,illustration3 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,devas ,,celebrating ,,the ,,attainment ,,of ,,the ,,buddhaship4 ,a ,,record ,,of ,,buddhistic ,,kingdoms ,,being ,,an ,,account ,,by ,,the ,,chinese ,,monk ,f-,,hien ,,of ,,his ,,travels ,,in ,,india ,,and ,,ceylon 7,a4,d4 #cii-dad7 ,,in ,,search ,,of ,,the ,,buddhist ,,books ,,of ,,discipline ,,translated ,,and ,,annotated ,,with ,a ,,corean ,,recension ,,of ,,the ,,chinese ,,text ,,by ,,james ,,legge1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 ,professor of the ,chinese ,language and ,literature ,oxford ,,at ,,the ,,clarendon ,,press #ahhf ,all rights reserved ,,contents ,page ,,preface xi ,,introduction4 ,life of ,f-hien2 genuineness and integrity of the text of his narrative2 number of the adherents of ,buddhism4 #a ,,chapter ,i4 ,from ,chang-gan to the ,sandy ,desert4 #i ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,on to ,shen-shen and thence to ,khoten4 #ab ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,khoten4 ,processions of images4 ,the king's ,new monastery4 #af ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,through the ,tsung or #8,onion' mountains to ,keeh-ch2 probably ,skardo1 or some city more to the ,east in ,ladak4 #ba ,,chapter ,v4 ,great quinquennial assembly of monks4 ,relics of ,buddha4 ,productions of the country4 #bb ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,on towards ,north ,india4 ,darada4 ,image of ,maitreya ,bodhisattva4 #bd ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,crossing of the ,indus4 ,when ,buddhism first crossed that river for the ,east4 #bf ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,woo-chang1 or ,udyna4 ,monasteries and their ways4 ,traces of ,buddha4 #bh ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,soo-ho-to4 ,legend of ,buddha4 #cj ,,chapter ,x4 ,gandhra4 ,legends of ,buddha4 #ca ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,taksahil4 ,legends4 ,the four great topes4 #cb ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,purushapura1 or ,peshwar4 ,prophecy about king ,kanishka and his tope4 ,buddha's alms-bowl4 ,death of ,hwuy-ying4 #cc ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,nagra4 ,festival of ,buddha's skull-bone4 ,other relics1 and his shadow4 #cf ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,death of ,hwuy-king in the ,little ,snowy mountains4 ,lo-e4 ,poh-n4 ,crossing the ,indus to the ,east4 #dj ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,bhida4 ,sympathy of monks with the pilgrims4 #da ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,on to ,mathur1 or ,muttra4 ,condition and customs of ,central ,india2 of the monks1 vihras1 and monasteries4 #db ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,sakya4 ,buddha's ascent to and descent from the ,trayastrias heaven1 and other legends #dg ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,kanykubja1 or ,canouge4 ,buddha's preaching4 #ec ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,sh-che4 ,legend of ,buddha's ,danta-kshha4 #ed ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,koala and rvast4 ,the ,jetavana vihra and other memorials and legends of ,buddha4 ,sympathy of the monks with the pilgrims4 #ee ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,the three predecessors of kyamuni in the buddhaship4 #fc ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,kapilavastu4 ,its desolation4 ,legends of ,buddha's birth1 and other incidents in connexion with it4 #fd ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,rma1 and its tope4 #fh ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,where ,buddha finally renounced the world1 and where he died4 #gj ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,vail ,the tope called #8,weapons laid down4' ,the ,council of ,vail4 #gb ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,remarkable death of nanda4 #ge ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,paliputtra1 or ,patna1 in ,magadha4 ,king ,aoka's spirit-built palace and halls4 ,the ,buddhist ,brahmn1 ,rdhasmi4 ,dispensaries and hospitals4 #gg ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,rjagiha1 ,new and ,old4 ,legends and incidents connected with it4 #hj ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,gidhra-ka hill1 and legends4 ,f-hien passes a night on it4 ,his reflections4 #hb ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,the ratapara cave1 or cave of the ,first ,council4 ,legends4 ,suicide of a ,bhikshu4 #hd ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,gay4 kyamuni's attaining to the ,buddhaship2 and other legends4 #hg ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,legend of king ,aoka in a former birth1 and his naraka4 #ij ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,mount ,gurupada1 where ,kyapa ,buddha's entire skeleton is4 #ib ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,on the way back to ,patna4 ,vras1 or ,benres4 kyamuni's first doings after becoming ,buddha4 #ic ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,dakshia1 and the pigeon monastery4 #if ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,in ,patna4 ,f-hien's labours in transcription of manuscripts1 and ,indian studies for three years4 #ih ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,to ,champ and ,tmalipt4 ,stay and labours there for three years4 ,takes ship to ,singhala1 or ,ceylon4 #ajj ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,at ,ceylon4 ,rise of the kingdom4 ,feats of ,buddha4 ,topes and monasteries4 ,statue of ,buddha in jade4 ,bo tree4 ,festival of ,buddha's tooth4 #aja ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,cremation of an ,arhat4 ,sermon of a devotee4 #ajg ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,after two years takes ship for ,china4 ,disastrous passage to ,java2 and thence to ,china2 arrives at ,shan-tung2 and goes to ,nanking4 ,conclusion or l'envoi by another writer4 #aaa ,,chinese ,,text3 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations1 c4 ,sketch-map of ,f-hien's travels ,to face ,introduction1 page #a ,i4 ,dream of ,buddha's mother of his incarnation ,to face p4 #fe ,,ii4 ,buddha just born1 with the ngas supplying water to wash him ,to face p4 #fg ,,iii4 ,buddha tossing the white elephant over the wall ,to face p4 #ff ,,iv4 ,buddha in solitude and enduring austerities ,to face p4 #hg ,v4 ,buddhaship attained ,to face p1 #hh ,,vi4 ,the devas celebrating the attainment of the ,buddhaship ,to face the ,title ,,vii4 ,buddha's dying instructions ,to face p4 #gj ,,viii4 ,buddha's death ,to follow ,,vii ,,ix4 ,division of ,buddha's relics ,to follow ,,viii ,,preface ,several times during my long residence in ,hong ,kong ,i endeavoured to read through the #8,narrative of ,f-,hien2' but though interested with the graphic details of much of the work1 its columns bristled so constantly--now with his phonetic representations of ,sanskrit words1 and now with his substitution for them of their meanings in ,chinese characters1 and ,i was1 moreover1 so much occupied with my own special labours on the ,confucian ,classics1 that my success was far from satisfactory4 ,when ,dr4 ,eitel's 8,handbook for the ,student of ,chinese ,buddhism0 appeared in #ahgj1 the difficulty occasioned by the ,sanskrit words and names was removed1 but the other difficulty remained2 and ,i was not able to look into the book again for several years4 ,nor had ,i much inducement to do so in the two copies of it which ,i had been able to procure1 on poor paper1 and printed from blocks badly cut at first1 and so worn with use as to yield books the reverse of attractive in their appearance to the student4 ,in the meantime ,i kept studying the subject of ,buddhism from various sources2 and in #ahgh began to lecture1 here in ,oxford1 on the ,travels with my ,davis ,chinese scholar1 who was at the same time ,boden ,sanskrit scholar4 ,as we went on1 ,i wrote out a translation in ,english for my own satisfaction of nearly half the narrative4 ,in the beginning of last year ,i made ,f-,hien again the subject of lecture1 wrote out a second translation1 independent of the former1 and pushed on till ,i had completed the whole4 ,the want of a good and clear text had been supplied by my friend1 ,mr4 ,bunyiu ,nanjio1 who sent to me from ,japan a copy1 the text of which is appended to the translation and notes1 and of the nature of which some account is given in the ,introduction 7page #d71 and towards the end of this ,preface4 ,the present work consists of three parts3 the ,translation of ,f-,hien's ,narrative of his ,travels2 copious ,notes2 and the ,chinese ,text of my copy from ,japan4 ,it is for the ,translation that ,i hold myself more especially responsible4 ,portions of it were written out three times1 and the whole of it twice4 ,while preparing my own version ,i made frequent reference to previous translations3--those of ,m4 ,abel ,rmusat1 #8,revu1 complt1 et augment d'claircissements nouveaux par ,,mm4 ,klaproth et ,landresse' 7,paris1 #ahcf72 of the ,rev4 ,samuel ,beal 7,london1 #ahfi71 and his revision of it1 prefixed to his #8,buddhist ,records of the ,western ,world' 7,trbner's ,oriental ,series1 #ahhd72 and of ,mr4 ,herbert ,a4 ,giles1 of ,h4,m4's ,consular ,service in ,china 7#ahgg74 ,to these ,i have to add a series of articles on #8,f-,hsien and his ,english ,translators1' by ,mr4 ,t4 ,watters1 ,british ,consul at -,chang 7,china ,review1 #ahgi1 #ahhj74 ,those articles are of the highest value1 displaying accuracy of ,chinese scholarship and an extensive knowledge of ,buddhism4 ,i have regretted that ,mr4 ,watters1 while reviewing others1 did not himself write out and publish a version of the whole of ,f-,hien's narrative4 ,if he had done so1 ,i should probably have thought that1 on the whole1 nothing more remained to be done for the distinguished ,chinese pilgrim in the way of translation4 ,mr4 ,watters had to judge of the comparative merits of the versions of ,beal and ,giles1 and pronounce on the many points of contention between them4 ,i have endeavoured to eschew those matters1 and have seldom made remarks of a critical nature in defence of renderings of my own4 ,the ,chinese narrative runs on without any break4 ,it was ,klaproth who divided ,rmusat's translation into forty chapters4 ,the division is helpful to the reader1 and ,i have followed it excepting in three or four instances4 ,in the reprinted ,chinese text the chapters are separated by a circle 77 in the column4 ,in transliterating the names of ,chinese characters ,i have generally followed the spelling of ,morrison rather than the ,pekinese1 which is now in vogue4 ,we cannot tell exactly what the pronunciation of them was1 about fifteen hundred years ago1 in the time of ,f-,hien2 but the southern mandarin must be a shade nearer to it than that of ,peking at the present day4 ,in transliterating the ,indian names ,i have for the most part followed ,dr4 ,eitel1 with such modification as seemed good and in harmony with growing usage4 ,for the ,notes ,i can do little more than claim the merit of selection and condensation4 ,my first object in them was to explain what in the text required explanation to an ,english reader4 ,all ,chinese texts1 and ,buddhist texts especially1 are new to foreign students4 ,one has to do for them what many hundreds of the ablest scholars in ,europe have done for the ,greek and ,latin ,classics during several hundred years1 and what the thousands of critics and commentators have been doing of our ,sacred ,scriptures for nearly eighteen centuries4 ,there are few predecessors in the field of ,chinese literature into whose labours translators of the present century can enter4 ,this will be received1 ,i hope1 as a sufficient apology for the minuteness and length of some of the notes4 ,a second object in them was to teach myself first1 and then others1 something of the history and doctrines of ,buddhism4 ,i have thought that they might be learned better in connexion with a lively narrative like that of ,f-hien than by reading didactic descriptions and argumentative books4 ,such has been my own experience4 ,the books which ,i have consulted for these notes have been many1 besides ,chinese works4 ,my principal help has been the full and masterly handbook of ,eitel1 mentioned already1 and often referred to as ,e4,h4 ,spence ,hardy's #8,eastern ,monachism' 7,e4,m47 and #8,manual of ,buddhism' 7,m4,b47 have been constantly in hand1 as well as ,rhys ,davids' ,buddhism1 published by the ,society for ,promoting ,christian ,knowledge1 his ,hibbert ,lectures1 and his ,buddhist ,suttas in the ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 and other writings4 ,i need not mention other authorities1 having endeavoured always to specify them where ,i make use of them4 ,my proximity and access to the ,bodleian ,library and the ,indian ,institute have been of great advantage4 ,i may be allowed to say that1 so far as my own study of it has gone1 ,i think there are many things in the vast field of ,buddhist literature which still require to be carefully handled4 ,how far1 for instance1 are we entitled to regard the present ,stras as genuine and sufficiently accurate copies of those which were accepted by the ,councils before our ,christian era8 ,can anything be done to trace the rise of the legends and marvels of ,sakyamuni's history1 which were current so early 7as it seems to us7 as the time of ,f-hien1 and which startle us so frequently by similarities between them and narratives in our ,gospels8 ,dr4 ,hermann ,oldenberg1 certainly a great authority on ,buddhistic subjects1 says that #8a biography of ,buddha has not come down to us from ancient times1 from the age of the ,pali texts2 and1 we can safely say1 no such biography existed then' 7#8,buddha--,his ,life1 ,his ,doctrine1 ,his ,order1' as translated by ,hoey1 p4 #gh74 ,he has also 7in the same work1 pp4 #ii1 #daf1 #dag7 come to the conclusion that the hitherto unchallenged tradition that the ,buddha was #8a king's son' must be given up4 ,the name #8king's son' 7in ,chinese 71 always used of the ,buddha1 certainly requires to be understood in the highest sense4 ,i am content myself to wait for further information on these and other points1 as the result of prolonged and careful research4 ,dr4 ,rhys ,davids has kindly read the proofs of the ,translation and ,notes1 and ,i most certainly thank him for doing so1 for his many valuable corrections in the ,notes1 and for other suggestions which ,i have received from him4 ,i may not always think on various points exactly as he does1 but ,i am not more forward than he is to say with ,horace1-- #8,nullius addictus jurare in verba magistri4' ,i have referred above1 and also in the ,introduction1 to the ,corean text of ,f-hien's narrative1 which ,i received from ,mr4 ,nanjio4 ,it is on the whole so much superior to the better-known texts1 that ,i determined to attempt to reproduce it at the end of the little volume1 so far as our resources here in ,oxford would permit4 ,to do so has not been an easy task4 ,the two fonts of ,chinese types in the ,clarendon ,press were prepared primarily for printing the translation of our ,sacred ,scriptures1 and then extended so as to be available for printing also the ,confucian ,classics2 but the ,buddhist work necessarily requires many types not found in them1 while many other characters in the ,corean recension are peculiar in their forms1 and some are what ,chinese dictionaries denominate #8vulgar4' ,that we have succeeded so well as we have done is owing chiefly to the intelligence1 ingenuity1 and untiring attention of ,mr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,pembrey1 the ,oriental ,reader4 ,the pictures that have been introduced were taken from a superb edition of a ,history of ,buddha1 republished recently at ,hang-chau in ,cheh-kiang1 and profusely illustrated in the best style of ,chinese art4 ,i am indebted for the use of it to the ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,sedgwick1 ,university ,chinese ,scholar4 ,,james ,,legge4 ,oxford3 ,june1 #ahhf4 ,illustration3 ,sketch-,map ,of ,f-,hien's ,travels ,the accompanying ,sketch-,map1 taken in connexion with the notes on the different places in the ,narrative1 will give the reader a sufficiently accurate knowledge of ,f-hien's route4 ,there is no difficulty in laying it down after he crossed the ,indus from east to west into the ,punjb1 all the principal places1 at which he touched or rested1 having been determined by ,cunningham and other ,indian geographers and archologists4 ,most of the places from ,chang-an to ,bannu have also been identified4 ,woo-e has been put down as near ,kutcha1 or ,kuldja1 in #dc #be ,n41 #ha #ae ,e4 ,the country of ,kieh-cha was probably ,ladak1 but ,i am inclined to think that the place where the traveller crossed the ,indus and entered it must have been further east than ,skardo4 ,a doubt is intimated on page #bd as to the identification of ,to-leih with ,darada1 but ,greenough's #8,physical and ,geological ,sketch-,map of ,british ,india' shows #8,dardu ,proper1' all lying on the east of the ,indus1 exactly in the position where the ,narrative would lead us to place it4 ,the point at which ,f-hien recrossed the ,indus into ,udyna on the west of it is unknown4 ,takshail1 which he visited1 was no doubt on the west of the river1 and has been incorrectly accepted as the ,taxila of ,arrian in the ,punjb4 ,it should be written ,takshasira1 of which the ,chinese phonetisation will allow2--see a note of ,beal in his #8,buddhist ,records of the ,western ,world1' i4 #ach4 ,we must suppose that ,f-hien went on from ,nanking to ,chang-an1 but the ,narrative does not record the fact of his doing so4 ,,introduction ,,life ,,of ,f-,,hien2 ,,genuineness ,,and ,,integrity ,,of ,,the ,,text ,,of ,,his ,,narrative2 ,,number ,,of ,,the ,,adherents ,,of ,,buddhism4 #a4 ,nothing of great importance is known about ,f-hien in addition to what may be gathered from his own record of his travels4 ,i have read the accounts of him in the #8,memoirs of ,eminent ,monks1' compiled in ,a4,d4 #eai1 and a later work1 the #8,memoirs of ,marvellous ,monks1' by the third emperor of the ,ming dynasty 7,a4,d4 #adjc-adbd71 which1 however1 is nearly all borrowed from the other2 and all in them that has an appearance of verisimilitude can be brought within brief compass4 ,his surname1 they tell us1 was ,kung1#a and he was a native of ,wu-yang in ,ping-,yang1#b which is still the name of a large department in ,shan-hsi4 ,he had three brothers older than himself2 but when they all died before shedding their first teeth1 his father devoted him to the service of the ,buddhist society1 and had him entered as a rmaera1 still keeping him at home in the family4 ,the little fellow fell dangerously ill1 and the father sent him to the monastery1 where he soon got well and refused to return to his parents4 ,when he was ten years old1 his father died2 and an uncle1 considering the widowed solitariness and helplessness of the mother1 urged him to renounce the monastic life1 and return to her1 but the boy replied1 #8,i did not quit the family in compliance with my father's wishes1 but because ,i wished to be far from the dust and vulgar ways of life4 ,this is why ,i chose monkhood4' ,the uncle approved of his words and gave over urging him4 ,when his mother also died1 it appeared how great had been the affection for her of his fine nature2 but after her burial he returned to the monastery4 ,on one occasion he was cutting rice with a score or two of his fellow-disciples1 when some hungry thieves came upon them to take away their grain by force4 ,the other rmaeras all fled1 but our young hero stood his ground1 and said to the thieves1 #8,if you must have the grain1 take what you please4 ,but1 ,sirs1 it was your former neglect of charity which brought you to your present state of destitution2 and now1 again1 you wish to rob others4 ,i am afraid that in the coming ages you will have still greater poverty and distress2--,i am sorry for you beforehand4' ,with these words he followed his companions into the monastery1 while the thieves left the grain and went away1 all the monks1 of whom there were several hundred1 doing homage to his conduct and courage4 ,when he had finished his novitiate and taken on him the obligations of the full ,buddhist orders1 his earnest courage1 clear intelligence1 and strict regulation of his demeanour were conspicuous2 and soon after1 he undertook his journey to ,india in search of complete copies of the ,vinaya-piaka4 ,what follows this is merely an account of his travels in ,india and return to ,china by sea1 condensed from his own narrative1 with the addition of some marvellous incidents that happened to him1 on his visit to the ,vulture ,peak near ,rjagiha4 ,it is said in the end that after his return to ,china1 he went to the capital 7evidently ,nanking71 and there1 along with the ,indian ramaa ,buddha-bhadra1 executed translations of some of the works which he had obtained in ,india2 and that before he had done all that he wished to do in this way1 he removed to ,king-chow#c 7in the present ,hoo-pih71 and died in the monastery of ,sin1 at the age of eighty-eight1 to the great sorrow of all who knew him4 ,it is added that there is another larger work giving an account of his travels in various countries4 ,such is all the information given about our author1 beyond what he himself has told us4 ,f-hien was his clerical name1 and means #8,illustrious in the ,law1' or #8,illustrious master of the ,law4' ,the ,shih which often precedes it is an abbreviation of the name of ,buddha as kyamuni1 #8the kya1 mighty in ,love1 dwelling in ,seclusion and ,silence1' and may be taken as equivalent to ,buddhist4 ,it is sometimes said to have belonged to #8the eastern ,tsin dynasty' 7,a4,d4 #cag-dai71 and sometimes to #8the ,sung1' that is1 the ,sung dynasty of the ,house of ,liu 7,a4,d4 #dbj-dgh74 ,if he became a full monk at the age of twenty1 and went to ,india when he was twenty-five1 his long life may have been divided pretty equally between the two dynasties4 #b4 ,if there were ever another and larger account of ,f-hien's travels than the narrative of which a translation is now given1 it has long ceased to be in existence4 ,in the ,catalogue of the imperial library of the ,suy dynasty 7,a4,d4 #ehi-fah71 the name ,f-hien occurs four times4 ,towards the end of the last section of it 7page #bb71 after a reference to his travels1 his labours in translation at ,kin-ling 7another name for ,nanking71 in conjunction with ,buddha-bhadra1 are described4 ,in the second section1 page #ae1 we find #8,a ,record of ,buddhistic ,kingdoms2'--with a note1 saying that it was the work of the #8ramaa1 ,f-hien2' and again1 on page #ac1 we have #8,narrative of ,f-hien in two ,books1' and #8,narrative of ,f-hien's ,travels in one ,book4' ,but all these three entries may possibly belong to different copies of the same work1 the first and the other two being in separate subdivisions of the ,catalogue4 ,in the two ,chinese copies of the narrative in my possession the title is #8,record of ,buddhistic ,kingdoms4' ,in the ,japanese or ,corean recension subjoined to this translation1 the title is twofold2 first1 #8,narrative of the ,distinguished ,monk1 ,f-hien2' and then1 more at large1 #8,incidents of ,travels in ,india1 by the ramaa of the ,eastern ,tsin1 ,f-hien1 recorded by himself4' ,there is still earlier attestation of the existence of our little work than the ,suy ,catalogue4 ,the ,catalogue ,raisonn of the imperial library of the present dynasty 7chap4 #ga7 mentions two quotations from it by ,le ,to-yen1 a geographical writer of the dynasty of the ,northern ,wei 7,a4,d4 #chf-ehd71 one of them containing #hi characters1 and the other #bgf2 both of them given as from the #8,narrative of ,f-hien4' ,in all catalogues subsequent to that of ,suy our work appears4 ,the evidence for its authenticity and genuineness is all that could be required4 ,it is clear to myself that the #8,record of ,buddhistic ,kingdoms' and the #8,narrative of his ,travels by ,f-hien' were designations of one and the same work1 and that it is doubtful whether any larger work on the same subject was ever current4 ,with regard to the text subjoined to my translation1 it was published in ,japan in #aggi4 ,the editor had before him four recensions of the narrative2 those of the ,sung and ,ming dynasties1 with appendixes on the names of certain characters in them2 that of ,japan2 and that of ,corea4 ,he wisely adopted the ,corean text1 published in accordance with a royal rescript in #agbf1 so far as ,i can make out2 but the different readings of the other texts are all given in topnotes1 instead of footnotes as with us1 this being one of the points in which customs in the east and west go by contraries4 ,very occasionally1 the editor indicates by a single character1 equivalent to #8right' or #8wrong1' which reading in his opinion is to be preferred4 ,in the notes to the present republication of the ,corean text1 ,s stands for ,sung1 ,m for ,ming1 and ,j for ,japanese2 ,r for right1 and ,w for wrong4 ,i have taken the trouble to give all the various readings 7amounting to more than #cjj71 partly as a curiosity and to make my text complete1 and partly to show how1 in the transcription of writings in whatever language1 such variations are sure to occur1 #8 maculae1 quas aut incuria fudit1 ,aut humana parum cavit nature1' while on the whole they very slightly affect the meaning of the document4 ,the editors of the ,catalogue ,raisonn intimate their doubts of the good taste and reliability of all ,f-hien's statements4 ,it offends them that he should call central ,india the #8,middle ,kingdom1' and ,china1 which to them was the true and only ,middle ,kingdom1 but #8a ,border land2'--it offends them as the vaunting language of a ,buddhist writer1 whereas the reader will see in the expressions only an instance of what ,f-hien calls his #8simple straightforwardness4' ,as an instance of his unreliability they refer to his account of the ,buddhism of ,khoten1 whereas it is well known1 they say1 that the ,khoteners from ancient times till now have been ,mohammedans2--as if they could have been so #agj years before ,mohammed was born1 and #bbb years before the year of the ,hegira6 ,and this is criticism in ,china4 ,the ,catalogue was ordered by the ,kien-lung emperor in #agbb4 ,between three and four hundred of the #8,great ,scholars' of the empire were engaged on it in various departments1 and thus egregiously ignorant did they show themselves of all beyond the limits of their own country1 and even of the literature of that country itself4 ,much of what ,f-hien tells his readers of ,buddhist miracles and legends is indeed unreliable and grotesque2 but we have from him the truth as to what he saw and heard4 #c4 ,in concluding this introduction ,i wish to call attention to some estimates of the number of ,buddhists in the world which have become current1 believing1 as ,i do1 that the smallest of them is much above what is correct4 i4 ,in a note on the first page of his work on the ,bhilsa ,topes 7#ahed71 ,general ,cunningham says3 #8,the ,christians number about #bgj millions2 the ,buddhists about #bbb millions1 who are distributed as follows3--,china #agj millions1 ,japan #be1 ,anam #ad1 ,siam #c1 ,ava #h1 ,nepl #a1 and ,ceylon #a2 total1 #bbb millions4' ii4 ,in his article on ,m4 ,j4 ,barthlemy ,saint ,hilaire's #8,le ,bouddha et sa ,religion1' republished in his #8,chips from a ,german ,workshop1' vol4 i4 7#ahfh71 ,professor ,max ,mller 7p4 #bae7 says1 #8,the young prince became the founder of a religion which1 after more than two thousand years1 is still professed by #dee millions of human beings1' and he appends the following note3 #8,though truth is not settled by majorities1 it would be interesting to know which religion counts at the present moment the largest numbers of believers4 ,berghaus1 in his 8,physical ,atlas10 gives the following division of the human race according to religion3--8,buddhists #ca4b per cent1 ,christians #cj4g1 ,mohammedans #ae4g1 ,brahmnists #ac4d1 ,heathens #h4g1 and ,jews #j4c40 ,as ,berghaus does not distinguish the ,buddhists in ,china from the followers of ,confucius and ,laotse1 the first place on the scale really belongs to ,christianity4 ,it is difficult to say to what religion a man belongs1 as the same person may profess two or three4 ,the emperor himself1 after sacrificing according to the ritual of ,confucius1 visits a ,tao-ss temple1 and afterwards bows before an image of ,fo in a ,buddhist chapel4 78,mlanges ,asiatiques de ,st4 ,ptersbourg10 vol4 ii4 p4 #cgd47' iii4 ,both these estimates are exceeded by ,dr4 ,t4 ,w4 ,rhys ,davids 7intimating also the uncertainty of the statements1 and that numbers are no evidence of truth7 in the introduction to his #8,manual of ,buddhism4' ,the ,buddhists there appear as amounting in all to #ejj millions3--#cj millions of ,southern ,buddhists1 in ,ceylon1 ,burma1 ,siam1 ,anam1 and ,india 7,jains72 and #dgj millions of ,north ,buddhists1 of whom nearly #cc millions are assigned to ,japan1 and #dad1fhf1igd to the eighteen provinces of ,china proper4 ,according to him1 ,christians amount to about #bf per cent of mankind1 ,hindus to about #ac1 ,mohammedans to about #ab1 ,buddhists to about #dj1 and ,jews to about 4 ,in regard to all these estimates1 it will be observed that the immense numbers assigned to ,buddhism are made out by the multitude of ,chinese with which it is credited4 ,subtract ,cunningham's #agj millions of ,chinese from his total of #bbb1 and there remains only #eb millions of ,buddhists4 ,subtract ,davids' 7say7 #dad millions of ,chinese from his total of #ejj1 and there remain only #he millions for ,buddhism4 ,of the numbers assigned to other countries1 as well as of their whole populations1 ,i am in considerable doubt1 excepting in the cases of ,ceylon and ,india2 but the greatness of the estimates turns upon the immense multitudes said to be in ,china4 ,i do not know what total population ,cunningham allowed for that country1 nor on what principal he allotted #agj millions of it to ,buddhism2--perhaps he halved his estimate of the whole1 whereas ,berghaus and ,davids allotted to it the highest estimates that have been given of the people4 ,but we have no certain information of the population of ,china4 ,at an interview with the former ,chinese ambassador1 ,kwo ,sung-to1 in ,paris1 in #ahgh1 ,i begged him to write out for me the amount1 with the authority for it1 and he assured me that it could not be done4 ,i have read probably almost everything that has been published on the subject1 and endeavoured by methods of my own to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion2--without reaching a result which ,i can venture to lay before the public4 ,my impression has been that #djj millions is hardly an exaggeration4 ,but supposing that we had reliable returns of the whole population1 how shall we proceed to apportion that among ,confucianists1 ,toists1 and ,buddhists8 ,confucianism is the orthodoxy of ,china4 ,the common name for it is ,j ,chio1 #8the ,doctrines held by the ,learned ,class1' entrance into the circle of which is1 with a few insignificant exceptions1 open to all the people4 ,the mass of them and the masses under their influence are preponderatingly ,confucian2 and in the observance of ancestral worship1 the most remarkable feature of the religion proper of ,china from the earliest times1 of which ,confucius was not the author but the prophet1 an overwhelming majority are regular and assiduous4 ,among #8the strange principles' which the emperor of the ,kang-hsi period1 in one of his famous ,sixteen ,precepts1 exhorted his people to #8discountenance and put away1 in order to exalt the correct doctrine1' ,buddhism and ,toism were both included4 ,if1 as stated in the note quoted from ,professor ,mller1 the emperor countenances both the ,toist worship and the ,buddhist1 he does so for reasons of state2--to please especially his ,buddhist subjects in ,thibet and ,mongolia1 and not to offend the many whose superstitious fancies incline to ,toism4 ,when ,i went out and in as a missionary among the ,chinese people for about thirty years1 it sometimes occurred to me that only the inmates of their monasteries and the recluses of both systems should be enumerated as ,buddhists and ,toists2 but ,i was in the end constrained to widen that judgment1 and to admit a considerable following of both among the people1 who have neither received the tonsure nor assumed the yellow top4 ,dr4 ,eitel1 in concluding his discussion of this point in his #8,lecture on ,buddhism1 an ,event in ,history1' says3 #8,it is not too much to say that most ,chinese are theoretically ,confucianists1 but emotionally ,buddhists or ,toists4 ,but fairness requires us to add that1 though the mass of the people are more or less influenced by ,buddhist doctrines1 yet the people1 as a whole1 have no respect for the ,buddhist church1 and habitually sneer at ,buddhist priests4' ,for the #8most' in the former of these two sentences ,i would substitute #8nearly all2' and between my friend's #8but' and #8emotionally' ,i would introduce #8many are1' and would not care to contest his conclusion farther4 ,it does seem to me preposterous to credit ,buddhism with the whole of the vast population of ,china1 the great majority of whom are ,confucianists4 ,my own opinion is1 that its adherents are not so many as those even of ,mohammedanism1 and that instead of being the most numerous of the religions 7so called7 of the world1 it is only entitled to occupy the fifth place1 ranking below ,christianity1 ,confucianism1 ,brahmnism1 and ,mohammedanism1 and followed1 some distance off1 by ,toism4 ,to make a table of percentages of mankind1 and assign to each system its proportion1 is to seem to be wise where we are deplorably ignorant2 and1 moreover1 if our means of information were much better than they are1 our figures would merely show the outward adherence4 ,a fractional per-centage might tell more for one system than a very large integral one for another4 ,,notes #a #b 1 #c ,,the ,,travels ,,of ,f-,,hien or ,,record ,,of ,,buddhistic ,,kingdoms ,,chapter ,i4 ,,from ,,ch,,ang-,,gan ,,to ,,the ,,sandy ,,desert4 ,f-hien had been living in ,chang-gan4#a ,deploring the mutilated and imperfect state of the collection of the ,books of ,discipline1 in the second year of the period ,hwng-che1 being the ,ke-he year of the cycle1#b he entered into an engagement with ,hwuy-king1 ,to-ching1 ,hwuy-ying1 and ,hwuy-wei1#c that they should go to ,india and seek for the ,disciplinary ,rules4#d ,after starting from ,chang-gan1 they passed through ,lung1#e and came to the kingdom of ,keen-kwei1#f where they stopped for the summer retreat4#g ,when that was over1 they went forward to the kingdom of ,now-tan1#h crossed the mountain of ,yang-low1 and reached the emporium of ,chang-yih4#i ,there they found the country so much disturbed that travelling on the roads was impossible for them4 ,its king1 however1 was very attentive to them1 kept them 7in his capital71 and acted the part of their dnapati4#aj ,here they met with ,che-yen1 ,hwuy-keen1 ,sng-sho1 ,po-yun1 and ,sng-king2#aa and in pleasant association with them1 as bound on the same journey with themselves1 they passed the summer retreat 7of that year7#ab together1 resuming after it their travelling1 and going on to ,tun-hwang1#ac 7the chief town7 in the frontier territory of defence extending for about #hj le from east to west1 and about #dj from north to south4 ,their company1 increased as it had been1 halted there for some days more than a month1 after which ,f-hien and his four friends started first in the suite of an envoy1#ad having separated 7for a time7 from ,po-yun and his associates4 ,le ,ho1#ae the prefect of ,tun-hwang1 had supplied them with the means of crossing the desert 7before them71 in which there are many evil demons and hot winds4 7,travellers7 who encounter them perish all to a man4 ,there is not a bird to be seen in the air above1 nor an animal on the ground below4 ,though you look all round most earnestly to find where you can cross1 you know not where to make your choice1 the only mark and indication being the dry bones of the dead 7left upon the sand74#af ,,notes #a ,chang-gan is still the name of the principal district 7and its city7 in the department of ,se-gan1 ,shen-se4 ,it had been the capital of the first empire of ,han 7,b4,c4 #bjb-;,a4,d4 #bd71 as it subsequently was that of ,suy 7,a4,d4 #ehi-fah74 ,the empire of the eastern ,tsin1 towards the close of which ,f-hien lived1 had its capital at or near ,nanking1 and ,chang-gan was the capital of the principal of the three ,tsin kingdoms1 which1 with many other minor ones1 maintained a semi-independence of ,tsin1 their rulers sometimes even assuming the title of emperor4 #b ,the period ,hwng-che embraced from ,a4,d4 #cii to #dad1 being the greater portion of the reign of ,yo ,hing of the ,after ,tsin1 a powerful prince4 ,he adopted ,hwng-che for the style of his reign in #cii1 and the cyclical name of that year was ,kng-tsze4 ,it is not possible at this distance of time to explain1 if it could be explained1 how ,f-hien came to say that ,ke-he was the second year of the period4 ,it seems most reasonable to suppose that he set out on his pilgrimage in ,a4,d4 #cii1 the cycle name of which was ,ke-he1 as 1 the second year1 instead of 1 the first1 might easily creep into the text4 ,in the #8,memoirs of ,eminent ,monks' it is said that our author started in the third year of the period ,lung-gan of the eastern ,tsin1 which was ,a4,d4 #cii4 #c ,these1 like ,f-hien itself1 are all what we might call #8clerical' names1 appellations given to the parties as monks or ramaas4 #d ,the ,buddhist tripiaka or canon consists of three collections1 containing1 according to ,eitel 7p4 #aej71 #8doctrinal aphorisms 7or statements1 purporting to be from ,buddha himself72 works on discipline2 and works on metaphysics3'--called stra1 vinaya1 and abhidharma2 in ,chinese1 king 771 leh 771 and lun 771 or texts1 laws or rules1 and discussions4 ,dr4 ,rhys ,davids objects to the designation of #8metaphysics' as used of the abhidharma works1 saying that #8they bear much more the relation to 8dharma0 which 8by-law0 bears to 8law0 than that which 8metaphysics0 bears to 8physics0' 7,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #di74 ,however this be1 it was about the vinaya works that ,f-hien was chiefly concerned4 ,he wanted a good code of the rules for the government of #8the ,order' in all its internal and external relations4 #e ,lung embraced the western part of ,shen-se and the eastern part of ,kan-sh4 ,the name remains in ,lung ,chow1 in the extreme west of ,shen-se4 #f ,keen-kwei was the second king of #8the ,western ,tsin4' ,his family was of northern or barbarous origin1 from the tribe of the ,seen-pe1 with the surname of ,keih-fuh4 ,the first king was ,kwo-jin1 and received his appointment from the sovereign of the chief ,tsin kingdom in #che4 ,he was succeeded in #chh by his brother1 the ,keen-kwei of the text1 who was very prosperous in #cih1 and took the title of king of ,tsin4 ,f-hien would find him at his capital1 somewhere in the present department of ,lan-chow1 ,kan-sh4 #g ,under varshs or vashvasna 7,pli1 vassa2 ,spence ,hardy1 vass71 ,eitel 7p4 #afc7 says3--#8,one of the most ancient institutions of ,buddhist discipline1 requiring all ecclesiastics to spend the rainy season in a monastery in devotional exercises4 ,chinese ,buddhists naturally substituted the hot season for the rainy 7from the #afth day of the #eth to the #aeth of the #ith ,chinese month74' #h ,during the troubled period of the ,tsin dynasty1 there were five 7usurping7 ,leang sovereignties in the western part of the empire 7 74 ,the name ,leang remains in the department of ,leang-chow in the northern part of ,kan-sh4 ,the #8southern ,leang' arose in #cig under a ,th-fh ,w-k1 who was succeeded in #cii by a brother1 ,le-luh-koo2 and he again by his brother1 the ,now-tan of the text1 in #djb1 who was not yet king therefore when ,f-hien and his friends reached his capital4 ,how he is represented as being so may be accounted for in various ways1 of which it is not necessary to write4 #i ,chang-yih is still the name of a district in ,kan-chow department1 ,kan-sh4 ,it is a long way north and west from ,lan-chow1 and not far from the ,great ,wall4 ,its king at this time was1 probably1 ,twan-yeh of #8the northern ,leang4' #aj ,dna is the name for religious charity1 the first of the six pramits1 or means of attaining to nirva2 and a dnapati is #8one who practises dna and thereby crosses 77 the sea of misery4' ,it is given as #8a title of honour to all who support the cause of ,buddhism by acts of charity1 especially to founders and patrons of monasteries2'--see ,eitel1 p4 #bi4 #aa ,of these pilgrims with their clerical names1 the most distinguished was ,po-yun1 who translated various ,sanskrit works on his return from ,india1 of which only one seems to be now existing4 ,he died in #ddi4 ,see ,nanjio's ,catalogue of the ,tripiaka1 col4 #dag4 #ab ,this was the second summer since the pilgrims left ,chang-gan4 ,we are now therefore1 probably1 in ,a4,d4 #djj4 #ac ,tun-hwang 7lat4 #ci #dj ,n42 lon4 #id #ej ,e47 is still the name of one of the two districts constituting the department of ,gan-se1 the most western of the prefectures of ,kan-sh2 beyond the termination of the ,great ,wall4 #ad ,who this envoy was1 and where he was going1 we do not know4 ,the text will not admit of any other translation4 #ae ,le ,ho was a native of ,lung-se1 a man of learning1 able and kindly in his government4 ,he was appointed governor or prefect of ,tun-hwang by the king of #8the northern ,leang1' in #djj2 and there he sustained himself1 becoming by-and-by #8duke of western ,leang1' till he died in #dag4 #af #8,the river of sand2' the great desert of ,kobi or ,gobi2 having various other names4 ,it was a great task which the pilgrims had now before them1--to cross this desert4 ,the name of #8river' in the ,chinese misleads the reader1 and he thinks of crossing it as of crossing a stream2 but they had to traverse it from east to west4 ,in his #8,vocabulary of ,proper ,names1' p4 #bc1 ,dr4 ,porter ,smith says3--#8,it extends from the eastern frontier of ,mongolia1 south-westward to the further frontier of ,turkestan1 to within six miles of ,ilch1 the chief town of ,khoten4 ,it thus comprises some twenty-three degrees of longitude in length1 and from three to ten degrees of latitude in breadth1 being about #b1ajj miles in its greatest length4 ,in some places it is arable4 ,some idea may be formed of the terror with which this 8,sea of ,sand10 with its vast billows of shifting sands1 is regarded1 from the legend that in one of the storms #cfj cities were all buried within the space of twenty-four hours4' ,so also ,gilmour's #8,among the ,mongols1' chap4 #e4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,on ,,to ,,shen-,,shen ,,and ,,thence ,,to ,,khoten4 ,after travelling for seventeen days1 a distance we may calculate of about #aejj le1 7the pilgrims7 reached the kingdom of ,shen-shen1#a a country rugged and hilly1 with a thin and barren soil4 ,the clothes of the common people are coarse1 and like those worn in our land of ,han1#b some wearing felt and others coarse serge or cloth of hair2--this was the only difference seen among them4 ,the king professed 7our7 ,law1 and there might be in the country more than four thousand monks1#c who were all students of the hnayna4#d ,the common people of this and other kingdoms 7in that region71 as well as the ramans1#e all practise the rules of ,india1#f only that the latter do so more exactly1 and the former more loosely4 ,so 7the travellers7 found it in all the kingdoms through which they went on their way from this to the west1 only that each had its own peculiar barbarous speech4#g 7,the monks71 however1 who had 7given up the worldly life7 and quitted their families1 were all students of ,indian books and the ,indian language4 ,here they stayed for about a month1 and then proceeded on their journey1 fifteen days walking to the north-west bringing them to the country of ,woo-e4#h ,in this also there were more than four thousand monks1 all students of the hnayna4 ,they were very strict in their rules1 so that ramans from the territory of ,tsin#i were all unprepared for their regulations4 ,f-hien1 through the management of ,foo ,kung-sun1 matre d'htellerie1#aj was able to remain 7with his company in the monastery where they were received7 for more than two months1 and here they were rejoined by ,po-yun and his friends4#aa 7,at the end of that time7 the people of ,woo-e neglected the duties of propriety and righteousness1 and treated the strangers in so niggardly a manner that ,che-yen1 ,hwuy-keen1 and ,hwuy-wei went back towards ,ko-chang1#ab hoping to obtain there the means of continuing their journey4 ,f-hien and the rest1 however1 through the liberality of ,foo ,kung-sun1 managed to go straight forward in a south-west direction4 ,they found the country uninhabited as they went along4 ,the difficulties which they encountered in crossing the streams and on their route1 and the sufferings which they endured1 were unparalleled in human experience1 but in the course of a month and five days they succeeded in reaching ,yu-teen4#ac ,,notes #a ,an account is given of the kingdom of ,shen-shen in the #ifth of the ,books of the first ,han dynasty1 down to its becoming a dependency of ,china1 about ,b4,c4 #hj4 ,the greater portion of that is now accessible to the ,english reader in a translation by ,mr4 ,wylie in the #8,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1' ,august1 #ahhj4 ,mr4 ,wylie says3--#8,although we may not be able to identify ,shen-shen with certainty1 yet we have sufficient indications to give an appropriate idea of its position1 as being south of and not far from lake ,lob4' ,he then goes into an exhibition of those indications1 which ,i need not transcribe4 ,it is sufficient for us to know that the capital city was not far from ,lob or ,lop ,nor1 into which in lon4 #ch ,e4 the ,tarim flows4 ,f-hien estimated its distance to be #aejj le from ,tun-hwang4 ,he and his companions must have gone more than twenty-five miles a day to accomplish the journey in seventeen days4 #b ,this is the name which ,f-hien always uses when he would speak of ,china1 his native country1 as a whole1 calling it from the great dynasty which had ruled it1 first and last1 for between four and five centuries4 ,occasionally1 as we shall immediately see1 he speaks of #8the territory of ,tsin or ,chin1' but intending thereby only the kingdom or ,tsin1 having its capital1 as described in the first note on the last chapter1 in ,chang-gan4 #c ,so ,i prefer to translate the character 7sng7 rather than by #8priests4' ,even in ,christianity1 beyond the priestly privilege which belongs to all believers1 ,i object to the ministers of any denomination or church calling themselves or being called #8priests2' and much more is the name inapplicable to the ramaas or bhikshus of ,buddhism which acknowledges no ,god in the universe1 no soul in man1 and has no services of sacrifice or prayer in its worship4 ,the only difficulty in the use of #8monks' is caused by the members of the sect in ,japan which1 since the middle of the fifteenth century1 has abolished the prohibition against marrying on the part of its ministers1 and other prohibitions in diet and dress4 ,sng and sng-ke represent the ,sanskrit sagha1 which denotes 7,e4 ,h41 p #aag71 first1 an assembly of monks1 or bhikshu sagha1 constituted by at least four members1 and empowered to hear confession1 to grant absolution1 to admit persons to holy orders1 c42 secondly1 the third constituent of the ,buddhistic ,trinity1 a deification of the communio sanctorum1 or the ,buddhist order4 ,the name is used by our author of the monks collectively or individually as belonging to the class1 and may be considered as synonymous with the name ramaa1 which will immediately claim our attention4 #d ,meaning the #8small vehicle1 or conveyance4' ,there are in ,buddhism the triyna1 or #8three different means of salvation1 i4e4 of conveyance across the sasra1 or sea of transmigration1 to the shores of nirva4 ,afterwards the term was used to designate the different phases of development through which the ,buddhist dogma passed1 known as the mahyna1 hnayna1 and madhyamayna4' #8,the hnayna is the simplest vehicle of salvation1 corresponding to the first of the three degrees of saintship4 ,characteristics of it are the preponderance of active moral asceticism1 and the absence of speculative mysticism and quietism4' ,e4 ,h41 pp4 #aea-b1 #de1 and #aag4 #e #8raman' may in ,english take the place of ramaa 7,pli1 ,samana2 in ,chinese1 ,sh-mn71 the name for ,buddhist monks1 as those who have separated themselves from 7left7 their families1 and quieted their hearts from all intrusion of desire and lust4 #8,it is employed1 first1 as a general name for ascetics of all denominations1 and1 secondly1 as a general designation of ,buddhistic monks4' ,e4 ,h41 pp4 #acj1 #aca4 #f ,the name for ,india is here the same as in the former chapter and throughout the book1--,teen-chuh 771 the chuh being pronounced1 probably1 in ,f-hien's time as tuk4 ,how the earliest name for ,india1 ,shin-tuk or duk,scinde1 came to be changed into ,thien-tuk1 it would take too much space to explain4 ,i believe it was done by the ,buddhists1 wishing to give a good auspicious name to the fatherland of their ,law1 and calling it #8the ,heavenly ,tuk1' just as the ,mohammedans call ,arabia #8the ,heavenly region' 771 and the court of ,china itself is called #8the ,celestial' 774 #g ,tartar or ,mongolian4 #h ,woo-e has not been identified4 ,watters 7#8,china ,review1' viii4 #aae7 says3--#8,we cannot be far wrong if we place it in ,kharaschar1 or between that and ,kutscha4' ,it must have been a country of considerable size to have so many monks in it4 #i ,this means in one sense ,china1 but ,f-hien1 in his use of the name1 was only thinking of the three ,tsin states of which ,i have spoken in a previous note2 perhaps only of that from the capital of which he had himself set out4 #aj ,this sentence altogether is difficult to construe1 and ,mr4 ,watters1 in the #8,china ,review1' was the first to disentangle more than one knot in it4 ,i am obliged to adopt the reading of in the ,chinese editions1 instead of the in the ,corean text4 ,it seems clear that only one person is spoken of as assisting the travellers1 and his name1 as appears a few sentences farther on1 was ,foo ,kung-sun4 ,the which immediately follows the surname ,foo 1 must be taken as the name of his office1 corresponding1 as the shows1 to that of le matre d'htellerie in a ,roman ,catholic abbey4 ,i was once indebted myself to the kind help of such an officer at a monastery in ,canton province4 ,the ,buddhistic name for him is uddesikaoverseer4 ,the ,kung-sun that follows his surname indicates that he was descended from some feudal lord in the old times of the ,chow dynasty4 ,we know indeed of no ruling house which had the surname of ,foo1 but its adoption by the grandson of a ruler can be satisfactorily accounted for2 and his posterity continued to call themselves ,kung-sun1 duke or lord's grandson1 and so retain the memory of the rank of their ancestor4 #aa ,whom they had left behind them at ,tun-hwang4 #ab ,the country of the ,ouighurs1 the district around the modern ,turfan or ,tangut4 #ac ,yu-teen is better known as ,khoten4 ,dr4 ,p4 ,smith gives 7p4 #aa7 the following description of it3--#8,a large district on the south-west of the desert of ,gobi1 embracing all the country south of ,oksu and ,yarkand1 along the northern base of the ,kwun-lun mountains1 for more than #cjj miles from east to west4 ,the town of the same name1 now called ,ilch1 is in an extensive plain on the ,khoten river1 in lat4 #cg ,n41 and lon4 #hj #ce ,e4 ,after the ,tungni insurrection against ,chinese rule in #ahfb1 the ,mufti ,hji ,habeeboolla was made governor of ,khoten1 and held the office till he was murdered by ,yakoob ,beg1 who became for a time the conqueror of all ,chinese ,turkestan4 ,khoten produces fine linen and cotton stuffs1 jade ornaments1 copper1 grain1 and fruits4' ,the name in ,sanskrit is ,kustana4 7,e4 ,h41 p4 #fj74 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,khoten4 ,,processions ,,of ,,images4 ,,the ,,king',s ,,new ,,monastery4 ,yu-teen is a pleasant and prosperous kingdom1 with a numerous and flourishing population4 ,the inhabitants all profess our ,law1 and join together in its religious music for their enjoyment4#a ,the monks amount to several myriads1 most of whom are students of the mahyna4#b ,they all receive their food from the common store4#c ,throughout the country the houses of the people stand apart like 7separate7 stars1 and each family has a small tope#d reared in front of its door4 ,the smallest of these may be twenty cubits high1 or rather more4#e ,they make 7in the monasteries7 rooms for monks from all quarters1#e the use of which is given to travelling monks who may arrive1 and who are provided with whatever else they require4 ,the lord of the country lodged ,f-hien and the others comfortably1 and supplied their wants1 in a monastery#f called ,gomati1#f of the mahyna school4 ,attached to it there are three thousand monks1 who are called to their meals by the sound of a bell4 ,when they enter the refectory1 their demeanour is marked by a reverent gravity1 and they take their seats in regular order1 all maintaining a perfect silence4 ,no sound is heard from their alms-bowls and other utensils4 ,when any of these pure men#g require food1 they are not allowed to call out 7to the attendants7 for it1 but only make signs with their hands4 ,hwuy-king1 ,to-ching1 and ,hwuy-tah set out in advance towards the country of ,keeh-ch2#h but ,f-hien and the others1 wishing to see the procession of images1 remained behind for three months4 ,there are in this country four#i great monasteries1 not counting the smaller ones4 ,beginning on the first day of the fourth month1 they sweep and water the streets inside the city1 making a grand display in the lanes and byways4 ,over the city gate they pitch a large tent1 grandly adorned in all possible ways1 in which the king and queen1 with their ladies brilliantly arrayed1#aj take up their residence 7for the time74 ,the monks of the ,gomati monastery1 being mahyna students1 and held in great reverence by the king1 took precedence of all others in the procession4 ,at a distance of three or four le from the city1 they made a four-wheeled image car1 more than thirty cubits high1 which looked like the great hall 7of a monastery7 moving along4 ,the seven precious substances#aa were grandly displayed about it1 with silken streamers and canopies hanging all around4 ,the 7chief7 image#ab stood in the middle of the car1 with two ,bodhisattvas#ac in attendance upon it1 while devas#ad were made to follow in waiting1 all brilliantly carved in gold and silver1 and hanging in the air4 ,when 7the car7 was a hundred paces from the gate1 the king put off his crown of state1 changed his dress for a fresh suit1 and with bare feet1 carrying in his hands flowers and incense1 and with two rows of attending followers1 went out at the gate to meet the image2 and1 with his head and face 7bowed to the ground71 he did homage at its feet1 and then scattered the flowers and burnt the incense4 ,when the image was entering the gate1 the queen and the brilliant ladies with her in the gallery above scattered far and wide all kinds of flowers1 which floated about and fell promiscuously to the ground4 ,in this way everything was done to promote the dignity of the occasion4 ,the carriages of the monasteries were all different1 and each one had its own day for the procession4 7,the ceremony7 began on the first day of the fourth month1 and ended on the fourteenth1 after which the king and queen returned to the palace4 ,seven or eight le to the west of the city there is what is called the ,king's ,new ,monastery1 the building of which took eighty years1 and extended over three reigns4 ,it may be #bej cubits in height1 rich in elegant carving and inlaid work1 covered above with gold and silver1 and finished throughout with a combination of all the precious substances4 ,behind the tope there has been built a ,hall of ,buddha1#ae of the utmost magnificence and beauty1 the beams1 pillars1 venetianed doors1 and windows being all overlaid with gold-leaf4 ,besides this1 the apartments for the monks are imposingly and elegantly decorated1 beyond the power of words to express4 ,of whatever things of highest value and preciousness the kings in the six countries on the east of the 7,tsung7 range of mountains#af are possessed1 they contribute the greater portion 7to this monastery71 using but a small portion of them themselves4#ag ,,notes #a ,this fondness for music among the ,khoteners is mentioned by ,hsan and ,chwang and others4 #b ,mahyna2 ,see chap4 ii note #d4 ,it is a later form of the ,buddhist doctrine1 the second phase of its development corresponding to the state of a ,bodhisattva1 who1 being able to transport himself and all mankind to nirva1 may be compared to a huge vehicle4 ,see ,davids on the #8,key-note of the 8,great ,vehicle10' ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #bed4 #c ,f-hien supplies sufficient information of how the common store or funds of the monasteries were provided1 farther on in chapters xvi and xxxix1 as well as in other passages4 ,as the point is important1 ,i will give here1 from ,davids' fifth ,hibbert ,lecture 7p4 #agh71 some of the words of the dying ,buddha1 taken from #8,the ,book of the ,great ,decease1' as illustrating the statement in this text3--#8,so long as the brethren shall persevere in kindness of action1 speech1 and thought among the saints1 both in public and private2 so long as they shall divide without partiality1 and share in common with the upright and holy1 all such things as they receive in accordance with the just provisions of the order1 down even to the mere contents of a begging bowl2 444 so long may the brethren be expected not to decline1 but to prosper4' #d ,the ,chinese 7tah2 in ,cantonese1 tap71 as used by ,f-hien1 is1 no doubt1 a phonetisation of the ,sanskrit stpa or ,pli thpa2 and it is well in translating to use for the structures described by him the name of topes1--made familiar by ,cunningham and other ,indian antiquarians4 ,in the thirteenth chapter there is an account of one built under the superintendence of ,buddha himself1 #8as a model for all topes in future4' ,they were usually in the form of bell-shaped domes1 and were solid1 surmounted by a long tapering pinnacle formed with a series of rings1 varying in number4 ,but their form1 ,i suppose1 was often varied2 just as we have in ,china pagodas of different shapes4 ,there are several topes now in the ,indian ,institute at ,oxford1 brought from ,buddha ,gay1 but the largest of them is much smaller than #8the smallest' of those of ,khoten4 ,they were intended chiefly to contain the relics of ,buddha and famous masters of his ,law2 but what relics could there be in the ,tiratna topes of chapter xvi8 #e ,the meaning here is much disputed4 ,the author does not mean to say that the monk's apartments were made #8square1' but that the monasteries were made with many guest-chambers or spare rooms4 #f ,the ,sanskrit term for a monastery is used here1--,saghrma1 #8gardens of the assembly1' originally denoting only #8the surrounding park1 but afterwards transferred to the whole of the premises' 7,e4 ,h41 p4 #aah74 ,gomati1 the name of this monastery1 means #8rich in cows4' #g ,a denomination for the monks as vimala1 #8undefiled' or #8pure4' ,giles makes it #8the menials that attend on the monks1' but ,i have not met with it in that application4 #h ,keeh-ch has not been clearly identified4 ,rmusat made it ,cashmere2 ,klaproth1 ,iskardu2 ,beal makes it ,kartchou2 and ,eitel1 ,khasa1 #8an ancient tribe on the ,paropamisus1 the ,kasioi of ,ptolemy4' ,i think it was ,ladak1 or some well-known place in it4 ,hwuy-tah1 unless that name be an alias1 appears here for the first time4 #i ,instead of #8four1' the ,chinese copies of the text have #8fourteen2' but the ,corean reading is1 probably1 more correct4 #aj ,there may have been1 as ,giles says1 #8maids of honour2' but the character does not say so4 #aa ,the ,sapta-ratna1 gold1 silver1 lapis lazuli1 rock crystal1 rubies1 diamonds or emeralds1 and agate4 ,see ,sacred ,books of the ,east 7,davids' ,buddhist ,suttas71 vol4 xi41 p4 #bdi4 #ab ,no doubt that of kyamuni himself4 #ac ,a ,bodhisattva is one whose essence has become intelligence2 a ,being who will in some future birth as a man 7not necessarily or usually the next7 attain to ,buddhahood4 ,the name does not include those ,buddhas who have not yet attained to pari-nirva4 ,the symbol of the state is an elephant fording a river4 ,popularly1 its abbreviated form ,p-s is used in ,china for any idol or image2 here the name has its proper signification4 #ad 1 #8all the thien1' or simply #8the thien' taken as plural4 ,but in ,chinese the character called thien 77 denotes heaven1 or ,heaven1 and is interchanged with ,t and ,shang ,t1 meaning ,god4 ,with the ,buddhists it denotes the devas or ,brahmnic gods1 or all the inhabitants of the six devalokas4 ,the usage shows the antagonism between ,buddhism and ,brahmnism1 and still more that between it and ,confucianism4 #ae ,giles and ,williams call this #8the oratory of ,buddha4' ,but #8oratory' gives the idea of a small apartment1 whereas the name here leads the mind to think of a large #8hall4' ,i once accompanied the monks of a large monastery from their refectory to the ,hall of ,buddha1 which was a lofty and spacious apartment splendidly fitted up4 #af ,the ,tsung1 or #8,onion' range1 called also the ,belurtagh mountains1 including the ,karakorum1 and forming together the connecting links between the more northern ,teen-shan and the ,kwun-lun mountains on the north of ,thibet4 ,it would be difficult to name the six countries which ,f-hien had in mind4 #ag ,this seems to be the meaning here4 ,my first impression of it was that the author meant to say that the contributions which they received were spent by the monks mainly on the buildings1 and only to a small extent for themselves2 and ,i still hesitate between that view and the one in the version4 ,there occurs here the binomial phrase kung-yang 1 which is one of the most common throughout the narrative1 and is used not only of support in the way of substantial contributions given to monks1 monasteries1 and ,buddhism1 but generally of all ,buddhistic worship1 if ,i may use that term in the connexion4 ,let me here quote two or three sentences from ,davids' ,manual 7pp4 #afh-agj73--#8,the members of the order are secured from want4 ,there is no place in the ,buddhist scheme for churches2 the offering of flowers before the sacred tree or image of the ,buddha takes the place of worship4 ,buddhism does not acknowledge the efficacy of prayers2 and in the warm countries where ,buddhists live1 the occasional reading of the law1 or preaching of the word1 in public1 can take place best in the open air1 by moonlight1 under a simple roof of trees or palms4 ,there are five principal kinds of meditation1 which in ,buddhism takes the place of prayer4' ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,through ,,the ,,ts,,ung ,,or #8,,onion' ,,mountains ,,to ,k,,eeh-,,ch2--,,probably ,,skardo1 ,,or ,,some ,,city ,,more ,,to ,,the ,,east ,,in ,,ladak4 ,when the processions of images in the fourth month were over1 ,sng-sho1 by himself alone1 followed a ,tartar who was an earnest follower of the ,law1#a and proceeded towards ,kophene4#b ,f-hien and the others went forward to the kingdom of ,tsze-hoh1 which it took them twenty-five days to reach4#c ,its king was a strenuous follower of our ,law1#d and had 7around him7 more than a thousand monks1 mostly students of the mahyna4 ,here 7the travellers7 abode fifteen days1 and then went south for four days1 when they found themselves among the ,tsung-ling mountains1 and reached the country of ,yu-hwuy1#e where they halted and kept their retreat4#f ,when this was over1 they went on among the hills#g for twenty-five days1 and got to ,keeh-ch1#h there rejoining ,hwuy-king#i and his two companions4 ,,notes #a ,this ,tartar is called a 1 #8a man of the ,to1' or faith of ,buddha4 ,it occurs several times in the sequel1 and denotes the man who is not a ,buddhist outwardly only1 but inwardly as well1 whose faith is always making itself manifest in his ways4 ,the name may be used of followers of other systems of faith besides ,buddhism4 #b ,see the account of the kingdom of ,kophene1 in the #ifth ,book of the first ,han ,records1 p4 #gh1 where its capital is said to be #ab1bjj le from ,chang-gan4 ,it was the whole or part of the present ,cabulistan ,the name of ,cophene is connected with the river ,kophes1 supposed to be the same as the present ,cabul river1 which falls into the ,indus1 from the west1 at ,attock1 after passing ,peshwar4 ,the city of ,cabul1 the capital of ,afghanistan1 may be the ,kophene of the text2 but we do not know that ,sng-sho and his guide got so far west4 ,the text only says that they set out from ,khoten #8towards it4' #c ,tsze-hoh has not been identified4 ,beal thinks it was ,yarkand1 which1 however1 was north-west from ,khoten4 ,watters 7#8,china ,review1' p4 #ace7 rather approves the suggestion of #8,tashkurgan in ,sirikul' for it4 ,as it took ,f-hien twenty-five days to reach it1 it must have been at least #aej miles from ,khoten4 #d ,the king is described here by a ,buddhistic phrase1 denoting the possession of vryabala1 #8the power of energy2 persevering exertion--one of the five moral powers' 7,e4 ,h41 p4 #agj74 #e ,nor has ,yu-hwuy been clearly identified4 ,evidently it was directly south from ,tsze-hoh1 and among the #8,onion' mountains4 ,watters hazards the conjecture that it was the ,aktasch of our present maps4 #f ,this was the retreat already twice mentioned as kept by the pilgrims in the summer1 the different phraseology1 #8quiet rest1' without any mention of the season1 indicating their approach to ,india1 ,e4 ,h41 p4 #afh4 ,two1 if not three1 years had elapsed since they left ,chang-gan4 ,are we now with them in #djb8 #g ,this is the ,corean reading 771 much preferable to the 77 of the ,chinese editions4 #h ,see chap4 iii1 note #h4 ,watters approves of ,klaproth's determination of ,keeh-ch to be ,iskardu or ,skardo4 ,there are difficulties in connexion with the view1 but it has the advantage1 to my mind very great1 of bringing the pilgrims across the ,indus4 ,the passage might be accomplished with ease at this point of the river's course1 and therefore is not particularly mentioned4 #i ,who had preceded them from ,khoten1 chap4 iii paragraph #c4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,great ,,quinquennial ,,assembly ,,of ,,monks4 ,,relics ,,of ,,buddha4 ,,productions ,,of ,,the ,,country4 ,it happened that the king of the country was then holding the pacha parishad1 that is1 in ,chinese1 the great quinquennial assembly4#a ,when this is to be held1 the king requests the presence of the ramans from all quarters 7of his kingdom74 ,they come 7as if7 in clouds2 and when they are all assembled1 their place of session is grandly decorated4 ,silken streamers and canopies are hung out in1 and water-lilies in gold and silver are made and fixed up behind the places where 7the chief of them7 are to sit4 ,when clean mats have been spread1 and they are all seated1 the king and his ministers present their offerings according to rule and law4 7,the assembly takes place71 in the first1 second1 or third month1 for the most part in the spring4 ,after the king has held the assembly1 he further exhorts the ministers to make other and special offerings4 ,the doing of this extends over one1 two1 three1 five1 or even seven days2 and when all is finished1 he takes his own riding-horse1 saddles1 bridles1 and waits on him himself1#b while he makes the noblest and most important minister of the kingdom mount him4 ,then1 taking fine white woollen cloth1 all sorts of precious things1 and articles which the ramans require1 he distributes them among them1 uttering vows at the same time along with all his ministers2 and when this distribution has taken place1 he again redeems 7whatever he wishes7 from the monks4#c ,the country1 being among the hills and cold1 does not produce the other cereals1 and only the wheat gets ripe4 ,after the monks have received their annual 7portion of this71 the mornings suddenly show the hoar-frost1 and on this account the king always begs the monks to make the wheat ripen#d before they receive their portion4 ,there is in the country a spittoon which belonged to ,buddha1 made of stone1 and in colour like his alms-bowl4 ,there is also a tooth of ,buddha1 for which the people have reared a tope1 connected with which there are more than a thousand monks and their disciples1#e all students of the hnayna4 ,to the east of these hills the dress of the common people is of coarse materials1 as in our country of ,tsin1 but here also#f there were among them the differences of fine woollen cloth and of serge or haircloth4 ,the rules observed by the ramans are remarkable1 and too numerous to be mentioned in detail4 ,the country is in the midst of the ,onion range4 ,as you go forward from these mountains1 the plants1 trees1 and fruits are all different from those of the land of ,han1 excepting only the bamboo1 pomegranate1#g and sugar-cane4 ,,notes #a ,see ,eitel1 p4 #hi4 ,he describes the assembly as #8an ecclesiastical conference1 first instituted by king ,aoka for general confession of sins and inculcation of morality4' #b ,the text of this sentence is perplexing2 and all translators1 including myself1 have been puzzled by it4 #c ,see what we are told of king ,aoka's grant of all the ,jambudvpa to the monks in chapter xxvii4 ,there are several other instances of similar gifts in the ,mahvaa4 #d ,watters calls attention to this as showing that the monks of ,keeh-ch had the credit of possessing weather-controlling powers4 #e ,the text here has 1 not alone4 ,i often found in monasteries boys and lads who looked up to certain of the monks as their preceptors4 #f ,compare what is said in chapter ii of the dress of the people of ,shen-shen4 #g ,giles thinks the fruit here was the guava1 because the ordinary name for #8pomegranate' is preceded by gan 772 but the pomegranate was called at first ,gan ,shih-lu1 as having been introduced into ,china from ,gan-seih by ,chang keen1 who is referred to in chapter vii4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,on ,,towards ,,north ,,india4 ,,darada4 ,,image ,,of ,,maitreya ,,bodhisattva4 ,from this 7the travellers7 went westwards towards ,north ,india1 and after being on the way for a month1 they succeeded in getting across and through the range of the ,onion mountains4 ,the snow rests on them both winter and summer4 ,there are also among them venomous dragons1 which1 when provoked1 spit forth poisonous winds1 and cause showers of snow and storms of sand and gravel4 ,not one in ten thousand of those who encounter these dangers escapes with his life4 ,the people of the country call the range by the name of #8,the ,snow mountains4' ,when 7the travellers7 had got through them1 they were in ,north ,india1 and immediately on entering its borders1 found themselves in a small kingdom called ,to-leih1#a where also there were many monks1 all students of the hnayna4 ,in this kingdom there was formerly an ,arhan1#b who by his supernatural power#c took a clever artificer up to the ,tushita#d heaven1 to see the height1 complexion1 and appearance of ,maitreya ,bodhisattva1#e and then return and make an image of him in wood4 ,first and last1 this was done three times1 and then the image was completed1 eighty cubits in height1 and eight cubits at the base from knee to knee of the crossed legs4 ,on fast-days it emits an effulgent light4 ,the kings of the 7surrounding7 countries vie with one another in presenting offerings to it4 ,here it is1--to be seen now as of old4#f ,,notes #a ,eitel and others identify this with ,darada1 the country of the ancient ,dardae1 the region near ,dardus2 lat4 #cj #aa ,n41 lon4 #gc #ed ,e4 ,see ,e4 ,h4 p4 #cj4 ,i am myself in more than doubt on the point4 ,cunningham 7#8,ancient ,geography of ,india1' p4 #hb7 says #8,darel is a valley on the right or western bank of the ,indus1 now occupied by ,dardus or ,dards1 from whom it received its name4' ,but as ,i read our narrative1 ,f-hien is here on the eastern bank of the ,indus1 and only crosses to the western bank as described in the next chapter4 #b ,lo-han1 ,arhat1 ,arahat1 are all designations of the perfected rya1 the disciple who has passed the different stages of the ,noble ,path1 or eightfold excellent way1 who has conquered all passions1 and is not to be reborn again4 ,arhatship implies possession of certain supernatural powers1 and is not to be succeeded by ,buddhaship1 but implies the fact of the saint having already attained nirva4 ,popularly1 the ,chinese designate by this name the wider circle of ,buddha's disciples1 as well as the smaller ones of #ejj and #ah4 ,no temple in ,canton is better worth a visit than that of the #ejj ,lo-han4 #c iddhi-skshtkriy1 #8the power of supernatural footsteps1' #8a body flexible at pleasure1' or unlimited power over the body4 ,e4 ,h41 p4 #ajd4 #d ,tushita is the fourth ,devaloka1 where all ,bodhisattvas are reborn before finally appearing on earth as ,buddha4 ,life lasts in ,tushita #djjj years1 but twenty-four hours there are equal to #djj years on earth4 ,e4 ,h41 p4 #aeb4 #e ,maitreya 7,spence ,hardy1 ,maitri71 often styled ,ajita1 #8the ,invincible1' was a ,bodhisattva1 the principal one1 indeed1 of kyamuni's retinue1 but is not counted among the ordinary 7historical7 disciples1 nor is anything told of his antecedents4 ,it was in the ,tushita heaven that kyamuni met him and appointed him as his successor1 to appear as ,buddha after the lapse of #ejjj years4 ,maitreya is therefore the expected ,messiah of the ,buddhists1 residing at present in ,tushita1 and1 according to the account of him in ,eitel 7,h41 p4 #gj71 #8already controlling the propagation of the ,buddhistic faith4' ,the name means #8gentleness' or #8kindness2' and this will be the character of his dispensation4 #f ,the combination of in the text of this concluding sentence1 and so frequently occurring throughout the narrative1 has occasioned no little dispute among previous translators4 ,in the imperial thesaurus of phraseology 7,pei-wan ,yun-foo71 under 1 an example of it is given from ,chwang-tsze1 and a note subjoined that is equivalent to 1 #8anciently and now4' ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,crossing ,,of ,,the ,,indus4 ,,when ,,buddhism ,,first ,,crossed ,,the ,,river ,,for ,,the ,,east4 ,the travellers went on to the south-west for fifteen days 7at the foot of the mountains1 and7 following the course of their range4 ,the way was difficult and rugged1 7running along7 a bank exceedingly precipitous1 which rose up there1 a hill-like wall of rock1 #aj1jjj cubits from the base4 ,when one approaches the edge of it1 his eyes become unsteady2 and if he wished to go forward in the same direction1 there was no place on which he could place his foot2 and beneath where the waters of the river called the ,indus4#a ,in former times men had chiselled paths along the rocks1 and distributed ladders on the face of them1 to the number altogether of #gjj1 at the bottom of which there was a suspension bridge of ropes1 by which the river was crossed1 its banks being there eighty paces apart4#b ,the 7place and arrangements7 are to be found in the ,records of the ,nine ,interpreters1#c but neither ,chang ,keen#d nor ,kan ,ying#e had reached the spot4 ,the monks#f asked ,f-hien if it could be known when the ,law of ,buddha first went to the east4 ,he replied1 #8,when ,i asked the people of those countries about it1 they all said that it had been handed down by their fathers from of old that1 after the setting up of the image of ,maitreya ,bodhisattva1 there were ramans of ,india who crossed this river1 carrying with them ,stras and ,books of ,discipline4 ,now the image was set up rather more than #cjj years after the nirva#g of ,buddha1 which may be referred to the reign of king ,ping of the ,chow dynasty4#h ,according to this account we may say that the diffusion of our great doctrines 7in the east7 began from 7the setting up of7 this image4 ,if it had not been through that ,maitreya1#i the great spiritual master#aj 7who is to be7 the successor of the kya1 who could have caused the 8,three ,precious ,ones0#aa to be proclaimed so far1 and the people of those border lands to know our ,law8 ,we know of a truth that the opening of 7the way for such7 a mysterious propagation is not the work of man2 and so the dream of the emperor ,ming of ,han#ab had its proper cause4' ,,notes #a ,the ,sindhu4 ,we saw in a former note 7chap4 ii note #f7 that the earliest name in ,china for ,india was ,shin-tuh4 ,so1 here1 the river ,indus is called by a name approaching that in sound4 #b ,both ,beal and ,watters quote from ,cunningham 7,ladak1 pp4 #hh1 #hi7 the following description of the course of the ,indus in these parts1 in striking accordance with our author's account3--#8,from ,skardo to ,rongdo1 and from ,rongdo to ,makpou-i-shang-rong1 for upwards of #ajj miles1 the ,indus sweeps sullen and dark through a mighty gorge in the mountains1 which for wild sublimity is perhaps unequalled4 ,rongdo means the country of defiles4444 ,between these points the ,indus raves from side to side of the gloomy chasm1 foaming and chafing with ungovernable fury4 ,yet even in these inaccessible places has daring and ingenious man triumphed over opposing nature4 ,the yawning abyss is spanned by frail rope bridges1 and the narrow ledges of rocks are connected by ladders to form a giddy pathway overhanging the seething cauldron below4' #c ,the ,japanese edition has a different reading here from the ,chinese copies1--one which ,rmusat 7with true critical instinct7 conjectured should take the place of the more difficult text with which alone he was acquainted4 ,the #8,nine ,interpreters' would be a general name for the official interpreters attached to the invading armies of ,han in their attempts to penetrate and subdue the regions of the west4 ,the phrase occurs in the memoir of ,chang ,keen1 referred to in the next note4 #d ,chang ,keen1 a minister of the emperor ,woo of ,han 7,b4,c4 #adj-hg71 is celebrated as the first ,chinese who #8pierced the void1' and penetrated to #8the regions of the west1' corresponding very much to the present ,turkestan4 ,through him1 by ,b4,c4 #aae1 a regular intercourse was established between ,china and the thirty-six kingdoms or states of that quarter2--see ,mayers' ,chinese ,reader's ,manual1 p4 #e4 ,the memoir of ,chang ,keen1 translated by ,mr4 ,wylie from the ,books of the first ,han dynasty1 appears in the ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 referred to already 7chap4 ii note #a74 #e ,less is known of ,kan ,ying than of ,chang ,keen4 ,being sent in ,a4,d4 #hh by his patron ,pan ,cho on an embassy to the ,roman empire1 he only got as far as the ,caspian sea1 and returned to ,china4 ,he extended1 however1 the knowledge of his countrymen with regard to the western regions2--see the memoir of ,pan ,cho in the ,books of the second ,han1 and ,mayers' ,manual1 pp4 #afg1 #afh4 #f ,where and when8 ,probably at his first resting-place after crossing the ,indus4 #g ,this may refer to kyamuni's becoming ,buddha on attaining to nirva1 or more probably to his pari-nirva and death4 #h ,as king ,ping's reign lasted from ,b4,c4 #gej to #gai1 this would place the death of ,buddha in the eleventh century ,b4,c41 whereas recent inquirers place it between ,b4,c4 #dhj and #dgj1 a year or two1 or a few years1 after that of ,confucius1 so that the two great #8,masters' of the east were really contemporaries4 ,but if ,rhys ,davids be correct1 as ,i think he is1 in fixing the date of ,buddha's death within a few years of #dab ,b4,c4 7see ,manual1 p4 #bac71 not to speak of ,westergaard's still lower date1 then the ,buddha was very considerably the junior of ,confucius4 #i ,this confirms the words of ,eitel 7note #c1 p4 #bc71 that ,maitreya is already controlling the propagation of the faith4 #aj ,the ,chinese characters for this simply mean #8the great scholar or officer2' but see ,eitel's ,handbook1 p4 #ii1 on the term purusha4 #aa #8,the precious ,buddha1' #8the precious ,law1' and #8the precious ,monkhood2' ,buddha1 ,dharma1 and ,sagha2 the whole being equivalent to ,buddhism4 #ab ,f-hien thus endorses the view that ,buddhism was introduced into ,china in this reign1 ,a4,d4 #eh-ge4 ,the emperor had his dream in ,a4,d4 #fa4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,woo-,,chang1 ,,or ,,udy,,na4 ,,monasteries1 ,,and ,,their ,,ways4 ,,traces ,,of ,,buddha4 ,after crossing the river1 7the travellers7 immediately came to the kingdom of ,woo-chang1#a which is indeed 7a part7 of ,north ,india4 ,the people all use the language of ,central ,india1 #8,central ,india' being what we should call the #8,middle ,kingdom4' ,the food and clothes of the common people are the same as in that ,central ,kingdom4 ,the ,law of ,buddha is very 7flourishing in ,woo-chang74 ,they call the places where the monks stay 7for a time7 or reside permanently ,saghrmas2#b and of these there are in all #ejj1 the monks being all students of the hnayna4 ,when stranger bhikshus#c arrive at one of them1 their wants are supplied for three days1 after which they are told to find a resting-place for themselves4 ,there is a tradition that when ,buddha came to ,north ,india1 he came at once to this country1 and that here he left a print of his foot1 which is long or short according to the ideas of the beholder 7on the subject74 ,it exists1 and the same thing is true about it1 at the present day4 ,here also are still to be seen the rock on which he dried his clothes1 and the place where he converted the wicked dragon4#d ,the rock is fourteen cubits high1 and more than twenty broad1 with one side of it smooth4 ,hwuy-king1 ,hwuy-tah1 and ,to-ching went on ahead towards 7the place of7 ,buddha's shadow in the country of ,nagra2#e but ,f-hien and the others remained in ,woo-chang1 and kept the summer retreat4#f ,that over1 they descended south1 and arrived in the country of ,soo-ho-to4#g ,,notes #a ,udyna1 meaning #8the ,park2' just north of the ,punjb1 the country along the ,subhavastu1 now called the ,swat2 noted for its forests1 flowers1 and fruits 7,e4 ,h41 p4 #aec74 #b ,see chap4 iii note #f4 #c ,bhikshu is the name for a monk as #8living by alms1' a mendicant4 ,all bhikshus call themselves ramans4 ,sometimes the two names are used together by our author4 #d ,nga is the ,sanskrit name for the ,chinese lung or dragon2 often meaning a snake1 especially the boa4 #8,chinese ,buddhists1' says ,eitel1 p4 #gi1 #8when speaking of ngas as boa spirits1 always represent them as enemies of mankind1 but when viewing them as deities of rivers1 lakes1 or oceans1 they describe them as piously inclined4' ,the dragon1 however1 is in ,china the symbol of the ,sovereign and ,sage1 a use of it unknown in ,buddhism1 according to which all ngas need to be converted in order to obtain a higher phase of being4 ,the use of the character too 771 as here1 in the sense of #8to convert1' is entirely ,buddhistic4 ,the six pramits are the six virtues which carry men across 77 the great sea of life and death1 as the sphere of transmigration to nirva4 ,with regard to the particular conversion here1 ,eitel 7p4 #aa7 says the ,nga's name was ,apatla1 the guardian deity of the ,subhavastu river1 and that he was converted by kyamuni shortly before the death of the latter4 #e ,in ,chinese ,na-keeh1 an ancient kingdom and city on the southern bank of the ,cabul river1 about thirty miles west of ,jellalabad4 #f ,we would seem now to be in #djc4 #g ,soo-ho-to has not been clearly identified4 ,beal says that later ,buddhist writers include it in ,udyna4 ,it must have been between the ,indus and the ,swat4 ,i suppose it was what we now call ,swastene4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,soo-,,ho-,,to4 ,,legend ,,of ,,buddha4 ,in that country also ,buddhism#a is flourishing4 ,there is in it the place where akra1#b ,ruler of ,devas1 in a former age1#c tried the ,bodhisattva1 by producing#d a hawk 7in pursuit of a7 dove1 when 7the ,bodhisattva7 cut off a piece of his own flesh1 and 7with it7 ransomed the dove4 ,after ,buddha had attained to perfect wisdom1#e and in travelling about with his disciples 7arrived at this spot71 he informed them that this was the place where he ransomed the dove with a piece of his own flesh4 ,in this way the people of the country became aware of the fact1 and on the spot reared a tope1 adorned with layers#f of gold and silver plates4 ,,notes #a ,buddhism stands for the two ,chinese characters 1 #8the ,law of ,buddha1' and to that rendering of the phrase1 which is of frequent occurrence1 ,i will in general adhere4 ,buddhism is not an adequate rendering of them any more than ,christianity would be of 4 ,the ,f or ,law is the equivalent of dharma comprehending all in the first ,basket of the ,buddhist teaching1--as ,dr4 ,davids says 7,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #dd71 #8its ethics and philosophy1 and its system of self-culture2' with the theory of karma1 it seems to me1 especially underlying it4 ,it has been pointed out 7,cunningham's #8,bhilsa ,topes1' p4 #ajb7 that dharma is the keystone of all king ,priyadari or ,aoka's edicts4 ,the whole of them are dedicated to the attainment of one object1 #8the advancement of dharma1 or of the ,law of ,buddha4' ,his native ,chinese afforded no better character than or ,law1 by which our author could express concisely his idea of the ,buddhistic system1 as #8a law of life1' a directory or system of ,rules1 by which men could attain to the consummation of their being4 #b akra is a common name for the ,brahmnic ,indra1 adopted by ,buddhism into the circle of its own great adherents2--it has been said1 #8because of his popularity4' ,he is generally styled1 as here1 ,teen ,t1 #8,god or ,ruler of ,devas4' ,he is now the representative of the secular power1 the valiant protector of the ,buddhist body1 but is looked upon as inferior to kyamuni1 and every ,buddhist saint4 ,he appears several times in ,f-hien's narrative4 ,e4 ,h41 pp4 #ajh and #df4 #c ,the ,chinese character is 1 #8formerly1' and is often1 as in the first sentence of the narrative1 simply equivalent to that adverb4 ,at other times it means1 as here1 #8in a former age1' some pre-existent state in the time of a former birth4 ,the incident related is #8a ,jtaka story4' #d ,it occurs at once to the translator to render the characters by #8changed himself to4' ,such is often their meaning in the sequel1 but their use in chapter xxiv may be considered as a crucial test of the meaning which ,i have given them here4 #e ,that is1 had become ,buddha1 or completed his course 774 #f ,this seems to be the contribution of 7or 71 to the force of the binomial 1 which is continually occurring4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,gandh,,ra4 ,,legends ,,of ,,buddha4 ,the travellers1 going downwards from this towards the east1 in five days came to the country of ,gandhra1#a the place where ,dharma-vivardhana1#b the son of ,aoka1#c ruled4 ,when ,buddha was a ,bodhisattva1 he gave his eyes also for another man here2#d and at the spot they have also reared a large tope1 adorned with layers of gold and silver plates4 ,the people of the country were mostly students of the hnayna4 ,,notes #a ,eitel says #8an ancient kingdom1 corresponding to the region about ,dheri and ,banjour4' ,but see chap4 xi1 note #a4 #b ,dharma-vivardhana is the name in ,sanskrit1 represented by the ,f ,y 77 of the text4 #c ,aoka is here mentioned for the first time2--the ,constantine of the ,buddhist society1 and famous for the number of vihras and topes which he erected4 ,he was the grandson of ,chandragupta 7i4q4 ,sandracottus71 a rude adventurer1 who at one time was a refugee in the camp of ,alexander the ,great2 and within about twenty years afterwards drove the ,greeks out of ,india1 having defeated ,seleucus1 the ,greek ruler of the ,indus provinces4 ,he had by that time made himself king of ,magadha4 ,his grandson was converted to ,buddhism by the bold and patient demeanour of an ,arhat whom he had ordered to be buried alive1 and became a most zealous supporter of the new faith4 ,dr4 ,rhys ,davids 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xi1 p4 xlvi7 says that #8,aoka's coronation can be fixed with absolute certainty within a year or two either way of #bfg ,b4,c4' #d ,this also is a ,jtaka story2 but ,eitel thinks it may be a myth1 constructed from the story of the blinding of ,dharma-vivardhana4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,taksha,,il4 ,,legends4 ,,the ,,four ,,great ,,topes4 ,seven days' journey from this to the east brought the travellers to the kingdom of ,takshail1#a which means #8the severed head' in the language of ,china4 ,here1 when ,buddha was a ,bodhisattva1 he gave away his head to a man2#b and from this circumstance the kingdom got its name4 ,going on further for two days to the east1 they came to the place where the ,bodhisattva threw down his body to feed a starving tigress4#b ,in these two places also large topes have been built1 both adorned with layers of all the precious substances4 ,the kings1 ministers1 and peoples of the kingdoms around vie with one another in making offerings at them4 ,the trains of those who come to scatter flowers and light lamps at them never cease4 ,the nations of those quarters all those 7and the other two mentioned before7 #8the four great topes4' ,,notes #a ,see ,julien's #8,mthode pour dchiffrer et transcrire les ,nomes ,sanscrits1' p4 #bjf4 ,eitel says1 #8,the ,taxila of the ,greeks1 the region near ,hoosun ,abdaul in lat4 #ce #dh ,n41 lon4 #gb #dd ,e4' ,but this identification1 ,i am satisfied1 is wrong4 ,cunningham1 indeed1 takes credit 7#8,ancient ,geography of ,india1' pp4 #ajh1 #aji7 for determining this to be the site of ,arrian's ,taxila1--in the upper ,punjb1 still existing in the ruins of ,shahdheri1 between the ,indus and ,hydaspes 7the modern ,jhelum74 ,so far he may be correct2 but the ,takshail of ,f-hien was on the other1 or western side of the ,indus2 and between the river and ,gandhra4 ,it took him1 indeed1 seven days travelling eastwards to reach it2 but we do not know what stoppages he may have made on the way4 ,we must be wary in reckoning distances from his specifications of days4 #b ,two ,jtaka stories4 ,see the account of the latter in ,spence ,hardy's #8,manual of ,buddhism1' pp4 #ia1 #ib4 ,it took place when ,buddha had been born as a ,brahmn in the village of ,daliddi2 and from the merit of the act1 he was next born in a devaloka4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,purushapura1 ,,or ,,pesh,,war4 ,,prophecy ,,about ,,king ,,kanishka ,,and ,,his ,,tope4 ,,buddha',s ,,alms-,,bowl4 ,,death ,,of ,,hwuy-,,ying4 ,going southwards from ,gandhra1 7the travellers7 in four days arrived at the kingdom of ,purushapura4#a ,formerly1 when ,buddha was travelling in this country with his disciples1 he said to nanda1#b #8,after my pari-nirva1#c there will be a king named ,kanishka1#d who shall on this spot build a tope4' ,this ,kanishka was afterwards born into the world2 and 7once71 when he had gone forth to look about him1 akra1 ,ruler of ,devas1 wishing to excite the idea in his mind1 assumed the appearance of a little herd-boy1 and was making a tope right in the way 7of the king71 who asked what sort of thing he was making4 ,the boy said1 #8,i am making a tope for ,buddha4' ,the king said1 #8,very good2' and immediately1 right over the boy's tope1 he 7proceeded to7 rear another1 which was more than four hundred cubits high1 and adorned with layers of all the precious substances4 ,of all the topes and temples which 7the travellers7 saw in their journeyings1 there was not one comparable to this in solemn beauty and majestic grandeur4 ,there is a current saying that this is the finest tope in ,jambudvpa4#e ,when the king's tope was completed1 the little tope 7of the boy7 came out from its side on the south1 rather more than three cubits in height4 ,buddha's alms-bowl is in this country4 ,formerly1 a king of ,yeh-she#f raised a large force and invaded this country1 wishing to carry the bowl away4 ,having subdued the kingdom1 as he and his captains were sincere believers in the ,law of ,buddha1 and wished to carry off the bowl1 they proceeded to present their offerings on a great scale4 ,when they had done so to the ,three ,precious ,ones1 he made a large elephant be grandly caparisoned1 and placed the bowl upon it4 ,but the elephant knelt down on the ground1 and was unable to go forward4 ,again he caused a four-wheeled wagon to be prepared in which the bowl was put to be conveyed away4 ,eight elephants were then yoked to it1 and dragged it with their united strength2 but neither were they able to go forward4 ,the king knew that the time for an association between himself and the bowl had not yet arrived1#g and was sad and deeply ashamed of himself4 ,forthwith he built a tope at the place and a monastery1 and left a guard to watch 7the bowl71 making all sorts of contributions4 ,there may be there more than seven hundred monks4 ,when it is near midday1 they bring out the bowl1 and1 along with the common people1#h make their various offerings to it1 after which they take their midday meal4 ,in the evening1 at the time of incense1 they bring the bowl out again4#i ,it may contain rather more than two pecks1 and is of various colours1 black predominating1 with the seams that show its fourfold composition distinctly marked4#aj ,its thickness is about the fifth of an inch1 and it has a bright and glossy lustre4 ,when poor people throw into it a few flowers1 it becomes immediately full1 while some very rich people1 wishing to make offering of many flowers1 might not stop till they had thrown in hundreds1 thousands1 and myriads of bushels1 and yet would not be able to fill it4#aa ,po-yun and ,sng-king here merely made their offerings to the alms-bowl1 and 7then resolved to7 go back4 ,hwuy-king1 ,hwuy-tah1 and ,to-ching had gone on before the rest to ,nagra1#ab to make their offerings at 7the places of7 ,buddha's shadow1 tooth1 and the flat-bone of his skull4 7,there7 ,hwuy-king fell ill1 and ,to-ching remained to look after him1 while ,hwuy-tah came alone to ,purushapura1 and saw the others1 and 7then7 he with ,po-yun and ,sng-king took their way back to the land of ,tsin4 ,hwuy-king#ac came to his end#ad in the monastery of ,buddha's alms-bowl1 and on this ,f-hien went forward alone towards the place of the flat-bone of ,buddha's skull4 ,,notes #a ,the modern ,peshwar1 lat4 #cd #h ,n41 lon4 #ga #cj ,e4 #b ,a first cousin of kyamuni1 and born at the moment when he attained to ,buddhaship4 ,under ,buddha's teaching1 nanda became an ,arhat1 and is famous for his strong and accurate memory2 and he played an important part at the first council for the formation of the ,buddhist canon4 ,the friendship between kyamuni and nanda was very close and tender2 and it is impossible to read much of what the dying ,buddha said to him and of him1 as related in the ,mah-pari-nirva stra1 without being moved almost to tears4 nanda is to reappear on earth as ,buddha in another ,kalpa4 ,see ,e4 ,h41 p4 #i1 and the ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xi4 #c ,on his attaining to nirva1 kyamuni became the ,buddha1 and had no longer to mourn his being within the circle of transmigration1 and could rejoice in an absolute freedom from passion1 and a perfect purity4 ,still he continued to live on for forty-five years1 till he attained to pari-nirva1 and had done with all the life of sense and society1 and had no more exercise of thought4 ,he died2 but whether he absolutely and entirely ceased to be1 in any sense of the word being1 it would be difficult to say4 ,probably he himself would not and could not have spoken definitely on the point4 ,so far as our use of language is concerned1 apart from any assured faith in and hope of immortality1 his pari-nirva was his death4 #d ,kanishka appeared1 and began to reign1 early in our first century1 about ,a4,d4 #aj4 ,he was the last of three brothers1 whose original seat was in ,yeh-she1 immediately mentioned1 or ,tukhra4 ,converted by the sudden appearance of a saint1 he became a zealous ,buddhist1 and patronised the system as liberally as ,aoka had done4 ,the finest topes in the north-west of ,india are ascribed to him2 he was certainly a great man and a magnificent sovereign4 #e ,jambudvpa is one of the four great continents of the universe1 representing the inhabited world as fancied by the ,buddhists1 and so called because it resembles in shape the leaves of the jambu tree4 ,it is south of mount ,meru1 and divided among four fabulous kings 7,e4 ,h41 p4 #cf74 ,it is often used1 as here perhaps1 merely as the ,buddhist name for ,india4 #f ,this king was perhaps ,kanishka himself1 ,f-hien mixing up1 in an inartistic way1 different legends about him4 ,eitel suggests that a relic of the old name of the country may still exist in that of the ,jats or ,juts of the present day4 ,a more common name for it is ,tukhra1 and he observes that the people were the ,indo-,scythians of the ,greeks1 and the ,tartars of ,chinese writers1 who1 driven on by the ,huns 7#ahj ,b4,c471 conquered ,transoxiana1 destroyed the ,bactrian kingdom 7#abf ,b4,c471 and finally conquered the ,punjb1 ,cashmere1 and great part of ,india1 their greatest king being ,kanishak 7,e4 ,h41 p4 #aeb74 #g ,watters1 clearly understanding the thought of the author in this sentence1 renders--#8his destiny did not extend to a connexion with the bowl2' but the term #8destiny' suggests a controlling or directing power without4 ,the king thought that his virtue in the past was not yet sufficient to give him possession of the bowl4 #h ,the text is simply #8those in white clothes4' ,this may mean #8the laity1' or the #8upsakas2' but it is better to take the characters in their common ,chinese acceptation1 as meaning #8commoners1' #8men who have no rank4' ,see in ,williams' ,dictionary under 4 #i ,i do not wonder that ,rmusat should give for this--#8et s'en retournent aprs4' ,but ,f-hien's use of in the sense of #8in the same way' is uniform throughout the narrative4 #aj ,hardy's ,m4 ,b41 p4 #ahc1 says3--#8,the alms-bowl1 given by ,mahbrahma1 having vanished 7about the time that ,gotama became ,buddha71 each of the four guardian deities brought him an alms-bowl of emerald1 but he did not accept them4 ,they then brought four bowls made of stone1 of the colour of the mung fruit2 and when each entreated that his own bowl might be accepted1 ,buddha caused them to appear as if formed into a single bowl1 appearing at the upper rim as if placed one within the other4' ,see the account more correctly given in the #8,buddhist ,birth ,stories1' p4 #aaj4 #aa ,compare the narrative in ,luke's ,gospel1 xxi4 #a-d4 #ab ,see chapter viii4 #ac ,this1 no doubt1 should be ,hwuy-ying4 ,king was at this time ill in ,nagra1 and indeed afterwards he dies in crossing the ,little ,snowy ,mountains2 but all the texts make him die twice4 ,the confounding of the two names has been pointed out by ,chinese critics4 #ad #8,came to his end2' i4e41 according to the text1 #8proved the impermanence and uncertainty1' namely1 of human life4 ,see ,williams' ,dictionary under 4 ,the phraseology is wholly ,buddhistic4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,nag,,ra4 ,,festival ,,of ,,buddha',s ,,skull-,,bone4 ,,other ,,relics1 ,,and ,,his ,,shadow4 ,going west for sixteen yojanas1#a he came to the city ,he-lo#b in the borders of the country of ,nagra1 where there is the flat-bone of ,buddha's skull1 deposited in a vihra#c adorned all over with gold-leaf and the seven sacred substances4 ,the king of the country1 revering and honouring the bone1 and anxious lest it should be stolen away1 has selected eight individuals1 representing the great families in the kingdom1 and committing to each a seal1 with which he should seal 7its shrine7 and guard 7the relic74 ,at early dawn these eight men come1 and after each has inspected his seal1 they open the door4 ,this done1 they wash their hands with scented water and bring out the bone1 which they place outside the vihra1 on a lofty platform1 where it is supported on a round pedestal of the seven precious substances1 and covered with a bell of lapis lazuli1 both adorned with rows of pearls4 ,its colour is of a yellowish white1 and it forms an imperfect circle twelve inches round1#d curving upwards to the centre4 ,every day1 after it has been brought forth1 the keepers of the vihra ascend a high gallery1 where they beat great drums1 blow conchs1 and clash their copper cymbals4 ,when the king hears them1 he goes to the vihra1 and makes his offerings of flowers and incense4 ,when he has done this1 he 7and his attendants7 in order1 one after another1 7raise the bone71 place it 7for a moment7 on the top of their heads1#e and then depart1 going out by the door on the west as they entered by that on the east4 ,the king every morning makes his offerings and performs his worship1 and afterwards gives audience on the business of his government4 ,the chiefs of the ,vaiyas#f also make their offerings before they attend to their family affairs4 ,every day it is so1 and there is no remissness in the observance of the custom4 ,when all the offerings are over1 they replace the bone in the vihra1 where there is a vimoksha tope1#g of the seven precious substances1 and rather more than five cubits high1 sometimes open1 sometimes shut1 to contain it4 ,in front of the door of the vihra1 there are parties who every morning sell flowers and incense1#h and those who wish to make offerings buy some of all kinds4 ,the kings of various countries are also constantly sending messengers with offerings4 ,the vihra stands in a square of thirty paces1 and though heaven should shake and earth be rent1 this place would not move4 ,going on1 north from this1 for a yojana1 7,f-hien7 arrived at the capital of ,nagra1 the place where the ,bodhisattva once purchased with money five stalks of flowers1 as an offering to the ,dpkara ,buddha4#i ,in the midst of the city there is also the tope of ,buddha's tooth1 where offerings are made in the same way as to the flat-bone of his skull4 ,a yojana to the north-east of the city brought him to the mouth of a valley1 where there is ,buddha's pewter staff2#aj and a vihra also has been built at which offerings are made4 ,the staff is made of ,gorsha ,chandana1 and is quite sixteen or seventeen cubits long4 ,it is contained in a wooden tube1 and though a hundred or a thousand men ere to 7try to7 lift it1 they could not move it4 ,entering the mouth of the valley1 and going west1 he found ,buddha's ,saghli1#aa where also there is reared a vihra1 and offerings are made4 ,it is a custom of the country when there is a great drought1 for the people to collect in crowds1 bring out the robe1 pay worship to it1 and make offerings1 on which there is immediately a great rain from the sky4 ,south of the city1 half a yojana1 there is a rock cavern1 in a great hill fronting the south-west2 and here it was that ,buddha left his shadow4 ,looking at it from a distance of more than ten paces1 you seem to see ,buddha's real form1 with his complexion of gold1 and his characteristic marks#ab in their nicety clearly and brightly displayed4 ,the nearer you approach1 however1 the fainter it becomes1 as if it were only in your fancy4 ,when the kings from the regions all around have sent skilful artists to take a copy1 none of them have been able to do so4 ,among the people of the country there is a saying current that #8the thousand ,buddhas#ac must all leave their shadows here4' ,rather more than four hundred paces west from the shadow1 when ,buddha was at the spot1 he shaved his hair and clipt his nails1 and proceeded1 along with his disciples1 to build a tope seventy or eighty cubits high1 to be a model for all future topes2 and it is still existing4 ,by the side of it there is a monastery1 with more than seven hundred monks in it4 ,at this place there are as many as a thousand topes#ad of ,arhans and ,pratyeka ,buddhas4#ae ,,notes #a ,now in ,india1 ,f-hien used the ,indian measure of distance2 but it is not possible to determine exactly what its length then was4 ,the estimates of it are very different1 and vary from four and a half or five miles to seven1 and sometimes more4 ,see the subject exhaustively treated in ,davids' #8,ceylon ,coins and ,measures1' pp4 #ae-ag4 #b ,the present ,hidda1 west of ,peshwar1 and five miles south of ,jellalabad4 #c #8,the vihra1' says ,hardy1 #8is the residence of a recluse or priest2' and so ,davids3--#8the clean little hut where the mendicant lives4' ,our author1 however1 does not use the ,indian name here1 but the ,chinese characters which express its meaning--tsing shay1 #8a pure dwelling4' ,he uses the term occasionally1 and evidently1 in this sense2 more frequently it occurs in his narrative in connexion with the ,buddhist relic worship2 and at first ,i translated it by #8shrine' and #8shrine-house2' but ,i came to the conclusion1 at last1 to employ always the ,indian name4 ,the first time ,i saw a shrine-house was1 ,i think1 in a monastery near ,foo-chow2--a small pyramidal structure1 about ten feet high1 glittering as if with the precious substances1 but all1 it seemed to me1 of tinsel4 ,it was in a large apartment of the building1 having many images in it4 ,the monks said it was the most precious thing in their possession1 and that if they opened it1 as ,i begged them to do1 there would be a convulsion that would destroy the whole establishment4 ,see ,e4 ,h41 p4 #aff4 ,the name of the province of ,behar was given to it in consequence of its many vihras4 #d ,according to the characters1 #8square1 round1 four inches4' ,hsan-chwang says it was twelve inches round4 #e ,in ,williams' ,dictionary1 under 1 the characters1 used here1 are employed in the phrase for #8to degrade an officer1' that is1 #8to remove the token of his rank worn on the crown of his head2' but to place a thing on the crown is a ,buddhistic form of religious homage4 #f ,the ,vaiyas1 or bourgeois caste of ,hindu society1 are described here as #8resident scholars4' #g ,see ,eitel's ,handbook under the name vimoksha1 which is explained as #8the act of self-liberation1' and #8the dwelling or state of liberty4' ,there are eight acts of liberating one's self from all subjective and objective trammels1 and as many states of liberty 7vimukti7 resulting therefrom4 ,they are eight degrees of self-inanition1 and apparently eight stages on the way to nirva4 ,the tope in the text would be emblematic in some way of the general idea of the mental progress conducting to the ,buddhistic consummation of existence4 #h ,this incense would be in long #8sticks1' small and large1 such as are sold to-day throughout ,china1 as you enter the temples4 #i #8,the illuminating ,buddha1' the twenty-fourth predecessor of kyamuni1 and who1 so long before1 gave him the assurance that he would by-and-by be ,buddha4 ,see ,jtaka ,tales1 p4 #bc4 #aj ,the staff was1 as immediately appears1 of ,gorsha ,chandana1 or #8sandal-wood from the ,cow's-head mountain1' a species of copper-brown sandal-wood1 said to be produced most abundantly on a mountain of 7the fabulous continent7 ,ullarakuru1 north of mount ,meru1 which resembles in shape the head of a cow 7,e4 ,h41 pp4 #db1 #dc74 ,it is called a #8pewter staff' from having on it a head and rings and pewter4 ,see ,watters1 #8,china ,review1' viii1 pp4 #bbg1 #bbh1 and ,williams' ,dictionary1 under 4 #aa ,or ,saghai1 the double or composite robe1 part of a monk's attire1 reaching from the shoulders to the knees1 and fastened round the waist 7,e4 ,h41 p4 #aah74 #ab ,these were the #8marks and beauties' on the person of a supreme ,buddha4 ,the ishi ,kal ,devala saw them on the body of the infant kya prince to the number of #cbh1 those on the teeth1 which had not yet come out1 being visible to his spirit-like eyes 7,m4 ,b41 pp4 #adh1 #adi74 #ac ,probably #8all ,buddhas4' #ad ,the number may appear too great4 ,but see what is said on the size of topes in chap4 iii1 note #d4 #ae ,in ,singhalese1 ,pas ,buddhas2 called also ,nidna ,buddhas1 and ,pratyeka ,jinas1 and explained by #8individually intelligent1' #8completely intelligent1' #8intelligent as regards the nidnas4' ,this1 says ,eitel 7pp4 #if1 #ig71 is #8a degree of saintship unknown to primitive ,buddhism1 denoting automats in ascetic life who attain to ,buddhaship 8individually10 that is1 without a teacher1 and without being able to save others4 ,as the ideal hermit1 the ,pratyeka ,buddha is compared with the rhinoceros khadga that lives lonely in the wilderness4 ,he is also called ,nidna ,buddha1 as having mastered the twelve nidnas 7the twelve links in the everlasting chain of cause and effect in the whole range of existence1 the understanding of which solves the riddle of life1 revealing the inanity of all forms of existence1 and preparing the mind for nirva74 ,he is also compared to a horse1 which1 crossing a river1 almost buries its body under the water1 without1 however1 touching the bottom of the river4 ,thus in crossing sasra he 8suppresses the errors of life and thought1 and the effects of habit and passion1 without attaining to absolute perfection40' ,whether these ,buddhas were unknown1 as ,eitel says1 to primitive ,buddhism1 may be doubted4 ,see ,davids' ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #adf4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,death ,,of ,,hwuy-,,king ,,in ,,the ,,little ,,snowy ,,mountains4 ,,lo-,e4 ,,pohn4 ,,crossing ,,the ,,indus ,,to ,,the ,,east4 ,having stayed there till the third month of winter1 ,f-hien and the two others1#a proceeding southwards1 crossed the ,little ,snowy mountains4#b ,on them the snow lies accumulated both winter and summer4 ,on the north 7side7 of the mountains1 in the shade1 they suddenly encountered a cold wind which made them shiver and become unable to speak4 ,hwuy-king could not go any farther4 ,a white froth came from his mouth1 and he said to ,f-hien1 #8,i cannot live any longer4 ,do you immediately go away1 that we do not all die here2' and with these words he died4#c ,f-hien stroked the corpse1 and cried out piteously1 #8,our original plan has failed2--it is fate4#d ,what can we do8' ,he then again exerted himself1 and they succeeded in crossing to the south of the range1 and arrived in the kingdom of ,lo-e1#e where there were nearly three thousand monks1 students of both the mahyna and hnayna4 ,here they stayed for the summer retreat1#f and when that was over1 they went on to the south1 and ten days' journey brought them to the kingdom of ,poh-n1#g where there are also more than three thousand monks1 all students of the hnayna4 ,proceeding from this place for three days1 they again crossed the ,indus1 where the country on each side was low and level4#h ,,notes #a ,these must have been ,to-ching and ,hwuy-king4 #b ,probably the ,safeid ,koh1 and on the way to the ,kohat pass4 #c ,all the texts have ,hwuy-king4 ,see chap4 xii1 note #ac4 #d ,a very natural exclamation1 but out of place and inconsistent from the lips of ,f-hien4 ,the ,chinese character 1 which he employed1 may be rendered rightly by #8fate' or #8destiny2' but the fate is not unintelligent4 ,the term implies a factor1 or fa-tor1 and supposes the ordination of ,heaven or ,god4 ,a ,confucian idea for the moment overcame his ,buddhism4 #e ,lo-e1 or ,roh1 is a name for ,afghanistan2 but only a portion of it can be here intended4 #f ,we are now therefore in #djd4 #g ,no doubt the present district of ,bannu1 in the ,lieutenant-,governorship of the ,punjb1 between #cb #aj and #cc #ae ,n4 lat41 and #gj #bf and #gb ,e4 lon4 ,see ,hunter's ,gazetteer of ,india1 i1 p4 #cic4 #h ,they had then crossed the ,indus before4 ,they had done so1 indeed1 twice2 first1 from north to south1 at ,skardo or east of it2 and second1 as described in chapter vii4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,bhida4 ,,sympathy ,,of ,,monks ,,with ,,the ,,pilgrims4 ,after they had crossed the river1 there was a country named ,pe-too1#a where ,buddhism was very flourishing1 and 7the monks7 studied both the mahyna and hnayna4 ,when they saw their fellow-disciples from ,tsin passing along1 they were moved with great pity and sympathy1 and expressed themselves thus3 #8,how is it that these men from a border-land should have learned to become monks1#b and come for the sake of our doctrines from such a distance in search of the ,law of ,buddha8' ,they supplied them with what they needed1 and treated them in accordance with the rules of the ,law4 ,,notes #a ,bhida4 ,eitel says1 #8,the present ,punjb2' i4e4 it was a portion of that4 #b #8,to come forth from their families2' that is1 to become celibates1 and adopt the tonsure4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,on ,,to ,,mathur ,,or ,,muttra4 ,,condition ,,and ,,customs ,,of ,,central ,,india2 ,,of ,,the ,,monks1 ,,vih,,ras1 ,,and ,,monasteries4 ,from this place they travelled south-east1 passing by a succession of very many monasteries1 with a multitude of monks1 who might be counted by myriads4 ,after passing all these places1 they came to a country named ,ma-tou-lo4#a ,they still followed the course of the ,poo-na#b river1 on the banks of which1 left and right1 there were twenty monasteries1 which might contain three thousand monks2 and 7here7 the ,law of ,buddha was still more flourishing4 ,everywhere1 from the ,sandy ,desert1 in all the countries of ,india1 the kings had been firm believers in that ,law4 ,when they make their offerings to a community of monks1 they take off their royal caps1 and along with their relatives and ministers1 supply them with food with their own hands4 ,that done1 7the king7 has a carpet spread for himself on the ground1 and sits down in front of the chairman2--they dare not presume to sit on couches in front of the community4 ,the laws and ways1 according to which the kings presented their offerings when ,buddha was in the world1 have been handed down to the present day4 ,all south from this is named the ,middle ,kingdom4#c ,in it the cold and heat are finely tempered1 and there is neither hoar-frost nor snow4 ,the people are numerous and happy2 they have not to register their households1 or attend to any magistrates and their rules2 only those who cultivate the royal land have to pay 7a portion of7 the grain from it4 ,if they want to go1 they go2 if they want to stay on1 they stay4 ,the king governs without decapitation or 7other7 corporal punishments4 ,criminals are simply fined1 lightly or heavily1 according to the circumstances 7of each case74 ,even in cases of repeated attempts at wicked rebellion1 they only have their right hands cut off4 ,the king's body-guards and attendants all have salaries4 ,throughout the whole country the people do not kill any living creature1 nor drink intoxicating liquor1 nor eat onions or garlic4 ,the only exception is that of the ,chalas4#d ,that is the name for those who are 7held to be7 wicked men1 and live apart from others4 ,when they enter the gate of a city or a market-place1 they strike a piece of wood to make themselves known1 so that men know and avoid them1 and do not come into contact with them4 ,in that country they do not keep pigs and fowls1 and do not sell live cattle2 in the markets there are no butchers' shops and no dealers in intoxicating drink4 ,in buying and selling commodities they use cowries4#e ,only the ,chalas are fishermen and hunters1 and sell flesh meat4 ,after ,buddha attained to pari-nirva1#f the kings of the various countries and the heads of the ,vaiyas#g built vihras for the priests1 and endowed them with fields1 houses1 gardens1 and orchards1 along with the resident populations and their cattle1 the grants being engraved on plates of metal1#h so that afterwards they were handed down from king to king1 without any daring to annul them1 and they remain even to the present time4 ,the regular business of the monks is to perform acts of meritorious virtue1 and to recite their ,stras and sit wrapt in meditation4 ,when stranger monks arrive 7at any monastery71 the old residents meet and receive them1 carry for them their clothes and alms-bowl1 give them water to wash their feet1 oil with which to anoint them1 and the liquid food permitted out of the regular hours4#i ,when 7the stranger7 has enjoyed a very brief rest1 they further ask the number of years that he has been a monk1 after which he receives a sleeping apartment with its appurtenances1 according to his regular order1 and everything is done for him which the rules prescribe4#aj ,where a community of monks resides1 they erect topes to riputtra1#aa to ,mah-maudgalyyana1#ab and to nanda#ac1 and also topes 7in honour7 of the ,abhidharma#ad1 the ,vinaya#ad1 and the ,stras4#ad ,a month after the 7annual season of7 rest1 the families which are looking out for blessing stimulate one another#ae to make offerings to the monks1 and send round to them the liquid food which may be taken out of the ordinary hours4 ,all the monks come together in a great assembly1 and preach the ,law2#af after which offerings are presented at the tope of riputtra1 with all kinds of flowers and incense4 ,all through the night lamps are kept burning1 and skilful musicians are employed to perform4#ag ,when riputtra was a great ,brahmn1 he went to ,buddha1 and begged 7to be permitted7 to quit his family 7and become a monk74 ,the great ,mugalan and the great ,kayapa#ah also did the same4 ,the bhikshus#ai for the most part make their offerings at the tope of nanda1 because it was he who requested the ,world-honoured one to allow females to quit their families 7and become nuns74 ,the rmaeras#bj mostly make their offerings to ,rhula4#ba ,the professors of the ,abhidharma#bb make their offerings to it2 those of the ,vinaya#bb to it4 ,every year there is one such offering1 and each class has its own day for it4 ,students of the mahyna present offerings to the ,praj-pramit1#bc to ,majur1#bd and to ,kwan-she-yin4#be ,when the monks have done receiving their annual tribute 7from the harvests71#bf the ,heads of the ,vaiyas and all the ,brahmns bring clothes and other such articles as the monks require for use1 and distribute among them4 ,the monks1 having received them1 also proceed to give portions to one another4 ,from the nirva of ,buddha1#bg the forms of ceremony1 laws1 and rules1 practised by the sacred communities1 have been handed down from one generation to another without interruption4 ,from the place where 7the travellers7 crossed the ,indus to ,southern ,india1 and on to the ,southern ,sea1 a distance of forty or fifty thousand le1 all is level plain4 ,there are no large hills with streams 7among them72 there are simply the waters of the rivers4 ,,notes #a ,muttra1 #8the peacock city2' lat4 #bg #cj ,n41 lon4 #gg #dc ,e4 7,hunter72 the birthplace of ,kisha1 whose emblem is the peacock4 #b ,this must be the ,jumna1 or ,yamun4 ,why it is called1 as here1 the ,poo-na has yet to be explained4 #c ,in ,pli1 ,majjhima-desa1 #8the ,middle ,country4' ,see ,davids' #8,buddhist ,birth ,stories1' page #fa1 note4 #d ,eitel 7pp4 #ade1 #f7 says1 #8,the name ,chalas is explained by 8butchers10 8wicked men10 and those who carry 8the awful flag10 to warn off their betters2--the lowest and most despised caste of ,india1 members of which1 however1 when converted1 were admitted even into the ranks of the priesthood4' #e #8,cowries2' 1 not #8shells and ivory1' as one might suppose2 but cowries alone1 the second term entering into the name from the marks inside the edge of the shell1 resembling #8the teeth of fishes4' #f ,see chap4 xii1 note #c1 ,buddha's pari-nirva is equivalent to ,buddha's death4 #g ,see chap4 xiii1 note #f4 ,the order of the characters is different here1 but with the same meaning4 #h ,see the preparation of such a deed of grant in a special case1 as related in chapter xxxix4 ,no doubt in ,f-hien's time1 and long before and after it1 it was the custom to engrave such deeds on plates of metal4 #i #8,no monk can eat solid food except between sunrise and noon1' and total abstinence from intoxicating drinks is obligatory 7,davids' ,manual1 p4 #afc74 ,food eaten at any other part of the day is called vikla1 and forbidden2 but a weary traveller might receive unseasonable refreshment1 consisting1 as ,watters has shown 7,ch4 ,rev4 viii4 #bhb71 of honey1 butter1 treacle1 and sesamum oil4 #aj ,the expression here is somewhat perplexing2 but it occurs again in chapter xxxviii2 and the meaning is clear4 ,see ,watters1 ,ch4 ,rev4 viii4 #bhb1 #c4 ,the rules are given at length in the ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xx1 p4 #bgb and foll41 and p4 #bgi and foll4 #aa riputtra 7,singh4 ,seriyut7 was one of the principal disciples of ,buddha1 and indeed the most learned and ingenious of them all1 so that he obtained the title of 1 #8knowledge and wisdom4' ,he is also called ,buddha's #8right-hand attendant4' ,his name is derived from that of his mother rik1 the wife of ,tishya1 a native of ,nlanda4 ,in ,spence ,hardy1 he often appears under the name of ,upatissa 7,upa-tishya71 derived from his father4 ,several stras are ascribed to him1 and indeed the followers of the ,abhidharma look on him as their founder4 ,he died before kyamuni2 but is to reappear as a future ,buddha4 ,eitel1 pp4 #abc1 #abd4 #ab ,mugalan1 the ,singhalese name of this disciple1 is more pronounceable4 ,he also was one of the principal disciples1 called ,buddha's #8left-hand attendant4' ,he was distinguished for his power of vision1 and his magical powers4 ,the name in the text is derived from the former attribute1 and it was by the latter that he took up an artist to ,tushita to get a view of kyamuni1 and so make a statue of him4 7,compare the similar story in chap4 vi47 ,he went to hell1 and released his mother4 ,he also died before kyamuni1 and is to reappear as ,buddha4 ,eitel1 p4 #fe4 #ac ,see chapter #ab1 note #b4 #ad ,the different parts of the tripiaka4 ,see chapter #a1 note #d4 #ae ,a passage rather difficult to construe4 ,the #8families' would be those more devout than their neighbours4 #af ,one rarely hears this preaching in ,china4 ,it struck me most as ,i once heard it at ,osaka in ,japan4 ,there was a pulpit in a large hall of the temple1 and the audience sat around on the matted floor4 ,one priest took the pulpit after another2 and the hearers nodded their heads occasionally1 and indicated their sympathy now and then by an audible #8h'm1' which reminded me of ,carlyle's description of meetings of #8,the ,ironsides' of ,cromwell4 #ag ,this last statement is wanting in the ,chinese editions4 #ah ,there was a ,kyapa ,buddha1 anterior to kyamuni4 ,but this ,mahkayapa was a ,brahmn of ,magadha1 who was converted by ,buddha1 and became one of his disciples4 ,he took the lead after kyamuni's death1 convoked and directed the first synod1 from which his title of ,arya-sthavira is derived4 ,as the first compiler of the ,canon1 he is considered the fountain of ,chinese orthodoxy1 and counted as the first patriarch4 ,he also is to be reborn as ,buddha4 ,eitel1 p4 #fd4 #ai ,the bhikshus are the female monks or nuns1 subject to the same rules as the bhikshus1 and also to special ordinances of restraint4 ,see ,hardy's ,e4 ,m41 chap4 #ag4 ,see also ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xx1 p4 #cba4 #bj ,the rmaeras are the novices1 male or female1 who have vowed to observe the ,shikshpada1 or ten commandments4 ,f-hien was himself one of them from his childhood4 ,having heard the ,trsharaa1 or threefold formula of ,refuge1--#8,i take refuge in ,buddha2 the ,law2 the ,church1--the novice undertakes to observe the ten precepts that forbid--#a destroying life2 #b stealing2 #c impurity2 #d lying2 #e intoxicating drinks2 #f eating after midday2 #g dancing1 singing1 music1 and stage-plays2 #h garlands1 scents1 unguents1 and ornaments2 #i high or broad couches2 #aj receiving gold or silver4' ,davids' ,manual1 p4 #afj2 ,hardy's ,e4 ,m41 pp4 #bc1 #bd4 #ba ,the eldest son of kyamuni by ,yaodhar4 ,converted to ,buddhism1 he followed his father as an attendant2 and after ,buddha's death became the founder of a philosophical realistic school 7vaibhshika74 ,he is now revered as the patron saint of all novices1 and is to be reborn as the eldest son of every future ,buddha4 ,eitel1 p4 #aja4 ,his mother also is to be reborn as ,buddha4 #bb ,see note #ad4 #bc ,there are six 7sometimes increased to ten7 pramits1 #8means of passing to nirva3--,charity2 morality2 patience2 energy2 tranquil contemplation2 wisdom 7praj72 made up to ten by use of the proper means2 science2 pious vows2 and force of purpose4 ,but it is only praj which carries men across the sasra to the shores of nirva4' ,eitel1 p4 #ij4 #bd ,according to ,eitel 7pp4 #ga1 #gb71 ,a famous ,bodhisattva1 now specially worshipped in ,shan-se1 whose antecedents are a hopeless jumble of history and fable4 ,f-hien found him here worshipped by followers of the mahyna school2 but ,hsan-chwang connects his worship with the yogachara or tantra-magic school4 ,the mahyna school regard him as the apotheosis of perfect wisdom4 ,his most common titles are ,mahmati1 8,great wisdom10 and ,kumra-rja1 8,king of teaching1 with a thousand arms and a hundred alms-bowls40 #be ,kwan-she-yin and the dogmas about him or her are as great a mystery as ,majur4 ,the ,chinese name is a mistranslation of the ,sanskrit name ,avalokitevara1 #8,on-looking ,sovereign1' or even #8,on-looking ,self-,existent1' and means #8,regarding or ,looking on the sounds of the world1' #8,hearer of ,prayer4' ,originally1 and still in ,thibet1 ,avalokitevara had only male attributes1 but in ,china and ,japan 7,kwannon71 this deity 7such popularly she is7 is represented as a woman1 #8,kwan-yin1 the greatly gentle1 with a thousand arms and a thousand eyes2' and has her principal seat in the island of ,poo-too1 on the ,china coast1 which is a regular place of pilgrimage4 ,to the worshippers of whom ,f-hien speaks1 ,kwan-she-yin would only be ,avalokitevara4 ,how he was converted into the #8goddess of mercy1' and her worship took the place which it now has in ,china1 is a difficult inquiry1 which would take much time and space1 and not be brought after all1 so far as ,i see1 to a satisfactory conclusion4 ,see ,eitel's ,handbook1 pp4 #ah-bj1 and his ,three ,lectures on ,buddhism 7third edition71 pp4 #abd-aca4 ,i was talking on the subject once with an intelligent ,chinese gentleman1 when he remarked1 #8,have you not much the same thing in ,europe in the worship of ,mary8' #bf ,compare what is said in chap4 v4 #bg ,this nirva of ,buddha must be--not his death1 but his attaining to ,buddhaship4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,sa,k,,ya4 ,,buddha',s ,,ascent ,,to ,,and ,,descent ,,from ,,the ,,trayastri,,as ,,heaven1 ,,and ,,other ,,legends4 ,from this they proceeded south-east for eighteen yojanas1 and found themselves in a kingdom called ,sakya1#a at the place where ,buddha came down1 after ascending to the ,trayastrias heaven1#b and there preaching for three months his ,law for the benefit of his mother4#c ,buddha had gone up to this heaven by his supernatural power1#d without letting his disciples know2 but seven days before the completion 7of the three months7 he laid aside his invisibility1#d and ,anuruddha1#e with his heavenly eyes1#e saw the ,world-honoured one1 and immediately said to the honoured one1 the great ,mugalan1 #8,do you go and salute the ,world-honoured one4' ,mugalan forthwith went1 and with head and face did homage at 7,buddha's7 feet4 ,they then saluted and questioned each other1 and when this was over1 ,buddha said to ,mugalan1 #8,seven days after this ,i will go down to ,jambudvpa2' and thereupon ,mugalan returned4 ,at this time the great kings of eight countries with their ministers and people1 not having seen ,buddha for a long time1 were all thirstily looking up for him1 and had collected in clouds in this kingdom to wait for the ,world-honoured one4 ,then the bhikshu ,utpala#f thought in her heart1 #8,to-day the kings1 with their ministers and people1 will all be meeting 7and welcoming7 ,buddha4 ,i am 7but7 a woman2 how shall ,i succeed in being the first to see him8'#g ,buddha immediately1 by his spirit-like power1 changed her into the appearance of a holy ,chakravartti#h king1 and she was the foremost of all in doing reverence to him4 ,as ,buddha descended from his position aloft in the ,trayastrias heaven1 when he was coming down1 there were made to appear three flights of precious steps4 ,buddha was on the middle flight1 the steps of which were composed of the seven precious substances4 ,the king of ,brahm-loka#i also made a flight of silver steps appear on the right side1 7where he was seen7 attending with a white chowry in his hand4 akra1 ,ruler of ,devas1#aj made 7a flight of7 steps of purple gold on the left side1 7where he was seen7 attending and holding an umbrella of the seven precious substances4 ,an innumerable multitude of the devas#aa followed ,buddha in his descent4 ,when he was come down1 the three flights all disappeared in the ground1 excepting seven steps1 which continued to be visible4 ,afterwards king ,aoka1 wishing to know where their ends rested1 sent men to dig and see4 ,they went down to the yellow springs#ab without reaching the bottom of the steps1 and from this the king received an increase to his reverence and faith1 and built a vihra over the steps1 with a standing image1 sixteen cubits in height1 right over the middle flight4 ,behind the vihra he erected a stone pillar1 about fifty cubits high1#ac with a lion on the top of it4#ad ,let into the pillar1 on each of its four sides1#ae there is an image of ,buddha1 inside and out#af shining and transparent1 and pure as it were of lapis lazuli4 ,some teachers of another doctrine#ag once disputed with the ramaas about 7the right to7 this as a place of residence1 and the latter were having the worst of the argument1 when they took an oath on both sides on the condition that1 if the place did indeed belong to the ramaas1 there should be some marvellous attestation of it4 ,when these words had been spoken1 the lion on the top gave a great roar1 thus giving the proof2 on which their opponents were frightened1 bowed to the decision1 and withdrew4 ,through ,buddha having for three months partaken of the food of heaven1 his body emitted a heavenly fragrance1 unlike that of an ordinary man4 ,he went immediately and bathed2 and afterwards1 at the spot where he did so1 a bathing-house was built1 which is still existing4 ,at the place where the bhikshu ,utpala was the first to do reverence to ,buddha1 a tope has now been built4 ,at the places where ,buddha1 when he was in the world1 cut his hair and nails1#ah topes are erected2 and where the three ,buddhas#ai that preceded kyamuni ,buddha and he himself sat2 where they walked1#bj and where images of their persons were made4 ,at all these places topes were made1 and are still existing4 ,at the place where akra1 ,ruler of the ,devas1 and the king of the ,brahm-loka followed ,buddha down 7from the ,trayastrias heaven7 they have also raised a tope4 ,at this place the monks and nuns may be a thousand1 who all receive their food from the common store1 and pursue their studies1 some of the mahyna and some of the hnayna4 ,where they live1 there is a white-eared dragon1 which acts the part of dnapati#ba to the community of these monks1 causing abundant harvests in the country1 and the enriching rains to come in season1 without the occurrence of any calamities1 so that the monks enjoy their repose and ease4 ,in gratitude for its kindness1 they have made for it a dragon-house1 with a carpet for it to sit on1 and appointed for it a diet of blessing1 which they present for its nourishment4 ,every day they set apart three of their number to go to its house1 and eat there4 ,whenever the summer retreat is ended1 the dragon straightway changes its form1 and appears as a small snake1#bb with white spots at the side of its ears4 ,as soon as the monks recognise it1 they fill a copper vessel with cream1 into which they put the creature1 and then carry it round from the one who has the highest seat 7at their tables7 to him who has the lowest1 when it appears as if saluting them4 ,when it has been taken round1 immediately it disappeared2 and every year it thus comes forth once4 ,the country is very productive1 and the people are prosperous1 and happy beyond comparison4 ,when people of other countries come to it1 they are exceedingly attentive to them all1 and supply them with what they need4 ,fifty yojanas north-west from the monastery there is another1 called #8,the ,great ,heap4'#bc ,great ,heap was the name of a wicked demon1 who was converted by ,buddha1 and men subsequently at this place reared a vihra4 ,when it was being made over to an ,arhat by pouring water on his hands1#bd some drops fell on the ground4 ,they are still on the spot1 and however they may be brushed away and removed1 they continue to be visible1 and cannot be made to disappear4 ,at this place there is also a tope to ,buddha1 where a good spirit constantly keeps 7all about it7 swept and watered1 without any labour of man being required4 ,a king of corrupt views once said1 #8,since you are able to do this1 ,i will lead a multitude of troops and reside there till the dirt and filth has increased and accumulated1 and 7see7 whether you can cleanse it away or not4' ,the spirit thereupon raised a great wind1 which blew 7the filth away71 and made the place pure4 ,at this place there are a hundred small topes1 at which a man may keep counting a whole day without being able to know 7their exact number74 ,if he be firmly bent on knowing it1 he will place a man by the side of each tope4 ,when this is done1 proceeding to count the number of men1 whether they be many or few1 he will not get to know 7the number74#be ,there is a monastery1 containing perhaps #fjj or #gjj monks1 in which there is a place where a ,pratyeka ,buddha#bf used to take his food4 ,the nirva ground 7where he was burned#bg after death7 is as large as a carriage wheel2 and while grass grows all around1 on this spot there is none4 ,the ground also where he dried his clothes produces no grass1 but the impression of them1 where they lay on it1 continues to the present day4 ,,notes #a ,the name is still remaining in ,samkassam1 a village forty-five miles north-west of ,canouge1 lat4 #bg #c ,n41 lon4 #gi #ej ,e4 #b ,the heaven of ,indra or kya1 meaning #8the heaven of thirty-three classes1' a name which has been explained both historically and mythologically4 #8,the description of it1' says ,eitel1 p4 #adh1 #8tallies in all respects with the ,svarga of ,brahmnic mythology4 ,it is situated between the four peaks of the ,meru1 and consists of thirty-two cities of devas1 eight on each of the four corners of the mountain4 ,indra's capital of ,bellevue is in the centre4 ,there he is enthroned1 with a thousand heads and a thousand eyes1 and four arms grasping the vajra1 with his wife and #aai1jjj concubines4 ,there he receives the monthly reports of the four ,mahrjas1 concerning the progress of good and evil in the world1' c4 c4 #c ,buddha's mother1 ,my and ,mah-my1 the mater immaculata of the ,buddhists1 died seven days after his birth4 ,eitel says1 #8,reborn in ,tushita1 she was visited there by her son and converted4' ,the ,tushita heaven was a more likely place to find her than the ,trayastrias2 but was the former a part of the latter8 ,hardy gives a long account of ,buddha's visit to the ,trayastrias 7,m4 ,b41 pp4 #bih-cjb71 which he calls ,tawutis1 and speaks of his mother 7,mtru7 in it1 who had now become a deva by the changing of her sex4 #d ,compare the account of the ,arhat's conveyance of the artist to the ,tushita heaven in chap4 v4 ,the first expression here is more comprehensive4 #e ,anuruddha was a first cousin of kyamuni1 being the son of his uncle ,amitodana4 ,he is often mentioned in the account we have of ,buddha's last moments4 ,his special gift was the divyachakshus or #8heavenly eye1' the first of the six abhijs or #8supernatural talents1' the faculty of comprehending in one instantaneous view1 or by intuition1 all beings in all worlds4 #8,he could see1' says ,hardy1 ,m4 ,b41 p4 #bcb1 #8all things in #ajj1jjj sakvalas as plainly as a mustard seed held in the hand4' #f ,eitel gives the name ,utpala with the same ,chinese phonetisation as in the text1 but not as the name of any bhikshu4 ,the ,sanskrit word1 however1 is explained by #8blue lotus flowers2' and ,hsan-chwang calls her the nun #8,lotus-flower colour 772'--the same as ,hardy's ,upulwan and ,uppalawarn4 #g ,perhaps we should read here #8to see ,buddha1' and then ascribe the transformation to the nun herself4 ,it depends on the punctuation which view we adopt2 and in the structure of the passage1 there is nothing to indicate that the stop should be made before or after #8,buddha4' ,and the one view is as reasonable1 or rather as unreasonable1 as the other4 #h #8,a holy king who turns the wheel2' that is1 the military conqueror and monarch of the whole or part of a universe4 #8,the symbol1' says ,eitel 7p4 #adb7 #8of such a king is the chakra or wheel1 for when he ascends the throne1 a chakra falls from heaven1 indicating by its material 7gold1 silver1 copper1 or iron7 the extent and character of his reign4 ,the office1 however1 of the highest ,chakravartti1 who hurls his wheel among his enemies1 is inferior to the peaceful mission of a ,buddha1 who meekly turns the wheel of the ,law1 and conquers every universe by his teaching4' #i ,this was ,brahm1 the first person of the ,brahmnical ,trimurti1 adopted by ,buddhism1 but placed in an inferior position1 and surpassed by every ,buddhist saint who attains to bodhi4 #aj ,see chap4 ix1 note #b4 #aa ,see chap4 iii1 note #ad4 #ab ,a common name for the earth below1 where1 on digging1 water is found4 #ac ,the height is given as thirty chow1 the chow being the distance from the elbow to the finger-tip1 which is variously estimated4 #ad ,a note of ,mr4 ,beal says on this3--#8,general ,cunningham1 who visited the spot 7#ahfb71 found a pillar1 evidently of the age of ,aoka1 with a well-carved elephant on the top1 which1 however1 was minus trunk and tail4 ,he supposes this to be the pillar seen by ,f-hien1 who mistook the top of it for a lion4 ,it is possible such a mistake may have been made1 as in the account of one of the pillars at rvast1 ,f-hien says an ox formed the capital1 whilst ,hsan-chwang calls it an elephant 7,p4 #ai1 ,arch4 ,survey74' #ae ,that is1 in niches on the sides4 ,the pillar or column must have been square4 #af ,equivalent to #8all through4' #ag ,has always been translated #8heretical teachers2' but ,i eschew the terms heresy and heretical4 ,the parties would not be ,buddhists of any creed or school1 but ,brahmns or of some other false doctrine1 as ,f-hien deemed it4 ,the ,chinese term means #8outside' or #8foreign2'--in ,pli1 aa-titthiy1 #8those belonging to another school4' #ah ,see chap4 xiii para #f4 #ai ,these three predecessors of kyamuni were the three ,buddhas of the present or ,mah-bhadra ,kalpa1 of which he was the fourth1 and ,maitreya is to be the fifth and last4 ,they were3 7#a7 ,krakuchanda 7,pli1 ,kakusanda71 #8he who readily solves all doubts2' a scion of the ,kayapa family4 ,human life reached in his time #dj1jjj years1 and so many persons were converted by him4 7#b7 ,kanakamuni 7,pli1 ,kongamana71 #8body radiant with the colour of pure gold2' of the same family4 ,human life reached in his time #cj1jjj years1 and so many persons were converted by him4 7#c7 ,kyapa 7,pli1 ,kassapa71 #8swallower of light4' ,human life reached in his time #bj1jjj years1 and so many persons were converted by him4 ,see ,eitel1 under the several names2 ,hardy's ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #ie-ig2 and ,davids' #8,buddhist ,birth ,stories1' p4 #ea4 #bj ,that is1 walked in meditation4 ,such places are called ,chakramaa 7,pli1 ,chankama72 promenades or corridors connected with a monastery1 made sometimes with costly stones1 for the purpose of peripatetic meditation4 ,the #8sitting' would be not because of weariness or for rest1 but for meditation4 ,e4 ,h41 p4 #add4 #ba ,see chap4 i1 note #aj4 #bb ,the character in my ,corean copy is 1 which must be a mistake for the of the ,chinese editions4 ,otherwise1 the meaning would be #8a small medusa4' #bc ,the reading here seems to me a great improvement on that of the ,chinese editions1 which means #8,fire ,limit4' ,buddha1 it is said1 converted this demon1 which ,chinese character ,beal rendered at first by #8in one of his incarnations2' and in his revised version he has #8himself4' ,the difference between ,f-hien's usage of and throughout his narrative is quite marked4 always refers to the doings of kyamuni2 1 #8formerly1' is often used of him and others in the sense of #8in a former age or birth4' #bd ,see ,hardy1 ,m4 ,b41 p4 #aid3--#8;,as a token of the giving over of the garden1 the king poured water upon the hands of ,buddha2 and from this time it became one of the principal residences of the sage4' #be ,this would seem to be absurd2 but the writer evidently intended to convey the idea that there was something mysterious about the number of the topes4 #bf ,see chap4 xiii note4 #ae4 #bg ,this seems to be the meaning4 ,the bodies of the monks are all burned4 ,hardy's ,e4 ,m41 pp4 #cbb-cbd4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,kany,,kubja1 ,,or ,,canouge4 ,,buddha',s ,,preaching4 ,f-hien stayed at the ,dragon vihra till after the summer retreat1#a and then1 travelling to the south-east for seven yojanas1 he arrived at the city of ,kanykubja1#b lying along the ,ganges4#c ,there are two monasteries in it1 the inmates of which are students of the hnayna4 ,at a distance from the city of six or seven le1 on the west1 on the northern bank of the ,ganges1 is a place where ,buddha preached the ,law to his disciples4 ,it has been handed down that his subjects of discourse were such as #8,the bitterness and vanity 7of life7 as impermanent and uncertain1' and that #8,the body is as a bubble or foam on the water4' ,at this spot a tope was erected1 and still exists4 ,having crossed the ,ganges1 and gone south for three yojanas1 7the travellers7 arrived at a village named -le1#d containing places where ,buddha preached the ,law1 where he sat1 and where he walked1 at all of which topes have been built4 ,,notes #a ,we are now1 probably1 in #dje4 #b ,canouge1 the latitude and longitude of which have been given in a previous note4 ,the ,sanskrit name means #8the city of humpbacked maidens2' with reference to the legend of the hundred daughters of king ,brahm-datta1 who were made deformed by the curse of the ishi ,mah-viksha1 whose overtures they had refused4 ,e4 ,h41 p4 #ea4 #c ,gag1 explained by #8,blessed water1' and #8,come from heaven to earth4' #d ,this village 7the ,chinese editions read #8forest'7 has hardly been clearly identified4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,sh-,,che4 ,,legend ,,of ,,buddha',s ,,danta-,k,,sh,,ha4 ,going on from this to the south-east for three yojanas1 they came to the great kingdom of ,sh-che4#a ,as you go out of the city of ,sh-che by the southern gate1 on the east of the road 7is the place7 where ,buddha1 after he had chewed his willow branch1#b stuck it in the ground1 when it forthwith grew up seven cubits1 7at which height it remained7 neither increasing nor diminishing4 ,the ,brahmns with their contrary doctrines#c became angry and jealous4 ,sometimes they cut the tree down1 sometimes they plucked it up1 and cast it to a distance1 but it grew again on the same spot as at first4 ,here also is the place where the four ,buddhas walked and sat1 and at which a tope was built that is still existing4 ,,notes #a ,sh-che should probably be ,sh-khe1 making ,cunningham's identification of the name with the present ,saket still more likely4 ,the change of into is slight2 and1 indeed1 the ,khang-hs dictionary thinks the two characters should be but one and the same4 #b ,this was1 no doubt1 what was called the danta-kshha1 or #8dental wood1' mostly a bit of the ficus ,indicus or banyan tree1 which the monk chews every morning to cleanse his teeth1 and for the purpose of health generally4 ,the ,chinese1 not having the banyan1 have used1 or at least ,f-hien used1 ,yang 71 the general name for the willow7 instead of it4 #c ,are two classes of opponents1 or only one1 intended here1 so that we should read #8all the unbelievers and ,brahmns1' or #8heretics and ,brahmns8' ,i think the ,brahmns were also #8the unbelievers' and #8heretics1' having 1 views and ways outside of1 and opposed to1 ,buddha's4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,ko,,ala ,,and ,r,,vast4 ,,the ,,jetavana ,,vih,,ra ,,and ,,other ,,memorials ,,and ,,legends ,,of ,,buddha4 ,,sympathy ,,of ,,the ,,monks ,,with ,,the ,,pilgrims4 ,going on from this to the south1 for eight yojanas1 7the travellers7 came to the city of rvast#a in the kingdom of ,koala1#b in which the inhabitants were few and far between1 amounting in all 7only7 to a few more than two hundred families2 the city where king ,prasenajit#c ruled1 and the place of the old vihra of ,mah-prajpat2#d of the well and walls of 7the house of7 the 7,vaiya7 head ,sudatta2#e and where the ,agulimlya#f became an ,arhat1 and his body was 7afterwards7 burned on his attaining to pari-nirva4 ,at all these places topes were subsequently erected1 which are still existing in the city4 ,the ,brahmns1 with their contrary doctrine1 became full of hatred and envy in their hearts1 and wished to destroy them1 but there came from the heavens such a storm of crashing thunder and flashing lightning that they were not able in the end to effect their purpose4 ,as you go out from the city by the south gate1 and #a1bjj paces from it1 the 7,vaiya7 head ,sudatta built a vihra1 facing the south2 and when the door was open1 on each side of it there was a stone pillar1 with the figure of a wheel on the top of that on the left1 and the figure of an ox on the top of that on the right4 ,on the left and right of the building the ponds of water clear and pure1 the thickets of trees always luxuriant1 and the numerous flowers of various hues1 constituted a lovely scene1 the whole forming what is called the ,jetavana vihra4#g ,when ,buddha went up to the ,trayastrias heaven1 and preached the ,law for the benefit of his mother1#h 7after he had been absent for7 ninety days1 ,prasenajit1 longing to see him1 caused an image of him to be carved in ,gorsha ,chandana wood1#i and put in the place where he usually sat4 ,when ,buddha on his return entered the vihra1 this image immediately left its place1 and came forth to meet him4 ,buddha said to it1 #8,return to your seat4 ,after ,i have attained to pari-nirva1 you will serve as a pattern to the four classes of my disciples1'#aj and on this the image returned to its seat4 ,this was the very first of all the images 7of ,buddha71 and that which men subsequently copied4 ,buddha then removed1 and dwelt in a small vihra on the south side 7of the other71 a different place from that containing the image1 and twenty paces distant from it4 ,the ,jetavana vihra was originally of seven storeys4 ,the kings and people of the countries around vied with one another in their offerings1 hanging up about it silken streamers and canopies1 scattering flowers1 burning incense1 and lighting lamps1 so as to make the night as bright as the day4 ,this they did day after day without ceasing4 7,it happened that7 a rat1 carrying in its mouth the wick of a lamp1 set one of the streamers or canopies on fire1 which caught the vihra1 and the seven storeys were all consumed4 ,the kings1 with their officers and people1 were all very sad and distressed1 supposing that the sandal-wood image had been burned2 but lo6 after four or five days1 when the door of a small vihra on the east was opened1 there was immediately seen the original image4 ,they were all greatly rejoiced1 and co-operated in restoring the vihra4 ,when they had succeeded in completing two storeys1 they removed the image back to its former place4 ,when ,f-hien and ,to-ching first arrived at the ,jetavana monastery1 and thought how the ,world-honoured one had formerly resided there for twenty-five years1 painful reflections arose in their minds4 ,born in a border-land1 along with their like-minded friends1 they had travelled through so many kingdoms2 some of those friends had returned 7to their own land71 and some had 7died71 proving the impermanence and uncertainty of life2 and to-day they saw the place where ,buddha had lived now unoccupied by him4 ,they were melancholy through their pain of heart1 and the crowd of monks came out1 and asked them from what kingdom they were come4 #8,we are come1' they replied1 #8from the land of ,han4' #8,strange1' said the monks with a sigh1 #8that men of a border country should be able to come here in search of our ,law6' ,then they said to one another1 #8,during all the time that we1 preceptors and monks1#aa have succeeded to one another1 we have never seen men of ,han1 followers of our system1 arrive here4' ,four le to the north-west of the vihra there is a grove called #8,the ,getting of ,eyes4' ,formerly there were five hundred blind men1 who lived here in order that they might be near the vihra4#ab ,buddha preached his ,law to them1 and they all got back their eyesight4 ,full of joy1 they stuck their staves in the earth1 and with their heads and faces on the ground1 did reverence4 ,the staves immediately began to grow1 and they grew to be great4 ,people made much of them1 and no one dared to cut them down1 so that they came to form a grove4 ,it was in this way that it got its name1 and most of the ,jetavana monks1 after they had taken their midday meal1 went to the grove1 and sat there in meditation4 ,six or seven le north-east from the ,jetavana1 mother ,vaiakha#ac built another vihra1 to which she invited ,buddha and his monks1 and which is still existing4 ,to each of the great residences for monks at the ,jetavana vihra there were two gates1 one facing the east and the other facing the north4 ,the park 7containing the whole7 was the space of ground which the 7,vaiya7 head ,sudatta purchased by covering it with gold coins4 ,the vihra was exactly in the centre4 ,here ,buddha lived for a longer time than at any other place1 preaching his ,law and converting men4 ,at the places where he walked and sat they also 7subsequently7 reared topes1 each having its particular name2 and here was the place where ,sundari#ad murdered a person and then falsely charged ,buddha 7with the crime74 ,outside the east gate of the ,jetavana1 at a distance of seventy paces to the north1 on the west of the road1 ,buddha held a discussion with the 7advocates of the7 ninety-six schemes of erroneous doctrine1 when the king and his great officers1 the householders1 and people were all assembled in crowds to hear it4 ,then a woman belonging to one of the erroneous systems1 by name ,chachamana1#ae prompted by the envious hatred in her heart1 and having put on 7extra7 clothes in front of her person1 so as to give her the appearance of being with child1 falsely accused ,buddha before all the assembly of having acted unlawfully 7towards her74 ,on this1 akra1 ,ruler of ,devas1 changed himself and some devas into white mice1 which bit through the strings about her waist2 and when this was done1 the 7extra7 clothes which she wore dropt down on the ground4 ,the earth at the same time was rent1 and she went 7down7 alive into hell4#af 7,this7 also is the place where ,devadatta1#ag trying with empoisoned claws to injure ,buddha1 went down alive into hell4 ,men subsequently set up marks to distinguish where both these events took place4 ,further1 at the place where the discussion took place1 they reared a vihra rather more than sixty cubits high1 having in it an image of ,buddha in a sitting posture4 ,on the east of the road there was a devlaya#ah of 7one of7 the contrary systems1 called #8,the ,shadow ,covered1' right opposite the vihra on the place of discussion1 with 7only7 the road between them1 and also rather more than sixty cubits high4 ,the reason why it was called #8,the ,shadow ,covered' was this3--,when the sun was in the west1 the shadow of the vihra of the ,world-honoured one fell on the devlaya of a contrary system2 but when the sun was in the east1 the shadow of that devlaya was diverted to the north1 and never fell on the vihra of ,buddha4 ,the mal-believers regularly employed men to watch their devlaya1 to sweep and water 7all about it71 to burn incense1 light the lamps1 and present offerings2 but in the morning the lamps were found to have been suddenly removed1 and in the vihra of ,buddha4 ,the ,brahmns were indignant1 and said1 #8,those ramaas take out lamps and use them for their own service of ,buddha1 but we will not stop our service for you6'#ai ,on that night the ,brahmns themselves kept watch1 when they saw the deva spirits which they served take the lamps and go three times round the vihra of ,buddha and present offerings4 ,after this ministration to ,buddha they suddenly disappeared4 ,the ,brahmns thereupon knowing how great was the spiritual power of ,buddha1 forthwith left their families1 and became monks4#bj ,it has been handed down1 that1 near the time when these things occurred1 around the ,jetavana vihra there were ninety-eight monasteries1 in all of which there were monks residing1 excepting only in one place which was vacant4 ,in this ,middle ,kingdom#ba there are ninety-six#ba sorts of views1 erroneous and different from our system1 all of which recognise this world and the future world#bb 7and the connexion between them74 ,each had its multitude of followers1 and they all beg their food3 only they do not carry the alms-bowl4 ,they also1 moreover1 seek 7to acquire7 the blessing 7of good deeds7 on unfrequented ways1 setting up on the road-side houses of charity1 where rooms1 couches1 beds1 and food and drink are supplied to travellers1 and also to monks1 coming and going as guests1 the only difference being in the time 7for which those parties remain74 ,there are also companies of the followers of ,devadatta still existing4 ,they regularly make offerings to the three previous ,buddhas1 but not to kyamuni ,buddha4#bc ,four le south-east from the city of rvast1 a tope has been erected at the place where the ,world-honoured one encountered king ,virdhaha1#bd when he wished to attack the kingdom of ,shay-e1#bd and took his stand before him at the side of the road4#be ,,notes #a ,in ,singhalese1 ,sewet2 here evidently the capital of ,koala4 ,it is placed by ,cunningham 7archological ,survey7 on the south bank of the ,rapti1 about fifty-eight miles north of ,ayody or ,oude4 ,there are still the ruins of a great town1 the name being ,shet ,mhat4 ,it was in this town1 or in its neighbourhood1 that kyamuni spent many years of his life after he became ,buddha4 #b ,there were two ,indian kingdoms of this name1 a southern and a northern4 ,this was the northern1 a part of the present ,oudh4 #c ,in ,singhalese1 ,pase-nai1 meaning #8leader of the victorious army4' ,he was one of the earliest converts and chief patrons of kyamuni4 ,eitel calls him 7p4 #ie7 one of the originators of ,buddhist idolatory1 because of the statue which is mentioned in this chapter4 ,see ,hardy's ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #bhc1 #bhd1 et al4 #d ,explained by #8,path of ,love1' and #8,lord of ,life4' ,prajpat was aunt and nurse of kyamuni1 the first woman admitted to the monkhood1 and the first superior of the first ,buddhistic convent4 ,she is yet to become a ,buddha4 #e ,sudatta1 meaning #8almsgiver1' was the original name of ,antha-piika 7or ,piada71 a wealthy householder1 or ,vaiya head1 of rvast1 famous for his liberality 7,hardy1 ,anepidu74 ,of his old house1 only the well and walls remained at the time of ,f-hien's visit to rvast4 #f ,the ,agulimlya were a sect or set of ivaitic fanatics1 who made assassination a religious act4 ,the one of them here mentioned had joined them by the force of circumstances4 ,being converted by ,buddha1 he became a monk2 but when it is said in the text that he #8got the ,to1' or doctrine1 ,i think that expression implies more than his conversion1 and is equivalent to his becoming an ,arhat4 ,his name in ,pli is ,agulimla4 ,that he did become an ,arhat is clear from his autobiographical poem in the #8,songs of the ,theras4' #g ,eitel 7p4 #cg7 says3--#8,a noted vihra in the suburbs of rvast1 erected in a park which ,antha-piika bought of prince ,jeta1 the son of ,prasenajit4 kyamuni made this place his favourite residence for many years4 ,most of the ,stras 7authentic and supposititious7 date from this spot4' #h ,see chapter xvii4 #i ,see chapter xiii4 #aj rya1 meaning #8honourable1' #8venerable1' is a title given only to those who have mastered the four spiritual truths3--7#a7 that #8misery' is a necessary condition of all sentient existence2 this is dukha3 7#b7 that the #8accumulation' of misery is caused by the passions2 this is samudaya3 7#c7 that the #8extinction' of passion is possible2 this is nirodha3 and 7#d7 that the #8path' leads to the extinction of passion2 which is mrga4 ,according to their attainment of these truths1 the ryas1 or followers of ,buddha1 are distinguished into four classes1--rotpannas1 ,sakidgmins1 ,angmins1 and ,arhats4 ,e4 ,h41 p4 #ad4 #aa ,this is the first time that ,f-hien employs the name ,ho-shang 771 which is now popularly used in ,china for all ,buddhist monks without distinction of rank or office4 ,it is the representative of the ,sanskrit term ,upadhyya1 #8explained1' says ,eitel 7p4 #aee7 by #8a self-taught teacher1' or by #8he who knows what is sinful and what is not sinful1' with the note1 #8,in ,india the vernacular of this term is 78 munshee 8 ,bronze72 in ,kustana and ,kashgar they say 7hwa-shay72 and from the latter term are derived the ,chinese synonyms1 7ho-shay7 and 7ho-shang74' ,the ,indian term was originally a designation for those who teach only a part of the ,vedas1 the ,vedgas4 ,adopted by ,buddhists of ,central ,asia1 it was made to signify the priests of the older ritual1 in distinction from the ,lamas4 ,in ,china it has been used first as a synonym for 1 monks engaged in popular teaching 7teachers of the ,law71 in distinction from 1 disciplinists1 and 1 contemplative philosophers 7meditationists72 then it was used to designate the abbots of monasteries4 ,but it is now popularly applied to all ,buddhist monks4 ,in the text there seems to be implied some distinction between the #8teachers' and the #8ho-shang2'--probably1 the ,pli kariya and ,upagghya2 see ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xiii1 ,vinaya ,texts1 pp4 #agh1 #agi4 #ab ,it might be added1 #8as depending on it1' in order to bring out the full meaning of the in the text4 ,if ,i recollect aright1 the help of the police had to be called in at ,hong ,kong in its early years1 to keep the approaches to the ,cathedral free from the number of beggars1 who squatted down there during service1 hoping that the hearers would come out with softened hearts1 and disposed to be charitable4 ,i found the popular tutelary temples in ,peking and other places1 and the path up ,mount ,ti in ,shan-lung similarly frequented4 #ac ,the wife of ,antha-piika in note #e1 and who became #8mother superior' of many nunneries4 ,see her history in ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #bbj-bbg4 ,i am surprised it does not end with the statement that she is to become a ,buddha4 #ad ,see ,e4 ,h41 p4 #acf4 ,hsan-chwang does not give the name of this murderer2 see in ,julien's #8,vie et ,voyages de ,hiouen-thsang1' p4 #abe1--#8;a heretical ,brahmn killed a woman and calumniated ,buddha4' ,see also the fuller account in ,beal's #8,records of ,western ,countries1' pp4 #g1 #h1 where the murder is committed by several ,brahmcharins4 ,in this passage ,beal makes ,sundari to be the name of the murdered person 7a harlot74 ,but the text cannot be so construed4 #ae ,eitel 7p4 #add7 calls her ,chacha2 in ,singhalese1 ,chinchi4 ,see the story about her1 ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #bge-bgg4 #af #8,earth's prison1' or #8one of ,earth's prisons4' ,it was the ,avchi naraka to which she went1 the last of the eight hot prisons1 where the culprits die1 and are born again in uninterrupted succession 7such being the meaning of ,avchi71 though not without hope of final redemption4 ,e4 ,h4 p4 #ba4 #ag ,devadatta was brother of nanda1 and a near relative therefore of kyamuni4 ,he was the deadly enemy1 however1 of the latter4 ,he had become so in an earlier state of existence1 and the hatred continued in every successive birth1 through which they reappeared in the world4 ,see the accounts of him1 and of his various devices against ,buddha1 and his own destruction at the last1 in ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #cae-cba1 #cbf-ccj2 and still better1 in the ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xx1 ,vinaya ,texts1 pp4 #bcc-bfe4 ,for the particular attempt referred to in the text1 see #8,the ,life of the ,buddha1' p4 #ajg4 ,when he was engulphed1 and the flames were around him1 he cried out to ,buddha to save him1 and we are told that he is expected yet to appear as a ,buddha under the name of ,devarja1 in a universe called ,deva-soppana4 ,e4 ,h41 p4 #ci4 #ah #8,a devlaya 7 or 71 a place in which a deva is worshipped1--a general name for all ,brahmnical temples' 7,eitel1 p4 #cj74 ,we read in the ,khang-hs dictionary under 1 that when ,kayapa ,mataga came to the ,western ,regions1 with his ,classics or ,stras1 he was lodged in the ,court of ,state-,ceremonial1 and that afterwards there was built for him #8,the ,court of the ,white-horse' 771 and in consequence the name of ,sze 77 came to be given to all ,buddhistic temples4 ,f-hien1 however1 applies this term only to ,brahmnical temples4 #ai ,their speech was somewhat unconnected1 but natural enough in the circumstances4 ,compare the whole account with the narrative in ,i ,samuel v4 about the ,ark and ,dagon1 that #8twice-battered god of ,palestine4' #bj #8,entered the doctrine or path4' ,three stages in the ,buddhistic life are indicated by ,f-hien3--#8entering it1' as here1 by becoming monks 772 #8getting it1' by becoming ,arhats 772 and #8completing it1' by becoming ,buddha 774 #ba ,it is not quite clear whether the author had in mind here ,central ,india as a whole1 which ,i think he had1 or only ,koala1 the part of it where he then was4 ,in the older teaching1 there were only thirty-two sects1 but there may have been three subdivisions of each4 ,see ,rhys ,davids' #8,buddhism1' pp4 #ih1 #ii4 #bb ,this mention of #8the future world' is an important difference between the ,corean and ,chinese texts4 ,the want of it in the latter has been a stumbling-block in the way of all previous translators4 ,rmusat says in a note that #8the heretics limited themselves to speak of the duties of man in his actual life without connecting it by the notion that the metempsychosis with the anterior periods of existence through which he had passed4' ,but this is just the opposite of what ,f-hien's meaning was1 according to our ,corean text4 ,the notion of #8the metempsychosis' was just that in which all the ninety-six erroneous systems agreed among themselves and with ,buddhism4 ,if he had wished to say what the ,french sinologue thinks he does say1 moreover1 he would probably have written 4 ,let me add1 however1 that the connexion which ,buddhism holds between the past world 7including the present7 and the future is not that of a metempsychosis1 or transmigration of souls1 for it does not appear to admit any separate existence of the soul4 ,adhering to its own phraseology of #8the wheel1' ,i would call its doctrine that of #8,the ,transrotation of ,births4' ,see ,rhys ,davids' third ,hibbert ,lecture4 #bc ,see note #ag2 and chapter xvii1 note #ai4 #bd ,or1 more according to the phonetisation of the text1 ,vaidrya4 ,he was king of ,koala1 the son and successor of ,prasenajit1 and the destroyer of ,kapilavastu1 the city of the kya family4 ,his hostility to the kyas is sufficiently established1 and it may be considered as certain that the name ,shay-e1 which1 according to ,julien's #8,mthode1' p4 #hi1 may be read ,chi-e1 is the same as ,ki-e 771 one of the phonetisations of ,kapilavastu1 as given by ,eitel4 #be ,this would be the interview in the #8,life of the ,buddha' in ,trbner's ,oriental ,series1 p4 #aaf1 when ,virdhaha on his march found ,buddha under an old sakotato tree4 ,it afforded him no shade2 but he told the king that the thought of the danger of #8his relatives and kindred made it shady4' ,the king was moved to sympathy for the time1 and went back to rvast2 but the destruction of ,kapilavastu was only postponed for a short space1 and ,buddha himself acknowledged it to be inevitable in the connexion of cause and effect4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,three ,,predecessors ,,of ,,kyamuni ,,in ,,the ,,buddhaship4 ,fifty le to the west of the city bring 7the traveller7 to a town named ,too-wei1#a the birthplace of ,kyapa ,buddha4#a ,at the place where he and his father met1#b and at that where he attained to pari-nirva1 topes were erected4 ,over the entire relic of the whole body of him1 the ,kyapa ,tathgata1#c a great tope was also erected4 ,going on south-east from the city of rvast for twelve yojanas1 7the travellers7 came to a town named ,na-pei-ke1#d the birthplace of ,krakuchanda ,buddha4#e ,at the place where he and his father met1 and at that where he attained to pari-nirva1 topes were erected4 ,going north from here less than a yojana1 they came to a town which had been the birthplace of ,kanakamuni ,buddha4#e ,at the place where he and his father met1 and where he attained to pari-nirva1 topes were erected4 ,,notes #a ,identified1 as ,beal says1 by ,cunningham with ,tadwa1 a village nine miles to the west of ,shara-mahat4 ,the birthplace of ,kyapa ,buddha is generally thought to have been ,benres4 ,according to a calculation of ,rmusat1 from his birth to ,a4,d4 #ahcb there were #a1iib1hei years6 #b ,it seems to be necessary to have a meeting between every ,buddha and his father4 ,one at least is ascribed to kyamuni and his father 7real or supposed7 uddhodana4 #c ,this is the highest epithet given to every supreme ,buddha2 in ,chinese 1 meaning1 as ,eitel1 p4 #adg says1 #8,sic profectus sum4' ,it is equivalent to #8,rightful ,buddha1 the true successor in the ,supreme ,buddha ,line4' ,hardy concludes his account of the ,kyapa ,buddha 7,m4 ,b41 p4 #ig7 with the following sentence3--#8,after his body was burnt1 the bones still remained in their usual position1 presenting the appearance of a perfect skeleton2 and the whole of the inhabitants of ,jambudvpa1 assembling together1 erected a dagoba over his relics one yojana in height6' #d ,na-pei-ke or ,nabhiga is not mentioned elsewhere4 ,eitel says this ,buddha was born at the city of ,gn-ho 77 and ,hardy gives his birthplace as ,mekhala4 ,it may be possible1 by means of ,sanskrit1 to reconcile these statements4 #e ,see chap4 xvii note #ai4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,kapilavastu4 ,,its ,,desolation4 ,,legends ,,of ,,buddha',s ,,birth1 ,,and ,,other ,,incidents ,,in ,,connexion ,,with ,,it4 ,less than a yojana to the east from this brought them to the city of ,kapilavastu2#a but in it there was neither king nor people4 ,all was mound and desolation4 ,of inhabitants there were only some monks and a score or two of families of the common people4 ,at the spot where stood the old palace of king uddhodana#b there have been made images of the prince 7his eldest son7 and his mother2#c and at the places where that son appeared mounted on a white elephant when he entered his mother's womb1#d and where he turned his carriage round on seeing the sick man after he had gone out of the city by the eastern gate1#e topes have been erected4 ,the places 7were also pointed out7#f where 7the ishi7 -e#g inspected the marks#h 7of ,buddhaship on the body7 of the heir-apparent 7when an infant72 where1 when he was in company with ,nanda and others1 on the elephant being struck down and drawn to one side1 he tossed it away2#i where he shot an arrow to the south-east1 and it went a distance of thirty le1 then entering the ground and making a spring to come forth1 which men subsequently fashioned into a well from which travellers might drink2#aj where1 after he had attained to ,wisdom1#aa ,buddha returned and saw the king1 his father2#ab where five hundred kyas quitted their families and did reverence to ,upli#ac while the earth shook and moved in six different ways2 where ,buddha preached his ,law to the devas1 and the four deva kings and others kept the four doors 7of the hall71 so that 7even7 the king1 his father1 could not enter2#ad where ,buddha sat under a nyagrodha tree1 which is still standing1#ae with his face to the east1 and 7his aunt7 ,mah-prajpat presented him with a ,saghli2#af and 7where7 king ,vaidrya slew the seed of kya1 and they all in dying became rotpannas4#ag ,a tope was erected at this last place1 which is still existing4 ,illustration3 ,i4 ,,dream ,,of ,,buddha',s ,,mother ,,of ,,his ,,reincarnation4 ,illustration3 ,,ii4 ,,buddha ,,just ,,born1 ,,with ,,the ,n,,gas ,,supplying ,,water ,,to ,,wash ,,him4 ,illustration3 ,,iii4 ,,buddha ,,tossing ,,the ,,elephant ,,over ,,the ,,wall4 ,several le north-east from the city was the king's field1 where the heir-apparent sat under a tree1 and looked at the ploughers4#ah ,fifty le east from the city was a garden1 named ,lumbin1#ai where the queen entered the pond and bathed4 ,having come forth from the pond on the northern bank1 after 7walking7 twenty paces1 she lifted up her hand1 laid hold of a branch of a tree1 and1 with her face to the east1 gave birth to the heir-apparent4#bj ,when he fell to the ground1 he 7immediately7 walked seven paces4 ,two dragon-kings 7appeared7 and washed his body4 ,at the place where they did so1 there was immediately formed a well1 and from it1 as well as from the above pond1 where 7the queen7 bathed1#ba the monks 7even7 now constantly take the water1 and drink it4 ,there are four places of regular and fixed occurrence 7in the history of7 all ,buddhas3--first1 the place where they attained to perfect ,wisdom 7and became ,buddha72 second1 the place where they turned the wheel of the ,law2#bb third1 the place where they preached the ,law1 discoursed of righteousness1 and discomfited 7the advocates of7 erroneous doctrines2 and fourth1 the place where they came down1 after going up to the ,trayastrias heaven to preach the ,law for the benefit of their mothers4 ,other places in connexion with them became remarkable1 according to the manifestations which were made at them at particular times4 ,the country of ,kapilavastu is a great scene of empty desolation4 ,the inhabitants are few and far between4 ,on the roads people have to be on their guard against white elephants#bc and lions1 and should not travel incautiously4 ,,notes #a ,kapilavastu1 #8the city of beautiful virtue1' was the birthplace of kyamuni1 but was destroyed1 as intimated in the notes on last chapter1 during his lifetime4 ,it was situated a short distance north-west of the present ,goruckpoor1 lat4 #bf #df ,n41 lon4 #hc #ai ,e4 ,davids says 7,manual1 p4 #be71 #8,it was on the banks of the river ,rohini1 the modern ,kohana1 about #ajj miles north-west of the city of ,benres4' #b ,the father1 or supposed father1 of kyamuni4 ,he is here called #8the king white and pure' 774 ,a more common appellation is #8the king of pure rice' 772 but the character 1 or #8rice1' must be a mistake for 1 #8,brahmn1' and the appellation #8,pure ,brahmn king4' #c ,the #8eldest son1' or #8prince' was kyamuni1 and his mother had no other son4 ,for #8his mother1' see chap4 xvii1 note #c4 ,she was a daughter of ,ajana or ,anukya1 king of the neighbouring country of ,koli1 and ,yaodhar1 an aunt of uddhodana4 ,there appear to have been various intermarriages between the royal houses of ,kapila and ,koli4 #d ,in #8,the ,life of the ,buddha1' p4 #ae1 we read that #8,buddha was now in the ,tushita heaven1 and knowing that his time was come 7the time for his last rebirth in the course of which he would become ,buddha71 he made the necessary examinations2 and having decided that ,mah-my was the right mother1 in the midnight watch he entered her womb under the appearance of an elephant4' ,see ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #adj-adc1 and1 still better1 ,rhys ,davids' #8,birth ,stories1' pp4 #eh-fc4 #e ,in ,hardy's ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #aed1 #aee1 we read1 #8,as the prince 7,siddhrtha1 the first name given to kyamuni2 see ,eitel1 under ,sarvrthasiddha7 was one day passing along1 he saw a deva under the appearance of a leper1 full of sores1 with a body like a water-vessel1 and legs like the pestle for pounding rice2 and when he learned from his charioteer what it was that he saw1 he became agitated1 and returned at once to the palace4' ,see also ,rhys ,davids' #8,buddhism1' p4 #bi4 #f ,this is an addition of my own1 instead of #8,there are also topes erected at the following spots1' of former translators4 ,f-hien does not say that there were memorial topes at all these places4 #g ,asita2 see ,eitel1 p4 #ae4 ,he is called in ,pli ,kal ,devala1 and had been a minister of uddhodana's father4 #h ,see chap4 xiii1 note #ab4 #i ,in #8,the ,life of ,buddha' we read that the ,lichchhavis of ,vail had sent to the young prince a very fine elephant2 but when it was near ,kapilavastu1 ,devadatta1 out of envy1 killed it with a blow of his fist4 ,nanda 7not nanda1 but a half-brother of ,siddhrtha71 coming that way1 saw the carcase lying on the road1 and pulled it on one side2 but the ,bodhisattva1 seeing it there1 took it by the tail1 and tossed it over seven fences and ditches1 when the force of its fall made a great ditch4 ,i suspect that the characters in the column have been disarranged1 and that we should read 1 1 4 ,buddha1 that is ,siddhrtha1 was at this time only ten years old4 #aj ,the young kyas were shooting when the prince thus surpassed them all4 ,he was then seventeen4 #aa ,see chap4 xx1 note #bj4 #ab ,this was not the night when he finally fled from ,kapilavastu1 and as he was leaving the palace1 perceiving his sleeping father1 and said1 #8,father1 though ,i love thee1 yet a fear possesses me1 and ,i may not stay2'--,the ,life of the ,buddha1 p4 #be4 ,most probably it was that related in ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #aii-bjd4 ,see #8,buddhist ,birth ,stories1' pp4 #abj-abg4 #ac ,they did this1 ,i suppose1 to show their humility1 for ,upli was only a dra by birth1 and had been a barber2 so from the first did ,buddhism assert its superiority to the conditions of rank and caste4 ,upli was distinguished by his knowledge of the rules of discipline1 and praised on that account by ,buddha4 ,he was one of the three leaders of the first synod1 and the principal compiler of the original ,vinaya books4 #ad ,i have not met with the particulars of this preaching4 #ae ,meaning1 as explained in ,chinese1 #8a tree without knots2' the ficus ,indica4 ,see ,rhys ,davids' note1 ,manual1 p4 #ci1 where he says that a branch of one of these trees was taken from ,buddha ,gay to ,anurdhapura in ,ceylon in the middle of the third century ,b4,c1 and is still growing there1 the oldest historical tree in the world4 #af ,see chap4 xiii1 note #aa4 ,i have not met with the account of this presentation4 ,see the long account of ,prajpat in ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #cjf-cae4 #ag ,see chap4 xx1 note #aj4 ,the rotpannas are the first class of saints1 who are not to be reborn in a lower sphere1 but attain to nirva after having been reborn seven times consecutively as men or devas4 ,the ,chinese editions state there were #8#ajjj' of the kya seed4 ,the general account is that they were #ejj1 all maidens1 who refused to take their place in king ,vaidrya's harem1 and were in consequence taken to a pond1 and had their hands and feet cut off4 ,there ,buddha came to them1 had their wounds dressed1 and preached to them the ,law4 ,they died in the faith1 and were reborn in the region of the four ,great ,kings4 ,thence they came back and visited ,buddha at ,jetavana in the night1 and there they obtained the reward of rotpanna4 #8,the ,life of the ,buddha1' p4 #aba4 #ah ,see the account of this event in ,m4 ,b41 p4 #aej4 ,the account of it reminds me of the ploughing by the sovereign1 which has been an institution in ,china from the earliest times4 ,but there we have no magic and no extravagance4 #ai #8,the place of ,liberation2' see chap4 xiii1 note #g4 #bj ,see the accounts of this event in ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #ade1 #adf2 #8,the ,life of the ,buddha1' pp4 #ae1 #af2 and #8,buddhist ,birth ,stories1' p4 #ff4 #ba ,there is difficulty in construing the text of this last statement4 ,mr4 ,beal had1 no doubt inadvertently1 omitted it in his first translation4 ,in his revised version he gives for it1 ,i cannot say happily1 #8,as well as at the pool1 the water of which came down from above for washing 7the child74' #bb ,see chap4 xvii1 note #h4 ,see also ,davids' ,manual1 p4 #de4 ,the latter says1 that #8to turn the wheel of the ,law' means #8to set rolling the royal chariot wheel of a universal empire of truth and righteousness2' but he admits that this is more grandiloquent than the phraseology was in the ears of ,buddhists4 ,i prefer the words quoted from ,eitel in the note referred to4 #8,they turned' is probably equivalent to #8,they began to turn4' #bc ,f-hien does not say that he himself saw any of these white elephants1 nor does he speak of the lions as of any particular colour4 ,we shall find by-and-by1 in a note further on1 that1 to make them appear more terrible1 they are spoken of as #8black4' ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,r,,ma1 ,,and ,,its ,,tope4 ,east from ,buddha's birthplace1 and at a distance of five yojanas1 there is a kingdom called ,rma4#a ,the king of this country1 having obtained one portion of the relics of ,buddha's body1#b returned with it and built over it a tope1 named the ,rma tope4 ,by the side of it there was a pool1 and in the pool a dragon1 which constantly kept watch over 7the tope71 and presented offerings to it day and night4 ,when king ,aoka came forth into the world1 he wished to destroy the eight topes 7over the relics71 and to build 7instead of them7 #hd1jjj topes4#c ,after he had thrown down the seven 7others71 he wished next to destroy this tope4 ,but then the dragon showed itself1 took the king into its palace2#d and when he had seen all the things provided for offerings1 it said to him1 #8,if you are able with your offerings to exceed these1 you can destroy the tope1 and take it all away4 ,i will not contend with you4' ,the king1 however1 knew that such appliances for offerings were not to be had anywhere in the world1 and thereupon returned 7without carrying out his purpose74 7,afterwards71 the ground all about became overgrown with vegetation1 and there was nobody to sprinkle and sweep 7about the tope72 but a herd of elephants came regularly1 which brought water with their trunks to water the ground1 and various kinds of flowers and incense1 which they presented at the tope4 7,once7 there came from one of the kingdoms a devotee#e to worship at the tope4 ,when he encountered the elephants he was greatly alarmed1 and screened himself among the trees2 but when he saw them go through with the offerings in the most proper manner1 the thought filled him with great sadness--that there should be no monastery here1 7the inmates of which7 might serve the tope1 but the elephants have to do the watering and sweeping4 ,forthwith he gave up the great prohibitions 7by which he was bound71#f and resumed the status of a rmaera4#g ,with his own hands he cleared away the grass and trees1 put the place in good order1 and made it pure and clean4 ,by the power of his exhortations1 he prevailed on the king of the country to form a residence for monks2 and when that was done1 he became head of the monastery4 ,at the present day there are monks residing in it4 ,this event is of recent occurrence2 but in all the succession from that time till now1 there has always been a rmaera head of the establishment4 ,,notes #a ,rma or ,rmagrma1 between ,kapilavastu and ,kuanagara4 #b ,see the account of the eightfold division of the relics of ,buddha's body in the ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xi1 ,buddhist ,suttas1 pp4 #acc-acf4 #c ,the bones of the human body are supposed to consist of #hd1jjj atoms1 and hence the legend of ,aoka's wish to build #hd1jjj topes1 one over each atom of kyamuni's skeleton4 #d ,f-hien1 it appears to me1 intended his readers to understand that the nga-guardian had a palace of his own1 inside or underneath the pool or tank4 #e ,it stands out on the narrative as a whole that we have not here #8some pilgrims1' but one devotee4 #f ,what the #8great prohibitions' which the devotee now gave up were we cannot tell4 ,being what he was1 a monk of more than ordinary ascetical habits1 he may have undertaken peculiar and difficult vows4 #g ,the rmaera1 or in ,chinese ,shmei4 ,see chap4 xvi1 note #bj4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,where ,,buddha ,,finally ,,renounced ,,the ,,world1 ,,and ,,where ,,he ,,died4 ,east from here four yojanas1 there is the place where the heir-apparent sent back ,chaaka1 with his white horse2#a and there also a tope was erected4 ,four yojanas to the east from this1 7the travellers7 came to the ,charcoal tope1#b where there is also a monastery4 ,going on twelve yojanas1 still to the east1 they came to the city of ,kuanagara1#c on the north of which1 between two trees1#d on the bank of the ,nairajan#e river1 is the place where the ,world-honoured one1 with his head to the north1 attained to pari-nirva 7and died74 ,there also are the places where ,subhadra1#f the last 7of his converts71 attained to ,wisdom 7and became an ,arhat72 where in his coffin of gold they made offerings to the ,world-honoured one for seven days1#g where the ,vajrapi laid aside his golden club1#h and where the eight kings divided the relics 7of the burnt body7#i3--;at all these places were built topes and monasteries1 all of which are now existing4 ,illustration3 ,,vii4 ,,buddha',s ,,dying ,,instructions4 ,illustration3 ,,viii4 ,,buddha',s ,,death4 ,illustration3 ,,ix4 ,,division ,,of ,,buddha',s ,,relics4 ,in the city the inhabitants are few and far between1 comprising only the families belonging to the 7different7 societies of monks4 ,going from this to the south-east for twelve yojanas1 they came to the place where the ,lichchhavis#aj wished to follow ,buddha to 7the place of7 his pari-nirva1 and where1 when he would not listen to them and they kept cleaving to him1 unwilling to go away1 he made to appear a large and deep ditch which they could not cross over1 and gave them his alms-bowl1 as a pledge of his regard1 7thus7 sending them back to their families4 ,there a stone pillar was erected with an account of this event engraved upon it4 ,,notes #a ,this was on the night when kyamuni finally left his palace and family to fulfil the course to which he felt that he was called4 ,chaaka1 in ,pli ,channa1 was the prince's charioteer1 and in sympathy with him4 ,so also was the white horse ,kanthaka 7,kanthakanam ,avarja71 which neighed his delight till the devas heard him4 ,see ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #aeh-afa1 and ,davids' ,manual1 pp4 #cb1 #cc4 ,according to #8,buddhist ,birth ,stories1' p4 #hg1 the noble horse never returned to the city1 but died of grief at being left by his master1 to be reborn immediately in the ,trayastrias heaven as the deva ,kanthaka6 #b ,beal and ,giles call this the #8,ashes' tope4 ,i also would have preferred to call it so2 but the ,chinese character is 1 not 4 ,rmusat has #8la tour des charbons4' ,it was over the place of ,buddha's cremation4 #c ,in ,pli ,kusinr4 ,it got its name from the ,kua grass 7the poa cynosuroides72 and its ruins are still extant1 near ,kusiah1 #ahj ,n4,w4 from ,patna2 #8about1' says ,davids1 #8#abj miles ,n4,n4,e4 of ,benres1 and #hj miles due east of ,kapilavastu4' #d ,the la tree1 the ,shorea robusta1 which yields the famous teak wood4 #e ,confounded1 according to ,eitel1 even by ,hsan-chwang1 with the ,hirayavat1 which flows past the city on the south4 #f ,a ,brahmn of ,benres1 said to have been #abj years old1 who came to learn from ,buddha the very night he died4 nanda would have repulsed him2 but ,buddha ordered him to be introduced2 and then putting aside the ingenious but unimportant question which he propounded1 preached to him the ,law4 ,the ,brahmn was converted and attained at once to ,arhatship4 ,eitel says that he attained to nirva a few moments before kyamuni2 but see the full account of him and his conversion in #8,buddhist ,suttas1' p4 #ajc-aaj4 #g ,thus treating the dead ,buddha as if he had been a ,chakravartti king4 ,hardy's ,m4 ,b41 p4 #cdg1 says3--#8,for the place of cremation1 the princes 7of ,kusinr7 offered their own coronation-hall1 which was decorated with the utmost magnificence1 and the body was deposited in a golden sarcophagus4' ,see the account of a cremation which ,f-hien witnessed in ,ceylon1 chap4 xxxix4 #h ,the name ,vajrapi is explained as #8he who holds in his hand the diamond club 7or pestle sceptre71' which is one of the many names of ,indra or akra4 ,he therefore1 that great protector of ,buddhism1 would seem to be intended here2 but the difficulty with me is that neither in ,hardy nor ,rockhill1 nor any other writer1 have ,i met with any manifestation of himself made by ,indra on this occasion4 ,the princes of ,kuanagara were called mallas1 #8strong or mighty heroes2' so also were those of ,pv and ,vail2 and a question arises whether the language may not refer to some story which ,f-hien had heard1--something which they did on this great occasion4 ,vajrapi is also explained as meaning #8the diamond mighty hero2' but the epithet of #8diamond' is not so applicable to them as to ,indra4 ,the clause may hereafter obtain more elucidation4 #i ,of ,kuanagara1 ,pv1 ,vail1 and other kingdoms4 ,kings1 princes1 brahmns1--each wanted the whole relic2 but they agreed to an eightfold division at the suggestion of the brahmn ,droa4 #aj ,these #8strong heroes' were the chiefs of ,vail1 a kingdom and city1 with an oligarchical constitution4 ,they embraced ,buddhism early1 and were noted for their peculiar attachment to ,buddha4 ,the second synod was held at ,vail1 as related in the next chapter4 ,the ruins of the city still exist at ,bassahar1 north of ,patna1 the same1 ,i suppose1 as ,besarh1 twenty miles north of ,hajipr4 ,see ,beal's ,revised ,version1 p4 lii4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,vai,l4 ,,the ,,tope ,,called #8,,weapons ,,laid ,,down4' ,,the ,,council ,,of ,,vai,l4 ,east from this city ten yojanas1 7the travellers7 came to the kingdom of ,vail4 ,north of the city so named is a large forest1 having in it the double-galleried vihra#a where ,buddha dwelt1 and the tope over half the body of nanda4#b ,inside the city the woman mbapl#c built a vihra in honour of ,buddha1 which is now standing as it was at first4 ,three le south of the city1 on the west of the road1 7is the7 garden 7which7 the same mbapl presented to ,buddha1 in which he might reside4 ,when ,buddha was about to attain to his pari-nirva1 as he was quitting the city by the west gate1 he turned round1 and1 beholding the city on his right1 said to them1 #8,here ,i have taken my last walk4'#d ,men subsequently built a tope at this spot4 ,three le north-west of the city there is a tope called1 #8,bows and weapons laid down4' ,the reason why it got that name was this3--,the inferior wife of a king1 whose country lay along the river ,ganges1 brought forth from her womb a ball of flesh4 ,the superior wife1 jealous of the other1 said1 #8,you have brought forth a thing of evil omen1' and immediately it was put into a box of wood and thrown into the river4 ,farther down the stream another king was walking and looking about1 when he saw the wooden box 7floating7 in the water4 7,he had it brought to him71 opened it1 and found a thousand little boys1 upright and complete1 and each one different from the others4 ,he took them and had them brought up4 ,they grew tall and large1 and very daring1 and strong1 crushing all opposition in every expedition which they undertook4 ,by-and-by they attacked the kingdom of their real father1 who became in consequence greatly distressed and sad4 ,his inferior wife asked what it was that made him so1 and he replied1 #8,that king has a thousand sons1 daring and strong beyond compare1 and he wishes with them to attack my kingdom2 this is what makes me sad4' ,the wife said1 #8,you need not be sad and sorrowful4 ,only make a high gallery on the wall of the city on the east2 and when the thieves come1 ,i shall be able to make them retire4' ,the king did as she said2 and when the enemies came1 she said to them from the tower1 #8,you are my sons2 why are you acting so unnaturally and rebelliously8' ,they replied1 #8,if you do not believe me1' she said1 #8look1 all of you1 towards me1 and open your mouths4' ,she then pressed her breasts with her two hands1 and each sent forth #ejj jets of milk1 which fell into the mouths of the thousand sons4 ,the thieves 7thus7 knew that she was their mother1 and laid down their bows and weapons4#e ,the two kings1 the fathers1 thereupon fell into reflection1 and both got to be ,pratyeka ,buddhas4#f ,the tope of the two ,pratyeka ,buddhas is still existing4 ,in a subsequent age1 when the ,world-honoured one had attained to perfect ,wisdom 7and become ,buddha71 he said to is disciples1 #8,this is the place where ,i in a former age laid down my bow and weapons4'#g ,it was thus that subsequently men got to know 7the fact71 and raised the tope on this spot1 which in this way received its name4 ,the thousand little boys were the thousand ,buddhas of this ,bhadra-kalpa4#h ,it was by the side of the #8,weapons laid down' tope that ,buddha1 having given up the idea of living longer1 said to nanda1 #8,in three months from this ,i will attain to pavi-nirva2' and king ,mra#i had so fascinated and stupefied nanda1 that he was not able to ask ,buddha to remain longer in this world4 ,three or four le east from this place there is a tope 7commemorating the following occurrence73--,a hundred years after the pari-nirva of ,buddha1 some ,bhikshus of ,vail went wrong in the matter of the disciplinary rules in ten particulars1 and appealed for their justification to what they said were the words of ,buddha4 ,hereupon the ,arhats and ,bhikshus observant of the rules1 to the number in all of #gjj monks1 examined afresh and collated the collection of disciplinary books4#aj ,subsequently men built at this place the tope 7in question71 which is still existing4 ,,notes #a ,it is difficult to tell what was the peculiar form of this vihra from which it gets its name2 something about the construction of its door1 or cupboards1 or galleries4 #b ,see the explanation of this in the next chapter4 #c mbapl1 mrapl1 or mradarik1 #8the guardian of the mra 7probably the mango7 tree1' is famous in ,buddhist annals4 ,see the account of her in ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #def-h4 ,she was a courtesan4 ,she had been in many narakas or hells1 was #ajj1jjj times a female beggar1 and #aj1jjj times a prostitute2 but maintaining perfect continence during the period of ,kyapa ,buddha1 kyamuni's predecessor1 she had been born a devi1 and finally appeared in earth under an mra tree in ,vail4 ,there again she fell into her old ways1 and had a son by king ,bimbisra2 but she was won over by ,buddha to virtue and chastity1 renounced the world1 and attained to the state of an rhat4 ,see the earliest account of mbapl's presentation of the garden in #8,buddhist ,suttas1' pp4 #cj-cc1 and the note there from ,bishop ,bigandet on pp4 #cc1 #cd4 #d ,beal gives1 #8,in this place ,i have performed the last religious act of my earthly career2' ,giles1 #8,this is the last place ,i shall visit2' ,rmusat1 #8,c'est un lieu o je reviendrai bien longtemps aprs ceci4' ,perhaps the #8walk' to which ,buddha referred had been for meditation4 #e ,see the account of this legend in the note in ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #bce1 #bcf1 different1 but not less absurd4 ,the first part of ,f-hien's narrative will have sent the thoughts of some of my readers to the exposure of the infant ,moses1 as related in ,exodus4 #f ,see chap4 xiii1 note #ae4 #g ,thus kyamuni had been one of the thousand little boys who floated in the box in the ,ganges4 ,how long back the former age was we cannot tell4 ,i suppose the tope of the two fathers who became ,pratyeka ,buddhas had been built like the one commemorating the laying down of weapons after ,buddha had told his disciples of the strange events in the past4 #h ,bhadra-kalpa1 #8the ,kalpa of worthies or sages4' #8,this1' says ,eitel1 p4 #bb1 #8is a designation for a ,kalpa of stability1 so called because #ajjj ,buddhas appear in the course of it4 ,our present period is a ,bhadra-kalpa1 and four ,buddhas have already appeared4 ,it is to last #bcf million years1 but over #aea millions have already elapsed4' #i #8,the king of demons4' ,the name ,mra is explained by #8the murderer1' #8the destroyer of virtue1' and similar appellations4 #8,he is1' says ,eitel1 #8the personification of lust1 the god of love1 sin1 and death1 the arch-enemy of goodness1 residing in the heaven ,paranirmita ,vaavartin on the top of the ,kmadhtu4 ,he assumes different forms1 especially monstrous ones1 to tempt or frighten the saints1 or sends his daughters1 or inspires wicked men like ,devadatta or the ,nirgranthas to do his work4 ,he is often represented with #ajj arms1 and riding on an elephant4' ,the oldest form of the legend in this paragraph is in #8,buddhist ,suttas1' ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xi1 pp4 #da-ee1 where ,buddha says that1 if nanda had asked him thrice1 he would have postponed his death4 #aj ,or the ,vinaya-piaka4 ,the meeting referred to was an important one1 and is generally spoken of as the second ,great ,council of the ,buddhist ,church4 ,see1 on the formation of the ,buddhist ,canon1 ,hardy's ,e4 ,m41 chap4 xviii1 and the last chapter of ,davids' ,manual1 on the ,history of the ,order4 ,the first ,council was that held at ,rjagiha1 shortly after ,buddha's death1 under the presidency of ,kyapa2--say about ,b4,c4 #daj4 ,the second was that spoken of here2--say about ,b4,c4 #cjj4 ,in ,davids' ,manual 7p4 #baf7 we find the ten points of discipline1 in which the heretics 7,i can use that term here7 claimed at least indulgence4 ,two meetings were held to consider and discuss them4 ,at the former the orthodox party barely succeeded in carrying their condemnation of the laxer monks2 and a second and larger meeting1 of which ,f-hien speaks1 was held in consequence1 and a more emphatic condemnation passed4 ,at the same time all the books and subjects of discipline seem to have undergone a careful revision4 ,the ,corean text is clearer than the ,chinese as to those who composed the ,council1--the ,arhats and orthodox monks4 ,the leader among them was a ,yaas1 or ,yaada1 or ,yedaputtra1 who had been a disciple of nanda1 and must therefore have been a very old man4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,remarkable ,,death ,,of ,,nanda4 ,four yojanas on from this place to the east brought the travellers to the confluence of the five rivers4#a ,when nanda was going from ,magadha#b to ,vail1 wishing his pari-nirva to take place 7there71 the devas informed king ,ajtaatru#c of it1 and the king immediately pursued him1 in his own grand carriage1 with a body of soldiers1 and had reached the river4 7,on the other hand71 the ,lichchhavis of ,vail had heard that nanda was coming 7to their city71 and they on their part came to meet him4 7,in this way71 they all arrived together at the river1 and nanda considered that1 if he went forward1 king ,ajtaatru would be very angry1 while1 if he went back1 the ,lichchhavis would resent his conduct4 ,he thereupon in the very middle of the river burnt his body in a fiery ecstasy of ,samdhi1#d and his pari-nirva was attained4 ,he divided his body 7also7 into two1 7leaving7 the half of it on each bank2 so that each of the two kings got one half as a 7sacred7 relic1 and took it back 7to his own capital71 and there raised a tope over it4 ,,notes #a ,this spot does not appear to have been identified4 ,it could not be far from ,patna4 #b ,magadha was for some time the headquarters of ,buddhism2 the holy land1 covered with vihras2 a fact perpetuated1 as has been observed in a previous note1 in the name of the present ,behr1 the southern portion of which corresponds to the ancient kingdom of ,magadha4 #c ,in ,singhalese1 ,ajasat4 ,see the account of his conversion in ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #cba-cbf4 ,he was the son of king ,bimbisra1 who was one of the first royal converts to ,buddhism4 ,ajasat murdered his father1 or at least wrought his death2 and was at first opposed to kyamuni1 and a favourer of ,devadatta4 ,when converted1 he became famous for his liberality in almsgiving4 #d ,eitel has a long article 7pp4 #aad1 #aae7 on the meaning of ,samdhi1 which is one of the seven sections of wisdom 7bodhyanga74 ,hardy defines it as meaning #8perfect tranquillity2' ,turnour1 as #8meditative abstraction2' ,burnouf1 as #8self-control2' and ,edkins1 as #8ecstatic reverie4' #8,samdhi1' says ,eitel1 #8signifies the highest pitch of abstract1 ecstatic meditation2 a state of absolute indifference to all influences from within or without2 a state of torpor of both the material and spiritual forces of vitality2 a sort of terrestrial nirva1 consistently culminating in total destruction of life4' ,he then quotes apparently the language of the text1 #8,he consumed his body by ,agni 7the fire of7 ,samdhi1' and says it is #8a common expression for the effects of such ecstatic1 ultra-mystic self-annihilation4' ,all this is simply #8a darkening of counsel by words without knowledge4' ,some facts concerning the death of nanda are hidden beneath the darkness of the phraseology1 which it is impossible for us to ascertain4 ,by or in ,samdhi he burns his body in the very middle of the river1 and then he divides the relic of the burnt body into two parts 7for so evidently ,f-hien intended his narration to be taken71 and leaves one half on each bank4 ,the account of nanda's death in ,nien-chang's #8,history of ,buddha and the ,patriarchs' is much more extravagant4 ,crowds of men and devas are brought together to witness it4 ,the body is divided into four parts4 ,one is conveyed to the ,tushita heaven2 a second1 to the palace of a certain ,nga king2 a third is given to ,ajtaatru2 and the fourth to the ,lichchhavis4 ,what it all really means ,i cannot tell4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,p,,aliputtra ,,or ,,patna1 ,,in ,,magadha4 ,,king ,a,,oka',s ,,spirit-,,built ,,palace ,,and ,,halls4 ,,the ,,buddhist ,,brahman1 ,r,,dha-,s,,mi4 ,,dispensaries ,,and ,,hospitals4 ,having crossed the river1 and descended south for a yojana1 7the travellers7 came to the town of ,paliputtra1#a in the kingdom of ,magadha1 the city where king ,aoka#b ruled4 ,the royal palace and halls in the midst of the city1 which exist now as of old1 were all made by spirits which he employed1 and which piled up the stones1 reared the walls and gates1 and executed the elegant carving and inlaid sculpture-work1--in a way which no human hands of this world could accomplish4 ,king ,aoka had a younger brother who had attained to be an ,arhat1 and resided on ,gidhra-ka#c hill1 finding his delight in solitude and quiet4 ,the king1 who sincerely reverenced him1 wished and begged him 7to come and live7 in his family1 where he could supply all his wants4 ,the other1 however1 through his delight in the stillness of the mountain1 was unwilling to accept the invitation1 on which the king said to him1 #8,only accept my invitation1 and ,i will make a hill for you inside the city4' ,accordingly1 he provided the materials of a feast1 called to him the spirits1 and announced to them1 #8,to-morrow you will all receive my invitation2 but as there are no mats for you to sit on1 let each one bring 7his own seat74' ,next day the spirits came1 each one bringing with him a great rock1 7like7 a wall1 four or five paces square1 7for a seat74 ,when their sitting was over1 the king made them form a hill with the large stones piled on one another1 and also at the foot of the hill1 with five large square stones1 to make an apartment1 which might be more than thirty cubits long1 twenty cubits wide1 and more than ten cubits high4 ,in this city there had resided a great ,brahmn1#d named ,rdha-smi1#e a professor of the mahyna1 of clear discernment and much wisdom1 who understood everything1 living by himself in spotless purity4 ,the king of the country honoured and reverenced him1 and served him as his teacher4 ,if he went to inquire for and greet him1 the king did not presume to sit down alongside of him2 and if1 in his love and reverence1 he took hold of his hand1 as soon as he let it go1 the ,brahmn made haste to pour water on it and wash it4 ,he might be more than fifty years old1 and all the kingdom looked up to him4 ,by means of this one man1 the ,law of ,buddha was widely made known1 and the followers of other doctrines did not find it in their power to persecute the body of monks in any way4 ,by the side of the tope of ,aoka1 there has been made a mahyna monastery1 very grand and beautiful2 there is also a hnayna one2 the two together containing six or seven hundred monks4 ,the rules of demeanour and the scholastic arrangements#f in them are worthy of observation4 ,shamans of the highest virtue from all quarters1 and students1 inquirers wishing to find out truth and the grounds of it1 all resort to these monasteries4 ,there also resides in this monastery a ,brahmn teacher1 whose name also is ,majur1#g whom the ,shamans of greatest virtue in the kingdom1 and the mahyna ,bhikshus honour and look up to4 ,the cities and towns of this country are the greatest of all in the ,middle ,kingdom4 ,the inhabitants are rich and prosperous1 and vie with one another in the practice of benevolence and righteousness4 ,every year on the eighth day of the second month they celebrate a procession of images4 ,they make a four-wheeled car1 and on it erect a structure of four storeys by means of bamboos tied together4 ,this is supported by a king-post1 with poles and lances slanting from it1 and is rather more than twenty cubits high1 having the shape of a tope4 ,white and silk-like cloth of hair#h is wrapped all round it1 which is then painted in various colours4 ,they make figures of devas1 with gold1 silver1 and lapis lazuli grandly blended and having silken streamers and canopies hung out over them4 ,on the four sides are niches1 with a ,buddha seated in each1 and a ,bodhisattva standing in attendance on him4 ,there may be twenty cars1 all grand and imposing1 but each one different from the others4 ,on the day mentioned1 the monks and laity within the borders all come together2 they have singers and skilful musicians2 they pay their devotion with flowers and incense4 ,the ,brahmns come and invite the ,buddhas to enter the city4 ,these do so in order1 and remain two nights in it4 ,all through the night they keep lamps burning1 have skilful music1 and present offerings4 ,this is the practice in all the other kingdoms as well4 ,the ,heads of the ,vaiya families in them establish in the cities houses for dispensing charity and medicines4 ,all the poor and destitute in the country1 orphans1 widowers1 and childless men1 maimed people and cripples1 and all who are diseased1 go to those houses1 and are provided with every kind of help1 and doctors examine their diseases4 ,they get the food and medicines which their cases require1 and are made to feel at ease2 and when they are better1 they go away of themselves4 ,when king ,aoka destroyed the seven topes1 7intending7 to make eighty-four thousand1#i the first which he made was the great tope1 more than three le to the south of this city4 ,in front of this there is a footprint of ,buddha1 where a vihra has been built4 ,the door of it faces the north1 and on the south of it there is a stone pillar1 fourteen or fifteen cubits in circumference1 and more than thirty cubits high1 on which there is an inscription1 saying1 #8,aoka gave the jambudvipa to the general body of all the monks1 and then redeemed it from them with money4 ,this he did three times4'#aj ,north from the tope #cjj or #djj paces1 king ,aoka built the city of ,ne-le4#aa ,in it there is a stone pillar1 which also is more than thirty feet high1 with a lion on the top of it4 ,on the pillar there is an inscription recording the things which led to the building of ,ne-le1 with the number of the year1 the day1 and the month4 ,,notes #a ,the modern ,patna1 lat4 #be #bh ,n41 lon4 #he #ae ,e4 ,the ,sanskrit name means #8,the city of flowers4' ,it is the ,indian ,florence4 #b ,see chap4 x1 note #c4 ,aoka transferred his court from ,rjagiha to ,paliputtra1 and there1 in the eighteenth year of his reign1 he convoked the third ,great ,synod1--according1 at least1 to southern ,buddhism4 ,it must have been held a few years before ,b4,c4 #bej2 ,eitel says in #bdf4 #c #8,the ,vulture-hill2' so called because ,mra1 according to ,buddhist tradition1 once assumed the form of a vulture on it to interrupt the meditation of nanda2 or1 more probably1 because it was a resort of vultures4 ,it was near ,rjagiha1 the earlier capital of ,aoka1 so that ,f-hien connects a legend of it with his account of ,patna4 ,it abounded in caverns1 and was famous as a resort of ascetics4 #d ,a ,brahmn by caste1 but a ,buddhist in faith4 #e ,so1 by the help of ,julien's #8,mthode1' ,i transliterate the ,chinese characters 4 ,beal gives ,rdhasvmi1 his ,chinese text having a between and 4 ,i suppose the name was ,rdhasvmi or ,rdhasmi4 #f 1 the names of two kinds of schools1 often occurring in the ,l ,k and ,mencius4 ,why should there not have been schools in those monasteries in ,india as there were in ,china8 ,f-hien himself grew up with other boys in a monastery1 and no doubt had to #8go to school4' ,and the next sentence shows us there might be schools for more advanced students as well as for the rmaeras4 #g ,see chap4 xvi1 note #be4 ,it is perhaps with reference to the famous ,bodhisattva that the ,brahmn here is said to be #8also' named ,majur4 #h 8 ,cashmere cloth4 #i ,see chap4 xxiii1 note #c4 #aj ,we wish that we had more particulars of this great transaction1 and that we knew what value in money ,aoka set on the whole world4 ,it is to be observed that he gave it to the monks1 and did not receive it from them4 ,their right was from him1 and he bought it back4 ,he was the only #8,power' that was4 #aa ,we know nothing more of ,ne-le4 ,it could only have been a small place2 an outpost for the defence of ,paliputtra4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,r,,jag,,iha1 ,,new ,,and ,,old4 ,,legends ,,and ,,incidents ,,connected ,,with ,,it4 7,the travellers7 went on from this to the south-east for nine yojanas1 and came to a small solitary rocky hill1#a at the head or end of which#b was an apartment of stone1 facing the south1--the place where ,buddha sat1 when akra1 ,ruler of ,devas1 brought the deva-musician1 ,pacha-7ikha71#c to give pleasure to him by playing on his lute4 akra then asked ,buddha about forty-two subjects1 tracing 7the questions7 out with his finger one by one on the rock4#d ,the prints of his tracing are still there2 and here also there is a monastery4 ,a yojana south-west from this place brought them to the village of ,nla1#e where riputtra#f was born1 and to which also he returned1 and attained here his pari-nirva4 ,over the spot 7where his body was burned7 there was built a tope1 which is still in existence4 ,another yojana to the west brought them to ,new ,rjagiha1#g--the new city which was built by king ,ajtaatru4 ,there were two monasteries in it4 ,three hundred paces outside the west gate1 king ,ajtaatru1 having obtained one portion of the relics of ,buddha1 built 7over them7 a tope1 high1 large1 grand1 and beautiful4 ,leaving the city by the south gate1 and proceeding south four le1 one enters a valley1 and comes to a circular space formed by five hills1 which stand all round it1 and have the appearance of the suburban wall of a city4 ,here was the old city of king ,bimbisra2#h from east to west about five or six le1 and from north to south seven or eight4 ,it was here that riputtra and ,maudgalyyana first saw ,upasena2#i that the ,nirgrantha#aj made a pit of fire and poisoned the rice1 and then invited ,buddha 7to eat with him72 that king ,ajtaatru made a black elephant intoxicated with liquor1 wishing him to injure ,buddha2#aa and that at the north-east corner of the city in a 7large7 curving 7space7 ,jvaka built a vihra in the garden of mbapl1#ab and invited ,buddha with his #abej disciples to it1 that he might there make his offerings to support them4 7,these places7 are still there as of old1 but inside the city all is emptiness and desolation2 no man dwells in it4 ,,notes #a ,called by ,hsan-chwang ,indra-sla-guh1 or #8,the cavern of ,indra4' ,it has been identified with a hill near the village of ,giryek1 on the bank of the ,pachna river1 about thirty-six miles from ,gay4 ,the hill terminates in two peaks overhanging the river1 and it is the more northern and higher of these which ,f-hien had in mind4 ,it bears an oblong terrace covered with the ruins of several buildings1 especially of a vihra4 #b ,this does not mean the top or summit of the hill1 but its #8headland1' where it ended at the river4 #c ,see the account of this visit of akra in ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #bhh-bij4 ,it is from ,hardy that we are able to complete here the name of the musician1 which appears in ,f-hien as only ,pacha1 or #8,five4' ,his harp or lute1 we are told1 was #8twelve miles long4' #d ,hardy 7,m4 ,b41 pp4 #bhh1 #bhi7 makes the subjects only thirteen1 which are still to be found in one of the ,stras 7#8the ,dik-,saga1 in the akra-prana ,stra'74 ,whether it was akra who wrote his questions1 or ,buddha who wrote the answers1 depends on the punctuation4 ,it seems better to make akra the writer4 #e ,or ,nlanda2 identified with the present ,baragong4 ,a grand monastery was subsequently built at it1 famous by the residence for five years of ,hsan-chwang4 #f ,see chap4 xvi1 note #aa4 ,there is some doubt as to the statement that ,nla was his birthplace4 #g ,the city of #8,royal ,palaces2' #8the residence of the ,magadha kings from ,bimbisra to ,aoka1 the first metropolis of ,buddhism1 at the foot of the ,gidhraka mountains4 ,here the first synod assembled within a year after kyamuni's death4 ,its ruins are still extant at the village of ,rajghir1 sixteen miles ,s4,w4 of ,behr1 and form an object of pilgrimage to the ,jains 7,e4 ,h41 p4 #ajj74' ,it is called ,new ,rjagiha to distinguish it from ,kugrapura1 a few miles from it1 the old residence of the kings4 ,eitel says it was built by ,bimbisra1 while ,f-hien ascribes it to ,ajtaatru4 ,i suppose the son finished what the father had begun4 #h ,see note #g4 #i ,one of the five first followers of kyamuni4 ,he is also called ,avajit2 in ,pli ,assaji2 but ,avajit seems to be a military title #8,master or trainer of horses4' ,the two more famous disciples met him1 not to lead him1 but to be directed by him1 to ,buddha4 ,see ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xiii1 ,vinaya ,texts1 pp4 #add-adg4 #aj ,one of the six ,trthyas 7,trthakas #8erroneous teachers2' ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #bij-bib1 but ,i have not found the particulars of the attempts on ,buddha's life referred to by ,f-hien71 or ,brahmnical opponents of ,buddha4 ,he was an ascetic1 one of the ,jti clan1 and is therefore called ,nirgranthajti4 ,he taught a system of fatalism1 condemned the use of clothes1 and thought he could subdue all passions by fasting4 ,he had a body of followers1 who called themselves by his name 7,eitel1 pp4 #hd1 #he71 and were the forerunners of the ,jains4 #aa ,the king was moved to this by ,devadatta4 ,of course the elephant disappointed them1 and did homage to kyamuni4 ,see ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xx1 ,vinaya ,texts1 p4 #bdg4 #ab ,see chap4 xxv1 note #c4 ,jvaka was mbapl's son by king ,bimbisra1 and devoted himself to the practice of medicine4 ,see the account of him in the ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xvii1 ,vinaya ,texts1 pp4 #aga-aid4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,g,,idhra-,k,a ,,hill1 ,,and ,,legends4 ,f-,hien ,,passes ,a ,,night ,,on ,,it4 ,,his ,,reflections4 ,entering the valley1 and keeping along the mountains on the south-east1 after ascending fifteen le1 7the travellers7 came to mount ,gidhra-ka4#a ,three le before you reach the top1 there is a cavern in the rocks1 facing the south1 in which ,buddha sat in meditation4 ,thirty paces to the north-west there is another1 where nanda was sitting in meditation1 when the deva ,mra ,piuna1#b having assumed the form of a large vulture1 took his place in front of the cavern1 and frightened the disciple4 ,then ,buddha1 by his mysterious1 supernatural power1 made a cleft in the rock1 introduced his hand1 and stroked nanda's shoulder1 so that his fear immediately passed away4 ,the footprints of the bird and the cleft for 7,buddha's7 hand are still there1 and hence comes the name of #8,the ,hill of the ,vulture ,cavern4' ,in front of the cavern there are the places where the four ,buddhas sat4 ,there are caverns also of the ,arhats1 one where each sat and meditated1 amounting to several hundred in all4 ,at the place where in front of his rocky apartment ,buddha was walking from east to west 7in meditation71 and ,devadatta1 from among the beetling cliffs on the north of the mountain1 threw a rock across1 and hurt ,buddha's toes1#c the rock is still there4#d ,the hall where ,buddha preached his ,law has been destroyed1 and only the foundations of the brick walls remain4 ,on this hill the peak is beautifully green1 and rises grandly up2 it is the highest of all the five hills4 ,in the ,new ,city ,f-hien bought incense-7sticks71 flowers1 oil and lamps1 and hired two bhikshus1 long resident 7at the place71 to carry them 7to the peak74 ,when he himself got to it1 he made his offerings with the flowers and incense1 and lighted the lamps when the darkness began to come on4 ,he felt melancholy1 but restrained his tears and said1 #8,here ,buddha delivered the rgama 7,stra74#e ,i1 ,f-hien1 was born when ,i could not meet with ,buddha2 and now ,i only see the footprints which he has left1 and the place where he lived1 and nothing more4' ,with this1 in front of the rock cavern1 he chanted the rgama ,stra1 remained there over the night1 and then returned towards the ,new ,city4#f ,,notes #a ,see chap4 xxviii note #a4 #b ,see chap4 xxv note #i4 ,piuna is a name given to ,mra1 and signifies #8sinful lust4' #c ,see ,m4 ,b41 p4 #cbj4 ,hardy says that ,devadatta's attempt was #8by the help of a machine2' but the oldest account in the ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xx1 ,vinaya ,texts1 p4 #bde1 agrees with what ,f-hien implies that he threw the rock with his own arm4 #d ,and1 as described by ,hsan-chwang1 fourteen or fifteen cubits high1 and thirty paces round4 #e ,see ,mr4 ,bunyiu ,nanjio's #8,catalogue of the ,chinese ,translation of the ,buddhist tripiaka1' ,stra ,piaka1 ,nos4 #cii1 #ddf4 ,it was the former of these that came on this occasion to the thoughts and memory of ,f-hien4 #f ,in a note 7p4 lx7 to his revised version of our author1 ,mr4 ,beal says1 #8,there is a full account of this perilous visit of ,f-hien1 and how he was attacked by tigers1 in the 8,history of the ,high ,priests40' ,but #8the high priests' merely means distinguished monks1 #8eminent monks1' as ,mr4 ,nanjio exactly renders the adjectival character4 ,nor was ,f-hien #8attacked by tigers' on the peak4 ,no #8tigers' appear in the ,memoir4 #8,two black lions' indeed crouched before him for a time this night1 #8licking their lips and waving their tails2' but their appearance was to #8try1' and not to attack him2 and when they saw him resolute1 they #8drooped their heads1 put down their tails1 and prostrated themselves before him4' ,this of course is not an historical account1 but a legendary tribute to his bold perseverance4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,ratapar,a ,,cave1 ,,or ,,cave ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,council4 ,,legends4 ,,suicide ,,of ,a ,,bhikshu4 ,out from the old city1 after walking over #cjj paces1 on the west of the road1 7the travellers7 found the ,karaa ,bamboo garden1#a where the 7old7 vihra is still in existence1 with a company of monks1 who keep 7the ground about it7 swept and watered4 ,north of the vihra two or three le there was the manam1 which name means in ,chinese #8the field of graves into which the dead are thrown4'#b ,as they kept along the mountain on the south1 and went west for #cjj paces1 they found a dwelling among the rocks1 named the ,pippala cave1#c in which ,buddha regularly sat in meditation after taking his 7midday7 meal4 ,going on still to the west for five or six le1 on the north of the hill1 in the shade1 they found the cavern called ratapara1#d the place where1 after the nirva#e of ,buddha1 #ejj ,arhats collected the ,stras4 ,when they brought the ,stras forth1 three lofty seats#f had been prepared and grandly ornamented4 riputtra occupied the one on the left1 and ,maudgalyyana that on the right4 ,of the number of five hundred one was wanting4 ,mahkayapa was president 7on the middle seat74 nanda was then outside the door1 and could not get in4#g ,at the place there was 7subsequently7 raised a tope1 which is still existing4 ,along 7the sides of7 the hill1 there are also a very great many cells among the rocks1 where the various ,arhans sat and meditated4 ,as you leave the old city on the north1 and go down east for three le1 there is the rock dwelling of ,devadatta1 and at a distance of fifty paces from it there is a large1 square1 black rock4 ,formerly there was a bhikshu1 who1 as he walked backwards and forwards upon it1 thought with himself3--#8,this body#h is impermanent1 a thing of bitterness and vanity1#i and which cannot be looked on as pure4#aj ,i am weary of this body1 and troubled by it as an evil4' ,with this he grasped a knife1 and was about to kill himself4 ,but he thought again3--#8,the ,world-honoured one laid down a prohibition against one's killing himself4'#aa ,further it occurred to him3--#8,yes1 he did2 but ,i now only wish to kill three poisonous thieves4'#ab ,immediately with the knife he cut his throat4 ,with the first gash into the flesh he attained the state of a rotpanna2#ac when he had gone half through1 he attained to be an ,angmin2#ad and when he had cut right through1 he was an rhat1 and attained to pari-nirva2#ae 7and died74 ,,notes #a ,karaa ,veuvana2 a park presented to ,buddha by king ,bimbisra1 who also built a vihra in it4 ,see the account of the transaction in ,m4 ,b41 p4 #aid4 ,the place was called ,karaa1 from a creature so named1 which awoke the king just as a snake was about to bite him1 and thus saved his life4 ,in ,hardy the creature appears as a squirrel1 but ,eitel says that the ,karaa is a bird of a sweet voice1 resembling a magpie1 but herding in flocks2 the cuculus melanoleucus4 ,see #8,buddhist ,birth ,stories1' p4 #aah4 #b ,the language here is rather contemptuous1 as if our author had no sympathy with any other mode of disposing of the dead1 but by his own ,buddhistic method of cremation4 #c ,the ,chinese characters used for the name of this cavern serve also to name the pippala 7peepul7 tree1 the ficus religiosa4 ,they make us think that there was such a tree overshadowing the cave2 but ,f-hien would hardly have neglected to mention such a circumstance4 #d ,a very great place in the annals of ,buddhism4 ,the ,council in the ratapara cave did not come together fortuitously1 but appears to have been convoked by the older members to settle the rules and doctrines of the order4 ,the cave was prepared for the occasion by king ,ajtaatru4 ,from the expression about the #8bringing forth of the ,king1' it would seem that the ,stras or some of them had been already committed to writing4 ,may not the meaning of ,king 77 here be extended to the ,vinaya rules1 as well as the stras1 and mean #8the standards' of the system generally8 ,see ,davids' ,manual1 chapter ix1 and ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xx1 ,vinaya ,texts1 pp4 #cgj-che4 #e ,so in the text1 evidently for pari-nirva4 #f ,instead of #8high' seats1 the ,chinese texts have #8vacant4' ,the character for #8prepared' denotes #8spread2'--they were carpeted2 perhaps1 both cushioned and carpeted1 being rugs spread on the ground1 raised higher than the other places for seats4 #g ,did they not contrive to let him in1 with some cachinnation1 even in so august an assembly1 that so important a member should have been shut out8 #h #8,the life of this body' would1 ,i think1 fairly express the idea of the bhikshu4 #i ,see the account of ,buddha's preaching in chapter xviii4 #aj ,the sentiment of this clause is not easily caught4 #aa ,see ,e4 ,m41 p4 #aeb3--#8;,buddha made a law forbidding the monks to commit suicide4 ,he prohibited any one from discoursing on the miseries of life in such a manner as to cause desperation4' ,see also ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #dfd1 #dfe4 #ab ,beal says3--#8,evil desire2 hatred2 ignorance4' #ac ,see chap4 xx1 note #aj #ad ,the ,angmin belong to the third degree of ,buddhistic saintship1 the third class of ryas 7chap4 xx1 note #aj71 who are no more liable to be reborn as men1 but are to be born once more as devas1 when they will forthwith become ,arhats1 and attain to nirva4 ,e4 ,h41 pp4 #h1 #i4 #ae ,our author expresses no opinion of his own on the act of this bhikshu4 ,must it not have been a good act1 when it was attended1 in the very act of performance1 by such blessed consequences8 ,but if ,buddhism had not something better to show than what appears here1 it would not attract the interest which it now does4 ,the bhikshu was evidently rather out of his mind2 and the verdict of a coroner's inquest of this nineteenth century would have pronounced that he killed himself #8in a fit of insanity4' ,illustration3 ,,iv4 ,,buddha ,,in ,,solitude ,,and ,,enduring ,,austerities4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,gay4 ,,kyamuni',s ,,attaining ,,to ,,the ,,buddhaship2 ,,and ,,other ,,legends4 ,from this place1 after travelling to the west for four yojanas1 7the pilgrims7 came to the city of ,gay2#a but inside the city all was emptiness and desolation4 ,going on again to the south for twenty le1 they arrived at the place where the ,bodhisattva for six years practised with himself painful austerities4 ,all around was forest4 ,three le west from here they came to the place where1 when ,buddha had gone into the water to bathe1 a deva bent down the branch of a tree1 by means of which he succeeded in getting out of the pool4#b ,two le north from this was the place where the ,grmika girls presented to ,buddha the rice-gruel made with milk2#c and two le north from this 7again7 was the place where1 seated on a rock under a great tree1 and facing the east1 he ate 7the gruel74 ,the tree and the rock are there at the present day4 ,the rock may be six cubits in breadth and length1 and rather more than two cubits in height4 ,in ,central ,india the cold and heat are so equally tempered that trees will live in it for several thousand and even for ten thousand years4 ,half a yojana from this place to the north-east there was a cavern in the rocks1 into which the ,bodhisattva entered1 and sat cross-legged with his face to the west4 7,as he did so71 he said to himself1 #8,if ,i am to attain to perfect wisdom 7and become ,buddha71 let there be a supernatural attestation of it4' ,on the wall of the rock there appeared immediately the shadow of a ,buddha1 rather more than three feet in length1 which is still bright at the present day4 ,at this moment heaven and earth were greatly moved1 and devas in the air spoke plainly1 #8,this is not the place where any ,buddha of the past1 or he that is to come1 has attained1 or will attain1 to perfect ,wisdom4 ,less than half a yojana from this to the south-west will bring you to the patra#d tree1 where all past ,buddhas have attained1 and all to come must attain1 to perfect ,wisdom4' ,when they had spoken these words1 they immediately led the way forwards to the place1 singing as they did so4 ,as they thus went away1 the ,bodhisattva arose and walked 7after them74 ,at a distance of thirty paces from the tree1 a deva gave him the grass of lucky omen1#e which he received and went on4 ,after 7he had proceeded7 fifteen paces1 #ejj green birds came flying towards him1 went round him thrice1 and disappeared4 ,the ,bodhisattva went forward to the patra tree1 placed the kua grass at the foot of it1 and sat down with his face to the east4 ,then king ,mra sent three beautiful young ladies1 who came from the north1 to tempt him1 while he himself came from the south to do the same4 ,the ,bodhisattva put his toes down on the ground1 and the demon soldiers retired and dispersed1 and the three young ladies were changed into old 7grand-7mothers4#f ,at the place mentioned above of the six years' painful austerities1 and at all these other places1 men subsequently reared topes and set up images1 which all exist at the present day4 ,where ,buddha1 after attaining to perfect wisdom1 for seven days contemplated the tree1 and experienced the joy of vimukti2#g where1 under the patra tree1 he walked backwards and forwards from west to east for seven days2 where the devas made a hall appear1 composed of the seven precious substances1 and presented offerings to him for seven days2 where the blind dragon ,muchilinda#h encircled him for seven days2 where he sat under the nyagrodha tree1 on a square rock1 with his face to the east1 and ,brahm-deva#i came and made his request to him2 where the four deva kings brought to him their alms-bowls2#aj where the #ejj merchants#aa presented to him the roasted flour and honey2 and where he converted the brothers ,kayapa and their thousand disciples2#ab--;at all these places topes were reared4 ,illustration3 ,v4 ,,buddhaship ,,attained4 ,at the place where ,buddha attained to perfect ,wisdom1 there are three monasteries1 in all of which there are monks residing4 ,the families of their people around supply the societies of these monks with an abundant sufficiency of what they require1 so that there is no lack or stint4#ac ,the disciplinary rules are strictly observed by them4 ,the laws regulating their demeanour in sitting1 rising1 and entering when the others are assembled1 are those which have been practised by all the saints since ,buddha was in the world down to the present day4 ,the places of the four great topes have been fixed1 and handed down without break1 since ,buddha attained to nirva4 ,those four great topes are those at the places where ,buddha was born2 where he attained to ,wisdom2 where he 7began to7 move the wheel of his ,law2 and where he attained to pari-nirva4 ,,notes #a ,gay1 a city of ,magadha1 was north-west of the present ,gayah 7lat4 #bd #dg ,n41 lon4 #he #a ,e74 ,it was here that kyamuni lived for seven years1 after quitting his family1 until he attained to ,buddhaship4 ,the place is still frequented by pilgrims4 ,e4 ,h41 p4 #da4 #b ,this is told so as to make us think that he was in danger of being drowned2 but this does not appear in the only other account of the incident ,i have met with1--in #8,the ,life of the ,buddha1' p4 #ca4 ,and he was not yet ,buddha1 though he is here called so2 unless indeed the narrative is confused1 and the incidents do not follow in the order of time4 #c ,an incident similar to this is told1 with many additions1 in ,hardy's ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #aff-afh2 #8,the ,life of the ,buddha1' p4 #cj2 and the #8,buddhist ,birth ,stories1' pp4 #ia1 #ib2 but the name of the ministering girl or girls is different4 ,i take ,grmika from a note in ,beal's revised version2 it seems to me a happy solution of the difficulty caused by the of ,f-hien4 #d ,called #8the tree of leaves1' and #8the tree of reflection2' a palm tree1 the borassus flabellifera1 described as a tree which never loses its leaves4 ,it is often confounded with the pippala4 ,e4 ,h41 p4 #ib4 #e ,the kua grass1 mentioned in a previous note4 #f ,see the account of this contest with ,mra in ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #aga-agi1 and #8,buddhist ,birth ,stories1' pp4 #if-aja4 #g ,see chap4 xiii1 note #g4 #h ,called also ,mah1 or the ,great ,muchilinda4 ,eitel says3 #8,a nga king1 the tutelary deity of a lake near which kyamuni once sat for seven days absorbed in meditation1 whilst the king guarded him4' ,the account 7p4 #ce7 in #8,the ,life of the ,buddha' is3--#8,buddha went to where lived the nga king ,muchilinda1 and he1 wishing to preserve him from the sun and rain1 wrapped his body seven times round him1 and spread out his hood over his head2 and there he remained seven days in thought4' ,so also the ,nidna ,kath1 in #8,buddhist ,birth ,stories1' p4 #aji4 #i ,this was ,brahm himself1 though #8king' is omitted4 ,what he requested of the ,buddha was that he would begin the preaching of his ,law4 ,nidna ,kath1 p4 #aaa4 #aj ,see chap4 xii1 note #aj4 #aa ,the other accounts mention only two2 but in ,m4 ,b41 p4 #ahb1 and the ,nidna ,kath1 p4 #aaj1 these two have #ejj well-laden wagons with them4 #ab ,these must not be confounded with ,mahkayapa of chap4 xvi1 note #ag4 ,they were three brothers1 ,uruvilv1 ,gay1 and ,nad-,kyapa1 up to this time holders of #8erroneous' views1 having #ejj1 #cjj1 and #bjj disciples respectively4 ,they became distinguished followers of kyamuni2 and are--each of them--to become ,buddha by-and-by4 ,see the ,nidna ,kath1 pp4 #aad1 #aae4 #ac ,this seems to be the meaning2 but ,i do not wonder that some understand the sentence of the benevolence of the monkish population to the travellers4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,legend ,,of ,,king ,a,,oka ,,in ,a ,,former ,,birth1 ,,and ,,his ,,naraka4 ,when king ,aoka1 in a former birth1#a was a little boy and played on the road1 he met ,kyapa ,buddha walking4 7,the stranger7 begged food1 and the boy pleasantly took a handful of earth and gave it to him4 ,the ,buddha took the earth1 and returned it to the ground on which he was walking2 but because of this 7the boy7 received the recompense of becoming a king of the iron wheel1#b to rule over ,jambudvpa4 7,once7 when he was making a judicial tour of inspection through ,jambudvpa1 he saw1 between the iron circuit of the two hills1 a naraka#c for the punishment of wicked men4 ,having thereupon asked his ministers what sort of a thing it was1 they replied1 #8,it belongs to ,yama1#d king of demons1 for punishing wicked people4' ,the king thought within himself3--#87,even7 the king of demons is able to make a naraka in which to deal with wicked men2 why should not ,i1 who am the lord of men1 make a naraka in which to deal with wicked men8' ,he forthwith asked his ministers who could make for him a naraka and preside over the punishment of wicked people in it4 ,they replied that it was only a man of extreme wickedness who could make it2 and the king thereupon sent officers to seek everywhere for 7such7 a bad man2 and they saw by the side of a pond a man tall and strong1 with a black countenance1 yellow hair1 and green eyes1 hooking up the fish with his feet1 while he called to him birds and beasts1 and1 when they came1 then shot and killed them1 so that not one escaped4 ,having got this man1 they took him to the king1 who secretly charged him1 #8,you must make a square enclosure with high walls4 ,plant in it all kinds of flowers and fruits2 make good ponds in it for bathing2 make it grand and imposing in every way1 so that men shall look to it with thirsting desire2 make its gates strong and sure2 and when any one enters1 instantly seize him and punish him as a sinner1 not allowing him to get out4 ,even if ,i should enter1 punish me as a sinner in the same way1 and do not let me go4 ,i now appoint you master of that naraka4' ,soon after this a bhikshu1 pursuing his regular course of begging his food1 entered the gate 7of the place74 ,when the lictors of the naraka saw him1 they were about to subject him to their tortures2 but he1 frightened1 begged them to allow him a moment in which to eat his midday meal4 ,immediately after1 there came in another man1 whom they thrust into a mortar and pounded till a red froth overflowed4 ,as the bhikshu looked on1 there came to him the thought of the impermanence1 the painful suffering and insanity of this body1 and how it is but as a bubble and as foam2 and instantly he attained to ,arhatship4 ,immediately after1 the lictors seized him1 and threw him into a caldron of boiling water4 ,there was a look of joyful satisfaction1 however1 in the bhikshu's countenance4 ,the fire was extinguished1 and the water became cold4 ,in the middle 7of the caldron7 there rose up a lotus flower1 with the bhikshu seated on it4 ,the lictors at once went and reported to the king that there was a marvellous occurrence in the naraka1 and wished him to go and see it2 but the king said1 #8,i formerly made such an agreement that now ,i dare not go 7to the place74' ,the lictors said1 #8,this is not a small matter4 ,your majesty ought to go quickly4 ,let your former agreement be altered4' ,the king thereupon followed them1 and entered 7the naraka71 when the bhikshu preached the ,law to him1 and he believed1 and was made free4#e ,forthwith he demolished the naraka1 and repented of all the evil which he had formerly done4 ,from this time he believed in and honoured the ,three ,precious ,ones1 and constantly went to a patra tree1 repenting under it1 with self-reproach1 of his errors1 and accepting the eight rules of abstinence4#f ,the queen asked where the king was constantly going to1 and the ministers replied that he was constantly to be seen under 7such and such7 a patra tree4 ,she watched for a time when the king was not there1 and then sent men to cut the tree down4 ,when the king came1 and saw what had been done1 he swooned away with sorrow1 and fell to the ground4 ,his ministers sprinkled water on his face1 and after a considerable time he revived4 ,he then built all round 7the stump7 with bricks1 and poured a hundred pitchers of cows' milk on the roots2 and as he lay with his four limbs spread out on the ground1 he took this oath1 #8,if the tree do not live1 ,i will never rise from this4' ,when he had uttered this oath1 the tree immediately began to grow from the roots1 and it has continued to grow till now1 when it is nearly #ajj cubits in height4 ,,notes #a ,here is an instance of used1 as was pointed out in chap4 ix1 note #c1 for a former age2 and not merely a former time4 ,perhaps #8a former birth' is the best translation4 ,the ,corean reading of ,kayapa ,buddha is certainly preferable to the ,chinese #8kya ,buddha4' #b ,see chap4 xvii note #h4 #c ,i prefer to retain the ,sanskrit term here1 instead of translating the ,chinese text by #8,earth's prison 771' or #8a prison in the earth2' the name for which has been adopted generally by ,christian missionaries in ,china for gehenna and hell4 #d ,eitel 7p4 #agc7 says3--#8,yama was originally the ryan god of the dead1 living in a heaven above the world1 the regent of the south2 but ,brahmnism transferred his abode to hell4 ,both views have been retained by ,buddhism4' ,the ,yama of the text is the #8regent of the narakas1 residing south of ,jambudvpa1 outside the ,chakravlas 7the double circuit of mountains above71 in a palace built of brass and iron4 ,he has a sister who controls all the female culprits1 as he exclusively deals with the male sex4 ,three times1 however1 in every twenty-four hours1 a demon pours boiling copper into ,yama's mouth1 and squeezes it down his throat1 causing him unspeakable pain4' ,such1 however1 is the wonderful #8transrotation of births1' that when ,yama's sins have been expiated1 he is to be reborn as ,buddha1 under the name of #8,the ,universal ,king4' #e ,or1 #8was loosed2' from the bonds1 ,i suppose1 of his various illusions4 #f ,i have not met with this particular numerical category4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,mount ,,gurupada1 ,,where ,,ka,,yapa ,,buddha',s ,,entire ,,skeleton ,,is4 7,the travellers71 going on from this three le to the south1 came to a mountain named ,gurupada1#a inside which ,mahkayapa even now is4 ,he made a cleft1 and went down into it1 though the place where he entered would not 7now7 admit a man4 ,having gone down very far1 there was a hole on one side1 and there the complete body of ,kyapa 7still7 abides4 ,outside the hole 7at which he entered7 is the earth with which he had washed his hands4#b ,if the people living thereabouts have a sore on their heads1 they plaster on it some of the earth from this1 and feel immediately easier4#c ,on this mountain1 now as of old1 there are ,arhats abiding4 ,devotees of our ,law from the various countries in that quarter go year by year to the mountain1 and present offerings to ,kyapa2 and to those whose hearts are strong in faith there come ,arhats at night1 and talk with them1 discussing and explaining their doubts1 and disappearing suddenly afterwards4 ,on this hill hazels grow luxuriously2 and there are many lions1 tigers1 and wolves1 so that people should not travel incautiously4 ,,notes #a #8,fowl's-foot hill1' #8with three peaks1 resembling the foot of a chicken4 ,it lies seven miles south-east of ,gay1 and was the residence of ,mahkayapa1 who is said to be still living inside this mountain4' ,so ,eitel says1 p4 #eh2 but this chapter does not say that ,kyapa is in the mountain alive1 but that his body entire is in a recess or hole in it4 ,hardy 7,m4 ,b41 p4 #ig7 says that after ,kyapa ,buddha's body was burnt1 the bones still remained in their usual position1 presenting the appearance of a perfect skeleton4 ,it is of him that the chapter speaks1 and not of the famous disciple of kyamuni1 who also is called ,mahkayapa4 ,this will appear also on a comparison of ,eitel's articles on #8,mahkayapa' and #8,kyapa ,buddha4' #b ,was it a custom to wash the hands with #8earth1' as is often done with sand8 #c ,this ,i conceive to be the meaning here4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,on ,,the ,,way ,,back ,,to ,,patna4 ,v,r,,as1 ,,or ,,ben,,res4 ,,kyamuni',s ,,first ,,doings ,,after ,,becoming ,,buddha4 ,f-hien#a returned 7from here7 towards ,paliputtra1#b keeping along the course of the ,ganges and descending in the direction of the west4 ,after going ten yojanas he found a vihra1 named #8,the ,wilderness1'--a place where ,buddha had dwelt1 and where there are monks now4 ,pursuing the same course1 and going still to the west1 he arrived1 after twelve yojanas1 at the city of ,vras#c in the kingdom of ,k4 ,rather more than ten le to the north-east of the city1 he found the vihra in the park of #8,the ishi's ,deer-wild4'#d ,in this park there formerly resided a ,pratyeka ,buddha1#e with whom the deer were regularly in the habit of stopping for the night4 ,when the ,world-honoured one was about to attain to perfect ,wisdom1 the devas sang in the sky1 #8,the son of king uddhodana1 having quitted his family and studied the ,path 7of ,wisdom71#f will now in seven days become ,buddha4' ,the ,pratyeka ,buddha heard their words1 and immediately attained to nirva2 and hence this place was named #8,the ,park of the ishi's ,deer-wild4'#g ,after the ,world-honoured one had attained to perfect ,wisdom1 men build the vihra in it4 ,buddha wished to convert ,kauinya#h and his four companions2 but they1 7being aware of his intention71 said to one another1 #8,this ramaa ,gotama#i for six years continued in the practice of painful austerities1 eating daily 7only7 a single hemp-seed1 and one grain of rice1 without attaining to the ,path 7of ,wisdom72 how much less will he do so now that he has entered 7again7 among men1 and is giving the reins to 7the indulgence of7 his body1 his speech1 and his thoughts6 ,what has he to do with the ,path 7of ,wisdom78 ,to-day1 when he comes to us1 let us be on our guard not to speak with him4' ,at the places where the five men all rose up1 and respectfully saluted 7,buddha71 when he came to them2 where1 sixty paces north from this1 he sat with his face to the east1 and first turned the wheel of the ,law1 converting ,kauinya and the four others2 where1 twenty paces further to the north1 he delivered his prophecy concerning ,maitreya2#aj and where1 at a distance of fifty paces to the south1 the dragon ,elpattra#aa asked him1 #8,when shall ,i get free from this nga body8'--at all these places topes were reared1 and are still existing4 ,in 7the park7 there are two monasteries1 in both of which there are monks residing4 ,when you go north-west from the vihra of the ,deer-wild park for thirteen yojanas1 there is a kingdom named ,kaumb4#ab ,its vihra is named ,ghochiravana#ac--;a place where ,buddha formerly resided4 ,now1 as of old1 there is a company of monks there1 most of whom are students of the hnayna4 ,east from 7this71 when you have travelled eight yojanas1 is the place where ,buddha converted#ad the evil demon4 ,there1 and where he walked 7in meditation7 and sat at the place which was his regular abode1 there have been topes erected4 ,there is also a monastery1 which may contain more than a hundred monks4 ,,notes #a ,f-hien is here mentioned singly1 as in the account of his visit to the cave on ,gidhra-ka4 ,i think that ,to-ching may have remained at ,patna after their first visit to it4 #b ,see chap4 xxvii1 note #a4 #c #8,the city surrounded by rivers2' the modern ,benres1 lat4 #be #bc ,n41 lon4 #hc #e ,e4 #d #8,the ishi1' says ,eitel1 #8is a man whose bodily frame has undergone a certain transformation by dint of meditation and ascetism1 so that he is1 for an indefinite period1 exempt from decrepitude1 age1 and death4 ,as this period is believed to extend far beyond the usual duration of human life1 such persons are called1 and popularly believed to be1 immortals4' ishis are divided into various classes2 and ishi-ism is spoken of as a seventh part of transrotation1 and ishis are referred to as the seventh class of sentient beings4 ,toism1 as well as ,buddhism1 has its ,seen jin4 #e ,see chap4 xiii1 note #ae4 #f ,see chap4 xxii1 note #b4 #g ,for another legend about this park1 and the identification of #8a fine wood' still existing1 see note in ,beal's first version1 p4 #ace4 #h ,a prince of ,magadha and a maternal uncle of kyamuni1 who gave him the name of ,ajta1 meaning automat2 and hence he often appears as ,ajta ,kauinya4 ,he and his four friends had followed kyamuni into the ,uruvilv desert1 sympathising with him in the austerities he endured1 and hoping that they would issue in his ,buddhaship4 ,they were not aware that that issue had come2 which may show us that all the accounts in the thirty-first chapter are merely descriptions1 by means of external imagery1 of what had taken place internally4 ,the kingdom of nirva had come without observation4 ,these friends knew it not2 and they were offended by what they considered kyamuni's failure1 and the course he was now pursuing4 ,see the account of their conversion in ,m4 ,b41 p4 #ahf4 #i ,this is the only instance in ,f-hien's text where the ,bodhisattva or ,buddha is called by the surname #8,gotama4' ,for the most part our traveller uses ,buddha as a proper name1 though it properly means #8,the ,enlightened4' ,he uses also the combinations #8kya ,buddha1' #8,the ,buddha of the kya tribe1' and #8kyamuni1' #8,the kya sage4' ,this last is the most common designation of the ,buddha in ,china1 and to my mind best combines the characteristics of a descriptive and a proper name4 ,among other ,buddhistic peoples #8,gotama' and #8,gotama ,buddha' are the more frequent designations4 ,it is not easy to account for the rise of the surname ,gotama in the kya family1 as ,oldenberg acknowledges4 ,he says that #8the kyas1 in accordance with the custom of ,indian noble families1 had borrowed it from one of the ancient ,vedic bard families4' ,dr4 ,davids 7#8,buddhism1' p4 #bg7 says3 #8,the family name was certainly ,gautama1' adding in a note1 #8,it is a curious fact that ,gautama is still the family name of the ,rajput chiefs of ,nagra1 the village which has been identified with ,kapilavastu4' ,dr4 ,eitel says that #8,gautama was the sacerdotal name of the kya family1 which counted the ancient ishi ,gautama among its ancestors4' ,when we proceed1 however1 to endeavour to trace the connexion of that ,brahmnical ishi with the kya house1 by means of #acbc1 #adfh1 #adfi1 and other historical works in ,nanjio's ,catalogue1 we soon find that ,indian histories have no surer foundation than the shifting sand2--see ,e4 ,h41 on the name kya1 pp4 #ajh1 #aji4 ,we must be content for the present simply to accept ,gotama as one of the surnames of the ,buddha with whom we have to do4 #aj ,see chap4 vi1 note #e4 ,it is there said that the prediction of ,maitreya's succession to the ,buddhaship was made to him in the ,tushita heaven4 ,was there a repetition of it here in the ,deer-park1 or was a prediction now given concerning something else8 #aa ,nothing seems to be known of this nga but what we read here4 #ab ,identified by some with ,kusia1 near ,kurrah 7lat4 #be #da ,n41 lon4 #ha #bg ,e472 by others with ,kosam on the ,jumna1 thirty miles above ,allahabad4 ,see ,e4 ,h41 p4 #ee4 #ac ,ghochira was the name of a ,vaiya elder1 or head1 who presented a garden and vihra to ,buddha4 ,hardy 7,m4 ,b41 p4 #cef7 quotes a statement from a ,singhalese authority that kyamuni resided here during the ninth year of his ,buddhaship4 #ad ,dr4 ,davids thinks this may refer to the striking and beautiful story of the conversion of the ,yakkha avaka1 as related in the ,uragavagga1 avakasutta1 pp4 #bi-ca 7,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 x1 part ii74 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,dakshi,a1 ,,and ,,the ,,pigeon ,,monastery4 ,south from this #bjj yojanas1 there is a country named ,dakshia1#a where there is a monastery 7dedicated to7 the bygone ,kayapa ,buddha1 and which has been hewn out from a large hill of rock4 ,it consists in all of five storeys2--the lowest1 having the form of an elephant1 with #ejj apartments in the rock2 the second1 having the form of a lion1 with #djj apartments2 the third1 having the form of a horse1 with #cjj apartments2 the fourth1 having the form of an ox1 with #bjj apartments2 and the fifth1 having the form of a pigeon1 with #ajj apartments4 ,at the very top there is a spring1 the water of which1 always in front of the apartments in the rock1 goes round among the rooms1 now circling1 now curving1 till in this way it arrives at the lowest storey1 having followed the shape of the structure1 and flows out there at the door4 ,everywhere in the apartments of the monks1 the rock has been pierced so as to form windows for the admission of light1 so that they are all bright1 without any being left in darkness4 ,at the four corners of the 7tiers of7 apartments1 the rock has been hewn so as to form steps for ascending to the top 7of each74 ,the men of the present day1 being of small size1 and going up step by step1 manage to get to the top2 but in a former age1 they did so at one step4#b ,because of this1 the monastery is called ,paravata1 that being the ,indian name for a pigeon4 ,there are always ,arhats residing in it4 ,the country about is 7a tract of7 uncultivated hillocks1#c without inhabitants4 ,at a very long distance from the hill there are villages1 where the people all have bad and erroneous views1 and do not know the ramaas of the ,law of ,buddha1 ,brhmaas1 or 7devotees of7 any of the other and different schools4 ,the people of that country are constantly seeing men on the wing1 who come and enter this monastery4 ,on one occasion1 when devotees of various countries came to perform their worship at it1 the people of those villages said to them1 #8,why do you not fly8 ,the devotees whom we have seen hereabouts all fly2' and the strangers answered1 on the spur of the moment1 #8,our wings are not yet fully formed4' ,the kingdom of ,dakshia is out of the way1 and perilous to traverse4 ,there are difficulties in connexion with the roads2 but those who know how to manage such difficulties and wish to proceed should bring with them money and various articles1 and give them to the king4 ,he will then send men to escort them4 ,these will 7at different stages7 pass them over to others1 who will show them the shortest routes4 ,f-hien1 however1 was after all unable to go there2 but having received the 7above7 accounts from men of the country1 he has narrated them4 ,,notes #a ,said to be the ancient name of the ,deccan4 ,as to the various marvels in the chapter1 it must be borne in mind that our author1 as he tells us at the end1 only gives them from hearsay4 ,see #8,buddhist ,records of the ,western ,world1' vol4 ii1 pp4 #bad1 #bae1 where the description1 however1 is very different4 #b ,compare the account of ,buddha's great stride of fifteen yojanas in ,ceylon1 as related in chapter xxxviii4 #c ,see the same phrase in the ,books of the ,later ,han dynasty1 the twenty-fourth ,book of ,biographies1 p4 #i;b4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,in ,,patna4 ,f-,,hien',s ,,labours ,,in ,,transcription ,,of ,,manuscripts1 ,,and ,,indian ,,studies ,,for ,,three ,,years4 ,from ,vras 7the travellers7 went back east to ,paliputtra4 ,f-hien's original object had been to search for 7copies of7 the ,vinaya4 ,in the various kingdoms of ,north ,india1 however1 he had found one master transmitting orally 7the rules7 to another1 but no written copies which he could transcribe4 ,he had therefore travelled far and come on to ,central ,india4 ,here1 in the mahyna monastery1#a he found a copy of the ,vinaya1 containing the ,mahsghika#b rules1--those which were observed in the first ,great ,council1 while ,buddha was still in the world4 ,the original copy was handed down in the ,jetavana vihra4 ,as to the other eighteen schools1#c each one has the views and decisions of its own masters4 ,those agree 7with this7 in the general meaning1 but they have small and trivial differences1 as when one opens and another shuts4#d ,this copy 7of the rules71 however1 is the most complete1 with the fullest explanations4#e ,he further got a transcript of the rules in six or seven thousand gthas1#f being the sarvstivd#g rules1--those which are observed by the communities of monks in the land of ,tsin2 which also have all been handed down orally from master to master without being committed to writing4 ,in the community here1 moreover1 we got the ,sayuktbhi-dharma-hidaya-7stra71#h containing about six or seven thousand gthas2 he also got a ,stra of #bejj gthas2 one chapter of the ,parinir-va-vaipulya ,stra1#i of about #ejjj gthas2 and the ,mahs-ghik ,abhidharma4 ,in consequence 7of this success in his quest7 ,f-hien stayed here for three years1 learning ,sanskrit books and the ,sanskrit speech1 and writing out the ,vinaya rules4 ,when ,to-ching arrived in the ,central ,kingdom1 and saw the rules observed by the ramaas1 and the dignified demeanour in their societies which he remarked under all occurring circumstances1 he sadly called to mind in what a mutilated and imperfect condition the rules were among the monkish communities in the land of ,tsin1 and made the following aspiration3--#8,from this time forth till ,i come to the state of ,buddha1 let me not be born in a frontier land4'#aj ,he remained accordingly 7in ,india71 and did not return 7to the land of ,han74 ,f-hien1 however1 whose original purpose had been to secure the introduction of the complete ,vinaya rules into the land of ,han1 returned there alone4 ,,notes #a ,mentioned before in chapter xxvii4 #b ,mahsghik simply means #8the ,great ,assembly1' that is1 of monks4 ,when was this first assembly in the time of kyamuni held8 ,it does not appear that the rules observed at it were written down at the time4 ,the document found by ,f-hien would be a record of those rules2 or rather a copy of that record4 ,we must suppose that the original record had disappeared from the ,jetavana vihra1 or ,f-hien would probably have spoken of it when he was there1 and copied it1 if he had been allowed to do so4 #c ,the eighteen p 774 ,four times in this chapter the character called p occurs1 and in the first and two last instances it can only have the meaning1 often belonging to it1 of #8copy4' ,the second instance1 however1 is different4 ,how should there be eighteen copies1 all different from the original1 and from one another1 in minor matters8 ,we are compelled to translate--#8the eighteen schools1' an expression well known in all ,buddhist writings4 ,see ,rhys ,davids' ,manual1 p4 #bah1 and the authorities there quoted4 #d ,this is equivalent to the #8binding' and #8loosing1' #8opening' and #8shutting1' which found their way into the ,new ,testament1 and the ,christian ,church1 from the schools of the ,jewish ,rabbins4 #e ,it was afterwards translated by ,f-hien into ,chinese4 ,see ,nanjio's ,catalogue of the ,chinese tripiaka1 columns #djj and #dja1 and ,nos4 #aaai and #aaej1 columns #bdg and #bec4 #f ,a gth is a stanza1 generally consisting1 it has seemed to me1 of a few1 commonly of two1 lines somewhat metrically arranged2 but ,i do not know that its length is strictly defined4 #g #8,a branch1' says ,eitel1 #8of the great vaibhshika school1 asserting the reality of all visible phenomena1 and claiming the authority of ,rhula4' #h ,see ,nanjio's ,catalogue1 ,no4 #abhg4 ,he does not mention it in his account of ,f-hien1 who1 he says1 translated the ,sayukta-piaka ,stra4 #i ,probably ,nanjio's ,catalogue1 ,no4 #abj2 at any rate1 connected with it4 #aj ,this then would be the consummation of the ramaa's being1--to get to be ,buddha1 the ,buddha of his time in his ,kalpa2 and ,to-ching thought that he could attain to this consummation by a succession of births2 and was likely to attain to it sooner by living only in ,india4 ,if all this was not in his mind1 he yet felt that each of his successive lives would be happier1 if lived in ,india4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,to ,,champ ,,and ,t,,malipt4 ,,stay ,,and ,,labours ,,there ,,for ,,three ,,years4 ,,takes ,,ship ,,to ,,singhala1 ,,or ,,ceylon4 ,following the course of the ,ganges1 and descending eastwards for eighteen yojanas1 he found on the southern bank the great kingdom of ,champ1#a with topes reared at the places where ,buddha walked in meditation by his vihra1 and where he and the three ,buddhas1 his predecessors1 sat4 ,there were monks residing at them all4 ,continuing his journey east for nearly fifty yojanas1 he came to the country of ,tmalipt1#b 7the capital of which is7 a seaport4 ,in the country there are twenty-two monasteries1 at all of which there are monks residing4 ,the ,law of ,buddha is also flourishing in it4 ,here ,f-hien stayed two years1 writing out his ,stras1#c and drawing pictures of images4 ,after this he embarked in a large merchant-vessel1 and went floating over the sea to the south-west4 ,it was the beginning of winter1 and the wind was favourable2 and1 after fourteen days1 sailing day and night1 they came to the country of ,singhala4#d ,the people said that it was distant 7from ,tmalipt7 about #gjj yojanas4 ,the kingdom is on a large island1 extending from east to west fifty yojanas1 and from north to south thirty4 ,left and right from it there are as many as #ajj small islands1 distant from one another ten1 twenty1 or even #bjj le2 but all subject to the large island4 ,most of them produce pearls and precious stones of various kinds2 there is one which produces the pure and brilliant pearl1#e--;an island which would form a square of about ten le4 ,the king employs men to watch and protect it1 and requires three out of every ten such pearls1 which the collectors find4 ,,notes #a ,probably the modern ,champanagur1 three miles west of ,baglipoor1 lat4 #be #ad ,n41 lon4 #ef #ee ,e4 #b ,then the principal emporium for the trade with ,ceylon and ,china2 the modern ,tam-look1 lat4 #bb #ag ,n41 lon4 #hh #b ,e42 near the mouth of the ,hoogly4 #c ,perhaps ,ching 77 is used here for any portions of the ,tripiaka which he had obtained4 #d #8,the ,kingdom of the ,lion1' ,ceylon4 ,singhala was the name of a merchant adventurer from ,india1 to whom the founding of the kingdom was ascribed4 ,his father was named ,singha1 #8the ,lion1' which became the name of the country2--,singhala1 or ,singha-,kingdom1 #8the ,country of the ,lion4' #e ,called the mai pearl or bead4 ,mai is explained as meaning #8free from stain1' #8bright and growing purer4' ,it is a symbol of ,buddha and of his ,law4 ,the most valuable rosaries are made of mais4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,at ,,ceylon4 ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,kingdom4 ,,feats ,,of ,,buddha4 ,,topes ,,and ,,monasteries4 ,,statue ,,of ,,buddha ,,in ,,jade4 ,,bo ,,tree4 ,,festival ,,of ,,buddha',s ,,tooth4 ,the country originally had no human inhabitants1#a but was occupied only by spirits and ngas1 with which merchants of various countries carried on a trade4 ,when the trafficking was taking place1 the spirits did not show themselves4 ,they simply set forth their precious commodities1 with labels of the price attached to them2 while the merchants made their purchases according to the price2 and took the things away4 ,through the coming and going of the merchants 7in this way71 when they went away1 the people of 7their7 various countries heard how pleasant the land was1 and flocked to it in numbers till it became a great nation4 ,the 7climate7 is temperate and attractive1 without any difference of summer and winter4 ,the vegetation is always luxuriant4 ,cultivation proceeds whenever men think fit3 there are no fixed seasons for it4 ,when ,buddha came to this country1#b wishing to transform the wicked ngas1 by his supernatural power he planted one foot at the north of the royal city1 and the other on the top of a mountain1#c the two being fifteen yojanas apart4 ,over the footprint at the north of the city the king built a large tope1 #djj cubits high1 grandly adorned with gold and silver1 and finished with a combination of all the precious substances4 ,by the side of the top he further built a monastery1 called the ,abhayagiri1#d where there are 7now7 five thousand monks4 ,there is in it a hall of ,buddha1 adorned with carved and inlaid works of gold and silver1 and rich in the seven precious substances1 in which there is an image 7of ,buddha7 in green jade1 more than twenty cubits in height1 glittering all over with those substances1 and having an appearance of solemn dignity which words cannot express4 ,in the palm of the right hand there is a priceless pearl4 ,several years had now elapsed since ,f-hien left the land of ,han2 the men with whom he had been in intercourse had all been of regions strange to him2 his eyes had not rested on an old and familiar hill or river1 plant or tree2 his fellow-travellers1 moreover1 had been separated from him1 some by death1 and others flowing off in different directions2 no face or shadow was now with him but his own1 and a constant sadness was in his heart4 ,suddenly 7one day71 when by the side of this image of jade1 he saw a merchant presenting as his offering a fan of white silk2#e and the tears of sorrow involuntarily filled his eyes and fell down4 ,a former king of the country had sent to ,central ,india and got a slip of the patra tree1#f which he planted by the side of the hall of ,buddha1 where a tree grew up to the height of about #bjj cubits4 ,as it bent on one side towards the south-east1 the king1 fearing it would fall1 propped it with a post eight or nine spans round4 ,the tree began to grow at the very heart of the prop1 where it met 7the trunk72 7a shoot7 pierced through the post1 and went down to the ground1 where it entered and formed roots1 that rose 7to the surface7 and were about four spans round4 ,although the post was split in the middle1 the outer portions kept hold 7of the shoot71 and people did not remove them4 ,beneath the tree there has been built a vihra1 in which there is an image 7of ,buddha7 seated1 which the monks and commonalty reverence and look up to without ever becoming wearied4 ,in the city there has been reared also the vihra of ,buddha's tooth1 on which1 as well as on the other1 the seven precious substances have been employed4 ,the king practises the ,brahmnical purifications1 and the sincerity of the faith and reverence of the population inside the city are also great4 ,since the establishment of government in the kingdom there has been no famine or scarcity1 no revolution or disorder4 ,in the treasuries of the monkish communities there are many precious stones1 and the priceless mais4 ,one of the kings 7once7 entered one of those treasuries1 and when he looked all round and saw the priceless pearls1 his covetous greed was excited1 and he wished to take them to himself by force4 ,in three days1 however1 he came to himself1 and immediately went and bowed his head to the ground in the midst of the monks1 to show his repentance of the evil thought4 ,as a sequel to this1 he informed the monks 7of what had been in his mind71 and desired them to make a regulation that from that day forth the king should not be allowed to enter the treasury and see 7what it contained71 and that no bhikshu should enter it till after he had been in orders for a period of full forty years4#g ,in the city there are many ,vaiya elders and ,saban#h merchants1 whose houses are stately and beautiful4 ,the lanes and passages are kept in good order4 ,at the heads of the four principal streets there have been built preaching halls1 where1 on the eighth1 fourteenth1 and fifteenth days of the month1 they spread carpets1 and set forth a pulpit1 while the monks and commonalty from all quarters come together to hear the ,law4 ,the people say that in the kingdom there may be altogether sixty thousand monks1 who get their food from their common stores4 ,the king1 besides1 prepares elsewhere in the city a common supply of food for five or six thousand more4 ,when any want1 they take their great bowls1 and go 7to the place of distribution71 and take as much as the vessels will hold1 all returning with them full4 ,the tooth of ,buddha is always brought forth in the middle of the third month4 ,ten days beforehand the king grandly caparisons a large elephant1 on which he mounts a man who can speak distinctly1 and is dressed in royal robes1 to beat a large drum1 and make the following proclamation3--#8,the ,bodhisattva1 during three ,asakhyeya-kalpas1#i manifested his activity1 and did not spare his own life4 ,he gave up kingdom1 city1 wife1 and son2 he plucked out his eyes and gave them to another2#aj he cut off a piece of his own flesh to ransom the life of a dove2#aj he cut off his head and gave it as an alms2#aa he gave his body to feed a starving tigress2#aa he grudged not his marrow and his brains4 ,in many such ways as these did he undergo pain for the sake of all living4 ,and so it was1 that1 having become ,buddha1 he continued in the world for forty-five years1 preaching his ,law1 teaching and transforming1 so that those who had no rest found rest1 and the unconverted were converted4 ,when his connexion with the living was completed1#ab he attained to pari-nirva 7and died74 ,since that event1 for #adig years1 the light of the world has gone out1#ac and all living beings have had long-continued sadness4 ,behold6 ten days after this1 ,buddha's tooth will be brought forth1 and taken to the ,abhayagiri-vihra4 ,let all and each1 whether monks or laics1 who wish to amass merit for themselves1 make the roads smooth and in good condition1 grandly adorn the lanes and byways1 and provide abundant store of flowers and incense to be used as offerings to it4' ,when this proclamation is over1 the king exhibits1 so as to line both sides of the road1 the five hundred different bodily forms in which the ,bodhisattva has in the course of his history appeared3--here as ,sudna1#ad there as ,sma2#ae now as the king of elephants2#af and then as a stag or a horse4#af ,all these figures are brightly coloured and grandly executed1 looking as if they were alive4 ,after this the tooth of ,buddha is brought forth1 and is carried along in the middle of the road4 ,everywhere on the way offerings are presented to it1 and thus it arrives at the hall of ,buddha in the ,abhayagiri-vihra4 ,there monks and laics are collected in crowds4 ,they burn incense1 light lamps1 and perform all the prescribed services1 day and night without ceasing1 till ninety days have been completed1 when 7the tooth7 is returned to the vihra within the city4 ,on fast-days the door of that vihra is opened1 and the forms of ceremonial reverence are observed according to the rules4 ,forty le to the east of the ,abhayagiri-vihra there is a hill1 with a vihra on it1 called the ,chaitya1#ag where there may be #bjjj monks4 ,among them there is a ramaa of great virtue1 named ,dharma-gupta1#ah honoured and looked up to by all the kingdom4 ,he has lived for more than forty years in an apartment of stone1 constantly showing such gentleness of heart1 that he has brought snakes and rats to stop together in the same room1 without doing one another any harm4 ,,notes #a ,it is desirable to translate 1 for which #8inhabitants' or #8people' is elsewhere sufficient1 here by #8human inhabitants4' ,according to other accounts ,singhala was originally occupied by ,rkshasas or ,rakshas1 #8demons who devour men1' and #8beings to be feared1' monstrous cannibals or anthropophagi1 the terror of the shipwrecked mariner4 ,our author's #8spirits' 77 were of a gentler type4 ,his dragons or ngas have come before us again and again4 #b ,that kyamuni ever visited ,ceylon is to me more than doubtful4 ,hardy1 in ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #bjg-bac1 has brought together the legends of three visits1--in the first1 fifth1 and eighth years of his ,buddhaship4 ,it is plain1 however1 from ,f-hien's narrative1 that in the beginning of our fifth century1 ,buddhism prevailed throughout the island4 ,davids in the last chapter of his #8,buddhism' ascribes its introduction to one of ,aoka's missions1 after the ,council of ,patna1 under his son ,mahinda1 when ,tissa1 #8the delight of the gods1' was king 7,b4,c4 #bej-bcj74 #c ,this would be what is known as #8,adam's peak1' having1 according to ,hardy 7pp4 #baa1 #bab1 notes71 the three names of ,selesumano1 ,samastakta1 and ,samanila4 #8,there is an indentation on the top of it1' a superficial hollow1 #e feet #c inches long1 and about #b feet wide4 ,the ,hindus regard it as the footprint of ,siva2 the ,mohameddans1 as that of ,adam2 and the ,buddhists1 as in the text1--as having been made by ,buddha4 #d ,meaning #8,the ,fearless ,hill4' ,there is still the ,abhayagiri tope1 the highest in ,ceylon1 according to ,davids1 #bej feet in height1 and built about ,b4,c4 #ij1 by ,waa ,gmii1 in whose reign1 about #afj years after the ,council of ,patna1 and #ccj years after the death of kyamuni1 the ,tripiaka was first reduced to writing in ,ceylon2--#8,buddhism1' p4 #bcd4 #e ,we naturally suppose that the merchant-offerer was a ,chinese1 as indeed the ,chinese texts say1 and the fan such as ,f-hien had seen and used in his native land4 #f ,this should be the pippala1 or bodhidruma1 generally spoken of1 in connexion with ,buddha1 as the ,bo tree1 under which he attained to the ,buddhaship4 ,it is strange our author should have confounded them as he seems to do4 ,in what we are told of the tree here1 we have1 no doubt1 his account of the planting1 growth1 and preservation of the famous ,bo tree1 which still exists in ,ceylon4 ,it has been stated in a previous note that ,aoka's son1 ,mahinda1 went as the apostle of ,buddhism to ,ceylon4 ,by-and-by he sent for his sister ,sanghamitt1 who had entered the order at the same time as himself1 and whose help was needed1 some of the king's female relations having signified their wish to become nuns4 ,on leaving ,india1 she took with her a branch of the sacred ,bo tree at ,buddha ,gay1 under which kyamuni had become ,buddha4 ,of how the tree has grown and still lives we have an account in ,davids' #8,buddhism4' ,he quotes the words of ,sir ,emerson ,tennent1 that it is #8the oldest historical tree in the world2' but this must be denied if it be true1 as ,eitel says1 that the tree at ,buddha ,gay1 from which the slip that grew to be this tree was taken more than #bjjj years ago1 is itself still living in its place4 ,we must conclude that ,f-hien1 when in ,ceylon1 heard neither of ,mahinda nor ,sanghamitt4 #g ,compare what is said in chap4 xvi1 about the inquiries made at monasteries as to the standing of visitors in the monkhood1 and duration of their ministry4 #h ,the phonetic values of the two ,chinese characters here are in ,sanskrit s2 and v1 bo or bh4 #8,saban' is ,mr4 ,beal's reading of them1 probably correct4 ,i suppose the merchants were ,arabs1 forerunners of the so-called ,moormen1 who still form so important a part of the mercantile community in ,ceylon4 #i ,a ,kalpa1 we have seen1 denotes a great period of time2 a period during which a physical universe is formed and destroyed4 ,asakhyeya denotes the highest sum for which a conventional term exists2--according to ,chinese calculations equal to one followed by seventeen ciphers2 according to ,thibetan and ,singhalese1 equal to one followed by ninety-seven ciphers4 ,every ,mah-kalpa consists of four ,asakhyeya-kalpas4 ,eitel1 p4 #ae4 #aj ,see chapter ix4 #aa ,see chapter xi4 #ab ,he had been born in the kya house1 to do for the world what the character of all his past births required1 and he had done it4 #ac ,they could no more see him1 the ,world-honoured one4 ,compare the ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xi1 ,buddhist ,suttas1 pp4 #hi1 #aba1 and note on p4 #hi4 #ad ,sudna or ,sudatta was the name of the ,bodhisattva in the birth which preceded his appearance as kyamuni or ,gotama1 when he became the ,supreme ,buddha4 ,this period is known as the ,vessantara ,jtaka1 of which ,hardy1 ,m4 ,b41 pp4 #aaf-abd1 gives a long account2 see also #8,buddhist ,birth ,stories1' the ,nidna ,kath1 p4 #aeh4 ,in it1 as ,sudna1 he fulfilled #8the ,perfections1' his distinguishing attribute being entire self-renunciation and almsgiving1 so that in the ,nidna ,kath is made to say 7#8,buddhist ,birth ,stories1' p4 #eh73-- #8,this earth1 unconscious though she be1 and ignorant of joy or grief1 ,even she by my free-giving's mighty power was shaken seven times4' ,then1 when he passed away1 he appeared in the ,tushita heaven1 to enter in due time the womb of ,mah-my1 and be born as kyamuni4 #ae ,i take the name ,sma from ,beal's revised version4 ,he says in a note that the ,sma ,jtaka1 as well as the ,vessantara1 is represented in the ,schi sculptures4 ,but what the ,sma ,jtaka was ,i do not yet know4 ,but adopting this name1 the two ,chinese characters in the text should be translated #8the change into ,sma4' ,rmusat gives for them1 #8la transformation en eclair2' ,beal1 in his first version1 #8his appearance as a bright flash of light2' ,giles1 #8as a flash of lightning4' ,julien's ,mthode does not give the phonetic value in ,sanskrit of 4 #af ,in an analysis of the number of times and the different forms in which kyamuni had appeared in his ,jtaka births1 given by ,hardy 7,m4 ,b41 p4 #ajj71 it is said that he had appeared six times as an elephant2 ten times as a deer2 and four times as a horse4 #ag ,chaitya is a general term designating all places and objects of religious worship which have a reference to ancient ,buddhas1 and including therefore stpas and temples as well as sacred relics1 pictures1 statues1 c4 ,it is defined as #8a fane1' #8a place for worship and presenting offerings4' ,eitel1 p4 #ada4 ,the hill referred to is the sacred hill of ,mihintale1 about eight miles due east of the ,bo tree2--,davids' ,buddhism1 pp4 #bcj1 #bca4 #ah ,eitel says 7p4 #ca73 #8,a famous ascetic1 the founder of a school1 which flourished in ,ceylon1 ,a4,d4 #djj4' ,but ,f-hien gives no intimation of ,dharma-gupta's founding a school4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,cremation ,,of ,,an ,,arhat4 ,,sermon ,,of ,a ,,devotee4 ,south of the city seven le there is a vihra1 called the ,mah-vihra1 where #cjjj monks reside4 ,there had been among them a ramaa1 of such lofty virtue1 and so holy and pure in his observance of the disciplinary rules1 that the people all surmised that he was an rhat4 ,when he drew near his end1 the king came to examine into the point2 and having assembled the monks according to rule1 asked whether the bhikshu had attained to the full degree of ,wisdom4#a ,they answered in the affirmative1 saying that he was an rhat4 ,the king accordingly1 when he died1 buried him after the fashion of an rhat1 as the regular rules prescribed4 ,four of five le east from the vihra there was reared a great pile of firewood1 which might be more than thirty cubits square1 and the same in height4 ,near the top were laid sandal1 aloe1 and other kinds of fragrant wood4 ,on the four sides 7of the pile7 they made steps by which to ascend it4 ,with clean white haircloth1 almost like silk1 they wrapped 7the body7 round and round4#b ,they made a large carriage-frame1 in form like our funeral car1 but without the dragons and fishes4#c ,at the time of the cremation1 the king and the people1 in multitudes from all quarters1 collected together1 and presented offerings of flowers and incense4 ,while they were following the car to the burial-ground1#d the king himself presented flowers and incense4 ,when this was finished1 the car was lifted on the pile1 all over which oil of sweet basil was poured1 and then a light was applied4 ,while the fire was blazing1 every one1 with a reverent heart1 pulled off his upper garment1 and threw it1 with his feather-fan and umbrella1 from a distance into the midst of the flames1 to assist the burning4 ,when the cremation was over1 they collected and preserved the bones1 and proceeded to erect a tope4 ,f-hien had not arrived in time 7to see the distinguished ,shaman7 alive1 and only saw his burial4 ,at that time the king1#e who was a sincere believer in the ,law of ,buddha and wished to build a new vihra for the monks1 first convoked a great assembly4 ,after giving the monks a meal of rice1 and presenting his offerings 7on the occasion71 he selected a pair of first-rate oxen1 the horns of which were grandly decorated with gold1 silver1 and the precious substances4 ,a golden plough had been provided1 and the king himself turned up a furrow on the four sides of the ground within which the building was supposed to be4 ,he then endowed the community of the monks with the population1 fields1 and houses1 writing the grant on plates of metal1 7to the effect7 that from that time onwards1 from generation to generation1 no one should venture to annul or alter it4 ,in this country ,f-hien heard an ,indian devotee1 who was reciting a ,stra from the pulpit1 say3--#8,buddha's alms-bowl was at first in ,vail1 and now it is in ,gandhra4#f ,after so many hundred years' 7he gave1 when ,f-hien heard him1 the exact number of years1 but he has forgotten it71 #8it will go to ,western ,tukhra2#g after so many hundred years1 to ,khoten2 after so many hundred years1 to ,kharachar2#h after so many hundred years1 to the land of ,han2 after so many hundred years1 it will come to ,sihala2 and after so many hundred years1 it will return to ,central ,india4 ,after that1 it will ascend to the ,tushita heaven2 and when the ,bodhisattva ,maitreya sees it1 he will say with a sigh1 8,the alms-bowl of kyamuni ,buddha is come20 and with all the devas he will present to it flowers and incense for seven days4 ,when these have expired1 it will return to ,jambudvpa1 where it will be received by the king of the sea ngas1 and taken into his nga palace4 ,when ,maitreya shall be about to attain to perfect ,wisdom 7and become ,buddha71 it will again separate into four bowls1#i which will return to the top of mount ,anna1#i whence they came4 ,after ,maitreya has become ,buddha1 the four deva kings will again think of the ,buddha 7with their bowls as they did in the case of the previous ,buddha74 ,the thousand ,buddhas of this ,bhadra-kalpa1 indeed1 will all use the same alms-bowl2 and when the bowl has disappeared1 the ,law of ,buddha will go on gradually to be extinguished4 ,after that extinction has taken place1 the life of man will be shortened1 till it is only a period of five years4 ,during this period of a five years' life1 rice1 butter1 and oil will all vanish away1 and men will become exceedingly wicked4 ,the grass and trees which they lay hold of will change into swords and clubs1 with which they will hurt1 cut1 and kill one another4 ,those among them on whom there is blessing will withdraw from society among the hills2 and when the wicked have exterminated one another1 they will again come forth1 and say among themselves1 8,the men of former times enjoyed a very great longevity2 but through becoming exceedingly wicked1 and doing all lawless things1 the length of our life has been shortened and reduced even to five years4 ,let us now unite together in the practice of what is good1 cherishing a gentle and sympathising heart1 and carefully cultivating good faith and righteousness4 ,when each one in this way practises that faith and righteousness1 life will go on to double its length till it reaches #hj1jjj years4 ,when ,maitreya appears in the world1 and begins to turn the wheel of his ,law1 he will in the first place save those among the disciples of the ,law left by the kya who have quitted their families1 and those who have accepted the three ,refuges1 undertaken the five ,prohibitions and the eight ,abstinences1 and given offerings to the three ,precious ,ones2 secondly and thirdly1 he will save those between whom and conversion there is a connexion transmitted from the past40'#aj 7,such was the discourse71 and ,f-hien wished to write it down as a portion of doctrine2 but the man said1 #8,this is taken from no ,stra1 it is only the utterance of my own mind4' ,,notes #a ,possibly1 #8and asked the bhikshu1' c4 ,i prefer the other way of construing1 however4 #b ,it seems strange that this should have been understood as a wrapping of the immense pyre with the cloth4 ,there is nothing in the text to necessitate such a version1 but the contrary4 ,compare #8,buddhist ,suttas1' pp4 #ib1 #ic4 #c ,see the description of a funeral car and its decorations in the ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xxviii1 the ,l ,k1 ,book ,,xix4 ,f-hien's 1 #8in this 7country71' which ,i have expressed by #8our1' shows that whatever notes of this cremation he had taken at the time1 the account in the text was composed after his return to ,china1 and when he had the usages there in his mind and perhaps before his eyes4 ,this disposes of all difficulty occasioned by the #8dragons' and #8fishes4' ,the at the end is merely the concluding particle4 #d ,the pyre served the purpose of a burial-ground or grave1 and hence our author writes of it as such4 #e ,this king must have been ,mah-nna 7,a4,d4 #daj-dcb74 ,in the time of his predecessor1 ,upatissa 7,a4,d4 #cfh-daj71 the piakas were first translated into ,singhalese4 ,under ,mah-nna1 ,buddhaghosha wrote his commentaries4 ,both were great builders of vihras4 ,see the ,mahvaa1 pp4 #bdg1 foll4 #f ,see chapter xii4 ,f-hien had seen it at ,purushapura1 which ,eitel says was #8the ancient capital of ,gandhra4' #g ,western ,tukhra 77 is the same probably as the ,tukhra 77 of chapter xii1 a king of which is there described as trying to carry off the bowl from ,purushapura4 #h ,north of the ,bosteng lake at the foot of the ,thien-shan range 7,e4 ,h41 p4 #ef74 #i ,see chap4 xii1 note #i4 ,instead of #8,anna' the ,chinese recensions have ,vna2 but ,vna or ,vnataka1 and ,ana for ,sudarana are names of one or other of the concentric circles of rocks surrounding mount ,meru1 the fabled home of the deva guardians of the bowl4 #aj ,that is1 those whose ,karma in the past should be rewarded by such conversion in the present4 ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,,after ,,two ,,years ,,takes ,,ship ,,for ,,china4 ,,disastrous ,,passage ,,to ,,java2 ,,and ,,thence ,,to ,,china2 ,,arrives ,,at ,,shan-,,tung2 ,,and ,,goes ,,to ,,nanking4 ,,conclusion ,,or ,l',,envoi ,,by ,,another ,,writer4 ,f-hien abode in this country two years2 and1 in addition 7to his acquisitions in ,patna71 succeeded in getting a copy of the ,vinaya-piaka of the ,mahsak 7school72#a the ,drghgama and ,samyuktgama#b 7,stras72 and also the ,sayukta-sachaya-piaka2#c--;all being works unknown in the land of ,han4 ,having obtained these ,sanskrit works1 he took passage in a large merchantman1 on board of which there were more than #bjj men1 and to which was attached by a rope a smaller vessel1 as a provision against damage or injury to the large one from the perils of the navigation4 ,with a favourable wind1 they proceeded eastwards for three days1 and then they encountered a great wind4 ,the vessel sprang a leak and the water came in4 ,the merchants wished to go to the small vessel2 but the men on board it1 fearing that too many would come1 cut the connecting rope4 ,the merchants were greatly alarmed1 feeling their risk of instant death4 ,afraid that the vessel would fill1 they took their bulky goods and threw them into the water4 ,f-hien also took his pitcher#d and washing-basin1 with some other articles1 and cast them into the sea2 but fearing that the merchants would cast overboard his books and images1 he could only think with all his heart of ,kwan-she-yin1#e and commit his life to 7the protection of7 the church of the land of ,han1#f 7saying in effect71 #8,i have travelled far in search of our ,law4 ,let me1 by your dread and supernatural 7power71 return from my wanderings1 and reach my resting-place6' ,in this way the tempest#g continued day and night1 till on the thirteenth day the ship was carried to the side of an island1 where1 on the ebbing of the tide1 the place of the leak was discovered1 and it was stopped1 on which the voyage was resumed4 ,on the sea 7hereabouts7 there are many pirates1 to meet with whom is speedy death4 ,the great ocean spreads out1 a boundless expanse4 ,there is no knowing east or west2 only by observing the sun1 moon1 and stars was it possible to go forward4 ,if the weather were dark and rainy1 7the ship7 went as she was carried by the wind1 without any definite course4 ,in the darkness of the night1 only the great waves were to be seen1 breaking on one another1 and emitting a brightness like that of fire1 with huge turtles and other monsters of the deep 7all about74 ,the merchants were full of terror1 not knowing where they were going4 ,the sea was deep and bottomless1 and there was no place where they could drop anchor and stop4 ,but when the sky became clear1 they could tell east and west1 and 7the ship7 again went forward in the right direction4 ,if she had come on any hidden rock1 there would have been no way of escape4 ,after proceeding in this way for rather more than ninety days1 they arrived at a country called ,java-dvpa1 where various forms of error and ,brahmnism are flourishing1 while ,buddhism in it is not worth speaking of4 ,after staying there for five months1 7,f-hien7 again embarked in another large merchantman1 which also had on board more than #bjj men4 ,they carried provisions for fifty days1 and commenced the voyage on the sixteenth day of the fourth month4 ,f-hien kept his retreat on board the ship4 ,they took a course to the north-east1 intending to fetch ,kwang-chow4 ,after more than a month1 when the night-drum had sounded the second watch1 they encountered a black wind and tempestuous rain1 which threw the merchants and passengers into consternation4 ,f-hien again with all his heart directed his thoughts to ,kwan-she-yin and the monkish communities of the land of ,han2 and1 through their dread and mysterious protection1 was preserved to day-break4 ,after day-break1 the ,brahmns deliberated together and said1 #8,it is having this ramaa on board which has occasioned our misfortune and brought us this great and bitter suffering4 ,let us land the bhikshu and place him on some island-shore4 ,we must not for the sake of one man allow ourselves to be exposed to such imminent peril4' ,a patron of ,f-hien1 however1 said to them1 #8,if you land the bhikshu1 you must at the same time land me2 and if you do not1 then you must kill me4 ,if you land this ramaa1 when ,i get to the land of ,han1 ,i will go to the king1 and inform against you4 ,the king also reveres and believes the ,law of ,buddha1 and honours the bhikshus4' ,the merchants hereupon were perplexed1 and did not dare immediately to land 7,f-hien74 ,at this time the sky continued very dark and gloomy1 and the sailing-masters looked at one another and made mistakes4 ,more than seventy days passed 7from their leaving ,java71 and the provisions and water were nearly exhausted4 ,they used the salt-water of the sea for cooking1 and carefully divided the 7fresh7 water1 each man getting two pints4 ,soon the whole was nearly gone1 and the merchants took counsel and said1 #8,at the ordinary rate of sailing we ought to have reached ,kwang-chow1 and now the time is passed by many days2--must we not have held a wrong course8' ,immediately they directed the ship to the north-west1 looking out for land2 and after sailing day and night for twelve days1 they reached the shore on the south of mount ,lo1#h on the borders of the prefecture of ,chang-kwang1#h and immediately got good water and vegetables4 ,they had passed through many perils and hardships1 and had been in a state of anxious apprehension for many days together2 and now suddenly arriving at this shore1 and seeing those 7well-known7 vegetables1 the lei and kwoh1#i they knew indeed that it was the land of ,han4 ,not seeing1 however1 any inhabitants nor any traces of them1 they did not know whereabouts they were4 ,some said that they had not yet got to ,kwang-chow1 and others that they had passed it4 ,unable to come to a definite conclusion1 7some of them7 got into a small boat and entered a creek1 to look for some one of whom they might ask what the place was4 ,they found two hunters1 whom they brought back with them1 and then called on ,f-hien to act as interpreter and question them4 ,f-hien first spoke assuringly to them1 and then slowly and distinctly asked them1 #8,who are you8' ,they replied1 #8,we are disciples of ,buddha8' ,he then asked1 #8,what are you looking for among these hills8' ,they began to lie1#aj and said1 #8,to-morrow is the fifteenth day of the seventh month4 ,we wanted to get some peaches to present#aa to ,buddha4' ,he asked further1 #8,what country is this8' ,they replied1 #8,this is the border of the prefecture of ,chang-kwang1 a part of ,tsing-chow under the 7ruling7 ,house of ,tsin4' ,when they heard this1 the merchants were glad1 immediately asked for 7a portion of7 their money and goods1 and sent men to ,chang-kwang city4 ,the prefect ,le ,e was a reverent believer in the ,law of ,buddha4 ,when he heard that a ramaa had arrived in a ship across the sea1 bringing with him books and images1 he immediately came to the seashore with an escort to meet 7the traveller71 and receive the books and images1 and took them back with him to the seat of his government4 ,on this the merchants went back in the direction of ,yang-chow2#ab 7but7 when 7,f-hien7 arrived at ,tsing-chow1 7the prefect there7#ac begged him 7to remain with him7 for a winter and a summer4 ,after the summer retreat was ended1 ,f-hien1 having been separated for a long time from his 7fellow-7masters1 wished to hurry to ,chang-gan2 but as the business which he had in hand was important1 he went south to the ,capital2#ad and at an interview with the masters 7there7 exhibited the ,stras and the collection of the ,vinaya 7which he had procured74 ,after ,f-hien set out from ,chang-gan1 it took him six years to reach ,central ,india2#ae stoppages there extended over 7other7 six years2 and on his return it took him three years to reach ,tsing-chow4 ,the countries through which he passed were a few under thirty4 ,from the sandy desert westwards on to ,india1 the beauty of the dignified demeanour of the monkhood and of the transforming influence of the ,law was beyond the power of language fully to describe2 and reflecting how our masters had not heard any complete account of them1 he therefore 7went on7 without regarding his own poor life1 or 7the dangers to be encountered7 on the sea upon his return1 thus incurring hardships and difficulties in a double form4 ,he was fortunate enough1 through the dread power of the three ,honoured ,ones1#ae to receive help and protection in his perils2 and therefore he wrote out an account of his experiences1 that worthy readers might share with him in what he had heard and said4#ae ,it was in the year ,keah-yin1#af the twelfth year of the period ,e-he of the 7,eastern7 ,tsin dynasty1 the year-star being in ,virgo-,libra1 in the summer1 at the close of the period of retreat1 that ,i met the devotee ,f-hien4 ,on his arrival ,i lodged him with myself in the winter study1#ag and there1 in our meetings for conversation1 ,i asked him again and again about his travels4 ,the man was modest and complaisant1 and answered readily according to the truth4 ,i thereupon advised him to enter into details where he had at first only given a summary1 and he proceeded to relate all things in order from the beginning to the end4 ,he said himself1 #8,when ,i look back on what ,i have gone through1 my heart is involuntarily moved1 and the perspiration flows forth4 ,that ,i encountered danger and trod the most perilous places1 without thinking of or sparing myself1 was because ,i had a definite aim1 and thought of nothing but to do my best in my simplicity and straightforwardness4 ,thus it was that ,i exposed my life where death seemed inevitable1 if ,i might accomplish but a ten-thousandth part of what ,i hoped4' ,these words affected me in turn1 and ,i thought3--#8,this man is one of those who have seldom been seen from ancient times to the present4 ,since the ,great ,doctrine flowed on to the ,east there has been no one to be compared with ,hien in his forgetfulness of self and search for the ,law4 ,henceforth ,i know that the influence of sincerity finds no obstacle1 however great1 which it does not overcome1 and that force of will does not fail to accomplish whatever service it undertakes4 ,does not the accomplishing of such service arise from forgetting 7and disregarding7 what is 7generally7 considered as important1 and attaching importance to what is 7generally7 forgotten8' ,,notes #a ,no4 #aabb in ,nanjio's ,catalogue1 translated into ,chinese by ,buddhajiva and a ,chinese ramaa about ,a4,d4 #dbe4 ,mahsak means #8the school of the transformed earth1' or #8the sphere within which the ,law of ,buddha is influential4' ,the school is one of the subdivisions of the ,sarvstivd4 #b ,nanjio's #ede and #ejd4 ,the gamas are ,stras of the hnayna1 divided1 according to ,eitel1 pp4 #d1 #e1 into four classes1 the first or ,drghgamas 7long gamas7 being treatises on right conduct1 while the third class contains the ,samyuktgamas 7mixed gamas74 #c ,meaning #8,miscellaneous ,collections2' a sort of fourth ,piaka4 ,see ,nanjio's fourth division of the ,canon1 containing ,indian and ,chinese miscellaneous works4 ,but ,dr4 ,davids says that no work of this name is known either in ,sanskrit or ,pli literature4 #d ,we have in the text a phonetisation of the ,sanskrit ,kuik1 which is explained in ,eitel by the two characters that follow1 as #8washing basin1' but two things evidently are intended4 #e ,see chap4 xvi1 note #be4 #f ,at his novitiate ,f-hien had sought the refuge of the #8three ,precious ,ones' 7the three ,refuges of last chapter71 of which the congregation or body of the monks was one2 and here his thoughts turn naturally to the branch of it in ,china4 ,his words in his heart were not exactly words of prayer1 but very nearly so4 #g ,in the text 1 t-fung1 #8the great wind1' the typhoon4 #h ,they had got to the south of the ,shan-tung promontory1 and the foot of mount ,lo1 which still rises under the same name on the extreme south of the peninsula1 east from ,keo ,chow1 and having the district of ,tsieh-mih on the east of it4 ,all the country there is included in the present ,phing-too ,chow of the department ,le-chow4 ,the name ,phing-too dates from the ,han dynasty1 but under the dynasty of the ,after ,che 771 7,a4,d4 #dgi-eja71 it was changed into ,chang-kwang4 ,f-hien may have lived1 and composed the narrative of his travels1 after the change of name was adopted4 ,see the ,topographical ,tables of the different ,dynasties 771 published in #ahae4 #i ,what these vegetables exactly were it is difficult to say2 and there are different readings of the characters for them4 ,williams' ,dictionary1 under kwoh1 brings the two names together in a phrase1 but the rendering of it is simply #8a soup of simples4' ,for two or three columns here1 however1 the text appears to me confused and imperfect4 #aj ,i suppose these men were really hunters2 and1 when brought before ,f-hien1 because he was a ramaa1 they thought they would please him by saying they were disciples of ,buddha4 ,but what had disciples of ,buddha to do with hunting and taking life8 ,they were caught in their own trap1 and said they were looking for peaches4 #aa ,the ,chinese character here has occurred twice before1 but in a different meaning and connexion4 ,rmusat1 ,beal1 and ,giles take it as equivalent to #8to sacrifice4' ,but his followers do not #8sacrifice' to ,buddha4 ,that is a priestly term1 and should not be employed of anything done at ,buddhistic services4 #ab ,probably the present department of ,yang-chow in ,keang-soo2 but as ,i have said in a previous note1 the narrative does not go on so clearly as it generally does4 #ac ,was1 or could1 this prefect be ,le ,e8 #ad ,probably not ,chang-gan1 but ,nanking1 which was the capital of the ,eastern ,tsin dynasty under another name4 #ae ,the whole of this paragraph is probably ,f-hien's own conclusion of his narrative4 ,the second half of the second sentence1 both in sentiment and style in the ,chinese text1 seems to necessitate our ascribing it to him1 writing on the impulse of his own thoughts1 in the same indirect form which he adopted for his whole narrative4 ,there are1 however1 two peculiar phraseologies in it which might suggest the work of another hand4 ,for the name ,india1 where the first#ae is placed1 a character is employed which is similarly applied nowhere else2 and again1 #8the three ,honoured ,ones1' at which the second#ae is placed1 must be the same as #8the three ,precious ,ones1' which we have met with so often2 unless we suppose that is printed in all the revisions for #8the ,world-honoured one1' which has often occurred4 ,on the whole1 while ,i accept this paragraph as ,f-hien's own1 ,i do it with some hesitation4 ,that the following and concluding paragraph is from another hand1 there can be no doubt4 ,and it is as different as possible in style from the simple and straightforward narrative of ,f-hien4 #af ,there is an error of date here1 for which it is difficult to account4 ,the year ,keah-yin was ,a4,d4 #dad2 but that was the tenth year of the period ,e-he1 and not the twelfth1 the cyclical designation of which was ,ping-shin4 ,according to the preceding paragraph1 ,f-hien's travels had occupied him fifteen years1 so that counting from ,a4,d4 #cii1 the year ,ke-hae1 as that in which he set out1 the year of his getting to ,tsing-chow would have been ,kwei-chow1 the ninth year of the period ,e-he2 and we might join on #8,this year ,keah-yin' to that paragraph1 as the date at which the narrative was written out for the bamboo-tablets and the silk1 and then begins the ,envoy1 #8,in the twelfth year of ,e-he4' ,this would remove the error as it stands at present1 but unfortunately there is a particle at the end of the second date 771 which seems to tie the twelfth year of ,e-he to ,keah-yin1 as another designation of it4 ,the #8year-star' is the planet ,jupiter1 the revolution of which1 in twelve years1 constitutes #8a great year4' ,whether it would be possible to fix exactly by mathematical calculation in what year ,jupiter was in the ,chinese zodiacal sign embracing part of both ,virgo and ,scorpio1 and thereby help to solve the difficulty of the passage1 ,i do not know1 and in the meantime must leave that difficulty as ,i have found it4 #ag ,we do not know who the writer of the ,envoy was4 #8,the winter study or library' would be the name of the apartment in his monastery or house1 where he sat and talked with ,f-hien4 ,,index4 -e 7,asita1 ishi71 page #fe4 -le1 #ed4 ,abhayagiri monastery1 #ajb1 #aje1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,hall of ,buddha in1 and statue of jade1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,abhidharma1 #aj et al4 ,ajtaatru 7king71 #gf1 #ha1 #hb1 #he4 ,alms-bowl of ,buddha1 #cd1 #ce1 #aji1 #aaj4 mbapl1 #gb4 ,angmin1 #eg1 #hf4 nanda1 #cc1 #dd1 #de1 #gb1 #gd1 #hc2 death of1 in ,samdhi1 #ge-gg4 ,agulimlya1 #ef4 ,anna 7mount71 #aji4 ,anuruddha1 #dh4 ,arhan1 the1 or ,arhat 7in ,chinese ,lo-han71 #bd1 #dj1 #eg1 #ga1 #ge1 #hf4 ,cremation of an ,arhat1 #ajg1 #ajh4 rya1 #eg4 ,asakhyeya-kalpa1 #aje4 ,aoka1 #ca1 #ej2 his spirit-built palace1 and halls1 #gg2 his brother1 #gg2 his great tope and inscription1 #hj2 his vihra and pillar4 #ej1 #ea his city and pillar of ,ne-le1 #hj2 wished to build #hd1jjj topes1 #fi2 legend of his naraka1 #ij-ib4 ,bhikshu1 #ac1 #bi1 #ge1 #hc1 #hf1 #ia1 #ib1 #aac4 ,suicide of1 #hf4 ,bhikshu1 #de4 ,bimbisra 7king71 #ha1 #hb4 ,bo tree1 the1 in ,ceylon1 #ajc1 #ajd4 ,in ,gay1 #hh4 ,both are called in mistake by ,f-hien the patra tree4 ,bodhisattva1 #ai4 ,legends of ,buddha1 when ,bodhisattva1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb1 #ch1 #gc1 #gd1 #ge4 ,maitreya ,bodhisattva1 #be4 ,books of ,discipline1 the4 ,see ,vinaya4 ,brahm 7king71 the first person of the ,brahmnical ,trimurti1 #di1 #hi4 ,brahmns1 #dg1 #ee1 #fj1 #fa4 ,the ,brahmn ,rdha-smi1 #gh4 ,buddha1 incarnation of the1 #fe incidents of his early life1 #fe1 #ff where he renounced the world1 #gj where he died1 #gj2 where he endured austerities1 #hg legends of that time1 #hg1 #hh4 ,his attainment of the ,buddhaship1 #hi first labours afterwards1 #hi4 ,in ,ceylon1 #aja2 his wonderful stride and footprint1 #ajb4 ,buddha's preaching1 #ed1 #ff4 ,buddhism1 ,f-hien's name for1 #cj4 ,buddhists1 different estimates of the number of1 #e-h4 ,central ,india1 or the ,middle ,kingdom1 #bh4 ,condition and customs of1 #db1 #dc4 ,chakravartti king1 #di1 #ij4 ,champ1 #ajj4 ,topes and monasteries in1 #ajj4 ,chachamana1 #fj4 ,chaaka1 #gj4 ,chalas1 #dc4 ,chang-gan1 #i1 #aj1 #aae4 ,chang ,keen1 #bg4 ,chang-yih1 #aa4 ,charcoal tope1 the1 #gj4 ,che-yen 7pilgrim71 #aa1 #ae4 ,china1 or the land of ,han1 #ac1 #bd1 #eh1 #ajj1 #aji1 #aac4 ,council in ratapara cavern1 #he2 of ,vail1 #ge4 ,dakshia1 #if-ih4 ,dna and dnapati1 #aa1 #eb4 ,danta-kshha1 legend of ,buddha's1 #ed1 #ee4 ,desert of ,gobi1 #ab4 ,deva1 or ,brahmnic god1 #ai1 #ej1 #gi4 ,devadatta1 #fj1 #hf followers of1 #fb4 ,devlaya1 #8,the ,shadow ,covered1' #fj1 #fa4 ,devaloka1 #be4 ,dharma1 the ,law1 one of the constituents of ,buddhism1 #bh et al4 ,dharma-gupta1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,dpkara ,buddha1 #ch4 ,discourse or sermon of a devotee in ,ceylon1 #aaj4 ,dragons or ngas1 #bi1 #fg1 #aja2 the dragon of the ,rma tope1 #fi2 the white-eared dragon1 #eb2 ,elpattra1 #if4 ,e-he 7period71 #aaf4 ,endowments of the monkish communities1 and offerings to them1 #bb1 #bc1 #dc1 #dd1 #ajh1 #aji4 ,f-hien4 ,his surname1 and notices of his early life1 #a1 #b2 lived to the age of eighty-eight1 #b1 #c4 ,genuineness of his narrative1 #c1 #d4 ,different recensions of it1 and especially the ,corean text appended to this volume1 #d4 ,stages of his travels3--,chang-gan1 #aj2 ,lung1 #aj2 kingdom of ,keen-kwei1 #aj2 that of ,now-tan1 #aj2 ,chang-yih1 #aa ,tun-hwang1 #aa desert of ,gobi1 #ab ,shen-shen1 #ab ,woo-e1 r#d ,yu-teen1 #af2 ,tsze-hoh1 #ba2 ,yu-hwuy1 #ba2 ,keeh-ch1 #bb2 ,to-leih1 #bd crosses the ,indus1 #bf ,woo-chang1 or ,udyna1 #bh ,soo-ho-to1 or ,swastene1 #bi ,gandhra1 #ca ,takshail1 #cb ,purushapura1 or ,peshwar1 #cc ,he-lo1 or ,hidda1 in ,nagra1 #cf ,nagra1 #ch-dj2 ,little ,snowy mountains1 #dj2 ,lo-e1 #da ,poh-n1 #da2 recrosses the ,indus1 #da2 ,pe-too1 or ,bhida1 #da ,mathur1 or ,muttra1 #db2 ,sarikya1 #dg2 ,kanykubja1 or ,canouge1 #ec2 -le1 #ed2 ,sh-che1 #ed rvast in ,koala1 #ee ,too-wei1 #fc ,na-pei-ke1 #fd2 ,kapilavastu1 #fd2 ,rma1 #fh2 ,kuanagara1 #gj ,vail1 #gb confluence of the five rivers1 #ge2 ,paliputtra1 or ,patna1 #gg2 ,rjagiha1 #hj2 ,nla1 #ha ,new ,rjagiha1 #ha2 ,gidhra-ka hill1 #hc ratapara cave1 #he2 ,gay1 #hg2 mount ,gurupada1 #ib2 ,vras1 or ,benres1 #ic ,k1 #id ,kaumb1 #if2 ,patna1 #ih2 ,champ1 #ajj2 ,tmalipt1 #ajj2 ,singhala1 or ,ceylon1 #aja ,java1 #aac2 ,shan-tung1 in ,china1 #aad the ,capital1 #aae4 ,first image made of ,buddha1 #eg4 ,foo ,kung-sun1 #ae4 ,four great topes in ,north ,india1 #cb2 in ,central ,india1 #ij4 ,four places of regular occurrence in the history of all ,buddhas1 #fh4 ,four spiritual truths1 and four classes of disciples1 #eg4 ,gandhra1 #ca1 #cc1 #aji4 ,ganges1 #ed1 #ic1 #ajj4 ,gay1 #hg-ij4 ,gomati monastery1 #ag4 ,gorsha ,chandana wood1 #ci1 #eg4 ,gidhra-kta hill1 #hj1 #hb4 ,legends connected with1 #hc4 ,f-hien spends a night on1 #hc4 ,grove of the ,getting of ,eyes1 #eh1 #ei4 ,gurupada 7mount71 #ib4 ,habits of the ,khoteners1 #af1 r#g4 ,hall of ,buddha1 #bj1 #ajb4 ,han1 the land of4 ,see ,china4 ,he-lo1 #cf4 ,hnayna1 #ad1 #ae1 #bc1 #da1 et al4 ,ho-shang1 name of1 #eh4 ,hwng-che 7period71 #i4 ,hwuy-keen 7pilgrim71 #aa1 #ae4 ,hwuy-king 7pilgrim71 #i1 #ah1 #bb1 #bi1 #cf4 ,death of1 #dj1 #da4 ,hwuy-tah 7pilgrim71 #ah1 #bi1 #cf4 ,hwuy-wei 7pilgrim71 #aj1 #ae4 ,hwuy-ying 7pilgrim71 #aj4 ,death of1 #cf4 ,india1 #aj1 #ad4 7,north71 #bd1 #bh1 #bi4 7,central71 #bh1 #db4 7,south71 #dg4 ,indus1 the1 #bf4 ,crossing it1 #bf2 recrossing it1 #da4 ,jambudvpa1 #cd1 #dh1 #hj4 ,jtaka stories1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb1 #gc1 #gd1 et al4 ,jetavana vihra1 #ef burning of the1 #eg4 ,sympathy of the monks at1 with the pilgrims1 #eh4 ,park of the1 #ei4 ,jvaka1 #hb4 ,kanishka 7king71 #cc and his tope1 #cd4 ,kanykubja1 or ,canouge1 #ec1 #ed4 ,kan ,ying1 #bg4 ,ko-chang1 #ae4 ,kapilavastu1 #fd-fh4 ,karaa ,bamboo garden 7,karaa ,veuvana71 #hd4 ,k1 #id4 ,kayapa brothers and their disciples1 #hi4 ,kayapa ,buddha's entire skeleton1 #ic4 ,kauinya and his companions1 #id1 #ie4 ,kaumb1 #if4 ,keah-yin 7year71 #aaf4 ,keeh-ch1 #ah1 #bb4 ,keen-kwei1 #aj4 ,ke-he 7year71 #i4 ,kharachar1 #aji4 ,khoten1 #af-bj1 #aji4 ,king ,prasenajit1 #ee4 ,king's ,new monastery1 #ai4 ,kophene1 #ba4 ,koala1 #ee4 ,kwang-chow1 #aad4 ,kwan-she-yin1 #df1 #aab1 #aac4 ,le ,e 7prefect71 #aae4 ,le ,ho1 #ab4 ,legends of ,buddha in ,north ,india1 #bi1 #cj1 #ci2 as ,bodhisattva1 #ca4 ,of his danta-kshha1 #ed1 #ee4 ,legends of ,takshail1 #cb4 ,legends of topes and monastery1 #ec1 #gc4 ,lichchhavis1 #ga1 #gb1 #gf4 ,little ,snowy mountains1 #dj4 ,lo-e1 #da4 ,lumbin 7garden71 #fg4 ,birth of ,buddha in1 #fg4 ,lung1 #aj4 ,madhyamayna1 #ad4 ,mahkayapa1 #de1 #he4 ,mah-maudgalyyana 7,mugalan71 #dd1 #dh1 #hb4 ,mah-prajpat1 #ee1 #ff4 ,mahyna1 #ad1 #af1 #ba1 #da1 et al4 ,maitreya ,bodhisattva1 #be2 statue of1 #be1 #bh1 #aji4 ,majur1 #df1 #gi 7a ,brahmn74 ,mra1 king1 #gd ,piuna1 #hc #hh4 ,mathur1 or ,muttra1 #db4 ,merchants 7five hundred71 #hi4 ,monasteries1 or ,saghrmas1 #ag1 #bh1 et al4 ,monastery 7,gomati71 #ag4 ,monastery of the ,great ,heap1 #eb4 ,monastery 7,pigeon71 #if-ih4 ,monkish customs1 #dd-dg4 ,monkish food out of the ordinary hours1 #dd4 ,monks 7#djjj in ,shen-shen71 #ac 7#djjj in ,woo-e71 #ae 7several myriads in ,khoten71 #ae4 ,influence of the1 #db4 ,quinquennial assembly of1 #bb1 #bc4 ,mother of ,buddha 7,mah-my71 #dh1 #ef1 #fe4 ,muchilinda 7dragon71 #hi4 ,nagra1 #bi1 #cf4 ,nla1 #ha4 ,nanda1 #fe4 ,naraka1 #ij4 ,ne-le city and pillar1 #hj4 ,new ,rjagiha1 #ha4 ,ninety-six sorts of erroneous views1 #fb4 ,nirgrantha1 the1 #hb4 ,nirva1 #ad1 #bg1 #cc1 et al4 ,now-tan1 #aj4 ,onion mountains1 #bj1 #ba1 #bc1 #bd4 ,po-yun 7pilgrim71 #aa1 #ae1 #cf4 ,pramits1 the1 #df ,praj-pramit1 #df4 ,pari-nirvna1 #cc1 #eg1 #gc4 ,park of #8,the ishi's ,deer-wild1' #id4 ,paliputtra1 or ,patna1 #gg2 monasteries of1 #gh1 #gi2 hospitals and dispensaries of1 #gi1 #ig-ii4 ,manuscripts copied there1 #ih-ii the ,mahsghika rules1 ,sarvstivd rules1 ,sayuktbhidharmahidaya-7stra71 ,stra of #bejj gthas1 the ,parinirva-vaipulya ,stra1 ,mahs-ghik ,abhidharma1 #ii4 ,pe-too1 or ,bhida1 #da4 ,ping 7king of ,chow dynasty71 #bg4 ,plain 7,central and ,south ,india71 #dg4 ,poh-n1 #da4 ,poonah1 or ,jumna river1 #db4 ,prasenajit4 ,see ,king ,pratyeka ,buddhas1 #dj1 #ec1 #gd4 ,procession of images at ,khoten1 #af-ai2 at ,patna1 #gi2 in ,ceylon1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,purushapura1 or ,peshwar1 #cc4 ,quinquennial assembly of monks1 #bb4 ,rhula1 #df4 ,rjagiha 7new and old7 legends and incidents1 #hj-hf4 ,rma and its tope1 #fh1 #fi4 ,relics of ,buddha3--spittoon1 #bc alms-bowl1 #bc1 #cd1 #ce1 #hi1 #aji2 tooth1 #bc1 #aje1 #ajg skull-bone1 #cf1 #cg pewter staff1 #ci2 ,saghli1 or ,saghi1 #ci2 hair and nails1 #ci et al42 shadow1 #ci1 #hh4 ,retreat 7the summer71 #aj1 #aa1 #bb1 #bi1 #aac1 #aag1 et al4 akra1 #cj1 #cd1 #di1 #ej1 #fj1 #hj1 #ha4 ,sma1 #ajf4 ,samdhi1 #gf4 ,saghli4 ,see ,relics4 ,sng-king 7pilgrim71 #aa1 #cf4 ,sng-sho 7pilgrim71 #aa1 #ba4 ,sakya1 #dg4 riputtra1 #dd1 #ha1 #hb4 ,sh-che1 #ed4 ,shadow of ,buddha4 ,see ,relics4 ,shay-e1 #fc4 ,shen-shen1 #ab4 ,shikshpada1 or ten commandments1 #df4 ,singhala1 or ,ceylon1 #ajj-aaa4 ,manuscripts obtained in1 #aaa4 manam1 #hd4 ,snow mountains1 #bd4 ,soo-ho-to 7,swastene71 #bi1 #cj4 ramaa 7raman1 ,sh-mn71 #ad et al4 rmaera1 #de1 #fi1 #gj4 ratapara cave1 or cave of the ,first ,council1 #hd1 #he4 rvast1 #ee1 #ef4 ,topes and legends of1 #ef-fa4 rotpannas1 #fg1 #hf4 ,subhadra1 #ga4 ,sudna1 #ajf4 ,sudatta1 #ef4 uddhodana1 #fd4 ,sympathy of ,indian monks with pilgrims1 #da4 ,takshail1 #cb4 ,tamlipt1 #ajj4 ,to-ching 7pilgrim71 #i1 #ah1 #bi1 #cf1 #ii4 ,tathgata1 #fc4 ,three ,buddhas anterior to kyamuni1 #fc1 #fd4 ,to-leih1 or ,darada1 #bd4 ,topes1 #ag1 #dj1 #ec1 et al4 ,buddha himself assisted in building a model tope1 #ci4 #dj4 ,trayastrias heaven1 legend of ,buddha's ascent to and descent from1 #dh1 #di4 ,treasuries of the monasteries in ,ceylon1 #ajc2 rule regarding1 #ajd4 ,tripiaka1 #aj4 ,trsharaa1 #df4 ,tsin1 #ae1 #bc4 ,tsing-chow1 #aae4 ,tsze-hoh1 #ba4 ,tun-hwang1 #aa1 #ab4 ,tushita heaven1 #be4 ,upli1 #ff4 ,upasena1 #hb4 ,utpala bhikshu1 #di4 ,vaiakha 7mother71 #ei4 ,vail1 #gb4 ,vaiyas1 chiefs of1 #ch1 #dg4 ,vanity of life and of the body1 #ed1 #ia4 ,vras1 or ,benres1 #id4 ,vihra1 #cf1 #cg1 et al4 ,king's grant of a new vihra to monks in ,ceylon1 #ajh4 ,vimoksha tope1 #ch4 ,vinaya1 or ,books of ,discipline1 #i1 #aj1 #ih1 et al4 ,virdhaha 7,vaidrya71 king1 #fc1 #fg4 ,when the law of ,buddha first went to the ,east1 #bg1 #bh4 ,woo-chang1 or ,udyna1 #bh1 #bi4 ,woo-e1 #ad4 ,yang-chow1 #aae4 ,yang-low1 #aj4 ,yu-hwuy1 #ba4 ,yu-teen1 or ,khoten1 #af4 #aa #b #a ,s1 ,m omit4 #b ,s1 ,m omit4 #ab #a ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #b ,s1 ,m 4 #aa #b #cd #ef #g #a ,m 4 #b ,s 4 #c ,s1 ,m 4 #d ,after 1 ,s1 ,m repeat 4 #e ,s1 ,m omit4 #f ,s1 ,m 4 #g ,s1 ,m 4 #abb #c #d #ef #g #h #fh #i #aj #a ,s1 ,m 4 #b ,s1 ,m omit4 #c ,s1 ,m 4 #d ,s1 ,m 4 #e ,s1 ,m ,c#a4 #f ,s1 ,m 4 #g ,s1 ,m omit4 #h ,s1 ,m 4 #i ,s1 ,m 4 #aj ,s 2 ,m 4 #a #a ,s1 ,m 4 #a #bc #dddd #eeffg #hi #ajaa #abacad #adadaeaf #ag #a ,j repeats4 #b ,s1 ,m 4 #c ,s1 ,m 4 #d ,s1 ,m omit4 #e ,s1 p4y4 4 #f ,s1 ,m omit4 #g ,s1 ,m omit4 #h ,s1 ,m 4 #i ,s1 ,m 4 #aj ,s1 ,m omit4 #aa ,s1 ,m omit4 #ab ,s1 ,m omit4 #ac ,s1 ,m omit4 #ad ,s1 ,m omit4 #ae ,s1 ,m omit4 #af ,s1 ,m repeat4 #ag ,s1 ,m #ab #cd1 #e #a ,s1 ,m omit4 #b ,j 4 #c ,s1 ,m repeat4 #d ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #e ,s1 ,m 4 #ab #c #d #a ,s1 ,m 4 #b ,s1 ,m omit4 #c ,probably for 1 a cutter's mistake4 #d ,s1 ,m omit4 #ab #cc #de #ffghhii #a ,s1 ,m omit4 #b ,s1 ,m 4 #c ,s1 ,m omit4 #d ,s1 ,m 4 #e ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #f ,s1 ,m invert4 #g ,s1 ,m omit4 #hi ,s1 ,m invert4 #a #a ,s1 ,m 4 #a #a ,s1 ,m 4 #a #b #c #de #fg #h #iaj #aa #a ,s1 ,m omit4 #b ,s1 ,m 4 #c ,s1 ,m omit4 #d ,s1 ,m omit4 #e ,s1 ,m omit4 #f ,s1 ,m 4 #g ,s1 ,m omit4 #h ,s1 ,m omit and insert 4 #i ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #aj ,s1 ,m 4 #aa ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #ab #cd #e #f #g #hiaj #aa #a ,s1 ,m 4 #b ,s1 ,m omit4 #c ,s1 ,m 4 #d ,s1 ,m 4 #e ,the ,corean text has the beneath4 #f ,s1 ,m 4 #g ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #h ,s1 ,m omit4 #i ,s1 ,m omit4 #aj ,s1 ,m omit4 #aa ,s1 ,m omit4 #a #a ,s1 ,j 4 #a #b #c #def #gghiaj #aa #ab #acadad #aeaeafag #ah #aibjbjba #bb #bc #a ,s1 ,m 4 #b ,s1 ,m 4 #c ,s1 ,m 4 ,w4 #d ,s 4 #e ,s 2 ,s1 p4y4 4 #f ,s 4 #g ,s1 ,m 4 #h ,s1 ,m 4 #i ,s 2 ,m 4 #aj ,s1 ,m omit4 #aa ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #ab ,s1 ,m 4 ,w4 #ac ,s1 ,m 4 #ad ,s1 ,m invert4 #ae ,s1 ,m omit4 #af ,before 1 ,s1 ,m have 4 #ag ,s1 ,m 4 #ah ,s1 ,m 4 #ai ,s1 ,m omit4 #bj ,s1 ,m invert4 #ba ,s1 ,m omit4 #bb ,s1 ,m 4 #bc ,s1 ,m omit4 #a #b #cd #ee #f #gh #iaj #aa #ab #acadad #ae #af ,c#bag #a ,s1 ,m 4 ,r4 #b ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #c ,s1 ,m 4 #d ,s1 ,m4 omit4 #e ,s1 ,m invert4 #f ,s1 ,m 4 #g ,s1 ,m 4 #h ,s1 ,m 4 #i ,s1 ,m 4 #aj ,s1 ,m 4 ,w4 #aa ,s1 ,m omit4 #ab ,s1 ,m 4 #ac ,s1 ,m omit4 #ad ,s1 ,m 4 #ae ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #af ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #ag ,s1 ,m 4 #ab #bc #bd #a ,s1 p4y4 4 #b ,so1 all recensions and ,julien4 ,probably should always be 4 #c ,s1 ,m omit4 #d ,s1 ,m 4 #a #a ,s1 ,m omit4 #ab #ccccde #fg #hif #aj #aa #abac #adaeaf #ag #af #ahaibj #babbbcbd #bebf #bgbhbibi #cjcjcacb #cc #cdcecfcg #cg #chci #dj #da #a ,j repeats4 #b ,s1 ,m 4 #c ,s1 ,m omit4 #d ,s1 ,m omit4 #e ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #f ,s1 ,m 4 #g ,s1 ,m 4 #h ,s1 ,m 4 #i ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #aj ,s1 ,m 4 #aa ,s1 ,m omit4 #ab ,s1 ,m 4 #ac ,s1 ,m 4 #ad ,m 4 #ae ,s1 ,m 4 #af ,s1 ,m 4 #ag ,s1 ,m ,the ,corean text is vulgar form of this4 #ah ,s4 2 ,m 4 #ai ,s1 ,m 4 #bj ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #ba ,s1 p4y1 4 #bb ,s1 ,m 4 #bc ,should probably be 4 #bd ,s1 ,m 4 #be ,s1 ,m 4 #bf ,s1 ,m omit4 #bg ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #bh ,j 4 #bi ,s1 ,m 4 #cj ,s1 ,m repeat4 #ca ,s1 ,m 4 #cb ,s1 ,m omit4 #cc ,s1 ,m 4 #cd ,another form of this in text4 #ce ,s1 ,m 4 #cf ,s1 ,m 4 #cg ,s1 ,m omit4 #ch ,after 1 insert 4 #ci ,s1 ,m omit4 #dj ,s1 ,m omit4 #da ,s1 ,m omit4 #ab #a ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #b ,s1 ,m omit4 #abc #de #fg #h #iajaa #aaabac #ad #ae #a ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #b ,s1 ,m 4 #c ,s1 ,m 4 #d ,s1 ,m 4 ,w4 #e 8 ,mistake for 4 #f ,s 4 #g ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #h ,s1 ,m omit4 #i ,s 4 #aj ,s1 ,m 4 #aa ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #ab ,s1 ,m 4 #ac ,s1 ,m omit4 #ad ,probably should be 4 #ae ,s1 ,m omit4 #a #b #c #d #a ,s1 ,m omit4 #b ,s1 ,m omit4 #c ,s1 ,m omit4 #d ,so1 but should be 4 #a #b #c #de #f #a ,j 4 ,r4 #b ,s1 ,m omit4 #c ,m 4 #d ,s 4 #e ,in text1 with at the side4 #f ,s1 ,m omit4 #a #bc #d #ef #gh #i #ajajaj #aa #abac #a ,s1 ,m 4 #b ,s1 ,m 4 #c ,j 4 #d ,s1 ,m 4 #e ,s1 ,m 4 ,w4 #f ,before 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #g ,s1 ,m omit4 #h ,s1 ,m 4 #i ,s1 ,m omit4 #aj ,s1 ,m omit4 #aa ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #ab ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #ac ,s1 ,m omit4 #aa #bbbb #c #a ,s1 ,m 4 #b ,s1 ,m omit4 #c ,s1 ,m 4 #a #b #c #de #fg #h #ii #aj #aaab #acacacad #a ,s1 ,m omit4 #b ,in text with at the side4 #c ,s1 ,m omit4 #d ,s1 ,m 4 #e ,s1 ,m 4 #f ,s1 ,m omit4 #g ,s1 ,m omit4 #h ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #i ,m 2 ,s 4 #aj ,s1 ,m 4 #aa ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #ab ,s1 ,m repeat4 #ac ,s1 ,m omit4 #ad ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #ab #a ,after 1 ,s1 ,m has 4 #b ,after 1 ,s1 ,m has 4 #a #b #c #a ,s 4 #b ,s1 ,m 4 #c ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #a #b #a ,s1 ,m 4 #b ,s1 ,m 4 #a ,c#c #bc #dd #e #fg #h #a ,m 4 #b ,s1 ,m omit4 #c ,s1 ,m omit4 #d ,s1 ,m omit4 #e ,s1 ,m 4 #f ,s1 ,m 4 #g ,s1 ,m omit4 #h ,s1 ,m 4 ,r4 #aa #b #cde #fg #h #i #ajaj #aa #abac #ad #ae #afafag #a ,s1 ,m 4 #b ,s1 ,m omit4 #c ,s1 ,m 4 #d ,m omits4 #e ,s1 ,m 4 #f ,before 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #g ,s1 ,m 4 #h ,s1 ,m omit4 #i ,j 4 #aj ,s1 ,m omit4 #aa ,s1 ,m omit4 #ab ,s1 ,m omit4 #ac ,should be 4 #ad ,j 4 #ae ,s1 ,m omit4 #af ,s1 ,m omit4 #ag ,s1 ,m repeat4 #a #b #a ,s1 ,m 4 #b ,s1 ,m 4 ,w4 #a #ab #c #d #e #f #g #a ,should be 4 #b ,text has on the left4 #c ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #d ,s 4 #e ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #f ,s1 ,m 4 #g ,s1 ,m 4 #a #b #c #dd #ef #a ,so1 ,s1 ,m text has instead of 4 #b ,s1 ,m omit4 #c ,s1 ,m 4 #d ,s1 ,m invert4 #e ,s1 ,m omit4 #f ,s1 ,m omit4 #ab #c #a ,s 4 #b ,s1 ,m 4 #c ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #a #b #c #a ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #b ,s 4 #c ,m 4 #a #b #cc #def #g #h #iiaj #aaab ,c#dac #adae #afag #ahai;,c#d #bj #ba #bb #bc #bd #a ,s1 ,m 4 #b ,s1 ,m 4 #c ,s1 ,m invert4 #d ,s1 ,m 4 #e ,m 4 #f ,s1 ,m 4 #g ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #h ,before 1 ,s has 2 ,m 4 #i ,s1 ,m invert4 #aj ,m 4 #aa ,s1 ,m 4 #ab ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #ac ,after 1 ,m inserts 4 #ad ,s1 ,m omit4 #ae ,s1 ,m 4 ,w4 #af ,s1 ,m omit4 #ag ,text has on left4 #ah ,s1 ,m 4 #ai ,s1 ,m omit4 #bj ,an obsolete form in text4 #ba ,s1 ,m 4 #bb ,s1 ,m 4 ,w4 #bc ,s1 ,m 4 #bd ,s1 ,m 4 #abcd #e #f #ghhh #i77 #aj #aaab #ac #adae #af #agah #aibj #ba #bb #bc #a ,s1 ,m 4 #b ,before 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #c ,s1 ,m 4 #d ,s1 ,m 4 #e ,probably a mistake for 1 as below4 #f ,s1 ,m 4 #g ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #h ,s1 ,m omit4 #i ,the thirteen characters that follow within parenthetic marks are in all the recensions in two parallel columns in smaller text4 ,they are equivalent to a marginal note with us1 and ,s and ,m insert a after 4 #aj ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #aa ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #ab ,s1 ,m 4 #ac ,s1 ,m 4 #ad ,s1 ,m 4 #ae ,s1 ,m 4 #af ,s1 ,m 4 #ag ,s1 ,m1 omit4 #ah ,text1 with inside4 #ai ,s1 ,m 4 #bj ,s1 ,m 4 #ba ,s1 ,m omit4 #bb ,s1 ,m omit4 #bc ,s1 ,m 4 #aa #aaa #ab #cc #de #fg #hh #i #aj #aaab #ac #adae #af;,c#eaf #agah #ai #bj #babb #bcbd #bebfbgbh #bi #cj #a ,s1 ,m 2 and elsewhere4 #b ,s1 ,m 4 #c ,m 4 #d ,s1 ,m omit4 #e ,s1 ,m 4 #f ,text has a vulgar form4 #g ,s1 ,m 4 #h ,s1 ,m invert4 #i ,s1 ,m 4 #aj ,contracted form in text4 #aa ,m 4 #ab ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #ac ,s1 ,m 4 #ad ,s1 ,m 4 #ae ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #af ,should be 4 #ag ,j 4 #ah ,m ,w4 #ai ,s 4 #bj ,s1 ,m omit4 #ba ,s1 ,m omit4 #bb ,s 2 ,m 4 #bc ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #bd ,s1 ,m omit4 #be ,s1 ,m omit4 #bf ,s1 ,m omit4 #bg ,s1 ,m omit4 #bh ,s1 ,m 4 #bi ,j 4 #cj ,s1 ,m omit4 #a #bc #de #a ,s1 ,m omit4 #b ,after 1 ,s1 ,m insert 4 #c ,s1 ,m 4 #d ,s1 ,m 4 #e ,s1 ,m 4 ,transcribers ,notes3 ,this is an ,,utf-#h update of the transcription done by ,john ,bickers1 ,dagny1 and ,david ,widger available at3 https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/ebooks_/#ba bd4 ,the original printed text scans can be found at3 https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/b#bicebb af ,notes on the text3 #a4 ,in the printed book the ,english text occupies the left side of the book and is read to the centre4 ,the ,chinese text occupies the right side of the book and is read to the centre4 ,essentially this was two books under the same binding4 ,the ,chinese text was originally published by ,oxford ,university ,press in #ahhe4 ,in this transcription1 the ,chinese text is placed after the ,english text4 ,an entry has been added to the table of contents to indicate this rearrangement3 7,,chinese ,,text3 74 #b4 ,letters surrounded by underscores #8' are italicised4 #c4 ,footnotes have been moved to the end of each chapter4 #d4 ,spelling in the ,english text has been standardised to the most common versions used in the text4 ,if equal number of spelling versions were present1 the version most common at the time of publication was used4 ,spellings contained in direct quotations are left unchanged4 #e4 ,as much as possible1 the ,chinese transcription uses the same character variants as used in the original printed text4 ,if a ,unicode version of the character is not found1 then a traditional variant is used in its place4 ,for example radical #ahd uses in the printed text but most of the ,unicode characters use 4 ,the same case applies to radical #aac4 ,the printed text uses but most ,unicode characters use 4 #f4 ,footnotes #e and #f in chapter #b have been switched to match the the corresponding text in the chapter4 #g4 8,ngara0 in chapter #h changed to 8,nagra0 to match the rest of the text4 #h4 ,at the beginning of chapter #ai in the ,english text ,legge says #c yojanas of distance while the ,chinese text says #aj4 ,this was left unchanged4 #i4 ,the number of columns in the ,chinese text portions are limited to under #ej in order to approximately match the width of the ,english text4 ,chinese characters are wider than ,latin characters4 #aj4 ,chinese characters not found in ,unicode are marked as ,cn where #8n' is a number3 ,c#a on left1 on right4 ,ideographic ,description ,sequence3 ,c#b 1 but with replaced by 4 ,c#c on left1 on right4 ,ideographic ,description ,sequence3 ,c#d on left1 on right4 ,ideographic ,description ,sequence3 ,c#e on top1 then 1 and below4 ,ideographic ,description ,sequence3 ,transcriber's ,note33 ,chinese ,tone ,marks4 ,the printed text uses semi-circular tone marks next to some ,chinese characters with multiple or ambiguous pronunciations 7,unicode ,u,a#gjj-,u,a#gjg74 ,the open portion of the semi-circle faces the character4 ,these were originally used to indicate tones used in ,middle ,chinese4 ,the mark may be placed in any of the four corners of the ,chinese character4 ,in modern ,mandarin ,chinese the locations map to tones as follows3 lower left3 #ast or #bnd tone upper left3 #crd tone 7some cases #dth tone7 upper right3 #dth tone lower right3 not applicable for modern ,mandarin ,examples from the text3 zhng 7adj7 heavy1 important chng 7adv7 repeatedly2 7measure7 layer1 storey y 7n7 spoken language y 7v7 to tell1 inform ,for more details on tone marks1 look up articles on #8,middle ,chinese tones' or see ,williams1 ,s4 ,wells4 #ahgd4 ,a ,syllabic ,dictionary of the ,chinese ,language2 arranged according to the ,wu-fang ,yuen yin1 with the pronunciation of the characters as heard in ,peking1 ,canton1 ,amay and ,shanghai4 ,shanghai3 ,american ,presbyterian ,mission ,press4 ,introduction ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,,shing ,,or ,,tones4