use pictures which would entertain and amaze4 ,he included animal drawings1 artistic designs and1 to taunt those who thought he was dabbling in necromancy1 pictures of the devil4 ,prudence was not one of his 8hundred arts40 ,we may be amused now at the disbelief of ,kircher's first audience4 ,but by trying to place ourselves in that hall of the ,roman ,college1 three centuries ago1 it is easy to realize the difficulties4 ,nothing like ,kircher's show had ever been presented before4 ,he had chained light and shadow1 but the suspicion was held by some of the spectators that there was dark magic about it all and that ,kircher had dabbled in the 8black arts40 ,the first audience congratulated ,kircher at the end of the performance1 but some went away wondering1 dubious4 ,years later1 ,kircher wrote in his autobiography1 8,new accusations piled up and my critics said ,i should devote my whole life to developing mathematics40 99 99 99 99 99 ,two and a half centuries later1 the screen art of magic shadow projection came to life in the motion picture4 ,this was quite a different premiere4 ,but ,kircher would have recognized the device as an improvement on and development of his magic lantern4 ,he1 and hundreds who came after him1 had tried to capture the animation of life in light and shadow pictures4 ,full success was not possible until a later date because the necessary materials were not available until near the end of the nineteenth century4 ,the scene of the most significant motion picture premiere was at ,koster ,bial's ,music ,hall1 #cdth ,street1 ,new ,york1 which stood on the site now occupied by the ,r4 ,h4 ,macy department store4 ,the time was ,april #bc1 #ahif4 ,but in contrast to ,kircher's premiere1 though 8,thomas ,a4 ,edison's ,latest ,marvel--the ,vitascope0 had featured billing on the show1 it was not the only entertainment on the program4 ,albert ,bial1 manager1 preceded the showing of the motion pictures with a half-dozen acts of vaudeville4 ,there were the ,russian clown1 eccentric dancer1 athletic and gymnastic comedian1 singers and actors and actresses4 ,but the movies stole that show and1 in little more than a decade1 became staple entertainment in tens of thousands of theatres all over the world4 ,the special top hat and silk tie audience at ,koster ,bial's ,music ,hall that ,spring evening a half-century ago was treated to a selection of short films which ran only a few moments each3 8,sea ,waves01 8,umbrella ,dance01 8,the ,barber ,shop01 8,burlesque ,boxing01 8,monroe ,doctrine01 8,a ,boxing ,bout01 8,venice1 ,showing ,gondolas01 8,kaiser ,wilhelm1 ,reviewing ,his ,troops01 8,skirt ,dance01 8,butterfly ,dance01 8,the ,bar ,room0 and 8,cuba ,libre04 ,thomas ,armat1 the inventor of the projector which had been built by ,edison1 supervised projection of those first screen motion pictures shown on ,broadway4 ,we can well imagine that ,kircher was looking over his shoulder1 delighted that his work started #bej years before had been brought to the triumph of the living moving picture4 ,the great ,edison was in a box at the ,music ,hall that evening and he1 too1 was glad that the ,new ,york audience of first nighters so well received the large screen motion pictures4 ,a few years before1 his ,kinetograph camera and his ,kinetoscope peep-hole viewer had presented motion pictures4 ,but as ,kircher in the #agth century wanted his pictures life-size on the screen1 so did the public of the ,nineties4 99 99 99 99 99 ,kircher and ,edison do not stand alone in the parade of pioneers in the art and science of the screen4 ,the list of builders of the cinema is as cosmopolitan as its appeal3 ,greeks1 ,romans1 ,persians1 ,british1 ,italians1 ,germans1 ,french1 ,belgians1 ,austrians and lastly1 and in some ways most importantly1 ,americans4 ,ancient philosophers1 medieval monks1 scholarly giants of the ,renaissance1 scientists1 necromancers1 modern inventors--all had a role in the #bejj year story of the creation1 out of light and shadow1 of this most popular and most influential expression--the motion picture4 ,great and strange men1 some whose fame derives from activities in other fields1 others hardly recorded in the passing of history1 contributed to what was eventually to become the motion picture4 ,many of the pioneers of the magic shadow art-science realized the entertainment1 educational and scientific potentialities of their discoveries2 others did not1 because they were preoccupied with other affairs and only toyed with the light and shadow devices4 ,the following chapters tell how men learned about vision and light1 and how apparatus to record and project living realities was developed4 ,it is the story of the origin of the motion picture1 from ,adam to ,edison4 ,,it ,,started ,,with 8,a0 ,first magic shadow show--,ancient optical studies--,chinese ,shadow ,plays1 ,japanese and ,english mirrors--,the art-science begins with ,aristotle and ,archimedes1 ,greeks1 and ,alhazen1 an ,arab4 ,from any viewpoint the story of the origin of the motion picture begins with 8,a04 ,the fundamental and instinctive urge to create pictures in living reality goes all the way back to ,adam4 ,aristotle developed the theoretical basis of the science of optics4 ,archimedes made the first systematic use of lenses and mirrors4 ,alhazen1 the ,arab1 pioneered in the study of the human eye1 a prerequisite for developing machines to duplicate requisite functions of the human eye4 ,lights and shadows were made when the night and the day were made3 ,and ,god said3 ,be light made4 ,and light was made4 ,and ,god saw the light that it was good2 and ,he divided the light from the darkness4 ,and ,he called the light ,day1 and the darkness ,night2 and there was evening and morning one day4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and ,god said3 ,let there be lights made in the firmament of heaven4444 ,and ,god made two great lights3 a greater light to rule the day2 and a lesser light to rule the night2 and the stars4 --,book of ,genesis ,the moon playing upon silent waters1 the sun casting deepening shadows in the woods1 a twinkling campfire1 starlight dancing on ruffled waters--all provided the first pageantries of light and shadow4 ,the first eclipse of the sun seen by man was the most thrilling and terrifying light and shadow show of that era1 a premiere never rivalled by ,hollywood's best4 ,from the beginning of the record of human aspiration men had the urge to create representations of life4 ,efforts were made to duplicate in permanent form the pictures reflected in still water1 shadows1 and birds and animals and people4 ,and so1 in a very early day man took up drawing1 a variation of light and shadow portrayal4 ,but the early drawings1 and attempts for centuries thereafter1 did not wholly succeed in their purpose4 ,life of the surrounding world could not be caught in all its wondrous detail no matter how skilled was the artist4 ,the first picture critics pointed out that the drawings were unnatural because no action was shown and life itself was full of motion4 ,for cinema purposes1 one of the earliest examples of 8motion0 still pictures is a representation of a boar trotting along1 for some #aj1jjj1 #bj1jjj or #cj1jjj years1 on a wall of the ,font-de-,faune cave at ,altamira near ,santillana del ,mar in ,northern ,spain4 ,the artist tried to show the boar's headlong pace by equipping the animal with two complete sets of legs4 ,it was recognized a long while before ,walt ,disney that more than one still picture was necessary to portray natural motion4 ,for centuries artists continued to strive for the 8illusion0 of motion without 8moving pictures40 ,depending on the skill of the artist1 the result approached the goal in varying degrees4 ,action was always1 and still is1 a problem to the artist working with a 8still0 medium4 ,a pinnacle of success in this quest was reached in the ,winged ,victory of ,samothrace in which the artist did all in his power to show motion in the medium of cold1 lifeless marble4 ,however1 the potential progress was limited as long as it was necessary to rely upon the skilled hand of the artist to convey motion4 ,more had to be learned about light and shadow and also a great deal about the everlasting wonder of the human eye before living reality could be captured for future representation4 ,the poets may speculate about man's first thoughts on light1 the sun1 moon and stars1 and fire4 ,but man used his eyes for ages before he became interested and considered why and how he could see1 and what light and shadow might be and how they could be usefully harnessed4 ,even in our day of apparent enlightenment1 the underlying explanation of vision and light still eludes our scientists1 so we should be patient about the time it took our ancestors to devise ways of harnessing light and shadow to prepare the brightly lighted way for the ,bing ,crosbys and ,betty ,grables of our day4 ,the study of light and vision1 and the need for better methods and instruments for observing life resulted in time in the invention of the first optical device--the magnifying glass4 ,all telescopes1 microscopes1 spectacles1 cameras1 projectors and other optical instruments have been evolved from the simple lens or magnifying glass4 ,that lens was a special boon to the men and women who through birth1 age or misfortune had poor eyesight4 ,some authorities hold that as long ago as #fjjj ,b4,c4 magnifying glasses were used by the ,chaldeans in the ancient biblical lands4 ,it is known that the ,chaldeans1 who developed an elaborate civilization1 gave first attention to the study of light and all its problems4 ,a few thousand years before the new era the ,babylonians1 famed too as gardeners1 became great astronomers4 ,the heavens1 then and now1 present the greatest natural light and shadow show1 with a continuous run every night since the beginning of time4 ,so it is not surprising that the first study of light and shadow should concern itself with the stars and planets4 ,the ,babylonians1 with but the naked eye1 picked out constellations and identified them4 ,it was a desire to learn more about the stars that resulted in the development of a telescope1 which was a marked advance in the science of light and shadow4 ,in the ruins of ,nineveh1 destroyed in #fjf ,b4,c41 was found a convex lens of quartz and an inscription too fine to be read by the naked eye--proof that those people knew the uses of lenses and treasured fine artistic drawings and writings which could be inscribed only through the use of a magnifying glass4 99 99 99 99 99 ,at an early date the conflict arose between those who wished to use the magic shadows to entertain and instruct and those who wished to use them for purposes of deception4 ,the ,egyptian priests have first claim on the title of light and shadow showmen4 ,some of the fragments of hieroglyphics indicate that they used optical devices to deceive4 ,it is likely that a simple mirror was used to throw images into space4 ,but that would have amazed the people and would have been taken as a sure sign of miraculous power4 ,the oldest media of light and shadow entertainment and deception was developed by another great and scholarly group1 the early ,chinese scientists4 ,these were the ,chinese ,shadow ,plays1 the origin of which is lost in antiquity1 dating back perhaps to #ejjj ,b4,c4 ,silhouette figures shown on a background of smoke and animated as in a puppet show entertained a public thousands of years ago in the ,far ,east4 ,the ,chinese ,shadow ,plays appear to have a close relation to the old-time fireside tricks of twisting the fingers so as to form what appeared to be the shadow of a donkey's head or a representation of a rabbit or of some other animal4 ,despite the troubled history of ,china1 these ,shadow ,plays were never lost and they are still presented in remote parts of ,china and in ,java4 ,dates of the ,chinese contributions to the story of the origin of the cinema and related sciences are uncertain4 ,the ,chinese empire was founded around #bhjj ,b4,c4 and within #ejj years of that time the heavens had been charted by the ,chinese4 ,a hundred years after an hereditary monarchy was established in ,china1 about #bbjj ,b4,c41 the ruling powers executed two astronomers for failing to observe properly an eclipse of the sun4 ,after the ,chinese ,shadow ,plays1 mention should be made of another ,oriental light and shadow invention4 ,this one was developed by the ,japanese4 ,the devices are known as ,japanese ,mirrors4 ,these are famed in legend and history as being endowed with great magical powers4 ,they1 as in the inventions of the ,egyptians1 used an optical illusion to entertain and also to trick4 ,the method of the ,japanese ,mirrors was simple3 ,they were of polished bronze with a design embossed on the surface4 ,when held to the sun1 the reflected light would fall on a wall or other smooth surface1 and the spectators would see the design1 appearing as if through the power of the devil or some propitious deity4 ,if the operator did not allow his mirror to be closely examined by the audience he could certainly be credited with magical powers--the power to bring animals and men1 and any kind of design to life4 ,not a devil or a god2 but in reality only an early showman6 ,and done with mirrors6 ,the so-called ,english ,mirrors1 of a much later date1 worked on a similar principle1 but were even more ingenious4 ,they had greater 8magical0 power4 ,the ,english ,mirrors resembled the ,japanese ,mirrors1 yet on close examination no embossing would be discovered on the surface4 ,even today one might have a difficult time discovering the secret4 ,the picture to be projected was very carefully and lightly etched with acid upon the brass surface of the ,english ,mirrors4 ,the mirror was then polished until the etched pattern could not be detected by eye or touch4 ,but the imperceptible roughness outlining the pattern remained on the mirror and was sufficient to record and reflect the outline of the design in what seemed a magical fashion4 ,after a vague start in ,babylonia1 ,egypt and the ,far ,east1 the study of light and shadow1 like many another art and science1 began in a thorough way in ,greece4 ,aristotle1 great ,greek philosopher1 born about #chd ,b4,c41 made the first important contribution to the history of the light and shadow art-science which can be assigned to an identifiable individual4 ,aristotle's family had been long identified with medicine4 ,his father was court physician to the ,king of ,macedonia and several of his ancestors had similar posts4 ,therefore1 in a sense1 it was natural for him to seek learning4 ,for some years he was a student of the philosopher ,plato at ,athens4 ,he was a more practical man than his teacher1 favoring experimental observation as supplemental to philosophy4 ,universal truth and knowledge were the goals ,aristotle set for himself4 ,also he believed it well to keep in the good graces of the rulers4 ,when ,alexander the ,great was #ac years old1 ,aristotle was appointed his teacher and from that time on had a deep influence on the pupil who1 they tell us1 came to tears because he had no more worlds to conquer4 ,aristotle later headed the ,peripatetic or 8walk about0 school at ,athens1 so named because knowledge was imparted from teacher to student as they strolled about the groves4 ,aristotle wrote authoritatively on almost every subject4 ,the sun1 light1 and vision1 of course1 received the attention of this philosopher whose word on philosophic and scientific matters was accepted by many without question as law for centuries4 ,even today many principles first enunciated by ,aristotle are still generally respected in philosophy4 ,in ,aristotle's book titled ,problems there was described the phenomenon of sunlight passing through a square hole and still casting an image of a round--not square--sun on the wall or floor4 ,this was an astounding discovery6 ,it may strike the reader as strange1 but he may easily convince himself by making a little experiment3 cut a square hole in a piece of dark paper and let the image of the sun fall on a mirror or other smooth surface and you will see that the sun is still round despite the square hole4 ,as a word of caution1 one must be careful to avoid eye strain when viewing the sun and its reflections4 ,several of the principal characters in motion picture pre-history ruined their eyes by studying the sun for too long a period at one time4 ,aristotle's square hole and round sun experiment was a beginning and scientists were starting to learn something important about light and optical phenomena4 ,aristotle also made a valuable contribution to the study of vision4 ,in his book1 ,on ,dreams1 he noted the existence of after-images1 a persistence of vision phenomenon4 ,that faculty contributes vitally to the motion picture effect4 ,a common example is that a whirling firebrand appears to make a complete continuous circle of fire4 ,a strong light or image of any kind will be visible to the eye for a moment after the physical stimulus has been removed4 ,aristotle also was interested in color and in a study in this connection he noted that certain given plants were bleached by the sun4 ,this was the initial scientific observation in the chain which ultimately1 though indirectly1 led to photography4 ,archimedes 7#bhg-bab ,b4,c471 a half-century after ,aristotle1 developed at ,syracuse1 then a ,greek colony on the island of ,sicily1 the first recorded light apparatus1 8,the ,burning ,mirrors or ,lenses40 ,famed as the first great geometrician1 ,archimedes is best known for his principle upon which all ship construction is based--the buoyant force exerted by a liquid is equal to the weight of the displaced liquid4 ,in other words1 a shaped object of metal1 such as a ship1 will float if it displaces a sufficient quantity of water4 ,king ,hiero of ,syracuse1 a relative of ,archimedes1 gave him the problem of determining whether or not a new crown he had received was made of pure gold1 as ordered1 or whether the gold had been mixed with silver4 ,this would have been no task at all if the ,king had not been fond of the crown and wished the information secured without damaging it in any way4 ,as was the custom in those days1 ,archimedes considered the problem one afternoon at the local bath which served the double function of promoting cleanliness and of fostering every kind of discussion4 ,it was the gentlemen's club of the day and place4 ,archimedes liked to bathe with a tub full of water and this particular afternoon he noted that a considerable amount of water was spilled over the sides of the tub as he stepped in4 ,he immediately and correctly concluded that there was a relation between the mass of his body and the weight of the water displaced4 ,then according to tradition he rushed home1 through the streets of ,syracuse1 naked1 in order to test the ,king's crown1 shouting 8,eureka--,i have found it40 ,this talented ,greek was keenly aware of his scientific prowess and was not a man to keep his ideas secret4 ,he promised to lift the world with a lever 7the principle of which he had developed scientifically7 provided someone would furnish him a fulcrum4 ,there were no takers4 ,when ,archimedes was #gc years old and respected throughout the civilized world for his work in mathematics and science1 the ,roman invader ,marcellus lay siege to ,syracuse4 ,at the beginning of the two long years of struggle1 ,archimedes put aside his theoretical work and with the vigor of a youth helped to defend the city1 inventing numerous engines of war for the purpose4 ,in this he was the real pioneer of the scientists of our own day who perfected in wartime the atomic bomb1 radar and other devices4 ,archimedes' most important development in his martial pursuits was the ,great ,burning ,glasses or ,lenses upon which much of his fame has since rested4 ,according to tradition1 the ,great ,burning ,glasses of ,archimedes were used to burn the fleets of ,marcellus1 acting on the same principle used by the modern ,boy ,scout or woodsman in starting a fire with a pocket magnifying glass4 ,the efficacy of ,archimedes' lenses for burning purposes has been argued for centuries4 ,this much is certain3 they did not succeed in their purpose for ,marcellus sacked the city in #bab ,b4,c41 after the walls had been stormed4 ,archimedes was killed but after his death he was honored even by the invader ,marcellus1 who ordered a monument erected over his grave4 ,one explanation is that the ,burning ,glasses of ,archimedes were used in what would now be called psychological warfare4 ,archimedes knew how to construct glasses1 systems that would set small fires at a close range2 the enemy knew this4 ,so what better ruse would there be than to construct a gigantic ,burning ,glass atop the highest building of ,syracuse1 clearly in view of the enemy fleet and let the intelligence report leak out that on such and such a day ,archimedes was going to burn up the whole fleet and raise the siege8 ,one can imagine what the effect was on the sailors and officers of the fleet1 including ,marcellus himself4 ,archimedes' strategy might have prolonged the defense through a great part of the two years in which the city resisted4 ,the main problem1 of course1 and suspicion in the minds of the enemy was--could ,archimedes actually burn the fleet with his mysterious mirrors and lenses8 7,illustration facing page #cb47 ,the possibility of actual use of the ,burning ,glasses to start fires on the ships of an invader was not entirely dismissed by ,athanasius ,kircher who made a special trip to ,syracuse in #afcf to study the problem on the spot4 ,he wrote in the same book in which the magic lantern is described that he had constructed a burning glass or lens which started a fire at a distance of #ab feet and that a friend of his1 ,manfred ,septal1 on ,february #ae1 #afde1 shortly before ,kircher's book was completed1 had started a fire at #ae paces4 ,kircher did not believe burning glasses could be used to start a fire at a great distance as claimed by some scientists and experimenters4 ,he said that ,cardano's story of burning at #a1jjj paces was ridiculous1 as were exaggerated claims of ,porta4 ,but ,kircher did point out that there may be something of truth in the original story of ,archimedes because1 in his opinion1 ships of the attacking force would be anchored just off the walls of the city1 perhaps only #be to #ej feet away4 ,this was done so the full force of the fleet's armament of the day could be thrown against the defenders on the walls and yet the men of the ships would be out of range of hand-to-hand encounters with the ,syracusans4 ,kircher reasoned that a great ,burning ,glass could start a fire in a ship right under the walls of the city if the glass were mounted on top of a nearby building4 ,it is likely that at the most ,archimedes would have been able to start only a small fire on the sail of one of the enemy's ships4 ,archimedes' ,burning ,glasses are the only real ancient optical instruments about which we have a contemporary or nearly contemporary record4 ,these early water-filled glasses were the first projection lenses4 ,archimedes' ,burning ,glasses played an important part in the developments which led to the modern motion picture because1 without lenses for the projection1 films would be nothing but peep-shows1 visible to one person at a time4 ,without lenses our cameras would be very crude instruments4 ,in a true sense the focused mirror or lens burning glass is the foundation of every kind of camera and all projection work4 ,aristotle and ,archimedes and other ,greek scientists1 including ,euclid1 who is credited with being the first to demonstrate that light travels in straight lines1 opened the book of knowledge of the light and shadow art4 ,ptolemy who flourished at ,alexandria around #acj ,a4,d4 was the greatest scientist of his era and his influence was powerful for fifteen centuries4 ,it was he who developed the ,ptolemaic theory which viewed the earth as the center of the universe1 with the sun and other bodies revolving around it4 ,that theory very naturally tended to increase man's idea of his own importance4 ,ptolemy was a geographer and mathematician as well as an astronomer4 ,his great work was called ,almagest by the ,arabs4 ,ptolemy discussed the persistence of vision1 the laws of reflection and made studies of refraction4 ,the poor tools then available and inaccurate understanding of some basic principles prevented in ancient days the discovery of devices capable of capturing the illusion of motion4 ,history played its part1 too4 ,after the stimulus given to all knowledge by the ,greeks1 little interest in the arts and sciences was taken anywhere for a long time4 ,then in the #ith century the scholarship of ,greece was advanced by the ,arabs1 from whom ,europe began to receive it in the #abth century4 ,during the early ,middle ,ages1 the real 8,dark ,ages0 when barbarian hordes overran much of ,europe1 the seat of learning was in the ,near ,east1 in ,arabia and ,persia4 ,today it may be difficult for some to attribute great intellectual advance to a people often associated in the common mind with desert life and the crudities of camel transport4 ,but around the year #hej ,a4,d4 the most elaborate courts of the world1 and keenest scholarship1 were in the ,near ,east4 ,the latest of the ancient pioneers in magic shadows1 the fourth 8,a01 was ,alhazen1 the ,arab4 ,alhazen 7,abu ,ali ,alhasan ,ibn ,alhasan1 ,ibnu-l-,haitam or ,ibn ,al-,haitan7 was the greatest ,arab scientist in the field of optics and vision4 ,born in #ife at ,basra1 ,arabian center of commerce and learning1 near the ,persian ,gulf1 ,alhazen from an early age devoted himself to science of a practical rather than theoretical nature4 ,he was what would be called a civil engineer in our day4 ,at the invitation of the ,king of ,egypt1 ,alhazen undertook the gigantic task of regulating the ,nile4 ,he was indeed a man of courage4 ,even back in those days the floods of that great river were a serious menace to lives and property1 and control was attempted4 ,but it was not until modern times that any successful regulation of the flood waters of the ,nile was effected1 and this was under the skill of ,british engineering2 so ,alhazen should not be blamed for his failure4 ,alhazen went to ,egypt and made preliminary calculations4 ,he saw that the task was impossible with available tools1 men and knowledge1 but to admit failure in those days usually meant losing a life--one's own4 ,absolute rulers did not like to have agreements broken4 ,alhazen feigned madness and escaped4 ,by pretending to lose his head he saved his life4 ,despite his failure with the ,nile1 ,alhazen is regarded as the first great discoverer in optics after the time of ,ptolemy4 ,the ,arabs were enthusiastic followers of ,aristotle and also knew of the work of ,archimedes1 ,ptolemy and other ,greek scholars4 ,alhazen's great work1 ,opticae ,thesaurus ,alhazeni ,arabis1 was first printed in #aegb but manuscript copies of the ,de ,aspectibus or ,perspectiva and the ,de ,crepusculis ,nubium ,ascensionibus had found their way about the late #abth century into all the great libraries of the ,middle ,ages and his influence on all subsequent work in optics was great and widespread4 ,the book is very curious1 covering a multitude of subjects4 ,alhazen studied images1 the various kinds of shadows and even attempted to calculate the size of the earth4 ,he is credited with being the first to explain successfully the apparent increase of heavenly bodies near the horizon--the familiar phenomenon of the great sun at sunset and the huge harvest moon as it comes up in the ,east4 ,light also was extensively considered by ,alhazen and he treated its use1 setting down many rules on reflection and refraction4 ,he recognized the element of time necessary to complete the act of vision2 in other words1 the persistence of vision or the time lag4 ,he gave a description of the lens' magnifying power as he was familiar with various lenses and mirrors4 ,but1 perhaps of most importance1 ,alhazen was the first to note in some detail the workings of the human eye4 ,alhazen discussed how we see but one picture even though we have two eyes1 both functioning at the same time4 ,he is also one of the authorities who made it possible for later scholars to know that the ,greeks and ,phoenicians knew and understood the simpler optical phenomena4 ,it would be expecting too much to hope that ,alhazen's work would be unmixed with error4 ,at his time and for centuries later1 on account of the lack of suitable instruments and knowledge of what was being sought1 the imagination was relied on more than it should have been in an exact science4 ,in early days much of the advance in learning had to be reasoned out and then verified1 if possible1 by experiments4 ,now we reverse the process4 ,our scientists experiment first by observing phenomena under all sorts of conditions and then later try to reason to a satisfactory explanation which1 even with all our learning1 cannot always be found4 ,in fact1 the underlying explanation of many of the commonest things in life escape us4 ,for example1 we do not know a great deal more than the ancients about the ultimate constituents of matter1 the nature of light or how our senses really work4 ,alhazen did valuable work himself but was far more important as the inspiration for study in optics for the greatest scientist of the ,middle ,ages1 the first experimental scientist and one of the greatest ,englishmen of all time1 ,roger ,bacon4 ,,ii ,,friar ,,bacon',s ,,magic ,roger ,bacon1 ,english monk of the #acth ,century1 studies the ancients--and the ,greeks--and inaugurates the scientific study of magic shadows and devices for creating them4 ,roger ,bacon made a great contribution to human knowledge1 especially in scientific matters4 ,yet this great philosopher and scientist was generally regarded as 8,friar ,bacon10 a mad monk who played with magic and dealt with the powers of darkness4 ,this myth persisted even though ,bacon's contemporaries had bestowed upon him the title of 8,doctor ,mirabilis40 ,studies made in the #aith century and the first part of this century have tended to confirm him in his proper high place in history4 ,roger ,bacon was born at ,ilchester in ,somersetshire1 ,england1 about #abad1 the year before the ,magna ,charta was signed4 ,in those days serious education began early4 ,when ,bacon was #ab or #ac he was sent to ,oxford4 ,later on he continued his studies at ,paris4 ,in his youth ,bacon's family gave him the considerable sums he needed for his education4 ,after completing his studies1 ,bacon was a professor at ,oxford and then entered the ,franciscan ,order4 ,as a monk he found the pursuit of learning somewhat more difficult even though the libraries of the religious orders were the best of the period and most of the learned men were ecclesiastics4 ,after having taken a vow of poverty ,bacon had difficulty in obtaining from some of his superiors money to buy pens and pay copyists4 ,certain authorities did not look with complete satisfaction on his experimental science investigations and they liked even less his barbed comments on other philosophers of the day4 ,bacon as a member of the ,franciscan ,order found himself confronted with the rule requiring his superiors' permission to publish any work4 ,however1 ,pope ,clement ,,iv1 a ,frenchman1 had the requirement lifted so far as ,bacon was concerned by personally communicating with him and asking him to publish his studies4 ,when that ,pope was ,cardinal ,guy le ,gros de ,foulques 7or ,foulquois71 the ,papal ,delegate in ,england1 he had been impressed with ,bacon's scholarship4 ,following the ,pope's command1 ,bacon set out to do the job4 ,after some difficulty in obtaining money for pens and copyists1 the three great works1 ,opus ,majus1 ,minus and ,tertium 7#abfg-fh7 were completed in the almost unbelievable time of #ah months4 ,these1 together with his short book1 8,concerning the marvelous power of art and nature and the ineffectiveness of magic0--also known as 8,letter concerning the secret works of art and nature0--are his best known writings4 ,as soon as his first book was completed ,bacon sent it off to the ,pope in care of his friend1 ,john of ,paris4 ,unfortunately1 ,pope ,clement ,,iv died within a year of receiving ,bacon's book and no official papal action was taken in connection with his scientific opinions4 ,bacon continued to teach1 study and experiment at ,oxford where he held for a time the office of ,chancellor4 ,some say he was eventually imprisoned2 the record is not clear4 ,the most interesting part of ,bacon's work1 so far as motion picture prehistory is concerned1 is contained in his letter 8,on the ,power of ,art and ,nature and ,magic40 ,it is in this work that ,bacon speaks of the many wonderful devices he knows about and which would be in service in the future4 ,here we read of self-propelled vehicles1 under-water craft1 flying machines1 gun-powder 7the idea of which probably came from the ,east71 lenses1 microscopes1 telescopes4 ,bacon claimed that he had seen all these wonderful things with the exception of the flying machine4 ,but even this did not leave him at a loss1 for he tells us that he has seen drawings by a man who has it all worked out on paper6 ,in that book of ,bacon there is also the theory of going westward to ,india--the idea that later resulted in the discovery of ,america4 ,the idea1 therefore1 was not original with ,christopher ,columbus4 ,bacon deserves great credit1 for his views at least had a direct influence4 ,his statements were used without credit by ,pierre d',ailly in his ,imago ,mundi1 published in #adhj4 ,we know ,columbus consulted this work1 for he quoted a passage in his letter to ,ferdinand and ,isabella when seeking financial support for the voyage4 ,and it was the very passage of ,bacon1 stolen by d',ailly1 which ,columbus used to drive home his arguments with the ,king and ,queen of ,spain4 ,bacon devoted ten whole years to the study of optics and some of his best work was done in that field4 ,the principal influence on ,bacon in this subject was the work of ,alhazen1 the ,arab4 ,the concentration of rays and the principal focus1 knowledge necessary for fine camera work1 as well as good picture projection1 were familiar to ,bacon4 ,this was an advance over ,euclid1 ,ptolemy and ,alhazen4 ,bacon recognized that light had a measurable speed4 ,up to that time most men thought that the speed of light was infinite4 7,measurements were not made until the #aith century47 ,bacon also studied the optical illusions pertaining to motion and rest1 fundamental for the motion picture4 ,he belonged to the school of vision study that believed we see by something shot out from the objects viewed4 ,this is directly opposed to the idea of ,lucretius and others who held that something was shot out of the eye to make sight possible4 ,there is no evidence that ,bacon actually invented a telescope but he certainly was aware of the principle4 ,he planned a combination of lenses which would bring far things near4 ,roger ,bacon has often been called the inventor of the camera obscura1 or 8dark room10 which is the heart of the system for taking and exhibiting pictures4 7,illustration facing page #dj47 ,however1 the original of the modern box pin-hole camera in its simplest form is only a dark room with a very small hole in one wall1 and was never actually invented4 ,the phenomenon of an image of what was on the outside appearing upside down in a dark room was surely a natural discovery first observed in the remote past4 ,the 8dark room0 can easily be considered as a giant box camera with the spectator inside the box4 ,an inverted image of the scene outside appears on the wall or floor with the light coming through a small circular opening1 as in a 8pin-hole0 camera4 ,record of the first use of the 8dark room0 for entertainment or science has been lost in the dim past4 ,as late as #agbg the ,french ,dictionnaire ,universel suggested1 in desperation1 that ,solomon himself must have invented the room camera4 ,until the #acth century1 the images in the room camera were faint and upside down because no lens system was used4 ,in ancient days and through the ,middle ,ages the camera was a wonderful and terrifying thing4 ,the theatre always was some small darkened room4 ,with a brilliant sun and the necessary small hole and a white wall or floor1 the outside scene would be projected4 ,spectators and students certainly were thrilled and awed4 ,the ,romans learned about the camera from the ,greeks1 who probably had obtained the knowledge from the ,east where1 with brilliant sun in which the best results could be obtained1 it is likely the effects were first noticed4 ,such learned ,arabs as ,alhazen are believed to have had a knowledge of the use of the room camera1 but ,alhazen did not leave any good description of it in his writings4 ,to ,bacon must go the credit for the first description of the camera used for scientific purposes4 ,two ,latin manuscripts1 attributed to him or one of his pupils1 in which the use of the room camera to observe an eclipse is described1 have been found in the ,french ,national ,library4 ,it was pointed out that this method makes it possible for the astronomer to observe the eclipse without endangering his eyesight by staring at the sun4 ,it is certain ,bacon used a mirror-lens device for entertainment and instruction4 ,in his ,perspectiva there appears the following passage3 ,mirrors can be so arranged that1 as often as we wish1 any object1 either in the house or the street1 can be made to appear4 ,anyone looking at the images formed by the mirrors will see something real but when he goes to the place where the object seems to be he will find nothing4 ,for the mirrors are so cleverly arranged in relation to the object that the images appear to be in space1 formed there by the union of the visible rays4 ,and the spectators will run to the place of the apparitions where they think the objects actually are1 but will find nothing but an illusion of the object4 ,bacon's description is not clear3 the effects and not the apparatus are described4 ,the words could apply to a variation of the camera principle but it seems more likely that only a mirror system1 related to the modern periscope1 was used4 ,the device did not achieve projection in the strict sense4 ,bacon's description clearly states that through the use of mirrors objects were made to appear where they were not4 ,in effect1 this reminds us of the illusion of the modern motion picture4 ,there are stories that native people when first seeing motion pictures1 attempt to run up to the screen and greet the pictures4 ,it is only through experience that they learn the characters are not actually alive on the screen4 ,bacon knew that light and shadow instruments were not always used for worthy purposes of entertainment or instruction but were also used to deceive4 ,he vigorously attacked the practices of necromancy--showing the correctness of his position even though in gossip his name has been linked with the 8,black ,art01 as was ,kircher's four centuries later4 8,for there are persons10 ,bacon wrote1 8who by a swift movement of their limbs or a changing of their voice or by fine instruments or darkness or the cooperation of others produce apparitions1 and thus place before mortals marvels which have not the truth of actual existence40 ,bacon added that the world was full of such fakers4 ,it is not surprising that those skilled in the black arts tried to use the strange medium of light and shadow to impose upon the ignorant and unwary4 ,the death of ,roger ,bacon in #abid was the passing of one of the greatest men in the history of light and shadow4 ,with him the art-science had reached a point at which magic shadow entertainment devices could be built4 ,friar ,bacon did much more to prepare the way for devices which were not to be perfected for centuries than merely make a contribution to the knowledge of light1 lenses and mirrors4 ,he blazed the way for all later experimental scientists4 ,up to his time emphasis had been placed on theoretical1 speculative thinking4 ,bacon showed that science must be based on practical experimentation as the foundation for its principles4 ,,iii ,,da ,,vinci',s ,,camera ,italy of the ,renaissance dominates magic shadow development--,leonardo da ,vinci describes in detail the camera obscura--,inventions are by ,alberti1 ,maurolico1 ,cesariano and ,cardano4 ,to the giant of the ,renaissance1 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 must go the credit for being the first to determine and record the principles of the camera obscura1 or 8dark room01 basic instrument of all photography4 ,da ,vinci lived in a wondrous age4 ,michelangelo was painting and sculpturing his unparalleled creations4 ,raphael was at work4 ,the ,italians of the ,renaissance led the world in a new culture4 ,the torch of learning and art once held high in ,greece1 then at ancient ,rome1 later by the ,arabs1 was carried high in ,italy of the late ,middle ,ages4 ,together with the general ,renaissance in ,italy there was a rebirth of interest in optics and especially light and shadow demonstrations and devices4 ,the new activity had come after a second 8dark age0 of nearly two centuries1 from the time of ,roger ,bacon to da ,vinci4 ,after this 8dark age0 the room box-camera was 8rediscovered0 in ,italy4 ,of course1 as noted above1 since the camera had never been invented in the usual sense of the term1 it was not actually 8rediscovered0 either4 ,it is likely that da ,vinci and others received their stimulus in this general subject from ,bacon and perhaps ,alhazen or ,witelo4 ,the renewed interest in scenic beauty in the ,renaissance suggested work with a portable camera1 as it was found to be an excellent aid in painting and drawing the beauties of nature4 ,leone ,battista ,alberti 7#adjd-adgb71 a ,florentine ecclesiastic and artist1 was the first ,italian to make a notable contribution to the magic shadow story4 ,alberti1 like the greater da ,vinci1 had many talents4 ,a native of ,florence1 he grew up in an atmosphere of artistic culture4 ,he was a priest1 poet1 musician1 painter and sculptor1 but most noted as an architect4 ,he wrote ,de ,re ,aedificatoria1 8,concerning architecture or building01 published after his death in #adhe and many other works1 including ,della ,famiglia1 8,the ,family04 ,alberti completed work on the ,pitti ,palace in ,florence but his best design is said to be the ,st4 ,francis ,church at ,rimini4 ,he also designed the new facade of ,st4 ,maria ,novella ,church at ,florence and is believed to be the architect of the unfinished courtyard at the ,palazzo ,venezia which nearly #ejj years later was the office of the late and unlamented ,benito ,mussolini4 ,his painting1 8,la ,visitazione01 is in the ,uffizi gallery4 ,as an ecclesiastic1 ,alberti was ,canon of the ,metropolitan ,church of ,florence in #addg and later was ,abbot of the ,san ,sovino monastery1 ,pisa4 ,but it was as an artist that ,alberti made his contribution to the art and science of light and shadows4 ,he invented the camera lucida1 a machine which aided artists and painters by reflecting images and scenes to be painted or drawn4 ,the device1 a modification of the 8dark room01 could also be used to make it easy to copy a design4 ,in a sense1 the camera lucida was the forerunner of the modern blue-print duplicator4 ,after ,alberti had made his original drawings1 an assistant1 with the aid of the device1 could rapidly copy them and give duplicates to the builders for use on the construction job4 ,vasari's ,lives of ,painters1 ,sculptors and ,architects is the chief source of information about ,alberti4 ,that writer said ,alberti was more anxious for invention than for fame and had more interest in experimenting than in publishing his results4 ,this is an attempt to explain why ,alberti's own words of description of his camera lucida are not preserved4 ,alberti was said to have written on the art of representation1 explaining his 8depictive showings0 which 8spectators found unbelievable04 ,according to ,vasari's description it would appear that ,alberti used a form of the camera obscura or room box-camera but introduced special scenes such as paintings of mountains and the seas and the stars4 ,in this way ,alberti sought to introduce a touch of showmanship into the performances of the room camera which up to this time was used chiefly for observation of eclipses and other scientific purposes4 ,though ,alberti died when ,leonardo da ,vinci was a young man1 it is certain that ,leonardo knew of him1 as they were natives of the same city4 ,perhaps da ,vinci had even attended some of ,alberti's magic shadows exhibitions4 ,leonardo di ,ser ,piero da ,vinci was born near ,florence in #adeb and died near ,amboise1 ,france1 in #aeai4 ,in #aici1 #dbj years after his death1 a great exhibition of the master's works was held at ,milan and parts of it were shown in the next year at the ,museum of ,science and ,industry in ,rockefeller ,center1 ,new ,york4 ,the ,milan exhibit included works in the following fields3 studies and drawings in mathematics1 astronomy1 geology1 geodesy1 cosmography1 map-making1 hydraulics1 botany1 anatomy1 optics 7including proof of ,alhazen's problem of measuring the angle of reflection of light71 acoustics1 mechanics1 and flying2 not to mention sculpture1 painting1 drawing1 sketches1 architecture1 town planning and military arts and sciences4 ,da ,vinci is best known today for his paintings1 such as the renowned 8,last ,supper01 beloved everywhere1 and the 8,mona ,lisa04 ,he was one of the truly universal geniuses4 ,there was little indeed that he could not do4 ,leonardo's study of optics and perspective was reported in his ,treatise on ,painting1 written about #aeae and first published at ,paris in #afea1 but well known prior to that time through manuscript copies4 ,da ,vinci has been a great trial to the students and historians1 for he wrote in his own special form of shorthand which was found to be extremely hard to decipher4 ,da ,vinci experimented with the camera obscura and wrote an accurate scientific description of it1 preparing the way for the men who were to make the machine a practical medium4 ,vasari in his famous ,life of ,leonardo points out that he gave his attention to mirrors and learned how they operated and how images were formed4 ,but more important than this1 he studied the human eye and was the first to explain it accurately1 using the camera as his model1 and in this way he really learned the fundamentals of its functional principles4 ,to this day the camera is explained in simplest terms as a mechanical eye and the human eye is explained as a marvelous1 natural camera4 ,da ,vinci also noted the effects of visible impressions on the eye4 ,roger ,bacon was undoubtedly ,leonardo's master in optics and this is a definite link in the chain of the growing knowledge of light and shadow and of devices which would create illusions for instruction and entertainment4 ,it has been pointed out that ,leonardo and ,roger ,bacon had much in common--both being so far ahead of their own times that they were not understood until centuries later4 ,and both men believed passionately in scientific research and investigation4 ,as an example1 ,leonardo would spend hours1 days or even weeks studying a muscle of an animal appearing in the background of a painting so that it could be drawn perfectly4 ,as a concrete link with ,bacon1 ,leonardo described a mirror camera device which made it possible for people on the inside to see the passerby in the street outside4 ,bacon1 you may recall1 achieved and described a similar effect4 ,within two years after da ,vinci's death two other ,italians1 ,maurolico and ,cesariano1 advanced the magic shadow art-science by writing scientific and experimental discussions of the subject4 ,somewhat later another ,italian1 ,cardano1 made another contribution4 ,francesco ,maurolico 7,maurolycus71 #adid-aege1 a mathematician of ,messina1 and the great astronomer of his day1 wrote ,de ,subtilitate1 about #aebj1 in which ,pliny1 ,albertus ,magnus1 and ,leonardo da ,vinci are mentioned4 ,the material included a mathematical1 rather than experimental1 discussion of light1 mirrors and light theatres4 ,this last subject shows that the use of light and shadow for theatrical purposes was being rapidly advanced4 ,in #aeba1 ,maurolico was said to have finished ,theoremata de lumine et umbra ad perspectivam et radiorum incidentiam facientia1 which was published in #afaa at ,naples and in #afac at ,leyden4 ,this book explained how a compound microscope could be fashioned4 ,men were now learning how to use lenses and how to make better ones so necessary for satisfactory projection of images4 ,illustration3 ,ars ,magna ,lucis et ,umbrae1 #afdf ,,burning ,,glasses of ,archimedes were ancient optical devices4 ,they were used in the defense of ,syracuse in #bab ,b4 ,c4 ,some type of glass or lens is required in every camera or projector4 ,proposition #bj of the book was entitled 8,an object's shadow can be converted and projected40 ,the author pointed out that if an object between a light and an opening is moved one way its shadow appears to move the other4 ,he then went on to explain the reasons for ,aristotle's square hole and round sun4 ,he also showed accurately the relation of images and objects which was fundamental for understanding how to focus lenses and mirrors4 ,illustration3 ,self portrait4 ,royal ,palace1 ,turin ,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci1 famed ,renaissance painter and sculptor1 explained how to use the camera and described its relationship to the human eye4 ,later astronomers credit ,maurolico with having described the application of the camera obscura method to an observation of eclipses 7but this was done for the first recorded time by ,bacon or his contemporaries74 ,maurolico knew the works of ,bacon and ,john ,peckham1 another ,english ,franciscan monk of the #acth century1 and studied both carefully4 ,in #aece he wrote ,cosmographia and in later life studied the rays of light that make the phenomenon of the images appearing in a camera obscura1 or any camera1 possible without mentioning the apparatus or device or describing it4 ,being a mathematician primarily he was interested in that side of the problem and was not a practical demonstrator or showman4 ,cesare ,cesariano1 an architect1 painter and writer on art1 made a reference to a light and shadow device which curiously has never been adequately explained4 ,cesariano was born in ,milan in #adhc and died there on ,march #cj1 #aedc4 ,in #aebh he became architect to ,carlo ,v and in #aecc architect to the city of ,milan4 ,in #aeba he designed the beautiful cathedral of ,como4 ,while at ,como1 ,cesariano prepared a translation and commentary on the ,architectura of ,vitruvius1 architect to ,emperor ,augustus1 whose classic on the subject was rediscovered in the #aeth century4 ,vitruvius' book included a chapter on 8,acoustic ,properties of a ,theatre0--a good subject for study even today4 ,cesariano's edition was published at ,como in #aeba with a note saying that after the sudden departure of the translator and commentator from ,como the work was finished by ,bruono ,mariro and ,benedetto ,giovio4 ,it was considered a marvelous work1 to be in the vernacular and not in ,latin4 ,at this period people wanted to have books in their own language and not in ,latin4 ,while commenting on the word1 spectaculum1 translated as a 8sighting tube01 ,cesariano described how a ,benedictine monk and architect1 ,don ,papnutio or ,panuce1 made a little sighting tube and fitted it into a small hole made for the purpose in a door4 ,it was so arranged that no light could enter the room except through the small tube4 ,the result was that outside objects were seen1 with their own colors1 in what really was a natural camera system4 ,of course1 the images were upside down1 as in any camera1 without a special lens arrangement1 but this fact was not noted by ,cesariano4 ,the whole matter is perplexing4 ,what is described is a 8dark room0 camera which1 as has been observed1 was never actually invented or discovered and was known for centuries4 ,this ,benedictine monk and architect may have made some refinements by carefully fitting the small opening to admit the light but that is all4 ,at about this time1 or a little earlier1 the principles of the camera were set down by ,leonardo da ,vinci4 ,the writer and other researchers have not been able to discover any trace of ,benedettano ,don ,papnutio or ,panuce4 ,he certainly did not write any books or his name would be known to history and it would be possible to find more information about him and his work4 ,there is no record of him in the ,benedictine bibliography4 ,guillaume ,libri1 ,italian writer1 who worked in ,paris in the #aith century and1 incidentally1 was charged with stealing da ,vinci's manuscripts1 said1 8,i have not so far been able to ascertain who ,don ,panuce was1 or when he lived40 ,libri asserted that at any rate ,leonardo's observation of the camera obscura must have been made before ,cesariano saw or heard about this monk4 ,however1 ,cesariano seems to have the record for the first published account of how to make a workable camera obscura4 ,girolamo or ,hieronimo ,cardano 7#aeja-aegf7 was an ,italian physician and mathematician who has been described by ,cajori1 the mathematical historian1 as 8a singular mixture of genius1 folly1 self-conceit and mysticism40 ,he lectured in medicine at the ,universities of ,milan1 ,paris and ,bologna4 ,in #aega1 after having been1 according to some1 jailed for debt the year before1 he was pensioned by the ,pope and went to ,rome to continue special work in medicine4 ,cardano's contribution to motion picture pre-history was made in his ,de ,subtilitate1 published at ,nuremberg in #aeej4 ,he showed how a concave mirror could be used to produce quite a wonderful show3--8,if you wish to see what is happening on the street1 put a small round glass at the window when the sun is bright and after the window has been shut one can see dim images on the opposite wall40 ,he went on to explain how the images could be doubled1 then quadrupled and how other strange appearances of things and one's self could be devised with a concave mirror4 ,he remarked that the images appeared upside down4 ,this1 of course1 is another description of the camera obscura1 with a few additional points for recreational and instructional purposes4 ,it will be noted that ,cardano's description is very like those of ,bacon1 ,leonardo and ,cesariano4 ,now da ,vinci's camera1 the original 8dark room0 camera and progenitor of the modern pin-hole box camera1 was ready for showmen to turn it to successful uses4 ,just after the middle of the #afth century1 a young ,neapolitan was prepared to spread the knowledge of the sporting use of the device throughout the world4 ,,iv ,,porta1 ,,first ,,screen ,,showman ,porta1 a ,neapolitan1 blends fancy and showmanship for magic shadow entertainments in the #afth century--,barbaro and ,benedetti put a lens in the 8pin-hole0 camera or camera obscura4 ,the first contact of the new dramatic art1 then being developed in ,europe and especially in ,england1 with the magic shadow medium was made by a remarkable ,neapolitan1 ,giovanni ,battista della ,porta4 ,porta1 a boy wonder1 who would have felt at home in the modern ,hollywood1 put the room camera to theatrical uses4 ,in a way ,porta was both the last of the necromancers1 who used lens and mirror devices to deceive1 and the first legitimate screen writer and producer of light and shadow plays with true entertainment values4 ,porta was born in ,naples about the year #aech4 ,he and his brother1 ,vincenzo1 were educated by their uncle ,adriano ,spatafore1 a learned man4 ,the uncle had considerable wealth1 which enabled young ,porta to travel extensively and have the best available instructors4 ,from boyhood ,porta's chief interests were the stage and magic4 ,at an early age he started writing for the theatre and his comedies are rated with the best produced in ,italy in the #afth century4 ,but even before he began his professional writing for the stage1 he had developed an interest in magic and anything approaching the magical4 ,this avocation was developed during the rest of his life4 ,porta was very fond of secrets and secret societies1 founding the ,academy of ,secrets at ,naples4 ,he was also a member of the ,roman ,academy of the ,lynxes1 scientific society founded in #afjc--named for its trademark4 ,even magic inks for secret writing were an attraction to him4 ,for years it was generally believed that ,porta invented the camera obscura but1 as we have seen1 it was known long before he was born4 ,at the time of the discovery of photography ,porta's title to the invention of the camera was discussed and it was definitely established that while he made some refinements and1 of course1 devised some special uses1 he had nothing to do with its invention4 ,when about #ae1 ,porta began the investigations which led to the writing of ,magia ,naturalis1 sive de ,miraculis ,rerum ,naturalium1 8,natural ,magic1 or the wonders of natural things40 ,the material was published five years later1 at ,naples1 in four 8books01 or large chapters4 ,through the years he increased his notes on the subject and in #aehi the work was printed in twenty chapters4 ,porta's ,natural ,magic was a popular book1 a best-seller of the day4 ,it was first translated into ,english and published in ,london in #afeh4 ,it was also translated into many other languages4 ,natural ,magic contains a wide variety of subjects1 including developments in the light and shadow art-science4 ,porta published the first detailed explanation of the construction and use of the camera obscura in the fourth 8book04 8,a system by which you can see1 in their own colors1 in the darkness objects outdoors lighted by the sun10 was ,porta's title for the section4 ,he continued3 ,if anyone wishes to see this effect1 all the windows should be closed1 and it would be helpful if the cracks were sealed so that no light may enter to ruin the show4 ,then in one window make a small opening in the form of a cone with the sun at the base and facing the room4 ,whiten the walls of the room or cover them with white linen or paper4 ,in this way you will see all things outside lighted by the sun1 as those walking in the streets1 as if their feet were upwards1 the right and left of the objects will be reversed and all things will seem interchanged4 ,and the further the screen is from the opening1 proportionately the larger the objects will appear2 the closer the paper screen or tablet1 is drawn to the hole1 the smaller the objects will appear4 ,porta also had an explanation of the persistence of vision1 so far as it was then understood4 ,as an example1 he mentioned that after walking in the bright sun it is difficult to discern objects in the darkness1 until our eyes become accustomed to the change--and then we can see clearly in the dim light4 ,to see the natural colors1 ,porta proposed the use of a concave mirror as the screen for the camera images4 ,he then discussed phenomena resulting from the principal focus of the mirror4 ,he tried to use the parallel to show how we see things rightside up instead of upside down4 ,but his knowledge was not sufficient for that purpose1 for he held that the seat of vision was at the center of the eye1 as the focus of a concave mirror or lens system4 ,in this he was not correct1 according to modern experiments1 but at least it was a plausible theory4 ,as a third point in his description of uses of the natural camera ,porta said1 8,anyone not knowing how to draw can outline the form of any object through the means of a stylus40 ,here was ,alberti's camera lucida1 or the camera adopted for the use of painters and designers4 ,porta instructed his readers to learn the colors of the object and then when it was thrown on the screen it would be easy to trace and paint in natural colors4 ,he pointed out another interesting and important fact--a candle or lamp could be used as the light source instead of the sun4 ,porta concluded his account of #aeeh with an assertion that the system could be used to deceive and to do tricks through the aid of other devices4 ,his last words on the subject were confusing3 8,those who have attempted these experiments have produced nothing but trifles1 and ,i do not think it has been invented by anyone else up to now40 ,earlier in his account he mentioned that he was now revealing what he thought should be kept a secret4 ,roger ,bacon1 ,alberti and ,leonardo da ,vinci and others were figuratively watching ,porta when he wrote those lines and made those experiments4 ,even the same words about seeing people on the streets outside go back to ,bacon1 at least2 and the use of the camera for drawing to ,alberti and ,leonardo4 ,it is not clear whether or not ,porta actually wished his readers to believe that he had invented the camera obscura which he described or that he had merely found some interesting applications4 ,perhaps he wanted the whole matter considered a secret4 ,but though ,porta borrowed from the ancients without giving them credit1 he deserves praise for publishing descriptions1 following tests which he himself must have made4 ,as in all sciences1 the prehistory of the motion picture had experimenters and popularizes--and not infrequently the two functions were separated by a considerable period4 ,the developments claimed by ,porta in the second edition of ,natural ,magic published in #aehi had been described previously by others4 ,once again he was a copier and popularizer rather than an inventor and discoverer4 ,and that seems proper for a man who was by profession a playwright with a hobby interest in secret things1 especially those relating to natural phenomena4 ,during the three decades prior to #aehi1 important developments were made in the science of optics4 ,both ,barbaro and ,benedetti described camera obscura systems fitted with lenses to improve the images1 and ,e4 ,danti1 an editor and translator1 explained in #aegc how an upright1 instead of an upside down1 image could be shown through the use of a lens-mirror system4 ,monsignor ,daniello ,barbaro published at ,venice1 in #aefh1 ,la ,pratica della ,perspettiva1 8,the ,practice of ,perspective01 a book on optics4 ,he describes the instrument designed by ,alberti1 the camera lucida1 and gives an illustration of it4 ,as in the case of ,benedetti1 ,barbaro's chief title to memory is that he introduced the projection lens to the natural camera1 thereby enlarging its scope4 ,without any lenses even a modern camera would give only inferior results and motion pictures would not be practical4 ,it is also said ,barbaro introduced the diaphragm1 which is very important as a means of controlling the light in the camera4 ,giovanni ,battista ,benedetti1 a patrician of ,venice1 #aecj-ij1 published at ,turin a book called ,diversarum ,speculationum ,mathematicarum et ,physicarum ,liber1 8,a ,book of ,various ,mathematical and ,physical ,speculations01 in which was included the first complete and clear description of the camera obscura equipped with a lens4 ,the date of the volume was #aehe1 four years before ,porta published his revised edition4 ,benedetti used a double convex lens4 ,his first knowledge of optics came from a study of ,archimedes1 whom he admired greatly4 ,but his learning was not confined to optics4 ,he influenced the great ,descartes in geostatics1 studying the laws of inertia and making the contribution of the path taken by a body going off from a revolving circle1 i4e41 tangent4 ,in #aeec he reported that bodies in a vacuum fall with the same velocity4 ,benedetti's description of the camera obscura included details on how to make the images appear upright4 ,the material is contained in a printed letter to ,pierro de ,arzonis4 ,first ,benedetti discusses light and the fact that a greater light overshadows a smaller1 8just as by day the stars cannot be seen40 ,he then pointed out that if the light were controlled in a camera the outside images could be seen1 but if the rays of the sun were allowed to enter 7as by making the opening hole too large7 then the images would 8more or less vanish according to the strength or weakness of the solar rays40 ,benedetti continued3 ,i do not wish to keep any remarkable effect of this system a secret from you 444 the round opening the size of one small mirror may be filled in with one of those spectacles which are made for old people 7but not the kind for those of short sight71 but one whose both surfaces are convex1 not concave4 ,then set up a white sheet of paper 7as the screen71 so far back from the opening that the objects on the outside may appear on it4 ,and if indeed these outside objects are illuminated by the sun they will be seen so clearly and distinctly that nothing will seem to be more beautiful or more delightful4 ,the only objection is that the objects will appear inverted4 ,but if we wish to see those objects upright1 this can be done best by interposing another plane mirror4 ,in the revised and expanded edition of his ,natural ,magic1 ,porta gave a more complete description of the uses of the camera4 ,part of the text was identical with the earlier accounts2 part was new4 ,illustration3 ,ars ,magna ,lucis et ,umbrae1 #afdf ,,camera ,,obscura1 the natural room camera1 was accidentally discovered in antiquity1 probably in the ,far ,east4 ,here is shown an improved version by ,giovanni ,battista della ,porta1 #afth ,century ,neopolitan writer1 scientist and showman4 ,a translucent sheet was the screen4 ,the images were upside down and indistinct as no lenses were used4 ,artists and entertainers found the apparatus of value4 ,porta had learned how to make his opening in the single window better by this time--8make the opening a palm's size in width and breadth and glue over this a sheet of lead or bronze which has in the middle an opening about the size of a finger40 ,he next pointed out that the outside objects can be seen clearer and sharper if a crystalline lens is put in the opening of the camera as suggested by ,barbaro and ,benedetti4 ,porta also mentioned that the insertion of another mirror in the system would make the images appear upright instead of upside down4 ,illustration3 ,wissenschaftliche ,abhandlungen1 #ahgh ,,johannes ,,kepler developed the scientific principles of the camera and its use in astronomy4 ,but ,porta showed himself a real showman by his final word--describing how hunting1 battles and other illusions may be made to appear in a room4 ,here artificial objects and painted scenes were substituted for the natural outdoors as the pictures for the room camera in a method originally suggested by ,alberti4 ,porta said1 8,nothing can be more pleasing for important people1 dilettants and connoisseurs to behold40--,an early premiere audience of invited guests6 ,porta recommended the use of miniature models of animals and natural scenes1 the first stage sets for 8motion pictures10 with puppet-like characters4 ,he wrote1 8,those present in the show-room will behold the trees1 animals1 hunters and other objects without knowing whether they are true or only illusions40 ,porta revealed that he had put on shows of this kind many times for his friends and the illusions of reality were so good that the delighted audience could scarcely be told how the effects were achieved4 ,he also told how the audience could be terrified4 ,porta concluded this account with a description of how to use the camera in order to observe an eclipse1 something which ,bacon or one of his contemporaries had already worked out4 ,before good instruments were developed1 the room camera was an excellent device to save the astronomer's eyesight and still give him a good view of an eclipse4 ,the giant #bjj-;inch telescope at ,palomar in ,california is closely related to the original use of the camera for astronomical work4 ,there does not seem to be any evidence that ,porta developed a portable camera1 the direct ancestor of the modern photographic camera4 ,he also did not appear to have much success with his lenses1 as he found the concave mirrors as good as or better than a camera obscura with a lens4 ,the general subject of the chapter which included the camera was 8,herein ,are ,propounded ,burning ,glasses0 8and the ,wonderful ,sights to be ,seen by ,them40 7,recall ,archimedes and his ,burning ,glasses47 ,let ,porta tell it3 8,what could be seen more wonderful1 than that by reciprocal strokes of reflexion1 images should appear outwardly hanging in the air and yet neither the visible object nor the glass seen8 that they may seem not to be repercussions of the glasses1 but spirits of vain phantasms40 ,in a book on refraction1 published in #aeic1 the eye and the camera obscura were compared by ,porta4 ,he also covered refraction1 vision1 the rainbow1 prismatic colors 7all subjects treated by the early experimenters in optics74 ,porta had a great1 though mixed1 influence4 ,even in his own mind he did not seem able to decide whether the magic shadows should be used to deceive the public as effects of secret powers or whether they should be used for genuine entertainment and instruction4 ,after ,porta1 the 8dark chamber0 was developed for the use of painters and artists in ,england and on the continent4 ,v ,,kepler ,,and ,,the ,,stars ,kepler1 ,german astronomer1 develops the scientific principles of the camera obscura and applies magic shadows to the stars of the heavens--,scheiner and ,d',aguilon improve image devices4 ,johannes ,kepler1 the great astronomer1 advanced the art-science of magic shadows by developing the theory of the projection of images as well as the scientific use of multiple lenses and the camera obscura or 8dark chamber04 ,da ,vinci told how the camera could be used2 ,porta tried it out for entertainment on a considerable scale but there still was need for penetrating attention from a scientist4 ,that ,kepler supplied4 ,kepler was a precocious child though he suffered from poor health4 ,he had no special interest or inclination towards astronomy until in #aeid1 at the age of #bc1 he found himself required to teach a class in that subject4 ,soon he became an expert and before his death announced the ,kepler laws explaining the planetary system4 ,in #afjj ,kepler became assistant to ,tycho ,brahe 7#aedf-afja71 the greatest practical astronomer to that date but one who rejected the ,copernican theory that the earth and planets revolve around the sun1 a theory which was firmly proved by ,kepler4 ,brahe lost the tip of his nose in a duel1 so he wore a gold one1 carrying with him cement with which to stick on the tip whenever it fell off4 ,a few years after becoming astronomer to the ,emperor1 ,kepler published1 in #afjd1 ,ad ,vitellionem ,paralipomena--8,supplement to ,witelo02 ,witelo1 a ,pole called ,thuringopolonus1 wrote a treatise on optics about #abgj4 ,he was a contemporary of ,roger ,bacon4 ,kepler used da ,vinci's parallel of the eye and the room camera and set the latter's principles on a firm scientific basis4 ,kepler wrote1 8,this art1 according to my knowledge1 was first handed down by ,giovanni ,battista ,porta and was one of the chief parts of his ,natural ,magic40 7,but1 as the reader recalls1 ,porta was not the first to know about the camera obscura and was not its inventor but only a popularizer47 8,but content with a practical experience10 ,kepler continued1 8,porta did not add a scientific demonstration4 ,yet only by the use of this device can astronomers study the image of the solar eclipse40 ,kepler then described the camera obscura or 8dark chamber10 adding an interesting observation4 ,he proposed that the spectator should keep out of the daylight for fifteen minutes or a half hour before he planned to use the camera so that he could get his eyes accustomed to the darkness in order to observe the images more clearly4 ,kepler then instructed that the objects to be represented should be placed in bright light1 either of the sun or lamps4 ,he also noted that the objects were reversed1 and remarked that the images appeared in the colors of the objects4 ,kepler also explained that a diaphragm was needed to control the amount of light admitted to the camera1 and that best results were obtained when the sun was near the horizon4 ,a detailed and rather technical explanation of how the camera system works was given by ,kepler4 ,towards the end of the description he wrote an important instruction3 8,all the walls of the camera except the one used as the screen for the images should be black40 ,this was necessary to prevent reflection and dulling of the brilliance of the images on the white wall or screen4 ,everyone knows how the insides of a modern camera are black for the very same purpose4 ,kepler also noted that the 8camera0 must be tightly sealed4 ,he was the first to refer to the device under the simple name of 8camera0 which in time was adopted universally4 ,kepler also was the first to give a sound theory of vision4 7,recall the shot-from-eye or shot-from-object schools of the ancients47 ,kepler stated1 8,seeing amounts to feeling the stimulus of the retina which is painted with colored rays of the visible world4 ,the picture must then be transmitted to the brain by a mental current and delivered at the seat of the visual faculty40 ,that is a rather good definition even by modern standards4 ,kepler1 however1 was not #ajj per cent correct4 ,he held that light had an infinite velocity4 ,to ,kepler goes the credit for being the first correctly to explain after-images1 a knowledge of which is so vital to understanding how the illusion of motion is created4 ,kepler started to use a telescope about #afji and through its use he was able to develop improved ideas for the room camera by the time he published his ,dioptrice1 8,concerning ,lenses10 a foundation of modern optics1 in #afaa4 ,in that work the basis was first established for what was later to be long-range or 8telescope0 photography which makes possible many important effects in the modern motion picture4 ,the telescope1 the most highly developed lens system and the reverse of a projection arrangement1 was invented in ,holland in the early part of the #agth century4 ,galileo1 who with ,kepler did much to popularize the telescope1 admitted that he had seen one made by a ,dutchman before he fashioned his own4 ,the name 8telescope0 was coined by ,damiscian of the ,italian scientific 8,academy of the ,lynxes10 to which ,porta also had belonged4 ,the invention of the telescope is commonly credited to 8the spectacle maker of ,middleburgh10 usually identified as ,hans ,lippershey4 ,the compound microscope1 effects of which had been indicated by ,roger ,bacon1 evidently also was invented a few years prior to the telescope--by ,zachary ,janssen1 in ,holland4 ,but it was first described in ,italy4 ,early telescopes generally followed the model developed by ,galileo1 while by the middle of the #agth century the superiority of ,kepler's method was recognized and larger and more powerful telescopes were possible4 ,in recent times the telescope has reverted to a mirror--or ,burning ,glass--reflecting system instead of the standard style refracting telescope4 ,to a contemporary of ,kepler goes the acclaim for being the first to use the camera obscura apart from a room2 in other words1 in a portable form4 ,thus was the first portable camera developed more than two hundred years before photography was invented4 ,the man was ,scheiner1 another astronomer4 ,christopher ,scheiner1 a ,german ,jesuit1 born about #aege in ,swabia1 did much work in astronomy and perfected various ingenious optical instruments4 ,some say he was the first to use the camera projection device for throwing the sun's image on a screen in order to study its details4 ,this replaced a system which used colored glasses4 ,kepler1 prior to this1 suggested the method but it is generally acknowledged that ,scheiner made the first application4 ,in #afaj ,scheiner invented his ,pantograph or optical copying instrument4 ,in ,march1 #afaa1 he observed sun spots4 ,his superiors were afraid that he and they would be exposed to ridicule if he were to publish such a discovery under his own name--it was so opposed to the contemporary scientific as well as traditional scientific belief4 ,and so his findings were published in #afab by a friend1 under an assumed name4 ,scheiner was a believer in the need for accuracy in experiments to form a firm basis for future development of theory4 ,he studied the eye and believed that the retina was the seat of vision4 ,by the year #afaf he had so attracted attention of scientists that the ,archduke ,maximilian invited him to ,innsbruck4 ,scheiner taught mathematics and ,hebrew and continued his work in optics4 ,he was the author of ,rosa ,ursina1--#afbf-cj1 the standard work on the sun for generations4 ,in #afbc he was a professor of mathematics at the ,roman ,college1 where ,kircher fell under his personal influence4 ,the last years of ,scheiner's life were spent at ,neisse in ,silesia1 where he died in #afej4 ,scheiner was influenced by ,franois d',aguilon1 the first of several ,jesuits who made an important contribution to what was to be the modern motion picture4 ,d',aguilon advanced the knowledge of optics throughout ,europe4 ,d',aguilon was born in ,brussels in #aeff and after entering the ,jesuits in #aehf and being educated he became a professor of philosophy at the famous college in ,douai1 ,france4 ,later he was head of the ,college of ,antwerp4 ,d',aguilon did not confine his interests to philosophy and speculative knowledge alone but was very much interested in certain sciences1 notably optics4 ,moreover1 he was a practicing architect and probably designed the ,jesuit church at ,antwerp4 ,his work on optics1 published at ,antwerp in #afac1 was famous4 ,in it is found for the first time the expression 8stereographic projection10 which has survived to the present4 ,this was known from the time of ,hipparchus but had not received a permanent name until it was given by d',aguilon1 to whom must go part of the credit for the name of all devices with 8stereo0 somewhere in the title4 ,d',aguilon explored at length the subject of after-images4 ,he correctly pointed out that the image physically disappears when the cause is removed 7as a camera no longer 8sees0 after the shutter is closed7 but there remains something impressed on the organ of sight1 a certain effect on the sense of vision4 ,d',aguilon was revising his book on optics when he died1 in #afag4 ,one edition was published in ,antwerp in #afhe with the title ,opticorum ,libri ,sex4 ,perhaps he was on the eve of the great discovery which was to be made in a few years by one of his successors4 ,however1 to him goes the credit for the name which was attached for centuries to all kinds of shadow-plays1 and is still known today--,stereoscopic4 ,by the first quarter of the #agth century the camera was widely used for the observation of the greatest light and shadow show--the universe with sun1 moon and stars4 ,experiments also had been made1 by ,porta and others1 in the entertainment possibilities of the 8dark chamber40 ,the stage was ready for the man who would bring about projection1 as we know it1 with the magic lantern4 ,a long step would then be taken towards realizing man's instinctive ambition to capture and recreate life for entertainment and instructive purposes4 ,,vi ,,kircher',s #ajjth ,,art ,kircher's magic lantern projects pictures and the art of screen presentation is born--,first screen picture show in ,rome1 #afdf--,kircher's book1 ,ars ,magna ,lucis et ,umbrae1 tells the world how4 ,in the second quarter of the #agth ,century the stage was set for the birth of the magic lantern1 progenitor of all cinematographic projectors4 ,the chief actor was a ,german1 a fellow countryman of ,kepler and of many other serious scientists in the light and shadow field1 but it was in ,italy1 native land of many arts and showmen1 of ,leonardo da ,vinci and of ,porta1 that he worked4 ,the man was ,athanasius ,kircher4 ,the age in which ,kircher worked was a difficult period4 ,the ,thirty ,years ,war ravaged ,europe from #afah to #afdh and the people suffered more than at any period down to our own4 ,europe politically was in chaos as after ,world ,wars ,i and ,,ii4 ,only in literature and science were there signs of hope and promise4 ,the eyes of many thoughtful ,europeans turned away from the ,old ,world to the new lands across the sea4 ,illustration3 ,ars ,magna ,lucis et ,umbrae1 #afdf-afga ,,picture ,,wheels invented by ,kircher4 ,above1 rotating giant wheel caused one picture to succeed another4 ,below1 story telling disk4 ,kircher was born five years before the first permanent ,english settlement in the ,new ,world4 ,but let him tell us in the words of his ,latin autobiography1 parts of which1 it is believed1 are here translated into ,english for the first time3 8,at the third hour after midnight on the second of ,may in the year #afjb1 ,i was brought into the common air of disaster at ,geysa1 a town which is a three hours' journey from ,fulda40 7,not far from the modern ,frankfurt-on-,main1 ,germany47 8,when ,i was six days old ,i was dedicated to ,athanasius by my parents1 ,john ,kircher and ,anna ,gansekin1 ,catholics and servants of ,god and workers of good deeds1 because ,i was born on that ,saint's ,feast ,day40 ,illustration3 ,ars ,magna ,lucis et ,umbrae1 #afga ,,magic ,,lantern1 ,kircher's projector1 the original stereopticon4 ,the screen images were crude silhouettes but the projector included the essential elements4 ,kircher thus described his father1 mother and the family3 8,john ,kircher was a very great scholar and a doctor of philosophy4 ,when the report of his learning and wisdom came to the ,prince10 7probably ,rudolph71 8he was summoned and made a member of the council at ,fulda4 ,later he was put in charge of the fortress of ,haselstein because he had been diligent in destroying the printing machines of the heretics4 ,he married a maiden of ,fulda1 ,anna1 daughter of an honest citizen named ,gansekin4 ,nine children1 six boys and three girls1 were born to them4 ,all the boys entered one of the several religious orders4 ,of all these ,i was the youngest and smallest40 ,kircher's father was a man of influence and learning1 though evidently not of noble birth4 ,he had studied philosophy and theology but was not a religious1 though he did teach for a time in a ,benedictine monastery4 ,very likely he was a stern parent4 ,the mother1 it would appear1 was the daughter of a merchant or store-keeper and certainly was not learned like her husband4 ,but no doubt she was more liberal and understanding4 ,kircher's course of studies is interesting3 8,after the age of childhood1 around the tenth year1 ,i was placed in the elementary studies1 at first at ,music2 then ,i was introduced to the elements of the ,latin language40 ,at that time ,latin was still the universal language of scholarship4 ,it is likely that ,kircher spoke ,latin much more than any other language4 ,all his writing was in ,latin1 though in time he became a talented linguist4 ,kircher's father sent him to the ,jesuit college at ,fulda1 because he wanted his youngest son to learn ,greek in addition to ,latin and in time to become a universal scholar4 ,kircher's teacher at ,fulda was ,john ,altink1 ,s4,j4 ,the course followed the famous ,jesuit ,ratio ,studiorum1 which is still the basis of studies in the many hundreds of schools conducted by that order throughout the world4 ,then1 as now1 emphasis was on the classics4 ,somewhat later his father took him to a ,rabbi 8who taught me ,hebrew10 as ,kircher wrote1 8with the result that ,i was skilled in that language for the rest of my life40 ,at the same age as a high school graduate in the ,united ,states1 ,kircher could read1 write and speak ,latin1 ,greek and ,hebrew1 in addition to ,german1 and probably he also had a good foundation in ,french and ,italian4 ,at the old town of ,paderborn on ,october #b1 #afah1 ,kircher entered the ,society of ,jesus1 militant religious order founded by the ,spaniard-soldier-churchman1 ,ignatius of ,loyola1 in #aedj1 and already a powerful influence in education in ,europe and in missionary work even as far as ,india and ,japan4 ,kircher did not enter the ,jesuits as early as he had wished because he had fallen while ice-skating and had suffered an injury4 ,from #afah to #afbj1 ,kircher occupied himself with religious duties1 spending the time largely in prayer4 ,after #afbj he continued with the usual studies for the priesthood--philosophy and theology4 ,he studied philosophy at ,cologne and briefly taught at the ,jesuit ,colleges at ,coblenz and ,heiligenstadt4 ,along with these pursuits1 ,kircher took a special interest in languages and in mathematics1 the foundation for all scientific work4 ,he completed his studies in theology at ,mainz and was ordained a priest in #afbh4 ,kircher was given ample opportunity to take courses1 despite the troubled times resulting from the wars4 ,in the year #afbi1 he was at ,speyer where he expressed to his religious superior a preference for missionary work in ,china4 ,next he took an interest in ,egyptian writing1 hieroglyphics1 which were not to be translated until many years later4 ,chaldean1 ,arabic and ,samaritan were added to ,kircher's language studies4 ,then for a short period he was professor of ethics and mathematics at the ,university of ,wrzburg4 ,in #afah1 when ,kircher had entered the ,jesuits1 the ,thirty ,years' ,war had broken out4 ,then1 as in our own time1 ,germany was no place for serious studies4 ,kircher1 after he became a priest1 spent considerable time in ,france where the organization of a powerful central government was being undertaken by ,richelieu4 ,the ,cardinal was a patron of the arts1 founding the ,french ,academy4 ,it is likely that word of ,kircher's learning reached ,richelieu1 for ,kircher visited several of the colleges and universities in the south of ,france1 stopping at ,lyons and later at ,avignon4 ,kircher continued all the while his remarkable studies1 and began to write1 publishing his first book in #afcj4 ,soon the fame of ,kircher attracted the attention of the highest ecclesiastical and educational authorities4 ,pope ,urban ,,viii1 who had struggled in vain to prevent the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 and ,francesco ,cardinal ,barberini 7nephew of ,pope ,urban71 summoned ,kircher to ,rome late in #afcc4 ,just before the word to come to ,rome reached him1 he was invited to ,vienna by the ,emperor ,ferdinand4 ,kircher started for ,austria by boat from a ,french port but was shipwrecked and the order to report to ,rome reached him after his rescue4 ,the invitation to come to ,rome could not be refused4 ,but there is every reason to believe that ,kircher was delighted to have the opportunity of working in ,rome under such high auspices4 ,the civil situation was somewhat more stable in ,rome than in ,germany4 ,furthermore ,rome was the intellectual center as well as focal point of much political maneuvering4 ,ambassadors and special agents representing ,richelieu of ,france1 the ,king of ,spain1 the ,emperor of ,germany and many of the other ,european powers1 great and small1 were constantly coming and going1 seeking to increase the power of the state they represented and their own prestige as well4 ,the heads of all the religious orders lived in ,rome and hence it was the headquarters for knowledge of new developments in science and of news from the lands being explored in ,america and in the ,far ,east4 ,kircher stood apart from these struggles for political1 religious and educational power4 ,as a ,jesuit he had put aside prospects of ecclesiastical advancement4 ,he was content with his studies1 his teaching and his inventions4 ,but others were not content to leave him in peace4 ,at the request of ,cardinal ,barberini1 ,kircher was made professor of mathematics at the ,roman ,college which was then popular with the young ,roman nobility and the learned from all over the world4 ,while teaching1 ,kircher continued his work in the ,oriental languages and mathematics and also branched out into the natural sciences4 ,kircher was a little man of boundless energy and once interested in a problem was never content till he knew all the facts1 from personal investigation if possible1 and had written an exhaustive tome on the subject4 ,he made many field trips to test theories and ideas by practical experience4 ,an active exponent of experimental science1 ,kircher made important contributions to human knowledge1 though some of his books contained not a little error1 and even some nonsense4 ,kircher's work with magic lanterns and his observations on the magic shadow art-science were released to the educated world in his ,ars ,magna ,lucis et ,umbrae--8,the ,great ,art of ,light and ,shadow0--published at ,rome in #afdf4 ,kircher defined his 8,great ,art0 as 8the faculty by which we make and exhibit with light and shadow the wonders of things in nature40 ,that applies to living pictures today as it did in the #agth ,century4 ,even the sound of the modern motion pictures is recorded and reproduced through light and shadow action4 ,no clue is given by ,kircher to the exact date he invented the magic projection lantern4 ,but it was probably not long before he finished the book in #afdd or #afde4 ,kircher dedicated his thick quarto volume1 which was handsomely published by ,herman ,scheus at the press of ,ludovici ,grignani in ,rome1 to ,archduke ,ferdinand ,,iii1 the ,holy ,roman ,emperor1 ,king of ,hungary1 ,king of ,bohemia and ,king of the ,romans4 ,hence1 knowledge of the screen first appeared in print under very distinguished patronage4 ,the title page explained that the great art of light and shadow had been 8digested0 into ten books 8in which the wonderful powers of light and shadow in the world and even in the natural universe are shown and new forms for exhibiting the various earthly uses are explained40 ,the ,emperor wrote a foreword and this was followed by an introduction of ,kircher 8to the reader40 ,kircher spoke of the earlier use of light and shadow by the necromancers to deceive1 but pointed out that his developments were for 8public use1 or a means of private recreation40 ,introductory material also included several odes about the subject and the author1 as well as the necessary ecclesiastical approvals4 ,the first nine books1 or long sections1 of ,ars ,magna ,lucis et ,umbrae include such diverse topics as the following3 ,light1 reflection1 images1 the speaking tube1 the structure of the eye1 sketching devices1 the art of painting1 geometrical patterns1 clocks1 the nature of reflected light1 refraction and means of measuring the earth4 ,the section which is of special interest in the story of magic shadows is the tenth--it gives the title to the whole work4 ,the sub-title of the chapter is1 8,wonders of light and shadow1 in which is considered the more hidden effects of light and shadow and various applications40 ,in the preface to the section ,kircher wrote 8in this1 as in our other research1 we have believed that the results of our important experiments should be made public40 8,that risk is taken10 he continued1 8for the purpose of preventing the curious readers from being defrauded of time and money by those who sell imitation devices1 for many have provided wondrous1 rare1 marvelous and unknown things and others have sold so much bunk40 ,the first section of the all-important tenth chapter discussed magic clocks and sun-dials2 the second1 the camera obscura or 8dark chamber10 lenses1 telescopes1 other optical devices4 ,in the third section there appears the magic lantern4 ,the section is called1 8,magia ,catoptrica1 or concerning the wondrous exhibition of things by the use of a mirror40 ,catoptron in ,greek means 8mirror40 ,kircher wrote1 8,magia catoptrica is nothing else but the method of exhibiting through the means of mirrors hidden things which seem to be outside the scope of the human mind40 ,ancient authorities who had made contributions to this art-science were mentioned by ,kircher4 ,first ,kircher explained how steel mirrors were made and polished--mirrors or reflectors are still of importance in gathering light in the motion picture projector4 ,he commented on the various types of convex1 concave1 spherical and other types of mirrors4 ,in ,kircher's day even the learned were quite uneducated according to modern standards1 especially on all matters of physical science4 ,images that appeared from nowhere were most mysterious and few knew how they were produced4 ,the telescope and microscope were still very new and many doubted what their eyes saw through these inventions4 ,kircher1 as a showman1 described a ,catoptric ,theatre--a large cabinet in which many mirrors were concealed4 ,one of the 8,theatres0 was placed in the ,villa ,borghese ,palace in ,rome and doubtless delighted the nobles of that day as much as the people in the ,united ,states were pleased with the first ,edison peep-show machines in #ahid4 ,for ,kircher's ,catoptric ,theatre was an early peep-show device4 ,it also has a relation to the ,kaleidoscope of the early #aith century4 ,the first form of the magic lantern described by ,kircher was merely a lantern suitable for showing letters at a remote distance4 ,it is very simple and appears entirely elementary4 ,but the first step was taken4 ,the third problem of the third section of the tenth book of the ,ars ,magna ,lucis et ,umbrae was how to construct such an artificial lantern with which written characters may be shown at a remote distance4 ,the parts are easily distinguished--a concave mirror at the rear2 a candle for a light source2 a handle and a place for inserting silhouette letter slides4 ,kircher noted that in the device the flame will burn with an unaccustomed brilliance4 8,through the aid of this device very small letters may be exhibited without any trouble40 ,he noted that some will think there is an enormous fire1 so bright will the lantern shine4 ,he added that the strength of the light will be increased if the interior of the cylinder is covered with an alloy of silver and lead to increase its reflecting qualities4 ,the second ,kircher device of direct relation to the motion picture is his machine for creating metamorphoses or rapid changes4 ,all kinds of transformations could be shown4 ,here was first introduced the revolving wheel on which pictures were painted4 ,it bears an analogous relation to the motion picture devices of the early #aith century--also using a revolving vertical wheel4 ,the modern projector likewise has its film pictures on a small wheel or reel4 ,kircher explained that in this catoptric machine a man looking at the mirror 7equivalent to the screen in a theatre7 sees images of a fire1 a cow and other animals all blending one into another4 ,it is unlikely that the giant wheel could be revolved swiftly enough to give anything like the proper illusion of motion but certainly there was a transformation which must have appeared wondrous and entertaining4 7,illustration facing page #dh47 ,kircher also described how images of objects could be projected by means of the light of a candle4 ,through this system various images were exhibited in a darkened chamber4 ,but ,kircher evidently was not satisfied with this method1 for no illustration of it appeared in the first edition of his book4 ,the reason is obvious4 ,a candle could provide only enough illumination for the faintest shadows4 ,kircher wrote that those objects which need only a fraction of the sun's light can be shown by a candle in a small room4 ,two methods for this were indicated3 7#a7 with a concave mirror reflecting the images and 7#b7 projecting the image through a lens4 ,it was noted that the better single method was through the lens4 ,a combination of the two provided the most light4 ,kircher remarked that he had read in a history of the ,arabs that a certain king of ,bagdad used a mirror to work wonders in order to deceive the people4 ,he also pointed out that some men had used mirrors to project into dark places what the ignorant thought were devils4 ,the chief problem in ,kircher's day and for centuries afterwards was to provide sufficient light4 ,the final solution did not come until electric light was introduced4 ,probably ,kircher's most efficient projection was one in which the sun was used as the source of light4 ,even in the early part of the #bjth century arrangements were used which hooked up the sun with the magic lantern because it was thought that the results were even better and cheaper than those obtained with electric light4 ,kircher's sun magic projector used a real optical system which is fundamental even to this day4 ,there was first the source of light1 then a reflector and the object1 and the projected image4 ,the effects1 of course1 would be most startling in a darkened room4 ,kircher also showed how shadows of any type of figure could be thrown onto a wall or screen through the same method4 ,in those days when there was much secret correspondence and keen interest in various forms of cipher1 many of ,kircher's readers were glad to note how the magic lantern could be used for such a purpose4 ,at that time people would not1 it was believed1 detect that the letters in such a system were simply backwards and upside down4 ,the message could be read easily by projecting images of the letters4 ,the same result could be had by turning the paper upside down and holding it before a mirror4 ,after listing these many diverse uses of the magic lantern system ,kircher thought it well to conclude his book lest he be charged with 8meandering0 endlessly on a subject which some would consider trivial4 ,kircher said1 8,we leave all these to the talented reader for further refinement4 ,a word to the wise is sufficient4 ,innumerable things could be said concerning the application of this device but we leave to others new material of invention and lest this work grow too long we cut off the thread of discussion about these devices40 ,kircher ended his entire book by saying that it was published 8not for income or glory but for the common good40 ,in his ,latin autobiography ,kircher made only one passing reference to his ,ars ,magna ,lucis et ,umbrae1 8,the ,great ,art of ,light and ,shadow40 ,let ,kircher speak3 ,at this time 7around #afde7 three more books were published1 the first on the magnetic art1 ,on ,magnetism2 another ,on the ,great ,art of ,light and ,shadow and a third written in the name of ,musurgia1 8,music40 ,these are not insignificant works1 praise be ,god4 ,they occasioned applause but this applause soon brought me another form of tribulation2 new accusations piled up and for this reason my critics said ,i should devote my whole life to developing mathematics4 ,so with desperate hope on account of this impenetrable difficulty ,i gave up my work on hieroglyphics and my heart and mind were discouraged4 ,at one point in the discussion of the magic lantern in ,ars ,magna ,lucis et ,umbrae ,kircher interrupted the thread of the story long enough to point out that charges of the use of the black arts had been made against him and others who knew the use of mirrors and lenses by some who had no knowledge of philosophy and science4 ,he told how ,roger ,bacon was charged with necromancy because he could show a recognizable shadow of himself in a dark room where his friends were assembled4 ,kircher noted that certainly a talented philosopher and scientist could accomplish all these effects through skill in the use of mirrors and lenses and without any trace of the suspect black art4 ,the charge of necromantic art was the source of much of ,kircher's unhappiness4 ,some considered him in league with the devil because he could make images and shadows and objects appear where none had been before4 ,it was the age-old story that some in the audience or among the readers did not understand how an effect was produced so its validity and legitimacy were denied4 ,praise and blame always have been the lot of discoverers and inventors4 ,kircher had1 however1 better fortune than many others4 ,he was able to write in his autobiography1 8,divine ,providence1 which never fails us1 took care of my trouble in this wonderful way--my appointed work was restored to me and by the occasion of this good fortune ,i escaped the traps of my adversaries40 ,adversaries on even scientific matters in those days battled to the death4 ,what happened was this3 ,a commission established by ,innocent ,x1 who had been elected ,pope in #afdd1 ordered that ,kircher be allowed to continue his beloved antiquarian studies4 ,it seemed that the ,obelisk of ,caracalla had been partially destroyed and ,kircher was given the task of directing the restoration4 ,kircher's original patron1 ,cardinal ,barberini1 continued to have influence1 being ,pope ,innocent's legate or ambassador to the ,emperor4 ,and so the man who had done so much to advance the art-science of living pictures for the knowledge and enjoyment of vast millions in the centuries to come spent the happiest days of his life looking towards the dead and buried past4 ,a quarter of a century later1 ,kircher was able to revise and enlarge his book on ,the ,great ,art of ,light and ,shadow and have it printed in a great folio edition in #afga by ,john ,jansson of ,waesberge at ,amsterdam4 ,conditions had changed greatly--,kircher was no longer a newcomer at ,rome1 suspected of being in league with the devil on account of his powers with mirrors and lenses and his amazing projected images4 ,his fame as a universal scholar1 8,the ,doctor of a ,hundred ,arts10 had spread throughout the ,european world4 ,men now had begun to realize there was much of great value in his ,magia ,catoptrica or ,magic ,projection with mirrors4 ,jacob ,alban ,ghibbesim1 ,m4,d41 professor at the ,roman ,college1 in the caption for ,kircher's portrait1 used these words3 8,this man and his name are known to the ends of the earth40 ,in #afgj ,kircher had a new patron1 ,john ,frederic1 to whom he dedicated his work4 ,the ,emperor ,ferdinand1 who sponsored the first edition1 had died in #afeg4 ,europe was gradually recovering from the effects of the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,louis ,,xiv was establishing an all-powerful personal rule in ,france4 ,holland and ,switzerland were jealously guarding their newly won independence4 ,sweden was an important ,european power4 ,great ,britain had a short-lived republic under ,cromwell4 ,in the ,new ,world the ,english had consolidated their position by driving the ,dutch out of ,new ,amsterdam1 occupying ,new ,york in #affd4 ,much of the ,new ,world had yet to be explored4 8,vagabonds and imposters0 had carried the magic lantern everywhere during the quarter century following its announcement1 usually claiming it as their own invention4 ,kircher thought the time had come for him to set down in more detail various additional applications of his magic lantern1 invented #cj years before4 ,the only additions ,kircher made to the entire tome were in the section on the magic lanterns4 ,two new plates were made1 showing room and box-type projectors and also added was another special plate on a particular application demonstrating that ,kircher used the lantern idea to tell a story4 7,illustration facing page #di47 ,let ,kircher now explain about ,walgenstein1 a ,dane1 one of his first and most successful imitators in the practice of the magic lantern3 ,concerning the construction of ,magic ,lantern or ,thaumaturga 7,wonder ,projector7-- ,although we have already mentioned this lantern in several places and shown a method of transmitting images by the sun into dark places1 we will illustrate one further use--that is1 a method of projecting painted images of objects in their own colors4 ,because previously we merely outlined this subject and left it entirely apart from other more important inventions1 it happened that many who were drawn by the novelty of the magic lantern applied their minds to its refinement4 ,first among these was a ,dane1 ,thomas ,walgenstein1 not a little known as a mathematician1 who1 recalling my invention1 produced a better form of the lantern which ,i had described4 ,these he sold1 with great profit to himself1 to many of the prominent people of ,italy4 ,he sold so many that by now the magic lantern is nearly commonplace in ,rome4 ,however1 there is none among all these lanterns which differs from the lantern described by us4 ,walgenstein said that with this lantern model he showed a large number of sufficiently bright and shining pictures in a dark chamber and they aroused the greatest admiration in the audiences4 ,we in our dark chamber at the college are accustomed to show many new pictures to the greatest wonder of those looking on4 ,the show is most worthwhile seeing1 the subjects being either satire or tragic plays1 all the pictures in the appearances of the living4 ,from ,kircher's statement ,walgenstein should be hailed as the first commercializer of the projector and the first traveling picture showman or 8road-show man40 ,unfortunately1 little is known of this man4 ,while he may have been 8not a little known0 in ,kircher's time1 he left no mark on history1 evidently never writing a book or holding an educational or other position which would have been recorded4 ,it seems certain that he was the ,dane of whom the ,french inventor and scientist1 ,milliet de ,chales1 spoke about as introducing the magic lantern in ,lyons1 ,france1 some years after it was invented by ,kircher4 ,kircher's statement about the shows which he put on at the ,roman ,college is most interesting4 ,the reference to tragic and comic plays indicates beyond doubt that ,kircher used a succession of lantern slides to tell a story as the modern motion picture is made up of a succession of pictures4 ,kircher included a description of the slide projector so that all who wished could imitate his work4 8,all these things have been shown so that the reader can make his own10 he said4 8,the work of art formerly described does not differ from the new lantern40 ,he pointed out that moving slides had been added so that the objects might appear with the aspect of living shadows4 ,he again explained how a concave mirror and diaphragm should be used4 ,kircher informed his readers that he usually used four or five slides1 each having eight pictures painted on glass4 ,the illustrations1 he noted1 explain the system better than words4 ,we echo that and refer the reader to the illustrations of the box and room moving-slide projectors of ,kircher4 ,kircher in his #afga edition described a form of revolving disc to tell a story4 7,he selected the most widely known story of all for the model--,the ,life of ,christ47 ,the light available would not give a great effect but the pattern was set4 ,nearly two hundred years later the first projection of motion pictures was to be achieved with a somewhat similar disc and series of painted figures4 ,kircher's revolving disc told the story with a series of still pictures rapidly succeeding each other4 7,illustration facing page #dh47 ,by explaining all details of the method and construction of the magic lantern to everyone interested1 ,kircher had hoped to expose some of the imposters who were using his invention to arouse fear and make the people believe that the operator had magic powers4 ,kircher1 with his 8hundred arts10 became vir toto orbe celebratissimus--a man well known throughout the world--according to ,jerome ,langenmantel who edited his autobiography in #afhd4 ,however1 since his own era ,kircher has been relatively unknown4 ,there was hardly a branch of learning that did not attract ,kircher's attention4 ,he assembled one of the best ethnological collections of his time4 ,he attempted to develop a basic language and was one of the first to make a start towards deciphering hieroglyphics4 ,in the field of magnetism he was a pioneer and in #afcb was one of the first to map compass variation and ocean currents4 ,in medicine ,kircher was a proponent of the new and generally disbelieved germ theory of disease1 and an experimenter in the use of hypnotism for healing purposes4 ,he contributed much to the early knowledge of volcanoes4 ,as an inventor1 ,kircher perfected one of the first counting machines1 speaking tubes1 ,aeolian harps and developed the microscope to an enlarging power of #a1jjj diameters4 ,however1 despite all his knowledge1 his title of 8,doctor of a ,hundred ,arts0 and the trouble and fame incidental to the invention of the magic lantern--his least art1 or 8the hundredth0--,kircher was not prideful of his reputation4 ,he concluded his little autobiography by describing himself as 8a poor1 humble and unworthy servant of ,god40 ,his heart was buried in a shrine to ,mary1 the ,mother of ,god1 which ,kircher had constructed on the ,sabine ,hill in ,rome4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the art-science of projection and the magic lantern were further explained through the publication of three other books which included a description of ,kircher's work and illustrations of his projector systems2 namely1 ,george de ,valesius' volume on the ,museum of the ,roman ,college in #afgh1 which pointed out that ,kircher had developed magic lanterns using one or more lenses1 and that several different models were on display and in use since the time of their invention2 ,johann ,stephan ,kesler's book on ,kircher's experiments published in #afhj and another edition in #afhf2 and finally there was published in ,rome in #agjg1 a work on the ,kircher ,museum--the ,museum of the ,roman ,college which had by then been given officially the name of its collector4 ,today only a few small objects remain of ,kircher's original collections4 ,unfortunately1 ,kircher's devices were destroyed shortly after his death4 ,the museum of ,kircher at the ,roman ,college1 the first picture theatre in the world1 was an amazing place4 ,every conceivable kind of antiquarian and scientific object was assembled--from ,egyptian inscriptions to stuffed animals1 fish1 rare stones1 curiosities from the ,new ,worlds and everything pertaining to the pursuits of the 8,doctor of a ,hundred ,arts40 ,any spectator1 from one of the eminent ,cardinals to a young ,roman nobleman and student at the ,college who was invited to a performance1 would certainly have been well prepared for an extraordinary show after looking at the diverse collections at the museum4 ,in the #agth century there was no doubt as to the identity of the inventor of the magic lantern4 ,before ,kircher's death in #afhj his magic lantern was widely used in ,europe for scientific and entertainment purposes as well as for the art of deception4 ,the question was raised by later writers seeking to claim a national of their own country as the inventor4 ,kesler wrote in #afhj1 8,in the catoptric art images are exhibited in dark places through the magic lantern which our author 7,kircher7 invented and which1 to his undying memory1 he communicated to the world40 ,in those days some men liked to keep secret their inventions lest some one else claim the rewards4 ,two and a half centuries later1 ,thomas ,a4 ,edison sometimes found it better not to take out foreign patents on his inventions because that frequently served only as notice to those who sought to duplicate his work4 ,for this reason ,edison did not spend the #aej necessary to obtain foreign patents on his moving picture cameras and viewers4 ,,vii ,,popularizing ,,kircher',s ,,projector ,kircher's magic lantern is popularized by others--,schott--,milliet de ,chales--,zahn--,molyneux--,the name and fame of the inventor are lost to the public while magic shadow projection spreads throughout ,europe4 ,as with many another inventor1 ,kircher received little praise and much blame for his invention of the magic lantern4 ,charges of being in league with the devil to achieve the wondrous images on the screen almost broke his spirit4 ,though his device was widely pirated in ,europe without acknowledgement of the inventor1 before ,kircher's death he was able to take some satisfaction from the fact that his projector was no longer viewed as 8black magic0 but as a great boon for mankind4 ,had he lived longer he would have again been saddened as others claimed the magic lantern as their own4 ,at this later day the name of ,kircher was known only to a few scholars although the magic lantern audiences could be numbered in the many thousands4 ,in the first half century after the invention of the magic lantern projector1 four men1 in addition to ,kircher himself1 made its scientific principles and construction widely known4 ,they were a curious group3 ,gaspar ,schott1 a protg of ,kircher2 ,claude ,milliet de ,chales1 a ,french priest and military expert2 ,johann ,zahn ,german writer2 and ,william ,molyneux1 an ,irish patriot1 teacher and scientist4 ,gaspar ,schott was the best known of ,kircher's pupils who helped to awaken scientific interest in ,europe4 ,he was born at ,knigshofen1 ,bohemia1 in #afjh4 ,he entered the ,jesuit ,order at the age of #ai4 ,like ,kircher1 his senior by six years1 ,schott was compelled to flee the disorders in ,germany and continue his studies abroad4 ,for his courses in philosophy and theology ,schott went to ,sicily4 ,later he studied under ,kircher at the ,roman ,college4 ,from his contact with ,kircher1 ,schott had developed a great interest in scientific matters and mathematics4 ,he conducted research and wrote at ,augsburg until his death in #afff4 ,schott's books were once very popular4 ,their subjects ranged from extracts of the diaries kept by ,kircher on his various scientific travels to mathematical text books and even a study on the source of the river ,nile4 ,so far as the story of magic shadows goes1 ,schott's most valuable book was the ,magia ,universalis ,natur et ,artis4 8,wonders of ,universal ,nature and ,art10 published at ,wrzburg in #afeh1 with a second edition in #afgd4 ,schott described every type of magic lantern1 basing his remarks1 of course1 on the work of ,kircher4 ,the projection apparatus described by him was better than that of the master1 ,kircher4 ,schott described lanterns with and without lenses1 and covered points of practical use as well as the theory4 ,the age-old ,burning ,glasses of ,archimedes were studied by ,schott1 who knew about the various kinds of images1 mirrors1 and the focal length and its importance in producing sharp pictures on the screen4 ,a refinement in the telescope was also explained4 ,schott was probably the first man to write about1 and study with the magic lantern1 optical illusions caused by a rapidly revolving wheel1 including the appearance of distorted figures4 ,it was this same study1 carried on almost two hundred years later in ,england1 ,france and ,belgium1 that was to result in the first real motion pictures4 ,in ideas ,schott outran the limitations of the physical apparatus available at the time1 as did ,kircher himself4 ,kircher had been asked by ,schott to write the foreword to his book4 ,but ,kircher was too busy with other works4 7,it is barely possible that he was jealous of the growing fame of his former pupil2 or1 more likely1 that he was unwilling to appear in print at that time on the subject which had so much contributed to his troubles47 ,nicholas ,mohr1 who did write the introduction1 pointed out that ,schott had been carrying on the work of ,kircher4 ,schott discussed the various details of the magic lantern projector in scientific terms4 ,he was a pure scientist without the dash of showmanship which at once distinguished ,kircher and probably helped to cause him difficulty with his 8enemies40 ,schott described how 8to construct the ,kircher ,catoptric ,machine40 ,this was the first coupling of ,kircher's own name with the magic lantern4 ,but people preferred ,kircher's appellation of 8magic lantern40 ,and so his own name did not grow into the language to stand for the device he invented4 ,about fifteen years after ,schott's book appeared and nearly thirty years after the first description of the magic lantern by ,kircher in his ,great ,art of light and ,shadow1 the first prominent ,frenchman in the history of the magic shadows made a contribution by improving some details of the projector4 ,in keeping with what has not been an infrequent practice amongst ,french historians in claiming inventions for ,frenchmen1 it has been held that ,claude ,franois ,milliet de ,chales1 and not ,athanasius ,kircher1 invented the magic lantern4 ,milliet de ,chales was a talented man but1 as he himself clearly wrote1 he did not invent the magic lantern4 ,what happened was that de ,chales saw one exhibited in ,lyons1 where he was stationed1 and then devised some improvements4 ,de ,chales was much too young to have invented the magic lantern1 as he was born at ,chambry in #afba4 ,he entered the ,jesuits in #afcf and after his studies spent some time in missionary work in ,turkey4 ,while de ,chales was on the missions1 ,kircher had already demonstrated the magic lantern at ,rome4 ,father de ,chales had an interesting career4 ,upon his return from missionary work he became a professor of humanities and rhetoric4 ,later his attention was turned to things scientific4 ,louis ,,xiv made him professor of hydrography at ,marseilles and there de ,chales was able to devote much time to navigation and to other arts which would have a military application4 ,de ,chales later taught mathematics and theology1 eventually becoming rector of ,chambry4 ,he died in ,turin in #afgh4 ,illustration3 ,oculus ,artificialis ,teledioptricus1 #afhe ,,johann ,,zahn1 ,gaspar ,schott1 ,claude ,milliet de ,chales and ,william ,molyneux perfected ,kircher's magic lantern projector and spread knowledge of it throughout ,europe4 ,illustrated are table models by ,zahn4 ,the mounting of the slides shows the quest for movement4 ,no basic improvements in the projector were made for another century and a half4 ,de ,chales' monumental work is ,cursus seu ,mundus ,mathematicus1 8,the ,mathematical ,world10 written in #afgd4 ,an edition1 edited from the author's reviewed manuscript1 by ,amati ,varcin1 ,s4 ,j41 was published at ,lyons in #afij1 #ab years after de ,chales' death4 ,one section was devoted to optics4 ,de ,chales studied the eye and knew that the image is upside down on the retina4 ,he investigated other vision problems1 including angular vision and vision at long range1 considered binocular vision and the images formed by each eye4 ,he devised satisfactory lenses and spectacles for both far and near-sighted persons4 7,the original name for near-sightedness--8,myopia0--came down from ,aristotle47 ,de ,chales experimented with light and dark colored objects and gave consideration to why we see better with two eyes than one4 ,he noted that the eye actually sees color and light and not objects and movement--a fact upon which the whole motion picture process is based4 ,he pointed out that the ship appears to stand still and the shore moves to an observer aboard4 ,he also studied the nature of color and the laws of light4 ,de ,chales even attempted three dimension projection6 ,even now many efforts are being made to achieve 8three dimension0 motion pictures without the use of special glasses or other viewing devices for the spectators4 ,illustration3 ,oculus ,artificialis ,teledioptricus1 #afhe ,time and wind indicators by projection were among the curious adaptations of the magic lantern device developed by ,zahn4 ,above1 the hour was indicated by the point of the sword4 ,below1 the wind instrument was ingeniously connected to a vane on the roof4 ,it was automatic in action2 the 8clock0 was not4 ,de ,chales considered plane and curved mirrors1 improving the design of the old camera lucida of ,alberti by introducing a mirror4 ,he devised a simple searchlight to improve the projection of images1 in a system similar to ,kircher's design for the first magic lantern1 but as it had a stronger light source it was shown how letters1 bright enough to read1 could be projected a great distance4 ,de ,chales narrated how fires could be set with the two lens system--as the old ,burning ,glasses of ,archimedes4 ,he was a practical man as well as an ingenious one and included details on how to make lenses4 ,other studies included consideration of color reflection1 a telescope with two convex lenses1 an attempt to make binoculars and even an experiment with prisms1 laying some of the groundwork for ,newton4 ,de ,chales wrote that for many things this method of projection--direct with a strong light source--was 8the best and most certain40 ,doubtless he was right1 considering available means4 ,he also pointed out the military uses of the projector and other mirror-lens devices4 ,today in enemy waters or where hostile sea or aircraft are expected and a 8radio silence0 must be maintained--ships and planes must use optical signaling devices and de ,chales was the first to consider carefully this subject4 ,de ,chales' most important refinement in the projector was the introduction of a two-lens projection system4 ,he described in his book how the magic lantern first came to his attention4 8,we have seen here at ,lyons a dioptric machine1 called a magic lantern4 ,rays of light are projected through a tube for a distance of ten or twelve feet4 ,an enlarged image1 about four feet in diameter1 is shown in all its colors40 ,the effect was considered wonderful1 according to de ,chales4 ,he noted1 however1 that a convex lens was used but pointed out that it would be better to use a double lens 8as he demonstrated40 ,de ,chales did not discard the concave mirror1 used as the light collector on almost all types of projectors from ,kircher's to those of the present day4 ,in a subsequent chapter de ,chales gave more information on this subject4 8,as ,i have indicated in the preceding chapter a learned ,dane0 7very likely the same ,walgenstein of whom ,kircher wrote as a popularizer of his lantern projector7 8came to ,lyons in the year #afee40 ,de ,chales continued1 8,this ,dane was well versed in optics and among other things showed a lantern40 ,de ,chales again noted how he had developed an improvement1 using two lenses1 which made possible a projection to the then amazing distance of #bj feet4 ,the present projection 8throw0 at the ,radio ,city ,music ,hall1 ,rockefeller ,center1 ,new ,york1 is approximately #bjj feet4 ,in addition to optics and many other fields of study1 de ,chales was interested in navigation4 ,he wrote a book1 probably on the order of the ,king's general staff1 ,the ,art of ,navigation demonstrated by principle and proved by many observations drawn from practical experience4 ,he devised a paddle-wheel ship that would go against the current1 8without sails1 without oars and without the traction of any animal0--surely a military weapon6 ,his most important military work was ,the ,art of ,fortifying and ,defending and ,attacking according to the ,french1 ,dutch1 ,italian and ,spanish ,methods4 ,de ,chales mentioned in his writings ,alhazen1 ,witelo and other ancient authorities4 ,he must have read the first edition of ,kircher's book and also ,gaspar ,schott's before his own was written4 ,however1 de ,chales made a definite improvement with his lens system which is essentially the modern one4 ,also1 his work helped to popularize and extend the art and science of light and shadow4 ,he was another strange man in this complex story--a missionary1 a teacher and a military expert4 ,johann ,zahn in ,oculus ,artificialis ,teledioptricus sive ,telescopium1 8,the ,artificial ,telescopic ,eye or ,telescope10 published at ,nuremberg in #afhe and #agjb1 outlined a better lens system for the magic lantern and described many applications1 including false representations to create wonder and fear4 ,one of ,zahn's teachers was ,jerome ,langenmantel1 the editor of ,kircher's autobiography1 so the link with ,kircher is close and direct4 ,zahn considered the eye1 vision and light1 basing his work on earlier writers4 ,it was noted that ,kircher1 and his aide ,schemer1 used a system--probably the natural camera--to observe the sun at ,rome in #afce4 ,he also described telescopes and microscopes and a device which was a forerunner in the ,stereoscope4 ,in his section on the magic lantern1 ,zahn acknowledges his debt to ,kircher1 referring to ,kircher's book and to ,schott's saying 8the projection of images of objects was announced in a wonderful manner by ,kircher40 ,he also knew de ,chales' work4 ,but he showed that an improvement could be made4 ,zahn showed a complete magic lantern1 or ,thaumaturga ,lantern 7names originated by ,kircher7 or ,megalographica ,lantern 7,great-writing71 because even little figures and images can appear life-like in size4 ,the system was complete3 reflecting mirror to focus the light1 a lamp as the light source and two projection lenses forming the projection system4 ,zahn wrote1 8,very great wonders are presented and set forth in the magic lantern including the projection of light and curious images40 ,he proves himself a showman by saying the purpose is to create 8the greatest admiration and enjoyment of those looking on40 ,the regular magic lantern was1 he said1 8already well known40 ,he developed some very ingenious improvements1 including table model projectors which set the pattern right to the end of the #aith century4 ,all that was later added was improved light sources including1 finally1 electric light4 7,illustrations facing page #fd47 ,zahn for his theatre shows described how images could be projected even under water4 ,he stressed the importance of concealing the projector in a separate room so that the audience would not know the source of the magical vision4 ,in one model of the magic lantern ,zahn explained how the glass slides could be mounted on a circular disk which could be revolved in front of the magic lantern lens4 ,in other words1 he took the disk shown by ,kircher and combined it with ,kircher's projector4 ,but ,zahn's modification was the dominant pattern used by later experimenters1 just before the dawn of the motion picture as we know it4 ,the first projector to show 8motion pictures0 from hand-drawn slides was invented about #ahea by ,franz von ,uchatius and looked very similar to this model of ,zahn4 ,zahn had also many curious applications1 including the use of the magic lantern to tell time or rather to project the correct time on a great 8clock0 on the wall4 ,another application was the use of the lantern1 connected with a wind vane atop the structure to show the direction the wind was blowing at the particular instant4 7,illustration facing page #fe47 ,j4 ,kunckelius1 who wrote on the ,glass ,art1 is credited by ,zahn with developing a good ink or paint to be used on the glass for the magic lantern slides4 ,this information was passed on by him to his readers4 ,from ,kircher's day until the invention of film and its use in photography in the latter part of the #aith century1 glass slides formed the physical picture supports for practically every kind of a magic shadow show4 ,kircher's magic lantern was established on a scientific basis in the ,english-speaking world by the writing of ,william ,molyneux1 a citizen of ,dublin4 ,molyneux became an ,irish patriot by taking a stand against the contended right of the ,english ,parliament to rule ,irishmen4 ,he was a leader in the constitutional struggle for ,irish autonomy in the early part of the #ahth century4 ,molyneux1 a professor at ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 included his treatment of the magic lantern in his ,dioptrica ,nova1 which the censor passed on ,june #d1 #afij with the note1 8,i think this book is fit to be printed40 ,but it was not published until two years later4 ,molyneux1 as other pioneers in this art-science1 had his period of exile4 ,he wrote in ,dioptrica ,nova1 8the present distractions of our miserable country have separated me and my books40 ,in the introduction ,molyneux pointed out that up to then there was nothing written in the ,english language on that part of mathematics and1 he said1 8,i am sure there are many ingenious ,heads1 great ,geometers1 and ,masters in ,mathematics1 who are not so well skilled in ,latin40 ,and certainly ,molyneux was right1 for the use of the modern languages was expanding constantly in that period4 ,molyneux had a low regard for ,zahn1 whom he called 8a blind transcriber from others0 and asserted that he copied the errors of de ,chales4 ,an early section of the book was 8,on the ,representation of outward objects in a ,dark ,chamber2 by a ,convex ,glass40 ,this was a modified version of the natural camera1 first set down carefully by da ,vinci and dating back to ,roger ,bacon4 ,molyneux devoted a whole section to 8,the ,explication of the ,magick ,lantern1 sometimes called ,lanterna ,megalographica0 7that last was one of the names ,kircher gave to it74 ,molyneux scientifically described a good model featuring a metal lantern and adjustable lenses4 ,he explained that the pictures to be shown were painted with transparent colors on pieces of thin glass which were inverted and placed in the projector4 ,his comment on the type of picture is entertaining3 8,this is usually some ,ludicrous or frightful ,representation1 the more to divert the ,spectators40 8,horror0 pictures--and comedies--were born centuries before ,hollywood4 ,also discussed were focusing lenses1 glass and concave mirrors1 adjustments in the picture focus1 the throw from projector to the screen4 ,however1 ,molyneux wished to keep strictly on the scientific and scholarly side saying1 8,as to the ,mechanick ,contrivances of this ,lantern1 the most ,convenient ,proportion of the ,glasse1 etc4 this is so ordinary amongst the common ,glass ,grinders that 'tis needless to insist further thereon in this place4 ',tis sufficient to me that ,i have explained the theory thereof40 ,at the end of the volume there was an advertisement--it was noted that all the instruments mentioned 8are made and sold by ,john ,yarwell at the ,archimedes and ,three ,golden ,prospects1 near the great ,north ,door in ,st4 ,paul's ,church-,yard3 ,london40 ,this makes ,john ,yarwell the first recorded commercial dealer in the magic shadow science4 ,in addition to ,schott1 ,milliet de ,chales1 ,zahn and ,molyneux1 many travelling showmen such as ,walgenstein1 the ,dane1 introduced the magic lantern and its magic shadow shows in great cities and little hamlets of ,europe4 ,some were professional entertainers1 accepting the projector as a new device2 others were the 8vagabonds and imposters10 of the type condemned by ,kircher4 ,this group recognized no law and copied and appropriated the magic lantern projector whenever opportunity presented itself4 ,there was no copyright or other protection to restrain them4 ,by the early part of the #ahth ,century the magic lantern was commonplace and many men were skilled in its use4 ,,viii ,,musschenbroek ,,and ,,motion ,magic shadows move in the projector of ,musschenbroek1 a ,dutchman--,quest for real 8motion pictures0 continues--,abb ,nollet spins a top--,lantern shows in ,paris and ,london become spectacular4 ,not long after ,kircher's death his magic lantern projector was in use everywhere in ,europe but the apparatus did not do all that was desired4 ,the goal of motion pictures was still around a corner4 ,pieter van ,musschenbroek 7#afib-agfa71 a ,dutch natural philosopher and mathematician1 was the first to successfully simulate motion with the aid of the projector and glass slides4 ,the effects of motion produced on the screen through the system developed by ,musschenbroek were crude but progress was made4 ,there was also further concrete evidence that the primitive urge of the first painter to re-create nature with all its life and movement was still powerful and had not been forgotten4 ,previously ,zahn1 as we have seen1 mounted a series of glass slides on a circular disk which could be revolved before the lens of the projector4 ,but there the method really only assured quick changes from one still picture to another4 ,in the very beginning ,kircher also had the disk idea and in other models of his lantern arranged the glass slides on a long panel so the successive views could be changed rapidly4 ,musschenbroek1 working in ,holland in the early part of the #ahth century1 achieved his effect of motion by fitting two panels of slides into the same lantern for simultaneous projection4 ,one slide was stationary and usually depicted the background2 the other was mobile and was set in motion by means of a cord4 ,with a skilled manipulator the effects were certainly wonderful--for that period4 ,the motion magic lantern projector was developed as a hobby by ,musschenbroek1 who was unaware of its importance until he had a visit in #agcf from the ,french scientist1 or more accurately popularizer of science1 ,abb ,nollet 7#agjj-aggj74 ,abb ,nollet corresponded with scientists throughout the world and his salon in ,paris was crowded each evening with ,french and visiting scientists and the hangers-on of the great4 ,while in ,holland1 ,nollet visited ,musschenbroek4 ,one evening after a pleasant dinner and much serious conversation on educational and scientific matter1 the host1 ,musschenbroek1 proposed a bit of entertainment4 ,he may have told his distinguished ,french visitor1 8,i have a surprise for you4 ,i will show you something that is as yet unknown in your wise ,paris40 ,it is certain ,abb ,nollet's curiosity was stirred up and he looked forward with keen anticipation to the demonstration4 ,he was that kind of a person--eager for any new scientific development or application4 ,musschenbroek's show that evening in ,holland included1 according to ,abb ,nollet1 magic lantern views of a wind-mill whose arms revolved--wonder of wonders6 ,also a lady bowing as she walked along the street4 ,and a cavalier removing his hat in courtesy4 ,that would seem to prove that ,musschenbroek1 the staid scientist1 in his idle moments had attempted to create the first 8boy-meets-girl0 motion picture4 ,the magic lantern with movement of ,musschenbroek's description was brought back to ,paris by ,nollet who started its popularization4 ,the system became wide-spread following the publication of a book1 ,nouvelles ,recrations ,physiques et ,mathmatiques1 by ,abb ,guyot which went through several editions in ,paris and was translated and published also in at least two editions in ,england by ,w4 ,hooper1 ,m4,d4 under the title1 ,rational ,recreations in which the ,principles of ,numbers and ,natural ,philosophy are ,clearly and ,copiously ,elucidated1 by a ,series of ,easy1 ,entertaining1 ,interesting ,experiments4 ,hooper copied even the plates from the ,french book of ,guyot4 ,the projections of the magic lantern1 it was said1 8may be rendered much more amusing1 and at the same time more marvelous1 by preparing figures to which different natural motions may be given1 which everyone may perform according to his own taste2 either by movements in the figures themselves1 or by painting the subject on two glasses1 and passing them at the same time through the groove 7of the lantern740 ,it was noted by ,guyot-,hooper that in ,musschenbroek's ,philosophical ,essays there are many methods of performing all these movements1 8by some mechanical contrivances that are not difficult to execute40 ,an illustration of the ,musschenbroek system was given4 ,the subject sought to portray how1 8,to represent a tempest by the magic lantern40 ,on one of these glasses you are to paint the appearance of the sea1 from the slightest agitation to the most violent commotion4 ,observe that these representations are not to be distinct1 but run into each other1 that they may form a natural gradation2 remember also1 that great part of the effect depends on the perfection of the painting1 and the picturesque appearance of the design4 ,on the other glass you are to paint vessels in different forms and dimensions1 and in different directions1 together with the appearance of clouds in the tempestuous parts4 ,precise instructions were set down for this first 8motion picture0 storm effect3 ,you are then to pass the glass representing the sea slowly through the groove1 and when you come to that part where the storm begins1 you are to move the glass gently up and down1 which will give it the appearance of a sea that begins to be agitated2 and so increase the motion till you come to the height of the storm4 ,at the same time you are to introduce the other glass with the ships1 and moving in like manner1 you will have a natural representation of the sea1 and of ships in a calm and in a storm4 ,as you draw the glasses slowly back1 the tempest will seem to subside1 the sky grow clear1 and the ships glide gently over the waves4 ,with ,musschenbroek the magic shadows began to have real motion and the effect on the audience consequently was much greater4 ,kircher's projector was growing up4 ,in the ,guyot-,hooper book it was also noted1 8,by means of two glasses disposed in this manner you may represent a battle1 or sea fight1 and numberless other subjects1 that everyone will contrive according to his own taste4 ,they may also be made to represent some remarkable or ludicrous action between different persons1 and many other amusements that a lively imagination will easily suggest40 ,complete details were given for a 8magical theatre0 in which regular magic shadow plays could be presented4 ,an elaborate lantern with a number of grooves for slides was proposed4 ,the clouds1 palaces of the gods and the like were dropped down from above2 the caves and infernal places rose from below2 and earthly palaces1 gardens1 characters1 etc4 came in from either side--all1 of course1 on glass slides4 ,projection was provided by a lamp with a dozen flames4 ,as an illustration a play based on the siege of ,troy was suggested4 ,slides included the following3 walls of ,troy1 the ,grecian ,camp1 the background atmosphere1 the ,grecian and ,trojan troops1 ships1 the wooden horse1 palaces and houses1 temple of ,pallas1 fire and smoke for the conflagration1 individual characters1 etc4 ,screen directions were given for a complete magic shadow play in five acts4 ,this surely was among the first--if not the first--motion picture scenario4 ,the screen was then about three feet wide4 ,musschenbroek1 in addition to being the first credited with introducing effective1 though very artificial1 motion into light and shadow entertainment and instruction1 was said to be the first man to create the illusion of white light by revolving very rapidly a disk painted with seven colors4 ,that effect must have been as magical to ,abb ,nollet as his 8moving0 pictures4 ,it also indicates that considerable advance was being made in the knowledge of vision and the means to create optical illusions1 upon which the principle of the motion picture rests4 ,as many other men in this story1 ,musschenbroek covered the whole field of science4 ,he studies our old friend1 the camera obscura1 mirrors1 prisms1 the eye1 the microscope in many forms1 winds1 waterspouts1 magnetism1 capillary tubes1 the size of the earth1 sound and pneumatic machines4 ,it is easy to determine from that list of serious studies that ,musschenbroek's moving shadow projection was the purest kind of an avocation4 ,abb ,nollet who helped to introduce ,musschenbroek's novel movement magic lantern is not credited with any great scientific discovery in any field but he served as a clearing house of scientific knowledge in his day4 ,he traveled widely1 to ,italy and ,england as well as to ,holland4 ,so far as this tale is concerned1 ,nollet's name is of significance1 after his part in making known the ,musschenbroek device1 by the fact that he also popularized a very simple little toy--8,the ,dazzling or ,whirling ,top40 ,this little children's plaything helped to stimulate the study of the persistence of vision and led to a better understanding of motion4 ,this in turn resulted1 within a half century1 in learning a way to re-create actual motion effects4 ,around #agfj ,nollet developed the top which1 though only an outline in form1 when whirled rapidly appears to be a solid object4 ,nollet also described the use of the camera obscura and the various types of lanterns for entertainment and teaching purposes4 ,benjamin ,franklin 7#agjf-agij71 famed ,american statesman1 writer and scientist1 corresponded with ,abb ,nollet4 ,franklin1 though disagreeing with ,nollet on electricity1 admired him1 calling him 8an able experimenter40 ,nollet marveled that such science as manifest by the publication of certain of ,franklin's works in ,paris could come from ,america4 ,at first he conceived that his enemies in ,paris had falsified the papers to cause his embarrassment4 ,franklin made no direct contribution to the art-science of magic shadows but had a pertinent remark to make about the medium--light itself--which is nearly as true today as when he wrote it in #ageb for a paper read to the ,royal ,society in ,london3 8,i must own ,i am much in the dark about light10 he said4 ,,ix ,,phantasmagoria ,magic lanterns mounted on wheels and images projected on screens of smoke make ghost shadow plays--,robertson 8resurrects0 ,louis ,,xvi--,thtre ,robert ,houdin1 ,paris1 #ahde1 ,polytechnic ,institution1 ,london1 #ahdh and ,nazi ,army1 #aidj--;all use magic shadows for supernatural effects4 ,the tongue-twisting word1 ,phantasmagoria1 stands for a certain type of light and shadow show popular immediately after the ,french ,revolution4 ,it marked a definite throwback in the story of magic shadows4 ,it was essentially a revival of the medieval black magic or necromantic use of light and shadow to trick1 deceive and keep everyone 8in the dark about light40 ,phantasmagoria is the magic lantern illusion associated with making phantasms appear before an audience4 ,the only contribution to the art-science is that it created an illusion of motion through the novel means of moving the projector instead of the slides or film4 ,the ,phantasmagoria magic lantern was mounted on rollers and the lens was adjustable so that ghosts would appear to grow and diminish and move about4 ,certain dissolve effects were also produced4 ,for ,phantasmagoria the images--regularly ghosts--were projected not on a screen but on smoke1 a factor which naturally contributed to the weird effects4 ,phantasmagoria was most popular in ,paris in the late #agijs1 probably as some kind of a psychological reaction to the horrors of the ,french ,revolution4 ,men and women of the day thought much of death1 ghosts and the like4 ,the basic idea for combining motion illusions successfully with the magic lantern is traced directly to ,musschenbroek4 ,the use of smoke for a screen goes back to the ancient practitioners of light and shadow trickery4 ,guyot showed1 on a small scale1 how ghost illusions can be projected on smoke4 ,he noted1 8,it is remarkable in this representation1 that the motion of smoke does not at all change the figures1 which appear so conspicuous that the spectator thinks he can grasp them with his hand40 ,these devices were intended primarily for simple amusement on a private or semi-private scale4 ,an indication of the mood of the ,european people of the time is the fame granted ,alessandro ,conte di ,cagliostro 7#agdc-agie74 ,this man whose real name was ,giuseppe ,balsamo was known throughout ,europe in the latter part of the #ahth century4 ,thomas ,carlyle wrote about him under the title 8,count ,cagliostro40 ,he used all kinds of deceptive devices1 and was jailed in ,france1 ,england and in his native ,italy where he died4 ,the black magic of ,cagliostro1 the phantasm images1 and a third factor1 the ,shadow ,plays1 were to be combined to make the ,phantasmagoria4 ,earlier mention has been made of the ,chinese ,shadow ,plays which have been in use in the ,far ,east for thousands of years4 ,towards the middle of the #ahth century the ,shadow ,plays were very popular in ,germany4 ,shadows were used to portray action4 ,the audience sat before a translucent screen on which were cast1 by means of a strong light source1 shadows of the various players or objects4 ,in certain arrangements a regular magic lantern would also be used1 projecting1 from in front of the screen1 the background scenery or cloud and sky effects4 ,a showman named ,franois ,seraphin has been credited with introducing the ,shadow ,plays--,ombres ,chinoises--into ,france in #aggb4 ,he got the idea during his travels in ,italy4 ,then the shadow entertainment received its ,french 8first night0 at the ,palace of ,versailles4 ,light and ,shadow ,plays were very popular at the royal court1 especially with the children4 ,in #aghd ,seraphin decided that the entertainment was ready for introduction on a popular basis--the trend of the times may well have influenced his decision4 ,the ,shadow ,play theatre of ,seraphin was moved from ,versailles to the ,palais-,royal and its popularity continued for a time4 ,shadow entertainment was carried on by members of the same family till past the middle of the #aith century when an attempt was made to regain popularity by using marionettes4 ,other ,shadow ,plays continued to attract audiences in ,paris until the end of the #aith century1 when the pre-motion picture devices became popular4 ,phantasmagoria reached its peak under an extraordinary character--,etienne ,gaspard ,robert 7#agfc-ahcg71 a ,belgian and a practicer of a multitude of professions and hobbies4 ,robert1 for some reason1 called himself ,robertson4 ,robertson started life on a serious enough basis and in time became professor of physics in his native town of ,lige4 ,robertson tells in his memoirs how he came upon the works of ,kircher1 ,schott and many others1 who1 he believed1 practiced magic4 ,he read up on optics and1 about #aghd1 exhibited in ,holland1 where he was at the time1 an improved magic lantern4 ,he was greatly influenced by the results of ,musschenbroek and the success of the ,shadow ,plays at ,versailles4 ,robertson's characters were ghosts4 ,he commented1 8the encouragements that ,i received made me try to improve my methods40 ,more and more persons were attracted to ,robertson's shows in ,holland and finally even the burgomaster attended4 ,at ,paris ,robertson improved his knowledge of the magic lantern4 ,there he met ,jacques ,alexandre ,csar ,charles1 who was using a lantern for scientific purposes at his laboratory in the ,louvre4 ,robertson sought a brighter light source for the lantern and persisted in his quest even though ,charles was said to have tried to discourage him by pointing out that much money had been spent in vain on that project4 ,at the time of the ,revolution1 ,robertson laid before the ,government a plan which would authorize him to build a huge burning mirror1 as ,archimedes did1 so that he could destroy any attacking ,english fleet before it could reach the 8invasion coast40 ,no action was taken on the proposal4 ,in our own day the ,english were ready to burn any ,nazi invasion fleet which sailed from ,france--not by burning glasses but by equally amazing devices4 ,after the ,revolution1 during the stormy days of the first ,french ,republic1 ,robertson held 8seances0 at the ,pavillion de l',echiquier4 ,a projector mounted on wheels was used4 ,a patent on the device under the name of ,fantascope or ,phantoscope was obtained on ,march #bi1 #agii4 ,robertson's characters or ghosts which would appear to grow and disappear on the screen of smoke were usually such heroes as ,voltaire1 ,rousseau1 ,marat1 and ,lavoisier4 ,at the end of each performance1 a skeleton would appear and ,robertson would remark that this was the fate awaiting each one in the audience4 ,grim entertainment6 ,a clever artist1 ,robertson had a large collection of slides and would call upon his audience--which never quite knew whether to believe that he was in league with the devil and brought the ghosts into appearance or not--to ask for whichever ghost they wished4 ,you can imagine the effect when some ,frenchman called for ,marat and then1 small at first and gradually growing large until life-size and more1 a shadowy1 recognizable image of ,marat would appear4 ,this 8request0 part of the program caused ,robertson trouble4 ,one night1 a member of the audience who had had a few extra sips of wine1 or who was terrified beyond the others1 called for the return of the ghost of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,this was too much4 ,the authorities shut the theatre and refused to grant ,robertson permission to continue his 8seances40 ,they did not want even the ghost of ,louis returned4 ,political censorship of screen entertainment had made its first appearance4 ,robertson went to ,bordeaux to make sure that he1 himself1 did not prematurely join ,louis and his other ghosts4 ,later he was able to return to ,paris and open another theatre near the ,place ,vendme4 ,this was a particularly startling auditorium4 ,he used an abandoned chapel of a ,capuchin monastery4 ,robertson's light and shadow ghosts came to life among the mortal remains of ancient monks4 7,the reader may be aware of the ancient ,capuchin custom of using bones of deceased members of the order as part of the ornament of their chapels as a constant reminder of death47 ,even though ,robertson had admitted that from childhood he had the keenest interest in things marvelous1 he tired of his magic4 ,next we hear of him1 he is a pioneer balloonist1 credited with the invention of one of the early parachutes6 ,on ,july #ah1 #ahjc1 he made a notable ascent in a balloon4 ,in #ahde there was opened in ,paris a theatre which was to play a part in the light and shadow story4 ,it was called for its proprietor and chief performer1 ,thtre ,robert ,houdin4 ,houdin1 after whom ,harry ,houdini of the #bjth century named himself1 practiced every kind of trick and wondrous illusion4 ,he used ,phantasmagorial effects and the ,french public flocked to the shows4 ,towards the end of the century ,emile ,reynaud took over the ,thtre ,robert ,houdin and showed the best magic shadow plays prior to the introduction of the motion picture itself4 ,during the middle of the century1 the ,polytechnic ,institution1 at ,london1 attracted large crowds with magic lantern shows4 ,ghosts were created la ,robertson and the ,phantasmagorial methods4 ,regular entertainment was also provided with such magic lantern stories as ,puss in ,boots and versions of ,swift's ,gulliver's ,travels and ,the ,tale of the ,tub4 ,as many as a half-dozen magic lanterns would be used to create impressive scenes1 such as battles4 ,in our own day attempts have been made to use ,phantasmagorial effects to frighten and deceive4 ,an interesting example is contained in the following ,associated ,press dispatch telling how the ,nazis attempted to make the ,english soldiers believe that ,heaven was entreating them to abandon the war3 ,paris1 ,feb4 #ae 7#aidj7 7,,ap7--,press accounts from the front sector occupied by the ,british reported today that ,tommies manning an outpost during the night suddenly saw an image of the ,virgin ,mary appear in the clouds1 with her arms outstretched in entreaty4 ,the commander sent out a patrol1 which returned with the information that the ,germans were projecting the image from a machine on the ground4 ,phantasmagoria is not dead yet4 ,television may even increase the possibilities of this type of magic shadow diversion4 ,x ,,dr4 ,,paris' ,,toy ,an ,english physician1 ,dr4 ,paris1 invents the ,thaumatrope1 a simple device which creates the illusion of motion by having one part of a picture on one side of a disk and the other on the reverse side--,scientific instrument and child's plaything4 ,during the period which followed the defeat of ,napoleon at ,waterloo1 there appeared1 first in ,london and later in ,paris and elsewhere1 a small cardboard toy which was at once the plaything of children and a scientific curiosity which illustrated in a startling way the illusion of the persistence of vision4 ,this toy was the ,thaumatrope4 ,the name ,thaumatrope means 8wonder-turner0 7a word reminiscent of one of ,kircher's titles for the magic shadow projection art--thaumaturga74 ,the ,thaumatrope is a small disk with one image on the face and another on the back4 ,two short threads or bits of string are attached to the disk4 ,the ,thaumatrope's effects are observed by twirling the disk4 ,the eye1 as in the case of motion pictures1 does not distinguish the separate pictures on each side of the disk but only the one1 combined impression4 ,a variation of the ,thaumatrope1 however1 came even closer to the motion picture idea--the two ends of cord were not set opposite each other1 which resulted in an irregular motion and an additional illusion4 ,john ,ayrton ,paris 7#aghe-ahef71 an ,english doctor1 has the best claim to the invention of the ,thaumatrope4 ,at any rate1 he was responsible for the popularity of this scientific toy4 ,paris was a skilled physician who was specially known for his talent in judging the health of his patients by their general appearance4 ,he took interest in affairs well outside his medical profession and was respected as a conversationalist whose talk enlivened many a drawing room evening in ,london4 ,a keen mind and a great memory1 even for the smallest detail1 were qualities that helped to make ,paris a charming companion4 ,for recreation ,paris wrote a 8novel0 called1 ,philosophy in ,sport ,made ,science in ,earnest2 being an attempt to illustrate the first principles of natural philosophy by aid of ,popular ,toys and ,sports4 ,the work was published in three small volumes1 in keeping with the #aith century custom that every novel must be issued in three volumes4 ,paris used a thread of story as a frame-work on which to build the various scientific illustrations4 ,the book ,philosophy in ,sport1 shows the influence of the novelist-humorist ,thomas ,love ,peacock4 ,it was dedicated to the novelist1 ,maria ,edgeworth4 ,paris' work was published anonymously in #ahbg and was a 8best seller0 all through the rest of his life4 ,on his death-bed in #ahef he was busy revising the proofs of the #hth edition4 ,the first part of the third volume dealt with the ,thaumatrope which ,paris informed his readers could be obtained 8at ,mr4 ,william ,phillip's1 ,george ,yard1 ,lombard ,street1 the publisher40 ,paris continued1 8,we mention this circumstance to guard the reader against those inferior imitations which are vended in the shops of ,london40 ,george ,cruikshank1 #agib-ahgh1 the skilled illustrator1 who worked on books of ,scott and ,dickens1 made some of the designs for ,paris' ,thaumatrope4 ,paris introduced the ,thaumatrope amid a great number of puns which perhaps were very funny in his day4 ,no sooner had ,mr4 ,seymour put the card in motion than the vicar1 in a tone of the greatest surprise1 exclaimed1 8,magic6 ,magic6 ,i declare the rat is in the cage660 8,and what is the motto80 asked ,louisa4 8,why is this rat like an opposition member in the ,house of ,commons1 who joins the ministry80 replied ,mr4 ,seymour4 8,ha1 ha1 ha--excellent10 cried the major1 as he read the following answer3 8because by turning round he gains a snug berth1 but ceases to be free40 8,show us another card10 said ,tom1 eagerly4 8,here then is a watch-box2 when ,i turn it round1 you will see the watchman comfortably sleeping at his post40 8,very good6 ,it is very surprising10 observed the vicar4 8,yes10 observed the major2 8and to carry on your political joke1 it may be said that1 like most worthies who gain a post1 by turning round1 he sleeps over his duty40 ,one epigram1 accompanying a ,thaumatrope card1 had a reference to the recent activities of ,napoleon3 ,head1 legs and arms1 alone appear2 ,observe that nobody is here3 ,napoleon-like ,i undertake ,of nobody a king to make4 ,paris1 as inventor of the ,thaumatrope1 could not avoid the temptation to have a little speech from the anonymous inventor1 himself3 8,the inventor confidently anticipates the favour and patronage of an enlightened and liberal public1 on the well-grounded assurance that #8one good turn deserves another'2 and he trusts that his discovery may afford the happy means of giving activity to wit that has been long stationary2 of revolutionizing the present system of standing jokes1 and of putting into rapid circulation the most appreciated bon mots40 ,the ,thaumatrope was advertised in the following way3 ,the ,thaumatrope being ,rounds of ,amusement or ,how to ,please and ,surprise by turns4 ,through the characters of his 8novel10 ,paris then commented on the illusion of the persistence of vision which makes the ,thaumatrope 7and the motion picture7 a reality4 ,he discussed the whirling flame which appeared to make a circle2 ,homer's reference to 8long shadowed0 spear2 and the tail of a rocket4 ,paris also described an improved model of the ,thaumatrope4 ,in this card device a center disk is allowed to change from one position to another as the whole revolves4 ,in one illustration a jockey was on one side and a horse on the other4 ,by tightening the strings as the card revolved the jockey appeared to be falling over the neck of the horse4 ,in another an ,indian juggler was represented as using two1 then three and finally four balls4 ,other illusions indicated were a sailor rowing a boat1 8a dandy making a bow40 ,through the words of the vicar1 ,paris then warned1 8,i hope that1 amidst all your improvements 7in the ,thaumatrope71 you will still keep in view your first and most laudable design1 that of rendering it subservient to classical illustration40 ,it is certain that ,paris developed the ,thaumatrope1 first1 for scientific illustration of the persistence of vision1 perhaps to better explain the phenomenon to one of his patients or students4 ,but being a clever man1 he immediately realized its commercial value and arranged to have sets of the cards made up and sold in ,london4 ,doubtless the chapter in his book on the ,thaumatrope did much to increase the sale of the toys4 ,david ,brewster 7#agha-ahfh71 ,scottish scientist whose work on the polarization of light led him to invent1 around #ahae1 the ,kaleidoscope--an optical instrument which creates and exhibits by reflection a variety of beautiful symmetrical designs in varied colors--was the first to comment in print on the ,thaumatrope of ,paris1 the year before the latter's book appeared4 ,in the fourth volume of his ,edinburgh ,journal ,brewster wrote1 under the description of the ,thaumatrope1 8a very ingenious philosophical toy1 invented1 we believe1 by ,dr4 ,paris40 ,brewster remarked that the circular disks should be #b inches in diameter and that the cord should be of silk4 ,brewster described the following ,thaumatrope cards3 ,rose-tree and garden-pot1 horse and man1 a branch with and without leaves1 woman in one dress and then another1 body of a ,turk and his head1 watchman's box and the watchman1 ,harlequin and ,columbine1 comic head and wig1 a man asleep and awake1 and the use of the cards for cipher writing4 ,according to ,brewster1 8the principle of the thaumatrope may be extended to many other devices40 ,he also commented on the imperfections of the toy arising from the hobbling effect of irregular rotation4 ,he suggested that a 8solid axis of rotation is decidedly preferable and will produce much more pleasing combinations40 ,brewster himself was deeply interested in light and vision phenomena4 ,despite its original scientific purposes1 his ,kaleidoscope also was a popular toy4 ,brewster patented the toy in #ahaf but it was pirated4 ,some #bjj1jjj were sold in three months4 ,in his ,treatise on the ,kaleidoscope1 #ahai1 ,brewster told it was discovered while he was testing the successive reflections of gold and silver plates4 ,he also noted the application of the ,kaleidoscope to ,kircher's magic lantern in order to bring the effects before a large audience at one time4 ,the invention of the ,thaumatrope has been attributed to others besides ,paris1 despite the weighty authority of ,brewster and ,paris' own book4 ,charles ,babbage 7#agib-ahga71 ,english scientist and mathematician noted for his calculating machine and his campaign against noise 7which he said robbed us of one-quarter of our working life71 attributed the discovery of the ,thaumatrope to his friend and classmate1 ,john ,herschel1 the astronomer1 7#agib-ahga74 ,babbage wrote in his autobiography that one evening ,herschel spun a shilling before a mirror so that both sides of it could be visible--the ,thaumatrope effect4 ,dr4 ,william ,fitton1 ,captain ,kaster and ,dr4 ,william ,hyde ,wollaston 7#agff-ahbh7 were told about the method and various ,thaumatropes were made1 according to ,babbage1 about #ahah or #ahai4 8,after a lapse of some time the device was forgotten4 ,then in #ahbf10 ,babbage wrote 8during a dinner at the ,royal ,society ,club1 ,sir ,joseph ,banks being in the chair1 ,i heard ,mr4 ,barrow1 then ,secretary to the ,admiralty1 talking very loudly about a wonderful invention of ,dr4 ,paris1 the object of which ,i could not quite understand40 ,babbage then claimed it was his invention4 ,at any rate1 ,paris and not ,herschel1 ,fitton1 ,wollaston or ,babbage1 was the one to popularize the ,thaumatrope4 ,in passing1 it may be noted that at the time ,paris was making the ,thaumatrope well known ,babbage was thinking about submarine craft3 8,such a vessel0 7a four-man submarine equipped for a #dh-;hour stay under water7 8could be propelled by a screw and might enter1 without being suspected1 any harbour1 and place any amount of explosive matter under the bottoms of ships40 ,,xi ,,plateau ,,creates ,,motion ,,pictures ,plateau1 blind half of his life1 develops devices to show motion from hand-drawn images1 opening the road to the modern motion picture--,stampfer independently invents similar apparatus--,persistence of vision studied4 ,plateau1 a ,belgian scientist who became blind in work that resulted in making it possible for millions all over the world to see motion pictures1 deserves more than anyone else the title1 8,father of the ,motion ,picture40 ,just as ,athanasius ,kircher originated projection as we know it with the magic lantern1 ,joseph ,antoine ,ferdinand ,plateau has the best claim of all to credit for making the motion picture illusion a reality4 ,never interested in profits for himself1 ,plateau did not trouble to patent his magic disk picture machines but took pains to issue correct instructions when commercial imitators made devices lacking in some essential4 ,plateau was born on ,oct4 #ad1 #ahja1 at ,brussels1 ,belgium1 the son of a landscape and flower painter4 ,his mother was the former ,catherine ,thirion4 ,from earliest boyhood1 ,plateau was trained to be an artist and the nature of his studies and work in later life indicated that he must have shown great promise1 for he had the temperamental qualities of a great artist4 ,after his elementary studies1 his father lost no time in directing his son's attention towards the arts by sending him to the ,academy of ,design at ,brussels4 ,at the age of #ad ,plateau was left an orphan1 and was made a ward of his maternal uncle4 ,in delicate health young ,plateau was sent into the country to recuperate from the shock of losing both his parents in two years4 ,the location selected was near ,waterloo and ,plateau had to take shelter in the woods for ten days and nights while the battle raged4 ,soon the plans ,plateau's father had made for him to study art were altered4 ,the uncle was a lawyer and wished his ward to succeed him in that profession4 ,plateau himself evidently was strong-willed and persevering even at an early age1 for during the next few years he studied both arts and sciences4 ,this would make it possible for him to follow his father's1 his uncle's1 or his own wish4 ,he wanted to strike out into a new field1 and this he did4 ,higher studies were carried on at the ,royal ,college and in #ahbb1 at the age of #ba1 ,plateau entered the ,university of ,lige as a candidate for a degree both in philosophy and letters1 and in science4 ,as the years progressed ,plateau turned more and more of his attention toward science1 especially problems concerning color1 vision and the perception of motion4 ,but all through life he retained the fullness of viewpoint of a man with a background and interests in many fields so his imagination never was dulled1 as sometimes happens in the cases of specialists in a restricted field of science4 ,the art of his father never left him4 ,while studying for the doctorate ,plateau carried on his first important work in vision and motion which resulted in the scientific approach to the first motion picture machine4 ,he investigated the visual effects of whirling a disk which was colored half in yellow1 half in blue4 ,in #ahbg part of ,plateau's research was published in ,quetelet's ,correspondance ,mathmatique et ,physique4 ,quetelet 7#agif-ahgd7 was a pioneer in statistics and ,plateau's professor at the ,royal ,college1 and also taught at the ,museum of ,science and ,letters in ,belgium4 ,the next year1 #ahbh1 ,plateau sent another communication to ,m4 ,quetelet on the appearances produced by two lines turning around a point with uniform motion4 ,in that letter ,plateau referred to the work of ,roget on persistence of vision published in the ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society1 ,london1 #ahbd4 ,peter ,mark ,roget 7#aggi-ahfi71 ,english doctor best known for his ,thesaurus of ,english ,words and ,phrases1 combined his medical work with interest in the sciences4 ,on ,december #i1 #ahbd1 he read1 at the ,royal ,society1 a paper called1 8,explanation of an optical deception in the appearance of the spokes of a wheel seen through vertical apertures40 ,roget pointed out that the phenomenon had been noted but not explained by an anonymous contributor who signed himself 8,j4 ,m40 in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,december #a1 #ahbj4 8,j4 ,m40 commented on the curvature of spokes when a wheel is in motion and is viewed through a series of vertical bars4 ,everyone has noted the strange rotations of motor car wheels when viewed under certain conditions1 as in the modern motion picture4 8,j4 ,m40 pointed out that at times the wheel appeared to rotate backwards2 at other times1 forward and still again seem to stand still4 ,a nod of praise should be bestowed towards 8,j4 ,m40 7these are not the initials of any of the better known ,english scientists of the period74 ,ten years later the great ,faraday confessed he did not know the identity of this man who had stimulated those investigations which we now know led directly to the first actual motion pictures formed from hand-drawn designs4 ,roget1 in #ahbd1 noted that a certain velocity and a certain amount of light were necessary before the 8wheel phenomenon0 was visible--both speed of motion and bright light source are necessary for the motion picture illusion4 ,roget said1 8,it is evident from the facts above stated that the deception in the appearance of the spokes must arise from the circumstances of separate parts only of each spoke being seen at the same moment2 the remaining parts being concealed from view by the bars0 7equivalent to the shutters in the motion picture machine74 ,roget continued1 8so that it is evident that the several portions of one and the same line1 seen through the intervals of the bars1 form on the retina the images of so many different radii40 ,roget remarked that the illusion was the same as when a bright object is whirled in a circle--8an impression made by a pencil of rays on the retina1 if sufficiently vivid1 will remain for a certain time after the cause has ceased40 ,a few weeks later1 on ,december #bd1 #ahbd1 ,roget lectured on the persistence of vision with regard to moving objects1 a phenomenon first recognized by the ancient scientists4 ,plateau wrote in #ahbh as follows3 ,i have made an instrument by means of which ,i could produce these fixed images with ease and ,i also could make visible the formation of changes in the curvature 444 when working at my first experiments relative to sensations1 ,i observed that while turning rapidly a wheel whose teeth were perpendicular to its axis1 and placing the eye at some distance from the plane of the axis1 one perceived the image of a series of perfectly immobile teeth2 that also with two wheels revolving1 the one behind the other1 with considerable speed and in opposite directions1 produced in the eye the sensation of a fixed wheel4 ,i have remarked further that1 while the two wheels are not concentric1 the fixed image appears to be made up of curved lines4 ,today stroboscopic machines1 based on the principles of ,plateau's devices1 are used to study moving objects4 ,in this way modern scientists learn more about the nature of movement and its stresses on wheels and other objects4 ,plateau received the degree of doctor of physical and mathematical sciences from the ,university of ,lige on ,june #c1 #ahbi1 when he was #bh4 ,his thesis was on 8,certain ,properties of the ,impressions ,produced by ,light upon the ,organ of ,sight40 ,it is strange that such a learned paper would have so much influence on what was to be the modern motion picture4 ,the chief points--all of importance in building motion pictures--of the ,plateau thesis dated ,april #bd1 #ahbi1 were3 ,first1 the sensation 7result of the picture presented to the eye7 must stay for a time to form completely--this hinted definitely at the necessity of intermittent movement for a really successful and practical motion picture machine4 ,second1 the sensations do not disappear immediately but gradually dim--this makes motion pictures possible4 ,if each image disappeared all at once1 only individual still pictures would be recognized4 ,the gradually dimming makes possible fusion of one image with the next which results in appearance of motion4 ,the third point covered was the relative effect on the eye of various colors4 ,plateau concluded that the intensity of the chief colors decreased from white1 yellow1 red1 blue--in that order4 ,he also announced results of perception of various colors at different angles1 studies made in the shade and in the light4 ,it was further pointed out that two colors--as two images--changed rapidly result in only one sensation or image4 ,after receiving his doctor's degree from the ,university1 ,plateau taught at the ,royal ,college of ,lige while he continued his research on vision and related matters4 ,illustration3 ,annuaire1 ,l',acadmie de ,belgique1 #ahhe ,,joseph ,,plateau sacrificed his own eyesight in an effort to enable others to see pictures in motion4 ,illustration3 ,correspondance ,mathmatique1 #ahbi-ahcc ,,plateau',s first real motion picture device1 shown above1 see page #hi4 ,below1 the ,phnakisticope with which a single person could see pictures in motion4 ,the first machine creating the illusion of motion from a series of drawings was described by ,plateau in a letter to ,quetelet dated ,lige1 ,december #e1 #ahbi1 with the scientific title1 8,different ,optical ,experiments40 7,relative diffrentes expriences d'optique47 ,a similar instrument was already referred to by ,plateau in his paper written in the preceding year4 ,although the device made by ,plateau in #ahbh and described in the #ahbi article followed by several years the introduction of the ,thaumatrope1 it rates as the first motion picture machine because the ,thaumatrope was really only a scientific toy1 just as ,paris called it4 ,plateau illustrated his letter describing his instrument in writing to ,quetelet in answer to an inquiry4 ,the drawing 7opposite page7 of ,plateau shows that1 though a scientist1 he never forgot his early training and was something of an artist4 ,the principles of his machine could be illustrated by drawings of lines and other geometrical figures1 but ,plateau chose a woman's head4 ,in the following words ,plateau described his instrument3 ,two small copper pulleys1 7a7 and 7b71 drive by means of an endless cord a large wooden wheel1 7c71 which has a double groove2 the diameters of the small pulleys are such that the two cords are equally taut and the system is placed in movement by means of the handle1 7d71 the speed of one pulley being an exact multiple of the other2 the axes terminate in the form of a vise and are divised in such a way that you can attach to them by little screws the drawings or cartoons with which you wish to experiment4 ,the pulleys are held by iron supports1 7f7 and 7g71 which slide in two grooves practically parallel with the stand or base 7hk71 and are held in position by means of thumb screws4 ,lines or drawings to be studied are mounted on the two pulleys4 ,the machine is of such a nature1 ,plateau pointed out1 that drawings can be easily changed1 the relative speeds of the two wheels 7one serving as a shutter when drawings are used7 can be regulated1 alignment can be readjusted and by crossing the cords the disks can be made to rotate in opposite directions4 ,plateau continued by explaining that when the speed on one disk is not an exact multiple of the other they do not keep the same relative positions after rotation4 ,a different image is produced at each revolution and the eye1 instead of seeing one fixed line 7or image71 sees only a rapid succession of different lines 7or images72 however if the swifter is little more than a multiple of the other1 the difference is very little in a manner which the eye cannot distinguish one from another4 ,in this case the spectacle will appear to change little by little4444 ,there is the germ of the motion picture--a real instrument which makes pictures move4 ,the diagram illustrates a model in which 8a perfectly regular image is produced from a deformed figure0 turning in a speed proportional to the distortion behind the shutter disk4 ,plateau pointed out that the deformed figure can be painted black and turn before a white surface1 or be white and turn behind a slot pierced in a black disk4 ,he said1 8,this last method is preferable to the other because it gives an image of greater lifelikeness44440 ,this of course is the quality sought in all dramatic representations--realistic living pictures4 8,for this effect10 he explained1 8you design the deformed figure on white transparent paper and paint the surrounding space with a very opaque black1 then make the experiment carefully1 and place a strong light behind the paper40 ,in the example shown in the drawing the two disks1 mounted one behind the other1 are rotated in an opposite direction1 the motion of the deformed figure is double that of the shutter and the effect produced is that of the regular image shown in ,figure #c4 ,plateau then remarked1 8,the construction of these images is very simple40 ,he gave the method and an example4 8,while the shutter will be making a third part of a revolution all the points of the circle carrying the deformed figure will be present behind it and in consequence it will produce one regular complete image4 ,then during the second and third part of the revolution of the shutter it will be able to form itself into second and third images resembling the first40 ,these were the words ,plateau used to explain the nature of the operations of the first movie machine4 ,he concluded3 8,as you are master of the production of the figures you can make them as bizarre and as irregular as you wish40 ,producers of the modern motion picture have indeed made pictures that are both 8bizarre0 and 8irregular40 ,plateau would have liked modern motion pictures because he was fond of the theatre1 especially liking comedies4 ,while ,plateau was making the experiments in #ahbi which led to scientific presentations of visual and optical phenomena as well as construction of the first motion picture machine to illustrate those principles as well as to entertain1 a tragic event happened4 ,plateau in his investigations of seeing light and motion gave special attention to the chief source of all light on earth1 the sun4 ,one day1 to see for himself the effects of a great stimulus1 the greatest possible in nature on his eye1 he stared at the sun for #be seconds without glasses or other protection4 ,the intensity was great and the effect equal4 ,he was blind for the rest of that day4 ,in a few days his sight came back but it was permanently injured4 ,it gradually waned and was gone in #ahdc4 ,a choroid inflammation persisted and blotted out the vision of one of the greatest investigators of vision in all history4 ,during the period while his sight was gradually going1 ,plateau continued work on vision and made great contributions to the then unknown motion picture4 ,from #ahdc he had to discontinue teaching on account of total blindness but this did not stop his experiments4 ,in #ahcj ,plateau published a further explanation of his wheel device in ,quetelet's ,journal4 ,in #ahca and #ahcb ,plateau and ,michael ,faraday 7#agia-ahfg71 ,english scientist1 had a written argument over certain phases of priority in observing the 8wheel phenomenon0 which led to the motion picture4 ,on ,december #ajth1 #ahcj1 ,faraday1 the son of a blacksmith1 who attracted the attention of ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 addressed the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain 8,on the ,peculiar ,class of ,optical ,deceptions40 ,the paper was published in ,february1 #ahca1 in the ,institution's ,journal4 ,faraday1 called by ,tyndall1 8the greatest experimental philosopher the world has ever seen10 was attracted to the wheel phenomenon which he noted 8,j4 ,m40 had discussed in #ahbj and ,roget in #ahbd4 ,at the lead mills of ,messrs4 ,maltsby ,faraday saw cog wheels rapidly revolving one in one direction1 the other in another4 ,the optical effect was curious4 ,he designed in his laboratory a disk machine in order to create the same illusion1 noting that the effects produced were sometimes beautiful4 ,faraday said that the device of the revolving wheels could be spun before a mirror and interesting results observed4 ,he did not propose the use of images or pictures4 ,mr4 ,wheatstone1 ,faraday said1 was engaged in the general exploration of the subject and hoped soon that the results would be made public4 ,plateau later in the year wrote in the ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique1 a scientific publication printed in ,paris and edited by ,guy-,lussac and ,arago1 that scientists both in ,france and ,england were studying the effects of two revolving wheels1 one placed behind the other and each revolving at different speeds4 ,plateau claimed priority in these words3 8,several years ago ,i observed those phenomena and from that conducted experiments whose results were published4 ,my experiments attracted little attention outside the country and ,mr4 ,faraday without doubt had no knowledge of my work4444 ,it is because such a man as ,mr4 ,faraday has decided that the phenomenon in question was not unworthy of his attention that ,i attach some merit to the honor of having observed it before him40 ,in the #ahcb edition of the ,correspondance ,mathmatique et ,physique of ,quetelet1 ,plateau remarked 7in a note dated ,january #bj1 #ahcc7 that following the letter published in the ,annales of ,november1 #ahca1 8,he 7,faraday7 wrote me and recognized in a manner most flattering for me the priority of my observations40 ,plateau finally concluded that ,faraday had had some knowledge after all of his earlier work when the ,englishman wrote his paper at the end of #ahcj4 ,plateau acknowledged that ,faraday's paper had some interesting observations which he explained and enlarged upon4 ,following the principle outlined in his work of #ahbh1 ,plateau then constructed the first ,fantascope or ,phnakisticope1 the first machine which created illusions of motion from a series of pictures4 ,madou1 a brother-in-law of ,quetelet1 was credited with copying ,plateau's drawing with extreme care4 ,plateau conceived the idea of having successively different pictures which would give the illusion of motion for use on the revolving disk4 ,with each figure showing some changes of position from the preceding1 the illusion is that the figures move and not the disk2 and so it is with modern motion pictures4 ,we have no consciousness of the movement of film through the machine before our eyes--only of movement of the figures on the film as projected on the screen4 7,illustration facing page #hi47 ,plateau also pointed out that a strong light was necessary for the motion pictures--as today--and that the 8projector0 must be a certain distance from the mirror 7now a screen7 on which the images are seen4 8,i shall not describe the variety of curious illusion which can be produced by this new method10 ,plateau concluded4 8,i leave to the imagination of persons who would try these experiences the care to find out the most interesting40 ,motion picture producers down to this day1 using their imagination1 have followed the challenge of ,plateau1 and still the field is inexhaustible4 ,in the ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique for #ahcc ,plateau gave a further explanation of his device1 named by others the ,phnakisticope4 ,others had also commercialized it4 ,mc,leans' ,optical ,illusions1 ,no4 #bf ,haymarket ,street1 ,london1 and other firms were selling models based on ,plateau's invention4 8,i wish to take this opportunity to state1 that while the ,phnakisticope has been made from an idea which ,i have published on this new method of creating illusions1 ,i have no part whatsoever in the execution of this instrument which leaves much to be desired according to reports4 ,the theory and experiments have shown that to obtain results as perfect as possible it is necessary to take certain precautions which have been omitted in the ,phnakisticope40 ,plateau went on to explain that he had made some models in which the necessary steps had been taken and 8these models now constitute a new instrument which has been published in ,london under the name of ,fantascope40 ,the improved instrument was described with the original dancer and marching men as illustrations4 ,he also pointed out that the disks must revolve at a certain speed--if too slow1 the illusion of motion is not present1 and if too rapid the figures become blurred4 ,at about the same time ,plateau invented his ,phnakisticope or ,fantascope independently1 the same device was invented by ,simon ,ritter von ,stampfer1 an ,austrian geometrician and geologist4 ,stampfer was born ,october #bh1 #agib1 in the ,tyrol4 ,as a young boy he stared at the sun for a long period but recovered his normal sight after the image of the sun persisted for #bd days4 ,when a professor of practical geometry at the ,polytechnical ,institute at ,vienna1 ,stampfer published his account of the ,stroboscope1 as he called it1 in #ahcd4 ,stampfer in his article mentioned ,dr4 ,paris' ,thaumatrope1 ,dr4 ,roget's paper on the persistence of vision in regard to wheel spokes and the paper of ,faraday--all mentioned above4 ,stampfer's treatment of the disks to create the illusion of motion was a mathematical one4 ,he explained many complicated mathematical formulae and unlike the ,plateau papers his were not accompanied by a drawing4 ,stampfer1 though not having ,plateau's artistic talent1 was a more practical man4 ,on ,may #g1 #ahcc1 he took out an ,imperial patent on his invention4 ,stampfer died on ,november #aj1 #ahfd1 in ,vienna4 ,plateau himself is the best authority for the respective claims of himself and ,stampfer1 though as always he may have been much more modest and generous than the facts warranted for basically his disk had much greater influence than ,stampfer's and his research was started first4 ,while describing an improved form of his original ,anorthoscope1 or machine used to create distorted images developed first in #ahbh and #ahbi1 ,plateau wrote on the invention of the ,phnakisticope1 ,fantascope or ,stroboscope1 in #ahcf in the ,bulletin of the ,royal ,academy of ,belgium3 ,i would like to take this occasion to say here a few words on the question of my priority to the invention of another instrument1 the ,fantascope or ,phnakisticope1 priority which is shared equally with ,mr4 ,stampfer1 professor at ,vienna1 who has published a similar instrument under the name of ,stroboscopic ,disks4 ,in the notice which accompanies the second edition of these ,stroboscopic ,disks printed in ,july of #ahcc1 ,mr4 ,stampfer stated that he had commenced in ,december of the preceding year to repeat the experiments of ,mr4 ,faraday on certain illusions of optics and that these experiments had resulted in the invention of the instrument which he had published4 ,also the editors affirmed in a foreword that in the month of ,february of the following year ,mr4 ,stampfer had assembled a collection of these disks and had shown them successively to his friends1 including prominent persons4 ,they brought it about that on ,may #g of that year he was given an exclusive ,imperial patent to the rights to his invention4 ,so much for what concerns ,mr4 ,stampfer4 ,one sees that the patent above mentioned was not obtained until ,may #g1 #ahcc4 ,the professor has not been able to place his first publication prior to that time4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the letter which gives first description of my ,fantascope is dated ,january #bj1 #ahcb4 ,thus my first publication is over a year before that of ,mr4 ,stampfer4 ,as for the time when ,i first got the idea for this instrument1 the idea to which ,i was also led by the paper of ,mr4 ,faraday1 it is difficult for me to be precise2 however1 the drawing which accompanies that letter proved that ,i had already at that time finished the first disk and when ,i recall my labor1 the difficulties which ,i encountered in the first construction and the extreme care which ,i had given to it1 ,i believe that ,i can place the invention at about the same time1 that is to say1 as ,mr4 ,stampfer1 in the month of ,december1 #ahcb4 ,roget also may be considered a pioneer in this field4 ,in #ahcd he wrote that ,faraday's writing had called again to his attention wheel devices and that in the ,spring of #ahca he had constructed several 8which ,i showed to many of my friends10 he wrote1 8but in consequence of occupations and cares of a more serious kind ,i did not publish any account of this invention which was last year reproduced on the continent40 ,from #ahce until #ahdc ,plateau continued his work and teaching at the ,university of ,lige in his capacity of professor of experimental physics1 taking time off to be married in #ahdj to ,fanny ,clavareau4 ,but all the while the man who had helped to bring visual education and entertainment to millions who were to come after him was gradually going blind4 ,he was a popular teacher1 despite his handicap4 ,from #ahdd1 when his vision was entirely gone1 ,plateau worked continually at home1 having set up there a laboratory in which friends and relatives acted as his assistants4 ,plateau himself gave all the instructions to his aids2 they reported to him every detail of the results of the experiments and he then dictated the notes covering the work1 relying on a remarkable memory4 ,later the notes would be revised for publication4 ,plateau supplied the imagination and piercing intelligence2 his helpers supplied the eyes and were the reporters4 ,plateau was the editor4 ,scientific critics have held that he not only overcame his handicap but actually did better work4 ,in #ahdi ,plateau published in the ,bulletin of the ,royal ,academy of ,belgium further studies on revolving disks and the use of a shutter4 ,this time he also treated the effects when colored1 and vari-colored disks are used4 ,the system was similar to the ,anorthoscope4 ,sixteen images were mounted on the margin of a glass disk4 ,another disk with four slots was revolved four times as swiftly4 ,a number of spectators could see the effect at the same time4 ,the chief illusion was a devil blowing up a fire4 ,edison's peep-show film machine of #ahia also had a revolving disk with four slots4 ,the last time ,plateau wrote for publication directly on the motion picture machine was in #aheb1 #bj years after his invention4 ,once more he had to lash back at critics1 this time at those who said he stole not from another of his own time but from the ancient ,romans4 ,in the ,may #cj1 #aheb issue of ,cosmos1 a ,french weekly review of science1 edited by ,abb ,moigno1 comments were made about an article written by one ,dr4 ,sinsteden in the ,german science review1 ,annalen der ,physik und ,chemie1 which asserted that ,lucretius in the fourth book of ,de ,rerum ,natura described the ,fantascope or ,phnakisticope invented by ,plateau 8with such exactitude that1 if it were not for the long series of theoretical considerations and practical experiments that led the ,belgian scientist to arrive at the construction of the apparatus one would suppose that he took the idea from the ,roman philosopher40 ,to back up the position1 the text from ,lucretius was quoted in ,latin and ,french and ,abb ,moigno made another comment1 8,what is the effect of that but the ,phnakisticope--could ,lucretius have described it in terms more precise or more clear80 ,plateau replied in the issue of ,july #be of the same year and answered for all time the assertion that ,lucretius had invented the first motion picture machine many hundreds of years before4 ,moigno realized his mistake and prefaced ,plateau's words with an apology1 8,we are always ready to retract the errors which we print4 ,our learned friend1 ,plateau1 has written us today about a translation written from a preconceived idea4 ,he has a hundred reasons for complaint40 ,plateau's few lines were devastating4 ,he pointed out that the passage of ,lucretius used by ,dr4 ,sinsteden and picked up by ,abb ,moigno had suppressed one line of the text and had mistranslated others4 ,it was proved that ,lucretius was describing not an optical instrument but dreams4 ,plateau concluded1 8,these few words suffice1 ,i hope1 to show the true relationship which exists between the passage of ,lucretius and the ,phnakisticope1 and to remove from me all suspicion of having stolen the idea of my instrument from antiquity40 ,a re-examination of the ,latin text of ,lucretius leaves no doubt whatsoever that ,plateau was correct and ,lucretius was writing about dreams and not the first movie device4 ,the lines of ,lucretius talk about images1 the imagination and dreams4 ,dr4 ,sinsteden and others in the #aith century who believed that ,lucretius was describing an instrument were confused by failing to understand his words and confusing his theory of vision with an actual piece of apparatus and its effects4 ,it was a simple mistake and accounts for ,lucretius' recorded connection with the origin of the motion picture which has been repeated in many books4 ,a few years before his death ,plateau published a complete1 annotated bibliography of works on vision from the earliest time to his own day4 ,he started with ,aristotle and followed the entire historical trail4 ,about #ajj years before his own experiments1 the first efforts to measure the persistence of vision were made4 ,all the many years he was blind he was most interested in light1 color1 vision1 the illusion of motion and related phenomena4 ,plateau regularly attended scientific meetings and his fame was well known throughout the scientific world4 ,he was well known for his religious devotion and piety4 ,plateau1 honored by his scientific colleagues and the ,belgian ,government1 died at ,ghent on ,september #ae1 #ahhc1 a few years before the motion picture was presented to the public and acclaimed throughout the world4 ,the art science of magic shadows had made great progress under this ,belgian who was endowed with rare talent and an indomitable spirit4 ,,xii ,,the ,,baron',s ,,projector ,first impact of war on magic shadows--,general ,uchatius invents a projector combining ,kircher's magic lantern and the ,plateau-,stampfer picture disks--,motion pictures reach the screen4 ,the first man to combine ,kircher's magic lantern and the ,plateau-,stampfer disk and thereby achieve moving images on a screen visible to an audience was ,baron ,general ,franz von ,uchatius4 ,a type of bronze was named for this ,austrian ballistic expert but1 though his machine was the pattern for motion picture projectors until the advent of film at the end of the century1 his name was not linked with the device4 ,with ,uchatius also came the first impact of projected pictures on the science of war4 ,from these small beginnings1 in less than a century1 the motion picture--in our day--became a great weapon of psychological warfare4 ,franz ,uchatius1 the second son of a former artillery officer and instructor in the cadet school who resigned after #ai years' service to become street commissioner in a small ,austrian town1 was born on ,october #bj1 #ahaa1 at ,theresienfeld1 ,wiener ,neustadt1 ,austria4 ,the father had married a woman from ,bavaria and lived comfortably1 for in addition to his town job he managed an estate and derived income from an agricultural sowing machine which he had invented4 ,after elementary and high school education near his home1 ,franz was apprenticed to a ,viennese merchant4 ,his father had to pay an annual fee of some #cjj gulden 7about #abj7 for the privilege4 ,franz1 a small1 sensitive boy1 was very unhappy as an apprentice1 having no interest in merchandising4 ,after much persuasion1 for his father evidently had found life happier outside the army1 ,franz received permission to join his eldest brother1 ,joseph1 in the artillery4 ,there was another difficulty4 ,franz was under the minimum height established for that branch of the army4 ,special permission had to be received from ,archduke ,ludwig1 the youngest son of ,emperor ,francis and the general inspector of artillery1 before he could enter the artillery school4 ,but everything was arranged and on ,august #e1 #ahbi1 when ,uchatius was #ag1 he was taken to the ,rennweger armory in ,vienna to start training as an artillery sub-cadet4 ,uchatius was especially interested in physics1 mathematics and chemistry4 ,chemistry was not highly regarded then and was usually reserved for non-commissioned officers4 ,uchatius overcame this prejudice by becoming the laboratory assistant to the professor4 ,military advancement came slowly to ,uchatius4 ,at #be he was a gunner but also was able to attend lectures at the ,polytechnical ,school4 ,the next year1 #ahcg1 he again became assistant to the chemistry professor at the artillery school1 keeping this position until #ahda4 ,during that period he served as special tutor to ,turkish officers1 then studying in ,vienna1 and also worked in the gun foundry4 ,finally in #ahdc1 at the age of #cb1 he was commissioned a lieutenant4 ,it was at this period that he did his first inventing4 ,a special fuse for guns was his initial achievement4 ,somewhat later he invented the first ,european hydrocarbon lamp4 ,this was a special lantern designed for use aboard ship4 ,it was so constructed that it would not go out even when completely overturned4 ,a modification of this lamp was used by ,uchatius in one model of his pre-film motion picture projector4 ,the description of ,uchatius' 8,apparatus for the presentation of motion pictures upon a wall0 was not published until #ahec4 ,the account appeared in the ,sitzungsberichte of the ,kaiserliche ,akademie der ,wissenschaften of ,vienna4 ,but1 as ,uchatius himself said1 he was asked to develop the invention as far back as #ahde1 at the request of ,field ,marshal ,lieutenant von ,hauslab4 ,that general very probably thought that if moving figures of the ,plateau-,stampfer magic disks could be projected on the wall there would be available a potent instrument for military instruction4 ,in our own day the motion picture has come to be an important aid in military training all over the world4 ,uchatius wrote as follows3 ,the well known illusion caused by means of the ,stampfer disk arises from the fact that the eye receives on the same portion of the retina pictures succeeding one another at short intervals1 which present some recurring motion in its various phases1 and through this arises an effect which equals that of one picture observed in motion4 ,the method used by ,uchatius to throw a connected series of images on a wall 8in any desired size0 is indicated by the illustrations4 ,uchatius noted that the ,plateau-,stampfer disk had a certain disadvantage not only because but one person could observe the effects at a time but also because the pictures were not sharp and clear4 ,the first model developed by ,uchatius was described as follows3 ,the pictures 7a71 7a7 444 are painted on transparent glass and mounted on a disk1 7,a71 at equal intervals1 and the lowest of the pictures was illuminated from behind by the lamp 7,s7 and the illuminating lens 7,b74 ,a second disk1 7,c71 contained the slits 7b71 7b7 444 7the modern shutter7 to be brought before each picture4 ,the slits correspond to those in the ,stampfer disk4 ,both disks are mounted on the same axis1 7,d71 and are rotated by the crank 7,e74 ,the slit1 7c71 corresponds to the pupil opening of the eye and the achromatic lens1 7,f71 to the crystal lens of the eye4 ,the lens is adjustable to allow the picture to be focussed sharply4 ,the surface1 7,g7 7the screen7 finally corresponds to the position of the retina of the eye4 ,when the disks are turned1 the successive pictures appear on the wall1 7,g71 just as they are seen in the ,stampfer disk1 in intervals so short that they are not noticed by the eye4 ,this machine was satisfactory but limited4 ,uchatius was a sharp critic of his own work3 8,the apparatus produced very good motion pictures whose size1 however1 could be enlarged to a maximum of only six inches in diameter1 because should the wall1 7,g71 be moved far from the projector the pictures became too dark on account of the light cut off by the slits4 ,and an enlargement of the slits brought about greater indistinctness4 ,however1 a projected motion picture had been attained which could be viewed simultaneously by a considerable number of people4 ,but it still remained desirable to project this picture in a suitable size on a wall and thus show it in an auditorium or theatre40 ,the first model had shown that the use of slits1 even with the brightest light1 could not result in a successful picture1 according to ,uchatius4 7,illustration facing page #aje47 ,he then constructed the improved model4 ,the pictures 7a71 7a7 444 are painted transparently and set upright in a circle as close together as possible on the wooden slide 7,a74 ,in front of each picture is a projection lens 7b71 7b7 444 which can be inclined towards the center of the apparatus by means of a hinge and set screw4 ,the inclination of all the projection lenses is so adjusted that their optical axes intersect at the distance at which the picture appears 7in other words on the screen74 ,it follows there that all the pictures must appear at one and the same point on the wall1 7,w74 ,the light source consists of a lime cylinder1 7,b7 glowing in a stream of oxyhydrogen gas and the condensing lens1 7,c71 which gives somewhat converging rays and illuminates only one picture at a time4 ,the light is turned in a circle by a simple mechanism by means of a crank1 7,d71 either rapidly or slowly as desired1 7the first slow motion projector as well74 ,during the movement the light source retains its upright position because of its own weight1 since it is suspended from its support1 7c71 so as to be easily movable4 ,the two rubber gas tubes rise and fall through the opened bottom of the cabinet4 ,the lead weight1 7,e71 serves as a counterweight to the light source4 ,uchatius was pleased with this machine4 8,the result is now evident4 ,the successively illuminated pictures appear on the wall in the same way as the so-called dissolving views but much more rapidly1 thereby causing the effect of a moving picture4 ,the size of the picture is not limited by the slits and the sharpness is not affected since no motion of the object picture occurs40 ,in this manner ,uchatius solved the problem of projecting these pre-film hand-painted motion pictures4 ,in the very beginning of magic shadow projection ,athanasius ,kircher had sought the same results but did not have the apparatus or the knowledge of vision and movement necessary to carry out his wish4 ,the lantern model of ,zahn equipped with a revolving disk approximates the plan of ,uchatius but failed1 as did ,kircher's1 and for the same reason4 ,so far as ,plateau was concerned1 the illusion of moving images visible to one person at a time was sufficient4 ,anyway1 the blind man--missing his own sight--probably did not feel impelled toward arranging simultaneous viewing for others4 ,doubtlessly he thought that to see motion pictures--one person at a time--was a sufficient marvel4 ,edison1 more than half a century later1 tended to the same opinion4 ,uchatius said that his model projector was equipped with space for twelve pictures painted on glass slides1 but he added3 8,there are no insuperable obstacles in the way of constructing a similar apparatus with #ajj pictures1 thereby a moving tableau with an action lasting one-half minute could be presented4 ,the apparatus would not need to be more than six feet high40 ,this shows that ,uchatius also was looking ahead to the story motion picture4 ,until the middle #ahijs there were no real motion picture scenes on any screen for more than the one-half minute indicated by ,uchatius4 ,his machine was the basic model for four decades and had an influence on the design of many early motion picture projectors and cameras4 ,uchatius pointed out that the projector would be useful in demonstrating its own principle in physics and vision classes and could show in a vivid way action of sound waves and 8indeed all motions which cannot be demonstrated by mechanism40 ,the first motion picture projector dealer was ,w4 ,prokesch1 an optician and lens maker of #df ,lainbruge ,street1 ,vienna1 who1 ,uchatius said1 8prepares apparatuses of this sort with greatest precision and upon request also furnishes pictures therefor40 ,prokesch wrote many years later that the records show that ,uchatius began his correspondence with the optical firm about the motion picture projector on ,february #af1 #ahea4 ,it is possible that ,uchatius solved the problem of the projector soon after the assignment was given to him by ,general von ,hauslab in #ahde4 ,but he was a very busy man from that year1 when he became a member of the ,academy of ,science1 until the #ahea-ec period when he had time to complete the work1 arrange for commercial construction of projectors and write the report for the journal of the ,polytechnical ,school1 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 ,sitzungsberichte4 ,in #ahdf ,uchatius was given orders to open up a section of the gun foundry and astounded military circles by producing the then great quantity of #aj1jjj six-pound cannon balls in three months4 ,he taught the ,emperor's brothers at the ,polytechnical ,school in #ahdg4 ,at the age of #cg1 in #ahdh1 when he had a family of three children and had been in the artillery service for #ai years1 he received a promotion to first lieutenant4 ,advancement was slow because this extremely talented man had no influence in political circles4 ,in #ahdh ,uchatius was assigned to ,italy and assisted at the siege of ,venice4 ,there he started the unenviable precedent of the aerial bombardment of cities4 ,in three weeks he had constructed more than #ajj balloons fitted to carry explosive charges to be dropped on the heads of the 8besieged1 rebellious ,venetians40 ,uchatius and his brother1 ,joseph1 studied the problem on the spot4 ,the experiment was only partially successful4 ,the ,venetians were probably as terrified by rumor of bombs falling from the heavens as were the invaders under ,marcellus before ,syracuse when ,archimedes developed his ,burning ,glasses4 ,uchatius' relations with the ,navy which was directing the siege were not the best and he was glad to be able to return to ,vienna4 ,during the next few years he continued to make little progress in the military world but was doing excellent scientific work4 ,he began to test guns and had an opportunity to travel and inspect foreign ordnance and manufacturing methods4 ,in #ahfg1 at the age of #ef1 he received his first important recognition4 ,he was decorated for his work and made colonel commander of the artillery ordnance factory in #ahga4 ,previously he had helped to direct the construction of the arsenal at ,vienna4 ,in #ahgd he developed the first steel-bronze cannon out of 8,uchatius0 bronze4 ,through the next few years he carried on a struggle for the establishment of a native ordnance industry so that ,austria would not depend upon a foreign munitions supplier4 ,some in authority wanted the heavy guns made at ,krupp1 in ,prussia1 but ,uchatius finally won and was promoted to the rank of major-general by the ,emperor1 given the ,commander's ,cross of the ,order of ,st4 ,stephen1 a lifetime personal annual bonus of #b1jjj gulden1 together with baronship4 ,uchatius' weapons were used by ,austria in the occupation at ,bosnia and ,herzegovnia in #ahgh-gi1 when the ,turks withdrew1 in accordance with the ,treaty of ,berlin4 ,it is easy to see that a man of such activity had no time to further work on the motion picture projector which he had invented as a young man1 passing away tedious years while awaiting promotion and responsibility4 ,eventually ,uchatius became a ,field ,marshal1 but he died unhappy4 ,he wrote a farewell note1 8,forgive me1 my dear ones1 because ,i am unable to endure life any longer10 and killed himself on ,june #d1 #ahha1 at the age of #fi4 ,he was broken-hearted4 ,though his artillery weapons had been a great success1 he had yet to perfect coast defense guns4 ,the final blow was a remark passed on from the ,austrian ,war ,department1 that the officials doubted they would live to see successful completion of ,uchatius' coastal guns4 ,also1 an order was sent to ,krupp for four such guns for the harbor of ,pola1 then an ,austro-,hungarian seaport1 and after ,world ,war ,,ii1 a port in the area disputed by ,italy and ,yugoslavia4 ,it was said that the general was ill1 suffering from an incurable cancer of the stomach4 ,uchatius was naturally a hero of the ,austrian artillery4 ,a monumental obelisk was raised to his memory by subscriptions from the men who were using his weapons4 ,his biographer1 ,karl ,spail1 wrote3 8,as often as this country 7,austria7 begins to rearm1 it is no wonder that the name of ,uchatius is mentioned and praised anew40 ,but ,uchatius then and now should have been praised not for his engines of war but for his important contribution to the magic shadow art-science4 ,for by perfecting a motion picture machine which would bring living pictures before audiences1 ,uchatius1 together with ,kircher and ,plateau1 the other great magic shadow pioneers1 deserves credit and the gratitude of untold millions who down through the years have had their lives enriched through this great new medium of expression4 ,the use of ,uchatius' projector spread rapidly4 ,it satisfied a natural urge4 ,man from the beginning sought to recreate life naturally and realistically4 ,large screen motion pictures1 even of but one scene1 repeated over and over1 represented a definite step on that road4 ,illustration3 ,abb4 #a4 ,franz ,freiherr von ,uchatius4 lbildnis von ,sigmund l',allemand im ,besitz des ,wiener ,heeresmuseums4 ,schweizerische ,zeitschrift1 #aije ,,franz ,,von ,,uchatius in #ahec combined ,kircher's projector of #afde and ,plateau's revolving disk of #ahcb to achieve the first projection of animated designs4 ,within a few years after the publication of accounts of the ,uchatius motion picture projector1 models were brought out by ,english and ,french inventors4 ,projectors1 including one which threw onto a screen by means of a mirror system images of living persons1 were used at the ,london ,polytechnic ,institute4 ,for many years after the announcement of the ,uchatius picture projector1 only hand-drawn designs were used4 ,the new photographs were available only in single stills4 ,but now the modern motion picture was just around a not too distant corner4 ,illustration3 ,k4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 #ahec ,,projectors by ,uchatius4 ,shown are two versions of the #ahec picture projector4 ,in the one above a picture disk is revolved by a crank4 ,below1 the drawings are in fixed mounts1 each before a projection lens1 and the light source is revolved4 ,,xiii ,,the ,,langenheims ,,of ,,philadelphia ,brothers ,langenheim perfect a system of printing photographs on glass slides permitting projection on the screen--,projectors are made by ,duboscq in ,france2 ,wheatstone and ,claudet in ,england2 ,brown and ,heyl in the ,united ,states4 ,william ,penn's 8,city of ,brotherly ,love01 ,philadelphia1 was the home of several important ,american contributors to the magic shadow art-science4 ,the first of these were two brothers1 ,frederic and ,william ,langenheim4 ,william ,langenheim came to the ,united ,states from ,germany in #ahcd1 the year ,ebenezer ,strong ,snell1 a professor at ,amherst ,college1 introduced in ,america the ,plateau-,stampfer magic disks4 ,successively1 he served in ,texas during its war for independence from ,mexico2 was present at the recapture of the ,alamo by ,american forces2 was captured himself and sentenced to be shot2 escaped1 and served in the ,united ,states ,army in the ,second ,florida ,seminole ,war4 ,after three years of adventure1 ,william decided in #ahdj to settle in ,philadelphia and enter business4 ,he had his brother1 ,frederic1 come to ,america to be his partner4 ,frederic ,langenheim brought to his brother news of the latest developments in photography and they decided to embark upon that pursuit4 ,the year before1 #ahci1 ,louis ,jacques ,mande ,daguerre 7#aghi-ahea71 in ,france1 and ,william ,henry ,fox ,talbot 7#ahjj-ahgg71 in ,england1 had announced successful still pictures made with a modified portable form of our old friend1 the camera obscura1 fitted with a chemically coated plate which after development made the picture permanent4 ,frederic ,langenheim was familiar with all these advances when he came to ,philadelphia in #ahdj and he either brought with him a good camera or one was ordered from ,vienna shortly afterwards4 ,in the winter of #ahdj-da the ,langenheim brothers opened a studio at the ,merchant's ,exchange1 #crd and ,walnut ,streets1 ,philadelphia4 ,they were not the first photographers in the ,united ,states but were among the pioneers4 ,pictures from the size of a pea to very large ones were advertised4 ,president ,tyler and ,henry ,clay were among those who sat for ,langenheim4 ,in an early adventure in the use of photography for advertising1 the ,langenheims had something less than a complete success1 from the client's point of view4 ,a picture was made showing a number of prominent persons drinking at a local establishment4 ,it was not good for business--a rigorous public objected to the 8drinking scene40 ,frederic1 who was the 8outside man0 of the business and the principal photographer of natural subjects--,william handled the business end and the portraits--went to ,niagara ,falls in #ahde and made scene pictures that brought fame and renown to the firm of ,langenheim ,bros4 ,copies were sent to ,queen ,victoria1 the ,kings of ,prussia1 ,saxony and ,wurtenberg and the ,duke of ,brunswick1 the province in ,germany whence the brothers originally came2 and to ,daguerre himself4 ,the latter praised the successful photography in a letter transmitted to the ,langenheims4 ,in #ahdh ,william went abroad and in ,england concluded a deal with ,william ,henry ,fox ,talbot1 ,british pioneer in photography1 giving the ,langenheims exclusive contract rights to the ,talbot calotype process which used a negative from which any number of paper prints could be made4 ,it was a vast improvement over the ,daguerreotype negative-positive system which did not make possible printing of copies but the ,langenheims were not successful in sub-licensing the ,talbot process in ,america4 ,shortly after this the ,langenheims made an important contribution to the art-science of light and shadow pictures by developing a system which made it possible to project the photographs in the old ,kircher magic lantern4 ,this prepared the way for the projection of a series of photographs showing a single movement4 ,kircher and the others who used his magic lantern1 including the projection model of ,uchatius1 painted or drew their various scenes on glass slides4 ,until about #ahej when the ,langenheim development was announced1 there was no satisfactory method of making glass plates of positive photographs4 ,of course1 the heat of the projecting lamp made it impossible to use pictures printed on paper4 ,frederic ,langenheim1 with ,u4 ,s4 patent ,no4 #g1ghd1 dated ,november #ai1 #ahej1 solved the problem4 ,the ,langenheim system was called 8,hyalotype10 from the ,greek1 meaning 8glass0 and 8to print0 or to print on glass4 ,prior to the invention1 some time in the winter of #ahdg-dh1 the period of the ,california ,gold ,rush1 it was said the ,langenheims1 by means of a ,viennese camera converted into a magic lantern equipped with a gas lamp1 projected ,daguerreotype pictures4 ,this probably was achieved with the aid of a mirror system4 ,the early ,langenheim glass projector slides were circular and of a deep sepia tint2 later excellent black-and-white plates were made4 ,the ,langenheim glass photo slides reproduced nature on the screen 8with fidelity truly astonishing40 ,the two plates of the slide were made adherent with ,canada ,balsam1 which is still used in this way as well as to attach parts of projection lens systems4 ,only very recently have new synthetic resins begun to displace ,canada ,balsam for these purposes4 ,in #ahea the ,langenheim ,hyalotypes made their debut in ,europe under great auspices1 at the famous ,exposition of the ,works of ,all ,nations at ,london4 ,the glass projection photos were 8very remarkable and well appreciated by competent visitors10 according to ,robert ,hunt1 a pioneer ,british photographic authority1 who inspected the exhibit and wrote about it4 ,there is no evidence that the ,langenheims combined their glass projection slides with the magic disk of ,plateau to achieve motion pictures4 ,they made one contribution and seemed to be satisfied with that4 ,and it was successful for them1 for in the next twenty-five years many thousands of these slides were sold in the ,united ,states4 ,others who perhaps were much more familiar with the ,plateau-,stampfer magic disks than the ,langenheims combined their process with the ,wheel of ,life4 ,the link nevertheless with the ,langenheims is direct and immediate4 ,all the followers used the photos on glass slides and the method was popularized by the ,langenheim exhibition at the ,exposition4 ,relatively little was done1 however1 in combining the glass photo slides in motion picture sequence with the magic lantern1 because at the time there was no method of obtaining a number of successive photos of the same action4 ,jules ,duboscq 7#ahag-ahhf7 in ,paris copied the ,langenheim process of glass plates with great success4 ,duboscq was an exhibitor of optical instruments at the ,exposition of #ahea4 ,he had been the licensee of ,daguerre for ,england1 but the method was never popular there as it was in the ,united ,states4 ,on ,february #af1 #aheb1 ,duboscq received a ,french patent on an apparatus which combined photos and the ,plateau ,phnakisticope or ,fantascope4 ,his device was called the ,stereofantascope or ,bioscope4 ,one ,duboscq model had two strips of pictures made with a binocular camera running next to each other on a vertical disk1 as the original ,plateau model1 and the whole was rapidly revolved before a mirror by a spectator who wore specially-made glasses4 ,the second and better system had the pictures mounted on the horizontal ,fantascope or ,wheel of ,life1 as developed by ,horner in #ahcd1 with one picture mounted above the other4 ,there was1 however1 slight distortion because the pictures were bent to fit around the inside of the cylinder4 ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone 7#ahjb-ahge71 who also combined photos and the magic disk1 in #aheb1 had a marked influence on magic picture development during the middle part of the #aith century4 ,in fact1 it may well be that the efforts expended in trying to combine the third dimensional effect of his stereoscope with the magic disk retarded development of screen projection of motion pictures4 ,wheatstone was a timid man1 though a great scientist1 and frequently had the great ,michael ,faraday announce his inventions at the ,royal ,society meetings4 ,the ,stereoscope was invented in #ahch4 7,the reader may recall that centuries before d',aguilon had coined the name 8,stereo0 for 8seeing solid0 effects74 ,the ,stereoscope achieves its effect by blending into one image pictures or drawings of an object taken from slightly different points of view so that the impression of relief is obtained in our sense of vision4 ,without our two eyes the stereoscopic effect would not be possible4 ,it had been known for a very long time that the two eyes did not see the identical picture4 ,wheatstone made an instrument which took advantage of this fact4 ,he said he conceived the idea in #ahce and made the first presentation of the ,stereoscope in ,august of #ahch at a meeting of the ,british ,association held at ,newcastle4 ,in #ahej ,wheatstone was in ,paris and showed his improved ,stereoscope to ,abb ,moigno1 to ,soleil and his son-in-law1 ,duboscq1 who were commercial instrument makers1 and to members of the ,french ,institute4 ,its value was immediately recognized not only for amusement but for the arts and sciences1 especially portraiture and sculpture1 ,moigno reported in ,la ,presse of ,december #bh1 #ahej4 ,duboscq immediately started to make one and used ,daguerreotypes in it4 ,moigno praised ,duboscq's 8intelligence1 activity1 affability1 indefatigable ardour40 ,in #ahea ,moigno brought ,duboscq to the attention of the ,queen by presenting her with a ,wheatstone-type ,stereoscope which he had made4 ,that was the year ,louis ,napoleon seized power and was named president for a ten year term4 ,in ,november1 #aheb he proclaimed himself ,emperor4 ,wheatstone also developed a combination of photos and the ,plateau disk which was fitted with a cog which made each photo rest momentarily as it was held before the mirror4 ,the same instrument was made in ,france under the name of ,heliocinegraphe4 ,antoine ,franois ,jean ,claudet 7#agig-ahfg71 was a ,frenchman who married an ,english girl and moved to ,london in #ahbg4 ,in #aheb he combined the ,plateau-,stampfer disk with the ,langenheim method of photographs on glass plates4 ,it is claimed that1 while ,claudet started work ahead of him1 ,duboscq had satisfactory results first4 ,claudet's experiments were successful in ,may of #aheb1 about one year after the ,langenheim exhibit at the ,exposition4 ,in #ahec ,claudet became a member of the ,royal ,society4 ,claudet1 at a meeting of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science held at ,birmingham in ,september1 #ahfe1 spoke 8,on ,moving ,photographic figures1 illustrating some phenomena of vision connected with the combination of the stereoscope and the phenakisticope by means of photography40 ,claudet noted that from the beginning of photography those acquainted with ,plateau's disk thought that pictures would be more suitable than hand drawings to show the illusions of motion4 ,but they also sought the third dimensional effect4 ,duboscq's efforts were not completely successful1 according to ,claudet who described a machine he had worked out4 ,the illusion of motion was effected by having one eye see one picture and the other eye the next picture4 ,this resulted in a simultaneous motion and solid effect4 ,the spectator was not conscious of the vision being transferred from one eye to another4 ,claudet's example was a boxer about to strike and then delivering the blow4 ,the pictures in ,claudet's machine must have left much to the imagination but an interesting perfection of this device was shown in ,new ,york in late #aibb and early #aibc1 under the name of ,hammond's ,teleview4 ,an entire theatre was equipped with a special shutter device for each spectator4 ,the shutters were synchronized with the shutter of the motion picture projector and the spectator1 looking through the device1 saw motion in three dimensions4 ,the development was not commercially practicable because the apparatus was expensive1 a nuisance to the spectators and the many little motors operating the shutters created an annoying hum in the auditorium4 ,in the ,united ,states the ,langenheim brothers did much to popularize the ,stereoscope and its various modifications4 ,about #ahej they started to make and sell stereoscopic views in ,philadelphia1 by mail and through agents throughout the country4 ,in those days1 with the ,gold ,rush in ,california just subsiding1 there was great interest in scenic wonders and views of remote places4 ,stereoscopic photos had a great sale and were eventually found in almost every parlor of the day4 ,before the ,civil ,war the ,langenheims opened at #ahh ,chestnut ,street the 8,stereoscope ,cosmorama ,exhibit40 ,there each spectator sat and could see one stereoscopic view after another by turning a crank4 ,it may very well have been this turning crank system which suggested an interesting motion picture device to the fellow citizen of ,langenheims1 ,coleman ,sellers4 ,coleman ,sellers 7#ahbg-aijg7 was a skilled engineer4 ,he reproduced ,faraday's electric experiments in this country2 constructed locomotives in ,cincinnati chiefly for the ,panama ,railroad2 he also worked on the ,niagara ,falls power development4 ,even for hobbies he turned to scientific toys and gadgets4 ,in #ahef he was called to ,philadelphia again to take his place in the family engineering company4 ,sellers' family dated from one ,samuel ,sellers who received a royal grant of land in ,pennsylvania in #afhb4 ,sellers patented on ,february #e1 #ahfa a device which he called the ,kinematoscope1 evidently the first use of the word 8cinema0 if we exclude the ,frenchman who copied ,wheatstone's device under the name of ,quinetoscope4 ,the ,sellers device revolved a series of posed still pictures1 paddle-wheel fashion1 before the eye of the observer4 ,a period of relative rest was achieved through this motion as each picture was coming towards the observer for a specific time and then out of view as the next photo came into position4 ,sellers' motion photos include his wife sewing1 his two sons1 ,coleman1 ,jr4 and ,horace1 playing and rocking a chair4 ,sellers tried to combine motion and solid effects4 ,he found the wet plate photographic process invented by ,frederick ,scott ,archer 7#ahac-aheg7 in #ahej quite unsatisfactory for 8posed0 motion work4 ,archer did not trouble to patent the process4 ,during the ,civil ,war the ,langenheims took nearly #a1jjj pictures which were mounted for showing in the projection magic lanterns1 and during the ,franco-,prussian ,war in #ahgj-ga several hundred photographs and drawings were released by the ,langenheim brothers for lantern use4 ,the last catalogue of the firm was published in #ahgd and included some #f1jjj colored slides priced at #cc a dozen1 and those specially photographed and made at #d each4 ,william ,langenheim died on ,may #d1 #ahgd4 ,frederic tried to continue the business for a time but he1 too1 was getting old and eventually sold out in the ,autumn to ,caspar ,w4 ,briggs1 another early ,philadelphia photographer4 ,at the ,philadelphia exhibit ,frederic had a showing of the ,voigtlander lenses made in ,vienna which were the best then available for certain types of photographic work4 ,another ,philadelphian1 ,henry ,renno ,heyl 7#ahdb-aiai71 a friend and associate of ,sellers on the ,board of ,trustees of the ,franklin ,institute1 was the first person in ,america to develop a projector which used 8posed0 motion photographs4 ,the individual pictures were taken by the same method used by ,sellers for his ,kinematoscope4 ,illustration3 ,american ,museum of ,photography ,,langenheim ,,brothers1 ,william 7seated7 and ,frederic1 pioneer ,philadelphia photographers1 who developed1 in #ahej1 picture projection using glass slides4 ,somewhat earlier1 ,o4 ,b4 ,brown1 of ,malden1 ,mass4 obtained ,u4 ,s4 patent ,no4 #ic1eid1 dated ,august #aj1 #ahfi1 on what is the first ,american 8motion picture0 projector4 ,it1 however1 used only drawn designs and not photographs4 ,in principle it was based1 as other projectors of the time1 on the system developed by ,uchatius4 ,in ,brown's projector the ,plateau magic disk with the figures was mounted between the light source and the projection lens and was rotated by a gear arrangement4 ,in front of the lens there was a rotating shutter with two holes which interrupted the light when the pictures were in intermittent motion4 ,illustration3 ,maurice ,bessy ,collection ,,etienne ,,jules ,,marey1 ,french physiologist1 whose research on the movement of men and animals contributed to progress in photography of motion1 #ahgj to #ahij4 ,heyl perhaps may have obtained his basic idea from ,brown or it may have come to him independently because the urge to combine the new photos and the older magic lantern was felt by many persons4 ,at any rate1 the ,heyl apparatus bears very little relation to ,brown's4 ,there is no evidence that ,heyl attempted to patent his device1 so the ,patent ,office never was called upon to decide the point4 ,heyl1 a native of ,columbus1 ,ohio1 who designed many types of machinery1 including boxes and paper and book stitching devices1 has been hailed by some as the first to use photos in a projection device4 ,he himself1 however1 never claimed that honor4 ,he published a letter dated ,philadelphia1 ,february #a1 #ahih1 in the ,journal of the ,franklin ,institute1 8,a contribution to the history of the art of photographing living subjects in motion and reproducing the natural movements by the lantern40 8,among the earliest public exhibitions0 of such a combination was one given by him at an entertainment held in the ,academy of ,music1 in ,philadelphia on ,february #e1 #ahgj4 ,a catalogue note announced as a feature of the varied entertainment the showing of 8,the ,phasmatrope1 a most recent scientific invention10 whose effects are similar 8to the familiar toy called the ,zoetrope40 ,the management expressed pleasure at having 8the first opportunity of presenting its merits to our audience40 ,heyl and a dancing partner posed for six pictures in the various phases of the waltz at ,o4 ,h4 ,willard's photographic studio at #abjf ,chestnut ,street4 ,other photo slides were made of a then popular ,japanese acrobatic performer--8,little ,all ,right40 ,the time exposures were taken on wet plates1 then prints were transferred to thin glass plates with the images only about three quarters of an inch high4 ,the six stills were duplicated three times to fill the eighteen spaces in the wheel of the projector4 ,the ,heyl projector had an intermittent movement controlled by a ratchet and pawl mechanism operated by a reciprocating bar moved up and down by the hand4 ,the fast movement was used for the acrobats with a complete stop at the end of each somersault1 and a slow tempo for the waltz which was accompanied by an orchestra4 ,the problem of a shutter to interrupt the light while the pictures were moving was solved in the following way1 according to ,heyl3 8,this was accomplished by a vibrating shutter placed back of the picture wheel that was operated on the same drawbar that moved the wheel1 only the shutter movement was so timed that it moved first and covered the picture before the latter moved and completed the movement after the next picture was in place4 ,this movement reduced to a great extent the flickering and gave very natural and life-like representations of the moving figures40 ,heyl's ,phasmatrope was an ingenious apparatus but the imagination had to compensate for its many imperfections4 ,when it was demonstrated on ,march #af1 #ahgj1 at a meeting of the ,franklin ,institute1 it created so little notice that mention of the showing was not included in the minutes4 ,it is interesting to note it was at this meeting that ,sellers was elected head of the ,franklin ,institute4 ,we can wonder what his reaction was to the fact that ,heyl1 a man fifteen years his junior1 had added projection to the principle of his ,kinematoscope which had also used 8posed pictures0 in a peep-show apparatus4 ,in #ahge1 in ,philadelphia1 ,caspar ,briggs1 who had bought out the ,langenheim interest the year before1 introduced a device similar to the ,heyl projector which also used still photographs made of drawings to simulate motion4 ,his most popular subject was 8,the ,dancing ,skeleton10 a selection reminiscent of ,phantasmagoria and the 8black arts0 or necromancy4 ,the little pictures were mounted on the edge of a mica disk which revolved before the projection lens4 ,briggs also improved the ,langenheim magic lantern slide process and gave a further impetus to photographic activity in ,philadelphia4 ,from the ,langenheims and their contemporaries in ,america the spotlight of magic shadow development shifts back to the ,old ,world1 to ,france1 and to a scientist of distinction4 ,,xiv ,,marey ,,and ,,movement ,marey in ,paris1 and ,muybridge and ,isaacs in ,san ,francisco1 record motion by photographs--,ducos du ,hauron has an idea for a complete system--,janssen makes a 8movie0 camera--,reynauld keeps magic shadow showmanship alive--,anschtz uses electricity4 ,the development capital in the story of the magic shadow art-science shifted many times4 ,seas1 mountains1 oceans and time itself were no barriers4 ,successively1 ,greece1 ,arabia1 ,persia1 ,england1 ,italy1 ,holland1 ,belgium1 ,austria and the ,united ,states took the lead in showing the way toward the goal of genuinely life-like pictures4 ,after the great spurt of activity in ,philadelphia1 during the working life of the ,langenheims1 the chief center of activity was ,paris and the leader was ,etienne ,jules ,marey4 ,plateau in ,belgium came to the invention of the magic disk1 which was the first 8motion picture0 device1 through his study of vision and the desire to understand more about it4 ,marey1 by his own action and the work of others influenced by him1 gave great impetus to the photographing and projection of motion pictures1 through his wish to learn more about movement1 the movement of life--animals1 birds1 and men4 ,marey was one of the first great physiologists and conducted for years what was then the only private1 scientific laboratory in ,france4 ,he was born in ,beaume1 ,france1 in #ahcj1 and when nineteen went to ,paris to study medicine4 ,six years later he became an interne and1 in #ahei1 received his doctor's degree1 doing at this time his first important work on animal locomotion4 ,in #ahfi he became a professor at the ,college of ,france and three years later he was admitted to the ,academy of ,medicine1 and1 in #ahgh1 to the ,academy of ,science4 ,about #ahfg ,marey started to study the attitudes of animals in movement through the aid of a ,plateau magic disk and drawings made with the aid of ,mathias ,duval1 professor of anatomy at the ,school of ,beaux ,arts4 ,some of the designs used by ,marey in the ,wheel of ,life and a magic lantern projector were drawn by ,col4 ,duhousset1 a great horseman and artist1 from very early and imperfect instantaneous photographs4 ,prior to ,marey there had been a number of attempts to record motion by photography4 ,the most successful was by the ,french astronomer1 ,pierre ,jules ,csar ,janssen 7#ahbd-aijg7 who used a photogun1 ,revolver ,photographique1 to record the transit of ,venus in ,japan in #ahgd4 ,janssen may have been influenced by ,marey's earliest work4 ,dr4 ,r4 ,l4 ,maddox in #ahga had developed in ,england dry plate photography1 based on ,scott ,archer's wet plate process4 ,this helped to make instantaneous photography1 or ,chronophotography1 as it was called1 possible4 ,janssen perfected the first workable motion picture camera4 ,but it was a large1 stationary piece of apparatus1 limited in scope and sensitiveness4 ,the device was described by a ,french astronomer1 ,c4 ,flammarion1 in the magazine ,la ,nature of ,may #h1 #ahge1 and by ,janssen himself in the ,bulletin of the ,french ,photographic ,societies of ,april #g1 #ahgf4 ,janssen's device took forty-eight pictures on a simple revolving plate but he said the number could easily be doubled or tripled4 ,a time clock mechanism controlled the revolutions of the photographic plate but it was so arranged that it could also be rotated by hand4 ,an electrical hook-up also was possible4 ,the influence of ,plateau's magic disk is clear and so acknowledged by ,janssen4 ,the device simply reversed the old ,plateau disk which showed motion pictures through two revolving disks1 one with the pictures and the other with the shutter slits4 ,in the ,janssen astronomical gun the one disk was coated with photographic chemicals and the other had the usual slits2 the necessary intermittent movement was provided by the gear driven mechanism which rotated the disks4 ,janssen pointed out that the apparatus could be used for physiological purposes--to study walking1 running1 flight and the movement of animals2 but he never had time to develop the device for physiological uses1 which was not in his immediate field4 ,he was1 however1 interested in ,marey's later refinements and applications4 ,the most important 8precursor0 of motion picture photography and projection1 so far as the basic idea was concerned1 was ,louis ,ducos du ,hauron 7#ahcg-aibj71 a ,frenchman who developed the first successful method of printing color pictures4 ,louis liked science1 painting and music but was held back in school on account of poor health4 ,at the age of #ae1 he was a good pianist4 ,he began his experiments in natural color printing around #ahei and by the ,fall of #ahfh had achieved success4 ,the public reaction was not enthusiastic and ,louis became discouraged4 ,many persons were hostile to his method which he hoped would bring books1 illustrated with many color plates1 within reach of everyone 7as others following his system eventually achieved74 ,it was for this reason that he failed to exploit his camera and picture projector idea4 ,in ,march and ,december of #ahfd ,louis ,ducos du ,hauron took out the first patents on a complete motion picture system1 including an apparatus to register and reproduce motion by photography4 ,the ,french patent was described in these words1 8,apparatus for the photographic reproduction of any view together with all changes the subject undergoes during a certain time40 ,a mechanic of ,agen where ,louis lived for many years with his older brother1 ,alcide1 constructed a model of the device4 ,it was not successful because the available photographic materials were not sufficiently sensitive4 ,ducos' patent even provided for the use of 8bands0 of paper2 bands or reels of film finally solved the motion picture problem but not until near the end of the #aith century4 ,as in one of ,uchatius' projectors1 the camera and projector of ,louis ,ducos du ,hauron used a number of small lenses4 ,other patents taken out by this small1 slender1 timid ,frenchman who only became truly animated when talking about one of his inventions1 included color photography in #ahfh1 a horizontal wind-mill in #ahfi1 a combined natural and photographic camera in #ahgd1 photographic devices in #ahhh and #ahib4 ,in #ahif he again turned to motion pictures1 after others had perfected them1 proposing an optical system intended to do away with all interruption of light in motion picture projection and photography4 ,honors came very late in life to ,ducos du ,hauron and to his dying day he reproached himself for not exploiting sufficiently his ideas4 ,but when he had tried to do this he encountered only indifference because the scientists were not interested in the work of one who was without academic status4 ,now ,ducos du ,hauron is regarded as one of the greatest geniuses of photography4 ,he actually predicted and described a monopack color film4 ,the many good color processes of this type are modern realizations of his extraordinary scientific analyses4 ,marey was familiar in a general way with all these developments and ideas1 but he was essentially a scientist and not a photographer4 ,motion picture photography to him was just a good way of learning more about living movement4 ,about #ahgj he had made studies of movements in other ways in addition to primitive photographs and drawings made from such photographs4 ,the results of these studies were known all over the world and had a direct influence on the photographers who first successfully took successive pictures of animals in motion4 ,these photographers were ,eadweard ,muybridge and ,john ,d4 ,isaacs4 ,eadweard ,muybridge 7#ahcj-aijd71 or ,edward ,james ,muggeridge1 as he was originally named1 was born in ,england1 at ,kingston-on-,thames4 ,as a young man he was an adventurer who called photography his profession4 ,he made a number of trips back and forth between the ,united ,states and ,england4 ,he was seriously injured in a run-away stage coach accident in ,july of #ahfj1 in ,arkansas1 and later obtained several thousand dollars in damages from the ,southern ,overland ,stage ,company4 ,returning to the ,united ,states after a visit in ,england1 following the accident1 ,muybridge received an assignment to photograph1 for the ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey1 the new territory of ,alaska1 purchased by the ,united ,states in #ahfg4 ,after this assignment he settled in ,san ,francisco4 ,in #ahgb ,governor ,leland ,stanford of ,california made a #be1jjj bet in connection with a dispute as to whether or not all the legs of a horse running at a full gallop are off the ground simultaneously4 ,the eye was not quick enough to find the answer4 ,horsemen had never been completely satisfied with the drawings and pictures made by artists of horses in motion4 ,sanford1 as ,terry ,ramsaye describes in his history of the motion picture1 ,a ,million and ,one ,nights1 in #ahgb sent for the photographer ,muybridge and had him go to the ,sacramento race track to get photographic proof in order to settle the dispute4 ,over a period of years ,stanford spent considerably more than the #be1jjj wager on the photographic experiments4 ,and out of the experiments grew the legend that ,muybridge had invented 8motion pictures40 ,about #ahgj ,marey had established the movement of the legs of a horse in a gallop through his physiological investigations4 ,but at that time he had no photographic proof of his theory4 ,years later ,muybridge said that ,stanford obtained his basic ideas for photographs to win the bet from the writings of ,marey4 ,muybridge might have been successful in his early experiments if it had not been for an interruption which was of about five years' duration4 ,he had domestic troubles of a nature that ended in violence4 ,in ,october #ahgd1 he shot and killed ,major ,harry ,larkyn who had eloped with his wife4 ,after a sensational trial in which the defense was able to succeed in putting the jurors mentally in ,muybridge's place1 he was acquitted on ,february #e1 #ahge1 at the courthouse in ,napa1 ,california4 ,stanford maintained a friendly interest in ,muybridge because he had become increasingly interested in the problem of the movements of a horse in fast action and he wished to obtain evidence to confirm the new theory of animal locomotion which had been developed chiefly by ,marey in ,france4 ,stanford was primarily interested in the running gaits of horses and other movements secondarily4 ,the stories of what really happened in #ahgg are not identical4 ,muybridge said in #ahhc at a lecture at the ,franklin ,institute in ,philadelphia1 8,being much interested with the experiments of ,professor ,marey444 ,i invented a method of employing a number of cameras 4444 ,i explained my intended experiments to a wealthy resident of ,san ,francisco1 ,mr4 ,stanford1 who liberally agreed to place the resources of his stock breeding farm at my disposal and to reimburse the expenses of my investigation1 upon the condition of my supplying him1 for his private use1 with a few copies of the contemplated results40 ,on the mere statement1 ,muybridge's position is subject to serious question4 ,it certainly is unlikely that ,stanford would pay all expenses just to obtain a few copies of the 8intended results for private use40 ,the ownership of the results was subject to considerable dispute4 ,stanford copyrighted the pictures in #ahha and had them published in a book edited by ,dr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,b4 ,stillman1 entitled ,the ,horse in ,motion4 ,in that book the story is that when ,muybridge returned to ,san ,francisco in #ahgg1 he was engaged to continue the experiments by ,stanford4 ,according to ,stillman1 in #ahgg pictures were taken of one of ,stanford's horses1 with a single camera and 8one of these1 representing him with all his feet clear of the ground1 was enlarged1 retouched and distributed to the parties interested40 ,this then was just another effort to obtain a good1 sharp1 fast1 single picture of action4 ,john ,d4 ,isaacs1 later chief engineer for the ,harriman ,railroad ,system1 had designed and supervised all the installation of the battery camera apparatus4 ,his name was suggested to ,stanford by ,arthur ,brown1 then chief engineer of maintenance of the ,central ,pacific1 one of ,stanford's interests4 ,isaacs was a young man fresh from the ,university of ,virginia1 where he had graduated in #ahge4 ,he was an amateur photographer and very familiar with ,marey's work and that of the photographers in ,france and ,england and in the eastern part of the ,united ,states4 ,in #ahgh further efforts were made at ,stanford's private track at ,palo ,alto1 where the battery system of cameras was introduced and good results obtained4 ,each camera in the battery was equipped with a fast-acting shutter and was set off successively by a mechanical-electrical device4 7,illustration on opposite page47 ,the most successful results1 which were little better than silhouettes1 were obtained when twenty-four cameras1 set about one foot apart1 were used4 ,the photographs actually were not made at equal intervals of time but of space4 ,the cameras and background were lined up for a measurement of distance and not of time4 ,although ,isaacs contributed engineering skill to the development of the apparatus1 because he was chiefly interested in railroad engineering and this assignment in his photographic hobby was a favor for the 8big boss10 ,muybridge alone obtained the patents on the method4 ,on ,june #bg and ,july #aa1 #ahgh he applied for a patent on1 8,a method and apparatus for photographing objects in motion0 7the battery system71 and for the double action shutter controls4 ,the patents were issued in ,march1 #ahgi4 ,wet collodion plates were used in each camera and a speed of up to #a_/ejjjth of a second was claimed by ,muybridge in his applications4 ,isaacs later became chief engineer of the ,southern ,pacific ,railroad ,system while ,muybridge made 8scientific0 photography a profession4 ,illustration3 ,the ,horse in ,motion1 #ahhb ,,camera ,,system developed by ,john ,d4 ,isaacs1 engineer1 and ,eadweard ,muybridge1 photographer1 which made pictures at equal intervals of space rather than of time4 ,it settled a wager on the nature of the movements of a horse4 ,during later life ,muybridge sought to establish himself as a scientist and in this effort he drew heavily on physiological data which originated with ,marey in ,france4 ,muybridge was a photographer1 who1 through the resources of ,stanford1 a rich and determined backer1 came into possession of a method of taking successive pictures of action4 ,even though the method was cumbersome and inexact1 ,muybridge never changed it but continued to exploit it for the rest of his life4 ,illustration3 ,la ,nature4 #ahhb ,,physiological ,,park4 ,paris1 above1 the first motion picture studio4 ,marey installed the camera in a box on rails4 ,below1 ,marey's photo gun1 first portable camera for photographing motion4 ,marey1 in ,france1 was delighted to hear of the results of ,muybridge's work and to inspect them1 for here at last was excellent confirmation of his physiological theories4 ,marey1 while praising the work of ,muybridge1 noted certain errors resulting from the battery camera system--the landscape and not the animal appeared to be moving when the resulting photographs were analyzed in the ,plateau magic disk and also the time interval1 as noted above1 was not exact4 ,marey was the first to synthesize motion from the photographs by mounting them so the action could be reconstructed4 ,muybridge had no interest in this phase of the subject until he met ,marey and learned from him4 ,even afterwards ,muybridge continued to be interested chiefly in taking pictures and not in studying and analyzing them4 ,technically speaking1 ,marey analyzed and synthesized the results obtained in the ,muybridge photographs4 ,in addition to using the simple ,plateau disk which only one person at a time could see1 ,marey somewhat later had the photographs copied on glass slides1 mounted on a revolving disk and projected onto a screen with the ,uchatius type projector1 equipped with a revolving slit shutter4 ,this scientific demonstration was the first actual motion picture show of real motion and not posed as in the ,heyl1 ,bourbouze and other demonstrations of about #ahgj4 ,gaston ,tissandier1 editor of ,la ,nature1 in the ,december #g1 #ahgh1 issue wrote on 8,the ,attitudes of the ,horse1 represented by instantaneous photography10 and discussed the photographs of ,eadweard ,muybridge of ,san ,francisco which were on display at the firm of ,brandon and ,morgan ,brown1 #a1 ,rue ,lafitte1 ,paris4 ,the early work of ,marey was mentioned and the importance of the new pictures was stressed4 ,on ,december #bh1 #ahgh1 a letter of ,marey's1 published in ,la ,nature1 expressed the hope that ,muybridge would also record and analyze the action of birds in flight as well as animals in motion4 ,marey mentioned how effective such pictures would be in the ,wheel of ,life disks and their value in zoology4 ,there also ,marey spoke of a photographic gun which he was to invent later4 ,a return letter from ,muybridge was published on ,february #ag1 #ahgi in the same magazine3 8,please have the goodness to transmit to ,professor ,marey the assurance of my highest esteem and tell him that the reading of his celebrated book on animal mechanism had inspired ,governor ,stanford with the first idea of the possibility of solving the problem of locomotion with the aid of photography4 ,mr4 ,stanford consulted me in this matter and1 on his request1 ,i decided to undertake the task4 ,he asked me to follow a most complete series of experiments40 ,muybridge said also that he was using as many as thirty cameras1 mounted twelve inches apart1 and that he planned to study all movements1 including flights of birds in which ,marey was so interested at the time4 ,in the ,march #ag issue of ,la ,nature1 ,marey expressed pleasure that ,muybridge was undertaking study of birds in flight4 ,in the same issue there appeared an interesting letter from ,eugene ,vassel1 ,captain of ,armament at the ,suez ,canal1 dated ,january #bj1 #ahgi1 commenting on ,marey's idea of a photographic gun and telling of an idea for a similar automatic camera4 ,this illustrates that at the time1 even at the ends of the earth1 farthest removed from principal educational and scientific centers1 the problem of photographing objects in natural movement was under study4 ,it was then a long way1 indeed1 from ,paris to ,san ,francisco to ,suez4 ,by #ahhj ,plateau magic disks equipped with ,muybridge photographs were on sale in ,england and at about the same time in ,france4 ,in the ,december #ca1 #ahha1 issue of ,la ,nature several of these were illustrated and the possibilities of their use for instruction and entertainment were discussed4 ,it was evident that they were common as toys in ,paris4 ,subjects included the original one of a horse in motion and even a comedy item of a mule kicking a ball4 ,muybridge1 in the ,summer of #ahha1 went to ,paris and there came directly under the influence of ,marey who was always most generous in expressing his appreciation of valued work4 ,in this ,marey's nature reminds one of ,plateau1 the ,belgian4 ,evidently ,muybridge had not dreamed of the importance of his pictures for physiological study and other such purposes until it was explained to him4 ,it was the pressing quest of ,marey for greater perfection in duplicating nature that gave a great stimulus to the development of the motion picture art-science4 ,perhaps he1 too1 would have been surprised had he known that the motion picture1 while a great instrument of science1 would for many years at least find its chief use as an entertainment medium4 ,to the last1 ,marey always thought of it for science and1 while he did not disdain amusement uses1 his interest was exclusively in broadening the field of knowledge4 ,in ,paris ,muybridge met many notables1 including ,jean ,louis ,ernest ,meissonier 7#ahae-ahia71 ,french painter who specialized in great detail and exact duplication of nature4 ,meissonier appreciated the value of the ,muybridge photos1 as he did ,marey's work in analyzing motion in animals and men1 as an aid to painting4 ,from that time on ,meissonier always kept a ,plateau disk and projection device in his studio so that photographs of objects which were to be painted could be studied first by himself and his colleagues4 ,muybridge evidently took a liking to ,meissonier and his work because he singled him out in later years as a painter 7one of the few7 who was exact in his representation of animals in movement even before the evidence of instantaneous photographs was available4 ,during his visit in ,paris ,muybridge not only obtained scientific knowledge from ,marey and his associates but took up a practical projection device1 even to the extent of appropriating the name from ,charles ,reynaud1 a ,french inventor who was later to be the first great motion picture showman1 even though he preferred using hand-drawn films to photographs4 ,charles ,emile ,reynaud 7#ahdd-aiah7 in #ahgg developed the ,praxinoscope which was an ingenious arrangement of the ,plateau magic disk device4 ,the several pictures were mounted on the inside of a horizontal wheel and were viewed on a polygonal-mirror in the center4 ,in this device a number of spectators could watch the moving figures4 ,light was reflected from a lamp mounted above4 ,photographs were also used in various of the ,praxinoscope models4 ,it was useful for color research4 ,in an article in ,la ,nature of ,february #a1 #ahgi1 it was stated that ,mr4 ,reynaud had already planned a projection model which would throw life-size figures from the ,praxinoscope onto a screen before a large audience4 ,in #ahhj the ,french ,society of ,photographers was asked to interest itself in this problem4 ,in #ahha1 or in the following year1 ,reynaud achieved success with the ,projection ,praxinoscope or ,lamposcope described by ,gaston ,tissandier1 in the ,november #d1 #ahhb1 issue of ,la ,nature4 ,one lantern threw the background and the moving device projected the motion pictures4 ,the designs were colored on glass slides which were joined in a band4 ,a special advantage of the ,reynaud ,projection ,praxinoscope or ,lamposcope was that no special light source was required4 ,a common table lamp was suitable4 ,of course1 only one scene at a time could be shown in the device for it had no reels to handle the band of glass slides4 ,one evening1 early in #ahhb1 ,marey had ,muybridge present at a large gathering4 ,helmholtz1 ,bjerknes1 ,govi1 ,crookes and others of the ,french ,academy of ,science also were present4 ,the projector fitted with ,muybridge's photos of action was given its debut4 ,marey1 years later1 commented that those scientists never had seen anything that went so far in the reproduction of nature as ,muybridge-type photographs mounted in his ,zoopraxinographoscope disk and projector4 ,in ,march of #ahhb ,muybridge was in his native ,england and presented two showings of his photographs1 illustrated with a projector which he called the ,zoopraxiscope1 borrowing the name almost entirely from ,reynaud and the scientific data from ,marey4 ,muybridge gave a lecture1 8,attitudes of ,animals in ,motion1 illustrated with the ,zoopraxiscope10 at a special meeting of the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain1 held on ,march #ac1 #ahhb1 with ,his ,royal ,highness1 the ,prince of ,wales1 honorary member1 presiding4 ,the material was previously presented in a paper read before the ,royal ,society4 ,muybridge said1 8,the analyses of some of the movements investigated by the aid of electro-photographic exposures 444 are rendered more perfectly intelligible by the reproduction of the actual motion projection on a screen through the zoopraxiscope40 ,the walk1 trot1 amble1 rack1 canter1 run and gallop--which are the several gaits of a horse--were discussed at length with much emphasis on the physiological aspects4 ,figuratively1 ,marey must have been standing beside ,muybridge as he talked4 ,the lecture1 virtually word for word1 was given by ,muybridge in ,february1 #ahcc1 at the ,franklin ,institute in ,philadelphia4 ,but it is significant to note that then there was no mention of the ,zoopraxiscope4 ,muybridge evidently was not a good operator and there seems to have been difficulty with the projector4 ,operation of the projector was a problem then because there had to be a relation between the number of pictures and the slits in the projection shutter4 ,muybridge seems to have found it all too much trouble and turned to the task of taking successive stills which could then be made up into handsome illustrated books4 ,meanwhile1 ,marey in the ,spring of #ahhb finally finished work on his ,photographical ,gun which he had conceived several years previously4 ,by this time ,marey had a large open air studio set up in the ,bois de ,boulogne4 7,illustrations facing page #aba47 ,marey said that he had worked twelve years on the general subject of movement1 thereby placing his first efforts back in #ahgj4 ,the 8beautiful instantaneous photographs of ,muybridge proved his work10 he declared4 ,he continued1 saying that in #ahgh he had the idea of a photographic gun somewhat analogous to the astronomical revolver of ,janssen4 ,finally1 he resolved to devote the ,winter of #ahhb to the realization of the project4 ,marey used his gun to study his favorite project of birds in flight4 ,marey's photographic gun was the first practical motion picture camera1 primitive and limited though it was4 ,in this sense it was the original of all newsreel and other portable motion picture cameras4 ,it is worth noting that in our own time cameras are mounted as 8photographic guns0 in airplanes as a substitute for gunnery in peacetime and as a check on results during war4 ,about this time1 ,georges ,demeny 7#ahej-aiag7 became associated with ,marey in this work4 ,marey always gave credit to his pupil1 aide and collaborator4 ,eventually1 however1 they parted company because ,demeny was interested in commercializing the work and ,marey wished to continue with pure science4 ,later ,demeny asserted that his motion picture ideas were superior to ,marey's and that he was responsible for the actual execution of all the plans4 ,demeny at thirteen had begun inventing at his home1 but his father1 a musician1 wanted him to be a university professor4 ,in #ahgd he went to ,paris and at the ,sorbonne was a pupil of ,marey in physiology and of ,mathias ,duval--who also worked with ,marey--in anatomy4 ,he did some medical studies and opened one of the first physical education establishments called1 ,le ,cercle de ,gymnastique ,rationnelle4 ,from #ahhj on he supervised many of the studies at ,marey's ,physiological ,park4 ,in ,july1 #ahhb1 ,marey proposed the use of a band of sensitized paper in the camera4 ,for various reasons the paper was not satisfactory and1 of course1 was impractical for direct projection as it might be set on fire by the projection lamp4 ,the ,langenheims of ,philadelphia had solved the problem of projecting photographs in the magic lantern by devising a method of printing the picture on glass4 ,however1 a projector equipped1 as the original model of ,uchatius1 with a revolving disk could only hold a few glass slides4 ,this limited the projected pictures to brief action4 ,in #ahhg and #ahhh ,marey achieved his first real success in what he called chronophotography1 using a box machine which took eight pictures a second on a single metal plate1 or on a sensitized paper band4 ,marey had difficulty controlling the paper film because it was not perforated and the pictures were not equally spaced4 ,this1 however1 made no difference to ,marey since his main purpose was to obtain data for physiological study1 and not entertainment motion pictures4 ,in #ahhh ,marey obtained a successful series of photographs of fishes swimming1 taken with intermittent action on a paper roll film4 ,the images were taken at the rate of either twenty or sixty per second4 ,this method of using paper strips obviates the necessity of operating in a dark camera chamber4 ,at first the paper photographic strips were loaded in a dark room1 limiting the scope of the camera1 but later light-proof cameras were perfected4 ,marey also proposed an optical system featuring a turning mirror which would make intermittent action unnecessary4 ,but this method was wasteful of film4 ,a contemporary of ,marey and ,muybridge1 and a skilled photographer in his own right1 was ,ottomar ,anschtz 7#ahdf-aijg71 a ,german who worked out one of the best systems for exhibiting a series of pictures prior to ,edison on whom he had an influence4 ,shortly after the ,muybridge pictures came to ,europe1 ,anschtz began similar experiments4 ,according to ,marey1 he achieved better results than ,muybridge1 though the results were not perfect1 having a certain amount of distortion4 ,anschtz obtained sharper photographs of action than ,muybridge for his pictures could be used in the ,plateau magic disk or the projector without being copied as silhouettes as was done with ,muybridge's photographs until a late date4 ,in #ahhc ,anschtz tried to use a single camera on the ,marey gun principle but achieved better results with a battery of as many as forty-eight cameras4 ,the shutter openings in the ,zoetrope or magic disk were modified according to the number of pictures in the particular series4 ,anschtz's chief claim to fame rests on the fact that he was the first to combine successfully the instantaneous pictures of an object in motion with the brilliant intermittent flash of the electric ,geissler tube4 ,heinrich ,geissler 7#ahad-ahgi71 a ,german mechanic and physicist1 about #ahed invented an electric tube for the purpose of studying discharges in rarefied gases4 ,the apparatus consisted of a thin tube of glass1 equipped with platinum wires sealed into each end and filled with a rarefied gas1 and an electric battery connection4 ,in #ahhi ,anschtz announced the ,electrical ,tachyscope1 a motion picture viewing machine which became popular all over the world4 ,his action photographs were mounted on a wheel and were lighted successively by a ,geissler tube's intermittent electric flash4 ,the large photographs were viewed directly by the audience in an adjoining room4 ,anschtz's device was first depicted in the ,united ,states in the ,scientific ,american of ,november #af1 #ahhi4 ,a slot machine model was also devised and was shown at ,frankfurt1 ,germany in #ahia1 and at the ,chicago ,world's ,fair in #ahic1 where several persons saw it and were given the idea of attempting to achieve projection of life-size motion pictures of complete actions instead of mere phases of motion4 7,illustration facing page #adi47 ,the general technique developed by ,anschtz in his ,electrical ,tachyscope is now used in the taking of stroboscopic motion pictures4 ,it also may be applied in new photographic1 motion picture and television processes for increased depth of field4 ,in #ahic ,muybridge lectured at the ,world's ,fair in ,chicago at the ,zoopraxographical ,hall1 where hundreds of his pictures were shown4 ,the same material was published by the ,university of ,pennsylvania under the title of ,descriptive ,zoopraxography1 or the science of animal locomotion made popular4 ,muybridge had settled down in #ahhe with a position at the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 where he took many pictures with the same battery system1 borrowing1 however1 some ideas about the studio arrangements from ,marey4 ,muybridge never improved his technique or realized that such a cumbersome method could not produce satisfactory results4 ,this did not seem to disturb him for there is no evidence that he sought large screen projection of the magic shadows before audiences4 ,in ,february #ahhf1 ,muybridge visited ,edison at his ,new ,jersey laboratory and showed him plates of successive motion pictures1 or1 more accurately1 a succession of stills of various phases of the same action4 ,when ,muybridge lectured at the ,london ,institution in the ,fall of #ahhi a complete report was published in the ,british ,journal of ,photography for ,december #bj1 #ahhi1 in an article by ,w4 ,p4 ,adams4 ,from this we learn that ,muybridge was then using a simple projector fitted with a gear system which revolved before the lens a glass disk of some fifteen inches in diameter on which the photos were mounted2 in front of this was a zinc shutter disk with radial slits totalling one more than the number of pictures1 in order to give a forward motion to the figures4 ,that was the old ,plateau magic disk idea4 ,with the same number of openings in the shutter as pictures1 the figures would appear to move their arms and legs and yet stay in the same place2 if less shutter openings1 there would be an appearance of backward motion4 8,the disks are rotated at the same speed in opposite directions1 and the figures rapidly following each other appear on the screen as a continuous movement of the animal10 the ,english reviewer remarked4 ,muybridge showed slow and normal action motion4 ,the subjects included a mule kicking1 a woman emptying a pail of water1 a girl walking down steps carrying a breakfast cup and saucer1 and what was said to be the best of all1 a little girl finding and picking up a doll4 ,in passing1 we may note that in addition to singling out ,meissonier for praise1 ,muybridge asserted that the ,japanese were far ahead of everyone else in representing motion in art6 ,muybridge eventually retired to his native ,kingston1 ,england1 after winning fame through his work in ,america4 ,but he obtained more than fame1 for he was able to leave a considerable sum of money1 in addition to his instruments1 to the local museum4 ,efforts to locate the ,muybridge instruments at the ,kingston-on-,thames ,museum in #aidc were unsuccessful4 ,in #ahhi1 ,thomas ,a4 ,edison1 already working on the problem of motion pictures for a year or two1 visited the ,exposition at ,paris and there met ,marey who showed him the results obtained with his methods of motion photography1 and the reproduction of the scene with a ,plateau-disk combined with a projector and the disk illuminated by an electric ,geissler tube4 ,this electrically driven machine1 displayed at the exhibit of ,fontaine1 a ,french engineer1 showed pictures of animals in motion1 as well as men and birds4 ,the old photo stand-by of horses in motion in different gaits again was featured4 ,this system rather pleased ,marey1 as he remarked that it would be hard to construct a better ,wheel of ,life1 though ,edison had even then accomplished it in his laboratory at ,west ,orange1 ,new ,jersey4 ,the limitations of the method1 however1 were fully recognized by ,marey who mentioned the small number of images which could be shown1 the restricted enlargement1 and the intermittent movement troubles4 ,also1 the device was noisy and the flicker had not been eliminated4 ,thus the year of #ahhi brought together two great figures1 ,marey1 a pure scientist whose zeal for learning about locomotion resulted in improvements in what was to be the motion picture art-science1 and ,edison who invented the first entirely practical motion picture camera and the first film peep-show device which was to be the inspiration for projectors as they were finally established1 setting the pattern even to our day4 ,,xv ,,edison',s ,,peep-,,show ,edison turns to motion pictures--,donisthorpe of ,england works it all out on paper--,eastman manufactures film--,edison perfects a motion picture camera1 the ,kinetograph1 and a peep-hole viewer1 the ,kinetoscope--,world ,premiere1 ,new ,york--,april1 #ahid4 ,in the laboratory of ,thomas ,alva ,edison the development of a practicable motion picture camera and viewing apparatus was really achieved4 ,leadership in the magic shadow art-science came with ,edison once again to the ,united ,states and it has not left this country since4 ,as a sequel ,america and motion pictures are linked in the minds of millions throughout the world4 ,edison came to the motion picture through his ,talking ,phonograph1 which he had developed not as an entertainment machine but as a device which would be a substitute for the court reporter and in other proceedings requiring exact recording4 ,the motion picture experiments were made rather as a hobby and a diversion from more serious research and invention2 the aim was to combine the automatic hearing and speaking of the phonograph with the sight and action of the motion picture4 ,curiously enough ,plateau1 a man who went blind1 made the first motion picture possible2 ,edison who was quite deaf made a great contribution to recording and reproducing sound4 ,edison1 in ,november of #ahgg1 sent to his friend ,alfred ,hopkins1 editor of the ,scientific ,american1 several sketches of models of his new invention in which 8speech was capable of indefinite repetition from automatic records40 ,the next month a model was perfected4 ,the incident was described as follows in the ,december #bb1 #ahgg1 issue of the ,scientific ,american3 8,mr4 ,thomas ,a4 ,edison recently came into this office1 placed a little machine on our desk1 turned the crank1 and the machine inquired as to our health1 asked how we liked the phonograph1 informed us that it was well1 and bid us a cordial good night40 ,it was noted that the sound was fully audible to a dozen members of the staff who gathered around4 ,the writer also noted1 8,when it becomes possible to magnify the sound1 as it doubtless will1 the witness in court will have his own testimony repeated4 ,the testator will repeat his own will40 ,the editor of the ,scientific ,american concluded his comment on the ,edison 8,talking0 phonograph by saying3 8,it is already possible to throw stereoscopic photographs of people on screens in full view of an audience 7i4e41 still pictures74 ,add the talking phonograph to counterfeit their voices and it would be difficult to carry the illusion of real presence much further40 ,the description of the ,edison phonograph attracted wide attention4 ,the article referred to above was quoted fully in ,nature1 a ,british publication4 ,this led ,wordsworth ,donisthorpe to set down the first complete plan of the talking motion picture4 ,others1 of course1 had had the idea but up to that time the plan had never been expressed so clearly and completely4 ,wordsworth ,donisthorpe1 born in #ahdg1 was an ,english lawyer who throughout life maintained a lively interest in many affairs4 ,he was an outspoken individualist1 being a firm believer in local government4 ,he wrote books on such subjects as ,law in a ,free ,state1 and ,love and ,law1 as well as on scientific matters4 ,when he designed his device1 the ,kinesigraph1 he was living at ,princes ,park1 ,liverpool4 ,after reading about ,edison's phonograph1 ,donisthorpe wrote to the ,nature magazine and referred to the idea of combining the phonograph and still projection suggested by the ,editor of the ,scientific ,american4 ,donisthorpe quoted that comment and then said3 ,ingenious as this suggested combination is1 ,i believe ,i am in a position to cap it4 ,by combining the phonograph and the ,kinesigraph ,i will undertake not only to produce a talking picture of ,mr4 ,gladstone which1 with motionless lips and unchanged expression1 shall positively recite his latest anti-,turkish speech in his own voice and tone4 ,not only this1 but the life-size phonograph itself shall move and gesticulate precisely as he did when making the speech1 the words and gestures corresponding as in real life4 ,surely this is an advance upon the conception of the ,scientific ,american6 ,the mode in which ,i effect this is described in the accompanying provisional specifications1 which may be briefly summed up thus3 ,instantaneous photographs of bodies or groups of bodies in motion are taken at equal short intervals--say quarter or half seconds1 the exposure of the plate occupying not more than an eighth of a second4 ,after fixing1 the prints from these plates are taken one below the other on a long strip of ribbon or paper4 ,the strip is wound from one cylinder to another so as to cause the several photographs to pass before the eye successively at the same intervals of time as those at which they were taken4 ,each picture as is passes the eye is instantaneously lighted up by an electric spark4 ,thus the picture is made to appear stationary while the people or things in it appear to move as in nature4 ,i need not enter more into detail beyond saying that if the intervals between the presentation of the successive pictures are found to be too short the gaps can be filled up by duplicates or triplicates of each succeeding print4 ,this will not perceptibly alter the general effect4 ,i think it will be admitted that by this means a drama acted by daylight or magnesium light may be recorded and reacted on the screen or sheet of a magic lantern1 and with the assistance of the phonograph the dialogues may be repeated in the very voices of the actors4 ,when this is actually accomplished the photography of colors will alone be wanting to render the representation absolutely complete and for this we shall not1 ,i trust1 have long to wait4 ,it is not known whether or not ,edison read ,donisthorpe's suggestion4 ,at any rate1 it was ten years1 not till #ahhg1 that ,edison decided to see about trying to combine the phonograph1 greatly improved by this time1 and a motion picture apparatus4 ,after completing improvements on the phonograph in #ahhf and awaiting the opening of new laboratory quarters1 ,edison found himself with some idle moments4 ,sometime1 in the middle or late part of #ahhg ,edison started work on what was to become his ,kinetograph1 the first motion picture camera that could photograph a few seconds of action at a time1 and the ,kinetoscope1 the popular peep-show film device which brought the magic shadow art before the modern public and opened the way for the establishment of the motion picture industry4 ,edison was assisted in his motion picture experiments by ,william ,kennedy ,laurie ,dickson1 a man who had about the same relation to ,edison as ,george ,demeny had with ,marey in ,france4 ,in keeping with the ,demeny tradition1 ,dickson eventually broke with his master and engaged in controversy over priority of ideas and actual contributions to various developments4 ,but ,edison and ,marey both supplied the ideas and directed the work1 while ,dickson and ,demeny were responsible for carrying out the experiments4 ,both contributed importantly4 ,edison had employed ,dickson as a young man1 just after he came from ,england to the ,united ,states1 and he was a trusted associate1 having first been with ,edison in the installation of the underground wires in ,new ,york ,city4 ,in #ahhg ,dickson was called to ,edison's private laboratory and given two major projects to supervise3 7#a7 a magnetic device for separating ores1 and 7#b7 a device to combine the sounds of the phonograph and pictures4 ,late in #ahhg1 in 8,room ,five0 of the ,edison ,private ,laboratory1 ,dickson started to work on ,edison's ideas for a motion picture device4 ,the first efforts were centered on a cylinder recording system1 analogous to the cylinder phonograph which ,edison preferred to the disk type4 ,he did not bother to patent the disk phonograph style and thereby lost a fortune as he did in other patent matters1 including foreign rights to his motion picture camera and peep-show apparatus4 ,the first ,edison moving pictures were extremely tiny and had to be inspected through a microscope arrangement4 ,around #ahgj ,talbot1 the photographic pioneer1 in ,england had done some work on a similar system4 ,the results of ,edison's experiments in this connection were not successful4 ,next1 during #ahhh or early #ahhi1 ,edison turned to celluloid1 made by the ,hyatt ,company in ,newark1 and adapted to photographic purposes by ,carbutt in ,philadelphia4 ,this material was found to be too thick to be rolled conveniently on reels1 and did not make a good photographic base4 ,edison found that notches or perforations were needed to keep the film passing through the camera and viewing device at a uniform rate4 ,he first used notches on the bottom1 and finally four perforations on each side for each picture or frame4 ,edison's arrangement has continued as the work standard4 ,edison looked around for a more suitable substance on which to mount the pictures--the age-old need4 ,he found it in film just being manufactured for the first time by ,george ,eastman at ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,an order was placed and the solution appeared at hand4 ,for several years ,eastman had been seeking a suitable substance for his ,kodak cameras in order to make photography simple and foolproof and make widespread amateur use possible4 ,for a time his 8roller photography0 system used paper rolls coated with a detachable photographic emulsion4 ,this was an improvement over glass plates but the method was cumbersome as the ,kodaks had to be returned to ,rochester for reloading and processing4 ,early in #ahhi ,eastman found the answer in a flexible photographic base--a plastic--and film was born4 ,in ,august of that year manufacturing began in his ,court ,street plant in ,rochester4 ,the film strips were prepared on glass sheets mounted on #ajj-;foot long tables4 ,eastman applied for his film patent on ,december #aj1 #ahhi4 ,when ,edison returned from the ,paris ,exposition of #ahhi1 where ,marey had shown him motion picture photographs mounted on a large disk and projected1 and also illuminated by an electric flash as in the ,tachyscope of ,anschtz1 ,dickson was able to announce success in the motion picture project4 ,that was in ,october1 #ahhi4 ,it can never be decided exactly what was shown at the first demonstration1 because the interests of ,edison and ,dickson split and the testimony was contradictory4 ,nothing was done about it for nearly two years1 and the peep-show film machines did not go on public display until the ,spring of #ahid4 ,dickson claimed that the pictures1 synchronized with a phonograph1 were projected screen size in the ,fall of #ahhi4 ,edison said there was no projection at the time4 ,some time between #ahhi and #ahid1 projection experiments were made but ,edison did not think screen projection of motion pictures would be commercially successful1 believing that a few machines would exhaust the world's demand and once the novelty wore off the business would die4 ,it is also possible that he was not satisfied with the experiments at projection because they must have been quite imperfect4 ,the ,edison magic-disk device had continuously running film and a shutter revolving at the rate of ten times a second4 ,no light source then available would give projection with that set-up4 ,intermittent movement was required for efficient operation in the projector as in the camera4 ,harper's ,weekly of ,june #ac1 #ahia1 carried a two-page story on the new ,edison invention4 ,the device was not claimed to be perfected but one having very wonderful possibilities4 ,the writer said1 8,to say that the ,kinetograph can be nothing more than a marvelous toy would be nasty40 ,edison said1 8,all that ,i have done is to perfect what has been attempted before1 but did not succeed4 ,it's just that one step that ,i have taken40 ,on ,august #bd1 #ahia1 ,edison applied for an ,american patent but decided not to invest the required sum1 approximately #aej1 to make foreign applications4 ,too often in the past he found that a patent application by him was simply a form of general advertising to his imitators and competitors to start using his newest invention4 ,in #ahia the ,kinetograph of ,edison was not perfected or highly regarded4 ,in the ,engineering ,news of ,may #cj1 #ahia1 a brief note read3 ,the ,kinetograph is the latest reported invention of ,mr4 ,thomas ,edison4 ,in an interview published in the ,new ,york ,sun1 ,mr4 ,edison described this still unperfected machine as an instrument with which he photographs a man or a company of men in action at the rate of #df per second4 ,the negatives are one-half inch square1 taken on a continuous film of gelatine of any length desired4 ,by an ingenious arrangement the images from the gelatine ribbon are later thrown upon a screen and this ribbon is made to move at a rate corresponding to the original rate of action1 and at the same time a phonograph is made to repeat the words of the speaker represented4 ,to thus photograph a #cj-minute act of an opera1 for example1 a ribbon #f1djj feet long would be required1 each photograph one-half inch square and requiring an inch of linear space4 ,the commercial sphere of the ,kinetograph has not yet been defined4 ,that last observation was very true for the time being4 ,in late ,may of #ahia an indifferent account of the device was cabled to the ,london ,times by its ,new ,york correspondent4 ,the matter was commented upon in the ,engineering magazine of ,london for ,june #e1 #ahia4 ,that publication observed that since the time of the invention of the telephone there had been efforts to do for sight what the telephone did for sound4 ,of ,edison's invention of the motion picture camera and viewer it was said1 8,it is a matter of much less importance and much less originality than thought40 ,it was asserted that it would not be possible to photograph interiors at the rate of #df pictures per second4 ,but ,edison was doing just that in his first motion picture studio4 ,in the early part of #ahic it was decided to market commercially the peep-show motion picture devices4 ,after a year's postponement1 the ,chicago ,world's ,fair was scheduled to open in the ,spring of #ahic and this was thought an ideal place for the debut of the apparatus4 ,in ,january of #ahic the famous 8,black ,maria0 ,edison ,studio was constructed chiefly of tar paper at a cost of about #fjj1 and the first commercial films made4 ,dickson was producer1 director1 cameraman and laboratory expert4 ,fred ,ott1 a laboratory mechanic1 and his sneeze were among the first actors and film 8acts40 ,other subjects included dancers and similar entertainment subjects of a vaudeville character1 together with scenic views4 ,the debut of the projection apparatus had been heralded long before it actually arrived4 ,the ,world's ,columbian ,exposition ,illustrated1 published for the ,chicago ,fair of #ahic1 said3 ,edison will show his kineto-graph4 ,this machine is a combination1 first of the camera and phonograph and then the phonograph and ,stereopticon 7magic lantern projector74 ,by means of this machine1 when a man makes a speech the phonograph takes his words4 ,connected electrically and in synchronism with the phonograph is a camera which takes pictures of the speaker at the rate of forty-seven per second on a long transparent slip4 ,this is developed and fixed and then placed in a stereopticon which is also in electrical synchronism with the phonograph4 ,the stereopticon shows these photographs on the screen at a rate of forty-seven per second1 while the phonograph reproduces the words1 and thus a life-like representation of the speaker is given1 with his words1 actions and gestures precisely as he delivered the speech in the first instance4 ,illustration3 ,eastman ,kodak ,,eastman and ,,edison4 ,george ,eastman and ,thomas ,a4 ,edison1 the two greatest ,american contributors to the practical development of motion pictures1 at a meeting in #aibh4 ,illustration3 ,edison ,archives1 #ahid ,,kinetoscope ,,parlor1 presenting ,edison's peep-hole viewer1 opened at #aaee ,broadway on ,april #ad1 #ahid4 ,subsequent showings in ,london and ,paris inspired ,european inventors4 ,edison's projection apparatus was not perfected by the time of the ,fair or indeed for several years afterwards4 ,even the peep-show ,kinetoscope machines had not been manufactured in sufficient number for exhibition there4 ,the mechanic on the job was reported to have spent too much time at the local bar instead of working in the ,west ,orange laboratory4 ,during the ,fair ,edison's agents waited for the first shipment of the ,kinetoscopes but none arrived in time4 ,the patent applications made in #ahia by ,edison for 8an apparatus for exhibiting photographs of moving objects0 and his ,kinetograph camera were granted in the ,spring of #ahic4 ,the premiere of ,edison's ,kinetoscope did not take place until ,april #ad1 #ahid4 ,that first night was one of the most significant for magic shadows because out of the ,kinetoscope and the ,kinetograph camera evolved the modern motion picture devices4 ,edison supplied the peep-show ,kinetoscope to his agents1 ,raff ,gammon at #bjj each1 and they were retailed to showmen at prices from #cjj to #cej4 ,andrew ,m4 ,holland1 a ,canadian1 acquired ten ,kinetoscopes and opened up the first ,kinetoscope ,parlor at #aaee ,broadway1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,the location previously was occupied by a shoe store and a half century later it was again a shoe store4 7,illustration on opposite page47 ,the ,kinetoscopes on ,broadway were successful4 #abj was taken in the first night4 ,the original show of films was a kind of 8double feature0 in that the spectator was charged #be to see the second line of five ,kinetoscopes4 ,the films included the famous 8,fred ,ott's ,sneeze40 ,in the ,century ,magazine for ,june1 #ahid1 there was an article by ,dickson and ,antonia ,dickson on 8,edison's ,invention of the ,kinetophonograph40 ,edison wrote a forward which said in part that he had the idea that it was possible to devise a sight and sound combination apparatus in #ahhg4 8,this idea1 the germ of which came from the little toy called the ,zoetrope 7i4e41 the ,plateau-,stampfer magic disk7 and the work by ,muybridge1 ,marie 7i4e41 ,marey7 and others has now been accomplished1 so that every change of facial expression can be recorded and reproduced life-size4 ,the ,kinetoscope is only a small model illustrating the present stage of progress but with each succeeding month new possibilities are brought into view40 ,edison then prophesied that with his work and that of others 8grand opera can be given at the ,metropolitan ,opera ,house at ,new ,york without any material change from the original1 and with artists and musicians long since dead40 ,on ,june #af1 #ahid1 the ,electrical ,world reported on 8,the ,kinetophonograph0 and on the nickel-in-the-slot peep-show models on display at the ,broadway store4 ,the review was not enthusiastic even then4 ,it concluded3 8,as to the future of this most ingenious and interesting bit of mechanism1 time only will demonstrate whether it is to be a new scientific toy or an invention of real practical value40 ,time did demonstrate all that and more4 ,the reaction to ,edison's ,kinetograph in ,paris1 showplace of the world1 was much more enthusiastic than in ,new ,york4 ,in ,la ,nature the wonderful mechanical perfection of the film peep-show apparatus was praised with special note given to the fact that it was driven by electricity4 ,the ,werner firm had opened a demonstration of the ,kinetoscope at #bj ,boulevard ,poissonnire1 ,paris1 and the machines were in use all day and every evening4 ,the ,kinetoscope also went on display in ,oxford ,street1 ,london1 in ,october1 #ahid1 brought there from ,new ,york by two ,greeks1 ,george ,georgiades and ,george ,trajedis4 ,from the showings of the ,edison peep-show in ,new ,york1 ,paris1 and ,london1 there arose an increased interest in the motion picture4 ,out of these demonstrations grew projection machines which at last brought the shadow art-science before the world in full development4 ,,xvi ,,first ,,steps ,in the ,united ,states1 ,england1 ,france and ,germany efforts are made to project motion pictures on the screen--,half successes1 whole failures1 bitter disappointments and yet--perennial hope to harness magic shadows4 ,during the period between the time ,edison achieved his first success with motion pictures1 in #ahhi1 until his peep-show viewing machines were put on public display in ,new ,york1 ,paris and ,london in #ahid1 hesitant1 unsteady steps1 like those of a baby learning to walk1 were being taken in advancing the magic shadow art-science4 ,progress was made in ,england under ,wordsworth ,donisthorpe1 an interesting character named ,louis ,aim ,augustin ,le ,prince1 three associates1 ,greene1 ,rudge and ,evans1 and others4 ,in ,france1 there were ,marey and ,demeny1 with ,marey developing what was probably the first real motion picture projector capable of projecting more than one short scene--the limitation of all disk models though it was only intended for laboratory use2 and ,reynaud with the first popular motion picture theatre which1 however1 did not use photographic pictures4 ,in ,germany1 ,anschtz1 inventor of the ,tachyscope1 was working on a projector1 as were others on both sides of the ,atlantic4 ,donisthorpe1 with the help of ,w4 ,c4 ,croft1 whom he later described as 8a good draughtsman0 but not a person skilled in optics1 constructed about #ahhi a ,kinesigraph which ,donisthorpe had originally suggested in #ahgg1 at the time he wrote concerning ,edison's phonograph and a plan to combine it with a motion picture machine4 ,describing the circumstances in a letter to the ,british ,journal of ,photography of ,march #ab1 #ahig1 ,donisthorpe said3 8,i agreed to give him 7,croft7 an interest in my invention for drawing and supervising construction of the instrument1 as ,i was at that time busy with other work40 ,he noted that ,croft had never claimed to be its inventor4 ,as the reader will recall1 ,donisthorpe had named his idea1 the ,kinesigraph1 twelve years before this arrangement with ,croft4 ,donisthorpe and ,croft obtained a ,british patent in #ahhi but that expired when not renewed after four years4 ,donisthorpe complained that an adverse report of some alleged experts killed his plan when he attempted to obtain financing from ,sir ,george ,newnes1 who might have been the film's first patron4 ,newnes had made his fortune as a newspaper and magazine owner4 ,he invested a large sum in the ,norwegian ,south ,pole expedition of #ahih but was dissuaded from backing motion pictures4 ,donisthorpe's idea was called 8wild1 visionary and ridiculous and that the only result of attempting to photograph motion would be an indescribable blur40 8,i shall ask in the future10 ,donisthorpe continued1 8to give me all ,i shall ever get in return for my time and thought1 namely1 the credit of having been the first to invent1 and the first to patent the ,kinesigraph1 the photography of motion40 ,he also noted that as a barrister he would not care to defend the monopoly of any patentee after #ahhi4 ,but he was never called upon for that1 for in ,england1 as elsewhere1 the motion picture patent situation eventually became a hopeless muddle4 ,in the ,march #bf1 #ahig issue of the same publication1 the ,british ,journal of ,photography1 ,donisthorpe also commented on his ,kinesigraph3 8,the instrument was patented1 made and worked before any other saw the light4 ,i do not pretend the results were in all respects satisfactory4 ,what first machine ever is80 ,donisthorpe expressed surprise that some had not attempted to copy his machine which operated with a single moving lens and took pictures two and one-half inches in diameter on sensitized paper4 ,this was later made transparent by the application of petroleum jelly or castor oil1 a process which ,eastman had used1 for still pictures1 with paper roll film in the ,united ,states from #ahhd until his film base was developed late in #ahhi4 ,donisthorpe held that the continuous action with the moving lens providing the necessary intermittency was a decided advantage over other types3 8,in one particular1 my own invention is so vastly superior even now to all that have come after it1 that ,i am surprised practical men have not adopted it1 now that it is open to the ,english public to do so40 ,as interesting as ,donisthorpe's idea was even in #ahgg and also in #ahhi1 it is very unlikely that his machine was satisfactory4 ,even now the intermittent motion picture camera and projector hold practical supremacy except in the case of very high speed photography for scientific purposes4 ,louis ,aim ,augustin ,le ,prince 7#ahdb-ahij71 who worked in ,england1 the ,united ,states and ,france1 was the son of a ,french officer who was a friend of ,daguerre1 the pioneer in photography4 ,le ,prince became a photographer1 under the influence of ,daguerre and in #ahgj went to work in ,leeds1 ,yorkshire1 ,england1 where he had his own shop4 ,from shortly after #ahhj to #ahhi he was in the ,united ,states1 returning then to ,leeds4 ,le ,prince proposed a multiple-lens camera-projector system4 ,on ,january #aj1 #ahhh he applied for an ,american patent1 which was issued on ,november #af of the same year1 on a 8,method of an apparatus for producing animated pictures of natural scenery and life40 ,in ,le ,prince's method1 two strips of sensitized paper or other material would be fed alternately through a camera and projector equipped with two sets of rotating lenses4 ,it has been said that ,le ,prince also had an idea of a system using only one lens4 ,years later1 at the trial of the ,american ,mutoscope and ,biograph ,company against ,thomas ,a4 ,edison1 a model of the ,le ,prince camera-projector was introduced together with results purportedly made by ,joe ,mason of ,biograph1 but it was unsatisfactory--the double lens system did not produce evenly spaced pictures and each had to be printed separately4 ,furthermore1 the background had to be treated specially or the figures would appear to jump right and left1 because each lens took pictures from a slightly different angle4 ,le ,prince disappeared in #ahij when he was visiting in ,france prior to returning to the ,united ,states1 some investigators have asserted1 to show a perfected model of his projector-camera4 ,the mystery of his disappearance has never been solved4 ,john ,arthur ,roebuck ,rudge1 an optician and instrument maker of ,bath1 ,england1 had developed about #ahff the ,bio-,phantoscope1 an application of the ,plateau magic-disk4 ,he maintained a continuing interest in photography4 ,about #ahhb ,william ,friese ,greene 7#ahee-aiba71 a young man who was a friend of the ,english photographer ,talbot1 came into contact with ,rudge4 ,in #ahhe ,greene opened a camera shop in ,london4 ,a few years later he demonstrated before the ,photographic ,society a little projection instrument made by ,rudge which showed four pictures in rapid succession as1 for example1 the change of an expression from grave to gay1 or a face in the act of blushing4 ,that device was considerably more primitive than the projector first invented by ,uchatius1 long before ,greene was born4 ,in ,may of #ahij ,rudge showed at a meeting of the ,bath ,photographic ,society a new optical lantern fitted with a mechanism which aimed to represent1 by means of a series of photographic slides1 men and animals moving as in life4 ,that device1 an improvement of the earlier ,rudge projector1 had one condenser to gather the light and four small projection lenses4 ,greene suggested the addition of the coloring effects by coating parts of the slides with pigments4 ,however1 the machine was described as unfinished1 though in the ,photographic ,news of ,may #cjth it was stated1 8,the effects were1 from an entertainment point of view1 vastly superior to those produced by ,mr4 ,muybridge and others by the application of the ,thaumatrope principle1 the unpleasant jerkiness of which is well known40 ,but it was stated that ,rudge's machine had several serious defects4 ,the pictures were small and limited to only a few in number4 ,greene also had a model and gave a demonstration in ,london which seemed to impress only a ,mr4 ,chang of the ,chinese ,embassy1 one of the invited guests4 ,the ,greene-,rudge or ,rudge-,greene machine was partially the work of ,mortimer ,evans1 a civil engineer1 with whom ,greene made contact in #ahhi4 ,that year they applied jointly for a patent on a film device4 ,the same year ,evans sold out his interest for a reported #a1bjj and ,greene was in financial troubles4 ,the ,greene-,rudge-,evans device was a box film camera which1 it was claimed1 could be converted into a projector4 ,by this time celluloid film was available in ,england as well as in the ,united ,states and ,france4 ,according to the ,february #bh1 #ahij1 ,photographic ,news1 the camera could take ten photographs a second4 ,the ,greene camera1 measuring eight by nine by nine-and-a-quarter inches1 could take #cjj pictures1 and a smaller model turned out by ,evans1 #ajj pictures4 ,the reviewer of #ahij wrote1 8the object of it is to obtain consecutive pictures of things in motion which can afterwards be rapidly consecutively projected on a screen so as to reproduce1 say1 a street scene1 with the horses1 human beings1 and other things moving as in nature40 ,greene this same year claimed that his machine camera would have important military uses4 ,in this he was farsighted1 as the modern motion picture camera is an important instrument of military reconnaissance1 record and instruction as ,world ,war ,,ii has so amply demonstrated4 ,in the ,british ,journal of ,photography for ,december #e1 #ahie1 ,a4 ,t4 ,story defended ,greene's priority of invention and claimed that ,greene's projection apparatus of #ahhi-ij was a success4 ,that conclusion is not inescapable4 ,there appears no concrete evidence that ,greene-,rudge-,evans achieved screen projection1 for it is obvious that had they done so it would have been widely acclaimed at the time4 ,but they did make a camera and attempted a projector4 ,the camera apparently was practical4 ,marey and others in ,france1 ,anschtz in ,germany1 ,edison1 and ,wallace ,goold ,levison in ,brooklyn and ,w4 ,n4 ,jennings of the ,u4 ,s4 ,weather ,bureau in ,chicago1 among others1 were making successful motion picture films at that time4 ,projection remained the great problem4 ,in #ahic ,greene obtained a patent on a device related to the ,chronophotographe developed by ,john ,varley1 a member of the ,english landscape painting family4 ,his projection idea included a loop formed by means of intermittent pressure on the film passing before the lens4 ,greene's ,november #bi1 #ahic1 patent application1 accepted exactly one year later1 was 8to produce by means of reflected light artificial scenery to take the place of the ordinary scenery or background40 ,it included 8improvements in apparatus for exhibiting panoramic1 dissolving or changing views and in the manufacture of slides for the use thereof40 ,from this it is clear that even as late as #ahic ,greene's idea was limited in scope and effectiveness4 ,at this time ,greene made some pictures in ,hyde ,park with a large portable camera4 ,it was described as a camera and projector in one1 but that combination1 without many modifications1 has never been entirely practical4 ,greene had an unhappy1 ill-starred life and though not a great inventor deserved better4 ,about #ahii he made attempts at color motion pictures1 using a rotating lens with a filter1 but here again he was unsuccessful4 ,about #aiaa he was brought to the ,united ,states to testify in the motion picture patent suit but he did not impress the ,american attorneys representing ,edison's opponents1 and he never was called to the witness stand4 ,about #aiae it was reported that he was destitute and ,will ,day1 ,english motion picture expert1 and others1 organized a relief fund in his behalf and later he had a minor position with a color photo-engraving firm4 ,at a dinner in his honor in #aiba1 just after he had once again told the story of his pioneer work on motion pictures1 he dropped dead4 ,apparently his projection efforts were doomed to failure1 because they never were based on sound principles4 ,the double lens system has never been made to work satisfactorily4 ,marey1 who was now using strips of coated celluloid for his instantaneous photographs1 sought to devise a suitable projector4 ,this he accomplished in #ahic with what was perhaps the first efficient motion picture projector which could handle more than one brief scene1 using long strips of coated celluloid film instead of pictures set on a disk4 ,in order to obtain sufficient illumination1 it used sunlight instead of an electric arc or other source of light4 ,this limited ,marey's projector to laboratory use1 though as late as #aiae some experts claimed that sunlight was better than the electric arc for magic lantern projection4 ,an available illustration of ,marey's projector shows the path of the rays which are reflected from the sun by a heliostat4 ,that device was invented by the ,dutch scientist1 ,willem ,jacob1 and is simply a mechanically driven reflector which keeps the light of the sun focused on a single spot by compensating for the movement of the earth4 ,in ,marey's projector the sun's rays are interrupted by a hand driven shutter wheel and reflected by two mirrors through the film1 the light then passing through the projection lens and throwing the pictures onto the screen4 8,the motion of the film10 ,marey wrote1 8as it halts at each flash1 is brought about by an apparatus not shown in the figure4 ,it is similar to that of the simple chronophotographic apparatus 7camera71 with the difference that the positive film1 having its ends fastened together to make an endless belt1 passes over a series of rollers which stretch it taut40 ,this roller system was probably similar to that used by ,edison in his peep-show ,kinetoscope4 ,the projector1 ,marey himself admitted1 was not perfect4 8,the principal imperfection of the chronophotographic projector was a jerkiness due to imperfect equality of the intervals40 ,this resulted from the fact that ,marey did not perforate the film because he thought the space along the edge should not be wasted4 ,he knew that ,edison had been successful through the use of four perforations on each side of every frame1 or picture4 ,he was free to copy this1 had he wished1 because ,edison did not patent the method abroad4 ,meanwhile1 ,marey continued his work and finally1 in #ahih1 announced a successful projector system which overcame his chief difficulty which was the even spacing of the pictures without using the ,edison perforations4 ,his system featured specially constructed rollers which gripped the edges of the film4 ,the next year ,marey worked out a combination of the motion picture camera and the microscope1 opening the way for much progress in scientific research4 ,he continued to study motion and in #ahii improved his early photographic gun camera so that it would handle about #fe feet of film at one loading4 ,marey1 who was interested only in science and not in commercial exploitation1 needed funds which he eventually received from the ,american ,smithsonian ,institute1 whose secretary1 ,samuel ,p4 ,langley1 the aeronautical pioneer1 had been following the ,french physiologist's motion picture studies1 including his pioneer work in photographing air currents4 ,marey's motto1 so far as motion pictures were concerned1 was3 8,it is not the most interesting motion pictures that are the most useful40 ,in this he stood against commercialization1 and always for instructional uses4 ,in #ahic ,demeny broke with ,marey and patented on ,october #aj1 #ahic1 under his own name1 a modification of the ,marey camera1 which he called the ,bioscope4 ,this he was able to do1 even though the method had been known at ,marey's laboratory1 simply because ,marey had never actually adopted it4 ,french patents were regularly issued upon application4 ,demeny was the motion picture amateur or home-movie-maker's first friend4 ,the instantaneous photographic devices of ,marey and others were relatively clumsy and expensive4 ,demeny brought out a portable camera suitable for amateur use4 ,in operation this model was held over one arm1 making it necessary for the cameraman to photograph a scene which he did not see at all1 or only imperfectly out of the corner of his eye4 ,demeny's film was given an intermittent action through two eccentrically mounted pins used as the roll holders4 ,demeny realized that the pictures must be taken at equal intervals of time and also evenly spaced on the film for successful results4 ,his eccentric camera never actually achieved this result4 ,in #ahia ,demeny became interested in studying speech4 ,in this work he was associated with ,h4 ,marischelle1 then a young professor at the ,french national institute for deaf mutes4 ,marischelle and ,demeny had the idea that through photographs of speech the deaf could learn to talk4 ,demeny developed the ,photophone and the ,photoscope1 which were modified versions of the ,marey camera system and a lantern projector equipped with an oxyhydrogen light4 ,demeny made close-up instantaneous photographs of persons speaking4 ,the phrase1 8,vive la ,france0 was a popular subject4 ,demeny said that the apparatus1 8conserves the expression of the face as the voice is preserved in the phonograph40 ,he added that it was1 8possible even to join the phonograph to his phonoscope to complete the illusion40 ,that was the idea expressed by ,donisthorpe in #ahgg and on which ,edison had been working since #ahhg--the combined projector and phonograph or the talking motion picture which indeed was not to be perfected for many decades4 ,in the ,spring of #ahib ,demeny tried to exploit commercially the system of ,talking ,photographs or1 more accurately1 moving pictures of the action of the mouth in speaking4 ,demeny always blamed the organization1 the ,socit ,gnrale du ,phonoscope with which he was associated1 for not developing his work4 ,it is probable however1 that the ,demeny machines were not entirely satisfactory4 ,a few years later1 after successful projection of motion pictures had been achieved on a commercial basis1 ,demeny became associated with ,lon ,gaumont1 and a number of early ,french machines carried ,demeny's name though he alone was not entirely responsible for the design4 ,demeny and ,gaumont developed a projector which included a gear wheel which fitted into perforations on the film and an eccentric pin similar to ,marey's camera system4 ,anschtz1 one of the first successful photographers of motion1 after ,muybridge1 and the one who introduced the electric ,geissler tube as a method of illumination and projection of a series of still photos to create the illusion of motion1 was continuing his work in ,germany in this period4 ,on ,november #ae1 #ahid1 he obtained a ,french patent on a 8process of projection of images in stroboscopic movement40 ,this projector had an intermittent light arrangement and may have been better than ,marey's sun model of #ahic1 because ,anschtz was a professional photographer and maker of optical instruments while ,marey was a professional physiologist4 ,in ,november of #ahie ,anschtz showed an improved model of his projector at the ,postal ,building in the ,artilleriestrasse1 ,dsseldorf1 ,germany4 ,a contemporary account in the journal1 ,photographisches ,archiv1 published by ,dr4 ,paul ,e4 ,liesegang1 reported that the demonstration was 8before an invited crowd and was rightly received with great enthusiasm by all the persons present40 ,anschtz had improved his projection apparatus to a point at which images could be thrown life-size on a screen4 ,before that time pictures projected by his ,elektrisch ,schnellseher were only the size of the original pictures and thus could be seen by only a few spectators at one time4 ,anschtz had both motion pictures and many stills on his program1 including scenes taken when the cornerstone of the ,reichstag ,building was laid4 ,once again the military connection of magic shadows was shown as ,anschtz projected scenes of army life4 ,after the demonstration ,colonel ,a4 ,d4 ,tanera stressed the importance of motion picture photography for the study of military history and also for making observations in the field4 ,reynaud1 the first magic shadow showman of modern times and the immediate forerunner of the motion picture exhibitor of our day1 was now operating his ,thtre ,optique in ,paris4 ,he achieved the first solid commercial success of the art4 ,from #ahib to #aijj1 when the competition of real motion pictures forced him to close1 #ejj1jjj persons attended the ,reynaud screen entertainments which were presented every day from three to six in the afternoon and eight to eleven at night4 7,illustration facing page #adh47 ,the projection apparatus used at the ,thtre ,optique was a modification of ,reynaud's original ,praxinoscope of #ahgg and his simple projector model of #ahhb4 ,the scenes were painted on transparent celluloid and one magic lantern provided the background and another optical system which handled the moving film cast the motion effects onto the screen4 ,rear projection was used with the apparatus concealed on the theatre stage behind the screen4 ,in #ahhi ,reynaud had obtained a patent on a perforated band of film and he was the first to introduce on a commercially practical basis reels or spools to handle the film4 ,reynaud was not content to show merely scenes of action but wished to tell a story4 ,before long it was found that the story film or familiar feature picture was the most popular all over the world4 8,poor ,little ,peter0 7,pauvre ,pierrot7 was one of the most popular of ,reynaud's film shows4 ,harlequin and ,colombine were other popular characters4 ,reynaud provided some of the earliest uses of trick projection1 for his apparatus was fully reversible and at times he would create novel and hilarious effects by making the characters jump backwards4 ,reynaud stood between the ,shadow ,plays and pantomimes of the ancients and the modern motion picture4 ,though he took no part in the development of motion picture photography and its application to the screen1 he influenced the art-science by pioneering in the dramatic use of the medium1 as well as introducing technical devices which were readily adaptable to motion picture use4 ,reynaud was1 as ,porta two-and-a-half centuries before1 a showman4 ,but while he was entertaining the public with screen pictures1 the efforts of ,marey1 ,greene1 ,rudge1 ,evans1 ,donisthorpe and many others1 including ,edison1 were preparing the way for the screen art and science of magic shadows4 ,at last the valid motion picture was ready for its public screen debut4 ,illustration3 ,scientific ,american1 #ahib ,,theatre ,,optique of ,emile ,reynaud used hand-painted film to tell entertaining stories4 ,the screen plays received wide approval from audiences in ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,scientific ,american1 #ahhi ,,electrical ,,tachyscope of ,ottomar ,anschtz was an attraction at the ,chicago ,world's ,fair1 #ahic4 ,it used an intermittent light source4 ,,xvii ,,world ,,premieres ,success at last--,magic shadows reach the screen in living motion--,edison-,armat and the ,vitascope--,les ,frres ,lumire and the ,cinmatographe--,paul of ,london and the ,animatograph or ,theatrograph4 ,the motion picture made its commercial debut in #ahie and #ahif1 more or less simultaneously1 in ,paris1 ,london1 ,new ,york and elsewhere4 ,that debut is duplicated occasionally at the present time when important ,hollywood films have a number of simultaneous 8world premieres40 ,with the introduction of a satisfactory projector of life-size moving pictures which were not limited to a few seconds' duration but could run for a number of minutes1 the story of the origin of magic shadow entertainment comes to an end4 ,from that day the phenomenal progress in entertainment and instruction of the motion picture is particularly history of that art-science4 ,magic shadow history is being written currently every evening on tens of thousands of screens before millions of spectators4 ,the motion picture projectors which finally were entirely successful and from which the history of the motion picture1 properly speaking1 arises were all principally based on ,edison's ,kinetograph film peep-show which in #ahid was shown in ,new ,york1 ,paris and ,london4 ,in the ,fall of #ahid ,louis ,lumire saw the ,edison ,kinetograph demonstrated at the ,werner firm exhibit in ,paris at #bj ,boulevard ,poissonire4 ,from this he conceived the idea of combining such an apparatus with the ,reynaud-type1 which was already providing screen entertainment in ,paris4 ,doubtless1 ,lumire was also familiar with ,marey's work4 ,louis ,lumire and his brother1 ,auguste1 operated a photographic establishment at ,lyons which their father had established4 ,lyons figured once before in the magic shadow show2 it was here that ,walgenstein1 the ,dane1 first introduced ,kircher's magic lantern in ,france4 ,lumire1 who was a successful photographer1 decided that the number of images used by ,edison per second1 forty-eight1 was more than necessary so he used sixteen4 ,lumire1 however1 borrowed from ,edison the idea of perforating the edge of the film1 having one on each side of every frame instead of ,edison's four4 ,lumire adopted a claw type intermittent drive for the apparatus which was designed by an engineer1 ,charles ,moissant4 ,lon ,gaumont1 who later became associated with ,demeny1 was ,moissant's secretary4 ,the machine was constructed by the ,jules ,carpentier manufacturing firm4 ,first experiments were made with coated paper but this was found unsuitable4 ,celluloid was ordered from the ,american ,celluloid ,company and this the ,lumires coated themselves because1 unlike ,edison1 they were skilled in photography before they took up the motion picture problem4 ,the ,lumires were able to use celluloid but it was not as good as the ,eastman motion picture film which ,edison had found so satisfactory4 ,on ,february #ac1 #ahie1 the ,lumires obtained a ,french patent on their camera-projector device1 the ,cinmatographe4 ,the name ,cinmatographe probably was derived from a ,french patent issued ,february #ab1 #ahib1 to ,lon ,bouly who had an idea for a camera which evidently was not reduced to practice4 ,le ,repas de ,bb1 8,the ,baby's ,meal10 was the first ,lumire film4 ,other scenes were made in the ,lumire photographic plant1 together with views of the city1 including the ,bourse4 ,a demonstration of the apparatus was given there on ,march #bb1 #ahie1 but the ,lumires were already established in business and in no haste to develop the new invention4 ,the ,cinmatographe was shown at ,marseilles in ,april1 the month an ,english patent was obtained1 and next shown at the ,congress of the ,national ,union of ,french ,photographic ,societies1 held in ,june of the same year4 ,there the ,lumires created a sensation by filming the delegates arriving for the opening meeting on ,june #aj1 developing the film and showing it before the conference was adjourned on ,june #ab4 ,this was the first newsreel use of the motion picture4 ,on ,december #bhth1 the ,lumires opened a commercial establishment for the ,cinmatographe in the ,salle au ,grand-,caf at #ad1 ,boulevard des ,capucines4 ,an admission charge of one franc was made1 but only a few dozen curious people stopped in the first day4 ,soon however the fame of the ,cinmatographe spread throughout ,paris4 ,within a few weeks the ,lumire films were playing to 8standing room only10 averaging more than two thousand admissions per day4 ,the ,lumire ,cinmatographe was widely hailed4 ,in his usual generous manner1 ,marey praised the accomplishment even though he must have been disappointed that others had achieved what he had long been seeking4 ,the ,cinmatographe was shipped to ,england and the ,united ,states at an early date4 ,in ,new ,york it was exhibited first in ,june1 #ahif1 at ,keith's #adth ,street ,theatre1 on ,union ,square4 ,in both countries it was a stimulus to imitators4 ,it continued to be one of the best projectors available for some time4 ,the ,lumire claw drive1 however1 was not as satisfactory as the ,maltese-cross type used on some projectors from about #ahgj and adopted by ,edison for the camera1 and it gradually yielded to the newer models4 ,the ,lumires continued to maintain a lively interest in motion picture developments even after their success with the camera and projector4 ,in #ahig they devised a safety condenser as a protection against the fire hazard2 in #ahih a peep-show viewing model1 and in #aijc they began a study of the possibilities of direct photographing of colors4 ,this research led to a good color process which was later introduced commercially4 ,in ,england1 ,robert ,william ,paul 7#ahfi-aidc71 scientific instrument-maker1 who was the son of a ,london ship owner1 was asked by ,george ,georgiades and ,george ,trajedis1 two ,greeks1 to duplicate the ,edison ,kinetoscope4 ,georgiades and ,trajedis had bought ,kinetoscopes in ,new ,york from ,holland ,bros41 eastern agents of the first ,kinetoscope ,company and brought them to ,london where they were exhibited in ,october1 #ahid1 at a store in ,old ,broad ,street4 ,paul inspected the ,kinetoscope and knew he could copy it4 ,but he did not believe he was free to do so1 feeling sure that ,edison had already patented the machine in ,england4 ,investigation showed that no such action had been taken4 ,thereupon at his work shop in ,hatton ,garden1 ,london1 ,paul made ,kinetoscopes for the two ,greek exhibitors and also for himself4 ,with his own machines he opened a display at ,earl's ,court1 ,london4 ,soon ,paul began work on a camera and projector based on the ,kinetoscope peep-show device4 ,paul had become interested in creating a machine which would take the spectators into the past or future after reading a fantastic tale of ,h4 ,g4 ,wells called ,the ,time ,machine1 published in #ahid4 ,paul and ,wells talked the matter over1 the one a designer and inventor1 the other a successful writer gifted with an extravagant imagination4 ,a ,british patent was applied for but no model or apparatus was ever devised because the money for such an undertaking was not found4 ,the ,paul-,wells ,time ,machine was to be an elaborate affair4 ,spectators were to be seated on platforms which would move about2 adding to the illusion1 magic lanterns and motion picture projectors were to flash pictures on all sides4 ,it was another application of the old ,phantasmagoria idea to achieve effects by moving the projectors--and in this case1 the audience also4 ,similar effects are achieved with much less trouble1 both for the showman and the spectator1 in the modern story motion picture4 ,in the ,spring of #ahie1 ,paul made an agreement with ,birt ,acres by which ,acres would make films with a camera constructed by ,paul4 ,previously ,paul had been using ,edison films but the supply was cut off4 ,his camera was much smaller and more portable than the ,edison model4 ,acres claimed that he had started work on a motion picture camera as far back as #ahhi but the effort had not been very successful4 ,by the end of #ahic ,acres said he had developed a camera which used one lens or a battery of twelve 7,uchatius fashion7 and had devoted himself to improving the apparatus instead of 8seeking a bubble reputation as a music hall showman10 as he himself put it4 ,in #ahig when he had correspondence with ,wordsworth ,donisthorpe over the latter's early work in motion pictures1 ,acres was not happy about his motion picture associations1 for he said3 8,every ,tom1 ,dick and ,harry is now claiming to be the inventor and first exhibitor of these animated photographs and ,i can fully sympathize with ,mr4 ,wordsworth ,donisthorpe1 inasmuch as some one else has obtained credit for his invention4 ,my own experience with various adventurers is not unique40 ,paul's first camera design had an intermittent movement featuring a clamping and unclamping action which was rather hard on the celluloid film made by the ,hyatt brothers in ,newark1 ,n4 ,j41 imported to ,england and coated for photographic use by the ,blair ,company4 ,shortly thereafter1 ,paul changed to an intermittent movement having a seven-point ,maltese ,cross4 ,this was an important development4 ,paul's projector1 called the ,animatograph1 had its first showing at the ,finsbury ,technical ,college on ,february #bj1 #ahif4 ,eight days later it was demonstrated at the ,royal ,institute4 ,its success came to the attention of a theatreman1 ,sir ,augustus ,harris1 operator of the ,olympia ,theatre4 ,a deal was made by ,harris with ,paul and the projector rechristened the 8,theatrograph40 ,after a short but successful run at the ,olympia in ,london1 the device was booked for two weeks at the ,alhambra1 ,leicester ,square4 ,this motion picture show stayed there four years4 ,subjects projected at twenty pictures per second by the ,paul device in the early programs were3 8,a ,rough ,sea at ,dover10 a hand colored film2 8,bootblack at ,work in a ,london ,street10 sporting events and many other scenes4 ,acres and ,paul filmed the ,derby of #ahif1 making some of the first successful topical pictures4 ,scenes showing the ,prince of ,wales' horse1 ,persimmon1 winning the ,derby were exhibited at the ,alhambra the evening after the race1 creating a sensation and numerous curtain calls for ,paul4 ,the public was amazed4 ,paul continued to be interested in motion pictures1 especially their scientific aspects1 as a kind of hobby1 for about #ae years4 ,however1 in #aiab he destroyed practically all his films and gave no further attention to the cinema4 ,in addition to his early work in projection and camera design ,paul himself had filmed many pictures including a series of animated drawings1 la ,walt ,disney1 to show electrical phenomena resulting from the approach of two magnets4 ,these scientific films were made in association with ,professor ,silvanus ,thompson4 ,paul also produced a number of comedies and used trick camera work to show motor cars flying to the moon and other bizarre effects4 ,during ,world ,war ,i ,paul invented secret war apparatus including an anti-aircraft height finder and anti-submarine device4 ,charles ,path1 a great name in the early ,french film world and carried on by several companies in the ,united ,states and elsewhere1 bought one of the first ,paul motion picture projectors4 ,previously he had roadshowed the ,edison phonograph4 ,acres had a projector of his own called the ,kinetic ,lantern1 which he said was finished in ,january1 #ahif1 but the title was changed to ,kineopticon and later to ,cinematoscope for a special program for the ,prince of ,wales4 ,probably this projector also was made by ,paul or he assisted in its design4 ,acres1 however1 was primarily interested in his profession of photography1 and motion pictures appeared to him to be only one aspect of the subject4 ,in #ahig he said3 8,there is something in photography and1 in particular1 in animated photography4 ,indeed1 ,i think there can be no doubt that animated photography is destined to revolutionize our art-science1 both as regards matters historical and scientific1 in addition to giving us life-long portraits40 ,by the time ,acres thus spoke the revolution was well under way4 ,as in ,france1 a number of men immediately started making cameras and projectors in ,england4 ,the patent rights were confused1 chiefly because ,edison neglected to secure foreign coverage1 leaving the field wide open4 ,in the ,united ,states two factors dominated the experimentation3 7#a7 the ,anschtz ,electrical ,tachyscope1 shown at the ,chicago ,fair in #ahic and 7#b7 the ,edison peep-show film device on display in many places1 starting in ,new ,york in the ,spring of #ahid4 ,the projection of life-size motion pictures on a screen before an audience might have been achieved considerably earlier had ,edison not felt that there would be no commercial market for such a device4 ,the little peep-show models could be manufactured at rather low cost and sold at a profit1 so no impetus was given to the development of a screen projector which might1 he thought1 quickly dissipate the public's interest and destroy the market4 ,but1 it may be recalled1 the screen projector1 combined with the talking phonograph1 had been ,edison's original goal when he started the experiments in #ahhg4 ,one of the men who was impressed by ,anschtz's ,electrical ,tachyscope at the ,chicago ,fair was a young ,virginian1 ,thomas ,armat4 ,he was a man of means and though associated in a real estate office in ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 still had time to follow his scientific interests which induced him to attend the ,bliss ,school of ,electricity in ,washington4 ,at this time1 ,armat had already invented a conduit for an electric railway and had refused an offer to interest himself in the distribution of the ,edison peep-show film ,kinetoscope4 ,he wanted screen projection4 ,at the ,bliss ,school ,armat was introduced to ,c4 ,francis ,jenkins1 a young ,government clerk1 who also was interested in scientific matters4 ,he had studied the ,edison ,kinetoscope and1 for the ,pure ,food ,show in ,convention ,hall1 in ,november of #ahid1 had shown a model which instead of ,edison's revolving shutter had revolving electric lights1 based on the ,uchatius idea4 ,in ,march of #ahid ,jenkins received a patent on a motion picture camera which used a revolving lens system called the ,phantoscope4 ,there is no evidence that ,jenkins ever made that camera operate efficiently4 ,it was described in the ,photographic ,times of ,july1 #ahid1 as being only five by five by eight inches in size and weighing ten pounds4 ,pictures of an athlete in action1 said to have been taken with ,jenkins' device were reproduced4 ,jenkins was having difficulty achieving projection4 ,armat and he decided to form a partnership4 ,armat was to build a projector after ,jenkins' design and1 in return1 he would receive rights to the rotating lens camera patent4 ,the results were a failure4 ,armat decided to continue with his own ideas and there was no objection1 as he was supplying the money and the place for the work in the basement of his real estate office at #acac 8,f0 ,street1 in ,washington4 ,armat decided that the ,jenkins idea of continuous movement with revolving lights was unworkable and chose an intermittent action4 ,a variation of the ,maltese-cross gear system was tried4 ,the eventual legal dispute between ,armat and ,jenkins has obscured data on the system first used4 ,it is certain the results were not wholly successful4 ,three of these machines were built in the ,summer of #ahie and the first showing was held at the ,cotton ,states ,exposition at ,atlanta1 ,georgia1 in mid-,september4 ,there the chief picture competition was the inspiration--the ,anschtz ,electrical ,tachyscope4 ,there was also an extensive display of the ,edison peep-show machines4 ,armat must have been glad to see the ,edison activity because it was from that source that he was getting his film for the projector4 ,the projector at the ,cotton ,states ,exposition was not well received4 ,the show finally burned up in a fire that swept the area4 ,fifteen hundred dollars was borrowed from ,armat's brothers to continue activities4 ,jenkins went home to ,richmond1 ,indiana1 for his brother's wedding1 taking one of the projectors with him4 ,meanwhile1 ,armat hit upon a loop to ease the strain of projection4 ,jenkins gave a demonstration of the projector on ,october #bi1 #ahie1 and by ,november #bbnd1 ,armat and ,jenkins had disagreed4 ,jenkins tried to patent some modification on his own1 without his partner1 but found that he was in interference with the ,armat-,jenkins projector patent and signed a concession of priority4 ,from his invention ,armat made a great profit which was obtained not without many law suits4 ,later ,jenkins produced a non-intermittent projector of clever but impractical design4 ,he also contributed some original ideas to television development but again the results were not very practical4 ,certain other attempts were made to achieve projection of the magic shadows and complete the motion picture system at this time4 ,most of them also were stimulated by the exhibition of ,anschtz's ,electrical ,tachyscope4 ,one of these was made by ,rudolph ,melville ,hunter 7#ahef-aice71 a consulting engineer and inventor of considerable prominence in ,america4 ,in #ahhc ,hunter had suggested a ,dover-,calais tunnel1 something that might have made the ,dunkirk evacuation of #aidj much easier2 the year before1 #ahhb1 he had suggested torpedo boats2 later he devised smokeless powder for the ,french ,government and sold some #cjj patents to the ,general ,electric and ,westinghouse companies4 ,he was also a consultant on acoustics4 ,in his biography1 last printed in the #aibj-ba edition of ,who's ,who 7at which time he evidently retired71 ,hunter asserted that he 8designed and built the first motion picture projector in the world in #ahid40 ,his show1 scheduled for ,atlantic ,city1 never opened4 ,no details are known of his projector4 ,in the ,summer of #ahid1 two gay young men1 ,grey and ,otway ,latham1 drug company salesmen operating out of ,new ,york1 became concessionaires for the ,kinetoscope and formed the ,kinetoscope ,exhibition ,company4 ,that firm's chief purpose was to photograph and exhibit prize-fight films4 ,in ,september of #ahid the young ,lathams decided that there never would be much to the peep-show motion picture business and determined to try to get life-size pictures on the screen4 ,they called upon their father1 ,major ,woodville ,latham1 for assistance4 ,major ,latham had had a distinguished career as an ordnance officer of the ,confederacy during the ,american ,civil ,war4 ,for a time he was professor of chemistry at the ,university of ,west ,virginia4 ,in ,december1 #ahid1 the ,lathams formed the ,lambda ,company--the ,greek 8,l0 for ,latham--and a start was made in their quest for a motion picture projector4 ,dickson was in on the deal although he was still working for ,edison4 ,eugne ,lauste1 a somewhat secretive friend of ,dickson1 who was born in ,paris in #aheg and had come to the ,united ,states in #ahhg1 was the mechanic who worked in ,latham's shop4 ,lauste previously had been employed by ,edison4 ,by the end of the ,winter of #ahid-ie the ,latham project was showing signs of success4 ,a demonstration was held on ,april #ba1 #ahie1 at #ce ,frankford ,street1 ,new ,york ,city and on ,may #bj1 #ahie1 a public showing opened in a small store at #aec ,broadway4 ,the ,latham projector was found to be inadequate and the following comments were made in the ,photographic ,times for ,september1 #ahie3 8,even in this1 the latest device1 there is considerable room for improvement and many drawbacks have yet to be overcome40 ,specific objections were made to the grain of the film1 the fact that it was not entirely transparent1 and other factors4 ,it was noted that ,major ,latham was 8persevering0 in efforts to improve the device4 ,but some word of encouragement was given3 8,even in the present state the results obtained are most interesting and often startling4 ,quite a crowd of people visit the store at each performance1 many making their exit wondering #8,how it's done'40 ,it is worth noting that no illustration of the ,latham machine was given but instead the ,reynaud ,optical ,theatre of ,paris was shown4 ,latham's projector was called the ,pantoptikon and later the ,eidoloscope4 ,latham indignantly denied that parts of his device were borrowed from ,edison's machines4 ,it is likely the ,major was not aware of all that went on in his work shop4 ,dickson eventually joined an organization called the ,,kmcd syndicate1 for ,e4 ,b4 ,koopman of the ,magic ,introduction ,company2 ,henry ,norton ,marvin1 a former ,edison ,associate2 ,herman ,casler1 the actual inventor of a camera designed to evade ,edison methods1 and ,dickson4 ,the ,casler camera or ,mutograph1 and the peep-show viewer or ,mutoscope1 sought to evade the ,edison patents1 so everything that ,edison had they tried to avoid4 ,the ,mutoscope in its simplest form was really a step backwards to the old ,thaumatrope principle of flashing successive card views before the eye4 ,the ,casler camera used unperforated wide gauge film with the pictures irregularly spaced4 ,this made no difference1 for the pictures were each mounted on cards4 ,the ,mutoscope and the ,mutograph stimulated interest and competition in films1 and was the father of the concern around which opposition to ,edison centered4 ,the 8independents0 relied on the ,american ,mutoscope ,company1 or ,biograph as it became1 to supply films which would be outside the restriction of the ,edison patents4 ,the ensuing patent war was long and bitter but did not materially interfere with the development of the motion picture4 ,meanwhile1 ,edison's agents1 ,raff ,gammon1 were becoming important4 ,the sale of the peep-show ,kinetoscopes was only serving to increase the demand for projection and it was feared that the imitators of ,edison1 such as ,lumire1 ,paul and ,latham and others would control the field4 ,edison1 however1 was not able--for lack of time or other reasons--to meet the demands of his film agents with perfection enough to satisfy himself4 ,his researches continued but his agents and the public were impatient4 ,gammon1 of the ,raff ,gammon firm1 decided to investigate the ,armat projector which he had heard about in ,washington4 ,a five or six minute show was given on ,december #h1 #ahie1 by ,armat in the basement of his real estate office4 ,in ,january of #ahif a deal was made whereby ,edison would manufacture the projector and it would be introduced under his name1 but as 8,armat designed40 ,the agents wanted1 of course1 to play up the name of ,edison for commercial reasons4 ,edison was induced to accept this arrangement by his general manager ,w4 ,e4 ,gilmore--who1 incidentally1 had discharged ,dickson4 ,a demonstration of the ,armat-,edison projector was held on ,april #c and on ,april #bc1 #ahif1 the ,vitascope1 as it was called1 made its debut at the ,koster ,bial's ,music ,hall on ,herald ,square1 #cdth ,street1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,this was a banner day in the history of the screen4 ,the many hesitant and uncertain steps down through the centuries quickened into an assured march of progress4 ,the public reaction to the ,vitascope was excellent1 although the programs presented were crude and immature4 ,for several years to come the films offered were only short items which found their chief use as audience 8chasers10 run as the final number in vaudeville shows4 7,illustration facing page #afa47 ,the ,new ,york ,herald reported on ,may #c1 #ahif1 that the subjects would soon be lengthened from #ej feet to #aej feet and #ejj feet4 8,gone ,with the ,wind10 the mammoth of #aida1 was #bj1jjj feet long4 ,new attractions promised in the first days were to include ,niagara ,falls1 which ,langenheim had photographed with marked success a half-century earlier2 a steamer going down the ,lachine ,rapids1 and an ocean liner leaving its dock4 ,the ,herald said3 8,the result is intensely interesting and pleasing but ,mr4 ,edison is not quite satisfied yet4 ,he wants now to improve the phonograph so that it will record double the amount of sound it does at present1 and he hopes then to combine this improved phonograph with the ,vitascope so as to make it possible for an audience to witness a photographic reproduction of an opera or a play--to see the movements of the actors and hear their voices as plainly as though they were witnessing the original production itself40 ,the 8world premiere0 newspaper review concluded3 8,and when it is remembered what marvels ,edison has produced1 it would not seem at all improbable that he may yet add this one to his many others40 ,the talking picture1 however1 did not make its real debut for three decades4 ,the ,new ,york ,tribune on ,sunday1 ,may #c1 #ahif1 said3 8,edison's ,vitascope has made a decided hit at ,koster ,bial's ,music ,hall4 ,tomorrow evening all the pictures will be in colors4 ,the ,vitascope1 together with ,albert ,chevalier1 is drawing large audiences40 ,raff ,gammon now had something that could be sold easily2 the ,vitascope was everywhere well received4 ,eighty projectors of the ,armat design were delivered by the ,edison company from ,april to ,november of #ahif4 ,and ,edison started renewed work on his own 8,projecting ,kinetoscope10 independently of ,armat4 ,an advertising brochure for the ,vitascope told the story this way3 ,several years ago ,mr4 ,edison conceived the idea of projecting moving figures and scenes upon a canvas or screen1 before an audience4 ,owing to the pressure of his extensive business1 he could not fully develop his inventive ideas at the time4 ,however1 he put his experts to work upon a machine which should reproduce moving pictures upon a small scale1 and the ,kinetoscope was the result4 ,after perfecting the ,kinetoscope1 ,mr4 ,edison turned his attention to his original plan of inventing a machine capable of showing the moving figures and scenes1 life-size1 before a large audience4 ,his ideas soon took practical form1 and as long ago as last ,summer a very creditable result was obtained2 but ,mr4 ,edison was unwilling to give his unqualified approval until the highest practicable success had been achieved4 ,since then1 ,mr4 ,edison's experts have been putting his ideas and suggestions to practical test and execution and1 in addition1 some of the original ideas and inventive skill of ,mr4 ,thomas ,armat 7the rising inventor1 of ,washington1 ,d4 ,c47 have been embodied in the ,vitascope2 the final result being that today it can almost be said that the impossible had been accomplished1 and a machine has been constructed which transforms dead pictures into living moving realities4 ,on the last page of the advertising brochure for the ,vitascope it was asserted that the rights were controlled for the world4 ,if that had been true the ,edison firm would have reaped an incalculable fortune4 ,but by this time many projection machines and cameras by diverse manufacturers were coming into use in many countries4 ,magic shadows--living reproductions of people and the world--at last had reached the screen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but there still remained a long and important step to be taken in order that the true fidelity of living pictures could be achieved4 ,sound needed to be added to sight4 ,so again1 thirty years later1 magic shadow history was made--this time at the ,winter ,garden theatre in ,new ,york ,city1 on ,october #f1 #aibg4 ,the event was the premiere of 8,the ,jazz ,singer10 starring ,al ,jolson and presenting the ,vitaphone system of talking motion pictures4 ,this rounding out of the faculties of magic shadows came through the enterprise of the ,warner brothers--,harry1 ,sam1 ,albert and ,jack--and the technological achievements of ,dr4 ,lee ,de,forest1 ,theodore ,case1 ,charles ,a4 ,hoxie and the others who gave the screen its voice4 ,illustration3 ,french ,information ,service ,,louis ,,lumiere1 inventor of the ,cinmatographe camera and projection system4 ,illustration3 ,cambridge ,instrument ,co4 ,,robert ,w4 ,,paul1 instrument maker1 constructed cameras and projectors in ,england4 ,illustration3 ,the ,vitascope being ,exhibited in a ,theatre or ,public ,hall4 7,the machine can be just as successfully exhibited in vacant store-rooms1 etc47 ,vitascope ,brochure1 #ahif ,,vitascope1 ,edison made1 ,armat designed1 as an artist saw it in action--drawn for the first advertising promotion booklet1 ,new ,york in #ahif4 ,generally1 the motion picture industry was skeptical of talking motion pictures and their future4 ,but soon public opinion registered emphatically and the addition of sound was accepted as an indispensable faculty of the medium of the screen4 ,and now finally the ancient and persevering urge for true living pictures was satisfied4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and thus the motion picture1 like many another achievement of the human heart and hand and mind1 has come down to us as the result of incalculable effort on the part of many4 ,this great benefaction to humanity the world over is the realization of the aspirations of many who labored unceasingly and well down through the centuries--,archimedes1 ,aristotle1 ,alhazen1 ,roger ,bacon1 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,porta1 ,athanasius ,kircher1 ,musschenbroek1 ,paris1 ,plateau1 ,uchatius1 ,langenheim1 ,marey1 ,muybridge1 ,edison and others4 ,it is the creation of men of many centuries and many nations and from these diversities of time and persons it has gained its amazing power1 its universal appeal4 ,,the ,,end ,appendix ,i ,,magic ,,shadows ,a ,descriptive ,chronology ,b4 ,c4 8 ,first artist's aspiration to recreate life and the movement of the world of nature4 #fjjj ,babylonians and ,egyptians acquire first scientific knowledge to of the light and shadow art-science4 ,crude magnifying #aejj glasses are fashioned4 ,light and shadow are used for entertainment and deception4 ,chinese ,shadow ,plays make use of silhouette figures cast on a screen of smoke4 ,japanese and ,english mirrors are devices for reflecting strange optical illusions4 #cdj ,aristotle gives impetus to all studies4 ,first recorded magic shadow experiment--8the square hole and round sun40 ,euclid demonstrates that light travels in straight lines1 a fundamental for all projection and photography4 #bbe ,archimedes devises the famous 8,burning ,glasses0 for destroying ships of the enemy1 which may or may not have been a factor in the defense of ,syracuse4 #fj ,lucretius1 the ,roman poet1 writes ,de ,rerum ,natura1 8,on the ,nature of ,things10 combining verse and philosophy and a bit of science4 ,the work contains a reference erroneously interpreted as a description of a magic lantern show4 ,a4 ,d4 #ej ,pliny and ,seneca advance scientific knowledge4 ,the effect of the atmosphere on silver is noted by ,pliny4 ,seneca writes on the persistence of the sensation of vision4 #gi ,pompeii and ,herculaneum are destroyed by the eruption of ,vesuvius4 ,excavations have recovered a lens and a sound effects system probably used by the priests to trick the people4 #acj ,ptolemy writes the ,almagest which was the standard work on optics for centuries4 ,subjects treated included the persistence of vision1 the laws of reflection and studies of refraction4 #agj ,galen1 an early medical authority1 considers the problems of vision1 fundamental to the scientific application of light to create the illusion of motion4 #eaj ,boethius tries to measure the speed of light4 ,charges of treason and magic result in his decapitation in #ebe at the order of his former patron1 ,king ,theodoric1 ,ostrogoth dictator of ,italy4 #gej ,geber1 ,arabian alchemist1 notes the effect of light on silver nitrate1 a basis of photography4 #hgj ,alkindi1 an ,arab1 advances scientific learning1 including work in the fields of astronomy and navigation4 #ajaj ,alhazen1 greatest of the ,arab scientists in optics1 advances the art-science of magic shadows and succeeds ,ptolemy as the standard authority4 #ajbj ,avicenna1 another ,arab1 studies the movements of the eye in vision4 #aage ,averros1 famed ,arab philosopher1 studies vision and eye movement4 #abfg ,roger ,bacon1 ,english ,friar1 describes the use of mirrors and lenses and attacks necromancers who use such devices to deceive the people4 #abgj ,witelo1 a ,pole called ,thuringopolonus1 writes on all phases of optics and with ,bacon dominates experiments in this field for generations4 #abge ,st4 ,albertus ,magnus1 ,dominican scholar and teacher of ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 takes special interest in the rainbow and assigned a finite but very great velocity to light4 #abgi ,john ,peckham1 ,english ,franciscan and alchemist1 in his ,perspectiva ,communis points out that the rays of the sun can be shown in any desired place1 indicating a knowledge of the 8dark room40 #acjj ,spectacles are introduced in ,italy4 #adch ,gutenberg develops printing from movable type which hastens the exchange of all knowledge1 an aid to the growing interest in all light and shadow problems4 #adej ,leone ,battista ,alberti1 an ,italian cleric and architect1 designs the camera lucida1 a light and shadow device similar to a large box camera for the use of artists in copying1 drawing and nature4 #adfd ,nicholas of ,cusa writes the first book about eye glasses4 #aejj ,leonardo da ,vinci sets down the first accurate description of the portable or 8dark room0 camera obscura and shows its relation to the human eye4 #aebj ,francesco ,maurolico1 a mathematician and astronomer of ,messina1 develops the scientific but not experimental principles of light as reflected by mirrors and the use of light theatres4 ,the next year he describes the construction of a compound microscope4 #aeba ,cesare ,cesariano1 an architect and writer on art1 asserts in his introduction to a new edition of ,vitruvius that a ,benedictine monk1 ,don ,papnutio or ,panuce1 constructed a satisfactory camera obscura4 ,construction details are given for the first time in a published work4 #aedj ,erasmus ,reinhold uses a camera obscura to observe an eclipse of the sun at ,wittenberg4 ,ancient astronomers had found it impossible to observe an eclipse unless there were clouds in the sky or the sun was near the horizon to cut down the light4 #aeej ,girolamo ,cardano1 an ,italian physician and mathematician1 describes how the box camera obscura can be used for entertainment purposes4 #aeeh ,giovanni ,battista della ,porta of ,naples writes of making many light and shadow devices and earns the right to the title1 8first screen showman40 #aefh ,monsignor ,daniello ,barbaro introduces the projection lens in the camera obscura4 #aehe ,giovanni ,battista ,benedetti1 a patrician of ,venice1 publishes the first complete and clear description of the camera obscura or box camera equipped with a lens4 #aehi ,porta's book1 ,natural ,magic1 reprinted with a new section on the use of the camera obscura for entertainment purposes4 #afjd ,johannes ,kepler explains the use of the 8dark chamber0 device for astronomical work4 #afab ,christopher ,scheiner1 a ,german priest1 uses the device to study sun spots4 #afac ,franois d',aguilon1 another priest1 stimulates the study of all branches of optics and is the first to coin the name 8stereoscopic40 #afbj ,sir ,henry ,wotton1 diplomat and author1 gives one of the first descriptions in ,english of the camera obscura for drawing purposes4 ,he describes a portable tent camera4 #afbf ,willebrord ,snell promulgates his 8law0 on the angles of reflection and refraction1 essential data for grinding and polishing lenses and other phases of advanced optics4 #afdd or ,athanasius ,kircher invents the magic lantern at ,rome4 #afde ,this is the first projector of magic shadows4 #afdf ,kircher's book1 ,ars ,magna ,lucis et ,umbrae1 8,the ,great ,art of ,light and ,shadow10 is published4 #afeb ,jean ,pierre ,niceron shows how irregular figures can be made into plain figures through a mirror projection lens system4 #afeh ,gaspar ,schott develops ,kircher's projection lantern in his ,wonders of ,universal ,nature and ,art4 #affe ,walgenstein1 a ,dane1 shows a ,kircher-type magic lantern in ,france and elsewhere4 #affi ,robert ,boyle furthers interest in magic shadows with a description of a 8,portable ,darkened ,room0 in his ,systematic or ,cosmical ,qualities of ,things4 #afga ,the second edition of ,kircher's ,ars ,magna ,lucis et ,umbrae is published with an expanded treatment of the magic lantern and specific instructions on how it may be used for entertainment and instruction4 #afgd ,claude ,milliet de ,chales1 a ,frenchman1 describes the use of an improved projection lens system for the magic lantern4 #afhj ,robert ,hooke develops his camera lucida in ,england4 ,his plan was suggested in #affh but by #afhj it had been improved and showed images in a room which was only partially darkened4 #afhe ,johann ,zahn develops ,kircher's lantern to its highest state prior to the introduction of improved light sources of electricity or gas in the #aith century4 #afib ,william ,molyneux1 of ,dublin1 in his ,dioptrica ,nova introduces the improved magic lantern1 scientifically described1 in the ,british ,isles4 #agjd ,john ,harris1 divine and scientific writer1 describes a better camera fitted with a 8scioptic ball0 or perforated globe of wood which could be turned in different directions to show diverse views4 #agaa ,willem ,jakob ,van's ,gravesande1 a ,dutchman1 discusses projection and is credited with inventing the heliostat which made it possible for scientists to use the light of the sun in projection work1 as well as in astronomy4 #agbg ,publication of the revised ,dictionnaire ,universel of ,abb ,antoine ,furetire edited by ,m4 ,brutel de la ,rivire--with a description of the magic lantern spreads the use of the projector in ,france4 ,johann ,heinrich ,schultze1 a ,german professor of eloquence and antiquities1 observes that light has an effect on a bottle of chalk and silver nitrate solution4 ,he explains how others can duplicate his effects by concentrating the sun's rays on a bottle of the solution by means of a burning glass4 #agcf ,pieter van ,musschenbroek introduces 8motion0 into the magic lantern by using a multiple slide system and a mechanical means of shaking one of the glass slides4 #agdg ,leonhard ,euler1 a ,swiss mathematician1 describes a camera for ,empress ,catherine of ,russia4 #ageb ,benjamin ,franklin1 pioneer ,american scientist1 writes3 8,i must own ,i am much in the dark about light40 #agec ,three different types of the camera in fixed and portable models are described in the famous ,french ,encyclopdie4 #agfj ,abb ,nollet's 8,whirling ,top10 a toy which shows the illusion of motion in a striking fashion1 is a popular children's plaything in ,paris4 #aggb ,franois ,sraphin1 a magician1 is credited with introducing the art of shadow plays in ,france4 #aggg ,carl ,william ,scheele1 a ,swedish chemist1 discusses the action of light on silver chloride4 #aghj ,jacques ,alexandre ,csar ,charles1 working under the patronage of ,louis ,,xvi at the ,louvre1 invents the ,magascope or a projection microscope4 ,this was a development of an earlier device he had for throwing on a screen images of living persons4 #agij ,pierre ,l4 ,guinard1 a ,swiss glass worker1 makes improvements in the processes of grinding and polishing optical glass4 #agih ,etienne ,gaspard ,robertson resurrects 8ghosts0 of the ,french ,revolution with his ,phantasmagoria shows1 featuring a magic lantern mounted on wheels and a screen of smoke4 #ahjb ,tom ,wedgwood repeats the experiments of ,schultze and ,scheele and announces a process of copying paintings on glass and making profiles by the action of light upon nitrate of silver4 #ahjg ,dr4 ,william ,hyde ,wollaston invents a new model of the camera lucida4 #ahad ,joseph ,nicphore ,niepce begins work on photography4 #ahae ,david ,brewster1 ,scottish scientist1 invents the ,kaleidoscope1 an optical device which creates colorful designs4 #ahbj to ,english and ,french scientists study the optical phenomena #ahbe arising from the rotation of wheels4 #ahbj 8,j4 ,m401 anonymous ,english scientist1 comments on wheel phenomena in the ,english ,quarterly ,journal1 stimulating study of a basic factor in motion picture photography and projection4 #ahbd ,peter ,mark ,roget1 of ,thesaurus fame1 discusses wheel phenomena and gives an explanation--an early scientific account of the 8persistence of vision0 with regard to moving objects4 #ahbe ,william ,ritchie1 rector of ,tain ,academy1 ,england1 develops an improved lantern for 8ghost0 projection using a gas light source4 #ahbf ,john ,ayrton ,paris' ,thaumatrope1 or small disk with part of the complete scene on one side and part on the other side1 becomes a scientific plaything4 7,charles ,babbage1 ,english scientist and mathematician1 claims an earlier invention on the same lines4 ,the invention of the ,thaumatrope has also been attributed to ,sir ,john ,herschel1 ,dr4 ,william ,fitton and ,dr4 ,william ,hyde ,wollaston47 #ahbg ,niepce's ,heliotypes1 which were photo silhouettes obtained after as much as six or twelve hours' exposure1 are shown in ,london4 #ahbg ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone invents the ,kaleidophone1 or ,phonetic ,kaleidoscope1 to illustrate 8amusing acoustical and optical phenomena40 #ahbh ,joseph ,antoine ,ferdinand ,plateau1 a ,belgian1 makes the first motion picture machine--a device which changes a distorted drawing into a correct and natural one4 #ahbi ,niepce and ,louis ,jacques ,mand ,daguerre1 a painter and showman1 form a partnership for the development of photography4 #ahcj ,michael ,faraday takes up the study of wheels and spokes and motion1 and the effects of motion on the human eye4 #ahcb ,plateau and ,simon ,ritter von ,stampfer1 ,austrian1 independently introduce the magic disks which show real motion4 ,these spinning wheels with a series of designs are called the ,fantascope1 ,phnakisticope or ,stroboscope4 #ahcd ,william ,george ,horner in ,england devises an improved model of the magic disks by arranging the designs on a horizontal instead of vertical wheel4 ,this made it possible for several persons1 instead of one1 to see the movement at the same time4 ,ebenezer ,strong ,snell1 a professor at ,amherst1 introduces the picture disks in the ,united ,states4 #ahce ,william ,henry ,fox ,talbot begins his photographic investigations4 #ahch ,wheatstone invents the ,stereoscope which gives the illusion of depth by presenting two slightly dissimilar pictures to the two eyes4 ,abb ,franois ,napolon ,marie ,moigno1 in ,france1 uses magic lanterns made by ,franois ,soleil1 ,parisian optician and father-in-law of ,jules ,duboscq1 to illustrate chemical reactions4 #ahci ,talbot in ,england and ,daguerre in ,france announce practical photographic systems which make it possible to permanently record the age-old images of the 8dark room0 or camera obscura4 ,hippolyte ,bayard experiments with paper photographic prints4 #ahde ,johann ,mller in ,germany uses the ,fantascope disks to study the wave motion of light4 ,similar work is carried out by others4 #ahdh ,e4 ,m4 ,clarke demonstrates1 at the ,london ,polytechnic ,institution1 a good magic lantern fitted with an oxygen-hydrogen lamp4 ,he publishes a booklet on lantern projection--8,directions for using the philosophical apparatus in private research and public exhibition40 #ahdi ,brewster introduces a binocular camera for photographing stereoscopic pictures4 ,it is copied in ,paris by ,m4 ,quinet1 a photographer1 who calls it the ,quinetoscope4 #ahej ,frederic and ,william ,langenheim1 of ,philadelphia1 patent the ,hyalotype1 a process for making positives on glass slides suitable for use in the magic lantern4 ,this makes it possible to combine photography and the ,plateau-,stampfer disks4 ,wheatstone shows in ,paris an improved stereoscope which uses photos specially made for it4 #aheb ,photographs instead of drawings are used in the magic disks by a number of scientists and photographers1 including ,wheatstone1 ,jules ,duboscq in ,paris1 ,antoine ,franois ,jean ,claudet4 ,the imperfect photographic equipment as well as the limits of the individual disks resulted in unnatural moving pictures4 #ahec ,franz von ,uchatius1 an ,austrian army officer1 develops a motion picture projector which combines the ,plateau-,stampfer disks and the magic lantern of ,kircher4 #ahed ,sequin1 a ,frenchman1 obtains a patent on an improved projector4 #ahfj ,claudet1 ,duboscq1 ,shaw and others experiment with the to magic disk and the stereoscope in an effort to combine the #ahfe illusion of motion and the illusion of depth4 #ahfj ,thomas ,hooman ,dumont draws up on paper a motion picture camera4 ,other attempts are also made but the apparatus is not yet ready4 ,pierre ,hubert ,desvignes obtains a ,french patent on a system which suggests the use of an endless band and an apparatus for looking at stereoscopic views and small objects in motion4 ,he also used models instead of designs or photographs in his efforts to recapture motion4 #ahfa ,william ,thomas ,shaw announces the ,stereostrope which mounted eight stereoscopic pictures on an octagonal drum4 ,these were viewed in an ordinary ,wheatstone ,stereoscope4 8,the effect of solidarity is superadded so that the object is perceived as if in motion and with an appearance of relief as in nature40 ,coleman ,sellers in the ,united ,states patents the ,kinematoscope which is a toy using a paddle wheel action to show 8posed0 motion pictures4 #ahfd ,louis ,ducos du ,hauron patents a motion picture photography-projection system1 but there are no adequate materials available to make it practical4 #ahfe ,james ,laing announces the ,motorscope--another solid-plus-motion device akin to that of ,shaw4 ,about this time the following also showed similar devices3 ,lon ,foucauld1 ,french astronomer1 the ,stereofantascope or ,bioscope2 ,cook and ,bonelli1 the ,photobioscope2 ,humbert de ,moland1 ,reville1 ,almeida1 ,seely and ,lee4 ,a4 ,molteni1 optician1 of ,paris1 invents the ,choreutoscope ,tournant which uses a ,maltese ,cross movement1 a type which was of considerable importance in the development of intermittent movement in projectors4 #ahff ,lionel ,smith ,beale1 a specialist in the use of the microscope1 perfects the ,molteni turning wheel4 #ahfh ,john ,wesley ,hyatt of ,new ,york invents celluloid while seeking a substitute for ivory for billiard balls4 7,prior to this time ,alexander ,parkes in ,england worked on a product somewhat similar to celluloid but the process was different47 ,langlois and ,angiers patent an improved ,thaumatrope which uses microscope views seen through a lens system4 ,linnett develops the ,kineograph or little book which1 when thumbed rapidly1 flashes successive pictures before the eye1 creating an illusion of motion4 #ahfi ,o4 ,b4 ,brown obtains the first ,u4 ,s4 patent on a projector--it is the old familiar model of ,uchatius and uses hand-drawn designs4 ,james ,clerk ,maxwell1 famed for his work in color and electricity1 develops what is hailed as the perfect ,zoetrope or ,wheel of ,life by substituting concave lenses for the slots in order to eliminate distortion4 ,hand drawn figures were projected in a similar system4 #ahgj ,henry ,renno ,heyl1 of ,philadelphia2 ,bourbouze1 ,french scientist2 ,sequin1 a printer and artist1 and others combine 8posed0 motion pictures with the magic lantern so that flickering1 brief and imperfect moving images appear on the screen4 ,bourbouze uses pictures at the ,sorbonne ,university to show the actions of pistons1 vapor and air machines4 #ahgb ,eadweard ,muybridge or ,edward ,james ,muggeridge and others make progress on the road to the photographing of successive still pictures of objects in motion4 ,lionel ,smith ,beale1 in ,england1 despairs of obtaining enough light by ordinary methods so he cuts his images on a thin brass rim and uses a primitive intermittent movement and shutter in projection4 ,device was called the ,choreutoscope4 #ahgd ,pierre ,jules ,csar ,janssen1 ,french astronomer1 perfects the photographic-revolver1 a fixed-motion picture camera1 to photograph the transit of ,venus in ,japan4 #ahge ,caspar ,w4 ,briggs1 successor to the ,langenheims in ,philadelphia1 brings out a projector4 #ahgg ,thomas ,a4 ,edison invents the ,talking ,phonograph4 ,wordsworth ,donisthorpe1 an ,english lawyer1 suggests the ,kinesigraph to combine the effects of the phonograph and the magic lantern4 ,charles ,emile ,reynaud develops the ,praxinoscope1 an ingenious arrangement of the ,plateau-,stampfer magic disks1 using a mirror set in the center4 #ahgh ,muybridge and ,john ,d4 ,isaacs1 an engineer1 achieve photographic success with a 8battery0 of still cameras hooked up to take successive pictures of moving objects4 ,etienne ,jules ,marey1 physiologist1 in ,paris analyzes the motion pictures made by the ,muybridge-,isaacs system by means of the magic disks4 #ahgi ,reynaud works out a projection model of his ,praxinoscope4 #ahha ,jean ,meissonier1 ,french painter1 uses a magic disk device with photos to analyze motion and assist him in his work4 #ahhb ,muybridge1 guided by ,marey in ,paris1 mounts his photographs on a ,uchatius magic lantern and actual motion pictures briefly are thrown on the screen before an audience with the ,zoopraxiscope4 ,reynaud has a projector called the ,lamposcope--as all early projectors1 limited to showing the one scene made up of a set of stills mounted on the edge of a disk4 #ahhd ,george ,eastman begins at ,rochester1 ,new ,york1 the manufacture of roll paper film for use in his ,kodak camera4 #ahhg ,hannibal ,williston ,goodwin1 an ,episcopalian minister1 obtains a patent on ,photographic ,pellicle which is described as transparent1 sensitive and like celluloid4 ,his efforts came after becoming interested in photography through magic lantern entertainments he conducted for his congregation4 ,his patents ultimately led to the business of ,anthony ,scoville1 now known as ,ansco4 ,marey1 in ,france1 achieves first success with his chronophotographic or motion picture system using slips of coated paper film4 ,edison begins experiments aimed at producing an apparatus which would do for sight what the phonograph had done for sound--i4 e41 motion pictures2 and a device which would combine both--i4 e41 a sound motion picture system4 #ahhh ,john ,carbutt achieves success in his efforts1 started several years before1 to treat with photographic chemicals long strips of celluloid obtained from the ,hyatt ,company4 ,eastman continues work which lead to successful motion picture film4 ,louis ,aim ,augustin ,le ,prince patents a multiple lens camera-projector system which1 however1 never produced satisfactory results4 #ahhi ,ottomar ,anschtz stimulates interest in motion pictures with his ,electrical ,tachyscope--a good viewing apparatus for a series of pictures successively illuminated by a ,geissler tube4 ,this device was the progenitor of modern stroboscopic photography4 ,edison and ,kennedy ,laurie ,dickson1 his assistant for motion picture research1 continue investigations4 ,film stock is ordered from ,eastman4 ,first successes are claimed4 ,in ,paris1 ,marey shows ,edison a magic disk equipped with photos and lighted by electric flashes4 ,eastman applies1 on ,december #aj1 #ahhi1 for a patent on 8the manufacture of flexible photographic films40 ,the patent was not issued until #ahih and a long legal battle ensued with the ,goodwin estate until a compromise was reached4 #ahhi to ,edison investigations aimed at producing a motion picture #ahid camera and projector continue4 #ahhi ,wordsworth ,donisthorpe and ,croft obtain the first real motion picture patents in ,england but never had sufficient financial backing to perfect the system or even make an efficient model4 #ahij ,john ,arthur ,roebuck ,rudge and ,william ,friese ,greene and ,mortimer ,evans1 in ,england1 construct a simple1 limited motion projector4 #ahia ,edison's ,kinetograph camera and ,kinetoscope viewing apparatus completed and the patent application made4 ,the patent was not issued for two years4 #ahib ,reynaud runs the ,thtre ,optique in ,paris1 the first film theatre which uses hand-drawn and not photographed pictures4 #ahic ,marey develops a motion picture projector which uses the sun for its light source4 ,greene patents a camera and projector system which is limited in scope4 #ahid ,edison peep-show ,kinetoscopes go on display on ,april #adth1 at #aaee ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 and later that year on ,oxford ,street1 ,london1 and in ,paris4 ,these demonstrations influence a number of scientists and photographers who finally solved the problem of screen projection of continuous motion pictures4 ,anschtz patents an early projection model in ,france4 ,demeny uses a camera and projector system somewhat similar to that developed under ,marey4 #ahie ,successful projection of motion pictures onto a screen achieved by ,louis and ,auguste ,lumire with the ,cinmatographe1 in ,france2 by ,robert ,w4 ,paul with films made by ,birt ,acres in the ,bioscope1 in ,england2 by ,thomas ,armat1 ,c4 ,francis ,jenkins1 the ,lathams1 and others in the ,united ,states4 #ahif ,screen projection of motion pictures becomes a commercial reality and the magic shadow art starts on the way to becoming the greatest entertainment medium ever known4 ,in ,new ,york the premiere is held at ,koster ,bial's ,music ,hall1 ,herald ,square1 ,new ,york ,city1 on the evening of ,april #bc1 #ahif4 ,in addition to those named1 the following1 among many1 were also working on screen projection in the #ahie-if-ig period of success3 ,georges ,melies1 who brought the spirit of ,phantasmagoria to the modern motion picture2 ,max ,skladanowski1 who claimed a projection show at the ,wintergarten in ,dsseldorf in the ,fall of #ahif2 ,owen ,a4 ,eames1 of ,boston2 ,edwin ,hill ,amet1 of ,chicago2 ,henri ,joly1 ,w4 ,c4 ,hughes1 ,cecil ,m4 ,hopwood1 ,carpentier1 ,drumont1 ,werner1 ,gossart1 ,auguste ,baron1 ,grey1 ,proszynski1 ,bets1 ,pierre ,victor ,continsouza1 ,raoul ,grimoin-,sanson2 ,perret ,lacroix2 ,ambrose ,francis ,parnaland1 ,sall ,mazo2 ,pipon2 ,zion1 ,avias ,hoffman1 ,brun1 ,gauthier1 ,mendel1 ,messager1 ,cheri-,rousseau1 ,mortier1 ,wattson1 ,maguire ,baucus1 ,phillip ,wolff1 ,f4 ,brown1 ,f4 ,howard1 ,ottway1 ,rowe1 ,dom-,martin1 ,appleton1 ,baxter ,wray1 ,riley1 ,prestwich1 ,newman ,guardia1 ,rider de ,bedts1 ,noakes ,norman1 ,clement ,gilmer1 etc41 etc4 ,thus the chronology of magic shadows1 or the origin of the motion picture1 concludes with a roll of names of men of many nations1 a point illustrative both of the universal appeal of the motion picture and of the long and diverse collection of individuals who contributed to the development of the art-science4 ,appendix ,,ii ,,bibliography and ,acknowledgements ,the pursuit of the story of the origin of the motion picture has been carried on intermittently since the ,winter of #aicf-cg4 ,as historical books must be1 it is based mainly on the written record4 ,efforts were made1 whenever possible1 to go directly to the source material4 ,the whole field of books on the motion picture1 as well as standard biographical and scientific works1 was surveyed4 ,research was conducted principally at the following libraries3 ,library of ,congress1 ,georgetown ,university1 ,surgeon ,general's1 in ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,new ,york ,public and ,columbia ,university in ,new ,york ,city4 ,work was also done at the ,academy of ,motion ,picture ,arts and ,sciences1 ,hollywood2 ,new ,york ,engineering ,societies1 the ,british ,museum1 ,london2 ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 and ,vittorio ,emanuele--formerly ,collegio ,romano--library1 ,rome4 ,part of the original ,kircher ,museum at ,rome1 was inspected in the ,summer of #aici4 7,the early projector models1 according to the evidence now available were destroyed shortly after ,kircher's death47 ,the #aici exhibit of the works of ,leonardo da ,vinci in ,milan was visited4 ,terry ,ramsaye1 author of ,a ,million and ,one ,nights--,a ,history of the ,motion ,picture1 and editor of ,motion ,picture ,herald1 is responsible for suggesting lines of study which led to the decision to write this book4 ,also1 he has rendered valuable guidance and assistance especially in connection with the early ,american motion picture pioneers1 and in reading the manuscript and contributing the foreword4 ,special thanks are due to members of the faculty of ,georgetown ,university for making available works in the ,riggs ,memorial ,library of that institution and giving assistance on special aspects of the subject4 ,the writer likewise is grateful for having had the opportunity of consulting books in the splendid ,epstein ,photographic ,collection at the ,columbia ,university ,library1 and for biographical notes on ,robert ,w4 ,paul secured through the ,cambridge ,instrument ,company4 ,appreciation is expressed to ,rev4 ,hunter ,guthrie1 ,s4,j41 dean of the ,graduate ,school1 ,georgetown ,university1 and to ,dr4 ,alfred ,n4 ,goldsmith1 consulting engineer1 for kindness in reading proofs and offering invaluable suggestions4 ,,bibliography ,the following is a list of books1 arranged according to the chapters of this story1 which may serve to disclose any particular part of the subject to readers who wish to make a detailed study4 ,in general articles in the various periodicals give the first1 and often most complete1 publication of each development4 ,this list represents only a limited number of the books and publications consulted1 but the principal titles are included3 ,,general ,,terry ,,ramsaye4 ,a ,million and ,one ,nights4 ,new ,york1 #aibf4 ,a standard history of the motion picture and a special source of material on ,edison1 ,muybridge1 ,armat1 ,latham and other early ,american experimenters4 ,,joseph ,,antoine ,,ferdinand ,,plateau4 8,bibliographie des principaux phnomenes subjectifs de la vision depuis les temps ancients jusqu' la fin du ,,xviii sicle10 ,mmoires4 ,acadmie ,royale des ,sciences1 des ,lettres et des ,beaux ,arts de ,belgique4 ,brussels1 #ahgg-ahgh4 ,a most complete1 annotated list of works on vision4 ,,lynn ,,thorndike4 ,history of ,magic and ,experimental ,sciences4 ,new ,york1 #aibc-da4 ,a monumental reference work of particular interest to scholars4 ,,henry ,v4 ,,hopwood4 ,living ,pictures3 their history1 photo-reproduction and practical working4 ,london1 #ahii4 ,,robert ,,bruce ,,foster4 ,hopwood's ,living ,pictures4 ,london1 #aiae4 ,the original edition of this book and the revised edition both include a general review of early activity plus a valuable bibliography of the period from #ahbe to #ahih4 ,g4 ,,michel ,,coissac4 ,histoire du ,cinmatographe de ses origines jusqu' nos jours4 ,paris1 #aibe4 ,the first half of this book is an important historical work1 written from the ,french point of view4 ,an appendix lists ,french cinema patents issued from #ahij to #aijj4 ,,major ,,general ,,james ,,waterhouse4 8,notes on the early history of the camera obscura10 ,photographic ,journal1 ,vol4 ,,xxv1 ,no4 #i4 ,london1 ,may #ca1 #aija4 ,,georges ,,potonniee4 ,les ,origines du ,cinmatographe4 ,paris1 #aibh4 ,,wilfred ,e4 ,l4 ,,day4 ,illustrated ,catalogue of the ,will ,day ,historical ,collection of ,cinematograph and ,moving ,picture ,equipment4 ,london4 ,,simon ,,henry ,,gage ,,and ,,henry ,,phelps ,,gage4 ,optic ,projection4 ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y41 #aiad4 ,this book has a good historical bibliography4 ,periodicals which contain important papers include3 ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,royal ,society of ,london4 ,london4 ,journal4 ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain4 ,london4 ,comptes-rendus4 ,acadmie des ,sciences 7,institut de ,france74 ,paris4 ,cosmos2 revue des sciences et de leurs applications4 7,also known as ,les ,mondes74 ,paris4 ,la ,nature4 ,paris4 ,scientific ,american4 ,new ,york4 ,u4 ,s4 ,patent ,office ,gazette4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,photographic ,journal1 including the transactions of the ,royal ,photographic ,society of ,great ,britain4 ,london4 ,photographic ,journal of ,america4 ,philadelphia4 ,,chapter ,i ,,aristotle4 ,problems4 ,on ,dreams4 ,,euclid4 ,the ,elements of ,geometrie translated by ,h4 ,billingsley4 ,london1 #aegj4 ,la ,prospettiva di ,euclide4 ,florence1 #aegc4 ,,lucretius1 ,de ,rerum ,natura4 ,,ptolemy 7,,claudius ,,ptolemaeus74 ,ptolemaei ,mathematicae4 ,wittenberg1 #aedi4 ,almagest4 ,edited by ,j4 ,baptiste ,ricciolus1 ,s4 ,j4 #afea4 ,,alhazen4 ,opticae ,thesaurus ,alhazeni ,arabis4 ,basel1 #aegb4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,roger ,,bacon4 ,fr4 ,rogeri ,bacon ,opera ,quaedam ,hactenus ,inedita4 ,j4 ,s4 ,brewster4 ,london1 #ahei4 ,the ,opus ,majus of ,roger ,bacon1 edited with an introduction and analytical table by ,john ,henry ,bridges4 ,oxford1 #ahig-aijj4 ,letter concerning the marvelous power of art and of nature1 and concerning the nullity of magic4 ,translated from the ,latin by ,tenney ,l4 ,davis4 ,easton1 ,pa41 #aibc4 ,part of the ,opus ,tertium of ,roger ,bacon1 including a fragment now printed for the first time1 edited by ,a4 ,g4 ,little4 ,aberdeen1 #aiab4 ,,pierre ,,maurice ,,marie ,,duhem4 ,le ,systme du monde1 histoire des doctrines cosmologiques de ,platon ,copernic4 ,paris1 #aiac-aiag4 ,,witelo4 ,vitellionis ,turingopoloni ,libri ,x4 ,basel1 #aegb4 ,vitellionis ,mathematici ,doctissimi 4 ,nuremberg1 #aece4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,leonardo ,,di ,,ser ,,piero ,,da ,,vinci4 ,a ,treatise of ,painting4 ,translated from the original ,latin4 ,paris1 #afea4 ,the ,life of ,leonardo da ,vinci done into ,english from the text of the second edition of the 8,lives0 7by ,giorgio ,vasari7 with a commentary by ,herbert ,p4 ,horne4 ,london1 #aijc4 ,the ,literary ,works of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 compiled and edited from the original manuscripts by ,jean ,paul ,rickter4 ,london1 #ahhj-ahhc4 ,essai sur les ouvrages physico-mathmatiques de ,lonard de ,vinci1 avec des fragmens tirs de ses manuscripts apports de l',italie4 ,giovanni ,battista ,venturi4 ,paris1 #agig4 ,,guillaume ,,libri4 ,histoire des sciences mathmatiques en ,italie1 depuis la renaissance des lettres jusqu' la fin du dix-septime sicle4 ,paris1 #ahch-ahda4 ,,giorgio ,,vasari4 ,lives of ,seventy of the ,most ,eminent ,painters1 ,sculptors and ,architects4 ,edited by ,e4 ,h4 and ,e4 ,w4 ,blashfield and ,a4 ,a4 ,hopkins4 ,new ,york1 #ahif4 ,,francesco ,,maurolico4 ,cosmographia4 ,venice1 #aedc4 ,theoremata de ,lumine1 et ,umbra1 ad ,perspectivam ,radiorum ,incidentiam ,facientia4 ,leyden1 #afac4 ,,girolamo ,,cardano4 ,de ,subtilitate4 ,nuremberg1 #aeej4 ,les ,livres de ,hierome ,cardanus ,mdecin ,milannois4 ,richard ,le ,blanc4 ,paris1 #aeef4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,giovanni ,,battista ,,della ,,porta4 ,magia ,naturalis1 sive de ,miraculis ,rerum ,naturalium4 ,naples1 #aeeh4 ,revised and enlarged edition4 ,naples1 #aehi4 ,natural ,magic4 ,london1 #afeg4 7,in this ,english translation the author's name is given an ,english form--,john ,baptista ,porta47 ,,daniello ,,barbaro4 ,la ,pratica della ,perspettiva4 ,venice1 #aefi4 ,,giovanni ,,battista ,,benedetti4 ,diversarum ,speculationum ,mathematicarum et ,physicarum ,liber4 ,turin1 #aehe4 ,,chapter ,v ,,gemma 7,,reinerus7 ,,frisius4 ,de ,radio ,astronomico et ,geometrico ,liber4 ,antwerp1 #aede4 ,,erasmus ,,reinhold4 ,theoricae ,novae ,planetarium4 ,edited by ,georgius ,peurbachius4 ,paris1 #aeec4 ,,johannes ,,kepler4 ,ad ,vitellionem ,paralipomena4 ,frankfort1 #afjd4 ,dioptrice4 #afaa4 ,,fran,,ois ,d',,aguilon4 ,opticarum ,libri ,sex4 ,antwerp1 #afhe4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,athanasius ,,kircher4 ,vita admodum reverendi ,p4 ,athanasii ,kircheri1 ,societ4 ,jesu1 vir toto orbe celebratissimus4 #afhd4 ,the ,latin autobiography of ,athanasius ,kircher1 edited by ,jerome ,langenmantel 7,hieronymus ,ambrosius ,langenmantelius74 ,ars ,magna ,lucis et ,umbrae4 ,rome1 #afdf4 ,second edition4 ,amsterdam1 #afga4 ,numerous other books by ,kircher on many subjects4 ,see ,kircher's bibliography in ,la ,bibliothque des ,ecrivains de la ,compagnie de ,jsus1 by ,augustin and ,aloysius de ,backer1 and ,bibliothque de la ,compagnie de ,jsus by ,charles ,sommervogel4 ,,george ,,de ,,sepibus ,,valesius4 ,romani ,collegii ,societatis ,jesu ,musum4 ,celeberrimum4 ,amsterdam1 #afgh4 ,musum ,kircherianum in ,romano ,soc4 ,jesu ,coliegio4 ,rome1 #agjg4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,gaspar ,,schott4 ,magia ,universalis ,natur et ,artis4 ,wrzburg1 #afeh-afgd4 ,,claude ,,fran,,ois ,,milliet ,,de ,,chales4 ,cursus seu ,mundus ,mathematicus4 ,lyons1 #afij4 ,,johann ,,zahn4 ,oculus ,artificialis ,teledioptricus sive ,telescopium4 ,nuremberg1 #afhe4 ,specula ,physico-,mathematico-,historia ,notabilium ac ,mirabilium ,sciendorum4 ,nuremberg1 #afif4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,pieter ,,van ,,musschenbroek4 ,physic exprimentales4 ,leyden1 #agbi2 ,venice1 #agef4 ,cours de ,physique ,exprimentale et ,mathmatique4 ,paris1 #agfi4 ,,abb ,,guyot4 ,nouvelles ,recrations ,physiques et ,mathmatiques4 ,paris1 #aggj4 ,,william ,,hooper4 ,rational ,recreations4 ,london1 #aggd4 ,second edition1 #aghb4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,etienne ,,gaspard ,,robert 7,,robertson74 ,mmoires ,rcratifs1 ,scientifiques et ,anecdotiques du ,physicien-,aronaute4 ,paris1 #ahca-cc4 ,,william ,,ritchie4 8,proposal for ,improving the ,phantasmagoria10 ,edinburgh ,journal4 #ahbe4 ,,chapter ,x ,,john ,,ayrton ,,paris 7,published anonymously7 ,philosophy in ,sport ,made ,science in ,earnest4 ,london1 #ahbg4 ,,david ,,brewster4 ,a ,treatise on the ,kaleidoscope4 ,edinburgh1 #ahai4 ,the ,stereoscope3 ,its ,history1 ,theory and the ,construction1 with ,its ,application to the ,fine and ,useful ,arts and to ,education4 ,london1 #ahef4 ,,joseph ,,priestly4 ,the ,history and ,present ,state of ,discoveries ,relating to ,vision1 ,light and ,colours4 ,london1 #aggb4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,lambert ,,adolphe ,,jacques ,,quetelet1 editor4 ,correspondance ,mathmatique et ,physique4 ,brussels4 ,s4 ,,stampfer4 ,jahrbcher ,technische ,hochschule4 ,vol4 #ah1 p4 #bcg4 ,vienna1 #ahcd4 ,e4 ,s4 ,,snell4 8,on the ,magic ,disks in ,america10 ,american ,journal of ,science and ,arts4 7,silliman's ,journal74 ,vol4 #bg1 p4 #caj4 ,new ,haven1 #ahce4 ,,peter ,,mark ,,roget4 ,animal and ,vegetable ,physiology1 considered with reference to natural theology4 ,london1 #ahcd4 ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique4 ,paris4 ,bulletin4 ,l',acadmie ,royale des ,sciences1 des ,lettres1 et des ,beaux ,arts4 ,brussels4 ,annuaire4 ,l',acadmie ,royale des ,sciences1 des ,lettres1 et des ,beaux ,arts4 ,brussels1 #ahhe4 ,annalen der ,physik und ,chemie4 ,edited by ,johann ,christian ,poggendorff4 ,leipzig4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,franz ,,uchatius4 8,apparat zur ,darstellung beweglicher ,bilder an der ,wand0 7,apparatus for the ,presentation of ,motion ,pictures upon a ,wall74 ,sitzungsberichte4 ,k4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften4 ,vienna1 #ahec4 ,,karl ,,spacil4 8,franz ,freiherr von ,uchatius10 ,schweizerische ,zeitschrift fr ,artillerie und ,genie4 ,vol4 ,,xli1 pp4 #baf-bbc4 ,frauenfeld1 #aije4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,marcus ,a4 ,,root4 ,the ,camera and the ,pencil2 or the ,heliographic ,art1 its theory and practice4 ,philadelphia1 #ahfd4 ,pennsylvania ,arts and ,sciences4 ,a quarterly published by the ,pennsylvania ,arts and ,sciences ,society4 ,vol4 #b1 p4 #be4 ,philadelphia1 #aicg4 ,,richard ,,buckley ,,litchfield4 ,tom ,wedgwood--,the ,first ,photographer4 ,london1 #aijc4 ,,georges ,,potonniee4 ,histoire de la ,dcouverte de la ,photographie4 ,paris1 #aibe4 ,the ,history of the ,discovery of ,photography4 ,translated from the ,french by ,edward ,epstean4 ,new ,york1 #aicf4 ,,louis ,,jacques ,,mande ,,daguerre4 ,historique et ,description des ,procds du ,daguerrotype et du ,diorma4 ,paris1 #ahci4 ,,charles ,,louis ,,chevalier4 ,guide de ,photographie4 ,paris1 #ahed4 ,,victor ,,fouque4 ,the ,truth ,concerning the ,invention of ,photography4 ,nicphore ,niepce2 his life1 letters and works4 ,translated by ,edward ,epstean4 ,new ,york3 ,tennant ,ward1 #aice4 ,la ,vrit sur l'invention de la ,photographie4 ,nicphore ,niepce1 sa vie1 ses essais1 ses travaux1 d'aprs sa correspondance et autres documents inedita4 ,paris1 #ahfg4 ,,henry ,,renno ,,heyl4 8,a ,contribution to the ,history of the ,art of ,photographing ,living ,subjects in ,motion and ,reproducing the ,natural ,movements by the ,lantern10 ,journal4 ,the ,franklin ,institute4 ,vol4 ,,cxv1 p4 #caj4 ,philadelphia1 #ahih4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,etienne ,,jules ,,marey4 ,le ,mouvement4 ,paris1 #ahid4 ,movement4 ,london and ,new ,york1 #ahie4 ,la ,mthode ,graphique dans les sciences exprimentales et principalement en physiologie et en mdecine4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,la ,chronophotographie1 applique l'tude des actes musculaires dans la locomotion4 ,the ,history of ,chronophotography4 7,an extract from the ,smithsonian ,report for #aija74 ,washington1 #aijb4 ,,eadweard ,,muybridge4 ,journal4 ,published by the ,franklin ,institute4 ,philadelphia1 #ahhc4 ,j4 ,d4 ,b4 ,,stillman4 ,the ,horse in ,motion1 as shown by instantaneous photography4 ,the ,muybridge photographs published under the auspices of ,leland ,stanford4 ,boston1 #ahhb4 ,,georges ,,potonniee4 ,louis ,ducos du ,hauron1 his life and work4 ,translated by ,edward ,epstean from the ,french edition of #aiad4 ,reprinted from the ,photo-,engravers ,bulletin4 ,february and ,march4 ,new ,york1 #aici4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,terry ,,ramsaye4 ,a ,million and ,one ,nights4 ,new ,york1 #aibf4 ,,antonia ,,and ,,william ,,kennedy ,,laurie ,,dickson4 8,edison's ,invention of the ,kineto-phonograph10 reprinted from the ,century ,magazine1 ,june1 #ahid1 with an introduction by ,charles ,galloway ,clarke4 ,los ,angeles1 #aici4 ,,dayton ,,clarence ,,miller4 ,anecdotal ,history of the ,science of ,sound to the beginning of the #bjth ,century4 ,new ,york3 ,macmillan1 #aice4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,maurice ,,noverre4 ,la ,vrit sur l'invention de la ,projection ,anime4 ,emile ,reynaud1 sa ,vie1 et ses ,travaux4 ,brest1 #aibf4 ,,georges ,,brunel4 ,les ,projections ,mouvementes4 ,paris1 #ahig4 ,,eugene ,,trutat4 ,trait ,gnral des ,projections4 ,paris1 #ahig4 ,la ,photographie ,anime1 avec une prface de ,j4 ,marey4 ,paris1 #ahii4 ,,georges ,,emile ,,joseph ,,demeny4 ,les ,origines du ,cinmatographe4 ,paris1 #aiji4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,ramsaye4 ,lib4 cit4 ,,lucien ,,bull4 ,la ,cinmatographie4 ,paris1 #aibh4 ,index ,a ,acres1 ,birt1 #aeb1 #aed1 #agf4 ,after-images1 #ah1 #de4 ,aguilon1 ,franois d'1 #df1 #dg1 #aji1 #aff4 ,ailly1 ,pierre d'1 #bf4 ,alberti1 ,leone ,battista1 #cj1 #ca1 #ch1 #da1 #fe1 #afe4 ,albertus ,magnus1 ,st41 #cb1 #afd4 ,alhambra ,theatre1 #aec4 ,alhazen1 #ac1 #ba-bc1 #bf1 #ca1 #afa1 #afd4 ,alkindi1 #afd4 ,almeida1 #agb4 ,american ,mutoscope 7 ,biograph7 ,company1 #ada1 #aeh4 ,amet1 ,edwin ,hill1 #agf4 ,angiers1 #agb4 ,animatograph1 #aec4 ,anorthoscope1 #id1 #if4 ,anschtz1 ,ottomar1 #abf1 #acd1 #aci1 #adc1 #adf1 #adg1 #aed-aef1 #agd1 #agf4 ,appleton1 #agf4 ,archer1 ,frederick ,scott1 #aab1 #aaf4 ,archimedes1 #ac1 #ah-bb1 #ci1 #fc1 #gg1 #ajc1 #afa1 #afc4 ,aristotle1 #ac1 #ag1 #ah1 #ba1 #bb1 #cb1 #fd1 #afa1 #afc4 ,armat1 ,thomas1 #aa1 #aed-afj1 #agf4 ,arzonis1 ,pierro de1 #dj4 ,averros1 #afd4 ,avias ,hoffman1 #agf4 ,avicenna1 #afd4 ,b ,babbage1 ,charles1 #hd1 #afi4 ,bacon1 ,roger1 #bc1 #bd-bh1 #cb-cd1 #ch1 #de1 #fh1 #afa1 #afd4 ,banks1 ,joseph1 #hd4 ,barbaro1 ,daniello1 #ci1 #da1 #aff4 ,barberini1 ,francesco ,cardinal1 #aj1 #ea1 #eg4 ,baron1 ,auguste1 #agf4 ,baxter ,wray1 #agf4 ,bayard1 ,hippolyte1 #agj4 ,beale1 ,lionel ,smith1 #agb1 #agc4 ,bedts1 ,rider de1 #agf4 ,benedetti1 ,giovanni ,battista1 #ci-da1 #aff4 ,bets1 #agf4 ,bial1 ,albert1 #aa4 ,see also ,koster ,bial's ,music ,hall4 ,bio-,phantoscope1 #ada4 ,biograph1 #aeh4 ,bioscope3 ,demeny's1 #ade2 ,duboscq's1 #aji2 ,foucauld's1 #agb2 ,paul's1 #agf4 ,bjerknes1 #abd4 8,black ,art40 ,see ,necromancy4 ,blair ,company1 #aec4 ,bliss ,school of ,electricity1 #aed4 ,boethius1 #afd4 ,bouly1 ,lon1 #aej4 ,bourbouze1 #aba1 #agb4 ,boyle1 ,robert1 #afg4 ,brahe1 ,tycho1 #dc4 ,brewster1 ,david1 #hc1 #afi1 #aga4 ,briggs1 ,caspar ,w41 #aab1 #aad1 #agc4 ,brown1 ,arthur1 #abj4 ,brown1 ,f41 #agf4 ,brown1 ,o4 ,b41 #aab1 #aac1 #agb4 ,brun1 #agf4 ,burning ,glasses1 #ai-ba1 #fc1 #fe1 #ajc1 #afc4 ,c ,cagliostro1 ,alessandro conte di1 #gf4 ,calotype4 ,see ,talbot calotype process4 ,camera3 ,see also ,camera lucida and ,camera obscura2 8battery system0 7,muybridge-,isaacs71 #abj1 #abb1 #abf1 #abg1 #agc2 motion picture1 #aaf1 #aag1 #abe1 #abf1 #abi1 #acc1 #acf1 #ada1 #aej-aec1 #aee1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #agd1 #age1 #agf2 portable1 #de1 #df1 #adc1 #ade1 #adf1 #aeb1 #afg1 #afh2 with microscope1 #ade2 with projector1 #adb1 #adc4 ,camera lucida1 #cj1 #ch1 #ci1 #fe1 #afg1 #afi4 ,see also ,camera4 ,camera obscura1 #bf1 #bi-ca1 #cc-de1 #ec1 #gc1 #ajg1 #afe1 #aff1 #agj4 ,see also ,camera4 ,carbutt1 ,john1 #acc1 #agd4 ,cardano1 ,girolamo1 #bj1 #cd1 #ce1 #afe4 ,carpentier1 ,jules1 #aej1 #agf4 ,case1 ,theodore1 #afj4 ,casler1 ,herman1 #aeg4 ,cave of ,font-de-,faune4 ,see ,font-de-,faune1 ,cave of4 ,cercle de ,gymnastique ,rationnelle1 #abe4 ,cesariano1 ,cesare1 #cb-cd1 #afe4 ,chales1 ,claude ,franois ,milliet de1 #eh1 #fb1 #fd-ff1 #fh1 #fi1 #afg4 ,charles1 ,jacques ,alexandre ,csar1 #afh4 ,cheri-,rousseau1 #agf4 ,chevalier1 ,albert1 #aei4 ,chicago ,world's ,fair4 ,see ,expositions4 ,chinese ,shadow ,plays4 ,see ,shadow ,plays4 ,choreutoscope1 #agc4 ,choreutoscope ,tournant1 #agb4 ,chronophotographe1 #adc4 ,chronophotography1 #aaf1 #abf1 #agd4 ,cinmatographe1 #aej-aea1 #age4 ,cinematoscope1 #aed4 ,see also ,kinematoscope4 ,clarke1 ,e4 ,m41 #agj4 ,claudet1 ,antoine ,franois ,jean1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aga4 ,clement ,gilmer1 #agf4 ,collegio ,romano1 #i1 #aj1 #df1 #ea1 #ei1 #fj1 #fc4 ,color ,perception1 #hh4 ,color ,photography1 #aag1 #adc1 #aeg4 ,color ,printing1 #aag4 ,color ,projection4 ,see ,projection4 ,continsouza1 ,pierre ,victor1 #agf4 ,cook and ,bonelli1 #agb4 ,cotton ,states ,exposition4 ,see ,expositions4 ,croft1 ,w4 ,c41 #aci1 #age4 ,crookes1 #abd4 ,cruikshank1 ,george1 #ha4 ,d ,daguerre1 ,louis ,jacques ,mand1 #ajf1 #aji1 #ada1 #agj4 ,daguerreotype1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aaj4 ,d',aguilon1 ,franois4 ,see ,aguilon1 ,franois d'4 ,d',ailly1 ,pierre4 ,see ,ailly1 ,pierre d'4 ,danti1 ,e41 #ci4 ,da ,vinci1 ,leonardo4 ,see ,vinci1 ,leonardo da4 ,day1 ,wilfred1 #add4 ,dealers1 commercial1 #fi1 #ajb1 #acg1 #aeh4 ,de ,bedts1 ,rider4 ,see ,bedts1 ,rider de4 ,de ,chales1 ,claude ,franois ,milliet4 ,see ,chales1 ,claude ,franois ,milliet de4 ,de ,forest1 ,lee1 #afj4 ,della ,porta1 ,giovanni ,battista4 ,see ,porta1 ,giovanni ,battista della4 ,demeny1 ,georges1 #abe1 #acc1 #aci1 #ade1 #adf1 #aej1 #agf4 ,de ,moland1 ,humbert4 ,see ,moland1 ,humbert de4 ,desvignes1 ,pierre ,hubert1 #aga4 ,de ,valesius1 ,george4 ,see ,valesius1 ,george de4 ,diaphragm1 #ci4 ,dickson1 ,antonia1 #acg4 ,dickson1 ,william ,kennedy ,laurie1 #acc1 #acd1 #acf1 #acg1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #agd4 ,disks3 ,see also ,phnakisticope2 glass1 #abh2 magic1 see ,plateau-,stampfer ,magic ,disks2 mica1 #aad2 ,plateau-,stampfer1 see ,plateau-,stampfer ,magic ,disks2 revolving1 see ,revolving ,disks2 zinc shutter1 #abh4 ,disney1 ,walt1 #ad1 #aec4 ,dom-,martin1 #agf4 ,donisthorpe1 ,wordsworth1 #acj1 #aca1 #aci1 #adj1 #adf1 #adh1 #aeb1 #agc1 #age4 ,drumont1 #agf4 ,dry-plate ,photography4 ,see ,photography4 ,duboscq1 ,jules1 #aji1 #aaj1 #agj1 #aga4 ,du ,hauron1 ,louis ,ducos1 #aag1 #aah1 #agb4 ,duhousset1 ,col41 #aaf4 ,dumont1 ,thomas ,hooman1 #aga4 ,duval1 ,mathias1 #aaf1 #abe4 ,e ,eames1 ,owen ,a41 #agf4 ,eastman1 ,george1 #acj1 #acd1 #adj1 #aej1 #agd1 #age4 ,edison1 ,thomas ,alva1 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changed4 ,accent marks on non-,english words were not checked systematically for errors4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 unbalanced quotation marks were remedied when the change was obvious1 and otherwise left unbalanced4 ,illustrations in this e,book have been positioned between paragraphs and outside quotations4 ,in versions of this e,book that support hyperlinks1 the page references in the ,list of ,illustrations lead to the corresponding illustrations4 ,the ,summary at the beginning of each chapter began with a small decorative symbol resembling a tilde4 ,as the decoration is not essential to the text1 it has been omitted wherever it occured4 ,the index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4