,transcriber's ,notes ,text printed in italics has been transcribed between underscores4 ,small capitals have been replaced with ,,all ,,capitals4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,illustration3 ,copyright #aijj by ,a4 ,r4 ,,dugmore4 ,,snapping-,,turtles ,,fighting4 ,,intelligence ,,in ,,plants ,,and ,,animals ,,being ,a ,,new ,,edition ,,of ,,the ,,author',s ,,privately ,,issued 8,,soul ,,and ,,immortality0 ,,by ,,thomas ,g4 ,,gentry1 ,sc4 ,d4 ,,author ,,of 8,,life-,,histories ,,of ,,birds ,,of ,,eastern ,,pennsylvania10 8,,the ,,house ,,sparrow10 8,,nests ,,and ,,eggs ,,of ,,birds ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states10 ,,etc41 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,,new ,,york ,,doubleday1 ,,page ,,co4 #aijj ,copyright #aijj1 ,,by ,,doubleday1 ,,page ,,co4 ,,to ,,all ,,human ,,beings ,,who ,,are ,,good ,,and ,,kind ,,to ,,the ,,humblest ,,of ,,god',s ,,creatures ,,this ,,volume ,,is ,,most ,,affectionately ,,dedicated ,,by ,,the ,,author4 8,every beast of the forest is mine1 and the cattle upon a thousand hills4 8,i know all the fowls of the mountains3 and the wild beasts of the field are mine40--,psalm #a3aj1 #aa4 ,,preface4 ,nothing is more charming to the mind of man than the study of ,nature4 ,religion1 moderation and magnanimity have been made a part of his inner being through her teachings1 and the soul has been rescued by her influence from obscurity4 ,no longer doth man grovel in the dust1 seeking1 animal-like1 the gratification of low and base desires1 as was his wont1 but on the wings of thought is enabled to soar to the very gates of ,heaven and hold communion with ,god4 ,though made 8a little lower than the angels10 yet1 through the mighty play of forces that have been at work in the world1 which we1 in the latter half of this enlightened century1 are just beginning to recognize and comprehend1 he has been lifted from the mire of degradation and placed upon a higher social1 intellectual1 moral and spiritual level4 ,out of the animal1 in the scheme of ,deity1 the spiritual system of things is to be elaborated1 and not the animal out of the spiritual4 ,this natural world1 so to speak1 is the raw material of the spiritual4 ,therefore1 ere man can understand the spiritual1 he must understand the natural4 ,though his knowledge was at first about material things1 or such as pertained to natural phenomena1 yet from this through the ages has been builded1 little by little1 that mountain-height of knowledge1 intellectual and moral1 which1 if rightly directed1 is to bring him into fellowship with ,deity4 8,as we have borne the image of the earthy1 we shall also bear the image of the heavenly10 or1 ,lord from heaven4 ,when is considered1 therefore1 the immense good which the study and investigation of nature have accomplished1 it is not at all surprising that the literature on the subject should be markedly in the ascendant4 ,natural science bids fair to be in a preminent degree the pursuit of the coming man4 ,there is no end to the books that have been written upon the subject during the past few decades1 if not by specialists1 but by men and women who have been well informed and who have made themselves fully capable of contemplating understandingly the world which lies about them4 ,our libraries are to-day quite affluent in books that are the handmaids of natural science4 ,michelet and ,hugh ,miller1 in their day1 opened glorious new worlds before a rising generation1 and that generation is now doing excellent work under the inspiration of the impetus which it then received4 ,tait1 ,balfour ,stewart1 ,dawson1 ,gray1 ,mc,cook1 ,thompson1 ,scudder1 ,mrs4 ,treat1 ,olive ,thorne ,miller and others have done much to continue the interest1 pleasure and enthusiasm awakened by those earlier writers1 and even ,darwin and ,huxley themselves1 in detailing their experiments1 have not scorned to bring their thoughts within the range of narrower minds4 ,but in the popularization of natural science no man has done more than ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood in his numerous works4 ,not only have his writings created in thousands a taste for nature-studies1 but they have been no less the means of cultivating the observation1 awakening enthusiasm and directing effort in the lines of original research and discovery4 ,certainly no one1 as his many writings so abundantly attest1 possessed a larger fund of knowledge concerning the powers and capabilities of the lower animals than this author4 ,few knew our domestic animals better than he1 and none was more capable of judging of the mental and moral status which they should occupy in the world of animals4 ,it is true that men and women1 eminent in theology1 literature and science1 had expressed a belief in the idea that the 8latent powers and capacities0 of the lower animals might be developed in a future life1 but no one had felt secure enough in this belief to warrant more than a passing thought or two upon the subject4 ,bishop ,butler1 in his 8,analogy of ,religion10 undoubtedly believed the lower animals capable of a future life4 ,in speaking of them in this connection in the opening of his work1 he says3 8,it is said these observations are equally applicable to brutes2 and it is thought an insuperable difficulty that they should be immortal1 and by consequence capable of everlasting happiness4 ,and this manner of expression is both invidious and weak2 but the thing intended by it is really no difficulty at all1 either in the way of natural or moral consideration40 ,referring then to the undeveloped powers and capacities of the so-called brutes1 the ,bishop could perceive no reason why they should not attain their development in an existence beyond the earth-life4 ,it was in pursuance of this same train of thought that ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood was led to show in a work1 entitled 8,man and ,beast ,here and ,hereafter10 that the lower animals do possess those mental and moral characteristics--the attributes of reason1 language1 memory1 moral responsibility1 unselfishness and love--which we admit in man as belonging to the immortal spirit1 rather than to the perishable body4 ,having previously cleared away the difficulties which certain passages in the ,old ,testament seemingly interposed1 and proved that the ,scriptures do not deny futurity of life to lower animals1 he very naturally concluded that as man expects to retain these qualities in the future life there is every reason to suppose that they may share his immortality in the ,hereafter as in the ,now they are partakers of his mortal nature4 ,few minds1 unswayed by thoughts materialistic1 can study the living works of ,god1 whether vegetal or animal1 and fail to be convinced that they1 as living exponents of ,divine conceptions1 are as needful in the world of spirit as in the world of matter4 ,while many are disposed to believe that man will share the future life with beast1 bird1 insect and such like1 yet but few1 if any1 can be found who believe that tree and shrub and flower will be there to continue the life begun on earth and reach out to higher and fuller development4 ,in announcing this belief1 the author but expresses a conviction as deep as any that could occupy a human mind4 ,the possession of soul and spirit can be predicated no less of plants than of man and the lower animals4 ,they have all one breath or life and one spirit1 and as such are living souls1 living1 breathing frames or bodies of life4 ,from being living1 breathing frames1 and endowed with the same life and spirit as man and the lower animals1 they have all one destiny1 for 8all go unto one place2 all are of the dust1 and all turn to dust again40 ,but of the new life which ,christ came down to earth to proffer to man that he might inherit the kingdom of ,god4 ,while to man it was only offered1 and had for its purpose the uplifting and improvement of his earth-life by the promise of something higher and better to those who are accounted worthy1 yet there can be no doubt that it was equally intended through his uplifting to place all the creatures of the earth over which he was given dominion by ,god upon a more elevated and nobler plane1 so that those which had been profited in the earth-life by his beneficent influence should become partakers with him in the new life1 when ,christ shall 8transfigure the body of our humiliation1 that it may become of like form with the body of ,his glory1 by the power of that which enables ,him even to subdue all things to ,himself40 ,as all existence is a unit1 which the author has taken especial pains through the body of this book to impress upon the minds of his readers1 it can hardly be conceived that an all-wise ,god1 who is infinite in love1 mercy and justice1 would look to the preservation in a future state of but a very small part of the life which ,he has been instrumental in placing upon this earth4 ,it would be more consistent with ,his attributes1 and with the scheme of development of life upon our planet1 whereby life has been progressive1 the fittest only being allowed to survive1 to have provided in the grand plan of redemption1 not merely the salvation of the highest of earth-life1 but of all life1 the purest and the best1 that would represent in the heaven-life1 in spiritualized form1 the highest living exponents of ,divine ideas4 ,no other belief accords so well with the teachings of science and philosophy4 ,in its acceptance1 for it makes all life related to the ,divine life1 can there be any hope of escape from materialism1 that curse of the age4 ,,thomas ,g4 ,,gentry1 ,,sc4 ,d4 ,,philadelphia1 ,,february #bh1 #ahig4 ,,contents ,,page ,preface #a ,life and ,its ,conditions #i ,plants that ,feed on ,insects #af ,slime-,animals #cb ,primitive ,lasso-,throwers #cf ,five-,fingered ,jack on the ,oyster #da ,earth-worms in ,history #dh ,fiddler-and ,hermit-,crabs #gj ,funnel-,web ,builder #gg ,book-,lovers #hf ,you-ee-up #ij ,tower-,building ,cicada #ie ,honey-,dew #ajd ,milch-,cows of the ,ants #ajh ,living ,artillery #aaa ,bright and ,shining ,ones #aae ,queen of ,american ,silk-,spinners #aba ,basket-,carriers #abf ,honey-,producing ,caterpillars #acb ,hibernating ,butterflies #add ,leaf-,cutter ,bee #adi ,battle ,between ,ants #aec ,nest-,building ,fishes #aeh ,slippery as an ,eel #afh ,rana and ,bufo #agd ,our ,natural ,enemies #ahf ,house-,bearing ,reptiles #aih ,summer ,duck #bjd ,american ,woodcock #baj ,piping ,plover #bah ,bob ,white #bbb ,ruffed ,grouse #bcj ,an ,old ,acquaintance #bdj ,american ,osprey #bde ,turkey ,buzzard #beb ,rare and ,curious ,nests #bfc ,strange ,friendship #bgi ,nature's ,little ,store-,keeper #bhe ,canine ,sagacity #bij ,feline ,intelligence #bie ,bright ,little ,cebidae #cja ,untutored ,man #cji ,living ,souls #caf ,consciousness in ,plants #cbc ,mind in ,animals #cdd ,life ,progressive #djd ,survival of the ,fittest #dbf ,man's ,preminence #dfi ,future ,life #dgi ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,page #a ,portrait of ,author ,frontispiece #b ,venus's ,fly-trap #bj #c ,round-,leaved ,sundew #be #d ,protomyxa ,feeding #cd #e ,fresh-,water ,hydra #cg #f ,star-fish ,opening an ,oyster #de #g ,common ,earth-worms #fj #h ,fiddler-,crabs #gb #i ,warty ,hermit-,crabs #ge #aj ,agalena and ,her ,funnel-,web #gi #aa ,lepismas at ,work #hh #ab ,you-ee-up in ,his ,den #ia #ac ,seventeen-year ,cicada #ig #ad ,new-born ,cicada #ii #ae ,dome-like ,house of ,cicada #aja #af ,blossom of ,cucurbita #aje #ag ,nest of ,lasius #aji #ah ,brachinus ,pursued by an ,enemy #aab #ai ,common ,tiger ,beetle #aag #bj ,american ,luna ,moth #abc #ba ,house-builder ,moth #abi #bb ,pseudargiolus ,butterfly #acd #bc ,violacea ,butterfly #ach #bd ,neglecta ,butterfly #adb #be ,mourning-,cloak ,butterfly #adf #bf ,leaf-,cutter ,bee at ,work #aej #bg ,battle ,between ,ants #aed #bh ,nest of ,common ,sun-fish #aei #bi ,black-nosed ,dace #afc #cj ,common ,american ,eel #agb #ca ,rana ,clamata1 or ,green ,frog #agg #cb ,common ,american ,toad #aha #cc ,northern ,rattlesnake #ahi #cd ,mother ,black ,snake #aib #ce ,summer ,green ,snake #aie #cf ,water ,snake #aif #cg ,common ,box ,tortoise #bja #ch ,summer ,ducks and ,young #bjf #ci ,american ,woodcock #bad #dj ,female ,piping ,plover #bbj #da ,home of ,bob ,white #bbe #db ,ruffed ,grouse in ,spring-time #bce #dc ,mexican ,wild ,turkey #bda #dd ,nest of ,american ,osprey #bdg #de ,female ,turkey ,buzzard ,dining #bei #df ,nest of the ,robin #bfd #dg ,red-winged ,blackbird's ,nest #bff #dh ,double ,nest of ,orchard ,oriole #bfh #di ,female ,baltimore ,oriole #bgj #ej ,acadian ,flycatchers #bgb #ea ,long-billed ,marsh ,wrens #bgd #eb ,golden-,crowned ,kinglets #bge #ec ,lace ,hammock of ,parula ,warbler #bgf #ed ,three-story ,nest of ,yellow ,warbler #bgh #ee ,saw-whet ,owl and ,chickaree ,squirrel #bhb #ef ,hackee1 or ,chipping ,squirrel #bhg #eg ,my ,dog ,frisky #bib #eh ,tom on ,duty #big #ei ,jack at ,dinner #cje #fj ,australian at ,home #caa #fa ,representative ,life of ,western ,asia #cai #fb ,seedling of ,winter ,grape #cbe #fc ,tip of ,radicle of ,seedling ,maple #cca #fd ,wonderful ,equine ,intelligence #cdg #fe ,papier-,mach ,palace of the ,hornet #cec #ff ,unsolicited and ,unlooked-for ,kindness #ceg #fg ,exhibition of ,grandeur #cgh #fh ,four ,orphaned ,robins #chi #fi ,mated for ,life #cif #gj ,evidence of ,conjugal ,affection #djj #ga ,life in the ,primordial ,sea #daj #gb ,carboniferous ,times #dab #gc ,mesozoic ,flora and ,fauna #dae #gd ,palolithic ,men ,attacking ,cave ,bear #ddh #ge ,era of ,mind and ,heart #dfb ,,full ,,page ,,plates4 ,from ,photographs from ,nature by ,a4 ,,radclyffe ,,dugmore4 #a ,snapping ,turtles ,fighting ,frontispiece ,,facing ,,page #b ,crab ,waiting for ,food ,under a ,rock #gd #c ,box-tortoise ,feeding on ,fungus #bjj #d ,woodcock on ,nest 7showing protective coloring7 #bab #e ,red-eyed ,vireo's ,two-,storied ,nest ,with ,cow-bird's egg beneath #bfd #f ,long-billed ,marsh ,wren's ,nest #bgb #g ,chipping ,squirrels ,feeding #bhf #h ,wood ,thrush ,setting #djb ,,life ,,and ,,immortality4 ,,life ,,and ,,its ,,conditions4 ,all natural objects1 roughly divided1 arrange themselves into three groups1 constituting the so-called ,mineral1 ,vegetable and ,animal kingdoms4 ,mineral bodies are all devoid of life4 ,they consist of either a single element1 or1 if combined1 occur in nature in the form of simple compounds1 composed of more than two or three elements4 ,they are homogeneous in texture1 or1 when unmixed1 formed of similar particles which have no definite relations to one another4 ,in form they are either altogether indefinite1 when they are said to be amorphous1 or have a definite shape1 called crystalline1 in which case they are ordinarily bounded by plane surfaces and straight lines4 ,when mineral bodies increase in size1 as crystals may do1 the increase is produced simply by accretion4 ,they exhibit purely physical and chemical phenomena1 and show no tendency to periodic changes of any kind4 ,fossils or petrifactions1 which owe their existence and characters to beings which lived in former periods of the earth's history1 cannot1 though made up of mineral matter1 be properly said to belong to the mineral kingdom4 ,but objects belonging to the vegetable and animal kingdoms differ markedly from inert1 lifeless1 mineral matter4 ,carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen and nitrogen are the most important of the few chemical elements which enter into their composition1 and these elements are combined into complex organic compounds1 which always contain a large percentage of water1 are very unstable1 and prone to spontaneous decomposition4 ,they are composed of heterogeneous1 but related1 parts1 termed organs1 the objects possessing them being called organized bodies4 ,some of the lowest forms of animals have bodies whose substance is so uniform that they exhibit no definite organs1 but this exception does not affect the general value of this distinction4 ,they are always more or less definite in shape1 presenting concave and convex surfaces1 and being limited by curved lines4 ,when they increase in size1 or grow1 as we properly term it1 it is not by the addition of particles from the outside1 but by the reception of foreign matter into their interior and its consequent assimilation4 ,certain periodic changes1 which follow a definite and discoverable order1 are invariably passed through by organized bodies4 ,these changes constitute what is known as life4 ,all the objects1 then1 which fulfil these conditions are said to be alive1 and they all appertain either to the vegetable or the animal kingdom4 ,the study of living objects1 no matter to which kingdom they belong1 is therefore conveniently called by the general name of ,biology1 which means a discourse on life4 ,and as all living objects may be referred to one or other of these kingdoms1 so ,biology may be divided into ,botany1 which treats of plants1 and ,zology1 which treats of animals4 ,now that we have divided all organized bodies into plants and animals1 it becomes necessary to inquire into the differences which subsist between them1 and which will enable us to separate the kindred sciences of ,botany and ,zology4 ,nothing was thought so easy by older observers than the determination of the animal or vegetable nature of any given organism1 but1 in point of fact1 no hard-and-fast line can be drawn1 in the existing state of our knowledge1 between the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 and it is sometimes difficult1 or even impossible1 to decide with positiveness whether we are dealing with a plant or an animal4 ,in the higher orders of the two kingdoms there is no difficulty in reaching a decision1 the higher animals being readily separated from the higher plants by the possession of a nervous system1 of a locomotive power which can be voluntarily exercised1 and of an internal cavity adapted for the reception and digestion of solid food4 ,no so-called nervous system or organs of sense are possessed by the higher plants1 although some of them doubtlessly manifest conscious and intelligent action1 nor are they capable of voluntary changes of place1 nor provided with any definite internal cavity1 their food being generally fluid or gaseous4 ,descending the scale to the very bottom1 we reach a class of animals1 the ,protozoa1 which cannot be separated in many cases from the ,protophyta by these distinctions1 since many of the former have no digestive cavity1 nor the slightest trace of a nervous system1 while many of the latter possess the power of active locomotion4 ,as to external configuration1 no certain rules can be laid down for separating animals and plants1 many of the lower plants1 either in their earlier stages1 or in their maturity1 being exactly similar in form to some of the lower animals4 ,this is the case with some of the ,alg1 which resemble very closely in form certain ,infusorian animalcules4 ,again1 many undoubted animals1 which are rooted to solid objects in their adult state1 are so plant-like in appearance as to be popularly regarded as vegetables4 ,the ,sea-firs1 and the more highly organized ,flustras or ,sea-mats1 which are usually considered as sea-weeds by sea-side visitors1 are a few of many examples that might be taken from the so-called ,hydroid ,zophytes4 ,no decided distinction between animals and plants can be drawn as to their minute internal structure1 both alike consisting of molecules1 of cells1 or of fibres4 ,some decided1 though not universal1 differences exist in chemical composition4 ,plants exhibit a decided predominance of ternary compounds1 or compounds which1 like sugar1 starch and cellulose1 are made up of the three elements1 carbon1 hydrogen and oxygen1 but are1 comparatively speaking1 poorly supplied with quaternary compounds1 or those which contain an additional element of nitrogen4 ,animals1 on the contrary1 are rich in quaternary nitrogenized compounds1 such as albumen or fibrin4 ,still1 in both kingdoms we find nitrogenized and non-nitrogenized compounds1 and it is only in the proportion which these sustain to each other in the organism that animals differ in any way from plants4 ,before the invention of the microscope1 no independent voluntary movements1 if we except the opening and closure of flowers1 and their turning towards the sun1 the drooping of the leaves of sensitive plants under irritation1 and some other kindred phenomena1 were known in plants4 ,now1 however1 we know of many plants which are endowed1 either when young or throughout life1 with the power of effecting voluntary movements apparently as spontaneous and independent as those performed by the lower animals1 the movements being brought about by means of little vibrating cilia1 or hairs1 with which a part or the whole of the surface is furnished4 ,when it is added that many animals are permanently rooted1 in their fully-grown condition1 to solid objects1 it will at once be apparent that no absolute distinction can be made between animals and plants merely because of the presence or absence of independent locomotive power4 ,there is1 however1 a test1 the most reliable of all that have been discovered1 by which an animal may be distinguished from a plant1 and that is the nature of the food and the products which are elaborated therefrom in the body4 ,plants live upon such inorganic substances as water1 carbonic acid and ammonia1 and they have the power of manufacturing out of these true organic materials1 and are therefore the great producers of nature4 ,all plants which contain green coloring matter1 technically called chlorophyll1 break up carbonic acid in the process of digestion into its two constituents of carbon and oxygen1 retaining the former and setting the latter free4 ,and as the atmosphere always contains carbonic acid in small quantities1 the result is that plants remove carbonic acid therefrom and give out oxygen4 ,animals1 on the other hand1 have no power of living on water1 carbonic acid and ammonia1 nor of converting these into the complex organic substances of their bodies4 ,that their existence may be maintained animals require to be supplied with ready-made organic compounds1 and for these they are all dependent upon plants1 either directly or indirectly4 ,in requiring as food complex organic bodies1 which they ultimately reduce to very simply inorganic ones1 animals are thus found to differ from plants4 ,whilst plants are the great manufacturers in nature1 animals are the great consumers4 ,another distinction1 arising from the nature of their food1 is that animals absorb oxygen and throw out carbonic acid1 their reaction upon the atmosphere being exactly the reverse of that of plants4 ,there are organisms1 it must be understood1 which are genuine plants so far as their nutritive processes are concerned1 but which1 nevertheless1 are in the possession of characters which could locate them among the animals4 ,volvox1 so abundant in our streams during the proper seasons1 affords a splendid illustration of the truth of this statement4 ,plants1 which are devoid of chlorophyll1 as is the case with the ,fungi1 do not possess the power of decomposing carbonic acid under the influence of sunlight1 but are like animals in requiring organic compounds for their food4 ,two points must therefore be borne in mind in regarding the general distinctions between plants and animals which we have thus briefly outlined1 and these are that they cannot often be applied in practice to ambiguous microscopic organisms1 and certainly not to plant-forms that are destitute of chlorophyll4 ,that life should manifest itself certain conditions are essential1 but some of which1 though generally present1 are not absolutely indispensable4 ,one condition1 however1 seems to be very necessary1 and that is that the living body should be composed of a certain material4 ,this material1 which forms the essential and fundamental parts of everything living1 whether vegetable or animal1 is technically called protoplasm4 ,other substances than it are often found in living bodies1 but it is in protoplasm only that vitality appears to be inherent4 ,but whether it is the same in plants as in animals is a matter of opinion4 ,one thing1 however1 seems reasonably certain1 and that is that it is the medium or vehicle through which vital force is made manifest4 ,used in its general sense1 protoplasm is chemically related in its nature to albumen1 and generally has the character of a jelly-like1 semi-fluid1 transparent material1 which1 in itself1 exhibits no definiteness of structure4 ,when heated to a certain temperature it coagulates1 just as the white of an egg does when boiled4 ,living protoplasm has the power of movement1 of increasing in size or of maintaining its existence by the assimilation of fresh and foreign materials1 and of detaching portions of itself which may subsequently develop into fresh masses4 ,though protoplasm be present in the ova of animals and the seeds of plants1 yet there is no external and visible manifestation of life4 ,there is in them what is called a dormant vitality1 which may remain for a long time unchanged1 until altered external circumstances cause the organism to pass into a state of active life4 ,generally1 certain external conditions must be present before any external vital phenomena can be manifested4 ,the presence of atmospheric air1 or rather of free oxygen1 is in an ordinary way essential to active life4 ,life1 that is its higher manifestations1 is only possible between certain ranges of temperature1 varying from near the freezing point to about #abj ,fahrenheit4 ,as water is a necessary constituent of protoplasm in its living state1 so it becomes an absolutely essential requisite to the carrying on of vital processes of all kinds1 for the mere drying of an animal or plant will1 in most cases1 kill it outright1 and will always bring about a suspension of all visible life-phenomena4 ,while the large majority of living beings are organized1 or composed of different parts1 called organs1 which sustain certain relations with one another1 and which discharge different offices1 yet it must not therefore be concluded that organization is a necessary accompaniment of vitality1 or that all living creatures are organized4 ,innumerous low forms of life1 so low that they occupy the very lowest place in the scale of animated existences1 absolutely exhibit no visible structure1 and cannot1 therefore1 be said to be organized1 but they1 nevertheless1 discharge all their vital functions just as well as though they possessed special organs for the purpose4 ,concluding our theme1 we are forced to admit that animals are organized1 or possess structure1 because they are alive1 and not that they live because they are organized4 ,by carefully comparing the morphological and physiological differences between different animals and plants1 naturalists have divided the entire animal and vegetable kingdoms into a number of divisions1 whose leading characteristics may be found in almost every text-book4 ,all that we promised ourselves when this work was first thought of was a brief treatment of a few of the most interesting life-forms of this planet of ours in the light of their ways and doings1 and the direction of human thought to those traits of character and manifestations of conscious intelligence which fit them to become partakers with man of that new life which awaits him beyond the grave4 ,,plants ,,that ,,feed ,,on ,,insects4 ,perhaps it would be difficult to find in the whole range of vegetable creation anything more curious than the carnivorous or flesh-eating plants4 ,that animals eat plants creates in us no emotion of curiosity1 for this is the common law of nature4 ,but that plants should devour animals is a marvel to which few minds uninitiated in science would give credence4 ,though these strange forms of vegetable life have been known for about a century1 yet it has been but a few years since the attention of naturalists was first specially called to their habits and character4 ,no one has probably done more to explain the life and operations of the flesh-eating plants than ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,for centuries strange rumors had been circulated of the existence of huge plants in the more remote and unvisited parts of ,asia which would imprison and destroy large animals and men that would venture within reach of their great quivering leaves armed with hooked spines1 the flesh of the dead victim being absorbed into their structure1 but all these giant flesh-eating trees or plants have so far proved to be mere myths4 ,science has discovered1 however1 that there is some foundation for these exciting fictions1 and it has not been obliged to go to the distant ,east to find it1 for flesh-eating plants are by no means uncommon in this country and ,europe4 ,but these plants confine their destructive propensities to the crawling and flying insects which are beguiled by some tempting reward to rest on their leaves4 ,such a strange provision of nature is no less interesting than if these plants had the power to destroy the larger animals1 for it is the fact itself which startles the attention by its seeming reversal of natural laws4 ,no better example of carnivorous plants could be taken than ,diona muscipula1 or to use the common name1 ,venus's ,fly-trap4 ,it is a species that is indigenous to ,north ,carolina and the adjacent parts of ,south ,carolina1 affecting sandy bogs in the pine forests from ,april to ,june1 and a representative of the ,droscrace1 or ,sundew ,family4 ,one cannot fail after once seeing it of becoming impressed with its peculiar characteristics4 ,it is a smooth perennial herb with tufted radical leaves on broadly-winged1 spatulate stems1 the limb orbicular1 notched at both ends1 and fringed on the margins with strong bristles4 ,from the centre of the rosette of leaves proceeds at the proper time a scape or leafless stalk which terminates in an umbel-like cyme of from eight to ten white bracted flowers1 each flower being one inch in diameter4 ,the roots are small and consist of two branches each an inch in length springing from a bulbous enlargement4 ,like an epiphytic orchid1 these plants can be grown in well-drained damp moss without any soil1 thus showing that the roots probably serve for the absorption of water solely4 ,three minute pointed processes or filaments1 placed triangularly1 project from the upper surface of each lobe of the bi-lobed leaf1 although cases are observed where four and even ten filaments are found4 ,these filaments are remarkable for their extreme sensitiveness to touch1 as shown not only by their own movement1 but by that of the lobes also4 ,sharp1 rigid projections1 diminutive spikes as it were1 stand out from the leaf-margins1 each of which being entered by a bundle of spiral vessels4 ,they are so arranged that when the lobes close they interlock like the teeth of an old-fashioned rat-trap4 ,that considerable strength may be had1 the mid-rib of the leaf1 on the lower side1 is quite largely developed4 ,minute glands1 of a reddish or purplish color1 thickly cover the upper surface of the leaf1 excepting towards the margins1 the rest of the leaf being green4 ,no glands are found upon the spikes or upon the foliaceous footstalk4 ,from twenty to thirty polygonal cells1 filled with purple fluid1 constitute each gland4 ,they are convex above1 somewhat flattened underneath1 and stand on very short pedicels1 into which spiral vessels do not enter4 ,they have the power of secretion under certain influences1 and also that of absorption4 ,minute octofid projections1 of a reddish-brown color1 are scattered in considerable numbers over the footstalk1 the backs of the leaves and the spikes1 with a few on the upper surfaces of the lobes4 ,the sensitive filaments1 which are a little more than one-twentieth of an inch in length1 and thin1 delicate and tapering to a point1 are formed of several rows of elongated cells1 filled with a purplish fluid4 ,they are sometimes bifid or even trifid at the apex1 and towards the base there is a constriction formed of broader cells1 and beneath the constriction an articulation1 supported on an enlarged base1 consisting of differently shaped polygonal cells4 ,as the filaments project at right angles to the surface of the leaf1 they would have been in danger of being broken off whenever the lobes closed together had it not been for the articulation1 which allows them to bend flat down4 ,so exquisitely sensitive are these filaments1 from their tips to their bases1 to a momentary touch1 that it is hardly possible to touch them even so lightly or quickly with any hard object without causing the lobes to close1 but a piece of delicate human hair1 two and a-half inches in length1 held dangling over a filament so as to touch it1 or pinches of fine wheaten flour1 dropped from a height1 produce no effect4 ,though not glandular1 and hence incapable of secretion1 yet the filaments by their sensitiveness to a momentary touch1 which is followed by the rapid closure of the lobes of the leaf1 assure to ,diona the necessary supply of insect food for all its wants4 ,inorganic bodies1 even of large size1 such as bits of stone1 glass and such like1 or organic bodies not containing nitrogeneous matter in a soluble condition1 as bits of cork1 wood1 moss for examples1 or bodies containing soluble nitrogeneous matter1 if perfectly dry1 such as small pieces of meat1 albumen1 gelatine1 etc41 may be long left on the lobes1 and no movement is excited4 ,but when nitrogeneous organic bodies1 which are all damp1 are left on the lobes1 the result is widely different1 for these then close by a slow and gradual movement and not in a rapid manner as when one of the sensitive filaments is touched by a hard substance4 ,small purplish1 almost sessile glands1 as has already been stated1 thickly cover the upper surface of the lobes4 ,these have the power both of secretion and absorption1 but they do not secrete until excited by the absorption of nitrogeneous matter4 ,no other excitement1 as far as experiments show1 produces this effect4 ,when the lobes are made to close over a bit of meat or an insect1 the glands over the entire surface of the leaf emit a copious discharge1 as in this case the glands on both sides are pressed against the meat or insect1 the secretion being twice as great as when the one or the other is laid on the surface of a single lobe2 and as the two lobes come into almost close contact the secretion1 containing dissolved animal matter1 diffuses itself by capillary attraction1 causing fresh glands on both sides to begin secreting in a continually widening circle4 ,the secretion is almost colorless1 slightly mucilaginous1 moderately acid1 and so copious at times in the furrow over the mid-rib as to trickle down to the earth4 ,but all this secretion is for the purposes of digestion4 ,be the animal matter which the enclosed object yields ever so little1 it serves as a peptogene1 and the glands on the surface of the leaf pour forth their acid discharge1 which acts like the gastric juice of animals4 ,illustration3 ,,venus',s ,,fly-,,trap4 ,how ,it ,captures ,insects4 ,now as to the manner in which insects are caught by the leaves of ,diona muscipula4 ,in its native country they are caught in large numbers1 but whether they are attracted in any special way no one seems to know4 ,both lobes close with astonishing quickness as soon as a filament is touched1 and as they stand at less than a right angle to each other1 they have an excellent chance of capturing any intruder4 ,the chief seat of the movement is near the mid-rib1 but is not restricted to this part4 ,each lobe1 when the lobes come together1 curves inwards across its whole breadth1 the marginal spikes alone not becoming curved4 ,from the curving inwards of the two lobes1 as they advance towards each other1 the straight marginal spikes intercross by their apices at first1 and ultimately by their bases4 ,the leaf is then completely shut and encloses a shallow cavity4 ,if made to shut merely by the touching of one of the sensitive filaments1 or by the inclusion of an object not yielding soluble nitrogeneous matter1 the two lobes retain their inwardly concave form until they re-expand4 ,the re-expansion1 when no organic matter is enclosed1 varies according to circumstances1 a leaf in one instance being fully re-expanded in thirty-two hours4 ,but the lobes1 when soluble nitrogeneous matter is included1 instead of remaining concave1 thus containing within a concavity1 slowly press closely together throughout their entire breadth1 and as this takes place the margins gradually become a little everted1 so that the spikes1 which at first intercrossed1 at last project in two parallel rows4 ,so firmly do they become pressed together that1 if any large insect has been caught1 a corresponding projection is clearly visible on the outside of the leaf4 ,when the two lobes are thus completely closed1 they resist being opened1 as by a thin wedge driven with astonishing force between them1 and are generally ruptured rather than yield4 ,if not ruptured1 they close again with quite a loud flap4 ,the slow movement spoken of1 excited by the absorption of diffused animal matter1 suffices for its final purpose1 whilst the movement brought on by the touching of one of the sensitive filaments is rapid1 and thus indispensable for the capturing of insects4 ,leaves remain shut for a longer time over insects1 especially if the latter are large1 than over meat4 ,in many instances where they have remained for a long period over insects naturally caught1 they were more or less torpid when they reopened1 and generally so much so during many succeeding days that no excitement of the filaments caused the least movement4 ,vigorous leaves will sometimes devour prey several times1 but ordinarily twice1 or1 quite often1 once is enough to render them unserviceable4 ,what purpose the marginal spikes1 which form so conspicuous a feature in the appearance of the plant1 subserve was unknown until the genius of ,darwin solved the mystery4 ,it was he that showed that elongated spaces between the spikes1 varying from one-fifteenth to one-tenth of an inch in breadth according to the size of the leaf1 are left open for a short time before the edges of the lobes come into contact1 consequent upon the intercrossing of the tips of the marginal spikes first1 thus enabling an insect whose body is not thicker than these measurements to escape1 when disturbed by the closing lobes and the increasing darkness1 quite easily between the crossed spikes4 ,moderately sized insects1 if they try to escape between the bars1 will be pushed back into the horrid prison with the slowly closing walls1 for the spikes continue to close more and more until the lobes are brought into contact4 ,very strong insects1 however1 manage to effect their release4 ,it would manifestly be a great disadvantage to the plant to remain many days clasped over a minute insect1 and as many additional days or weeks in recovering its sensibility1 inasmuch as a very small insect would afford but little nourishment4 ,far better would it be for the plant to wait until a moderately large insect was captured1 and to allow the little ones to escape1 and this advantage is gained by the slow intercrossing of the marginal spikes1 which1 acting like the large meshes of a fishing-net1 allow the small and worthless fry to pass through4 ,touching any one of the six filaments is sufficient to cause both lobes to close1 these becoming at the instant incurved throughout their entire breadth4 ,the stimulus must therefore radiate in all directions from any one filament1 and it must also be transmitted with considerable rapidity across the leaf1 for in all ordinary cases1 as far as the eye can judge1 both lobes close at the same time4 ,physiologists generally believe that in irritable plants the excitement is transmitted along1 or in close connection with1 the fibro-vascular bundles4 ,those in ,diona seem at first sight to favor this belief1 for they run up the mid-rib in a great bundle1 sending off small bundles almost at right angles on each side1 which bifurcate occasionally as they stretch towards the margin1 the marginal branches from adjoining branches uniting and entering the marginal spikes4 ,thus a continuous zigzag line of vessels runs round the whole circumference of the leaf1 while in the mid-rib all the vessels are in close contiguity1 so that all parts of the leaf seem to be brought into some degree of communication4 ,the presence of vessels1 however1 is not necessary for the transmission of the motor impulse1 for it is transmitted from the apices of the sensitive filaments1 which are hardly one-tenth of an inch in length1 into which no vessels are seen to enter4 ,slits made close to the bases of the filaments1 parallel to the mid-rib1 and thus directly across the course of the vessels1 sometimes on the inner and sometimes on the outer sides of the filaments1 do not interfere with the transmission of the motor impulse along the vessels1 and conclusively show that there is no necessity for a direct line of communication from the filament1 which is touched towards the mid-rib and opposite lobe1 or towards the outer parts of the same lobe4 ,with respect to the movement of the leaves1 the wonderful discovery made by ,dr4 ,burdon ,sanderson1 and published in #ahgd1 offers an easy explanation4 ,there is1 says this distinguished authority1 a normal electrical current in the blade and footstalk1 which1 when the leaves are irritated1 is disturbed in the same manner as is the muscle of an animal when contraction takes place4 ,after contraction has endured for a greater or less time1 dependent upon circumstances which we do not well understand1 re-expansion of the leaves is effected at an insensibly slow rate1 whether or not any object is enclosed1 both lobes opening in all ordinary cases at the same time1 although each lobe may act to a certain extent independently of the other4 ,the re-expansion is not determined by the sensitive filaments1 for these may be cut off close to their bases1 or be entirely removed1 and re-expansion occur in the usual manner4 ,it is believed that the several layers of cells forming the lower surface of the leaf are always in a state of tension1 and that it is owing to this mechanical state1 aided probably by fresh fluid being drawn into the cells1 that the lobes begin to separate as soon as the contraction of the upper surface diminishes4 ,six known genera1 ,drosophyllum1 ,roridula1 ,byblis1 ,drosera1 ,diona and ,aldrovanda comprise the ,droserace1 all of which capture insects4 ,the first three genera effect this purpose solely by the viscid fluid secreted from their glands1 and the last1 like ,diona1 which has already been described1 through the closing of the blades of the leaf4 ,in these last two genera rapid movement makes up for the loss of viscid secretion4 ,but of all the genera none is more interesting than the typical ,sundews4 ,growing in poor peaty soil1 and sometimes along the borders of ponds where nothing else can grow1 certain low herbaceous plants1 called ,droseras1 abound4 ,so small and apparently insignificant are they1 that to the ordinary observer they are almost unnoticed4 ,but they have peculiarities of structure and nature that readily distinguish them4 ,scattered thickly over their leaves are reddish bristles or tentacles1 each surmounted by a gland1 from which an extremely viscid fluid1 sparkling in the sunlight like dew1 exudes in transparent drops4 ,hence the common name of ,sundew by which the half-dozen species found in the ,united ,states east of the ,mississippi ,river are known4 ,a one-sided raceme1 whose flowers open only when the sun shines1 crowns a smooth scape1 which is devoid of tentacles4 ,drosera rotundifolia1 our commonest species1 has a wide range1 being indigenous to both ,europe and ,america4 ,in the ,united ,states it extends from ,new ,england to ,florida and westward1 and is occasionally associated with ,drosera longifolia1 a form with long strap-shaped leaves1 but whose distribution is mostly restricted to maritime regions1 from ,massachusetts to ,florida4 ,illustration3 ,,round-,,leaved ,,sundew4 ,leaves ,acting as ,stomachs4 ,all of the species are remarkably similar in habits1 capturing insects1 and digesting and absorbing the soft parts1 a circumstance which explains how these plants can flourish in an extremely poor soil where mosses1 which depend almost entirely upon the atmosphere for their nourishment1 only can live4 ,although the leaves of the ,droseras at a hasty glance do not appear green1 owing to the purple color of the tentacles1 yet the superior and inferior surfaces of the blade1 the stalks of the central tentacles1 and the petioles contain chlorophyll1 rendering the best of evidence that the plants obtain and assimilate carbon dioxide from the air4 ,but when the poverty of the soil where these plants grow is considered1 it is at once apparent that their supply of nitrogen would be exceedingly small1 or quite deficient1 unless they had the power of obtaining it from some other source4 ,from captured insects this important element is largely obtained1 and thus we are prepared to understand how it is that their roots1 which consist of only two or three slightly divided branches1 from one-half to one inch in length1 and furnished with absorbent hairs1 are so poorly developed4 ,from what has been stated it would seem that the roots but serve to imbibe water1 but there is no doubt that nutritious matters would also be absorbed were they present in the soil4 ,with the edges of its leaves curled so as to form a temporary stomach1 and with the glands of its closely-inflected tentacles pouring forth their truly acid secretion1 which dissolves animal matters that are subsequently absorbed1 ,drosera may be said to feed like an animal4 ,but1 unlike an animal1 it drinks by means of its roots1 and largely1 too1 for it would not be able to supply its glands with the necessary viscid fluid4 ,the amount needed is by no means an inconsiderable quantity1 as two hundred and seventy drops may sometimes be exposed during a whole day to a glaring sun4 ,such a profuse exudation implies preparations for hosts of insect visitors4 ,in this ,drosera has not miscalculated4 ,its bright pink blossoms and brilliant1 glistening dew lure vast numbers of the smaller kinds1 and the larger ones1 too1 to certain death4 ,but the wholesale destruction of life that goes on is much in excess of what the plant requires for food4 ,while the smaller flies remain adherent to the leaves1 affording them the needed aliment1 the larger insects1 after death1 fall around the roots1 where they decay and fertilize the soil with nitrogen1 which doubtless through the proper channels makes its way into the body of the plant1 thus helping to give it tone and vigor4 ,there are times when these plants work better than at others1 but whether this is caused by the electrical condition of the atmosphere1 or the amount of its contained moisture1 is a question which science has not positively determined4 ,drosera longifolia folds it leaves entirely around its victim1 from the apex down to the petiole after the manner of its vernation1 but in ,drosera rotundifolia1 whose marginal tentacles are longer1 the tentacles simply curve around the object1 the glands touching the substance1 like so many mouths receiving nourishment4 ,experimented upon with raw beef1 the tentacles of healthy leaves1 from within to without1 but in periods of time varying from six to eight or nine hours1 clasp firmly the beef1 almost concealing it from view4 ,equally vigorous leaves1 however1 made no move towards clasping a bit of dry chalk1 a chip of flint1 or a lump of earth4 ,bits of raw apple cause a curving of the tentacles1 but very few of the glands are seen touching them4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that these plants are really carnivorous1 preferring animal substances1 which they1 by the aid of some ferment analogous to pepsin1 which is secreted by the glands1 are able to absorb4 ,a minute quantity of already soluble animal matter is the exciting cause1 and this must be taken in by the glands1 or there is no secretion of the fermenting material4 ,in all ordinary cases the glands alone are susceptible to excitement4 ,when excited1 they do not themselves move or change form1 but transmit a motor impulse to the bending part of their own and adjoining tentacles1 and are thus carried towards the centre of the leaf4 ,stimulants applied to the glands of the short tentacles on the disc indirectly excite movement of the exterior tentacles1 for the stimulus of the glands of the disc acts on the bending part of the latter tentacles1 near their bases1 and does not first travel up the pedicels to the glands1 to be then reflected back to the bending place4 ,some influence1 however1 does travel up to the glands1 causing them to secrete most copiously1 and the secretion to become acid1 just such an influence as that which in animals is transmitted along the nerves to glands1 modifying their power of secretion1 independently of the condition of the blood-vessels4 ,over organic substances that yield soluble matter the tentacles remain clasped for a much longer time than over those not acted upon by the secretion1 or over inorganic objects4 ,that they have the power of rendering organic substances soluble1 that is1 that they have the power of digestion1 is no longer a question of dispute4 ,they certainly have this power1 acting on albuminous compounds in exactly the same manner as does the gastric juice of mammals1 the digested matter being afterwards absorbed4 ,in animals the digestion of albuminous compounds is effected by means of a ferment1 pepsin1 together with weak hydrochloric acid1 though almost any acid will serve1 yet neither pepsin nor an acid by itself has any such power4 ,it has been observed that when the glands of the disc are excited by the contact of any object1 especially of one containing nitrogeneous matter1 the outer tentacles and often the blade become inflected1 the leaf thereby becoming converted into a temporary cup or stomach4 ,the discal glands then secrete more copiously1 the secretion becoming acid1 and1 moreover1 some influence being transmitted by them to the glands of the exterior tentacles1 causing them to emit a more abundant secretion1 which also becomes acid4 ,this secretion is to a certain extent antiseptic1 as it checks the appearance of mould and infusoria1 and in this particular acts like the gastric juice of the higher animals1 which is known to arrest putrefaction by destroying the microzymes4 ,with animals1 according to ,schiff1 mechanical irritation excites the glands of the stomach to secrete an acid1 but not pepsin4 ,there is strong reason to believe1 too1 that the glands of ,drosera1 which are continually secreting viscid fluid to replace the losses by evaporation1 do not secrete the ferment proper for digestion when mechanically irritated1 but only after absorbing certain matters of a nitrogeneous nature4 ,the glands of the stomachs of animals secrete pepsin only after they have absorbed certain soluble substances designated peptogenes1 showing a remarkable parallelism between the glands of ,drosera and those of the stomach in the secretion of their appropriate acid and ferment4 ,not only animal matter1 but also the albumen of living seeds1 which are injured or killed by the secretion1 are acted upon by the glands of ,drosera4 ,matter is likewise absorbed from pollen1 and from fresh leaves4 ,the stomachs of vegetable-feeding animals1 as is only too well known1 possess a similar power of extracting nourishment from such articles4 ,though properly an insectivorous plant1 but as pollen1 as well as the seeds and leaves of surrounding plants1 cannot fail to be often or occasionally blown upon the glands of ,drosera1 yet it must be credited with being to a certain extent a vegetable feeder4 ,that a plant and an animal should secrete the same1 or nearly the same1 complex digestive fluid1 adapted for a similar purpose1 is a wonderful fact in physiology1 but not more remarkable than the movements of a tentacle consequent upon an impulse received from its own gland1 the movement at the bending place of the tentacle being always towards the centre of the leaf1 and so it is with all the tentacles when their glands are excited by immersion in a suitable fluid4 ,the short tentacles in the middle part of the disc1 however1 must be excepted1 as these do not bend at all when thus excited4 ,but when the motor impulse comes from one side of the disc1 the surrounding tentacles1 and even the short ones in the middle of the disc1 all bend with precision towards the point of excitement1 no matter where it may be located4 ,this is in every way a remarkable phenomenon1 for the leaf appears as if endowed with animal sense and intelligence4 ,it is all the more remarkable when the motor impulse strikes the base of a tentacle obliquely to its flattened surface1 for then the contraction of the cells must be restricted to one1 two or a very few rows at one end1 and different sides of the surrounding tentacles must be acted on that all may bend with precision to the point of excitement4 ,the motor impulse1 as it spreads from one or more glands across the disc1 enters the bases of the surrounding tentacles1 and instantly acts on the bending place1 but does not first proceed up the tentacles to the glands1 causing them to reflect back an impulse to their bases1 although some influence is sent up to the glands1 whereby their secretion is soon increased and rendered acid4 ,the glands1 being thus excited1 send back some other influence1 dependent neither on increased secretion nor on the inflection of the tentacles1 which causes the protoplasm to aggregate in cell beneath cell4 ,this maybe called a reflex action4 ,how it differs from that which proceeds from the nerve-ganglion of an animal1 if it differ at all1 no one can say4 ,it is probably the only known case of reflex action in the vegetable kingdom4 ,concerning the mechanism of the movements and the character of the motor impulse little is known4 ,during the act of inflection fluid surely passes from one part to another of the tentacles4 ,in explanation of the fact it is claimed that the motor impulse is allied in nature to the aggregating process1 and that this causes the molecules of the cell-walls to approach each other1 as do the molecules of the protoplasm within the cells1 thereby causing the cells in all to contract4 ,this is probably the hypothesis that best accords with the observed facts1 although some strong objections may be urged against this view4 ,the elasticity of their outer cells1 which comes into activity as soon as those on the inner side cease contracting with prepotent force1 leads largely to the re-expansion of the tentacles1 but there is reason to suspect that fluid is continually and slowly attracted into the outer cells during the act of re-expansion1 thus augmenting their tension4 ,with respect to the structure1 movements1 constitution and habits of ,diona muscipula and ,drosera rotundifolia1 as well as kindred species1 little has been made out by patient study and investigation in comparison with what remains unexplained and unknown4 ,many of their movements1 especially of ,diona and ,drosera1 seem so sensible and intelligent that the reflecting mind of man can hardly hesitate to assign them high positions in organic nature and the possession1 even though in a very small degree1 of that consciousness with which animal life is endowed4 ,that man is psychically related to all life is the belief of millions in the old world1 and the hope of millions in the new4 ,in this thought is the escape from materialism1 that threat of the ignorant and unbelieving4 ,higher conceptions of beauty and greatness are now being entertained by the multitudes1 and we begin to feel that the next great step is being taken when we shall become1 instead of poor trembling denizens of a perishable world1 proud and conscious citizens of an imperishable universe4 ,that we of the upper ranks of ,god's creation alone possess an inner life which shall transcend all change is no longer a general belief1 but there is a growing hope that all nature shares it1 and that love is its expression and its method4 ,all existence is a unit4 ,life1 law and love are divine4 ,man1 looking calmly about him1 cannot set himself apart as something essentially different from nature1 but must recognize himself as a part1 and include love in the universal scheme of development4 ,all other expressions of life must share with him in the divine love and progress4 ,his dogmas1 founded on mistaken traditions1 have given way to science1 and he cannot but believe that love is in and of the soul1 and that all life has some sort of development of soul4 ,because plant-life has no brain1 and therefore has no intelligence1 no mind1 no soul1 is preposterous to contemplate4 ,who can positively affirm that brain alone is the seat of conscious intelligence8 ,none but ,he alone1 the ,giver of all life1 who sits enthroned and exalted in the everlasting heavens4 ,,slime-,,animals4 ,possibly the simplest of life's children are the singularly unique and structureless little ,finger ,slimes1 which live not only in the sea but also in puddles and pools1 and in the gutters of our streets and of our house-tops4 ,anywhere that stagnant water abounds these tiny drops of slime will grow up and make it their home4 ,sometimes few and far between1 and sometimes in such immense crowds that the entire pond would seem1 if they could be seen with the unaided vision1 literally alive with them1 they live1 and multiply and die under our very feet4 ,nothing can be less animal-like than one of these shapeless masses of pure protoplasm1 yet under a microscope of strong power it may be seen moving lazily along by pulling out a thick finger of slime and then letting all the rest of its body flow after it4 ,when coming into contact with food it may be said to flow over it1 dissolving the soft parts and sending out the hard1 indigestible refuse anywhere1 no matter where1 for its body is devoid of skin1 being merely one general mass of homogeneous slime4 ,but what can these little slime specks tell us about the wonderful powers of life8 ,nothing at all1 it would seem1 for in these tiny creatures life has nothing better to work with than a mere drop of living matter1 which is all alike throughout1 so that if broken into a hundred pieces every piece would be as much a living being as the whole4 ,and yet by means of the wonderful gift of life1 with which the all-wise ,omnipotence has endowed it1 this slime-drop lives1 and breathes1 and eats1 and increases1 shrinks away when you touch it1 feels for its food1 and moves from place to place1 changing its shape to form limbs and feeling-threads1 which are let into the general organism when they have served the purpose of their existing1 only to be succeeded by others as short-lived as themselves when necessity requires their development4 ,so small are these creatures that the largest specimen will be found to be smaller than the smallest pin's head4 ,examine how we will1 there will be found no mouth1 no stomach1 no muscles1 no nerves1 no parts of any kind4 ,the animal looks merely like a minute drop of gum with fine grains diffused throughout1 floating in the water1 some times with outstretched arms1 and at other times as a simple drop4 ,an analysis of the matter of which it is composed shows it to be much the same as a speck of white-of-egg4 ,yet it is alive1 for it breathes4 ,kept in a drop of water1 it uses up the oxygen it contains1 and renders the water foul by the carbonic acid it breathes out4 ,the arms1 so necessary in the procurement of food1 can be drawn in and thrown out when and where the animal chooses1 showing that some option is undoubtedly exercised in the matter4 ,minute jelly-plants1 that live in the water1 and even higher animals than itself1 constitute its food4 ,the presence of an animal with a shell does not deter it from attack1 for it is just as able to deal with it as with the softer1 shell-less kinds1 sucking their jelly-like contents1 and discarding the empty1 innutritious shells4 ,quite as interesting among the ,moners1 to which the ,finger ,slime belongs1 is the ,protomyxa aurantiaca1 a shapeless bit of transparent matter1 containing merely circulating granules4 ,locomotion is effected by extending the body into pseudopodia1 or false feet1 and contracting them4 ,its movement is slow and gliding4 ,when at rest it appears as a mere lump of jelly1 but its whole demeanor changes when in the presence of a living animal suited for food4 ,fine threads immediately begin to shoot out from all sides1 which fuse about the unsuspecting prey1 while all the little grains in the slime course to and fro4 ,for five or six hours the little fellow hugs closely round the prey until it has become thoroughly absorbed1 at least the nutritious parts1 into its body-mass1 when it draws itself away1 or back into its original place1 leaving by its side the skeleton of its late victim4 ,without eyes or ears or parts of any kind it knows how to find its food2 without muscles or limbs it is able to seize it2 without a mouth it can suck out its living body1 and without a stomach it can digest the food in the midst of its own slime1 and cast out the parts for which it has no use4 ,illustration3 ,,protomyxa ,,feeding4 ,when ,protomyxa has become a burden to itself it divides itself by a simple process of fission1 each part being complete in itself1 or it assumes a thick covering1 becoming encysted1 as it is termed4 ,in a little while the enclosed mass divides into spheres1 the cell-wall bursts1 and the little spheres1 which have now taken on a sort of tadpole shape1 float out upon the water1 where they soon assume the parent-form4 ,like all living things1 these ,moners have a desire for food1 which their protoplasm first appropriates1 then converts into available material4 ,they thus grow and increase in size1 but when they become too large to be comfortable they usually split into two1 in obedience to the law of their being1 and each half goes its own way as a living animal4 ,this is the earliest form of parentage1 the simplest form of reproduction4 ,thus yielding to this necessity of a separation of one into more than one1 these ,moners live on forever1 or as long as the earth continues to support life1 thus becoming immortal in the scientific sense in which the term is used to devote a continuance of the physical life on earth4 ,they only and their nearest relatives1 as simple in structure as themselves1 achieve this stupendous result1 for in such a division of their entire substance they know no loss1 no death of any part1 violence only being able to sunder them from life4 ,they resolve themselves into their own offspring1 and nothing perishes4 ,,primitive ,,lasso-,,throwers4 ,every one knows that the long cord or thong1 called the lasso1 is the peculiar weapon of the ,south ,american hunter4 ,almost from his earliest childhood the young ,gaucho learns to amuse himself with it1 and as soon as he is able to walk takes great pleasure in catching young birds and other animals around his father's hut1 hurling the long lash with such dexterity that the noose drops over their bodies and brings them to his feet4 ,did we wish to select from among all the denizens of life the most brilliant1 graceful1 and sylph-like1 whose very life-histories read more like the romance of poetry than sober reality1 we would choose those which might be appropriately designated the lasso-throwers4 ,now among animals1 as is only too well known1 any weapons which they could be called upon to use must develop in their own bodies1 and therefore it could hardly be suspected that a simple jelly-animal could be provided with a lasso ready grown in its own flesh4 ,yet it is so1 for in that class of animals1 which ranks just above the sponges1 we discover a weapon of this kind as simple and as deadly1 and far more wonderful in its action than any used by man4 ,in fresh-water ponds1 attached by its base to the under surfaces of aquatic plants1 may be found a very small animal1 just large enough to be seen without the aid of a lens1 usually pale green1 but sometimes of a brown color4 ,this is our common hydra1 technically called ,hydra fusca4 ,it is nothing more than a tube or sac1 with a sucker at one end to hold on with1 and a mouth at the other1 surrounded with from five to eight hollow tentacles or feelers1 which opens into a central cavity or stomach4 ,firm and muscular are the walls of the sac1 so that the little creature1 which is not fixed permanently to whatever it is found clinging to1 may stretch itself out or draw back as its own volition dictates1 or move slowly along by means of its sucker1 or float easily or contentedly upon the water4 ,but the most remarkable1 as well as the most interesting thing about this odd creature is the power which it possesses of overcoming animals more powerful and active than itself4 ,illustration3 ,,fresh-,,water ,,hydra ,,moored ,,and ,,searching ,,for ,,prey4 ,groping about with its flexible arms1 which are closely invested with fine jelly-hairs1 with which it seemingly feels1 or attached to some leaf or bit of floating stick1 its tentacles reaching out in all directions1 the ,hydra instantly paralyzes any minute insects1 young snail or infusorian that touches its feelers1 and complacently closing its arms over the helpless victim1 carefully tucks it away1 so to speak1 into its stomach1 where it is speedily digested4 ,this power of paralyzing and thus readily capturing active living creatures is due to the presence in the skin of the tentacles and body of what are called lasso-cells1 or nettling-organs1 which are minute1 transparent cells1 so small that two hundred of the largest would occupy but the distance of an inch1 each being armed with a long barbed thread coiled up within its walls4 ,this delicate thread1 which is often from twenty to forty times the length of the cell1 lies bathed in a poisonous fluid1 and only waits for the cell-walls to burst1 which they do when the ,hydra touches an animal swimming near it1 when thousands of these little barbed cords dart into the victim1 quickly paralyzing it and rendering it an easy prey to its captor4 ,all ,clenterates1 such as jelly-fishes and coral polyps1 possess these nettling-organs4 ,thus we see where the ,hydra's strength lies4 ,he has no need to struggle1 for his victim1 penetrated by a multitude of darts1 and made powerless by the poison instilled1 becomes as manageable as an equal bulk of inert matter4 ,it behooves the little creature to take things quietly1 for a cell once burst cannot be used again1 and he is therefore compelled to wait until a new one is grown to take the place of the one that has become exhausted4 ,so he patiently bides his time till his victim is half-conquered1 when he draws him gently into his body4 ,he lives and catches his food1 as must be apparent1 without the necessity of moving very far from the place where he had his birth4 ,all the summer through the ,hydra puts out buds from its side1 which1 when their tentacles have grown1 drop from the parent-body1 and settle down in life for themselves4 ,but when winter comes1 and before all life has become extinct1 an egg appears near the base of the tubes of those that are living1 and these eggs lie dormant till the next spring1 when they are hatched1 and a new generation of ,hydras is produced4 ,budding1 which is but a process of natural self-division1 is carried on to a large extent1 more individuals being produced in this way than from eggs4 ,these buds are at first a simple bulging out of the body-walls1 the bud enveloping a portion of the stomach1 until it becomes constricted and drops off1 the tentacles meanwhile budding out from the distal end1 and a mouth-opening arising between them4 ,in the ,hydra1 the ,actinia1 and other polyps1 and in truth in all the lower animals1 budding is simply due to an increase in the growth and multiplication of cells at a special place on the outside of the body4 ,as in the vertebrates1 man included1 the ,hydra arises from an egg which1 after fertilization1 passes through two stages1 the germ consisting at first of two cell-layers1 but the sexes are not separate as in the marine ,hydroids1 which grow in colonies that may be either male or female4 ,like some other animals of simple structure1 the ,hydra is capable of reproducing to a most wonderful degree when cut into pieces4 ,divided in two1 each becomes a perfect ,hydra1 and even when sliced into any number of thin rings each ring will grow out a crown of tentacles4 ,you may split them into longitudinal strips and each strip will eventually become a well-shaped ,hydra4 ,two individuals may be fastened together by a horse-hair and in a short time they will have become like ,siamese twins1 but there will never arise the slightest disagreement between them4 ,a ,hydra turned inside out will readily adapt itself to the change1 and in a few days will be able to swallow and digest bits of meat1 its former stomach-lining having now taken upon itself the condition of skin4 ,hydra fusca is our simplest lasso-thrower1 and the only one to be found in fresh waters in this country4 ,such a wonderful and deadly weapon is his1 that it is easy to understand how his numerous relatives in the wide ocean have made good use of the weapon with which nature has provided them1 and secured1 under all kinds of shapes and forms1 homes and resting-places throughout the vast waste of waters4 ,from the ,arctic to the ,tropics1 and from the shallow seaside pools at low tide to the fathomless abysses of the ocean1 we meet the lasso-throwers4 ,now in the form of huge jelly-fishes1 covering the sea for miles and miles1 transparent domes by day and phosphorescing lights by night1 and now as tiny balls of jelly1 glistening by millions in some quiet bay and splintering into light upon the beach2 or in the form of living animal-trees waving their graceful arms over rocks in waters deep1 or creeping like delicate threads over shells and stones and seaweed on the shore1 where they often lose their identity and are mistaken for plants4 ,there is scarcely a nook or cranny in the bed of ocean where these tree-like forms1 associated with the beautiful sea-anemone1 whose brilliant crimson1 green and purple are unmatched in color by gem and flower1 are not to be found4 ,all these beautiful creatures1 as well as the living coral that nestles in the bosom of the warm ,mediterranean or the sea that lashes our ,southern shores1 or that struggles boldly against ,pacific's waves1 are lasso-throwers4 ,clenterata1 the 8hollow-bodied animals10 because of the large cavity within their bodies1 is the name by which they are known to science4 ,they naturally fall into two families1 the ,hydrozoa1 or ,water ,animals1 and the ,actinizoa1 or ,ray-like ,animals1 our little ,hydra1 about which so much has been written1 being representative of the former and the ,anemones of the latter division4 ,,five-,,fingered ,,jack ,,on ,,the ,,oyster4 ,quite as infinite in number1 variety and form is the life of the sea as that of the land4 ,but of all marine animals1 however1 there is none more curious than the echinoderm1 a name derived by science from two ,greek words1 indicating an animal bristling with spines like the hedgehog4 ,these creatures are sometimes free1 but quite as often attached by a stem1 flexible or otherwise1 and radiate after the fashion of a circle or star1 or are of the form of a star1 with more or less elongated arms4 ,they are covered with shell-like plates1 which they secrete for themselves1 and are still further protected by spines or scales4 ,perhaps the most common of the echinoderms is the ,star-fish1 or ,five-fingered ,jack1 as it is called by sailors4 ,whoever has spent any time on the seashore has doubtless made the acquaintance of this animal1 for it is readily distinguishable by its shape1 its upper surface being rough and tuberculous1 and armed with spine-like projections1 while the under portion is soft1 containing the essential organs of life and locomotion4 ,when first seen stranded on the shore the ,star-fish1 by the uninitiated1 is thought to be a creature incapable of movement of any kind4 ,but this is far from being the case1 for in its native element it moves along the bottom of the sea with the greatest ease1 being provided with an apparatus specially adapted for the purpose4 ,ordinarily its arms are kept upon the same level1 but in passing over obstacles that lay in its path1 the animal has the power of raising any one of its several arms4 ,elevations are ascended with the same ease and facility as progression on plane surfaces is effected4 ,perforating the arms1 or rays1 and issuing from apertures1 will be found large numbers of membranous tubes1 which prove to be the feet of the animal4 ,upon careful examination the latter will be found to consist of two parts1 a bladder-like portion1 resident within the body1 and a tubular outlying projection1 ending in a disk-shaped sucker1 thus showing the feet to be muscular cylinders1 hollow in the centre1 and very extensible4 ,in progression the animal extends a few of its feet1 attaches its suckers to the rocks or stones and then1 by retracting its feet1 draws the body forward4 ,like that of the tortoise1 its pace is slow and sure4 ,but the most singular thing about this singular animal is its manner of overcoming obstructions1 which it must certainly perceive1 judging from the preparations to surmount them which it makes at the opportune moment4 ,in addition to organs of locomotion ,star-fishes possess blood-vessels1 digestive and respiratory apparatus1 and a nervous system of a very low order1 an inference to which its seeming capacity of enduring vivisection without pain unmistakably leads4 ,interesting as its manner of progression1 even under the most trying circumstances1 must be1 yet there is nothing in the life of this lowly-organized animal that has half the charm to the true lover and student of nature than the mother ,star's devotion to her young4 ,her eggs she carries in little pouches placed at the base of the rays4 ,when emitted through an opening1 which occasionally and unintentionally occurs1 the mother does not abandon them to the cruel charities of the ocean world1 but gathers them together1 forming a kind of protecting cover of them1 very much like a hen brooding over her chickens4 ,her actions bespeak an anxiety which could only be born of an affection1 as real and sympathetic as that which a human mother feels for the loss of any of her offspring4 ,no matter how often the eggs become accidentally scattered1 the mother does not grow weary of her charges and leave them to themselves1 but gathers them to the maternal fold with the same tender1 patient solicitude as characterized her first efforts4 ,confined to a tank1 when with ova1 the mother ,star has been known to traverse the entire length of the vessel until she has found and recovered her scattered treasures4 ,reproduction by eggs is not the only means of generation in vogue4 ,in common with other sea animals the ,star-fish has the strange capacity of detaching one or more of its arms1 each of the cast-off members becoming in time a perfect creature of its own kind1 while a new arm1 fully equipped to perform all necessary functions1 will grow out in place of the lost member4 ,from twelve to fifteen weeks are required to reproduce a lost ray1 the animal meanwhile seeming not the least discontented1 but acting as utterly unconscious of any changes in its anatomy4 ,as found upon the shore1 ,star-fishes appear dead when really they are alive4 ,put one of these perfectly still creatures into fresh sea-water1 and in a short time it will probably be disporting itself as freely as ever it did4 ,but as the dead and the living1 when stranded by the tide1 present nearly the same appearance1 some certain test seems necessary to distinguish them apart4 ,if a ,star-fish hangs loose and limp1 it is dead2 but1 however dead it may look1 if on touching it there are manifest a firmness and consistency in its substance1 one may feel reasonably sure that it is playing the 'possum and will revive when placed in the water4 ,quite as certain a mode of ascertaining whether your starry friend is living or dead1 is to lay it upon its back1 when1 if alive1 a number of semi-transparent globular objects will be seen to move1 reaching this way and that1 as though feeling for something to lay hold of wherewith to restore it to its normal position4 ,these globular appendages are the ambulacra1 or locomotory organs1 seeking to acquire this end4 ,if1 however1 no movement is manifested1 you can wisely conclude that your animal is dead4 ,the ,star-fish1 not unlike all other animals of the sea1 has an appetite that is never satisfied4 ,dinner is always welcome4 ,the procurement of food seems its chief concern in life4 ,it is a scavenger of no mean importance1 keeping up an incessant chase after all kinds of dead animal matter1 and thus largely contributing1 it is probable1 towards the maintaining of the waters of the ocean in a state of purity4 ,but its feeding is not exclusively restricted to decaying matters4 ,any species of mollusk1 from the humble whelk1 not more than five-eighths of an inch in length1 to the lordly oyster1 so esteemed by epicures1 constitutes a dainty tidbit4 ,no more inveterate ravager and brigand1 not even excepting man himself1 have the oyster-beds to disturb the equanimity and serenity of their existence than the audacious1 insinuating ,star-fish4 ,with its five arms1 and apparently without any other organ1 this comparatively insignificant little being accomplishes a work which man1 without the aid of extraneous appliances1 is quite unable to execute4 ,it opens an oyster as deftly and effectually as an expert oysterman would do1 and that1 too1 without the habitual oyster-knife1 and swallows the slimy bivalve in the same manner as the lords of creation do4 ,man1 with all his genius and skill1 were he deprived of all other means of subsistence than the oyster1 and having no implement with which to open it1 would be severely puzzled to get at the savory morsel shut up in its obstinate valves1 yet the ,star-fish performs the task seemingly without the least difficulty4 ,how the ,star-fish manages the problem was at first a matter of guess-work4 ,for a long time it was confidently believed that the animal waited for the moment when the oyster opened its shell to introduce one of its arms into the opening4 ,this much gained1 the other four arms were got in without much trouble1 and the whole business ended with the devouring of the inmate4 ,this belief is no longer tenable4 ,careful observation has revealed to us the true inwardness of the proceeding4 ,the oyster is seized between the arms of the ,star-fish and held under its mouth by the aid of its suckers4 ,thus secured1 the ,asterias1 or ,star-fish1 everts its stomach1 and envelops the whole oyster in its interior recesses1 distilling a poisonous fluid1 a secretion from its mouth1 which causes the oyster to open its shell1 when the robber1 as it were1 crawls in and takes its dessert4 ,incredible numbers of oysters are destroyed by ,star-fishes1 but the oystermen fail to see that their own barbaric ignorance is largely to blame4 ,star-fishes drawn up in nets1 rakes and dredges in immense quantities are tied into bundles1 but the cords are made so tight that the pile is cut in twain1 the result being that all the pieces1 when afterwards thrown overboard1 become new and perfect ,star-fishes4 ,illustration3 ,,star-,,fish ,,opening ,,an ,,oyster4 ,not often has one the pleasure of meeting with these animals on the ,new ,jersey coast1 but yet they are occasionally seen1 more frequently1 perhaps1 in the ,north4 ,asterias berylinus1 the commoner form1 is a fairly large species1 of a more or less greenish color1 sometimes waning to brown1 and roughly covered with tubercles4 ,its five arms1 at the extremity of each of which is situated a single red-eye speck1 are somewhat irregularly arranged1 and not rarely one is stumpy through breakage or unequal development4 ,when a ,star-fish is alarmed1 or finds itself in strange quarters1 it will be seen to curl up the tips of its rays1 and there under the point of each ray will be found a thick red spot seated on the extremity of a nerve1 and having in it as many as from one hundred to two hundred crystal lenses surrounded by red cells4 ,with such a highly-developed eye1 which is far better than the jelly-fish enjoys1 it is no wonder that the ,star-fish is so quick in discerning food1 or enrages the fisherman by the discovery of the bait which he had intended for other animals1 for it turns out that this stupid-looking animal is more wide-awake than it is given credit for4 ,sometimes1 as in the beautifully delicate ,star-fish1 called the 8,lingthorn10 a soft lid1 or feeler1 hangs over the eye-spot1 which gives to the creature a curiously intelligent look1 but in the case of our common form this lid is notably absent4 ,from all that has been written it must be evident that our first walking animal is by no means a poor or feeble creature4 ,he has a chain armor woven into his leathery skin1 with sharp1 pointed spines1 and snapping1 beak-like claws to protect him2 an excellent digestion and a capacious mouth to feed his greedy stomach1 and a fine array of nerves1 quick feeling and eyesight1 and a wonderful apparatus for moving over the ground4 ,when it is added to all these possessions the ability to close over the wound in the case of a lost ray and the growing of a new one1 we see that his powers of living satisfactorily are by no means insignificant4 ,but this curious walking apparatus of the ,star-fish is far from being perfect in all his relations4 ,they do not all walk by means of suckers any more than all sponge-animals build toilet sponge1 or all slime-animals make chambered shells4 ,sure1 the ,rosy ,feather-stars1 for example1 have no use for feet-tubes1 as their lives are generally spent upon the rocks or nestled in bunches of sea-weed4 ,brittle-stars1 as these are called1 though closely related to the ,star-fishes1 are not easily confounded with them1 for their arms are found to radiate from a clearly defined central disk1 and there is no prolongation of their stomachs and ovaries into their interiors4 ,the tube-feet pass out from the plates along the sides of the arms1 instead of from the under surface as in the ,star-fishes proper1 and probably serve merely as a help for breathing1 locomotion over the sands being effected by their long flexible arms4 ,their home is chiefly among the tangle and eel-grass1 where their protecting covering affords them security from their many enemies4 ,,earth-,,worms ,,in ,,history4 ,earth-worms are found throughout the world4 ,though few in genera1 and not many in species1 yet they make up in individual numbers1 for it has been estimated that they average about one hundred thousand to the acre4 ,our ,american species have never been monographed1 which renders it impossible to judge of their probable number4 ,their castings may be seen on commons1 so as to cover almost entirely their surface1 where the soil is poor and the grass short and thin1 and they are almost as numerous in some of our parks where the grass grows well and the soil appears rich4 ,even on the same piece of ground worms are much more frequent in some places than in others1 although no visible difference in the nature of the soil is manifest4 ,they abound in paved court-yards contiguous to houses1 and on the sidewalks in country towns1 and instances have been reported where they have burrowed through the floors of very damp cellars4 ,beneath large trees few castings can be found during certain parts of the year1 and this is apparently due to the moisture having been sucked out of the ground by the innumerable roots of the trees1 an explanation which seems to be confirmed by the fact that such places may be observed covered with castings after the heavy autumnal rains4 ,although most coppices and woods support large numbers of worms1 yet in forests of certain kinds of tree-growths1 where the ground beneath is destitute of vegetation1 not a casting is seen over wide reaches of ground1 even during the autumn4 ,in mountainous districts worms are mostly rare1 it would seem1 a circumstance which is perhaps owing to the close proximity of the subjacent rocks1 into which it is impossible for them to burrow during the winter1 so as to escape being frozen4 ,but there are some exceptions to this rule1 for they have been found at great altitudes in certain parts of the world1 and especially is this so in ,india1 where they have been observed to be quite numerous upon the mountains4 ,though in one sense semi-aquatic animals1 like the other members of the great class of ,annelids to which they belong1 yet it cannot be denied that earth-worms are terrestrial creatures4 ,their exposure to the dry air of a room for a single night proves fatal to them1 while on the other hand they have been kept alive for nearly four months completely submerged in water4 ,during the summer1 when the ground is dry1 they penetrate to a great depth and cease to work1 just as they do in winter when the ground is frozen4 ,they are nocturnal in their habits1 and may be seen crawling about in large numbers at night1 but generally with their tails still inserted in their burrows4 ,by the expansion of this part of the body1 and with the aid of the short reflexed bristles with which they are armed inferiorly1 they hold so securely that they can seldom be withdrawn from the ground without being torn in pieces4 ,but during the day1 except at the time of pairing1 when those which inhabit adjoining burrows expose the greater part of their bodies for an hour or two in the early morning1 they remain in their burrows4 ,sick individuals1 whose illness is caused by the parasitic larv of a fly1 must also be excepted1 as they wander about during the day and die on the surface4 ,astonishing numbers of dead worms may sometimes be seen lying on the ground after a heavy rain succeeding dry weather1 no less than a half-hundred in a space of a few square yards1 but these are doubtless worms that were already sick1 whose deaths were merely hastened by the ground being flooded1 for if they had been drowned it is probable1 from the facts already given1 that they would have perished in their burrows4 ,after there has been a heavy rain the film of mud or of very fine sand to be seen over gravel-walks in the morning is often distinctly marked with the tracks of worms4 ,from ,may to ,august1 inclusive1 this has been noticed when the months have been wet4 ,very few dead worms are anywhere to be seen on these occasions1 although the walks are marked with innumerable tracks1 five tracks often being counted crossing a space of only an inch square1 which could be traced either to or from the mouths of the burrows in the gravel-walks for distances varying from three to fifteen yards1 but no two tracks being seen to lead to the same burrow4 ,it is not likely1 from what is known of the sense-organs of these animals1 that a worm could find its way back to its burrow after having once left it4 ,they leave their burrows1 it would seem1 on a voyage of discovery1 and thus they find new sites for the exercise of their powers4 ,for hours together they may often be seen lying almost motionless beneath the mouths of their burrows4 ,but let the ejected earth or rubbish over their burrows be suddenly removed and the end of the worm's body may be seen rapidly retreating4 ,this habit of lying near the surface leads to their destruction to an immense extent1 for1 at certain seasons of the year1 the robins and blackbirds that visit our lawns in the country may be observed drawing out of their holes an astonishing number of worms1 which could not be done unless they lay close to the surface4 ,but what brings the worms to the surface8 ,this is a question whose answer cannot be positively asserted4 ,it is not probable that they behave in this manner for the purpose of breathing fresh air1 for it has been seen that they can live a long time under water4 ,that they are there for the sake of warmth1 especially in the morning1 is a more reasonable supposition1 which seems to be confirmed by the fact that they often coat the mouths of their burrows with leaves1 apparently to prevent their bodies from coming into contact with the cold1 damp earth1 and by the still other fact that they completely close their burrows during the winter4 ,some remarks about the structure of the earth-worm now appear apropos4 ,its body consists of from one hundred to two hundred almost cylindrical rings1 each provided with minute bristles4 ,the muscular system is well developed1 thus enabling these animals to crawl backwards as well as forwards1 and to retreat by the help of their affixed tails into their burrows with extraordinary rapidity4 ,situated at the anterior end of the body is the mouth4 ,it is furnished with a little projection1 variously called the lobe or lip1 which is used for prehension4 ,behind the mouth1 internally located1 is a strong pharynx1 which is pushed forwards when the animal eats1 corresponding1 it is said1 with the protrudable trunk of other ,annelids4 ,the pharynx conducts to the sophagus1 on each side of the lower part of which are placed three pairs of large glands1 called calciferous glands1 whose function is the secretion of carbonate of lime4 ,these glands are very remarkable organs1 and their like is not to be found in any other animal4 ,their use is connected in some way with the process of digestion4 ,the sophagus1 in most of the species1 is enlarged into a crop in front of the gizzard4 ,this latter organ is lined with a smooth1 thick chitinous membrane1 and is surrounded by weak1 longitudinal1 but powerful transverse muscles1 whose energetic action is most effectual in the trituration of the food1 for these worms possess no jaws1 or teeth of any kind4 ,grains of sand and small stones1 from the one-twentieth to the one-tenth of an inch in size1 are found in their gizzards and intestines1 and these little stones1 independently of those swallowed while excavating their burrows1 most probably serve1 like millstones1 to triturate their food4 ,the gizzard opens into the intestine--a most remarkable structure1 an intestine within an intestine--which runs in a straight line to the vent at the posterior end of the body4 ,but this curious structure1 as shown by ,claparde1 merely consists of a deep longitudinal involution of the walls of the intestine1 by which means an extensive absorbent surface is secured4 ,worms have a well-developed circulating system4 ,their breathing is effected by the skin1 and so they do not possess any special respiratory apparatus4 ,each individual unites the two sexes in its own body1 but two individuals pair together4 ,the nervous system is fairly well developed1 the two nearly confluent cerebral ganglia being situated very close to the anterior extremity of the body4 ,being destitute of eyes1 we would naturally conclude that worms were quite insensible to light2 but from many experiments that have been made by ,darwin1 ,hofmeister and others1 it is evident that light affects them1 but only by its intensity and duration4 ,it is the anterior extremity of the body1 where the cerebral ganglia lie1 that is affected1 for if this part is shaded and other parts of the body are illuminated no effect will be produced4 ,as these animals have no eyes1 it is probable that the light passes through their skins and excites in some manner their cerebral ganglia4 ,when worms are employed in dragging leaves into their burrows or in eating them1 and even during the brief intervals of rest from their labors1 they either do not perceive the light or are regardless of it1 and this is even the case when the light is concentrated upon them through a large lens4 ,paired individuals will remain for an hour or two together out of their burrows1 fully exposed to the morning light1 but it appears1 from what some writers have said1 that a light will occasionally cause paired individuals to separate4 ,when a worm is suddenly illuminated and dashes into its burrow1 one is led to look at the action as a reflex one1 the irritation of the cerebral ganglia apparently causing certain muscles to contract in an inevitable manner1 without the exercise of the will or consciousness of the animal1 as though it was an automaton4 ,but the different effect which a light produces on different occasions1 and especially the fact that a worm when in any way occupied1 no matter what set of muscles and ganglia may be brought into play1 is often regardless of light1 are antagonistic to the view of the sudden withdrawal being a simple reflex action4 ,with the higher animals1 when close attention to some object leads to the disregard of the impressions which other objects must be producing upon them1 we ascribe this to their attention being then absorbed1 and attention necessarily implies the presence of mind4 ,although worms cannot be said to possess the power of vision1 yet their sensitiveness to light enables them to discriminate between day and night1 and thus they escape the attacks of the many diurnal animals that would prey upon them4 ,they are less sensitive to a moderate radiant heat than to a bright light1 as repeated experiments have conclusively shown2 and their disinclination to leave their burrows during a frost proves that they are sensitive to a low temperature4 ,investigation fails to locate in worms any organ of hearing1 from which must be concluded that they are insensible to sounds4 ,the shrill notes of a metallic whistle sounded near them1 and the deepest and loudest tones of a bassoon1 failed to awaken the least notice4 ,although indifferent to modulations in the air1 audible to human ears1 yet they are extremely sensitive to vibrations in any solid object4 ,even the light and delicate tread of a robin affrights and sends them deep into their burrows4 ,it has been said that if the ground is beaten1 or otherwise made to tremble1 that worms believe they are pursued by a mole and leave their burrows1 but this does not stand the test of experiment1 for the writer has frequently beaten the ground in many places where these creatures abounded1 but not one emerged4 ,a worm's entire body is sensitive to contact1 the slightest puff of air from the mouth causing an instant retreat4 ,when a worm first comes out of its burrow it generally moves the much-extended anterior extremity of its body from side to side in all directions1 apparently as an object of touch1 and there is good reason to believe that they are thus enabled to gain a general knowledge of the form of an object4 ,touch1 including in this term the perception of a vibration1 seems much the most highly developed of all their senses4 ,the sense of smell is quite feeble1 and is apparently confined to the perception of certain odors4 ,they are quite indifferent to the human breath1 even when tainted by tobacco1 or to a pellet of cotton-wool with a few drops of ,millefleur's perfume when held by pincers and moved about within a few inches of them4 ,the perception of such an unnatural odor would be of no service to them4 ,now1 as such timid creatures would almost certainly exhibit some signs of any new impression1 we may reasonably conclude that they did not perceive these odors4 ,but when cabbage leaves and pieces of onion were employed1 both of which are devoured with much relish by worms1 the result was different4 ,these1 with bits of fresh raw meat1 have been buried in pots beneath one-fourth of an inch of common garden soil1 or sometimes laid on pieces of tin foil in the earth1 the ground being pressed down slightly1 so as not to prevent the emission of any odor1 and yet they were always discovered by the worms that were placed in the pots1 and removed after varying periods of time4 ,these facts indicate that worms possess some power of smell1 and that they discover by this means odoriferous and much-coveted kinds of food4 ,that all animals which feed on various substances possess the sense of taste1 is a wise presumption4 ,this is certainly the case with worms4 ,cabbage leaves are much liked by worms1 and it would seem that they are able to distinguish between the different varieties1 but this may perhaps be owing to differences in their texture4 ,when leaves of the cabbage1 horse-radish and onion were given together1 they manifestly preferred the last to the others4 ,celery is preferred to the leaves of the cabbage1 lime-tree1 ampelopsis and parsnip1 and the leaves of the wild cherry and carrots1 especially the latter1 to all the others4 ,that the worms have a preference for one taste over another1 is still further shown from what follows4 ,pieces of the leaves of cabbage1 turnip1 horse-radish and onion have been fed to the worms1 mingled with the leaves of an ,artemisia and of the culinary sage1 thyme and mint1 differing in no material degree in texture from the foregoing four1 yet quite as strong in taste1 but the latter were quite neglected excepting those of the mint1 which were slightly nibbled1 but the others were all attacked and had to be renewed4 ,there is little to be noted about the mental qualities of worms4 ,they have been seen to be timid creatures4 ,their eagerness for certain kinds of food manifestly shows that they must enjoy the pleasure of eating4 ,so strong is their sexual passion that they overcome for a time their dread of light4 ,they seem to have a trace of social feeling1 for they are not disturbed by crawling over each other's bodies1 and they sometimes lie in contact4 ,although remarkably deficient in the several sense-organs1 yet this does not necessarily preclude intelligence1 for it has been shown that when their attention is engaged they neglect impressions to which they would otherwise have attended1 and attention1 as is well known1 indicates the presence of a mind of some kind4 ,a few actions are performed instinctively1 that is1 all the individuals1 including the young1 perform each action in nearly the same manner4 ,the various species of ,perichta eject their castings so as to construct towers1 and the burrows of the ,common ,earth-worm--,lumbricus terrestris--are smoothly lined with fine earth and often with little stones1 and the mouth with leaves4 ,one of their strongest instincts is the plugging up of the mouths of their burrows with various objects1 the very young worms acting in a similar manner4 ,but some degree of intelligence is manifested1 as will subsequently appear4 ,almost everything is eaten by worms4 ,they swallow enormous quantities of earth1 from which they extract any digestible matter it may contain4 ,large numbers of half-decayed leaves of all kinds1 excepting a few that are too tough and unpleasant to the taste1 and likewise petioles1 peduncles1 and decayed flowers4 ,fresh leaves are consumed as well4 ,particles of sugar1 licorice and starch1 and bits of raw and roasted meat1 and preferably raw fat1 are eaten when they come into their possession1 but the last article with a better relish than any other substance given to them4 ,they are cannibals to a certain extent1 and have been known to eat the dead bodies of their own companions4 ,the digestive fluid of worms1 according to ,len ,frdricq1 is analogous in nature to the pancreatic secretion of the higher animals1 and this conclusion agrees perfectly with the kinds of food which they consume4 ,pancreatic juice emulsifies fat1 dissolves fibrin1 and worms greedily devour fat and eat raw meat4 ,it converts starch into grape-sugar with wonderful rapidity1 and the digestive fluid of worms acts upon the starch of leaves4 ,but worms live chiefly on half-decayed leaves1 and these would be useless to them unless they could digest the cellulose forming the cell-walls1 for all other nutritious substances1 as is well known1 are almost completely withdrawn from leaves shortly before they fall off4 ,it has been ascertained that cellulose1 though very little or not at all attacked by the gastric juice of the higher animals1 is acted on by that from the pancreas1 and so worms eat the leaves as much for the cellulose as for the starch they contain4 ,the half-decayed or fresh leaves which are intended for food are dragged into the mouths of their burrows to a depth of from one to three inches1 and are then moistened with a secreted fluid1 which has been assumed to hasten their decay1 but which1 from its alkaline nature1 and from its acting both on the starch-granules and on the protoplasmic contents of the cells1 is not of the nature of saliva1 but a pancreatic secretion1 and of the same kind as is found in the intestines of worms4 ,as the leaves which are dragged into the burrows are often dry and shrivelled1 it is indispensable for the unarmed mouths of worms that they should first be moistened and softened1 their disintegration being thereby the more readily effected4 ,fresh leaves1 however soft and tender they may be1 are similarly treated1 probably from habit4 ,thus the leaves are partially digested before they are taken into the alimentary canal1 an instance of extra-stomachal digestion1 whose nearest analogy is to be found in such plants as ,diona and ,drosera1 for in them animal matter is digested and converted into peptone1 not within a stomach1 but on the surfaces of the leaves4 ,but no portion of the economy of worms has been more the subject of speculation than the calciferous glands4 ,about as many theories have been advanced on their utility as there have been observers4 ,judging from their size and from their rich supply of blood-vessels1 they must be of vast importance to these animals4 ,they consist of three pairs1 which in the ,common ,earth-worm debouch into the alimentary canal in front of the gizzard1 but posteriorly to it1 in some genera4 ,the two posterior pairs are formed by lamell1 diverticula from the sophagus1 which are coated with a pulpy cellular layer1 with the outer cells lying free in infinite numbers4 ,if one of these glands is punctured and squeezed1 a quantity of white1 pulpy matter exudes1 consisting of these free cells1 which are minute bodies1 varying in diameter from two to six millimetres4 ,they contain in their centres a small quantity of excessively fine granular matter1 that looks so like oil globules that many scientists are deceived by its appearance4 ,when treated with acetic acid they quickly dissolve with effervescence4 ,an addition of oxalate of ammonia to the solution throws down a white precipitate1 showing that the cells contain carbonate of lime4 ,the two anterior glands differ a little in shape from the four posterior ones by being more oval1 and also conspicuously in generally containing several small1 or two or three larger1 or a single very large concretion of carbonate of lime1 as much as one and one-half millimetres in diameter4 ,with respect to the function of the calciferous glands1 it is likely that they primarily serve as organs of excretion1 and secondarily as an aid to digestion4 ,worms consume many fallen leaves4 ,it is known that lime goes on accumulating in leaves until they drop off the parent-plant1 instead of being re-absorbed into the stem or roots1 like various other organic and inorganic substances1 and worms would therefore be liable to become charged with this earth1 unless there was some special apparatus for its excretion1 and for this purpose the calciferous glands are ably adapted4 ,on the other hand1 the carbonate of lime1 which is excreted by the glands1 aids the digestive process under ordinary circumstances4 ,leaves during their decay generate an abundance of various kinds of acids1 which have been grouped together under the term of humus acids4 ,these half-decayed leaves1 which are swallowed by worms in large quantities1 would1 therefore1 after having been moistened and triturated in the alimentary canal1 be apt to produce such acids1 and in the case of several worms1 whose alimentary canals were examined1 their contents were plainly shown by litmus paper to be decidedly acid4 ,this acidity cannot be attributed to the nature of the digestive fluid1 for pancreatic juice is alkaline1 and so also is the secretion which is poured out of the mouths of worms for the preparation of the leaves for consumption4 ,with worms not only the contents of the intestines1 but their ejected matter or the castings are generally acid4 ,the digestive fluid of worms resembles in its action1 as already stated1 the pancreatic secretion of the higher animals1 and in these latter pancreatic digestion is necessarily alkaline1 and the action will not take place unless some alkali be present2 and the activity of an alkaline juice is arrested by acidification1 and hindered by neutralization4 ,therefore is seems probable that innumerable calciferous cells1 which are emptied from the four posterior glands in the alimentary canal1 serve to neutralize more or less completely the acids generated there by the half-decayed leaves4 ,these cells1 as has been seen1 are instantly dissolved by a small quantity of acetic acid1 and as they do not always suffice to render of no effect the contents of the upper part of the alimentary canal1 it is probable that the lime is aggregated into concretions1 in the anterior pair of glands1 in order that some may be conveyed to the posterior parts of the intestine1 where these concretions would be rolled about among the acid contents4 ,the concretions found in the intestines and in the castings often present a worn appearance1 but whether due to attrition or chemical corrosion it is impossible to say4 ,that they are formed for the sake of acting as mill stones1 as ,claparde believed1 and of thus assisting in the trituration of food1 is not at all likely1 as this object is already attained by the stones that are present in the gizzards and intestines4 ,in dragging leaves into their burrows worms generally seize the thin edge of a leaf with their mouths1 between the projecting upper and lower lip1 the thick and strong pharynx at the same time being pushed forwards within their bodies1 so as to afford a point de resistance for the upper lip2 but in the case of broad and flat objects the pointed anterior extremity of the body1 after being brought into contact with an object of this kind1 is drawn within the adjoining rings1 so that it becomes truncated and as thick as the rest of the body4 ,this part is then seen to swell a little1 seemingly from the pharynx being pushed a little forwards4 ,by a slight withdrawal of the pharynx1 or by its expansion1 a vacuum is produced beneath the truncated1 slimy end of the body whilst in contact with the object1 and by this means the two adhere firmly together4 ,worms can attach themselves to an object in the same manner under the water4 ,illustration3 ,,common ,,earth-,,worms4 ,out on a ,foraging ,excursion4 ,as worms have no teeth1 and their mouths consist of very soft tissue1 it may be presumed that they consume by means of suction of the edges and parenchyma of fresh leaves after they have been softened by the digestive fluid4 ,they cannot attack such strong leaves as those of sea-kale or large and thick leaves of ivy4 ,they not only seize leaves and other objects for purposes of food1 but for plugging up the mouths of their burrows4 ,flower-peduncles1 decayed twigs of trees1 bits of paper1 feathers1 tufts of wool and horse-hair are some of the many things other than leaves that are dragged into their burrows for this purpose4 ,many hundred leaves of the pine-tree have been found drawn by their bases into burrows4 ,where fallen leaves are abundant1 especially ordinary dicotyledonous leaves1 many more than can be used are collected over the mouth of a burrow1 so that a small pile of unused leaves is left like a roof over those which have been partly dragged in4 ,a leaf in being dragged a little way into a cylindrical burrow necessarily becomes much folded or crumpled1 and when another is drawn in1 this is done exteriorly to the first1 and so on with succeeding leaves1 till finally they all become closely folded and pressed together4 ,sometimes the mouth of a burrow is enlarged1 or a fresh one is made close by1 so that a larger number of leaves may be drawn in4 ,generally the interstices between the drawn-in leaves are filled with moist1 viscid earth ejected from their bodies1 thus rendering them doubly secure4 ,hundreds of such plugged burrows may be seen during the autumnal and early winter months4 ,when leaves1 petioles1 sticks1 etc41 cannot be obtained for the mouths of their burrows1 heaps of stones1 smooth1 rounded pebbles1 are utilized for protection4 ,when the stones are removed and the surface of the ground is cleared for some inches round the burrow1 the worms may be seen with their tails fixed in their burrows dragging the stones inward by the aid of their mouths1 stones weighing as much as two ounces often being found in the little heaps1 which goes to show how strong these apparently weak creatures are4 ,work of this kind is usually performed during the night1 although objects have been occasionally known to be drawn into the burrows during the day4 ,what advantage worms derive from plugging up the mouths of their burrows1 or from piling stones over them1 cannot be satisfactorily answered4 ,they do not act in this manner when they eject much earth from their burrows1 for then their castings serve to cover the mouth4 ,perhaps the plugs serve to protect them from the attacks of scolopenders1 their most inveterate enemies1 or to enable them to remain with safety with their heads close to the mouths of their burrows1 which they like so well to do1 but which1 unless protected1 costs many a fellow its life4 ,besides1 may not the plugs check the free ingress of the lowest stratum of air1 when chilled by radiation at night1 from the surrounding ground and herbage8 ,the last view of the matter seems especially well taken1 because worms kept in pots where there is fire1 having no cold air with which to contend1 plug up their burrows in a slovenly manner1 and because they often coat the upper part of their burrows with leaves1 apparently to prevent their bodies from coming into contact with the cold1 damp earth4 ,but the plugging-up process may undoubtedly serve for all these purposes4 ,whatever the motive may be1 it seems that worms much dislike leaving the mouths of their burrows open1 yet1 nevertheless1 they will reopen them at night1 whether or not they are able afterwards to close them4 ,considerable intelligence is shown by worms in their manner of plugging up their burrows4 ,if man had to plug up a cylindrical hole with such objects as leaves1 petioles or twigs1 he would push them in by their pointed ends1 but if these were thin relatively to the size of the hole1 he would probably insert some by their broader ends4 ,intelligence would certainly be his guide in such a case4 ,but how worms would drag leaves into their burrows1 whether by their tips1 bases1 or middle parts1 has been a matter of interest to many4 ,darwin1 who experimented upon the subject1 found it especially desirable to experiment with plants not native to his country1 for he conceived that although the habit of dragging leaves into their burrows is undoubtedly instinctive with worms1 yet instinct could not teach them how to act in the case of leaves about which their progenitors knew nothing4 ,did they act solely through instinct1 or an unvarying inherited impulse1 they would draw all kinds of leaves into their burrows in the same manner4 ,having no such definite instinct1 chance might be expected to determine whether the tip1 base1 or middle might be seized4 ,if the worm in each case first tries many different methods1 and follows that alone which proves possible or the most easy1 then both instinct and chance are ruled out of the solution of the question4 ,but to act in this manner1 and to try different methods1 makes what in man would be called intelligent action4 ,three species of pine-leaves are mentioned by ,darwin as being regularly drawn into the mouths of worm-burrows on the gravel-walk in his garden4 ,these leaves consist of two needles1 which are united to a common base1 and it is by this point that they are almost invariably drawn into the burrows4 ,as the sharply-pointed needles diverge somewhat1 and as several are drawn into the same burrow1 each tuft forms a perfect chevaux-de-frise4 ,many tufts were pulled up in the evening1 but by the ensuing morning fresh leaves had taken their places1 and the burrows again well protected4 ,impossible it would be to drag these leaves to any depth into the burrows1 except by their bases1 as a worm cannot seize hold of the two leaves at the same time1 and if one alone were seized by the apex1 the other would be pressed against the ground and resist the entry of the one that was seized4 ,that the worms should do their work well1 it was very essential that they drag the pine-leaves into their burrows by their bases1 that is1 where the two needles are conjoined4 ,but how they are guided in this work was at first perplexing4 ,the difficulty1 however1 was soon settled4 ,with the assistance of his son ,francis1 the elder ,darwin set to work to observe worms in confinement during several nights by the aid of a dim light1 while they dragged the leaves of the aforementioned kinds into their burrows4 ,they were seen to move the anterior extremities of their bodies about the leaves1 and on several occasions when they touched the sharp end of the needle they suddenly withdrew as though they had been pricked1 but it is doubtful that they were hurt1 for they are indifferent to sharp objects1 being known to swallow rose-thorns and small splinters of glass4 ,it may be doubted whether the sharp end of the needle serves to tell them that is the wrong end to seize1 for the points of many were cut off for the length of an inch1 and these leaves were always drawn in by their bases and not by the cut-off ends4 ,the worms1 it seemed1 almost instantly perceived as soon as they had seized a leaf in the proper manner4 ,many leaves were cemented together at the top1 or tied together by fine thread1 and these in the majority of instances were dragged in by their bases1 which leads to the conclusion that there must be something attractive to worms in the base of pine-leaves1 notwithstanding that few ordinary leaves are drawn in by their base or footstalk4 ,leaves of other plants1 and also the petioles of some compound plants1 as well as triangular bits of paper1 dry and damp1 were experimented with1 and the manner of seizing the objects and bearing them into their burrows were as amusing as they were novel and interesting4 ,the leaves and stems used were such as the worms had not been accustomed to in their respective haunts4 ,when the several cases experimented on are considered1 one can hardly escape from the conclusion that some degree of intelligence is shown by worms in plugging up their burrows4 ,each particular object is seized in too uniform a manner1 and from causes which we can generally understand1 for the result to be attributed to mere chance4 ,that every object has not been drawn in by its pointed end may be accounted for by labor having been saved by some being carried in by their broader ends4 ,there is no doubt that worms are governed by instinct in plugging up their burrows1 and it might be expected that they would have been taught in every particular instance how to act independently of intelligence4 ,it is very difficult to judge when intelligence comes into play4 ,the actions of animals1 appearing due to intelligence1 may be performed through inherited habit without any intelligence1 although aboriginally acquired1 or the habit may be acquired through the preservation and inheritance of some other action1 and in the latter case the new habit will have been acquired independently of intelligence throughout the entire course of its development4 ,there is no priori improbability in worms having acquired special instincts through either of these two latter means4 ,nevertheless it is incredible that instincts should have been developed in reference to objects1 such as the leaves and petioles of foreign plants1 wholly unknown to the progenitors of the worms which have acted in the manner just described4 ,nor are their actions so unvarying or inevitable as are most true instincts4 ,as worms are not controlled by special instincts in each particular case1 though possessing a general instinct to plug up their burrows1 and as chance is excluded1 the next most probable conclusion is that they try in many ways to draw in objects and finally succeed in some one way4 ,it is surprising1 however1 that an animal so low in the scale as a worm should have the capacity to act in this way1 as many higher animals have no such capacity1 the instincts of the latter often being followed in a senseless or purposeless manner4 ,we can safely infer intelligence1 as ,mr4 ,romanes1 who has specially studied animals1 says1 only when we see an individual profiting by his own experiences4 ,that worms are able to judge either before or after having drawn an object close to the mouths of their burrows how best to drag it in1 shows that they must have acquired some notion of its general shape4 ,this they probably acquire by touching it in many places with the anterior extremity of their bodies1 which serves them as a tactile organ4 ,man1 even when born blind and deaf1 shows how perfect the sense of touch may become1 and if worms1 which also come into being in the same condition1 have the power of acquiring some notion1 however rude1 of the shape of an object and their burrows1 they deserve1 it must seem to every sensible mind1 to be called intelligent creatures1 for they act in such a case in nearly the same manner as a man would under similar circumstances4 ,that worms1 which stand so low in the scale of organization1 should possess some degree of intelligence1 will doubtless strike everyone as very improbable4 ,it may be doubted1 however1 whether we know enough about the nervous system of the lower animals to justify our natural distrust of such a conclusion4 ,with regard to the small size of the cerebral ganglia1 we would do well to remember what a mass of inherited knowledge1 with some power of adapting means to an end1 is crowded into the minute brain of a worker ant4 ,two ways are adopted by worms in excavating their burrows4 ,either the earth is pushed away on all sides or it is swallowed by the animal4 ,in the former case the worm inserts the stretched-out and attenuated anterior extremity of its body into any little crevice or hole1 and the pharynx is pushed forward into this part1 which consequently swells and pushes away the earth on all sides1 the anterior extremity thus acting as a wedge4 ,when placed in loose mould a worm will bury itself in between two and three minutes1 but in earth that is moderately pressed down it often requires as many as fifteen minutes for its disappearance4 ,but whenever a worm burrows to a depth of several feet in undisturbed compact ground1 it must form its passage by swallowing the earth1 for it is impossible that the ground could yield on all sides to the pressure of the pharynx when pushed forward within the worm's body4 ,great depths are reached only during continued dry weather and severe cold1 the burrows sometimes attaining to a depth of from seven to eight feet4 ,the burrows run down perpendicularly1 or1 more commonly1 obliquely1 and are sometimes said to branch4 ,generally1 or invariably as ,i think1 they are lined with fine1 dark-colored earth voided by the worm1 so that at first they must be made a little wider than their ultimate diameter4 ,little globular pellets of voided earth1 still soft and viscid1 often dot the walls of fresh burrows1 and these are spread out on all sides by the worm as it travels up or down its burrow1 the lining thus formed becoming very compact and smooth when nearly dry and closely fitting the worm's body4 ,excellent points of support are thus afforded for the minute reflexed bristles which project in rows on all sides from the body1 thus rendering the burrow well adapted for the rapid movement of the animal4 ,the lining appears also to strengthen the walls1 and perhaps saves the worm's body from being scratched1 which would assuredly be the case when the burrows1 as is occasionally observed1 pass through a layer of sifted coal cinders4 ,the burrows are thus seen to be not mere excavations1 but may be compared with tunnels lined with cement4 ,those which run far down into the ground generally1 or at least frequently1 terminate in little chambers1 where one or several worms pass the winter rolled up into a ball4 ,small pebbles and seeds as large as grains of mustard are carried down from the surface by being swallowed or within the mouths of worms1 as well as bits of glass and tile1 whose only use in their winter-quarters seems to be the prevention of their closely coiled-up bodies from coming into contiguity with the surrounding cold soil1 for such contact would perhaps interfere with their respiration1 which is effected by the skin alone4 ,after swallowing earth1 whether for making its burrow or for food1 the earth-worm soon comes to the surface to empty its body4 ,the rejected matter is thoroughly mixed with the intestinal secretions1 and is thus rendered viscid4 ,after becoming dried1 it sets hard4 ,when in a very liquid state the earth is thrown out in little spurts1 and when not so liquid by a slow peristaltic movement of the intestine4 ,it is not cast indifferently on any side1 but first on one and then on another1 the tail being used almost like a trowel4 ,the little heap being formed the worm seemingly avoids1 for the sake of safety1 the use of its tail1 the earthy matter being forced up through the previously deposited soft mass4 ,the mouth of the same burrow is used for this purpose for a considerable time4 ,when a worm comes to the surface to eject earth1 the tail protrudes1 but when it collects leaves its head must protrude1 and thus worms must have the power of performing the difficult feat1 as it seems to us1 of turning round in their closely-fitting burrows4 ,worms do not always eject their castings upon the surface of the ground1 for when burrowing in newly turned-up earth1 or between the stems of banked-up plants1 they deposit their castings in such places1 and even hollows beneath large stems lying on the surface of the ground are filled up with their ejections4 ,old burrows collapse in time4 ,the fine earth voided by worms1 if spread out uniformly1 would form in many places a layer of one-fifth of an inch in thickness4 ,but this large amount is not deposited within the old unused burrows4 ,if the burrows did not collapse1 the whole ground would be first thickly riddled with holes to the depth of ten inches or more1 which in fifty years would grow into a hollow1 unsupported place ten inches deep4 ,hardly any animal is more universally distributed than worms4 ,the earth-worm is found in all parts of the world1 and some of the genera have an enormous range4 ,they inhabit the most isolated islands1 abounding in ,iceland1 and also being known to exist in the ,west ,indies1 ,st4 ,helena1 ,madagascar1 ,new ,caledonia and ,tahiti4 ,worms from ,kergulen ,land in the ,antarctic regions have been described by ,ray ,lankester1 and ,darwin has reported them as being found in the ,falkland ,islands4 ,how they reach such isolated islands is quite unknown4 ,they are easily killed by salt water1 and it does not seem likely that young worms or their egg-capsules could be carried in earth adhering to the feet or beaks of land-birds1 especially to ,kergulen ,land1 for it is not now inhabited by any terrestrial bird4 ,we have seen that worms are found in nearly every part of the globe1 that they are very numerous1 as many as #cdh1dhj having been found in an acre of rich ground in ,new ,zealand1 and that by the peculiar economy of their nature they are fitted to accomplish a great deal of good in the earth4 ,they have played a more important part in the history of the world than most persons would at first suppose4 ,in many parts of ,england1 according to ,darwin1 a weight of more than ten tons of dry earth annually passes through their bodies and is brought to the surface in each acre of land1 so that the entire superficial bed of vegetable mould passes through their bodies in the course of every few years2 and in most parts of the forests and pasture-lands of ,southern ,brazil1 where several species of earth-worms abound1 the whole soil to a depth of a quarter of a metre looks as though it had passed through the intestines of worms1 even where scarcely any castings are to be observed upon the surface4 ,the upper crust is continually being eaten and ejected by them1 thus aiding the fertility of the soil1 as well as conveying water and air to the interior by the myriads of burrows which they drill4 ,the vast quantities of leaves that they drag into their holes tend also to enrich the ground4 ,nor does their good end here4 ,they cover up seeds1 undermine rocks1 burying them up1 and to their labors is due the preservation of many ruins and ancient works of art4 ,numerous old-time ,roman villas have been discovered beneath the ground in ,england1 whose entombments were undoubtedly caused by the worms that undermined them and deposited their castings upon the floors1 till finally1 aided by other causes1 they disappeared from sight4 ,when a wide1 turf-covered expanse of earth is beheld1 we would do well to remember that its smoothness1 upon which so much of its beauty depends1 is largely due to all the inequalities having been slowly levelled by worms4 ,that all the surface-mould of any such expanse has passed1 and will again pass1 every few years through the bodies of worms is a marvellous reflection1 and one which should not be lightly dismissed from the mind4 ,the most ancient1 as well as one of the most valuable of man's inventions1 is the plough4 ,but long before man existed the land was in fact regularly ploughed1 and still continues to be ploughed1 by earth-worms4 ,no other animal has played such a part in history as have these lowly-organized creatures4 ,true it is that corals1 which are still lower in the scale of animals1 have performed more conspicuous work in the innumerable reefs and islands they have built in the great oceans1 but their work is confined to the tropical zones1 while that of the earth-worm is well-nigh universal4 ,verily it is by the little things in life that the ,creator has erected the most stupendous monuments to show forth ,his infinite power and wisdom4 ,,fiddler- ,,and ,,hermit-,,crabs4 ,among our first acquaintances of the sea-shore are sure to be a number of merry little sprites which do not seem to have yet mastered the lesson of walking straight ahead4 ,their movements will be seen to be in a direction at right angles to that towards which the head points4 ,it is a very interesting sight to watch these apparently one-sided creatures hurrying off in their lateral progression towards their burrows in the sand or mud1 or in quest of food4 ,pass them1 and you will be surprised to see how quickly some of them will reverse their motion1 seemingly without so much as pausing to glance at their pursuer1 their machinery appearing to have given out at one end1 thus compelling them to reverse and travel back over their old courses4 ,these little ,fiddler- or ,calling-crabs1 as they are termed1 are the most pronounced offenders against the commonly accepted rule of proper walking4 ,scattered all over the salt marshes and mud-flats1 at about high-water mark1 may be noted their burrows1 which are about as large as a thrust made by an umbrella point1 and from which can be frequently seen the little animal peeping forth1 preparatory to making a sally4 ,at another part of the flat1 where the noise of your footsteps has not given signals of danger1 hundreds of crabblings are busy with their out-door occupations4 ,draw near to them1 and away they scamper to their dwellings1 males and females intermingled promiscuously1 the former recognizable by the undue development of one of the claws1 which is carried transversely in front of the head4 ,when the animal is provoked1 this claw is brandished in a somewhat menacing manner1 which has been likened by some to the pulling of a violin bow1 and by others to the action of beckoning or calling1 and hence the names which have been applied to these eccentric creatures4 ,have you a desire for a more intimate knowledge of the animal1 take him up by the big claw1 and you can now examine him without the least fear of incurring the proofs of his displeasure4 ,two bead-like1 compound eyes1 supported on long stalks1 which can be readily withdrawn into the protecting shield of the carapace1 will be observed4 ,from the manner of this support1 which allows of vision in almost every direction1 the name of stalk-eyed crustaceans has been given to the group in which this structure is found4 ,the two pairs of feelers1 which you see in front of the eyes1 are known as antenn and antennules4 ,they are of peculiar interest1 for1 aside from acting as feelers1 they subserve the functions of smelling and hearing1 the auditory apparatus being lodged in the base of the smaller pair4 ,there are ten feet1 and this is a character of importance1 as it is a feature distinctive of the ten-footed1 or decapod1 crustaceans4 ,at first sight it appears that the animal is devoid of a tail1 but if you turn him over upon his back you will find a very short one tucked safely under the body4 ,a comparison of our study of this crab with that of the lobster or cray-fish will show that the tail1 or1 more properly1 the abdomen1 is stretched out beyond the body proper1 and that the elongation is in proportion to the length of the animal4 ,two distinct groups of ten-legged1 stalk-eyed crustaceans are thus recognized1 namely3 the short-tailed forms1 or crabs1 and the opposite1 or long-tailed forms1 to which the lobster and shrimp belong1 the hermit-crabs constituting an intermediate type4 ,two species of the ,fiddler1 considerably resembling each other in color and ornamentation1 are to be found upon our ,atlantic ,coast4 ,the more common form1 ,gelasimus vocator1 has a smooth1 shining carapace1 while that of ,gelasimus minax is finely granulated and in part tuberculated1 the back of both appearing impressed with a figure very similar to the letter ,h4 ,the latter1 which appears to be a vegetable feeder1 is the larger1 its burrows not infrequently measuring one and a half inches in diameter4 ,estuarine regions1 in close proximity to fresh water1 rather than the tidal flats1 are its habitat1 and1 in truth1 it seems to be able to get along for weeks1 and even months1 without any absolute need of salt water4 ,illustration3 ,,fiddler-,,crabs4 ,two ,males ,fighting for a ,female4 ,in the excavation of their homes the ,fiddlers throw up the pellets of moist earth by means of their anterior walking legs1 depositing their burden usually at some little distance from the mouth of the burrow4 ,as winter approaches1 the domiciliary apertures are closed up1 and the famine of winter is spent in a state of torpidity4 ,with the advent of spring they come forth from their brumal retreats1 and soon concern themselves with the duties incident to the propagation of their kind4 ,two males are often observed contending in the fiercest manner for the possession of a female4 ,they strike with the formidable claw most powerful blows1 and ,i have often seen an opponent so completely claw-locked as to be unutterly unable to make any determined resistance4 ,these contests last a long while1 and finally conclude with the complete vanquishment of one or the other of the fighting parties1 one or both sustaining at times some severe injury as the loss of an eye-peduncle or the joint of a limb4 ,all the while the battle is waging1 the female is a silent1 passive spectator1 and generally allies herself with the successful competitor for her affections4 ,even during the summer season1 when the cares of brood-raising no longer command and enslave the attention of the female1 these combats are still indulged in by the males1 growing out of1 as it would seem1 the lingering smarts of old animosities festering in the memory4 ,while these carcinological lords of the sea-side are eminently fitted for the sparring business1 the whole physiognomy of their smaller1 weaker partners bespeaks a life in which broils can have no part1 a life devoted to peaceful and domestic pursuits4 ,differing widely in structure and habits from the ,calling-crabs1 and affecting watery situations near the shore1 are to be found the ,hermit-crabs4 ,these sprightly little animals1 which are usually of small size1 and have truly habits of their own1 that stamp them at once as being original and distinctive1 are a source of never-failing delight to the student of nature4 ,they derive their name1 as is well known1 from the seclusion into which they cast themselves as the inhabitants of the shells of other animals1 but it is probably not generally known1 however1 that the rights of tenantry are oftentimes exercised in the most arbitrary manner4 ,not always satisfied with a dead shell1 the ,hermit-crab has been seen to raid upon a living possessor and attempt to drag him from his home1 in which operation the assailant is often assisted by a number of his fellows1 each bearing with him his castle as defensive armor4 ,true1 the attack is probably made in many instances for the purpose of getting possession of the enemy as well as his belongings1 and1 however this may be1 forcible possession is by them considered no misdemeanor4 ,the body of the ,hermit-crab1 in the greater number of species1 is unprovided with a carapace1 and1 being soft and liable to injury1 the animal is compelled to seek shelter usually in a snail-shell1 winding himself about the coils1 to the inner extremity of which he attaches himself by his modified posterior feet4 ,so securely is he now intrenched that it is only with difficulty he can be withdrawn1 retracting himself as he does further and further within cover of the shell4 ,a sudden fracture of the apex of the shell1 under which appears to be the most delicate part of the animal's body1 will generally effect a speedy dislodgment1 the frightened ,crab dropping from the aperture4 ,with his progressive development in size the ,hermit requires frequent changes of abode4 ,his methods in securing a new habitation are among the most interesting of his life4 ,he is very circumspect in his movements1 and will make several reconnoissances before he is fully satisfied with the conditions of his prospective home1 retiring after each visit to the old shell4 ,illustration3 ,copyright #aijj by ,a4 ,r4 ,,dugmore4 ,,crab ,,waiting ,,for ,,food ,,under ,a ,,rock4 ,from a photograph taken through water4 ,like many bipeds1 he has his first of ,may1 and so he goes house-hunting4 ,he finds a shell4 ,will it do8 ,he examines it within1 feelingly if not courteously1 to see whether it is to let4 ,satisfied on this point1 he turns it over1 then turns it round1 to know if it will suit1 the weight of the house being quite an item in the reckoning to one who is to carry it upon his back4 ,all things being right1 his mind is made up to move1 and quickly1 too1 at that1 lest he miss his chance through some more active fellow house-hunter who is on the alert4 ,out comes the body from the old house1 and pop it goes into the new4 ,the resolution to move1 the surrender of the old house1 and the occupancy of the new1 were all effected within a fraction of a second of time4 ,illustration3 ,,warty ,,hermit-,,crabs4 ,one at ,home1 the ,other ,house-,hunting4 ,but the matter does not always go on pleasantly4 ,two house-hunters may find the same tenement4 ,should they both desire it1 then comes the tug of war4 ,dwell together they neither can nor will4 ,recourse is had to battle1 in which the stronger proves his claim right by the rule of might4 ,in these encounters terrible mutilations quite often occur4 ,as an offset to all this bad feeling and bloodshed1 it is a sad sight to see the little ,hermit when his time comes to die4 ,however droll his career may have been1 he is now very grave1 for he knows he must part with life and all its joys and pleasures4 ,who can explain the strange fact8 ,the poor little fellow comes out of his house to die4 ,yes1 to die4 ,to us humans home is the only fit place to die in1 but to ,eupagurus it has no attractions at this solemn time4 ,poor fellow6 ,with a sad look and a melancholy movement he quits of his own will the house for which he fought so well4 ,those feelers that often stood out so provokingly1 and that were quite as often poked into everybody's business1 now lie prone and harmless2 the eyes have lost their pertness1 and dead1 stone dead1 the houseless ,hermit lies upon that moss-covered rock4 ,there are two species of ,hermit-crab occurring on our coast1 which are readily distinguishable from each other by their size and the difference in the shape of the big claw4 ,eupagurus pollicaris1 the ,warty ,hermit1 is the larger species4 ,he inhabits the shells of the big ,naticas and the ,fulgurs1 and can be easily recognized by his coarse1 broad claws1 which close up in great part the aperture of the shell which he occupies4 ,in the more common form1 ,eupagurus longicarpus1 which seldom attains a length exceeding an inch1 the legs are all much elongated1 giving the animal a very slender appearance4 ,,funnel-,,web ,,builder4 ,simple nests and tubes are all the majority of spiders construct for their homes4 ,the larger and better known webs for catching insects are made by comparatively few species4 ,he who is astir in the grass-fields on damp summer mornings1 will everywhere see innumerous flat webs1 from an inch or two to a foot in diameter1 which weather-wise folks consider prognostic of a fair day4 ,these webs may always be found upon the grass at the proper season1 but only become visible from a distance when the dew is upon them1 making the earth appear as covered by an almost continuous carpet of silk4 ,by far the greater number of these nests is of the form which is termed funnel-webs1 which consist of a concave sheet of silk1 constituted of strong threads1 crossed by finer ones1 which the author spins with the long hind-spinnerets1 swinging them from side to side1 and laying down a band of threads at each stroke1 the many hundred threads extending in all directions to the supporting spears of grass4 ,the web is so close and tight that the footsteps of the spider can be distinctly heard by the attentive1 listening ear as she runs hither and thither over its scarcely bending surface4 ,at one side of the web is a tube1 leading down among the grass-stems1 which serves as a hiding-place for the owner of the web4 ,here1 at the top1 and just out of sight1 the spider ordinarily stands1 waiting for something to light upon the web1 when she eagerly rushes out1 seizing the prey unluckily caught and carrying it into her tube to eat4 ,if too formidable an insect comes upon the web1 she turns herself round1 beating a precipitate retreat out of the lower end of her funnel and soon is lost beneath the mesh of enveloping and interlacing grasses4 ,where favorably located1 these webs remain through the entire season1 and are enlarged1 as the spider grows1 by additions on the outer edges1 and are supported by threads running up into the neighboring plants4 ,sometimes the webs are built in close proximity to a stone partially imbedded in the earth1 the bottom of the funnel opening slightly underneath the stone1 which secures to the spider a convenient harbor in case of threatening danger4 ,agalenid1 as our funnel-web weavers are called1 are long-legged1 brown spiders1 in which the head part of the cephalo-thorax is higher than the thoracic part1 and distinctly separated from it by grooves or marks at the sides4 ,the eyes are usually in two rows1 but in ,agalena the middle eyes of both rows are much higher than the others4 ,the feet have three claws1 and the posterior pairs of spinnerets are two-jointed and usually longer than the others4 ,agalena nvia1 the technical name of our ,common ,grass ,spider1 abounds in all parts of the ,united ,states1 but its very commonness is the principal reason why it is so little known except by the trained naturalist1 its very familiarity leading the average man and woman to look upon it with contempt4 ,illustration3 ,,agalena ,,and ,,her ,,funnel-,,web4 ,house-,fly1 ,caught in the ,toils1 ,becomes a ,victim4 ,persons unfamiliar with spiders find it difficult to distinguish the young from the old1 and male from female4 ,this is caused1 in part1 by the great differences between different ages and sexes of the same spider1 on account of which they are supposed to belong to distinct species4 ,the adult males and females1 however1 are easily distinguished from each other1 and from the young1 by the complete development of organs peculiar to each sex1 the palpal organs on the ends of the palpi in the males1 and the epigynum1 a hard swollen place just in front of the opening of the ovaries in the females4 ,usually the males are smaller than their partners1 and have1 in proportion to their size1 smaller abdomens and longer legs4 ,they are generally darker colored1 especially on the head and front part of the body1 and markings which are distinct in the female coalesce and become darker in the male4 ,in most species these differences are not very great1 but in some1 ,argiope and ,nephila for examples1 where the males are about one-tenth as large as the females1 one would hardly suppose1 without other evidence1 that the males and females had any relationship to each other4 ,the palpal organs and the epigynum are sexual characters which do not attain their functional value until after the last moult has been effected4 ,spiders are naturally very selfish creatures4 ,their chief concern in life seems to be the gratification of their desires for food4 ,they are eminently unsocial1 the sexes preferring to live solitary lives4 ,it is only when actuated by amatory influences that the females will tolerate their weaker lords1 and in some instances it is only by stratagem and agility that the latter are able to accomplish the fulfilment of the law of their being1 the females by their ugly1 vicious tempers resisting to the utmost4 ,in the case of ,agalena the male is the stronger of the two4 ,he1 at the proper time1 when the reproductive cells are matured1 takes the female in his powerful mandibles1 lays her gently on one side1 and inserts one of his palpi1 whose little sacs had previously been filled with the fecundating discharge1 into the epigynum underneath4 ,after a time1 necessarily brief1 he rises on tiptoe1 turns her around and over1 so that she comfortably lies on the other side1 her head being in the opposite direction1 and inserts the other palpus4 ,all through the operation the female lies as though she was dead4 ,the ends of nature being served1 the sexes separate1 the male returning to the solitary life he previously led1 while the female busies herself in providing for the duties of maternity4 ,the eggs becoming mature1 the latter proceeds to make a little web and lays them in it1 practising the utmost care4 ,she now covers them over with silk1 which she weaves into a cocoon1 where the young remain some time after they are hatched4 ,seldom is the laying seen1 for it generally happens in the night-time1 or in retired places4 ,often1 in confinement1 the spider refuses to lay at all4 ,an egg of a spider1 like that of any other animal1 is a cell which separates from the body of the female1 and subsequently unites with one or more cells that have separated from the body of the male4 ,this process of union1 termed fertilization1 doubtless takes place when the eggs have attained their full size and are about to be laid4 ,after being laid and hardened it is a very easy matter to watch their development4 ,all that is necessary to be done is to cover the egg to be examined with oil1 alcohol or any liquid that will wet it1 for this tends to make the shell transparent4 ,eggs laid in summer are ready to hatch in a fortnight1 while those laid in autumn develop slowly all through the winter4 ,a day or two are occupied in hatching4 ,when the time has arrived the shell1 or more properly the skin1 cracks along the lines between the legs1 and comes off in rags1 and the spider slowly stretches itself and creeps about4 ,pale and soft it appears1 and devoid of hairs or spines1 but its feet are armed with small claws4 ,in two or three days it gets rid of another skin1 and begins to assume a spider-like appearance1 the eyes becoming dark-colored1 the thoracic marks growing more distinct1 and a dark stripe appearing across the edge of each segment of the abdomen4 ,the hairs are now long1 but few in number1 and arranged in rows across the abdomen and along the middle of the thorax4 ,before the next moult they usually forsake the cocoon1 and live together for a short time in a web spun in common4 ,where larger broods of young spiders live together1 they soon show cannibal-like qualities1 and if kept in confinement one or two out of a cocoon-full may be raised without recourse to any other food4 ,as spiders grow larger1 they must moult from time to time4 ,this is an interesting process4 ,the spider hangs herself by a thread from the spinnerets to the centre of the web4 ,in a short time the skin cracks around the thorax1 just over the first joints of the legs1 and the top part falls forward1 being held only at the front edge4 ,the skin of the abdomen now breaks irregularly along the sides and back1 and shrinks together in a bunch1 leaving the spider suspended only by a short thread from the spinnerets1 her legs still being trammelled by the old skin4 ,fifteen minutes of violent exertion releases her from the encumbrance1 when she drops down1 hanging by her spinnerets like a wet rag4 ,she can do nothing in this condition1 not even draw her legs away from an approaching hand4 ,in ten or twelve minutes the legs show signs of strengthening1 and she is able to draw them gradually towards her4 ,a few up-and-down movements1 and she manages to get into the web again4 ,that which1 more than anything else1 discriminates spiders from other animals is their habit of spinning webs4 ,some of the mites spin irregular threads upon plants1 or cocoons for their eggs1 and many insects cocoons in which to undergo their changes from larva to imago1 but in the spiders the spinning-organs are much more complicated1 and used for a greater variety of purposes1 for making egg-cocoons1 silk linings to their nests1 and nets for catching insects4 ,the spider's thread differs from that of insects1 in being constituted of a great number of finer threads laid together1 while soft enough to coalesce into one4 ,each spinneret is provided with a number of little tubes1 which convey the viscid liquid that forms the thread from glands in the spider's body4 ,in ,agalena the two hinder spinnerets are long1 and have spinning-tubes along the under side of the last joint4 ,when about to produce a thread the spider presses the spinnerets against some object and forces out from each tube enough of the secretion to adhere to it1 when the spinnerets are moved away1 drawing the viscid liquid out1 which hardens at once into threads for each tube4 ,a band of threads is formed when the spinnerets are kept apart1 but when closed together the fine threads unite into one or more large ones4 ,commonly the spinning is aided by the hinder feet1 which guide the thread1 keeping it clear of surrounding objects1 and even pulling it from the spinnerets4 ,spiders are best known and hated as animals that bite4 ,their biting-apparatus1 the mandibles1 are located in front of the head4 ,partly in the basal joints of these organs and partly in the head1 the poison-glands are seated1 from which is discharged through a tube the venom1 which makes spiders so much to be feared4 ,this tube opens at the point of the claw of the mandible4 ,when the apparatus is not in use the claws are closed up against the parts between the rows of teeth2 but when the jaws are opened to bite the claws are turned outward1 so that their points can be made to penetrate anything that comes between the jaws4 ,the ordinary function of the mandibles is the killing and crushing of insects1 so that the soft parts can be eaten by the spider1 and in this preparation they are substantially aided by the maxill4 ,spiders will sometimes chew an insect for hours1 until it becomes a mere ball of skin1 only swallowing such bits as may happen to be sucked in with the blood4 ,let alone and unmolested1 they bite nothing except insects that are useful for food4 ,but when attacked and cornered1 all species open their jaws and bite if they can1 their ability to do so depending upon their size and the strength of their jaws4 ,notwithstanding the large number of pimples and stings ascribed to spiders1 undoubted cases of their biting the human skin are exceedingly rare1 and the stories of death1 insanity and lameness from spider-bites are probably all untrue4 ,many experiments have been made to test the effect of the bites of spiders on animals4 ,insects succumb most readily to their bites1 some sooner than others1 but birds1 except when bitten by the larger ,mygale1 recover after the lapse of a few hours4 ,the effect upon man1 even when the bite is deep enough to draw blood1 is like the pricks of a needle1 attended by little or no inflammation or pain4 ,even in cases where death among insects and birds ensues it is claimed by the authorities1 men as eminent as ,blackwall1 ,moggridge and ,dufour1 that the secretion from spiders' jaws is not poisonous1 but that the animals die1 when bitten1 from loss of blood and mechanical injury4 ,such is the prejudice against the spider1 that its presence1 no matter where found1 whether in the open field or in a corner of the house1 is an inducement for its inveterate enemy1 man1 to sweep it to the ground or floor and crush its frail life out with one blow of the foot4 ,few know1 or care to know1 it would seem1 the good it does for man4 ,he owes to it1 in a large measure1 the protection of his crops1 and no little of the comfort he enjoys in life4 ,spiders are carnivorous creatures1 and destroy vast number of insects1 many of which are man's worst enemies4 ,they merit1 and deservingly1 too1 his kindness and protection for the benefits they confer4 ,tarantulas have been supposed to produce epilepsy by their bites1 which could only be relieved by music of certain kinds4 ,such stories1 and they have been widely circulated and believed1 are the veriest nonsense1 for tarantula-bites produce no such effects nowadays4 ,these spiders1 which live in holes in sand1 out of which they reach after passing insects1 are no more savage in their habits than other spiders1 for ,dufour1 a celebrated ,french naturalist1 once kept one that soon learned to take flies from his fingers without manifesting the least disposition to bite4 ,different species quickly learn1 when treated with kindness1 to regard man as their friend4 ,i have seen ,agalena take food from the hand out of a pair of forceps1 or water from a brush1 and even to reach on tiptoe after it from the mouth of a bottle placed for her accommodation4 ,though naturally timid and shy1 and prone to flee to her funnel on man's approach1 yet she has been known to permit the most unexpected familiarities without fear or resentment4 ,many a female has taken from my hand the proffered fly1 and submitted to the gentle caresses of my finger down the back and abdomen with the most pleasurable satisfaction4 ,they have come at the sound of my voice1 dancing upon their sheeted web like one gone mad1 so perfectly carried away with delight4 ,an interesting experience of last summer during a brief stay in the country seems apropos at this time4 ,while sauntering carelessly along a forest-road ,i came unexpectedly upon a rustic bridge1 with a railing on one side1 which overspanned a small water-course4 ,leaning for rest and support against the railing1 soon my attention was arrested by a huge female spider1 which ,i recognized as ,epeira domiciliorum4 ,she was evidently in quest of something1 as ,i was led to suspect from her seemingly thoughtful and deliberate movements4 ,i watched her closely and criticisingly for a long while1 and in one of her contemplative moods1 when she stood perfectly motionless and fixed as it were to the railing1 ,i reached out my finger rather impulsively and began stroking her along the abdomen1 a familiarity which she did not resent1 and which seemed to give her the most intense delight4 ,when the caressing had ceased1 she would turn round and confront her newly-made acquaintance1 but the lifting of the finger was always the signal for her to assume an attitude of the most perfect quiescence4 ,that she enjoyed these little attentions there cannot be a shadow of doubt1 or actions are no use in the interpretation of feeling4 ,had they been painful1 she would have sought relief in flight1 or in the manifestation of an untoward disposition towards her unintentional persecutor4 ,,book-,,lovers4 ,living in chinks and crannies of ranges in our homes1 and occasionally in bookcases and closets where glutinous and sugary matters abound1 but which has probably not been met with elsewhere1 is a strange but beautiful little creature which1 as far as can be determined1 goes through the brief round of its existence without a name to distinguish it from its fellows4 ,few entomologists have given any special attention to its family relationships4 ,the possession of certain bristle-like appendages which terminate the abdomen1 and which are no doubt comparable with the abdominal legs of the ,myriopods1 or ,thousand ,legs1 classes it with the ,bristle-tails1 or ,lepismas4 ,in general form1 a likeness to the larva of ,perla1 a net-veined neuropterous insect1 is manifest1 or to the narrow-bodied species of ,blattari1 or ,cockroaches1 when divested of wings4 ,lepisma saccharina1 of ,europe1 which is indistinguishable from our ordinary ,american form1 is far from uncommon in old1 damp houses4 ,its structure is less complicated than the heat-loving species to which ,i have alluded1 and there are likewise differences of habits which show themselves to the close investigator of natural phenomena4 ,not unlike the cockroaches1 which our little denizen of the hearth somewhat vaguely resembles in form1 it affects hot1 dry localities1 and is always astir at nights in quest of its fare1 for it disdains the light of the day and the consequent publicity of its deeds of shame and plunder4 ,many a housewife in the discharge of duty has unearthed1 so to speak1 the miscreant from its hidden retreat1 and sought by foot or hand to crush the life that dares obtrude its uncleanly presence in her larder1 but the cunning1 swift-footed ,lepisma darts off1 like a streak of light1 to some near-by crack or breach1 where it manages to hide from threatening danger4 ,the bodies of these nimble1 silent-moving creatures being coated in a suit of shining mail1 which the arrangement of the scales so very much resembles1 they have a weird and ghostly look4 ,this appearance1 and the swiftness of their movement1 which the eye can hardly trace1 have led the vivid mind of man1 in country town and village1 to dub them 8silver witches40 ,so fleet of foot are they1 and so like a wave of blurred light they cross the vision1 that it is vain to try to figure what they are in shape and look4 ,in death they yield their all of earth to prying science4 ,their body's form is narrow1 flattened2 their legs in pairs of threes1 each of six joints consisting1 the basal joints broad1 flat1 triangular1 the tarsal large1 in number two1 and armed at end with pair of claws incurved4 ,the three thoracic segments are very like in size1 and eight abdominals1 of similar length and width4 ,so weak it seems the rather long abdomen is1 that two pairs or six of bristles1 simple1 unjointed1 and freely movable1 serve as support1 and also1 as in other groups of insects1 as organs locomotive4 ,the mode of antenna-insertion--and the same prevails in the entire family--is much like that of the ,myriopods1 the front of the head being flattened and concealing1 as in the ,centipedes1 the base of the antenn4 ,indeed1 the head of any of the ,bristle-tails1 as seen from above1 bears a general resemblance in some of its features to that of the ,centipede and its allies1 and so1 in a less degree1 does the head of the larv of certain beetles and neuropters4 ,the eyes are compound1 the individual facets constituting a sort of heap4 ,the mouth-parts are readily compared with those of the larva of ,perla1 the rather large1 stout mandibles being hid at their tips by the upper lip1 which moves freely up and down when the creature opens its mouth4 ,in length the mandible is three times its breadth1 and furnished with three sharp teeth on the outer edge1 and with a broad cutting margin within1 and still further inwards with a number of straggling small spines4 ,the lower lip is broad and stout1 with a distinct medium suture1 which indicates a former separation in embryonic life into a pair of appendages4 ,its palpi are three-jointed1 the joints being broad1 and directed backwards in life1 and not forwards1 as in the higher insecta4 ,illustration3 ,,lepismas ,,at ,,work4 ,how ,books are ,destroyed4 ,perhaps not more than a half-dozen species of ,lepisma are known to exist in this country4 ,our commonest form is very abundant in the ,middle ,states under stones and leaves in forests1 and northward in damp houses1 where it has much of the habits of the cockroach1 eating clothes1 tapestry1 silken trimmings of furniture1 and doing great mischief to libraries by devouring the paste and mutilating the leaves and covers of books4 ,our heat-loving form1 which is apparently allied to the ,lepisma thermophila of ,europe1 and which may be an imported species1 is quite as destructive as its nearest of kin ,lepisma saccharina4 ,it does not confine its ravages to closets and pantries1 and feed upon sugar and cake and pastry1 but has latterly taken to bookcases1 where it leads an easy1 comfortable life1 without fear of molestation4 ,so delicately constructed are the ,lepismas1 and so seemingly feeble the breath of life which animates their frail houses of clay1 that nature has endowed them with qualities of mind and body which eminently fit them for the part they have to play in the world4 ,she has made them lovers of darkness rather than light1 endowed them with keenness of vision and hearing truly wonderful1 and given them a celerity of movement which enables them to outstrip in speed the fleetest of their insect-enemies1 and even to baffle the well-directed efforts of man for their destruction4 ,the silver-coated armor with which they are invested is so glossy and smooth that they can slip into a crevice in the wall or floor with the utmost ease and facility4 ,from their actions it would seem that they were always on the alert1 for when peril is imminent they do not run aimlessly about for a place of security1 but know just where to find it with the least possible expenditure of time and physical strength4 ,every nook and cranny of their appropriated domain is as well known to these very humble of ,god's creatures as some forest-tract of country to one skilled in wood-craft4 ,never have ,i studied the behavior of ,lepisma that ,i have not been deeply impressed with the intelligence of its actions4 ,there have always been displayed a purpose and an aim1 which showed as plainly as could be that no blind instinct was the cause of a conduct so rational and human-like4 ,,you-,,ee-,,up4 ,hardly a person living in a sandy country district can be found who has not seen or heard of the queer little insect called ,you-ee-up1 a name which the books do not give1 and of which writers on entomological subjects seem to be ignorant4 ,the learned call him ,myrmeleon1 or ,ant-lion1 and very appropriately too1 because1 like the great king of beasts1 he never attacks his prey in the open field1 but by stratagem while lying in wait in some hidden retreat or secret covert4 ,should you chance1 on a warm summer day1 where sunny slopes abound on the outskirts of a woods1 or by the side of a frequented path or road1 look carefully about and soon will you descry a small funnel-like opening1 scarce two inches in depth and in width1 upon a bare patch of sand in the midst of an ocean of verdure4 ,this little cavity is the intentional work of the larva of the ,ant-lion4 ,a very close scrutiny will show1 by the presence of a pair of fierce jaws1 the ,ant-lion at home4 ,would you know the ingenious builder8 ,lift him out tenderly from his burrow of sand1 and when you have placed him upon the palm of your wide open hand1 note with the most careful exactness the peculiar make-up of his structure1 so that in the future you may have little difficulty in recognizing him should you again meet4 ,his short1 flat head1 armed with powerful mandibles1 heavy-set chest1 and large1 soft1 fleshy abdomen1 amply protected on the sides with stiff1 bristly hairs1 added to his compact1 robust form1 the forward projection of his front and middle legs1 and the backward prolongation of the stronger and less movable hind ones1 which eminently adapts them to a backward manner of walking1 are characters which so deeply impress1 that we cannot fail to call up1 when occasion demands1 the possessor of so wonderful a mechanism4 ,illustration3 ,,you-,,ee-,,up ,,in ,,his ,,den4 ,as ,he ,appears in ,youth and ,old ,age4 ,now that you have become familiar with the odd creature in form and in mien1 set him once more upon his proud realm of sand1 and seat yourself on the bank close by to watch and enjoy his curious behavior4 ,in a minute or two his fears will have subsided1 and he in control again of his accustomed indifference4 ,see1 he moves4 ,round and round he turns in the loose grey sand1 burying himself deeper and deeper1 and throwing the grains out from the hole he has made by his twistings1 using his short1 flat head for a shovel4 ,the sand1 as it is thrown over the side of the burrow1 forms quite a margin1 and when all is completed the ,ant-lion sinks himself deep into the bottom of the trap he has digged1 leaving only the tips of his mandibles in sight1 which are extended and ready to seize any insect that is so luckless as to fall into their reach4 ,the unfortunate ant that ventures too close to the margin sets the sand off rolling1 and it immediately begins to struggle against falling down1 but the ,ant-lion throws a few shovelfuls of sand against it1 and it soon comes tumbling down to the bottom of the funnel1 when it is instantly seized between the sharp mandibles in waiting1 which1 being perforated by slender tubes1 enable their blood-thirsty owner to suck out its juices4 ,country children1 and adults as well1 manifest a deep interest in these strange beings4 ,they call them1 as has been intimated before1 ,you-ee-ups4 ,how the name originated1 and when1 ,i do not pretend to know1 nor have ,i been able upon inquiry to find out from the oldest inhabitants of the regions they affect4 ,old men and old women in the seventies and eighties knew these insects by this name when they were children1 and ,i have been informed that they were always so spoken of by their fathers and mothers4 ,even the insects themselves are believed to know the odd name by which they are designated4 ,so fixed is the belief in the minds of the many that1 to contradict it1 is sure to subject the person so rash and presumptuous to the grossest abuse from the friends of the strange little creature4 ,they have seen him in his sandy retreat1 and have called him by name1 and he has never been known to decline a response4 8,you-ee-up1 you-ee-up10 cries one1 with his mouth just over the opening1 and up comes the strange 8crittur0 as obedient as a lackey4 8,you-ee-down1 you-ee-down10 says the same childish voice1 and down he goes to his den to await1 as is thought1 the giving of further orders4 ,that the ,ant-lion does seem to respond when called1 cannot be denied1 for ,i have tried the experiment myself1 and others have tried it in my presence1 and always with the same successful results4 ,but people go through the world not only with their eyes closed and their ears sealed1 but also with their minds forever locked against thinking1 lest1 by thinking1 they might do themselves serious injury4 ,had but a little of thinking been done1 or some common sense exercised1 the solution of the insect's strange actions could have been reached without any great difficulty4 ,let me briefly explain4 ,one cannot talk1 as is well known1 without some motion being imparted to the outlying air4 ,this moving air impinging upon the loosely arranged sand piled up around the margin of the tiny pitfall1 dislodges some particles1 and these1 falling into the jaws of the hidden ,ant-lion1 bring him to the surface1 for he ascribes the commotion to some ill-fated ant1 or other such insect1 that has1 in its anxious searching for food1 tumbled unconsciously into his artfully-laid trap4 ,in a moment the mistake is discovered1 and1 with all possible dispatch1 he backs himself down into his den to await further developments4 ,his appearance on the occasion is greeted by 8you-ee-down1 you-ee-down10 and as he goes down apparently in obedience to the order1 but really because it is a matter of business so to do1 it is claimed by the unlearned and unwise that his movements are responsive to the command of the person by whom he is addressed4 ,two years of larval life1 and the subject of our sketch is lost to the sight of the rural folks4 ,a new life1 where feeding is no longer necessary1 awaits him1 but one in which the most radical changes must occur if he is to fulfil the existence which nature designed in her grand scheme of creation4 ,from a silk-gland1 which1 unlike those of the butterflies and moths1 is situated at the end of the body1 he spins a cocoon1 but there being so little of silk to spare1 he needs must supply the deficiency by the utilization of a quantity of sand1 which he glues into the walls of his house4 ,here he dwells a comparatively inactive pupa for three brief weeks1 retaining his large1 powerful mandibles to the last1 which he uses in cutting his way out of the cocoon1 when he is ready to emerge as a winged neuropter4 ,in the adult form he resembles the dragon-flies in flight1 flapping wildly and irregularly about1 as if his muscles were too weak to wield his great stretch of wings4 ,but in repose his alar appendages are folded above each other1 forming an acute-angled roof above the long1 slender abdomen4 ,the antenn or feelers are short1 stout and club-shaped1 and the wings long1 narrow and densely veined4 ,myrmeleon obsoletus1 a name given to this insect by ,thomas ,say1 a naturalist of repute1 who lived in ,philadelphia in the early half of the present century1 is by no means a rare species1 if search is made in the proper places4 ,in the cut the larva is found to the right of the burrow1 while deep in the bottom1 with the jaws only in view1 is another1 prepared to receive the small ant just above should it lose its foothold and tumble into the trap4 ,on the wing1 a little in the background of the picture1 may be seen the adult insect1 represented in hawking for prey over a meadowy expanse of country4 ,,tower-,,building ,,cicada4 ,closely allied to the bugs is a group of remarkable insects to which naturalists now apply the name of ,cicada1 but which are generally1 though improperly1 designated ,locust by the common people4 ,they are readily distinguished by their broad heads1 large prominent eyes1 with three eyelets triangularly placed between them1 and delicately transparent1 veined wing-covers and wings4 ,the abdomen is short and pointed1 and the legs are short1 the anterior femora being much thickened and toothed beneath4 ,the hinder extremity of the body of the female is conical1 and the under-side has a longitudinal channel for the reception of the ovipositor1 or piercer1 which is furthermore protected by four short-grooved pieces which are immovably fixed to the sides of the channel4 ,the piercer itself consists of two outer parts grooved on the inside and slightly enlarged and angular at the tips1 which are externally beset with small saw-like teeth1 and a central spear-pointed borer which plays between the other two1 thus combining the advantages of an awl and a double-edged saw1 or rather of two key-hole saws cutting opposite to each other4 ,a hard1 horny substance1 called chitine1 the same as exists in the stings of bees and wasps1 is the material of its composition4 ,it would be impossible to conceive of anything more exactly fitted for its required uses than is this beautiful complicated instrument4 ,but the most peculiar characteristic of this family1 however1 consists in the structure of the mechanism by which the males make the trilling sound for which they have been so long famous4 ,in the male of the ,seventeen-year ,cicada the musical instrument consists of two stretched membranes1 one on each side of the body1 which are plainly to be seen immediately behind the wings4 ,these membranes are gathered into numerous fine plaits1 and are played upon by muscles or cords fastened to their under surfaces4 ,when these muscles contract and relax1 which they do with great rapidity1 the drum-heads1 which the membranes resemble1 are alternately tightened and loosened1 the effect of this alternate tension and relaxation being the production of a rattling sound very much like that caused by a succession of quick pressures upon a slightly complex and elastic piece of tin-plate4 ,certain cavities within the body of the insect1 which may be seen on raising two large valves beneath the abdomen1 and which are separated from each other by thin transparent partitions of the brilliancy of mica or highly polished glass1 tend to increase the intensity of the sound4 ,in the winged state ,cicada septendecim1 as the subject of our sketch was named by the immortal ,linnus1 is of a black color1 with transparent wings and wing-covers1 the thick anterior edge and veins of which being orange-red4 ,near the tips of the latter there is a dusky zig-zag line which resembles in shape the letter ,w4 ,the eyes1 when living1 are also red1 while the legs are a dull orange1 which color is conspicuous along the edges of the rings of the body4 ,the wings expand from two and a half to three and a quarter inches4 ,illustration3 ,,seventeen-,,year ,,cicada4 ,adult1 ,chrysalis-,case1 ,pupa1 ,entrances to ,burrows and ,egg-,nests4 ,about the middle of ,june the perfect insects make their appearance1 and as they generally come in large numbers they do a great deal of damage4 ,in some localities they congregate to such an extent upon the trees as to bend and even to break down the limbs by their weight4 ,the din of their discordant drums resounds in the woods and orchards from morning to evening4 ,as their life is of rather short duration1 not lasting for a longer period than a month1 they soon begin to pair1 and it is not long afterwards that the females may be seen preparing nests for the reception of their eggs4 ,branches of moderate size are selected for this purpose4 ,their manner of perforation is curious and interesting4 ,clasping the branch on both sides with their legs1 and bending the ovipositor at an angle of forty-five degrees1 they repeatedly thrust it into the bark and wood in the direction of the fibres1 at the same time setting the lateral saws at work1 thereby detaching little splinters of wood at one end1 which are intended to serve as a kind of fibrous cover for the nest4 ,the hole is bored obliquely to the pith1 and by a repetition of the same operation is gradually enlarged until is formed a longitudinal fissure of sufficient extent to receive from ten to twenty eggs4 ,the side-pieces of the piercer act as a groove to convey the eggs to the nest1 where they are deposited in pairs1 but separated from each other by a narrow strip of wood4 ,when two eggs have been thus placed1 the piercer is withdrawn for a moment1 and then inserted till two more eggs are dropped in a line with the first1 and thus the operation is repeated until the fissure has been filled1 when the insect removes to a little distance and commences to make another nest to contain two more rows of eggs4 ,it takes about fifteen minutes to prepare a groove and fill it with eggs4 ,as many as twenty grooves are sometimes made in a branch by a single insect1 and when the limb has been sufficiently stocked she goes from it to another1 or from tree to tree1 until she has got rid of her complement of from five hundred to seven hundred eggs4 ,so weak does she at length become1 in her continued endeavor to provide for the succession of her race1 as to fall1 in an attempt to fly1 an almost lifeless lump to the earth1 where her spirit soon goes out never more to enliven its frail house of clay4 ,although ,cicadas abound most upon the oaks1 yet there seem to be no trees or shrubs that are exempt from their attacks1 unless it be the various species of pines and firs4 ,the punctured limbs languish and die soon after the eggs are laid1 and as often happens are broken off by the winds2 but when this is the case the eggs never hatch1 for the moisture of the living branch seems necessary for their proper development4 ,the eggs are one-twelfth of an inch in length1 and one-sixteenth of an inch through the middle1 but taper to an obtuse point at each end4 ,they are of a pearl-white color4 ,the shell is so thin and delicate that the form of the inclosed insect can be seen before the egg is hatched4 ,one writer claims that fifty-two days1 and others that fourteen days1 constitute the period required for the hatching of the egg4 ,when it bursts the shell the young insect is one-sixteenth of an inch long1 and is of a yellowish-white color1 excepting the eyes and the claws of the fore-legs1 which are reddish4 ,it is clothed with small hairs4 ,in form it is grub-like1 larger proportionally than the parent1 and provided with six legs1 the first pair being very large1 shaped like lobster-claws1 and armed beneath with strong spines4 ,little prominences take the place of wings1 and under the breast is a long beak for suction4 ,its movements1 after leaving the egg1 are very lively1 and nearly as quick as some of the ants4 ,but after a few moments their instincts prompt them to reach the ground4 ,they do not attain this end by descending the body of the tree1 nor by casting themselves off precipitately1 but1 running to the side of the limb1 deliberately loosen their hold and drop to the ground1 making the perilous descent with the utmost safety4 ,this seems almost incredible1 but it has been repeatedly observed by scores of honest witnesses4 ,illustration3 ,,new-,,born ,,cicada4 ,line ,below ,shows ,natural ,size4 ,on reaching the ground the young insects immediately burrow their way into the soil1 using their broad and strong fore-feet pretty much after the fashion of the mole4 ,they apparently follow1 in their descent1 the roots of plants1 fastening their beaks into the most tender and succulent1 and thus imbibing their juices1 which constitute their sole aliment4 ,they do not descend very deeply into the ground1 probably not more than ten or twelve inches1 although accounts have been published of their discovery at a depth of ten or twelve feet1 but their occurrence at such great distances from the top of the ground is doubtless the result of accident4 ,the only alteration to which the insects are subject during the seventeen years of their subterranean confinement1 is an increase in size1 and the more complete development of the four small scale-like prominences of the back1 which contain their future wings4 ,when the time of its transformation draws near1 the larva1 in which stage the insect passes the greater part of its existence1 works its way up towards the surface1 oftentimes in a very circuitous manner1 for local changes make it necessary for it to bore through hard woods and between stones well beaten down4 ,the burrow which it thus produces is cylindrical1 about five-eighths of an inch in diameter1 and firmly cemented and varnished so as to be water-proof4 ,the upper portion1 to the extent of five or six inches1 is empty1 and serves as a habitation till the period of its exit arrives1 while the lower is filled with earthy matter removed by the insect in its progress4 ,in this cell it remains during several days1 ascending to the top for the benefit of the sunshine and air when the weather is auspicious1 even venturing to peep forth occasionally1 but descending on the occurrence of cold or wet weather4 ,but when the favorable moment to leave their subterranean retreats arrives1 the ,cicada-grubs1 or more properly pup1 for such they are now to be considered1 although they still retain something of the grub-like form1 issue from the ground in great numbers as evening draws on1 crawl up the trunks of trees1 the stems of herbaceous plants1 or on to whatever is convenient1 which they grasp securely with their claws4 ,after resting awhile1 their skins1 which have become dry and of an amber color1 are by repeated exertions rent along the back1 and through the slit formed the included ,cicada pushes its head and body1 and withdraws its wings and legs from their separate cases1 and1 crawling to a short distance1 leaves its empty pupa-case fastened to the tree4 ,at first the wing-covers and wings are small and opaque1 but in a few hours they acquire their natural size and shape4 ,it is not1 however1 for three or four days that the muscles harden sufficiently for them to assume their characteristic flight4 ,the males make their appearance some days in advance of the females1 and also disappear sooner4 ,during several successive nights the pup continue to issue from the ground1 and in some places1 as was the case in ,may of #ahfh1 when these insects appeared in great numbers in the vicinity of ,philadelphia1 the whole surface of the soil was made by their operations to assume a honey-combed appearance4 ,illustration3 ,,dome-,,like ,,house ,,of ,,cicada4 ,longitudinal ,section ,showing ,pupa in ,two ,positions4 ,in localities where the soil is low and swampy1 a remarkable chamber is built up by the larva1 where the pupa may be found awaiting the time of its change to the winged state4 ,these chambers were first noticed by ,s4 ,s4 ,rathvon1 at ,lancaster1 ,pa41 and are from four to six inches above the ground1 and have a diameter of one inch and a quarter4 ,when ready to emerge the insect backs down to an opening which is left in the side of the structure on a level with the surface of the ground1 issues forth and undergoes its transformation in the usual manner4 ,this peculiar habit of nest-building1 which is so unlike what is customary with the ,cicadid1 or with ,hemiptera in general1 points to a high degree of intelligence among these insects1 showing a remarkable ability to adapt themselves to environing circumstances4 ,undue moisture would be prejudicial to the pupa1 as the larva seemed to know1 through the guidance of the same dumb and unerring instinct which teaches it to cement its underground dwelling1 but would that same instinct teach it to construct so wonderful a dome-like house as the one described for the preservation of its after-life1 and one so eminently fitted by its position1 shape1 size and entrance to secure the necessary shelter1 warmth and air for its protection and development8 ,i apprehend not4 ,nothing short of a reason1 similar to that in man1 but differing in degree1 would enable it to grasp the situation in which it found itself to be placed when nearing its final change1 and plan with the view of carrying out the ultimate aim of its existence4 ,fortunately1 these insects are appointed to return at periods so distant that vegetation has a chance to recover from the injuries which they inflict4 ,were they to appear at shorter intervals1 our forest- and fruit-trees would be entirely destroyed by them4 ,they are1 moreover1 subject to many accidents1 and have many enemies1 which contribute to diminish their numbers4 ,their eggs are eaten by birds1 and the young1 when they leave the egg1 are preyed upon by ants1 who mount the trees for that purpose1 or take them upon the ground as they are about to enter upon their protracted larval career4 ,blackbirds eat them in the spring when turned up by the plough1 and hogs1 when allowed to run at large in the woods1 root them up and devour large numbers1 especially just before the arrival of the period of their final transformation1 when they are lodged only a few inches below the surface of the soil4 ,many perish in the egg by the closing up of the bark and wood that constitute the walls of the perforations1 thus burying the eggs before they have hatched1 and others1 no doubt1 are killed by their perilous descent from the trees4 ,as its name implies1 this insect generally requires seventeen years to complete its transformations1 a fact that was first pointed out many years ago by the botanist ,kalm4 ,the late ,prof4 ,riley1 who had given this species a great deal of study1 was the first to work out the problem of its periodical returns4 ,he found that there are also thirteen-year broods1 and that both sometimes occur in the same locality1 but that in general terms the thirteen-year brood might be called the southern form1 and the seventeen-year the northern form4 ,at the limits of their respective ranges these broods overlap each other4 ,the shorter-lived form he named provisionally ,cicada tredecim4 ,it was the existence of this brood that led entomologists to doubt the propriety of ,linn's name1 because1 in calculating each appearance as occurring in any locality at the end of every seventeen years1 they could not make the dates of its periodical returns correct4 ,but it was ,prof4 ,riley that cleared up the matter4 ,it happened in the summer of #ahfh that one of the largest seventeen-year broods occurred simultaneously with one of the largest thirteen-year broods4 ,such an event1 so far as these two particular broods are concerned1 has not taken place since #afdg1 nor will it take place again till the year #bjhi4 ,there are absolutely no specific differences between the two broods other than in the time of maturing4 ,there is1 however1 a dimorphous form that appears with both these broods4 ,it is smaller1 of a much darker color1 has an entirely different voice1 appears a fortnight sooner1 and is never known to pair with the ordinary form4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,fisher1 in #ahea1 described it as ,cicada cassinii1 but the specific differences are not sufficiently well defined to entitle it to rank as a species4 ,,honey-,,dew4 ,that aphides secrete1 or rather excrete1 a saccharine fluid1 called honey-dew1 which constitutes an important part of the food of ants1 is a fact well known to naturalists4 ,it must not be supposed1 however1 that this was its primitive use4 ,but that it is in some way connected with the preservation of the tender creatures by which it is elaborated1 there can exist not the slightest doubt4 ,concerning its origin and application1 and the benefit which it secures to its authors1 various opinions have been hazarded1 but they have all been too unsatisfactory to merit more than a passing notice4 ,that it was of some advantage to young aphides was surmised by many1 but the proofs necessary to sustain such a surmise were unfortunately wanting4 ,it was left to the latter half of the nineteenth century to throw correct light upon the subject4 ,whilst engaged some few years ago in the study of the species that affects the blossoms of one of our gourds--the ,cucurbita ovifera of botanists--certain phenomena were observed1 which promised an easy and speedy solution of the problem4 ,gathered in compact masses1 like companies of soldiery preparing for a foray1 hundreds of aphides were seen1 busily feeding1 all over the flowers4 ,there were old and young1 not an indiscriminate mingling of ages and sizes1 but an orderly arrangement of families1 each family preceded by its own appropriate head4 ,first came the very young of each family1 only to be followed by those that were older1 leaving the oldest of all to lead up the rear4 ,illustration3 ,,blossom ,,of ,,cucurbita4 ,mother-,aphis and ,her ,army of ,children on ,tube4 ,here1 it was apparent1 was a most wonderful manifestation of intelligent design4 ,the newly-born1 needing the mother's earliest attention1 were in closest proximity1 while the almost mature were the farthest removed from her essential presence4 ,all this seemed to indicate the dearest relationship subsisting between mother and offspring1 but judging from outward appearances1 little1 if any1 love existed4 ,it is true that maternal instinct1 which is seldom so far gone as to shut its ears to the beseechings of suffering offspring for food1 was far from being absent4 ,instances of its presence were momentarily noted4 ,but a stimulus seemed1 in some cases1 quite necessary to its manifestation4 ,there were times when the honey-glands acted without any provocation4 ,it was only1 however1 when the very tender were a-hungry1 that pressure was brought to bear upon the mothers4 ,a few gentle reminders served to arouse them from the apathetic indifference which possessed them4 ,the antenn of the young were the means employed for this purpose4 ,two or three caresses almost immediately brought a discharge of honey4 ,again and again was the process observed1 and always with the same invariable result4 ,never for a longer period than two days were the very young dependent upon this manner of feeding1 for their digestive organs were too weak and delicate to assimilate earlier1 without injury1 the powerful juices of the food-plant4 ,but what of the older offspring8 ,that they were far from being disregarded by parental provision1 subsequent developments only too plainly showed4 ,the excretion1 though less urgent in their case than in that of the very young1 was quite as indispensable4 ,were it not so1 what reason can be assigned for their very strict adherence to the course over which the maternal head had already passed in feeding8 ,from what has been said1 there can be no doubt that the newly-born aphis derives material advantage from the excretion4 ,but as the supply is clearly above the requirements1 why the excess8 ,it is evident nature does not need it as a kind of compensation for losses sustained through aphides4 ,then what purpose does it serve8 ,it becomes in part the pabulum of the stronger of the young1 and this it accomplishes by mixing with the natural juices of the plant1 thereby rendering them fit for use4 ,to serve as food for the young is then the primary object of aphis-excretion4 ,that a secondary purpose1 namely1 the preservation of the species1 is also subserved1 there can be no question4 ,how this is effected1 it shall now be my endeavor to show4 ,ants1 it is well known1 are fond of sugar1 gums and saccharine solutions1 as well as the rich juices and tender tissues of animals4 ,but their appetite for sweets is stronger than for all other diets4 ,to them aphis would prove quite as toothsome a morsel as it is to ,coccinella1 and would be as eagerly hunted for by them were it not for this matter of sweets4 ,way back in the history of time1 things were perhaps different from what they are now4 ,aphis was then a racy tidbit1 and shared1 no doubt1 the murderous assaults of ,formica1 as it did of other carnivores4 ,for ages this may have been going on1 but how long conjecture only can tell4 ,but there came a time when affairs were changed4 ,a new order of things was initiated4 ,earth was growing better and impressing new features upon its life4 ,an ,ant1 more wise than any of its fellows1 or any that had ever lived before1 doubtless stepped upon the scene1 and a new era for ,aphis inaugurated4 ,finding by accident1 or otherwise1 the delightful qualities of aphis-excretion1 it would not be slow to communicate the information to its companions4 ,and as news travels rapidly1 and ants are by no means reticent creatures1 but a short time would be necessary to carry it everywhere1 till all the families1 near and remote1 of the great world of the ,formicid would be made acquainted with the important discovery4 ,now1 as ants are endowed with a high degree of intelligence1 considering the position they occupy in the grand scale of created existences1 they would soon perceive that their highest good would be attained by taking under their protection the little creatures which are the authors of this excretion4 ,from this time the ants would begin to abandon their sanguinary propensities and manifest some regard for the aphides4 ,the latter1 in return1 perceiving the former's friendly disposition1 would cease to fear them1 and learn to cater to their wants4 ,thus would be developed1 in time1 those amicable relations which subsist between the two great1 yet widely differentiated1 families4 ,,milch-,,cows ,,of ,,the ,,ants4 ,while much has been written upon the social relations subsisting between ants and aphides1 yet the subject never grows uninteresting or threadbare4 ,new facts are brought to light as observations widen and extend1 some tending to confirm1 and others to subvert old notions4 ,that aphides excrete a sweet1 viscid1 honey-like fluid1 which affords food for many species of ants1 has been long known to naturalists4 ,any one can convince himself of this truth if he will but put himself to the trouble of examining the leaves or branchlets of any plant at the proper season of the year4 ,scattered upon the foliage and tender twigs thereof will be found millions of aphides1 and close beside them countless ants1 that ever and anon will be seen to caress1 by means of their antenn1 the little creatures for the sweets within their bodies4 ,it has even been asserted that some species of ants keep aphides as human beings do cows1 but this by the many has been doubted1 or deemed imaginary4 ,when a young man the writer was disposed to drift with the popular opinion in this particular1 but a few facts that fell under his notice whilst searching for carabi and other beetles that live under stones and decayed logs1 changed the bias of his mind and established in him the idea that with one species of ant this was at least the case4 ,it was on an occasion while exploring a neighboring thicket for the objects of his search1 that he discovered1 underneath a large flat stone which he had raised1 a nest of a small red ant1 which he took to be the ,lasius flavus of the books4 ,the ground was covered all over with pits1 and divers communicating roads1 and round about were hundreds of ants1 larv in various stages of development1 pup and eggs1 and innumerous flocks of a white aphis1 all of which were being tenderly cared for by a large army of thoughtful nurses4 ,illustration3 ,,nest ,,of ,,lasius4 ,neuters ,about ,their ,work4 ,no sooner did the intrusion occur than the colony was a scene of busy activity4 ,interested in what was before him1 the writer seated himself upon a small mound overlooking the nest1 where could be clearly observed the minutest details of ant-life4 ,the neuters were everywhere to be noticed1 but not a single male or female ant4 ,all the work devolved upon the neuters4 ,these were divided into three sets1 each set having a definite part to perform in the unexpected drama before it4 ,some neuters had the exclusive charge of the mature larv1 others of the pup and very young grubs1 and the rest of their aphidian herds4 ,but it is to those that had the care of the aphides that we shall particularly invite attention4 ,at the time of the disturbance1 these specialized neuters were busy milking their cows1 which they did by rubbing their long1 pliant feelers against the anal nipples of the latter1 drawing therefrom1 as it seemed1 a drop of the coveted fluid with each antennal stroke4 ,no aphis was known to be visited in this business twice in succession1 but the ants would go from one to another1 and only return to the first when sufficient time had elapsed for the replenishing of its store4 ,so intent were they upon their task1 that several minutes must have passed before they took in the danger to which they were exposed4 ,you should then have seen their anxiety1 and the presence of mind they exhibited4 ,conscious as of attack1 and knowing the peril that beset them1 they did not flee to their underground galleries1 or to the adjoining grasses1 for shelter1 and thus leave their flocks to the mercy of the invader1 but they manifested the deepest concern for the little creatures1 so unable to defend themselves1 that had so willingly catered to their temporal wants4 ,not an ant was seen to desert its post1 but all remained on duty till the last of their protegs was carried to safe and comfortable apartments in the ground beneath4 ,what clearer evidence is wanted to show the love these neuters bear the tender objects of their care8 ,it must be plain that man bestows not half the attention upon his flocks than do these ants on theirs4 ,it is true they do not bring them food1 but that they build their homes where food1 the roots of herbs and grasses1 abound1 there is no doubt4 ,it may be1 too1 that they are carried to their pasture-grounds1 when that necessity occurs1 but this cannot with truth be said4 ,when some would stray1 they were returned within the fold1 which shows the watch these ants do exercise4 ,concluding then1 this much may be averred3 food1 wholesome1 sweet1 nutritious food1 the aphides supply to ants1 the neuters and the young1 but specially the young4 ,and that they lead most happy1 prosperous lives1 the ants their masters1 must surely be1 or looks deceive4 ,,living ,,artillery4 ,no more remarkable creature exists1 perhaps1 than the little ,brachinus fumans1 which is so very common in the early spring4 ,damp situations are affected by it1 but it is seldom met with except by insect-hunters1 for it conceals itself generally under stones1 as many as a half-dozen individuals often being found in company in a single locality4 ,banks of tidal rivers afford excellent hunting-grounds in ,england for ,brachinus1 but in ,america low1 dank woods and borders of streams are the places where one must look to discover its presence4 ,when once you have made the acquaintance of so remarkable a stranger you can never afterwards fail to recognize him in your travels4 ,he is peculiar1 but not at all distinguished in looks1 as some of his brethren4 ,picture a yellowish-red beetle1 with a bluish frock-coat1 which his wing-covers resemble1 and possessed of a short1 narrow head1 a heart-shaped prothorax1 as the front of the chest-segments is called1 and a long1 broad abdomen1 three times the size of the rest of his body1 and you have a tolerably fair idea of ,brachinus4 ,but it is not so much his odd shape as a most extraordinary property he possesses1 which is singularly unique in the animal kingdom1 that makes him an object of interest and curiosity4 ,deep down in his most marvellous body a fluid1 highly volatile in its nature1 is elaborated1 which the little creature can retain or expel at his pleasure4 ,it is only1 however1 when alarmed that he utilizes this fluid in small quantities in defense1 but its effect is wonderful1 for in coming into contact with the atmosphere it immediately volatilizes and explodes1 looking very much like a discharge of powder from a miniature artillery4 ,in consequence of this phenomenon the insect which produces it is popularly called the ,bombardier ,beetle4 ,illustration3 ,,brachinus ,,pursued ,,by ,,an ,,enemy4 ,his ,curious and ,unique ,method of ,defence4 ,so small a coleopter1 being scarcely one-fourth of an inch in length1 and so comparatively weak1 is likely to be attacked by the larger ,geodephaga1 or ,earth ,devourers1 and especially by the ,carabi1 which inhabit similar retreats4 ,but for this curious defence the smaller insect could have but the barest chance of living in the struggle for existence4 ,often have ,i seen a ,carabus in hot pursuit of ,brachinus4 ,the chase is always an interesting one1 and never fails1 however frequently it has been observed1 of attracting attention and exciting admiration4 ,but the wide-awake1 ever watchful ,brachinus never loses his head for a second when thus pursued1 but like the clever artilleryman that he is1 awaits the opportune moment1 and then pours a heavy discharge of his fulminating fluid into the very face of the enemy4 ,baffled1 alarmed1 ,carabus desists from the attack1 and backs slowly away from the tiny blue smoke1 while ,brachinus1 in the confusion that ensues1 escapes to some place of security for rest and protection4 ,most skilfully has the artist delineated the scene4 ,carabus serratus1 the pursuing beetle1 is chasing the ,bombardier1 and has nearly effected his capture1 when1 all of a sudden1 a discharge of artillery has stopped the pursuit1 under cover of which the ,bombardier will make off4 ,meanwhile the ,carabus1 exchanging his rapid advance for a retreat quite as rapid1 throws back his antenn1 a sign of his defeat1 and skulks away to recover his wonted self-possession4 ,the volatile fluid1 which produces such curious effects1 is secreted in a small sac just within the end of the abdomen4 ,not only is it capable of repelling the larger beetles by its explosion and cloud of blue vapor1 but it is also powerful enough to discolor the human skin1 as many who have captured ,bombardier ,beetles by the hand know only too well4 ,should the fluid get within the eyelids1 the pain and irritation produced are very distressing4 ,some years ago the writer1 while searching for carabi underneath stones and in creviced rocks1 met for the first time with ,brachinus1 but was ignorant as a child of his obnoxious property4 ,placing a little fellow upon his hand for close examination1 he soon experienced a burning and painful sensation of the ball of the eye1 but did not for a long while attribute the cause to a discharge from the ,beetle4 ,repeated investigations at very short ranges by means of a microscope were attended with similar results1 till eventually an inflammation of the visual organs set in1 accompanied by a blurring of the sight1 which debarred him from reading and study for nearly a fortnight4 ,one learns wisdom by experience1 and the wisdom thus acquired serves for a lifetime4 ,even ,brachinus has learned by experience1 doubtless1 to be economical in the use of his resources4 ,the whole of the contents of his tiny magazine are not ejected at one discharge1 but there is sufficient to produce a series of explosions1 each explosion being perceptibly fainter than its predecessor4 ,by pressing the abdomen of the dead ,beetle between finger and thumb these explosions may even be produced4 ,in hot countries1 where exceedingly large species abound1 the explosions are said to be very loud1 and accompanied with quite a cloud of blue vapor4 ,,bright ,,and ,,shining ,,ones4 ,probably more than ninety thousand different species of beetles exist in the world1 first and foremost among them standing the ,cicindelid1 or ,tiger ,beetles4 ,from their high position in the coleopterous world they may well demand our attention1 but they have other claims upon our consideration4 ,they are beautiful1 courageous little creatures1 and accomplish a vast amount of good to man4 ,the name ,cicindela1 by which they are known to scientific people1 tells us that they are the 8bright and shining ones20 while the cognomen of ,tiger ,beetle reveals to all ,english-speaking nations the story of the incessant warfare which they wage upon their fellows4 ,the ,cicindel love the merry sunshine4 ,on any bright summer day they may be found running and flying about sunny banks1 or revelling in sandy places where the day-god smilingly rejoices4 ,they mostly avoid vegetation1 as it checks their easy rapid movements1 although some kinds affect grassy spots among the trees4 ,they are the most predaceous of the coleoptera1 and behave like the tigers among mammals1 the hawks among birds1 the crocodiles among reptiles and the sharks among fishes4 ,in the tropics some few genera seek their food on the leaves of trees1 but in temperate and sub-tropical regions1 where the species are more abundant1 they are terrestrial in habits4 ,let us now take our instruments of capture and go in quest of some of the dozen or more species that have their home with us4 ,the day is auspicious4 ,here is a likely spot4 ,see there upon the ground are some specimens of our commonest species--the ,cicindela vulgaris of naturalists4 ,go for that one4 ,he sees you as quickly as you see him1 and is off for a few yards1 but suddenly drops to the grass from his flight1 but always with his head towards the enemy4 ,again and again you start him1 but at last1 tiring of the chase1 he takes a longer flight that usual4 ,this is a ruse of his1 and knowing what it means1 you hurry back to where you first saw him in time to see him all unsuspectingly alight1 and you easily take him captive in your toils4 ,now that you have him secure1 examine him closely4 ,watch how savagely he moves his mandibles and tries to pinch4 ,you need not be afraid1 for his bite is inoffensive and not very painful4 ,you measure with the eye his size1 and you rightly decide that he is not much over an inch in length1 and scarcely one-fourth in breadth4 ,his head you will find very large and brainy1 his jaws powerful and long and curved1 two scimitar-like weapons1 which are admirably fitted for cutting and carving the quivering bodies of his prey4 ,his eleven-jointed antenn are long1 slender and graceful4 ,in color his back is dull purple1 but beneath he is resplendent in a bright brassy green4 ,three whitish1 irregular bands adorn his wing-covers4 ,his legs1 long and slender1 are just the things on which to hunt the active insects upon which he feeds4 ,his next of kin1 the ,purple ,tiger ,beetle1 is nearly as large as he1 and often joins him in company4 ,beautifully robed in purple he usually is1 but sometimes in a greenish garb arrayed4 ,from the outer almost to the inner margin of each wing meanders a reddish line1 while lower down a dot1 and still another at the farthest tip of the inner border1 enhance his beauty4 ,cold spring days delight him best1 and he is often seen when snow is yet upon the ground4 ,more beautiful by far than either1 and no less active1 is ,cicindela sex guttata1 or the ,six-spotted ,tiger ,beetle1 whose dress1 a brilliant metallic green1 flecked with six small silver spots1 renders him a pretty sight when you flash the rays of light athwart his burnished armor4 ,hot1 ,june-like days and dusty road-sides suit him best1 and there1 what time the sun looks down in all his burning ardor1 our little friend is met1 his purpose bent on slaughter4 ,other species might be instanced1 for ,north ,america contains at least a hundred1 but enough have been given for our present object4 ,illustration3 ,,common ,,tiger ,,beetle4 ,larv in ,burrows4 ,two ,other ,species in ,background4 ,tiger ,beetles may well be called beneficial insects4 ,although they do not1 like that brilliant murderess1 the dragon-fly1 clear the atmosphere of the gnats and flies that torment mankind1 but still1 with their powerful curved daggers1 which serve them for jaws1 they accomplish a swift and almost incredible havoc among the smaller insects4 ,we should take care of them1 and respect them1 for they are an invaluable auxiliary to the farmer4 ,the ferocity of these insects is remarkable4 ,no sooner have they taken their prey1 than they quickly strip it of wings and legs1 and proceed at once to suck out the contents of its abdomen4 ,often when they are disturbed in this agreeable occupation1 not wishing to leave their victim1 they fly away with it to a place of uninterrupted security1 but they are unable to carry a heavy burden to any great distance4 ,they are true children of the earth4 ,the eggs are laid in the earth1 and in the earth the grubs are hatched1 and in the earth they spend their days1 and in the earth they prepare their shrouds1 and1 wrapped therein1 sleep their pupa-sleep through the long1 dreary winter1 and with the returning warmth of spring crawl out of their earthy chambers to run and sport on earth1 seldom using their new-formed wings to fly away from their beloved mother4 ,the grubs are hideous hunchbacks1 but possessed of brains and stomach4 ,they live in the same localities as their parents1 the anxious mother1 with wise precision1 having carefully deposited her eggs where food would be readily attainable by her children4 ,have you a desire to examine a larva8 ,there is a hole that has been made by one of these creatures4 ,place down into it a small straw or a bit of fine twig4 ,the cranky little hermit1 who is always wide-awake1 resists most fiercely such unprovoked insolence1 and instantly seeks1 by the aid of his broad1 expansive head1 to eject the intruding object4 ,now is your time4 ,when he shows himself1 quickly seize him with your fingers4 ,you will find him a perfect ,daniel ,quilp1 with head enormous1 flat1 metallic in color and armed with long1 curved jaws4 ,his legs are six in number1 and on the back1 half-way between the legs and tail1 are two curious1 odd-looking tubercles1 each terminating in a pair of recurved hooks4 ,the head and first body-division are horny1 the rest of the creature being soft and very sensitive4 ,while the larval ,cicindela has all the desire for slaughter which his parents manifest1 yet his delicate skin1 long body and stubby legs not only prevent him from chasing prey1 but also from attempting a struggle with an insect of any size2 nevertheless this imperfectly armed creature manages to secure his food without exposing himself to any serious risk4 ,with his short1 thick spiny legs he loosens the earth1 and with his flat head1 which he uses as a shovel1 and turning himself into a z-shaped figure1 hoists up the clay and upsets it around the mouth of his intended dwelling4 ,with head and legs1 and with a perseverance that is truly surprising1 he sinks in a very short time a shaft a foot in length and as large in diameter as an ordinary lead-pencil4 ,especial pains are taken to see that the tunnel is sufficiently wide1 so that the little creature can crawl in with ease4 ,if he wishes to remain set fast1 he sticks the back of his body against the sides and rests safely with the aid of his hooks4 ,in this position he can poke his head out of the ground1 thus closing the entrance of his burrow1 while in patient waiting for some unsuspicious wayfarer to pass over4 ,as soon1 however1 as the luckless insect touches the top of his head1 he relinquishes his hold within the tunnel and descends with great precipitation to the bottom1 and thus his victim falls into the hole1 where it is seized by the powerful jaws and its juices absorbed in a quiet1 leisurely manner4 ,the loose earth around the opening of the tunnel gives way on the approach of an insect1 and thus the success of the cunning ,cicindela is doubly insured4 ,sometimes in the construction of a burrow1 after a certain depth has been reached1 the young ,cicindela meets with a difficulty which he had not expected4 ,a flat stone is encountered1 and thus further progress in a vertical direction is prevented4 ,if the obstacle1 on account of its size1 cannot be gone round1 and the shaft is not deep enough for his purpose1 it is not unusual for him to desert it and attempt the tunnelling of a home in some more desirable spot4 ,he does not undertake a very long journey1 for he knows too well the risk which he runs by so doing1 as he is in danger of being assaulted by secret foes in the rear1 an attack which the peculiar conformation of his hinder body ill fits him to resist4 ,on land he is timid and cowardly1 and well might he be1 but within the protecting walls of his underground castle1 with a pair of powerful swords with which to defend himself1 he is the impersonation of fearlessness and courage4 ,when fully grown the larva closes up the mouth of its abode1 and in quiet and solitude undergoes its metamorphosis1 lying dormant during the winter months4 ,but when the breath of warm spring days has melted the icy coldness of the earth1 and filled the air with vivifying influences1 then comes it forth in all the pomp and splendor of its nature--a winged existence4 ,it has been seen what a beautiful adaptation of means to an end is shown by the young ,cicindela4 ,even the adult1 or mature form1 with its long1 slender legs1 so admirably formed for silence and fleetness of movement1 which are alike necessary to pursuit of prey and escape from enemies1 displays the wisdom of ,him who breathed into all animated nature1 no matter how small or how humble1 the essence of ,his being1 and endowed one and all with qualities of mind and body which should respond to environing conditions and thus prepare them to survive in the struggle for existence4 ,,queen ,,of ,,american ,,silk-,,spinners4 ,no insect affords a better proof of high art in nature1 and of the transcendent beauty of the ,creator's thoughts1 than the ,luna moth1 which is as preminent above her fellows as her namesake1 the fair empress of the sky1 above the lesser lights that dominate the night4 ,her elegant robes of green1 set off with trimmings of purple1 and jewelled with diamonds1 added to her queenly grace and personal charms1 will always distinguish her from the profanum vulgus of the articulata4 ,and now for a short biographical sketch of this remarkable beauty from the cradle to the grave1 and beyond1 after she has assumed her resurrection-attire1 to the day when1 her appointed work on earth being ended1 she quietly lays her body down to mingle with its native clay4 ,in her childhood1 or caterpillar state1 her head is elliptical in shape1 of a light pearly color1 the rest of the body being a clear bluish-green4 ,a faint yellow band stretches along each side1 just below the line of her breathing-organs1 from the first to the tenth segment1 while the back1 between the several body-rings1 is crossed by narrow transverse bars1 similar in coloration4 ,each segment1 after the fashion of her kith and kin1 is adorned with small pearly warts1 tinged with purple1 some five or six in number1 each tipped with a few simple hairs4 ,three brown spots1 bordered above with yellow1 ornament the end of the tail4 ,an interesting variety1 whose general color is a dull reddish-brown1 is sometimes met with1 but the lateral and transverse stripes of yellow have disappeared1 and the pearl-colored warts with edges of purple have assumed a richer hue and blaze like a coronet of rubies4 ,when at rest1 with the rings all bunched and body shortened1 the infantile ,luna is as thick as a man's thumb1 measuring but two inches in linear direction2 but when she sets out upon her travels1 feeling the dignity of her station in life1 she stretches to her full length of three inches4 ,when have been completed her allotted days of feeding upon the leaves of the hickory1 oak1 walnut or sweet gum1 and she is seriously contemplating the preparing of a shroud and casket in which to await her resurrection-morn1 she casts about for leaves1 which1 when they are found1 she securely draws together1 and within the hollow space there is soon spun a very close and strong oval cocoon of silk1 one and three-fourths inches in length1 of chestnut-brown color1 thin1 and covered with warts and excrescences1 but seldom showing the imprints of leaves4 ,cocoons of ,luna so nearly resemble those of polyphemus1 that many an experienced collector is greatly chagrined1 after getting together a large supply of what he deems ,luna cocoons1 to find dusky1 one-eyed polyphemi to issue from the silken tombs rather than a goodly throng1 in delicate bridal attire1 of proud empresses of the night4 ,polyphemus cocoons are1 however1 somewhat smaller than ,lunas1 white or dirty-white in color1 rounded at each end1 and sometimes angular1 because of the leaves being unevenly moulded into their surfaces1 and generally covered with a whitish meal-like powder4 ,illustration3 ,,american ,,luna ,,moth4 ,larva on ,branch ,below1 and ,cocoon on ,twig ,just ,above4 ,in ,june the ,lunas awake from their death-like slumber1 burst asunder their silken cerements1 having at first made loose the compact threads by a fluid-ejection1 and come out into the world in all the freshness and glory of a new and untried existence4 ,their wings1 which expand from four and three-fourths to five and one-half inches1 are of a delicate light-green color1 the hinder ones being prolonged into a tail of an inch and a half or more in length4 ,along the anterior margin of the fore-wings is a broad purple-brown stripe1 extending also across the back1 and sending downwards a little branch to a glittering eye-like spot near the middle of the wing4 ,these eyes1 of which there is one on each wing1 are transparent in the centre1 and encircled by white1 yellow1 blue and black rings4 ,the hinder borders are more or less edged with purple-brown4 ,all the nervures are very distinct1 and pale-brown in color4 ,near the body the wings are thickly invested with long white hairs4 ,the under sides1 excepting that an indistinct line runs along the margin of both wings1 are like to the upper4 ,as for the body1 the thorax is white1 occasionally yellowish or greenish1 and coursed by the purple-brown stripe that traverses the entire length of the upper edge of the wings2 and the abdomen1 similarly colored1 and clothed with white1 wool-like hairs4 ,the head is small and white1 and furnished with broad1 flat and strongly pectinated antenn1 which are very much wider in the male4 ,the legs are purple-brown1 and poorly adapted for walking1 but this defect is largely compensated for in the wide stretch of wings1 that fit their possessor for powerful and long-sustained flight4 ,such is ,luna in her various transformations4 ,notwithstanding her great size and almost matchless loveliness1 her habits are not proportionally noteworthy4 ,the gift of superior beauty1 in the insect as in the mammalian world1 does not often carry with it a high order of intelligence4 ,it is true the young ,luna knows pretty well the secret of dissembling4 ,how quickly she perceives the approach of an enemy6 ,and she knows how to deal with him1 but her little trick of simulating death1 or an immobile twig1 does not always succeed with the wily spider1 or artful ichneumon4 ,that she is a tolerably good connoisseur of the character of foods1 there can be no question4 ,you cannot deceive her4 ,take from her the foods her ancestors have used for centuries untold1 and substitute others she knows nothing about1 and she is at once cognizant of the change4 ,however hungry she may be1 and in her early growing years she is ever a voracious feeder1 she will starve rather than eat what the unwritten law of her race has strictly interdicted4 ,i have known cases where death has ensued1 or the caterpillar has pupated earlier than usual1 when alien food has been given it to eat4 ,but in the beginning of life1 just after the first skin-moulting has been effected1 ere the little creature has attained its seventh day of age1 no trouble is experienced in changing the food1 almost anything edible in the plant-line being eaten1 though some things with a more decided relish than others4 ,in the matter of cocoon-weaving1 where the necessary leaves for a basis cannot be obtained1 as occurs in captivity1 the inconvenience is overcome1 but not without difficulty4 ,leaves1 you must know1 are in ,luna's way of thinking1 as essential to cocoon-building as wooden or iron beams and girders to man's own constructing4 ,without a framework of some sort1 what a sorry attempt would we make at home-building1 but ,luna does succeed1 after a good deal of wise planning and no little worry1 in producing a house which is well worthy her effort4 ,while the gaudy moth or butterfly1 when contrasted in wisdom and sense with the dingy-colored bee1 may suffer in comparison1 yet she is by no means the dull1 stupid creature she is pictured to be4 ,she lives1 it is a fact1 as has often been said1 for the increase of her race1 but the interest she shows for the young she may never see1 in laying her eggs upon the plant that is to serve them as food and home1 puts her upon a rather high plane of intelligent existence4 ,luna's life1 in the perfect state1 is usually quite brief4 ,it is one of the happiest of honeymoons4 ,love conquers and destroys all other passions of her being1 while her gormandizing offspring are never troubled by the ardent flame which consumes even the thought of sipping the nectar of the flowers that rival in beauty the wings of the mother1 who is the perfect representation and embodiment of elegance and grace4 ,while the early insect lives and eats1 the adult form1 upon whom ,dame ,nature has expended so much wealth of color and such symmetry of shape1 which make her a 8thing of beauty and a joy forever10 lives and dies1 for in her seeming haste and forgetfulness the great mother of us all has made her without the essential means of tasting food1 a delight and an enjoyment which the lords of creation are so wont to esteem the purpose and aim of all human existence4 ,,basket-,,carriers4 ,you who have been to the country1 in the summer1 and who have kept your eyes alive to the surroundings1 have doubtless seen the ,basket-worm feeding upon the leaves of the quince1 apple1 peach1 linden1 and other deciduous trees1 as well as upon such evergreen as the arbor-vit1 ,norway spruce1 and red cedar4 ,in ,germany these worms are popularly designated ,sack-trger1 or ,sack-bearer1 while the mature insect is spoken of as the ,house-builder ,moth4 ,scientifically speaking1 the latter is called ,thyridopteryx ephemerformis1 a name which is nearly twice the length of the caterpillar it represents4 ,during the winter the curious weather-beaten bags of these worms may be observed hanging from the tree-branches1 apparently without a trace of the odd-looking creatures that hung them there the autumn before4 ,if a number of these bags are gathered and cut open at this time1 many of them will be discovered to be empty1 but the greater portion will be found partly full of yellow eggs4 ,those which do not contain eggs are male bags1 and the empty chrysalis of the male will be found protruding from the lower extremity4 ,upon close examination these eggs will be observed to be obovate in form1 soft and opaque1 about one-twentieth of an inch in length1 and surrounded by more or less fawn-colored silky down4 ,if left to themselves1 they hatch sometime in ,may1 or early in ,june4 ,the young which come from these eggs are of a brown color1 very active in their movements1 and begin at once to make for themselves coverings of silk1 to which they fasten bits of the leaves of the tree on which they are feeding1 forming small cones that are closely adherent to the leaf-surfaces4 ,as the larv grow1 they augment the size of their enclosures or bags from the bottom1 until they become so large and heavy that they hang instead of remaining upright1 as they did at first4 ,by the end of ,july the caterpillars become fully grown4 ,they are now exceedingly restless1 and may be seen wandering from branch to branch by means of their true legs which are projected from the mouths of their baskets1 to which they keep firm hold1 or suspended from a branch of a tree by a long silken thread of their own manufacture4 ,when very abundant1 as they were in certain localities during the season just ended1 they become a great nuisance1 as one can hardly walk beneath the trees without being inconvenienced by a dozen or more dangling into his face4 ,removed from the case at this stage of existence and closely examined1 that portion of the body which has been covered by the bag will be seen to be soft1 and of a dull brownish color1 inclining to red at the sides1 while the three anterior segments1 which are exposed when the insect is feeding or travelling1 will be found to be horny and mottled with black and white4 ,the pro-legs on the middle and hinder segments1 which are soft and fleshy1 will show themselves fringed with numerous hooks1 by which the larva is enabled to cling to the silken lining of its bag and drag it along wherever it goes4 ,the external surface of the bag is rough and irregular1 often presenting a beautiful ruffle-like appearance1 which is due to the projecting portions of the stems and leaves which are woven into it4 ,during their growing-period these caterpillars are slow travellers1 seldom leaving the tree on which they were hatched4 ,when about to change into chrysalids1 they fasten their bags securely to the twigs on which they happen to be1 and then undergo their change1 the male chrysalis being very much smaller than the female1 hardly one-third its size4 ,when we examine the cases of the ,basket-worm1 hardly any two will be seen to be alike in their ornamentation4 ,so completely is the outside covered1 when made upon the arbor-vit1 which seems to be a favorite food-plant of the species1 that the silken envelope is concealed from view4 ,the bits of twigs and leaves are probably protective1 and yet one would think that the extremely tough case which covers the caterpillar would be quite sufficient to protect it against all assaults of foes and stress of weather4 ,nevertheless1 this leafy coat of mail1 which sometimes wholly covers the sac1 must certainly add very much to the protective value of the covering4 ,the caterpillar has a soft1 hairless body1 and is thus more exposed than many of its neighbors1 and nature1 it would seem1 has favored it far above all of its fellows4 ,how the worm manages to trim its coat in this manner must seem1 to the uninitiated in such matters1 wholly inexplicable4 ,to enable the reader to understand the manner of operation1 it will be necessary first to explain its mode of feeding4 ,the larva has perfect control of its own movements1 notwithstanding the fact that it carries its house upon its back4 ,it can thus thrust its body out of the sac-mouth until nearly the whole of it is exposed1 and twist and bend itself in every direction4 ,specimens have been met with that had dropped from the trees hanging by a thread and squirming1 bending and snapping their bodies in the most grotesque ways1 while the case spun around like an old-fashioned distaff4 ,now1 when the caterpillar wants to feed it stretches its head and neck out of the case and moves them about until a satisfactory place has been secured1 which it clasps with its true legs1 three pairs of hard1 conical organs armed with sharp claws1 and pulls up its body and commences to spin4 ,the spinning-organs are near the mouth1 and after several movements of the head1 as though smearing the liquid viscid silk upon the leaf1 the head is drawn back1 drawing out with it a short thread4 ,a similar movement is then made against one side of the mouth of the sac1 the process being repeated several times until a stout stay-line is spun by which the larva hangs securely4 ,now the creature is ready to feed4 ,the behavior1 however1 varies a great deal4 ,in feeding upon the white pine it secures itself to one leaf by its stay-line1 while it reaches to an adjoining leaf which it bites off1 and sitting erect1 as it were1 in its house1 comfortably chews off the end which is continually shored upward by the first and second pairs of true legs that stand out free and untrammelled above the sac4 ,illustration3 ,,house-,,builder ,,moth4 ,young in ,house1 ,winged ,male1 ,young ,suspended and ,bag-like ,female in ,longitudinally-,split ,cocoon4 ,but more frequently the worm feeds without separating the leaf from the point of suspension4 ,by making itself fast to the under part of the leaf it is thus enabled to reach the edge1 which it gnaws round and round until it has completed its destruction4 ,so securely does the caterpillar hold on to its house1 that one would suppose that its body was lashed to the inside4 ,but no1 its body is unhampered1 for it can turn itself easily around in its case1 and go out at either end1 although the head is generally directed upward4 ,it clings to the inside with the hooks upon its hinder feet1 and so tenaciously1 too1 that the writer has never been able to pull one out1 being checked by the fear of tearing the creature in two4 ,and now to the mode of attaching the leaf-cuttings to the case4 ,this is always done at or near the mouth of the sac4 ,the ,ephemeraform larva is a growing creature1 unlike the moth itself1 which emerges a perfect insect of full growth4 ,it commences life as a small worm1 eats small quantities1 and1 as may be observed1 down towards the foot of the case sews on very small tags4 ,but after it has fastened on these pieces to the mouth1 it grows itself1 and so also does the case1 which it continually stretches and enlarges4 ,hence the mouth of the case is continually changing1 moving upward as the worm feeds1 so that the pieces sewed upon the cap of the case thus appear1 in an adult caterpillar1 precisely as they are seen scattered along the outside from top to bottom4 ,and now1 as to how the pieces are put into the case1 ,i shall endeavor to explain4 ,that the worm cuts purposely through the twig which it needs for the case1 ,i feel certain4 ,of course the outer or detached part drops down4 ,but1 while eating1 the worm frequently1 quite constantly1 indeed1 spreads its viscid silk along the leaf and so keeps it attached on both sides to the upper rim of the sac1 or to its own mouth-parts1 and thus the tip of the twig or leaf1 instead of falling to the ground when it is severed from the stem1 simply drops alongside of the case1 to which it is held by the slight filament that attaches it to the sac1 or1 as happens in many instances1 remains attached to the caterpillar's spinneret4 ,in either case the leaf1 twig or stem remains1 and1 after being drawn up1 adjusted and tightened by the worm1 adheres tightly4 ,as the creature is forever moving its spinning-tubes around the top of the sac1 these fastenings are being continually strengthened1 and thus one piece after another is added1 and so the basket grows4 ,while the case of the ,basket-worm1 and even that part of its body which it chooses to expose to view1 are known to the casual observer1 yet but few persons have ever seen the mature insect4 ,the female moth is wingless1 and never leaves the bag1 but makes her way to its lower orifice1 and there awaits the attendance of the male4 ,she is not only without wings1 but is devoid of legs also1 being1 in short1 nothing more than a yellowish bag of eggs with a ring of soft1 pale-brown1 silky hair near the tail4 ,the male1 on the other hand1 has transparent wings and a black body1 and is very active on the wing during the warmer portions of the day4 ,after pairing the female deposits her eggs1 intermingled with fawn-colored down1 within the empty pupa-case1 and when this task is completed works her way out of the case1 drops exhausted to the ground and dies4 ,though a ,southern rather than a ,northern insect1 yet it is found as far north as ,new ,jersey and ,new ,york1 and occasionally in ,massachusetts4 ,it is extremely local in character1 abounding in one particular neighborhood and totally unknown a few miles away4 ,where they occur in abundance they often almost entirely defoliate the trees they attack1 but this can be easily prevented by gathering the cases containing the eggs for the next brood during the winter and destroying them4 ,hand-picking the cases with the worms in them1 where their ravages are confined to small trees and shrubbery1 will also help to hold them in check4 ,nature has provided two species of ichneumon for their destruction4 ,one of them1 ,cryptus inquisitor1 is about two-fifths of an inch in length1 and the other1 ,hemiteles thyridopteryx1 is nearly one-third of an inch4 ,five or six of this latter species will sometimes occupy the body of a single caterpillar1 and after destroying their victim spin for themselves tough1 white1 silken cocoons within the bag4 ,,honey-,,producing ,,caterpillars4 ,late in ,june1 growing abundantly in the edges of woods throughout this region1 may be seen the ,cimicifuga racemosa of botanists1 popularly called ,rattleweed1 or ,black ,snakeroot4 ,it sends up a stalk1 sometimes branching1 four or five feet1 terminating in a spike or spikes1 six to ten inches long1 of round1 greenish-white buds1 which stand upon short stems1 and are arranged in rows about the stalk1 diminishing in size till they reach the pointed top4 ,the lower buds1 when they are about the size of an ordinary pea1 open first1 and the flowering proceeds by degrees up the spike1 so that buds are to be met with throughout a period of from four to six weeks4 ,the flowers emit an intensely sweet odor1 which renders them attractive to butterflies and bees4 ,but should you examine these buds with care1 you will find a number of small caterpillars1 the larva of the beautiful ,azure ,butterfly1 called ,lycna pseudargiolus1 feeding thereon4 ,during its younger stages it is white1 and so near the color of these buds that it is well protected1 and very difficult to find4 ,later on1 it may be white or greenish1 and often diversified with a few black or brown patches1 irregularly diffused over the surface4 ,when mature the larva is one-half of an inch in length1 and1 like all ,lycnid larv1 is onisciform1 or shaped like the little pill-bug1 so common under stones and logs4 ,the head is very small1 and is placed on the end of a long1 green neck1 which at the junction is of the thickness of the head1 but gradually enlarges1 and seems to be fixed at the hinder part of the second segment1 the latter being hollowed out so as to form for it a sheath4 ,in the final larval stages this segment is elevated1 transversely compressed1 and inclines forward1 thereby shielding the head as the larva moves about4 ,when quiescent the neck and head are wholly retracted1 and as the former1 when fully extended1 is very much longer than the depth of the second segment1 it must possess considerable elasticity4 ,the larva feeds on the heart of the bud1 and to reach this cuts away the surface on one side till an opening is made sufficiently large to admit its head2 and as it feeds the second segment is firmly pressed against the bud so as to permit the utmost elongation of the neck4 ,thus it is enabled to eat out the contents of the bud1 and only desists when there remains but the empty shell4 ,when so engaged the anterior segments are curved up and the others rest upon the stalk of the plant1 but very small larv repose wholly in the bud4 ,not a single instance has been observed where an open flower has been attacked1 but the destruction of buds is very extensive4 ,but now comes the most remarkable part of the larval history of ,pseudargiolus4 ,the whole upper part of the larva is covered with small1 glassy1 star-shaped processes1 scarcely raised above the surrounding surface1 from the centre of which spring short1 filamentous bodies1 bristling with feathery-looking tentacles1 which the caterpillar has the power of protruding at will4 ,it throws them out like the tentacles of ,papilio or the horns of snails4 ,more singular still is an opening upon the eleventh segment1 placed transversely and surrounded by a raised cushion1 about which the granulations that cover the body of the caterpillar are particularly dense4 ,from the middle of this opening1 which is shaped like a button-hole1 issues1 at the caterpillar's will1 a sort of transparent1 hemispherical vesicle1 from which is emitted a good-sized drop of fluid1 which the animal is capable of reproducing when absorbed4 ,illustration3 ,,pseudargiolus ,,butterfly4 ,larva ,feeding on ,bud of ,black ,snakeroot1 and ,guarded by ,ants4 ,four species of ants may be seen attending1 not the small larv1 but those that have attained the nearly mature condition4 ,they are invariably found on or near the larva4 ,their actions1 as they run over the body1 caressing with antenn1 evidently persuading the larva to emit a drop of the fluid1 are alike curious and interesting4 ,most of this caressing is done about the anterior segments1 and while the ants are thus occupied1 or rather1 while they are absent from the last segments1 the tubes of the twelfth seem expanded to their full extent1 and so remain1 without retracting or throbbing1 until the ants come hurrying along with great excitement and set foot or antenna directly on or close by the tubes1 when they are instantly withdrawn4 ,the ants pay no heed to the tubes4 ,they seek for nothing from them1 and expect nothing4 ,but they turn at once to the eleventh1 caress the back of that segment1 and1 putting their mouths to its opening1 exhibit an eager desire and expectancy4 ,suddenly a dull green1 fleshy1 mammilloid organ protrudes1 and from the summit of which comes a tiny drop of clear green fluid1 which the ants1 some two or three perhaps standing about it1 lap greedily up4 ,as the drop disappears1 this organ sinks in at the apex1 and is so withdrawn4 ,the ants then run about1 some in quest of other larv upon the same stem1 some with no definite object1 but presently return and pursue the caressings as before4 ,the intervals between the appearance of the globule vary with the condition of the larva4 ,where exhaustion by long-continued solicitings occurs1 some minutes elapse before renewal is effected1 the tubes in the meantime remaining concealed4 ,fresh larv1 however1 require little or no urging1 and globule follows globule1 as many as six emissions in seventy-five seconds1 without even a retracting of the organ4 ,often the presence of the ant1 when the larva is aware of it1 evokes1 all unsought1 the sugary fluid4 ,ordinarily the tubes expand when the ants are absent from the last segments1 and are certainly withdrawn when they come near4 ,these tubes1 from all appearances1 serve as signals to the ants4 ,when the latter discover them expanded1 they know that a refection is ready1 and rush to the opening in the eleventh segment where it is to be found4 ,the tubes certainly serve no other purpose4 ,no visible duct appears in the dome of the tube when largely magnified1 and the ants seek nothing from it or the twelfth segment4 ,they cannot be used to intimidate1 or to frighten away enemies1 for in the younger stages1 when the larv have the most to dread1 neither the tube nor the organ in the eleventh segment is available4 ,the outward openings1 and the orifice in the eleventh segment1 exist in the youngest larval stages1 but are functionless until the larva has nearly attained maturity4 ,ants seldom attempt to caress or solicit young larv1 but pass them by with indifference1 seemingly knowing that they cannot emit the secretion4 ,when an ant approaches one of these immature larv1 the larva manifests considerable annoyance1 throwing up the hinder segments1 as though the ant was an enemy which it was desirous to get rid of4 ,if the tubes could now be thrust out1 the ant would be attracted1 rather than repelled4 ,but when the period arrives that the tubes are free1 and the secretion is ready to be ejected1 which is perhaps just after the third skin-moulting1 and it cannot be earlier1 the larva grows now quiet and submissive1 inviting the attentions of the ants1 and rewarding their antennal caresses4 ,four species of parasites affect these larv4 ,two are dipterous4 ,these1 which are of the size of the common house-fly1 deposit their eggs1 during the second larval stage1 on the back1 and near the junction of the second and third segments4 ,in process of time the grubs hatch and eat their way into the larva1 to emerge when the latter has become fully grown1 thus destroying its life4 ,another of these enemies is a minute hymenopterous insect1 whose egg is placed in the very young larva1 probably in the first stage of its life4 ,the grub1 in this case1 eats its way out of the half-grown larva1 spins a silken cocoon1 from which in a few days issues the newly-matured parasite4 ,the destruction of larv by these1 and very likely by other similar parasites1 is doubtless immense4 ,but no parasite attacks1 it does seem1 the mature larva1 for1 if it did1 the grub of the former would live within and destroy the chrysalis1 and instead of a butterfly emerging therefrom would come forth the parasite4 ,multitudes of chrysalids of other species of butterflies are thus destroyed1 but ,pseudargiolus1 at this stage1 appears to enjoy a singular immunity from enemies4 ,why this species1 and doubtless many others of its family1 are thus favored1 will soon be apparent4 ,ants may be seen wherever these larv may be found1 ever ready to receive the honeyed secretion when it pleases the little creatures to eject it1 but all the while exercising the closest vigilance lest some wary ichneumon may come along and deal a thrust of its ovipositor1 which means misery and ultimate death to their helpless friends4 ,so intent is the larva1 with its head buried in the flower1 upon its feeding1 and so quietly and stealthily does the ichneumon approach its intended victim1 that hardly a single individual would be left to tell the story of its existence were it not for the ants4 ,the larv know their protectors1 it would seem from their actions1 and are able and willing to reward their services4 ,the advantage is mutual1 and the association friendly4 ,no compelling by rough means on the one part is noticeable1 and no reluctant yielding on the other4 ,all demonstrations made by the ants are of the most gentle character4 ,they caress1 entreat1 and as they drink in the sweet fluid1 lifting their heads to prolong the swallowing1 they manifest to the utmost their satisfaction and delight4 ,it is amusing to see them lick away the last trace1 caressing the back of the segment with their antenn as they do so1 as though they were coaxing for a little more4 ,in ,pseudargiolus the tubes are white1 cylindrical1 nearly equal in size1 rounded at summit1 and studded with little tuberculations from which arise the tentacles4 ,these last are tapering1 armed with small spurs set in whorls1 and stand out straight1 making a white hemispherical dome over the cylinder1 but none of them fall below the plane of the base of the dome1 nor do they ever hang limp or lie across the dome1 as is the case in a ,european species4 ,when the tube comes up the rays rise in a close pencil1 and take position as the dome expands2 but1 on the contrary1 when the tube is withdrawn1 the top of the dome sinks first1 the rays coming together in pencil again4 ,illustration3 ,,violacea ,,butterfly4 ,larva1 ,protected by ,ants1 ,feeding on ,flower-buds of ,dogwood4 ,lycna pseudargiolus is subject to great variation1 and occurs under many forms1 most of which having been regarded as distinct species4 ,in the early spring ,violacea appears1 and is characterized by dimorphism in the female1 some of that sex being blue1 others black4 ,this form1 which may be called the winter form1 deposits its eggs in the clusters of flower-buds of the ,dogwood1 the young larv obtaining their first food by boring into the buds1 but later on eating their way into the ovaries4 ,the flies that come from these larv late in ,may are ,pseudargiolus1 which1 as stated before1 lays its eggs on ,cimicifuga racemosa1 most of the resulting butterflies over-wintering to produce ,violacea4 ,a small percentage of the ,may chrysalids give butterflies as late as ,september1 which are smaller than the parent-form1 and also differ therefrom in the more decided character of the marginal crescent discal spots on the under side of the wings4 ,there does not seem to be any regular second summer brood1 that is1 there are but two regular annual broods1 the ,violacea of ,march and the ,pseudargiolus of ,may1 the individuals happening to emerge in ,july1 ,august and ,september being irregular visitants1 for which the name of ,neglecta has been given4 ,the females of the last form lay their eggs upon ,actinomeris squarrosa1 and the chrysalids1 thence resulting1 give ,violacea the next spring4 ,larv feeding on ,dogwood vary much in color from those that feed on the ,black ,snakeroot1 few being white in the last stages1 but nearly all dull-crimson or green1 or a mingling of the two4 ,nevertheless1 a small percentage of the larv on ,cimicifuga racemosa are also green or crimson1 though the most of them white4 ,ants do not seem to visit the larv on the ,dogwood1 and on being introduced to them in confinement treat them with indifference4 ,on rare occasions tubes have been discovered in the eleventh segment1 fully expanded1 and accompanied by a pulsating movement1 but no teasing or irritating availed to make them appear4 ,even severe pressure applied to the sides of the segment failed to force out any fluid4 ,as with the fall food-plant1 ,actinomeris squarrosa1 the ,dogwood is neither sweet nor juicy1 and it is possible that the larv feeding on these plants do not secrete the fluid4 ,eggs of this polymorphic species are round1 flat at base1 the top flattened and depressed1 and have a diameter of one-fiftieth of an inch4 ,their ground-color is a delicate green1 the entire surface being covered with a white lace-work1 the meshes of which being mostly lozenge-shaped1 with a short rounded process at each angle4 ,in from four to eight days the egg hatches into a larva1 which is scarcely one-twenty-fifth of an inch long1 and whose upper side is rounded1 the under being flat4 ,on each side of the dorsal line is a row of white clubbed hairs1 with similar ones at the base and in front of the second joint1 making a fringe around the body4 ,the head is very small1 obovoid1 retractile and black2 the legs retractile1 and the color a greenish-white or brownish-yellow4 ,the first moult occurs in from three to five days1 the larva having increased to twice its former length1 while very little difference is manifest in the coloration4 ,in from three to five days the caterpillar has again changed its skin1 doubled its length1 assumed more pronounced colors1 which are diversified in some with mottlings upon back and sides1 and developed along the back1 from the third to the tenth joint1 a low1 broad1 continuous1 tuberculous ridge1 cleft to the body at the junction of the segments1 the anterior edge of each joint being depressed1 the sides incurved4 ,the third moult takes place in three or four days more1 but there is very little change from the former period4 ,three or four days subsequent to this change occurs the fourth or final moult1 and in five or six days from this the larva is ready to pass into the chrysalis state4 ,in its mature form the larva is about one-half of an inch in length4 ,the body is onisciform1 flattened at base1 furnished with retractile legs1 and has the back elevated into a rounded ridge1 which slopes backwards from the sixth segment4 ,the sides are rather deeply hollowed1 and in the middle of each segment1 from the third to the eleventh1 is a vertical1 narrow depression4 ,the last segments are flattened1 the last of all terminating roundly1 its sides being narrowed and slightly incurved1 while the second segment is flattened1 arched and bent nearly flat over the head4 ,standing on the body is a ridge1 tubercular in nature1 which in each segment from the third to the eleventh is distinct and cleft to the body4 ,in color1 specimens vary4 ,some examples are white1 others decidedly greenish1 but many have the posterior slope of the second segment black or dark brown1 while a few have most of the back a dark brown1 irregularly mottling a light ground1 or with small brown patches diffused over the back1 but mostly on the anterior segments4 ,the entire surface is velvety4 ,this appearance is caused by minute stellate glossy processes1 scarcely raised above the surface1 mostly six-rayed1 and sending from the centre a concolored filamentous spine a little longer than the rays4 ,these stars are arranged in nearly regular rows1 and are light1 except in the brown patches1 where both star and spine are brown4 ,this velvet-like condition of the skin only reveals its true composition under a magnifying glass4 ,on the eleventh segment1 near the posterior edge of the back1 is a transverse slit1 in a sub-oval spot1 from which proceeds a membranous process2 and on the twelfth1 on each side1 is a mark like a stigma1 but a little larger1 from which proceeds a membranous tube1 ending in a crown of feathery tentacles1 these three special organs being exposed or concealed at the will of the larva4 ,the head is small1 obovoid1 dark brown1 and is placed at the end of a long1 pale green1 conical neck1 which is rectractile1 both neck and head being covered by the second segment4 ,before changing to a chrysalis1 the summer larv sometimes turn pink1 and from pink to brown1 or become brown without the pink stage1 although others remain white or change to rusty brown4 ,the body contracts to about three-tenths of an inch and takes on a rounded form4 ,the chrysalis is dark-brown or yellow-brown1 but varying in color1 the wing-cases being dark or green-tinted4 ,two sub-dorsal rows of blackish dots are found on the abdomen1 and sometimes a dark dorsal line4 ,in the few instances in which the butterfly emerges the same season the duration of this stage is from thirty to sixty days1 but most chrysalids pass the winter and mature in the spring4 ,illustration3 ,,neglecta ,,butterfly4 ,larva ,feeding on ,central ,florets of ,actinomeris1 and ,guarded by ,ants4 ,now for a description of the butterfly4 ,in general terms1 the upper side of the wings of the male is a deep azure-blue1 with a delicate terminal black border4 ,on the apical part of the fore-wings the fringes are black1 but white and barred with black on the rest of these wings and on the hind-wings4 ,in the female the fore-wings have a broad1 blackish outer border1 in some examples extending along the costa1 while the hind-wings have a blackish costa and a row of dark spots along the outer margin4 ,usually the ground-color is a lighter blue in the females than in the males4 ,a pale silvery gray1 with a silky lustre1 is the color of the under side of the wings1 which is relieved by a row of spots along the outer margin1 each preceded by a crescent1 a curved row of elongate spots across the disk of the fore-wings1 and several spots on the basal part of the hind-wings1 all the markings being of a pale brown color4 ,violacea1 the so-called winter form1 has the dark parts and crescents on the under side of the wings quite prominent1 but they do not1 either in the outer border or in the basal portion1 coalesce4 ,pseudargiolus1 the largest of the series1 there being but three forms in ,pennsylvania1 expands one and four-tenths inches4 ,the upper surface of the male usually has a terminal border to the hind-wings of the same shade of blue as is visible on the fore-wings1 the middle area of the hind-wings being a little paler than this border on the fore-wings4 ,on the under side of the wings the spots are much smaller than on the preceding form4 ,neglecta1 which resembles ,pseudargiolus1 and has the spots on the under surface small1 is a smaller form1 never expanding more than one and one-tenth inches4 ,it is a summer form when there is more than one generation in a season1 ranging from ,canada1 through ,new ,england to ,west ,virginia and ,georgia1 and occurring also in ,montana and ,nevada4 ,violacea has a more extended limit1 being found in ,alaska1 ,british ,america1 ,ontario1 ,quebec1 ,new ,england to ,west ,virginia1 and ,colorado1 while ,pseudargiolus ranges from ,wisconsin south to ,tennessee1 and on the east from ,pennsylvania to ,georgia4 ,,hibernating ,,butterflies4 ,early in ,march1 and often while the snow yet lingers upon the landscape1 may be seen flying in and out among the forest-trees1 or lazily meandering along some deserted road through a thicket1 the beautiful ,antiopa4 ,her rich crimson dress1 so dark that it almost seems black1 with its buff-colored1 sky-dotted border1 serves to distinguish her from her no less interesting1 but smaller1 sisters of the ,vanessa family of butterflies4 ,but the ,antiopas you then see are generally ragged and shabby1 which is not to be wondered at1 when it is considered that it is their last year's dresses they wear1 for late in the preceding ,august they had their being1 and all through the autumn had been exposed to a hundred misfortunes or more while seeking their living4 ,but with the coming of frost and of cold comes the blighting of flowers4 ,a feeling of torpor in consequence steals over their once bouyant spirits1 and into some crevice in a barn or a wood-pile or stone-heap they creep1 and there sleep the winter away1 till the warmth of the sun from his southward-bound journey returning sets the brown buds a-swelling1 when out of their hibernating retreats they leisurely crawl for a flying stroll through the awakening trees4 ,slow and deliberate their movements are1 as though some grave and momentous event were dependent thereon4 ,never have ,i watched such actions1 so human-like have they seemed1 than the conviction has gone home to my mind that they plainly evinced a thought and a purpose1 which had their origin1 if not in a brain1 at least in one of the several ganglions which largely make up their wonderful and somewhat complicated nervous machinery4 ,no matter how low in intelligence she may rank1 ,antiopa has nevertheless1 or all experience is at fault1 some general ideas of the time and fitness of things4 ,from her gloomy abode in the wood-pile she has emerged1 while all the gay butterfly world1 barring a few familiar exceptions1 is asleep1 for a tour of investigation4 ,her venture is seldom ill-timed1 for the violets have preceded her1 and from their delicately curved flagons proffer her food and refreshment4 ,cool and unhealthful as the mornings are at first1 it is not till the sun is nearly overhead that she leaves her retreat1 for what of plant-life exists is then1 under the full force of his beams1 at its very best4 ,three or four hours a day1 with few intervals of rest1 she is actively on wing1 regaling herself with exercise and food1 thus storing little by little her body with some of the strength and vivacity which were hers when the famine of winter overtook her and forced her to retirement1 so as the better to prepare for that work1 the propagation of her kind1 which is the principal1 but not the only1 aim of her existence4 ,after four in the afternoon her presence is scarce1 as she has sought her old1 or some other1 place of shelter and security4 ,but when the days have grown longer and warmer1 and the trees are arrayed in their livery of green1 she is in the fields bright and early1 and often ere the dew has disappeared from the grass and the flowers4 ,the most restless of beings she now is4 ,anon alighting upon a bush for a momentary rest1 then off for a dozen or more rods1 when the presence of some favorite blossom meets her quick sight and invites her to pause1 which she does1 but only for a second to quench her thirst4 ,where willows1 or elms1 or poplars abound1 she is more frequently seen later on in ,may1 but flying more slowly and sedately than ever before4 ,the flowers pass unheeded4 ,she seems in a dream1 in a reverie4 ,but all of a sudden she quickens her speed4 ,you look for the cause4 ,there1 in the distance1 another is seen1 just like her in mien1 some would-be suitor for her hand and affections4 ,he enters his suit1 he pleads his great love1 and awaits her sweet pleasure4 ,the answer is brief1 and soon by their actions1 as high up in the air they circle and circle1 caressing each other with strokes of the antenn1 the story is told that his love has been requited4 ,a brief honey-moon of two or three days and the love-scene is over1 and the two settle down to the prosy realities of everyday life4 ,the male goes back to his old-time pursuit of rifling the flowers of their honeyed treasures1 whilst the female1 upon whom devolves the duty of providing for the offspring whom she is never likely to see1 looks scrutinizingly about for her favorite trees1 the poplar1 the elm1 or the willow4 ,in her selection of a tree a wonderfully keen discernment is shown1 for she seldom1 if ever1 mistakes her plant-species4 ,illustration3 ,,mourning-,,cloak ,,butterfly4 ,larva ,feeding on ,willow ,leaf1 and ,chrysalis ,suspended from ,twig4 ,when a choice has been made1 no time is expended in fruitless endeavor4 ,she proceeds at once to deposit her eggs4 ,they are laid in a cluster round the twig1 and near the petiole of a young leaf1 upon which the newly-hatched larv are to feed4 ,the eggs hatch inside of a week into small black spiny caterpillars which1 in their early stages1 are very social in their habits4 ,just before the final skin-moulting they separate1 each caterpillar living alone1 the necessity for food1 which their very vigorous appetites now demand1 being the impelling motive4 ,in a state of maturity the larv are two inches in length4 ,they are black1 and minutely dotted with white1 which gives them a greyish look4 ,a row of brick-red spots are found down the back1 and their body is armed with many black1 rather long and slightly branching spines4 ,the head is black1 and roughened with small black tubercles4 ,having completed their period of feeding1 which they do in about four weeks1 the caterpillars attach themselves by means of their tails to a fence-rail1 a window-ledge1 or some such place1 and pass into the chrysalis state1 which is accomplished in about four days4 ,in this condition they present an odd-looking appearance4 ,the head will be found to be deeply notched1 or furnished with two ear-like prominences4 ,the sides are very angular4 ,in the middle of the thorax there is a thin projection1 somewhat like a ,roman nose in profile1 while on the back are two rows of very sharp tubercles of a tawny color1 which contrast very markedly in coloration with the dark-brown of the rest of the chrysalis4 ,fifteen days1 when the weather is favorable1 are sufficient for the development of the imago1 or butterfly4 ,as maturity approaches1 the chrysalis-shell becomes quite soft1 and the efforts of the imago to free itself from this covering are facilitated by the ejection of a blood-red fluid1 which rots the case1 while it acts1 at the same time1 as a lubricant to the emerging butterfly4 ,when these caterpillars are very abundant1 as was the case in the vicinity of ,germantown some twenty-five years ago1 every fence-rail was hung with chrysalids1 as many as a dozen being found upon a single rail4 ,the caterpillars even climbed up the sides of the houses and suspended themselves from the window-ledges and the edges of the overhanging shingles4 ,when the butterflies emerged1 great blotches of the fluid bespattered the fences and houses as though the clouds had rained great drops of blood4 ,the willows and poplars were alive with the caterpillars1 and even the maples were overrun when there came a scarcity of the leaves of the natural food-plants4 ,green caterpillar-hunters were everywhere plentiful1 and the writer could have taken hundreds of specimens1 but these highly-useful beetles made a very sorry attempt in holding the enemy in check4 ,two broods of the caterpillars are raised1 one in ,june and the other in ,august1 but the agencies by nature employed for their destruction so effectually accomplish their mission that hardly a season brings to my notice a dozen full-grown larv4 ,vanessa antiopa1 as this species is called by the scientific student1 or ,mourning-,cloak by people and amateurs1 is generally found through the whole of ,north ,america4 ,in ,england1 where it is popularly called the ,camberwell ,beauty1 because specimens were first taken near ,camberwell1 it is the rarest of butterflies2 while on the ,continent1 as in this country1 it is a very plentiful insect4 ,,leaf-,,cutter ,,bee4 ,few hymenoptera of the family of bees are so little known as the ,megachilid1 or ,leaf-cutters4 ,they are stout1 thick-bodied insects1 with large1 square heads1 and armed with sharp1 scissors-like jaws1 which admirably fit them for the work they have to do in preparing materials for the building of their homes4 ,our commonest species1 ,megachile centuncularis1 is about the size of the hive-bee4 ,in gardens and nurseries where shrubbery abounds1 it is very prevalent1 especially the female1 which is readily distinguished by a thick mass of stout1 dense hair on the under side of the tail1 which serves as a carrier of pollen4 ,the honey- and bumble-bees differ materially from them1 for they have the hind tibi and basal joints of the tarsi very much broadened for that purpose4 ,megachile is by no means a remarkable-looking insect4 ,judging from its very humble exterior1 one can hardly believe it possessed of the wonderful intelligence1 as shown in its wise provisions for its young1 which it is found to display4 ,ordinarily the female1 who is entrusted with the discharge of this very essential business1 places her nest in the solid earth underneath some species of shrub4 ,a vertical hole1 three inches in depth1 is dug1 and this is enlarged into a horizontal gallery1 some five or six inches in length4 ,you should see the little creature in her never-tiring work of preparing material for her nest4 ,in and out among the roses she goes1 examining each leaf with the most critical care1 and only desisting from her labor when a suitable one has been chosen4 ,she scans it over and over1 and at last from a position on its upper or nether surface proceeds to cut a piece just fitted for her work1 which1 heavy as it seems1 is seized between the legs and jaws and carried on swiftly-agitated wings to her burrow4 ,illustration3 ,,leaf-,,cutter ,,bee ,,at ,,work4 ,two ,tunnels ,being ,filled ,with ,leaf-,cells4 ,ten pieces or more1 each differing in shape1 are cut and borne away1 which the ingenious insect tailor twists and folds1 the one within the other1 until is formed a funnel-like cone1 whose end is narrower than its mouth4 ,so perfectly joined are the parts1 that even when dry they have been found to retain their form and integrity4 ,a cake of honey and pollen1 for the use of some yet unborn ,leaf-cutter1 is deposited within1 and on this1 in due time1 is laid a single small egg4 ,nought now remains but to wall up the cell4 ,a circle of leaf1 of the size of the opening1 is cut1 and this is closely adjusted within the wall of rolled-up leaves4 ,sometimes as many as four pieces are thus utilized4 ,a second cell1 similarly built1 is fitted to the first1 and this is succeeded by eight or ten others4 ,when all is completed1 the eggs being laid and the cells all victualled1 the hole of the shaft is closed with the earth that was thrown out1 and so carefully1 too1 that not a trace of her doings remains to tell us the story4 ,like other insects1 ,megachile is occasionally prone to change4 ,some laborers while digging1 one early spring-day1 some thirteen years ago1 about a cluster of plants of ,spira corymbosa1 a species allied to the roses and cinquefoils1 came unexpectedly upon a dozen or more cells of this insect1 arranged horizontally in layers1 some three or four inches below the ground's surface4 ,these cells were three-fourths of an inch in length1 one-fourth in width1 and formed of the leaves of ,spira4 ,six circles1 of three pieces each1 constituted the cell1 and these were so arranged that each succeeding circle was made to project but slightly beyond its predecessor4 ,six circular pieces1 larger than seemed needful1 closed up the opening of each cell4 ,that there was a purpose here manifested was very apparent4 ,this purpose1 as it appeared to the writer1 was the better accommodation by the hollow surface of the cell that was to follow1 and the giving of greater firmness and security to the entire structure4 ,more curious1 however1 were some cells that were found the ensuing year1 which1 in looks1 resembled very closely those of ,pelopus1 a species of wasp1 familiarly designated the ,mud-dauber4 ,these cells1 in numbers of three1 were adherent to the rafters of a hardly-used garret4 ,in form1 and in the peculiar combination of their pellets of clay1 they were the exact counterpart of the ,mud-dauber's4 ,but the curious funnel-like arrangement of leaves on the inside1 so strikingly characteristic of the ,megachilid1 was evidence of the most positive kind that ,pelopus had nothing whatever to do with their putting together4 ,it bespoke a piece of work that was entirely beyond the highest capability of her being to execute4 ,each of the included leafy cells was one and one-eighth inches in length1 and just barely exceeding one-fourth in width4 ,elliptical pieces of ,spira1 less in size than those previously described1 but arranged in a similar manner1 composed the several structures4 ,within each1 a dead but perfectly-formed ,megachile1 encased in a cylindrical bag of silk1 was found1 so that there could be no possible doubt of the builder4 ,that this inner fabric was the labor of some mother ,megachile admits not of a scruple1 for no other bee is known to construct a nest of like character4 ,but what of the outer enveloping fabric of mud8 ,it was clearly impossible for the skill of a ,megachile1 who1 while certainly fitted for tunnelling the ground and for snipping circular and elliptical pieces of suited dimensions from leaves with all a tailor's precision1 would find herself wofully unadapted for the making of mortar and the building of nests1 in imitations of tunnels1 out of pellets of mud that had to be moulded into consistency and shape by the jaws of the builder4 ,pelopus alone1 of all hymenopters1 possesses the ability and means of making such structures4 ,megachile1 who is known to occasionally build under the boards of the roof of a piazza1 might sometimes in her quest of a place appropriate the discarded cells of some pre-existent ,pelopus for nesting purposes1 but she runs a very great risk in so doing1 for the ,mud-dauber does not always build a fresh home for her treasures1 save when there is a lack of the last year's structures4 ,old nests1 when found1 are put in speedy repair and made to do as invaluable a service4 ,,battle ,,between ,,ants4 ,whilst reclining one beautiful ,may afternoon in the shade of an oak that stood on the outskirts of a thicket1 my attention was arrested by the activity and bustle presented by a colony of yellow ants1 which proved to be the ,formica flava1 so common everywhere4 ,scattered indiscriminately about were numberless larv in various stages of growth1 and not a few immobile pup1 that had been brought up from subterranean domiciles by thoughtful nurses1 while here and there were a dozen or more ants1 but recently escaped from their mummy-cases1 basking in the sun's warmth1 preparatory to entering upon the duties of the formicarium4 ,the very picture of restlessness and anxiety were these full-grown neuters4 ,that something was transpiring1 or was about to transpire1 seemed not unlikely1 for ov1 larv and pup were being quickly carried to places of concealment in the earth1 or hustled away among the entangling and interlacing grasses4 ,looking about for the cause of all this excitement1 the truth at once became painfully apparent4 ,three large1 burly ants1 representatives of ,formica subterranea1 a black species that is everywhere abundant in wooded regions1 had intruded their obnoxious presence into the happy colony1 bent1 as it was evident1 on pillage or slaughter4 ,were plunder the inspiring motive1 these giant invaders were not slow to learn that their weaker kin1 though lacking their strength1 could more than match them in cunning and stratagem4 ,not daring to attack the foe1 and being unwilling that any of their number should be led into slavery1 or suffer aught at the hands of others1 they immediately set to work to destroy all whom it was impossible to protect4 ,illustration3 ,,battle ,,between ,,ants4 ,young ,destroyed by ,nurses4 ,detailed as most of the neuters seemed to be in looking after the wants of the immature1 there were a few observed running hither and thither and seizing in their jaws the newly-developed1 not to bear them out of the reach of danger1 as was at first supposed1 but to kill them so as to prevent them from falling a living prey into the hands of the enemy4 ,knowing the sympathy and affection which the nurses are ever wont to cherish towards the objects of their care1 this act of cruelty struck me as something very astonishing and peculiar4 ,prompted by curiosity to know the nature of the wounds thus inflicted1 ,i placed upon the palm of my hand one of the wounded ants1 and made1 by means of a microscope1 a careful examination of its injuries4 ,above and below the abdomen1 between the second and third segments1 two deep wounds1 which met each other in the interior1 were plainly to be seen4 ,several cases of the kind were afterwards noticed4 ,these were not accidental occurrences1 made through efforts to carry the young to places of shelter4 ,possibly1 through inexperience1 accidents might happen once in a long time1 but to suppose that insects1 accustomed to handling their young as the neuters assuredly are1 would be likely to make such blunders1 is too unreasonable to be entertained4 ,admitting for argument's sake that such things might occasionally occur1 would successive repetitions be expected8 ,i apprehend not4 ,but on the supposition that a purpose was thereby subserved1 the object had in view warrants1 it would seem1 the means employed for its accomplishment4 ,what the purpose was it will now be my aim to show4 ,that many animals1 tame as well as wild1 are wont to destroy disabled and wounded companions1 is well established by history4 ,in many instances the destruction is justified to preserve the herd or pack from the close pursuit of enemies4 8,instinct or reason10 as ,darwin says1 8may suggest the expelling an injured companion1 lest beasts of prey1 including man1 should be tempted to follow the troop40 ,audubon1 in writing of the wild turkey1 so abundant in his day1 observes substantially that the old males in their marches often destroy the young by picking the head1 but do not venture to disturb the full-grown and vigorous4 ,the feeble and immature being an encumbrance1 it is obvious that the watchfulness and attention which they would require1 were sympathy and affection the emotions by which the males are actuated1 would necessarily retard progress1 and lead to the destruction of the entire flock4 ,instinct or reason here operates for individual and family good4 ,granting that instinct or reason does sometimes act for individual and family preservation in the manner described1 ,i am not willing to admit that in every case that may arise in which the weak and disabled are sacrificed1 that it is done for the material benefit of the physically able and robust4 ,how the destruction of the weak and nearly-developed ant can result in good to the colony1 in view of the fact that not the slightest effort to escape the danger by flight is undertaken1 the sole object being the hiding of the young1 it is most difficult to conceive4 ,there seems to be one of two theories1 in the writer's judgment1 that will1 in anything like a satisfactory manner1 account for this strange1 abnormal habit upon the part of an insect that has been proverbially distinguished for its kind and affectionate disposition towards the tender beings committed to its trust2 either to attribute it to an unwillingness and dislike to see its offspring made the servants of a hostile race or the subjects of ill-treatment and abuse1 or to the survival of a habit of the past when its ancestors were a migratory1 or nomadic1 species4 ,that a feeling of repugnance does sometimes take possession of animal nature when the objects of parental care and solicitude are1 or are about to be1 reduced to slavery or confinement1 and impels to actions of cruelty1 will be patent from what follows3-- ,a friend1 several summers ago1 having procured a pair of young robins1 placed them in a cage1 which he hung from a tree-branch close to his dwelling1 where the parent-birds could have an opportunity to feed them4 ,all went well for a few days1 when the parents1 who had busied themselves in the intervals of feeding in attempts to secure their release1 finding their efforts unavailing1 flew away1 but only to return with something green in their bills1 most probably poisonous caterpillars1 which they fed to their offspring4 ,a few minutes later and they lay in the bottom of the cage dead1 but the parents1 as if conscious of what would result1 flew away1 and never came back4 ,may it not be that the parents1 finding all efforts to restore their young to freedom ineffectual1 sought this method of saving them from a life to which death must assuredly be preferable8 ,instances of like character might be adduced by the hundred1 but enough has been written to show that1 in the case of ,formica flava1 an unwillingness to allow the humblest of the colony to be taken into bondage was the motive which prompted the sacrifice4 ,,nest-,,building ,,fishes4 ,not alone in color do fishes resemble birds4 ,in the home-life and love of offspring a close resemblance obtains4 ,many are nest-builders1 erecting structures quite as complicated as those of some birds1 and hardly less elaborate in design and finish4 ,floating along some woodland stream1 or strolling along its grass-fringed margin1 we have watched the domestic life of the ,sun-fish1 the ,eupomotis vulgaris of writers1 that mottled1 bespangled beauty that seems always on hand to be caught by the angler in default of more noble game4 ,where delicate grasses grow1 and floating lily-pads cast their shadows1 there among the winding stems the ,sun-fish builds its home4 ,moving in pairs in and out among the lilies near the shore1 as if jointly selecting a site for a nursery1 they may be seen4 ,the spot is generally a gravelly one1 and1 once determined upon1 no time is lost in pushing the work to a speedy conclusion4 ,for several inches around the space is cleared of stems or roots1 and these are carefully carried away4 ,the smaller roots are swept aside by well-directed blows of their tails1 or by mimic whirlpools which the fishes1 standing over the nest1 create by their fins4 ,the stones are next taken up1 the smaller ones in their mouths1 the larger being pushed out bodily1 or fanned away by the sweeping process1 until an oval depression1 with a sandy bottom1 finally appears4 ,about the sides the stems of aquatic verdure1 which seem to have been purposely left1 may be seen standing1 and these now naturally fall over1 oftentimes constituting the nest a perfect bower1 with walls bedecked with buds1 while the roof is a mat of white lilies floating upon the surface4 ,here the eggs are deposited1 the male and female alternately watching them4 ,illustration3 ,,nest ,,of ,,common ,,sun-,,fish4 ,male and ,female ,defending ,it from ,attack of ,cat-fish4 ,while the ,sun-fish is always recognized as the most peaceful of the finny tribe1 and only chasing in wanton playfulness its neighbors1 it is otherwise when the passions are wrought to a high pitch of excitement through the play of amatory influences in the spring-time4 ,let a stranger1 a bewhiskered cat-fish1 approach the bower1 and war is at once declared4 ,the little creatures snap at the intruder with anger and defiance4 ,their sharp dorsal fins stand erect1 the pectorals vibrate with repressed emotion1 while the violent movements of their powerful tails evince a readiness and determination to stand by their home at all hazards4 ,indeed1 so vigorous is their charge1 that even large fishes are forced to retreat1 and1 as the ,sun-fishes build in companies1 the intruder often finds himself attacked by a whole colony of them4 ,nearly all the ,sun-fishes are nest-builders1 some forming arbors1 as we have seen1 others scooping out nests on sandy shoals1 while one1 the ,spotted ,sun-fish1 is more democratic1 affecting muddy streams1 where1 on the approach of cold weather1 it makes a nest in the muddy bottom1 and there it lies dormant till the coming spring4 ,who has not made friends with the ,dace--,rhinichthys atronasus8 ,he is a veritable finny jester4 ,we have watched him in his watery retreat1 and1 perhaps unseen1 have played the spy upon his domestic proceedings4 ,life is a gala time to these little fishes4 ,they have seemingly never a care or a bother4 ,in jest they join in the chase of some curious minnow that intrudes upon their presence1 suddenly changing their course to dash at some resplendent dragon-fly that hovers over the leafy canopy of their home1 and as quickly darting off again to attack some bit of floating leaf or imaginary insect4 ,all is not play1 however1 even among the ,dace4 ,the warm days of ,june usher in the sterner duties1 the nesting-time4 ,male and female join in the preparation1 and a locality1 perhaps in shallow water in some running brook1 is selected4 ,roots1 snags and leaves are carried away1 both fishes sometimes found tugging away at a single piece1 taking it down-stream1 and working faithfully and vigorously until1 in a few hours1 a clearing over two feet in diameter is the result4 ,there the first eggs are laid4 ,the male1 who has retired1 soon appears from up-stream1 bearing in his mouth a pebble1 which is placed in the centre of the clearing4 ,now they both swim away1 but soon returning1 each bearing a pebble1 that is also dropped upon the eggs4 ,slowly the work proceeds1 until a layer of clean pebbles apparently covers the eggs4 ,a second layer of eggs is now deposited by the female1 and these are covered by pebbles as the others had been1 the industrious little workers scouring the neighborhood for them1 seemingly piling up eggs and stones alternately until the heap attains a height of eight inches or more4 ,these heaps vary in shape1 some being pyramidal1 and others dome-shaped4 ,such patience as these finny housekeepers manifest is not appreciated by man4 ,the gleaners of the golden fields1 in whose waters our little friends are found1 have not discovered their secret1 and think the curious piles the washes of the brook itself4 ,but their purpose is the protection of their eggs4 ,in swift-running streams1 which these fish are so wont to affect1 the eggs would be washed away1 and1 driven against rocks and snags1 would be destroyed1 or1 even escaping destruction1 would1 by the undulating movement to which they would become subjected1 be rendered impossible of incubation4 ,besides1 were they not thus protected1 even though there was no danger of being washed away1 they would become easy prey to the attacks of carnivorous fishes4 ,unlike as the ,lamprey-eels are in structure to the ,dace1 yet in their habits of erecting a nest they are very similar4 ,upon our ,eastern sea-board they are a common species1 inhabiting both salt and fresh water4 ,in the early spring they follow the shad up the rivers1 occasionally preceding them1 and search about for suitable localities in which to deposit their spawn4 ,they clean away the stones as the ,dace were seen to do1 bending their long bodies in coils1 which they use in pushing aside the accumulation on the bottom4 ,to the unlearned the appearance of two ,eels1 each three feet in length1 twisting and seemingly coiling about each other1 would be indicative of war4 ,but having cleaned for themselves a smooth spot1 the ,lampreys proceed to place stones4 ,irregularly-shaped stones of small size are easily and quickly transported in their mouths1 but when stones that weigh several pounds are to be brought1 the tactics they adopt are worthy of an engineer4 ,as the spots chosen for the rearing of their submarine castles are ordinarily subjected to a swift current1 the largest stones1 which it would be thought impossible for them to move1 are looked for up stream4 ,a suitable one found1 and a favorable position presented1 the sucking mouth is fastened to it1 and by a convulsive effort1 the tail of the fish being raised aloft1 the heavy stone is lifted from its place1 the current pushing against the fish and stone1 bearing them along several feet before they sink4 ,another effort of the fish1 and the rock is again raised and carried down stream1 until finally1 by repeated liftings and struggles1 the ingenious1 persevering nest-builder is swept down to the nest1 where the load is deposited4 ,this laborious work is carried on until the pile has attained a height of two or three feet1 and a diameter of four4 ,no special form seems to be necessary4 ,the nest is generally oval1 compact and well devised to contain the eggs1 which are carefully deposited within1 thus affording protection in its numerous interstices for the young when they hatch4 ,when about six inches long1 the young ,petromyzon marinus1 which is a strange little fellow1 is devoid of teeth1 and blind1 and possesses so many characteristics distinct from the parent1 that for a long time he was considered a separate species1 and even assigned a place in a different genus4 ,enormous nests are sometimes built4 ,john ,m4 ,batchelder1 ,esq41 describes one1 which he saw in the ,saco ,river1 ,maine1 that was about fifteen feet long1 and from one to three feet in height1 its position and triangular shape in vertical section being well adapted for securing a change of water1 and a hiding-place for the young4 ,the operation of building was very methodical1 a hundred and more ,eels being at work upon the structure4 ,water-worn stones1 chips of granites and fragments of bricks1 sometimes weighing as much as two pounds and transported by a single individual1 were utilized in the building4 ,illustration3 ,,black-,,nosed ,,dace4 ,constructing ,their ,nest of ,pebbles4 ,more remarkable1 however1 than any previously described1 are the nests of the ,fresh-water ,chub1 ,semotilus bullaris1 which is known in some localities as the ,stone ,toter4 ,this fish attains a length of about fifteen inches4 ,the finest nests are on the shores of ,westminster ,island1 but they are common on nearly every island that has a sandy1 gravelly shore among the many that make up the ,thousand ,islands4 ,the nest is a pile of stones1 sometimes measuring ten feet across at the base1 four feet in height1 and containing a good-sized cart-load of stones1 weighing in all perhaps a ton4 ,stones from small pebbles to some four inches in length were used1 and as some of the nests are placed at considerable distances from the gravel-beds1 and each stone represented a journey1 the amount of labor performed1 when it is considered that tens of thousands of stones must have been used in the building1 certainly was incredible4 ,each stone is brought in the mouth of the ,chub and dropped over the piles1 one or more fishes working at the same heap4 ,some plan is evidently followed in the work1 the first deposit of stones being small1 and dropped so as to form a circle or semi-circle4 ,the largest heaps are undoubtedly the work of successive years1 the nests being annually added to during the last of ,may or ,june1 when the ,chubs are seen lying in the heaps1 at which time the eggs are probably deposited4 ,all the labor of piling up is to protect them from predatory fishes1 a necessary and wise provision1 as cat-fish1 rock-bass1 perch and others prey upon the eggs4 ,in gravelly beds the ,trout excavates a simple nest1 a mere depression in the sand1 that is not at all incomparable to the nest of some species of gulls4 ,a furrow in the gravelly bottom of a river1 often ten feet in length1 the depression being made as fast as it is required1 is the nest of the ,salmon4 ,in ,canadian rivers these nests can be easily distinguished by the lighter marking in the bottom4 ,few persons of the many who delight to drift along our sea-shores are unfamiliar with the ,toad-fish4 ,so closely does he in shape and color resemble a moss-covered stone that his enemies are deceived4 ,intrenched among the weeds and gravel1 which the mother-fish carelessly throws aside1 after the fashion of some of the gulls1 the young are reared1 their yolk-sacs enabling them to cling to the rocks of the nest soon after birth4 ,there1 under the watchful eye of the parent1 they remain until old enough to swim away4 ,but the most vigilant of all nest-builders is the ,four-spined ,stickleback--,apeltes quadracus4 ,in some neighboring stream1 that sooner or later finds its way to the ocean1 he may be found4 ,there are different species of these fish1 but their architectural ideas are pretty much the same4 ,they vary mainly in the locations they select for nesting4 ,some place the nests upon the bottom1 concealed among the sea-weed found there1 while others hang theirs from some projecting ledge1 or swing it in the tide from the sunken bough of some overhanging tree4 ,as is unusual1 the work of nidification is solely performed by the male ,stickleback1 the female taking no part in the labor4 ,the spawning season having arrived1 he1 assuming a bright nuptial lustre1 shows remarkable activity in selecting a site for an edifice1 and transporting the building material thither4 ,fragments of all kinds of plants1 gathered often at a distance1 are brought home in his mouth4 ,these are arranged as a sort of a carpet1 but as there is danger of the light materials being carried away by the current1 they are weighted down by sand to keep them in their places4 ,having entwined them with his mouth to his complete satisfaction1 he then glides gently over them on his belly1 and glues them with the mucus that exudes from his pores4 ,more solid materials1 sometimes bits of wood1 sometimes bits of straw1 which he seizes with his mouth1 are adjusted to the sides of the floor to constitute the walls4 ,he is now very particular4 ,if the piece cannot be properly adjusted to his building1 and he does not lose patience in his efforts to fit it in1 he carries it to some distance from the nest and leaves it4 ,after the side walls are erected1 a roof of the same materials with the floor is laid over the chamber4 ,firmness is given to the whole structure by passing over it with his body1 the light and useless particles being fanned away by the action of his fins and the vibratory movements of his tail4 ,in carrying on his building operations care is taken to preserve a circular opening into the chamber1 his head and a great part of his body being thrust therein1 thus widening and consolidating it1 and rendering it a fit receptacle for the female4 ,when choosing material1 the fish has been seen testing its specific gravity by letting it sink once or twice in the water1 and if the descent was not rapid enough finally abandoning it4 ,of the exact method used by the fish in binding the nest together we are indebted to ,prof4 ,ryder4 ,the male fish spins from a pore or pores a compound thread1 using his body to insinuate himself through the interstices through which he carries the thread4 ,the thread is spun fitfully1 not continuously4 ,he will go round and round the nest perhaps a dozen times1 when he will rest awhile and begin anew4 ,its shape is somewhat conical before completion4 ,the thread is wound round and round the nest in a horizontal direction1 and when freshly spun is found to consist of six or eight very thin transparent fibres1 which have alternated tapering ends where they are broken off4 ,very soon after the thread is spun1 particles of dirt adhere to it1 and render it difficult to interpret its character4 ,the nest measures one-half of an inch in height1 and three-eighths in diameter4 ,the time occupied in collecting materials and constructing the nest is about four hours1 and when all is ready the male starts out to seek a female1 and1 having found her1 conducts her with many polite attentions to the prepared home4 ,the eggs being deposited1 the male establishes himself as a guardian of the precious treasures1 not even suffering the female to approach it again4 ,every fish that comes near1 no matter how large1 is furiously assailed4 ,he gives battle valiantly1 striking at their eyes and seizing their fins in his mouth4 ,his sharp dorsal and ventral spines are very effective weapons in his defence4 ,constant watchfulness upon the part of the male is needed1 for1 if he go away for only a few moments1 the sticklebacks and other fish lurking in the vicinity rush in and devour the eggs in an instant4 ,a whole month he is occupied in providing for the safety of his offspring4 ,about the tenth day he employs himself in tearing down the nest and carrying the material to some little distance4 ,the fry may now be observed in motion4 ,and these the male continually nurses1 suffering no encroachment1 and if the young brood show a tendency to stray beyond bounds1 they are driven back within their precincts1 until they are strong enough to provide for their own living1 when both old and young disappear together4 ,but nothing in the lives of all these little nest-builders is more interesting than the intelligence they display and the facility with which they adapt themselves to circumstances4 ,they seem to be able to grasp almost instantly the conditions of the environment1 and to employ a wise discrimination in suiting them to their wants4 ,hardly two nests are alike4 ,marked differences in details of structure1 configuration and surroundings are apparent1 which prove that these creatures are controlled by reason1 rather than instinct1 in the elaboration of their homes4 ,that they have some means of communicating their desires to each other cannot be doubted4 ,when the male has laid hold of a stem1 a pebble or a stick that completely baffles all effort at removal1 his mate seems summoned to his assistance1 and the united strength of the pair accomplishes the object to be gained4 ,there is ever noticeable in whatever the sexes undertake some concert of action which would put to shame the boasted intelligence of man himself4 ,the ,sun-fishes1 as has been said1 nest in companies4 ,when the combined effort of two individuals is unable to expel an invader1 the entire community1 as by a single mighty impulse1 rises up against the foe4 ,there is evidence of some form of society1 even though simple in its organization1 where individual members league themselves together for mutual protection and defence4 ,other examples might be cited to give the reader a common-sense estimate of the comparatively high order of intelligence that characterizes the actions of many of our fishes4 ,,slippery ,,as ,,an ,,eel4 ,eels are found in almost all warm and temperate countries1 and grow to a very great size in tropical regions4 ,they are impatient of cold1 and hence do not exist in the extreme northern and southern parts of the world4 ,in many islands of the ,pacific ,ocean they are held in considerable estimation1 being preserved in ponds and fed by hand1 but in many civilized communities a strong prejudice prevails against them1 probably from their similarity to snakes1 which prevents even a hungry man from caring to eat such wholesome and nutritious food4 ,not one of our river fishes is so mysterious as the ,eel1 and although much is now known that was involved in obscurity1 yet there is still much to learn of its habits1 especially the manner of its reproduction4 ,difference of locality1 it is likely1 may influence the ,eel and cause a difference of habit1 an opinion which seems warranted from the various and perplexing accounts that have been given of its customs by numerous practical observers4 ,during the hot1 still and sunny days of ,june they are chiefly seen on top of the water1 wherever masses of aquatic weeds may be found1 either in the calm enjoyment of a sun-bath1 or for the purpose of feeding upon the myriads of gnats1 moths and flies that seek the plants for rest or food1 and which by unavoidably damping their wings become easy prey to their ambushed enemies4 ,at night1 similar retreats are affected for like purposes4 ,floating masses of detached weeds that the eddying stream has wound and kept in one place are sought in warm1 stilly weather1 but in blowing1 cooler or rainy weather they forsake such places for the still1 deep ditches4 ,if a flush of water comes1 and a little1 shallow stream1 running from or into the main river1 becomes fuller than usual1 there they resort in vast numbers1 evidently pleased with the delicious change1 only to remain as long as its freshness continues4 ,like many other fishes1 ,eels are very tenacious of life1 and can live a long time when removed from the water1 owing to a simple and beautiful modification of structure1 which permits them to retain a sufficient amount of moisture to keep the gills damp and in a condition to perform their natural functions4 ,they have been seen crawling over considerable distances1 somewhat snake-like in their movements1 evidently either in pursuit of water1 their own dwelling-place being nearly dried1 or in search of some running stream in whose waters they may reach the sea after the customary manner of their race4 ,multitudes of ,eels1 both old and young1 some of the latter scarcely six inches in length1 have been seen crawling up the banks of a creek1 apparently without any purpose1 and over the smooth surface of a projecting rock1 with all the ease of a fly moving over a ceiling4 ,so active were the little ones as to defy1 unless the hand was moved with extreme rapidity1 their capture4 ,vast numbers of these little ,eels are in the habit of proceeding up the rivers in the spring-time4 ,in some places in ,england they are called ,elvers4 ,they are caught in immense quantities1 and scalded and pressed into masses termed ,eel- or ,elver-cake4 ,when dressed these little ,eels afford a luxurious repast4 ,towards the latter part of summer these fishes migrate towards the sea1 being capable of living in fresh or salt water with equal ease1 the mouths of rivers constituting favorite localities4 ,even in our seaport towns and marine watering-places the common river ,eel is caught by those who are angling in the sea for fish4 ,various modes of capturing ,eels are adopted by man4 ,bobbing1 or clodding as it is sometimes called1 is a very common and successful method1 consisting in bunching a number of earthworms upon a worsted string1 and lowering it near the place where the fishes are supposed to be feeding4 ,so eagerly do the voracious fish seize the bait1 and so fiercely do they bite1 that they are pulled out of the water before they have time to collect their thoughts and disengage their teeth from the string4 ,night-lines1 which are laid in the evening and taken up in the morning1 are another plan4 ,but the most successful method is by spearing4 ,the spear used for the purpose is not unlike the conventional trident of ,neptune1 except that the prongs are four in number1 flattened1 slightly barbed on each edge1 and spread rather widely from their junction with the shaft4 ,this is pushed at random into the muddy banks where the ,eels love to lie1 and when one is caught1 its long snake-like body is wedged in between the jagged prongs and lifted into the boat before it is able to extricate itself4 ,almost any kind of food that it can master1 whether aquatic or terrestrial1 is eaten to satisfy the creature's most voracious appetite4 ,even mice and rats fall victims to its hunger1 and an ,eel is recorded to have been found floating dead on the water1 having been choked to death by a rat which it had essayed to swallow1 but which proved too large a morsel for its throat4 ,so remarkable is the tenacity of life which this fish possesses1 that after the creature has been cut up into lengths1 each separate piece will move as if alive1 and at the touch of a pin's point will curve itself as though it felt the injury4 ,when all irritability has ceased1 the portions will flounce vigorously about if placed in boiling water1 and even after its influence has ceased will1 upon the addition of salt1 jump about as vigorously as before4 ,there can be no real sensation1 let it be understood1 as the spinal cord has been severed and all connection with the brain1 which is the seat of sensation1 has been cut off4 ,how the ,eel reproduces its kind has long been a subject of discussion4 ,some held that the young is produced in a living condition1 and others that it is hatched from the egg4 ,the matter has1 however1 been set at rest by the microscope1 which shows that the oily-looking substance1 generally called fat1 which is found in the abdomen of the ,eel1 is really an aggregation of eggs1 and that these objects1 minute as they are1 and which are not so large as the point of a pin1 are quite as perfect in their structure as the eggs of a moth or a bird are seen to be to the naked1 unaided vision4 ,anguilla rostrata1 as the ,common ,american ,eel is technically known1 is abundant in the ,united ,states1 living in fresh-water streams1 but depositing its eggs1 often eight millions to a single fish1 in the ocean1 the young ascending the rivers4 ,eels are devoid of ventral fins4 ,their scales1 which are very minute1 are covered with a thick1 slime-like material4 ,under the microscope each scale is beautifully ornamented1 and the exquisite pattern formed by the scales on the skin may be readily and effectively seen if a bit of it1 when fresh1 be placed on the window-glass and allowed to dry4 ,the sexes are difficult to distinguish2 the females have the highest dorsal fin1 smaller eyes1 and a lighter color than the males1 while the snout is generally broader at the tip4 ,when contiguous to the sea1 as in a pond near ,wells1 on the coast of ,maine1 the ,eels invariably go down into salt water at night4 ,as the connecting stream is narrow1 the sight is remarkable1 thousands filling the channel1 many of whom1 when alarmed1 leaving the water and passing over the dry rocks to the ocean4 ,eels are not the silent creatures which many persons suppose them to be4 ,they frequently utter a sound1 expressed by a single note1 which is more distinctly musical than the sounds made by other fishes1 and which has a clear metallic resonance4 ,they are of slow growth1 scarcely reaching the length of twelve inches during the first year1 but subsequently attaining to large dimensions1 the preserved skins of two ,eels1 which ,mr4 ,yarrall saw at ,cambridge1 ,england1 weighing together fifty pounds1 the heavier being twenty-seven pounds in weight4 ,illustration3 ,,common ,,american ,,eel4 ,how ,it ,seeks ,new ,feeding-,grounds4 ,fish1 as a rule1 do not live more than a few minutes out of the water4 ,an ,eel1 however1 will remain alive for many hours1 and even days1 in atmospheric air1 provided it is laid in a damp place4 ,now1 if one be carefully watched when placed upon dry land1 it will be observed to pout out the cheeks on both sides of its face4 ,underneath this puffed-out skin will be found the gills1 and the skin which covers them will be seen to be so arranged as to form a closed sac1 which the ,eel fills with water1 and so keeps the gill-fibres moist4 ,this wonderful contrivance enables the ,eel to come out of the water1 and to travel1 so to speak1 by land4 ,thus ,eels are often found in outlying ponds of human construction1 where they were never placed by the hand of man4 ,finding old quarters uncomfortable1 they take in a good supply of water1 and exchange them for the better1 not by repeated leaps towards the water1 as some fish are known to do1 but by a smooth1 uniform snake-like progression4 ,that some fishes should leave the water and travel overland is1 perhaps1 not more remarkable than that some birds1 the ouzel for example1 should leave their natural element and fly into and under the water4 ,whoever knows the hidden paths of the marsh has doubtless watched the brown-hued ,eels wriggling their way through the grass from one pool to another1 especially at night1 leaving their home and wandering about1 seemingly unconscious whither their pilgrimage will end4 8,slippery as an ,eel0 is proverbial4 ,many a person has1 by his slick1 cunning ways1 succeeded in eluding the law and escaping justice1 affording an apt illustration of the character of the animal about which we have been talking1 but the slipperiness of the ,eel is not given to it that it may take some unlawful advantage of its neighbors1 but that it may the more readily slip from the grasp of a more powerful enemy1 or the more easily make its way into the muddy depths of the pond or stream which it so very much affects4 ,so it will be seen that while this slippery character in the one is protective1 in the economy of nature1 for a wise and laudable purpose1 yet in the other it but secures to the possessor the getting of an ignoble gain and the ruin of a once proud name4 ,while these agile denizens of aquatic life are selfish and voracious almost beyond precedent1 and apparently more concerned in feeding than in anything else1 there are certainly some traits in their character which are redeeming features4 ,low as they are in the scale of piscine existences1 occupying the very lowest family of the ,anguillidine ,apodes1 they are none the less susceptible to the human influence of kindness4 ,they grow accustomed to man when good is at the basis of his actions1 and have been known to accept food from his hand4 ,they remember the face of a friend1 and when it is presented at the door of glass1 so to speak1 that opens the way to their home1 they come without fear or suspicion showing itself in their movements4 ,even the sound of the voice of a benefactor awakens a sympathetic response in their bosoms4 ,,rana ,,and ,,bufo4 ,belonging to the lower vertebrates is a family of animals called scientifically ,ranid1 but which are1 popularly speaking1 best known as frogs4 ,they are queer-looking creatures1 scarcely met with in ,australia and ,south ,america1 but reaching their highest state in the ,east ,indies4 ,they are capable of enduring great changes of heat and cold1 and can live on land as well as in water1 provided they have the amount of moisture necessary to preserve the suppleness of their skins4 ,salt water is fatal to the frog in any stage of its existence4 ,rana clamata1 the lusty croaker of the summer pond1 is our most familiar species4 ,he may be recognized by the colors of his dress1 in which green1 bronze1 gold and silver play important parts1 and by the ear-splitting character of his vocal intonations4 ,the glandular ridges down the skin of his back1 together with his strange coloration1 singularly fit him for his home4 ,imitations of the stems of plants are seen in the darker ridges1 and their leafage in the green color of his coat4 ,the silver of his vest has the glimmer of the water in which he bathes1 and the moist earth seems to have left its stain upon his brownish feet and markings1 while the yellow of the several badges that adorn his person in being like the stamens and pistils of the surrounding flowers1 and of the hue of many buds and blossoms1 adds largely to his protective display4 ,thus is the frog in his natural haunts protected by his garments1 and1 unless he stirs or is betrayed by his full1 bright eyes or the palpitation of his breast1 he is not likely to be observed4 ,four fingers or toes are found upon the anterior extremities1 while those of the posterior are five in number and webbed4 ,the front legs are much shorter1 smaller and weaker than the hind ones1 which are largely developed1 and thus serviceable in swimming and leaping4 ,though the frog is possessed of a back-bone1 yet he has no ribs4 ,being ribless1 he cannot expand and contract his chest in breathing1 but must swallow what air he requires4 ,in swallowing the air he must close the mouth and take the air in only by the nostrils2 therefore1 oddly enough1 if his mouth is forcibly kept open1 he will smother4 ,the frog's breathing1 a fact not generally known1 is partly through his skin1 which gives off carbonic acid gas2 and moisture1 therefore1 is just as essential to his skin as it is to the gills of a fish4 ,damp1 rainy weather is his extreme delight4 ,when the rain falls1 out come the frogs4 ,their skin absorbs moisture1 which is stored up in internal reservoirs1 and some of this water1 when these timid creatures are alarmed by being suddenly seized1 is ejected1 but ,i do not think that it is purposely so done1 as the water is not1 as some people have fancied1 of a poisonous nature4 ,frogs have no poison-sacs1 and in truth no weapons of any kind4 ,open a frog's mouth1 and you will find but a few tiny teeth in the upper jaw and palate1 which are useful for the partial grinding up of horny insects4 ,his tongue you will discover to be a very odd affair1 which is fastened at the front end of the mouth1 the hinder part being free and hanging down the creature's throat4 ,this organ is covered with a glue-like secretion4 ,when an insect is to be captured1 it is snapped forward from the mouth1 and1 striking the insect1 which it seldom fails to do1 causes it to adhere as to bird-lime4 ,a few thoughts now about the life-history of the frog4 ,from egg to egg is the story4 ,in roundish masses1 upon sticks lying in water1 or upon the leaves and stems of submerged water-plants1 are the eggs deposited4 ,the creature that comes from the egg is no more like a frog than a caterpillar is like a butterfly4 ,it has a large head1 small tail1 branched gills1 and is devoid of limbs1 resembling1 in this stage1 more a fish than a frog4 ,this is its early childhood1 or tadpole state4 ,it can only live in water now1 and swims and feeds from the very moment it leaves the egg4 ,change in form almost immediately begins1 the branched gills being drawn within the neck and hidden1 a pair of fore-legs beginning to bud1 and subsequently a pair of hind-legs1 which push out much faster than the fore-legs4 ,as the legs grow1 the tail is gradually absorbed and disappears4 ,the interior of the body meanwhile changes1 the lungs and heart becoming reptilian4 ,when the gills and tail are gone1 and the legs are fully formed1 the once-swimming tadpole hops out of the water a perfectly-formed frog4 ,when first the tadpole emerged from the egg1 it ate the jelly-like cover4 ,then soft animal and vegetable matters1 with the strengthening of its pair of horny jaws1 began to be devoured4 ,insects later on1 and even its own kith and kin1 became its food4 ,the fare of the adult frog is almost exclusively insect in character1 although necessity sometimes drives him to make a meal out of some of his weaker brethren4 ,seated in cool1 leafy shadows1 not far from his favorite stream or pool1 the frog watches with his great1 black1 gold-ringed eyes for such insects as good fortune shall bring to his retreat4 ,as one hovers near1 out flies his limber1 sticky1 ribbon-like tongue1 true to its mark1 and the hapless insect1 adhering to the viscid projected ribbon1 is gently and cleverly deposited in the open throat1 the frog maintaining all the while an air of calm1 superior self-satisfaction1 as if he had not so much satisfied an appetite as fulfilled the mission of ridding nature of a superfluous insect4 ,a most harmless1 timid and interesting animal is the frog1 and often most unfortunate4 ,he is the legitimate mark for all the missiles that can be thrown at him by urchins wandering about his native pool4 ,snakes make him their prey1 and he is always in mental fear lest some insidious serpent shall take him unawares1 or his musings shall be suddenly cut short by the stately progress of some swan or goose1 sailing over the limpid water1 or searching the green herbage wherein he sits concealed4 ,illustration3 ,,rana ,,clamata1 ,,or ,,green ,,frog4 ,lusty ,croaker of the ,summer ,pond4 ,that he is susceptible of being trained1 there can be no question4 ,man is not always viewed by him as an inveterate enemy1 nor does he always dive headlong into the pool when his presence is near4 ,he has been known to cultivate man's acquaintance1 and to live on friendly terms with him4 ,some three years ago a tiny frog was taken from a swamp by a friend and placed in a small stream of spring water that passed close to the house where the writer was summering4 ,a dozen times a day the little frog was dipped up by the hand from the bottom of the stream1 and forced to endure down the head and back the tenderest caresses4 ,a few insects were then offered as food in conciliation for the liberty taken1 which the little frog was only induced to accept after a great deal of persuasion1 when he was carefully put back into his watery bath4 ,in the space of a week1 the frog had become so attached to his friend1 that he would leap into his outstretched hand and take his food without the least distrust or fear4 ,even the voice of the master was recognized by the frog1 and1 when heard in the distance1 was the signal for the strangest behavior4 ,froggie would leap out of the water upon a bare stretch of earth1 peer off in the direction whence the sound came1 and there await his master's arrival with restless anxiety4 ,the strongest bond of friendship seemed to unite the two4 ,not only was the frog able to recognize the voice of his friend1 but he knew him in person as well4 ,repeated efforts were made by the writer to gain the attention and good-will of the frog1 but all his advances were received with the utmost indifference4 ,while the species which ,i have just described represents the aquatic ,ranid1 the ,wood-frog1 its near kin1 represents a branch of the family which prefers dry situations1 except in breeding times1 when the eggs must be deposited in water4 ,the ,wood-frog is somewhat smaller than the ,bull-frog1 and is clad in olive-green and brown colors1 which are in perfect keeping with the coloration of dead leaves and dry twigs4 ,there is a large black patch on the side of the head around the big ear-drum1 which seems still further to distinguish him from his cousin4 ,he is a very shy and suspicious creature1 and makes a prodigious jump at the first intimation of danger1 his leaps being so enormous that it is very difficult to capture him4 ,when upon the ground1 he can hardly be discerned from the dry vegetation around4 ,by hiding in damp moss or in decayed logs1 and in little hollows in the ground1 he is enabled to maintain the moisture of his skin4 ,he avoids the sunshine1 and keeps close to the earth4 ,another curious ,rana is the ,tree-frog4 ,he is smaller than any of his cousins1 and may be known by his bright green dress1 which is spotted with black1 and by a membrane stretched between his toes1 which gives him a broad1 flat surface1 while it helps to sustain him as he leaps1 somewhat after the fashion of a flying squirrel1 from branch to branch4 ,in tropical regions1 where many of the trees are bedecked with gorgeous blossoms1 ,tree-frogs appear in the gayest of colors1 the splendor of their garb being protective in such surroundings4 ,dressed in black and light brown1 and living in marshes in the ,eastern ,united ,states1 is another species--the ,swamp-frog4 ,his voice is a prolonged croak1 which1 to the practised ear1 can be readily distinguished from the bawl of ,clamata1 or the roar of the ,bull-frog4 ,cats1 geese1 hawks1 vultures1 owls and other animals eat frogs1 and the luckless creatures can scarcely appear without finding an enemy4 ,but nature1 who is a very wise and considerate mother1 provides a means for balancing this great destruction of their forces in endowing them with wonderful reproductive organs4 ,so prolific are frogs1 that when the little black tadpoles appear1 so thickly are they huddled together that the pond seems literally alive with their swimming forms4 ,in the same class of animals to which the frogs belong1 as well as to the same order1 but to a different sub-order1 are placed the toads1 somewhat remote cousins of the frogs4 ,as the frog is well-known about our ponds1 so the toad is a constant denizen of our groves and gardens4 ,the frog1 you have been told1 is a species of ,rana1 and now ,i shall introduce to you the toad as a species of ,bufo4 ,in general anatomy they are alike4 ,their eggs and young are closely similar1 and the stages of growth from egg to adult form are nearly identical4 ,when the adult stage is attained the frogs and toads are very tiny creatures1 but1 small as they are1 they are readily distinguishable from each other by the conformation of the snout1 and by the larger development of the hind-legs of the frog4 ,their chief differences will now be enumerated4 ,the toad has no teeth1 but the frog1 as has been stated before1 has teeth in both the upper jaw and the palate4 ,similarly attached is the tongue1 but the free end of the frog's tongue is forked1 and the toad's entire4 ,the skin of the toad is usually warty1 while the frog's is smooth4 ,a rounder body1 shorter hind-legs1 less fully webbed feet and more rounded snout still further distinguish the toad from the frog4 ,their soft moist skin shows them to be ,amphibians4 ,the absence of tails places them among the ,anuran1 or ,tailless ,amphibians4 ,thus far they agree well together1 but differences loom up upon careful examination1 and we are compelled to say of the frog that he belongs to the ,ranid1 and of the toad that he belongs to the ,bufonid4 ,of the two animals1 the toad is by far the more interesting and useful4 ,the toad is almost unrestricted in his territorial range4 ,he hops through the tropics and the temperate zones1 and well up into the polar regions4 ,everywhere he is the same inoffensive1 gentle1 humble1 useful and generally silent creature4 ,but like his human brother he has his faults4 ,he has a great fondness for bees4 ,happy is he when1 brigand-like1 he can stand by the highway of the bees and capture them as they return to their waxen city4 ,their wealth of honey he does not demand as a ransom1 but swallows the little creatures themselves1 alive and whole1 and digests them at leisure4 ,bee-eating seems his only fault4 ,not only the hive-bee1 but other insects as well1 share his attention4 ,millions of noxious beetles and bugs are devoured1 and the world is the richer by thousands of bushels of fruit and vegetables4 ,the good he accomplishes largely outweighs the mischief he commits4 ,so ceaselessly and swiftly he swallows his game1 that a grasshopper's legs or a sphinx's antenn may often be seen sticking out of his mouth1 while the carcass itself is well down in his throat4 ,french gardeners so appreciate his utility that he is brought to market and sold for a pittance to such as may need his services4 ,illustration3 ,,common ,,american ,,toad4 ,how ,he ,manages a ,difficulty4 ,toads can be tamed and taught to eat from the hand4 ,they are easily beguiled with sugar and with bread that has been soaked in milk1 but1 like a captious child1 they eat only the middle out of the slice1 and leave the crust4 ,we once saw a toad1 a noble fellow he was1 who1 at a certain hour of the closing day1 would come from his gloomy retreat to receive at the hands of man his supper of flies1 which he had been trained to catch on the throw4 ,so unerringly would his tongue dart out at the opportune moment1 that he seldom1 if ever1 shot wide of his mark4 ,it is amusing to observe him when1 in his greed and haste1 he has attempted to swallow a huge grasshopper whose legs will not accommodate themselves to his peculiar gape of mouth4 ,how he swallows and twists and contracts the walls of his throat1 but the legs seem unmanageable4 ,he does not give up1 or endeavor to eject the half-swallowed body1 but ponders the matter over and over4 ,a look of delight beams out of his eyes1 that shows he has managed the problem4 ,up goes to the mouth the right fore-leg1 and1 in less time than it takes to chronicle the event1 the obstreperous insect is pushed into the stomach4 ,some curious myths are told of the toad4 ,one says he can live for hundreds of years encased in clay or in stone4 ,no more true of ,bufo is this than of ,rana1 his cousin4 ,another asserts that his skin1 when handled1 is productive of warts1 and that the fluid he emits1 which serves but to moisten his body1 for without moisture he could certainly not live1 and to protect him from enemies1 is poisonous in character4 ,his power to produce warts1 we cannot admit4 ,but that the fluid he exudes1 if not poisonous to touch1 is offensive to animals1 there can be no doubt4 ,we are led to this conclusion from the following considerations3 ,dogs1 young animals especially1 are prone to attack the toad1 but they never want to repeat their experience4 ,the toad's exudation so affects the salivary glands of the dog as to cause him to froth and foam like an animal with rabies4 ,a case is recalled where a dog1 that had taken a toad in his mouth1 became almost frantic4 ,this dog never afterwards was well4 ,his whole system apparently had become diseased1 and1 in less than a year1 he had wasted to a complete skeleton1 when death relieved him of his sufferings4 ,another allegation1 that the toad has a jewel in his head1 has been believed from very ancient times4 ,the story doubtlessly originated from the beauty of the toad's eyes1 the irides being a rich flame-color1 which1 in the dusk of the even1 shine like burnished gems4 ,when hatched the young of the toad are of a jet black color1 and are very active4 ,their changes are made very early and in the same manner as those of the frog4 ,they are quite small when arrived at the perfect toad state4 ,their legs produced and their tails absorbed1 they quit the water and set out on long journeys4 ,unlike the frog1 which is a home-stayer1 the toad is a born vagrant4 ,they travel chiefly by night1 hiding under stones and herbage during the day4 ,if clouds cover the sky1 they take heart and joyously hop forth upon their pilgrimage4 ,during a long drouth they mysteriously disappear1 but if a rain comes on they suddenly come out by hundreds1 and this has given rise to the tale of a 8shower of toads40 ,worms1 as well as flies1 etc41 constitute a toad's bill of fare4 ,after a rain toads and worms1 it would seem1 are mutually inspired to take their walks abroad1 and many an unfortunate worm makes its way into the toad's maw4 ,dead insects are at a discount with him1 and he views with suspicion anything that shows not the active wriggling principle of life4 ,when winter comes on the toad1 like the frog1 goes into winter-quarters4 ,since the young toad reaches its adult size in the autumn1 it is forced to pass the first period of its grown-up life in a sleep1 or coma1 in some hole or burrow which it has found or fashioned in the earth4 ,sometimes toads creep into rock-crevices1 or into hollows in logs and trees1 and being found in these places in the early spring are hastily supposed to have been prisoners for many years4 ,in the process of growth the skin of the toad1 as well as that of the frog1 becomes too small1 and hence is cast off4 ,as the shedding-time approaches1 the white1 green and brown colors become dull1 and a peculiar dryness appears4 ,a new skin is now forming under the outgrown one1 and presently the latter splits half down the middle of the back and along the under part of the body4 ,by a series of violent twitchings of the toad the old skin is made to wrinkle and fold along the sides4 ,a hind-leg is now tucked under a fore-arm1 and by a good pull the animal is soon out of that leg of his trousers4 ,the other leg is removed in similar fashion4 ,putting one hand in his mouth and giving a jerk1 off comes the covering of that hand and arm1 like a discarded glove4 ,he has now but to take off the other1 and he is free4 ,relieved of his dress he neither sells nor gives it away1 but rolls it up into a neat solid ball and swallows it4 ,the frog strips off and disposes of his outgrown skin in a similar way4 ,strange to say1 toads and frogs can change to some extent the color of their skin to suit their homes4 ,kept in the dark with dark surroundings1 toads become darker in color1 while those that are kept in light with white accessories become lighter4 ,the color of the toad changes more slowly than that of the frog4 ,it is not the arrangement of the color that alters1 but merely a change from light to dark4 ,what has been said applies to our ,common ,american ,toad1 the ,bufo ,americana of the books4 ,let us now look at some curious specimens of the ,bufonid4 ,the ,pipa1 or ,surinam ,toad1 does not lay her eggs in water1 but places them on her back4 ,a fold of skin rises up and encloses each egg in a separate cell1 until the young have not only been hatched1 but have also passed through all their metamorphoses1 and come out fully formed4 ,another toad1 abundant in ,europe and ,asia1 is largely colored with bright crimson1 and the father-toad carries the little ones in separate cells fastened to his hind-legs like chains4 ,the young change to their perfect shape in these cells1 and with the withering away of the cells the young toads hop out1 able to take care of themselves4 ,somewhere ,i have said that toads are generally silent4 ,a little toad about three inches long1 called a ,natter-jack1 is common in ,england1 and is a noted singer4 ,his 8gluck-gluck1 gluck-k-k10 can be heard any night4 ,the ,green ,toad1 well known on the ,continent1 is not so noisy as the ,natter-jack1 but has a low1 moaning cry4 ,all the ,tree-toads1 or ,hylid1 have clear1 shrill voices1 and are fond of singing serenades4 ,in the spring the ,common ,toad takes to the water and there sings very loudly4 ,the loud continuous trill that we hear in swamps in spring-time is made by toads1 and not by frogs1 as is generally believed4 ,another toad with a voice is the ,spade-foot4 ,this ,toad is rare1 though widely distributed4 ,it is remarkable for its feet1 formed for digging1 its subterranean habits1 and its queer way of appearing and disappearing very suddenly4 ,after a rainy season the ,spade-foot will emerge from its hiding-place1 attract attention by its loud cries1 swarm by hundreds about the ponds1 lay innumerable eggs1 and vanish4 ,but while thousands of eggs are laid1 scarcely any hatch1 for most of them perish from being laid so near to the water's edge as to become dried up on the subsidence of the water4 ,thus we find that toads have three different methods of life4 ,some live on trees1 but seldom appear upon the ground4 ,others are underground dwellers1 and hardly ever come to the surface4 ,but the ,common ,toad1 and his numerous kin1 are dwellers in the ground1 hiding among grass and other herbage when asleep1 or when the sun is too intense for their comfort4 ,but all toads1 excepting the two varieties mentioned above1 which carry their young on their bodies1 repair to the water to drop their eggs1 and the young live in the water until they have attained the adult state4 ,,our ,,natural ,,enemies4 ,no animal1 perhaps1 is so little known and understood as the snake4 ,this is not because its study has been neglected or overlooked1 as our scientific institutions are replete with fine collections of most of the reptiles1 and exhaustive works upon their habits and customs4 ,yet1 notwithstanding this1 the snake continues to be the subject of ever-recurring stories1 fabulous in the extreme1 that seem handed down from generation to generation4 ,strange to say1 many of these stories are current among those who1 from the nature of their lives1 would be expected to be well and accurately informed on the habits of the animals4 ,farmers and horticulturists are plentiful who religiously believe that the ,milk ,snake1 the beautiful ,ophibolus clericus1 deprives milk-giving animals of their supply of milk4 ,a statement often seen1 and that has many believers1 is that the ,whip-snake of the ,south seizes its tail--which is supposed to have a sting--in its mouth1 and rolls away in the form of a wheel1 stopping suddenly and striking the enemy with the sting4 ,such fables are current by the score1 and denial only strengthens belief4 ,more than a hundred species of snakes1 nearly all having a wide geographical range1 are found in ,america1 north of ,mexico4 ,they constitute the first order1 ,ophidia1 of reptiles1 and have long1 cylindrical bodies1 are footless1 without a shoulder-girdle1 and invested with a coat of scales1 which is shed in the summer months4 ,snakes have no eyelids in the strict sense of the term4 ,their eyes are permanently covered by a delicate membrane that takes the place of the lid1 and this explains the stony stare1 so disagreeable to many1 that all snakes have4 ,the skeleton of snakes is so arranged as to allow the greatest freedom and flexibility4 ,numerous pieces of bone1 hollow in front and convex behind1 make up the long tapering backbone1 which literally works on a ball-and-socket plan4 ,articular facets1 that lock into each other1 are found upon the processes of the vertebr1 and these strengthen and give to the backbone a greater degree of flexibility4 ,a more remarkable arrangement1 however1 is found in the head1 which enables the snake to prey upon animals that are larger than itself4 ,the jaws seem a combination of elastic springs1 having no gauge to their tension1 the quadrate bones connecting the lower jaw with the skull being movable1 thus allowing that enormous gape with which all are familiar who have seen a snake swallow its prey4 ,besides this1 the bones of the jaw itself and palate are more or less movable1 also tending to the larger distention of the throat4 ,as snakes do not tear or mutilate their prey1 their teeth are not set in sockets1 but serve merely to poison and stupefy the prey1 or to prevent its escape1 acting as hooks by which the body is hauled over the victim4 ,the bones of the lower jaw1 as we have seen1 are not fastened closely to each other2 so in swallowing prey the teeth on one side are advanced1 and then those on the other side1 and so on until the victim is hauled1 hand over hand1 as it were1 into the snake's throat4 ,poisonous snakes1 such as the rattlers1 have two long1 sharp fangs1 each compressed and bent up1 and forming a hollow tube1 open at both ends4 ,the upper portion of the hollow fang is fastened to a bone in the cheek1 which moves with ease1 so that1 when not in use1 the fangs can be packed away until needed4 ,all animals1 man included1 have doubtless in their saliva a deadly poison1 though in the latter it is extremely diluted1 and essential only to the digestion of food4 ,in poisonous snakes1 however1 it is stored up in sacs1 modifications of the salivary glands1 and placed in each side of the upper jaw4 ,from the poison-gland under the eye forward to the edge of the jaw1 a delicate canal1 which opens into the fang above the tube of the tooth1 extends4 ,alongside of the latter may be seen rudimentary fangs1 all ready to grow out should the large one be lost4 ,to use the poison1 the snake has merely to strike its prey1 when the muscles of the jaw1 which are admirably fitted for the part they have to play in the tragedy1 press upon the glands1 squeeze the poison through the little canal down through the hollow fang1 and the work is accomplished4 ,in their actions1 snakes are most graceful4 ,the gliding motion1 so characteristic1 is effected by the movements of the large central scales1 that are successively pushed forward1 the hinder edges resting on the ground and constituting a support4 ,these scales1 or pushers1 are fastened to the ribs by muscles1 and by holding a snake by the hand the swelling movement can readily be felt4 ,snakes vary much in color4 ,they are generally adapted to their surroundings4 ,green ,snakes are found in green grass and vegetation1 while grey snakes affect rocky districts1 where they are alike protected4 ,their skin is shed in one piece at various seasons of the year1 being forced off by the snake forming a ring with its tail and squeezing the rest of the body through it1 or by wriggling through entangled bushes4 ,poisonous snakes may be always recognized by their broad1 flattened heads1 generally short and thick bodies1 and the almost invariable possession of a vertical keel along the centre of each scale4 ,long bodies1 small heads devoid of distinct necks1 and scales not keeled1 characterize non-poisonous species4 ,probably the best-known of our common kinds of poisonous snakes are the rattlesnakes4 ,they belong to the dangerous family ,crotalid1 to which the copperheads and moccasins also belong1 and are distinguished by the large1 ugly head1 absence of teeth in the upper jaw excepting the fangs1 and the pit in the head4 ,illustration3 ,,northern ,,rattlesnake4 ,prepared to ,attack a ,song ,sparrow4 ,crotalus horridus1 our ,northern ,rattlesnake1 has doubtless the widest geographical distribution1 being found in nearly every ,state in the ,union1 from the ,gulf of ,mexico to ,northern ,new ,england1 and thence west to the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,it has a most forbidding appearance1 and when once seen with its enormous head1 triangular in shape1 and large brilliant eyes1 with fiery irides1 it can never be mistaken4 ,between the eye and the nostril is a deep pit1 a character that is peculiar to the family4 ,all rattlers1 as the name indicates1 have a horny appendage to the tail1 formed of separate button-like objects1 that rattle together when the tail is vibrated4 ,this rattle not only serves to warn human beings of danger1 but also to arouse in animals a curiosity that often proves fatal4 ,the popular belief that a rattle is added every year1 and that it is possible to determine the age of the animals by this means1 is not borne out by facts4 ,sometimes two rattles are known to appear within a year1 and other instances are recorded where four have been attained in that period1 and others still when several have been lost1 new ones taking their places4 ,the number of rattles is also uncertain4 ,the greatest number1 as observed by ,dr4 ,holbrook1 is twenty-one1 but a specimen is mentioned in the books that had forty-four4 ,mild and peaceful in disposition1 the ,rattlesnake has never been known1 unless provoked1 to attack a human being1 nor to follow him with hostile intention4 ,he preys upon small animals1 as rats1 squirrels1 rabbits and birds1 and can always be approached when he is stretched out1 only striking when he is coiled4 ,he is not a climber1 seldom1 if ever1 being found in trees4 ,his alleged powers of fascination are purely mythical4 ,the horror his presence inspires often paralyzes with fear his victim1 who1 incapable of flight1 stupidly awaits his fate4 ,men1 women and children have been known1 when attacked by these animals1 to become rooted to the spot1 as it were1 by fear and surprise4 ,all the so-called cases of fascination can be explained by the fear which the snake's unlooked-for presence inspires4 ,wonderful curative powers are imputed to the oil of the ,rattlesnake4 ,many snakes are killed during the summer months for this oil1 but the grand gathering of the crop is in the fall1 when they have repaired to their dens and wintering places4 ,sunny days in ,october and ,november are chosen by snake-hunters for raiding them4 ,the snakes1 dull and sluggish at that time of the year1 crawl out of their dens upon the rocks1 huddling together by the score for the purpose of basking in the sun4 ,armed with old-fashioned flails the hunters1 when they come upon a group of snakes1 proceed at once to thresh them1 but few making good their escape4 ,the ,rattlesnakes1 assorted from other species that are frequently massed together with them1 are carried home1 when the oil is simply tried out1 bottled up and is then ready for the market and the credulous patient4 ,no subject connected with snakes1 it would seem1 has attracted so much attention as the vexed one as to the care which they take of their young4 ,snakes would hardly be expected to show any great amount of maternal affection1 but that they do1 and in a most remarkable manner1 by taking their young into their mouths1 if alarmed1 is a well-established fact4 ,the mother1 when danger is imminent1 sounds her rattle as a signal1 opens her very large mouth1 and receives in it her little family4 ,the bite of nearly all rattlesnakes is extremely dangerous1 though not necessarily fatal in the smaller kinds4 ,almost all animals succumb to their bite1 and even man himself1 if the proper remedy is not at hand4 ,there is a general belief that the hog is exempt1 and acting upon this belief farmers have been known1 where these reptiles are very abundant1 to turn in a few hogs upon them for their destruction4 ,this animal1 though it has a fondness for the reptile1 and exercises a great deal of caution in its attack1 has not infrequently been killed by the reptile's poisonous fangs4 ,large doses of whiskey have been successful in neutralizing the effects of the poison1 but it has been practically and experimentally proved that permanganate of potash is the best antidote4 ,but of all the poisonous snakes of this country1 the ,copperhead1 ,ancistrodon contortrix1 is the most dreaded4 ,in the ,south1 he is known as the ,cotton-mouth1 ,moccasin and ,red-eye1 and is just as common in the ,gulf ,states as in the ,atlantic and ,middle ,states4 ,he attains a length of two feet1 is of a hazel hue1 the head having a bright coppery lustre1 and loves to conceal himself in shady spots in meadows of high grass1 where he feeds upon small animals1 rarely1 if ever1 attacking large ones unless trodden on4 ,the mother ,copperhead has also been observed to shelter her young in her mouth when threatened by danger4 ,ancistrodon piscivorus1 the ,water ,moccasin1 that commands so much respect from the negroes of the ,south1 is1 from the pugnacity of his nature1 equally to be feared4 ,while the ,rattlesnake will slink away from danger1 the ,moccasin will attack man or brute with savage ferocity4 ,he is essentially a water-snake1 chasing fishes and small reptiles in the streams of his native haunts1 and may be recognized by the dark-brown colors on the upper portion of the head and the yellowish line that passes from the snout to or over the nostril4 ,his length rarely exceeds twenty inches1 and he is stout in proportion4 ,the ,moccasins show the same curious care for their young already mentioned4 ,a low1 blowing noise apprises them of danger1 and into the slightly-opened mouth of the mother1 which is held close to the ground1 they hurriedly disappear4 ,illustration3 ,,mother ,,black ,,snake4 ,her ,affection for ,newly-,hatched ,young4 ,one of the commonest of the non-poisonous snakes is the ,striped ,garter ,snake1 ten species of which being known in the ,united ,states4 ,upon the earliest appearance of spring they are almost the first to roll out of their holes1 where they have lain dormant in balls or clusters during the cold winter months4 ,though easily excited1 and striking quickly1 yet their bite is little more than a scratch4 ,their appetites are now quite vigorous1 and they have been seen to chase a toad for more than fifty feet over a gravelly road1 effecting its capture4 ,they are remarkably prolific1 and their numbers about pools are sometimes astonishing4 ,it would seem that they are viviparous as well as oviparous1 from the fact that some young ones have been free and others in sacs in the abdomen of the mother4 ,with a brood of forty or fifty young1 which a single female has been known to produce1 it would seem that the ,striped ,snake would have a difficult time in protecting her offspring by taking them into her mouth4 ,they have this habit1 however1 as abundance of evidence could be adduced to show4 ,one witness observed a ,striped ,snake upon a hillside1 and noticed something moving about her head1 which proved to be young snakes4 ,he counted twenty little ones from one and a half to two inches long4 ,led by curiosity1 he made a move towards the spot1 when the old one opened her mouth1 and they went in out of sight4 ,he then stepped back and waited1 and in a few minutes they began to come out4 ,another witness came across a female with some young ones near her1 who1 perceiving him1 uttered a loud hiss1 and the young ones jumped down her throat1 when she instantly glided away to a place of concealment beneath a huge heap of stones4 ,the ,black ,snake1 ,bascanion constrictor1 the mortal enemy of the ,rattlesnake1 is a familiar species1 and one that is widely distributed4 ,as winter approaches1 these snakes come from far and near to some apparently appointed place of rendezvous1 where1 rolling themselves up into a matted ball1 they sleep the days and nights of winter away1 and come out in the spring-time1 when the common mother of us all has conditioned things to their habits and ways of life4 ,in appearance1 from a decorative point of view1 they are very attractive1 being of a uniform steel-blue color1 with a rich tessellated arrangement of scales4 ,they are of wild and untamable natures1 powerful and active as foes1 often engaging in encounters with other snakes1 especially the ,rattlesnakes1 whom they kill or force to disgorge their prey4 ,in their movements they are so rapid that they are often called the ,racer4 ,it is in the breeding season that they manifest their greatest boldness1 and have often been known to go out of their way to attack a passer-by4 ,they will chase an intruder for a long distance1 and will even descend a tree to attack the one who is teasing them4 ,it is the ,black ,snake that appears the most frequently in the guise of a charmer4 ,but1 as has been remarked before1 this power1 so often imputed1 is merely imaginary4 ,the reptile preys upon birds in their nests1 penetrating the thickets in quest of them1 and often the cat-bird and the red-winged blackbird1 which are so prone to attack1 are seen acting strangely1 crying and fluttering before the reptile in fear and rage1 while thus charmed1 and frequently falling a victim in their endeavors to protect their young4 ,at such times the cries of distress of the old birds bring birds of different genera together1 who join their forces against the common enemy1 finally compelling him to retreat4 ,like other snakes mentioned1 the ,black ,snake has the same remarkable habit of taking her young into her mouth for protection4 ,among the most attractive forms are the ,green ,snakes4 ,leptophis stivus1 so common in the ,south1 and occasionally to be met with in ,southern ,new ,jersey1 is of a brilliant green color1 and so perfectly mimicking a vine that it would rarely be taken for a living creature when lying around the branches of a tree4 ,they have a habit of coiling in the nests of birds1 often surprising the egg-hunter by bounding swiftly away4 ,allied species1 further to the ,south1 have been observed1 when approached1 to leap twenty feet in the air1 falling to the ground and making their escape4 ,they are perfectly harmless creatures1 and1 like the ,green ,snake of the ,north1 can be handled with not the slightest risk of danger4 ,we once knew a gentleman who had one in confinement1 whom he had trained to eat from a dish and to come to his hand at the sound of his voice4 ,the beautiful creature1 which was a female1 showed the most marked affection1 and would often twine her little form about his neck or glide her smooth head1 lazily as it seemed1 along his face and forehead4 ,illustration3 ,,summer ,,green ,,snake4 ,manner of ,mimicking a ,vine4 ,an extremely common snake in the ,eastern ,united ,states is the ,water ,snake4 ,nerodia sipedon is the name by which it is known to the naturalist4 ,there is in ,michigan an allied form1 known as the ,red-bellied ,water ,snake1 which is quite as common1 while several other species abound in other localities4 ,they are all inoffensive creatures and prey upon small animals4 ,the female shows the same regard for her young as other kinds1 suffering them1 even when three or four inches long1 to take shelter in her throat1 when she will clumsily turn in search of some place of concealment4 ,illustration3 ,,water ,,snake4 ,swallowing ,her ,young4 ,water-snakes generally affect water-courses1 often hanging from the branches of trees over streams1 into which they drop when disturbed4 ,dr4 ,bell1 an ,english naturalist of distinction1 once tamed a ,european species of this genus4 ,this pet could distinguish him among a crowd1 and would crawl to him1 passing into his sleeve1 where it would curl up for a nap4 ,every morning found it at the doctor's table for its share of milk4 ,for strangers it had an aversion1 flying and hissing at them when any familiarities were attempted4 ,were these grovelling creatures better known1 there would be found much in them to admire and commend4 ,they are not the hideous beings they are represented to be4 ,the feeling of hatred against them1 an instinctive and unappeasable enmity1 is perfectly natural1 and has grown out of religious superstitions4 ,fear1 disgust and aversion are man's experiences at the sight of a snake1 and there is at once a disposition to seize a stick or stone1 or to make use of his heel1 if well protected1 to deal a fatal stroke4 ,war to the death seems to be the cry between the highest of the mammals and the serpent tribe4 ,it is not at all surprising1 therefore1 that the snake1 seeing a human enemy1 should either glide hastily off into the bushes1 or1 being thwarted1 should coil itself up and hiss or throw itself forward in attack4 ,man would do well to protect the snakes about his domains1 and treat them as friends1 for they do him invaluable service in the destruction of vermin that make havoc with his crops4 ,ants1 bees1 spiders1 and many fishes1 animals that are lower down in the scale than the snake1 it is claimed1 show far more forecast1 ingenuity and architectural ability than it1 but asserters of such an opinion forget that the snake is never studied under favorable conditions4 ,long ages of persecution have made him fearful of man1 from whose presence he flees as from a pestilence or scourge1 and there is consequently no chance to learn his better nature4 ,even man1 until recently1 has shown no inclination to make his acquaintance1 being controlled by a dread which it appears well nigh impossible to overcome4 ,where the animal has been made to partake of the milk of human kindness1 and has learned to regard man as a friend and not an enemy1 he has shown remarkable susceptibility to culture and enlightenment4 ,let it be hoped that a modicum of the wisdom which has been attributed to him from the earliest of times1 when he was made the object of homage and the insignia of the physician1 shall at least be found to remain to the credit of science and truth4 ,,house-,,bearing ,,reptiles4 ,turtles are four-legged reptiles1 with short1 stout1 oval-shaped bodies encased in bony boxes1 from which they are able to protrude their heads1 legs and tails1 and into which they can withdraw them1 at pleasure4 ,considerable diversity exists in the size and shape of the box-like covering in the different species4 ,the ,box ,tortoise can retire into his shell or house1 closing the under part or plastron into a groove of the upper edge of the carapace1 as the upper part is called1 thus constituting for his security an impregnable retreat4 ,there are species only partly enclosed by the shell1 which cannot bring their heads and feet under cover4 ,with his house upon his back the turtle wanders about as the snail does1 and against his enemies can close its doors and be emphatically not at home4 ,he has acute sight and hearing1 but is devoid of teeth1 the jaws being1 like those of birds1 simply cased in horn4 ,turtles are not altogether silent creatures1 for many of them are capable of producing very loud sounds4 ,their eggs1 which have a parchment-like covering1 are buried in earth or sand1 and left to themselves to hatch4 ,the sea-turtle1 our largest variety1 is sometimes found to lay as many as two hundred eggs in a heap1 and in tropical regions has been known to attain a weight of a thousand pounds4 ,even on the ,atlantic ,coast of the ,united ,states individuals1 weighing upwards of eight hundred pounds1 have not infrequently been captured4 ,in the four species of sea-turtles1 the feet are flat and paddle-shaped1 and the shell of one rather leathery than horny4 ,some of these marine forms are carnivorous1 living on fish1 mollusks and crustaceans1 while others are strictly vegetarians1 subsisting only on roots and the various sea-weeds4 ,the flesh of some is rich and delicious1 and a favorite and costly article of food1 but of others it is coarse and ill-flavored1 and necessarily not edible4 ,the eggs1 however1 are always sweet1 good and wholesome food4 ,valuable articles of commerce1 such as boxes1 cases1 knife-handles1 jewelry and other delicate ornaments1 are made from the shell1 for it is susceptible of a very high polish1 which brings out with surprising clearness its rich brown and golden shades and markings4 ,next to the sea-living turtles1 come the fresh-water species1 which eat both animal and vegetable foods4 ,they enjoy much better than aught else a bed of soft mud1 their heads lifted above the surface of the stagnant water1 their long necks moving snake-like as they gulp in mouthful after mouthful of air4 ,they are generally gregarious in habits1 large numbers often being found huddled together in the sun on logs or banks1 close to the water1 into which they quickly slide upon the first intimation of danger4 ,timid as they are1 yet they will snap and bite most furiously when taken in the hand4 ,salt- and fresh-water terrapins are varieties of turtle1 although some scientists restrict the latter term to marine animals that do not hibernate1 and that cannot draw their head and feet inside the shell4 ,the tortoise never goes to sea they say1 can draw himself within his shell1 although the ,box ,tortoise only can close the shell fast when thus withdrawn1 and finally1 that the tortoise hibernates4 ,some of the best and latest writers on the subject call all these animals turtles1 applying the name tortoise only to the familiar ,box ,tortoise of the wood4 ,awkward as turtles appear in their box-like covering1 yet they can walk rapidly on land1 are climbers of some note1 and all are able to swim4 ,the head1 neck1 and legs of a turtle are of a bronze1 blackish green1 or deep-brown color1 and the shells are beautifully marked1 glossy1 ridged1 or carved1 and made up of closely-united1 many-sided plates1 arranged upon a thickened1 lighter-colored and apparently uniform bony plate1 which is capable of being separated into many independent pieces4 ,the shell1 or epidermic covering1 is not brittle and lime-like1 as the shells of all mollusks are1 but is of the nature of horn4 ,in general the plastron is of a lighter color than the carapace1 being light-brown1 yellow or cream1 with yellowish lines dividing the plates1 and with bordering bands of red1 yellow and purple4 ,the upper plate is usually of a very dark color1 marked and lined with darker and lighter tints1 and often displaying a bevelled yellow edge4 ,chrysemys picta1 the ,painted ,turtle1 receives his name from the beauty of his many-colored shell1 while the ,spotted ,turtle1 ,nanemys guttatus1 which is often called the ,wood ,turtle1 is distinguished by the round yellow spots that are regularly distributed over his dark-colored carapace4 ,but of all our turtles none is so well known or so interesting in his ways as the ,common ,box ,tortoise--,cistudo clausa4 ,he affects dry woods1 and dislikes the water1 and is a long-lived creature1 some individuals having been known to live more than a hundred years4 ,box ,tortoises in confinement have been found to eat meat1 insects and bread and milk from the hand1 but if berries were put into their mouths they wiped them out in a very funny manner with their front feet1 which they used after the fashion of a hand4 ,illustration3 ,copyright #aijj by ,a4 ,r4 ,,dugmore4 ,,box-,,tortoise ,,feeding ,,on ,,fungus4 ,when foraging in the woods1 especially during the rainy season1 at which time manifold varieties of fungi prevail1 they make their meals largely upon these plants4 ,we have seen a huge toadstool that had been gnawed off so evenly1 the central pillar only being left intact1 that appeared as though it had been cut away by a knife4 ,this had been the work of the ,box ,tortoise1 for on looking around we soon descried1 moving leisurely over the leaf-strewn earth1 the creature himself making a fresh attack upon another species in a little opening in the woods4 ,illustration3 ,,common ,,box ,,tortoise4 ,breakfasting on a ,toadstool4 ,very amusing it was to watch him1 as with praiseworthy deliberation he ate round after round of the cap of the fungus4 ,he would bite off a mouthful of the toadstool1 chew it carefully until he had extracted the whole of the juice1 then open his mouth and drop out the masticated fibre1 and take a fresh mouthful1 not biting inward toward the stem1 but breaking off the morsel next beside that which he had just eaten4 ,he paced round and round the fungus as he took his bites1 and as the fungus decreased in regular circles1 the chewed fragments increased4 ,in less than an hour he had eaten all the disk of the fungus to the stipe1 and then walked slowly away to seek for another4 ,the discarded parts of the fungus appeared quite dry when examined1 nothing nutritious being left in them4 ,there must have been some very good reason for rejecting the central part and the stem1 which were left in every instance1 but what that reason was we could not imagine4 ,if a decayed or wormy portion of a toadstool was encountered in the feeding process1 he did not bite round it1 but abandoned the plant altogether1 and went off in quest of a fresh specimen4 ,coming1 in his travels1 to a steep gully or ravine which he desires to cross1 he does not attempt the undertaking without counting his chances of success4 ,he seemingly revolves the matter over and over for some time in his mind1 and1 when at last he has reached a conclusion1 draws his head and feet under cover1 and by some quick1 sudden jerk flings himself down to the bottom1 trusting to good fortune and his own wits to making his way over the further incline4 ,observation teaches that his deliberations are generally attended with the accomplishment of the result to be attained4 ,there is a very common turtle1 quite abundant in the small lakes and streams of our ,western ,states1 where he is trapped in great numbers for the market1 which country people dub the ,snapping ,turtle1 or which1 from the resemblance which the head and neck1 when stretched out1 bear to the same parts of the alligator1 takes the name of ,alligator ,turtle1 or ,chelydra serpentina1 with the more learned naturalist4 ,he has a shell too small to close over him and hide him completely1 but nature1 to make up for this deficiency of covering1 has given him a bold and hasty temper1 which leads him to snap vigorously when disturbed4 ,snapping ,turtles live rather harmoniously together1 even when confined in the same pen1 and only manifest their ugly dispositions towards each other when excited by causes from without1 with whose origin they have nothing to do4 ,contests of a very vicious character are often thus precipitated1 which sooner or later end in the death of one or more of the belligerent parties4 ,down in the pine countries of our ,southern ,states lives a large1 stout animal1 with a shell fifteen inches in length1 which is denominated the ,gopher1 or ,testudo ,carolina4 ,these animals dwell in troops1 several families digging their dens or burrows near together1 the entrance thereto being about four feet long and expanding into a spacious apartment4 ,in each burrow resides a single pair of ,gophers4 ,by day the ,gophers keep close house1 but by night they wander out in search of food1 devouring yams1 melons1 corn and other garden produce4 ,they dislike wet weather1 and always go in-doors when it rains4 ,gophers' eggs1 which are as large as pigeons' eggs1 and also their flesh1 are highly esteemed as articles of diet by the negroes4 ,in ,europe1 a near cousin of the ,gopher is kept about the house for a pet4 ,if allowed1 in the autumn1 to find his way into a garden1 he digs a hole and hibernates1 coming out in the spring4 ,an ,english lady had one of these animals which lived in the kitchen4 ,he was fond of creeping into the fireplace and getting under the grate1 where he would contentedly lie until the hot coal and ashes dropped upon his back and burnt his shell4 ,when winter came this little creature wanted to take his long sleep1 and dug so persistently into baskets1 drawers1 boxes and closets1 that finally a box of earth was given to him1 into which he worked his way until out of sight1 and there he remained until ,april sun and showers called him from his winter retreat4 ,his fare was potatoes1 carrots1 turnips and bread and milk1 which he especially liked4 ,,summer ,,duck4 ,perhaps no species of ,north ,american water-bird is more highly esteemed by lovers of the beautiful in nature than ,aix sponsa--the ,summer ,duck1 or ,wood ,duck--and1 when obtainable1 is one of the first to find room in the collection of amateur naturalists4 ,with the epicure1 however1 he is of rather inferior standing1 lacking as he does the delicacy of flesh which makes the green-winged teal and others of his tribe of such immense gastronomic value4 ,though truly an ,american species1 yet this bird is more generally found throughout the ,united ,states than any other1 nesting wherever suitable localities present themselves4 ,north of the ,potomac ,river1 and in the various ,states situated above the parallel of latitude which cuts its head-waters1 at least so far as the country east of the ,rocky ,mountains is concerned1 it is chiefly a migrant1 arriving towards the close of ,march1 or in the beginning of ,april4 ,south of this line1 from ,maryland to ,florida1 and thence south-westerly through the ,gulf ,states into ,mexico1 the birds are found in more or less abundance during the entire year4 ,pairing commences in the ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf ,states1 we are told1 about the first of ,march1 but in ,new ,england and the ,middle ,states in favorable seasons from the first to the fifteenth of ,april1 whereas in the country bordering on the ,great ,lakes and in the ,western ,states generally1 it does not take place till the last of ,may or the beginning of ,june4 ,upon their arrival in our ,northern ,states these birds1 strange to say1 unlike many of their numerous family connections1 seldom frequent the sea-shore or the adjoining salt marshes1 but manifest a predilection for the ponds1 mill-dams and deep muddy streams of the interior2 and the same is true in more southern latitudes1 for they prefer to place their nests along the creeks and bayous of the land where the orange and palmetto charm the eye with perennial verdure4 ,between the time of their appearance in ,march and the plighting of their vows at the accustomed trysting-places1 the sexes consort together in flocks of four or more1 but never in very large numbers1 and fatten on acorns1 the seeds of the wild oats1 and such insects as they can procure from the tree-branches or the muddy borders of the streams and ponds which they so delight to visit4 ,on each recurrence of the mating season there is reason to believe that the same couple come together and pledge anew their fidelity and affection1 unless debarred by death1 or some other of the many vicissitudes to which life is prone4 ,the troth-plight sealed1 and a union effected1 the happy couple soon start off in quest of a spot for a home4 ,in the case of old birds the same locality1 where no interference has been experienced from beast or man1 has been known to be visited for four successive years4 ,for obvious reasons1 ,wood ,ducks delight to live in close proximity to bodies of water1 such places affording conveniences to the young1 when they are sufficiently matured to betake themselves thither1 for food and exercise4 ,situations remote from water entail unnecessary labor upon the female1 who is then required1 at considerable risk and peril1 to carry them one by one to the pond or stream in her bill4 ,when the distance is not too great1 and the ground underneath the nesting-tree is amply covered with dry leaves and grasses1 the young scramble to the mouth of the nest1 drop themselves down1 and under the maternal leadership wend their way to the much-loved fluid4 ,often the tree or stub which contains their home is found to overshadow the water4 ,all that is necessary then is for the tender little creatures1 after reaching the entrance1 to spread their ill-feathered pinions and oar-like feet and fling themselves down1 a feat which can be performed without jeopardy to life or limb4 ,illustration3 ,,summer ,,ducks ,,and ,,young4 ,female ,carrying ,young in ,her ,bill from ,nest in ,hollow ,tree4 ,almost any tree1 or tree-branch1 containing the essential hollow1 and suitably located1 is utilized4 ,broken branches of high sycamores1 seldom more than forty or fifty feet from water1 are1 according to ,audubon1 favorite places1 while ,wilson claims to have met the home of a pair of these birds in a fork composed of branches1 and built out of a few rude sticks4 ,in the ,south1 the forsaken retreat of the gray squirrel and the hole of the ivory-billed woodpecker are common nesting-places4 ,often the entrance to the nest is apparently so small when compared with the bulk of the occupant that it is a matter of surprise to many that she can manage to make her way into it without suffering bodily injuries4 ,but she does1 nevertheless1 which is an evidence that she either knows how to conform to circumstances1 or is a better judge of dimensions than many of the would-be-wise lords of creation4 ,all nests of our finding have been wide enough at their mouths to admit of easy passage1 and have been from four to six feet in vertical direction4 ,soft decayed wood1 and a few feathers1 doubtless plucked from the breast of the builder1 were their only contents4 ,dry plants1 down1 and feathers of the wild turkey1 wild goose and the common barnyard fowl1 have been observed1 in addition to the foregoing articles1 by other writers4 ,the height of the entrance above the ground varies from fifteen to thirty feet1 but probably a less1 or even a greater elevation1 may sometimes be attained4 ,wilson speaks of a nest which he observed in an old grotesque white oak1 which stood on a slope of one of the banks of the ,tuckahoe ,river1 in ,new ,jersey1 just twenty yards from the water's edge1 that had been occupied for four consecutive years4 ,at the time of his visit the nest contained thirteen young birds1 which the maternal head was engaged in carrying down to the water to give them1 perhaps1 their first experience in the art of swimming4 ,so carefully1 and yet so adroitly and quickly1 did she perform this seemingly difficult task1 that she was less than ten minutes in its accomplishment4 ,although the male usually stands sentry while the processes of laying and sitting are going on1 and signals the approach of enemies by a peculiar cry which has been likened to the crowing of a young cock---k6 -k6--yet from the silence of one writer upon the subject we infer that the duty of rearing the rather numerous family is left to the mother1 while he--her friend and consequential partner1 as though disdaining such ignoble and degrading work1 because of its slavish character--is off with his gay companions1 disporting themselves in mid-air1 or trimming1 while perched upon some sheltering bough1 their rich and varied plumage4 ,so intent1 however1 was the mother-bird upon the faithful discharge of her home-duties1 that she heeded not the stately sloop1 then nearly completed1 as it lay upon the stocks close-by1 with its hull looming up within twelve feet of her home1 darkened with the presence1 and reverberating with the noise of workmen1 but continued to pass in and out as though utterly unconscious of the so near approach of danger4 ,audubon claims that the male deserts the female when the period of sitting commences1 and joins his sterner brethren1 who unite into flocks of considerable numbers1 and keep apart from their partners until the young are fully matured1 when young and old of both sexes come together1 and thus remain until the return of another breeding-season4 ,the female1 it is evident from what has just been said1 assumes the entire charge of incubation4 ,for more than twenty-one days she is thus busied1 with nothing1 it would seem1 to relieve the monotony of her task4 ,how often she despairs and bewails the hardship of her lot1 none can know4 ,it is the inexorable decree of fate that she should perform the duties alone and unassisted1 and most willingly she submits4 ,but the ennui of the labor is1 in a measure1 forgotten in the vision that hope holds out to her patience1 for her persistent assiduity is ultimately rewarded by a whole nest-full of happy ducklings4 ,while the hatching process is going on the patient housewife only leaves the nest when pressed by the pangs of hunger1 and but for a short time4 ,before leaving1 however1 she takes the precaution to see that her creamy-white1 elliptical treasures1 to the number of ten or thirteen eggs1 are carefully covered with down4 ,like the young of our domesticated species1 the little ,wood ,ducks follow the mother almost as soon as they are hatched1 and gather whatever of vegetable and insect food they happen to encounter4 ,they are passionately fond of the water1 and best show their real character when gracefully floating upon its glassy bosom1 or diving into its azure depths4 ,at an early age they respond to the parent's call with a soft and mellow pee1 pee1 pee-e1 which is uttered quite rapidly1 and at repeated intervals4 ,the call of the mother1 when addressing the young at such times1 is rather low and soft1 and resembles that of the young1 being only a little more prolonged4 ,these beautiful birds have often been domesticated4 ,they become at such times so unsuspicious and familiar as to allow themselves to be stroked by the hand4 ,no handsomer bird could be chosen for introduction into our yards4 ,the male1 some nineteen inches in length1 and with a scope of wing of two and one-third feet1 is a being of no mean proportions4 ,but it is the richness and variety of his colors that render him an object of admiration4 ,a conspicuous green and purple crest adorns his head1 while the sides1 which are iridescent purple1 are relieved of their monotony by a streak of white from base of bill to occiput1 and by another1 back of the eye1 of a pure white color1 which is continuous with that of the throat4 ,the sides and front of the lower neck and the forepart of the breast are a bright chestnut1 with five white spots1 while the lower parts are generally white4 ,beautifully iridescent metallic hues set off the upper surfaces of the wings1 which show most effectively in the blaze of the noonday sun4 ,to the female nature has not been1 it would seem to the casual observer1 quite so propitious4 ,her grayish head1 with lengthened hind-feathers1 white throat1 brownish-yellow fore-neck1 upper breast and sides1 striped with grayish and generally dark-brown upper parts1 glossed chiefly with purple1 contrast most markedly with the rich1 gorgeous attire of her other half4 ,while less showy in dress and lacking the dignity of demeanor that characterizes her lord1 she is none the less fitted to perform her part in the drama of life4 ,her dress1 sober in color1 and with just enough of ornament to relieve the oppressiveness of its sameness1 is so accordant with her home-surroundings as to afford her the protection and security she requires in the trying and perilous duties of brood-raising4 ,,american ,,woodcock4 ,quite as interesting in habits is the ,american ,woodcock1 the ,philohela minor of ,gray1 which belongs to the grallatorial1 rather than to the natatorial1 family of birds4 ,in distribution he is somewhat restricted1 differing in this respect from his numerous congeneric brethren1 which have a wide dispersion4 ,he is chiefly a denizen of the eastern parts of the ,united ,states1 and of the ,british territory immediately adjacent4 ,fort ,rice1 in north-western ,dakota1 and ,kansas and ,nebraska in the ,west1 appear to be the limits of his range in these directions4 ,in the ,middle and ,eastern ,states ,woodcocks are found in greater abundance than anywhere else4 ,while the bulk pass ,north to breed1 a few remain in the ,south and raise their happy little families in spite of the ardor of the climate4 ,few migrants arrive earlier at their breeding-grounds4 ,they usually appear from the fifth to the tenth of ,march in ,new ,england and the ,middle ,atlantic ,states1 although instances are recorded where they have been observed as early as the twenty-fourth of ,february4 ,these cases are rare1 however1 and only happen1 if at all1 when the weather has been remarkably auspicious for a lengthy spell4 ,as a few birds have been known to winter in the ,north1 when the season has been unusually mild1 their emergence from sheltered localities so early might be construed by persons not cognizant of their presence1 or of their occasional winter sojourn1 as a case of recent arrival4 ,in view of this fact1 it would be difficult to prove that a bird seen in winter had just come from the ,south1 unless discovered in transitu4 ,small companies1 from four to six in number1 start together upon the migratory tour4 ,low1 swampy thickets invite their presence upon reaching their destination4 ,here they conceal themselves during the day1 but when night has gathered dark they come out of their grassy retreats and wander about in quest of food4 ,from the setting of the sun behind the western hills to the appearance of the first streaks of dawn in the east1 they pursue their nocturnal rambles4 ,few persons have visited these birds in their accustomed haunts while foraging4 ,let me take the reader to some neighboring swamp1 or by the side of some lonely woodland1 which these birds delight to frequent4 ,the utmost silence must be maintained1 or they will be frightened away4 ,while it will be difficult to see the creatures that have called us hither1 yet we know they are not far away by the rustle they produce among the dry leaves1 and by the peculiar notes they emit4 ,chipper1 chip-per1 chip may be heard from the right1 and almost at the next instant it is varied to bleat or bleat ta bleat ta1 produced in the contrary direction1 or off in the distance1 showing that the authors of these sounds have changed their positions4 ,while these birds have a habitual fondness for humid thickets1 they not infrequently betake themselves to corn-fields and other cultivated tracts in close proximity1 and even to elevated woods4 ,for more than a fortnight after their arrival the sexes1 though feeding in company1 do not apparently manifest a disposition to assume conjugal relationship4 ,the desire for food seems to outweigh every other consideration4 ,the inclemency of the weather1 and the coldness of the earth1 may have much to do with holding the amatory forces in check4 ,but when the opportune period arrives1 which it does in the course of events1 the sexes desist in a measure from their riotous living and give the nobler instincts of their being a chance to assert their power4 ,the males are the first to feel the changes which are being wrought in their natures4 ,for more than a week from the incipiency of this feeling1 in the early morning and evening hours1 they may be seen exercising themselves by means of 8curious spiral gyrations0 in mid-air1 and uttering1 as earthwards they descend1 a note which has been likened to the word kwank4 ,this note may be a call to the female in the spring1 but as it is often uttered in the fall after the breeding-season is past1 it may also be a summons for the gathering together of the members of the same household4 ,the production of these sounds seems a labor of very great effort4 ,but the movements of the males at these times must be seen to be appreciated4 ,the head and bill are bent forward until the latter comes into contact with the ground1 and1 just as the sound is being emitted1 the body is urged violently forward4 ,these spasmodic exertions having ceased1 the actor in this drama twitches his abbreviated1 half-spread tail1 assumes an erect attitude of listening1 and1 if no response is elicited1 repeats his characteristic cry with all its accompanying movements4 ,if the call awakes an answering note1 the happy lover flies to the presence of the one he seeks and lavishes upon her the most endearing caresses4 ,sometimes1 as ,audubon affirms1 the male awaits the arrival of the dear one1 and does not fly to meet her4 ,the summons1 according to the same eminent authority1 seem sometimes to be replied to by one of the same sex1 which is always the prelude to a fierce encounter between the two1 for1 on such occasions1 when the feelings are in a high state of tension1 the most intense enmity exists between the males4 ,but these contentions are ordinarily short-lived1 and cease with the assumption of matrimonial relations4 ,the happiness of the male is now complete4 ,with his homely but prepossessing bride by his side1 he soon journeys off in search of a home4 ,this is a matter of great consequence1 and tasks the patience to the utmost4 ,but their labors are eventually crowned with success4 ,the most secluded resorts are visited1 and in some low1 dense and swampy woods or brake1 difficult of access1 and one that none but the cruel collector would be likely to find1 they hide away their nest4 ,the structure is generally placed on the ground1 at the foot of a bush or tussock1 in the midst of small birches or alders1 or on a decayed stump or prostrate log4 ,in certain localities1 it is snugly nestled in the midst of a meadow4 ,it is by no means an elaborate affair1 but merely consists of a few dried leaves or grasses which are scratched together by the female1 and the work of a few brief hours at the most4 ,illustration3 ,copyright #aijj by ,a4 ,r4 ,,dugmore4 ,,woodcock ,,on ,,nest 7,showing protective coloring7 ,being ready for occupancy1 the female soon commences to deposit her eggs4 ,these1 to the number of three or four1 are laid one at a time on consecutive days4 ,oviposition1 in the ,southern ,states1 commences in ,february or ,march1 while in the northern limits of the bird's range from the tenth to the fifteenth of ,april1 seldom later4 ,both birds perform the labor of incubation1 and so attentive are they to the business that it is an unusual occurrence to find both absent from the nest at the same time4 ,when the female is sitting the male busies himself in attending to the demands of hunger2 and when her turn has come the care of the nest is resigned to her noble1 conscientious lord4 ,so faithfully do they keep to the nest that nothing short of the most menacing danger will compel them to leave4 ,the approach of a team or a pedestrian1 even when within a few feet of its location1 has not been known to startle them4 ,but when the danger is quite imminent the sitting bird slips out of the nest and makes her way into the tall grasses1 where1 hidden from view1 she becomes a silent and sorrowful witness of any disaster that may befall her home4 ,should no destruction be perpetrated1 and the intruder has gone his way1 she cautiously comes out of her place of concealment and resumes her labors4 ,but she has learned a very impressive lesson1 for on a second visit to the nest no bird is to be seen4 ,apprised of the coming of danger1 she has slipped out in time to escape detection4 ,thus1 patiently1 persistently and unweariedly these faithful creatures apply themselves by turns to the task of sitting until success has crowned their willing labors4 ,the time spent in hatching is1 under the most favorable conditions1 from seventeen to eighteen days4 ,illustration3 ,,american ,,woodcock4 ,mother ,flying ,away ,with ,young ,between ,her ,feet4 ,the young are very timid creatures and keep close to their parents4 ,considerable solicitude is shown by the latter for their well-being4 ,their helpless infancy1 so to speak1 is watched over with all the care that a human mother bestows upon her offspring1 and when their lives are endangered recourse is had to many a ruse to deceive their enemies and bring them into places of security4 ,when severely pressed by foes1 the mother1 by a peculiar alarm1 warns them of the state of things1 and while they are scattering in different directions seeks to attract attention to herself in many a well-feigned artifice4 ,in her anxiety for their safety1 she has even been observed to seize between her two feet a youngling and fly with it away--a behavior whose purpose seemed to be the diversion of the enemy from the rest of the brood1 thus giving them a chance to flee from impending peril to places of security in the surrounding verdure4 ,after all danger has disappeared1 she summons them together again by a familiar call1 and doubtless relates to them the story of her adventures and the dangers from which they were saved4 ,worms1 animalcula1 ants and other soft-bodied insects1 which the parents assist them in procuring from the soft earth1 and from beneath the grass and dead leaves that abound in the places they frequent1 constitute their food4 ,later on they are able to obtain their subsistence1 with all the address of older birds1 by thrusting their bills into the soil and in such other places as would be likely to contain the objects desired4 ,their tongues1 covered with a viscid saliva1 adhere to the food1 and when drawn into the mouth carry it with them without danger of being lost4 ,all who have made these birds a study have often discerned holes made in the soft mud by their bills4 ,the presence of these 8borings10 as they are called1 is always an indication that game is not far distant1 which a careful exploration of the locality soon verifies4 ,the young1 when matured1 continue to occupy the same haunts with their parents1 and1 unless brought to an untimely death by the merciless gun of the hunter1 repair to the warm1 sunny1 smiling ,south with the return of frost4 ,in the ,middle ,states--and the same is doubtless true of other sections of our great country--there is never more than a single brood raised1 although the early breeding of the species would certainly afford time for a second hatching before the close of the season4 ,less pyriform are the eggs of the ,woodcock than waders' mostly are1 being1 in some instances1 almost ovoidal4 ,their ground-color varies from a light clay to one of buffy-brown1 and the markings occur in the form of fine spots and blotches of chocolate-brown1 interspersed with others of obscure lilac1 more or less thickly scattered over the surface of the egg1 their size and intensity of color bearing1 in general1 a direct correspondence with the depth of the background4 ,remarkable variations of size exist throughout the species' range1 some being short and broad1 while others are long and narrow4 ,a set of three from ,pennsylvania1 which the writer carefully measured1 showed an average measurement of #a4ed by #a4ba inches4 ,so familiar a bird as the ,woodcock1 which is sometimes termed the ,bog-sucker or ,wood-snipe1 hardly needs description4 ,he has a thick1 heavily-set body1 short and thick neck1 and large head1 bill and eyes1 and ears beneath the visual organs4 ,his wings are short and rounded1 the first three primaries being very narrow and shorter than the fourth1 and the fourth and fifth the largest4 ,the tarsi are about one and one-fourth inches long and rather stout1 the tibi feathered to the joints1 and the toes long and slender1 and without marginal membranes or basal webs4 ,more than two and a half inches in length is the bill1 straight1 tapering1 and stout at base1 with ridge at base of maxilla high1 and the upper mandible a little larger than the lower1 and knobbed at the end4 ,three long grooves1 one on ridge above1 and the others on each side of maxilla1 complete the structural details of the bill4 ,the sexes are alike1 the female being larger than the male4 ,adult specimens vary from ten to twelve inches in length1 and have an expanse of wings of from fifteen to eighteen inches1 and a weight ranging from four to nine ounces4 ,the eyes are brown1 legs and bill of the dried skin pale-brownish1 upper parts black1 gray1 russet and brown1 chin whitish1 and rest of under parts different shades of brownish-red4 ,so exquisitely sensible is the extremity of the bill1 as in the snipe1 that these birds are enabled to collect their food by the mere touch1 without using their eyes1 which are set at such a distance and elevation in the back part of the head as to give them an aspect of stupidity4 ,the eyes being situated high up and far back is a wise provision of nature1 as1 by this peculiarity1 they escape many of their enemies1 their field of vision being greatly augmented by such an arrangement4 ,obtaining their sustenance1 as they largely do1 by probing with their bills1 so amply endowed with nerves1 they have comparatively little use for their eyes1 unless to keep watch for their numerous foes4 ,though well known to the sportsman1 yet by the casual observer this bird is frequently confounded with the ,wilson's snipe4 ,but the error can readily be avoided1 if it is borne in mind that the ,woodcock has the entire lower parts1 including the lining of wings1 a reddish-brown color1 while the snipe has the abdomen white1 the throat and upper parts of the breast speckled1 and the lining of the wings barred with white and black4 ,,piping ,,plover4 ,have you ever been to the sea-shore8 ,then1 of course1 you have met the ,piping ,plover1 but1 perhaps1 not to know him4 ,he is of the size of the robin1 not quite so robust1 but stands much taller1 being mounted on rather long1 stilt-like legs1 which admirably fit him for the life which he is designed to fill in the world4 ,he belongs to the family of wading birds1 and seeks the principal part of his food in or by the water1 which could not possibly be were his walking appendages curtailed the least bit of their fair proportions4 ,but to be more precise in my word-picture1 let me describe him to you as of a pale ashy-brown color1 fading into grayish upon the under parts1 and as having his head set off with some narrow black bands1 that on the neck rarely1 if ever1 forming a perfect ring4 ,his bill will be found to be short and stout and blunt1 and there will be an appreciable lack of webbing between the middle and inner front toes4 ,now that it is plain what the bird looks like1 you are certainly prepared1 more than ever1 to take some interest in him in his brief stay by the sea4 ,so strongly is he attached to the scenes rendered dear by past associations and memories that1 from his winter home in the sunny ,south1 and even from over the waters beyond our southern borders1 he hails with delight the return of the vernal equinox1 for he knows full well that it brings with it the summer's heat and all its varied1 priceless wealth of insect life4 ,so with the first spring signs of open weather he quits his brumal retreat1 winds his way up along the trend of the ,atlantic seaboard1 and at last reaches in the nights of early ,april the sandy beaches of our ,jersey coast4 ,in flocks of a dozen individuals they run about the sand in a most lively manner1 and utter all the while a variety of notes more or less pleasing1 blending as they do with the deep-toned bass of the ocean4 ,when this sound1 welling up from a dozen throats1 is heard in the dark it is particularly striking1 as wild and weird as the whistling of a wind at sea through the rigging of a ship4 ,but these flocks soon disperse into pairs to breed4 ,slight depressions in the dry sand1 and always in the midst of groups of broken colored shells1 but out of the reach of the maddened waves1 rather than in muddy1 marshy places back of the beach-line1 serve them for nests4 ,this nesting among clustered shells seemingly points to a love for the beautiful4 ,but may it not be that the shells but mark the various nest-positions in the unbroken waste of sand8 ,we incline to this opinion4 ,there is so much diversity manifested in the size of the groups and in the arrangement and coloration of the individual shells that comprise them1 that no very great difficulty should be experienced by the several pairs nesting in the same locality in knowing each other's nest4 ,while the birds are concerned with the cares of brood-raising1 which is usually towards the close of ,may or the beginning of ,june1 they confine their feeding to the damp1 wet sand4 ,between it and the dry a clear line of separation is plainly noticeable4 ,it is only when they are ready for the home duties that they are seen to resort to aerial navigation4 ,even when on the very boundary-line of the two stretches of sand1 the wet and the dry1 and with the nest almost in sight1 they are known to assume wing1 taking due care1 however1 to alight before they have fairly reached the spot4 ,in flight an advantage1 that of a more commanding view1 is acquired1 which walking does not give4 ,but in leaving the nest for food1 or for any other purpose1 they1 as before1 walk some distance away before they venture to fly4 ,there is a seeming purpose in so doing1 the object to be gained being the deceiving of man and other enemies as to the real location of the nest4 ,illustration3 ,,female ,,piping ,,plover4 ,nest in ,midst of ,broken ,shells4 ,all these precautions are undertaken for the sake of the eggs1 although in color and markings these so closely resemble the dry sand and intermingled bits of foreign substances1 that such actions seem all unnecessary4 ,when birds have been flushed from the nest1 and its exact position has been noted with the greatest care1 ,i have failed1 after several minutes of the closest searching1 to detect the eggs1 so true has been the color-harmony between them and the surrounding sand4 ,this resemblance in coloration must be seen to be fully appreciated4 ,in ground the eggs are the palest possible creamy-brown1 but marked all over1 quite sparingly1 with small blackish-brown dots and specks1 the largest hardly exceeding a pin's head4 ,four is the usual number1 and these1 from their peculiar pear-shaped form1 are placed with their points together in the centre of the nest4 ,they are objects of more than ordinary solicitude1 the little ,plovers making most violent demonstrations and pleading piteously when they are approached4 ,the mother employs all the well-known artifices1 such as lameness1 inability to fly1 to draw the intruder away from the nest4 ,the young run as soon as they leave the egg1 and are great adepts at hiding1 squatting1 and remaining motionless4 ,their downy plumage so assimilates them to the sand that unless they reveal themselves by moving1 it requires a very keen eye to distinguish them from the numberless tufts that are scattered about the higher reaches of the beach4 ,although so essentially a bird of the sea-shore1 yet in ,august many scores of these birds come up the ,delaware ,river as far as tide-water extends1 feeding upon the mud-flats and gravel-bars1 and occasionally wending their way up along the courses of the creeks until they find themselves well into the country4 ,it is interesting to watch them as they run in and out among the little hills and hollows of the mud in quest of their prey4 ,they are happy1 light-hearted fellows1 who do not begrudge1 when some racy tidbit has rewarded their hunting1 to pipe a few notes of thanks to ,him who watches as tenderly over them as over the mighty lords of the earth4 ,,bob ,,white4 ,somewhat related to the grouse is the ,quail1 as he is called in the ,northern ,states1 or 8,bob ,white10 his universally recognized appellation4 ,his scientific name is ,ortyx ,virginianus4 ,differing from the ,old ,world partridges1 he has been assigned a place in the sub-family ,odontophorin1 of which five genera are said to exist1 most of them being restricted to the extreme south-west of our country4 ,his habits and history are full of interest to everybody4 ,quails are restless1 uneasy birds1 attached to one place while rearing their family1 but immediately upon the brood becoming able to travel1 commencing their wanderings4 ,there is no accounting for these movements1 which sometimes deprive a whole district of their presence for a time1 to populate a neighboring region previously without them4 ,when such journeys are undertaken1 a large number of birds participate1 travelling on foot1 and passing steadily through districts where food is plentiful1 and seemingly without any definite destination in mind1 so loath are they to use their wings1 that in attempting to cross wide rivers and inlets immense numbers are said to perish4 ,a limited and partial migration1 it is highly probable1 takes place annually from the more northern to warmer latitudes1 influenced in its extent by the comparative severity of the seasons1 being more distinctly migrating west than east of the ,delaware ,river4 ,about the middle of ,march the winter flocks break up1 and the mating begins4 ,although not indulging in the noisy and seemingly meaningless antics of the grouse to call attention to his personal attractiveness1 ,bob ,white1 it would appear1 becomes suddenly conscious of his comely looks and excellent voice4 ,in a dignified manner1 with head erect1 he walks proudly about1 inviting the opposite sex to view him at his best4 ,from the orchard gate he calls a saucy good morning to the farmer1 knowing that the law holds its gis over him at this time1 but he keeps an eye to hawks1 cats and other predatory animals that respect neither time1 place nor season4 ,he is polygamous1 willing to assume any amount of family responsibility1 and will help to rear two1 or even three1 broods a year1 a successful pair often turning out twenty-five young in a season4 ,it is not an uncommon occurrence to find a covey of little cheepers1 scarcely able to fly1 as late as ,november4 ,although paired so early1 the ,quails do not proceed to the business of nidification in the central part of their range until about the middle of ,may4 ,the leeward side of some dense tussock of grass1 a mouldering stump in a wild1 matted meadow1 the woody margin of a clover field or orchard1 or an old pasture overgrown with bramble thickets1 are situations commonly chosen1 the female1 as is her undoubted right1 taking the lead in fixing upon the site4 ,an artificial bed of grasses and vegetable trash1 filling a shallow depression1 is the nest4 ,sometimes it is placed so as to be concealed by overarching grasses1 through which a regular tunnel1 several feet in length1 conducts to the sanctum2 and1 at other times1 is only covered with leaves and straw1 which the birds themselves have rudely adjusted4 ,the nest1 which is constructed solely by the females of the family1 varies in dimensions according to the number of this sex that anticipate using it1 the male in the meantime going about in quest of food1 or sitting upon a low twig close by1 cheering his wives by his trisyllabic note1 and very faithfully warning them of the imminence of danger4 ,the work is prosecuted with considerable zeal1 three days at farthest sufficing to make the nest ready for the first egg1 which is immediately laid1 and which is followed by one on each consecutive day1 until seven or eight have been deposited4 ,as many as thirty eggs are sometimes found in a single nest1 which is due to the polygamy of the male4 ,two1 and often three and four females1 are taken by a male1 and two have been known to occupy simultaneously the same nest4 ,when a pair of birds has established itself in a locality from the first1 and has been successful in rearing a family of young during the ensuing spring1 if the females are in the majority the unprovided ones still continue1 as a general thing1 to linger with the parents after their more specially favored companions have mated and moved elsewhere4 ,this is particularly noticeable in a new locality where the covey consists entirely of members of a single family4 ,in cases where several families congregate in the fall1 the chances are greatly in favor of monogamy4 ,small flocks are more decidedly polygamous than larger ones4 ,we have never observed the converse--that is1 more than one male to a female--but where several pairs are found in the same field1 at slight distances from each other1 there is sometimes a noticeable tendency to associate4 ,the eggs of the ,quail are crystal white1 sometimes slightly tinged with yellow1 and pyriform in shape4 ,eighteen days are required for their hatching4 ,where the father is not fortunate enough to possess a harem1 a part of the work devolves upon him1 while the mother seeks food and recreation2 but where there are several females1 the work is divided very amicably among them1 each sitting about half a day at a stretch1 then calling her relief with a low note1 if there be only two1 the male taking no part in the labor of incubation whatever4 ,should the family be larger1 two females will sit side by side on the eggs1 there being too many in number for one breast to cover4 ,meanwhile the husband remains close by1 chirping encouragement in a low tone1 and betimes making the field vocal with his loud1 clear whistle4 ,he is exceedingly vigilant1 and if a human being approaches the nest gives the alarm to his partners1 who secretly withdraw from the nest1 while he1 thoughtful husband as he is1 flings himself upon the ground in front of the intruder1 feigning lameness or injury1 and seeking by every device known to him to attract attention and pursuit1 till having beguiled the enemy far away from his home he seeks safety for himself in flight4 ,the experienced ologist pays no regard to this deceit1 seeing in it only a sign of the nearness of the coveted prize1 but patiently continues his search until he has discovered its whereabouts4 ,illustration3 ,,home ,,of ,,bob ,,white4 ,two ,wives on ,same ,nest4 ,two broods are invariably raised and often a third1 but the last appearing late in the summer1 and scarcely attaining their growth before the coming of snow4 ,if unmolested1 it is evident1 therefore1 that the species would increase with great rapidity1 as shown by the celerity with which regions1 where the birds had been well nigh exterminated1 have been replenished when a period of quiet for a season or two has been allowed them4 ,the young run about in a very lively manner as soon as they have left the shell1 and in a few days are given over to the care of the father1 whom they follow and obey as readily as they did the mother1 possibly because they do not recognize the change of guardians1 while she returns to the cares of rearing another family4 ,during the spring and early summer both old and young find an abundance of food for themselves in the larv of various insects1 the succulent shoots of growing plants and such seeds as abound4 ,later on1 strawberries1 blueberries1 huckleberries and other wild fruits supply their demands4 ,in ,august they grow fat upon grasshoppers1 and as this is the time when seeds ripen1 acorns and beech-nuts fall1 and the stubble-fields are full of scattered wheat1 rye1 barley and maize1 and insects are plentiful upon the ground1 they feast themselves to satiety before the winter begins1 until they have reached that delectable plumpness so highly esteemed by bon vivants4 ,attaining their full growth by the end of ,september1 at least in the case of the earlier broods1 the season of play for the partridges and sport for the gunner has come4 ,quail-shooting is regarded as a test of marksmanship in the ,united ,states4 ,so rare and wild have the birds become by reason of incessant hunting1 that it certainly requires skill and fine shooting to make a bag4 ,bred in the open fields1 and feeding early in the morning and late in the evening1 a man may beat a field all day1 and put up only one or two birds1 when he is certain that twice as many lay concealed1 huddled up in little knots in out-of-the-way places1 which the best of dogs might easily pass without discovering4 ,their inconspicuous colors1 too1 which are in keeping with the objects around them1 so conceal them from the vision of the hunter1 that1 trusting to them1 they will sit immovable until he has gone some distance beyond1 when they will spring up and away like so many arrows1 requiring a quick eye and a steady hand to turn and drop a brace4 ,when ultimately flushed1 they fly to some particular covert1 and so long as this thicket or fern-brake remains undiscovered1 will repeatedly repair to it for safety and security4 ,a rather curious circumstance1 which has created no little discussion among ,american sportsmen1 materially aids their concealment4 ,when alighting1 after being flushed1 the ,quail is said to give out no scent for some little time4 ,this is supposed to be a voluntary act of retention of odor on the part of the bird1 as a conscious method of protection4 ,some1 while admitting the fact1 believe it to be a power belonging to particular bevies1 at least in a far greater degree than to others1 like the custom of alighting upon the branches of trees when frightened1 while others restrict the faculty to particular individuals rather than bevies4 ,our earlier ornithologists do not mention the retention of scent4 ,it is probable1 as claimed by a few1 that ,quails' swift running over the dry leaves of upland woods or meadows allows little time and a poor surface for the transmission of the scent1 and that when they drop suddenly and remain quiet no effluvium escapes1 but which only becomes disseminated the very instant they move4 ,the open fields being smitten by the wild winds of ,november1 and the reeds bruised and broken1 the ,quail retreats to the depths of the swamp or the shelter of a dense thicket1 where he keeps life in him as best he can during the cold1 stormy days1 hunting the stubble and swamp for soft-shelled nuts and seeds1 torpid beetles1 and the hard fruits and seed-cases of grasses and weeds1 some of which1 the skunk cabbage for example1 tainting his flesh with their flavor4 ,huddled together the forlorn covey allow the snow to cover them1 trusting to shake it off on the return of the morning1 but occasionally a crust freezes upon the surface1 and the poor birds find themselves in a prison from which they cannot break out before they starve to death4 ,the habit of huddling is peculiar to ,quails the whole year round4 ,they select at evening some spot of low ground1 where the long grass affords shelter and warmth1 and there they encamp1 sleeping in a circle1 shoulder to shoulder1 with heads turned out1 keeping each other warm1 and ready to escape at a moment's warning without stumbling over one another4 ,a suitable roosting-place once found1 night after night they repair thither1 leaving it in the morning before sunrise to seek their breakfast4 ,unless the winter be unusually mild1 they may be seen associating in the pasture with the cattle1 and even following them home to glean the grain that falls into the barnyard1 and pick up the scraps that are thrown to the chickens4 ,this delightful confidence is not always abused1 for many persons take pains to foster the bevies they find spending the winter in some brushy hillside near the house by daily scattering grain or clover-seed upon the snow where the hungry birds may come and get it4 ,the pert air with which one of the cocks will perch himself on a fence-rider or walk sedately along a stone wall in the early sunlight of a glistening ,january morning is reward enough to the benefactor1 if he cares not to preserve them for the selfish pleasure of shooting them the following autumn4 ,as a delicate article of food the ,quail is highly esteemed1 and during the time the law allows the markets are filled with bunches of them4 ,various devices in the form of snares1 nets and traps are called into service to effect their capture1 and in some parts of the country1 ,new ,england especially1 fresh importations have been necessary to preserve a sufficient number for sport4 ,bands of beaters in the ,southern and ,western ,states cautiously drive immense flocks into nets1 but there is less danger of exterminating this than almost any other species of game-bird1 it would seem1 on account of its sequestered habits and prolificacy4 ,taming and domestication is an easy matter with these birds4 ,in all cases1 however1 where the eggs have been hatched under a hen at liberty1 the ,quail chicks have run away to the woods as soon as the leaves have turned sear in the fall and never come back4 ,they sang their 8,ah1 ,bob ,white60 just as clearly before they had ever heard one of their kin as any woodland-bred ,quails could do4 ,it is quite common to re-colonize portions of the ,eastern ,states when they have become depopulated1 and an effort made some years ago to introduce these birds into the ,salt ,lake ,valley of ,utah was eminently successful4 ,within the past few years some of the ,west ,india ,islands have been colonized1 but attempts to acclimatize the birds in ,england and ,ireland have proved most signal failures4 ,,ruffed ,,grouse4 ,considerable misapprehension exists in relation to the popular appellation of this species4 ,in some parts of the country it is dubbed the ,partridge1 while in others it goes by the name of ,pheasant4 ,it is neither4 ,all its affinities point away from these families1 in the direction of the ,true ,grouse1 of which it constitutes a useful and interesting member4 ,pheasants are never found in the ,united ,states1 but are indigenous to ,southern ,asia4 ,their nearest representative here is the ,wild ,turkey4 ,almost as much may be said of the ,partridge1 a group of birds which are exclusive denizens of the ,old ,world4 ,but now to our subject4 ,few ,grouse are so well known as the ,ruffed ,grouse1 the ,bonasa umbellus of ,stephens4 ,everywhere throughout the timbered regions of ,eastern ,north ,america it is more or less plentiful1 ranging from the ,atlantic seaboard to the ,rocky ,mountains1 and from ,georgia to ,nova ,scotia4 ,in all our ,southern ,states1 ,louisiana excepted1 these birds exist to some extent1 and are also to be found over limited portions of the ,missouri region1 but1 doubtless1 more especially about the mouth of the river1 and in the contiguous country4 ,in the western parts of the region it is represented by a form which passes with ornithologists as a well-defined1 genuine variety4 ,it seems to be wanting in ,california1 but in the wooded sections of the ,cascade ,range1 as well as in the valley of the ,willamette in ,oregon1 where it exists under a new varietal name1 it is by no means an uncommon occupant4 ,in the ,new ,england1 ,middle ,atlantic and ,northern ,central ,states it is that these birds are to be seen to the best advantage1 and in the greatest numbers4 ,west of the ,mississippi1 if we exclude ,eastern ,kansas1 ,southern ,iowa and the whole of ,missouri1 they occur1 if at all1 in comparatively small and isolated parties4 ,in regions which these ,grouse inhabit1 they are permanent residents1 and are never known to move southward with the retreat of warm weather4 ,they are capable of adapting themselves to climatic variations with ease1 but not so readily to surface irregularities and their natural concomitants4 ,dense woods1 craggy mountain-sides and the borders of streams are noted places of resort4 ,lowlands1 especially such as are invested with thick growths of small bushes and tall1 rank grasses1 are not infrequently chosen4 ,when in search of food and gravel1 they are known to quit their favorite haunts and betake themselves to the open road1 where groups may be seen absorbed in feeding1 but not to that extent1 however1 when the rustle of a moving leaf or the crackling of a twig would pass unnoticed4 ,the slightest noise causes a temporary suspension of labor and a momentary shudder of surprise4 ,all of a sudden1 and in the most perfect harmony1 all heads are raised and pointing in the direction whence the noise emanated4 ,the keen vision of these birds is not slow in discerning1 through the gloomy recesses1 the presence of danger2 but should nothing of an alarming nature manifest itself1 a short parley ensues and business is resumed1 though not with the same earnestness and lack of care1 however1 as before4 ,greater caution is now observable1 and every effort taken to prevent an ambuscade4 ,but let the cause of the alarm1 a dog or a man1 be close at hand1 and the birds immediately strike for the cover1 either on foot or by means of flight1 the latter method only being adopted in extreme cases1 when the other course would be attended by disaster and probable ruin4 ,in the exercise of their cursorial powers1 they move with remarkable swiftness1 as with head depressed and tail expanded they run for their lives4 ,a pile of brushwood or an impenetrable jungle1 when near1 is rendered subservient4 ,there they manage to conceal themselves for a time and thus recover breath4 ,closely pursued1 and in danger of being trampled upon by the foot of the huntsman or lacerated by the fangs of his quadrupedal friend1 they await the opportune moment1 when1 with sudden whirring wings1 they cleave the elastic ether and vigorously press forward to some transitory haven of security1 but only to fall once more in the way of their relentless persecutors4 ,these flights are so well timed and so unexpected that many an experienced gunner is thrown off his guard1 and when1 at last1 he has recovered from his surprise and collected his thoughts1 feels vexed at himself for allowing his equanimity to become unsettled by so familiar a stratagem4 ,he finds it useless to repine1 but endeavors to choke down the bitter sigh of disappointment that arises as he presses forward to further adventures4 ,like the common barnyard fowl1 these ,grouse are strictly gregarious1 especially during the autumnal and winter months4 ,the flocks they form vary in numbers1 and when disturbed1 while feeding1 scatter in all directions1 each member seeking only its own individual safety and well-being4 ,but after the lapse of a few minutes1 becoming reassured1 they gather simultaneously about the same spot1 travelling the entire distance on foot4 ,the utmost circumspection and vigilance are always exercised in these backward movements4 ,scarcity of food occasionally causes these birds1 where very numerous in mountainous districts1 to migrate to other places4 ,these journeys are usually undertaken about the middle of ,october1 they then being in excellent order and in great demand for the table4 ,audubon witnessed1 in the fall of #ahbj1 an immense number in transitu from ,ohio1 ,indiana and ,illinois to ,kentucky1 many of whom became a prey to man4 ,this disposition to lead a roving1 migratory life is1 as a general thing1 not hereditary1 and consequently is seldom undertaken1 plenty of food usually being found in localities which these birds affect4 ,where there is a paucity of food-materials1 such as acorns1 the seeds of the beech and of the various species of birch1 they do not hesitate to devour the buds of the mountain laurel1 which impart a poisonous character to their flesh4 ,when severely hunger-pressed they feed upon dry bark1 the insects that harbor in the creviced trunks and branches of trees1 and even stray to the roads that wander through their gloomy retreats and peck at the hard1 frozen horse-droppings they chance to encounter4 ,but when spring returns and renews her bond of faith with ,mother ,earth1 they more than make up for their scanty winter fare and feast with fastidious appetites upon the now tender and juicy buds of the black birch1 which give a peculiar and toothsome flavor to their flesh that has acquired for them in some localities the name of ,birch ,partridge4 ,for a brief spell every other interest is now absorbed in that of unrestrained feasting1 to which the sexes submit themselves with all the abandon of civilized humanity4 ,the middle of ,march1 or the close of the month dedicated by the ancient ,romans to purifications and fastings1 when the weather is favorable1 marks a change in their life4 ,this era is announced by a loud drumming noise1 which is everywhere heard4 ,standing upon a tall rock or a prostrate log in some secluded woods or other locality1 the author of this noise may be found4 ,his attitude and demeanor needs must be seen to be appreciated4 ,once seen1 he can never be forgotten4 ,arrayed in a brand-new spring suit1 he is a being not to be despised4 ,but this is not all4 ,his beautifully-contracted neck1 broad1 expanded1 fan-like tail and elevated feather-tufts that ornament both sides of his neck1 as he struts about with all the grace and dignity of some pompous lord or duke1 render him of no mean importance and greatly add to his attractions4 ,but it is his final actions that impress the beholder with wonder and admiration4 ,the hitherto trailing wings now assume a condition of rigidity1 and commence a firm1 but slow1 downward and forward movement1 which steadily increases in power and rapidity1 until the swiftly-vibrating wings appear only as a semi-circular outline of mist above the bird1 thus giving rise to a sound which may be appropriately likened to the reverberations of distant1 muttering thunder4 ,these sounds are most generally heard during the cool hours of the morning1 when his spirits are buoyant after a night of refreshing slumber4 ,but as the day advances1 they are less frequent1 and irregular4 ,so nicely can they be imitated1 that many a bird is drawn to his doom1 when advancing1 as he supposed1 to meet an antagonist4 ,as the drumming is as often heard in the fall as in the spring1 it has long been a mooted question as to its significancy as the call-note of the male during the period of breeding4 ,but there can be no doubt of the correctness of this interpretation1 for incontestable proof exists of it in the responsive actions of the female4 ,nuttall is probably correct in ascribing the autumnal exhibition of the power to self-gratification1 and in affirming it to be1 in many instances1 8an instinctive expression of hilarity and vigor40 ,besides the peculiar drumming sound which the males produce during the love-season1 they give expression to other vocal utterances no less remarkable4 ,these are generally enunciated when about to arise from the ground1 and consist of two well-defined and characteristic notes4 ,the first may be described as a sort of cackle1 repeated several times in lively succession2 and the other1 which closely follows in its wake1 as a peculiar lisping whistle1 which has not inaptly been compared to the cry of a young bird4 ,these notes doubtless play a considerable part in the reconciliation and bringing together of the sexes after their temporary separation4 ,illustration3 ,,ruffed ,,grouse ,,in ,,spring-,,time4 ,two ,males ,displaying ,their ,graces ,before a ,lone ,female4 ,while the courting-season lasts1 it is not an uncommon occurrence to find a single male in the midst of several females before whom he is engaged in showing off his many good qualities and graces1 or two males displaying1 upon the same fallen log1 the excellent beauties of their person and movements4 ,in the former dilemma1 enamored of so many1 he is sometimes disposed to be gay and trifling1 dallying with the affections of some pure1 simple-minded female4 ,the most cruel flirtations are often indulged in4 ,but when he does bring himself earnestly down to the business of choosing a partner1 he does not go about it in an uncertain1 hesitating manner1 but makes his selection with promptness and dispatch4 ,the successful female1 proud of the honor conferred1 at the call of her lord1 forsakes the group of her unmarried sisters1 and follows wheresoever he leadeth4 ,the warmest tokens of affection and regard are lavished upon the elected bride1 and woe to the rival who should appear upon the scene while these amours are being enacted4 ,should this event occur1 the intruder is instantly assailed1 and a long and bloody battle ensues1 which results in the death of one or other of the combatants1 but never in the complete vanquishment of the defensive party4 ,instances are known where males have treated their first loves with cruel indifference1 and subsequently deserted them1 but such things could not otherwise be1 as will be seen when the question of polygamy comes to be considered1 for it is a fact1 not generally known1 that both birds are slightly promiscuous1 the tendency being more pronounced1 however1 upon the part of the male4 ,in the case where a single female is courted by two males1 the successful competitor for the honor of her hand1 so to speak1 is he whose movements are marked by the greatest elegance and grace4 ,so intense does the desire to please become1 that the slightest disposition upon the part of the lady to favor one of the rivals rather than the other1 leads to the most unhappy consequences1 a quarrel being precipitated1 the contestants seeming determined to settle the result by the gage of battle4 ,the time of mating varies somewhat with climate and with the conditions of the season4 ,in the warm1 sunny ,south it occurs late in ,march or early in ,april4 ,but further ,north1 where winter still lingers with frosty coldness1 the latter month is well nigh verging to its close1 or gliding into the succeeding1 before this essential business is thought of4 ,when1 however1 it does happen1 the female1 with but little waste of time1 withdraws from the society of her partner1 and repairs to a secluded spot in the midst of a woods1 where1 usually beneath a clump of evergreen1 or a pile of brush1 or perhaps a fallen log or projecting rock1 she hastily scratches a few dry leaves together for a nest4 ,there she deposits1 one by one1 on as many consecutive days1 her complement of six to twelve eggs1 and immediately enters upon the duties of incubation4 ,in this she is alone1 the male lending no assistance1 not even indirectly by attending to her demands for food4 ,while she is thus occupied he seeks the company of others of his sex1 with whom he remains until the young are nearly full-grown1 when he joins the family1 and dwells with it until spring4 ,the period of incubation ranges from nineteen to twenty days4 ,when first hatched the young follow the mother1 and soon learn to comprehend her clucking call1 as well as to act responsively thereto4 ,few mothers are more devoted to their children1 and it is rare to find one more courageous and wily in their defence4 ,let the family be surprised by friend or foe1 a single note of alarm is all that is necessary to cause the brood to scatter1 and with the most clever adroitness to hide themselves beneath a bunch of leaves or grass4 ,so successfully is the concealment accomplished1 that a careful and protracted search is often necessary to discover their whereabouts4 ,often1 when squatting by the roadside with her brood1 the parent is taken unawares4 ,this is the trial which she of all others seems to dread4 ,to save her little ones she perils her own life by venturing upon an assault4 ,her first impulse is to fly at the face of the intruder1 but sober thought comes to her rescue and teaches her the folly of such a course4 ,she yields to the thought and the very next moment we find her tumbling over and over upon the ground1 apparently in the deepest distress1 but soon to recover her self-possession in time to carry out the final piece upon the programme1 a ruse in which lameness is imitated with wonderful ingenuity4 ,while the mother is thus agitated1 the birdlings are seen to scamper in every direction to places of shelter4 ,having accomplished her part1 the happy mother now flies away1 and by her well-known cluck soon gathers her brood together4 ,the cry of the young is a simple peet1 which is heard repeatedly during feeding1 but only occasionally while nestling4 ,their food consists of the seeds of various plants and berries4 ,while able to search for their own food1 they derive1 however1 considerable assistance from the mother4 ,such cunning1 wee creatures1 when first they leave the egg1 can only be compared with the young of the domestic hen4 ,dressed in a simple garb1 they look but little like their parents4 ,above they show a reddish-brown or rufous coloring1 which fades into a rusty-white below4 ,excepting a dusky streak which starts from the posterior part of the eye and crosses the auricular regions obliquely downward1 and a whitish bill1 they have nothing to diversify the monotony of their plumage4 ,but when they have attained the age of four or five months1 they show their heredity so plainly that their identity cannot be disputed or mistaken4 ,in the adult1 the tail is reddish-brown or gray above1 with narrow bars of black4 ,terminally1 it is crossed by a slender band of pale ash1 which is preceded by a broader one of black1 and this by another of an ashy color4 ,the upper parts are ochraceous-brown1 and finely mottled with grayish markings4 ,the lower parts are chiefly white1 with broad transverse bars of light brown1 which are mostly hidden from view upon the abdomen4 ,upon the shoulders the shafts of the feathers have pale streaks1 which also exist in those of the wing-coverts4 ,the upper tail-coverts and the wings are marked with pale1 grayish cordate spots1 while the lower tail-coverts are pale ochraceous1 each being provided with a terminal delta-shaped spot of white1 which is bordered with dusky4 ,the neck-tufts are brownish-black4 ,the male measures eighteen inches in length1 and has a breadth of wings of seven and two-tenths inches4 ,the tail is about seven inches long4 ,the female is smaller than the latter1 with similar colors1 but has less prominent tufts upon the sides of the neck4 ,the eggs of this species are usually of a uniform dark-cream color1 but sometimes show a nearly pure-white ground4 ,in most specimens there are no markings at all1 but when they do occur1 are either quite numerous and conspicuous1 or few in number1 and obscure4 ,they are usually ovoidal1 but forms are occasionally met with which are nearly spherical4 ,their average dimensions1 as obtained from specimens from the most diverse localities1 are about #a4fd by #a4ah inches4 ,as far as known the species never produces more than a single brood annually1 usually nesting1 as has been previously stated1 on the ground1 but instances are recorded by ,samuels1 where the female has occupied a crow's nest1 or the shelter of some tall broken trunk of a tree4 ,,an ,,old ,,acquaintance4 ,little is known of the early history of the domestic ,turkey4 ,writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries seem to have been ignorant about it1 and to have regarded it as the guinea-fowl or pintado of the ancients1 a mistake which was not cleared up until the middle of the last century4 ,the name it now bears1 and which it received in ,england1 where it is reputed to have been introduced in #aeda1 was given to it from the supposition that it came originally from ,turkey4 ,as far back as #aegc we read of it as having been the ,christmas fare of sturdy ,british yeomanry4 ,oviedo1 a ,spanish writer1 speaks of it as a kind of peacock that was once very abundant in ,new ,spain1 as ,mexico was called in his day1 and which had already1 in #aebf1 been transported in a domestic condition to the ,west ,indies and the ,spanish ,main1 where it was maintained by the ,christian settlers4 ,among the luxuries possessed by ,montezuma1 the proud1 dignified1 semi-cultured monarch of the ,aztecs1 was one of the most extensive zological gardens on record4 ,representatives of nearly all of the animals of the country over which he reigned1 as well as others1 brought at great expense from long distances1 were to be found within its walls4 ,turkeys1 it is said1 were daily supplied in large numbers to the carnivores of his menagerie4 ,respecting the time when this bird was first reclaimed in ,mexico from its wild state1 there can be no idea4 ,probably it has been domesticated from remote antiquity4 ,no doubt exists1 however1 as to its being reared by the ,mexicans at the period of the ,spanish ,conquest1 and of its subsequent introduction into ,europe1 either from ,new ,spain1 or from the ,west ,india ,islands1 into which it had been previously carried4 ,illustration3 ,,mexican ,,wild ,,turkey4 ,ancestor of the ,domestic ,bird4 ,audubon1 one of the early pioneers of ,american ornithology1 supposed our common barnyard ,turkey to have originated in the wild bird so prevalent in the eastern half of our great country4 ,but it has always been a matter of surprise to naturalists that the latter did not assimilate1 by interbreeding and reversion1 more intimately in color and habits to the domestic form4 ,no suspicion1 until recently1 appears to have been entertained that the two birds might belong to different species4 ,that such is the true status of things1 there is now no reasonable doubt4 ,our common ,wild ,turkey1 once so plentiful in ,pennsylvania1 is now restricted to the more eastern and southern portions of the ,united ,states1 while in the parts of ,texas1 ,new ,mexico1 ,colorado and ,arizona adjacent to the southern ,rocky ,mountains1 and thence stretching southward along the eastern slope of ,mexico as far as ,orizaba1 there exists another form1 essentially different1 which1 by way of distinction1 has been popularly called the ,mexican ,turkey4 ,it is from this species1 and not from the other1 as has been erroneously supposed and taught1 that the domestic fowl has been derived4 ,even in this enlightened age1 with so many ornithological teachers on every hand1 we see this mistake propagated by such as know better1 and whose business it is1 or ought to be1 to have a care that truth shall prevail4 ,between the wild bird of ,eastern ,north ,america and the ,mexican and typical barnyard fowls there are differences which must be apparent even to the most superficial observer4 ,the extremities of the tail-feathers1 as well as the feathers overlying the base of the tail1 are in the latter creamy or fulvous white1 while in the former they are of a decided chestnut-brown color4 ,other characteristics exist1 but these only become evident to the keen-sighted ornithologist4 ,the difficulty experienced in establishing a cross between our wild and tame birds1 shows that they are not as closely related as was once supposed4 ,did a near kinship subsist1 interbreeding could most readily be accomplished4 ,with the ,mexican ,turkey1 matters are otherwise4 ,that a relationship does obtain between the domestic bird and the latter--its wild original--there can be no question1 as specimens of the naturalized species are often met with which are nearly the counterpart of its ,mexican progenitor1 differing only in the greater development of the fatty appendages of the head and neck1 differences which may be accounted for as the effects of the influences to which the birds have been subjected by man4 ,no well-authenticated instances of similar reversions to our once familiar ,eastern bird have been known to occur1 which would necessarily have been the case had they been so closely related as was once maintained4 ,meleagris ,mexicana affects sparsely-overgrown savannas1 and occupies in ,mexico the region of the oaks and the coast--the tierra caliente of geographers4 ,it is a very wary bird1 and lives in families4 ,insects of divers kinds1 but chiefly of a coleopterous character1 as well as the seeds of grasses1 constitute its bill of fare4 ,when searching for food1 especially in perilous localities1 a sentinel is stationed on the outskirts of the flock1 whose duty it is to announce the presence of danger4 ,flight is seldom resorted to at such times1 for these birds1 being fleeter of foot than the swiftest dog1 are able to escape their enemies by running4 ,toward the close of ,march1 or in the beginning of ,april1 the hens separate from the males1 and seek for themselves nesting-places in secluded localities4 ,the nest is anything but an elaborate affair1 consisting of a few dry leaves or grasses scratched into a depression by the side of a prostrate log4 ,here the eggs--twelve beautiful1 oval1 speckled treasures--are laid1 and for thirty long1 weary days and nights they are sat upon by their author in her efforts to warm them into life4 ,when she leaves them1 which she does a short time each day for food1 she always takes the necessary precaution to cover them with leaves1 as a protection against cold and intrusion4 ,nothing will tempt her to quit the nest when the young are about to be hatched4 ,so absorbed does she then become that she has been known to submit to capture rather than endanger the lives of her offspring4 ,no human mother manifests deeper affection for her children than does this bird of the prairie for hers4 ,she fondles and dries them after they have escaped from their prison-houses1 and tenderly helps them out of the nest4 ,it is now that her cares may be said to commence4 ,where their interest and well-being are concerned1 hardly any responsibility is too great for her to assume4 ,she leads them into pleasant pastures1 teaches them to know good from bad foods1 and acquaints them with all the devices and subterfuges practised for eluding man and other enemies4 ,but it is not long that they are thus subservient to maternal wisdom and forethought1 for in fourteen days they are old enough to scratch for a living1 and to seek shelter and security from lawlessness and cruelty4 ,their menu consists of wheat1 berries1 grasses1 earth-worms1 and all kinds of terrestrial insects4 ,when summer is over1 the different families of the same neighborhood come together1 unite in one large flock1 and travel over the country for food4 ,the males emerge from their meeting-places and join the moving army1 and parents and young have nothing to do but to feed vigorously and grow fat4 ,late in ,october1 or early in ,november1 they begin to attract the attention of gunners1 and thousands are killed for the market1 where they are in eager demand by all lovers of good living4 ,,american ,,osprey4 ,pandion halitus1 as the ,fish ,hawk or ,osprey is called in ornithological language1 is found from the fur region surrounding ,hudson's ,bay to ,central ,america1 and from ,labrador to ,florida1 excepting ,boston ,harbor1 on the ,atlantic ,coast1 and almost from ,alaska to the southern extremity of the peninsula of ,lower ,california on the ,pacific seaboard4 ,birds have been known to nest on the rocky islands of ,california1 and about ,sitka1 according to ,bischoff1 as well as along the small streams in the vicinity of ,nulato4 ,from ,long ,island to ,chesapeake they breed in vast communities1 which often number several hundred pairs1 but away from the sea-coast they are only occasionally met with on the margins of rivers and lakes4 ,dr4 ,hayden found several pairs nesting on the summit of high cottonwood trees in the ,wind ,river ,mountains1 and ,mr4 ,allen observed the birds particularly abundant about the lakes of the ,upper ,st4 ,john's ,river in ,florida1 six nests being noticeable within a single circle of vision4 ,salvin claims that they nest on both coasts of ,central ,america1 but more especially about ,balize1 although on the islands of ,trinidad1 ,st4 ,croix1 ,jamaica and ,cuba they are seen at all times except during the breeding-season4 ,below ,philadelphia1 and in the south-eastern counties of ,pennsylvania bordering on the ,delaware1 individuals have been occasionally observed4 ,their arrival is about the beginning of ,march1 often when the streams which they frequent are fettered with icy bonds1 and their departure occurs about the twenty-fifth of ,september1 and frequently1 especially when the weather is remarkably fine1 as late as the fifteenth of ,october4 ,well-established communities1 numbering more than fifty pairs1 have been met within the swamps of ,southern ,new ,jersey1 among whom the best order and most perfect harmony prevailed4 ,few species display less shyness and greater confidence1 or are more eminently social1 as is particularly shown when these birds take up their quarters in close proximity to occupied dwellings1 or by the side of frequented by-paths and highways4 ,where undisturbed1 the same localities are visited year after year4 ,their exclusive piscine habits secure for them free and unlimited sway in their carefully chosen abodes1 for the poultry has nothing to fear1 and the smaller birds are not intimidated by their presence and sent screaming to their coverts as they do even when pursued by the little sparrow hawk4 ,wilson cites a case where four nests of the common purple grackle were built within the interstices of an ,osprey's nest1 and a fifth on an adjoining branch1 and the ,osprey was quite tolerant of such intrusion and freedom4 ,the writer has observed a nest of the grackle built in a similar position1 while all around the great ,hawk's home1 and scarcely five rods distant1 were nests of the robin1 wood thrush1 red-winged blackbird and others1 and no annoyance was known to occur1 the ,ospreys carefully attending to their own business and scarcely noticing their more humble brethren4 ,their bitterest enemy is the white-headed eagle1 against whom the united attacks of many of these birds are concentrated when he has the audacity to venture within their hunting-grounds or breeding-quarters1 for they are too familiar with his powerful muscularity and courageous disposition to attempt a single attack4 ,when an ,osprey is pursued by this king of the forest and hunting-ground1 his loud1 vociferous cries of distress1 resounding far and near1 evoke an army of defenders1 who come with all possible speed to wreak vengeance upon the great arch-enemy of their pleasures and happiness4 ,these attacks are made for the purpose of compelling the ,osprey to drop his prey or disgorge1 which the superior bird1 if his efforts have been successful1 pounces down upon and seizes before it has had time to reach the water or ground4 ,illustration3 ,,nest ,,of ,,american ,,osprey4 ,manner of ,securing ,food for ,young4 ,powerful as the flight of the ,fish ,hawk is1 yet it is never very high1 nor much protracted4 ,while skimming over the water's surface1 even at a moderate elevation1 his quick eye soon descries his quarry1 and1 in an instant1 he pounces down with tremendous force below the water's level1 often to a great distance1 but seldom missing his prey4 ,arising from his watery bath1 he moves off to a suitable perch to digest his meal at leisure4 ,but should the movement attract the keen vision of the bald eagle1 who is generally waiting in some secret covert1 or sailing so high up in the air as to be almost invisible1 the ,osprey swallows his victim if small1 or seeks to bear it away in his talons to a position of shelter and safety1 but1 rather than endure the too near approach of his more powerful relative1 drops it to the infinite delight and great satisfaction of the latter4 ,where a suitable tree1 or a commanding stump1 presents itself by the side of his chosen fishing-grounds1 he may be seen perched thereon for hours together1 gazing into the liquid depths below for the finny tribes that sport therein1 and ever and anon swooping down with amazing velocity and bearing up in his resistless talons the squirming victim4 ,in shallow places his mode of capture is regulated in conformity with their character1 gliding over their surface and clutching at his victims as they come within sight4 ,the food of the ,osprey consists mainly of fish1 although the reptiles and batrachians that inhabit the swamps and marshes wherein he builds do not escape his vigilance4 ,almost all kinds of fish1 except the very largest1 which would be more than a match for his strength1 are captured and devoured with avidity4 ,we have watched with a great deal of interest and pleasure his piscatorial pursuits on the shores of ,delaware ,bay1 and have often seen him bear from great depths fish much larger than the common shad4 ,the latter1 together with the herring1 striped bass and black bass1 are favorite articles of diet1 while his catchings from fresh-water streams1 the larger cyprinidonts1 cat-fish and pumpkin-seed1 are quite as great luxuries4 ,when the nesting-time comes around1 the last of ,april or the beginning of ,may1 these birds are not so engrossed with the thoughts of feeding as to be utterly oblivious of the duties which it imposes4 ,generally the same nest is selected year after year1 but when a new one is to be constructed it is not uncommon to find many pairs engaged in its building1 the friends of the destitute assembling and laboring with the most determined energy till its completion4 ,a more sociable disposition could hardly be conceived4 ,the spirit which would lead these birds to fly to the assistance of a distressed companion would certainly induce them to co-operate with their brethren in the difficult task of nest-building1 especially when such a bulky structure as the species is known to construct would severely task both the time and patience of the pair which is to occupy it4 ,the vast amount of labor and time expended in rearing such a fabric is a sufficient inducement for them not to want to indulge in such employment any more than is absolutely necessary4 ,hence these nests are constructed for durability4 ,unlike his ,european congener1 whose nest is placed upon a high cliff1 the ,osprey almost invariably builds on trees4 ,all nests taken by the writer have seldom been at a greater elevation than fifteen feet1 although instances have been recorded where they were twice that height4 ,it is a remarkable fact that the trees supporting these nests are always dead and generally placed in the midst of marshy ground1 either completely isolated or surrounded by a dense growth of bushes4 ,at all events1 they occupy rather conspicuous positions4 ,it is probable that the excrement of the birds or the saline character of their food has much to do with killing the nesting-trees4 ,trees which seem vigorous and thrifty at first manifest after a year's occupancy unmistakable signs of death4 ,not always are trees selected for nesting purposes1 for a ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,edwards describes a nest built on a tall cliff on the banks of the ,hudson ,river1 not very far from ,west ,point4 ,externally the nest is composed of large sticks piled to a height varying from two to five feet1 and measuring fully three feet in diameter4 ,corn-stalks1 mullein-stocks and bark are occasionally intermingled with the sticks1 but within there is a rather profuse lining of sea-weed and the long grasses which grow so luxuriantly in salt-water marshes4 ,the cavity ranges from fourteen to fifteen inches in diameter1 and is unusually shallow in proportion to the size of the nest4 ,three eggs constitute the usual nest-complement1 although two are sometimes laid1 and rarely four1 and these are deposited on consecutive or alternate days1 at the rate of one egg a day4 ,they measure about two and one-half inches in length and one and three-fourths in width1 and are of a yellowish-white color1 thickly covered with large blotches of different shades of brown4 ,incubation follows close upon the last deposit1 the task being begun by the female1 and devolving principally upon her1 although the male occasionally relieves her for a brief spell each day4 ,while she is on the nest1 he is a jealous husband and a most faithful provider4 ,the choicest catch of his piscatorial exploits is carried directly to the nest and ungrudgingly administered to the patient sitter4 ,when not engaged in providing for their wants he stations himself upon an adjoining tree1 if such should happen to be present1 or somewhere in the immediate neighborhood1 and exercises the closest surveillance over the nest and its occupant4 ,all attempts at intrusion are most summarily punished4 ,dr4 ,brewer mentions a case where a lad essayed to reach the nest in order to rob it of its eggs1 when he was assailed with so much violence that the male's talons were driven through a cloth cap that he wore and laid bare the scalp4 ,experience has proved the risk incurred in visiting these nests with hostile intentions4 ,you may pass and repass underneath the nest1 the authors criticising your every movement the while1 without calling forth the slightest opposition4 ,when1 however1 you attempt to mount the tree that contains their cherished treasures1 you virtually invite the full measure of their wrath4 ,that the male is affectionately devoted to his partner is shown by ,wilson in a case which he cites of a female who was prevented from fishing by a broken leg and that was abundantly supplied with food by her mate4 ,when the young appear they are objects of more than common parental solicitude1 the parents vying with each other in rendering them every needed attention and in providing them with a plentiful supply of suitable food4 ,but one parent is absent from the nest at a time1 the other remaining at home to guard against danger4 ,they are ravenous feeders1 and soon attain to full development1 when they resemble very closely in dress their parents1 having the upper parts spotted with pale reddish-brown or white4 ,adult birds are dark-brown or grayish-brown above1 with most of the head1 neck and under parts white1 the chest in the female1 and sometimes in the male1 being spotted with brown4 ,the tail1 usually paler than the back1 has six or seven dusky bars1 and is tipped with white4 ,that these birds may be fitted for powerful flight they are provided with long and pointed wings1 the second and third quills being the longest4 ,they have a stout bill1 with a very long hook and sharp end4 ,their feathers are oily to resist water1 those of the head being lengthened and pointed1 and of the thighs and a little of the front parts of the tarsi short and close together4 ,the legs1 tarsi and feet are very strong and robust1 and the claws all of the same length and very large and sharp4 ,rough scales completely invest the tarsi1 and the toes are padded below and covered with numerous hard-pointed projections to aid in holding their slippery prey4 ,the iris in some specimens is reddish1 but mostly yellow2 the bill and claws blue-black1 and the tarsi and toes grayish-blue4 ,male birds are not so large as the females1 the latter measuring twenty-five inches in length1 and with an extent of wings of fifty-two inches4 ,,turkey ,,buzzard4 ,few species1 if any1 have a wider distribution in ,america than the ,turkey ,buzzard4 ,it is found more or less abundantly to the ,saskatchewan throughout ,north ,america1 from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific ,coast1 and in all portions of ,south ,america as far south as the ,strait of ,magellan4 ,individuals have been met with in ,nova ,scotia and ,new ,brunswick1 though these birds are generally not common north of ,central ,new ,jersey4 ,from ,eastern ,maine1 in the neighborhood of ,calais1 to ,connecticut1 specimens have occasionally been captured4 ,in a single instance1 ,mr4 ,lawrence observed a small company of nine at ,rockaway1 ,long ,island4 ,west of the ,alleghenies1 from ,central ,america nearly to the ,arctic regions1 it occurs more abundantly4 ,without exception1 it is found in greater or less numbers in all the ,middle1 ,western1 ,southern and ,north-western ,states4 ,from ,lower ,california to ,washington1 along the ,pacific1 numerous parties attest to its common occurrence4 ,the ,west ,indies1 the islands of ,cuba1 ,jamaica and ,trinidad1 the last-named in particular1 include it within their faun4 ,honduras and ,guatemala1 as well as the ,falkland ,islands1 off the eastern coast of ,patagonia1 are permanent residing-places4 ,in ,pennsylvania and ,new ,jersey1 where the writer has had abundant opportunities for studying the species1 these ,vultures summer quite plentifully4 ,from their first appearance1 in ,march1 large numbers may be seen high up in the air1 moving in large circles1 apparently exploring the ground below for their favorite articles of food4 ,in rural districts they are1 however1 more frequently observed than in the vicinity of densely-populated towns1 the greater abundance of carrion to be met with in the former places doubtless being the cause of this preference4 ,but in ,california and ,oregon1 according to ,dr4 ,newberry1 they are quite as common near towns as about the large rivers4 ,in our ,southern ,states they visit cities and large villages1 and play the part of scavengers in company with the black vulture4 ,they are said to be so tame and unsuspicious in ,kingston1 ,jamaica1 that they roost upon the house-tops or prey upon offal in the streets4 ,in country places they are no less familiar and trustful1 as is evidenced while feeding4 ,so intent upon their business are they at this time that the presence of human beings is unnoticed1 and even when forced to forsake their booty they sullenly repair to a short distance1 only to resume their feeding when the annoyance has passed4 ,the common crow has been observed to gather around the same food1 and the utmost good-feeling prevailed4 ,a small flock will often settle down upon a dead horse around which several dogs have gathered4 ,the snapping and snarling of the dogs1 when they approach them too closely1 do not cause the ,vultures to retire1 but only to step a few paces aside1 when1 nothing daunted1 they continue their feeding1 apparently oblivious of their whereabouts and surroundings4 ,although the sense of sight is rather keenly developed in these birds1 yet that of smell is none the less so4 ,this is an advantage1 for both the visual and olfactory organs seem requisite in the determination of the presence of decaying animal matters4 ,as a proof that smell leads to food-detection1 ,dr4 ,brewer cites an instance1 on the authority of ,dr4 ,hill1 where several of these birds were attracted to the house of a ,german emigrant who was prostrated by fever1 being drawn by the strong odor escaping from his neglected food which had become putrid4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,c4 ,taylor1 whilst a resident of ,kingston1 sufficiently tested their power of smell4 ,he wrapped the carcass of a bird in a piece of paper1 and flung the parcel into the summit of a densely-leaved tree1 that stood in close proximity to his window4 ,a moment or two only elapsed1 when the keen smell of these birds scented something edible1 but they were unable to find it1 obviously for the reason that it was hidden from view by the enveloping paper4 ,generally their food consists of all kinds of animal matter4 ,they are often accused of sucking eggs1 and also of eating the young of herons1 as well as those of other birds4 ,in ,trinidad1 they are said to live on friendly terms with the poultry4 ,as no breach of faith has been reported to have occurred in this instance1 it is not likely that they would molest in any way our smaller birds1 at least we are not cognizant of any such cases of interference from our own observation1 nor do we find them in the recorded experiences of friends4 ,they are worse-disposed1 it seems to us1 to their own kith4 ,when several are feeding together1 most violent wrangles occur over the booty4 ,each strives to get the lion's share4 ,it is amusing to witness their manuvres4 ,some luckless fellow has just discovered a choice and racy bit1 which he is endeavoring to make off with in a somewhat hurried manner1 when instantly he is beset by a near companion1 who has scarcely swallowed his own morsel4 ,a conflict ensues4 ,the latter1 being the stronger1 succeeds after a little in defrauding the other of his rightful property4 ,when gorged1 these birds are stupid and indisposed to exertion1 the period of digestion ordinarily being passed in a motionless1 listless attitude1 with half-opened wings4 ,recovered from their semi-stupid condition1 they do not at once go to feeding again1 but spend a long time in the healthful exercise of their volant appendages4 ,few birds are more graceful1 easy and dignified while on the wing4 ,on the ground they may seem awkward1 but it is while soaring at a great height above the earth that they are seen in all their glory4 ,when prepared for lofty flights1 they spring from the ground with a single bound1 and1 after a few quick flappings of wings1 move heavenward4 ,attaining a great elevation1 they cleave the ether in ever-widening circles1 or sail on nearly horizontal wings1 the tips being slightly raised1 with steady1 uniform motion4 ,these aerial diversions1 for such they seem to be1 are never performed singly1 but in small parties of a dozen or more1 being more common in early spring1 and at the close of the breeding-season1 than at any other time4 ,it is to be observed further that these movements are executed in silence1 the only sounds which the ,buzzards are capable of producing being a kind of hiss1 which has not inaptly been compared to the seething noise emitted by plunging a hot iron in a vessel of water4 ,when ready to breed these birds look about for a hollow tree1 or some stump or log in a state of decay1 either upon the ground1 or slightly above it4 ,generally1 there are no indications of a nest4 ,in occasional instances a few rotten leaves1 scratched into the hollow selected for the deposition of the eggs1 constitute the nest1 these treasures being laid without any previous care for their preservation and shelter being taken4 ,in ,southern ,new ,jersey the nest has been inadvertently strayed upon in the midst of a deep and almost impenetrable morass1 where it was found placed upon a hollow stump4 ,within the rocky caverns along the wide1 shallow ,susquehanna1 as many as a dozen nests have been counted in a few hundred yards of space1 often as early as the last week of ,march in favorable seasons1 but generally not till the middle of ,april4 ,when the winters are not extremely rigorous1 a few individuals remain in the vicinity of their breeding-quarters throughout the entire year4 ,we have found the birds breeding in ,delaware ,county1 ,pa41 towards the latter part of ,april or the beginning of ,may1 but in ,philadelphia they rarely do1 if they breed at all4 ,in ,southern ,ohio they are a common summer sojourner4 ,speaking of the birds in ,jamaica1 ,mr4 ,gosse says they nest in depressions in the rocks and in the ledges thereof1 in retired localities and also upon inaccessible cliffs4 ,on ,galveston ,island ,audubon found the birds nesting in great numbers1 either under wide-spreading cactus branches or underneath low bushes in the midst of tall grasses in level saline marshes4 ,in the vicinity of ,cheraw1 ,s4 ,c41 ,dr4 ,c4 ,kollock met with the black vulture and our present species in swamps and dense forests1 where they congregate in vast numbers throughout the entire year4 ,these places are commonly designated ,buzzards' roosts4 ,audubon once visited one of these roosts in the vicinity of ,charleston1 which covered more than two acres of ground1 and which was completely denuded of vegetation4 ,on the banks of many of the rivers of ,southern ,texas1 ,mr4 ,dresser found them nesting in large numbers1 the timber along their borders constituting comfortable and secure shelter2 but1 contrary to what has always been entertained1 he affirms that they build large and bulky nests of sticks1 which they place at great heights in an oak or cypress1 close by the river-banks4 ,captain ,c4 ,c4 ,abbott says that in the ,falkland ,islands the eggs are deposited in the midst of bushes beneath high banks1 or on the summits of decayed balsam logs1 during the early part of ,november4 ,in certain localities1 where the birds are not very common1 paired individuals are not infrequently found4 ,two eggs generally constitute a nest-full1 although instances are known where but a single egg was deposited4 ,on the ,falkland ,islands they are said to lay three occasionally4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 especially in the ,bahamas1 the complement is the same as in the ,united ,states1 and there does not seem to be any difference in the habits of the birds in the two places4 ,specimens from ,new ,jersey1 ,texas1 ,florida and ,south ,carolina are creamy-white in ground1 and are variously marked with shades of brown1 intermingled with splashes of lavender and purple1 which are often so faint as to be perceptible only upon close examination4 ,brewer mentions a variety from near ,cheraw1 ,s4 ,c41 that was nearly pure white1 and which showed but a few small red and slightly purplish lines and dots about the larger extremity4 ,recently we have met with some from ,texas answering the same description4 ,in dimensions these eggs vary but little1 and have1 on the average1 a length of #b4gh inches1 and a width of #b4jj1 or rather less4 ,cathartes aura1 as the ,turkey ,buzzard is known by the scientific naturalist1 is far from being demonstrative in the expression of her feelings4 ,when her home is assailed1 she makes no ado1 but quietly slips out1 and seemingly contemplates its desecration with indifference4 ,though manifesting a passive disposition in the face of human interference1 yet she is not always the gentle being she would have us believe1 as shown by the spirit of dominancy she displays over her own household4 ,unlike many of her neighbors1 she does not entirely assume the responsibilities of brood-raising1 permitting her partner the happy enjoyment of a life of luxurious ease1 but1 believing in the doctrine of a proper division of labor1 forces upon him his share of the work4 ,whilst she thus appears unduly exacting towards him1 she is equally so to her offspring4 ,few mothers know better than she the right training of their children1 so as to fit them to become useful and respectable members of society4 ,this is no figment of the imagination1 as will presently be seen4 ,it was while exploring a section of ,delaware ,county of this ,state for minerals in the summer of #ahid that some interesting facts were learned of the relation subsisting between her and the rest of her family4 ,having accidentally strayed upon a young ground hog which had but recently been killed1 the writer resolved to carry it home and place it where it could be seen or scented by the ,buzzards1 so that he might have an opportunity of making a more intimate acquaintance with these birds than he had ever before been able to make4 ,accordingly the dead animal was transported to a meadow overlooked by the house he was occupying4 ,the resolution was well taken1 for on the fourth day after the deposit had been made several ,buzzards were seen circling high overhead1 mere specks against the blue dome of the sky1 evidently scanning the earth beneath with their telescopic vision for the presence of food1 or endeavoring to scent it with their keen sense of smell4 ,nearer and nearer the flock drew earthward1 till finally1 a full hour being spent in graceful manuvring1 the birds settled down upon the green-carpeted meadow1 but a few yards from the carrion that lay festering with vermin4 ,their feathers adjusted1 and folded to rest their wide-spreading pinions1 the young1 in obedience to orders1 as it seemed1 leaped on to a huge pine log that lay near by1 while the old folks surveyed1 wistfully and long1 from their standpoint of observation on the ground1 the odorous carrion a few feet away1 as if whetting their appetites for the feast they were soon to enjoy4 ,with a few quick steps1 that were meant to be graceful1 the female drew near1 but the male lingered doubtingly behind4 ,in a trice she was busy at work1 tearing with claw and with bill the daintiest morsels4 ,rendered mad by the smell of the food the male1 no longer seeming backward1 pressed forward to her side1 but only to retreat before her savage assaults4 ,again he essayed the attempt1 and was beaten back as he had been before4 ,convinced that further effort would be useless1 he strode sulkily to a distance1 where1 in moody contemplation1 he nervously awaited her ladyship's sweet pleasure4 ,being filled to the full the female now moved lazily away to a clean patch of grass1 where she immediately set to work to arranging her toilet1--wiping her bill and her claws upon the green carpet before her1 craning her neck and stretching her pinions1 yawning and gaping and gaping and yawning1--and finally ending all by seeking the topmost rail of a near-by fence for rest and composure4 ,with nothing to fear1 the male now stalked complacently forward1 and was soon hard at work at what was left of the carcass4 ,his appetite less capacious than that of his lady1 his dinner was soon over1 and off strode he too to a fresh spot of grass1 where he went through the same process of wiping his mouth and stretching and yawning1 which1 being finished1 he mounted the rail by the side of his mistress4 ,illustration3 ,,female ,,turkey ,,buzzard ,,dining4 ,male and ,young ,awaiting ,her ,ladyship's ,pleasure4 ,more interesting far than either the parents were the three black creatures that stood upon the pine log4 ,fixed to the spot as though they had grown there1 with scarcely moving heads and downcast eyes they eagerly watched the food disappearing1 wondering1 mayhap1 as children are prone to do1 if it would all disappear before they had a chance of testing its virtues1 but maintaining their souls the while in perfect serenity of repose4 ,but their time had at length arrived1 and down from the log they cast themselves instanter1 three lusty fellows as large as the parents1 but one of them1 from his limping gait1 proving to be lame4 ,great consideration was shown the disabled one by the others1 who permitted him to feed first1 while they stood aside until he had satisfied his hunger1 when1 without the least bit of ceremony1 or the least indication of ill-nature or selfishness1 they too set to work1 finishing in quick order whatever edible was left of the dead animal4 ,their actions after feeding were exactly the counterpart of those of the parents4 ,having finished their toilet1 the three sought the rail by the side of the father1 where1 like their illustrious heads1 they were soon occupied with the most self-satisfying thoughts1 utterly oblivious1 as it seemed1 of time and surroundings4 ,more than an hour was thus spent in drowsy meditation1 when1 as by common consent1 they all1 one after the other1 leaped to the ground1 where they busied themselves preening their feathers and preparing for departure4 ,the time being ripe1 the female set the example4 ,with a run of a half-dozen yards to gain a good start1 she was soon on the wing1 and in fifteen minutes or more was lost in the ether4 ,the male followed suit1 and when he had vanished from sight1 the young1 one after another1 mounted the atmosphere1 and gradually circling their way through its limitless depths1 were also soon lost to the earth-chained beholder4 ,concluding this brief chapter of bird-history1 we have a few brief comments to make4 ,to the uninitiated in science matters1 the statements just made must seem well nigh incredible4 ,but there were other witnesses of the facts1 just and reliable observers1 too1 whose testimony could be appealed to1 to settle all doubts of their authenticity4 ,from all that has been said1 it cannot but be evident that the female was the acknowledged head of the family1 a sort of feathered autocrat1 whose will was the law by which the family was governed4 ,even the male1 who did not always respect her authority1 especially where her interests conflicted with his own1 was made to see that might makes right when confronted with her stronger and more powerful nature4 ,but it was the patience and orderly behavior that characterized the nearly-grown young1 and their sweetness and gentleness of disposition under the most trying circumstances as well1 that impressed us as extremely wonderful1 and led to the opinion that man-born offspring might here learn a lesson of filial obedience and respect that would greatly redound to the honor and glory of the race4 ,when captured1 these birds offer no active resistance1 but very effectually warn off their aggressor by vomiting up the half-putrid contents of their crop4 ,they will often simulate death at such times4 ,on one occasion an individual having been shot by ,dr4 ,coues was picked up for dead4 ,while being carried to the ,doctor's tent1 it was perfectly limp4 ,on reaching his quarters1 he carelessly threw it upon the ground1 and went to work at something else4 ,after a little1 upon looking around1 he beheld to his great surprise that the bird had changed position1 and was furtively glancing around4 ,on going up to it1 its eyes instantly closed1 its body became relaxed1 and it lay perfectly motionless1 and apparently lifeless4 ,after compressing its chest for several minutes until he fancied life extinct1 he dropped the bird and repaired to supper4 ,upon his return the bird was gone1 it evidently having scrambled into the bushes as soon as he had turned his back upon it4 ,the young1 when first hatched1 are covered with a whitish down1 and are fed upon half-digested matter which is disgorged by their parents4 ,when taken from the nest and kept in captivity until fully grown they become exceedingly tame1 and will feed on fresh meat1 earthworms1 crickets1 grasshoppers1 and other large insects1 which they apparently relish1 and oftentimes will also eat bits of bread1 cake and particles of apples or pears which are thrown before them4 ,the benefits which these scavengers render are too well known to need any comment4 ,in the mature state the plumage of the ,buzzard is brownish-black1 and more or less glossy1 the quills being paler on the under surface4 ,the skin of the head and neck is red and wrinkled1 and with scattering bristle-like feathers1 the bill whitish1 legs and feet pinkish1 iris grayish-brown1 and nostrils large and oval4 ,their length is about thirty inches1 extent of wing seventy-two inches1 wing being about twenty-five1 and tail twelve4 ,,rare ,,and ,,curious ,,nests4 ,from time immemorial it has been the current popular belief that birds of the same species never varied their style of architecture1 but constructed the same form of nest1 and out of the same materials1 as their remotest progenitors did1 instinct being the principle by which they were guided4 ,this opinion1 though long since exploded by scientific research1 is still1 ,i am sorry to say1 entertained by persons who should know better4 ,an examination of nests from different and widely-separated localities affords evidence of the most convincing character of its erroneousness4 ,most marked differences will always be found to exist in composing materials1 as these are sure to vary with environment1 and in a wider degree in the nests of some than in those of other species2 even configuration1 which is less prone to change1 is often influenced by circumstances of position and latitude4 ,among the ,thrushes1 the nest of the ,robin is the most addicted to variation1 and this is not wholly restricted to the constituents of its usually mud-plastered domicile1 but is quite frequently observed to occur in the arrangement of materials1 and in contour and position as well4 ,where low marshy woods abound on the outskirts of towns and villages1 as is the case in ,southern ,new ,jersey1 nests of this species have been taken that contrasted in a most wonderful manner with those one is accustomed to see in more northern localities4 ,the great masses of grayish-green fibrous lichen1 which depend from shrub and tree in sylvan marshes1 are most freely used1 and from its very nature to mat when pressed together all necessity for mud is precluded4 ,illustration3 ,,nest ,,of ,,the ,,robin4 ,built ,upon a ,railroad ,cutting4 ,but the most curious nest ,i have ever met with was built upon a railroad cutting1 where the ground had a slope of more than forty-five degrees4 ,such a position for a dwelling of the kind the ,robin is known to build1 to one not conversant with the facts1 must appear incredible4 ,but that it was accomplished1 the nest itself was the monument of the builders' thoughtful skill and labor4 ,a semicircular wall of mud1 eight inches in diameter and five inches in height1 constituted the groundwork1 and within the cavity thus formed was reared a coarse1 substantial1 bulky fabric1 that was entirely composed of the stems of grasses1 leaves and roots1 loaded down and held in place by pellets of mud4 ,illustration3 ,copyright #aijj by ,a4 ,r4 ,dugmore4 ,,nest ,,from ,,the ,,top4 ,,section ,,of ,,two-,,storied ,,nest4 ,,red-,,eyed ,,vireo',s ,,two-,,storied ,,nest ,,with ,,cow-,,bird',s ,,egg ,,beneath ,a more remarkable position1 and one that seemed as difficult to manage1 ,i shall now relate4 ,few birds care so little for position as the common ,house ,wren4 ,almost any place answers its purpose4 ,near the little town of ,thornbury1 in the ,state of ,pennsylvania1 a pair of these birds1 in the summer of #ahhb1 took possession of a derrick1 and1 as a site for a home1 selected the space over a sheave in one of the stationary blocks1 where1 in due time1 was deposited their rude1 yet comfortable1 nest of sticks and feathers4 ,a similar structure occupied the spot the previous year1 and a brood of eight birds was raised4 ,it was not the elements of composition of these nests that excited interest and surprise1 for they are not materially different from the usual form1 but the strange1 anomalous situation which they occupied4 ,so dexterously were the materials arranged within the space that the revolution of the wheel was not in the least interfered with4 ,the nest was approached on the side facing the rope that moved the pulley4 ,the opposite side could have been used for this purpose1 and doubtless with less danger to life or limb1 but preference seemed to be shown for the other4 ,why this was so was for some time a mystery4 ,but when the birds were seen to alight upon the rope at the top of the derrick and ride down to the nest1 the explanation at once became apparent4 ,never did linnet enjoy the rocking twig1 or bobolink the swaying cat-tail1 with half the zest than did these eccentric creatures their ride down the rope4 ,a hundred times a day1 when necessity arose1 they treated themselves to the pleasure1 the rope all the while moving at the rate of thirty feet in a second4 ,six of the seven days1 from early morn till night1 they availed themselves of this strange conveyance1 and never a danger occurred to mar their delight4 ,in due time a family of happy1 rollicking children was raised1 and the nest on the derrick deserted4 ,more beautiful are the nests which the ,red-winged ,blackbirds build4 ,these are the birds that affect our swamps and marshes1 and make the air ring with their loud1 clear1 resonant notes4 ,before me is a nest that surpasses in beauty the average structure4 ,it is a bulky affair for the species1 but so symmetrical in contour1 and so quaintly1 deftly woven1 that the eye never tires in looking at it1 nor the mind in contemplating its wonderful mechanism4 ,broad ribbons of grasses are its composing materials1 and eight of them are so woven into the nest as to securely fasten it to the tall typhas in the summit of which it was placed4 ,illustration3 ,,red-,,winged ,,blackbird',s ,,nest4 ,located in a ,field of ,timothy4 ,but a more clever nest of these birds1 and one that is as unique in shape as it is in texture and composition1 was found in the summer of #ahgi in the vicinity of ,philadelphia4 ,it was built in a field of timothy1 many of the stalks of which being wrought into the fabric4 ,its shape is that of an inverted cone1 and so beautifully1 symmetrically and compactly put together is it1 that one could hardly credit the builders with the possession of the skill necessary to the production of so perfect a domicile4 ,externally the nest is formed of grasses and rushes1 neatly and intricately interwoven1 with here and there a head of the dry pappus of some species of hawkweed4 ,sedges and fine grasses make for it a cosy and comfortable lining4 ,this nest shows quite conspicuously in the drawing1 but in its natural position1 in the centre of a large field1 the authors had spared no pains to have its concealment as perfect as possible4 ,typical nests of these ,blackbirds are somewhat irregular in outline1 and rather coarsely and rudely built of stubble and broad grasses1 variously intermingled1 and lined with soft meadow grass4 ,usually they are placed in clusters of weeds or in the tops of small bushes alongside of streams of water4 ,high positions are seldom chosen for nesting purposes1 as they offer poor facilities for food-collecting1 the aquatic larv1 may-flies1 dragon-flies and mosquitos1 which constitute a prominent part of the diet of these birds1 being only found in marshy situations4 ,small bushes along the margins of streams1 from the double advantage which they possess1 are almost exclusively adopted in certain localities4 ,being convenient to appropriate food-stuffs1 they are1 at the same time1 out of the reach of snakes1 especially water-snakes1 which have a decided fondness for young birds4 ,of the sub-family of ,orioles1 to which the ,red-wing belongs1 no member1 unless it be the namesake of ,maryland's distinguished proprietor1 builds a more magnificent nest than the one that inhabits the orchard4 ,in the books it is known by the no means euphonious title of ,icterus spurius4 ,its nest is shaped like a pouch1 and generally pensile4 ,soft1 flexible meadow grasses1 neatly and compactly woven together1 make up the outer fabric1 while within is a lining of vegetal or animal wool1 or one of fine grasses intermingled with horse-hair4 ,but the handsomest ever seen was one that was found in the vicinity of ,nazareth1 ,pa41 by ,richard ,christ1 in the summer of #ahhc4 ,it is of the usual size1 five inches in height1 three in external diameter1 but differing from the normal form only in materials of composition4 ,the proverbial meadow grasses are absent1 and in lieu thereof are the headed stems of such as grow by the roadside1 notably conspicuous for their golden brightness in a state of desiccation4 ,illustration3 ,,double ,,nest ,,of ,,orchard ,,oriole4 ,female ,sitting1 ,male ,standing ,guard4 ,more noteworthy1 however1 than the ,nazareth nest1 is one that was removed from a silver maple-tree4 ,it is a double structure1 composed of long1 flexible grasses1 and is firmly bound by the same to several small1 slender branches4 ,the larger nest1 inversely sub-conical1 is joined to the smaller1 somewhat similarly shaped1 but less compact in structure1 by ribbons of the same kind of grass that composes the nest4 ,a circular opening1 one inch in diameter1 is a noticeable feature of the smaller4 ,that the additional structure served some useful purpose there can be no doubt4 ,i am inclined to believe that it was built for the accommodation of either parent while the other was sitting4 ,the aperture was a convenient outlook for the non-sitting bird1 who1 from this position1 could with little difficulty1 like a sentinel from an outpost1 detect the approach of an enemy4 ,but nothing can exceed in beauty and skill the nest of a female ,baltimore ,oriole in the writer's possession4 ,it was built under peculiar circumstances1 the builder being a prisoner1 having been taken from home when quite a fledgling4 ,a male companion was brought away at the same time4 ,these birds1 the property of ,dr4 ,detwiler1 of ,easton1 ,pa41 in #ahhc1 were a source of considerable pleasure to that elderly gentleman in his leisure moments4 ,under his careful1 kindly management1 they became quite tame1 the female manifesting greater familiarity than the male4 ,that either would become so accustomed to confinement as to evince a desire to build never entered the mind of the ,doctor4 ,they had1 when he was alone1 the freedom of his studio4 ,one lovely ,june morning1 the outside world brimming over with life and joy and sunshine1 the door of their cage was thrown open1 and the ,doctor settled himself into a soft easy-chair to read4 ,hardly had he scanned a dozen lines1 when something pulling at his hair caused him to drop his paper and look around4 ,he was not slow to detect the offender in the person of his female feathered friend who was seen flying towards the most distant corner of the room with something1 resembling hair1 in her bill4 ,the reading was resumed1 and again the culprit stole cautiously to where he was sitting1 and1 seizing another hair1 was off in a twinkling4 ,illustration3 ,,female ,,baltimore ,,oriole4 ,nest the ,exclusive ,work of ,her ,bill4 ,permitting for a while these liberties1 and noticing that bits of strings were1 when placed in positions to be seen1 quite as much the objects of interest as the hairs of his head1 the ,doctor was not slow in divining the motive which led to this strange and unexpected behavior4 ,convinced by actions1 as significant as words themselves could be1 that his little friend was desirous to build a home1 he began to cast about for a corner where she could be free to carry out her intentions without fear or interference4 ,the attic furnished the place1 and after fitting it up with a large tree-branch for a perch1 and plenty of new white strings for building purposes1 he bore his favorite and her partner to their new quarters4 ,soon the female became at home and entered into her voluntarily-imposed labor with alacrity1 and at the end of a week had constructed a domicile which her untamed prototypes of field and roadside would strive in vain to excel4 ,but the male would have nothing at all to do with the matter1 but remained the same cold1 indifferent being as ,i found him to be upon my first introduction4 ,some nests are curious on account of shape4 ,the birds often1 it would seem1 try their very best to see how oddly they can build their homes4 ,the little ,acadian ,flycatcher1 so common in ,eastern ,pennsylvania during the breeding-season1 sometimes appears to be controlled by cranky ideas with regard to building4 ,dry blossoms of the hickory are the materials it ordinarily uses1 and they can always be obtained whenever needed1 but in a nest discovered by the writer in #ahhb1 not a blossom was to be found1 but in place of them there were long1 stringy fibres of the inner bark of some species of herbaceous plant1 which the birds had modelled into a compactly-built1 shallow1 saucer-like cavity1 and from which they had caused to depend a gradually tapering train of the same for nearly nine inches4 ,illustration3 ,,acadian ,,flycatchers4 ,nest ,curious on ,account of ,its ,train4 ,the ,king ,bird1 a distant relative of the ,flycatcher1 often displays as much eccentricity4 ,once upon a time a pair of ,king ,birds took a fancy to an old apple-tree that stood within a few yards of my ,germantown home4 ,it was certainly not a place of quiet and retirement1 for scores of noisy1 dirty children daily resorted to its leafy shelter for coolness and pastime4 ,but the birds were not the least disquieted4 ,they had fixed their minds upon the spot1 and build they did4 ,the nest was posed between a forked branch1 just out of the reach of the urchins4 ,it was a crazy affair4 ,black1 slender roots1 wrinkled and knotted and tendrilled1 made up the body of the fabric4 ,as it was nearing completion1 the opportune discovery of a bunch of carpet rags was hailed with delight4 ,they were instantly appropriated1 and promptly adjusted to the outside1 but in such a manner that long ends1 some fourteen inches in length1 were made to project from the sides and bottom4 ,whether all this was for ornament or protection1 or for both1 ,i could not say1 but ,i am inclined to think that safety was uppermost in the minds of the builders1 for1 looking from below at the nest it seemed but a mass of rags that had been thrown into a tree-crotch1 which1 the birds perceiving1 and its close resemblance to an entangled bunch1 had utilized4 ,illustration3 ,copyright #aijj by ,a4 ,r4 ,,dugmore4 ,,long ,,billed ,,marsh ,,wren',s ,,nest4 ,certainly no more beautiful nests in shape exist than the spherical in form4 ,the ,long-billed ,marsh ,wren builds a nest of this type4 ,upon its arrival in the spring it seeks the inland swamps1 or the brackish marshes of the sea-shore1 where1 amid the splatterdocks of the former and reeds of the latter1 it finds suitable shelter and protection4 ,there1 day in and day out1 during its entire summer stay1 it pursues the even tenor of its life1 happy and contented1 never caring1 like many of its remoter kin1 for the charmed circle of man4 ,active1 energetic and buoyant with hope1 it skips about the tall rank herbage1 in every direction1 in quest of insects1 making its presence known and felt by the lively chattering song1 which resembles more nearly the sounds of an insect than those of a bird1 which emanates from its grassy haunts4 ,as these birds reach their breeding-grounds early in ,may1 nest-building is soon begun1 but so secret and mysterious are their movements at first1 that we hardly know anything of their presence1 except when they are colonized for the summer4 ,the labor of building is entered into with considerable alacrity1 and is mainly the result of the combined labor of both birds4 ,their nests are usually placed in low bushes1 a few feet above the ground1 or woven into the tops of sedges out of the reach of ordinary tides2 but in very rare instances upon the ground in the midst of a clump of grasses4 ,ground nests are loosely-constructed affairs1 which is not the case with those that are elevated to the tops of tussocks1 or to the branches of shrubs and trees1 which require more compactness and a better finish4 ,the most beautiful1 as well as artistic1 nest which ,i have ever seen is the one shown in the cut4 ,this nest was discovered in the vicinity of ,philadelphia in the summer of #ahgh4 ,a willow-branch1 some fifteen feet above the ground1 which was bifurcated1 was made to do service4 ,no ordinary skill was that which surmounted the seemingly insuperable difficulty of building a nest1 not pensile in character1 to such a swaying branch4 ,that the birds accomplished the feat the nest itself was the evidence4 ,in form this nest was nearly globular1 four and a half and five inches in the two diameters4 ,it was woven of the broad leaves of a species of scirpus1 closely and evenly1 and had its interstices well seamed with brownish cottony down4 ,a thin delicate curtain of gauze1 of the same material1 hung around the opening1 and this was continued within1 forming a thick bedding of the softest1 fluffiest nature1 of which the most voluptuous sybarite might envy its fortunate possessor4 ,illustration3 ,,long-,,billed ,,marsh ,,wrens4 ,nest ,placed ,out of the ,reach of ,tides4 ,but the little ,golden-crowned ,kinglet1 a mere mite of flesh and feathers1 but with a great deal of spirit1 builds a much handsomer nest4 ,it is the perfection of symmetry4 ,man could not make with all the appliances at his command any thing more nearly globular4 ,but its beauty6 ,it looks like a ball of green moss1 the delicate patches of moss being so artfully arranged as to completely hide the dry stems of grasses that constitute the walls4 ,no moss ever spread itself over the ground1 or over a stump or tree-trunk1 more evenly4 ,when it is known that this ,kinglet builds its nest among the slender feathered branches of the hemlock spruce1 there is manifestly a reason for the fern-like tracery upon the exterior1 so necessary for the preservation of its home4 ,such a handsome and imposing structure would be far from complete were the inside not in keeping with the outside4 ,but the birds have left nothing to be desired in this particular4 ,the softest and purest of down lines the little bed-chamber1 and even swells in its lightness till ready to overflow the neat circular door-way4 ,illustration3 ,,golden-,,crowned ,,kinglets4 ,nest the ,perfection of ,beauty and ,symmetry4 ,perhaps the most graceful thing you may ever expect to find when on the quest1 fitted to be considered the work of the fairies1 is the pretty lace hammock of the ,parula ,warbler4 ,you must search for it early in ,june1 in remote but thin woods1 but never far from running water4 ,often you will see it upon a branch overhanging a stream4 ,the slender twig of a birch is sometimes chosen for its suspension1 the terminal spray of a hemlock spruce1 or a horizontal branch of a white oak4 ,like a watch-pocket1 with the opening in the side1 it is lightly suspended4 ,it is made of a delicate lace-work1 the grayish-green usnea moss1 that grows on old trees4 ,the whole fabric is the work of two little birds with slate-blue backs and yellow breasts4 ,no other bird of our fauna builds a nest akin to its swinging1 eery nest4 ,it is true much of the material is found in position when the builders commence their labor1 but the exquisite outline and finish1 as well as the cozy interior1 are due to the skill of the birds themselves4 ,even when the structure is just so far completed that occupancy by the female is possible1 the male never wearies of its adornment by additional filaments of usnea brought from a distance4 ,he is the happiest of fellows1 for his little beak always finds something to do while his patient wife is busy with the duties that lead to maternity4 ,illustration3 ,,lace ,,hammock ,,of ,,parula ,,warbler4 ,female ,entering ,nest and ,male ,adding to ,its ,adornments4 ,coming like whirling leaves1 half autumn yellow1 half green of spring1 their colors blending like the outer petals of grass-green daffodils1 no more sociable and confiding little creatures are to be found in our midst than the ,yellow ,warblers4 ,they are as much at home in the trees by the house as in the fields and woods4 ,wherever they wander1 the glints of sunshine that flash from their backs should make the most miserable complainer feel the summer's charm4 ,but in spite of their seeming preference for man1 they are prone to build in lonely fields and by-ways4 ,in such places it becomes one of the especial victims which the ,cow ,bird selects to foster its random eggs4 ,but the ,warbler puts its intelligence effectively to work1 and builds a second story to its nest1 thus flooring over the unwelcome eggs4 ,this expedient is repeated as long as the ,cow ,bird continues her mischief1 until sometimes a three-story nest is achieved4 ,the outside of the nest1 composed of glistening milkweed flax1 is pressed into a felt-like case1 the fibres serving at the same time to lash the nest to its support4 ,within1 to the depth of an inch1 is a soft sponge-like material1 which the birds have made from the wool they have gathered from the stems of young ferns4 ,a few horse-hairs1 to give shape and stability to the nest1 are to be found in the inside of the felt-like lining4 ,illustration3 ,,three-,,story ,,nest ,,of ,,yellow ,,warbler4 ,showing the ,builder's ,manner of ,out-witting the ,cow ,bird4 ,hundreds of nests1 quite as novel as any that have been described1 might be instanced1 showing varieties from so-called normal forms1 but ,i shall content myself with only another example4 ,everyone is familiar with the ,ruby-throated ,humming ,bird1 so common in the eastern half of the ,united ,states4 ,it is the smallest of all our birds4 ,but its nest1 which is by no means scarce1 is a rare sight to the average man and woman4 ,no nest can be compared with it4 ,it is a thing of beauty and a joy forever4 ,a mass of cotton1 with a hole in the top1 and thatched all round with blue-gray lichens1 and just as big as a walnut1 conveys a good idea of its appearance4 ,but all nests are not made of cotton4 ,the yellow wool that forms the dress of the undeveloped fern-frond1 or the red shoddy that is wind-swept into heaps outside some woollen factory1 is often made to take the place of the down of the seed of the poplar4 ,not to be mentioned in the same breath with these1 is the nest ,i am now about to describe4 ,it was saddled upon the horizontal bough of a small white oak-tree that grew on the side of a thicket1 and was peculiar from the nature of the material that composed its inner fabric4 ,this substance resembled burnt umber in color1 and was as soft as the finest wool1 or the fluffiest down1 and proved1 upon examination1 to be the mycelium of a fungus which the builders had gathered from decaying stumps or mildewing tree-branch4 ,,strange ,,friendship4 ,somewhat widely distributed throughout temperate ,north ,america1 but nowhere very abundant1 is the little ,acadian ,owl1 or ,saw-whet ,owl1 as he is popularly designated4 ,in ,eastern ,pennsylvania he seems notably scarce1 but this may be attributed to his pre-eminently nocturnal and secluded habits4 ,being a denizen of dense pine forests1 and only venturing abroad in quest of food at the close of the day1 his presence and numbers remain to many a mystery4 ,hollow trees1 and the dark caverns of rocks1 are his natural retreats1 and as these are to be met with largely in densely-timbered regions and sequestered localities1 he is seldom1 if ever1 seen in close proximity to human habitations4 ,he seemingly shuns rather than courts the society of man4 ,when routed from his burrow in the broad glare of day he becomes very much bewildered1 and is scarcely able to escape the approach of danger4 ,the common appellation of ,saw-whet ,owl1 which is applied to the species1 owes its origin to the close resemblance which the notes of the bird bear to the noise produced by the filing of a saw4 ,these notes are so deceptive1 that persons unacquainted with their source have fancied themselves in the vicinity of a saw-mill1 or in near presence to a woodman occupied in whetting a saw4 ,audubon1 hearing these notes in a thicket for the first time1 was thus deceived4 ,the same distinguished writer gives1 on the authority of ,mr4 ,mc,cullock1 an interesting description not only of the notes of this ,owl1 but also of his remarkable powers of ventriloquism4 ,on a certain occasion his informant was aroused by what appeared to be the feeble tones of a distant bell4 ,but in nearing the spot whence the sounds emanated1 they apparently shifted from point to point1 being heard at one time close by1 and at the next moment in the distance1 now on the left1 then on the right1 and as often in the rear as in the front4 ,finally the author of these sounds was discovered at the entrance of his burrow in a birch-tree4 ,stationing himself at the base of the tree in full view of the bird who was calling to his partner1 ,mr4 ,mc,cullock had a splendid opportunity of observing an exhibition of his singular and exceptional ventriloquial powers4 ,smooth1 gliding and noiseless is the flight of this ,owl1 and but slightly elevated and protracted4 ,when seeking for food he may be seen sailing over low meadows in the neighborhood of his accustomed haunts1 or1 perched upon a stump or fence-rail adjoining thereto1 quietly gazing in every direction for whatever of life may chance to manifest itself1 which he seizes with remarkable adroitness1 even sometimes venturing to assail prey larger than himself4 ,the smaller birds1 awakened from their perch by his cries1 fall ready victims to his rapacity4 ,hollow trees1 or the deserted nests of other species1 are selected for breeding-quarters4 ,the eggs1 varying from four to six in number1 are pure white1 sub-spherical1 of crystalline clearness1 and measure one and one-eighth by one and seven-eighths inches4 ,the food of this interesting little ,owl1 which is not so large as a robin1 though appearing bulkier1 consists of small quadrupeds and birds1 but chiefly of various species of insects4 ,when taken quite young1 and held in confinement1 this ,owl becomes quite tame1 permitting strangers as well as his keeper to handle him with the utmost freedom1 without so much as resenting such familiarity4 ,but a greater attachment is manifested towards the master whom he is able to recognize by the sound of his voice1 and in whose presence he is peculiarly fascinating and agreeable4 ,like ,scops asio--the ,red ,owl--he leads a solitary existence1 save on the approach of warm weather1 when the sexes are discovered together1 or are heard calling one to the other4 ,mating commences early in ,april1 and about the middle of the month the birds have located their nests in the hollow of a tree1 about twenty feet from the ground1 where the female lays her complement of eggs4 ,the entrance to the hole is very small1 scarcely two inches in diameter4 ,upon the female devolves the whole work of incubation1 although the male takes a hand in raising the young4 ,the latter leave the nest about the first week of ,may1 and when disturbed make a noise that sounds like a dog sniffling the air1 which1 when heard1 especially at night in heavy timber1 is quite certain to startle one and make him fancy a bear or some such animal up a tree near by4 ,some years ago there lived in the hollow of an oak tree1 not far from ,germantown1 a common ,chickaree ,squirrel--,sciurus ,hudsonius--with this little ,owl as his sole companion4 ,this association reminded me of the connection of the burrowing owl of the ,west with the singular settlements of the prairie dog1 the life-relations of the two creatures being really intimate in very many localities1 although the owls are simply attracted to the villages of the prairie-dogs as the most suitable places for shelter and nidification1 where they find eligible ready-made burrows and are saved the trouble of digging for themselves4 ,community of interest makes them gregarious to an extent unusual among rapacious birds1 while the exigencies of life on the plains cast their lot with the rodents4 ,that the owls live at ease in the settlements1 and on familiar terms with their four-footed neighbors1 is an undoubted fact1 but that they have any intimate domestic relations is open to question4 ,that the quadruped and the birds are often seen to scuttle at each other's heels into the same hole when alarmed is no proof that they live together1 for in such a case the two merely seek the nearest shelter1 independently of each other4 ,in the larger settlements there are thousands upon thousands of burrows1 many of them occupied by the dogs1 but more1 perhaps1 vacant4 ,these latter are the homes of the owls4 ,it is possible that the respective retreats of a dog and an owl may have one common vestibule1 but this does not imply that they nest together4 ,there are fewest owls in the towns most densely populated by the dogs and the greatest number in the deserted villages1 and this is strong evidence in point4 ,but the owls are by no means confined to the dog-towns1 nor even to the similar communities of other gregarious spermophiles4 ,they sometimes occupy the underground dens of wolves1 foxes and badgers4 ,when the subject has been carefully investigated1 the owls never appear to enter the same hole or burrow with a squirrel1 and a squirrel is never seen to enter a burrow that was occupied by owls1 however strongly he may be tempted by fear to enter the first hole he should come to4 ,the spermophile never likes to enter any burrow but his own1 and has been known to run past any number of inviting entrances in order that he may hide himself in his own domicile4 ,illustration3 ,,saw-,,whet ,,owl ,,and ,,chickaree ,,squirrel4 ,living ,together in ,perfect ,harmony and ,mutual ,good-will4 ,in the case of the ,chickaree ,squirrel and the ,saw-whet ,owl1 they occupied the same hole together in perfect harmony and mutual good-will4 ,it was not an accidental occurrence1 the ,squirrel merely seeking the cavity to escape a danger that impended1 for the bird and the ,squirrel had been repeatedly observed to enter the hole together1 and in the most amicable manner possible1 as though they had always shared the apartment4 ,ordinarily the ,chickaree is a very pugnacious creature1 attacking with the greatest fierceness the gray and black squirrel whenever they had the temerity to cross his path4 ,he seems to be ever bent upon blood4 ,though strictly by nature a rodent1 subsisting principally upon nuts and the bark of trees1 which his powerful incisors enable him to manipulate effectively1 yet he has not always remained true to his instincts1 for he has been frequently detected in eating the eggs of birds1 and also in the seizure of the feathered denizens of our lawns and woods1 which he will capture with all the skill of the blood-thirsty weasel4 ,his method of operation is peculiar4 ,he will lie in wait1 concealed from view by the dense foliage of the trees which he is wont to affect when in quest of game1 and when some unsuspecting bird hovers near pounces upon it with unerring precision1 and effecting its capture proceeds to suck1 sitting up in true squirrel fashion1 the life-sustaining fluid through a wound inflicted in the side of the neck4 ,having satiated his thirst1 which may have been the prime object of the capture1 the dead body of the bird is dropped1 and the little monster1 upon erect haunches1 poses1 the embodiment of perfect contentment4 ,but in the case of the ,owl it was otherwise4 ,perhaps it was too large for the monster to attack1 or1 knowing from rumor of gossiping friends the reputation of the former for cruelty and murder1 a conciliatory spirit was thought the best to adopt4 ,no one knows the bitter character of the first interview1 or whether a liking for each other sprang up from the beginning4 ,be this as it may1 there can be no denying the fact that a friendship was cemented between the two animals1 widely divergent in structural peculiarities as they are known to be1 that gave hope of becoming long and enduring4 ,,nature',s ,,little ,,store-,,keeper4 ,one of the most familiar of ,north ,american quadrupeds is the ,hackee1 or ,chipping ,squirrel1 as he is sometimes termed1 from the strange1 quaint utterances which he emits while rollicking with his fellows or in quest of something to eat4 ,he is a beautiful little creature1 notable alike for the dainty elegance of his form and for the pleasing tints with which his dress is arrayed4 ,his general color is brownish-gray upon the back1 warming into orange-brown upon the forehead and hinder quarters4 ,five longitudinal black stripes and two streaks of yellowish-white adorn the dorsum and sides1 which render him a most conspicuous being and one readily distinguishable from any other animal4 ,his abdomen and throat are white4 ,he is slightly variable in color according to locality1 and has been known to be so capricious of hue as to become a pure white or a jetty black4 ,but for the commonness of the species1 which is found in great numbers in almost every place1 his fur1 from its extreme beauty1 would long since have taken nearly as high rank as sable or ermine4 ,no quadruped is so brisk or so lively4 ,his quick1 rapid movements have not inaptly compared him to the wren4 ,as he whisks about the branches of the brushwood and small timber among which he is chiefly met1 or shoots through their interstices with his peculiar jerking movements1 and his odd clicking cry1 like the chip-chipping of newly-hatched chickens1 the analogy between himself and the bird is strikingly apparent4 ,occurring in great plenty1 and being a bold little creature1 he is much persecuted by small boys1 who1 with long sticks1 and well-directed blows1 manage to fell to the earth many a luckless fellow as he endeavors to escape his pursuers by running along the rail fences4 ,hackees delight in sequestered localities4 ,there they tunnel their homes1 preferring some old tree1 or a spot of earth sheltered by a wall or a bank4 ,their burrows are rather complicated affairs1 running often to great lengths1 so that the task of digging the animal out of his retreat becomes one of no easy accomplishment4 ,sandy patches of ground1 on the outskirts of a woods1 are not unusually chosen for burrows4 ,a hole1 almost perpendicular1 is drilled into the earth to a depth of three feet1 and is thence continued with one or more windings1 rising a little nearer the surface until it has advanced some nine or ten feet1 when it is made to terminate in a large circular nest1 made of oak leaves and dried grasses4 ,small lateral galleries branch off from the main burrow1 in which these provident little creatures lay up their winter's provisions4 ,wheat1 ,indian corn1 buckwheat1 hazel-nuts1 acorns and the seeds of grasses have been found in their underground receptacles1 a proof1 were further evidence lacking1 that they do not pass the cold famine months in a sluggish and benumbed condition4 ,several layers of leaves1 aggregating nine inches in thickness1 are often found over the entrance1 as a protection from frosts1 which are further prevented from intrusion by the sealing up of the mouth from within4 ,everything is done by the ,hackee in a business-like manner4 ,in gathering his food1 lest the sharp beak of the nut may injure his cheeks when he places the fruit in his pouch1 he nips off the point1 and then by the aid of his fore-paws deliberately pushes the nut into one of his pouches4 ,another and another are similarly treated1 and taking a fourth between his teeth1 he dives into his burrow1 and1 having packed them methodically away1 returns to the surface for a fresh cargo4 ,four nuts are his load at each journey4 ,with his check-pouches distended to their fullest capacity1 and laboring most truly under an embarrassment of riches1 the little fellow presents a most ludicrous appearance4 ,illustration3 ,copyright #aijj by ,a4 ,r4 ,,dugmore4 ,,chipping ,,squirrels ,,feeding4 ,when menaced by foes1 by which so defenceless and conspicuous an animal is sure to be surrounded in great numbers1 the ,hackee makes at once for his burrow1 and is there secure from the attacks of nearly all enemies4 ,one foe there is1 however1 that cares naught for the burrow1 but follows the poor ,hackee through all of its windings1 and never fails to attain his sanguinary object4 ,this remorseless foe is the stoat1 or ermine1 whose only penchant is the blood1 and not the flesh1 of his victim4 ,illustration3 ,,hackee1 ,,or ,,chipping ,,squirrel4 ,laying up ,food for the ,famine of ,winter4 ,early in ,november the ,hackee moves into his winter-quarters1 excepting in occasional instances when the sun shines with peculiar warmth1 and is not seen again until the beginning of spring4 ,the young1 to the number of four or five1 are produced in ,may1 and there is generally a second brood some time in ,august4 ,a rather pugnacious animal is the male ,hackee1 and during the combats which are frequently waged when several males meet1 their tails have been known to snap asunder from the violence of their movements1 for these members1 it is undoubtedly true1 are wonderfully brittle in their structure4 ,pretty as he is1 and graceful as are his movements1 it hardly pays to keep the animal in a domesticated state1 for his temper is very uncertain1 and he is generally sullen even towards his keeper4 ,but could he be induced to take to the life of a captive kindly and pleasantly1 he would1 by his cunning little ways1 prove a most agreeable companion4 ,some years ago an ,american writer of note had a pair of these animals which made their home in the foundation wall of her house4 ,a row of wild cherry trees stood near the lawn in the rear of the building1 which the little fellows were wont to visit many times daily1 carrying off in their pouches quite a number at a time of the numerous cherry pits that lay scattered over the ground4 ,the season being dry1 one morning early the person to whom reference has been made repaired to the lawn and poured a pitcher of water over some plants that grew near her porch1 when one of these squirrels was observed to pass among them on his way to the trees4 ,he paused from his journey1 sat up on his haunches1 took one of the wet leaves in his hands1 pressed the sides together for a trough for the moisture1 and holding it to his mouth drank from it the water in the most comical fashion imaginable4 ,he then went to another and another1 drinking from five or six leaves in all1 while she stood watching near by4 ,a large saucer filled with water was placed near the plants1 which the little fellows quickly discovered1 and both thereafter drank and washed regularly at the dish4 ,a practice of testing their knowledge of nuts was then made4 ,when cracked hickory nuts were given them1 they at once sat down and picked out of them the meats1 which they eagerly devoured4 ,cracked nuts1 it would seem1 were deemed worthless for storage4 ,but1 on the contrary1 when whole nuts were given1 they tested them1 evidently by weight1 to see if they were sound4 ,sound nuts were promptly transported to their burrow1 but the poor ones were dropped4 ,they were never known to be mistaken in their judgment1 for the rejected nuts on being cracked were always found to be worthless4 ,although the food of the ,hackee is mostly vegetal in character1 yet1 like his ,english relative1 he is occasionally carnivorous in his appetite1 for he has been detected in the cruel act of robbing birds' nests and devouring their callow young4 ,some ,squirrels are remarkable for their extreme agility in climbing trees1 and in making extraordinary leaps from one bough to another or from some elevated spot to the earth4 ,the ,ground ,squirrels1 however1 are intended to abide on the earth1 and are seldom known to ascend trees to any great height4 ,as they possess cheek-pouches1 they are placed in a separate genus under the name of ,tamias1 which is a ,greek word1 signifying a store-keeper1 and are distinct from the others in being furnished with these appendages4 ,tamias striatus is the appellation by which the subject of our sketch is known to the books4 ,,canine ,,sagacity4 ,many years ago1 two decades or more1 the writer was the possessor of a little dog--a ,french poodle by breed4 ,a more knowing animal of his kind never lived4 ,he was a pretty creature1 with hair as white as driven snow1 and manners the most agreeable4 ,great pride was taken in his appearance4 ,that his dress should maintain its natural purity1 he was weekly subjected to a warm-water bath4 ,this task devolved upon a little brunette1 for whom the canine had contracted a strong affection4 ,frisky1 for such was our pet's name1 had never before coming into the family known what it was to receive a good washing4 ,his first experience was as uninteresting as it was novel and strange4 ,it was anything but pleasant to him1 but the little fellow bore it like a martyr4 ,such treatment1 by the ordinary cur1 would have been resented with snaps and snarls1 but his was a gentle nature that knew no such untoward manifestations4 ,but there was1 all the same1 an aversion to the bath1 as looks only too plainly indicated4 ,so pronounced was the dislike1 that the very sight of water caused his delicate frame to shake like a child's with the cold4 ,had not the greatest care been taken in the preparation of the bath1 it might have been thought that the tremors that shook his by no means robust frame were induced by the water's chilliness or by its undue warmth4 ,but this could not be the case1 as the fluid was always tempered to the most sensitive touch4 ,but there came a time1 however1 when ,frisky was determined to evade these kindnesses upon the part of his mistress4 ,he had pleaded immunity from them in pitying glances1 but without avail4 ,something must be done1 his looks would seem to say1 as he lay cuddled up by the cosy kitchen fire4 ,one could almost read the thoughts that were shaping themselves in his mind4 ,for three long years ,frisky1 who had been allowed to sleep at nights in the sitting-room1 was accustomed1 when morning broke1 to visit the different members of the family in their respective dormitories1 and have a lively1 rollicking time4 ,these visits were always looked forward to1 and in no instance1 during the whole of that period1 were they ever intermitted4 ,to have missed one of these exciting romps1 would have been a keenly-felt deprivation4 ,but that we were to be doomed to such disappointment and affliction1 subsequent events only too clearly showed4 ,one ,saturday morning1 for it was always on the ,jewish ,sabbath that the bath was given1 ,frisky failed to make his accustomed calls4 ,this was noticed by everyone1 and no amount of comment was provoked4 ,loudly his name was spoken1 but no response was elicited1 and it soon became evident that the cunning little elf was beyond the reach of calling4 ,search was instituted1 but to no effect4 ,his absence was lamented1 and it was feared some calamity had befallen him4 ,a silence1 like unto death1 filled the house4 ,there was weeping and wailing about1 for ,frisky was not4 ,but just as the shadows of night were deepening1 and hope was dying out of the bosoms of all1 the patter of little feet was heard upon the pavement leading to the back-door4 ,the sounds were too familiar to be those of a stranger4 ,all listened with breathless silence4 8',tis ,frisky1 'tis ,frisky10 went up a chorus of voices1 and we all rushed to the door to welcome the runaway back to the fold4 ,not a chiding word was spoken1 not a look of reproof given1 as with outstretched arms the culprit was received to our hearts4 ,a more crestfallen1 conscience-stricken being1 however1 could hardly be conceived to exist4 ,things resumed their wonted sway4 ,happiness reigned once more in the family4 ,frisky's matutinal visits were as though they had not been interrupted4 ,his frolics had all their former vivacity4 ,the sin committed had been condoned1 and he in splendid repute again4 ,illustration3 ,,my ,,dog ,,frisky4 ,how ,he ,greeted ,his ,master4 ,a week since his first wrong-doing had elapsed4 ,would he repeat his plan of getting rid of the obnoxious bath8--had never entered our minds4 ,the day dawned bright and lovely4 ,all was bustle outside1 and the slamming of shutters told that the servant was astir in the kitchen4 ,as was her usual custom1 the entry door was left open for ,frisky4 ,all ears were on the stretch4 ,there were no familiar signs4 ,the sharp1 glad bark that always heralded his coming was wanting1 and so1 too1 the timing of little feet upon the stairs4 ,not a sound of breathing1 not a rustle of counterpane1 was heard4 ,still and motionless we all lay1 till the minutes seemed hours1 and then came the thought that it was ,saturday and ,frisky had again disappeared4 ,search was everywhere made1 but the missing one was nowhere to be found4 ,that he had slipped out when the door was opened1 was now most obvious4 ,no effort was made to find his hiding-place1 for we all knew that he would come back with the shadows4 ,his coming was later this time than before4 ,the sun had long gone to rest4 ,it was pitch dark when the pawing of little feet against the door announced his return4 ,this second offence was passed over as the first had been1 and ,frisky was his jolly1 frolicsome self once more4 ,a score of ,saturdays was thus managed and the hateful bath escaped1 for well this cunning bit of flesh and fur knew that the seventh was the only day of the week when it was convenient for his mistress to attend to his ablutions4 ,that ,frisky was able to count1 or had some means of determining the coming of the day he so thoroughly detested1 there can be no question4 ,but the exceeding cuteness of his nature not only showed itself in his manner of getting rid of the hateful bath1 but in various other ways4 ,he seemed equal to every emergency that could arise4 ,oftentimes ,i have watched him1 as he lay upon a rug by the kitchen-hearth1 or upon the pillow of a new-made bed1 for he was at liberty to go where he pleased about the house1 and ,i have fancied that ,i could see him thinking1 or read the train of thoughts passing through his mind1 so human-like seemed he in these reflective moments4 ,when scolded for some trifling misdoing1 or threatened with denial of some expected pleasure1 no so-called brute could show more pitying glances4 ,his grief was often heart-rending to behold4 ,prostrate upon the ground or carpet1 or in what place soever he chanced to be1 he would moan and moan for hours together1 and only consent to be comforted when the burden was lifted from off his soul by a kind word spoken1 a smiling look given1 or a quick1 hearty shake of his delicate paw4 ,when happy1 and it did not take much to make him happy1 he was full of life and vivacity1 capering and prancing about with the utmost abandon1 and doing his very best to show off his happiness and pleasure4 ,his eyes seemed kindled with a holy affection1 and a blaze of heavenly sunshine would appear to play over his features4 ,i have seen him1 when in such mental agony1 to actually shed tears1 a sight that never could fail to reach and melt the flintiest hearts4 ,he knew and understood every word that was spoken to him1 and responded by a shake of the head1 or a low1 soft bark4 ,a conscience within told him the right from the wrong1 and though he sometimes knowingly erred1 yet he was always truly sorrowful for his sins afterwards4 ,there came a day1 however1 when the idol of the household went out and never returned4 ,some unlucky event had doubtless befallen him1 or he had been spirited away to parts unknown4 ,if living1 ,i trust he is being cared for as he richly deserves4 ,he was a kind1 gentle1 loving being1 and ,i cannot help thinking that some day ,i shall meet him in the beautiful world beyond the grave4 ,,feline ,,intelligence4 ,probably no creature has been more calumniated by man than the ,domestic ,cat4 ,while wonderful intellectual powers1 as well as the most amiable traits of character1 have been accredited to the dog1 and rightly so1 it seems rather strange that so little of good has been found to exist in the subject of our sketch4 ,she has been held up to reprobation as a thoroughly selfish animal1 seeking her own comfort rather than that of others1 and manifesting a stronger attachment to places than to owners4 ,sly and treacherous as her untamed kindred of the forests and jungles are known to be1 she receives no higher commendation1 and is even accused of concealing her talons in her velvety paws when matters go pleasantly with her1 and ready to use them even upon her best friends when crossed in her purposes4 ,whatever may have been the experience of those who have so grossly libelled the ,cat1 my own large acquaintance with the animal has led to different conclusions4 ,nearly all the ,cats with which ,i have been most familiar have been as docile1 tractable and affectionate as any dog could be1 and have exhibited an amount of intellectual ability unsurpassed by few dogs4 ,there is as much to be said about the good and bad temper of the ,cat as of the dog1 while1 as to her mental capacities1 the advantage is not so decidedly upon the side of the dog as is generally supposed4 ,nor is my own experience exceptional1 for in all instances where friends have possessed favorite ,cats their experiences have been similar to my own4 ,self is not always paramount to everything else with ,cats4 ,some are generous to a fault4 ,mothers have been known1 whose devotion to their young has been so strong that they have hunted all day for their benefit1 even when the latter were full-grown1 scarcely taking any nourishment for themselves4 ,but such feelings are perfectly natural4 ,when1 however1 we see a ,cat that is willing to share its food with a stranger1 one cannot resist the thought that here is a case of real generosity4 ,a friend once possessed a fine black ,cat4 ,he was dainty in his eating1 scrupulously exact in his dress1 and well-mannered in his deportment4 ,no ,cat ever received better training4 ,unlike the average ,cat1 he could be trusted in the presence of tempting viands1 and was never known to abuse the confidence reposed in him4 ,beauty1 for so he was called1 was a model fellow1 and well deserved the name4 ,the education he received1 while it made him gentle1 kind and affectionate1 and gave him reliability of character1 did still more1 for it endowed him with a soul that was not a stranger to the noblest impulses4 ,life had few luxuries that he did not enjoy2 but a sprig of catnip was more to him than the choicest steak or raciest tidbit1 and to this luxury he was weekly treated4 ,notwithstanding his fondness for the herb1 he was never reluctant to share it with another1 whom ,fortune had less favored4 ,cats1 at least such as are well circumstanced1 possess some knowledge of the uses of things4 ,we once knew a ,cat that would1 when out of doors1 make its presence known by a few loud raps upon the closed door1 administered by its right front paw4 ,if the call was not immediately answered1 a few more raps1 louder than before1 would be given1 and then the ,cat1 unable to restrain its impatience1 would spring up to the latch1 striking it a downward blow1 as though endeavoring1 human-like1 to effect an entrance4 ,but quite as interesting as any of the foregoing cases is that of a female ,cat that had run a spine into one of her hind feet4 ,limping upon three legs she made her way to her mistress1 and1 raising her foot1 implored with a piteous look and sad1 distressing cries the removal of the offensive spine4 ,a child could not have made its suffering better understood1 nor supplicated the needed relief more intelligently1 than did this poor creature1 which thoughtless man in his self-glorification is so prone to regard as a senseless1 unintelligent and unreasoning being1 which has no existence beyond this sublunary sphere4 ,illustration3 ,,tom ,,on ,,duty4 ,guarding ,his ,master's ,cows4 ,while ,cats are useful in the destruction of vermin1 and afford man no little amusement by their wonderful antics1 yet they seldom put themselves to any practical use4 ,the ,cat1 about which we shall now have something to say1 is an exception to the rule1 and quite a marvel in his ways4 ,he is a resident of a far-away town in ,new ,jersey1 and came to his present quarters a long1 gaunt1 wild-eyed1 unfed creature4 ,but something in his looks told of a soul within that fore-shadowed a great deal of good1 and so the ,cat1 which at first seemed an unwelcome guest1 began to be looked upon in an appreciative manner4 ,and now ,tom1 as the ,cat is called1 is a fixture in the household4 ,almost from his advent into the family ,tom began to give an exhibition of his common-sense4 ,this first remarkable show of intelligence was on the ,sunday succeeding his adoption4 ,the family had repaired to church1 leaving ,tom contentedly snoozing in a corner of the kitchen4 ,but their surprise can hardly be pictured when in the midst of the sermon ,tom came flying down the aisle to the place where his master was seated1 and clawing the legs of the trousers of the latter1 began yelling at the top of his voice4 ,the minister stopped in the midst of his talking1 and everybody got up to see what the trouble was1 but ,tom1 utterly oblivious of them all1 continued his strange behavior4 ,convinced that the actions of the ,cat were not the result of an epileptic fit1 but foreboded something wrong at the house1 the male portion of the congregation started thither1 and when the house was reached a dense column of smoke was seen pouring from the kitchen window4 ,the door was thrown open1 and the carpet on the floor was found burned to a cinder4 ,a coal of fire had evidently fallen from the stove-grate and started the fire4 ,that ,tom had understood the danger1 was shown by his actions4 ,one day1 a horse1 belonging to a neighboring farmer1 ran away1 and tore down the road past ,tom's home at a thundering gait4 ,tom was sauntering around the yard1 and his attention being drawn to the rattling of the wagon1 he was soon in the road to see what the trouble was1 and observing that the team was unaccompanied by a driver1 he leaped upon the head of the runaway horse and hung on with teeth and claws until the animal was secured4 ,on another occasion a tramp1 happening along the road1 descried a bicycle that belonged to one of the inmates of the house4 ,he was soon astride the wheel1 and might have made his escape had not he fallen under the eyes of ,tom1 who1 as quick as a flash1 was after the thief4 ,leaping into the air1 he fell on the man's shoulders and set his teeth firmly into his neck4 ,there was a howl and a crash that brought the family to the yard1 and there they found the tramp rolling on the ground and making desperate efforts to get away from ,tom's rigid jaws4 ,finally the ,cat was induced to relax his hold1 and the wounds of the tramp being cared for1 he was allowed to proceed on his way4 ,more wonderful still is what follows3 ,when the master wants to bait his cows and keep them within a certain area he instructs ,tom to watch them1 and the allotted task is performed with all the faithfulness and wisdom of a shepherd's dog4 ,any disposition to stray outside the limits is checked1 the erring animal being hustled back by ,tom1 who1 attaching himself to her caudal extremity1 remains there until she is brought back to where she belongs4 ,no animals seem to require human sympathy so much as ,cats1 or to be so capable of giving sympathy in return4 ,where they have formed a strong attachment to a person they are loath to be away from his society and follow him wheresoever he goes1 giving caresses and expecting a liberal share of the same in return4 ,i have been upon a bed of sickness and a favorite ,cat1 which ,i always addressed as ,puss1 would1 whenever the opportunity occurred1 make her way into my room1 and1 jumping upon the bed1 lay her head against my face in the most endearing manner1 and purr her sweetest and gentlest1 ever and anon stopping to express her sympathy by licking my forehead or uplifted hand4 ,even when ,puss has been suffering from maladies to which all flesh of her kind is heir1 ,i have sat by her side and stroked her head1 and have read in the look which she gave me that she felt my sympathy and appreciated it beyond any power of expression of hers to declare4 ,she seemed to think at all times that ,i was wholly her own1 and no other ,cat1 not even one of her own offspring1 would be allowed such familiarities1 as any attempt was sure to provoke the most intense jealousy4 ,nor was ,i permitted to lavish attentions upon any of her kith1 for she would soon become wrought up to a high pitch of excitement1 and instant vengeance would be wreaked upon the recipient of my favors4 ,much more might be said about the ,cat4 ,it has its good qualities and its bad qualities4 ,there is hardly a trait of character which the human animal possesses that it does not possess4 ,of course ,i now speak of our ,domestic ,cat4 ,in the long-past times1 when the ,egyptian nation was at the head of the civilized world1 ,felis maniculata1 which is the reputed origin of our ,domestic ,cat1 was universally domesticated in their homes1 and it is not unknown the very high position it held in the love and esteem of the people1 for it was deified and worshipped as a god4 ,even in ,england1 still later down in time1 the ,domestic ,cat was so scarce that royal edicts were issued for its preservation4 ,yet in those days1 ,a4 ,d4 #idh1 the wild ,cat was rife in the ,british ,islands and was considered as a vicious animal1 which must be destroyed1 and not a useful one to be protected by the law4 ,how we came into the possession of the ,cat is a matter of conjecture1 the current belief being that it was imported from ,egypt into ,greece and ,rome1 and thence into ,england4 ,,bright ,,little ,,cebidae4 ,next to man1 in descending the scale of animal life1 come the ,quadrumana1 or ,four-handed ,animals4 ,they are represented by the ,apes1 ,baboons1 ,monkeys and ,lemurs4 ,excepting the last1 and a few other species1 these animals are not very pleasing in aspect or habits1 some of them1 the larger apes and baboons1 being positively disgusting4 ,the air of grotesque humanity that characterizes them is horribly suggestive of human idiocy1 and we approach an imprisoned gorilla or baboon with much the same repugnance that we do a debased and brutal maniac4 ,this aversion seems not to be produced so much by the resemblance that the ape bears to man1 as by the horror felt lest man should degenerate to the condition1 character and physiognomy of the ape4 ,but to the naturalist1 who sees wonder or beauty in all things animate1 these creatures are no less pleasing than others that are not so repugnant4 ,were we to take a survey of the varied forms which the ,quadrumana of the ,old ,world assume1 we would find that the forms would show such diversification that there would hardly seem scope for further modifications4 ,yet the prolific power of nature is so inexhaustible1 that the depth of our researches would only bring to light objects of such infinite variety of form as to overwhelm the mind with surprise and admiration4 ,thus it would be found to be with the ,cebid1 or ,american ,monkeys4 ,while they would be shown to possess the chief characteristics of the monkey nature1 thus establishing their close relationship with the ,old ,world monkeys1 yet they would be seen to exhibit the strangest modification of details4 ,their four hand-like paws1 and other quadrumanous peculiarities1 would indicate their status in the animal kingdom1 while sundry differences of conformation would show that they were intended to live under conditions that would ill suit their relatives on the other side of the globe4 ,curious it is to observe how the same idea of animal life is repeated in various lands and climates1 even though seas1 impassable to creatures unaided by the light of civilized reason1 intervene4 ,so we have the ,simiad of ,asia and ,africa represented by the ,cebid of ,america4 ,nor is this wonderful idea restricted exclusively to the man-like animals4 ,the lion1 tiger and other feline races of the ,eastern ,continent find ,western representatives in the puma and jaguar1 and the same circumstance may be observed of nearly all the mammalia1 the birds1 the reptiles1 the fishes1 and1 in short1 through the entire animal kingdom4 ,but of all the monkeys of the ,new ,world1 and they are numbered by hundreds included in several genera and species1 there are none that deserve more consideration than the ,capuchin ,monkeys4 ,they are active1 little animals1 lively and playful4 ,so similar are all the species in general habits1 that a description of one will equally serve for any other4 ,their youthfulness and sportive manners make them very desirable companions1 and hence we frequently find them domesticated by the native ,indians and ,european settlers4 ,like other small monkeys1 the ,capuchin often strikes up a friendship for other animals that may happen to live in or near its home1 the cat being one of the most favored of its allies4 ,it is sometimes the case this familiarity is carried so far that the cat is turned into a horse by the monkey1 who1 seated upon her back1 perambulates the premises4 ,more unpromising subjects1 we are told1 have been pressed into similar service4 ,humboldt cites the case of one that was accustomed to catch a pig every morning1 and1 mounted upon its back1 was known to retain its seat during the entire day4 ,even when the pig was feeding in the savannas its rider remained firm1 and bestrode the animal with as much pertinacity as one skilled in equestrianism would the most rampant steed4 ,no little difficulty is experienced in settling the species of the ,capuchins1 for their fur is rather variable in tint1 and some individuals differing so greatly as to cause them to look like another species4 ,the general color of the ,capuchin--,cebus apella--is a golden olive1 a white fur bordering the face in some1 though not in all individuals4 ,cebus fatuellus1 commonly called the ,horned ,sapajou or ,capuchin1 is much more conspicuous than the last1 as the erect fringe of hair that projects so prominently from the forehead indicates it at once3 hence from the front1 the hair assumes the appearance of two tufts or horns1 from which peculiarity the animal derives its name4 ,these horns are not completely developed until the monkey has attained maturity4 ,there is also a manifest difference in color of hair1 the ,sapajou having a constant tinge of red in its fur4 ,it is usually of a deep brown color1 but in some individuals there is a marked resemblance to that peculiar purple-black which is obtainable by diluting common black ink with water1 while in others the ruddy hue is so pronounced as to impart a chestnut tint to the animal's hair4 ,the fringed crest is tipped with gray4 ,perhaps no more interesting form of the ,capuchins exists than the ,weeper ,monkey1 or ,sai1 or1 as it is called in the books1 ,cebus capucinus4 ,as in the case of the two preceding species1 it is an inhabitant of ,venezuela and ,brazil1 and as lively as any of its congeners4 ,like its brethren1 its tail is invested with a dense growth of hair1 but this does not interfere with its prehensile powers4 ,the ,sai is possessed of a large amount of intelligence1 and its quaint little ways make it a great favorite with those who delight to watch its quick and agile movements4 ,while things of a vegetable character constitute the chief part of its food1 yet it manifests a fondness for various kinds of insects1 and is sometimes known to ascend to higher prey1 for it has been observed to feed upon birds1 which it devours with avidity1 not even waiting to pluck off the feathers4 ,eggs are also thought to form a no inconsiderable part of this ,capuchin's diet4 ,some few years ago1 ,prof4 ,cope had in his possession a tame ,sai1 which was kept in a cage1 or1 rather1 was supposed to be kept in it1 for the animal had a strong aversion to confinement1 and was sure to break loose therefrom sooner or later4 ,when in durance vile1 and wishing to break prison1 he always directed his attention to the hinges1 and no matter how firmly they were fixed1 he was sure before long to extract the staples1 pull out the nails1 and so open the door at the hinges1 and not at the latch4 ,finding that the cage could not hold him1 his master had him confined by a strap fastened around the waist1 after the fashion of monkeys4 ,the strap1 however1 proved to be of no more use than the cage1 for the crafty animal soon contrived to open it1 and this he did by ingeniously picking out the threads by which the strap was sewn to the buckle1 and so rendering the fastenings useless4 ,again he was confined to the cage and carefully watched4 ,having rid himself of the strap1 he began to consider how he might apply it to some useful purpose4 ,so1 having perceived that some food had fallen beyond his reach1 he took one end of the strap in his paw1 flung the other over the morsel of food1 and so drew it toward him4 ,in this feat he displayed great accuracy of aim1 seldom missing the object which he desired4 ,once or twice1 when he had to make a longer throw than usual1 he loosened his hold of the strap4 ,the first time that this happened1 some one handed him the poker4 ,he took it1 drew the strap toward him1 and resumed its use as before4 ,no intelligent person can deny that these acts were prompted by reason4 ,so far from even being aided by instinct1 the animal was certainly acting in direct opposition to it4 ,the instinct of an animal when confined or tethered in any way is to break loose by main strength1 and the instinct of the monkey would have impelled him to force his way through the bars of the cage or to strain at the strap until he had broken it in two4 ,but it was his reason that taught him to look for the weak part in both cage and strap1 and1 having found it1 to devote his energies to that part until he had succeeded in his object4 ,illustration3 ,,jack ,,at ,,dinner4 ,showing ,his ,use of ,table ,implements4 ,was it possible for instinct to teach him that the hinges were the weak part of his cage1 and that1 if he could only remove the staples or nails1 the door would open and he would be free8 ,could instinct teach him that the stitches of the strap-buckle were to the strap what the staples and nails were to the hinges1 and that if he could but pick out the threads1 the fastenings of the strap would be rendered of no effect8 ,neither could instinct teach him to use the strap after the manner of a lasso1 nor to employ the poker in regaining his lost weapon4 ,not only did he thus show his ability to deal with the obstacles that stood in the way of his freedom1 and without even the slightest suggestion from the mind of his master1 but he also gave evidence that he had the capacity to profit by many of the civilities by which he found himself surrounded in the life in which he was placed4 ,monkeys are remarkable for their power of imitation1 and ,jack1 as this ,capuchin was called1 proved himself to be no ordinary fellow in this respect4 ,he had seen his master eat out of a dish1 using knife1 fork and spoon when occasion demanded1 and nothing would do but an abandonment of his old habits--the using of his fingers1 which his ancestors were wont to do--and the assumption of civilized practices4 ,in time he became quite skilful in the use of these table implements and showed greater dexterity in handling them than many a man has shown4 ,accustomed to their use1 he would never have things any other way4 ,the writer has repeatedly been present when he was taking his meals4 ,seated upon the ground1 his head and body slightly bent forward1 with his plate of food before him1 the ground serving him as a table1 ,jack would help himself in a quiet1 cool and deliberate manner1 all the while evincing in movement and look an air of the most consequential importance4 ,to say that he was proud of the success which he had achieved in the correct use of table implements but tamely expresses the feeling which would dominate his bosom at such times4 ,no human individual who had accomplished some wonderful discovery or striking feat at arms that had caused the earth to resound with his praises1 could have felt more of the emotion than ,jack4 ,indeed1 it was a remarkable feat for ,jack1 and he had a right to feel vain over its accomplishment4 ,all the while he was eating he would chatter in his uncouth guttural tongue1 as though he had learned1 like his human brethren1 that conversation gave relish to a meal and was a powerful aid to digestion4 ,while ,jack was a very useful fellow to have about1 especially where cats without owners abounded1 for he was a terror upon these feline nuisances1 yet he had a few faults which detracted very much from his otherwise good character4 ,like some boys1 he was addicted to the habit of throwing stones1 but ,i am more than half disposed to believe that this was an acquired propensity1 which he had learned by seeing his master engaged in a similar diversion1 or perhaps1 which is not at all unlikely1 he had been trained to such exercise and pastime by his master4 ,well1 he could throw stones with considerable force1 and with as much precision as any well-trained lad of fourteen summers could do4 ,let the master but give him a stone1 and say1 8,now1 ,jack1 hit that fellow10 and ,jack needed no second telling4 ,throwing his right arm back1 just as a boy would do1 in order to give the necessary impetus to the missile1 he would send the stone flying in the right direction4 ,it required no little skill and celerity of movement to dodge the projectile1 as the writer had more than once learned by painful experience1 for ,jack's wonderful and well-directed aim seldom went astray of its purpose4 ,towards his master ,jack showed great deference and attention1 and was ever ready to obey his slightest wish4 ,no one's society he enjoyed better4 ,it was always a pleasure to be near him1 but strangers he seemed to despise and treat as enemies4 ,he would always eye them with a suspicious look1 and could never tolerate their presence for any considerable length of time without giving vent to his annoyance by the most angry vociferations and hideous grimaces4 ,should this not have the effect of causing them to retire1 he would emphasize his objection to their presence by pelting them with stones and such other missiles as were convenient to hand4 ,that he had a considerable affection for his master1 and respected him1 no stronger evidence could be given than what has already been adduced4 ,after all that has been said concerning ,jack1 yet the world is full of people1 educated and intelligent as they consider themselves to be1 who cannot see that this bit of flesh and spirit has been endowed by the same wise ,creator with the same traits of character1 but differing in degree1 that they themselves possess4 ,going back to the ingenuity which ,jack displayed in the cases of the cage and the strap referred to1 it may be said to his credit that even ,baron ,trench himself could not have shown greater skill in the discovery of the weak parts of his prison and bonds than did this so-called brute1 nor could he have exhibited more patience and perseverance in working at them4 ,indeed1 there are many human beings that would not have been half so sensible as ,jack1 but still we must believe that such high intelligence1 comparatively speaking1 must inevitably perish with the body1 through which as a vehicle it was made to manifest itself4 ,all intelligence is an emanation from the ,divine ,intelligence1 and1 when the life has gone out of the body from which it was made to shine forth1 then it1 instead of perishing with the material1 returns to the ,source of all intelligence1 not to be re-absorbed1 but1 as ,i think1 to continue as a separate intelligence1 drawing its life and light from the great ,central ,head1 like as the planets derive theirs from the centre of our material universe--the ,sun4 ,,untutored ,,man4 ,strange and unique as are the plants and animals of ,australia1 yet nothing definite can be affirmed of its native human inhabitants4 ,they are a peculiar people1 separated by a wide remove from the ,papuans1 the ,malays and the ,negro4 ,of a dark1 coffee-brown complexion1 rather than actually black1 the ,australian is but little inferior to the average ,european in height1 but is altogether of a much slimmer and feebler build1 his limbs1 particularly1 being very lean and destitute of calves1 a defect which is a peculiarity of the darker races of man4 ,his head is long and narrow1 dolichocephalic in type1 with a low brow1 prominent just above the orbital regions1 but receding thence in a very marked degree4 ,the nose1 proceeding from a comparatively narrow base1 broadens outwardly to a somewhat squat end1 the eyes on each side of its attenuated root appearing drawn together4 ,his face bulges into high cheek bones2 his mouth is large and grotesque1 the jaw-bone contracted1 the upper jaw projecting over the lower1 but with fine1 white teeth2 the chin cut away1 and his ears slightly pricked forward4 ,not only the head and face1 but the entire body as well1 is covered with a profusion of hair1 which1 when freed of its enclogging dirt and oil1 is soft and glossy4 ,like most savage peoples1 the effluvium of his skin1 offensive as it naturally is1 is very much exaggerated by the fish-oil he uses in the anointment of his person4 ,almost exclusively directed on the means of procuring sustenance1 the intellect of the ,australian operates wholly within the range of the rudest bodily senses4 ,but inside that simple1 elementary sphere he displays no little nimbleness and dexterity4 ,in tracking and running down his prey he is unsurpassed4 ,his weapons1 though of the most primitive forms1 are well adapted for the purposes of the chase4 ,rude and uncouth as his culinary and domestic apparatus appear1 yet they serve equally well the objects for which they were designed4 ,some imitative facility1 or rude sense of elementary art1 is possessed by him1 as is evidenced by the crude figures of sharks1 lizards and other animals that may be seen carved in caves in the north-east of ,australia1 and on the rocks of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,that he has some exuberance of rude sense is still further shown in his language1 which1 within its very circumscribed sensuous sphere1 is fairly expressive and complete1 and likewise in the ease with which he learns to chatter the languages of peoples with whom he has been thrown into contact4 ,outside the circle described1 all is blank to the ,australian4 ,he has no architecture1 no pottery and almost no weaving1 and may be said to have no religion4 ,his sensations may scarcely1 if at all1 be said to have attained the dignity of sentiments1 much less that of sentimentalities4 ,the man domineers over the woman1 who is as much his property as his boomerang or dingo4 ,male offspring are held in considerable estimation1 and a father will bewail the death of a son for months1 and even for years4 ,old men and old1 infirm women1 on the other hand1 are cruelly abandoned1 and left to starve to death1 for they are considered worthless and a burden1 and consumers of the food that should go to the support of the young and physically strong4 ,during the summer they roam about naked1 utterly strangers to shame1 which seems not to be innate to their natures4 ,wives are accounted an item in a man's chattels1 the stealing of which being met with some definite punishment4 ,caves1 where they abound1 afford shelter and security for some of the tribes1 but where these are not found1 screens of twigs and bushes covered with leaves or turf1 or logs of wood and turf1 serve for protection and cover for a few days or weeks1 till the pursuit of food calls them elsewhere4 ,illustration3 ,,australian ,,at ,,home4 ,returned from the ,chase with ,kangaroo4 ,thrift is unknown to the ,australian4 ,his life alternates between satiety and semi-starvation4 ,in summer he goes naked1 but in winter he wraps himself in kangaroo skins4 ,a girdle of hair bound about his loins holds his dowak1 as his digging-stick is called1 and an apron of skins suspended from the girdle affords a protection from shrubs4 ,his food consists largely of animals1 which he devours alive1 and includes lizards1 snakes1 the heads being rejected1 frogs1 white ants1 larv and moths4 ,other animals are roasted1 showing that the ,australian knows1 contrary to an opinion that once prevailed1 the method of kindling a fire4 ,in seasons of dearth1 when there is a paucity of food-material1 cannibalism is general4 ,he then makes an attack upon a neighboring tribe who is his enemy1 and if he cannot obtain food in this manner1 he scruples not to fall back upon his wife and his children4 ,one obligation of the wife is to keep her husband supplied with vegetable food1 such as the roots of the wild yam1 seeds of the acacia1 sophor1 leaves of the grass-tree1 etc4 ,failing to produce a sufficiency1 she is liberally treated with maulings and spearings1 so that a wife generally appears bruised and gashed all over her body4 ,among the different tribes of ,australians1 the boomerang is the principal weapon4 ,this is a flat stick1 three feet in length1 and curves at the centre4 ,it is thrown into the air among birds1 jerks in a zigzag1 spiral or circular fashion1 and when thrown by a person skilled in its use is sure to bring down a few individuals at every throwing4 ,besides this weapon they have the throwing-stick1 flint-pointed spears1 shields1 stone-hatchets1 digging-sticks1 netting-needles1 nets of sinews1 fibres or hairs1 water-skins and canoes4 ,no government exists among this people outside that of the family1 and no laws except certain traditionary rules about property4 ,as for their religion1 they have little save their terror of ghosts and demons1 and certain superstitious traditional rites applicable to epochs in a man's life1 but more especially so at the time of his burial4 ,at ten years of age1 a boy is covered with blood2 at ten to fourteen1 he is circumcised in the north and south of ,australia1 but not in the west or on the ,murray ,river2 and at twenty1 he is tattooed or scarred4 ,felicity after death is the reward of proper burial1 but a man dying in battle or rotting in a field becomes an evil genius4 ,no more perfect example of tribal organization exists than that of the tribes of ,australasia4 ,in a very large proportion of existing tribes1 the tribe is an aggregate of several stocks or distinct bodies of kindred1 the persons composing the tribes being included in stocks which are1 or are accounted1 distinct from each other4 ,two tribal customs1 namely1 the prohibition of marriage between persons of the same stock1 and the reckoning of kinship through females only1 so that children are accounted of the stock of their mother1 sustain this organization4 ,persons of the same stock1 too1 owe duties to each other1 and are to some extent participants in each other's liabilities4 ,an injury done by a man is an injury done by his stock1 which may be avenged upon any member thereof2 or an injury done to a man is an injury done by his stock1 for which every member of it is bound to seek vengeance4 ,as a consequence of these customs1 a husband must be of a different stock from his wife or wives1 and therefore must be accounted of a different stock from his children2 and if he has wives of different stocks1 then their respective children are accounted of different stocks4 ,more than one stock1 it will thus be perceived1 is represented in every household4 ,and since a man owes duties to his stock--the duties of acknowledged blood-relationship--while to those of his family who are not of his stock1 there being nothing but the accident of birth to unite him1 it necessarily follows that the family among these tribes has very little cohesion4 ,wholly sensuous is the language of the ,australian1 their abstraction tending only in the way of arithmetic as far as the number five1 and that itself being quite an unusual stretch4 ,polysyllabic as it is in formation1 and having the accent on the penultimate1 it is not at all inharmonious4 ,though it comprehends many divergent forms1 yet they seem to be all fundamentally connected1 constituting a group entirely isolated from any of the linguistic families of the other parts of the world4 ,within its narrow confines the language is well developed and sensuously copious and expressive4 ,like almost all other savages1 the native ,australians are rapidly disappearing before the spread of civilization4 ,the ,european settlers crowd them out of all the more fertile and habitable lands1 pressing them more and more into the desert of the interior1 where they find it exceedingly hard to obtain in their roving1 unsettled lives the necessary means of subsistence4 ,great numbers are thus forced to succumb to deprivations not of their own bringing1 and not a few to the diseases and vices brought among them by the new possessors of their domains4 ,the lowest estimate of their number1 prior to the settlement of ,europeans among them1 gives over #aej1jjj1 but the natives still surviving scarcely figure one-half of that population4 ,it is only a question of a decade or two when the ,australian1 like the ,tasmanian1 who was once his near neighbor1 will have vanished from off the face of the country1 leaving behind him his implements of war and the chase1 his culinary and domestic apparatus1 and the rude carvings of his hands in caves and in rocks1 as the principal evidences of his earthly existence4 ,by competent critics the ,australian is pronounced to be the most degraded of human beings1 and the lowest type of man4 ,in reason1 love1 generosity1 conscience and mere responsibility he is the inferior of many of the lower animals1 and in the erection of a house for comfort1 shelter and security he is surpassed by creatures even as low in the scale as the worms and insects4 ,it is true1 when hunger has to be met1 that he has shown some skill in the manufacture of implements necessary to the obtainment of his food1 and also in resisting the attacks of his own kind and of the natural enemies by which he is surrounded4 ,there is no doubt that he is well satisfied with his condition in life1 and could hardly be induced to exchange it for another4 ,he has doubtless fulfilled the purpose of his being in the world1 and unable to cope in the struggle for existence with a superior civilization must succumb to the latter which is better fitted to endure1 a sad but impressive lesson which is the teaching of every chapter of the world's geologic story4 ,,living ,,souls4 ,all things were made by the ,word of ,god4 ,in this ,word was life1 spirit or energy4 ,without it was not anything made that was made4 ,hence1 says ,elihu1 8the ,spirit of ,god hath made me1 and the breath of the ,almighty hath given me life20 or1 as ,moses testifies1 8the ,lord ,god formed man1 the dust of the ground1 and breathed into his nostrils the breath of lives2 and man became a ,,living ,,soul40 ,now1 if it be asked what the ,scriptures define a living soul to be1 the answer is a living natural1 or animal body1 whether of beasts1 birds1 fish or men4 ,the phrase living creature is the exact synonyme of living soul4 ,the words nephesh chayiah are in ,hebrew the signs of the ideas expressed by ,moses1 nephesh signifying creature1 life1 soul1 or breathing frame from the verb breathe1 and chayiah1 a noun from the verb to live1 of life4 ,nephesh chayiah is the genus which includes all species of living creatures4 ,in the common version of the ,scriptures1 it is rendered living soul1 and1 therefore1 under this form of expression they speak of all flesh which breathes in air1 earth and sea4 ,from the evidence adduced a man then is merely a body of life in the sense of his being an animal or living creature--nephesh chayiah adam4 ,therefore1 as a natural man1 he has no preminence over the creatures ,god has made4 ,moses makes no distinction between him and them1 for he calls them all living souls1 breathing the breath of lives4 ,his language1 literally rendered1 says1 8and ,god said1 the waters shall produce abundantly sheretz chayiah nephesh the reptile living soul20 and again1 8kal nephesh chayiah erameshat every living soul creeping40 ,in another verse1 8let the earth bring forth nephesh chayiah the living soul after its kind1 cattle1 and creeping thing1 and beast of the earth after its kind10 and 8lekol rumesh ol earetz asher bu nephesh chayiah to everything creeping upon the earth which has in it living breath10 that is1 the breath of lives4 ,and lastly1 8whatsoever ,adam called nephesh chayiah the living soul that was the name thereof40 ,not even are quadrupeds and men living souls1 but they are vivified by the same breath and spirit4 ,neshemet chayim1 or the breath of lives1 and not the breath of life as the text of the common version has it1 is said to be in the inferior creatures as well as in man4 ,chayim in the ,hebrew is in the plural number1 and therefore the words neshemet chayim should be rendered as above4 ,thus1 ,god said1 8,i bring a flood of waters upon the earth to destroy all flesh wherein is ruach chayim spirit of lives40 ,and in another place1 8they went in to ,noah into the ark1 two and two of all flesh1 in which is ruach chayim spirit of lives40 ,and all flesh died that moved upon the earth1 both of fowl1 and of cattle1 and of beast1 and of every creeping thing1 and every man2 all in whose nostrils was neshemet ruach chayim1 ,,breath ,,of ,,spirit ,,of ,,lives4 ,now1 as has been previously affirmed1 it was the neshemet chayim with which ,god1 according to the testimony of ,moses1 inflated the nostrils of ,adam4 ,if1 therefore1 this were a particle of the divine essence1 as it is declared1 which became the immortal soul in man1 then all other animals have likewise immortal souls1 for they all received breath of spirit of lives in common with him4 ,begotten of the same ,invisible ,power1 and formed from the substance of a common earth mother1 man and beasts were animated by the same spirit1 and constituted to be living breathing frames1 though of different species1 and in ,god they lived1 and moved1 and had their continued being4 ,returning to the philology of our subject1 it is to be remarked that by a metonymy1 or a figure of speech where the container is put for the thing contained1 and conversely1 nephesh1 breathing frame1 is put for neshemet ruach chayim1 which1 when in motion1 causeth the frame to respire4 ,hence nephesh signifies not only breath and soul1 but also life1 or those mutually affective1 positive and negative principles in all living creatures1 whose closed circuits cause motion of and in their frames4 ,by ,moses these principles1 or qualities of the same thing1 are apparently styled the ,ruach ,elohim1 or by ,timothy the ,spirit of ,him 8who only hath immortality1 dwelling in the light which no man can approach unto1 whom no man hath seen1 nor can see10 and which1 when the word was spoken1 first moved upon the face of the waters1 and afterwards disengaged the light1 evolved the expanse1 gathered the waters together1 brought forth the green vegetation1 manifested the celestial universe1 vitalized the breathing frames of the dry land1 the firmament and the seas1 and formed man in ,his own image and likeness4 ,this ruach1 or spirit1 was the instrumental principle commissioned by the glorious ,increate for the elaboration of the natural world1 the erection of this earthly house1 and its equipment with living souls of every species2 and it is this same instrumentally formative power that1 together with the neshemeh1 or breath1 that keeps them from perishing1 or returning to the dust4 8,if ,god set his heart against man1 ,he will withdraw to himself ruachu veneshemetu1 that is1 ,his spirit and ,his breath2 all flesh shall 8perish together1 and man shall turn again to dust40 8,by the neshemet el10 or breath of ,god1 8frost is given40 ,speaking of reptiles and beasts1 ,david saith1 8thou withdrawest ruachem--their spirit--they die2 and to their dust they return4 ,thou sendest forth ruheck--thy spirit--they are created40 ,illustration3 ,,representative ,,life ,,of ,,western ,,asia4 ,illustrating the ,scriptural ,idea of ,living ,souls4 ,from this cumulative evidence it is manifest that the ruach is all-pervading4 ,it is in heaven1 in sheol1 or in the dust of the deepest hollow2 in the uttermost depths of the sea2 in the darkness as well as in the light2 in all things animate and inanimate4 ,in the broadest1 or ,i may say1 in an illimitable sense1 it is an universal principle4 ,it is the substratum of all motion1 whether manifested in the revolutions of the planets1 in the ebb and flow of the sea1 in winds and storms and tempests1 or in the organisms of plants and animals4 ,the atmospheric expanse is charged with it2 but it is not the air4 ,animals and plants breathe it1 but it is not their breath2 yet without it1 though filled with air1 they would die4 ,neshemet el1 or atmospheric air1 is the breath of ,god1 as ,job puts it1 or the mighty expanse1 as affirmed by ,moses4 ,what the ruach1 or spirit1 is1 none with certainty can say4 ,extending from the centre of the earth1 and thence in all directions through the immensity of space1 is the ,ruach ,elohim1 whose existence is demonstrable from the phenomena of the natural order of things4 ,it penetrates where neshemet el cannot penetrate1 but when speaking of the motivity and sustentation of organized dust1 or souls1 they co-exist with them1 the ,ruach ,elohim becoming the ruach chayim1 or spirit of lives2 the neshemet el1 the neshemet chayim1 or breath of lives1 and both together in the elaboration and support of life1 the neshemet ruach chayim1 or breath of the spirit of lives4 ,living creatures1 or souls1 are not animated1 as is erroneously supposed1 by a vital principle which is capable of disembodied existence4 ,on the contrary1 souls are made living by the coetaneous operation of the ruach chayim and the neshemet chayim upon their organized tissues according to certain fixed laws1 called natural laws4 ,when the as yet occult laws of the all-pervading ruach1 or spirit1 shall be made known1 men will be astonished at their ignorance respecting living souls1 as we are at the notion of the ancients that their immortal gods resided in the stocks and the stones they so ignorantly worshipped4 ,though lent to the creatures of the natural world for the allotted period of their living existence1 yet the ruach chayim and neshemet chayim are still ,god's breath and ,god's spirit1 and to distinguish them from the expanse of air and spirit in their totality1 they are sometimes specifically styled 8the spirit of man0 and 8the spirit of the beast10 or collectively 8the spirits of all flesh10 and 8their breath40 ,thus it is written in ,ecclesiastes1 8they have all one ruach1 or spirit1 so that man hath no preminence over a beast2 for all is vanity or vapor40 8,all go to one place2 all are of the dust1 and all turn to dust again40 ,and in the sense of supplying to every living creature1 or soul1 spirit and breath1 ,jehovah is styled by ,moses in the book of ,numbers1--8,god of the spirits of all flesh40 ,enough has been advanced to show the ,scriptural import of the text already quoted1 that 8the ,lord ,god formed man1 the dust of the ground1 and breathed into his nostrils the breath of lives2 and man became a living soul40 ,the simple1 obvious and undogmatic meaning of this is1 that the dust being animalized1 and then organized1 was next set in motion by the inrush of the air through his nostrils into his lungs according to natural laws4 ,this phenomenon was the neshemet el1 or 8breath of ,god10 breathing into him2 and as it was the pabulum of life to all creatures constituted of dust1 it was very expressively styled the 8breath of lives10 and not the 8breath of life40 ,god breathes into every man at his birth the breath of lives to this day1 and there can be no reason1 ,scriptural or otherwise1 why we should deny that ,he breathed it into ,adam as ,he hath done into the nostrils of his posterity by the operation of natural laws4 ,man1 as soon as he began to respire1 like the embryo passing from ftal to infant life1 8became a living soul10 that is1 nephesh chayiah1 a living1 breathing frame1 or body of life4 ,all kinds of flesh1 whether of man1 beast1 fowl and creeping thing1 are made alive by the same breath and spirit4 ,they all become1 in consequence1 living souls1 so that1 having a oneness of spirit1 a man hath no superiority over a beast4 ,having now proved1 as we think1 beyond the possibility of a doubt1 that men and beasts 8have all one ruach1 or spirit10 and hence are all living souls1 we now approach a form of life1 termed vegetable life1 about which the ,scriptures have little to say4 ,neshemet el1 or atmospheric air1 is just as essential to plants as to animals4 ,deprived of it they wither and die4 ,no less necessary is the all-pervading ruach1 or spirit4 ,it is in the air1 though not of the air4 ,plants1 equally with animals1 breathe it1 but it is not their breath4 ,without it1 even though filled with air1 they would perish4 ,perhaps it is the base of each of the elementary constituents of the air4 ,uncombined1 may it not be that wonderful fluid whose explosions are heard in the thunder1 whose fiery bolts overthrow the loftiest towers and rive the sturdy monarchs of the woods1 and whose influence1 though in less intensity1 gives polarity to light1 the needle1 and the brain8 ,living plants are a part and parcel of the life of our globe4 ,they preceded in the grand scheme of creation animal existences4 ,low down in the scale of life are forms about which it cannot be predicated these are plants and these are animals4 ,scientists are unable to say where plant-life ends and animal-life begins4 ,no hard-and-fast line can be drawn between the two vast kingdoms of life1 and it is often wholly impossible to decide whether we are dealing with an animal or a plant4 ,there can be no question that the earliest life was vegetable by nature1 and that its habitat was the primeval ocean4 ,this is no less the teaching of science than that of the ,scriptures4 ,from some such life1 originating de novo as the ,spirit of ,god passed over the waters1 the two great branches of animate nature may have taken their rise4 ,what the form of this life may have been1 whether cellular or a mere mass of formless protoplasm1 the mind of man cannot asseverate4 ,it is a mystery1 and will doubtless ever remain as such to finite intelligence4 ,that this life1 no matter how apparently insignificant it must have been1 breathed in its own simple fashion1 that is1 by the coetaneous operation of the ruach chayim and the neshemet chayim upon its simple substance in accordance with natural law1 there can be no dispute4 ,breathing is not always conditioned by the existence of nostrils4 ,plants respire1 or1 in other words1 take in carbonic acid from the air through their stomata1 or mouths1 which they separate into its components of carbon and oxygen1 appropriating the former1 which they build into solid matter1 but usually throwing off the latter into the great receptacle of atmosphere from which it was extracted4 ,even a moner1 which has no distinction of parts1 may be said to breathe1 but it breathes by means of its whole external surface1 for neshemeh and ruach are as necessary to it as to man himself4 ,it will thus be obvious that plants are living1 breathing frames1 or bodies of life1 and hence are as much entitled to be considered as living souls as animals are4 ,let but ,god withdraw his ruach1 or spirit1 from them1 and they die and to their dust return4 ,surely no more could be predicated of animals4 ,,consciousness ,,in ,,plants4 ,plants1 it has been vaguely asserted1 differ from animals by not having the power of movement4 ,rather should it be stated that plants acquire and display this power when it is to their advantage4 ,this will be found to be of comparatively rare occurrence1 as they are affixed to the ground1 and food is brought to them by the air and rain4 ,evidence of the very high position a plant may attain in the scale of organization may be seen when we look at one of the more perfect tendril-bearers4 ,as a polypus adjusts its tentacula for action1 so a plant places its tendrils4 ,if the tendril be displaced1 it sets to work to right itself4 ,acted on by the light1 it bends towards or from it1 or disregards it altogether1 whichever course may be the most advantageous4 ,for several days the tendrils or internodes of the plant1 or both1 spontaneously or otherwise revolve with a steady motion4 ,but should they strike some object1 they curl quickly around it1 grasp it with wonderful firmness1 and in the course of a few hours contract into spirals1 dragging up the stems1 and forming most excellent springs4 ,all external movements now cease1 and by growth the tissues soon become surprisingly strong and durable4 ,such a movement1 as has just been considered1 is a widely prevalent one in plants1 and is essentially of the same nature as that of the stem of a climbing plant1 which successively bends to all points of the compass1 so that the tip is made to revolve4 ,this movement has been called revolving nutation by some writers1 and circumnutation by others4 ,in the case of the circumnutating movement of the tip of the radicle of some plants1 there can be no doubt that it is it that affords the radicle some slight assistance in penetrating the ground4 ,but whether or not a radicle1 when surrounded by softened earth1 is aided in making a passage for itself by circumnutating1 one thing is certain1 that is1 that this movement1 by guiding the radicle along a line of least resistance1 can hardly fail to be of high importance4 ,should1 however1 a radicle in its downward growth break obliquely into any crevice1 or an opening left by a decayed root1 or one made by the larva of an insect1 and more especially by worms1 the circumnutating movement of the tip will materially aid it in following such open passages4 ,not only our own observation1 but also those of such eminent authorities as ,darwin and ,hensen1 conclusively show that roots commonly run down the old burrows of worms4 ,but radicles of seedlings1 as well as those of more vigorous plants1 would pass over stones1 roots and other obstacles1 which they must necessarily encounter in the soil4 ,this they are abundantly able to do1 for they are exceedingly sensitive just above their apices1 and bend like a tendril towards the touching object4 ,when1 however1 one side of the apex is pressed by any object1 the growing part bends away from that object1 and this seems a beautiful adaptation for avoiding obstacles in the soil1 and for following the lines of least resistance4 ,illustration3 ,,seedling ,,of ,,winter ,,grape4 ,earth ,cut ,away to ,show ,directions ,taken by ,tip of ,radicle in ,avoiding a ,stone4 ,so feeble is the circumnutating movement of the terminal growing part1 both of the primary and secondary radicles1 that it can assist them but little in penetrating the ground1 excepting when the superficial layer is very soft and moist4 ,but it must aid them materially when they chance to break obliquely into cracks1 or into burrows that have been made by earth-worms or larv4 ,moreover1 combined as it is with the sensitiveness of the tip of the radicle to contact1 it can hardly fail to be of the highest importance1 for as the tip is always endeavoring to bend to all sides1 it will press on all sides1 and will thus be able to discriminate between the harder and softer adjoining surfaces4 ,consequently1 it will tend to bend from the harder soil1 and will thus take the directions of the least resistance4 ,so it will act if it meet with a stone or the root of another plant in the soil1 as must incessantly occur4 ,if the tip were not sensitive1 and did not excite the upper part of the radicle to bend away1 whenever obstacles were encountered at right angles to its growing direction1 it would undoubtedly be liable to be doubled up into a contorted mass4 ,but with radicles growing down inclined plates of glass1 as shown by experiment1 it has been observed that as soon as the tip merely touched a slip of wood cemented across the plate1 the entire terminal growing point curved away1 so that the tip soon stood at right angles to its former direction2 and thus1 as far as the pressure of the surrounding soil would permit1 would it be with an obstacle encountered in the ground4 ,thick and strong radicles1 like those of the horse-chestnut1 are endowed with less sensitiveness than more delicate ones1 and would therefore be the better able by the force of their growth to overcome any slight impediment to their progress4 ,further1 as radicles perceive an excess of moisture in the air on one side and bend towards this side1 it is reasonable to infer that they will act in a similar manner with respect to moisture in the earth1 for the sensitiveness of moisture resides in the tip1 which determines the bending of the upper part4 ,may not this capacity partly account for the extent to which drain-pipes often become choked with roots8 ,the direction which the apex takes at each successive period of the growth of a root1 ultimately determines its whole course4 ,it is therefore very important that the apex should follow from the first the most advantageous direction4 ,we can thus understand why sensitiveness to geotropism1 contact and moisture should all reside in the tip1 and why it should determine the upper growing part to bend either from or to the exciting cause4 ,darwin has compared a radicle with a burrowing animal1 such as a mole1 which wishes to penetrate vertically into the ground4 ,by a process of circumnutation1 or the movement of his head from side to side1 he is enabled to feel any stone or other obstacle1 as well as any difference in hardness of soil that may exist1 and will therefore turn from that side2 but if damper on one side than on the other1 will turn thither as a more suitable hunting-ground4 ,nevertheless1 after each interruption1 he1 guided by the sense of gravity1 will be able to recover his downward direction and to reach to a greater depth4 ,destruction of the tip of a radicle does not prevent the adjoining part from bending1 if this part has already received some influence from the tip4 ,as with a horizontally extended radicle1 whose tip has been cut off or destroyed1 the part which should bend most remains motionless for many days or hours1 even though exposed at right angles to the full influence of gravity1 we cannot do otherwise than conclude that the tip alone is sensitive to this power1 and transmits some stimulus to the neighboring parts1 thereby causing them to bend4 ,direct evidence of such transmission has been obtained4 ,when a radicle was left extended horizontally for an hour or an hour and a half1 by which time the supposed influence will have travelled some distance from the tip1 and the tip was then cut off1 the radicle subsequently became bent1 although it was placed in a perpendicular position4 ,terminal portions of several radicles thus treated continued for some time to grow in the direction of their newly-acquired curvature1 for being destitute of tips they were no longer acted upon by the power of gravity4 ,new vegetative points1 however1 appeared1 and being acted on by this influence coursed themselves perpendicularly downward as was their custom4 ,investigation having shown that it is the tip of the radicle that is sensitive to geotropism in the members of such distinct families as the ,leguminos1 ,malvace1 ,cucurbitace and ,gramine1 which may be represented by the ,clover1 ,mallow1 ,gourd and ,rye1 we may justly infer that this character is common to the roots of most seedling-plants4 ,whilst a root is penetrating the ground1 the tip must take the incipient step1 as it has to determine the direction of the entire root4 ,when1 however1 it is deflected by any subterranean obstacle1 it is essential that a considerable length of the root should be able to bend1 particularly as the tip itself grows slowly and bends but little1 so that the proper downward course should be recovered4 ,immaterial as it would seem whether the entire growing part should be so sensitive to geotropism as to effect this movement1 or that it should be brought about by an influence transmitted exclusively from the tip1 we should1 however1 remember that it is the tip that is sensitive to the contact of hard objects1 causing the radicle to bend away from them1 thus directing it along certain lines in the soil where the least opposition interposes4 ,it is again the tip that is alone sensitive1 at least in some instances1 to moisture1 causing the radicle to bend towards its source4 ,these last two kinds of sensitiveness conquer for a time the sensitiveness to geotropism1 which1 however1 ultimately prevails4 ,but the three kinds most often come into antagonism1 first one prevailing1 and then the other4 ,it would1 therefore1 be an advantage1 perhaps a necessity1 for the interweighing and reconciling of these different kinds of sensitiveness1 that they should all be localized in the same group of cells which have to transmit the command to the adjoining parts of the radicle1 necessitating it to bend to or from the source of the irritation4 ,though generally believed by authors that the modification of the upper or lower surfaces of a radicle1 whereby curvature is induced in the proper direction1 is the direct result of gravitation1 yet there can be no question from all that has been said that it is the tip alone that is acted on and that transmits some influence to the adjoining parts1 causing them to curve in a downward manner4 ,gravity1 it would seem1 does not act in a more direct way on a radicle than it does on any lowly-organized animal1 which moves away when it feels some weight or pressure4 ,when we consider what we have written1 it is impossible not to be impressed with the resemblance between the movements of plants and many of the actions performed by the lower animals4 ,with plants an astonishingly small stimulus suffices4 ,one plant may be highly sensitive to the slightest continued pressure1 while a closely-allied form just as highly sensitive to a slight momentary touch4 ,the habit of moving at certain periods is inherited both by plants and animals2 and other points of similitude have been specified4 ,but the most striking resemblance is the localization of their sensitiveness1 and the transmission of a stimulus from the exciting point to another1 which consequently moves4 ,yet plants do not1 of course1 possess nerves or a central nervous system4 ,may we not therefore infer1 and wisely so1 too1 that with animals such structures but serve for the more perfect transmission of impressions1 and for the more complete intercommunication of their several parts8 ,no structure in plants seems more wonderful1 as far as its functions are concerned1 than the tip of the radicle4 ,lightly pressed or burnt or cut1 it transmits an influence to the upper adjoining part1 causing it to bend away from the affected side4 ,but more surprising1 however1 is the fact that the tip can distinguish between a slightly harder and softer object1 by which it is simultaneously pressed on opposite sides4 ,let the radicle be pressed by a similar object a little above the tip1 and it will be noticed that the pressed part does not transmit any influence to the more distant parts1 but bends abruptly towards the object4 ,perceiving the air to be moister on one side than the other1 it likewise sends out an influence to the upper adjoining part1 which deflects towards the source of the moisture4 ,when excited by light1 the neighboring part bends from the light2 but when excited by gravitation1 the same part bends towards the centre of gravity4 ,in almost every instance the ultimate purpose or advantage of the several movements can be clearly perceived4 ,two1 or perhaps more1 of the exciting causes often act simultaneously on the tip1 and one conquers the other1 doubtless in accordance with its importance for the life of the plant4 ,the course pursued by the radicle in penetrating the ground being determined by the tip1 has acquired for it the diverse kinds of sensitiveness which it possesses2 and it is hardly an exaggeration to assert that the tip of the radicle thus endowed1 and having the power to direct the movements of the adjoining parts1 acts like the brain of one of the lower animals1 which organ1 seated within the anterior end of the body1 receives impressions from the sense-organs1 and directs their several movements4 ,in animals possessed of a nervous system1 contractions only follow stimuli1 which are carried to the contractile elements by nervous threads1 the internal energy representing the external stimulus being called nervous energy or neurism4 ,but where a nervous system does not exist1 as is the case in some low animals and in all plants1 external stimuli must be justly supposed to be converted into the same form of energy1 which in such organisms has a general circulation throughout the contractile protoplasm4 ,the attainment of some position1 favorable for the procurement of relief from some unpleasant sensation1 or the acquisition of some agreeable one1 or for both1 is the important thing directly subserved by such movements in the generality of animals4 ,while we have the best of reasons for believing this to be true in the vast majority of animals1 because fundamentally their structure is similar to our own1 yet the inference that the same is true of the lowest forms of life is justifiable until it is proved to be mistaken4 ,whatever be the nature of any movement1 whether the projecting of portions of its own body-substance as pseudopodia in the primitive animal1 the movement of flagella or cilia in more specialized forms1 or the turning of the radicle of a plant-seedling in overcoming some obstacle1 there is no resisting the conclusion that the functions of these organs1 when once called into existence1 are due to stimuli not unlike those which affect the motions of the limbs of the higher animals1 and that the preliminary to all such movements1 which are not automatic1 is an effort4 ,and as no adaptive movement is automatic the first time it is performed1 effort1 therefore1 may be regarded as the immediate source of all movement4 ,now1 effort is a conscious state1 and implies a sense of resistance to be overcome4 ,but when an act is performed without effort1 resistance has been overcome1 and the mechanism requisite for its performance has been completed4 ,automatism has now been reached4 ,new movements1 in their incipiency1 necessarily meet with resistance4 ,how this resistance is overcome1 there seems to be some diversity of opinion among physiologists and metaphysicians1 but it is generally believed that some such mental state as a sensation or a desire1 which may or may not stimulate a natural process as an intervening element in the circuit1 is concerned in its subduement4 ,that sense-perceptions are stimuli to the immediate appearance of structural changes or movements is shown by the production of color-changes in animals through changes in the condition of the organs of sight and in the bending of the radicle of a seedling-plant a short distance above its tip in obedience to a communication from the tip of a sensation of hardness1 caused by contact with a stone experienced in its downward progress in the ground4 ,illustration3 ,,tip ,,of ,,radicle ,,of ,,seedling ,,maple4 ,lower ,cells ,show ,where ,consciousness is ,supposed to ,reside4 ,new conditions bring forth new acts in animals4 ,no one can deny this statement1 as instances of its truth are too frequent to believe otherwise4 ,that such may be predicated of plants1 which have not the ability1 as a rule1 to meet with new conditions by reason of their being affixed to the soil1 very few persons are willing to admit2 but there is no getting away from the fact4 ,the tip of the radicle of a plant not only has the power1 acting as a brain1 as it would seem1 of guiding the root out of the reach of an obstacle that would be injurious1 or in the direction of water when it would be an advantage1 but a tendril has also the ability1 in obedience to some inherent force1 of making its way to a support that has been purposely placed in the near distance for its especial benefit4 ,no external agencies1 which the materialistic naturalist has devised for accounting for the movements of plants and low types of animal existences that are devoid of a visible nervous system1 can possibly explain these movements1 which are only explicable on the theory that nervous energy may be elaborated and be distributed without such a system by and through the general mass of the plant or animal1 or by and through such parts as may be necessary to its good4 ,no one who has experimented with the ,droseras or ,sundews1 can have failed to observe the extreme sensitiveness which resides in their leaves4 ,that these plants manifest a comparatively high order of consciousness1 there can be no question4 ,try them with insects1 or rare bits of meat1 as articles of diet1 and in a few hours1 if vigorous leaves have been experimented with1 the leaves will have folded around the food and commenced their curious process of assimilation4 ,mineral substances1 such as bits of chalk1 magnesia and small pebbles1 have no such effect4 ,they seem to ignore these things1 just as an intelligent animal would if they were placed by its side4 ,some experiments made by ,mrs4 ,treat1 several summers ago1 go far to confirm the statement that plants are endowed with some sort of consciousness4 ,drosera filiformis was the species used in her experiments4 ,some living flies were pinned one-half an inch from the leaves1 but near their apical extremities4 ,in forty minutes the leaves had perceptibly bent toward the flies1 and in little more than an hour had reached the prey1 the legs of the latter being entangled and held fast by the tentacles of the leaves4 ,next1 the flies were removed three-quarters of an inch further from the leaves1 but the latter1 even though bent away from the direction of the light1 failed to reach them at this distance4 ,what was it that induced the leaves to stretch in the direction of the flies8 ,had the sun been shining from that side1 it might be said that the movement of the leaves was influenced by its light and heat1 for plants as a general rule turn toward that part of the heavens where these energies are the most effective4 ,it cannot be that they were produced by some emanation of moisture from the bodies of the flies1 or by any influence that might be exercised by the vibratory movements of their wings4 ,no vain imaginings of such character will suffice for their explanation4 ,the energy necessary to explain this phenomenon must come from within the leaves themselves4 ,there was felt within them a desire for food1 and it was this desire that led the leaves to bend away from the light and in the direction of the objects whose presence created in them that sensation4 ,but how they were able1 in the absence of any visible sense-organs1 to determine the presence of these objects1 is difficult to surmise4 ,that they are sensitive to contact is generally conceded4 ,and in them1 no doubt1 the sense of touch is keenly developed4 ,granting this to be the truth1 then they see1 as a blind man sees1 by the sense of feeling4 ,currents of air1 established by the vibration of the insect's wings1 impinging upon the epidermis of the leaves1 affect the cells beneath1 and a nervous influence is started1 guided by some central agency1 of which we know nothing1 causing the leaves to bend in the proper direction4 ,but why the leaves do not thus bend when impinged upon by currents other than those produced by insects1 ,i am unable to say4 ,even as a blind man1 though deaf1 is able through the sense of touch to discriminate moving objects by the currents of air they excite1 so it may be presumed that the leaves of ,drosera are endowed with the same wonderful and intelligent capacity4 ,such a feeling once experienced would be apt to be known again1 for it would become fixed in consciousness by a process of memory4 ,that ,drosera1 whose habits are more animal-like than plant-like1 must occupy a high position in the scale of vegetable life1 there can be no reason to doubt from what has been said1 and this assumption receives a most remarkable confirmation from the fact that there are evidences1 not apparent however1 of a sort of nervous system in its make-up1 as shown by the discovery of ,darwin that by pricking a certain point in a leaf one-half of its substance becomes paralyzed4 ,wonderful as these facts are1 yet they are not more so than some recent discoveries made by ,stahl while studying the simple movements and physical conditions of certain low plants called ,myxomycetes4 ,in their young stages these plants wander from the parts of the deposit on which they are creeping1 and which are gradually drying up1 toward those which are more moist4 ,it is possible1 by bringing moist bodies in proximity to any ramifications1 to produce pseudopodia1 which lift themselves from the deposit1 and soon come into contact with the moist object1 so as to enable the whole mass of the plasmodium1 that is1 the large1 motile1 membranous protoplasmic body formed by the coalescence of the swarm-spores of the ,myxomycetes1 to migrate thereon4 ,but on the entrance of the plasmodia into the fructifying condition1 the ,myxomycete quits the moist deposit1 technically called the substratum1 and creeps upwards on to the surface of dry objects4 ,unequal distribution of warmth in the substratum and unequal supplies of oxygen and chemical substances soluble in water also cause locomotion in these strange organisms4 ,let the plasmodia come into contact on one side with solutions of saltpetre1 carbonate of potash or common salt1 and they at once withdraw from the dangerous spot2 but an infusion of tan1 or a dilute solution of sugar1 causes a flow of the protoplasm and an ultimate translocation of the entire plasmodial mass towards the source of nourishment4 ,some solutions have an attractive or repulsive effect1 but this is in accordance with the degree of their concentration4 ,unlike what is so natural to plants in general1 the ,myxomycetes seem to have an aversion to light1 as shown by their disposition to withdraw from its presence4 ,how such tender structures as the ,myxomycetes1 which are destitute of every kind of external protection1 are enabled to carry on their existence1 the knowledge of the remarkably delicate reaction of their plasmodia under external influences prepares us to understand4 ,plasmodia1 which are not yet ripe for reproduction1 are kept in the moist substratum by their peculiar affection for moisture and utter dislike of the light4 ,but within the darkness and moisture of the substratum the plasmodia do not necessarily remain in one place1 for the differences in the chemical composition of the substratum cause continual migrations4 ,nothing more remarkable can be said of the plasmodia than that they have a wonderful faculty of avoiding harmful substances1 and1 traversing the substratum in all directions1 of taking up the materials they require for food and growth4 ,when1 however1 their internal changes have advanced so far that the plasmodia are approaching the fructifying condition1 they are brought by their dislike for moisture1 which now sets in1 from the moist ground of forest or wood which they affect to the surface1 where they creep up various upright objects1 frequently not doing more than forming rigid reproductive capsules at some height from the ground4 ,if1 however1 the substratum becomes gradually colder1 as is the case in autumn1 a change which sets in at the surface moving downwards1 then the plasmodia migrate into deeper regions still having a higher temperature2 but when the cooling proceeds very gradually1 which especially happens in large tan-heaps1 the plasmodia may in their migration attain considerable depths1 where they then change into sclerotia1 which are hard tuberous substances1 resembling the tubers and bulbs of flowering plants4 ,if1 however1 the temperature begins to ascend1 the sclerotia again germinate1 and movement takes place from the deeper and cooler parts to the upper already named4 ,thus we see1 in the locomotion of the ,myxomycetes1 extremely interesting cases of movements due to stimulation4 ,light1 heat1 moisture and gravitation are1 in general1 stimulus-movements1 and ultimately all growth depends on stimulus-movement1 the most primitive kind of protoplasmic movement4 ,no causes other than those which actuate higher organisms can be discerned to account for this lowest type of organic movement4 ,what form of inorganic energy can be cited of sufficient potency to cause the organism to change1 and without regard to gravitation or any known form of attraction or repulsion1 its position in obedience to stimuli acting for its self-preservation8 ,there is none4 ,in the ,fuligo1 or ,tan ,flower1 a most remarkable example of designed movement has been observed4 ,this form will1 according to ,h4 ,j4 ,carter1 in its early ambula stage1 when isolated from the sawdust and chips of wood among which it has been living1 adapt itself to the water of a watch-glass1 or any other shallow vessel1 in which it may happen to be placed4 ,but1 if the watch-glass be placed upon the sawdust1 then it will make its way over the side of the glass to get to the sawdust4 ,here is probably shown a sense-perception of the presence and position of the tan-bark1 as well as a feeling of desire to go to it4 ,may not this desire have been due to a sense of discomfort induced by the surrounding water1 or to the calling up in memory of some superior comfort associated with the tan-bark8 ,man in his self-complacency thinks that he knows the plants about him4 ,it is true that he has noted their form1 their anatomy1 their color and their resemblances and differences1 but how few have studied them in meadow and woods by the light of a lantern at night or by the silver rays of the moon4 ,one feels on such an occasion as though he had stepped from his threshold upon a foreign soil4 ,folded leaves and strange sleeping forms will be found to confront you in every direction4 ,of the nature of the nocturnal movements of plants1 as well as their varied and curious attitudes1 both in leaves and flowers1 much speculation has been rife among botanists4 ,in many flowers the night attitudes have been conclusively shown to have relation solely to their fertilization by insects2 but the drooping night attitudes of the leaves were supposed to indicate an aversion to moisture1 many plants seemingly verifying the conjecture by the assumption of the same position during rain as in the dew4 ,but when the same pranks were played on a cloudy day or a dewless night1 the explanation had to be abandoned4 ,with the clovers1 the nocturnal positions of the heads seem to be assumed only in the darkness1 and this invariably1 dew or no dew1 while the leaves appear to revel in the rain1 remaining freely open1 their chief concern being the protection of the young blossom-clusters4 ,were our eyes sharp enough we might discern a certain strangeness in the nocturnal expression of every plant and tree4 ,but in no tree is this expression so remarkably emphasized as in the locust1 a member of the same leguminous order of plants with the clover4 ,these trees are especially noted for the pronounced irritability of their leaves1 and odd nocturnal capers1 whose seeming vital consciousness has induced some authorities to place them at the extremity of their system1 in contact with the limits of the animal kingdom4 ,how strange the pigweeds look at night6 ,their upper leaves1 which during the day had extended wide on their long stems1 now incline upward against the stalk1 enclosing the tops of the younger branches1 but still older plants are seen with leaves extended much as at mid-day1 but nearly all turned edgewise by a twist in the stem4 ,circling in a close curve1 the creeping-mallow blossom now ignores her proud array of cheeses1 and the oxalis flower has forgotten her shooting pods to keep the vigil1 closed and nodding upon her stem1 while her leaves masquerade in one of the oddest disguises1 their three heart-shaped leaflets being seen reflexed and adjusting themselves back to back around the stem with many contortions4 ,whatever the function of this strange nocturnal movement may be1 and it is still a matter of dispute with botanists1 one thing we are certain about1 that is1 its essential condition to the life of the plant1 careful experiment having demonstrated1 according to one authority1 that 8if the leaves are prevented from so regulating their surface1 they lose their color and die in a few days0--a fact which ,darwin has just as conclusively shown to be the case with other plants4 ,flowers that bloom by night could hardly be suspected of that vanity which ,rhodora has been made to confess by ,emerson in his beautiful lines to this flower4 ,our evening primrose does not bloom in the dark hours for mere sentiment or moonshine1 but from a nature which lies1 figuratively speaking1 much nearer her heart4 8,often when the nights are very dark10 says an old writer1 8her petals emit a mild phosphorescent light1 and look as if illuminated for a holiday4 ,and he who does not fear to be out in her mild and lovely haunt may see a variety of nocturnal ephemer hovering around the lighted petals1 or sipping at the flowery fountains1 while others rest among the branches or hurry up the stems as if fearing to be too late40 ,from the first moment of her wooing welcome it would seem that our evening primrose listens for murmuring wings1 and awaits that supreme fulfilment with joyous expectancy1 for it will invariably be found that these blossoms1 which open in the twilight1 have adapted themselves to crepuscular moths and other nocturnal insects1 a fact which finds a striking illustration in the instances of very long tubular-shaped night-blooming flowers1 like the honeysuckle and divers orchids1 whose nectar is beyond the ability of any insect but a night-flying hawk-moth to attain4 ,true1 it is1 that in other less deep nocturnal flowers the sweets could be reached by butterflies or bees if the blossoms were left open4 ,but the night-murmurers receive the first invitation1 which1 if accepted1 leaves but a wilted1 half-hearted blossom to welcome the sipper of the sunshine4 ,this beautiful expectancy1 somehow or other1 determines the limit of its bloom4 ,however1 in the event of rain or other causes preventive of insect visits1 the evening primrose will remain open for the attention of the butterflies during the ensuing day1 when otherwise it would have perceptibly drooped1 and extended to them but a listless welcome4 ,most strikingly may this fact be seen illustrated in a spray of mountain-laurel4 ,for nearly a week have ,i observed in my house these blossoms lingering in patient expectancy1 when the flowers on the parent shrub in the woods had fallen several days before1 their mission in life having been fulfilled4 ,in the house specimens the radiating stamens1 which are naturally dependent upon insects for their release1 and the consequent discharge of the pollen1 remained in their pockets on the side of the blossom-cup1 a support1 as it seemed1 for the bracing up of the corolla upon its receptacle4 ,but when the operation of releasing the stamens was artificially consummated1 the flower-cup soon dropped off or withered upon the peduncle4 ,not mainly has the writer1 in attributing a phosphorescent quality to the evening primrose1 followed the license of fancy1 for1 if scientists are to be believed1 the regular luminous glow of this and other nocturnal flowers has long attracted the attention of the curious1 and positive qualities of inherent light have been accorded in many instances4 ,it is true1 as one authority asserts1 that 8the evening primrose is perfectly visible in the darkest night10 from which fact phosphorescent properties have been ascribed to it4 ,many well-authenticated cases are on record of luminous1 electrical1 lightning-like phosphorescence playing about flowers1 the daughter of ,linnus having been the first one to note such an interesting phenomenon4 ,similar flashes or corona have been observed in nasturtiums1 double marigold1 geraniums1 red poppy1 tuberose1 sunflower and evening primrose4 ,according to various authorities1 and it would be a rash and presumptuous commentator who would dare to challenge such an array of competence1 many beautiful surprises await the traveller among the dewy shadows4 ,whoever has made such a journey will not only return with the consciousness that he has doubled his possessions1 but that he has also explored a new world--a realm which he can look in the face on the morrow with an exchange of recognition that was truly impossible yesterday4 ,whether or not all the facts that have been adduced show that plants are conscious organisms in the particulars for which it is claimed1 it matters not1 for enough have been set forth to demonstrate beyond the shadow of a doubt the position that they are endowed with a consciousness1 no matter how infinitesimally small a part it plays in nature4 ,everyday observation of the botanist teaches the fact4 ,sensation1 which is consciousness1 has preceded in time and in history the evolution of the greater part of plants and animals1 unicellular and multicellular1 and1 therefore1 if kinetogenesis1 or the doctrine of the effects of molar motion1 be true1 8consciousness10 as ,cope alleges1 8has been essential to a rising scale of organic evolution40 ,animals which do not perform simple acts of self-preservation must necessarily1 sooner or later1 perish4 ,impossible it is to understand how the lowest forms of life1 wholly dependent as they are on physical conditions of many kinds1 should to-day exist if they were not possessed of some degree of consciousness under stimuli at least4 ,we have but to picture to ourselves the condition of a vertebrate1 without general or special sensation1 would we obtain a clear perception of the essentiality of consciousness to its existence4 ,if now use1 as has been maintained1 has modified structure1 and so1 in coperation with the environment1 has directed evolution1 we can understand the origin and development of useful organs1 and also how1 by parasitism1 or some other mode of gaining a livelihood without exertion1 the adoption of new and skilful movements would be unnecessary1 and consciousness itself seldom aroused1 for continual repose would be followed by sub-consciousness1 and later by unconsciousness4 ,such appears to be largely the history of degeneracy everywhere1 and such is1 perhaps1 in a great measure the history of the entire vegetable kingdom1 for plants1 from their ability to manufacture protoplasm from inorganic substances1 do not bodily move about in quest of food as animals generally do1 and therefore require no conscious conditions1 it would seem1 to guide their movements4 ,they become fixed1 and their entire organization1 except in specialized instances1 becomes monopolized by the functions of nutrition and reproduction4 ,their movements are mostly rhythmic or rotary1 but that they exhibit the quality of impromptu design more frequently than scientists are willing to allow must be admitted1 or facts and the conclusions which naturally flow therefrom constitute no criteria of judging4 ,too much stress1 ,i fear1 is placed in these days upon the action of certain supposed forces that are resident in the plant's or animal's environment in accounting for its behavior1 to the utter exclusion of any energy that may be acting from within the organism itself4 8,that consciousness as well as life preceded organism1 and has been the primum mobile in the creation of organic structure10 as ,cope assumes1 there is no doubt2 but that it early abandoned the vegetable world1 and also that all the energies of vegetable protoplasm soon became automatic1 causing plants in general to become sessile1 and therefore parasitic and in one sense degenerate1 ,i cannot wholly accept4 ,that insects have1 in the matter of evolution of plant-types1 exerted considerable influence on the conditions of almost all of their organs1 the forms of the organs of fructification and especially of the flowers1 through certain stimuli and strains to which they have become subjected by reason of these insects and their occupancy of parts as dwelling-places1 there can be no doubt2 and it is probable also1 as has been maintained1 that we owe to insects1 directly or indirectly1 not only the forms1 but also the colors of the flowers1 and their odors and peculiar markings as well4 ,and thus while degeneracy1 as observed in the abortion of ovules1 carpels and perianth1 may be seen everywhere1 which the influences that have acted upon them have induced1 yet it is the height of presumption to assert that consciousness has entirely abandoned the members of the vegetable kingdom1 and that they are reduced to the condition of mere automata4 ,it is true1 as has been claimed1 that the permanent and the successful forms of organization have ever been those in which motion and sensibility have been preserved1 as well as the most highly developed2 and just as true it is that plants1 even though fixed to the soil and unable to effect a change of environment in consequence1 are not so incapable of conscious actions as not to be able to meet any changes1 and these changes do very often occur1 that climate1 new conditions of soil1 helps or hindrances to growth and wear1 may bring about4 ,that they must adapt themselves to such changes1 or perish in their struggle to exist1 none can question4 ,it is not enough to say that natural selection affords an explanation of every phenomenon that they may exhibit4 ,there is an energy within the plant1 think and write as we will1 and it is this that comes to its aid and directs the movement that will be productive of the most good4 ,concluding1 then1 let me aver that no plant can exist or fulfil its allotted part in the drama of life without the possession of some form or degree of consciousness4 ,if it be true that life and consciousness preceded organization1 and the statement can hardly be disputed1 and have been the primum mobile in the creation of organic structure1 what reason1 seeing that life necessarily persists in vegetable organism1 can be given for their dissociation in existing forms of plants1 as seems to be the tendency of modern scientific thought8 ,that plants once possessed consciousness1 there can be no difference of opinion4 ,well1 then1 what has become of this consciousness8 ,it could not have been destroyed1 for energy or force1 and consciousness certainly must be placed under this category1 can never be destroyed4 ,i repeat the question4 ,what has become of it8 ,either it exists in the plant in a dormant condition1 awaiting opportunities to call it into existence1 or it has returned to the great ,source of all consciousness1 whence each individual organism1 whether of plant or animal1 obtained its quantum4 ,it still exists1 but how or under what conditions1 ,i cannot affirm1 and is to plants what mind is to man and animals1 controlling their actions when such are for their well-being and good4 ,if mind persists in a future state1 then consciousness1 which may be considered as mind in plants1 must also persist1 for it is not at all likely that the ,source of all consciousness1 which we worship as ,god1 the ,creator of all things1 could be unmindful of the least of ,his children4 ,,mind ,,in ,,animals4 ,that the lower animals are in possession of all the characters of the mind or soul that are either the inherited or acquired properties of man1 some evidence will now be adduced4 ,foremost among these qualities is ,reason4 ,much vagueness of idea exists as to what constitutes reason1 the general tendency being to confound it with instinct1 and to wonder where the one ends and the other begins4 ,hundreds of anecdotes1 too familiar for mention1 might be instanced1 which have been described as wonderful examples of instinct1 but which1 upon careful examination1 have been shown to be undoubted proofs of reason4 ,that disposition of mind by which1 independent of all instruction or experience1 animals are unerringly directed to do spontaneously whatever is necessary for the preservation of the individual or the continuation of the species1 is instinct4 ,it is instinct that teaches the newly-born child to breathe1 or to seek its mother's breast and obtain its nourishment by suction4 ,instinct teaches the bird how to make its nest after the manner of its kind1 but it is reason that leads it to construct a fabric radically different from the typical form4 ,taking the case of insects1 there can be no doubt that it is instinct that teaches the caterpillar to make its cocoon1 to remain there until it has developed into an imago1 and then to force its entrance into the world4 ,ducks1 though hatched under a hen1 instinctively make their way to the water1 while chickens1 though hatched under a duck1 instinctively keep away from it4 ,man1 as well as the lower animals1 has his instincts1 but very few of them are apparent1 for he is able to bring the most of them under subjection by the power of his reason4 ,some1 however1 remain and assert themselves throughout the entire period of his life4 ,there is the widest possible difference between reason and instinct1 the former being an exercise of the will1 while the latter is independent thereof4 ,instinct comes in at birth1 but reason is an after-growth of the mind4 ,no exercise of thought does instinct require1 but when the mind reasons some conclusion is deduced from the premises which it has assumed4 ,all animals1 in common with ourselves1 possess the power of reasoning1 although in a less degree4 ,it is by the superiority of our reason over theirs that we maintain our supremacy4 ,false premises often lead to wrong deductions1 but their process is still one of pure reason4 ,with them1 as well as with ourselves1 reason1 especially in the case of domestic animals1 often conquers instinct1 and so by contact with a higher order of reason1 that of man's1 their own is more fully developed4 ,they1 in a sense1 become civilized4 ,let a hungry dog and a cat be left in a room where food is unguarded1 and their instincts will urge them to jump upon the table and help themselves4 ,but if they have been trained1 their reason restrains their instinct1 and1 no matter how hungry they may be1 they will not touch the food until it is given to them4 ,some few years ago a matronly lady and her dog1 a beautiful pug1 were accustomed to take their dinner at a saloon which the writer daily visited4 ,the dog was given a chair on the side opposite his mistress4 ,he was a well-mannered animal1 and never during his many visits to the place did he ever violate the laws of good manners4 ,patiently he would wait until the food was put upon his plate1 and not even then would he take it1 for he had been taught that it was something that should not be hastily seized and eaten4 ,the idea that food cost money was distinctly impressed upon his mind1 and this the owner did by thrice repeating1 8,this cost money40 ,it was evident that the dog understood what was said from the thoughtful look he gave her4 ,in a little while he was given the command to eat1 but1 like the cultured he was1 everything was done orderly and decently4 ,almost any animal can be thus trained to subject its natural instincts to its reason4 ,fishes are not known to possess much reason4 ,there is not an angler1 nevertheless1 that will not tell you that he has had the powers of his mind taxed to the utmost in his efforts to induce an old and wary trout to take the bait1 and even when he has succeeded in hooking him1 it has greatly tried his genius for planning to prevent the fish from breaking his line4 ,natural instinct teaches a fish to fly from man1 and even one's shadow on the water will frighten away the fish and destroy an angler's hopes of success4 ,yet we have seen a pond full of gold-fish which were quite tame1 and which1 when they saw a human being at the side of the pond1 would come forward instead of showing alarm4 ,they were so perfectly confiding that they would take a piece of bread or biscuit out of his hand4 ,here1 then1 is an example of the instinct1 which urges them to flee from man1 being overcome by the reason1 which tells them to approach him4 ,animals of burden may often be seen attending to prescribed work without any supervision4 ,dray-horses1 as is well known1 sometimes take pleasure in their work4 ,i knew of a horse of the kind that was as much interested1 apparently1 his work as his owner4 ,he never had to be told when to move1 for all the while the dray was loading he was observant of everything1 and1 knowing the capacity thereof1 was ready when the look from the master told him to proceed4 ,horses have sometimes shown a knowledge of the amount of work they are supposed to perform in a day4 ,a case has been cited of a horse by ,mr4 ,wood that was capable of doing his work without a driver4 ,he belonged to the owner of an ,american mine4 ,as soon as his cart was filled with ore1 at a given signal he went off to the spot where the ore was to be dumped1 waited until the cart was unloaded1 and then returned for another load4 ,so many loads had to be carried daily1 and1 strange to relate1 the animal knew when his task was finished as well as any of the men4 ,when the last load for the day was deposited1 he could be seen trotting off in the direction of home1 where he knew he would receive a kind reception from his mistress4 ,illustration3 ,,wonderful ,,equine ,,intelligence4 ,a ,horse ,that ,knew ,when ,his ,day's ,work ,was ,done4 ,enough has been said to show that animals have and do exercise powers of reason4 ,that they have the means of transmitting ideas to their fellows is not to be questioned4 ,language is the means of transmission4 ,not only are they able to interchange thoughts with each other1 but with man also when they are brought into contact with him4 ,they must possess a language of some kind1 whereby they can understand each other1 can comprehend human language1 and make themselves intelligible to man4 ,all these conditions are fulfilled in the lower animals1 but there is one distinction between the capability of understanding their own language and that of man1 and that is1 that they are born with the one and have to learn the other4 ,newly-hatched chickens1 although they have only entered the world an hour or so ago1 understand perfectly well their mother4 ,they know what to do when she calls them to find what food she has unearthed1 and they know what to do when she warns them of danger4 ,who has not heard them talk to her8 ,but how different are their tones under various circumstances4 ,the little piping notes of content when all is going on well can never be confounded with the cry of alarm when they have lost their way or are otherwise frightened4 ,wasps1 as everybody knows who has studied these insects1 carry out one of the first principles of military art4 ,they always have the gate of their fortress guarded by a sentinel4 ,should danger be imminent1 the alarm is given by the sentinel1 and out rush the inhabitants to wreak vengeance upon the offender4 ,out of a full-sized nest1 consisting of many hundred wasps1 it is evident that the individual who is to act as sentinel must be selected1 and its task appointed4 ,how the selection is made1 no one knows4 ,but that such is done1 there can be no question1 for the rest of the community acknowledge their sentinel1 trust to it for guarding the approaches of the nest1 while they busy themselves with the usual task of collecting food for the young and new material for the nest4 ,nearly related to wasps are the ants4 ,some of their performances are truly astonishing4 ,they have armies commanded by officers1 who issue orders1 insist on obedience1 and will not permit1 while on the march1 any of the privates to stray from the ranks4 ,there are other ants which till the ground1 weed it1 plant the particular grain on which they feed1 cut it when ripe1 and store it in their subterranean granaries4 ,arrant slaveholders are others1 who make systematic raids upon neighboring species1 carry off their yet unhatched cocoons1 and rear them in their own nests to be their servants4 ,somewhat recent discoveries show that there are ants which bury their dead4 ,two pairs of bearers are chosen to carry the corpse1 one pair relieving the other when tired1 while the main body1 often several hundred in number1 follow behind4 ,so much could be said about ants1 so closely do their performances resemble the customs of human civilization1 that the subject could never grow uninteresting1 but we must1 for the present1 forbear4 ,all these various performances could not be possible were there not some way by which communication1 or interchange of ideas1 could be carried on among the individual members of the same community4 ,sometimes one species of ant is capable of carrying on a conversation1 so to speak1 with another4 ,bees1 wasps and ants are the best linguists of the insect race1 their language being chiefly conducted by means of their antenn4 ,who has not often observed two dogs1 members of the same household1 holding sweet converse with each other8 ,pug and ,gyp were two animals that belonged to the family where ,i spent a summer vacation4 ,they thought much of each other when romping together in the yard1 or in foraging the neighboring woods and fields for rabbits and ground-hogs4 ,never would they start out on an expedition for game without having previously laid their plans4 ,it was interesting and amusing to watch them4 ,they would bring their heads into close contiguity1 remaining in this position for two or three minutes1 when1 by mutual consent1 they would separate1 look each other in the eyes1 and then start off in different directions for the scene of their projected enterprise4 ,times out of number ,i have observed such behavior and have always discovered that they meant something of the kind4 ,there were no audible utterances1 no visible gestures1 yet there was an interchange of ideas4 ,through the medium of the eye were the thoughts conveyed4 ,it was spirit speaking directly to spirit1 conveying by a single glance of the eye thoughts which whole volumes would fail to express4 ,each species of animal has its own dialect4 ,yet there is another language1 a sort of animal lingua franca1 which is common to all4 ,a cry of warning1 no matter from what bird or animal it emanates1 is understood by them all1 as is well known to many a sportsman who has lost his only chance of a shot by reason of an impertinent crow1 jay or magpie which has espied him1 and has given its cry of alarm4 ,there is not a bird of garden or orchard1 or a fowl of the barnyard or doorside1 that does not understand the peculiar cry of the rooster when a hawk is seen careering overhead1 or perched upon the summit of a near-by tree4 ,with one accord they flee to their coverts1 and there remain until the danger is past4 ,no more quarrelsome and pugnacious species of bird exists than the ,english sparrow4 ,he appropriates every available locality for nesting purposes1 and our native species are driven to the necessity of fighting for their rights1 or of seeking quarters in the rural districts which these birds do not infect4 ,thus it is that many a useful robin1 bluebird or martin is driven from our midst4 ,many have witnessed encounters between these birds and the robins4 ,the author once saw a contest between a pair of sparrows and a pair of robins for the possession of a certain tree that grew in his yard4 ,now the robin1 single-handed1 is more than a match for a sparrow4 ,in the engagement referred to1 the robins were getting the better of the sparrows1 which the latter were not slow in perceiving4 ,instantly the sparrows set up the wild1 ear-piercing harangue for which they are peculiarly noted1 when more than a score of friends from the immediate vicinity gathered to their assistance4 ,but the war-cry which they sounded not only summoned help to their standard1 but it was equally understood by all the other birds of the neighborhood1 who flocked to the defence of their brethren against the alien4 ,the battle waged warm and fiercely for some minutes1 when the sparrows were forced to seek safety in retreat4 ,not only can crows and rooks assemble1 hold council and agree to act on the result of their deliberations1 but other birds are known to do the same things4 ,birds are able to communicate their thoughts to each other by means of a language1 but it is not likely that in their language1 or the language of animals in general1 there are any principles of construction such as are possessed by all human languages4 ,but the same effect may be produced by different means1 and the reader will see that in the above instance no human language1 however perfect its construction1 could have served its purpose better than did the inarticulate language of the sparrows4 ,they told their friends that their territory was usurped by an intruder too strong to be ejected by them1 and implored their assistance4 ,but while it told them this1 it did still more1 for it conveyed the report to their numerous foes1 who winged their way to the support of their opponents4 ,in fact1 whenever animals of any kind form alliances and act simultaneously for one common purpose1 it is evident that language of some sort must be employed4 ,that beasts possess a language1 which enables them to communicate their ideas to each other1 has been clearly shown4 ,it is just as apparent that they can act upon the ideas so conveyed4 ,we have now to see whether they can convey their ideas to man1 and so bridge over the gulf between the higher and the lower beings4 ,were there no means of communicating ideas between man and animals1 domestication1 it is true1 would be impossible4 ,every one who has possessed and cared for some favorite animal must have observed that they can do so4 ,their own language becomes in many instances intelligible to man4 ,just as a child1 that is unable to pronounce words1 can express its meaning by intimation1 so a dog can do the same by its different modes of barking4 ,there is the bark of joy or welcome1 when the animal sees its master1 or anticipates a walk with him2 the furious bark of anger1 if the dog suspects that anyone is likely to injure himself or his master1 and the bark of terror when the dog is suddenly frightened at something which it cannot understand4 ,supposing1 now1 that its master could not see the dog1 but could only hear its bark1 would he not know perfectly well the ideas which were passing through the animal's mind8 ,most certainly he would4 ,there is a difference between the mew of distress and the ordinary conversation1 the purr of pleasure1 of a cat4 ,a pet canary always knows how to call its mistress1 and when it sees her will give a glad chirrup of recognition quite distinct from its ordinary call4 ,bees and wasps have quite a different sound in their wings when angry than when in the discharge of their ordinary work4 ,any one conversant with their ways understands the expression of anger and makes the best of his way off4 ,all the foregoing are but examples of sound-language4 ,the gesture-language of animals1 however1 is wonderfully extensive and expressive4 ,a cat1 could it say in plain words1 8,please open the door for me10 could not convey its ideas more intelligently than it does by going to the door1 uttering a plaintive mew to show that it wants help1 and then patting the door4 ,dogs1 or1 in fact1 all animals that are accustomed to live in the house1 will act after a similar fashion4 ,there1 then1 we perceive that the lower animals can form connected ideas1 and can convey them to man1 so that the same ideas are passing at the same moment through the minds of man and beast1 evidencing that they possess the same faculties1 though of different extent4 ,illustration3 ,,papier-,,mach ,,palace ,,of ,,the ,,hornet4 ,sentinel ,guarding the ,entrance to the ,palace4 ,some few examples must suffice to show the power of gesture-language in the lower animals4 ,i once owned a dog1 a variety of hound1 which was as companionable as any animal could possibly be4 ,he was never happy unless he was on the go4 ,so fond was he of travel and sight-seeing1 that ,i gave him the name of ,rover4 ,my occupation calling me from home every day of the week1 except ,saturday and ,sunday1 but giving me a few hours of each day before the shadows began to settle round1 ,rover was forced to spend his time during my absence as best he could4 ,he was no ordinary dog4 ,little he cared for the dogs of the neighborhood4 ,his was a superior nature1 and rather than associate with his neighbors when my companionship could not be had1 he would perform his journeys alone1 sometimes being gone nearly the entire day4 ,but he managed to keep a pretty fair record of the time1 for he was always on hand to greet me on my return home4 ,his joy at my coming knew no bounds4 ,he would rub up against my side1 caper around me1 assuming a hundred different attitudes1 leap up into my face1 which he would caress with his tongue4 ,i shall never forget the barks of delight1 nor the smile1 as ,i would call it1 for it verily seemed a smile to me1 which lit up his intelligent face4 ,then he would slowly meander his way to the gate4 ,reaching it1 he would place his right front paw upon the latch1 spring it1 and1 taking hold of the top with his mouth1 fling it wide open4 ,he was then a very happy fellow4 ,that he appreciated the favor ,i was about to show him1 there could be no question1 as he plainly showed it in his look1 gesture and speech4 ,sometimes it was not convenient for me to take a walk with him1 or ,i was not in the physical or mental condition to do so4 ,it was not necessary for me to tell him in so many words that the pleasure would have to be foregone for the present1 for his keen1 discerning mind could read it in my looks4 ,i never liked to disappoint him1 for the grief which he manifested was piteous in the extreme4 ,he would prostrate himself to the ground1 place his head between his front paws1 and look the very picture of inconsolable distress4 ,the low1 sorrowful moan which he would emit1 when the disappointment was the keenest1 was so heart-rending1 that many a time ,i would reverse my purpose and say1 8,come1 ,rover1 master will not deny so good a creature the pleasure of his company for an hour or so in the woods40 ,instantly his whole expression would change1 and there would be exhibited a joy as intense as the grief which had depressed him to the earth4 ,rover was no hypocrite4 ,his sorrow was not assumed1 but as real and poignant a sorrow as ever possessed a human breast4 ,i have known him to grieve for hours1 and even to refuse the daintiest food when he has been disappointed4 ,were he dissembling1 seeing that it availed him not1 he would not be likely to have kept it up so long1 and to his sore discomfort and detriment4 ,examples of animals making their language intelligible to man could be multiplied ad infinitum1 but we must pass on to say something about their capability of understanding the language of man4 ,that many of the lower animals understand something of human language is a familiar fact4 ,all the domesticated animals1 notably the dog and the horse1 can comprehend an order that is given to them1 though1 perhaps1 they may not be able in all instances to understand the precise words which are used4 ,there are many occasions1 however1 when it is evident that the knowledge of human language does extend to the signification of particular words4 ,parrots1 as is well known1 are well acquainted with the meanings of the words which they speak4 ,examples have been known to the writer of parrots that were able to speak in two languages1 and1 when addressed1 always replied in the language used by their interlocutors1 speaking ,english or ,spanish1 as the case might be4 8,go1 bring up the cows10 was an order that was daily given to ,lion1 a large black dog1 with a shaggy head1 that belonged to my maternal grandfather1 an old-time farmer who lived way back in the fifties4 ,so well did he understand the significance of these words1 and the labor1 worry and responsibility which they implied1 that he did not have to be told a second time1 nor have to have their import conveyed to him by sign or by action of the farm lad whose business it was to see that the animals were brought to the barn-yard at milking time4 ,obedient to orders1 he would trot to the pasture-ground1 nearly a quarter-mile distant1 open the bars between the lane and the field with his mouth1 and then start on his business with a full sense of its requirements4 ,his coming was well known to the cattle4 ,while the most of them would take their way in a quiet1 orderly manner to the lane1 yet there were some unruly ones among them who gave ,lion a great deal of trouble1 but he always succeeded in overruling their contrary tendencies4 ,when there was a tumult in the hennery1 accompanied by loud noises1 the command1 8,go1 see what the trouble is60 was performed to the very letter1 and the trouble1 if any1 was speedily announced by a series of loud1 sharp1 quick barks1 which soon brought some one or more members of the family to the scene of disorder4 ,if nothing unusual was happening1 ,lion would return to the house in a slow1 leisurely way1 and by his looks convey1 as clearly as man could do it1 the utter needlessness of the command4 ,not only is the dog capable of understanding many things that are said to him1 but is even capable of forestalling one's wishes4 ,part of one of the writer's vacations was spent in a small country town not very remote from ,philadelphia4 ,there was in the family with whom he boarded a dog called ,prince4 ,he was a very great favorite1 and was once noted for his lively1 vivacious disposition and jolly manners4 ,but at the time of my introduction to him1 he seemed to be suffering from some bodily affliction1 which had not only taken away his appetite for food1 but the very animus of his being4 ,upon inquiry ,i learned that the master of the house1 to whom ,prince was so deeply attached1 had died the year before1 and that the dog had taken his death so completely to heart that he had lost all of his former vivacity4 ,he refused all food1 often going for days without taking a single mouthful4 ,life seemed to have lost for him all its charms4 ,sad and dejected he would lie upon the porch-floor or ground1 seemingly unconscious of everything and everybody4 ,that he was slowly dying seemed evident to all4 ,but a change from our first interview appeared to come over the animal4 ,from some cause or other1 he had taken quite a fancy to me4 ,he would greet me with considerable friendliness when ,i would come down in the morning1 and always seemed glad to be in my presence4 ,my first business1 on coming downstairs1 was to go for the newspaper1 which was always to be found inside the yard1 some thirty steps from the house4 ,i would then sit down upon the porch and read it1 but ,prince was always close-by1 a willing spectator4 ,one morning1 however1 instead of going to the gate for the paper as was my custom1 ,i stood debating in my mind whether to go or not1 when1 to my utmost surprise1 the dog1 after watching me for a while1 walked very soberly down to the gate1 picked up the paper in his mouth1 and brought it to me1 not laying it down at my feet1 but placing it in my hands4 ,i thanked him for his kindness1 gave him a few gentle pats upon the head1 and he walked away as pleased as a child would have been who had received a few pennies for a similar service4 ,the dog had evidently read in my looks the debate that was going on in my mind1 and knowing that ,i always read the paper when ,i came down from my room1 anticipated my wishes by bringing it to me4 ,illustration3 ,,unsolicited ,,and ,,unlooked-,,for ,,kindness4 ,how ,prince ,forestalled ,my ,wishes by ,bringing ,me the ,morning ,newspaper4 ,there is in the two interesting stories just related a singular aggregation of faculties which are held in man to belong to the immortal1 and not to the mortal part of his being4 ,reason1 or the deduction of a conclusion from premises1 is strikingly exhibited4 ,then there is the power of forming ideas and communicating them to man1 and the capability of understanding man's language1 and even of anticipating the wishes of human friends4 ,and lastly1 there is the intense love for the master1 combined with the power of self-sacrifice1 which enabled ,lion and ,prince to act as they did1 while instinct was urging them to take their exercise in the open air1 or in the enjoyment of luxurious ease4 ,no faculty of the mind gives greater trouble to materialists than ,memory4 ,it is that which survives when every particle of the material brain has been repeatedly changed4 ,it is that which more or less deeply receives impressions and retains them through a long series of years4 ,and even when they are apparently forgotten1 hidden as it were behind a temporary veil1 a passing odor1 a dimly-heard sound or a nodding flower may rend the veil asunder in the twinkling of an eye1 and scenes long forgotten are reproduced before the memory as vividly as though time had been annihilated4 ,nothing is omitted4 ,there comes up to view a minute and instantaneous insight into every detail1 and for a moment we break loose from our fleshy tabernacle1 and see and hear with our spiritual and not with our material eyes and ears4 ,man expects that he shall retain his memory and carry it into the next world4 ,he also expects to recognize in the spiritual world those whom he has loved in this temporal sphere4 ,memory1 therefore1 must be spiritual and eternal2 and wherever it can be found1 there exists an immortal spirit4 ,no stronger evidence1 apart from ,revelation1 exists of a future life of man than memory4 ,and if we apply this proof to ourselves1 then1 in pure justice1 we should apply it wherever memory is found4 ,but some have claimed that memory is a mere emanation from the brain4 ,that an inferior brain is coupled with an inferior intellect1 and that if the brain be slightly or seriously injured1 the powers of thought will be weakened or utterly held in abeyance1 are arguments that have been made to prove that thought is the creation of the brain4 ,the facts in themselves are true1 but the conclusion is false4 ,the brain is but the organ or instrument of the thought-power1 and stands in the same relation to it that a tool does to a carpenter4 ,however good an artisan a carpenter may be1 it is but common-sense to say that he cannot turn out good work with a blunt instrument1 or any work at all with a broken one4 ,so it is with the brain4 ,it is but the tool of the spirit1 and1 if it be damaged in any way1 the keenest intellect will not be able to work with it4 ,memory1 moreover1 exists in creatures which are devoid of brain4 ,no real brain1 but only a succession of nervous ganglia running the entire length of the body1 is found in insects1 and indeed in many of them the faculty of memory is very strongly developed4 ,then there is the moner1 a mere speck of formless protoplasm1 that has not the slightest trace of a specialized nervous system1 yet it has the power of throwing out arms and of retracting them into the general body-mass1 of opening out mouths where a particle of food strikes it1 of digesting its food1 and of circulating its fluid without the necessity of canals4 ,but how are these movements effected8 ,certainly a nervous influence is the prime mover of all its actions4 ,nerve-matter1 mayhap1 constitutes its entire body-mass1 or it may be all brain as well as all muscle4 ,though the lowest and simplest of all animal life1 yet it possesses an innate consciousness and intelligence4 ,memory is not wanting as a faculty of the mind of this all-brain animal1 which ,i have thought fit to characterize it1 as some actions of it already described under the head of 8,slime ,animals0 seem very clearly to indicate4 ,some fifteen years ago ,i mentioned in an article1 entitled 8,insect ,pets10 a pair of flies1 the common ,musca domestica of our houses1 which had been closely observed by ,mr4 ,forestel1 the gentleman who at that time had charge of the distributing department of the ,philadelphia ,record4 ,this position necessitates nocturnal employment4 ,while taking his midnight lunch1 ,mr4 ,forestel's attention was directed to a pair of these insects that had located themselves upon his plate4 ,had it been in the summer when flies were plentiful1 the event would hardly have been noticed2 but being in the winter1 a season notable for their great scarcity1 they could not but impress his mind with something out of the ordinary4 ,night after night these self-invited and curious guests presented themselves at the same place1 and it was a long time before he observed the regularity of their visits4 ,at first he was disposed to view the alighting of two flies upon his plate as a mere coincidence1 but he at length became so deeply interested in the affair1 that he resolved to watch their actions very closely4 ,it was not long before he became convinced that they always waited for the commencement of the meal1 when they would deliberately fly down for their regular lunch4 ,so closely did he watch them1 that he was soon able to discriminate between the two1 and to discover beyond a doubt that it was not a series of two flies1 but always the same pair4 ,as time progressed1 ,mr4 ,forestel and the flies grew to be famous friends4 ,they in time became so friendly1 that they would permit themselves to be handled4 ,although at first they would only appear when ,mr4 ,forestel was alone1 yet they soon became accustomed to strangers4 ,on the nights when their friend was not on duty1 others have spread their lunches on the table used by him1 but the flies were not slow in making the discovery1 and1 instead of alighting1 would quickly hasten away without their accustomed meal4 ,who can deny the possession of memory to these two flies8 ,had the discovery of the food been an accidental occurrence the first time1 could it have been so the second and all the succeeding times8 ,then1 again1 the flies always came at the right time1 showing that they had some idea of the passing moments4 ,even admitting that this latter thought is out of the range of probability1 there can be no doubt that they were not observant creatures1 else how would they know when to come1 or whether or not the man that sat at the table was the same that had shown them so much kindness on their previous visits4 ,that they did know these things1 there cannot be the slightest doubt4 ,but how did they know them8 ,there is only one answer to the query4 ,they knew them through the exercise of memory1 these creatures impressing on their minds the appearance of the objects near the table1 the form and color of the table itself1 the look1 manner and dress of the man who sat by it1 and acting on the result of these impressions4 ,human beings act in just the same way in traversing for the first time a locality through which they will have to return4 ,and yet1 as has already been stated1 these insects have no true brains4 ,considerably removed from insects are the vermes1 or worms4 ,man1 in his overweening opinion of self1 would hardly credit the earth-worm with the possession of any mental qualities2 yet it has been shown that it can reason1 and can communicate after its fashion with its fellows4 ,it is now my intention to prove that it has the power of memory4 ,has the reader ever seen an earth-worm trying to carry into its burrow a pair of pine-needles joined at their bases8 ,it knows just where to seize the pair4 ,this it determines by feeling1 or moving its head along the needles1 the sense of touch being very acute in this portion of its body4 ,hardly ever is a mistake made by seizing the free or apical extremities4 ,once it has discovered where to act1 this position is fixed in memory1 and the animal exercises the latter power in dealing with objects of the kind in all subsequent operations4 ,almost any living being can by means of the faculty of memory be taught by man4 ,but were it absent1 no teaching would be of the slightest avail4 ,in most cases where an animal is ferocious1 ,i firmly believe that fear1 and not ill-temper1 is the real cause of its conduct4 ,let a little kindness be shown1 and the animal will never forget it4 ,such acts1 repeatedly performed1 assure it that your intentions are well-meant1 and it soon learns to recognize in you a friend4 ,the memory of your goodness will often be recollected after long years of separation1 and the most joyous feelings be manifested at the sight of your presence upon returning home4 ,everyone who has had personal experience of domesticated animals must have remarked the great strength and endurance of their powers of memory4 ,the dog1 the cat1 the horse and the ass afford so many familiar anecdotes in point1 that ,i shall be obliged to pass them over and restrict my illustrations to a few animals about which little has been said4 ,for obstinacy of opinion no animal can excel the pig4 ,he is a creature whom few1 on account of his uncleanly person and disgusting habits1 would care to caress4 ,yet there is no animal under man's care that enjoys such treatment better than he does4 ,he will stand for hours while you rub his head and back1 the very impersonation of contentment1 never failing to express his thanks and appreciation by occasional monosyllabic grunts4 ,a friend of ours1 living in ,northern ,indiana1 had a fine fellow1 whom he had raised from infancy4 ,when he was quite young1 he began to show him considerable attention1 picking him up in his arms1 and fondling him in the most affectionate manner4 ,the choicest food was always reserved for him1 and the cosiest bed of straw provided for his nightly rest4 ,in process of time the animal grew to great size1 but he never forgot these early attentions4 ,he expected them all the same4 ,when denied what he deemed were his lawful rights1 he would set up an unearthly squealing1 enough to split the ears of the groundlings1 and refuse to be comforted until his demands were satisfied4 ,never was the master1 when out of the house1 safe from his intrusions4 ,he would besiege him in the presence of company1 command his attention1 and cry in his own peculiar fashion if he thought himself ignored4 ,many a rough-and-tumble game1 which reminded me of boys in my childhood days1 would they have together1 and it was really amusing to see them4 ,they enjoyed these tussles1 which were always of the most friendly character4 ,stupid as the life of a cow may seem to be1 yet there has been known to the writer some cows which were far from being dull and prosaic4 ,our same ,hoosier friend had such an animal1 whom he called ,daisy4 ,she was very docile and affectionate1 and would come1 even when grazing in the most delightful pasture of clover1 whenever her name happened to be mentioned4 ,daisy was a pretty creature1 and very exemplary in her conduct4 ,when her companions would break into a field of corn1 where they had no right to be1 she would not follow their wicked example1 but remained where her master had placed her and the rest of the herd1 showing them1 as it were1 that she did not approve of such wilful waywardness4 ,no member of the bovine family of animals ever showed a greater fondness for love than ,daisy4 ,the master could put his arms around her neck1 and lay his face against the side of her own4 ,that she approved of such familiarity was evident1 for she would show that she did by placing her lips against his in true lover-like fashion4 ,but there came a time when this attachment to the master became dissolved4 ,on account of the bad behavior of the herd in general1 and to make it a law-abiding community1 it was resolved that each member should have its horns sawn off close up to the skull4 ,this1 it was thought1 would improve the temper of the herd1 and make it less troublesome to manage4 ,no fear was entertained1 however1 for ,daisy1 who was already as good as she could be1 but ,daisy must undergo the same cruel punishment for the sake of uniformity in this particular in the herd4 ,it had1 however1 the opposite effect upon ,daisy from what it had upon the rest of the herd1 for it made her sullen and morose1 and from that time she resented all familiarity upon the part of the master4 ,she seemed to view him as her worst enemy4 ,all attempts to settle her grievances were viewed in a suspicious manner1 and the matter of reconciliation had at length to be abandoned4 ,beasts1 there is no doubt1 were intended to be the servants of man1 and there is nothing in his hands half so powerful in the accomplishment of this end as thoughtful kindness4 ,inflexible decision1 combined with gentleness and sympathy1 are irresistible weapons in his power1 and no animal exists1 ,i firmly believe1 which cannot be subdued if the right man undertakes the task4 ,by this mixture of firmness and kindness many a wild beast of a horse has been in a half-hour rendered gentle and subservient by ,rarey1 obeying the least sign of his conqueror1 and permitting himself to be freely handled without displaying the slightest resentment4 ,that there is something more in memory than a mere production of a material brain must seem probable from the examples given4 ,in several cases the animals were without any brains at all1 but in others1 where a brain did exist1 its material particles must have been repeatedly changed1 while the ideas impressed upon the memory still remained in full force4 ,perhaps no attribute of the mind is better fitted to follow that which has just been treated than ,generosity4 ,but whether we accept it in the sense of liberality or magnanimity1 it is certainly a very lofty quality1 and one which infinitely ennobles the character of those who possess it4 ,taken in the former sense1 it is an attribute of ,deity1 who gives us freely all that we have1 and so sets us an example of generosity to our fellow-creatures4 ,now1 if it be admitted that the possession of generosity ennobles man's character1 while the lack of that quality debases it1 then the inference is undeniable that when we find a beast possessing generosity1 and a man devoid of it1 the beast is in that particular the superior of the man4 ,and that generosity1 being a divine attribute1 belongs to the spirit and not to the body1 no believer in ,christianity is likely to deny4 ,therefore1 wherever we find this characteristic developed1 we must admit the presence of an immortal spirit4 ,that the lower animals do possess generosity in the sense of ,liberality will now be proved from circumstances that have occurred within my own observation4 ,my first proof is a very interesting one1 and is drawn from the life of a dog that was the companion of my school-boy days4 ,sport was the name of the animal4 ,he was not a greedy1 selfish creature1 but a generous1 noble fellow4 ,many an act of self-sacrifice had he been known to perform1 and he was never happier than when he was doing some good to his fellows4 ,it was not unlike him1 when he would meet a poor1 strange and hungry animal of his own kind by the roadway1 to bring him to his master's house1 and at the meal-hour divide with the unfortunate his noon-day allowance4 ,between him and a certain cat1 called ,blackey1 which was also a member of the same household1 there existed a very strong friendship4 ,any injury done the cat was most summarily resented by ,sport4 ,he would share his meals with her1 and never seemed satisfied unless she would consent to take the choicest bits4 ,but the generosity was not all on his side1 for the cat certainly rivalled him in the exercise of this noble trait1 which all acknowledge to be one of the noblest characteristics of the human mind4 ,when ,blackey was sick1 and unable to be around1 much of the time of the dog would be spent in her presence4 ,he would caress her with his paw1 smooth her silken1 jet-black fur with his tongue1 and seek by every means in his power to raise her drooping spirits and alleviate her miseries4 ,no animal1 not even man himself1 could show more real sympathy for a fellow in distress than ,sport did for ,blackey4 ,no bird1 it would seem1 could be expected to manifest so little of generosity as the sparrow4 ,as a rule1 sparrows are remarkable for their ability to take care of themselves4 ,theirs is a nature which is based upon self4 ,they are an avaricious species1 and little they reck for their neighbors4 ,as the eagle is known to treat the osprey1 and the skua-gull its weaker brethren1 so the sparrow has been known to act towards its neighbors4 ,but exceptions exist to every rule1 and we are pleased to record an honorable one in the case of this most detested species4 ,close by a maple-tree1 which a pair of sparrows had appropriated and made the support for their home1 dwelt a sturdy robin with his mate4 ,their home1 a mud-lined domicile1 was placed in the crotch of a small tree4 ,three children appeared in process of time to bless the happy couple4 ,everything went along smoothly and pleasantly with the robins1 the sparrows being too much engrossed with their own affairs to think of giving them any trouble4 ,but a tragedy soon happened which1 sad to relate1 foreboded evil and consequent death to the nest-full of young robins4 ,father and mother had1 while searching for food for the little ones1 been cruelly killed by a conscienceless sportsman4 ,but the fledglings1 which seemed doomed to die the death of starvation1 were spared by some good genius who put it into the heart of the sparrows to pass that way1 and thus was their sad and pitiable condition brought to the light of day4 ,their heart-rending appeals for food1 combined with their orphaned situation1 struck a sympathetic chord in the breast of the sparrows1 and day after day these birds1 whose chief concern naturally seems for self1 might be seen acting the part of the good ,samaritan towards these unfortunate of ,god's children4 ,but let us now pass to that form of generosity which has been called ,magnanimity4 ,few qualities in human nature are more noble than the capability of foregoing revenge when the offender is powerless to resist4 ,this unwillingness to resent an injury1 even though the power to do so is present in the individual1 is what is implied by magnanimity4 ,when we find those beings whom we designate brutes rising to a moral grandeur which few men can attain1 disdaining to avail themselves of the opportunity of vengeance1 and even rewarding evil with good1 it does seem an utter absurdity to affirm that they are not acting under the inspiration of ,him who gave us the celestial maxim1 8,love your enemies40 ,by their actions they show themselves worthy of everlasting life1 and what they deserve they will assuredly receive at the hands of ,him who is ,justice and ,truth4 ,consciously1 or unconsciously1 the feeling of magnanimity is acknowledged among mankind4 ,even in the lowest stratum of society it is recognized4 ,as with man1 so with the lower animals2 and there are many instances on record where the strong have disdained1 no matter what the offence had been1 to make reprisals upon the weak4 ,bus and ,jack are two dogs whose acquaintance ,i made three years ago4 ,the one is a beagle1 and the other a pug4 ,no one that has seen these animals in their frolics and plays1 would ever suspect that any differences could arise between them4 ,but when such disagreements do occur1 and there is hardly a day that does not witness a dozen or more1 it is always ,bus that is the instigator4 ,the most trifling act upon the part of ,jack will be made the cause of offence1 and an excuse for the precipitation of a quarrel4 ,in a rage1 ,bus will fly into the face of ,jack1 but the latter will coolly shake him off and walk leisurely away4 ,no provocation will induce him to resent an insult or an injury1 especially where ,pug or a dog smaller than himself is concerned4 ,it is not that he is afraid of ,pug1 for1 when once aroused in the presence of equal or even superior strength1 he becomes a terror4 ,he is too magnanimous to avenge a wrong done him by one less powerful than himself4 ,the look which he would give ,pug1 after one of these attacks had been made1 was one of pure contempt1 and said1 as plainly as words could have said1 8,your assaults are mere child's play1 and are unworthy of recognition by one who is so much your superior in feats of valor40 ,that ,pug felt the meaning and force of the look was apparent1 for he would always slink away abashed to some corner1 where he would remain for an hour or two without showing himself4 ,over and over again has ,jack allowed little dogs to bite him without troubling himself to retaliate2 but if a big dog ventured upon an insult1 that dog had to run or pay the penalty for his temerity4 ,no dog could give a more disdainful look than ,jack1 and that look always gave him an easy and uninterrupted passage wherever he chose to go4 ,other anecdotes of a similar nature might be given to show that animals can act magnanimously towards each other4 ,that they are as capable of displaying the magnanimity of their nature towards men whom they hated has frequently been observed4 ,the manager of a mill in ,fifeshire1 ,scotland1 was1 according to ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood1 very much disliked by the watch-dog1 probably from some harsh treatment which the animal had received from his hands4 ,one very dark night the manager had strayed from his path and fell over the dog4 ,seeing the mistake he had made1 and finding that he could not recover himself1 he gave himself up as lost1 for the dog was a very powerful animal4 ,but the dog was magnanimous enough to spare a helpless enemy1 and to lay aside old grievances4 ,instead of seizing the prostrate man by the throat1 as a brute would be expected to do1 the dog only licked his face and exhibited his sympathy4 ,ever afterward the man and the dog were fast friends4 ,just as there are animals capable of exercising great self-denial by giving to others what belongs to themselves1 and even manifesting a generosity which would put human nature to the blush1 so there are animals which can cheat like accomplished swindlers4 ,as all ,cheatery requires the use of the intellect1 it is therefore evident that the most intellectual animals will be the most accomplished cheats4 ,dogs have shown themselves to be considerable adepts in cheating1 and this we would naturally expect4 ,some curious and rather ludicrous instances of cheatery upon the part of the dog are noticed4 ,we once knew a pair of dogs1 a spaniel and a pug1 that were inmates of the same house4 ,they were very jealous of each other so far as the master was concerned1 and neither could endure to see the other caressed4 ,it happened that the spaniel was taken quite ill1 and was in consequence very much cared for and petted4 ,his companion1 seeing the attention and sympathy that were bestowed upon him1 pretended to be sick herself1 and1 going to a corner of the room1 lay down upon the floor and looked the very picture of misery and distress4 ,a cat and a dog1 that for many years were members of the writer's family1 had taken a fancy to the same spot1 a soft cushion at the head of a sofa4 ,while they were the best of friends1 yet a difference of opinion would occasionally arise1 and a slight loss of temper would be the result4 ,when the cat would be in the possession of the cushion1 the dog would torment her in every possible way with the view of causing her to abandon the pet spot4 ,he would pull at the cushion1 seeking to drag it to the floor1 or1 seizing the occupant by the ear or tail1 endeavor to dislodge her by force4 ,but the cat1 seemingly unmindful of what was going on1 and the very impersonation of patience all the while1 would refuse to give up so comfortable a couch4 ,at last the dog hit upon a ruse which he knew would bring the cat down from the sofa4 ,he rushed out into the kitchen1 and began acting as though in pursuit of a mouse4 ,he and puss had often engaged in such diverting business4 ,this was more than the latter could stand4 ,she was down from her cozy bed in an instant1 and was soon by the side of the dog4 ,but as soon as puss1 all ablaze with excitement1 had her head in a corner and was straining her eyes to get a glimpse of the supposed mouse1 the dog ran to the sofa at full speed1 jumped on the cushion1 curled himself round1 and was happy4 ,poor puss1 perceiving that the dog had left her1 was not slow to discern that she had been imposed upon by the latter1 and that it was only a trick that had been played upon her by her shrewd companion1 that he might get possession of the soft spot upon the sofa4 ,she1 however1 bore it good-naturedly and decorously1 and was ever afterward on the alert for these little tricks of her canine friend4 ,birds can be as capable of cheating1 not only each other1 but other animals4 ,a crow1 belonging to ,john ,smedley1 a resident of ,lima1 ,pa41 was an adept in the business4 ,when dinner was preparing1 he would fly around the corner of the house1 set up a terrific cawing as though in great distress1 and when the mistress of the house1 with whom he was a great favorite1 would come out on a tour of investigation1 the rascally bird would elude her and manage to steal round to the table in the opposite direction and seize what food suited him the best1 which he would carry to the top of the house1 where he would eat it at his leisure4 ,no persuasions would induce him to come down1 for he knew that such action was a breach of the peace1 and he was fearful of the punishment1 that of confinement to a cage1 which would follow4 ,when1 however1 he felt assured that his mistress had forgiven the wrong-doing1 he would fly down to the porch1 and do his utmost to convince her that he was a well-meaning bird1 and that he was thoroughly ashamed of his actions4 ,but there was one member of the family that utterly detested the bird4 ,it was the dog ,rover4 ,many a trick had the bird practised upon the latter1 especially at meal time4 ,poor ,rover was not allowed to eat in peace4 ,when he would be wholly absorbed in his dinner1 the crow would approach him in the rear1 give him a severe twirl of the tail1 and then in a twinkling fly to one side1 looking the very picture of innocence4 ,but ere the dog had recovered his self-possession and was ready to resume his feeding again1 the bird had captured the daintiest morsel1 and was off to the tree-top4 ,discomfited and outwitted1 the dog would rush to the base of the tree1 bark his growls of anger and defiance1 while the crow would look quizzically down from above1 and chuckle with delight4 ,many of my readers may1 perhaps1 remember the story of the two dogs that used to hunt the hare in concert1 the one starting the hare and driving it toward the spot where his accomplice lay concealed4 ,i recall an instance where a somewhat similar arrangement was made1 only the two contracting parties1 instead of being two dogs1 were a dog and a hawk1 the latter making use of his wings in driving the prey out of the copse into the open ground4 ,innumerous examples of such alliances are known1 and in all of them there is manifest the curious fact that two animals can arrange a mode of cheating a third4 ,one of the principal stratagems used in war1 that is the ambuscade1 whereby the enemy is induced to believe that danger is imminent in one direction1 when it really lies in the opposite and unsuspecting direction1 is employed4 ,no one would admit that a general who contrived to draw the enemy into an ambuscade acted by instinct4 ,the act would be construed as proof of the possession of reasoning powers surpassing those of the adversary4 ,and if this be the case with the man1 why not with the dog1 or with the raven or hawk1 when the deception is carried out by precisely the same line of reasoning8 ,beasts possess1 in common with man1 the sense of ,humor4 ,this is developed in many ways4 ,generally it assumes the phase of teasing or annoying others1 and thus deriving pleasure or amusement from their discomfort4 ,sometimes1 both with man and beast1 it takes the form of bodily torture1 the struggles of the victim being highly amusing to the torturer4 ,civilized man has now learned to regard the infliction of pain upon a fellow as anything but an amusement1 and would rather suffer the agony than inflict it upon another4 ,but with the savage it is otherwise1 for there is no entertainment so fascinating as the infliction of bodily pain upon a human being4 ,among our ,indian tribes1 torture is a solemn usage of war1 which every warrior expects for himself if captured1 and which he is certain to inflict upon any prisoner whom he may happen to take4 ,the tortures which he inflicts are absolutely fiendish1 and yet a whole tribe will assemble around the stake1 and gloat upon the agonies which are being borne by a fellow-creature4 ,similarly the ,african savage inflicts the most excruciating sufferings upon the man or woman accused of witchcraft1 employing means too horrible to be mentioned4 ,but in all these cases the cruelty seems to be in a great measure owing to obtuseness of perception4 ,yet the savage who binds his victim to a stake1 and perforates the sensitive parts of his body with burning pine-splinters1 behaves very much like a child who amuses itself by catching flies1 pulling off their wings and legs1 and watching their unavailing efforts to escape4 ,many years ago cockchafers were publicly sold in ,paris for children to torture to death4 ,the amusement consisted in running a hooked pin through the insect's tail1 fastening a thread thereto1 and watching the poor creature spin in the air4 ,after the poor beetle was too enfeebled to expand its wings1 it was slowly dismembered1 the child being greatly amused at its endeavors to crawl1 as leg after leg was pulled from the body4 ,a similar custom1 though in a more cruel form1 prevails in ,italy1 the creatures which are tortured by way of sport being more capable of feeling pain than are insects4 ,birds are employed in this country for the amusement of children4 ,a string is tied to the leg of the bird1 and the unfortunate creature1 after its powers of flight are exhausted1 is generally plucked alive and dismembered4 ,the idea of cruelty does not seem to enter at all in these practices1 but they are done from the sheer incapacity of understanding that a bird or a beast can be a fellow-creature4 ,italians are notorious for their cruel treatment of animals1 and if remonstrated with become very much astonished and reply1 8,non ,cristiano10 that is to say1 8,it is not a ,christian40 ,englishmen have little to boast of on this score4 ,bear-baiting was abolished by the ,puritans1 not because it gave pain to the bear1 but because it gave pleasure to the spectators4 ,even at the present day1 both in ,england and in this country1 there is a latent hankering after similar scenes1 and dog-fighting1 rat-killing and cock-fighting1 even though they are now contrary to law1 are still practised in secret4 ,similarly the sense of humor is developed in the lower animals by causing pain or annoyance to some other creature1 and the animal acts in precisely the same manner as a savage or a child4 ,sparrows1 as might be expected from their character1 will gratify their feelings of aversion by banding together for the purpose of mobbing some creature to which they have an objection4 ,in ,hardwicke's ,science ,gossip for ,december1 #ahgb1 there is a short account of a number of sparrows mobbing a cat4 ,evidently the cat had intended making a meal on one of the birds1 but was greatly mistaken1 for the sparrows dashed upon him so fiercely1 that he soon turned tail and ran into the house1 one of the sparrows actually pursuing him into the house4 ,the poor cat ran up-stairs1 and was found crouching in terror under one of the beds4 ,this happened in ,london1 where the sparrows are less numerous now than they used to be4 ,no bird of my knowledge possesses a larger amount of humor than the crow4 ,i have known him to feign an attack upon a distant part of a field of newly-sprouted corn1 which was being guarded by a farmer with his gun4 ,when the latter would be drawn to that part of the field where the attack was to be made1 the sagacious bird would manage to outwit him1 slip around to the other side1 drop down into the field and obtain a few tender sprouts before the farmer hardly knew what was going on4 ,but he was always up and away at the opportune moment1 and1 perched upon a fence-rail1 beyond the range of the gun1 would enjoy one of his rollicking cawing laughs at the farmer's expense4 ,crows that are tame have the sense of humor more keenly developed than their wild brethren of the fields and the woods4 ,i once knew a tame crow that took great pleasure in annoying a dog that lived in the same family4 ,carlo1 as the dog was called1 was never so contented as when allowed to sleep the hours of the morning away1 after a night's carousal1 in a quiet1 sunny spot in the backyard4 ,when the dog had become fast wrapped in the arms of the god of slumber1 the crow would steal to his side1 give his ear a sharp pull1 and when the dog would awake and look around the crow would be busy in gleaning1 the most unconcerned creature in the whole yard4 ,again and again would she annoy the poor animal1 and always with the same evident sense of delight1 which ,i could always read in the mischievous twinkle that lurked in her eyes1 till the dog1 bewildered and unable to account for such mysterious actions1 would silently skulk away to other parts1 where he hoped to be free from all intrusion4 ,even the mistress of the house was not exempt from her annoyance4 ,she would carry off everything she could lay hold of1 and always hid them away in one place1 that is1 in a large crevice on the top of the house between the peak of the roof and the chimney4 ,one day the mistress's spectacles disappeared4 ,search was instituted everywhere1 but without effect4 ,none knew better than the bird what the trouble was4 ,while the search was going on1 she busied herself in looking around1 and seemed as desirous of finding the missing glasses as any member of the household4 ,the look which the bird gave showed that she enjoyed the situation of affairs immensely1 and considered it a fine joke that she had played upon her mistress4 ,after a few days the lost spectacles were restored to their accustomed place1 but no one ever positively knew how they came thither4 ,domestic birds1 as a rule1 are remarkable for the generosity which the master-bird shows to his inferiors4 ,he will scratch the ground1 unearth some food1 and then1 instead of eating it himself1 will call some of his favorites1 and give them the delicacy for which he labored4 ,but ,i have met with a few cases where the cock scratched as usual1 called his wives1 and1 when they had gathered round him1 ate the morsel himself4 ,it was but a practical joke that he had perpetrated upon them1 and that they felt it as such their looks only too strongly testified4 ,there was a relish of delight in it for the cock1 for the cackle1 which he immediately gave1 assured me of this fact as much as the laugh of a man could have done who had played such a joke upon one of his fellows4 ,parrots are much given to practical joking1 after the ways of mankind4 ,a parrot1 belonging to an aunt1 had a bad habit of whistling for a dog1 and then enjoying the animal's bewilderment and discomfiture4 ,she would call the cat1 as her mistress was accustomed to do1 and when puss would come1 expecting some dainty article of food1 she would call out in her severest tone1 8,be off1 you hussy60 and the cat would make all possible speed for a place of security1 greatly to the amusement of the parrot from her perch in the cage4 ,there have been known parrots that would play practical jokes upon human beings1 but dogs and cats seem to be the principal victims of the parrot's sense of humor4 ,animals not only show their playfulness in such tricks as have been mentioned1 but many of them are able to appreciate and take part in the games played by children4 ,when ,i was a boy ,i knew a dog1 a species of greyhound1 which was an accomplished player at the well-known game called tag1 or touch4 ,quite as much enthusiasm was displayed by the animal as by any of the human players4 ,he would dart away from the boy who happened to be 8touch0 with an anxiety that almost appeared terror4 ,it was an impossibility to touch the clever canine player2 but he was a generous creature1 with a strong sense of justice1 and so1 when he thought that his turn ought to come1 he would stand still and wait quietly to be touched4 ,his manner of touching his play-fellows was always by grasping the end of their trousers with his teeth1 and as it was impossible for the boy to stop when so seized in full course1 the dog was often jerked along the ground for some little distance4 ,hide-and-seek is a game which is often learned and enjoyed by many animals4 ,i have often been an interested spectator of the play in which two dogs were the participants4 ,it was as exciting as such a diversion could possibly be between two children4 ,for an hour at a time ,i have watched the fun1 and the players seemed not to abate the least jot or tittle from their ardor and enthusiasm4 ,they were apparently as fresh then as at the beginning4 ,in due time the game ceased as if by mutual consent1 but the animals did not seek some cool1 quiet spot for comfort and rest1 but started off to the woods for some further diversion1 from which their voices were soon heard1 telling that they were in pursuit of a rabbit or the ignoble ground-hog4 ,we have far from exhausted the list of examples at hand to show that the lower animals possess a sense of humor4 ,but what use1 it may be asked1 can the capacity of humor subserve in the next world8 ,much the same1 ,i presume1 that it subserves in this4 ,there are some in this world in whom the sense of humor is absolutely wanting4 ,estimable as they may be in character1 they are just solemn prigs1 and ,i should be very sorry to resemble them in the world1 whither1 it is hoped1 all life tendeth4 ,pride1 ,jealousy1 ,anger1 ,revenge and ,tyranny1 while not very pleasing characteristics1 belong1 as such1 to the immaterial1 and not to the material1 part of man4 ,that the lower animals possess these qualities will be seen from what follows4 ,hence the inference to be drawn from that fact must be quite obvious4 ,taking these characteristics in order1 ,pride1 or ,self-esteem1 is developed as fully in many animals as in the proudest of the human race4 ,most conspicuously is this shown in animals which herd together4 ,there is always one leader at the head1 who will not permit any movement to be made without his order1 and who resents the least interference with his authority4 ,this is particularly the case with the deer1 the horse and the ox4 ,even when these animals are domesticated1 and the habits of their feral life have materially changed1 the feeling of pride exists to the fullest extent4 ,whoever has carefully watched and studied the inhabitants of a farm-yard cannot fail to have observed that the cows have their laws of precedence and etiquette as clearly defined as those of any ,european ,court4 ,every cow knows her own place and keeps it4 ,she will never condescend to take a lower1 nor would she be allowed to assume a higher4 ,a new-comer in a farm-yard has about as much chance of approaching the rack at feeding-time as a new boy at school has of getting near the fire on a cold winter day4 ,but as the young calf increases in growth1 and is nearing maturity1 she is allowed to mingle with her companions on tolerably equal terms4 ,should1 however1 a younger animal than herself be admitted1 it is amusing to see with what gratification she bullies the new-comer1 and how much higher she ranks in her own estimation when she finds she is no longer the junior4 ,but should the fates be propitious1 and she should arrive at the dignity of being senior cow1 she never fails to assert that dignity on every occasion4 ,when the cattle are taken out of the yard to their pasture in the morning1 and when they are returned to it in the evening1 she will not allow any except herself to take the lead4 ,an instance is recorded where the man in charge of a herd of cows would not permit the 8ganger10 as the head cow is often called1 to go out first4 ,the result was that she refused to go out at all4 ,therefore1 to get her to go out of the yard1 the man had to drive all the other cows back again1 so that she might take her proper place at the head of the herd4 ,few people know much about the real disposition of the mule4 ,judging from popular ideas respecting the animal1 one would think that it had no pride in its composition4 ,it is in reality a very proud animal1 and fond of good society4 ,one of his most striking characteristics is his aversion to the ass1 and the pride which he takes in his relation to the horse4 ,an ass would be hardly safe in a drove of mules1 for he would1 in all probability1 be kicked and lamed by his proud relatives2 whereas a horse1 on the contrary1 takes a distinguished position1 the mules not only crowding around him and following his movements1 but exhibiting a violent jealousy1 each striving to get the nearest to their distinguished relative4 ,illustration3 ,,exhibition ,,of ,,grandeur4 ,male ,peacock in ,presence of ,some ,barn-,yard ,fowls4 ,we have seen the pride of rank and love of precedence in cows1 and the pride of ancestry in mules4 ,there is1 however1 a pride that takes the form of sensitiveness to ridicule4 ,nothing is so galling to a proud man as to find himself the object of ridicule4 ,the same trait of character is to be found in many animals1 and especially in those that have been domesticated1 for it is in these that we have the most opportunities for observation4 ,all high-bred dogs are exceedingly sensitive to ridicule4 ,we knew of a cat that was quite conscious if spoken of in a disparaging manner1 and testified his disapprobation by arching his tail1 holding himself very stiff indeed1 and marching slowly out of the room4 ,there is1 however1 another form of pride which is often to be seen among the lower animals1 but more especially among birds notable for gaudy or abundant plumage4 ,this is the pride which manifests itself in personal appearance4 ,vanity is the name which is currently applied to this form of pride4 ,those who have observed a peacock in all the glory of his starry train will recognize the intense pride he feels at his own splendor4 ,this display of his magnificent train is not for the purpose of attracting the homage of his plainly-attired mates solely1 but seems to be intended to evoke the admiration of human beings as well4 ,not even the homage of birds1 whom he regards his inferiors1 is to be despised4 ,we have seen him1 with his train fully spread1 displaying his grandeur around a dozen or more barn-yard fowls1 and apparently as satisfied with the effect he produced1 as he stalked majestically among them1 as if he had been surrounded by his own kith and kin4 ,then there is the turkey4 ,no movements are more grotesque than his4 ,see him as he struts about in his nuptial plumage1 and yet no bird1 notwithstanding the ludicrousness of his behavior1 surveys himself with greater complacency4 ,the whidah-bird1 or widow-bird1 as it is often called1 exhibits this trait of character in its highest development4 ,he is wonderfully proud of his beautiful tail1 and1 as long as he wears it1 loses no opportunity of displaying it to every person who visits his cage4 ,but when the moulting season has arrived1 and he has taken on the plain1 tailless attire of his mate1 a change as great has come over his manner1 and1 instead of exhibiting himself in all his pride and glory1 he mopes listlessly and stupidly about1 and seemingly ashamed of his mean condition4 ,in all these instances the character of pride in personal appearance is as strongly developed as it is possible for it to be in any human being4 ,that peculiar uneasiness1 which arises from the fear that a rival will dispossess us of the affection of one whom we love1 or the suspicion that he has already done so1 is termed jealousy4 ,there are two forms of this passion1 one connected with the love of some other being1 and the other dependent on the love of self4 ,but it is the former1 whose definition begins the present paragraph1 with which we shall exclusively deal4 ,it is evident from the meaning of jealousy1 as given above1 that the power of reasoning is implied1 and that any creature by which it is manifested must be able to deduce a conclusion from premises4 ,no matter if the conclusion drawn by the animal be wrong1 the process1 however incorrect it may be1 is1 it cannot be denied1 still one of reasoning4 ,all who have possessed pet animals must be familiar with the exceeding jealousy displayed by most of them4 ,most strongly is this feeling manifested when an animal has been the only pet and another is introduced into the house4 ,where there are two or more dogs in the same family1 one is often amused at the boundless jealousy displayed toward each other while engaged in the service of the master1 although at other times they were on the most excellent terms4 ,bus is the name of a favorite dog belonging to a friend4 ,no more affectionate dog ever lived4 ,beagle was his companion4 ,when they were by themselves1 life was a round of frolics and rambles4 ,no matter how rough and exciting their plays were1 they never got cross1 but endured everything with patience and forgiveness of spirit4 ,beagle was a clever animal1 and very fond of the chase4 ,many a ground-hog would he dislodge from its burrow and fight to the death1 while ,bus would look on with wonder and admiration4 ,but let the slightest attention be shown by the master to ,beagle1 and ,bus's jealousy and anger became unbounded4 ,he would fly at his friend in the most infuriated manner1 rending him with tooth and claw1 while ,beagle would quietly slip around the corner of the house to get out of the reach of his companion's temper4 ,beagle1 being a large and powerful dog1 had in him the ability to give ,bus a very sound whipping1 but he was too noble and magnanimous a creature to take advantage of one younger and smaller than himself4 ,he would always allow ,bus to have his own way1 knowing that the passion which was lacerating the bosom of his young companion and playmate would soon spend itself1 and the latter1 ashamed and abashed1 would be soon seeking forgiveness and reconciliation4 ,even in such rarely tamed animals as the common mouse the feeling of jealousy has been known to be so intense as to lead to murder4 ,a young lady1 one of ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood's correspondents1 had succeeded in taming a common brown mouse so completely that it would eat out of her hand and suffer itself to be taken off the floor4 ,she had also a tame white mouse in a cage4 ,one morning when she went to feed the white mouse1 as was her usual custom1 she found it lying dead on the bottom of the cage1 and beside it was its murderer1 the brown mouse4 ,the cage being opened1 the latter made its escape1 as though fearful of the consequences that might ensue1 but how it had managed to gain admission was always a mystery4 ,instances are on record where the jealousy of a rival has been restrained for long years through fear1 and has ultimately broken out when the cause of the fear has been removed4 ,a case of the kind came under our notice some few years ago4 ,there were two cocks1 belonging to different breeds1 whom fate had placed as denizens of the same family4 ,one was a magnificent dunghill cock1 and the other a ,malay1 a cowardly caitiff1 that was kept in fear and subjection by the former4 ,in the course of events the dunghill cock suddenly died4 ,his rival1 coming by chance on his dead body1 and perceiving that the time had come to wreak out the mixture of hatred and revenge that had lain smouldering in his bosom for years1 instantly sprang upon it1 kicked1 spurred and trampled upon the lifeless bird1 and1 standing upon the corpse1 flapped his wings in triumph1 as it were1 and crowed himself hoarse with the most disgusting energy4 ,he immediately took possession of the harem1 but he was far from being the noble1 generous and unselfish creature that his predecessor had been4 ,again1 comparing man with beast1 it is at once apparent that the bird in this instance acted exactly as a savage does when his enemy has fallen1 for the savage not only exults over the dead body of an enemy1 especially if the latter has been very formidable in life1 but also mutilates in futile and silly revenge the form which he feared when alive4 ,tyranny1 or the oppression of the weak by the strong1 is another of the many traits of character common to man and the lower animals4 ,but whether or not that strength belongs to the body or the mind1 it is tyranny all the same4 ,taken in its most obvious form1 it not only manifests itself in many of the animals in the oppression of the weak by the strong1 but also in the killing and the eating of the same1 even though they be of the same species4 ,human cannibals act in just the same manner1 eating their enemies after they have killed them4 ,there is hardly an animal in which the milder forms of tyranny may not be found4 ,insects1 especially1 manifest it in a light manner when they drive away their fellows from some morsel of food which they desire to keep to themselves4 ,among gregarious animals1 the herd or flock is always under the command of an individual who has fought his way to the front1 and who will rule with imperious sway until he has become old and in turn has been supplanted by a younger and more vigorous rival4 ,in the poultry-yards the same form of tyranny is manifest1 one cock invariably assuming the leadership1 no matter how many may be the number of birds4 ,there is a curious analogy between these birds and human beings1 especially those of the ,east1 whether at the present day or in more ancient times4 ,many petty chieftains are found in ,eastern countries1 but there is always to be met with one among them who is more mighty than the rest1 and who holds his place by superior force1 either of intellect or military power4 ,challenged by one of the inferior chiefs and victorious1 he retains his post1 but if vanquished1 his conqueror takes his place1 his property and his wives4 ,but curious to relate1 with men as with birds1 the members of the harem seem to trouble themselves very little1 if any1 about the change of master4 ,the ,scriptures are full of allusions to the invariable custom that the conqueror takes the possession of the harem belonging to the vanquished4 ,david did so with regard to the women of ,saul's household1 and when ,nabal died1 who had defied the authority of ,david1 so the latter1 as a matter of course1 took possession of his wife1 together with the rest of his property4 ,and when ,absalom rebelled against ,david1 he publicly took possession of his father's harem1 which was a sign that he had assumed the kingdom4 ,where a number of creatures are confined in the same place1 a very curious sort of tyranny is sometimes manifested4 ,mandarin ducks1 according to ,mr4 ,bennett1 when confined to an aviary1 show a very querulous disposition at feeding-time4 ,the males of one and the same kind of a different species endeavor to grasp all the nourishment for themselves1 unmindful of the wants of others1 and will not even permit their companions to perform their ablutions without molestation1 although they may themselves have completed what they required4 ,often the mandarin ducks have been observed to excite the drakes to assail other males or females of the same species1 and other kinds of birds in the aviary1 against whom the ladies1 from some cause or other1 have taken a dislike4 ,one pair of these ducks are always to be noticed that exercise a tyranny over the others1 not allowing them to wash1 eat or drink1 unless at their pleasure and approval4 ,but1 of all tyrants1 none can be compared to a spoiled dog1 who is even worse than a spoiled child4 ,obedience is a stranger to his nature4 ,does his master want him to go out for a walk1 and he prefers to stay at home1 he stays at home1 and his master is compelled to go out without him4 ,but if he wants to go for a walk1 he makes his master go with him1 and even to take the direction he prefers4 ,duchie is the name of a ,skye terrier whose history is given in a work on the latter breed of dogs by ,dr4 ,j4 ,brown4 ,so completely had this little animal domineered over her mistress1 that the latter could not even choose her own dinner1 but was obliged to have whatever the dog preferred4 ,it is related that for a half of a winter's night she was kept out of bed1 because ,duchie had got into the middle and refused to move4 ,certainly1 no better example of tyranny could be adduced4 ,that so-called brutes possess1 in common with ourselves1 a ,conscience1 that is1 a sense of ,moral ,responsibility1 and a capability of distinguishing between right and wrong1 may seem a very strange assertion to be made1 especially to those who have never studied the ways of the lower animals4 ,animals which are placed under the rule of man1 and those1 like the dog1 which belong to his household and are made his companions more particularly1 would naturally be expected to show the strongest development of the principle4 ,conscience1 in their dealings with man1 constitutes their religion1 and they often exercise it in a way which would put many a human being to the blush4 ,this feeling it is that induces the dog to make himself the guardian of his master's property1 and often to defend that property at the risk of his life4 ,however hungry may be the dog that is placed in charge of his master's dinner1 nothing would1 as a rule1 tempt him to touch a morsel of the food1 for he would rather die of starvation than eat the food which belongs to his master4 ,often have we seen field-laborers at work at one end of a large field1 while their coats and their dinner were at the other end1 guarded by a dog4 ,not the least uneasiness did they seem to manifest about the safety of their property1 for well they knew that the faithful animal would never allow any one to touch either the clothes or the provisions4 ,there could hardly be a stronger instance of moral responsibility than the one which ,i shall now relate1 which is substantially the same as appears in ,wood's 8,man and ,beasts ,here and ,hereafter40 ,living in an unprotected part of ,scotland was a poor woman1 who unexpectedly became possessed of a large sum of money4 ,she would have taken it to the bank1 could she have left the house1 but lack of bodily health prevented her from so doing4 ,at last she asked the advice of a butcher of her acquaintance1 telling him that she was afraid to live in the house with so much money about her4 8,never fear10 said the butcher1 8,i will leave my dog with you1 and ,i'll warrant you that no one will dare to enter your house40 ,towards the close of the day the dog was brought1 and chained up close to the place where the money was deposited4 ,that very night a robber made his way into the house and was proceeding to carry off the money1 when he was seized by the dog1 who held him a prisoner until assistance arrived4 ,the thief turned out to be the butcher himself1 who thought he had made sure of the money1 but he had not considered that his dog was a better moralist than himself1 for who would1 rather than betray a defenceless woman1 take her part against his own master4 ,kindly pardoned by the woman1 the intending robber made his way home1 and it is to be hoped that for the future he learned a lesson from his own dog and amended the evil of his ways4 ,not only does the dog guard the property which is intrusted to its charge1 but frequently goes a little further and assumes a charge on its own account4 ,when the writer was a boy living in the country1 where much of the spring and summer of the year was spent in working upon a farm1 he became on very excellent terms with a little bull-terrier1 named ,tip1 that belonged to a certain farmer by whom he was employed4 ,upon my first introduction to ,tip1 ,i felt a sort of aversion towards him4 ,this grew out of the mysterious actions of the animal4 ,he was always around when ,i was busy at work and seemed to be eying me in a suspicious sort of manner1 which at times made me feel very unpleasant4 ,after the lapse of a few days ,i discovered that ,i was not so closely watched as before1 and that ,i was treated by him as he was accustomed to treat the other members of the family4 ,upon inquiry ,i learned that he always acted in this way toward people whom he did not know intimately1 and that1 after a time1 he had confidence in their honesty and left them alone4 ,while in many instances ,tip was entirely wrong in his surmises1 yet cases are recalled where the dog was right and acted in a manner that would have been creditable to a human being4 ,one of the men employed upon the place1 presuming upon the friendship of the dog1 sought to carry away under cover of darkness something belonging to the farmer1 but he was immediately beset by the animal1 who was an eye-witness of the proceeding1 and compelled to desist from the intended theft4 ,from that time the man was under the closest surveillance by the dog4 ,unable to effect a reconciliation1 and chafing under the look of suspicion with which he was always greeted1 the man soon took his departure1 much to the delight and satisfaction of the faithful canine1 and was never afterwards seen4 ,quite a common form of conscience among the lower animals is that which may be defined as a recognition of having done wrong1 and acknowledgment that punishment is deserved4 ,animals have in their way very pronounced ideas as to right and wrong4 ,when they have committed an act which they know will offend their master1 they display as keen a conscience as any human being self-convicted of sin could exhibit4 ,in many instances1 the offence in not merely acknowledged1 but the creature remains miserable until forgiveness has been granted4 ,this condition of mind1 if manifested by man1 is called ,penitence1 and1 assuredly1 it cannot be known by any other name when manifested by animals that are lower down in the scale of life4 ,my little dog ,frisky1 about whom mention has already been made1 affords a very fine illustration of this phase of conscience4 ,whenever he did wrong1 the severest punishment that could be meted out to him was to ignore his presence and decline his offered paw4 ,for hours the poor fellow would moan and cry1 and even refuse food1 when he thought ,i was angry with him4 ,but a word or a look of forgiveness was sufficient to change his sadness into joy4 ,a shaking of hands1 so to speak1 would then follow1 and master and dog would be good friends again4 ,no love could be more intense than his1 and this was especially shown when ,i would return from a short absence1 when the little fellow would almost overwhelm me by his affectionate caresses4 ,no loftier characteristic adorns humanity than ,love4 ,but how far it is shared by the lower animals it is now our purpose to inquire4 ,that there are many phases of development cannot be doubted4 ,sympathy1 or that capacity of feeling for the sufferings of another1 is the first phase4 ,many1 and perhaps all1 living creatures possess the capacity of sympathy4 ,in the majority of cases it is not restricted to their own species1 but is extended to those beings which appear to have very little in common with each other4 ,ordinarily1 however1 it is exhibited between animals of the same species1 and it is often seen in the dog1 as1 for example1 where a dog1 having been cured of an injury1 has been observed to take a fellow-sufferer to his benefactor4 ,such sympathy1 it need hardly be remarked1 could not be carried out unless the animals possessed a language adequately defined to enable them to transmit ideas from one to the other4 ,cats are often kind to each other1 sympathizing under difficulties1 and helping their friends who require assistance4 ,a cat1 belonging to a friend1 has been known1 when oppressed with the cares of a family1 to employ a half-grown kitten to take charge of the young while she went for a ramble4 ,between the cat and the dog an enmity exists that is hereditary1 and yet1 when in good hands1 they are sure to become very loving friends1 and even to show considerable sympathy towards each other4 ,such an exhibition of good feeling was observed by the writer a few years ago4 ,the dog1 a large black ,newfoundland1 had contracted a warm and devoted friendship for a gray cat that was an inmate of the same family4 ,when the cat was assailed by one of her kind1 or by a strange dog1 the ,newfoundland would pick her up in his mouth and carry her to the house out of reach of danger1 the cat maintaining all the while the most perfect serenity of composure1 knowing that she was in the care of one who meant her no ill4 ,when the same cat would become sick1 the ,newfoundland would lie down by her side1 caress her with his tongue1 and show in every way possible that he was sorry that she was sick4 ,many examples are recorded of birds feeling sympathy with the lost or deserted young of other species1 and that have taken upon themselves the task of feeding the starving children4 ,a pair of robins had constructed a nest near to the writer's home in the country1 where in due season a family of four children was raised4 ,disaster soon came to the little ones1 for both parents were slain by some wicked boys of the neighborhood4 ,there dwelt in the same locality a pair of bluebirds1 but between the two families there had never been apparent the least interchange of friendship4 ,each family kept to itself1 and attended to its own business4 ,but when the cry of the young robins in their piteous demands for food rent the air1 the bluebirds came over to their home to discover what the trouble was4 ,they were not slow to perceive the sad state of things4 ,their sympathies were at once aroused1 and their energies soon bent in the direction of relieving the sufferings of the little orphaned robins4 ,for the next two weeks they had all they could do in providing meat for their own and the robins' young4 ,illustration3 ,,four ,,orphaned ,,robins4 ,kind-,hearted ,bluebirds ,assuming the ,role of ,parents4 ,while capable of showing sympathy for near as well as distant kin1 the lower animals have also the capacity to sympathize with human beings in distress4 ,cats occasionally manifest a sympathy for suffering humanity4 ,as for sympathy displayed by dogs1 there is no need to cite examples4 ,no human being1 ,i am safe in saying1 was ever free from troubles of some kind1 and ,i am equally sure that no one who had a companionable dog felt that he was without sympathy4 ,full well does the dog know when his master is suffering pain or sorrow1 and his nose pushed into his master's hand1 or laid affectionately upon his knee1 is a sign of sympathy worth possessing1 even though it exists only in the heart of a dog4 ,from that moment there has been established a bond between the soul of the master and the dog1 and certainly no one can believe that the bond can ever be severed by the death of the material body1 whether of the man or the animal4 ,that ,friendship1 which is another branch of love1 exists among animals1 is a well-known fact4 ,but it is among the domesticated animals that it most frequently exhibits itself4 ,horses1 as every one knows1 which have been accustomed to draw the same carriage are usually sure to be great friends1 and if one be exchanged the other becomes quite miserable for want of his companion and seems unable to throw any spirit into his work4 ,dogs1 too1 are very apt to strike up friendships with each other4 ,among animals it is not confined to one species1 but is occasionally found to exhibit itself in those which might be supposed to be peculiarly incongruous in their nature4 ,that cows and sheep live1 as a rule1 on good terms with each other in the same pasture is a familiar experience1 though sometimes the former are a little prone to domineer over the latter4 ,but a very strong affection sometimes exists between animals so different1 and when once they have accustomed themselves to each other's society neither can be happy without the other4 ,the goat and the horse frequently become friends1 and a peculiarly vicious horse has been known to allow a goat to take undue liberties with him without the least manifestation of resentment4 ,in many places the stable-cat is quite an institution4 ,its usual place of repose is upon the back of the horse1 and the latter has been known to grow very uneasy if left for any length of time without the companionship of his little friend4 ,a very singular instance of friendship occurred at the rural home of a near relative4 ,he had a fine mastiff which had taken a fancy to a brood of young chickens1 and which acted as their protector4 ,they were not at all unwilling to accept him in this capacity1 as they followed him about just as though he had been their mother4 ,quite an interesting sight it was to watch the dog and the chickens as they would take their siesta4 ,the dog used to lie on his side1 and the chickens would nestle all about him1 though one chicken in particular would invariably scramble upon the dog's head1 and another just over his eye1 but both parties appeared equally satisfied with this remarkable arrangement4 ,already have we referred to the intense yearning which is felt by many of the lower animals for human society4 ,this yearning is indeed but the aspiration of the lower spirit developed by contact with the higher in domesticated animals or those which are in perpetual contact with man4 ,this feeling is a matter of no great surprise4 ,but that it should be exhibited in feral animals and birds1 and even in insects1 is a fact well worth considering1 as it furnishes a clew to some of the many problems of life which are as yet unsolved4 ,that power of attraction exercised by the spirit of man upon that of the lower creation is well exemplified in many wild animals1 who are known to forsake the society of their own kind for the companionship of the being whom they feel to be higher than themselves4 ,perhaps one of the wariest of wild animals is the squirrel4 ,he is horribly afraid of human beings1 and if a man1 woman or child come to the windward of him1 the little animal is sure to scamper off at his fleetest pace1 scuttle up the nearest tree1 and conceal himself behind some branch4 ,yet1 wild as he may be1 he is peculiarly susceptible to the influence of the human spirit1 and for the sake of human society will utterly abandon that of his own kind4 ,i once knew a pet gray squirrel by the name of ,charley4 ,he had been taken from the nest when very young4 ,his home for awhile was one of those whirl-about cages4 ,charley did not like his cage1 but preferred to be outside in the unrestrained enjoyment of the dictates of his own free will4 ,so it was difficult to keep him behind the bars4 ,when awake he loved to follow his own devices2 but when tired he usually slept on a soft cushion on the sofa1 or found his way into some bed-room where he would nestle under a pillow4 ,nothing was more to his satisfaction and pleasure than a share of the bed of his mistress1 but he was always a troublesome nest-fellow4 ,charley had1 as must be obvious1 perfect freedom4 ,he was allowed to go as he pleased4 ,there was no coercion in his case4 ,had he wished to escape1 there was nothing to prevent1 and nothing bound him to his mistress but an 8ever-lengthening chain0 of love and aspirations which none but a human being could satisfy4 ,the sparrow1 one of the most independent and self-reliant of birds1 has been known to abandon its kind for the sake of human beings4 ,wood cites a case of a bird of this species that had been rescued from some boys who had been robbing the nest4 ,the bird was brought home1 but was never confined in a cage1 but was permitted to fly freely about the house4 ,as there was a cat about the house1 she had to be closely watched lest she might do the bird some injury4 ,on ,sundays1 when the family went to church and no one remained to keep an eye on the cat1 the sparrow was turned into the garden1 where it flew about until the family's return4 ,the opening of the dining-room window by its mistress1 and the display of her ungloved hands1 was the signal for its entry4 ,but if the mistress stood by the window with her gloves on1 then the bird showed not the slightest disposition to enter4 ,such is the intensity of the love which the lower animals sometimes entertain toward man that they have been known to grieve themselves to death on account of his loss4 ,a dog by the name of ,prince1 who lived in the family where the writer spent a few weeks of a summer1 is a case in point4 ,he had a good master1 and one to whom he was strongly attached4 ,the year before the master sickened and died1 and ,prince felt the loss so keenly that he refused to take any food1 and even to notice the surviving members of the family4 ,he was pitiable to behold4 ,life had lost all attractions to him1 and he showed that he was slowly but surely grieving his life away4 ,some few weeks after the writer's departure1 the poor animal breathed his last1 and his spirit1 it is to be hoped1 went to join that of his master1 while his ashes became mingled with the dust of the earth as his master's had been4 ,what a wonderful power do some animals have of returning to their beloved master1 even though they have been conveyed to a considerable distance4 ,this is especially true of the dog4 ,so many examples of such feats are on record that ,i refrain from mentioning them1 but will give but a single example4 ,rover1 a pet greyhound that belonged to the writer1 had become such an annoyance to the neighborhood where he lived1 that the master determined to provide him a home in the country some fifty miles away4 ,he was conveyed to his destination in a covered wagon1 and after his new master had reached home1 the poor animal was placed in a stable for several days1 where he was daily visited and fed1 and every effort possible made to attach him to the place and family4 ,on the fourth day of his arrival he was given his freedom4 ,with a long1 loud wail he saluted the neighborhood1 and the next moment was off at full speed across the country1 all efforts to stop him being unavailing4 ,in less than a week from his leaving he was at home again1 hungry and jaded out with fatigue and travel1 but not too tired nor too hungry to express the great joy he felt for the old master4 ,how he ever accomplished the journey1 and what vicissitudes and difficulties he encountered on the way1 no one will ever know4 ,after this ,i had not the heart to send him away again1 but put up with his capers and tricks as best ,i could1 and when complaints were preferred against him endeavored to excuse them as a parent is prone to do in the case of a spoiled and wayward child4 ,but a day arrived when ,rover to me was no more4 ,what had become of him ,i was never able to discover1 but ,i always blamed a near-by neighbor1 a man who had neither love nor charity in his soul1 for his sudden disappearance4 ,that cats are selfish animals1 attaching themselves to localities and not to individuals1 ,i do not believe4 ,this idea has1 perhaps1 some ground of truth1 for the nature of a cat is not so easy to understand as that of a dog4 ,but when a cat is not understood1 it is very probable that she cares less for the inhabitants of the house than for the house itself4 ,frequent instances are known by the writer where cats have been in the habit of moving about with their owners1 and have been as much unconcerned as dogs would have been4 ,true they have1 like women1 a curious and prying disposition4 ,i have seen them in new and strange quarters go sniffing about every room of a house1 and at last settle down in some cozy1 comfortable place1 well satisfied with their tour of investigation4 ,where the house fell short of their expectations1 if they have been cats that have received due consideration from their mistresses or masters1 they have tried to live down their objections and to learn to be happy and contented with their lot4 ,only cats that have not been much thought of are inclined to show their disapproval to changes of residence which they deemed unsuitable by refusing to stay with their masters4 ,blackie1 a favorite cat of ours1 never seemed to care where her home was1 so long as her friends were there to pet1 caress and pamper her with choice dainties4 ,all animals1 so far as can be learned1 have not only a capacity for the society of man1 but an absolute yearning for it4 ,this feeling may be in abeyance1 from not having received any development at the hands of man1 but it nevertheless exists1 and only awaits to be educed by some one capable of appreciating the character of the animal4 ,tigers1 as is well known1 are not generally considered the friends of mankind1 and yet the ,indian fakirs will travel over the country with tame tigers1 which they simply lead about with a slight string1 and which will permit small children to caress them with their hands without evincing the least disposition to hurt them4 ,when we survey the examples of love displayed by animals towards human beings1 which we have just detailed1 and recall the hundreds that we know and have read about1 is it possible to believe that such love can perish8 ,we apprehend not4 ,unselfish love as this1 which survives ingratitude and ill-treatment1 belongs to the spirit and not to the body1 and all beings capable of feeling such love must possess immortal spirits4 ,all may not have an opportunity of manifesting it1 but all possess the capacity and would1 were the conditions favorable1 manifest it openly4 ,few animals1 as may easily be imagined1 manifest ,conjugal ,love4 ,most species have no particular mates1 but merely meet by chance1 and seemingly never trouble themselves about each other again4 ,no real conjugal love1 therefore1 can exist1 and it is rather curious that in such animals a durable friendship is frequently formed between two individuals of the same sex4 ,but when we come to polygamous animals1 such as the stag among mammals and the domestic poultry among birds1 we meet with a decided advance towards conjugal love1 although as in the case of polygamous man1 that love must necessarily be of an inferior character4 ,there is seen1 at all events1 a sense of appropriation on either side4 ,take the example of the barn-yard fowl1 as has already been mentioned in that part of the chapter which deals with jealousy1 where it is shown that the proprietor of the harem resents any attempt on the part of another male to infringe on his privileges4 ,this brings us to the consideration of birds1 where the many are mated for the nesting-season1 but subsequently do not seem to care more for each other than they do for their broods of children4 ,if one of the pair be killed at the nesting-time the survivor1 after a brief lamentation1 consoles itself in a few hours or days with another partner1 for there really appears to be a supply of spare partners of both sexes always at hand4 ,and now we come to those creatures which are mated for life1 and often we find among them a conjugal love as strong and as sincere as among monogamous mankind4 ,prominent among them are the eagle1 the raven and the dove4 ,and while we praise the turtle-dove for its conjugal fidelity1 and credit it with the possession of all that is sweet1 and good1 and gentle1 how remarkable is it that we forget to accredit with the same virtue the eagle and the raven1 that are the types of all that is violent1 and dark1 and cunning4 ,there are many examples in existence of the conjugal love among such birds1 but they are so well known that reference to them is unnecessary4 ,the case of the mandarin duck1 already narrated1 affords a strong instance of conjugal love wherein the lady was faithful and the husband avenged himself on the destruction of his domestic peace4 ,illustration3 ,,mated ,,for ,,life4 ,conjugal ,fidelity ,shown by a ,pair of ,doves4 ,so numerous as are the instances of love shown by parents among the lower animals towards their offspring1 yet it is a very singular fact that few1 if any1 trustworthy accounts of ,filial ,love1 or the love of children toward their parents1 are to be found4 ,but we must look to man if we would understand the lower animals4 ,even human nature must attain a high state of development before filial love can find any place in the affections4 ,in savages it barely exists at all1 and certainly does not survive into mature years4 ,it is the glory of the ,north ,american ,indian boy1 at as early an age as possible1 to despise his mother and defy his father4 ,and the women are just as bad as the men4 ,rejoicing in the pride of youth and strength1 they utterly despise the elder and feeble women1 even though they be their own mothers1 and will tear from their hands the food they are about to eat1 on the plea that old women are of no use1 and that the food would be much better employed in giving nourishment to the young and strong4 ,the ,fijians have not the least scruple in burying a father alive when he becomes infirm1 and assist in strangling a mother that she may keep him company in the land of spirits4 ,both the ,bosjesmen of ,south ,africa and the ,australian seem to have not the least idea that any duty is owing to a parent from a child1 nor have they much notion of duty from a parent toward the child4 ,if the father be angry with any one for any reason1 he has a way of relieving his feelings by driving his spear through the body of his wife or child1 whichever one of the two happens to be the nearer4 ,even the mother treats her child with less consideration than a cow does her calf1 and leaves the little creature to shift for itself at an age when the children of civilized parents are hardly thought fit to be left alone for a few minutes4 ,this being the case with parental love1 it may be readily imagined that filial affection can have not the slightest chance for development1 and it is very much to be questioned whether in the savage it can really be said to exist at all in the sense understood by enlightened peoples4 ,therefore1 as in the lower human races1 we find that filial love either is very trifling1 or is absolutely non-existent1 need we wonder that in the lower animals such few1 if any1 indications of its presence should be found8 ,now1 as to the subject of ,parental ,love1 and the various ways in which it manifests itself4 ,there are many writers who claim that parental love in the lower animals is not identical with that of man4 ,they affirm that it is only a blind instinct1 and1 in order to mark more strongly the distinction between man and beast1 call the parental love of the latter by the name of storg4 ,speaking for myself1 ,i must declare that ,i am unable to perceive any distinction between the two1 save that in civilized man the parental love is better regulated than among the lower animals4 ,but1 as has been seen1 it is not regulated at all among the uncivilized races1 and1 in truth1 many of the beasts are far better parents than most savages4 ,nor can ,i understand why the word storg should be applied to parental love among the lower animals and not to the same feeling in man4 ,among ,greek writers the word1 together with the verb from which it is derived1 is applied to the love between human parents and children4 ,it is so applied by ,plato1 and in the same sense by ,sophocles and others4 ,one argument adduced by those who deny the identity of the feeling in both cases is that parental love endures throughout life in man1 while it expires with the adolescence of the young in the lower animals4 ,this is doubtless true1 as a rule1 with civilized man1 but in the case of the savage1 as has previously been shown1 it does not last longer than that of a bird1 a cat or a dog1 taking into consideration the relative duration of life4 ,and the reason is identical in both cases4 ,were this love to exist through life in the savage1 the beast or the bird1 the race would become extinct1 for neither race is able to support its children longer than their time of helplessness4 ,the beast and the bird cannot1 and the savage will not1 provide for the future4 ,it is therefore evident that if the young had to depend upon their parents for subsistence1 they would soon perish from lack of food4 ,exceptions there are to this general rule1 and always1 as far as can be determined1 in the case of domesticated animals whose means of subsistence are already insured4 ,several of such cases have come to my notice4 ,i shall instance but one4 ,a friend of mine has two terriers1 a mother and a daughter4 ,the strongest bond of love and fellowship unites them4 ,they always sit close together1 and the mother playfully pinches her daughter all over4 ,should they by chance become separated1 even for a very short time1 the daughter comes up wagging her tail1 and then licks her mother's nose and mouth4 ,when hunting together1 they always act in concert1 each one taking a hole1 and one keeping watch while the other scrapes away the earth4 ,the meaning of each other's whine or bark is perfectly understood1 and no two persons could understand their own language better than do these dogs theirs1 nor be more comprehensible to each other4 ,self-abnegation is perhaps one of the most beautiful characteristics which parental love can give4 ,this is particularly shown when the young are in danger4 ,a human mother in charge of her child will defy a danger before which she would shrink if alone1 and in its defence would dare deeds of which most strong men would be incapable1 for during the time her selfhood is extinguished1 and her being is sunk into that of her child4 ,such abnegation becomes a true mother1 for if she would not consent to do and dare for the sake of her offspring1 she would degrade herself below the beasts and the birds1 who hesitate not in performing that duty to their children1 though savants do declare that they possess only storg1 whatever they may mean by it1 and not parental love4 ,illustration3 ,,evidence ,,of ,,conjugal ,,affection4 ,male ,humming-,bird ,feeding ,his ,partner1 and ,ready to ,act in ,her ,defence4 ,everyone who has paid even a passing attention to the habits of birds must have noticed the vigilance a pair of catbirds exercise over their nest when containing young birds4 ,neither parent1 when the other is absent1 relaxes this vigilance1 for they consider no labor1 no care1 no watchfulness1 too great or too exacting where their offspring are to be benefited4 ,let an enemy approach1 even if it be man himself1 and they are beside themselves with anger and resentment1 flying into the very face of the audacious intruder1 as though they would pluck his eyes out as a just punishment for his presumption and temerity4 ,i have seen the nest of a catbird attacked by a black snake1 and crushed within the folds of the hideous serpent the father-bird1 but the disaster did not cause the mother-bird to desist from the attack1 for1 utterly oblivious of all else but her offspring and the snake1 she fought on until the latter was forced to glide away into the bushes to escape her infuriated assaults4 ,but no species of bird is more courageous in defence of its nest than the little ruby-throated humming-bird4 ,it is really dangerous to visit the nest when with eggs or young4 ,i would as soon attempt to assail the dome-shaped nest of our common hornet as that of this humming-bird4 ,it is as much as one can do to protect his eyes from the lightning-like attacks of these birds1 so swiftly and so unerringly do they direct their blows at these points4 ,so great is the affection and solicitude of the red-eyed vireo for her young1 that she will scarcely leave the nest when the hand is stretched out a few inches over the mouth of the structure4 ,and then when she does leave1 it is not in a hurried1 precipitate manner1 but with a quiet1 deliberate movement that excites one's admiration and makes one vow never to abuse such simple1 childlike confidence4 ,i have even placed my hand upon the sitting-bird without disturbing the current of her brooding thoughts1 or the peaceful serenity of her soul4 ,a rough dash at the nest tends to frighten her away instanter1 but when the hand is reached out to it slowly and silently the bird seems to act as though it had nothing to fear1 and remains calm and self-possessed4 ,who is not familiar with the proverbial skill of the ,carolina dove in feigning lameness when her nest is being approached8 ,without a cry1 and with scarcely a rustle of her feathers1 she slips out of her nest upon the ground1 and by a series of manuvres1 as if desperately wounded1 grovels along on her belly in the dust till she has led her enemy a long journey from the site of the nest1 when she will take to wing and fly away into a coppice or a clump of brushwood4 ,that birds should manifest a love for the young which they hatch has always seemed a strange problem to me4 ,i can see how that1 in the case of a mammal1 the mother should feel a love for the creature who is absolutely a part of herself--whose very life-blood is drawn from her veins4 ,but this is not necessarily the case with birds4 ,if1 as often happens with poultry1 the eggs of several hens are placed under one bird for hatching1 the hen that hatches them knows no difference between the chickens that come from her own eggs and those which proceed from eggs laid by others4 ,even where the eggs belong to birds of different species1 as to the common ,muscovy-duck for example1 the hen displays as much affection for the young ducklings1 despite the disparity of instinct and habit1 as she does had they proceeded from her own eggs4 ,may it not be that parental love has different channels of transmission1 and that in such a case as this the emanation from the sitting-hen may be the vehicle of parental love toward the young which are to be hatched8 ,certain it is that a sitting-hen1 as many of us have observed1 is altogether a changed being1 both in attitude and expression4 ,she is entirely absorbed in the eggs when she is incubating1 and1 though she may not have the intellect to distinguish a mere lump of chalk from one of her own eggs1 yet love is altogether independent of intellect1 and may exist in all its vigor1 and yet may be wasted on an unworthy object4 ,fishes1 as is generally known1 are not particularly emotional beings1 and are not likely to entertain a lasting love for anything4 ,indeed1 in some instances1 parental love would be absolutely useless1 as in the case of the cod-fish1 which could be hardly expected to entertain a special love for each of the countless thousands of young it produces every year4 ,the life of the mother would be an unenviable one1 if her lot were to look after her young as soon as they are hatched1 especially when the varied foes that beset her eggs as soon as they are produced1 are considered4 ,just as there are fishes that possess conjugal love1 so there are fishes that possess parental love1 and prominent among these are the sticklebacks4 ,but in the case of these fishes the most curious part is that parental love is shown by the father1 and not by the mother1 the latter having nothing to do but to lay the eggs1 and leaving to the former the exclusive labor of providing for the young4 ,illustration3 ,copyright #aijj by ,a4 ,r4 ,,dugmore4 ,,wood-,,thrush ,,setting4 ,enough of instances of true parental love among the lower animals could be given to fill this entire book1 but a sufficient number have been adduced to show that the feeling is the same in man as in them1 although1 of course1 the mode of manifesting it is different4 ,we have shown the fallacy of the theory that parental love is life-enduring in man and very brief among the animals1 and have seen that1 in proportion to the duration of life1 it is quite as brief among the savages as among the animals4 ,and1 again1 we have seen where it has been lost and then restored1 and also where it was never lost2 where in animals1 as in man1 it has caused complete abnegation of self1 the parents living for their children1 and not for themselves1 and where it has given strength to the weak and courage to the timid4 ,even the very fishes have been shown to be amenable to the same influences as man1 and could we have carried our illustrations still lower down the scale we would have found the same influences existing among much humbler forms of animal existences4 ,in conclusion1 there is no resisting the fact that parental love1 one of the highest and holiest feelings of which a loving and immortal soul can be capable1 is shared equally by man and beast1 according to their respective capacities4 ,,life ,,progressive4 ,no one can doubt that the earth's crust1 so far as it has been deciphered by man1 presents us with a record1 imperfect though it be1 of the past4 ,whether1 however1 the known and admitted imperfections of its records1 geological and palontological1 are sufficiently trustworthy to account satisfactorily for the lack of direct evidence recognizable in some modern hypotheses1 may be a matter of individual opinion1 but there can be little doubt that they are sufficiently extensive to throw the balance of evidence decisively in favor of some theory of continuity1 as opposed to any theory of intermittent and occasional action1 which some writers have strenuously and intelligently advocated4 ,no marks of mighty and general convulsions of nature exist1 as the seeming breaks which divide the grand series of stratified rocks into numerous isolated formations would indicate4 ,they are simply indications of the imperfection of our knowledge4 ,science will never1 in all probability1 point to a complete series of deposits1 or to a complete succession of life1 which shall link one geological period to another4 ,but that such deposits and such an unbroken succession must have existed at one time we may well feel sure1 and stand ready to believe that nowhere in the long series of fossiliferous rocks has there been a total break1 but that there has inevitably been a complete continuity of life1 as well as a more or less complete continuity of sedimentation from the ,laurentian period to the present day4 ,one generation1 speaking figuratively1 hands on the lamp of life to the next1 and each system of rocks is the direct offspring of its predecessor in time4 ,though it is apparent that there has not been continuity in any given area1 still the geological chain could not have been snapped at one point and taken up again at a totally different one4 ,hence we arrive at the conviction that in geology1 as in other sciences1 continuity is the fundamental law1 and that the lines of demarcation between the great formations are but gaps in our own knowledge4 ,through the study of fossils1 as is well known1 geologists have been led to the all-important generalization that the vast series of fossiliferous or sedimentary rocks may be separated into a number of definite groups or formations1 each of which being characterized by its own organic remains1 but not properly and strictly1 it must be understood1 by the occurrence therein of any one particular fossil4 ,however1 a formation may contain some particular fossil or fossils not occurring outside of that formation1 thus enabling an observer to identify a given group with tolerable certainty2 or1 as very often happens1 some particular stratum or subgroup of a series1 may contain peculiar fossils1 whereby its existence may be determined with considerable readiness in divers localities4 ,each great formation1 let it be said1 is properly characterized by the association of certain fossils1 the predominance of certain families or orders1 or by an assemblage of fossil remains that represent the life of the period during which the formation was deposited4 ,fossils1 then1 not only enable us to determine the age of the deposits in which they are found1 but they also further enable us to arrive at some very important conclusions respecting the manner in which the fossiliferous bed was deposited1 and1 consequently1 to the condition of the particular region occupied by the bed at the period of its formation4 ,beds that contain the remains of animals1 such as now inhabit rivers1 we know to be fluviatile in their origin1 and that at one time they must have either constituted actual river-beds1 or been deposited by the overflowing of ancient streams4 ,but if the beds contain the remains of mollusks1 minute crustaceans or fish1 such as are found to-day in lakes1 then we conclude that they are lacustrine1 and were deposited beneath the waters of former lakes4 ,and1 lastly1 if the remains of animals such as now people the oceans are to be met with in the beds1 then we know that they are marine in origin1 and that they are fragments of an old sea-bottom4 ,on the whole1 the conditions under which a bed was deposited1 whether in a shallow sea1 in the immediate vicinity of a coast-line1 or in deep water1 can often be determined with considerable accuracy from the nature of the relics of the organisms which they contain4 ,but we have thus far been dealing with the remains of aquatic animals4 ,when1 however1 we consider the remains of aerial and terrestrial animals1 or of plants1 the determination of the conditions of deposition is not made out with such an absolute certainty4 ,remains of land-animals would1 of course1 occur in sub-aerial deposits1 that is1 in beds1 like blown sand1 accumulated upon the land1 but the most of such remains of such animals are found in deposits which have been laid down in water1 and hence their present position is due to the fact that their former owners were either drowned in rivers or lakes1 or borne out to sea by water-channels4 ,animals possessed of the power of flight might also similarly find their way into aqueous deposits1 but1 when it is remembered that many birds and mammals habitually spent a great part of their time in the water1 it is not to be wondered at that they should present themselves as fossils in sedimentary rocks4 ,even plants1 such as have undoubtedly grown upon land1 do not prove that the bed in which they are found was formed on land1 for many of their remains are extraneous to the bed in which they now occur1 having reached their present site by falling into lakes or rivers1 or by being carried out to sea by floods or gales of winds4 ,still1 there are many cases which obviously show that plants have grown on the very spot where we now find them4 ,the great coal-fields of the ,carboniferous ,age1 it is now generally conceded1 are the result of the growth in situ of the plants which compose coal1 as well as that they grew on vast marshy or partially submerged tracts of level alluvial land4 ,while fossils enable us in many cases to arrive at important conclusions as to the climate of the period in which they lived1 yet it is only in the case of marine fossils1 which constitute the majority of such remains1 that we acquire such knowledge1 but it is mostly the temperature of the sea which can thus be determined4 ,however1 let it be remembered that1 owing to the existence of heated currents1 the marine climate of a designated area does not necessarily imply a correspondingly warm climate in the adjoining land1 for land-climates can only be determined by the relics of land-animals or land-plants1 and these are comparatively rare as fossils4 ,but all conclusions on this head are really based upon the existing distribution of vegetable and animal life upon the globe1 and are therefore liable to be vitiated by the considerations that no certainty exists that the habits and requirements of an extinct animal were exactly similar to those of its nearest living relative2 that far back in time groups of organisms1 so unlike anything we know at the present day1 are met with1 which render all conjectures of climate based upon their supposed habits more or less uncertain and unsafe2 that in the case of marine animals we are as yet very far from knowing the precise limits of distribution of many species within our present seas as to render conclusions drawn from living forms in relation to extinct species unsatisfactory and1 probably1 incorrect2 and1 finally1 that the distribution of animals to-day1 is certainly dependent on other conditions than climate alone1 the causes limiting the range of given animals being assuredly such as belong to the existing order of things1 and are different from what they were in former times1 not necessarily because the climate has changed1 but because of the alteration of other conditions that are essential to the life of the species or conducive to its extension4 ,but notwithstanding the difficulties in the way1 we are able in many cases to deduce completely trustworthy conclusions concerning the climate of a given geological period by an examination of its fossil remains4 ,in ,eocene times1 or at the beginning of the ,tertiary ,period1 the climate of what is now ,western ,europe was of a tropical or sub-tropical character1 the ,eocene beds being found to contain the remains of cowries and volutes1 such shells as now inhabit tropical seas1 together with the fruits of palms and remains of other tropical plants4 ,and further1 it has been shown that in ,miocene times1 or about the middle of the same epoch1 the central parts of ,europe were peopled with a luxuriant flora resembling that of the warmer parts of the ,united ,states1 and that ,greenland1 now buried for the most part beneath a vast ice-shroud1 was warm enough to support a large number of trees1 shrubs and other plants that are at present denizens of the temperate regions of the globe4 ,and lastly1 from the study of fossils1 geologists first learned to comprehend a fact1 that is1 that the crust of the earth is liable to local elevations and subsidences1 which may be regarded as of cardinal importance in all modern geological theories and speculations4 ,long after the remains of shells and those of other marine animals were first observed in the solid rocks constituting the dry land1 and at great elevations above the sea-level1 attempts were made to explain this unintelligible phenomenon upon the hypothesis that these remains or fossils were mere lusus natur1 due to some 8plastic virtue latent in the earth40 ,but the common-sense of science soon rejected this idea1 and it was universally agreed that these bodies were really the relics of animals that once lived in the sea4 ,when once this was admitted1 further steps in the right way of thinking became comparatively easy1 and at the present day no geological doctrine stands on a surer foundation than that which teaches that our existing continents and islands1 fixed and immovable as they appear1 have been repeatedly sunk beneath the ocean and just as repeatedly been lifted above its waters4 ,not only have fossils an important bearing upon geology and physiography as has been seen1 but they have relations1 most complicated and weighty in character1 with the science of biology1 or the study of living beings4 ,no adequate understanding of zology and botany is possible without some acquaintance with the types of plants and animals that have passed away1 for there are numerous speculative problems in the domain of vital science1 which1 if soluble at all1 can only hope to find their key in researches carried out on extinct organisms4 ,no attempt will be made by the writer to discuss fully the biological relations of fossils4 ,such an undertaking would afford matter for a separate volume4 ,all that ,i purpose in this chapter is to indicate very cursorily the principal points of palontological teaching1 so that my readers can acquire some idea of the progression from lower to higher types that life has made throughout the geological ages4 ,preliminary to the purpose held in view1 let it be understood that the vast majority of fossil animals and plants are extinct1 or1 differently and perhaps more intelligently expressed1 belong to species that no longer exist4 ,so far from there being any truth in the old idea that there have been periodic destructions of all the living beings in existence upon the earth1 followed by a corresponding number of new creations of plants and animals1 the actual facts indicate that the extinction of old and introduction of new forms have been processes that have been continually going on throughout the whole of geologic time4 ,every species seems to come into existence at a definite point of time1 and to disappear finally at another definite period1 though there are few1 if any1 instances1 in which the times of entrance and exit could be fixed with any degree of certainty or precision4 ,marked differences in the actual time during which different species have remained in existence are noticeable1 and therefore corresponding differences in their vertical range1 or in the actual amount and thickness of strata through which they present themselves as fossils1 some species being found to extend through two or three formations1 and even a few have had a more prolonged existence4 ,more commonly1 however1 the species which begin in the commencement of a great formation die out at or before its close1 while those which are introduced for the first time near its middle or end may either become extinct or pass into the next succeeding formation1 animals of the lowest and simplest organization as a rule having the longest range in time4 ,microscopic or minute dimensions seem to favor longevity1 for some of the ,foraminifera appear to have survived1 with little or no perceptible alteration1 from the ,silurian ,period to the present day1 whereas largely and highly-organized animals1 though long-lived as individuals1 rarely seem to live long specifically1 and consequently have a restricted vertical range4 ,exceptions to this rule are1 however1 occasionally found in some persistent types1 the ,lampshells of the genus ,lingula being little changed from the ,lingul that swarmed in the ,lower ,silurian seas1 while the existing ,pearly ,nautilus is the last descendant of a clan nearly as old4 ,some forms1 on the other hand1 the ,ammonites1 which are closely related to the ,nautilus1 and mostly restricted to certain zones of strata1 seem to have enjoyed a comparatively brief lease of life4 ,illustration3 ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,primordial ,,sea4 ,representing ,mollusks1 ,sponges1 ,crustaceans1 ,worms and ,sea-,weeds4 ,but of the causes that have led to the extinction of plants and animals1 little or nothing is known4 ,all that can be affirmed1 in our present knowledge1 is that the attributes constituting a species do not seem to be intrinsically endowed with permanence1 any more than those constituting an individual1 though the former may endure whilst many successive generations of the latter have disappeared from the earth4 ,each species1 it would seem1 has its own life-period--its beginning1 culmination and decay--the life-periods of different species being of very different duration4 ,from all that has been said1 it may be gathered that our existing plants and animals are for the most part of modern origin1 using the term modern in its geological acceptation4 ,measured by human standards1 many of our existing animals1 those which are capable of being preserved as fossils1 are known to have a high antiquity4 ,not a few of our shell-fish commenced their existence at some time in the ,tertiary1 while one species of ,lampshell--,terebratulina caput-serpentis--is believed to have survived since the ,chalk1 and a number of the ,foraminifera date from the ,carboniferous ,period4 ,thus1 we learn the additional fact that our existing flora and fauna do not constitute an aggregation of organic forms which were introduced into the world collectively and simultaneously1 but that they commenced their existence at very different times1 some being extremely ancient1 whilst others are of comparatively recent origin4 ,and this introduction of existing plants and animals1 as admirably shown by the study of the fossil shells of the ,tertiary ,period1 was a slow and gradual process4 ,ninety-five per cent4 of the known fossil shells in the earliest ,tertiary are found to be species no longer in existence1 the remaining #e per cent4 being forms that are known to live in our present seas4 ,in the ,middle ,tertiary1 the extinct types are much fewer in number1 while at the close of the ,period the proportion with which we started may be reversed1 not more than #e per cent4 being extinct types4 ,illustration3 ,,carboniferous ,,times4 ,animals and ,plants ,that ,prevailed4 ,all existing animals belong to some five or six primary divisions1 which are technically known as sub-kingdoms1 each sub-kingdom to be regarded as representing a certain plan of structure1 each and every animal embraced therein being merely a modified form of this common type4 ,not only are all known living animals reducible to these five or six fundamental plans1 but also the vast series of fossil forms which have come to light in investigations of the earth's strata4 ,while many fossil groups have no closely-related group now in existence1 but in no case do we meet with a fossil animal whose peculiarities do not entitle it to be placed in one or other of the grand structural types already indicated4 ,the old types differ in many respects from those now upon the earth1 and the further we go back in time the more pronounced does the divergence become4 ,a comparison of the animals that lived in the old ,silurian seas with those now occupying our oceans1 would indicate differences so great in many instances as almost to place us in another world1 this divergence being most marked in the ,palozoic forms of life1 less so in those of the ,mesozoic1 and still less so in the ,tertiary4 ,each successive formation has therefore presented us with animals becoming gradually more and more like those now in existence4 ,though there is1 however1 an immense and striking difference between the ,silurian animals and those of the present day1 yet this difference is considerably lessened when a comparison is instituted between the ,silurian and the ,devonian1 and this with the ,carboniferous1 and so on down to the present period4 ,thus it follows that the animals of any given formation1 and the plants as well1 where the records are preserved1 are more like those of the next formation below and of the next formation above1 than they are like any others4 ,this fact of itself is an inexplicable one4 ,but if we believe that the animals and plants of any given formation are1 in part at any rate1 the lineal descendants of those of the preceding1 and the progenitors1 also in part at least1 of those of the succeeding formation1 then the fact is readily comprehensible4 ,so frequently confronted is the palontologist with the phenomenon of closely-related forms1 especially of animals1 succeeding one another in point of time1 that he is compelled to believe that such forms have been developed from some common ancestral type by some process of evolution4 ,upon no other theory can we comprehend why the ,post-,tertiary mammals of ,south ,america should consist of edentates1 llamas1 tapirs1 peccaries1 platyrhine monkeys and other forms now characterizing this continent1 while those of ,australia should be exclusively referable to the order of marsupials2 and on no other view can we explain the common occurrence of transitional forms of life1 filling in the gaps between groups now widely distinct4 ,but1 on the other hand1 there are facts which point clearly to the presence of some other law than that of evolution1 and probably of a deeper and more far-reaching character4 ,no theory of evolution can offer a satisfactory explanation for the constant introduction throughout geological time of new forms of life1 which do not appear to be preceded by pre-existent allied types4 ,the graptolites and trilobites have no known predecessors1 and leave no known successors4 ,insects appear suddenly in the ,devonian1 and spiders and myriopods in the ,carboniferous1 but all under well-differentiated and highly-specialized forms4 ,with equal apparent suddenness the ,dibranchiate ,cephalopods show themselves in the older ,mesozoic deposits1 and no known type of the ,palozoic period can be pointed to as a possible ancestor4 ,and so does the wonderful dicotyledonous flora of the ,upper ,cretaceous similarly surprise us without any prophetic annunciation from the older ,jurassic4 ,many other instances might be cited1 but enough has been said to show that the problem is one environed with profound difficulties4 ,illustration3 ,,mesozoic ,,flora ,,and ,,fauna4 ,cycads1 ,pandanus1 ,deinosaurs1 ,birds and ,pterodactyl4 ,as we pass from the older rocks into the newer1 we not only find that the animals of each successive formation become gradually more and more like existing species upon the globe1 but we also find that there has been a gradual progression and development in the types of animal life which characterize the geological ages4 ,taking the earliest-known and oldest examples of any given group1 it can sometimes be shown that these primitive forms1 even though they are highly organized themselves1 possessed certain characters such as are now only to be met with in the young of their existing representatives4 ,such characters1 which are technically called embryonic characters1 do not prevent the frequent attainment by their possessors of sizes much more gigantic than those of their nearest living relatives4 ,moreover1 these ancient forms of life represent what are called comprehensive types1 or types that possess characters in combination such as are nowadays found separately developed in different groups of animals4 ,such permanent retention of embryonic characters and comprehensiveness of structural type are signs of what zologists consider to be comparatively low grades of organization1 and their prevalence in the earlier forms of animals is a very astonishing phenomenon1 though they are none the less perfectly organized so far as their peculiar type is concerned4 ,as we ascend the geological scale1 these features will be found to gradually disappear1 higher and even higher forms will be introduced1 and specialization of type take the place of the former comprehensiveness4 ,that there has been in the past a general progression of organic types1 and that the appearance of the lower forms of life has in the main preceded that of the higher forms in point of time1 is a widely-accepted generalization of palontology4 ,now that it has been seen that there has been a gradual progression and development of animal types all through the ages up to the era of man1 the question naturally occurs whether or not the changes are still going on which will result in a higher development4 ,man coexisted in ,western ,europe with several remarkable mammals in the later portion of the ,post-,pliocene ,period4 ,while we do not know the causes which led to the extinction of the mammoth1 woolly rhinoceros1 cave-lion and others1 yet we do know that scarcely any mammalian species have become extinct during the historical period4 ,the species with which man coexisted are such that presumably required a very different climate to that now prevailing in ,western ,europe4 ,some of the deposits in which man's remains have been found in association with the bones of extinct mammals incontestably show that great changes in the physiography and surface-configuration of the country had taken place since the period of their accumulation1 the human implements themselves bearing evidence of an exceedingly barbarous condition of the human species4 ,post-,pliocene1 or ,palolithic man1 was clearly unacquainted with the use of the metals4 ,not only was this the case1 but the workmanship of these ancient races was much inferior to that of the later tribes1 who were also ignorant of the metals1 and who also used nothing but weapons and tools of stone1 bone1 etc41 in war1 chase and domestic affairs4 ,when first man spread over the earth1 he had no domestic animals1 perhaps not even the dog1 and had no knowledge of agriculture4 ,his weapons were of the rudest character1 and his houses scarcely worthy of the name4 ,no doubt can exist that his food1 habits and entire manner of living have varied as he has passed from country to country1 for he must then have been far more subject to the influence of external circumstances1 and in all probability more susceptible of change4 ,moreover1 his form1 which is now stereotyped by long ages of repetition1 may reasonably be presumed to have been more plastic than is now the case4 ,as long as man led a mere animal existence1 he would be subject to the same laws1 and would vary in the same manner as the rest of his fellow-creatures4 ,but when at last he had acquired the capacity of clothing himself1 and of making weapons or tools1 he has taken away from nature1 in a great measure1 that power of changing the external form and structure which she exercises over all other animals4 ,from the time1 then1 when his social and sympathetic feelings came into active operation1 and his intellectual and moral faculties became fairly developed1 man's physical form and structure would not be so much influenced by natural laws1 and1 therefore1 as an animal1 he would become almost stationary1 his environment ceasing to have upon him that powerful modifying effect which it exercises over other parts of the organic world4 ,but from the moment that his body became less subject to the changes of the surrounding universe1 his mind would become acted upon by the influences which the body had escaped4 ,every slight variation in his mental and moral nature1 which would consequently be brought about1 and which would enable him better to guard against adverse circumstances1 and league together for mutual comfort and protection1 would be preserved and accumulated4 ,the better and higher specimens of our race would therefore increase and diffuse themselves1 while the lower and more brutal would succumb and successively die out1 and that rapid advancement of mental organization would occur1 which has raised the very lowest races of men1 whose mentality was scarcely superior to the animal1 to that high position which it has attained in the ,germanic races4 ,it would be too bold an assertion to say that man's body has become stationary4 ,slow and gradual changes still take place1 although his mere bodily structure long ago became of less importance to him than that subtle energy1 which is termed mind4 ,no one can doubt that this gave his naked and unprotected body clothing against the varying inclemencies of the seasons and enabled him to compete with the deer in swiftness and the wild bull in strength by giving him weapons wherewith to capture or subdue them both4 ,though less capable than most other animals of subsisting on the herbs and the fruits of unaided nature1 it was this wonderful faculty that taught him to govern and direct nature to his own benefit1 and compel her to produce food for him when and where he pleased4 ,from the moment1 then1 when the first skin was used as a covering1 the first rude spear fashioned to aid in the chase1 and the first seed sown or shoot planted1 a grand revolution was effected in nature1 a revolution which had had no parallel in all the previous cycles of the world's history1 for a being had arisen who was no longer necessarily subject to a changing universe1 a being who was in some degree superior to nature1 inasmuch as he knew how to control and regulate her action1 and could maintain himself in unison with her1 not by a change brought about in the body1 but by a growth and advance in mind4 ,therein are shadowed forth the true grandeur and dignity of man4 ,not only has he achieved for himself a great victory in this rising by the power of mind superior to nature in a sense1 but he has also gained a directing influence over other existences1 in that he has been able to grasp from nature some of that power which1 before his appearance1 she universally exercised4 ,from all that man has accomplished in the past1 it is easy to anticipate the time when only cultivated plants and domestic animals will be produced by the earth1 and when the ocean1 which1 for countless cycles of ages ruled supreme over the globe1 will be the only domain in which that power can be exercised4 ,that man has improved under civilization there can be no question4 ,statistics show that1 since the introduction of civilization1 the population of the earth in general has increased4 ,no one can fail to observe that under its influence the means of subsistence have increased even more rapidly than the population4 ,far from suffering for lack of food1 the most densely peopled countries are those in which it is1 not only absolutely but even relatively most abundant4 ,a thousand men live to-day in plenty upon an area of ground that would scarcely afford a scanty and precarious subsistence to a single savage4 ,there is no denying the fact that happiness is increased by civilization4 ,to talk of the free and noble savage is folly4 ,the true savage is neither free nor noble4 ,he is a slave to his own wants1 his own passions4 ,imperfectly protected as he is from the weather1 he suffers at night from the cold and by day from the heat of the sun4 ,ignorant of agriculture1 living by the chase1 and improvident in success1 hunger ever stares him in the face1 and often drives him to the dreadful alternative of cannibalism or death4 ,the life of all beasts in their wild state is certainly an exceedingly anxious one4 ,so it is with the savage4 ,he is always suspicious1 always in danger1 always on the watch4 ,he can depend on no one1 and no one can depend upon him1 for he expects nothing from his neighbor1 and does unto others as he believes that they would do unto him4 ,his life is one prolonged scene of selfishness and fear4 ,even in his religion1 if he has any1 he creates for himself a new source of terror1 and peoples the world with invisible enemies4 ,more wretched is the position of the female savage than that of her master1 for she not only shares his sufferings1 but has also to bear his ill-humor and ill-usage1 being little better than his dog1 little dearer than his horse4 ,few of them1 it is believed1 are so fortunate as to die a natural death1 being despatched ere they become old and emaciated1 that so much good food shall not be lost4 ,indeed1 so little importance is attached to women1 either before or after death1 that it may be doubted whether the man does not esteem his dog1 when alive1 quite as much as he does his woman1 and think of both quite as often and as lovingly after he has made a meal of them4 ,not content1 moreover1 with the pleasures incident to their mode of life1 savages appear to take a melancholy delight in self-inflicted sufferings4 ,they not only tattoo their bodies1 but practise the most extraordinary methods of disfigurement and self-torture1 some amputating the little finger1 while others drill immense holes in the under-lip1 or pierce the cartilage of the nose4 ,these and many other curious practices1 none the less painful because they are voluntary1 are in vogue among savage people4 ,turning now to the bright side of the question1 we cannot but conclude that the pleasures of civilized man are greater than those of the savage4 ,while man will never be able to improve the organization of the eye or the ear1 yet1 on the other hand1 the invention of the telescope and the microscope is equivalent in its results to an immense improvement of the eyes1 thus opening up to us new worlds1 fresh sources of interest and happiness1 while the training of the ear will enable us to invent new musical instruments and compose new melodies4 ,the savage1 like a child1 sees and hears only that which is brought directly before him1 but the civilized man questions nature1 and by the various processes of chemistry1 electricity and magnetism1 and a thousand ingenious contrivances1 forces nature to reveal herself1 thereby discovering hidden uses and unsuspected beauties1 quite as marvellously as though he were endowed with some entirely new organ of sense4 ,through the discovery of printing1 we are brought into communion with the greatest minds1 and thus the thoughts of a ,shakespeare or a ,tennyson1 or the discoveries of a ,newton or a ,darwin1 become the common property of mankind4 ,already the results of this all-important1 though simple1 process have vastly improved our mental faculties1 and day by day1 as books become cheaper1 schools are established and education more general1 a greater and greater effect will be produced4 ,nor are all these new sources of happiness accompanied by any new liability to suffering4 ,on the contrary1 while our pleasures are increased1 our pains are lessened4 ,in a thousand ways we can avoid or diminish evils which to our ancestors were great and unavoidable4 ,no one can estimate the misery which1 for instance1 the simple discovery of chloroform has spared the human race4 ,the capacity for pain1 so far as it can serve as a warning1 remains all the same1 but the necessity for endurance has been greatly diminished4 ,with increased knowledge of the laws of health1 and attention thereto1 disease will become less and less frequent1 and those tendencies to disease which we have inherited from our ancestors will gradually die out1 and1 if fresh seeds are not sown1 the race will one day enjoy the inestimable advantages of a more vigorous and healthy existence4 ,thus1 then1 with the increasing influence of science we may confidently look forward to a great improvement in the condition of man4 ,but it may be alleged that our present sufferings and sorrows arise chiefly from sin1 and that any moral improvement must come from religion and not from science4 ,this separation of the two mighty agents of improvement1 the great misfortune of humanity1 has done more than anything else to retard the progress of civilization4 ,but even if we admit for the nonce that science will not render us more virtuous1 it must certainly make us more innocent1 for in fact the most of our criminal population are mere savages1 persons who can rarely read and write1 and whose crimes are but injudicious and desperate attempts to live a savage life in the midst1 and at the expense1 of a civilized community4 ,men do wrong either from ignorance or in the hope1 unexpressed perhaps even to themselves1 that they may enjoy the pleasure and yet avoid the penalty of sin4 ,all that they have to do they think1 when they have committed sin1 is to repent4 ,the religious teaching of the day has much to do with this misapprehension4 ,repentance is too frequently regarded as a substitute for punishment4 ,sin it is thought is followed either by the one or the other4 ,so far1 therefore1 as this world is concerned1 this is not the case2 repentance may enable a man to avoid sin in future1 but has no effect on the consequences of the past4 ,the laws of nature are not only just and salutary1 but they are also inexorable4 ,while all men admit that 8the wages of sin is death10 yet they seem to think that this is a general rule to which there may be many exceptions1 that some sins may possibly tend to happiness4 ,that suffering is the inevitable consequence of sin1 as surely as an effect follows a cause1 is the stern yet salutary teaching of science4 ,and certainly if this lesson were thoroughly impressed upon our minds1 that punishment and not happiness is the consequence of sin1 then temptation1 which is the very root of crime1 would be cut away1 and mankind must therefore necessarily become more innocent4 ,may we not go still further and say that science will also render us more virtuous8 ,he who studies philosophy can only obtain a just idea of the great things for which ,providence has fitted his understanding4 ,such a study not only makes our lives more agreeable1 but it also makes them better1 and every motive of interest and duty should constrain a rational being to direct his mind towards pursuits which all experience has shown to be the sure path of virtue and happiness4 ,man is in reality but on the threshold of civilization4 ,far from showing any indication of having reached the end1 the tendency to improvement seems laterally to have proceeded with augmented impetus and accelerated rapidity4 ,there is no reason to suppose that it must now cease4 ,man has not attained the limits of intellectual development1 nor exhausted the infinite capabilities of nature4 ,there are many things not yet dreamt of in our philosophy which science must reveal1 many discoveries yet to be made which will confer upon the human race advantages which as yet1 perhaps1 we are not in a condition to grasp and appreciate4 ,we seem1 when we compare our present knowledge with the great ocean of truth that lies all undiscovered before us1 like little children playing on the sea-shore1 and picking up a smoother pebble and prettier shell than any they had met with before4 ,thus1 it is obvious1 that our most sanguine hopes for the future are justified by the entire experience of the past4 ,it is surely unreasonable to presume that a process which has been going on for so many thousand years should have now suddenly ceased2 and he must indeed be blind who thinks that our civilization is unsusceptible of improvement1 or that we ourselves are in the highest state possible for man to attain4 ,theory1 as well as experience1 forces the same conclusion upon us4 ,that principle of ,natural ,selection1 which in animals affects the body and seems to have little influence on the mind1 in man affects the mind and has little influence on the body4 ,in the former it leads mainly to the preservation of life1 and in the latter to the improvement of the mind1 and consequently to the increase of happiness4 ,it ensures1 in the words of ,spencer1 8a constant progress towards a higher skill1 intelligence1 and self-regulation--a better cordination of actions--a more complete life40 ,nearly all the evils under which we suffer1 it will be conceded1 may be attributed either to ignorance or sin4 ,that ignorance will be diminished by the progress of science is1 of course1 self-evident2 and that the same will be the case with sin1 seems little less so4 ,thus1 then1 do both science and theory point to the same conclusion4 ,that which poets hardly dared to hope for1 the future happiness of our race1 science boldly predicts4 ,even in our own time we trust to see some wonderful improvement4 ,but the unselfish mind1 however1 will find its highest gratification in the belief that1 whatever may be the case with ourselves1 our descendants will understand many things which are mysterious to us now1 will better appreciate the beautiful world in which we live1 avoid much of the suffering to which we are subject1 enjoy many blessings of which we are not yet worthy1 and escape many of those temptations which we deplore but cannot wholly resist4 ,we have thus seen that all life has been progressive4 ,there has been through the ages a steadily growing upward tendency to higher life4 ,but the changes have mainly been in the line of physical form and structure4 ,and such1 too1 had been the case with man1 until his social1 intellectual and moral faculties had begun to assert themselves1 when his body ceased in a great measure to be acted upon by physical laws1 and development began to manifest itself in a higher type of mental organization4 ,from the low1 simple1 childlike mind of palolithic man has come that wonderful intellect which now characterizes the ,germanic races1 and which is destined to make itself felt in its contact with all the earth4 ,those peoples that are able to embrace the new civilization brought to their doors1 so to speak1 will survive1 while the others1 unable to adapt themselves thereto1 like the ,tasmanian1 will succumb in the struggle with a superior being and go to the wall4 ,animals and plants will be brought into new relations and new conditions1 and such as can meet the new requirements will1 as certain species have done before1 endure4 ,they will1 in other words1 have partaken of an enlightened civilization4 ,thus things will go on until all life1 vegetal and animal1 will be brought under the controlling and elevating influence of man1 and then will be inaugurated on earth that condition when the lion and the kid shall lie down together1 and a little child shall be found in their midst4 ,nothing harmful will anywhere exist4 ,heaven will then have been brought down to earth1 and peace and harmony will universally prevail4 ,then will have come the complete triumph of mind over body4 ,all growth and development of the reformed and regenerated earth-man will be in the direction of mind1 and his accomplishments will he share with the inferior subjects of his peaceful and happy domain4 ,progression1 however1 will not cease1 but will go on steadily advancing as the years increase4 ,and if there is a life beyond the earth-life1 then the intellect or mind1 or soul if you please1 shall1 in some form or other1 exist therein1 and reach up into higher and yet higher growth and development4 ,,survival ,,of ,,the ,,fittest4 ,among organic beings in a state of nature there is some individual variability4 ,this is an admission about which there can be no dispute4 ,but the mere existence of individual variability and of a few well-marked varieties1 though necessary as the foundation for the work1 assists us but little in understanding how species originate in nature4 ,those exquisite adaptations of one part of the organization to another part1 and to the conditions of life1 and of one organic being to another being1 which we know to exist1 seem as mysteries4 ,we see them in the humblest parasite that clings to the hairs of a quadruped or the feathers of a bird1 in the structure of the beetle that dives through the water1 and in the plumed seed that is wafted by the gentlest breeze4 ,in short1 we see beautiful adaptations everywhere and in every part of the organic world4 ,and yet1 how few have paused while admiring these beautiful and wonderful co-adaptations to ask themselves the question3 ,how have these been perfected8 ,if the existence of any well-marked varieties be admitted1 how is it that these varieties1 which may be denominated incipient species1 become ultimately converted into good and distinct species1 which in the generality of cases obviously differ from each in a greater degree than do the varieties of the same species8 ,how do these groups of species1 which constitute what are authoritatively called genera1 and which differ from each other more than do the species of the same genus1 arise8 ,all these results1 as will presently be seen1 follow from the ,struggle for ,existence4 ,owing to this struggle1 all variations1 no matter how slight they may be1 or from what cause soever they may proceed1 will1 if they be in any degree profitable to the individuals of a species in their infinitely complex relations to other organic beings and their physical conditions of life1 unavoidably conduce to the preservation of such individuals1 and generally be inherited by the offspring4 ,the offspring1 too1 will thus have a better chance of surviving1 for1 of the many individuals of a species that are periodically born1 but a very small number can survive4 ,that principle1 by which each slight variation1 if useful to the individual1 is preserved1 has been termed ,natural ,selection by ,darwin1 in order to distinguish it from the selection which is exercised by man over the plants and animals which he has brought under subjection for his own wants4 ,but the expression--,survival of the ,fittest--so frequently used by ,spencer1 is more accurate1 and sometimes equally convenient4 ,man can certainly produce great results by this power1 and can adapt1 through the accumulation of slight but useful variations given to him by the hand of nature1 organic beings to his own uses4 ,but ,natural ,selection1 as is well known1 is a power incessantly ready for action1 and is as infinitely superior to man's feeble efforts as the works of nature are to those of art4 ,all organic beings are exposed to severe competition4 ,nothing is easier than to admit in words the truth of the universal struggle for life1 or more difficult than constantly to bear this conclusion1 which has been reached through the investigations and researches of ,de ,candolle1 ,lyell1 ,herbert1 ,darwin and others1 in mind4 ,unless1 however1 it be thoroughly ingrained in the mind1 the whole economy of nature1 with every fact on distribution1 rarity1 abundance1 extinction and variation1 will be but dimly perceived or quite misunderstood4 ,we behold the face of nature radiant with gladness1 and food everywhere in excessive abundance1 but we do not see that the birds which are happily singing round us mostly live on insects or seeds1 and are thus constantly destroying life1 or we fail to remember how largely these songsters1 or their eggs1 or their nestlings1 are destroyed by birds and beasts of prey4 ,yes1 we do not always bear in mind that1 though food may now be superabundant1 it is not so at all seasons of each recurring year4 ,the term1 ,struggle for ,existence1 must be used in a large and metaphorical sense4 ,it must be construed to include the dependence of one being on another1 and also not only the life of the individual but also its success in leaving offspring4 ,two carnivores1 in a time of scarcity of food1 may be truly said to struggle with each other for maintenance of life4 ,but a plant on the edge of a desert is said to struggle for life against the drought1 though1 properly speaking1 it is dependent for its existence upon the moisture4 ,a plant1 however1 that annually produces many thousand seeds of which on an average only one comes to maturity1 may in a much truer sense be said to struggle with the plants of the same and other kinds which already invest the ground4 ,while the mistletoe is dependent on the apple and some other trees1 yet it cannot be said1 unless in a far-fetched sense1 to struggle with these trees1 for1 if too many of these parasites are found upon the same tree1 it will certainly languish and die4 ,several seedling mistletoes1 however1 growing close together upon the same branch1 may more truly be said to struggle with each other4 ,from the high rate at which all organic beings tend to increase1 there must inevitably follow a ,struggle for ,existence4 ,every being which1 during its natural lifetime1 produces several eggs or seeds1 must necessarily suffer destruction during some part of that period1 and during some season or occasional year1 otherwise1 on the principle of ,geometrical ,increase1 its numbers would become so inordinately excessive that no country would be able to support its product4 ,therefore1 as more individuals are produced than can possibly survive1 there must be in every case a ,struggle for ,existence1 either one individual struggling with another of the same kind1 or with individuals of distinct kinds or species1 or with the conditions of the environment4 ,this is the doctrine of ,malthus applied with manifold force to the entire vegetable and animal kingdoms4 ,although some species may be now increasing at a very high rate in numbers1 yet all cannot do so1 for the earth would not be able to contain them4 ,slow-breeding man has doubled in twenty-five years1 and should he go on at this rate for a few thousand years1 there would literally not be standing room for his progeny4 ,it has been calculated that1 if an annual plant produced only two seeds1 and their seedlings next year produced two1 and the same rate of increase was kept up for twenty years1 there would be a million of plants as the result4 ,even the elephant1 which is reckoned the slowest breeder of all known animals1 would after a period of from seven hundred and forty to seven hundred and fifty years leave nearly nineteen million elephants as descendants from the first pair4 ,much better evidence than mere theoretical calculations are not wanting on this subject4 ,instances are recorded of the astonishingly rapid increase of various animals in a state of nature1 when conditions have been favorable to them1 during two or three succeeding seasons4 ,more striking1 however1 is the evidence from domestic animals that have run wild in several parts of the world4 ,were not the statements of the rate of increase of cattle and horses in ,south ,america1 and latterly in ,australia1 where millions now abound1 well authenticated1 they would have been incredible4 ,cases could be mentioned of introduced plants that have become quite common throughout entire islands in a period of less than twelve years4 ,several of these plants1 the cardoon and a rare thistle1 which were introduced from ,europe1 clothe square leagues of the surface of the wide plains of the ,la ,plata almost to the exclusion of all other plants2 and there are plants which now range in ,india1 from ,cape ,comorin to the ,himalaya1 which have been imported from ,america since its discovery4 ,in all such cases1 and endless instances could be adduced1 no intelligent person supposes that their fertility has been increased in any sensible degree by change of habitat1 the obvious explanation being that the conditions of environment have been very favorable1 and that there has consequently been less destruction of old and young1 and that nearly all the latter have been enabled to breed4 ,the extraordinarily rapid increase and wide diffusion of naturalized productions in new homes1 a result which never fails to evoke surprise1 is only to be explained on the principle of the ,geometrical ,ratio of ,increase4 ,as in nature almost every plant produces seed1 and there are very few animals that do not annually pair1 therefore we can confidently assert that all plants and animals are tending to increase in a geometrical ratio2 that all would most rapidly stock every station in which they could in any way exist1 and that the tendency to increase must be checked by destruction at some period of life4 ,among our larger domestic animals we see no great destruction falling on them4 ,we forget that thousands are annually slaughtered for food1 and that in a natural state an equal number would have to be disposed of in some way or other4 ,between organisms which annually produce seeds or eggs by the thousands1 and those which produce extremely few1 the only difference is that the slow breeders would require a few more years to people1 under favorable conditions1 a whole district1 let it be ever so large4 ,but a couple of eggs are laid by the condor1 while the ostrich lays a score4 ,yet in the same country the condor may be the more abundant of the two4 ,the ,fulmer petrel lays but a single egg1 yet it is believed to be the most numerous bird in the world4 ,a large number of eggs is of some importance to those species which depend upon a rapidly-fluctuating quantity of food1 for it permits them to increase rapidly in number2 but the real importance of a large number of eggs or seeds is to make up for the great destruction that goes on at some period of life1 and this period in the vast majority of cases is an early one4 ,if an animal can in any way protect its own eggs or young1 a small number may be produced1 and the average stock be kept up2 but if many eggs or young are destroyed1 then many must be produced or the species will become extinct4 ,therefore1 the average number of any animal or plant depends1 though only indirectly1 upon the number of its eggs or seeds4 ,we should never forget1 in taking a survey of nature1 that every single organic being around us may be said to be striving to the utmost to augment its members2 that each lives by a struggle at some period of its existence1 and that heavy destruction falls either on the young or old during each generation or at recurrent intervals4 ,let any check be lightened1 or the destruction be mitigated ever so little1 and the number of the species will almost instantaneously increase to any extent4 ,but of the nature of the checks to increase we know little1 although this subject has been very ably treated by writers of eminence4 ,eggs or very young animals seem generally to suffer the most1 but this is not invariably the case4 ,while there is a vast destruction of the seeds of plants1 but it is the seedlings which are believed to suffer the greatest1 from germinating in ground already thickly stocked with other plants1 and from being destroyed in large numbers by various enemies4 ,the amount of food for each species of course determines the extreme limit to which each can increase1 but very often it is not the obtaining of food1 but the serving as prey to other animals which fixes the average number of a species4 ,thus there seems to be little doubt that the stock of partridges1 grouse and hares on any large estate depends mainly on the destruction of vermin4 ,were not a single head of game shot during the next twenty years in ,england1 says ,darwin in substance1 and no vermin were at the same time destroyed1 there would in all probability be less game than at present exists1 although hundreds of thousands of game animals are now annually killed for the market4 ,in some cases1 on the other hand1 as in the case of the elephant1 none are destroyed by beasts of prey1 for even the tiger in ,india1 bold and venturesome as he is known to be1 rarely dares to attack a young elephant protected by its mother4 ,climate1 also1 plays an important part in determining the average number of a species1 and periodical seasons of extreme cold or drought are seemingly the most effective checks of all4 ,the action of climate appears at first sight to be altogether independent of the ,struggle for ,existence2 but in so far as it chiefly acts in the reduction of food1 it brings on the most severe struggle between the individuals1 whether of the same or different species1 which subsist on the same kind of fare4 ,even when climate1 extreme cold for example1 acts directly1 it will be the least vigorous animals1 or those which have been the poorest fed through the advancing winter1 that will suffer the greatest4 ,this will be most readily seen from what we shall now relate4 ,when we travel from south to north1 or from a damp region to a dry1 we invariably see some species getting rarer and rarer by degrees1 and finally disappearing4 ,change of climate being conspicuous1 we are inclined to ascribe the entire effect to its direct action1 but this is a false interpretation of the phenomenon1 for we fail to remember that each species1 even where it most prevails1 is constantly suffering enormous destruction at some period of its existence1 from enemies or competitors for the same station and food2 and if these enemies or competitors be the least favored by any slight change of climate1 they will necessarily increase in numbers1 while the other species1 each area being already stocked with inhabitants1 will correspondingly decrease4 ,and when we travel southward and see a species decreasing in numbers1 we may feel reasonably sure that the cause lies quite as much in other species being favored as in this being hurt4 ,so it is when we travel northward1 though in a less degree4 ,when we go northward1 or when we ascend a mountain1 we far oftener meet with stunted forms1 due to the directly injurious action of climate1 than we do when we go southward or descend a mountain4 ,when1 however1 we reach the ,arctic regions1 or explore snow-capped summits1 or absolute deserts1 we perceive the struggle for life to be almost exclusively with the elements4 ,that climate operates mainly1 but indirectly1 in favoring other species1 may be clearly seen in the prodigious numbers of garden plants that can thoroughly well endure our climate1 but which can never become naturalized1 inasmuch as they cannot compete with native vegetation nor resist destruction by native animals4 ,when a species1 owing to highly favorable conditions1 increases inordinately in numbers in a small tract of country1 epidemics1 especially in game animals1 often occur1 and here we have a limiting check independent of the ,struggle for ,existence4 ,but some of these so-called epidemics appear to be due to parasitic worms1 which have from some cause1 possibly in part through ease of diffusion among the crowded animals1 been disproportionately favored1 and here comes in a sort of struggle between the parasite and its more illustrious prey4 ,but1 on the other hand1 as is frequently the case1 a large stock of individuals of the same species1 relatively to the number of its enemies1 is absolutely essential to its preservation4 ,we thus see how it is possible to raise with ease a plentiful supply of corn in our fields1 because the seeds are greatly in excess of the number of birds which feed thereon4 ,nor can the birds1 though blessed with a superabundance of food at this one season1 increase in number in proportion to the supply of seed1 as their numbers are checked during the winter4 ,any one1 however1 who has made the experiment1 knows how troublesome it is to get seed from a few wheat or other such plants sown broad-cast in a garden4 ,some singular facts in nature1 such as that of very rare plants being sometimes extremely abundant in the few spots where they do occur1 and that of some social plants being social1 or abounding in individuals1 even on the extreme confines of their range1 are readily explainable by this view of the necessity of a large stock of the same species for its preservation1 for in such cases we may believe that a plant could only exist where the conditions of its life were so favorable that many could exist together and thus save the species from extinction4 ,complex and varied are the checks and relations between organic beings which have to struggle together in the same country4 ,in the case of every species1 many different checks1 some very complicated and unintelligible to man at present1 acting at different periods of life1 and during different seasons or years1 come into play1 some one check or some few being generally the most powerful1 but all concurring in determining the average number or even the existence of the species4 ,widely-different checks sometimes act on the same species in different districts4 ,looking at the plants and bushes that clothe an entangled bank1 we are tempted to ascribe their proportional numbers and kinds to what we call chance4 ,but this is a very false view to take of the matter4 ,chance has no part in such things4 ,they follow in obedience to laws of which we know comparatively little4 ,when an ,american forest is cut down a very different vegetation springs up4 ,ancient ,indian ruins have been observed in the southern parts of the ,united ,states1 which must in former times have been cleared of trees1 but which now display the same beautiful diversity and proportion of kinds as are now found in the surrounding virgin forest4 ,what a struggle must have gone on during long centuries between the several kinds of trees1 each annually scattering its seeds by the thousand1 and what a war between insect and insect1 and between insects1 snails and other animals with birds and beasts of prey1 all striving to increase1 all feeding on each other1 or on the trees1 their seeds and their seedlings1 or on the other plants which once clothed the soil1 and thus checked the growth of the trees6 ,it is easier to account for the fall of an apple from a tree1 or the descent of a stone to the earth when hurled into the air1 than to account for the action and reaction of the innumerable plants and animals that have determined in the course of untold centuries the proportional numbers and kinds of trees that are now found growing on these old ,indian ruins4 ,but the struggle will almost invariably be the severest between individuals of the same species1 for they frequent the same districts1 require the same food and are exposed to the same dangers4 ,in the case of varieties of the same species1 the struggle will generally be almost equally severe4 ,if several varieties of wheat be sown together1 and the mixed seed be re-sown1 some of the varieties which best suit the soil or climate1 or are naturally the most fertile1 will beat the others and so yield more seed1 and will consequently in a few years supplant the others4 ,such extremely-close varieties as the variously-colored sweet-peas must be separately harvested each year1 and the seed mixed in due proportion1 or the weaker kinds will steadily decrease in number and disappear4 ,so1 again1 with the varieties of sheep4 ,certain mountain-varieties will starve out other mountain-varieties1 so that they cannot be kept together4 ,similar results have followed from keeping together different varieties of the medicinal leech4 ,in view of all that has been said1 it is questionable whether the varieties of any of our domestic plants and animals have so exactly the same vigor1 constitution and habits that the original proportions of a mixed stock could be kept up for a half-dozen generations if they were permitted to struggle together like beings in a state of nature1 if the seed or young were not annually assorted4 ,species of the same genus having usually1 though not invariably1 much similarity in habits and constitution1 and always in structure1 the struggle will be more severe between species of the same genus1 where they come into competition with each other1 than between species of distinct genera4 ,one species of swallow has caused in certain parts of the ,united ,states the decrease of another species1 just as the missel-thrush in parts of ,scotland has caused the decrease of the song-thrush4 ,the small ,asiatic cockroach has everywhere in ,russia driven before it its great congener1 and the imported ,european hive-bee is rapidly exterminating in ,australia the small1 stingless bee1 indigenous to the country4 ,hundreds of such cases might be cited1 but we forbear4 ,we can clearly see why the competition should be most severe between allied forms1 which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature2 but it is perhaps not possible to individualize a case and say with preciseness why such species has been victorious over another in the battle of life4 ,that the structure of every organic being is related1 in the most essential yet often hidden manner to that of all the other organisms with which it comes into competition for food or residence1 or from which it has to escape1 or on which it preys1 is a corollary of the highest importance deducible from the foregoing remarks4 ,very obvious is this in the structure of the teeth and talons of the tiger1 and in that of the legs and claws of the parasite which clings to the hair on the tiger's body4 ,but in the beautifully-plumed seed of the dandelion and the flattened and fringed legs of the water-beetle the relation seems at first restricted to the elements of air and water1 yet the advantage of plumed seeds undoubtedly stands in the most intimate relation to the land1 being already densely clothed with other plants1 so that the seeds may be widely diffused and fall on unoccupied ground1 while in the water-beetle1 the structure of its legs1 so admirably adapted for diving1 allows it to compete with other aquatic insects1 to hunt for its own prey and to escape destruction by other predaceous animals4 ,all organic beings1 it will thus be seen1 are not only striving to increase in numbers1 but are called upon some time in their lives to struggle for existence or to suffer serious if not utter destruction4 ,when we reflect on this struggle1 we can console ourselves with the full belief that this war of nature is not incessant1 that no fear is felt1 that death is generally sudden1 and that the vigorous1 healthy and happy survive and multiply4 ,seeing what a potent influence the principle of ,selection has in the hands of man1 in regard to variation1 can it be applied in nature8 ,we can see that it can act most effectually4 ,but in our domestic productions the variability is not directly produced by man1 for he can neither originate varieties nor prevent their occurrence4 ,all he can do is to preserve and accumulate such as do occur4 ,unintentionally he exposes organic beings to new and changing conditions of life1 for under domestication1 plant and animal organizations become in some degree plastic1 and variability ensues4 ,similar changes1 however1 do occur in nature4 ,when it is borne in mind how infinitely complex and close-fitting are the mutual relations of all organic beings to each other1 and to their environment1 and consequently what infinitely-varied diversities of structure may be of advantage to each being under altered conditions1 can it then be thought improbable1 seeing that variations useful to man have undoubtedly occurred1 that other variations useful in some way to each being in the great and complex battle of life should sometimes occur in the course of tens of thousands of generations8 ,if such do occur1 can we doubt1 when it is remembered that many more individuals are born than can possibly survive1 that individuals possessing any advantage1 no matter how slight1 over their fellows would have the best chance of surviving and of procreating their kind8 ,any variation1 on the other hand1 we may feel sure if in the least degree injurious would be rigidly destroyed4 ,this preservation of useful and favorable variations1 and the destruction of those that are injurious1 is called ,natural ,selection1 or the ,survival of the ,fittest4 ,variations neither advantageous nor deleterious would not be affected by ,natural ,selection1 and would be left either a fluctuating element1 as seen in certain polymorphic species1 or would alternately become fixed1 owing to the nature both of the organism and its conditions4 ,we shall best understand the probable cause of ,natural ,selection by taking a country undergoing some physical change1 as of climate for example4 ,the proportional number of its inhabitants would almost immediately undergo a change1 and some of its species might become extinct4 ,from the complex and very intimate manner in which the inhabitants of each country are bound together1 we may conclude that any change in the numerical proportion of some of its inhabitants1 independently of the change of climate itself1 would seriously affect the others4 ,were the country open on its borders1 new forms would certainly immigrate1 and this1 too1 would often seriously disturb the relations of some of its former inhabitants4 ,in the case1 however1 of an island1 or a country hemmed in by barriers1 into which new and better-adapted forms could not readily enter1 we would then meet with places in the economy of nature which would assuredly be better filled up1 if some of the original occupants were in some manner modified1 for had the area been open to immigration1 these same places would have been seized by intruders4 ,thus1 slight modifications1 which any way favored the individuals of a species1 would by better adapting them to changed conditions tend to become preserved1 and ,natural ,selection would there have free scope for the work of improvement4 ,changes in the conditions of life cause or excite a tendency to vary4 ,in the foregoing case the conditions are supposed to have changed1 and this would manifestly be favorable1 by giving a better chance of profitable variations occurring1 to ,natural ,selection1 for unless such do occur1 ,natural ,selection can do nothing4 ,as man1 by adding up in any given direction individual differences1 can certainly produce a great result with his domestic animals and plants1 so could ,natural ,selection1 but far more easily from having an incomparably longer time for its action4 ,no great physical change1 as of climate1 nor any unusual degree of isolation to check immigration1 is actually necessary1 it would seem1 to produce new and unoccupied places for ,natural ,selection to fill up by modifying and improving some of the varying inhabitants1 for as all the inhabitants of a country are struggling together with nicely-balanced forces1 extremely-slight modifications in the structure or habits of one species would often give it an advantage over others2 and still further modifications1 so long as the species continued under the same conditions of life and profited by similar means of subsistence and defence1 would often still further augment the advantage4 ,no country can be mentioned whose native inhabitants are now so perfectly adapted to each other and to their environment that none could be better adapted and improved1 for in all countries the natives have been so far conquered by naturalized productions as to have allowed them to take firm possession of the land4 ,and as foreigners have thus in every country beaten some of the natives1 it may be safely concluded that the latter might have been modified with profit so as to have better resisted the intruders4 ,a man by his methodical and unconscious means of selection can produce and has produced great results4 ,what may not ,natural ,selection effect8 ,man can only operate on external and visible characters1 but nature cares nothing for appearances1 except in so far as they are beneficial to any being4 ,she can act on every internal organ1 on every shade of constitutional difference and1 in fine1 on the entire machinery of life4 ,man selects exclusively for his own advantage1 but nature solely for that of the being she tends1 and under her judicious selection the slightest difference of structure or constitution may well turn the nicely-balanced scale in the ,struggle for ,existence1 and thus be preserved4 ,as fleeting as are the wishes and efforts of man1 and as short as is his earthly career1 so poor1 therefore1 must be the results which he accomplishes when compared with those accumulated by nature during whole geological periods4 ,is it a wonder1 then1 that her productions should be far truer in character than man's1 and that they should be infinitely better adapted to the most complex conditions of life and should bear the stamp of far higher workmanship8 ,metaphorically speaking1 ,natural ,selection may be said to be daily and hourly scrutinizing1 throughout the world1 the slightest variations1 rejecting the bad1 preserving and adding up the good1 and silently and insensibly working1 whenever and wherever opportunities occur1 at the betterment of each organic being in relation to its organic and inorganic conditions of life4 ,so slow is her work that we see nothing of the changes in progress1 and only when the hand of time has marked the lapse of ages do we perceive that changes have been produced2 but then so imperfect is our view into long-past geological periods1 that we see only that the forms of life are now different from what they formerly were4 ,that any great amount of modification in any point should be effected1 a variety once formed must again1 perhaps after a long interval of time1 present individual differences of the same favorable character1 and these must again be preserved1 and so onward step by step4 ,as individual differences of all kinds perpetually recur1 this can hardly be considered as an unwarrantable assumption4 ,judged by the extent the hypothesis accords with and explains the general phenomena of nature1 notwithstanding the ordinary belief that the amount of possible variation is a strictly-limited quantity1 we are justified1 it seems to us1 in assuming that all this has actually taken place4 ,but in looking at many small points of difference between species1 which in our ignorance seem quite unimportant1 we must not lose sight of the facts that climate1 food and modes of life may have produced some direct effect1 and also of the truth that1 owing to the ,law of ,correlation1 when one part varies1 and the variations are accumulated through the ,survival of the ,fittest1 other modifications often of the most unlooked-for nature will ensue4 ,as under domestication these variations are known to appear at a particular period of life1 and tend to reappear in the offspring at the same period1 so1 in a state of nature1 it is reasonable to infer that ,natural ,selection will be enabled to act on and modify organic beings at any age1 by the accumulation of variations useful at that age1 and by their inheritance at a corresponding age4 ,thus1 if it be profitable to a plant to have its seeds more and more widely disseminated by the wind1 there can be no greater difficulty in conceiving this to be effected through ,natural ,selection than in conceiving the increasing and improving of the down in the pods on his cotton-trees by a wise selection upon the part of a cotton-planter4 ,natural ,selection may modify and adapt the larva of an insect to a score of contingencies1 wholly different from those which affect the mature insect1 and these modifications through ,correlation may work changes in the structure of the adult4 ,on the other hand1 modifications of the adult may affect the structure of the larva1 but in all such cases ,natural ,selection will insure that these changes shall not be injurious1 for1 if they were so1 the extinction of the species would be the inevitable result4 ,thousands of instances might be given to show the influence which ,natural ,selection1 or ,sexual ,selection1 which is only a less vigorous phase of the former1 has had all through the ages in the adaptation of life to the places in nature which it was intended to occupy in pursuance of the plan formulated by the ,great ,originator and ,designer of the ,universe4 ,despite the imperfection of the geological record1 which has been urged as a serious objection to the theory of descent with modification1 sensible1 intelligent1 educated men no longer doubt that species have all changed1 and that they have changed in the way required1 for they have changed slowly and in a graduated manner4 ,this is clearly seen in the fossil remains from consecutive formations being invariably much more closely allied to each other than are those from widely-separated formations4 ,it is true geological research does not yield those infinitely fine gradations between past and present species which the theory of ,natural ,selection requires1 but when it is remembered that only a small portion of the world has been geologically explored2 that only organic beings of certain classes1 at least in any great number1 can be preserved in a fossil condition2 that many species when once formed never undergo any further change1 but become extinct without leaving any modified descendants2 that dominant and widely-ranging species vary the most and the most frequently1 and that varieties are often at first only local1 it is not at all surprising that the discovery of intermediate links to any considerable extent should not have been made4 ,local varieties1 as is well known1 will not diffuse themselves into other and distant localities until they have become very much modified and improved1 and when they have thus diffused themselves1 and are discovered in a geological formation1 they will appear as if suddenly created there1 and will simply be ranked as new species4 ,besides1 formations have often been intermittent in their accumulation1 and their duration has probably been shorter than the average duration of specific forms4 ,and as successive formations in most cases are separated from each other by blank intervals of time of considerable length1 and as fossiliferous formations thick enough to withstand future degradation can as a general rule be accumulated only where much sediment is laid down in the subsiding bed of the ocean1 it follows that during the alternate periods of elevation and of stationary level the record will generally be blank or devoid of fossil remains4 ,during these latter periods there will doubtless be more variability in the forms of life1 and during the periods of subsidence a greater amount of extinction4 ,now1 as geology plainly declares that each land has undergone great physical changes1 we have a right to expect that organic beings have varied under nature in the same manner as they have varied under domestication1 and such have scientific study and research found to be the case4 ,and if there has been any variability under nature1 such a fact would seem unaccountable unless ,natural ,selection1 or the ,survival of the ,fittest1 did not come into play4 ,upon the view that variations have occurred in nature and have been preserved and accumulated by ,natural ,selection1 and not in the ordinary view of independent creation1 we can understand why the specific characters1 or those by which the species of the same genus differ from each other1 should be more variable than the generic characters in which they all agree4 ,inexplicable as is the occasional appearance of stripes on the shoulders and legs of the different equine species and their hybrids on the theory of creation1 yet how simply is the fact explained if we believe that they are all descended from a striped progenitor just as the different domestic breeds of pigeons are descended from the blue and barred rock-pigeons4 ,why1 for example1 should the color of a flower be more likely to vary in any one species of a genus1 if the other species1 supposed to have been created independently1 have differently-colored flowers1 than if all the species of the genus have the same colored flowers8 ,on the theory that species are only well-marked varieties1 of which the characters have become in a high degree permanent1 the fact is intelligible1 for they have already varied in certain characters since they branched off from a common progenitor1 and by these characters they have come to be specifically distinct from each other4 ,therefore1 these same characters would be more likely again to vary than the generic characters which have been inherited without change for an enormous period of time4 ,upon the theory of ,natural ,selection1 or the ,survival of the ,fittest1 with its contingencies of extinction and divergence of character1 we can see how it is that all past and present organic beings can be arranged within a few classes1 in groups subordinate to groups1 and with the extinct groups often falling in between the recent groups4 ,we can see how it is that the mutual affinities of the forms within each class are so complex and diversified1 and only adaptive characters1 though of superior importance to the beings1 are of scarcely any significance in classification1 while those derived from rudimentary parts1 though of no recognized service1 are often of high classificatory value1 and only embryological characters are frequently the most valuable of all4 ,the real affinities of all organisms1 in contradistinction to their adaptive likenesses1 are due to inheritance or community of descent4 ,hence1 a natural system of classification is a genealogical arrangement1 with the acquired grades of difference1 denoted by varieties1 species1 genera1 families1 etc41 and their lines of descent have to be discovered by the most permanent characters1 whatever they may be and how little of vital importance they may possess4 ,that species are immutable productions1 which was until quite recently the current belief by laymen and naturalists1 was almost unavoidable so long as the world was considered to be of short duration4 ,but now that some idea has been acquired of the time that has elapsed since the beginning of earth-life1 we are too apt to assume1 without proof1 that the geologic record is so complete1 that it would have afforded us some plain evidence of the mutation of species1 if they had undergone mutation4 ,but the principal cause of our unwillingness to admit that one species has given birth to other and distinct species1 is that we are always slow in admitting any great change of which we do not discern the intermediate steps4 ,just such a difficulty was felt by many geologists when ,lyell first insisted that long lines of inland cliffs had been produced1 and great valleys excavated1 by the agencies which are still at work in the earth4 ,no effort of mind can adequately grasp the meaning of even ten million of years1 nor add up and perceive the full effects of the many slight variations to which species have been subjected during an almost infinite number of generations4 ,the day1 however1 is not distant1 when mankind will have become just as thoroughly convinced that species have been modified during a long course of descent1 mainly through the ,natural ,selection of innumerous successive1 slight and favorable variations as they are that the attraction of gravitation is an important element in the maintenance of the harmony that exists among the planetary spheres4 ,that the law of the attraction of gravity1 which is perhaps the greatest discovery ever made by man1 is subversive of natural and revealed religion1 which was at one time maintained by a no more distinguished person than ,leibnitz1 is now no longer objected to1 even though its discoverer was unable to explain what is the essence of the principle he had discovered4 ,no nobler conception of ,deity could be entertained than that which attributes to ,him the creation of a few original forms capable of self-development into other and needful forms1 or the origination de novo of these simple forms from inorganic nature4 ,it places a higher estimate upon ,his ,omnipotence than the belief that ,he required a fresh act of creation to supply the voids caused by the action of ,his laws4 ,that science is as yet unable to throw any light on the far higher problem of the essence or origin of life1 should constitute no valid objection to the theory of descent4 ,when all beings are looked upon not as special creations1 but as the lineal descendants of some beings that existed long before the first bed of ancient ,siluria was deposited1 they seem to become ennobled4 ,judging from the past1 we think it safe to conclude that no existing species will transmit its unaltered likeness to a distant futurity4 ,few1 very few living species will transmit progeny of any kind1 for the manner in which all organisms are grouped shows that the majority of species in each genus1 and all the species in many genera1 have left no descendants1 but have become utterly extinct4 ,it will only be the common and widely-spread species1 belonging to the larger and dominant groups within each class1 that will ultimately prevail and procreate new and dominant species4 ,since all the living forms of life are the lineal descendants of forms that lived long anterior to the ,silurian epoch1 it is reasonably certain that the ordinary succession by generation has never once been broken1 and that no cataclysmic disaster has laid waste the entire world4 ,therefore1 we may look into the future with some confidence of an equally secure and inappreciably enduring earth-life4 ,and as ,natural ,selection operates solely by and for the good of each being1 all corporeal and mental endowments will tend to progress toward perfection4 ,when we contemplate a tangled bank1 with innumerable plants of diverse kinds1 and many-voiced birds singing in concert1 or waging destruction on manifold insects that are flitting about1 or the long1 slimy worm that has come up from its underground retreat1 we are lost in wonder and admiration1 and can only reflect that these elaborately constructed forms1 so different from each other1 and so strangely and intricately dependent on each other1 have all been evolved by laws that act all around us4 ,these are the laws of ,growth with ,reproduction2 ,inheritance1 which is almost implied by reproduction2 ,variability from the action1 direct and indirect1 of the conditions of life1 and from use and disuse2 a ,ratio of ,increase so high as to lead to a ,struggle for ,existence1 and as a consequence to ,natural ,selection1 or ,survival of the ,fittest1 entailing thereby ,divergence of ,character and the ,extinction of less-improved forms4 ,and thus1 from the war of nature1 and from famine and death1 have arisen the higher mammalia1 in which man1 the summa summarum of life1 is included4 ,he occupies the summit1 toward which the efforts of millions of buried ages seem to have been tending4 ,there is a grandeur in this view of life1 with its several powers1 originally breathed1 by the operation of the natural laws1 into one or a few forms of life1 and that1 while the earth1 in obedience to the fixed principle of gravitation1 has gone cycling on1 endless forms1 most beautiful and most wonderful1 have been1 and are being1 evolved from so simple a beginning4 ,illustration3 ,,pal,,olithic ,,men ,,attacking ,,cave ,,bear4 ,mammoth1 ,woolly ,rhinoceros1 ,musk-,sheep and ,irish ,stag in ,background4 ,while thus it has been shown that life has been progressive1 successive forms of life being the result of modification through descent1 those faring the best in the ,struggle for ,existence surviving1 by reason of some advantage1 physical or otherwise1 gained over their competitors1 yet little1 bearing specially upon man1 has been expressed in this chapter4 ,after he had acquired those intellectual and moral faculties which largely distinguish him from the lower animals in a state of nature1 he would have been but little liable to have his bodily structure modified through ,natural ,selection or any other means1 for man is enabled1 through his mental faculties1 8to keep with an unchanged body in harmony with the changing universe40 ,he has a most wonderful power of adapting his habits to altered conditions of life4 ,tools1 weapons and various devices are invented by him for the procurement of food and bodily defence4 ,and when he migrates into a colder climate1 he uses clothes1 builds sheds and makes fire1 and by its aid cooks food that would otherwise be indigestible4 ,the lower animals1 however1 must have their bodily structure modified in order to survive under greatly changed conditions4 ,they must be rendered stronger1 or acquire more effective teeth or claws1 or both1 if they would successfully defend themselves from new enemies1 or they must be reduced in proportions1 so as to escape detection and danger4 ,when they remove into colder climates they must become clothed in thicker fur1 or have their constitutions altered1 for failure to be thus modified must ultimately result in their ceasing to exist4 ,but in the case of man's intellectual and moral faculties1 as has been shown by ,wallace1 it is widely different4 ,these faculties are quite variable1 and there is reason to believe that the variations tend to be inherited4 ,therefore1 if they were formerly of high importance to palolithic man and his ape-like progenitors1 they would have been perfected or advanced through ,natural ,selection4 ,but of the high importance of the intellectual faculties there can be no question1 for man owes to them in a great measure his preminent position in the world4 ,it can be seen that1 in the rudest state of society1 the individuals who were the most sagacious1 and who were the most skilful in the invention of weapons or traps1 and who were the best able to defend themselves1 would rear the greatest number of offspring1 and that the tribes which included the largest number of men possessed of such superior endowments would increase in number and eventually supplant the other tribes4 ,numbers depend primarily on the means of subsistence1 and this on the physical nature of the country1 but in a much higher degree upon the arts therein practised4 ,as a tribe increases and is victorious1 it is often still further increased by the absorption of other tribes1 and after a time the tribes which are thus absorbed into another tribe assume1 as has been remarked by ,mr4 ,maine in his 8,ancient ,law10 that they are the co-descendants of the same ancestors4 ,stature and strength in the men of a tribe are also of importance in its success1 and these are dependent in part upon the character and the quantity of food that can be obtained4 ,men of the ,bronze ,period in ,europe were supplanted by a larger-handed and more powerful race1 but their success was probably due in a much higher degree to their superiority in the arts4 ,all that is known by savages1 as inferred from their traditions and from old monuments1 shows that from the most remote times successful tribes have supplanted others4 ,relics of extinct tribes have been found on the wild plains of ,america and on the isolated islands in the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,civilized nations are everywhere at the present time supplanting barbarous peoples1 excepting where climate opposes a fatal barrier1 and they thus succeed in a great measure1 though not exclusively1 through the arts1 which are the products of the intellect4 ,with mankind1 then1 it is highly probable that the intellectual faculties have been gradually perfected through ,natural ,selection4 ,undoubtedly it would have been interesting to have traced the development of each separate faculty from the state in which it exists in the lower animals to that in which it exists in man1 but this would have been a task of no easy accomplishment4 ,as soon1 however1 as the progenitors of man became social1 and this probably occurred at a very early period1 the advancement of the intellectual faculties would have been aided and modified in an important manner1 for if one man in a tribe1 more sagacious than his fellows1 had invented a new snare or a weapon1 or other means of attack or defence1 the plainest self-interest1 with no great help of reasoning power1 would have prompted the other members to have imitated him1 and thus all would have been profited4 ,habitual practice of each new art must likewise in some slight degree strengthen the intellect4 ,if the new invention were an important one1 the tribe would increase in numbers1 spread and supplant other tribes1 and thus rendered stronger numerically there would be a better chance of the birth of other superior and inventive members4 ,should these last be so fortunate as to leave children to inherit their mental superiority1 the chance of the birth of still more ingenious members would be somewhat better1 and in a very small tribe would be decidedly better4 ,that primeval man1 or his ape-like progenitors1 should have become social1 they must have acquired the same instinctive feelings which impel other animals to live in a body1 and they doubtless exhibited the same general disposition4 ,when separated from their companions1 for whom they would have felt some degree of love1 they would have experienced a feeling of uneasiness4 ,they would have warned each other of danger1 and have given mutual aid in attack or defence4 ,all this implies some degree of sympathy1 fidelity and courage4 ,such social qualities1 whose paramount importance to the lower animals is undisputed1 were doubtless acquired by the progenitors of men in a similar manner1 namely1 through ,natural ,selection1 aided by inherited habit4 ,in the never-ceasing wars of savages1 fidelity and courage are all-important1 and certainly when two tribes of primeval man1 living in the same country1 came into competition1 the one that contained the greatest number of courageous1 sympathetic and faithful members1 who were ever ready to warn each other of danger1 and to assist and defend each other1 would without doubt succeed the best and conquer the other4 ,the advantage which disciplined soldiers have over undisciplined hordes follows mainly from the confidence which each soldier has in his comrades4 ,obedience is of the highest importance1 for any form of government is better than none4 ,selfish and contentious people will not cohere1 and without coherence nothing can be effected4 ,thus1 a tribe possessing these qualities in an eminent degree would spread and be victorious over other tribes4 ,but1 in the course of events1 or all past history is a myth1 this successful tribe would in its turn be overcome by some other more highly-endowed tribe2 and thus would the social and moral qualities tend slowly to advance and be diffused throughout the world4 ,praise and the blame of our fellow-men are much more powerful stimuli to the development of the social qualities4 ,these virtues are primarily due to the instinct of sympathy1 and this instinct1 like all other social instincts1 was doubtlessly acquired through ,natural ,selection4 ,how early man's progenitors1 in the course of their development1 became capable of feeling and being impelled by the praise or blame of their fellow-men1 we are unable to say4 ,even dogs appreciate encouragement1 praise and blame1 and it would be strange if such could not be predicated of beings higher in the scale4 ,the wildest savages feel the sentiment of glory4 ,this is clearly shown by their preservation of the trophies of their bravery1 by their habit of excessive boasting1 and even by the extreme care they take of their personal appearance and adornments4 ,unless1 however1 they regarded the opinion of their comrades1 such habits would be without meaning and senseless4 ,how far the savage experiences remorse1 is doubtful4 ,he certainly feels shame and contrition for the breach of some of the lesser rules of his tribe4 ,it is true that remorse is a deeply-hidden feeling1 but it is hardly credible that a being who will sacrifice his life rather than betray his tribe1 or give himself up as a prisoner rather than violate his parole1 would not feel remorse1 though he might1 if he failed in a duty which he held sacred1 hide it from view4 ,primeval man must have been1 at a very remote time1 influenced by the praise and blame of his fellows4 ,that the members of the same tribe would approve of conduct that appeared for the general good1 and reprobate such as seemed to carry with it evil1 there can be no question4 ,to do good unto others1 or to do unto others as you would that they should do unto you1 is the foundation-stone of morality4 ,it is1 therefore1 hardly possible to place too high an estimate upon the importance of the love of praise and fear of blame during rude1 barbaric times1 for a man1 who was not impelled by any profound instinctive feeling to sacrifice his life for the good of others1 but who was raised to such a noble action by a sense of glory1 would by his example excite a similar wish for glory in the bosoms of other men1 and would thereby engender and strengthen by exercise the laudable feeling of admiration4 ,with increased experience and reason1 those more remote consequences of his actions1 such as temperance1 chastity1 etc41 which during his very early times were utterly disregarded1 would come to be highly esteemed or even held sacred4 ,and ultimately there would have been developed from the social instincts a highly-complex sentiment which1 largely guided by the approbation of his fellow-men1 and ruled by reason1 self-interest1 and latterly by deep religious feelings1 confirmed by teaching and habit1 would constitute his moral sense or conscience4 ,although a high standard of morality gives but little if any advantage to each individual man and his children over the other men of the same tribe1 yet it must be borne in mind that it is an advancement in the standard of morality and an increase in the number of well-endowed men that certainly give a telling advantage to a tribe over another1 for the tribe that includes many members who1 from possessing in an eminent degree the spirit of patriotism1 fidelity1 obedience1 courage and sympathy1 and who were always prepared to give aid to each other1 and to sacrifice themselves for the common weal1 would be victorious over most other tribes4 ,and this would be ,natural ,selection4 ,tribes at all times throughout the world have supplanted other tribes4 ,now1 as morality is one element in their success1 the standard of morality and the number of well-endowed men will thus everywhere tend to rise and increase4 ,very difficult it is to form any judgment why one particular tribe and not another has been successful in the ,struggle for ,existence and has risen in the scale of civilization4 ,many savages are still in the same condition of degradation as when first discovered4 ,the greatest part of mankind has never evinced the slightest desire that their civil institutions should be improved4 ,progress is not1 as we are apt to consider1 the normal rule in human society4 ,many concurrent favorable conditions1 far too complex to be followed out1 seem to determine human progress4 ,a cool climate1 it has been remarked1 by leading to industry and the various arts1 has been indispensable thereto1 but if the climate has been too severe1 as in the ,arctic regions1 there is a check to continual progress4 ,pressed by hard necessity1 the ,esquimaux have succeeded in many ingenious inventions1 but they can never attain1 for the reason already assigned1 to any very great success4 ,nomadic habits1 whether along the shores of the sea1 or over wide plains1 or through dense tropical forests1 have in all cases proved detrimental4 ,perhaps1 the possession of some property1 a fixed abode1 and the union of many families under a leader or chief1 are indispensable requisites for civilization1 as such habits almost necessitate the cultivation of the ground4 ,from some such accident as the falling of the seeds of a fruit-tree on a heap of refuse and producing an unusually fine variety may probably have resulted the first steps in cultivation1 for if the fruit were profitable and good for food1 it would be a very dull intellect that could not readily perceive1 especially among a people that had given up a roving habit of life1 the advantage which would accrue from the planting of some more trees of a similar kind4 ,they would undoubtedly be led to cultivation for themselves by a simple observation of the plan by which nature contrives in keeping up a continuation of her many kinds of plants4 ,instead of dropping the seeds upon the ground as nature is prone to do1 and trusting to their burial by accident or otherwise1 seeing the advantage to be gained by burying them out of the reach of noxious influences1 whether of climate or animal life1 they would soon learn to take the matter of planting under their own watchful care rather than leave it to the seemingly thoughtless provision of nature4 ,but the problem of the first advance of palolithic man toward civilization1 is at present much too difficult to be solved1 for it involves the consideration of certain elements which we know too little about1 and their disentanglement from others whose value is of recognized significance in the domain of biological science4 ,while it has been shown how it has been possible for primeval man to have acquired a moral sense or conscience1 yet it must not be forgotten that the lower animals1 at least such as have come under the civilizing influence of man1 have also come into possession of the same highly complex sentiment which has been of such inestimable service to man for his progressive advancement4 ,other faculties1 such as the powers of imagination1 wonder1 curiosity1 an undefined sense of beauty1 a tendency to imitation1 and the love of excitement or novelty1 have also been of immense importance in this direction1 for they could not fail to have led to the most capricious changes of customs and fashions4 ,caprice1 it has been rather oddly claimed by a recent writer1 is 8one of the most remarkable and typical differences between savages and brutes40 ,it is not only possible to perceive how it is that man is capricious1 but the lower animals1 as has been previously shown1 are capricious in their affections1 aversions and sense of beauty4 ,and there is good reason to suspect that they love novelty for its own sake4 ,self-consciousness1 individuality1 abstraction1 general ideas1 etc41 which have been held by several recent writers as making the sole and complete distinction between man and the brutes1 seem useless subjects for discussion1 since hardly any two authors agree in their definitions of these high faculties4 ,in man1 such faculties could not have been fully developed until his mental powers had advanced to a high state of perfection1 and this implies the use of a highly-developed language4 ,no one supposes that one of the lower animals reflects whence he comes or whither he goes1 or what is death or what is life1 but can one feel sure that an old dog with an excellent memory1 and some power of imagination as shown by his dreams1 never reflects on his past pleasures in the chase8 ,and this would be a form of self-consciousness4 ,on the contrary1 as ,bchner ably remarks1 how little can the hard-worked wife of an ,australian savage who scarcely uses any abstract words and whose ability to count does not extend beyond four1 exert her self-consciousness1 or reflect on the origin1 nature and aim of her own existence4 ,that animals retain their mental individuality is unquestioned1 for when any voice awakens a train of old associations in the mind of some favorite dog1 as in the case of my dog ,frisky1 already referred to1 he must have retained his mental individuality1 although every atom of his brain had probably undergone change more than once during the five or six years he lived in my family4 ,animals have some ideas of numbers4 ,the crow has been known to count as far as the number six1 and a dog ,i once had knew as well as ,i did when ,saturday came4 ,the sense of beauty1 which has been declared peculiar to man1 is innate in birds4 ,certain bright colors and certain sounds1 when in harmony1 excite in them pleasure as they do in man4 ,the taste for the beautiful1 at least so far as female beauty is concerned1 is not of a special nature in the human mind1 for it differs widely in the different races of man1 and is not quite the same even in the different nations of the same race4 ,if we are to judge from the hideous ornaments and the equally hideous music admired by most savages1 it might be urged that their sthetic faculty was less highly developed than it is in some species of birds4 ,no animal1 it is obvious1 would be capable of admiring the nocturnal heaven1 a beautiful landscape1 or refined music4 ,and this should not be wondered at1 for such high tastes1 dependent as they are upon culture and complex associations1 are not even enjoyed by barbarous or by uneducated persons4 ,seeing that man in a state of nature has no preminence above the lower animals so far as his mental and moral qualities are concerned1 and in many instances ranks far below the so-called brute1 let us examine fora short time his religious nature4 ,no evidence exists to show that man was aboriginally endowed with the ennobling belief in the existence of an ,omnipotent ,god4 ,on the contrary1 ample evidence1 not from hasty travellers1 but from men who have long resided with savages1 can be adduced to show that numerous races have existed1 and still exist1 who have no idea of one or more gods1 and who have no words in their languages to express such an idea4 ,if under the term religion is included the belief in unseen or spiritual agencies1 the case is entirely different1 for this belief seems to be almost universal with the less civilized races4 ,nor is it difficult to understand how it originated4 ,with the development of the imagination1 wonder and curiosity1 and of a moderate power of reasoning1 man would naturally have craved to understand what was going on around him1 and even have vaguely speculated on his own existence4 ,according to ,mc,lennan man must1 in his efforts to arrive at some explanation of the phenomena of life1 feign for himself4 ,judging from the universality of this life1 the same author remarks that 8the simplest hypothesis1 and the first to occur to men1 seems to have been that natural phenomena are ascribable to the presence in animals1 plants and things1 and in the forces of nature1 of such spirits prompting to action as men are conscious they themselves possess40 ,probably1 as has been clearly shown by ,tyler1 dreams may have first given rise to the notion of spirits4 ,savages do not readily discriminate between subjective and objective phenomena4 ,when a savage dreams1 the figures which appear in his vision are believed to have come from a distance and to stand over him1 or the soul of the dreamer goes out on a journey and returns with a remembrance of what has been seen4 ,that tendency in savages to imagine that natural objects and agencies are animated by living or spiritual beings may be illustrated by a little fact which ,i have frequently noticed4 ,standing on the corner of a street1 waiting for a closed snow-sweeper1 which was driven by electricity1 to pass1 my attention was directed to a young horse that was geared to a hansom4 ,the horse was at rest1 and its driver1 evidently awaiting some one1 sat upon the box4 ,upon the appearance of the sweeper the horse reared1 turned his face directly toward the object of his fear1 pawed the pavement in the most impatient manner possible1 and then looked wistfully and pleadingly at his master1 as though imploring protection from some fearful and gigantic monster4 ,another sweeper passed while ,i was still in waiting1 and the poor animal went through the same trying and fearful ordeal as before4 ,he must1 ,i think1 have reasoned in a rapid and unconscious manner1 that movement without any apparent cause indicated the presence of some strange living agent1 which was about to do him some serious physical harm4 ,belief in spiritual agencies would thus easily pass into a belief in the existence of one or more gods1 for savages would naturally ascribe to spirits the same passions1 the same line of vengeance or simple form of justice1 and the same affections which they themselves experienced4 ,religious devotion is a highly complex feeling4 ,love1 complete submission to an exalted and mysterious superior1 a strong sense of dependence1 fear1 reverence1 gratitude1 hope for the future and other elements enter into its composition4 ,no being could experience so complex an emotion unless his intellectual and moral faculties had attained a moderately high level4 ,some approach to this high state of mind is visible in the profound love of a dog for his master1 for it is associated with complete submission1 some fear1 reverence1 gratitude and perhaps other feelings4 ,a dog's behavior towards his master1 after a long absence1 is widely different from that which he shows towards his fellows1 for his transports of joy in the latter case are less intense1 and his every action savors of a mere sense of equality4 ,but upon his master1 as ,prof4 ,braubach goes so far as to maintain1 he looks as on a god4 ,these high mental faculties1 which first led man to believe in unseen spiritual agencies1 and subsequently in fetishism1 polytheism and monotheism1 would infallibly lead him1 as long as his reasoning powers remained at a very low level1 to various strange superstitions and customs1 many of which1 such as the sacrifice of human beings to a blood-loving god and the trial of innocent persons by the ordeal of poison or fire1 are too terrible to contemplate4 ,it is well1 however1 to reflect occasionally on these superstitions1 for they show us what an infinite debt of gratitude we owe to improved reason1 science and accumulated knowledge4 ,how much better is the life of civilized man than that of the savage1 for as ,lubbock has well remarked1 8it is not too much to say that the horrible dread of unknown evil hangs like a thick cloud over savage life1 and embitters every pleasure40 ,from the opinions advanced1 it is evident that the belief in ,god has been the ultimate outcome of belief in unseen spiritual agencies4 ,there has been a gradual leading up through fetishism and polytheism to monotheism4 ,if religion implies belief in unseen agencies1 as well as belief in a personal agency in the universe strong enough to influence conduct in any degree1 then it is obvious that there has been a progressive advancement in religious thought1 each succeeding form of religion by its superior advantages over its predecessor tending to supplant it wherever and whenever its beneficent influences are felt4 ,it is true that fetishism and polytheism still prevail among rude1 uncultured peoples1 as well as the worship of false deities and prophets1 but with the spread of the civilizing and elevating influence of ,christianity these religions in the fitness of time will disappear4 ,christianity1 from its foundation in ,judaism1 has throughout been a religion of sacrifice and sorrow4 ,it has been a religion of blood and tears1 and yet one of profoundest happiness to its votaries4 ,while fakirs hang on hooks1 and pagans cut themselves and even their children1 for the sake of propitiating diabolical deities1 yet ,christianity1 which has its roots in ,judaism1 has no need for such practices4 ,it is par excellence the religion of sorrow1 because it reaches to truer and deeper levels of our spiritual nature1 and therefore has capabilities both of sorrow and joy which are presumably non-existent except in civilized man4 ,they are the sorrows and joys which arise from the fully-developed consciousness of sin against a ,god of ,love1 as distinguished from propitiation of malignant spirits4 ,these joys and sorrows are wholly spiritual1 not merely physical4 8,thou desirest no sacrifice40 ,god's only sacrifice at the hands of sinful man is a troubled spirit4 ,estimated by the influence which ,he has exerted on mankind1 there can be no question1 even from a secular point of view1 that ,christ is much the greatest man who has ever lived4 ,that the revolution which ,his teachings have effected in human life is immeasurable and unparalleled by any other movement in history is unquestioned4 ,though most nearly approached by the religion of the ,jews1 of which it is a development1 so that it may be regarded as of a piece with it1 it is evident that this whole system of religion is so immeasurably in advance of all others that it may be truthfully said1 if it had not been for the ,jews1 the human race would have had no religion worthy of serious consideration4 ,had it not been for this religion man's spiritual side would not have been developed in civilized life4 ,and although there are numberless individuals who are all unconscious of its development in themselves1 yet these have been influenced to an enormous extent by the religious atmosphere by which they are surrounded4 ,not only is ,christianity so immeasurably in advance of all other religions1 but it is no less of every other system of thought that has ever been promulgated in regard to what is moral and spiritual4 ,neither philosophy1 science nor poetry has ever produced results in thought1 conduct or beauty in any degree comparable with it4 ,what has science or philosophy done for the thought of mankind compared with what has been done by the single doctrine1 8,god is love80 ,the ,story of the ,cross1 from its commencement in prophetic aspiration to its culmination in the ,gospel1 is preminently the most magnificent presentation in literature4 ,only to a man wholly destitute of religious perception can ,christianity fail to appear the greatest exhibition of the beautiful1 the sublime1 and of all else that appeals to our spiritual nature1 which has ever been known upon the earth4 ,it is not only adapted to men of the highest culture1 but the most remarkable thing about it is its perfect adaptation to all sorts and conditions of men4 ,its problems1 historical and philosophical1 open up to you worlds of material1 over which you may spend your life with the same interminable interest as the student meets in the fields of natural science4 ,whatever our theory of the origin of man1 there can be no doubt that we all feel that his intellectual part is higher than the animal2 and that the moral is higher than the intellectual1 whatever our theory of either may be2 and that the spiritual is higher than the moral1 whatever our theory of religion may be4 ,it is what is understood by his moral1 and still more by his spiritual qualities1 that make up what is called his character1 and1 astonishing to say1 it is character that tells in the long run4 ,morality and spirituality are two different things1 for a man may be highly moral in conduct without being in any degree spiritual in nature1 and the reverse1 though to a less extent4 ,objectively1 the same distinction subsists between morals and religion4 ,intellectual pleasures are more satisfying and enduring than sensual1 or even sensuous2 and spiritual1 to those who have experienced them1 than intellectual1 an objective fact1 abundantly testified to by those who have had experience1 which seems to indicate that the spiritual nature of man is the highest part of man--the culminating point of his being4 ,that there will always be materialists and spiritualists1 as ,renan says1 is probably true1 inasmuch as it will always be observable on the one hand that there is no thought without brain1 while1 on the other hand1 the instincts of man will always aspire to higher beliefs4 ,if religion is true1 and life is a state of probation1 this is just what ought to be4 ,it is not probable that the materialistic position1 which is discredited even by philosophy1 is due simply to custom and a want of imagination4 ,else why the inextinguishable instincts which we have thus shown to exist8 ,illustration3 ,,era ,,of ,,mind ,,and ,,heart4 ,things as ,they ,will ,exist in a ,future ,earth-,life4 ,evolution1 not only of the earth1 but of its organic machinery1 by natural causes1 is now no longer doubted4 ,that this has taken place by degrees is equally unquestioned4 ,now1 if there is a ,deity1 the fact is certainly of the nature of a first principle1 and it must be first of all first principles4 ,no one can dispute this1 nor can any one dispute the necessary conclusion that1 if there be a ,deity1 he is knowable1 if knowable at all1 by intuition and not by reason4 ,from its very nature1 as a little thought is sufficient to show1 reason is utterly incapable of adjudicating on the subject1 for it is a process of inferring from the known to the unknown4 ,it would be against reason itself to suppose that ,deity1 even if ,he exists1 can be known by reason4 ,he must be known1 if knowable at all1 by intuition4 ,if there is a ,deity1 then it seems to be in some indefinite degree more probable that ,he should impart a ,revelation than that ,he should not have done so4 ,as a mere matter of evidence1 a sudden revelation might be much more convincing than a gradual one1 but it would be quite out of analogy with causation in nature4 ,besides1 a gradual one might be given easily1 and of demonstrative value1 as by making prophecies of historical events1 scientific discoveries and other things so clear as to be unmistakable4 ,but a demonstrative revelation has not been made1 and there may well be good reasons why it should not have been made4 ,if there are such reasons1 as1 for example1 our state of probation1 we can well see 8that the gradual unfolding of a plan of revelation1 from earliest dawn of history to the end of the world1 is much preferable to a sudden manifestation sufficiently late in the world's history to be historically attested for all subsequent time40 ,gradual evolution1 as has been said before1 is in analogy with ,god's other work4 ,if ,revelation has been of a progressive character1 then it follows that it must have been so not only historically1 but intellectually1 morally and spiritually1 for in such sequence could it be always adapted to the advancing conditions of the human race4 ,thus it will be seen that all through the ages some mighty influence has been at work1 directly or indirectly1 in preparing this earth by slow and gradual changes for a steadily progressive succession of vegetable and animal life4 ,that life best fitted to meet new and changing conditions of environment being preserved by a process of natural selection4 ,and from a few primordial types1 far simpler than the lowest of existing structureless moners1 or from some living protoplasmic mass1 elaborated by some form of energy acting upon inorganic nature1 there have been evolved in the millions of years of earth-life our existing flora and fauna4 ,man1 the pinnacle of animal life1 has come up through the life that preceded him1 and bears in the history of his development from the ovum to the adult state the line of his descent4 ,not only has his physical nature been evolved through the action of natural laws impressed upon living matter by ,deity1 but that subtle principle1 termed mind1 which has attained such a wonderful growth in his civilized condition1 is but the outcome of the mind of a long line of life antecedent to his appearance on the globe4 ,his moral nature was similarly acquired1 and most probably in the manner already explained4 ,palolithic man1 like the ,australian of to-day1 was1 as has been shown1 but little superior in intelligence to some of the animals with whom he was contemporaneous4 ,he lived the life of the mere animal1 and as an animal could be said to have had no preminence above a beast4 ,like the latter1 he was a living1 breathing frame1 or body of life2 a living1 but not an everliving1 soul4 ,in time1 as conditions became favorable1 he passed into the moral stage of his being1 but not without increased intellectuality1 and would thus have continued1 but going on and adding to his mental and moral possessions1 had not ,deity1 in the fitness of time1 prepared the way through ,christ1 whereby his corruptible nature should be made incorruptible and immortal4 ,unless man is 8born of the spirit0 he cannot inherit the kingdom of ,god4 ,he must be 8changed into spirit10 put on incorruptibility and immortality of body1 or he will be physically incapable of retaining the honor1 glory and power of the kingdom forever1 or even during ,christ's reign of a thousand years upon earth4 ,that there is a distinction between a living soul and a spiritual body cannot be questioned4 ,speaking about body1 the apostle ,paul says1 8there is a natural body1 and there is a spiritual body1 but he does not content himself with simply declaring this truth1 but goes further and proves it by quoting the language of ,moses1 saying1 8for so it is written1 the first man ,adam was made into a living soul20 and then adding1 8the last ,adam into a spirit giving life40 ,and in another place1 speaking of the latter1 he says of ,him1 8now the ,lord is the spirit4 ,and we all1 with unveiled face1 beholding as in a mirror1 the glory of the ,lord1 are changed into ,his image from glory into glory1 as by the ,lord the ,spirit40 ,therefore1 the proof of the apostle's proposition1 that there is a natural body as distinct from a spiritual body1 lies in the testimony that 8,adam was made into a living soul10 showing that he considered a natural1 or animal body1 and a living soul1 as one and the same thing4 ,if he did not1 then there was no proof in the quotation of what he affirmed4 ,mortality1 then1 is life manifested through a corruptible body1 and immortality is life manifested through an incorruptible body4 ,hence1 the necessity laid down in the saying of the apostle1 8this corruptible body must put on incorruption1 and this mortal put on immortality10 before death can be 8swallowed up in victory10--a doctrine of 8life and incorruptibility0 that was new to the ,greeks and ,romans1 and brought to light only through the gospel of the kingdom and name of ,jesus ,christ4 ,to them it was foolishness1 and to many at the present day incredible1 because they do not understand the glad tidings of the age to come4 ,god could have created all things upon a spiritual or incorruptible basis at once1 but in that case the globe would have been filled with men and women equal to the angels in nature1 power and intellect1 and hence would have been without a history1 and its population characterless4 ,and this would not have been according to ,his plan1 for in it the animal must precede the spiritual just as surely as the acorn must precede the oak4 ,the ,bible has to do with things and not with imaginations2 with bodies and not phantasms2 with living souls of every species2 with corporeal beings of other worlds1 and with incorruptible and undying men1 but is as silent as the grave about such souls as men pretend to cure4 ,for the sons of ,adam to become sons of ,god1 they must be the subjects of an adoption1 which is attainable only by a divinely appointed means4 ,it must be by a process of selection4 8,since by a man came death1 by a man also came a resurrection of dead persons4 ,for as in the ,adam they all die1 so also in the ,christ shall they all be made alive4 ,but every one in his order4 ,christ the first fruits2 afterward they that are ,christ's at ,his coming40 ,here it is obvious that the apostle is not writing of all the individuals of the human race1 but only such that become the subject of a pardon of life4 ,it is true that all men do die1 but it is not true that they are all the subject of pardon4 ,those who are pardoned are 8the many10 who are sentenced to live forever4 ,the sentence to pardon of life is through ,jesus ,christ who in pouring out ,his blood upon the cross1 was made a sacrifice for sin4 8,he was delivered for our offences1 and raised again for our justification10 that is1 for the pardon of those who believe the gospel4 ,as it is written1 8he that believeth the gospel1 and is baptized1 shall be saved40 ,hence1 8the obedience of faith0 is made the condition of righteousness1 and this obedience implies the existence of a 8law of faith10 as attested by that of ,moses1 which is 8the law of works40 ,having believed the gospel and been baptized1 such a person is required to 8walk worthy of the vocation10 or calling1 8wherewith he has been called10 that by so doing he may be 8accounted worthy0 of being 8born of spirit10 that he may become 8spirit10 or a spiritual body1 and so enter the kingdom of ,god1 crowned with 8glory1 honor1 incorruptibility and life40 ,from all the above1 it must be obvious to the unbiassed mind1 that all will not arise to newness of life1 8for as many of you1 as have been baptized into ,christ have put on ,christ1 and if ye be ,christ's1 then are ye the seed of ,abraham1 and heirs according to the promise40 ,when they have been thus baptized1 then they have received the spirit of adoption1 or have been elected into ,god's family1 and then they can address ,god as their ,father who is in heaven4 ,thus adopted into ,god's family through faith in ,jesus ,christ1 it must not be supposed that they have attained to that perfect condition of knowing all that is to be known4 ,new glories will continually open up to their admiring vision1 and new facts be revealed through the eternity of futurity4 ,man will carry his earth-acquired knowledge into the other world1 and little by little will he add to his fund4 ,those who have made the best of their time in their probationary existence1 will rank as much above their fellows in the heaven-life as they did in the earth-life1 and like the others will reach up to higher acquirements4 ,there will be no equalization of talents1 capacities and possessions1 but each will be satisfied with his own1 and all will endeavor to be as like unto ,christ as the conditions of their heavenly environment will permit4 ,there will be grades of ability and character in the new life1 but all of the very highest standard when measured by what prevails in the earth-life4 ,this is the teaching of the ,scriptures4 8,there is one glory of the sun1 and another glory of the moon1 and another glory of the stars2 for one star differeth from another star in glory4 ,so also is the resurrection of the dead40 ,now as to the part that animals and plants shall figure in the new existence4 ,revelation1 as has been seen1 was given to man4 ,this does not imply that the lower forms of life were not made 8partakers of the divine nature40 ,when man was placed upon this earth1 or rather when in the sequence of events1 which was brought about by the prescribed scheme of ,divinity1 he appeared upon the earth1 he was given the control of all the creatures of ,god's hands1 to rule them as his judgment seemed best4 ,they were a necessary part of the plan of creation4 ,god gave the man directions concerning them1 and what they are1 and we refer to the domesticated species especially1 they have thus been made through man's wise1 intelligent and thoughtful selection4 ,this has been the instrument through which ,god has worked in building up a history and a character for the humbler works of ,his hands4 ,that they shall pass into the future life with him1 at least such as have shown their fitness to endure1 there can be no doubt in the mind of any one who pauses a few brief moments in the rush and turmoil of everyday life and considers the matter with all due seriousness4 ,all existence1 as we have elsewhere claimed1 is a unit4 ,all life1 like all love1 is divine4 ,there can nothing exist that does not contain some sort of development of soul4 ,there is no escape from this assertion4 ,instead of isolating ourselves then from the humbler creatures of ,god's workmanship1 let us recognize them as our kin and include them in the grand scheme of redemption1 and as partakers with us in the future state of ,divine ,love and in higher and endlessly higher development and progress4 ,,man',s ,,pre,,minence4 ,there is a popular tradition that somewhere in the ,scriptures we are taught that of all living denizens of the earth1 man alone possesses a spirit1 and that he alone survives in spirit after the death of the material body4 ,were this the truth1 no room would exist for argument to those who profess belief in a literal rendering of the ,scriptures1 and who base their faith upon that literal belief4 ,however much such a statement might seem to controvert all ideas of benevolence1 justice and common-sense1 such believers would feel bound to accept it on trust1 and to wait a future time for its full comprehension4 ,even the possession of reason is denied by many persons to animals1 their several actions being ascribed to the power of instinct1 and it is therefore not the least bit strange that all but a comparatively few should believe that when an animal dies1 its life-principle dies too4 ,the animating power1 they claim1 is annihilated1 while the body is resolved into its constituent elements so as to take form in other bodies4 ,two passages of ,scripture1 one in the ,psalms and the other in ,ecclesiastes1 are almost entirely1 if not wholly1 responsible for this belief4 ,the former1 which runs in the authorized version1 8,nevertheless1 man being in honor1 abideth not2 he is like the beasts that perish10 is that which is generally quoted as decisive of the whole question4 8,man1 being in honor1 hath no understanding1 but is compared to the beasts that perish0 is another translation1 but differs not materially from the other4 ,the second passage referred to from ,ecclesiastes1 reads3 8,who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward1 and the spirit of the beast that goeth downward to the earth80 ,now1 it is upon the strength of these two passages that we are called upon to believe that when a beast dies its life1 like that of an expired lamp1 goes out forever4 ,nothing is more dangerous in the exposition of ,scripture than attempting to explain a passage1 however simple it may seem to be1 without reference to the original text1 for the translator may have mistaken the true sense of the words1 or he may have inadequately expressed their signification1 or1 owing to a change in meaning1 the words of a passage may now bear an exactly contrary sense to that conveyed when they were first written4 ,but laying aside this point for the present1 and accepting the passage as it stands1 as well as the literal meaning of the words as generally understood1 there can be no doubt that we must believe that beasts are not possessed of immortal life4 ,if1 however1 we are to take the literal sense of the ,bible1 and no other1 we are equally forced to believe that man has no life after death4 ,the book of ,psalms is full of examples4 ,let us take a few from the many that might be given3 8,in death there is no remembrance of thee3 in the grave1 who shall give thee thanks80 8,the dead praise not the ,lord1 neither any that go down into silence40 8,his breath goeth forth1 he returneth to his earth2 in that very day his thoughts perish40 ,taken solely in their literal sense1 there can be no doubt of their meaning4 ,nothing more gloomy1 dreary or more despondent can be found in the entire range of heathen literature than these passages1 and others that might be quoted from the inspired ,psalmist1 in the contemplation of death4 ,in the very book from which the single passage was taken1 which is claimed to deny immortality to the lower animals1 there are five times as many passages that proclaim the same sad end to the life of man4 ,we are distinctly and definitely told therein that those who have died have no remembrance of ,god1 and cannot praise ,him4 ,death has been spoken of as the 8land of forgetfulness0--the place of darkness1 where all man's thoughts perish4 ,certainly no more than this can be said of the 8beasts that perish40 ,other holy writers make similar affirmations4 ,speaking of mankind in general1 who 8dwell in houses of clay10 ,job says3 8,they are destroyed from morning to evening2 they perish forever1 without any regarding it40 ,again he says1 and the passage is more definite than the preceding3 8,as the cloud is consumed and vanisheth away1 so he that goeth down to the grave shall come up no more40 ,and still again3 8,man dieth1 and wasteth away3 yea1 man giveth up the ghost1 and where is he8 ,as the waters fail from the sea1 and the flood decayeth and drieth up3 so man lieth down1 and riseth not40 ,chapters ,,iii and ,x tell of the piteous lamentations of ,job over his life1 wherein he complains that he ever was born1 that existence was ever given to him1 that he was ever taken from a state of absolute nonentity1 and that even death itself can bring no relief to his miseries except extinction4 ,turning to ,ecclesiastes1 in which book occurs the solitary passage which is held to disprove a future existence to the lower animals1 there are passages which are even more emphatic as to the immortality of man4 ,read what is declared3 8,i said in my heart concerning the estate of the sons of men1 that ,god might manifest them1 and that they might see that they themselves are beasts4 ,for that which befalleth the sons of men befalleth beasts2 even one thing befalleth them4 ,as the one dieth1 so dieth the other2 yea1 they have all one breath1 so that a man has no preminence over a beast3 for all is vanity4 ,all go unto one place2 all are of the dust1 and all turn to dust again40 ,further it is said3 8,for the living know that they shall die1 but the dead know not anything1 neither have they any more a reward1 for the memory of them is forgotten40 8,whatsoever thy hand findeth to do1 do it with thy might2 for there is no work1 nor device1 nor knowledge1 nor wisdom in the grave whither thou goest40 ,literally interpreted1 no one can doubt the import of these words from ,ecclesiastes1 for they definitely state that1 as regards a future life1 there is no distinction between man and beast1 and that when they die they all go to the same place4 ,it is also distinctly stated that after death man can do no work1 know nothing1 nor receive any reward4 ,were we to deduce our ideas of the condition of man after death from the irrepressibly sad and gloomy passages from ,job and ,ecclesiastes1 most deplorable and hopeless would be the very thought of dissolution4 ,but we do not accept them in this light4 ,they are written symbolically1 and there underlies them a spiritual sense4 ,it is not1 however1 the latter sense that concerns us at present1 but the literal meaning of the translation1 and1 according to that literal meaning1 if we take two texts to prove that beasts have no future life1 we are compelled by no less than fourteen passages to believe that man1 in common with beasts1 has no better prospect4 ,we have no right to say which passages are to be taken literally1 and which parabolically1 but must apply the same test to all alike1 and treat all in a similar manner4 ,all classical readers are familiar with that wonderful eleventh book of ,homer's ,odyssey1 called the ,necyomanteia1 or ,invocation of the ,dead1 in which ,ulysses is depicted as descending into the regions of departed spirits for the purpose of invoking them and obtaining advice as to his future adventures4 ,dreary1 and horrible indeed1 are the revelations which the whole of the strange history makes of the condition of the future life4 ,all is wild and dark1 and hunger1 thirst and discontent prevail4 ,nothing is heard of elysian fields1 where piety1 wisdom and virtue abound4 ,gloom1 misery and vain regrets for earth pervade the entire episode4 ,when is considered this heathen poet's ideas concerning the future state of man1 it is no wonder that sensual pleasures should be held as the principal object of his life when he is to look forward to such a future1 a future from which neither wisdom1 nor virtue1 nor piety could save him1 and where there is nothing but an eternity of gloom1 remorse and hopeless despondency4 ,sad as this picture is1 yet it is far brighter than that of the ,psalmist1 the ,preacher1 or ,job4 ,those who have passed into the world of spirits still retain their individuality after death1 being distinguished in the spirit as they had been in the flesh4 ,memory survives the body's death4 ,naught of their earthly career is forgotten4 ,they still have an interest in their friends that remain in the body whom they love1 and over whose well-being they unceasingly watch4 ,no such consolation1 as has been described1 exists in the future state of man if the passages of ,scripture that have been quoted are taken in a literal sense4 ,man1 in that event1 passes at death into a place of darkness1 forgetfulness and silence1 where there is no work1 nor device1 nor knowledge1 nor wisdom1 and where even his very thoughts perish4 ,no other interpretation1 if taken literally1 can be put upon them1 for the statements are too explicit to be explained away or softened4 ,in the outward sense of their writings the ,psalmist1 ,job and the ,preacher are on an equality with ,horace in their absolute unbelief in a future existence1 and in a consequent desire to snatch what fleeting pleasures they can from earth before the inexorable law of fate consigns them to dark oblivion4 ,startling as it may seem to compare the teachings of a ,greek idolater and of a ,latin ,epicurean heathen with those of sacred writers1 yet it is still more startling to show that the teachings of the ,epicurean sensualist are not a whit wiser than those of the ,scriptural writer1 while those of the ,greek poet are very much better4 ,such1 however1 is the fact1 and1 if we are to be bound by the literal interpretation of the ,scriptures1 there is no possibility of denying it without doing violence to reason and common-sense4 ,we are now brought face to face with the point previously mentioned4 ,does the authorized version give a full and correct interpretation of the original8 ,it is claimed that it does not4 ,the word 8perish10 it is said1 does not occur at all in the ,hebrew text1 nor is even the idea expressed4 ,no such translation as 8beasts that perish10 which appears twice in our version1 is justified by the ,hebrew1 the words of the original implying 8dumb beasts40 ,the idea of perishing1 in the sense of annihilation1 does not seem to be implied4 ,let us take the ,jewish ,bible1 which is acknowledged to be the best and closest translation in the ,english language1 and examine it4 ,both in verses #ab and #bj of ,psalm ,,xlix1 where the passage occurs1 the rendering reads3 8,man that is in honor1 and understandeth this not1 is like the beasts that are irrational40 ,as an alternative reading for 8irrational10 the word 8dumb0 is given in a footnote4 ,a somewhat similar reading is found in the ,septuagint1 which1 according to ,brunton1 runs as follows3 8,man that is in honor understands not2 he is compared to the senseless cattle1 and is like them40 ,in ,wycliffe's ,bible1 which is a translation from the ,vulgate1 the passage is rendered3 8,a man whanne he was in honour understood not2 he is comparisoned to unwise beestis1 and is maad lijk to tho40 ,the 8,douay0 ,bible1 made by the ,english ,roman ,catholic ,college of ,douay1 and which is the version accepted by that branch of the ,church in ,england1 renders the passage3 8,man1 when he was in honor1 did not understand2 he hath been compared to senseless beasts and made like to them40 ,numerous other translations might be adduced1 and it is safe to say that scarcely any of them imply the idea of perishing in the sense of being reduced to nothing4 ,even supposing that the word 8perish0 is translated correctly1 it does not therefore follow that annihilation is meant4 ,take the tenth verse of the same ,psalm in our authorized version3 8,for he seeth that wise men die1 and likewise the fool and the brutish person perish1 and leave their wealth to others40 ,surely no sensible1 intelligent person would construe this passage into a declaration that the wise and fool and brutish had no existence after the death of the body4 ,that the last verse of the ,psalm is a summary of the whole poem1 seems not improbable4 ,a vivid picture of the true object of man's life in this world is drawn by the ,psalmist1 and also of his tendency to lose sight thereof4 ,in it he sets forth the shortness of human existence1 and shows that neither riches1 station in life1 nor fame1 which appertain to the mere earthly career of man1 can endure after his death4 ,he1 therefore1 reasonably concludes that men who fix their hearts upon these earthly vanities ignore the honor of their manhood1 and degrade themselves to the plane of the dumb beasts1 whose operations are1 as far as we know1 restricted to this present world4 ,from what has been adduced it will at once be evident that the idea that beasts are said by the ,psalmist to have no future life may be dismissed from our minds1 and that the passage may be rejected as totally irrelevant to the subject4 ,this is of the greatest importance1 as the passage in question is the only one which even appears to make any definite statement as to the condition of the lower animals after death4 ,every reasonable person will now see how essential it is that the true meaning of the ,hebrew text should be known1 and that the ,psalmist should not be charged with the introduction of a doctrine to which1 whether true or false1 he makes not the slightest reference4 ,having settled beyond the possibility of refutation the true meaning implied by the 8beasts that perish10 we will now turn to the passage in ,ecclesiastes1 which1 as has been seen1 is the only one which contains any direct reference to the future of the lower orders of animal existence3 8,who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward1 and the spirit of the beast that goeth downward to the earth80--exclaimeth the ,preacher4 ,here we have an admission that1 whether the spirit ascend or descend1 both man and beasts do have spirits1 and these are undoubtedly the same in essence1 for the ,hebrew word is identical is both cases4 ,in the ,jewish ,bible the rendering is verbatim the same as that of our authorized version4 ,read1 instead of an isolated verse1 the entire passage3-- 8,i said in mine heart concerning the estate of the sons of men1 that ,god might manifest them1 and that they might see that they themselves are beasts4 8,for that which befalleth the sons of men befalleth beasts2 even the one thing befalleth them3 as the one dieth1 so dieth the other2 yea1 they have all one breath2 so that a man hath no preminence above a beast3 for all is vanity4 8,all go to one place2 all are of the same dust1 and all turn to dust again4 8,who knoweth the spirit of man that goeth upward1 and the spirit of the beast that goeth downward to the earth8 8,wherefore ,i perceive that there is nothing better than that a man should rejoice in his own works2 for that is his portion2 for who shall bring him to see what shall be after him80 ,every page of ,ecclesiastes breathes of the self-reproach of the ,preacher for a wasted life4 ,speaking from his own sad1 bitter experience1 he shows that riches1 glory1 pleasure and even wisdom are nothing but utter emptiness4 ,the same theme pervades the forty-ninth ,psalm1 but the ,psalmist treats it with grave solemnity1 admonishing his hearers of the shortness of human life1 and showing that if a man forgets the glory of his manhood1 made in the image of ,god1 he puts himself on the level of the dumb brutes4 ,though reaching the same conclusion1 yet the ,preacher views the subject from a different standpoint4 ,employing biting sarcasm rather than solemn warning1 he exposes the vanity of all worldly and selfish pleasures1 and the miserable fate that awaits the voluptuary1 and then ironically advises his readers to place in such their entire happiness4 ,so palpable is the bitter irony of the author throughout the book1 and even in the twenty-first verse of the third chapter1 yet by no manner of interpretation can this specialized text be made to mean that beasts are annihilated after death1 while men rise again and soar above earthly things to honor and glory4 ,ironically the writer assumes in it that his readers do not know the difference between the spirit of man and that of beast1 and1 reasoning from that position1 advises them that 8there is nothing better for a man than that he should eat and drink1 and that he should make his soul enjoy good in his labor40 ,from what has been shown1 it is evident that the passage from ,psalms does not even contain the idea of annihilation as regards beasts1 and that the one from ,ecclesiastes is entirely misapprehended4 ,that they have no bearing upon the subject must now be manifest4 ,we cannot1 therefore1 resist the conclusion that the ,scriptures do not deny future life to the inferior animals4 ,this admission gives courage for a step still further forward4 ,man's latest achievement is to conceive that all existence is a unit4 ,one spirit pervades the whole natural world1 an emanation from the ,spirit of ,him who sitteth enthroned in the ,eternal ,heavens1 and who not only is1 as ,moses declares1 8,god of the spirits of all flesh10 but ,god of the spirits of all animate nature4 ,we cannot divorce the two great kingdoms of nature4 ,if there is a futurity of existence for man1 whom we are told was 8made a little lower than the angels10 but who in these latter days seems to have deteriorated1 and who in thousands of instances displays a character far less noble and honorable than that of the dog which he kennels and feeds1 then there must be for the so-called brute1 the companion of his joys and his sorrows4 ,if for beast1 bird1 reptile1 fish and insect1 and none can be so foolish in the face of the most indubitable evidence to deny it1 then there must be for tree1 shrub and flower1 for ,god1 who is infinite in love1 mercy and charity1 would not be ,god if solely concerned with the future of the smallest fractional part of ,his children4 ,man is psychically related to all life4 ,there is soul1 in some sort of development1 in everything2 and certainly ,god meant in ,his grand scheme of redemption to lift the world1 not a portion of it1 but the entire world1 out of its lower ideas into its higher beauties and realities4 ,,future ,,life4 ,that the ,scriptures1 contrary to popular tradition1 do not deny a future life to the lower animals has already been conclusively shown4 ,but do they declare anything in favor of another world for beast as well as for man8 ,this is a question which we shall now endeavor to answer4 ,as to man's immortality1 the ,old ,testament ,scriptures teach the doctrine by inference rather than by direct assertion1 for the reason1 as has been presumed1 that the writers of the several books1 which were selected at a comparatively late period from among many others and formed into the volume popularly designated the ,bible1 assumed as a matter of course that man was immortal1 and therefore did not concern themselves about a matter which they supposed everybody knew4 ,but as far as the ,old ,testament goes1 inference tells more strongly in favor of the beast's immortality than that of man4 ,although in either case there does not appear to be any definite assertion of a futurity of existence1 yet there is no such denial of the immortality of the beast as has already been shown in the case of the man4 ,beasts1 as readers of the ,old ,testament only too well know1 were included in the merciful provision of the ,sabbath1 which1 in its essence1 was a spiritual and not simply a physical ordinance4 ,and1 again1 we find many provisions in the ancient ,scriptures against maltreating the lower animals1 or giving them unnecessary pain1 and these provisions stand side by side in the ,divine ,law with those which apply to man4 ,all are familiar with the prohibition of 8seething a kid in its mother's milk10 and the non-muzzling of the ox in treading out the corn lest he should suffer the pangs of hunger in the presence of the food which he may not eat4 ,even bird's nesting was regulated by ,divine ,law4 8,if a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way in any tree1 or on the ground1 whether they be young ones1 or eggs1 and the dam sitting upon the young1 or upon the eggs1 thou shalt not take the dam with the young3 ,but thou shalt in any wise let the dam go1 and take the young to thee2 that it may be well with thee1 and that thou mayest prolong thy days40 ,moreover1 as many animals must be killed daily1 some for sacrifice and others solely for food1 the strictest regulations were enjoined that their death should be sharp and quick1 and that the whole of their blood should be poured out upon the ground lest they suffer lingering pain4 ,in keeping with the same consideration felt by ,deity towards the kid and ox and bird1 as expressed in the ,law1 we would refer to the few concluding sentences of the ,book of ,jonah3-- 8,thou hast had pity on the gourd1 for the which thou hast not labored1 neither madest it grow2 which came up in a night1 and perished in a night4 8,and should ,i not spare ,nineveh1 that great city1 wherein are more than six score thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and their left hand2 and also much cattle80 8,every beast of the forest is mine10 saith the ,lord1 8and the cattle upon a thousand hills40 ,and again1 8,i know all the fowls of the mountains3 and the wild beasts of the field are mine40 ,similar passages1 in which ,god announces himself as the protector of the beast as well as of man1 could be given1 for the ,scriptures are full of them4 ,who does not recall the well-known saying of our ,lord respecting the lives of the sparrows3 8,are not two sparrows sold for a farthing8 and one of them shall not fall on the ground without the notice of your ,father40 ,cowper in his 8,task10 makes allusion to this branch of our subject in the following lines3-- 8,man may dismiss compassion from his heart1 ,but ,god will never4 ,when ,he charged the ,jew ,to assist his foe's down-fallen beast to rise2 ,and when the bush-exploring boy1 that seized ,the young1 to let the parent-bird go free2 ,proved ,he not plainly that ,his meaner works1 ,are yet ,his care1 and have an interest all-- ,all in the universal ,father's love80 ,one passage there is which certainly does point to a future for the beast as well as for man1 and which places them both on the very same plane4 ,it is found in ,genesis1 ninth chapter and fifth verse1 and constitutes a part of the law which was delivered to ,noah1 and which was subsequently incorporated in the fuller law given through ,moses4 8,and surely your blood of your lives will ,i require10 said ,god to ,noah and his sons1 8at the hand of every beast will ,i require it1 and at the hand of every man2 at the hand of every man's brother will ,i require the life of man40 ,in ,exodus1 chapter twenty-one and twenty-eighth verse1 we read1 8,if an ox gore a man or a woman1 that they die3 then the ox shall be surely stoned1 and his flesh shall not be eaten2 but the owner of the ox shall be quit40 ,while there are no passages of ,scripture1 as has been seen1 which deny immortality of life to the lower animals1 yet there are certainly some which tend to show it by inference4 ,but the ,scriptures were written for human beings1 and not for the lower animals1 and therefore it could hardly be expected that any information could be gained therefrom on the subject4 ,as we find so few direct references to the future state of man1 it is not at all to be expected that we should receive direct instruction upon the after-life of the beast4 ,but just as man has had within himself for untold ages an intuitive witness to his own immortality1 yet there are those1 lovers and friends of the so-called brute1 who have an instinctive sense that animals1 some of whom surpass in love1 unselfishness1 generosity1 conscience and self-sacrifice many of their human brethren1 must share with him in addition to these virtues an immortal spirit in which they take their rise4 ,no more eminent personage than ,bishop ,butler was a believer in this idea4 ,substantially he asserts that the ,scriptures give no reasons why the lower animals should not possess immortal souls4 ,similar sentiments have been voiced by equally distinguished writers4 ,southey1 writing of the death of a favorite spaniel that had been the companion of his boyhood1 says3-- 8,ah1 poor companion6 when thou followedst last ,thy master's parting footsteps to the gate ,which closed forever on him1 thou didst lose ,thy best friend1 and none was left to plead ,for the old age of brute fidelity4 ,but fare thee well4 ,mine is no narrowed creed2 ,and ,he who gave thee being did not frame ,the mystery of ,life to be the sport ,of merciless man4 ,there is another world ,for all that live and move--a better one6 ,where the proud bipeds1 who would fain confine ,infinite ,goodness to the little bounds ,of their own charity1 may envy thee40 ,thus does ,lamartine1 in 8,jocelyn's ,episode10 beautifully express himself in addressing a faithful and affectionate canine by the name of ,fido3-- 8,i cannot1 will not1 deem thee a deceiving1 ,illusive mockery of human feeling1 ,a body organized1 by fond caress ,warmed into seeming tenderness2 ,a mere automaton1 on which our love ,plays1 as on puppets1 when their wires we move4 ,no6 when that feeling quits thy glazing eye1 ',twill live in some blest world beyond the sky40 ,not by man alone have these higher qualities been accorded to the brute4 ,women have praised the good within the lower animals1 and been quite as willing to share with them the benefits of an immortal life4 ,eugenie de ,gurin1 a woman distinguished for her devotional piety1 and an author of no mean repute1 was1 like the most of her sex1 quite passionately fond of pets4 ,hers was a turtle-dove4 ,its voice was the first to greet her in the morning4 ,there was a pleasure in its soft1 gentle cooings1 as they fell upon her ear1 that sent a sweet consolation to her busy1 thinking soul4 ,but the time came at last when she must part with her treasure4 ,the morn dawned bright1 an ,august morning1 and the bird was well and happy1 but1 with the falling of the shadows at even-tide1 its little life went out4 ,a bitter trial it was for the mistress1 who loved with a perfect love her feathered friend4 ,while wrestling with her intense sorrow1 and after she had sincerely placed its mortal remains in a dainty cavity beneath the roses1 it was that she wrote3 8,i have a tolerably strong belief in the souls of animals1 and ,i should even like there to be a little paradise for the good and gentle1 like turtle-doves1 dogs and lambs4 ,but what to do with wolves and other wicked animals8 ,to damn them8--that embarrasses me40 ,less devotional1 perhaps1 and looking rather to logic than to intuition1 was the mind of ,mrs4 ,somerville4 ,with such a difference in constitution between the two women1 we would naturally look for the greatest divergence of opinion upon a matter of this kind1 but1 astonishing to relate1 there is noticeable a marked unanimity4 ,speaking of death1 and the accompanying change of environing objects1 this gifted writer1 in her eighty-ninth year1 says in her 8,memoirs03-- 8,i shall regret the sky1 the sea1 with all their beautiful coloring2 the earth1 with its verdure and flowers2 but far more shall ,i grieve to leave animals that have followed our steps affectionately for years1 without knowing for certainty their ultimate fate1 though ,i firmly believe that the living principle is never extinguished4 ,since the atoms of matter are indestructible1 as far as we know1 it is difficult to believe that the span which gives to their union life1 memory1 affection1 intelligence and fidelity is evanescent4 8,every atom in the human frame1 as well as in that of animals1 undergoes a periodical change by continual waste and renovation3 the abode is changed1 not its inhabitant4 ,if animals have no future1 the existence of many is most wretched4 ,multitudes are starved1 cruelly beaten1 and loaded during life2 many die under a barbarous vivisection4 8,i cannot believe that any creature was created for uncompensated misery3 it would be contrary to the attributes of ,god's mercy and justice4 ,i am sincerely happy to find that ,i am not the only believer in the immortality of the lower animals40 ,to have given the many opinions that have been expressed by the good and wise of the past in favor of the belief that animals received1 in common with man1 a particle of the divine essence1 and hence became immortal1 would have extended this chapter beyond intended limits4 ,we have room for just another witness4 ,no one is better known for his convictions upon this subject than the late ,dr4 ,wood1 whose contributions to natural history are known the world over4 ,speaking of the death of his dog ,rory1 a creature that manifested in the flesh the strongest affection for his keeper1 the ,doctor says3-- 8,i could not believe that an animal which would die of grief1 as he died1 for the absence of his master1 would have his existence limited to this present world1 and that such intensity of love should terminate at the same moment that the material heart ceased to beat40 ,when we think of the apparent inequality that is everywhere to be seen in the lives both of man and beast1 we cannot believe1 as ,mrs4 ,somerville has remarked1 that any being was 8created for uncompensated misery40 ,some human beings are endowed with everything that a man can desire--health1 strength1 riches1 accomplishments and capacity for enjoyment--while others are destitute of all these accessories to happiness4 ,putting aside the fact that those whose lots seem to be the most enviable are the least to be envied1 we cannot help acknowledging that this disparity does exist1 and that the earthly lot of some is very hard1 while that of others is very easy4 ,but we must remember that there is taught in the ,new ,testament the grand doctrine of ,compensation4 ,paul alludes to this when he remarks that the sufferings of this world are not to be compared with the glories of the world to come1 and that the troubles1 trials and tribulations of this life are but the precursor of that glorified existence where all these things will be utterly unknown4 ,that some such arrangement would be nothing more than justice there can be no question1 and that some principle of ,divine ,justice must exist was instinctively known long before it was explicitly declared by the inspired apostle1 for references to such compensation are found throughout the ,psalms4 ,even ,job himself1 sunk as he was in the very depth of afflictions1 could say3 8,though ,he slay me1 yet will ,i trust in ,him2 but ,i will maintain my own ways before ,him4 ,he also shall be my salvation2 for an hypocrite shall not come before ,him40 ,so far1 then1 as man is concerned1 this problem of apparent inequality is not so difficult of solution1 for he knows only too well that in spite of his hard and bitter earth-life that ,divine ,justice will be more than vindicated in the life beyond the grave to which he aspires4 ,but in the case of the lower animals1 granting that they have no future existence1 what1 ,i ask1 becomes of ,divine ,justice8 ,in this land of enlightenment we meet with many animals that are treated with the greatest kindness by their masters1 and others1 endowed with capacities that are not a whit inferior to their more fortunate brethren1 that are treated with the utmost cruelty4 ,while one is petted and pampered1 another is abused and given over to the pangs of hunger and starvation4 ,if there is a future life for these animals1 it is simply impossible to recognize in their ,maker that justice which sensible1 reasoning man should expect4 ,such an injustice1 as shown by the lives which we have contrasted1 would be too flagrant for any human being to perpetrate1 unless such a being was wholly deficient in the ideas of right and wrong4 ,but on the supposition that these animals possess immortal souls1 and that there is for them a future life in which these souls shall be developed to their fullest capacities1 then these apparent discrepancies can be reconciled with ,absolute ,justice and ,perfect ,love4 ,in ,his dealings with the lower animals1 as with ourselves1 ,god looks to the spiritual rather than the material world1 and by the means of the one instructs and prepares his pupils for the other4 ,with ,paul ,i firmly believe that suffering in the present world has for its object a preparation for and an introduction to a future life1 and therefore am thoroughly convinced that any creature capable of suffering has in that capacity its passport to an eternal world4 ,another step1 that is1 the possession of ,individuality1 as connected with ,immortality1 now presses forward for consideration4 ,as for man1 did he not possess ,individuality1 no diverseness of management would be needed1 for all would be treated in a similar manner4 ,no two faces in man are precisely alike1 for the very simple reason that no two souls1 of which the countenance is an indication1 are alike4 ,the same rule1 no matter what may be affirmed to the contrary1 holds good among the lower animals4 ,to the casual observer no apparent difference can be detected between any two individuals of a flock of sheep1 a portrait of one equally resembling that of any other4 ,but a shepherd1 who understands his business1 will readily distinguish every sheep of his flock1 as well as describe the mental peculiarities of each individual4 ,one ordinary yellow canary looks just like another yellow canary to the ordinary vision1 while in reality the mental character of each bird is impressed just as strongly upon its countenance as are human qualities upon that of man4 ,this quality it is1 both in man and beast1 that implies a separate treatment for each individual1 and becomes a plea for an immortality of life4 ,i am not alone in this idea4 ,it is simply astounding how ,individuality in the lower animals is ignored by man4 ,the generality of grooms treat all horses as though they were just so many machines turned out of the same mould1 and to be treated just like machines4 ,there is in every species a double kind of ,individuality4 ,one kind there is that is common to the entire species1 and then there is in addition to this common characteristic another that distinguishes each separate being from its fellows4 ,it is the former that makes a species what it is1 and there can be no doubt that each will exist in the future life1 and that both may be capable of development4 ,the dog1 the horse1 the lion and the elephant1 and in truth all animals that may be fitted to survive1 will be in the other world what they are in this4 ,they will be better animals in that world1 just as we hope to be better men1 but they will not approach us any nearer than they do in the earth-life4 ,man does not1 as some are foolish enough to claim1 lower the condition of humanity the least by granting immortality to the lower animals4 ,if they be immortal1 as the evidence adduces most strongly shows1 there is not the slightest use of denial4 ,we cannot shirk a fact1 and even if we could1 we ought not to do it4 ,such an argument1 which seeks to elevate man by depreciating his lower fellow-creatures1 is not very creditable to humanity4 ,in announcing the belief that the lower animals share immortality with man in the higher world1 as they share mortality in this1 does not claim for them the slightest equality4 ,man will be man and beast will be beast1 and insect will be insect1 in the next world as they are in this4 ,they are living exponents of ,divine ,ideas1 as is evident from the ,scriptures and the teachings of science1 and will be wanted to continue in the world of spirit the work which they have begun in the world of matter4 ,true it is1 as has been asserted1 that because a man can transmit his ideas to the lower animals1 there is evidence that they possess a spirit which is able to communicate with the spirit of man4 ,when a man gives an order to his dog1 and is obeyed1 there is proof that both possess spirits1 similar in quality1 though differing in degree4 ,we know that to give an order to a plant would be useless and absurd1 because the plant has not the spirit that can respond to the spirit of the man in the same manner that a dog's or a horse's spirit can1 but the inability so to respond does not prove that the plant is devoid of a spirit4 ,that the spirit of the plant does respond to the spirit of the man1 when it adapts itself to the conditions which the spirit of the man has imposed upon it1 there can be no question1 or the many hundred plants which have been reclaimed from a state of wildness by a judicious and careful management upon the part of man would have been among the impossibilities of modern civilization4 ,the spirit of man must have entered into the spirit of the plant1 and held communion therewith1 or the world to-day would not have been blessed with its manifold cereals1 fruits and vegetables1 all of which have been rendered possible for use by the spirit of man entering into an understanding with the nature1 wants and peculiar dispositions of the plants about him4 ,no less are plants living exponents of ,divine ,ideas than worms1 insects1 beasts and men are1 and as such living exponents1 they are as much needed in the future existence1 at least such as are fitted to continue in the spirit-world the work begun in the world of matter1 as are the higher forms of animal beings4 ,as plants go a great ways towards making this earth-life a paradise of beauty and delight1 and have ever been associated through the ages with animal life1 each of the two great kingdoms of life from simple beginnings attaining to higher and still higher development up to the present period--the ,era of ,mind--it cannot be possible that the two will have become suddenly divorced when the temporal or earth-life is about to pass into the eternal or spirit-life4 ,heaven would not be ,heaven without the plants that we have cultured1 and tended1 and admired4 ,concluding1 then1 let me say1 ,i claim not for the lower animals the slightest equality with man4 ,what ,i claim for them is a higher status in creation than is generally attributed to them4 ,i claim for them a future life1 where they will receive a just compensation for the sufferings which so many of them have to undergo in this world4 ,most of the cruelties which are perpetrated upon animals are due to the habit which man has1 in his exalted opinion of self1 of considering them as mere automata1 without susceptibilities1 without reason and without the capacity of a future4 ,that ,i have achieved the purpose1 with which ,i set out1 of proving that all life is immortal1 or that soul exists in plants and animals1 ,i think must be admitted4 ,if this doctrine of immortality shall have the effect of bringing about a more humane treatment of the animals over which man has been given dominion1 and thus contribute1 be it ever so little1 to their well-being and happiness1 even in this life1 then the object attained will be felt to be a just and worthy recompense for the thought and labor which have been expended in its support and defence4 ,not alone are we of the upper walks of being made the possessors of the inner life1 but all nature shares it in common with us1 and love is its expression and the method of its action4 ,,the ,,end4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,inconsistent and unusual or archaic spelling1 use of accents and diacriticals1 hyphenation and capitalisation have been retained1 except as mentioned below4 ,depending on the hard- and software used and their settings used to read this text1 not all elements may display as intended4 ,page #g1 ,list of ,illustrations3 the portrait of the author is not the frontispiece1 and is not included in this edition of the book4 ,page #de1 a single red-eye speck3 should probably read a single red eye-speck4 ,page #gc1 unutterly unable3 as printed in the source document4 ,page #ii1 ,line ,below ,shows ,natural ,size3 based on the size of the physical book1 this would make the insect's natural size around #bg mm 7just over #a74 ,page #cag_/cah1 paragraph starting ,returning to the philology 4443 a closing quote mark is missing4 ,page #dfd_/dfe1 paragraph starting ,that there is a distinction 4443 a closing quote mark is missing4 ,changes made ,illustrations have been moved out of text paragraphs4 ,some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,lists of illustrations3 illustration numbers have been added4 ,page #dd3 quiet unable changed to quite unable4 ,page #fb3 plants not natives to this country changed to plants not native to this country4 ,page #bde3 ,,pandion ,,hali,,tus changed to ,pandion halitus for consistency4 ,page #bfd3 caption ,red-eyed ,vireo's ,two-,storied ,nest ,with ,cow-bird's egg beneath added cf4 list of full-page plates4