,,roman ,,stoicism ,,cambridge ,,university ,,press ,london3 ,,fetter ,,lane1 ,e4,c4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,,manager ,illustration ,edinburgh3 #ajj1 ,,princes ,,street ,berlin3 ,a4 ,,asher ,,and ,,co4 ,leipzig3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,brockhaus ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,bombay and ,calcutta3 ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,ltd ,all rights reserved ,,roman ,,stoicism ,,being ,,lectures ,,on ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,stoic ,,philosophy ,,with ,,special ,,reference ,,to ,,its ,,development ,,within ,,the ,,roman ,,empire ,,by ,e4 ,,vernon ,,arnold1 ,,litt4,d4 ,,professor ,,of ,,latin ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,college ,,of ,,north ,,wales ,,and ,,formerly ,,fellow ,,of ,,trinity ,,college1 ,,cambridge ,cambridge3 at the ,university ,press #aiaa ,cambridge3 ,,printed ,,by ,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press4 ,,henrico ,,jackson1 ,,litt4,d4 ,,dilectissimo ,,praeceptori ,,preface ,this book is the outcome of a course of lectures delivered by me in successive years to ,latin ,honours students in accordance with the regulations of the ,university of ,wales4 ,it is therefore primarily intended for the assistance of classical students2 but it may perhaps appeal in its present form to a somewhat wider circle4 ,at the time that the book was begun the best systematic exposition of the ,stoic philosophy available for ,english readers was to be found in ,prof4 ,e4 ,,zeller',s ,stoics ,epicureans and ,sceptics1 translated by ,o4 ,j4 ,,reichel 7,longmans1 #ahib74 ,this work1 admirable in detail1 is nevertheless somewhat inadequate to the subject1 which appeared to its learned author as a mere sequel to the much more important philosophical systems of ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,since its first appearance many qualified writers have been inclined to assign a higher rank to ,stoicism1 amongst whom ,l4 ,,stein1 ,a4 ,,schmekel1 and ,,hans von ,,arnim in the ,german-speaking countries1 and ,a4 ,c4 ,,pearson1 ,g4 ,h4 ,,rendall1 and ,r4 ,d4 ,,hicks in our own1 are perhaps most conspicuous4 ,the view taken in this book corresponds generally to that taken by the writers named4 ,shortly expressed1 it regards ,stoicism as the bridge between ancient and modern philosophical thought2 a position which appears to be accepted by ,w4 ,l4 ,,davidson writing on behalf of students of modern philosophy4 ,mr ,hicks and ,mr ,davidson have recently published works dealing with the ,stoic philosophy as a whole2 but as neither of these quite covers the ground marked out for this book1 ,i believe that room will be found for a further presentation of the subject4 ,to the writers named and to many others1 my obligations are great1 and their extent is generally indicated in the ,index4 ,i owe a more intimate debt to ,mr ,a4 ,c4 ,,pearson and ,prof4 ,,alfred ,,caldecott1 who have given me ungrudgingly of their knowledge and counsel during the whole period of the preparation of this book4 ,the appearance of ,h4 von ,arnim's #8,stoicorum veterum fragmenta' made available to me a mass of material from ,greek sources1 and has 7,i hope7 made this book less imperfect on the side of ,greek than it would otherwise have been4 ,for the quotations in the notes from the ,greek and the less-known ,latin authors ,i have generally given references to von ,arnim's collections1 which will doubtless be more accessible to most of my readers than the original writers4 ,these references include those to the fragments of ,zeno and ,cleanthes1 for which von ,arnim is in the main indebted to the earlier work of ,pearson4 ,so general a treatment of the subject as is here presented must necessarily leave room for correction and amplification in its various branches1 and ,i trust that ,i am pointing out to younger students a field in which a rich harvest may yet be gleaned4 ,to such students the appended ,bibliography1 though necessarily incomplete1 may be of use as an introduction to the considerable literature which is available to them4 ,the concluding chapter makes its appeal not so much to classical students1 as such1 as to those who are interested in the problem of ,christian origins2 the further problems of the influence of ,stoicism on modern literature and philosophy1 though at first included in my programme1 ,i have not ventured to enter upon4 ,but ,i hope that at least ,i have been able to show that the interest of classical studies1 even as regards ,hellenistic philosophy1 does not lie wholly in the past4 ,my sincere thanks are due to the ,council of the ,university ,college of ,north ,wales for granting me special assistance in my ,college duties during the ,spring term of #aiaj1 in order that ,i might give more time to this book2 to the ,syndics of the ,cambridge ,university ,press for undertaking its publication2 and to ,mr ,clay and his expert staff for the admirable execution of the printing4 ,e4 ,,vernon ,,arnold #be ,january #aiaa ,,corrigenda ,,et ,,notanda ,in the text the accentuation of ,greek words should be corrected as follows3 ,p4 #aag1 l4 #aj1 4 ,p4 #bci1 l4 #f1 4 ,p4 #dbc1 l4 #af1 4 7,transcriber's ,note3 ,these have been corrected47 ,for the quotations in the notes from ,greek writers1 more precise references will usually be found in the sections named of von ,arnim's ,stoicorum veterum fragmenta4 ,in addition the following amplifications or corrections are needed3 ,p4 #aje1 n4 #dd2 ,clem4 ,strom4 ii #ba1 #abi4 ,p4 #acc1 n4 #ch2 ,nem4 nat4 hom4 vi #ac4 ,p4 #adb1 n4 #hf2 ,sext4 math4 vii #ahd4 ,p4 #aeh1 n4 #ag2 ,simp4 ,arist4 cat4 p4 #bfi1 #ad ,k2 ,cens4 fr4 #a1 #a4 ,p4 #aei1 n4 #bj2 ,simp4 ,arist4 cat4 p4 #cej1 #af ,k4 ,p4 #afj1 n4 #cj2 for the word is now read1 making the quotation inapplicable4 ,p4 #afa1 n4 #acc2 add the words 4 ,the reference is to ,simpl4 ,arist4 cat4 p4 #cjf1 #bc ,k4 ,p4 #afd1 n4 #de2 ,simp4 ,arist4 cat4 p4 #ff1 #cb ,k2 n4 #dg1 ib4 p4 #afe1 #cb ,k4 ,p4 #aff1 n4 #fj2 ib4 p4 #bfi1 #ad ,k4 ,p4 #afh1 n4 #ge2 ib4 p4 #afe1 #cb ,k4 ,p4 #agc1 n4 #aaj2 ,galen const4 art4 med4 p4 #bec ,k2 n4 #aaa1 meth4 med4 i #b p4 #af ,k4 ,p4 #ahe1 n4 #gi2 for read 4 ,p4 #ahg1 n4 #hf2 ,sext4 math4 viii #bga4 ,p4 #aic1 n4 #acj2 ,nemes4 nat4 hom4 xxxviii #ie4 ,p4 #aif1 n4 #ade2 ,galen de temp4 p4 #fag ,k4 ,p4 #bbb1 n4 #cc2 ,corn4 ,n4 ,d4 ii4 ,p4 #bbd1 n4 #dg2 ,sext4 math4 vii #ic4 ,p4 #bea1 n4 #gf2 ,galen plac4 ,hipp4 et ,plat4 p4 #bdb ,k4 ,p4 #bee1 n4 #hf2 for read 4 ,p4 #bfd1 n4 #aci2 to the quotation from ,comm4 in ,luc4 ix #f add #8et esse sic immortales ut non moriantur sed resolvantur4' ,p4 #bih1 n4 #ahd2 ,alex4 ,aph4 de fato #bh1 p4 #aii1 #ah ,b4 ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,i4 ,the ,world-,religions #a ,,ii4 ,heraclitus and ,socrates #bi ,,iii4 ,the ,academy and the ,porch #ec ,,iv4 ,the ,preaching of ,stoicism #gh ,v4 ,the ,stoic ,sect in ,rome #ii ,,vi4 ,of ,reason and ,speech #abh ,,vii4 ,the ,foundations of ,physics #aee ,,viii4 ,the ,universe #age ,,ix4 ,the ,supreme ,problems #aih ,x4 ,religion #baf ,,xi4 ,the ,kingdom of the ,soul #bch ,,xii4 ,the ,law for ,humanity #bgc ,,xiii4 ,daily ,duties #cja ,,xiv4 ,sin and ,weakness #ccj ,,xv4 ,counsels of ,perfection #ceg ,,xvi4 ,stoicism in ,roman ,history and ,literature #chj ,,xvii4 ,the ,stoic ,strain in ,christianity #djh ,,bibliography3 ,i4 ,ancient ,writers and ,philosophers #dcg ,,ii4 ,modern ,writers #dde ,,general ,,index #dea ,,greek ,,index #dff ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,world-,,religions4 ,sidenote3 ,roman literature4 #a4 ,the present work treats of a subject of outstanding interest in the literature which is associated with the history of the ,roman ,state1 and which is expressed partly in ,hellenistic ,greek1 partly in ,latin4 ,in the generations preceding our own1 classical study has1 to a large extent1 attended to form rather than to matter1 to expression rather than to content4 ,to-day it is beginning to take a wider outlook4 ,we are learning to look on literature as an unveiling of the human mind in its various stages of development1 and as a key to the true meaning of history4 ,the literature of ,greece proper does not cease to attract us by its originality1 charm1 and variety2 but the new interest may yet find its fullest satisfaction in ,roman literature2 for of all ancient peoples the ,romans achieved most1 and their achievements have been the most enduring4 ,it was the ,roman who joined the ends of the world by his roads and his bridges1 poured into crowded towns unfailing supplies of corn and perennial streams of pure water1 cleared the countryside of highwaymen1 converted enemies into neighbours1 created ideals of brotherhood under which the nations were united by common laws and unfettered marriage relations1 and so shaped a new religion that if it shattered an empire it yet became the mother of many nations4 ,we are the inheritors of ,roman civilization2 and if we have far surpassed it in scientific knowledge and material plenty1 we are not equally confident that we possess better mental balance1 or more complete social harmony4 ,in this direction the problems of ,roman life are the problems of ,western life to-day2 and the methods by which they were approached in the ,roman world deserve more than ever to be studied by us4 ,such a study1 if it is to be in any true sense historical1 must break through the convention by which ancient ,greece and ,rome have come to be treated as a world apart2 it must seek its starting point in the distant past1 and count that of chief importance which will bear fruit in the ages that follow4 ,sidenote3 ,beliefs of the ,romans4 #b4 ,great achievements are born of strong convictions2 and ,roman statesmen1 jurists1 soldiers1 and engineers did not learn to #8scorn delights and live laborious days' without some strong impulse from within4 ,these inner convictions do not come to the surface everywhere in the ,latin literature with which we are most familiar4 ,the ,roman orator or poet is generally content to express a conventional view of religion and morals1 whilst he conceals his real thoughts in a spirit of reticence and almost of shame4 ,yet here and there every attentive reader will catch the accent of sincerity1 sometimes in the less restrained conversation of the lower classes1 sometimes in flights of poetic imagination1 or again in instruction designed for the young4 ,in this way we learn that the ,romans of the last century of the republic and of the first century of the principate were profoundly concerned1 not so much with questions connected with the safety of their empire or the justice of their form of government1 as with problems in which all mankind has a common interest4 ,what is truth1 and how can it be ascertained8 ,what is this universe in which we dwell1 and by whom and how was it made8 ,what are the beings called gods1 and do they concern themselves with the affairs of men8 ,what is man's nature1 his duty1 and his destiny8 ,these the ,romans called the problems of philosophy1 and they eagerly sought for definite and practical solutions to them#a4 ,such solutions when embodied in theoretical systems we still call #8philosophies'2 but when such systems are developed in a practical form and claim the obedience of large bodies of men they become religions4 ,stoicism is in the first instance a philosophy1 and amongst its many competitors that one which appealed most successfully to the judgment of men who played a leading part in the ,roman world2 but as its acceptance becomes more general1 it begins to assume all the features of a religion4 ,all ,latin literature is thickly strewn with allusions to ,stoicism and the systems which were its rivals1 and thus bears witness to the widespread interest which they excited4 ,sidenote3 ,origin of ,philosophy4 #c4 ,the ,romans learnt philosophy from ,greek teachers2 and they were not free from a sense of shame in thus sitting at the feet of the children of a conquered race4 ,but they acknowledged their obligations in a generous spirit2 and from ,roman literature an impression has arisen1 which is still widespread1 that ,greece was the birthplace of philosophy1 and that its triumphs must be placed to the credit of ,hellenic culture4 ,but to the ,hellenes themselves philosophy equally appeared as a foreign fashion1 assailing their national beliefs and dangerous to their established morality2 and of its teachers many of the most distinguished were immigrants from ,asia ,minor4 ,thus ,greece itself appears only as a halting-place in the movement of philosophy2 and we are carried more and more to the ,east as we seek to discover its origin4 ,yet at the time with which we are concerned it had also spread to the extreme ,west4 #8,the ,magi1' says ,aristotle1 #8taught the ,persians philosophy2 the ,chaldaeans taught it to the ,babylonians and ,assyrians2 the ,gymnosophists to the ,indians2 the ,druids and ,semnothei to the ,gauls and ,celts#b4' ,it was a world-wide stirring of the human intellect1 and we must attempt to outline its meaning more completely4 ,sidenote3 ,national and ,world-,religions4 #d4 ,philosophy1 in the sense in which ,aristotle uses the term1 appears to be a general name for a great change in man's intellectual attitude towards his environment1 corresponding to a definite era in the history of civilization4 ,before philosophy came nationalism1 the habit of thinking according to clan and race2 and nationalism remains on record for us in the numerous national religions in which each people does reverence to the deity which lives within its borders and goes forth to fight with its armies4 ,philosophy is at once broader in its outlook and more intimate in its appeal4 ,it breaks down the barriers of race1 and includes the whole world in its survey2 but on the other hand it justifies the individual in asserting his own thoughts and choosing his own way of life4 ,thus philosophy on its arrival appears in each particular country as a disintegrating force2 it strikes at the roots of patriotism and piety1 and challenges equally the authority of king and of priest4 ,but everywhere in turn philosophy1 as it gains ground1 begins to construct a new patriotism and a new piety1 and gradually takes concrete shape as a new religion4 ,to us1 as we look backwards to the past1 the track of philosophy is recorded by a series of religions1 all alike marked with the note of world-wide outlook1 reverence for reason1 and the sentiment of human sympathy4 ,the era of philosophy is the era of the world-religions4 ,it belongs to that millennium when from ,china to ,ireland men of good will and bold spirit realized that they all looked up toward one sky1 breathed one air1 and travelled on one all-encircling sea2 when they dreamed that before long all men should be united in one kingdom1 converse in one language1 and obey the one unchanging law of reason4 ,sidenote3 ,spread of the ,world-,religions4 #e4 ,the general importance and direction of this movement will best be seen if we select for consideration a certain number of the world-religions in which it was from time to time embodied4 ,aristotle has already called our attention to the #8philosophies' of the ,chaldaeans1 the ,persians1 and the ,indians2 amongst these last ,buddhism at least was a movement which had shaken off limitations of race and class4 ,to these he has added the ,druids1 whom we may well keep in mind if only because they are representatives of ,western ,europe4 ,stoicism best represents the part played by the ,greco-,roman world1 and ,judaism and ,christianity come under consideration as forces with which ,stoicism in the course of its history came into close contact4 ,the ,greeks little realized that they were being carried along in so mighty a stream4 ,regarding themselves as isolated and elevated1 the sole pioneers of civilization in a #8barbarian' world1 the beliefs of neighbouring peoples seemed to them beneath their notice4 ,to this prejudice they clung in spite of the protests of their own men of learning#c2 the ,romans inherited it from them2 and though the ,europe of the ,middle ,ages and of to-day professes an ,oriental faith1 its religious survey is still limited and its critical power impaired by the same assumption of superior wisdom4 ,our information is however wider than that of the ancient world1 and our sympathies are beginning to be quickened2 and we are thus in a position to trace generally the history of these seven religions4 ,in this work we shall use1 as far as possible1 the classical authorities1 supplementing them 7where deficient7 from other sources4 ,sidenote3 ,chaldaism4 #f4 ,the oldest of these philosophical or religious systems is that of the ,chaldaeans1 as the ,romans termed a pastoral1 star-gazing folk#d presumably identical with the people which1 in or about the year #bhjj ,b4,c4#e1 mapped out the constellations as we now know them1 traced the orbits of the planets#f1 and predicted their future movements4 ,this work was not carried out entirely in the spirit of modern science2 it was further stimulated by the belief that the skies displayed a written message to mankind4 ,but the nature of that message1 of which fragments are possibly embodied in the names of the constellations1 was not preserved to the ,romans by any tradition4 ,two principles seem to have survived1 those of the inexorable tie between cause and effect called #8fate#g1' and of the interdependence of events in heaven and on earth#h4 ,hence arose the hope of prophetic insight into the future2 and the people of ,babylon1 under ,chaldaean influence1 are said to have spent four hundred and seventy years in collecting observations of the history of boys born under particular combinations of the heavenly bodies#i4 ,we are not acquainted with the results of these observations2 but undoubtedly they established a profession of astrologers1 whose craft it was to observe the position of sun1 moon and stars at a man's birth or at some other critical hour1 and thence to deduce his future character or career4 ,these wanderers1 called by the ,romans #8,chaldaei' or #8,mathematici1' spread over all ,europe1 and founded a lucrative trade on men's fears and ambitions4 ,philosophers studied their methods1 and did not always entirely deny their validity#aj4 ,in society the astrologer is a common figure#aa2 he found his way to the chambers of princes#ab1 and was regularly consulted by conspirators4 ,the dramatic scene in ,walter ,scott's ,betrothed is as true in character to ,roman times as to the ,middle ,ages4 ,roman literature is full of allusions to the horoscope#ac4 ,but whether we attribute these practices to fraud or to self-deception1 there is every reason to believe that they only form a diseased outgrowth from a system which at an earlier time was of much wider import4 ,sidenote3 ,persism4 #g4 ,the popular expression #8magic' still recalls to us the system of which the ,magi of ,persia were the professed exponents1 and of which the ,romans had a knowledge which is to a large extent confirmed from other sources4 ,this system we shall here call #8,persism1' in order to free ourselves of the popular associations still connected with such terms as ,magism1 ,parsee-ism1 and so forth2 meaning by #8,persism' the teaching of ,zarathustra 7the ,latin ,zoroastres7 as it affected the ,greek and ,latin world4 ,persism has its roots in the older nationalism1 inasmuch as its deity is one who takes sides with his believer and brings him victory in war2 but on the other hand it grows into a world-religion because that which begins as a conflict between races gradually changes into a struggle between right and wrong4 ,it is based also on the ,chaldaean system1 in so far as it looks up to the heaven as the object of human reverence and to the sun1 moon and planets as at least the symbols of human destiny2 but here again the outlook is transformed1 for in the place of impersonal and inexorable forces we find a company of celestial beings1 intimately concerned in the affairs of men1 and engaged in an ardent struggle for the victory of the better side4 ,the meaning of ,persism and its immense influence on the ,greco-,roman world are still so little realized that it is necessary here to deal with the subject with some fulness4 ,sidenote3 ,zarathustra4 #h4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans refer to the teachings of ,zarathustra as of immemorial antiquity#ad2 whilst on the other hand the direct ,persian tradition 7existing in a written form from about the year #hjj ,a4,d47 ascribes them to a date #beh years before the era of ,alexander's invasion of ,persia#ae4 ,the best modern authorities incline to the ,persian view1 thus giving the date of about #fjj ,b4,c4 to ,zarathustra1 and making him roughly a contemporary of the ,buddha and ,confucius#af4 ,on the other hand considerations1 partly of the general history of religion1 partly of the linguistic and metrical character of such fragments of ,zarathustra's writings as still remain1 indicate a date earlier than this by many hundred years#ag4 ,zarathustra belonged to the tribe of the ,magi1 who maintained religious practices of which the nature can only be inferred from such of them as survived the prophet's reforms#ah2 in their general character they cannot have differed widely from those recorded in the ,rigveda4 ,in the midst of this system ,zarathustra came forward as a reformer4 ,he was deeply learned in the doctrines of the ,chaldaeans#ai1 and was an ardent student of astronomy#bj4 ,in a period of solitary contemplation in the desert#ba1 it was revealed to him that a great and wise being1 named ,ahura ,mazd1 was the creator and ruler of heaven and earth#bb4 ,upon him attend ,angels who do him service2 whilst the spirit of ,mischief and his attendants ceaselessly work to oppose his purposes4 ,ahura is the light1 his enemy is the darkness#bc4 ,the struggle between them is that between right and wrong1 and in it every man must take one or the other side4 ,his soul will survive what men call death1 and receive an everlasting reward according to his deeds4 ,after quitting the mortal body1 the soul will pass over the ,bridge of ,judgment1 and will there be turned aside to the right or to the left2 if it has been virtuous1 to enter ,paradise1 but if vicious1 the ,house of ,falsehood4 ,full of this doctrine1 ,zarathustra enters the court of ,king ,vishtspa1 and converts him and his court4 ,the monarch in turn sets out to convert the unbelieving world by the sword1 and the ,war of ,religion begins4 ,sidenote3 ,spread of ,persism4 #i4 ,we cannot trace the long history of the ,war of ,religion through its whole course1 but in the end we find that the ,religion has welded together the great kingdom of ,persia1 and its warlike zeal is directed towards establishing throughout the world the worship of the #8,god of heaven1' and the destruction of all images1 whether in the shape of men or of beasts1 as dishonouring to the divine nature4 ,in the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,babylon opposed the ,religion in the east1 and ,lydia in the west2 both fell before ,cyrus the ,great4 ,the fall of ,babylon set free the ,jews1 who accepted the king's commission to establish the ,religion in ,jerusalem#bd1 and 7at a rather later date7 in ,egypt#be2 on the other hand that of ,lydia exposed the ,hellenes1 a people devoted to idol-worship1 to the fury of the image-breakers#bf4 ,the battles of ,marathon and ,salamis checked the warlike advance of ,persism1 and the victories of ,alexander suppressed its outward observance and destroyed its literature and its priesthood4 ,but in this period of apparent depression some at least of its doctrines were winning still wider acceptance than before4 ,sidenote3 ,persism invades ,greece4 #aj4 ,the departure of the ,persians from ,europe was the signal for an outburst of enthusiasm in ,greece for the old gods and their worship with the aid of images4 ,yet1 unfavourable as the time might seem1 a monotheistic sentiment developed apace in ,hellas1 which we shall follow more closely in the next chapter#bg4 ,even ,herodotus1 writing as a fair-minded historian1 no longer regards the ,persians as impious1 but realizes that they are actuated by conviction#bh4 ,socrates was an outspoken defender of all the main articles of the ,religion1 to the horror of nationalists like ,aristophanes1 who not unjustly accused him of corrupting the loyalty of the youth of ,athens to the institutions of their mother city4 ,xenophon1 the most intimate of his disciples1 translated this bias into action1 and joined with the #aj1jjj ,greeks in a vain effort to re-establish the strength of ,persia3 he did not even hesitate to engage in war against his native land4 ,to him ,cyrus the ,persian was a greater hero than any ,homeric warrior or ,greek sage2 and from ,cyrus he drew the belief in the immortality of the soul which from this time on is one of the chief subjects of philosophic speculation4 ,sidenote3 ,persism welcomed in ,rome4 #aa4 ,the ,romans had not the same national motives as the ,greeks to feel an antipathy to ,persism4 ,for the doctrine of monotheism they had probably been prepared by their ,etruscan sovereigns1 and the temple of ,capitoline ,jove kept before their eyes a symbol of this sentiment4 ,but in the ,roman period ,persian sovereignty had receded to the far distance1 and the doctrines of ,persism only reached ,rome through the ,greek language and in ,greek form4 ,thus of the doctrines of the ,evil ,spirit1 the war between ,good and ,evil1 and the future punishment of the wicked1 only faint echoes ever reached the ,roman ear4 ,on the other hand the doctrines of the divine government of the world and of the immortality of the soul made a deep impression2 and ,cicero in a well-known passage repeats and amplifies the account ,xenophon gives in his ,cyropaedia of the dying words of ,cyrus1 which is doubtless to some extent coloured by recollections of the death of ,socrates3 #8,we read in ,xenophon that ,cyrus the elder on his death-bed spoke as follows--8,do not think1 my very dear children1 that when ,i quit you ,i shall no longer be in existence4 ,so long as ,i was with you1 you never saw my soul1 but you realized from my actions that it dwelt in this my body4 ,believe then that it will still exist1 even if you see nothing of it4 ,honours would not continue to be paid to great men after death1 did not their souls assist us to maintain their memory in freshness4 ,i have never been able to persuade myself that souls live whilst they are enclosed in mortal bodies1 and die when they issue from them2 nor that the soul becomes dull at the moment it leaves this dull body2 ,i believe that when it has freed itself from all contact with the body and has begun to exist in purity and perfection1 then it becomes wise4 ,further1 when the framework of humanity is broken up in death1 we see clearly whither each of its parts speeds away1 for all go to the elements from which they have sprung2 the soul alone is not seen by us either whilst it is with us or when it departs4 ,lastly nothing resembles death so closely as sleep4 ,but men's souls1 whilst they themselves sleep1 most clearly reveal their divine nature2 for then1 being set free from their prison house1 they often foresee things to come4 ,from this we may gather what their properties will be1 when they have utterly freed themselves from the fetters of the body4 ,if then this is so1 do reverence to me as a god2 but if the soul is destined to perish with the body1 still do reverence to the gods1 who guard and rule all this beauteous world1 and while so doing keep up the memory of me in loyal and unalterable affection40 ,so spoke ,cyrus on his death-bed#bi4' ,sidenote3 ,the manifold deity4 #ab4 ,the ,persian doctrine of the #8,angels' seems to have been very little understood either in ,greece or at ,rome1 but1 as we shall see in the course of this book1 it profoundly influenced the course of religious history4 ,the #8,angels' or good ,spirits of ,persism are1 from one point of view1 identical with the ,creator himself1 forms under which he manifests himself to men4 ,their names are all those of abstractions3 the ,good ,mind1 the ,best ,reason1 the ,desired ,kingdom1 ,holy ,humility1 ,salvation1 and ,immortality#cj4 ,on the other hand1 they gradually assume to the worshipper who contemplates them the appearance of separate personalities1 dwelling1 like the ,creator himself1 in an atmosphere of heavenly ,glory4 ,thus a system which is in principle strictly monotheistic gradually developes into one in which the deity is sevenfold1 as in the following hymn from the later part of the ,avesta3 #8,we praise the heavenly ,glory4 ,the mighty1 the god-given1 ,the praiseworthy1 the life-giving1 ,healing1 strengthening1 watching ,high above the other creatures4 ,the ,glory that belongs to the ,immortal ,spirits1 ,the rulers1 that act by a look alone1 ,the lofty1 all-powerful ones1 ,the strong servants of the ,all-wise1 ,that live for ever1 and work justice4 ,all seven have the same ,thought1 ,all seven have the same ,word1 ,all seven have the same ,deed4 ,one ,thought1 one ,word1 one ,deed1 one ,father and ,master ,the ,all-wise1 the ,creator#ca4' ,of these #8,angels' one was destined to play a considerable part in several of the world-religions2 namely that which the ,persians called the #8,best ,reason1' and which the ,greeks knew as ,wisdom 77 or the ,word 774 ,sometimes an aspect of the ,deity1 sometimes an emanation from him1 and then again a distinguishable personality1 this figure is again and again presented to our consideration4 ,the personification of abstractions appealed with special force to the ,romans1 for from the earliest periods of their history they had raised temples to ,faith 7fides71 ,concord 7concordia71 and other deified virtues2 and its character can perhaps best be appreciated by reference to the personification of ,light in ,christian hymnology1 both ancient and modern3 #8,hail1 gladdening ,light1 of his pure glory poured ,who is the immortal ,father1 heavenly1 blest#cb6' #8,lead1 kindly ,light1 amid the encircling gloom ,lead thou me on#cc4' ,sidenote3 ,sanctity of the elements4 #ac4 ,amongst the subsidiary1 but still important1 doctrines of ,persism1 is that of the sanctity of the four elements4 ,earth1 air1 fire and water are alike holy4 ,hence the dead must not be buried1 for that would be to defile the earth2 nor burned1 for that would be to defile fire#cd2 nor may any impurity be thrown into the water4 ,this respect for the elements often appeared to strangers as worship of them#ce4 ,between the elements they sometimes discriminated1 considering earth and water as more akin to darkness and the evil spirit1 but fire and air to light and the good spirit#cf4 ,the element of fire they held in special reverence1 so that at all times they have been called fire-worshippers#cg4 ,more careful observers have always recognised them as monotheists1 distinguished by a certain rapturous language in their description of the deity which they refused to picture in any concrete shape#ch4 ,they were also zealous that their teaching should find its expression in a healthy social and political life#ci4 ,in the education of the young they laid a special stress on speaking the truth#dj4 ,sidenote3 ,alexander in the ,east4 #ad4 #8,the ,gymnosophists taught philosophy to the people of ,india#da4' ,who are the teachers thus indicated8 ,an answer may be found1 though of a later date1 in ,plutarch's #8,life of ,alexander1' where he describes the meeting of ,alexander with some eminent gymnosophists1 who had stirred up opposition to his rule3-- #8,alexander captured ten of the ,indian philosophers called ,gymnosophistae#db2 who had been instrumental in causing ,sabbas to revolt1 and had done much mischief to the ,macedonians4 ,these men are renowned for their short1 pithy answers1 and ,alexander put difficult questions to all of them1 telling them that he would first put to death the man who answered him worst1 and so the rest in order4 ,the first was asked whether he thought the living or the dead to be the more numerous4 ,he answered 8,the living1 for the dead are not40 ,the second was asked1 8,which breeds the largest animals1 the sea or the land80 ,he answered 8,the land1 for the sea is only a part of it40 ,the third was asked1 8,which is the cleverest of beasts80 ,he answered 8,that which man has not yet discovered40 ,the fourth was asked why he made ,sabbas rebel4 ,he answered 8,because ,i wished him either to live or to die with honour40 ,the fifth was asked1 which he thought was first1 the day or the night4 ,he answered 8,the day was first1 by one day40 ,as he saw that the king was surprised by this answer1 he added 8,impossible questions require impossible answers40 ,alexander now asked the sixth how a man could make himself most beloved4 ,he answered 8,by being very powerful1 and yet not feared by his subjects40 ,of the remaining three1 the first was asked how a man could become a god4 ,he answered 8,by doing that which it is impossible for a man to do40 ,the next was asked which was the stronger1 life or death4 ,he answered 8,life1 because it endures such terrible suffering40 ,the last1 being asked how long it was honourable for a man to live1 answered 8,as long as he thinks it better for him to live than to die40 ,the king loaded them with presents1 and dismissed them#dc4' ,sidenote3 ,were the ,gymnosophists ,buddhists8 #ae4 ,in these #8gymnosophists' it is easy to recognise a type familiar to ,indian antiquity4 ,these men1 who have almost dispensed with clothing and know nothing of the luxuries or even the conveniences of life1 are nevertheless influential leaders of the people4 ,they1 like the ,persians1 have broken away from the old religions2 they talk lightly of the gods1 and do not guide their actions by any decrees supposed divine4 ,the sight of human sorrow fills them with sympathy for the ills of life1 and makes them doubt whether death is not the better choice4 ,their ethical standard is high1 and includes both courage and gentleness4 ,that they are ,buddhist monks is probable enough1 but not certain1 because ,india contained at this time many sects professing similar principles4 ,but the teaching of ,gautama1 the ,buddha or #8enlightened1' represents to us in the most definite form the nature of this propaganda4 ,it implies a revolt against national rivalries1 ritualist observances1 and polytheistic beliefs2 it is severely practical1 and inculcates obedience to reason and universal benevolence2 and it is spread from ,east to ,west by devoted bands of ascetic missionaries4 ,sidenote3 ,buddhist teaching4 #af4 ,the fundamental teachings of ,buddhism appear clearly in the traditional account of the ,sermon of ,benares3 ,this is the holy truth of ,sorrow2 birth is ,sorrow1 age is ,sorrow1 disease is ,sorrow1 death is ,sorrow2 to be joined with the unloved is ,sorrow1 to be parted from the loved is ,sorrow2 to lose one's desire is ,sorrow2 shortly1 the five-fold clinging to existence is ,sorrow4 #8,this is the holy truth of the ,origin of ,sorrow2 it is the thirst to be1 leading from birth to birth1 finding its pleasure here and there2 the thirst for pleasure1 the thirst to be1 the thirst to be prosperous4 ,this is the holy truth of the ,removing of ,sorrow2 the removal of the thirst by destroying desire1 by letting it go1 by cutting oneself off from it1 separating from it1 giving it no place4 ,this is the holy truth of the ,path to the ,removing of ,sorrow2 it is the holy ,path of eight branches1 which is called ,right ,belief1 ,right ,aspiration1 ,right ,word1 ,right ,act1 ,right ,life1 ,right ,effort1 ,right ,meditation1 ,right ,annihilation of ,self#dd4' ,specially characteristic of ,buddhism is that gentleness of temper1 instinctively opposed to all anger and cruelty1 which no provocation can turn aside4 ,we read in the ,dhammapada3 #8,hatred does not cease by hatred at any time2 hatred ceases by love2 this is an old rule4 ,let a man overcome anger by love1 let him overcome evil by good2 let him overcome the greedy by liberality1 the liar by truth#de4' ,sidenote3 ,buddhists and ,cynics4 #ag4 ,the doctrines of ,buddhism were not inculcated in ,india alone4 ,from the first it was a missionary religion2 and its emissaries must often have appeared in the ,hellenistic world1 promising #8to seekers after ,god eternal communion with his very essence1 to the weary pessimist eternal forgetfulness#df4' ,from contemporary ,indian inscriptions we learn of missionaries sent out by ,aoka1 the first great ,buddhist king of ,india1 #8with healing herbs and yet more healing doctrine'#dg to ,ptolemy ,,ii king of ,egypt1 ,antiochus of ,syria1 and others1 before the year #bej ,b4,c42 and this mission can have been but one out of many4 ,it thus appears very remarkable that we have no record of ,buddhist communities established in the ,greco-,roman world4 ,but if the name of ,gautama remained unknown to the ,west1 and his community had no formal adherents1 the manner of life of his apostles did not lack imitators4 ,in the ,cynic preacher the ,buddhist monk reappears4 ,in ,greek literature he is usually an object of ridicule2 his uncouth appearance1 his pitiable poverty1 and his unconventional speech give constant opportunity for the wit of his critics4 ,but the ,cynics carried with them not only the outward garb of the ,buddhist monks1 but also their lofty ethical standard1 their keen sympathy with human troubles1 and their indifference to purely speculative problems#dh4 ,in spite of the contempt heaped upon them 7or perhaps in consequence of it7 they gradually won respect and admiration as the sincere friends and helpers of the poor4 ,thus ,buddhism at its best is pictured for us in the sketches drawn by ,epictetus of ,diogenes and the ,cynic preachers of his own day1 of which the following are examples3 #8,did ,diogenes love nobody1 who was so kind and so much a lover of all that for mankind in general he willingly undertook so much labour and bodily suffering8 ,he did love mankind1 but how8 ,as became a minister of ,god1 at the same time caring for men1 and being also subject to ,god4 ,for this reason all the earth was his country1 and not one particular place2 and when he was taken prisoner he did not regret ,athens nor his associates and friends there1 but even he became familiar with the pirates and tried to improve them2 and being sold afterwards he lived in ,corinth as before at ,athens4 ,thus is freedom acquired#di4' #8,and how is it possible that a man who has nothing1 who is naked1 houseless1 without a hearth1 squalid1 without a slave1 without a city1 can pass a life that flows easily8 ,see1 ,god has sent you a man to shew you it is possible4 ,look at me1 who am without a city1 without a house1 without possessions1 without a slave2 ,i sleep on the ground2 ,i have no wife1 no children1 no praetorium1 but only the earth and heavens1 and one poor cloak4 ,and what do ,i want8 ,am ,i not without sorrow8 ,am ,i not without fear8 ,am ,i not free8 ,when did any of you see me failing in the object of my desire1 or ever falling into that which ,i would avoid8 did ,i ever blame ,god or man8 did ,i ever accuse any man8 did any of you ever see me with sorrowful countenance8 ,this is the language of the ,cynics1 this their character1 this their purpose#ej4' ,except that a simple form of theism has replaced the ,buddhist atheism1 there is hardly a word here that we might not expect from a ,buddhist monk4 ,sidenote3 ,stoicism4 #ah4 ,the ,stoic philosophy was founded by ,zeno of ,citium 7#cej-bfj ,b4,c474 ,although he lived and taught at ,athens1 his youth was spent in a city that was half ,phoenician1 and many of his most distinguished followers had a like association with the ,eastern world4 ,the system deals with all the great themes touched upon by ,chaldaism1 ,persism1 and ,buddhism4 ,like the first1 it insists that there exists an unchanging ,destiny1 according to which events throughout the universe are predetermined from all eternity4 ,like the second1 it sets up as claiming the worship and allegiance of men a ,supreme ,deity1 who governs the world with boundless power and benevolent will1 and is manifested to men as the ,logos or #8divine ,word4' ,in its interpretation of the physical universe it accepts as a first principle a living and creative fire1 ultimately identical with the deity1 and containing the germs of the whole creation4 ,it sees in the will of man an independent and divine power1 subject to no compulsion from without1 but attaining its highest and best by willing submission to the ,supreme ,being4 ,in its practical ethics1 though it does not advocate the suppression of all desires1 it so far agrees with ,buddhism as to hold that happiness is only found in the subordination of individual claims to the voice of universal reason4 ,finally1 its teachers are actively engaged in propagating its doctrines and guiding its disciples4 ,stoicism has1 in short1 the inward and outward characteristics of the other great movements we have described1 and may claim without presumption to be reckoned amongst the world-religions#ea4 ,sidenote3 ,comprehensiveness of the ,stoic view4 #ai4 ,if however we reckon ,stoicism amongst the world-religions1 we must not forget that of all of them it is the most philosophical1 and this in a double sense4 ,in the first place the founders of ,stoicism are conscious of the problems to which preceding schools of thought have endeavoured to find answers1 and attempt to reconcile or at any rate to bring into relation the answers which their predecessors have found4 ,secondly they are greatly occupied with intellectual problems1 and clearness of thought is to them almost equally important with rightness of thought4 ,the theory of ,fate which we have attributed to the ,chaldaeans is to the plain man irreconcileable with the doctrine of the government of the world by a ,supreme ,deity2 yet the ,stoics hold both dogmas4 ,the theory of the freedom of the human will is a limitation equally of the dominion of ,fate and of that of the ,deity3 the ,stoics maintain the freedom of the human will and refuse to admit the limitation of either power4 ,the ,persians maintained that the power of the principle of ,good was balanced by that of the principle of ,evil2 and from this they drew what seemed to be the legitimate conclusion that man may choose to obey the one or the other1 to do good or to do evil4 ,the ,stoics omitted the principle of ,evil altogether from their scheme1 and yet maintained the theory of the moral choice4 ,to understand the ,stoic system it is necessary to know exactly in what balance its different elements were maintained1 and to avoid identifying it with other systems1 ancient or modern1 which are more sharply cut4 ,thus when it is commonly asserted that ,stoicism on its religious side is ,pantheism1 the very brevity of this summary must create suspicion4 ,certainly the ,stoics frequently speak of the universe as divine2 but they hold with equal firmness the doctrines that the universe is governed by ,providence1 and that human perversity may thwart the divine purpose1 both being doctrines which in ancient as in modern times are associated with ,theism1 and held to be inconsistent with pantheistic views4 ,sidenote3 ,god and the #8,word4' #bj4 ,a similar difficulty confronts us when we ask whether the deity of the ,stoics is to be considered as personal4 ,all the terms commonly used in association with a personal deity are adopted by the ,stoics3 their god is ,lord and ,father4 ,but then they use with equal freedom terms commonly associated with materialism3 for the ,supreme ,being is to them body or stuff1 a primitive fire which converts itself by natural laws into every form of being4 ,for this reason the ,stoics are commonly called materialists1 and yet the main body of their teaching is contrary to that usually associated with materialism#eb4 ,further1 beside the personal and the material conceptions of the ,deity1 they adopted and developed a conception which exercised an extraordinary influence over other systems1 when they attributed the exercise of all the powers of deity to the divine ,word1 which from one point of view is the deity himself1 and from another is something which emanates from him and is in some way distinct4 ,thus the term #8,god1' which to children and child-like religions appears so simple1 is in the ,stoic system extraordinarily complex2 and its full content cannot be grasped without a willingness to revise the meaning of many conceptions which seem firmly established1 such as those of personality1 material1 and quality4 ,if we are to suppose that the ,stoic conception of the ,word arose ultimately from similar conceptions in ,hebraism or ,persism1 by which the voice of a personal ,god attained to a quasi-independent personality1 we must allow that the ,stoics made use of this term with a boldness and consistency which from the time of their appearance brought it into the forefront of religious and metaphysical controversy4 ,through the ,stoics the doctrine of the ,word passed into the systems of ,judaism and ,christianity1 to perform in each the like service by reconciling doctrines apparently contradictory4 ,of all the systems we may perhaps say that ,stoicism makes the fewest new assertions or negations1 but introduces the most numerous interpretations4 ,sidenote3 ,influence of ,stoicism4 #ba4 ,we have comparatively little means of judging of the influence of ,stoicism in the world of ,asia ,minor1 but incidentally we may infer that it was very considerable4 ,in ,athens the moral earnestness of its teachers found little response in public feeling1 whilst it laid the exponents of its tenets open to many a sharp thrust from keen critics whose constructive powers were after all inferior4 ,in ,rome itself ,stoicism took root rapidly4 ,the brilliant circle that gathered round ,scipio ,africanus the younger was imbued with its ideals2 ,cato1 the leading republican of the first century ,b4,c41 was a living representative of its principles2 and ,cicero and ,brutus1 with many others less known to fame1 were greatly influenced by it4 ,in the first century of the principate ,stoicism imparted a halo of heroism to a political and social opposition which otherwise would evoke little sympathy#ec2 in the second century ,a4,d4 its influence was thrown on the side of the government2 the civilized world was ruled under its flag1 and its principles were embodied in successive codes of law which are not yet extinct4 ,its direct supremacy was not long-lived2 for at the very time when a ,stoic philosopher sits in the seat of the ,caesars its followers seem to be losing their hold on its most important doctrines4 ,it came into sharp conflict with ,christianity on matters of outward observance2 but in the cores of the two systems there was much likeness#ed1 and from ,stoic homes were drawn the most intelligent advocates of the newer faith4 ,sidenote3 ,judaism4 #bb4 ,by ,judaism we mean here the way of thinking which was prevalent in the ,jewish world from the date of the return from ,babylon to that of the destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,judaism was of course by no means restricted to the soil of ,palestine2 it was carried by the diffusion of the ,jewish race to all the coasts of the ,mediterranean2 besides its national centre at ,jerusalem1 it included a great centre of learning at ,alexandria1 and its branches1 as we have seen#ee1 extended to the south of ,egypt4 ,the chief external impulse which affected it was the spread of ,persism4 ,the two systems agreed in their belief in a ,god of heaven1 and in their dislike to idol-worship2 and it can be no matter of wonder if one party at least among the ,jews readily accepted the more strictly ,persian doctrines of the ministry of angels1 the struggle between good and evil1 the immortality of the soul1 and the reward after death1 as well as such observances as the washing of hands#ef4 ,strong ,persian influence has been traced in the book of ,daniel#eg1 and as ,jewish speculation developed at ,alexandria1 it took up the use of the ,greek language1 and so came into touch with the influences that were moulding thought throughout ,asia ,minor#eh4 ,the most interesting and elevated production of ,alexandrine ,judaism is the book known as the ,wisdom of ,solomon1 probably composed in the first century ,b4,c4#ei ,sidenote3 #8,the ,wisdom of ,solomon4' #bc4 ,the author of this book1 whilst himself a firm adherent of monotheism1 shews a not altogether intolerant appreciation of those systems in which either the heavenly bodies or the elements seem to occupy the most important place3-- #a4 ,for verily all men by nature were but vain who had no perception of ,god1 ,and from the good things that are seen they gained not power to know him that is1 ,neither by giving heed to the works did they recognise the artificer2 #b4 ,but either fire1 or wind1 or swift air1 ,or circling stars1 or raging water1 or the luminaries of heaven1 ,they thought to be gods that rule the world4 #c4 ,and if it was through delight in their beauty that they took them to be the gods1 ,let them know how much better than these is their sovereign ,lord3 ,for the first author of beauty created them3 #d4 ,but if it was through astonishment at their power and influence1 ,let them understand from them how much more powerful is he that formed them3 #e4 ,for from the greatness of the beauty even of created things ,in like proportion does man form the image of their first maker4 #f4 ,but yet for these men there is but small blame1 ,for they too peradventure do but go astray ,while they are seeking ,god and desiring to find him4 ,wisdom of ,solomon1 xiii #a-f4 ,the same author rises to still greater heights when he personifies ,wisdom or ,philosophy as a ,spirit attendant upon1 and almost identified with the deity4 ,here his language resembles that of the ,avestic hymns1 describing the angels attendant upon ,ahura ,mazd#fj3-- #bb4 ,for there is in ,wisdom a spirit quick of understanding1 holy1 ,alone in kind1 manifold1 ,subtil1 freely moving1 ,clear in utterance1 unpolluted1 ,distinct1 unharmed1 ,loving what is good1 keen1 unhindered1 #bc4 ,beneficent1 loving toward man1 ,stedfast1 sure1 free from care4 ,all-powerful1 all-surveying1 ,and penetrating through all spirits ,that are quick of understanding1 pure1 most subtil3 #bd4 ,for wisdom is more mobile than any motion3 ,yea1 she pervadeth and penetrateth all things by reason of her pureness4 #be4 ,for she is a breath of the power of ,god1 ,and a clear effluence of the glory of the ,almighty3 ,therefore can nothing defiled find entrance into her4 #bf4 ,for she is an effulgence from everlasting light1 ,and an unspotted mirror of the working of ,god1 ,and an image of his goodness4 #bg4 ,and she1 being one1 hath power to do all things3 ,and remaining in herself1 reneweth all things1 ,and from generation to generation passing into holy souls ,she maketh men friends of ,god1 and prophets2 #bi4 ,for she is fairer than the sun1 ,and above all the constellations of the stars4 ,wisdom of ,solomon1 vii #bb-bi4 ,sidenote3 ,philo the ,jew4 #bd4 ,the fusion of ,greek and ,judaic modes of thought is most complete in the works of ,philo the ,jew 7c4 #bj ,b4,c4-#ed ,a4,d474 ,this writer in commenting upon the books of the ,old ,testament1 finds himself able by way of interpretation to introduce large parts of ,greek philosophies4 ,the place of ,wisdom in the writer last named is taken in his works by the ,logos or #8,word#fa'2 and the #8,word' is many times described as an emanation of the deity1 after the ,persian fashion#fb4 ,without anticipating the further discussion of this philosophical conception1 we may well notice here how characteristic it is of an age which paid boundless homage to reason1 and how it supplies a counterpoise to conceptions of the deity which are rigidly personal4 ,but ,philo is of still more direct service to the study of ,stoicism1 because he had so completely absorbed the system that1 where other authorities fail us1 we may often trust to his expositions for a knowledge of details of the ,stoic system4 ,another work of about the same period is the ,fourth book of the ,maccabees1 in which ,stoic ethics1 only slightly disguised1 are illustrated from ,jewish history4 ,in this fusion of ,hebraic and ,hellenistic thought1 unfortunately interrupted by political convulsions1 eminent modern ,jews have recognised the natural development of the teaching of the ,hebrew prophets#fc4 ,sidenote3 ,christianity4 #be4 ,the foregoing discussions will already have suggested that ,christianity is bound by intimate ties to the other world-religions2 though it is beyond our present purpose to examine the precise nature of those ties4 ,it is pre-eminently concerned with the breaking down of ,jewish nationalism1 and its constant appeal to #8the truth' is essentially the same as the appeal of kindred systems to #8wisdom' or #8philosophy4' ,the ,lord's ,prayer1 addressed to the #8,father in heaven1' and with its further references to #8,the ,name1' #8,the ,kingdom1' #8,the ,will1' #8temptation1' and #8the ,evil ,one1' reflects the principal conceptions of ,persism1 of which we are again reminded in the ,apocalypse by the reference to the #8seven spirits of ,god#fd4' ,the ,sermon on the ,mount has been1 not without reason1 compared to the ,buddhist sermon of ,benares4 ,with ,stoicism ,christianity has special ties1 both direct and indirect4 ,its chief apostle was ,paul of ,tarsus1 who was brought up in a city from which more than one eminent ,stoic teacher had proceeded#fe1 and whose ways of thinking are penetrated by ,stoic conceptions4 ,the most profound exponent of its theology 7the author of the ,gospel according to ,john7 placed in the forefront of his system the doctrine of the #8,word' which directly or 7more probably7 indirectly he derived from ,stoic sources4 ,the early church writers felt the kinship of thought without perceiving the historical relation4 ,to them ,cicero in his ,stoic works was #8anima naturaliter ,christiana'2 and they could only explain the lofty teachings of ,seneca by the belief that he was a secret convert of the apostle ,paul#ff4 ,parallelism between ,stoic and ,christian phraseology is indeed so frequently traced that it may be well to emphasize the need of caution4 ,it is not by single phrases1 often reflecting only the general temper of the times1 that we can judge the relation of the two systems2 it is necessary also to take into account the general framework and the fundamental principles of each4 ,sidenote3 ,druidism4 #bf4 ,of the systems named by ,aristotle far the least known to us is ,druidism4 ,it appeared to ,caesar and other ,romans to be the national religion of the ,gauls and ,britons1 exactly as ,magism appeared to the ,greeks to be the national religion of the ,persians4 ,but other evidence indicates that ,druidism was a reformed religion or philosophy1 not unlike ,persism in its principles4 ,the training of ,druidical students was long and arduous2 it claimed to introduce them to a knowledge of heavenly deities denied to the rest of the world1 and to reveal to them the immortality of the soul4 ,our best authority is the ,latin poet ,lucan3-- #8,to you alone it has been granted to know the gods and the powers of heaven2 or 7it may be7 to you alone to know them wrongly4 ,you dwell in deep forests and far-away groves3 according to your teaching the shades do not make their way to the still regions of ,erebus or the grey realm of ,dis below2 the same spirit guides a new body in another world2 if you know well what you say1 then death is but an interlude in life4 ,if not1 at least the peoples1 on whom the northern star gazes directly1 are happy in their illusion2 for the greatest of terrors1 the fear of death1 is nothing to them4 ,hence it comes that their warriors' hearts are ready to meet the sword1 and their souls have a welcome for death1 and they scorn to be thrifty with life1 in which they can claim a second share#fg4' ,druidism1 like ,stoicism1 seems to have prepared its adherents for a specially ready acceptance of ,christianity4 ,sidenote3 ,the goal not reached yet4 #bg4 ,the story of the world-religions1 with their countless prophets1 teachers1 confessors and martyrs1 has its tragic side4 ,we ask what was attained by so much study and self-denial1 such courageous defiance of custom and prejudice1 such bold strivings after the unattainable1 so many hardly spent lives and premature deaths1 and feel puzzled to find a reply4 ,to the problems proposed the world-religions gave in turn every possible answer4 ,some found life sweet1 others bitter2 some bowed before the inexorable rule of destiny1 others believed in a personal and benevolent government of the universe2 some looked forward to a life after death1 others hoped for annihilation4 ,their theories crystallized into dogmas1 and as such became the banners under which national hatreds once more sought outlet in bloodshed4 ,their adherents sacrificed everything in the hope of reaching certain and scientific truth1 and1 at the end of all1 religion still appears the whole world over to be in conflict with science1 and the thousand years during which ,wisdom was counted more precious than riches are often looked back upon as a time of human aberration and childishness4 ,it is not to be denied that thousands of noble spirits set out during this period for a goal that they never reached2 and those who are inclined to destructive criticism may plausibly characterise their enterprise as vanity4 ,sidenote3 ,the path still onward4 #bh4 ,it is the task of literary research to pierce through this limited view1 and to trace the real effect of philosophical effort on the life of individuals and nations4 ,all over the civilized world it raised a race of heroes1 struggling not for power or splendour as in the epoch of barbarism1 but for the good of their fellow-men4 ,it gave a new value to life1 and trampled under foot the fear of death4 ,it united the nations1 and spread the reign of law and justice4 ,where its influence has weakened1 the world has not changed for the better2 so that the very failures of the world-religions most attest their value4 ,india has relapsed from ,buddhism1 its own noblest work1 to its earlier creeds1 and they still bar its path against social progress4 ,europe1 no longer united by the sentiment of a catholic religion1 and increasingly indifferent to literary sympathies1 is falling back into the slough of frontier impediments and racial hatreds4 ,from all this there is no way out except in the old-fashioned quest of truth and good will4 ,sidenote3 ,estimates of ,stoicism4 #bi4 ,both in ancient and in modern times the importance of ,stoicism has been very variously estimated1 according as the critic has set up a purely literary standard1 or has taken into account historical influence4 ,to those who look upon philosophy as it is embodied in books1 and forms a subject for mental contemplation and aesthetic enjoyment1 the philosophies of ,plato and ,aristotle have always seemed of far higher rank4 ,as contributions to the progress of humanity1 in politics and law1 in social order and in the inventive adaptation of material surroundings1 they can hardly claim to approach any one of the systems discussed in this chapter4 ,but it is with no wish to depreciate the great masterpieces of ,hellenic culture that we now set against the criticisms of some of its ardent advocates the maturer judgment of writers who have approached with greater sympathy the study of the ,hellenistic and ,roman worlds4 #8,in ,plato and ,aristotle1' says ,zeller1 #8,greek philosophy reached its greatest perfection#fh4' #8,its bloom was short-lived#fi4' #8,greece was brought into contact with the ,eastern nations1 whereby it became subject to a back-current of ,oriental thought#gj4' #8,with the decline of political independence the mental powers of the nation were broken past remedy#ga4' #8,what could be expected in such an age1 but that philosophy would become practical1 if indeed it were studied at all#gb8' ,to minds of another temper it does not seem so fatal that #8philosophy should become practical4' #8,it should be insisted1' says ,prof4 ,mahaffy1 #8that the greatest practical inheritance the ,greeks left in philosophy was not the splendour of ,plato1 or the vast erudition of ,aristotle1 but the practical systems of ,zeno and ,epicurus1 and the scepticism of ,pyrrho4 ,in our own day every man is either a ,stoic1 an ,epicurean1 or a ,sceptic#gc4' ,the greatness of ,stoicism in particular was eloquently recognised by a ,french writer of the eighteenth century3 #8elle seule savait faire les citoyens1 elle seule faisait les grands hommes1 elle seule faisait les grands empereurs#gd6' ,with these tributes may be compared that paid by a writer who approaches the subject from the standpoint of modern philosophy and theology4 #8,stoicism has perennial fascination2 and there are not wanting signs that it appeals with special attractiveness to cultured minds at the present day4 ,it has both speculative and practical value2 its analysis of human nature and its theory of knowledge1 no less than its ethical teaching1 giving insight into the problems of the universe and the right mode of guiding life4 ,as an important stage in the march of philosophical thought1 and as a luminous chapter in the history of natural theology1 it solicits our attention and will repay our study#ge4' ,sidenote3 ,interpretative ,stoicism4 #cj4 ,judgments so contradictory reveal the fact that ancient divergencies of philosophic sympathies have their counterparts to-day2 and perhaps in studying and judging the systems of antiquity a little more is needed of the sympathy and interpretative elasticity which every man unconsciously uses in maintaining the political1 philosophic and religious views to which he is attracted by inheritance or personal conviction4 ,thus to understand ,stoicism fully a man must himself become for the time being a ,stoic4 ,as such he will no longer bind himself by the letter of the school authorities4 ,in many a phrase they use he will recognise an obsolete habit of thought1 an exaggerated opposition1 a weak compliance in the face of dominant opinions1 or a mistaken reliance upon what once seemed logical conclusions4 ,at other points he will see difficulties felt to which an answer can now easily be supplied4 ,at each step he will ask1 not so much what the ,stoics thought1 but what a ,stoic must necessarily think4 ,whilst constantly referring to the original authorities1 he will allow much to be forgotten1 and in other cases he will draw out more meaning than the writers themselves set in their words4 ,if he can walk1 boldly but not without caution1 on this path1 he will assuredly find that ,stoicism throws light on all the great questions to which men still seek answers1 and that to some at least it still holds out a beckoning hand4 ,,footnotes #a ,see below1 #dda4 #b ,diog4 ,l4 ,prooem4 #a4 #c ,gomperz1 ,greek ,thinkers1 ii p4 #afa2 and below1 #id4 #d #8principes ,chaldaei1 qui in patentibus campis colebant1 stellarum motus et vias et coetus intuentes1 quid ex his efficeretur observaverunt' ,gellius1 ,n4 ,a4 xiv #a1 #h4 #e ,sir ,e4 ,walter ,maunder1 in the ,nineteenth ,century for ,september #aijj4 #f #8quinque stellarum potestates ,chaldaeorum observatio excepit' ,seneca1 ,n4 ,q4 ii #cb1 #f4 #g ,this is well described by ,cicero1 translating from a ,stoic source3 #8cum fato omnia fiant1 si quis mortalis possit esse1 qui colligationem causarum omnium perspiciat animo1 nihil eum profecto fallat4 qui enim teneat causas rerum futurarum1 idem necesse est omnia teneat quae futura sint' ,div4 i #ef1 #abg4 ,it seems reasonable to suppose that this general conception of #8fate' or #8destiny' is deduced from the unchanging movements of the heavenly bodies4 #h #8videbis quinque sidera diversas agentia vias2 ex horum levissimis motibus fortunae populorum dependent' ,sen4 ,dial4 vi #ah1 #c4 #i #8aiunt quadringenta septuaginta milia annorum in periclitandis experiundisque pueris1 quicunque essent nati1 ,babylonios posuisse' ,cic4 ,div4 ii #df1 #ig4 ,i assume that the original tradition named the smaller number suggested above4 #aj #8duo apud ,chaldaeos studuisse se dicunt1 ,epigenes et ,apollonius ,myndius' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 vii #d1 #a2 #8,diogenes ,stoicus ,chaldaeis concedit1 aliquid ut praedicere possint' ,cic4 ,div4 ii #dc1 #ij4 ,seneca concludes against their authority1 observing 7i7 that a proper horoscope should include all the stars in the heaven at the moment of birth1 and 7ii7 that twins should always have the same fortune1 which is obviously untrue2 see ,n4 ,q4 ii #cb1 #f to #h1 ,ben4 vii #a1 #e4 #aa #8tu ne quaesieris 7scire nefas71 quem mihi1 quem tibi finem di dederint1 ,leuconoe1 nec ,babylonios temptaris numeros' ,hor4 ,c4 i #aa1 #a-c4 #ab ,see the interesting tale of ,thrasyllus and ,tiberius in ,tac4 ,ann4 vi #ba1 to which the author affects to give some credit4 #ac e4g41 #8seu ,libra seu me ,scorpios adspicit formidulosus1 pars violentior natalis horae1 seu tyrannus ,hesperiae ,capricornus undae1 utrumque nostrum incredibili modo consentit astrum' ,hor4 ,c4 ii #ag1 #ag-bb4 #ad #8,eudoxus1 qui inter sapientiae sectas clarissimam utilissimamque artem magicam intellegi voluit1 ,zoroastrem hunc sex millibus annorum ante ,platonis mortem fuisse prodidit3 sic et ,aristoteles' ,pliny1 ,n4 ,h4 xxx #b1 #a2 cf4 ,diog4 ,l4 ,prooem4 #b and #h4 #ae ,williams-,jackson1 ,zoroaster1 p4 #afa4 #af ib4 p4 #agd4 #ag ,k4 ,geldner1 ,encycl4 ,brit4 ed4 x1 article #8,zoroaster4' #ah ,williams-,jackson1 p4 #g4 #ai #8,magiam 444 cuius scientiae saeculis priscis multa ex ,chaldaeorum arcanis ,bactrianus addidit ,zoroastres' ,amm4 ,marc4 xxiii #f1 #cb4 #bj ,zoroastres #8primus dicitur mundi principia siderumque motus diligentissime spectasse' ,justinus1 ,hist4 ,phil4 i #a1 #i 7,williams-,jackson1 p4 #bcg73 #8astris multum et frequenter intentus' ,clem4 ,rom4 ,recogn4 iv #bg4 #ba #8tradunt ,zoroastrem in desertis caseo vixisse' ,pliny1 ,n4 ,h4 xi #ig4 #bb #8,ahura ,mazd created the paths of the sun and the stars2 he made the moon to wax and wane' 7,yasna #dc1 #c72 #8he made the light and the darkness' 7ib4 #e72 #8he is the father of the good' 7ib4 #df1 #b74 #bc #8 444 1 1 ' ' ,plut4 ,isid4 et ,osir4 #df4 #bd #8,thus saith ,cyrus1 king of ,persia3--all the kingdoms of the earth hath the ,lord1 the ,god of heaven1 given me2 and he hath charged me to build him an house in ,jerusalem' ,ezra i #b4 #be ,see the interesting papyri records recently discovered in ,elephantine1 and published by ,dr ,sachau of ,berlin4 ,a general account of them is given by ,prof4 ,driver in the ,london ,guardian for ,nov4 #f1 #aijg4 #bf ,cicero rightly appreciated the religious character of the ,persian invasions3 #8delubra humanis consecrata simulacris ,persae nefaria putaverunt2 eamque unam ob causam ,xerxes inflammari ,atheniensium fana iussisse dicitur1 quod deos1 quorum domus esset omnis hic mundus1 inclusos parietibus contineri nefas esse duceret' ,rep4 iii #i1 #ad4 ,so ,themistocles as represented by ,herodotus3 #8the gods and heroes grudged that one man should become king both of ,asia and of ,europe1 and he a man unholy and presumptuous1 one who made no difference between things sacred and things profane1 burning and casting down the images of the gods' ,history viii #aji 7,macaulay's translation74 #bg ,see below1 #da4 #bh #8,images and temples and altars they do not account it lawful to erect1 nay1 they even charge with folly those who do these things2 and this1 as it seems to me1 because they do not account the gods to be in the likeness of men1 as do the ,hellenes4 ,but it is their wont to perform sacrifices to ,zeus1 going up to the most lofty of the mountains1 and the whole circle of the heavens they call ,zeus3 and they sacrifice to the ,sun and the ,moon and the ,earth1 to ,fire and to ,water and to the ,winds2 these are the only gods to whom they have sacrificed ever from the first' ,history i #aca 7,macaulay's translation74 #bi ,cic4 ,sen4 #bb1 #gi to #ha1 after ,xen4 ,cyr4 viii #g4 #cj ,in the hymns of ,zarathustra we can only trace the beginnings of this system1 as in the following3 #8,all-wise ,lord1 all-powerful one1 and thou ,piety1 and ,righteousness1 ,good ,mind and the ,kingdom1 listen ye to me and prosper my every beginning' ,yasna #cc1 #aa4 #ca ,yasht xix #ae1 #af4 ,the translation follows ,geldner1 ,drei ,yasht aus dem ,zendavesta1 p4 #ae4 #cb ,ancient ,greek hymn1 1 translated by ,j4 ,keble4 #cc ,j4 ,h4 ,newman4 #cd #8,zoroaster taught the ,persians neither to burn their dead1 nor otherwise to defile fire4' ,xanthos 7,b4,c4 #dfe-dbe71 as quoted by ,nicolaus of ,damascus 7#ast century ,b4,c474 #ce ,see #aj1 note #bh2 ,strabo xv #c1 #af4 #cf #8,zarathustra said3--the earthly demon is water derived from earth2 the heavenly demon is fire mixed with air' ,origen1 contra haereses1 i col4 #cjbe4 #cg #8,the ,persians first worshipped fire as a god in heaven' ,clemens ,romanus1 ,hom4 ix #d f4 #ch #8,zoroaster the ,magian says3--,god is the primal1 the incorruptible1 the eternal1 the unbegotten1 the indivisible1 the incomparable1 the charioteer of all good1 he that cannot be bribed1 the best of the good1 the wisest of the wise2 he is also the father of good laws and justice1 the self-taught1 the natural1 perfect1 and wise1 the only discoverer of the sacred and natural' ,euseb4 ,praep4 ev4 i #aj4 #ci #8,from the writings of ,zoroaster it is inferred that he divided philosophy into three parts1 physics1 economics1 and politics' ,schol4 on ,first ,alcibiades1 p4 #abb ,a 7,williams-,jackson1 p4 #bca74 #dj #8,they educate their children1 beginning at five years old and going on till twenty1 in three things only2 in riding1 in shooting1 and in speaking the truth' ,herod4 i #acf4 #da ,see above1 #c4 #db ,alexander had reached the river ,hyphasis1 the modern ,bias4 #dc ,plutarch's ,life of ,alexander1 ch4 lxiv 7translation by ,aubrey ,stewart and ,george ,long1 ,london1 #ahib74 #dd ,mahvagga i #f1 #ai to #bb1 after ,h4 ,oldenberg1 ,buddha1 p4 #aci1 and the translation in ,s4 ,b4 ,e4 xiii pp4 #ie1 #if4 #de ,dhammapada i #e and xvii #abc 7,s4 ,b4 ,e4 x pp4 #e1 #eh74 #df ,mahaffy1 ,empire of the ,ptolemies1 p4 #afd4 ,these alternative interpretations of the doctrine of ,nirvana must not be accepted as uncontroversial4 #dg ,mahaffy1 ,empire of the ,ptolemies1 p4 #afc2 ,v4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,aoka1 p4 #agd4 #dh ,see ,gomperz1 ,greek ,thinkers1 ii pp4 #aee-afb1 and below1 #eb4 #di ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #bd1 #fd to #ff 7,long's translation74 #ej ib4 iii #bb1 #de to #ej4 #ea #8,the system that stood to ,pagan ,rome more nearly than anything else in the place of a religion' ,crossley1 ,m4 ,aurelius1 iv ,pref4 p4 xii4 #8,its history resembles that of a religion rather than a speculative system' ,rendall1 ,m4 ,aurelius1 ,pref4 p4 xv4 #eb ,see below1 #agc4 #ec #8,patricians1 as we call them1 only too often fail in natural affection' ,m4 ,aurel4 ,to himself1 i #ab 7,rendall's translation74 ,see also below1 #ddb1 #ddc4 #ed #8,dying1 ,stoicism bequeathed no small part of its disciplines1 its dogmas1 and its phraseology to the ,christianity by which it was ingathered' ,rendall1 ,m4 ,aurelius1 ,pref4 p4 xv4 #8,the basis of ,christian society is not ,christian1 but ,roman and ,stoical' ,hatch1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #agj4 #8,the post-,aristotelian period supplied the scientific mould into which ,christianity in the early years of its growth was cast1 and bearing the shape of which it has come down to us' ,o4 ,j4 ,reichel in his ,preface to the translation of ,zeller's ,stoics1 etc4 #ee ,see above1 #i4 #ef ,it is not admitted by the best authorities that the term #8,pharisee' is in any way connected with the name of #8,persian' or its modern equivalent #8,parsee4' ,but the resemblance in beliefs and habits is very striking1 especially if we contrast the ,pharisees with their ,sadducee opponents4 #8,the ,sadducees say that there is no resurrection1 neither angel1 nor spirit2 but the ,pharisees confess both' ,acts xxiii #h4 #eg ,d4 ,a4 ,bertholet1 #8,the value of the history of religions1' ,homiletic ,review1 ,nov4 #aijh4 #eh ,see ,fairweather1 ,background of the ,gospels1 ch4 vii 7on #8the apocalyptic movement and literature'74 #ei ib4 p4 #ccg4 #fj ,see above1 #ab4 #fa ,heinze1 ,lehre vom ,logos1 pp4 #bea1 #beb4 #fb #8,the ,logos is related to ,god as ,wisdom1 and is the full expression of the ,divine mind4 ,he is the sheckinah or glory of ,god1 the first-born ,son of ,god1 the second ,god' ,fairweather1 ,background of the ,gospels1 p4 #ceh4 #fc ,friedlnder1 ,die religisen ,bewegungen innerhalb des ,judasmus1 #aije4 #fd #8,there were seven lamps of fire burning before the throne1 which are the seven ,spirits of ,god' ,revelation iv #e4 #fe ,of these ,antipater of ,tarsus is the best known1 for whom see #aaj2 others are ,heraclides1 ,archedemus1 ,zeno of ,tarsus1 ,nestor1 ,athenodorus1 etc41 for whom see ,index of ,proper ,names4 #ff ,winckler1 ,der ,stoicismus1 p4 #b2 ,lightfoot1 ,philippians1 pp4 #bgj1 #bga4 #fg ,lucan1 ,phars4 i #deb-dfb4 #fh ,stoics1 etc41 p4 #a4 #fi ib4 p4 #aj4 #gj ib4 pp4 #ac1 #ad4 #ga ib4 p4 #ae4 #gb ib4 p4 #af4 #gc ,greek ,life and ,thought1 ,introd41 pp4 xxxvii1 xxxviii4 #gd ,montesquieu1 ,esprit des lois1 ii #bd4 #ge ,w4 ,l4 ,davidson1 ,the ,stoic ,creed1 p4 v4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,heraclitus ,,and ,,socrates4 ,sidenote3 ,greek thought4 #ca4 ,we have seen already that the great problems of which ,stoicism propounds one solution were agitated during the millennium which preceded the ,christian era alike in ,india1 ,persia and ,asia ,minor on the one hand1 and in ,greece1 ,italy and the ,celtic countries on the other4 ,to the beginnings of this movement we are unable to assign a date2 but the current of thought appears on the whole to have moved from ,east to ,west4 ,but just at the same time the influence of ,greek art and literature spreads from ,west to ,east2 and it is to the crossing and interweaving of these two movements that we owe almost all the light thrown on this part of the history of human thought4 ,the early history of ,stoicism has reached us entirely through the ,greek language1 and is bound up with the history of ,greek literature and philosophy#a4 ,but long before ,stoicism came into existence other movements similar in kind had reached ,greece2 and the whole of early ,greek literature1 and especially its poetry1 is rich in contributions to the discussion of the physical and ethical problems to which ,stoicism addressed itself4 ,from the storehouse of this earlier literature the ,stoics drew many of their arguments and illustrations2 the speculations of ,heraclitus and the life of ,socrates were especially rich in suggestions to them4 ,the study of ,greek literature and philosophy as a whole is therefore indispensable for a full appreciation of ,stoicism2 and the way has been made easier of late by excellent treatises1 happily available in the ,english language1 dealing with the general development of philosophic and religious thought in ,greece#b4 ,here it is only possible to refer quite shortly to those writers and teachers to whom ,stoicism is most directly indebted4 ,sidenote3 ,homer4 #cb4 ,although the ,,homeric ,,poems include representations of gods and men corresponding to the epoch of national gods and to other still earlier stages of human thought1 nevertheless they are pervaded by at least the dawning light of the period of the world-religions4 ,tales of the gods that are bloodthirsty or coarse are kept in the background2 and though heroes like ,agamemnon1 ,achilles1 and ,ajax move in an atmosphere of greed1 bloodshed1 and revenge1 yet all of them are restrained both in word and in act by a strong feeling of self-respect1 the or shamefastness which entirely differentiates them from the heroes of folk-lore2 in particular1 the typical vices of gluttony1 drunkenness1 and sexual unrestraint are amongst the things of which it is a shame to speak without reserve4 ,the gods are many1 and in human shape2 yet they are somewhat fairer than men1 and something of the heavenly brilliance in which the ,persian archangels are wrapped seems to encircle also the heights where the gods dwell on mount ,olympus#c4 ,gradually too there comes to light amidst the picture of the many gods something resembling a supreme power1 sometimes impersonally conceived as ,fate 71 71 sometimes more personally as the ,fate of ,zeus1 most commonly of all as ,zeus himself1 elevated in rank above all other gods#d4 ,thus ,zeus is not only king1 but also father of gods and men#e2 he is the dispenser of happiness to men1 #8to the good and the evil1 to each one as he will#f1' and the distributor of gracious gifts#g1 unbounded in power#h and in knowledge#i4 ,the gods again1 in spite of the many tales of violence attached to their names1 exercise a moral governance over the world4 #8,they love not froward deeds1 but they reverence justice and the righteous acts of men#aj'2 #8in the likeness of strangers from far countries1 they put on all manner of shapes1 and wander through the cities1 beholding the violence and the righteousness of men#aa4' ,whilst therefore the philosophers of later times could rightly object to ,homer that he told of the gods tales neither true nor worthy of their nature1 there was on the other hand much in the ,iliad and ,odyssey1 and particularly in the latter1 which was in harmony with philosophical conceptions4 ,it was not without reason that the ,stoics themselves made of ,ulysses1 who in ,homer plays but little part in fighting1 an example of the man of wisdom and patience1 who knows men and cities1 and who through self-restraint and singleness of purpose at last wins his way to the goal#ab4 ,from this starting-point the whole of the ,odyssey is converted into a #8,pilgrim's ,progress'2 the enchantress ,circe represents the temptations of gluttony1 which turns men into swine#ac2 the chant of the ,sirens is an allegory of the enticements of sensual pleasure4 ,sidenote3 ,hesiod4 #cc4 ,in ,,hesiod 7#hth century ,b4,c47 we find the first attempt to construct a history of the universe2 his ,theogony is the forerunner of the ,cosmology which later on is a recognised part of philosophy4 ,here in the company of the personal gods we find not only the personified lights of heaven1 ,sun and ,moon1 but also such figures as those of ,earth and ,ocean1 ,night and ,day1 ,heaven and ,hell1 ,fate1 ,sleep1 and ,death1 all bearing witness to the emergence of the spirit of speculation4 ,in ,hesiod again we first find the description of the #8watchmen of ,jove1' who are no longer the gods themselves as in ,homer1 but an intermediate class of beings1 corresponding to the ,persian angels and the of later ,greek4 #8,thrice ten thousand are the servants of ,zeus1 immortal1 watchmen over mortal men2 these watch deeds of justice and of wickedness1 walking all ways up and down the earth1 clothed in the mist#ad4' ,but it is in his ethical standards that ,hesiod is more directly a forerunner of the ,stoic school3 for neither the warlike valour nor the graceful self-control of the hero appeals to him1 but the stern sense of justice and the downright hard work of the plain man4 #8,full across the way of ,virtue the immortal gods have set the sweat of the brow2 long and steep is the path that reaches to her1 and rough at the beginning2 but when you reach the highest point1 hard though it is1 in the end it becomes easy#ae4' ,sidenote3 ,the ,orphic poems4 #cd4 ,between ,epic and ,attic literature stands the poetry of the #8,orphic' movement1 belonging to the sixth century ,b4,c41 and exercising a wide influence over various schools of philosophy in the succeeding centuries4 ,for an account of this movement the reader must look elsewhere#af2 here we can only notice that it continued the cosmological speculations of ,hesiod's ,theogony1 and in particular developed a strain of pantheism which is echoed in the ,stoic poets4 ,according to an ,orphic poet #8,zeus is the first and the last1 the head and the foot1 the male and the female1 ,earth and ,heaven1 ,night and ,day2 he is the one force1 the one great deity1 the creator1 the alluring power of love2 for all these things are immanent in the person of ,zeus#ag4' ,here amidst the fusion of poetry and theology we first see the budding principle of philosophic monism1 the reaching after a unity which will comprehend all things4 ,to the same school is attributed the doctrine that #8the human soul is originally and essentially divine#ah4' ,sidenote3 ,the ,hylozoists4 #ce4 ,to the sixth century ,b4,c4 belong also the earliest ,greek philosophers who are known to us by name4 ,in all of these the early polytheism is either abandoned or becomes so dim in its outlines that the origin and governing force of the universe is sought in quite other directions4 ,the philosophers of ,ionia busied themselves with the problem of the elements4 ,,thales of ,miletus was a man of many attainments2 he had travelled both in ,egypt and in ,babylon1 and was an active political reformer4 ,to him water was the primary substance1 from which all others proceeded and to which they returned#ai4 ,,anaximander of the same town was the first who undertook to give the ,greeks a map of the whole known world4 ,to him it seemed that the primary matter could not be the same as any visible substance1 but must be a protoplasm of undefined character 771 capable of assuming in turn all shapes#bj4 ,,anaximenes 7once more of ,miletus7 assumed air as the first principle1 and derived the other elements from it by processes of condensation 77 and rarefaction#ba4 ,but on one point all the ,ionian philosophers were agreed3 the primary substance was the cause of its own motion2 they were #8hylozoists1' since they hold that matter 77 is a living thing 774 ,they are from the standpoint of physics #8monists1' as opposed to those who hold matter and life1 or matter and force1 to be two things eternally distinct1 and are therefore #8dualists' in their theory#bb4 ,sidenote3 ,pythagoras4 #cf4 ,to the same sixth century belong two other notable philosophers4 ,,pythagoras1 born in ,samos about #ege ,b4,c41 and like ,thales1 one who had travelled widely1 left his native land rather than submit to the rule of a tyrant1 and founded in ,croton in ,lower ,italy a community half religious and half political1 which in its original form was not long-lived4 ,but a widespread tradition remained as to his doctrines1 in which the theory of ,numbers held a leading position4 ,pythagoras appears to have been a good mathematician and astronomer1 and followers of his school were at an early date led to the doctrines of the rotation of the earth on its axis and the central position of the sun in the planetary system#bc4 ,his name is also connected with the theory of the transmigration of souls1 which we may suppose him to have derived ultimately from some ,indian source2 and to the same country we must look as having suggested to him and his followers the practice of abstaining from animal food#bd4 ,sidenote3 ,xenophanes4 #cg4 ,if we looked merely to the theories of the philosophers1 it might seem as if the old mythologies and theogonies were already dead4 ,but in fact the battle was yet to come4 ,,xenophanes of ,colophon 7born circ4 #ehj ,b4,c47 witnessed in his youth the fall of ,ionia before the conquering progress of ,cyrus king of ,persia4 ,rather than submit to the power of the invader he adopted the life of a wandering minstrel1 and finally settled in ,elea1 in ,lower ,italy1 where he became the founder of the ,eleatic school4 ,but in his religious convictions he was whole-heartedly on the ,persian side4 #8,there is one ,god1 greatest amongst gods#be and men1 not like mortal men in bodily shape or in mind#bf4' ,thus the worship of many gods and that of images of the deity are alike condemned2 and it is probable that in this false worship he found the cause of his country's fall4 ,with the lack of historic sense which is characteristic of the zealous reformer1 he condemned ,homer and ,hesiod as teachers of immorality1 since they #8ascribed to the gods theft1 adultery1 and deceit1 and all acts that are counted shame and blame amongst men#bg4' ,with keen criticism he pointed out that myths as to the birth of the gods dishonoured them just as much as if they related their deaths2 for on either supposition there is a time when the gods do not exist#bh4 ,the conception of the deity formed by ,xenophanes seems to approach ,pantheism or ,nature-worship1 and so far to foreshadow the ,stoic deity2 but the fragments that survive of his works are insufficient to make this point clear#bi4 ,the successors of ,xenophanes did not inherit his religious zeal1 but they emphasized all the more the philosophic principle of an ultimate ,unity in all things4 ,sidenote3 ,heraclitus4 #ch4 ,with the opening of the fifth century ,b4,c4 we reach ,,heraclitus of ,ephesus1 a philosopher of the highest importance to us1 since the ,stoics afterwards accepted his teaching as the foundation of their own system of physics4 ,the varied speculations of the sixth century were all examined by ,heraclitus1 and all found wanting by him2 his own solutions of the problems of the world are set forth in a prophetic strain1 impressive by its dignity1 obscure in its form1 and lending itself to much variety of interpretation4 ,for the opinions of the crowd1 who are misled by their senses1 he had no respect#cj2 but even learning does not ensure intelligence#ca1 unless men are willing to be guided by the #8,word1' the universal reason#cb4 ,the senses shew us in the universe a perpetual flowing3 fire changes to water 7sky to cloud71 water to earth 7in rainfall71 which is the downward path2 earth changes to water 7rising mist71 and water to fire1 which is the upward path#cc4 ,behind these changes the ,word points to that which is one and unchanging#cd4 ,anaximander did well when he pointed to the unlimited as the primary stuff1 but it is better to describe it as an #8ever-living fire#ce4' ,out of this fire all things come1 and into it they shall all be resolved#cf4 ,of this ever-living fire a spark is buried in each man's body2 whilst the body lives1 this spark1 the soul1 may be said to be dead#cg2 but when the body dies it escapes from its prison1 and enters again on its proper life4 ,the #8,word' is from everlasting#ch2 through the ,word all things happen#ci2 it is the universal ,law which holds good equally in the physical world and in the soul of man4 ,for man's soul there is a moral law1 which can be reached only by studying the plan of the world in which we live#dj4 ,but of this law men are continually forgetful2 they live as in a dream1 unconscious of it2 it calls to them once and again1 but they do not hear it#da4 ,most of all it is needed in the government of the state2 for #8he who speaks with understanding must take his foothold on what is common to all2 for all human laws are nourished by the one divine law#db4' ,sidenote3 ,the ,word4 #ci4 ,the general import of the physical teaching of ,heraclitus1 and the indebtedness of the ,stoics to it1 have long been recognised3 the bearing of this teaching upon religion1 ethics and politics is a more disputable matter4 ,does ,heraclitus by the #8,logos' which he so often names mean merely his own reasoning and message8 is he speaking of the common reason of mankind8 or does the term suggest to him a metaphysical abstraction1 a divine power through which the world is created and governed8 ,for the fuller meaning we have analogies in the beliefs of ,persism before ,heraclitus1 and of ,stoics1 ,judaists1 and ,christians afterwards4 ,the latest commentator1 adopting this explanation1 sums it up in three propositions3 first1 the #8,logos' is eternal1 being both pre-existent and everlasting1 like the world-god of ,xenophanes2 secondly1 all things both in the material and in the spiritual world happen through the #8,logos'2 it is a cosmic principle1 #8common' or #8universal'2 and in the third place1 it is the duty of man to obey this #8,logos1' and so to place himself in harmony with the rest of nature4 ,and accordingly1 in agreement with many recent writers1 he adopts the translation #8the ,word' as on the whole the most adequate#dc4 ,even the ,romans found it impossible to translate by any single word1 and they therefore adopted the phrase ratio et oratio 7reason and speech72 in modern language it seems clearly to include also the broad notion of #8,universal ,law' or the #8,laws of ,nature4' ,if we can rightly attribute to ,heraclitus all that is thus included in the interpretation of this one word1 he certainly stands out as a great creative power in ,greek philosophy1 harmonizing by bold generalizations such diverse provinces as those of physics1 religion1 and ethics2 #8he was the first in ,greece1 we must understand to build bridges1 which have never since been destroyed1 between the natural and the spiritual life#dd4' ,it is to the ,stoics almost alone that we owe it that teaching so suggestive and so practical was converted into a powerful social and intellectual force4 ,sidenote3 ,zarathustra and ,heraclitus4 #dj4 ,the prominence given to fire in the system of ,heraclitus has very naturally suggested that his doctrine is borrowed from that of ,zarathustra#de4 ,the historical circumstances are not unfavourable to this suggestion4 ,ionia was conquered in turn by ,cyrus and ,darius1 and definitely annexed by ,persia about #dif ,b4,c41 that is1 at the very time at which ,heraclitus taught4 ,moreover the ,persian invasion was akin to a religious crusade1 and had for a principal aim the stamping out of the idle and superstitious habit of worshipping images1 by which 7according to the ,persians7 the true ,god was dishonoured4 ,the elevated character of the ,persian religion could hardly fail to attract learned ,greeks1 already dissatisfied with the crude mythology of their own people4 ,further1 the resemblance between the teaching of ,zarathustra and that of ,heraclitus is not restricted to the language used of the divine fire2 the doctrines of an all-creating1 all-pervading ,wisdom1 the or ,word1 and of the distinction between the immortal soul and the corruptible body1 are common to both4 ,but the differences between the two systems are almost equally striking4 ,heraclitus is a monist2 according to him all existences are ultimately one4 ,zarathustra taught a principle of ,evil1 everywhere opposed to the ,good ,spirit1 and almost equally powerful2 his system is dualist#de;a4 ,zarathustra is not free from nationalism1 ,heraclitus is cosmopolitan4 ,in the ,ephesian system we find no trace of the belief in ,judgment after death1 in ,heaven1 or in ,hell4 ,we may in fact well believe that ,heraclitus was acquainted with ,zoroastrianism and influenced by it1 but we have not the means to determine what the extent of that influence was4 ,it is related of him that he received 7but declined7 an invitation to the court of ,darius2 and that his dead body was given up to be torn to pieces by dogs in the ,persian fashion#de;b4 ,sidenote3 ,the tragedians4 #da4 ,the development of philosophic thought at ,athens was1 as we have noticed1 much complicated by the political relations of ,greece to ,persia4 ,although the ,persian empire had absorbed ,asia ,minor1 it was decisively repulsed in its attacks on ,greece proper4 ,athens was the centre of the resistance to it1 and the chief glory of the victories of ,marathon 7#dij ,b4,c47 and ,salamis 7#dhj ,b4,c47 fell to ,athenian statesmen and warriors4 ,by these successes the ,hellenes not only maintained their political independence1 but saved the images of their gods from imminent destruction4 ,a revival of polytheistic zeal took place1 as might have been expected4 ,the wealth and skill of ,greece were ungrudgingly expended in the achievement of masterpieces of the sculptor's art1 and their housing in magnificent temples4 ,but even so religious doctrines strikingly similar to those of the ,persians gained ground4 ,the same ,aeschylus who 7in his ,persae7 celebrates the defeat of the national enemy1 a few years later 7in his ,agamemnon7 questions whether the ,supreme ,ruler be really pleased with the ,greek title of ,zeus1 and the ,greek method of worshipping him#df4 ,his more conservative successor ,sophocles was contented1 in the spirit of the ,homeric bards1 to eliminate from the old myths all that seemed unworthy of the divine nature4 ,euripides adopts a bolder tone4 ,reproducing the old mythology with exact fidelity1 he #8assails the resulting picture of the gods with scathing censure and flat contradiction#dg4' ,with equal vigour he attacks the privileges of noble birth1 and defends the rights of the slave2 he has a keen sympathy for all the misfortunes that dog man's life2 but his ethical teaching in no way derives its sanction from any theology4 ,the ,hellenes have lost confidence in their inherited outlook on the world4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,sophists4 #db4 ,the same problems which the poets discussed in the city theatre were during the fifth century ,b4,c4 the themes of a class of men now becoming so numerous as to form the nucleus of a new profession4 ,these were the #8sophists1' who combined the functions now performed partly by the university professor1 partly by the public journalist#dh4 ,dependent for their livelihood upon the fees of such pupils as they could attract1 and therefore sensitive enough to the applause of the moment1 they were distinguished from the philosophers by a closer touch with the public opinion of the day1 and a keener desire for immediate results4 ,their contribution to philosophic progress was considerable4 ,cultivating with particular care the art of words1 they created a medium by which philosophic thought could reach the crowd of men of average education2 eager advocates of virtue and political progress1 they gave new hopes to a people which1 in spite of its material successes1 was beginning to despair because of the decay of its old moral and civic principles4 ,in ,,prodicus of ,ceos we find a forerunner of the popular ,stoic teachers of the period of the principate#di3 #8,a profound emotion shook the ranks of his audience when they heard his deep voice1 that came with so strange a sound from the frail body that contained it4 ,now he would describe the hardships of human existence2 now he would recount all the ages of man1 beginning with the new-born child1 who greets his new home with wailing1 and tracing his course to the second childhood and the gray hairs of old age4 ,again he would rail at death as a stony-hearted creditor1 wringing his pledges one by one from his tardy debtor1 first his hearing1 then his sight1 next the free movement of his limbs4 ,at another time1 anticipating ,epicurus1 he sought to arm his disciples against the horrors of death by explaining that death concerned neither the living nor the dead4 ,as long as we live1 death does not exist2 as soon as we die1 we ourselves exist no longer#ej4' ,to ,prodicus we owe the well-known tale of ,hercules at the parting of the ways1 when ,virtue on the one hand1 and ,pleasure on the other1 each invite him to join company with her#ea4 ,this tale we shall find to be a favourite with the ,roman philosophers4 ,the same ,prodicus introduced a doctrine afterwards taken up by the ,cynics and the ,stoics in succession1 that of the #8indifference' of external advantages as distinct from the use to which they are applied4 ,he also propounded theories as to the origin of the gods of mythology1 explaining some of them as personifications of the powers of nature1 others as deified benefactors of the human race#eb2 theories which later on were adopted with zeal by the ,stoic ,persaeus#ec4 ,to another sophist1 ,,hippias of ,elis1 we owe the doctrine of the #8self-sufficiency' of virtue1 again adopted both by ,cynics and ,stoics#ed4 ,,antiphon was not only the writer of an #8,art of ,consolation1' but also of a treatise of extraordinary eloquence on political concord and the importance of education4 #8,if a noble disposition be planted in a young mind1 it will engender a flower that will endure to the end1 and that no rain will destroy1 nor will it be withered by drought#ee4' ,sidenote3 ,the ,materialists4 #dc4 ,amongst the sophists of ,athens was counted ,,anaxagoras1 born at ,clazomenae about #ejj ,b4,c41 and a diligent student of the ,ionic philosophers4 ,but in his explanation of nature he broke away from #8hylozoism' and introduced a dualism of mind and matter4 #8,from eternity all things were together1 but ,mind stirred and ordered them#ef4' ,more famous was his contemporary ,,empedocles of ,agrigentum1 whose name is still held in honour by the citizens of that town4 ,in him we first find the list of elements reaching to four1 earth1 air1 fire1 and water2 and the doctrine that visible objects consist of combinations of the elements in varying proportions1 first brought together by ,love1 then separated by ,hatred4 ,just in so far as ,empedocles abandoned the quest after a single origin for all things1 his conceptions became fruitful as the basis of the more limited study now known as ,chemistry4 ,his work was carried further by ,,leucippus and ,,democritus1 both of ,abdera1 who for the four elements substituted invisible atoms1 of countless variety1 moving by reason of their own weight in an empty space4 ,this simple and powerful analysis is capable of dealing effectively with many natural phenomena1 and with comparatively slight alterations is still held to be valid in chemical analysis1 and exercises a wide influence over the neighbouring sciences of physics and botany4 ,when however 7as has frequently been the case both in ancient and modern times7 the attempt is made to build upon it a general philosophical system1 its failure to explain the cohesion of matter in masses1 the growth of plants and animals1 and the phenomena of mind1 become painfully apparent4 ,such attempts roughly correspond to the attitude of mind now called materialism1 because in them the atoms1 endowed with the material properties of solidity1 shape1 and weight alone1 are conceived to be the only true existences1 all others being secondary and derivative4 ,this materialism 7with some significant qualifications7 was a century later the central doctrine of ,epicurus1 and is of importance to us by reason of its sharp contrast with the ,stoic system of physics4 ,sidenote3 ,socrates4 #dd4 ,the value of these scientific speculations was not for the time being fully recognised at ,athens4 ,it was in the atmosphere of sophistic discussion1 not free from intellectual mists1 but bracing to the exercise of civic and even of martial virtue that ,,socrates of ,athens 7circ4 #dfi-cii ,b4,c47 grew to maturity4 ,he set to his fellow-citizens an example of the vigorous performance of duty4 ,as a soldier he was brave almost to rashness1 and took an active part in three campaigns4 ,as a magistrate he discharged his duty unflinchingly4 ,after the battle of ,arginusae the ten ,athenian generals were said to have neglected the duty of succouring certain disabled ships and the people loudly demanded that all should be condemned to death by a single vote4 ,socrates was one of the presiding senators1 and he absolutely refused to concur in any such illegal procedure#ef;a4 ,again1 when ,athens was under the rule of the ,thirty1 ,socrates firmly refused to obey their unjust orders#eg4 ,but when himself condemned to death1 he refused to seize an opportunity for flight which was given him2 for this1 he said1 would be to disobey the laws of his country#eh4 ,his private life was marked by a firm self-control4 ,athens was now wealthy1 and its leading citizens frequently gathered together for festive purposes4 ,socrates joined them1 but showed the greatest moderation in eating and drinking3 such a course1 he said1 was the better for health and also produced more real pleasure4 ,over the grosser temptations of the senses he had won a complete victory#ei4 ,his temper was calm and even2 he was not put out by the violences of his wife1 nor did he allow himself to break out into rage with his slaves4 ,his personal habits1 though simple1 were careful3 he did not approve any neglect either of bodily cleanliness or of neatness in dress4 ,thus ,socrates gave an example of a life of activity and self-control 7 72 and by his character1 even more than by his speculation1 exercised an influence which extended widely over many centuries4 ,sidenote3 ,his teaching4 #de4 ,the teaching of ,socrates is not easily reduced to the set formulae of a philosophic school4 ,but clearly it was focussed upon the life of men in the city and in the home1 and was no longer chiefly concerned with the phenomena of the sky or the history of the creation of the universe4 ,so ,cicero well says of him that #8,socrates called philosophy down from the heavens to earth1 and introduced it into the houses and cities of men1 compelling men to enquire concerning life and morals and things good and evil#fj'2 and ,seneca that he #8recalled the whole of philosophy to moral questions1 and said that the supreme wisdom was to distinguish between good and evil#fa4' ,he had no higher object than to send out young men1 of whose good disposition he was assured1 to take an active part in the affairs of the community1 and to this course he urged them individually and insistently#fb4 ,but it must not be supposed that he put on one side problems concerned with the acquirement of truth1 or with the constitution and government of the universe4 ,his views on these points carried perhaps all the more weight because they were stated by him not as personal opinions1 but as points upon which he desired to share the convictions of his neighbours1 if only they could assure him that reason was on their side4 ,sidenote3 ,reason the guide4 #df4 ,socrates more than any other man possessed the art of persuasive reasoning1 thereby making his companions wiser and better men4 ,first he asked that terms should be carefully defined1 so that each man should know what the nature is of each thing that exists#fc1 and should examine himself and know well of what he speaks4 ,next he introduced the practice of induction 7 71 by which men make larger the outlook of their minds1 understand one thing by comparison with another1 and arrange the matter of their thought by classes#fd4 ,by induction we arrive at general truths3 not however by any mechanical or mathematical process1 but 7at least in the higher matters7 by the use of ,divination1 that is1 by a kind of divine enlightenment#fe4 ,he who has accustomed himself to think with deliberation1 to look on the little in its relation to the great1 and to attune himself to the divine will1 goes out into the world strengthened in self-restraint1 in argumentative power1 and in active goodwill to his fellow-men4 ,most directly this method appeals to the future statesman4 ,of those who seek the society of ,socrates many intend to become generals or magistrates4 ,let them consider well what these words mean4 ,is not a pilot one who knows how to steer a ship8 a cook one who knows how to prepare food8 must we not then say that a statesman is one who knows how to guide the state8 ,and how can he know this but by study and training8 ,must we not then say generally that all arts depend on knowledge1 and knowledge on study8 ,do we not reach the general truths that #8virtue is knowledge' and that #8virtue can be taught'8 ,we may hesitate as to how to apply these principles to our individual actions1 and ,socrates will accuse none on this point2 but for himself he has a divine monitor which never fails to warn him when his mind is turned towards a course which the gods disapprove4 ,sidenote3 ,his dualism in physics4 #dg4 ,in the speculations of the ,ionian philosophers ,socrates could find no satisfaction4 ,but one day he discovered with pleasure the words of ,anaxagoras3 #8it is mind that orders the world and is cause of all things#ff4' ,thus he was attracted to a dualistic view of the universe1 in which matter and mind are in fundamental contrast4 ,in the beginning there existed a chaos of unordered dead meaningless matter1 and also mind1 the principle of life1 meaning1 and order4 ,mind touched matter1 and the universe sprang into being4 ,mind controls matter1 and thus the universe continues to exist4 ,the proof is found in the providential adaptation of the world for the life and comfort of mankind3 for it is only consistent to suppose that things that exist for use are the work of mind#fg4 ,he that made man gave him eyes to see with1 ears to hear with1 and a mouth conveniently placed near to the organs of sight and smell2 he implanted in him a love of his offspring1 and in the offspring a love of its parents2 and lastly endowed him with a soul capable of understanding and worshipping his maker4 ,for the divine power ,socrates uses quite indifferently the words #8god' and #8gods'3 but his belief is essentially monotheistic4 ,in the gods of the city of ,athens he has ceased to believe1 although he still makes sacrifices upon their altars in good-humoured conformity with the law1 and even adopts the popular term #8divination#fh1' though in a sense very different to that in which the official priesthood used it4 ,in the analysis of human nature ,socrates adopts a similar dualism4 ,man consists of body and soul3 the soul is lord and king over the body1 and indeed may rightly be called divine1 if anything that has touch with humanity is such#fi4 ,sidenote3 ,his pietism4 #dh4 ,the practical teaching of ,socrates was entirely dominated by his religious principles4 ,the gods1 he held1 know all things1 our words1 our deeds1 and the secrets of our hearts3 they are everywhere present and give counsel to men concerning the whole of life#gj4 ,the first duty of man is therefore to enter into communion with the gods by prayer1 asking them to give us the good and deliver us from the evil1 but not qualifying the prayer by any instruction to the gods as to what is good or evil2 for this the gods themselves know best#ga4 ,in these words then we may pray3 #8,zeus our king1 give us what is good for us whether we ask for it or not2 what is evil1 even though we ask for it in prayer1 keep far from us#gb4' ,in this spirit of what we should to-day call #8pietism' we must interpret his principle that #8virtue is knowledge#gc4' ,this not only asserts that no one can rightly practise any art unless he has studied and understands it1 but also that no one can rightly understand an art without practising it4 ,we say that there are men who know what is good and right1 but do not perform it2 but this is not so2 for such men in truth think that some other course is good for them4 ,only the wise and pious man has a right understanding2 others cannot do good even if they try#gd2 and when they do evil1 even that they do without willing it#ge4 ,in its application to politics the teaching of ,socrates came into collision with the democratic sentiments prevalent at ,athens4 ,to say the least1 ,socrates had no prejudice against the rule of kings4 ,he distinguished sharply between kingship and tyranny1 saying that the rule of one man with the assent of his subjects and in accordance with the laws was kingship1 but without such assent and according to the man's arbitrary will was tyranny4 ,but under whatever constitutional form government was carried on1 ,socrates asserted that those who knew the business of government were alone the true rulers1 and that the will of the crowd1 if conflicting with that of the wise1 was both foolish and impious#gf4 ,sidenote3 ,why ,socrates was condemned4 #di4 ,so teaching and influencing men ,socrates lived in ,athens till his seventieth year was past1 and then died by the hands of the public executioner4 ,this fate he might so easily have avoided that it seemed almost to be self-chosen4 ,his disciple ,xenophon expresses amazement that the jurors should have condemned a man so modest and so wise1 and so practical a benefactor of the ,athenian people#gg4 ,modern historians1 with a wider knowledge of human nature1 wonder rather that ,socrates was allowed to live so long#gh4 ,the accusers complained that ,socrates offended by disbelieving in the gods of the city1 introducing new deities1 and corrupting the youth of ,athens4 ,from the point of view of conservatively-minded ,athenians1 the charges were amply justified4 ,clearly ,socrates disbelieved1 not merely in the official gods of the city1 but also in the deities it worshipped most earnestly1 democracy and empire4 ,not only did he introduce new deities1 but it might fairly be argued that he was introducing the most essential parts of the religion of the national enemy1 ,persia4 ,daily inculcating these heretical doctrines upon young men of the highest families in ,athens1 he might well be the cause that the ,athenian state was less unquestioningly served than before4 ,that the heresies of ,socrates were soundly founded on wide observation and general truths could not be considered to make them less dangerous4 ,athens had already passed the time when its political power could be of service to its neighbours2 it had not reached that when it could be content with intellectual influence2 ,socrates1 just because he was in harmony with the future of ,athens1 was a discordant element in its present4 ,sidenote3 ,the companions of ,socrates4 #ej4 ,it is with difficulty1 and not without the risk of error1 that we trace even in outline the positive teaching of ,socrates4 ,the severe self-repression with which he controlled his senses was exercised by him no less over his intelligence4 ,in his expositions it took the shape of irony 771 that is1 the continual withholding of his personal convictions1 and obstetrics 771 the readiness to assist others in bringing their speculations to the birth4 ,thus he was a great educator rather than a great teacher4 ,for whilst he held that virtue alone was worthy of investigation1 and that virtue was essentially wisdom1 he professed to be entirely at a loss where to find this wisdom for himself2 he left it to his pupils to go out and discover the precious cup4 ,thus whilst men of all classes and with every variety of mental bias listened to his teaching1 not one was content with his negative attitude4 ,of the various suggestions which ,socrates threw out1 without committing himself to any one1 his pupils took up each in turn and endeavoured to construct out of it a system#gi4 ,these systems were in the sharpest possible contrast one with another1 but they have certain points in common4 ,all the teachers retained a strong personal affection and loyalty towards their common master2 each was convinced that he alone possessed the secret of his real convictions4 ,all of them held aloof from the physical speculations of which the ripe fruit was already being gathered in by the ,atomists4 ,the portal of knowledge was to all of them the right use of the reasoning power2 the shrine itself was the discipline of virtue1 the attainment of happiness1 the perfect ordering of social life4 ,such were the ,socratic schools1 in which philosophy was now somewhat sharply divided into the two branches of dialectics and ethics4 ,another century had yet to elapse before the rejected discipline of physics again established its importance4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,cynics4 #ea4 ,of the ,socratic schools three contributed directly to the ,stoic system4 ,of these the ,cynic school1 founded by ,,antisthenes of ,athens 7circ4 #ddj-cfe ,b4,c47 and developed by ,,diogenes of ,sinope1 is its immediate precursor4 ,the ,cynic masters inherited most completely the moral earnestness#hj and the direct pietistic teaching of ,socrates2 and for this reason ,antisthenes appears to have been the master's favourite pupil4 ,the lives both of these men and of their successors were marked by simplicity and self-abnegation1 and they devoted themselves with true missionary zeal to the reformation of moral outcasts4 ,the caricature of the figure of ,diogenes which was promulgated by his opponents and still lives in literary tradition needs constantly to be corrected by the picture which ,epictetus gives of him1 and which 7though not without an element of idealization and hero-worship7 shews us the man as he appeared to his own disciples4 ,the breach with the state-religion which was latent in ,socrates was displayed without disguise by the ,cynics4 ,antisthenes1 following in the track of the ardent ,xenophanes1 declared that the popular gods were many1 but the god of nature was one#ha2 he denounced the use of images#hb2 and he and his followers naturally acquired the reproach of atheism#hc4 ,equally offensive to the ,athenians was their cosmopolitanism#hd1 which treated the pride of ,hellenic birth as vain1 and poured contempt on the glorious victories of ,marathon and ,salamis4 ,nor did the ,cynics consider the civilization of their times as merely indifferent2 they treated it as the source of all social evils1 and looked for a remedy in the return to a #8natural' life1 to the supposed simplicity and virtue of the savage unspoilt by education4 ,thus they formulated a doctrine which especially appealed to those who felt themselves simple and oppressed1 and which has been well described as #8the philosophy of the proletariate of the ,greek world#he4' ,sidenote3 ,cynic intuitionism4 #eb4 ,the destructive criticism of the ,cynics did not stop with its attack upon ,greek institutions2 it assailed the citadel of reason itself4 ,socrates had renounced physics2 the ,cynics considered that dialectic was equally unnecessary#hf4 ,for the doctrine of general concepts and the exercise of classification they saw no use2 they were strict ,nominalists2 horses they could see1 but not #8horsiness4' ,in their ethics they held to the chief doctrines of ,socrates1 that #8virtue is knowledge1' #8virtue can be taught' and #8no one willingly sins'2 and they laid special stress on the #8sufficiency' 77 of virtue1 which to produce happiness needs 7according to them7 nothing in addition to itself except a ,socratic strength of character 7 7#hg4 ,but in reality they identified virtue with this will-power1 and entirely dispensed with knowledge2 virtue was to them a matter of instinct1 not of scientific investigation4 ,they appear therefore as the real founders of that ethical school which bases knowledge of the good on intuition1 and which is at the present time1 under ever-varying titles1 the most influential of all4 ,in practice1 the virtue which specially appealed to the ,cynics was that of #8liberty1' the claim of each man at every moment to do and say that which seems to him right1 without regard to the will of sovereigns1 the conventions of society1 or the feelings of his neighbour2 the claim made at all times by the governed against their rulers1 whether these are just or unjust1 reckless or farseeing4 ,sidenote3 ,limits of ,cynism4 #ec4 ,cynism is in morals what ,atomism is in physics2 a doctrine which exercises a widespread influence because of its extreme simplicity1 which is extraordinarily effective within the range of ideas to which it is appropriate1 and fatally mischievous outside that range4 ,nothing is more alien from ,cynism than what we now call cynicism2 the ,cynics were virtuous1 warm-hearted1 good-humoured1 and pious4 ,in their willing self-abnegation they equalled or surpassed the example set by ,buddhist monks1 but they were probably much inferior to them in the appreciation of natural beauty and the simple pleasures of life4 ,as compared with their master ,socrates1 they lacked his genial presence1 literary taste1 and kindly tolerance2 and they were intensely antipathetic to men of the type of ,plato and ,aristotle1 whose whole life was bound up with pride in their country1 their birth1 and their literary studies#hh4 ,sidenote3 ,xenophon4 #ed4 ,the ,cynics themselves seem to have made no effective use of literature to disseminate their views2 but in the works of ,,xenophon of ,athens 7#ddj-;circ4 #cej ,b4,c47 we have a picture of ,socrates drawn almost exactly from the ,cynic standpoint4 ,xenophon was a close personal friend of ,antisthenes1 and thoroughly shared his dislike for intellectual subtleties4 ,he was possessed of a taste for military adventure1 and his interpretation of ,socratic teaching entirely relieved him of any scruples which patriotism might have imposed upon him in this direction1 leaving him free at one time to support the ,persian prince ,cyrus1 and at another to join with the ,spartan king ,agesilaus against his own countrymen4 ,from adventure he advanced to romance-writing1 and his sketches of the expedition of the ,ten ,thousand ,greeks 7in which he took part in person7 and of the life of ,cyrus the ,great have an interest which in no way depends upon their accuracy4 ,the account which he gives of ,socrates in his ,memorabilia 77 is not always to be depended upon2 it is at the best a revelation of one side only of the historic philosopher2 but it is to a large extent confirmed by what we learn from other sources1 and is of special interest to us because of the great influence it exercised over ,latin literature4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,cyrenaics4 #ee4 ,in the opposite direction ,,aristippus of ,cyrene shared the sympathetic tone of ,socrates1 but could not adopt his moral earnestness or his zeal for the good of others4 ,he refused altogether the earnest appeal of ,socrates that he should take part in politics4 #8,it seems to me1' he says1 #8to show much folly that a man who has quite enough to do to find the necessities of life for himself1 should not be satisfied with this1 but should take upon himself to provide his fellow-citizens with all that they want1 and to answer for his action in the courts if he is not successful4' ,aristippus revolted altogether from the ascetic form in which the ,cynics represented his master's teaching1 and held that the wise man1 by self-restraint and liberal training1 attained to the truest pleasure1 and that such pleasure was the end of life4 ,the ,cyrenaics 7as his followers were called7 were the precursors in ethics of the school of ,epicurus2 and the bitter opposition which was later on to rage between ,stoics and ,epicureans was anticipated by the conflict between the ,cynics and the ,cyrenaics4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,megarians4 #ef4 ,the school of ,,euclides of ,megara swerved suddenly from these ethical interests and devoted itself mainly to the problems of dialectic4 ,from the ,socratic practice of classification it arrived at the doctrine of the ,one being1 which alone it held to be truly existent1 and which it identified with the ,one ,god proclaimed by ,xenophanes and his followers of the ,eleatic school4 ,to the ,megaric school we are therefore chiefly indebted for the assertion of the philosophical principle of monism2 the same school drew the necessary logical consequence1 that evil is not in any real sense existent4 ,from the ,eleatics the ,megarians further derived an interest in logical speculation of all kinds1 and they were greatly occupied with the solution of fallacies3 amongst the followers of this school we first meet with the puzzles of #8the heap' 7,sorites71 #8the liar' 7,pseudomenos71 and others upon which in later times ,chrysippus and other ,stoics sharpened their wits#hi4 ,,diodorus the ,megarian set out certain propositions with regard to the relation of the possible and the necessary which are of critical importance in connexion with the problem of free-will#ij4 ,finally ,,stilpo1 who taught in ,athens about #cbj ,b4,c41 and who made a violent attack upon ,plato's theory of ideas1 adopted an ethical standpoint not unlike that of the ,cynics#ia1 and counted amongst his pupils the future founder of ,stoicism4 ,stilpo enjoyed amongst his contemporaries a boundless reputation2 princes and peoples vied in doing him honour#ib2 but we have scarcely any record of his teaching1 and know him almost exclusively as one who contributed to form the mind of ,zeno4 ,sidenote3 ,advance of ,philosophy4 #eg4 ,with the school founded by ,phaedo of ,elis we are not concerned2 the consideration of ,plato and ,aristotle and their respective followers we must leave to another chapter4 ,we have already seen philosophy grow from being the interest of isolated theorists into a force which is gathering men in groups1 and loosening the inherited bonds of city and class4 ,so far its course has violently oscillated1 both as regards its subject-matter and its principles4 ,but its range is now becoming better defined1 and in the period that is approaching we shall find determined attempts to reach a comprehensive solution of the problems presented to enquiring minds4 ,,footnotes #a #8,stoicism was the earliest offspring of the union between the religious consciousness of the ,east and the intellectual culture of the ,west' ,lightfoot1 ,philippians1 p4 #bgd4 #b ,amongst the most important of these are ,th4 ,gomperz' ,greek ,thinkers 7transl4 by ,l4 ,magnus and ,g4 ,g4 ,berry1 ,london1 #aija-e71 and ,j4 ,adam's ,religious teachers of ,greece 7,gifford ,lectures1 ,edinburgh1 #aijh74 #c #8,most clear air is spread about it cloudless1 and the white light floats over it' ,hom4 ,od4 #f1 #df 7,butcher and ,lang's transl474 ,see also ,adam1 ,religious ,teachers1 p4 #ca4 #d #8,it is not possible for another god to go beyond1 or make void1 the purpose of ,zeus' ,od4 #e1 #ajc4 #e ,il4 #bd1 #cjh2 ,od4 #ad1 #djd4 #f ib4 #f1 #ahh4 #g ,od4 #h1 #agj4 #h ib4 #d1 #bcg4 #i ib4 #bj1 #ge4 #aj ib4 #ad1 #hd4 #aa ib4 #ag1 #dhe4 #ab ,see below1 #cbe4 #ac ,so already ,socrates understood it2 ,xen4 ,mem4 i #c1 #g4 #ad ,hesiod1 ,works and ,days1 #beb-bee2 and see below1 #bed4 #ae ib4 #bhi-bib1 quoted ,xen4 ,mem4 ii #a1 #bj4 #af ,for instance1 to ,adam1 ,religious ,teachers1 ,lect4 ,v2 ,gomperz1 ,greek ,thinkers1 bk4 i1 ch4 ii4 #ag ,orphic ,fragments1 vi #aj-ab 7fr4 #abc ,abel74 #ah ,adam1 p4 #aad4 #ai ,gomperz1 ,greek ,thinkers1 i pp4 #df-dh4 #bj ib4 #dh-ef4 #ba ib4 #ef-ei4 #bb ,the terms #8monism' and #8dualism' have recently become the watchwords of opposing armies of popular philosophers1 especially in ,germany4 ,in this book they stand for two aspects of philosophical thought which are not necessarily irreconcileable4 ,for without such contrasts as life and matter1 universe and individual1 right and wrong1 thought is impossible2 so far we are all #8dualists4' ,yet as soon as we fix our attention on these contrasts1 we find that they are not final1 but point towards some kind of ultimate reconciliation2 and to this extent all diligent thinkers tend to become #8monists4' ,similarly the broad monistic principle #8all things are one' is meaningless apart from some kind of interpretation in dualistic language4 #bc ,see below1 #ga1 #aie4 #bd ,gomperz1 i #abg4 #be ,this phrase does not express a belief in polytheism1 see ,adam1 p4 #bjd4 #bf ,xen4 apud ,euseb4 ,praep4 ev4 xiii #ac4 #bg ,xenophanes apud ,sext4 math4 ix #aic4 #bh ,id4 apud ,arist4 ,rhet4 ii #bc4 #bi ,on ,xenophanes see ,gomperz1 i pp4 #aee-afd2 ,adam1 pp4 #aih-baa4 #cj #8,eyes and ears are bad witnesses to men1 unless their souls have wit' ,heracl4 ,fr4 #d 7,bywater71 #ajg 7,diels74 #ca #8,much learning does not teach sense1 else it had taught ,hesiod and ,pythagoras1 ,xenophanes and ,hecataeus' ,fr4 #af ,b1 #dj ,d4 #cb #8,the ,word is common1 yet most men live as if they owned a private understanding' ,fr4 #ib ,b1 #b ,d4 #cc #8,all things move and nothing remains' ,plato ,crat4 #djb ,a4 #cd #8,listening not to me but to the ,word it is reasonable to confess that all things are one' ,fr4 #a ,b1 #ej ,d4 #ce #8,all things change with fire and fire with all things1 as gold with goods and goods with gold' ,fr4 #bb ,b1 #ij ,d2 #8neither ,god nor man created this ,world-order 771 which is the same for all beings3 but it has been and shall be an ever-living fire' ,fr4 #bj ,b1 #cj ,d4 #cf #8,the fire shall one day come1 judge all things and condemn them' ,fr4 #bf ,b1 #ff ,d4 #cg #8,whilst we live1 our souls are dead and buried in us2 but when we die1 our souls revive and live' ,sext4 ,pyrrh4 inst41 iii #bcj 7,fr4 #gh ,b1 #hh ,d74 #ch #8,this ,word is always existent' ,fr4 #b ,b1 #a ,d4 #ci ib4 #dj #8,there is but one wisdom1 to understand the judgment by which all things are steered through all' ,fr4 #ai ,b1 #da ,d4 #da #8,men fail in comprehension before they have heard the ,word and at first even after they have heard it4444 ,other men do not observe what they do when they are awake1 just as they forget what they do when asleep' ,fr4 #b ,b1 #a ,d4 #db ,fr4 #ia ,b1 #aad ,d4 #dc ,adam1 pp4 #bag-bbb4 #dd ,gomperz1 i p4 #fc4 #de ,see ,gladisch1 ,herakleitos und ,zoroaster2 ,ueberweg1 ,grundriss1 p4 #ci2 above1 #ac4 #de;a ,gladisch traces this dualism in ,heraclitus under the names of ,zeus and ,hades 7see his p4 #bf1 note #ci74 #de;b ,clem4 ,strom4 i #ad2 ,suidas1 s4 v4 ,herakleitos4 7,gladisch1 pp4 #fe1 #ge74 #df ,agam4 #aee-afa1 #afg-aga4 #dg ,gomperz1 ii p4 #ac4 #dh #8,half professor and half journalist--this is the best formula that we can devise to characterise the sophist of the #eth century ,b4,c4' ,gomperz1 i p4 #dad4 #di ,see below1 #abd1 #acj1 and #aca4 #ej ,gomperz1 i p4 #dbh4 #ea ,xen4 ,mem4 ii #a1 #ba to #cd4 #eb ,gomperz1 i p4 #dcj4 #ec ,see below1 #hi4 #ed ,gomperz1 i p4 #dcc4 #ee ib4 p4 #dcg4 #ef ,arist4 ,phys4 viii #a2 and see below1 #agc4 #ef;a ,xen4 ,mem4 i #a1 #ah4 #eg ,plato1 ,apol4 p4 #cb4 #eh ,plato1 ,crito1 p4 #dd sqq4 #ei ,gomperz1 ii p4 #dh4 #fj ,cic4 ,ac4 i #d1 #ae2 ,tusc4 disp4 v #d1 #aj4 #fa ,sen4 ,ep4 #ga1 #g4 #fb ,xen4 ,mem4 iii #g4 #fc ,xen4 ,mem4 iv #f1 #a2 ,epict4 ,disc4 i #g1 #aa4 #fd ,xen4 ,mem4 iv #e1 #ab2 ,arist4 ,met4 xiii #d4 #fe ,xen4 ,mem4 iv #g1 #aj4 ,the ,socratic must not be taken too seriously2 it is only one of many tentative suggestions for explaining the process of reasoning1 akin to our modern use of the term #8genius' in connexion with achievements in poetry and art4 #ff ,plato1 ,phaedo1 p4 #ig c4 ,the passage gives the impression of a real reminiscence2 at the same time its recognition as such implies that ,socrates was not consistent in disregarding all physical speculations4 #fg ,xen4 ,mem4 i #d1 #d4 #fh ib4 i #d1 #b4 #fi ib4 i #d1 #i1 and iv #c1 #ad2 ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #f1 #ah4 #gj ib4 i #a1 #ai4 #ga ib4 #gb ,plato1 ,alc4 ii #adc ,a4 #gc ,xen4 ,mem4 iii #i1 #d and #e4 #gd ib4 #ge 2 see ,plato ,prot4 p4 #cde ,d1 ,apol4 p4 #be1 ,xen4 ,mem4 iv #b1 #bj4 ,no one is willingly ignorant1 and no one does evil for any other reason than that he is ignorant of the good4 #gf ,in accepting generally the statements of ,xenophon as to the religious and practical teaching of ,socrates ,i am glad to find myself in agreement with ,adam2 ,gomperz on the other hand is more sceptical4 ,it should however always be realized that ,socrates himself veiled his positive opinions under the form of suggestions and working hypotheses or #8divinations4' #gg ,mem4 i #a1 #a4 #gh ,grote1 ,history of ,greece1 ch4 lxviii4 ,gomperz gives a very dramatic representation of the attitude of an ,athenian of the old school2 ,greek ,thinkers1 ii pp4 #id-ig4 #gi #8ex illius ,socratis variis et diversis et in omnem partem diffusis disputationibus alius aliud apprehenderat' ,cic4 de ,orat4 iii #af1 #fa4 #hj ,diog4 ,l4 vi #b4 #ha #8,antisthenes 444 populares deos multos1 naturalem unum esse dicens' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ac1 #cb4 #hb ,clem4 ,alex4 ,protrept4 p4 #df ,c4 #hc ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #bb1 #ia4 #hd ,see below1 #cjc4 #he ,gomperz1 ii p4 #adh1 referring to ,gttling's book1 ,diogenes der ,cyniker oder die ,philosophie des griechischen ,proletariats 7,halle #ahea74 #hf ,diog4 ,l4 vi #ajc4 #hg ib4 vi #aa4 #hh ,see ,plato1 ,theaet4 #aee ,e1 ,soph4 #bea ,b2 ,aristotle1 ,met4 vii #c1 #g4 #hi ,see below1 #afc4 #ij ,see below1 #bbj and #bba4 #ia #8hoc inter nos et illos ,stilbonem etc4 interest2 noster sapiens vincit quidem incommodum omne1 sed sentit2 illorum ne sentit quidem' ,sen4 ,ep4 #i1 #c4 #ib ,gomperz1 ii p4 #aif4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,academy ,,and ,,the ,,porch4 ,sidenote3 ,political changes of the #dth century4 #eh4 ,before a hundred years had passed since the death of ,socrates1 the face of the ,greek world had been completely changed4 ,athens1 ,lacedaemon1 ,corinth1 ,thebes1 which had been great powers1 had sunk into comparative insignificance2 their preeminence was gone1 and even of their independence but little remained4 ,throughout ,greece proper the ,macedonian was master4 ,but if the old-fashioned politician suffered a bitter disappointment1 and the adherents of the old polytheism despaired of the future1 there was rich compensation for the young and the hopeful4 ,petty wars between neighbouring cities1 with their wearisome refrain #8and the men they killed1 and the women and children they enslaved#a1' began to be less common2 internal and still more murderous strife between bigoted oligarchs or democrats began to be checked from without4 ,for the enlightened ,greek a new world of enterprise had been opened up in the ,east4 ,alexander the ,great had not only conquered ,asia ,minor1 and established everywhere the ,greek language and a ,greek bureaucracy2 he had opened the way to the far ,east1 and pointed out ,india and even ,china as fields for the merchant and the colonizer4 ,his work had been partly frustrated by the disorders that followed his death2 but if achievement was thus hindered1 hopes were not so quickly extinguished4 ,these new hopes were not likely to be accompanied by any lasting regrets for the disappearance of ancient systems of government now regarded as effete or ridiculous1 or of inherited mythologies which were at every point in conflict with the moral sense#b4 ,sidenote3 ,east and ,west4 #ei4 ,the same historic events which opened the ,east to ,hellenic adventurers also made the way into ,europe easy for the ,oriental4 ,as the soldier and the administrator travelled eastward1 so the merchant and the philosopher pushed his way to the ,west4 ,not merely in ,persia had ancient superstitions been swept away by reforming zeal2 the ,jews were now spreading from town to town the enthusiasm of a universalized religion which was ridding itself of bloody sacrifices2 and1 for the time at least1 the humane philosophy of the ,buddha was dominant in ,india1 was being preached far and wide by self-sacrificing monks1 and was inspiring the policy of great monarchies4 ,we find it hard to picture the clashing of ideals1 enthusiasms1 and ambitions which was at this time taking place in all the great cities of the old world2 but it is certain that in the universal excitement the old distinctions of ,greek and barbarian1 ,jew and ,gentile1 rich and poor1 free and slave1 man and woman were everywhere becoming weakened1 and community of thought and temperament were beginning to reunite on a new basis individuals who had broken loose from the ties of ancient society4 ,sidenote3 ,new schools of philosophy4 #fj4 ,during this fourth century ,b4,c4 the foundations were laid of the four philosophical schools which were destined to vie one with another for the allegiance of the ,roman world4 ,the ,socratic schools which we have already mentioned1 those of the ,cynics and ,cyrenaics1 did not perhaps altogether die out2 in particular the ,cynic missionaries appear to have been a social force until the second century ,b4,c4 ,but their intellectual basis was too narrow to admit of their effective transplantation to new soil4 ,at the end of the century each gave place to a new school1 which preserved the central doctrines of its predecessor4 ,the ,socratic paradoxes were handed on from the ,cynics to the ,stoics2 the doctrine that pleasure is the good was accepted by ,epicurus4 ,stoics and ,epicureans disputed with a bitterness as yet unequalled1 finding themselves just as much opposed upon the subjects of logic and physics1 which they introduced anew into popular philosophy1 as upon the questions of ethics on which their antipathies were inherited4 ,between them stood two schools which had meanwhile established themselves4 ,plato1 himself a companion of ,socrates1 founded the ,academy at ,athens about #chj ,b4,c42 and if he did not impress his own teaching upon it with absolute fixity1 still the school flourished under a succession of leaders1 always proud of the fame of its founder1 and rendering him at least a nominal allegiance4 ,from the ,academy branched off the school of the ,peripatetics1 founded by ,plato's pupil ,aristotle about #cej ,b4,c4 ,after ,aristotle's death this school gravitated towards the ,academics1 and in later centuries there seemed little difference1 if any1 between the two4 ,if ,stoicism may be called the child of ,cynism1 it largely drew nourishment from these two schools and their founders4 ,some account of the teaching of ,plato and ,aristotle is therefore needed here1 partly because of the great importance of both in the general history of philosophy1 partly because of their direct influence upon the subject of this book4 ,on account of the much greater prominence of the ,academy in the later history we shall often use this term to refer to the general teaching of the two allied schools4 ,sidenote3 ,plato4 #fa4 ,of all the companions of ,socrates far the most famous is ,,plato of ,athens 7#dbg-cdg ,b4,c471 the founder of the philosophical association known as the #8,academy4' ,in the general judgment of lovers of ,greek letters he stands out not merely as a great master of ,attic prose style1 but also as the ablest exponent of the true mind of ,socrates#c1 and the most brilliant light of ,greek philosophy#d4 ,on the first point this judgment stands unchallenged2 for delicate and good-natured wit1 felicity of illustration and suggestiveness of thought the ,platonic dialogues are unrivalled4 ,but it is only in his earlier writings that we can accept ,plato as a representative of ,socrates2 after the death of his master he travelled for many years in ,egypt1 ,lower ,italy1 and ,sicily1 and absorbed in particular much of the teaching of the ,pythagoreans4 ,the theory of #8ideas1' the special characteristic of ,plato's later work1 is not strictly ,socratic4 ,neither1 we must add1 is it of first-rate importance in the history of human thought2 from our point of view it lies apart from the main current both of speculation and of practice4 ,it was a still-born theory1 not accepted even by ,plato's successors in the control of the ,academy#e4 ,we are therefore very little concerned with the direct teaching of ,plato2 but all the more readily it should be acknowledged that the ,stoics were often indebted to him for help in the treatment of important details1 and that the ,platonic attitude remained for them a factor of which they needed continuously to take account4 ,sidenote3 ,plato's realism4 #fb4 ,a striking feature of the ,platonic dialogues is that their results are usually negative4 ,first the opinions of the crowd1 then those of ,socrates' contemporaries the #8sophists' and of the other ,socratic schools are subjected to a cross-examination1 under which they are one and all shewn to be unreasonable4 ,this cross-examination is quite in the ,socratic spirit1 and is before all things a mental gymnastic1 training the dialectician to observe with keener eye and to discuss with apter tongue than his fellows4 ,gradually there emerges from a mass of doubts something like a positive theory that ,plato is prepared to adopt4 ,the true reasoning is that of induction from the particular to the general1 from the individual to the class4 ,in the class name we come upon the true being of the individual1 and by a right definition of it we discern what each thing really is4 ,the #8idea1' which corresponds to the class name1 is alone really existent2 the individual is a more or less imperfect imitation of it 774 ,in this way ,plato found what seemed to him a solution of a difficulty which ,socrates hardly felt1 that of explaining the participation 77 of the particular in the general 7 or 74 ,thus where ordinary men see #8horses1' and ,antisthenes holds that they are right1 ,plato sees #8horsiness1' or the idea of #8horse4' ,in the language of medieval philosophy ,plato is a realist1 that is1 one who holds that our ,ideas are more than what men mean when they say #8mere ideas'2 that they are ,realities1 and have their being in a truly existing world2 and that in knowing them we know what is4 ,but just as ,plato holds that general conceptions are alone true and real1 so he necessarily maintains that objects perceivable by the senses are only half-real1 and that the ordinary man lives in a world of illusions4 ,thus the thoughts of the philosopher are separated by an abyss from the world in which men live and die4 ,sidenote3 ,god and the soul4 #fc4 ,upon the basis of the individual #8ideas' ,plato builds up by a process of classification and induction higher and smaller classes of ideas1 until we begin to see the vision of a single idea1 a class which includes all classes1 a supreme #8being' from which all being is derived4 ,this highest idea is variously suggested by the names #8the ,good1' #8the ,beautiful1' #8the ,one4' ,by a sudden transformation it becomes the ,creator 77 of the universe4 ,containing in itself all being1 it needs for its operation some kind of formless and inert matter2 for this the name 1 #8the unlimited1' is taken from ,anaximander4 ,the whole created universe may be considered as the joint production of the #8idea' and the #8unlimited'2 and the cosmology of ,anaxagoras1 #8all things were together1 and mind came and ordered them1' is substantially justified4 ,the world thus created is both good and beautiful1 for it is made by a good ,creator on the best of patterns4 ,the human soul is of triple nature4 ,the highest part1 the rational soul 7 71 is seated in the head2 the emotional soul 7 7 in the heart2 the appetitive soul 7 7 in the belly4 ,over these two lower souls the reasoning part should hold control1 as a driver over two unruly steeds#f4 ,the rational soul has existed before birth1 and may hope for immortality1 for it is knit up with the idea of #8being4' ,ultimately it may even attain to perfection1 if it is purified as by fire from baser elements that have attached themselves to it4 ,sidenote3 ,ethics and ,politics4 #fd4 ,plato himself does not formulate an ethical ideal of the same precision that his successors used1 but we infer from his works a goal towards which he points4 ,thus the ethical end for each man is the greatest possible participation in the idea of the good1 the closest attainable imitation of the deity4 ,the virtue of each part of the human soul lies in the fit performance of its proper work2 that of the reasoning soul is ,wisdom 772 of the emotional soul ,courage 772 of the appetitive soul ,soberness 774 ,over all 7it is hinted rather than stated7 rules the supreme virtue of ,justice 771 assigning to each part its proper function4 ,thus the four cardinal virtues are deduced as a practical application from the ,platonic psychology4 ,the high position assigned to ,justice leads up to the practical doctrine of ,moderation 772 even the virtues are restricted both in their intensity and in their spheres of work1 and if any virtue passes its proper limit it becomes changed into the vice that borders on it4 ,thus the ideal of practical life is the #8moderate man1' calm1 considerate1 and self-respecting1 touched with a warm flow of feeling1 but never carried away into excitement2 and even this ideal is strictly subordinate to that of the life of philosophic contemplation4 ,the ideal ,state is modelled on the individual man4 ,to the three parts of the soul correspond three classes of citizens2 the rulers1 whose virtue is ,wisdom2 the guardians1 on whom ,courage is incumbent2 the labourers and tradesmen1 who owe the ,state ,soberness and obedience4 ,thus the political system to which ,plato leans is that of an ,aristocracy2 for the middle class in his state has only an executive part in the government1 and the lower orders are entirely excluded from it4 ,sidenote3 ,aristotle4 #fe4 ,by far the greatest of ,plato's pupils was ,,aristotle of ,stagira 7#chd-cbb ,b4,c471 who introduced into philosophy1 now convulsed by the disputes of the disciples of ,socrates1 a spirit of reconciliation4 ,from his point of view the various contentions are not so much erroneous as defective4 ,to attain the truth we need first to collect the various opinions that are commonly held1 and then to seek the reconciling formula of which each one is a partial statement4 ,sidenote3 ,the ten categories4 #ff4 ,in his investigation ,aristotle did not altogether break with ,plato's theory of ideas1 but brought them from a transcendental world into touch with common life4 ,he held fast to the method of induction 77 from the particular to the general1 and agreed that we reach the true nature of each thing when we have determined the class-conception4 ,but the class-conception or idea 771 though the most real existence1 does not exist independently1 but only in and through the particulars1 which compose the class4 ,having thus come to see that there are gradations of existence1 we need to inquire what these are2 and to classify the various kinds of judgment with regard to which we inquire whether they are true or false4 ,now by observation we find that judgments or predications have ten different shapes1 to which therefore there must correspond ten kinds of existence4 ,these are the well-known #8categories' of ,aristotle1 and are as follows3 7i7 #8substance1' as when we say #8this is a man1' #8a horse'2 7ii7 #8quantity1' as that he is #8six feet high'2 7iii7 #8quality1' as #8a grammarian'2 7iv7 #8relation1' as #8twice as much'2 7v7 #8place1' as #8at ,athens'2 7vi7 #8time1' as #8last year'2 7vii7 #8position1' as #8lying down'2 7viii7 #8possession1' as #8with a sword'2 7ix7 #8action1' as #8cuts'2 and 7x7 #8passion1' as #8is cut' or #8is burned4' ,aristotle thus reinstates the credit of the common man2 he it is who possesses the substance of truth and gives it habitual expression by speech1 even roughly indicating the various kinds of existence by different forms of words4 ,it is now indicated that a study of grammar is required as the foundation of logic4 ,aristotle also greatly advanced the study of that kind of reasoning which proceeds from the general to the particular1 and which is best expressed in terms of the #8syllogism' 771 of which he defined the various forms4 ,sidenote3 ,the four causes4 #fg4 ,in the study of physics ,aristotle picks up the thread which ,socrates had dropped deliberately1 that is1 the teaching of the ,ionic philosophers4 ,either directly from ,empedocles1 or from a consensus of opinion now fairly established1 he accepted the doctrine of the four elements 771 earth1 water1 air1 and fire2 but to these he added a fifth 7 1 quinta essentia71 the aether1 which fills the celestial spaces4 ,behind this analysis lies the more important problem of cosmology1 the question how this world comes to be4 ,collecting once more the opinions commonly held1 ,aristotle concludes that four questions are usually asked1 and that in them the search is being made for four #8causes1' which will solve the respective questions4 ,the four causes are3 7i7 the ,creator1 or #8efficient cause1' answering the question2--,who made the world8 7ii7 the ,substance1 or #8material cause'2--of what did he make it8 7iii7 the ,plan1 or #8modal cause'2--according to what design8 7iv7 the ,end1 or #8final cause'2--for what purpose8#g ,reviewing these #8causes' ,aristotle concludes that the first1 third1 and fourth are ultimately one1 the ,creator containing in his own nature both the plan and the purpose of his work#h4 ,the solution is therefore dualistic1 and agrees substantially with that of ,plato2 the ultimate existences are 7i7 an informing power1 and 7ii7 matter that has the potentiality of accepting form4 ,in consequence of this dualism of ,aristotle the term #8matter' 71 materia7 has ever since possessed associations which did not belong to it in the time of the hylozoists4 ,matter now begins to suggest something lifeless1 inert1 and unintelligent2 and to be sharply contrasted not only with such conceptions as #8,god' and #8mind1' but also with motion and force4 ,for this reason the ,stoics in reintroducing monism preferred a new term1 as we shall see below#i4 ,sidenote3 ,the microcosm4 #fh4 ,what ,god is to the universe1 that the soul is to the body1 which is a #8little universe#aj4' ,but the reasoning part of the soul only is entirely distinct2 this is of divine nature1 and has entered the body from without2 it is at once its formative principle1 its plan1 and its end4 ,the lower parts of the soul are knit up with the body1 and must perish with it4 ,so far ,aristotle's teaching differs little from that of ,plato2 but a new point of view is introduced when he speaks of the soul as subject to #8diseases' 771 and thus assigns to the practical philosopher a social function as the comrade of the physician4 ,amongst the diseases he specially names ,pity and ,fear1 which assail the emotional part of the soul4 ,their cure is found in #8purging' 771 that is to say in their complete expulsion from the soul1 as reason and circumstances may require2 but ,aristotle by no means considers that the analogy between body and soul is complete1 or that the emotions should always be regarded as injurious#aa4 ,sidenote3 ,ethics and ,politics4 #fi4 ,in setting forth an ideal for human activity ,aristotle conceives that other philosophers have differed more in words than in substance1 and he hopes to reconcile them through the new term #8blessedness' 774 ,this blessedness is attained when the soul is actively employed in a virtuous way1 and when it is so circumstanced that it commands the instruments of such action1 that is1 in a life which is adequately furnished4 ,on such activity pleasure must assuredly attend1 and it is therefore needless to seek it of set purpose4 ,further1 virtue appears personified in the #8true gentleman' 7 71 who ever avoids vicious extremes1 and finds his highest satisfaction in pure contemplation1 just as the ,creator himself lives to contemplate the world he has produced#ab4 ,in politics ,aristotle can find ground for approving in turn of monarchy1 oligarchy1 and democracy1 according to the circumstances of each state4 ,we cannot however but feel that his sympathies point most towards monarchy1 and that his personal association with ,alexander the ,great was in full harmony with his inmost convictions4 ,as a means of government he advocates before all things the education of the young4 ,sidenote3 ,social prepossessions4 #gj4 ,the philosophies of ,plato and ,aristotle1 comprehensive in their range1 brilliant and varied in their colouring1 nevertheless appeal effectively only to a limited circle4 ,socrates had been the companion of rich and poor alike2 ,plato and ,aristotle addressed themselves to men of wealth1 position1 and taste4 ,their sympathies appear clearly in their political systems1 in which the sovereign or the aristocracy is considered fit to play a part1 whilst the many are practically excluded from the commonwealth1 sometimes as a harmless flock which needs kindly shepherding1 and at other times as a dangerous crowd which must be deceived or enslaved for its own good4 ,these prepossessions1 which we shall find reappearing within the ,stoic system1 appear to weaken the practical forcefulness of both philosophies4 ,in the ideal character the ,socratic #8force' has disappeared1 and #8self-restraint' alone is the standard of virtue2 the just man moves quietly and conventionally through life1 perhaps escaping blame1 but hardly achieving distinction4 ,in resuming the study of ontology1 which ,socrates had treated as a #8mist from ,ionia1' bright fancies had been elaborated rather than dominating conceptions2 the deity of ,aristotle seems but a faint reflex of the god of ,socrates and the ,cynics1 and neither the #8idea' of ,plato or the #8matter' of ,aristotle is so well fitted for the world's hard work as the atoms of ,leucippus and ,democritus4 ,the teachers who succeeded to the control of the two schools inclined more and more to engross themselves in special studies1 and to leave on one side the great controversial problems4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,academics4 #ga4 ,the followers of ,plato were known as the #8,academics'3 amongst them we must distinguish between the members of the #8old ,academy1' as ,cicero terms them#ac1 and those who followed the innovations of ,arcesilaus4 ,the old ,academy chiefly developed the ethical side of ,plato's teaching1 finding that the path of virtue is indicated by the natural capacities of the individual4 ,thus ,,xenocrates of ,chalcedon 7#cif-cad ,b4,c47 taught that each man's happiness resulted from the virtue proper to him 7 7#ad2 whilst ,,polemo of ,athens 7head of the school #cad-bgj ,b4,c47 is said by ,cicero to have defined it as consisting in #8virtuous living1 aided by those advantages to which nature first draws us1' thereby practically adopting the standard of ,aristotle#ae4 ,the teaching of ,polemo had a direct influence upon that of ,zeno the founder of ,stoicism4 ,but with the first successes of ,stoicism the ,academy revived its dialectical position1 in strong opposition to the dogmatism of the new school4 ,,arcesilaus of ,pitane in ,aeolia 7#cae-bdj ,b4,c47 revived the ,socratic cross-examination1 always opposing himself to any theory that might be propounded to him1 and drawing the conclusion that truth could never be certainly known#af4 ,life must therefore be guided by considerations of probability1 and the ethical standard is that #8of which a reasonable defence may be made#ag4' ,this sceptical attitude was carried still further by ,,carneades of ,cyrene 7#bad-abi ,b4,c471 whose acute criticism told upon the ,stoic leaders of his time1 and forced them to abandon some of their most important positions4 ,from this time a reconciliation between the two schools set in#ah4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,peripatetics4 #gb4 ,the members of the ,peripatetic school founded by ,aristotle are of less importance to us4 ,the ,romans found little difference between their teaching and that of the earlier ,academy4 ,cicero mentions that the ,stoic ,panaetius was a keen student of two of the pupils of ,aristotle1 ,,theophrastus 7his successor as head of the ,peripatetic school7 and ,,dicaearchus#ai2 amongst later teachers in whose views he is interested he names ,,hieronymus1 who held that the supreme good was freedom from pain#bj2 ,,callipho1 who combined virtue with pleasure1 and ,,diodorus who combined it with freedom from pain#ba2 and amongst his contemporaries ,,staseas of ,naples1 who stated the same doctrines in a slightly different form#bb1 and ,,cratippus1 whom he selected as a teacher for his own son#bc4 ,it was a common complaint of these teachers that the ,stoics had stolen their doctrines wholesale1 and 7as is the way with thieves7 had altered the names only#bd4 ,all these writers however agree in denying the doctrine which ,zeno accepted from the ,cynics that #8virtue is sufficient for happiness1' and lay stress upon the supply of external goods 77 as needed to admit of the active exercise of virtue4 ,they were diligent students of the written works of their founder1 and thus opened the way for the work of erudition and interpretation which found its centre in ,alexandria in a later period4 ,sidenote3 ,zeno4 #gc4 ,amidst the conflict of these schools ,,zeno grew up4 ,born in ,citium on the island of ,cyprus in #ccf ,b4,c41 in the same year in which ,alexander became king of ,macedon1 he heard as a boy of the ,greek conquest of the ,east1 and was only #ac years of age when its course was checked by the death of ,alexander4 ,of the town of ,citium the inhabitants were partly ,greek1 partly ,phoenician2 and ,zeno1 whether or not he was of ,phoenician blood1 certainly derived from his environment something of the character of the enterprising and much-travelled ,phoenician nation1 and imparted this trait to the school which he founded4 ,he was nicknamed by his contemporaries #8the ,phoenician1' and the title clung to his followers#be4 ,his father was a merchant of purple1 and often travelled in the one direction to ,tyre and ,sidon1 in the other as far as ,athens1 whence he brought back a number of #8,socratic books1' which were eagerly read by the young ,zeno1 and in time attracted him to the famous ,greek city#bf4 ,we may presume that when he first came to ,athens he intended to carry further his studies without abandoning his calling2 but when news reached him of the wreck of the ship which carried all his goods1 he welcomed it as a call to devote himself entirely to philosophy#bg4 ,his first step in ,athens was to seek out the man who best represented the character of ,socrates1 as represented in ,xenophon's ,memoirs2 and it is said that a bookseller accordingly pointed him to ,,crates of ,thebes#bh1 the pupil and 7it would seem7 the successor of ,diogenes as acknowledged head of the ,cynic school4 ,sidenote3 ,zeno joins the ,cynics4 #gd4 ,our authorities busy themselves chiefly with narrating the eccentricities of ,crates1 who wore warm clothing in summer and rags in winter1 entered the theatre as the audience were coming out1 and drank water instead of wine4 ,but doubtless1 like his predecessors in the ,cynic school1 he was a man of the true ,socratic character1 who had trained himself to bear hunger and thirst1 heat and cold1 flattery and abuse4 ,his life and wisdom won him the love of the high-born ,hipparchia1 who turned from her wealthy and noble suitors1 choosing instead the poverty of ,crates1 who had abandoned all his possessions4 ,in his company she went from house to house1 knocking at all doors in turn1 sometimes admonishing the inmates of their sins1 sometimes sharing with them their meals#bi4 ,in such a life ,zeno recognised the forcefulness of ,socrates1 and in the dogmas of the ,cynic school he reached the foundation on which that life was built4 ,from that foundation neither ,zeno nor his true followers ever departed1 and thus ,stoicism embodied and spread the fundamental dogmas of ,cynism1 that the individual alone is really existent1 that virtue is the supreme good1 and that the wise man1 though a beggar1 is truly a king4 ,sidenote3 ,zeno's ,republic4 #ge4 ,whilst still an adherent of the ,cynic school#cj1 ,zeno wrote his or ,republic1 which is evidently an attack on ,plato's work with the same title#ca4 ,if this work does not reveal to us the fully developed philosopher1 it at least shews us better than any other evidence what the man ,zeno was4 ,his ideal was the establishment of a perfect ,state1 a completion of the work in which ,alexander had failed2 and he found a starting-point in a treatise by ,antisthenes on the same subject4 ,the ideal ,state must embrace the whole world1 so that a man no longer says1 #8,i am of ,athens1' or #8of ,sidon1' but #8,i am a citizen of the world#cb4' ,its laws must be those which are prescribed by nature1 not by convention4 ,it will have no images or temples1 for these are unworthy of the nature of the deity2 no sacrifices1 because he cannot be pleased by costly gifts2 no law-courts1 for its citizens will do one another no harm2 no statues1 for the virtues of its inhabitants will be its adornment#cc2 no gymnasia1 for its youth must not waste their time in idle exercises#cd4 ,the people will not be divided into classes 7and here ,plato's ,republic is contradicted71 for all alike will be wise men#ce2 nor will men and women be clothed differently1 or shamefacedly hide any part of their bodies#cf4 ,no man will speak of a woman as his property1 for women will belong to the community only#cg4 ,as for the dead1 men will not trouble whether they bury them 7as the ,greeks71 burn them 7as the ,indians71 or give them to the birds 7as the ,persians72 for it matters not at all what happens to men's dead bodies#ch1 but whether their souls shall reach the abodes of the blest1 or need hereafter to be purged by fire from the foulness they have contracted through contact with the body#ci4 ,to conclude1 ,love shall be master throughout the ,state1 being as it were a ,god cooperating for the good of the whole#dj2 and the wise man shall be a citizen in it1 not a missionary1 and shall be surrounded with wife and children#da4 ,sidenote3 ,zeno seeks knowledge4 #gf4 ,zeno1 after writing his ,republic1 took up a position more independent of the ,cynics4 ,he could not1 perhaps1 avoid noticing that the coming of his model ,kingdom was hindered by the narrowmindedness of the philosophers1 their disagreement one with another1 and their lack of clear proofs for their dogmas4 ,he began to realize that the study of dialectics and physics was of more importance than his ,cynic teachers would allow2 and he seems to have conceived the idea of uniting the ,socratic schools4 ,he became eager to learn from all sources1 and turned first to ,stilpo1 who then represented the ,megarian school#db4 ,crates1 we are told1 tried to drag him back from ,stilpo by force2 to which ,zeno retorted that argument would be more to the point#dc4 ,from this time he no longer restricted his outlook to force of character1 but sought also for argumentative power and well ascertained knowledge4 ,the foundations of his state must be surely laid1 not upon the changing tide of opinion1 but on the rock of knowledge4 ,that a wise man should hesitate1 change his views1 withdraw his advice1 he felt would be a bitter reproach#dd4 ,if indeed virtue1 the supreme good1 is knowledge1 must it not follow that knowledge is within the reach of man8 ,sidenote3 ,zeno's theory of knowledge4 #gg4 ,the chief cause of error1 ,zeno found1 lay in hasty assertion2 and this he held was a fault not so much of the intellect as of the will4 ,in the simplest case the senses present to the mind a #8picture' 71 visum71 carrying with it the suggestion of a statement 7e4g4 #8that is a horse'74 ,but it is for the man to consider well whether this suggestion is true1 and only to give his #8assent' 71 adsensus7 when he is so assured4 ,assent is an act of the will1 and therefore in our power4 ,of a picture to which he has given his assent the wise man should retain a firm hold2 it then becomes an item of #8comprehension' 7 1 comprehensio71 and may be stored in the memory1 thus preparing the way for further acquisitions of knowledge1 which in the end combine in #8scientific knowledge' 71 scientia74 ,this theory is little more than an exhortation against the prevailing error of hasty thought 71 opinio72 but it made a very deep impression1 especially as enforced by ,zeno's gestures4 ,he stretched out his fingers and shewed the open palm1 saying #8,such is a picture4' ,he partially contracted his fingers1 and said #8,this is assent4' ,making a closed fist1 he said #8,this is comprehension4' ,then closing in the left hand over the right he pressed his fist tight1 and said #8,this is science1 and only the wise man can attain to it#de4' ,we have no reason to suppose that this theory was in any way suggested by ,stilpo1 from whom however ,zeno probably learnt to attach importance to the formal part of reasoning1 such as #8definition' and the use of the syllogism4 ,with ,stilpo he shared an aversion to the ,platonic theory of ideas1 maintaining that ideas are by no means realities but have only a #8kind of existence' in our minds1 or 7as we should call it to-day7 a #8subjective existence#df4' ,sidenote3 ,zeno studies under ,polemo4 #gh4 ,in becoming in turn a listener to ,polemo1 ,zeno1 we may imagine1 entered a new world4 ,he left behind the rough manners1 the stinging retorts1 and the narrow culture of the ,cynics and ,eristics#dg1 to sit with other intelligent students#dh at the feet of a man of cultured manners#di and wide reading1 who to a love for ,homer and ,sophocles#ej had1 we must suppose1 added an intimate knowledge of the works of ,plato and ,aristotle1 was himself a great writer#ea1 and yet consistently taught that not learning1 but a natural and healthy life was the end to be attained4 ,that ,zeno profited much from his studies under ,polemo we may conjecture from ,polemo's good-natured complaint1 #8,i see well what you are after3 you break down my garden wall and steal my teaching1 which you dress in ,phoenician clothes#eb4' ,from this time it became a conventional complaint that ,stoic doctrine was stolen from that of the ,academics3 yet the sharp conflict between the two schools shews that this cannot apply to essentials4 ,but in two important matters at least ,zeno must have been indebted to ,academic teaching4 ,this school had elaborated the doctrine of ,anaxagoras1 which so attracted ,socrates1 that the world began with the working of mind upon unordered matter4 ,so too1 according to all our authorities1 ,zeno taught that there are two beginnings1 the active which is identified with the deity or ,logos1 and the passive which is inert matter1 or substance without quality#ec4 ,this doctrine appears to pledge ,zeno to a dualistic view of the universe4 ,sidenote3 #8,soul is body4' #gi4 ,on the other hand the ,platonic teaching on the soul was reversed by ,zeno4 ,he denied the opposition between soul and body4 #8,soul is ,breath#ed1' he taught1 and #8soul is body#ee4' ,with ,plato's threefold division of the soul he would have nothing to do2 rather he maintained that the soul has eight parts#ef1 each displaying itself in a distinct power or capacity1 whilst all of them are qualities or operations of one soul in various relations#eg4 ,in this part of his philosophy ,zeno appears as a strong monist1 and his debt to the ,platonists is necessarily restricted to details4 ,sidenote3 ,zeno studies ,heraclitus4 #hj4 ,it would seem then that ,zeno after seeking for philosophic safety for some twenty years in one harbour after another had so far made shipwreck4 ,but from this shipwreck of his intellectual hopes he could afterwards count the beginning of a fair voyage#eh4 ,as he eagerly discussed with his younger fellow-student ,arcesilaus the teaching of their master ,polemon1 he took courage to point out its weak points#ei1 and began to quote in his own defence not only his previous teachers ,crates and ,stilpo1 but also the works of ,heraclitus#fj4 ,he thus broke down the barrier which ,socrates had set up against the ,ionic philosophers4 ,from ,heraclitus ,zeno drew two doctrines of first-rate importance2 the first1 that of the eternal fire#fa and its mutation into the elements in turn#fb2 the second 7already referred to7 that of the ,logos#fc4 ,it is evident that the ,heraclitean doctrine of fire breaks down the distinction between ,god and the world1 active and passive1 soul and body2 and is therefore inconsistent with the dualism which ,zeno had partly borrowed from ,plato4 ,it is not clear whether ,zeno attained to clearness on this point2 but in the general teaching of the ,stoics the monistic doctrine prevailed#fd4 ,hence ,god is not separate from body1 but is himself body in its purest form#fe4 ,the ,logos or divine reason is the power which pervades and gives shape to the universe#ff2 and this ,logos is identical with the deity1 that is with the primitive and creative ,fire#fg4 ,the ,logos 7 1 vera ratio7 brings into harmony the parts of philosophy2 for it is also on the one hand the guide to right reasoning#fh2 on the other hand the law which prescribes what is right for the ,state and for the individual#fi4 ,sidenote3 ,zeno opens his school4 #ha4 ,when ,zeno definitely accepted the teaching of ,heraclitus1 he felt bound to break finally with the school of ,polemo1 and he founded soon after #cjj ,b4,c4 a school of his own1 which was rapidly crowded4 ,his followers were at first called ,zenonians1 but afterwards ,stoics1 from the #8picture porch' 7so called because it was decorated with paintings by ,polygnotus7 in which he delivered his lectures4 ,he now applied himself afresh to the problem of ethics4 ,whilst still adhering to the ,cynic views that #8virtue is the only good1' and that #8example is more potent than precept1' he entirely rejected the intuitional basis which the ,cynics had accepted1 deciding in favour of the claims of reason4 ,he found his ideal in #8consistency' 71 convenientia7#gj2 as the ,logos or ,word rules in the universe1 so should it also in the individual4 ,those who live by a single and harmonious principle possess divine favour and an even flow of life#ga2 those that follow conflicting practices are ill-starred#gb4 ,in this consistency there is found virtue1 and 7here again he follows the ,cynics7 virtue is sufficient for happiness#gc1 and has no need of any external support4 ,sidenote3 ,his theory of virtue4 #hb4 ,but whilst the virtue of the ,cynics is something detached and self-contained1 and is #8natural' only in the sense that it is not determined by custom or authority1 that of ,zeno is bound up with the whole scheme of the universe4 ,for the universe puts before men certain things1 which though rightly named #8indifferent' by the ,cynics1 and wrongly named #8good' by the ,academics1 have yet a certain value 71 aestimatio71 and are a natural goal for men's actions#gd4 ,such are health1 prosperity1 good name1 and other things which the ,academics named #8things according to nature' 7 74 ,these ,zeno took over1 not as a part of his theory of virtue1 but as the basis of it#ge2 and for things having value introduced the term #8of high degree' 771 and for their opposites the term #8of low degree' 771 these terms being borrowed from court life4 ,thus virtue alone is queen1 and all things naturally desired are subject to her command#gf4 ,the end of life is therefore to live consistently1 keeping in view the aims set before us by nature1 or shortly1 to live #8consistently with nature4' ,our authorities do not agree as to whether ,zeno or ,cleanthes was the first to use this phrase#gg2 but there can be no doubt that the doctrine is that of ,zeno1 that it is a fundamental part of the ,stoic system1 and that it was maintained unaltered by all orthodox ,stoics4 ,on the other hand the ,academics and ,peripatetics ridiculed these new and barbarous terms and 1 and their view has generally been supported both in ancient and modern times#gh4 ,we cannot however question the right of ,zeno to reserve a special term for that which is morally good2 he was in fact feeling his way towards the position1 still imperfectly recognized1 that the language of common life is inadequate to the exact expression of philosophic principles#gi4 ,sidenote3 ,zeno's syllogisms4 #hc4 ,in expounding his system ,zeno made much use of the syllogism1 thereby laying the foundations of a new style of oratory1 consisting of short and pointed clauses1 which became a characteristic of his school#hj4 ,he no doubt regarded this form as a sure method of attaining truth2 but even at the present day the principle that truth can only be reached from facts and not from words is not everywhere admitted4 ,the syllogisms of ,zeno have all their weak points1 and as a rule the term which is common to the major and minor premisses suffers a shift of meaning4 ,these syllogisms can no longer convince us1 and even in antiquity they were severely criticized4 ,but they are excellent aids to the memory1 and so serve the same end as the catechisms of the ,reformation period4 ,amongst the syllogisms attributed to ,zeno are these3 #8,that which has reason is better than that which has not reason2 but nothing is better than the universe2 therefore the universe has reason#ha4' #8,no one trusts a secret to a drunken man2 but one trusts a secret to a good man2 therefore a good man will not be drunken#hb4' #8,no evil is accompanied by glory2 but death is accompanied by glory2 therefore death is no evil#hc4' ,such syllogisms were embedded in the numerous works of ,zeno1 of which many were certainly extant as late as the time of ,epictetus#hd4 ,sidenote3 ,epicurus and ,arcesilaus4 #hd4 ,at the very time when ,zeno was elaborating the doctrines of the ,porch1 another school of equal eminence was established at ,athens by ,,epicurus 7#cda-bgj ,b4,c47 in his ,gardens4 ,epicurus combined the ethical principle of the ,cyrenaics1 that pleasure is the end of life1 with the atomistic philosophy of ,democritus2 he had no respect for the study of dialectic1 but placed the criterion of truth in the observations of the senses1 leaving little room for the participation of mind or will4 ,thus in every part of philosophy his teaching was opposed to that of ,zeno1 and the two schools during their whole existence were in the sharpest conflict4 ,we may nevertheless notice some points of contact between them4 ,both founded1 or conceived that they founded their ethical doctrine upon physical proofs2 that is1 both maintained that the end of life which they put forward was that prescribed by natural law4 ,as a consequence1 they agreed in removing the barrier which ,socrates had set up against the pursuit of natural science4 ,both again were positive teachers1 or 7in the language of the ancients7 propounders of dogmas2 and here they came into conflict with the ,academic school1 which maintained1 and was soon about to emphasize1 the critical spirit of ,socrates and ,plato4 ,for in the last years of ,zeno's life his old fellow-pupil ,arcesilaus became head of the ,academic school 7#bgj ,b4,c471 and at once directed his teaching against ,zeno's theory of knowledge#he4 ,following the practice of ,socrates and of ,plato's dialogues1 he argued against every point of view presented1 and concluded that certain truth could not be known by man#hf4 ,he pressed ,zeno closely as to his definition of #8comprehension1' and induced him to add a clause which1 in the opinion of his opponent1 shewed the worthlessness of the whole doctrine#hg4 ,thus was raised the question of the or test of truth1 which for at least a century to come sharply divided the schools#hh4 ,sidenote3 ,zeno at ,athens4 #he4 ,the conflict between these three schools1 which from this time on greatly surpassed all others in importance1 did not embitter the political life of ,athens4 ,the citizens watched with amusement the competition of the schools for numbers and influence1 and drew their profit from the crowds of foreigners who were drawn to ,athens by its growing fame as a centre of adult education4 ,to the heads of the schools they were ready to pay every mark of respect4 ,with ,zeno they deposited the keys of their gates1 and they awarded him during his lifetime a gold crown and a bronze statue4 ,his fame spread abroad1 and those of his fellow-citizens of ,citium who were then resident at ,sidon claimed a share in it4 ,in his old age the high-minded ,antigonus ,gonatas 7who occupied the throne of ,macedonia with varying fortune from #bgh to #bci ,b4,c47 looked to him for advice and help4 ,but no offers of public employment could draw ,zeno himself from his simple life and the young companions who surrounded him3 like ,socrates1 he thought that he could best serve the ,state by sending out others to take part in its duties#hi4 ,he died in the year #bfd ,b4,c4#ij1 having been engaged in teaching for more than #cj years from the time when he #8discovered the truth#ia4' ,sidenote3 ,honours paid to him4 #hf4 ,the vote which the ,athenians passed in honour of ,zeno1 shortly before his death1 deserves record by its contrast with that by which their predecessors had condemned ,socrates4 ,it ran somewhat as follows3 #8,whereas ,zeno the son of ,mnaseas from ,citium has spent many years in this city in the pursuit of philosophy2 and has been throughout a good man in all respects2 and has encouraged the young men who resorted to him in virtue and temperance1 and has sped them on the right path2 and has made his own life an example to all men1 for it has been consistent with the teaching he has set forth2 ,now it seems good to the people of ,athens to commend ,zeno the son of ,mnaseas from ,citium1 and to crown him with a golden crown 7in accordance with the law7 for his virtue and temperance1 and to build him a tomb on the ,ceramicus at the public expense4 ,and the people shall elect five ,athenian citizens to provide for the making of the crown and the building of the tomb4 ,and the town clerk shall engrave this vote on two pillars1 and shall set up one in the ,academy1 and one in the ,lyceum4 ,and the treasurer shall make due allotment of the expense1 that all men may see that the people of ,athens honours good men both in their life time and after their death#ib4' ,we have no reason to doubt the sincerity of this tribute4 ,it is true that all the charges brought against ,socrates hold even more forcibly as against ,zeno4 ,but the spirit of political and religious independence was now dead1 and the advantage of the philosophical schools to the fame and business interests of the city had become clearer2 so that nothing prevented any longer the open recognition of ,zeno's virtues and eminence4 ,who will may also read in the decree a belated mark of respect to the memory of ,socrates4 ,sidenote3 ,zeno's breadth of view4 #hg4 ,in this sketch of the life of ,zeno no attempt has been made to give a complete view of his philosophy2 but a few landmarks have been indicated1 by which it may be possible to distinguish which parts of it were his own1 which were taken over from others1 and how all were gradually combined in one whole4 ,zeno had not the kind of originality which begins by assuming a general principle1 and then explains all things human and divine by deductions from it4 ,instead of this he gathered together 7as ,aristotle had done before1 but with a very different bias7 what seemed most sound and illuminating in the teaching of all the schools which surrounded him4 ,he did this in a positive spirit1 feeling assured that truth exists and is discernible1 and must be consistent in all its parts4 ,we seem unable to say that in his writings he attained to this consistency1 but at least he worked steadily towards it4 ,the effort for consistency led him in the direction of monistic principle1 though his points of departure both in physics and in ethics are dualistic4 ,but the teaching of ,zeno does not lend itself to that kind of study which assigns all new facts to compartments of thought ready labelled in advance1 nor can it be summarized by any of the technical terms which are in use in modern philosophical thought4 ,enough has perhaps been said to shew that1 great as was the debt of ,zeno to his predecessors1 he was no mere imitator or plagiarist2 the history of the following centuries will shew that he had in some sense touched the pulses of human life more truly than any of his contemporaries4 ,,footnotes #a ,thucydides1 passim4 #b ,mahaffy1 ,greek ,life and ,thought1 ch4 #a4 #c #8,plato combined the various elements1 the1 so to speak1 prismatically broken rays of the ,socratic spirit in a new1 higher1 and richer unity' ,ueberweg1 ,eng4 transl4 i p4 #hi4 #d #8,the philosophy of ,greece reached its highest point in ,plato and ,aristotle' ,zeller1 ,stoics etc41 p4 #aa4 #8,the bloom of ,greek philosophy was short lived' ib4 p4 #aj4 #e ,the phrases #8cum ,platone errare1' #8amicus ,plato1 magis amica veritas' agree in expressing the general incredulity with which ,platonism was received in the ancient world4 ,in our own days an ill-balanced sympathy for ,platonic dogma is often a serious hindrance to philosophic progress4 #f ,see further1 #bhd4 #g ,see below1 #agi4 #h ,aristotle1 ,physics1 ii #g4 #i ,see below1 #agc4 #aj ' 1 2 1 ,ar4 ,phys4 viii #b1 #beb b4 #aa ,see ,ueberweg's note1 i 7,eng4 trans41 pp4 #agh-ahj2 tenth ,german edition1 pp4 #bch-bdj71 and below1 #cfb4 #ab #8vitae autem degendae ratio maxime quidem illis ,peripateticis placuit quieta1 in contemplatione et cognitione posita rerum2 quae quia deorum erat vitae simillima1 sapiente visa est dignissima' ,cic4 ,fin4 v #d1 #aa4 #ac ,see note #ae1 below4 #ad ,clem4 ,strom4 ii p4 #dai a4 #ae #8honeste autem vivere1 fruentem rebus eis1 quas primas homini natura conciliet1 et vetus ,academia censuit 7ut indicant scripta ,polemonis71 et ,aristoteles eiusque amici huc proxime videntur accedere' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #db1 #aca4 ,here ,prof4 ,j4 ,s4 ,reid suggests that ,polemo may merely have used the phrase 1 as opposed to 7conventionally74 #af #8quem sc4 ,arcesilan ferunt 444 primum instituisse1 non quid ipse sentiret ostendere1 sed contra id1 quod quisque se sentire dixisset1 disputare' ,cic4 de ,or4 iii #ah1 #fg4 #8,arcesilas negabat esse quidquam quod sciri posset1 ne illud quidem ipsum1 quod ,socrates sibi reliquisset' ,ac4 i #ab1 #de4 #ag #8cuius ratio probabilis possit reddi' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ag1 #eh4 ,see further below1 #aje1 #ccb4 #ah ,see especially #aac and #abc4 #ai ,cic4 ,fin4 iv #bh1 #gi4 #bj #8non dolere 444 ,hieronymus summum bonum esse dixit' ib4 v #be1 #gc4 #ba #8at vero ,callipho1 et post eum ,diodorus1 cum alter voluptatem adamavisset1 alter vacuitatem doloris3 neuter honestate carere potuit1 quae est a nostris laudata maxime' ib4 #bb ib4 #be1 #ge4 #bc ,off4 i #a1 #a4 #bd #8,stoici quidem non unam aliquam aut alteram a nobis1 sed totam ad se nostram philosophiam transtulerunt4 atque1 ut reliqui fures1 earum rerum1 quas ceperunt1 signa commutant1 sic illi1 ut sententiis nostris pro suis uterentur1 nomina1 tanquam rerum notas1 mutaverunt' ,fin4 v #be1 #gd4 #be 1 ,athen4 ,deipnos4 xiii #b2 #8tuus ille ,poenulus1' #8e ,phoenicia profecti' ,cic4 ,fin4 iv #bj1 #ef4 #bf ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ca and #cb4 #bg #8nuntiato naufragio ,zeno noster1 cum omnia sua audiret submersa3 iubet1 inquit1 me fortuna expeditius philosophari' ,sen4 ,dial4 ix #ad1 #c4 #bh ,diog4 ,l4 vii #c4 #bi ,diog4 ,l4 vi #if and #ig4 #cj ib4 vii #d4 #ca ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #h1 #b 7,arnim i #bfj74 #cb ,this doctrine can be traced back to ,diogenes and even to ,socrates3 see below1 #cjc4 #cc 1 ,stob4 iv #a1 #hh4 #cd ,see below1 #cje4 #ce ,diog4 ,l4 vii #cc4 #cf ,see below1 #cah4 #cg #cjf4 #ch #cjg4 #ci #bif1 #big4 #dj #cjd4 #da #cae4 #db ,see above1 #ef4 #dc ,he said #8,o ,crates1 the best handle of philosophers is that by the ear2 persuade me if you can1 and lead me that way2 if you use violence1 my body will stay with you1 but my soul will be with ,stilpo' ,diog4 ,l4 vii #bd4 #dd #8errorem autem et temeritatem et ignorantiam et opinationem et suspicionem et uno nomine omnia1 quae essent aliena firmae et constantis adsensionis1 a virtute sapientiaque ,zeno removebat' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #aa1 #db4 #de #8hoc quidem ,zeno gestu conficiebat4 nam cum extensis digitis adversam manum ostenderat1 #8visum1' inquiebat1 #8huiusmodi est4' deinde cum paulum digitos contraxerat1 #8adsensus huiusmodi4' tum cum plane compresserat pugnumque fecerat1 comprehensionem illam esse dicebat2 cum autem laevam manum admoverat et illum pugnum arte vehementerque compresserat1 scientiam talem esse dicebat3 cuius compotem nisi sapientem esse neminem' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #dg1 #ade4 #df ,see below1 #ahh4 #dg ,so the ,megarians were commonly called on account of their disputatious methods4 #dh ,as for instance ,arcesilaus2 1 ,strabo xiii p4 #fad 7,arnim i #aj74 #di ,diog4 ,l4 iv #ah4 #ej ib4 #bj4 #ea ib4 #eb ,diog4 ,l4 vii #be4 #ec ,see below1 #ahi4 #ed ,see #bfh1 note #b4 #ee ,iamb4 de an4 7,stob4 i #di1 #cc74 #ef ,nemes4 nat4 hom4 p4 #if 7,arnim i #adc74 #eg 1 1 ,iamb4 de an4 7,arnim i #adc74 ,see below1 #bgj4 #eh 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #d4 ,it must not however be assumed that ,zeno himself used the phrase in this sense3 see the other references in ,arnim i #bgg4 #ei #8iam ,polemonem audiverant adsidue ,zeno et ,arcesilas4 ,sed ,zeno cum ,arcesilam anteiret aetate1 valdeque subtiliter dissereret et peracute moveretur1 corrigere conatus est disciplinam' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #i1 #cd and #ce4 #fj 1 ,euseb4 ,praep4 ev4 xiv #e1 #aa 7quoting ,numenius7 7,arnim i #aa74 #fa ,zeno often calls it aether3 #8,zenon 444 aethera 444 interim vult omnium esse principium' ,min4 ,felix xix p4 #eh3 ,cleanthes calls it spirit1 see below1 #ajj4 #8,the fire of ,heraclitus becomes aether or --for this distinction is unknown to the ,ephesian--and is thereby spiritualised and rarefied' ,pearson1 ,fragments1 ,intr4 pp4 #bb1 #bc4 #fb ,see below1 #aif4 #fc ,see above1 #ci4 #fd ,stein1 ,psychologie1 i #fb sqq4 #fe 1 ,hippolyt4 ,philos4 #ba1 #a 7,arnim i #aec74 #ff #8rationem quandam per naturam omnem rerum pertinentem vi divina esse affectam putat' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ad1 #cf4 #fg #8,zeno deum nuncupat naturalem divinamque legem' ,lact4 ,div4 inst4 i #e1 #bj4 #fh 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ed 7quoting ,diocles ,magnes74 ,it is much disputed who the authorities are to which ,posidonius here refers4 #fi #8,zeno naturalem legem divinam esse censet eamque vim obtinere recta imperantem prohibentemque contraria' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ad1 #cf4 #gj 1 ' ' 1 ,stob4 ii #g1 #f a4 #8summum bonum1 quod cum positum sit in eo1 quod ,stoici1 nos appellemus convenientiam' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #f1 #ba4 #ga ' ,stob4 ii #g1 #f e4 #gb ,see note #gj above4 #gc ,see below1 #cbb4 #gd ,for a fuller treatment see below1 #cai-cba4 #ge 7sc4 ,peripateticis7 2 ,plut4 comm4 not4 #bc1 #a2 #8a ,polemone quae essent principia naturae acceperat' ,cic4 ,fin4 iv #af1 #de4 #gf 1 1 ,stob4 ii #g1 #g g2 see also below1 #cbj4 #gg ,diogenes ,laertius says distinctly that ,zeno used the phrase1 and names the book in which he found it2 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #hg4 ,on the other hand ,stobaeus 7ii #g1 #f a7 attributes it to ,cleanthes4 #gh #8,zeno ,citieus1 advena quidam et ignobilis verborum opifex' ,cic4 ,tusc4 v #ab1 #cd4 #gi ,see below1 #afe4 #hj #8illa vetus ,zenonis brevis1 et ut tibi videbatur1 acuta conclusio' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 iii #i1 #bb4 #ha ,sext4 math4 ix #ajd 7,arnim i #aaa72 see also below1 #bjb4 #hb #8ebrio secretum sermonem nemo committit2 viro autem bono committit2 ergo vir bonus ebrius non erit' ,sen4 ,ep4 #hc1 #i2 for the original see ,arnim i #bbi4 #hc #8nullum malum gloriosum est2 mors autem gloriosa est2 mors ergo non est malum' ,sen4 ,ep4 #hb1 #i4 #hd #8,if you would know1 read ,zeno's writings1 and you will see' ,epict4 ,disc4 i #bj1 #ad4 #he #8cum ,zenone1 ut accepimus1 ,arcesilas sibi omne certamen instituit' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #ab1 #dd4 #hf #8,arcesilas primum 444 ex variis ,platonis libris sermonibusque ,socraticis hoc maxime arripuit1 nihil esse certi quod aut sensibus aut animo percipi possit' ,cic4 de ,or4 iii #ah1 #fg4 #hg #8hic ,zenonem vidisse acute1 nullum esse visum quod percipi posset1 si id tale esset ab eo1 quod est1 ut eiusdem modi ab eo1 quod non est1 posset esse4 recte consensit ,arcesilas2 ad definitionem additum sc4 quale non possit esse a falso4 incubuit autem in eas disputationes1 ut doceret nullum tale esse visum a vero1 ut non eiusdem modi etiam a falso posset esse' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #bd1 #gg4 #hh ,see below1 #aeg4 #hi #8compositus sequor ,zenona ,cleanthen ,chrysippum1 quorum tamen nemo ad rempublicam accessit1 et nemo non misit' ,sen4 ,dial4 ix #a1 #aj2 see also viii #f1 #d4 #ij ,pearson1 ,introd4 p4 #a4 #ia ,sext4 math4 vii #cba4 ,pearson1 ,introd4 p4 #d4 #ib ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aj and #aa4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,preaching ,,of ,,stoicism4 ,sidenote3 ,the companions of ,zeno4 #hh4 ,during the later years of his life ,zeno gathered round him a number of men of practical and speculative capacity1 not unworthy of comparison with the companions of ,socrates4 ,his death dissolved the immediate tie between them4 ,some took an active part in the work of government2 others followed their teacher's example1 and became the founders of independent schools of thought2 a few devoted themselves to strengthening and extending ,zeno's system2 and many were doubtless engaged in useful employment of which no record has reached us4 ,zeno's work had not yet been exposed to the test of time1 and another century was to pass before it could be seen that the ,stoic school was to be of permanent importance4 ,towards the schools of the ,cynics1 the ,megarians1 and the ,academics1 from which its principles were so largely derived1 the attitude of the hearers of ,zeno was that of a friendly interchange of opinions1 in which sharp controversy stopped short of enmity2 the followers of ,aristotle 7the ,peripatetics7 continued to be but slightly distinguished from the ,academics4 ,but all these schools appear to have united in opposition to the ,cyrenaics and ,epicureans2 the champions of virtue could hold no communings with the advocates of pleasure4 ,individual teachers who practically reverted to ,cynic or ,academic teaching still called themselves ,stoics3 but the only one of ,zeno's hearers who adopted ,cyrenaic views was contemptuously branded as #8the deserter#a4' ,sidenote3 ,persaeus4 #hi4 ,the most intimate companion#b of ,zeno was ,,persaeus of ,citium 7circ4 #cjj-bdc ,b4,c474 ,he was the fellow-townsman of ,zeno1 and1 as good authorities assert1 at first his personal servant 77#c and afterwards his fellow-lodger4 ,on the recommendation of ,zeno he took service1 together with ,aratus the poet1 with ,antigonus ,gonatas1 king of ,macedonia#d4 ,here he was often twitted as to the ,stoic paradoxes4 ,king ,antigonus sent him messengers announcing the loss of his wife1 child1 and property1 and found that he was not entirely indifferent to external circumstances#e4 ,he adapted himself easily to court life1 and is said to have written a treatise on the theory of the banquet1 in which he did not rise above the moral standard of his neighbours#f4 ,nor did he disdain to hoax ,aristo of ,chius1 who held strongly to the paradox that #8the wise man never opines'2 he first sent him money by one of two twins1 and then sent another to demand it back#g4 ,another ,socratic paradox1 that #8the wise man is sure to be a good general1' he endeavoured to maintain by his personal example#h4 ,antigonus placed him in command of the acropolis at ,corinth1 which was nevertheless taken by ,aratus of ,sicyon in #bdc ,b4,c4 ,according to one account1 ,persaeus was wounded in the attack1 and afterwards put to death by the conqueror#i2 others relate that he escaped to ,cenchreae#aj4 ,as a philosopher he is of little importance2 but ,cicero mentions that he not only maintained that amongst the gods were men raised to the sky for their services to mankind 7which was an accepted ,stoic doctrine71 but also that objects useful to man had been deified#aa4 ,sidenote3 ,aratus4 #ij4 ,two other companions of ,zeno also took service under ,antigonus1 apparently at the same time4 ,of these ,,philonides of ,thebes#ab is otherwise unknown to us4 ,the other was ,,aratus of ,soli in ,cilicia1 author of the well-known poem ,the ,phaenomena1 an astronomical treatise afterwards translated into ,latin by ,cicero1 and largely used by ,virgil in his ,georgics4 ,the poems of ,aratus had a wide influence1 and were probably the source from which so many ,stoic conceptions reached ,virgil4 ,the most interesting part for us is the ,introduction1 in which he interprets ,zeus in ,stoic fashion as the deity who dwells in sea and land1 in markets and streets3 whose family is mankind2 and whose providence has set the stars in the heaven to regulate the seasons of the year and to be a guide to the farmer and the sailor#ac4 ,the spirit of this poem is closely akin to that of the hymn of ,cleanthes4 ,sidenote3 ,sphaerus4 #ia4 ,still another hearer of ,zeno took a prominent part in political life4 ,,sphaerus from the ,bosphorus 7circ4 #bej ,b4,c47 was attracted to ,cleomenes ,,iii1 king of ,sparta1 who under his influence reintroduced the laws of ,lycurgus in his city1 and particularly those which referred to the education of the youth and the taking of meals in common#ad4 ,with these he combined the plan of a monarchy after the ,stoic model1 in which the sovereign was to side with the poor against the rich#ae4 ,but in #bba ,b4,c4 ,cleomenes suffered a crushing defeat1 and was compelled to take refuge with ,ptolemy ,,iii 7,euergetes71 king of ,egypt4 ,sphaerus found his way to the same court4 ,the death of ,ptolemy ,,iii left ,cleomenes in the position of a disregarded suppliant#af2 but ,sphaerus appears to have found a congenial home in ,alexandria1 now the centre of ,hellenistic learning1 and doubtless introduced the ,stoic philosophy in the circle that gathered round the ,museum#ag4 ,he gained a special reputation by the excellence of his definitions#ah4 ,from an anecdote related of him we must infer that whilst adhering to ,zeno's doctrine that the wise man will not opine1 he accepted reasonable assurance 7 7 as a sufficient guide in daily life#ai4 ,he appears to have laid special stress upon the unity of virtue1 maintaining that the separate virtues are but appearances of virtue or knowledge in different spheres of action#bj4 ,sidenote3 ,herillus4 #ib4 ,,herillus of ,carthage 7circ4 #bej ,b4,c47 is frequently referred to by ,cicero as teaching doctrines hardly distinguishable from those of the ,academy1 in that he made knowledge the highest good#ba1 and taught that separate from it1 yet with claims of their own1 there existed inferior ends of action 77#bb4 ,it does not1 however1 appear clearly that he differed much from ,zeno4 ,sphaerus1 as we have seen1 had defined the virtues as being #8knowledge displayed in different spheres of action1' and the aim of ,herillus1 #8to live according to the standard of life accompanied by knowledge#bc1' points in the direction of practical rather than of speculative wisdom4 ,his #8subordinate aims' appear also to correspond with ,zeno's #8things of high degree' 771 and are defined as being the first states to which an animal is attracted upon birth1 as food1 life1 strength 7 7#bd2 they serve only for #8ends' 77 for men who have not yet attained to wisdom#be4 ,this doctrine corresponds closely to the ,stoic doctrine as developed somewhat later#bf4 ,sidenote3 ,aristo4 #ic4 ,,aristo of ,chios 7circ4 #bej ,b4,c47 departed more decidedly from ,zeno's teaching1 falling back generally on ,cynic views4 ,he was no favourite of ,zeno1 who called him a chatterbox#bg3 and in later life he was accused of becoming a flatterer of ,persaeus when the latter was in power#bh1 and of luxury in his personal habits#bi4 ,but his success as a teacher was great1 and he formed a body of followers who called themselves ,aristonians4 ,he appears to have supported ,zeno vigorously as to the doctrine of #8comprehension'2 and if on this subject he was worsted for the moment by ,persaeus#cj1 he retaliated on some ,academic by asking3 #8do you see who is sitting next you8' ,the ,academic replied #8,i do not4' #8,are you blind1 then1' said ,aristo2 #8where are your eyes#ca8' ,still he considered any systematic study of dialectics to be a mere waste of time2 like spiders' webs1 which seem to display much skill1 but are of no use#cb4 ,with regard to physics he was openly agnostic#cc2 of the nature of the gods he thought we could know nothing1 not even whether the deity were animate or no#cd4 ,ethics alone remained2 but this part of philosophy he reduced by omitting all practical precepts1 as introducing the element of uncertainty#ce4 ,in ethics proper he rejects the theory of #8things of high degree' 771 observing that this term does not harmonize with the treatment of advantages as #8indifferent1' but comes dangerously near to calling them #8good#cf4' ,virtue1 or rather knowledge1 is1 as he maintains1 the only good2 and all that lies between good and evil is alike indifferent#cg4 ,the highest good may therefore be defined as a state of indifference 77 towards all such things#ch4 ,aristo was however once more in agreement with ,stoic doctrine when he maintained the unity of virtue4 #8,the soul1' he said1 #8has one power only1 that of reasoning2 one virtue only1 the knowledge of good and evil4 ,when we need to choose the good and avoid the evil1 we call this knowledge ,soberness2 when we need to do good and not evil1 we call it ,wisdom2 ,courage1 when it is bold and cautious at the right moments2 and when it gives every man his due1 ,justice#ci4' ,but in deciding his action the wise man will be bound by no theories3 he can do whatever comes into his head1 provided only he keep himself free from distress1 fear and greed#dj4 ,the popularity of these views was repressed by the activity of ,chrysippus2 in ,cicero's time they were1 in cultivated society1 extinct#da4 ,but from the numerous references to ,aristo in literature it is clear that his teaching was by no means forgotten2 and when there took place the revival of the ,cynic tone which we see illustrated in the writings of ,epictetus and ,m4 ,aurelius1 ,aristo is again treated with high respect#db4 ,sidenote3 ,eratosthenes4 #id4 ,an eminent pupil of ,aristo was ,,eratosthenes of ,cyrene1 the grammarian1 whom he won over from the ,cyrenaic school4 ,eratosthenes undoubtedly represented the spirit of his teacher and of the ,cynic school towards which he inclined1 when he vehemently repudiated the prejudice which then divided mankind into ,hellenes and barbarians#dc4 ,he was invited by ,ptolemy ,,iii 7,euergetes7 to be chief librarian of the ,museum at ,alexandria1 and tutor to the crown-prince1 and has left us an epigram in honour of this great patron of learning and philosophy#dd4 ,amongst other followers of ,aristo we hear specially of ,,apollophanes of ,antiochia#de4 ,sidenote3 ,dionysius4 #ie4 ,alone amongst the hearers of ,zeno ,,dionysius of ,heraclea abandoned his principles1 and went over from the camp of virtue to that of pleasure4 ,a painful disease of the eyes had made him abandon the doctrine that #8pain is no evil#df4' ,his secession was used by ,antiochus as an argument against the doctrine of comprehension or certain knowledge#dg4 ,that his life after he became a ,cyrenaic was openly scandalous#dh we need not too readily believe3 such accusations may easily be mere deductions from his supposed philosophic principles4 ,dionysius appears to have been a particular friend and admirer of the poet ,aratus#di4 ,of the less important hearers of ,zeno we have the names of1 amongst others1 ,,athenodorus of ,soli#ej1 ,,callippus of ,corinth#ej1 ,,posidonius of ,alexandria#ej1 and ,,zeno of ,sidon#ej4 ,the last1 if he existed1 must be kept distinct from other ,zenos1 such as ,zeno of ,tarsus the pupil of ,chrysippus1 and ,zeno of ,sidon the ,epicurean philosopher4 ,sidenote3 ,cleanthes4 #if4 ,we come last amongst ,zeno's hearers to ,,cleanthes of ,assos in ,asia ,minor 7#cca-bcb ,b4,c471 who succeeded ,zeno as head of the school when already advanced in years1 and presided over it for a whole generation4 ,in personal character he was a worthy successor of ,socrates1 ,diogenes1 and ,zeno4 ,he was trained in hardship and willing endurance#ea2 and if he did not quickly understand1 yet all he learnt was deeply impressed upon him#eb4 ,he studied ,zeno's life even more attentively than his doctrines2 lived with him1 watched his hours of retirement1 inquired whether his actions corresponded to his teaching#ec4 ,himself a man of the people1 he ardently desired to spread his convictions amongst the many1 and chose verse as the best means to express clearly his meaning and win access to men's ears#ed4 ,he remained constant to ,zeno's teaching#ee1 but he inspired it with a fresh enthusiasm and developed it in more consistent detail4 ,he is before all things the theologian of ,stoicism4 ,the belief in the deity1 which in the fragments of ,zeno's teaching appears merely formal and argumentative1 becomes in the verse of ,cleanthes ardent and dominating4 ,god is the creator and the director of the world2 his ,logos gives it order and harmony4 ,in ,god's designs it is the privilege and duty of man to cooperate2 but since he is possessed of free will1 it is also within his power to make a futile opposition4 ,in this way the good and the bad stand in definite contrast4 ,finally1 right knowledge and right action are only possible by association with the deity through praise and prayer4 ,sidenote3 ,his poetry4 #ig4 ,it is our good fortune to possess several complete poems of ,cleanthes1 which are of more value to us towards appreciating his standpoint than a hundred detached sentences would be4 ,the hymn to ,zeus#ef is the most important1 and its likeness to the opening of ,aratus' ,phaenomena#eg will not escape notice4 ,hymn to ,zeus4 ,supreme of gods1 by titles manifold ,invoked1 o thou who over all dost hold ,eternal dominance1 ,nature's author1 ,zeus1 ,guiding a universe by ,law controlled2 #b ,hail6 for 'tis meet that men should call on thee ,whose seed we are2 and ours the destiny ,alone of all that lives and moves on earth1 ,a mirror of thy deity#eh to be4 #e ,therefore ,i hymn thee and thy power ,i praise2 ,for at thy word1 on their appointed ways ,the orbs of heaven in circuit round the earth ,move1 and submissive each thy rule obeys1 #h ,who holdest in thy hands invincible ,so dread a minister to work thy will-- ,the eternal bolt of fire1 two-edged1 whose blast ,thro' all the powers of nature strikes a chill#ei-- #aa ,whereby thou guid'st the universal force1 ,reason1 through all things interfused1 whose course ,commingles with the great and lesser#fj lights-- ,thyself of all the sovran and the source3 #ad ,for nought is done on earth apart from thee1 ,nor in thy vault of heaven1 nor in the sea2 ,save for the reckless deeds of sinful men ,whose own hearts lead them to perversity4 #ag ,but skill to make the crookd straight is thine1 ,to turn disorder to a fair design2 ,ungracious things are gracious in thy sight1 ,for ill and good thy power doth so combine #bj ,that out of all appears in unity ,eternal ,reason1 which the wicked flee ,and disregard1 who long for happiness1 ,yet ,god's great ,law can neither hear nor see2 #bd ,ill-fated folk6 for would they but obey ,with understanding heart1 from day to day ,their life were full of blessing1 but they turn ,each to his sin1 by folly led astray4 #bf ,glory would some thro' bitter strife attain ,and some are eager after lawless gain2 ,some lust for sensual delights1 but each ,finds that too soon his pleasure turns to pain4 #ca ,but1 ,zeus all-bountiful6 the thunder-flame ,and the dark cloud thy majesty proclaim3 ,from ignorance deliver us1 that leads ,the sons of men to sorrow and to shame4 #cc ,wherefore dispel it1 ,father1 from the soul ,and grant that ,wisdom may our life control1 ,wisdom which teaches thee to guide the world ,upon the path of justice to its goal4 #ce ,so winning honour thee shall we requite ,with honour1 lauding still thy works of might2 ,since gods nor men find worthier meed than this-- ,the universal ,law to praise aright4 #ci ,translated by ,w4 ,h4 ,porter4 #ih4 ,another short poem of ,cleanthes identifies ,zeus with fate1 and points the same moral as to human duty3 ,lead me1 ,o ,zeus1 and lead me1 ,destiny1 ,what way soe'er ye have appointed me6 ,i follow unafraid3 yea1 though the will ,turn recreant1 ,i needs must follow still#fa4 ,in other poems characteristic ,stoic doctrines are set forth with clearness and emphasis3 #8,look not at common opinion1 and be not eager to be wise of a sudden2 fear not the chatter of the many1 in which there is no judgment and no modesty2 for the crowd does not possess shrewd just and fair judgment1 but amongst the few you may perchance find this#fb4' #8,do you ask me of what kind the good is8 ,listen then4 ,it is orderly1 just1 innocent1 pious1 self-controlled1 useful1 fair1 necessary1 severe1 upright1 always of advantage2 fearless1 painless1 profitable1 without smart2 helpful1 pleasing1 sure1 friendly1 honourable1 consistent2 noble1 not puffed up1 painstaking1 comforting1 full of energy1 biding its time1 blameless1 unchanging#fc4' #8,he who abstains from some disgraceful action yet all the while has desire for it1 will some day do it1 when he gets opportunity#fd4' ,in the last of the passages we are introduced to an ethical paradox of the highest importance to ,stoicism3 that good and evil are set in the will and the intention1 and are not dependent upon the action#fe4 ,sidenote3 ,originality of ,cleanthes4 #ii4 ,to the ancients ,cleanthes was the faithful disciple of ,zeno4 ,persaeus1 ,aratus1 and others had turned aside from the direct pursuit of philosophy1 and their contact with science and politics might easily sully the purity of their philosophic creed4 ,herillus had adopted ,academic doctrine1 ,aristo had fallen back into ,cynism1 ,dionysius had actually seceded to the party of pleasure4 ,it might seem that the far-reaching sweep of ,zeno's intellect had no real hold on his companions4 ,but ,cleanthes at least stood firm by the old landmarks4 ,we must not suppose from this that he was a man of no originality#ff2 his language and his style at least are his own4 ,nor on the other hand can we go all the way with some recent writers1 who attribute to him exclusively large parts of the ,stoic system#fg4 ,our authorities commonly refer either to ,zeno alone1 or to ,zeno1 ,cleanthes1 and ,chrysippus jointly1 as vouching for accepted ,stoic doctrine2 and we are hardly entitled to lay great stress on the comparatively few fragments of which the authorship is assigned exclusively to ,cleanthes1 as evidence for the independence of his teaching2 especially as we can in many instances see that our authorities delight in attributing a difference of meaning to the ,stoic masters1 when in reality there is nothing more to be found than a difference of phrasing#fh4 ,it is however clear that ,stoicism did not assume its complete form in the hands of its first propagator2 and to a limited extent we can see the directions in which his teaching was amplified by his successors4 ,sidenote3 ,physics of ,cleanthes4 #ajj4 ,cleanthes took a special interest in the physical speculations of ,heraclitus1 on whose writings he composed four books#fi1 and in particular in the bearing of his speculations upon the nature of the deity4 ,the belief in the dualism of ,god and matter1 of the ,word and the world1 is attributed to ,cleanthes as distinctly as to ,zeno#gj2 but on the other hand the conception of an overruling unity is much more pronounced in the later writer#ga4 ,hence from the first ,cleanthes endeavours to give a wider meaning to the primary fire of ,heraclitus1 the creative fire of ,zeno4 ,for this fire he proposed the new term #8flame' 77#gb2 at other times he identified it with the sky#gc1 with the sun#gd1 and with the principle of heat#ge2 and finally adopted the term #8spirit' 71 spiritus71 which has ever since held its place in the discussion of natural theology4 ,this term appears to have been at first intended to combine the conceptions of the creative fire and of the ,logos#gf1 but it gradually came to have distinctive associations of its own4 ,like fire1 #8spirit' is to the ,stoics a substance1 stuff1 or body akin to the element of air1 but associated with warmth and elasticity2 it is conceived as immanent in the universe and penetrating it as the deity2 immanent in the human body and penetrating it as the soul#gg4 ,the elasticity of spirit is measured by its #8tension' 71 intentio71 by means of which its creative power pushes forward from the centre to the circumference3 as for instance in the human body walking is effected by #8spirit exercising tension towards the feet#gh4' ,the theory of #8tension' has an immediate application to ethics4 ,when the soul has sufficient tension to perform its proper work1 it operates according to the virtues of ,wisdom1 ,justice1 ,courage1 and ,soberness2 but when the tension is relaxed1 the soul becomes disordered and is seized upon by the emotions#gi4 ,sidenote3 ,theology of ,cleanthes4 #aja4 ,to ,cleanthes also it fell to explain more fully the government both of the universe and of the individual4 ,zeno indeed is said to have used the term 7principale1 principatus7#hj1 which we may translate by #8ruling power1' or shortly 7following the ,latin7 by #8principate#ha1' for the highest power of the human soul2 ,cleanthes sought a similar principle in the universe also1 and is said to have found it in the sun#hb4 ,by thus using the term in a double sense he implies the analogy which is expressed by the correlative terms #8macrocosm' and #8microcosm1' and which leads up to the definition of ,god as the #8soul of the universe#hc4' ,cleanthes further speaks of the universe itself as god#hd2 but before describing him as a pantheist it is well to consider that this is only one form out of many in which he expresses his creed4 ,he was also the first to give the four proofs of the existence of the deity upon which all discussions of the #8evidences of ,natural ,religion' have been based down to the present day1 and which we shall further discuss in a later chapter#he4 ,the pious zeal of ,cleanthes was not without a touch of bigotry1 destined to have serious consequences in the final developments of ,stoicism1 and to reappear in the history of the middle ages with distressing intensity2 he was bitterly opposed to the novel heliocentric theory of the universe as an impiety#hf4 ,sidenote3 ,weakness of ,stoicism4 #ajb4 ,thus even though we can no longer discriminate sharply between the teaching of ,zeno and that of ,cleanthes1 we have every reason to suppose that the latter was possessed of originality of thought and vigour and copiousness of expression4 ,we cannot easily believe that a man of such powers failed to attract hearers or to retain a hold upon them4 ,but in his extreme old age it seems that the majority were drawn aside either to the ingenious arguments of ,arcesilaus the ,academic1 or to the more independent teaching of ,aristo of ,chios4 ,the continued existence of ,stoicism seemed threatened2 its critics were not to be contented with rhetoric or poetry1 but insistently demanded proofs4 ,in this crisis it was saved and established by a younger man1 ,,chrysippus of ,soli 7#bhj-bjf ,b4,c471 who was far inferior in original power1 but equally zealous and more in harmony with the tastes and demands of the younger generation4 ,sidenote3 ,chrysippus4 #ajc4 ,chrysippus was a fellow-townsman of ,aratus of ,soli1 and his appearance is doubtless a sign of the active interest in philosophy which for some centuries marks the neighbourhood of the important town of ,tarsus4 ,born in #bhj ,b4,c4 he found in his early manhood three prominent teachers at ,athens1 ,arcesilaus1 ,aristo1 and ,cleanthes4 ,of these ,aristo seems to have been the most popular1 and surprise was expressed that ,chrysippus did not join his school4 #8,had ,i followed the many1' he replied1 #8,i should not have become a philosopher#hg4' ,his convictions drew him to ,cleanthes1 but he felt much impatience with his methods4 ,this state of mind he must have expressed freely1 for in after life he reproached himself that he had not behaved more kindly towards his teacher in his old age#hh4 ,confident in his own powers1 he desired to relieve ,cleanthes of the burden of replying to the many attacks made upon his doctrines1 especially as to dialectics#hi4 ,it is well known that he asked his master to supply him with his dogmas only1 saying that he himself would find the proofs#ij4 ,chrysippus probably outlived his opponents1 and during the time when he was head of the school 7#bcb-bjf ,b4,c47 only found himself opposed by men of mediocre talents4 ,he devoted his whole energies to strengthening and systematizing ,stoic doctrine4 ,he not only gave its proofs1 but used every art of the dialectician to recommend it to his hearers#ia4 ,from his facile pen there poured an endless stream of writings1 not remarkable either for originality or for style1 but of the highest importance as fixing definitely the standard of ,stoic orthodoxy4 ,he gathered numerous hearers round him1 and before his death it could truly be said that he had saved the ,stoa#ib4 ,sidenote3 ,dialectic of ,chrysippus4 #ajd4 ,in his method of exposition ,chrysippus made great use of the syllogism1 thus reverting to the practice of ,zeno as opposed to the more poetical style of ,cleanthes4 ,as to the value of this syllogistic reasoning very contrary opinions were expressed in antiquity4 ,by his contemporaries he was greatly admired1 so that it was said that #8if the gods had needed a dialectic1 they would have taken that of ,chrysippus#ic4' ,on the other hand members of his own school complained that he often stated his opponents' case more forcibly than his own#id4 ,the ,romans mix their praise with censure1 and find that he sometimes entangles himself in the threads of his own argument#ie2 and we ourselves cannot fail to notice that when his major and minor premisses are compared1 the meaning of the common term has usually shifted#if4 ,but if ,chrysippus did not provide a final solution to great problems1 he at least adapted the ,stoic system to the taste of his age1 alike by his use of syllogisms and by the attention he paid to the solution of fallacies#ig4 ,sidenote3 ,opposition of the ,academy4 #aje4 ,whilst the works of ,chrysippus cover the whole range of the ,stoic philosophy1 their special colour is largely due to the interests of his own time4 ,the stress laid by ,zeno on the certainty of knowledge had produced a reaction in the ,academic school4 ,arcesilaus1 who had succeeded ,polemo as its leader1 leaving on one side the positive teaching of ,plato's later years1 reverted to the sceptical attitude which had been one characteristic of ,socrates1 and which is so prominent in most of the ,platonic dialogues#ih4 ,he attacked with the utmost vigour ,zeno's doctrine of #8comprehension'2 and further argued that certain knowledge is unnecessary for practical life1 of which probability1 that is1 such action as can find reasonable justification1 is the sufficient guide#ii4 ,chrysippus defended with the utmost energy the dogma of the certainty of knowledge1 based upon the perspicuity of true mind pictures#ajj2 but the teaching of ,arcesilaus obtained a hold upon him1 and 7as we shall see7 was ultimately allowed by him a place within the ,stoic system4 ,sidenote3 ,spread of ,epicureanism4 #ajf4 ,chrysippus meanwhile had a more dangerous enemy to meet than the ,academy4 ,during the weakness which befel the ,stoic school in the middle of the third century ,b4,c41 the rival school of ,epicurus had won an enormous popularity4 ,yet its ethical standard1 which it had inherited from the ,cyrenaics1 offended not only the followers of ,zeno but all sober-minded philosophers4 ,for ,epicurus had set up ,pleasure as the queen of life1 and had converted the virtues into her handmaidens#aja2 and so far was he from taking interest in model states1 that he advised his hearers to hold aloof altogether from public life4 ,worst of all1 his followers only smiled at the reproofs that were showered upon them4 ,they formed among themselves a cheerful1 affectionate1 and united society2 their simple pleasures created no public scandal1 though their entertainments were often enlivened by tales of the moral lapses of their self-righteous rivals4 ,the bracing morality of ,cynism seemed to be quite gone out of fashion1 and even the ,aristonians had ceased to exist4 ,sidenote3 ,alliance of the three schools4 #ajg4 ,under these circumstances the remaining schools began to look one to another for support1 and were even brought into a kind of alliance4 ,the adherents of the ,academy and the ,porch1 in particular1 began to meet in friendly discussion1 and sometimes defined anew their doctrines so as to minimize points of difference1 sometimes directly modified them by way of concession to opposed arguments4 ,this process resulted in a toning down of ,stoicism in every part of its system4 ,the ,stoic teachers began to disregard or push into the background those characteristic doctrines which had been embodied in the ,socratic paradoxes and enforced by the ,cynic propaganda4 ,thus their teaching gave less offence to the lax crowd1 and at the same time 7it must be admitted7 less support to the striving few2 but its tone was now so modest that men of gentle and judicious temperament were attracted to ,stoicism for the first time4 ,stoicism began now to shew itself receptive of literary influences1 especially as regards the works of ,plato and ,aristotle1 and even appreciative of artistic ideals4 ,such was the tendency of the system during both the second and the first centuries ,b4,c42 but it is more difficult to estimate the extent of the deviation4 ,terms like #8well proportioned mixture#ajb1' #8even flow#ajc1' #8due tone#ajd1' #8harmony#aje1' are attributed even to the earliest masters3 whilst it is abundantly clear that the ,socratic and ,cynic paradoxes formed at all times part of the generally accepted view of ,stoic doctrine4 ,sidenote3 ,chrysippus inclines to the ,academy4 #ajh4 ,it is an interesting question1 which perhaps needs further investigation1 to what extent this approximation between the doctrines of the ,academy and the ,porch can be traced in the writings of ,chrysippus4 ,on the one hand we must remember that ,chrysippus was a man of distinctly orthodox temperament2 he firmly opposed the ,cynizing heresies of ,aristo1 and strongly defended the ,stoic theory of knowledge against the ,academy4 ,but our knowledge of the teaching of ,chrysippus1 abundant in volume1 is lacking in precision4 ,our authorities1 as we have seen1 very imperfectly distinguish1 and very inadequately record1 the teaching of the two earlier masters2 and the doctrines which are regarded as common to all ,stoics must be assumed to be generally stated in the language of ,chrysippus1 whose works remained for centuries the recognised standard of orthodoxy4 ,even so there are few distinctive doctrines of ,chrysippus which do not seem to be foreshadowed in expressions attributed to some earlier teacher4 ,yet we may fairly assume that in his ethical teaching there was a substantial sacrifice of the forcefulness of the ,socratic character1 and a corresponding approach to ,academic views4 ,this appears when he defines the supreme good as #8a life according to nature1 that is1 both general nature and our individual human nature#ajf1' and adds1 #8for our individual natures are parts of the nature of the all#ajg4' ,this approaches the doctrine of #8virtue appropriate to the individual' 7 71 as taught by the ,academics#ajh4 ,a still more striking concession is his permission to men engaged in practical life to describe advantages as #8good things1' provided they are carefully distinguished from the supreme good#aji4 ,sidenote3 ,successors of ,chrysippus4 #aji4 ,the weakening hold of the ,stoics upon the principles of their founder first becomes evident in the department of physics4 ,thus it is an essential part of the theory which the ,stoics borrowed from ,heraclitus1 that as the whole universe has proceeded from the all-creative fire1 so it must in due course be re-absorbed in it1 this periodical re-absorption being technically known as the #8conflagration' 774 ,on the other hand the followers of ,aristotle1 following dualistic principles1 placed ,god and the universe in eternal contrast1 and held both to be immortal4 ,ingenious controversialists now pressed the ,stoics to explain how their deity exercised his providence during the periodic intervals in which the universe had no separate existence4 ,this and like arguments had an immediate effect4 ,,bo,,thus of ,sidon1 a contemporary of ,chrysippus1 abandoned altogether the ,stoic theory on this subject#aaj2 ,,zeno of ,tarsus1 who had been with his father ,,dioscorides a pupil of ,chrysippus1 and who succeeded him as head of the school1 discreetly #8suspended his judgment' upon the point#aaa4 ,but whatever its theoretical embarrassments1 the ,stoic school continued to prosper4 ,zeno of ,tarsus wrote but few books1 but had more disciples than any other#aab2 he was succeeded by ,,seleucus of the ,tigris#aac1 and he in turn by ,diogenes#aad1 ,antipater1 and ,panaetius4 ,the last of these maintained ,zeno's #8suspense of judgment#aae' on the question of the conflagration2 but after his death the ,stoics quietly returned to the older opinion4 ,sidenote3 ,diogenes and ,antipater4 #aaj4 ,,diogenes of ,seleucia 7circ4 #bch-aej ,b4,c42 often called #8of ,babylon1' or simply ,diogenes ,stoicus71 and ,,antipater of ,tarsus 7circ4 #bjj-abi ,b4,c471 were both men of eminence in the history of ,stoicism#aaf1 but they were unequally matched against ,carneades 7#bah-abh ,b4,c471 who was head of the ,academic school about the same time1 and who proclaimed the doctrine of a universal suspension of judgment4 ,the many volumes of ,chrysippus gave ,carneades ample opportunities for the exercise of his critical powers2 and ,antipater1 unable or unwilling to meet him in open argument1 fell himself into the evil habit of book-writing#aag4 ,both these teachers specially interested themselves in questions of casuistry4 ,diogenes1 who defined the good as #8reasonableness in the choice of natural ends#aah1' adopted practically that interpretation of #8reasonableness' in which divine reason has the least part1 and human plausibility the freest play#aai4 ,thus he discusses the problems whether the seller of a house ought to inform the purchaser of its defects1 and whether a man upon whom false coins have been passed may transfer them to his neighbour#abj4 ,exactly as ,carneades#aba1 he finds #8reasonable excuse' for the less scrupulous course4 ,antipater on the other hand holds that a man's duty to his neighbour requires perfect frankness#abb2 yet he is said to have abandoned the ,socratic doctrine of the self-sufficiency of virtue1 and to have held that external goods are a part 7though only a small part7 of the supreme good#abc4 ,sidenote3 ,lesser ,stoics4 #aaa4 ,we may now shortly mention some less important ,stoic teachers1 chiefly of the early part of the second century ,b4,c41 since their number alone is an indication of the wide influence of the sect4 ,,aristocreon1 said to have been the nephew of ,chrysippus1 set up a statue in his honour1 as the man who could cut his way through the knots tied by the ,academics#abd4 ,,zenodotus was a pupil of ,diogenes1 and wrote an epigram on ,zeno3 he at least defended the #8manly doctrine' of the founder1 and recalled the principle of the sufficiency of virtue#abe4 ,,apollodorus of ,seleucia on the ,tigris#abf 7sometimes called ,ephillus#abg71 another pupil of ,diogenes1 leant towards ,cynic views2 for he declared that #8the wise man will be a ,cynic1 for this is a short cut to virtue#abh'2 an opinion afterwards adopted by the ,stoics generally#abi4 ,he also wrote on physics4 ,a third pupil of ,diogenes was ,,apollodorus of ,athens#acj4 ,closely associated with ,antipater is ,,archedemus of ,tarsus2 like his fellow-townsman1 he was greatly devoted to dialectics#aca2 in ethics he appears to have inclined strongly to ,academic views1 holding that the end of life was the regular performance of daily duties#acb4 ,just about the time we have now reached 7the middle of the second century ,b4,c47 ,eumenes ,,ii founded the great library at ,pergamus1 intended to rival that of ,alexandria4 ,as librarian he installed a ,stoic philosopher1 ,,crates of ,mallos1 who devoted much of his time to grammatical inquiries1 and endeavoured to bring ,homer into accord with the ,stoic views on geography#acc2 he is the first ,stoic of whom we hear at ,rome1 which he visited about #aei ,b4,c4 ,being detained there by an accident1 he employed his time in giving lectures on literature#acd2 and his pupil ,panaetius was destined to introduce ,stoicism to ,roman society4 ,lastly we may mention ,,heraclides of ,tarsus1 a pupil of ,antipater1 said to have broken away from the teaching of the school by denying that all sins are equal#ace4 ,athenodorus of ,tarsus1 who held the same view1 belongs to a later generation#acf4 ,of uncertain date are ,,basilides1 who pushed his monism so far as to declare that all things1 even statements1 are bodies#acg2 ,,eudromus1 who wrote on the elements of ethics#ach2 and ,,crinis1 who interested himself in logic#aci4 ,,footnotes #a ,see below1 #ie4 #b ,ind4 ,sto4 ,herc4 col4 xii #c 7,arnim i #dcg74 #c #8,zenonis ,stoici servus1 qui ,persaeus vocatus est' ,a4 ,gellius ,n4 ,a4 ii #ah1 #h4 1 ,athen4 iv #ed 7,arnim i #deb74 ,on the other hand #8nullum servum fuisse ,zenoni 444 satis constat' ,sen4 ,dial4 xii #ab1 #d4 #d ,arnim i #dci1 #ddj4 #e ib4 #ddi4 #f ,athen4 iv #ed 7,arnim i #deb74 #g ,diog4 ,l4 vii #afb4 #h ,athen4 as above4 #i ,paus4 ii #h1 #d2 vii #h1 #c 7,arnim i #ddb74 #aj ,plut4 ,arat4 #bc1 #c4 ,according to ,plutarch he afterwards admitted that he had been wrongly taught as to the #8good general4' #aa #8,persaeus eos dicit esse habitos deos1 a quibus magna utilitas ad vitae cultum esset inventa1 ipsasque res utiles et salutares deorum esse vocabulis nuncupatas' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ae1 #ch4 ,persaeus derived the theory from ,prodicus2 ,philod4 de piet4 #i 7,arnim i #ddh71 and above1 #db4 #ab ,diog4 ,l4 vii #i4 #ac 1 ' 1 ' 1 4 ' 1 ' 3 ,aratus1 ,phaen4 ,pref4 #ad ,plut4 ,cleo4 #aa1 #b4 #ae ,mahaffy1 ,empire of the ,ptolemies1 p4 #bbb4 #af ib4 p4 #bde4 #ag ,zeller1 ,stoics etc41 p4 #dd4 #ah #8,sphaeri1 hominis in primis bene definientis1 ut putant ,stoici' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 iv #bd1 #ec4 #ai ,see below1 #ccb4 #bj #8fortitudo est 444 conservatio stabilis iudici in iis rebus1 quae formidolosae videntur 444 haec definitio erat ,sphaeri' ,cic4 as above4 ,the principle was accepted by all ,stoics1 see below1 #cbc4 #ba #8omitto 444 ,erillum1 qui in cognitione et scientia summum bonum ponit2 qui cum ,zenonis auditor esset1 vides quantum ab eo dissenserit1 et quam non multum a ,platone' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #db1 #abi4 ,see also ,fin4 iv #ad1 #cf4 #bb #8sin ea quae virtus leget quaeque reiciet non neglegemus neque tamen ad finem summi boni referemus1 non multum ab ,erilli levitate aberrabimus2 facit enim ille duo seiuncta ultima bonorum' ,fin4 iv #ae1 #dj4 #bc ' ,diog4 ,l4 vii #afe4 #bd ' 1 ' 1 ' ,stob4 ii #g1 #c c4 #be 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #afe4 #bf ,the best discussion is by ,hirzel1 ,untersuchungen1 ii #df sqq4 ,he considers the teaching of ,herillus to have inclined to ,cynism rather than to ,platonism1 and to have been substantially identical with that of ,aristo4 #bg ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ah4 #bh ,athen4 vi #eh 7,arnim i #cdb74 #bi ib4 vii #ad 7,arnim i #cda74 #cj ,see above1 #hi4 #ca ,diog4 ,l4 vii #afc4 #cb ib4 vii #afa4 #cc #8nihil istorum physicorum sciri putat posse' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #ci1 #abc4 #cd #8qui neque formam dei intellegi posse censeat1 neque in dis sensum esse dicat2 dubitetque omnino deus animans necne sit' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ad1 #cg4 #ce #8,aristo moralem quoque 444 quam solam reliquerat1 circumcidit' ,sen4 ,ep4 #hi1 #ac4 #8hanc partem quae dat propria cuique personae praecepta levem existimat1 et quae non descendat in pectus usque' ib4 #id1 #b3 in this letter the whole subject is very fully discussed4 #cf 1 ,sext4 math4 xi #fd 7,arnim i #cfa74 #cg #8,aristonis 444 sententia1 non esse res ullas praeter virtutes et vitia1 inter quas quicquam omnino interesset' ,cic4 ,fin4 iv #ag1 #dg4 #ch #8huic sc4 ,aristoni summum bonum est1 in his rebus neutram in partem moveri1 quae ab ipso dicitur' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #db1 #acj4 #ci ,galen1 ,hipp4 et ,plat4 vii #b 7,arnim i #cgd74 ,chrysippus is said to have complained that he made the various virtues or variations of a single virtue 7,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 vii #c72 nevertheless the same doctrine frequently reappears in ,stoic writers4 #dj #8vives1 inquit ,aristo1 magnifice atque praeclare1 quod erit cunque visum1 ages3 nunquam angere1 nunquam cupies1 nunquam timebis' ,cic4 ,fin4 iv #be1 #fi4 #da #8,aristonis 444 iampridem explosa sententia est' ,off4 i #b1 #f2 cf4 ,fin4 iv #ag1 #dg4 #db ,n4 ,saal1 p4 #cg sqq4 ,for fuller discussions of ,aristo see ,hirzel1 ,untersuchungen1 ii p4 #dd1 and ,dyroff1 ,ethik1 pp4 #dc sqq41 #cef sqq4 #dc ,gomperz1 ,greek ,thinkers1 ii p4 #afa4 #dd ,mahaffy1 ,empire of the ,ptolemies1 p4 #bjg4 #de ,athen4 vii #ad 7,arnim i #djh74 #df #8nobis ,heracleotes ille ,dionysius flagitiose descivisse videtur a ,stoicis propter oculorum dolorem2 quasi vero hoc didicisset a ,zenone1 non dolere1 cum doleret6 illud audierat nec tamen didicerat1 malum illud non esse1 quia turpe non esset' ,cic4 ,fin4 v #ca1 #id2 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aff4 #dg #8quaerebat ,antiochus1 ,dionysius ille ,heracleotes utrum comprehendisset1 444 honestum quod esset1 id solum bonum esse1 an 444 honesti inane nomen esse1 voluptatem esse summum bonum' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #bb1 #ga4 #dh ,diog4 ,l4 vii #afg2 ,athen4 x #ej 7,arnim i #dbh74 #di ,diog4 ,l4 vii #afg4 #ej ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ch4 #ea ,he drew water by night that he might study philosophy by day1 according to ,diog4 ,l4 vii #afh4 #8,cleanthes aquam traxit et rigando horto locavit manus' ,sen4 ,ep4 #dd1 #c4 #eb ,diog4 ,l4 vii #cg4 #ec #8,zenonem ,cleanthes non expressisset1 si tantummodo audisset3 vitae enim eius interfuit1 secreta perspexit1 observavit illum1 an ex formula sua viveret' ,sen4 ,ep4 #f1 #f4 #ed #8sensus nostros clariores carminis arta necessitas efficit' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajh1 #aj4 #ee ,diog4 ,l4 vii #afh4 #ef ,stob4 i #a1 #ab 7,arnim i #ecg74 #eg ,see above1 #ij4 #eh ,i follow the reading 1 4 ,the words in the text are surely a reminiscence of ,aratus1 ,phaen4 #e 7so ,pearson1 p4 #bgf71 and is confirmed by ,musonius ap4 ,stob4 ,flor4 #aag1 #h 7see below1 #dai74 ,mr ,pearson now suggests to me that the ,,ms reading may represent the correction of a pious scribe1 1 i4e4 for 4 ,see below1 #bdd4 #ei ,the translation follows ,pearson's 4 ,arnim reads 4 ,even the meaning is quite uncertain here4 #fj 7,diels7 seems the nearest reading to the ,,ms1 so that the word #8great' above refers to the sun only4 #fa '1 1 ' 1 ' 4 ' 1 ,epict4 ,manual #ec2 #8duc1 o parens celsique dominator poli1 quocunque placuit2 nulla parendi mora est4 adsum impiger4 fac nolle1 comitabor gemens1 malusque patiar1 quod pati licuit bono4 ducunt volentem fata1 nolentem trahunt' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajg1 #aa4 ,the translation given above is by ,g4 ,h4 ,rendall 7,m4 ,aurel4 ,introd4 p4 lxvii74 #fb ,clem4 ,strom4 v #c1 #ag 7,arnim i #eei74 #fc ,clem4 ,protrept4 vi #gb 7,arnim i #eeg74 #fd ,stob4 iii #f1 #c 7,arnim i #egc74 #fe ,see below1 #cag4 #ff ,as1 for instance1 ,zeller does when he writes #8,cleanthes was adapted to uphold his master's teaching1 but he was incapable of expanding it more completely1 or of establishing it on a wider basis' ,stoics1 p4 #da4 #fg ,hirzel1 ,untersuchungen1 ii pp4 #acd sqq42 ,stein1 ,psychologie der ,stoa1 i #fe-gb1 #afb-aga1 ii #caf-ccb4 #fh ,sen4 ,ep4 #aac1 #bc4 #fi ,diog4 ,l4 vii #agd4 #gj ib4 #acd4 #ga #8,cleanthes ipsum mundum 444 deum dicit esse' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ad1 #cg4 #gb ,arnim i #dig1 #eaa4 #gc #8ultimum et altissimum et omnia complexum ardorem1 qui aether nominetur' ,cic4 as in note #ga4 #gd ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #ae1 #da4 #ge #8sic res se habet1 ut omnia1 quae alantur et quae crescant1 contineant in se vim caloris1 sine qua neque ali possent neque crescere' ib4 #i1 #bc4 #gf #8haec 7quae ,zeno dixit esse7 ,cleanthes in spiritum congerit quem permeatorem universitatis affirmat' ,tert4 ,apol4 #ba 7,arnim i #ecc74 #gg ,the substance of this doctrine is attributed to ,zeno also3 444 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aeg4 #gh ,see below1 #bgg4 #gi ,pearson1 ,introd4 p4 #de2 below1 #cfb4 #hj ,arnim i #adc4 #ha ,there is a slight inconvenience1 but also a real advantage1 in using this term both in its philosophic sense for the governing part of the soul1 and historically for the system of government founded by ,augustus4 ,there is a genuine analogy between the two1 though it is not developed by the ,latin writers4 ,seneca uses principale only4 #hb ,euseb4 pr4 ev4 xv #ae1 #g 7,arnim i #dii72 and see below1 #bja4 #hc ,at4 i #g1 #ag 7,arnim i #ecb72 #8totius naturae menti atque animo tribuit hoc nomen dei' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ad1 #cg4 #hd #8,cleanthes ipsum mundum deum dicit esse' ib4 #he ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #e1 #ac-ae2 and see below1 ch4 x4 #hf ,see below1 #aie4 #hg 1 1 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ahb4 #hh ' ' ,diog4 ,l4 vii #agi4 #hi ib4 #ahb4 #ij ib4 #agi4 #ia #8num contentus est ,chrysippus docere1 rem ostendere1 definire1 explorare8 non est contentus3 verum auget in quantum potest1 exaggerat1 praemunit1 iterat1 differt1 recurrit1 interrogat1 describit1 dividit1 personas fingit1 orationem suam alii accommodat' ,fronto1 ep4 ad ,ant4 p4 #adf 7,arnim ii #bg74 #ib ' 1 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ahc4 #ic ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ahj4 #id #8de quo queri solent ,stoici1 dum studiose omnia conquisierit contra sensus et perspicuitatem 444 ipsum sibi respondentem inferiorem fuisse2 itaque ab eo armatum esse ,carneaden' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #bg1 #hg2 cf4 ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 x #c and #d4 #ie #8ab ,chrysippo nihil magnum nec magnificum desideravi1 qui suo quodam more loquitur1 ut omnia verborum momentis1 non rerum ponderibus examinet' ,cic4 ,rep4 iii #h1 #ab2 #8ad ,chrysippi laqueos revertamur' de ,fato #d1 #g2 #8,chrysippus1 penes quem subtile illud acumen est et in imam penetrans veritatem1 qui rei agendae causa loquitur et verbis non ultra quam ad intellectum satis est utitur1 totum librum his ineptiis replet' ,sen4 ,ben4 i #c1 #h2 #8magnum mehercule virum1 sed tamen ,graecum1 cuius acumen nimis tenue retunditur et in se saepe replicatur' ib4 #d1 #a4 #if #8quod est bonum1 omne laudabile est2 quod autem laudabile est1 omne est honestum2 bonum igitur quod est1 honestum est' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #h1 #bg4 #ig ,see below1 #afb1 #afc4 #ih #8,arcesilas primum 444 ex variis ,platonis libris sermonibusque ,socraticis hoc maxime arripuit1 nihil esse certi quod aut sensibus aut animo percipi possit' ,cic4 de ,orat4 iii #ah1 #fg4 ,see above1 #ga4 #ii ,sext4 math4 vii #aeh4 #ajj #8cum ,chrysippus1 ,academicos refellens1 permulto clariora et certiora esse dicat1 quae vigilantibus videantur1 quam quae somniantibus' ,cic4 ,div4 ii #fa1 #abf2 see further1 #adg4 #aja ,see below1 #cdf4 #ajb ,see ,pearson1 ,cle4 fr4 #db4 #ajc ,according to ,stob4 ii #g1 #f e this term was used by all the ,stoic teachers4 #ajd ,used by ,chrysippus1 see ,arnim iii #dgc4 #aje ,diog4 ,l4 vii #hh4 #ajf 1 1 ib4 vii #hi4 #ajg ib4 #hg4 #ajh ,see above1 #ga4 #aji ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #cj1 #d4 #aaj ,philo1 inc4 mund4 #ae1 p4 #bdh 7,arnim iii ,both4 #g74 #aaa sc4 ,chrysippi ,ar4 ,did4 fr4 #cf ,diels 7,arnim iii ,z4 ,t4 #e74 #aab ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ce4 #aac ,ind4 ,sto4 ,herc4 col4 #dh 7,arnim iii ,z4 ,t4 #b74 #aad ,see ,zeller1 ,stoics etc41 p4 #ej4 #aae ,see below1 #aae4 #aaf #8aliud ,diogeni ,babylonio videri solet1 magno et gravi ,stoico1 aliud ,antipatro1 discipulo eius1 homini acutissimo' ,cic4 ,off4 iii #ab1 #ea2 #8,antipater inter magnos ,stoicae sectae auctores' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ib1 #e4 #aag ,plut4 de garr4 #bc4 #aah ,diog4 ,l4 vii #hh2 for the ,academic view see #ga above4 #aai ,see below1 #aei1 #ccb4 #abj ,cic4 ,off4 iii #ac1 #ed2 #bc1 #ia4 #aba ,rep4 iii #bj1 #cj4 #abb #8tu cum hominibus consulere debeas1 444 celabis homines' ,off4 iii #ac1 #eb4 #abc #8,antipater 444 aliquid se tribuere dicit externis1 sed exiguum admodum' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ib1 #e4 #abd ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #b1 #e4 #abe ,diog4 ,l4 vii #cj4 #abf ,arnim iii p4 #bei2 see also ,pauly-,wissowa sub voce4 #abg ,so ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ci1 where however others read 4 #abh ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aba4 #abi ib4 vi #ajd4 #acj ,ind4 ,stoic4 ,herc4 col4 #ec3 also a pupil of ,antipater2 to be distinguished from an ,apollodorus of ,athens who was an ,epicurean2 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aha4 #aca #8duo vel principes dialecticorum1 ,antipater et ,archedemus1 opiniosissimi homines' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #dg1 #adc4 #acb ,diog4 ,l4 vii #hh4 #acc ,sandys1 ,classical ,scholarship1 i pp4 #aee1 #aef4 #acd ib4 p4 #aeg4 #ace ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aba4 #acf ,see below1 #abb1 #abc4 #acg ,arnim iii p4 #bfh4 #ach ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ci4 #aci ib4 #gf4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,stoic ,,sect ,,in ,,rome4 ,sidenote3 ,growth of the ,stoic #8sect4' #aab4 ,in the third century ,b4,c4 ,stoicism won adherents slowly and one by one1 as individuals were convinced by reasoning and example4 ,in the second century its progress became more rapid1 for it was reinforced by inheritance and social influence4 ,fathers handed down its doctrine to their sons1 and teachers to their pupils4 ,groups of men united by a common respect for the school and its founders began to associate together1 not only at ,athens1 but also 7as we may well infer from the list of names given at the end of the last chapter7 at such centres as ,pergamus1 ,babylon1 ,seleucia1 ,tarsus1 ,sidon1 and even ,alexandria#a4 ,thus out of the school there grew up the #8sect' 7secta72 that is1 a society of men drawn from different nations and ranks1 but sharing the same convictions1 united by a bond of brotherhood1 and feeling their way towards mutual consolation and support2 a company going through life on the same path1 and prepared to submit to a common authority#b4 ,the spread of the sect was rapid though quiet2 and as we cannot expect to trace its history from place to place1 we are unable to say when first it found adherents at ,rome4 ,but early in the second century ,b4,c4 ,rome entered into close political relations with two of the most highly civilized states of ,asia ,minor1 ,pergamus and ,rhodes2 and through the men of learning and taste who were associated with these communities ,stoicism was introduced to the ruling class at the centre of the new empire1 to win there an easy conquest which proved no slight compensation for the political subordination of the states from which its emissaries had sprung4 ,sidenote3 ,panaetius4 #aac4 ,we have already noticed#c that the ,stoic ,crates1 the head of the library established at ,pergamus1 visited ,rome in #aei ,b4,c4 and there gave lectures on literature1 in which he may perhaps have taken occasion to expound at least the chief doctrines of the ,stoic school4 ,only a few years later1 in #aee ,b4,c41 the celebrated embassy from ,athens1 which included the heads of three of the chief philosophical schools at that time1 arrived in ,rome4 ,diogenes of ,seleucia represented the ,stoics1 ,critolaus the ,peripatetics1 and ,carneades the ,academic school2 and all three expounded their respective theories before enormous audiences4 ,we are told that ,diogenes made a good impression by his sober and temperate style#d4 ,thus the way was prepared for the more permanent influence of ,,panaetius of ,rhodes 7circ4 #ahi-aji ,b4,c47#e4 ,he was a gentleman of position in the wealthy and well-governed island state1 and in early youth pursued his studies at ,pergamus1 so that he was probably attracted to the school by ,crates#f4 ,from ,pergamus he passed to ,athens1 where he found established the three teachers already named1 and attached himself to ,diogenes#g1 and after his death to his successor ,antipater#h4 ,his writings shew that he was also much influenced by the teaching of ,carneades4 ,but more than any of his predecessors he appreciated philosophy in its literary form4 ,plato1 the #8,homer of philosophers1' he held in veneration#i2 from ,aristotle1 ,xenocrates1 ,theophrastus and ,dicaearchus he constantly quoted#aj4 ,his admiration for these philosophers greatly influenced his style1 and caused him to reject the stiff and paradoxical form used by his predecessors#aa2 it also led to the surrender of some characteristic ,stoic doctrines in favour of the teaching of ,plato and ,aristotle#ab4 ,his studies extended to every branch of philosophy1 including astronomy#ac and politics#ad4 ,the latter interest brought him into association with ,polybius the historian1 with whom he held frequent discussions as to the best form of government2 the two learned and experienced ,greeks agreed in their admiration for the constitution of ,rome#ae4 ,panaetius visited ,rome1 and there became the intimate friend of ,scipio ,africanus minor3 this friendship must have begun before the year #adj ,b4,c41 when ,panaetius accompanied ,scipio on a mission to settle the affairs of the ,east#af2 it lasted till the death of ,scipio in #abi ,b4,c4 ,round ,scipio and his ,greek friends ,polybius and ,panaetius there gathered a society of the noblest and most intelligent men of ,rome2 and in this circle the ,latin language as well as ,greek philosophy found a new birth4 ,at the time of ,scipio's death ,panaetius became the head of the ,stoic school at ,athens1 and held this position till his own death twenty years later#ag4 ,amongst his friends and pupils were men who took a leading part in the government of their native cities#ah4 ,sidenote3 ,his ethical teaching4 #aad4 ,panaetius may well be regarded as the founder of ,roman ,stoicism1 and is of special interest to us as the writer of the treatise 7 7 which ,cicero has freely translated in his de ,officiis4 ,he sets before us ,stoicism as the school which will train the scholar1 the gentleman1 and the statesman1 whilst he shrinks from those bolder doctrines1 borrowed from the ,cynic school1 which conflict with that which is conventional1 or1 as their opponents say1 with that which is becoming4 ,the central doctrine that virtue is knowledge1 and is the sole and sufficient good1 he accepts as the plain teaching of nature2 and with it the paradox that the wise man never errs#ai4 ,yet even these maxims are somewhat toned down as he expresses them2 and external advantages appear to him worthy of pursuit1 not only as giving a meaning to virtue and providing a field for its exercise1 but also for their own sake1 so long as they do not conflict with virtue#bj2 and he perhaps hesitated to assert positively that #8pain is no evil#ba4' ,in his treatises the figure of the wise man is withdrawn to the background2 he is practically concerned only with the #8probationer' 7 71 who is making some advance in the direction of wisdom4 ,this advance is not made by acts of perfect virtue1 but by regular performance of #8services' 71 officia71 the simple and daily duties which come in the way of the good citizen#bb4 ,further1 scientific investigation must not become the main end of life1 as perhaps it seemed to ,aristotle2 it is permitted only as a recreation in the well-earned intervals between the calls of active life#bc4 ,sidenote3 ,his views on physics4 #aae4 ,it does not appear that ,panaetius devoted much attention to logic#bd2 on the other hand he was much occupied with that part of philosophy which deals with the history of the universe and its government by divine providence#be4 ,the ,heraclitean theory he appears to have left altogether on one side2 for he rejected the theory of the conflagration#bf1 as ,boethus had done before him1 accepting the objection of ,carneades that #8if everything turned into fire1 the fire would go out for lack of fuel#bg4' ,he therefore joined the ,peripatetics in holding that the universe is immortal#bh2 but since again ,carneades has shown that #8no living thing is immortal1' it follows that the world is not an animal1 nor is the deity its soul#bi4 ,upon all these subjects ,panaetius ceased to maintain ,stoic doctrines2 and1 alone amongst ,stoic teachers1 he #8suspended his judgment' as to the reality of divination#cj4 ,sidenote3 ,concession in ethics4 #aaf4 ,similar concessions to his opponents mark his treatment in detail of ethics4 ,thus he takes from ,aristotle the view that #8virtue is a mean between two vices'2 and this doctrine1 so alien from true ,stoic principle1 forms the basis of the treatment which we find adopted in the de ,officiis4 ,the theory of the four #8cardinal virtues1' ,wisdom1 ,justice1 ,courage1 and ,soberness1 was probably common property at this time2 but whereas in ,cynism ,courage and in the earlier ,stoicism ,wisdom are the dominant virtues1 in the theory of ,panaetius ,soberness1 identified with decorum1 far exceeds the rest in practical importance4 ,thus the triumph won by ,panaetius for the name of ,stoicism was purchased by the sacrifice not only of its physics1 but very largely of its ethics also2 and the success of the new system might not unfairly be described as a victory of literature over logic1 of reasonableness over reason1 and of compromise over consistency4 ,however this may be1 ,panaetius undoubtedly succeeded in presenting ,greek philosophy to his ,roman friends in a form in which it recommended itself alike to their reasoning powers and to their moral sense4 ,sidenote3 ,posidonius4 #aag4 ,the virtual1 though not the nominal1 successor of ,panaetius was ,,posidonius of ,rhodes#ca 7circ4 #ace-ea ,b4,c4#cb71 who after studying under ,panaetius at ,athens travelled widely1 finally settling at ,rhodes1 and there took an active part in political life4 ,like his master1 he was a devoted student of ,plato1 and he wrote a commentary on the ,timaeus4 ,in this commentary he developes a new theory of the universe1 which he asserts to be that which ,plato had learnt from the ,pythagoreans1 and to be at root the same as that taught by the ,stoics4 ,the starting-point is the or unit2 from this are evolved the numbers and the elements by a principle of flux1 as in the system of ,heraclitus#cc4 ,the unity and the first of the numbers1 the two1 differ as force and matter2 so that the dualism of ,aristotle is here definitely subordinated to a supreme monism4 ,this study of ,posidonius is therefore incidentally of high importance as a side-light on ,stoic metaphysics and cosmology4 ,in addition he wrote on almost all the principal divisions of philosophy1 thus acquiring a brilliant reputation1 particularly in the eyes of the philosophic nobles of ,rome4 ,cicero made his acquaintance at ,rhodes in #gh ,b4,c41 and refers to him more often in his works than to any other of his instructors#cd4 ,pompey1 in the midst of his eastern campaigns1 put himself to much trouble to visit him#ce4 ,amongst his ,roman visitors and admirers were also ,velleius1 ,cotta1 and ,lucilius#cf4 ,a century later1 ,seneca looked back to him as one of those who had made the largest contribution to philosophy#cg4 ,sidenote3 ,his teaching4 #aah4 ,as compared with the more scientific ,panaetius1 ,posidonius marks a reaction in favour of the religious side of ,stoicism#ch4 ,thus it comes about that ,cicero bases on his work #8on gods' 7 7 his own statement of the ,stoic theology in the second book of his de ,natura deorum#ci4 ,posidonius restores the theory of ,divination1 as to which ,panaetius had held the gravest doubts#dj4 ,he strongly asserts the divine origin of the soul1 and accepts the ,persian view that in this life it is imprisoned in the body#da4 ,he affirmed the future conflagration#db1 and found this theory not inconsistent with a belief in the pre-existence and the immortality of the individual soul4 ,in physics and logic alike ,posidonius upholds the doctrine of the ,logos1 and it appears that it passed directly from him to ,philo of ,alexandria1 and so into ,judaeo-,christian speculation4 ,in ethics he maintained the sufficiency of virtue#dc1 and re-defined it in the spirit of ,cleanthes rather than of ,chrysippus#dd4 ,in the practical application of such doctrines to cases of conscience he disliked the lax views of ,diogenes1 and sided rather with ,antipater and ,panaetius#de4 ,finally he held that the ideal ,republic had already been achieved in the golden age1 when the wise had ruled for the protection and happiness of their subjects#df4 ,sidenote3 ,hecato4 #aai4 ,,hecato of ,rhodes was also a pupil of ,panaetius3 he wrote books on ethics and casuistry which were largely used by ,cicero and by ,seneca1 both of whom frequently refer to him by name4 ,in laying the foundations of his ethics he distinguishes between the #8theoretic virtues1' such as ,wisdom1 ,justice1 ,courage and ,soberness1 which call for the assent of the individual1 and are possessed only by the wise man1 and the corresponding #8non-theoretic virtues1' which are dispositions of body found also amongst the unwise2 as health which corresponds to temperance1 and so forth#dg4 ,by this extension of the conception of virtue the doctrine of its sufficiency is rendered easy of acceptance#dh4 ,in the practical application of his theory he laid great stress on the doctrine of #8relations' 771 that is on duties towards parent1 wife1 child1 slave1 country1 and so forth#di4 ,in order to be in a position to perform these duties a man is entitled to care for his own life and property#ej4 ,he need not be too careful to provide for his slaves if provisions are dear#ea2 nor should he too hastily give up for another his chance of escape from a shipwreck#eb4 ,hecato therefore seems rather to side with ,diogenes in questions of casuistry1 taking a lax view where ,antipater and ,panaetius would be inclined to a more altruistic standpoint4 ,sidenote3 ,the unsectarian philosopher4 #abj4 ,the three teachers of ,rhodes appear to us as men of great learning and of wide interests1 and not without original force2 on the other hand we cannot say that they made any very large contributions towards the discussion of the great problems of philosophy4 ,apart from them we find little trace of creative ability in the school during the first century ,b4,c4 ,there were however numerous teachers occupied in expounding and defending the doctrines of the school1 and their special interest lay in the controversies between the ,porch and the ,academy4 ,from these there resulted a temporary fusion of the two schools4 ,their respective names and dogmas remained unaltered2 but attention was no longer given to the great differences of principle which divided them4 ,learning1 politics1 and social influences alike were at work1 not to solve the great controversies1 but to throw a mist over them4 ,from these circumstances there emerged the type which we now call the #8eclectic1' but which the ,romans called simply the #8philosopher'2 that is1 the man who drew practical wisdom from all sources alike1 binding himself to the dogmas of no school1 but winning his way by aptness of discourse and sympathy of manner to social importance#ec4 ,we have but a limited interest at the present day in these ephemeral reputations2 the type is still with us1 both in the preacher whose sympathies are given with equal readiness to half-a-dozen warring denominations1 and in the politician who emphasizes his connexion by birth with three or four nationalities and as many grades of society4 ,nor are we called upon to question the usefulness of this blurring of differences4 ,we must however remark that so far as our immediate subject is concerned1 the fusion was equivalent to a defeat of ,stoicism by the ,academy4 ,that nothing can be definitely proved2 that a man may choose his principles at the bidding of his fancy2 that an argument may be sufficiently sound for practical purposes even when there exists a counter-argument of almost equal strength2 that the problems of dialectics1 physics1 and ethics may be discussed separately1 instead of being treated as parts of one whole2 all these are the points for which the ,academic contended with as much consistency as his system allowed1 and which every philosopher1 whether or not he called himself a ,stoic1 conceded when he began to combine the teachings of diverse systems4 ,sidenote3 ,lesser ,stoics4 #aba4 ,after the death of ,panaetius the school at ,athens appears to have been conducted by ,,dardanus and ,,mnesarchus1 both of ,athens1 jointly#ed2 later we find at its head ,,dionysius of ,cyrene1 who enjoyed a great reputation as a mathematician1 and was a vigorous opponent of ,demetrius the ,epicurean#ee4 ,about the same time#ef ,,athenodorus the elder of ,tarsus 7circ4 #acj-fj ,b4,c47 became librarian at ,pergamus2 he made use of his position to erase from ,zeno's works those passages 7probably from the ,republic7 which were repugnant to the ,stoic teaching of his own time2 he was however detected and the passages in question were restored#eg4 ,it appears also that he counselled withdrawal from the vexations of public life1 a policy by no means consistent with the teaching of ,zeno1 and for which he is rebuked by ,seneca#eh4 ,from him we first hear the practical precept which both ,seneca and ,juvenal echo1 to ask nothing of the gods that you cannot ask openly#ei4 ,in his old age he left ,pergamus and came to reside at ,rome with ,m4 ,porcius ,cato in ,b4,c4 #gj4 ,amongst the younger friends of ,cato were ,,antipater of ,tyre1 who wrote on practical ethics1 and died at ,athens about #de ,b4,c4#fj2 and ,,apollonides1 with whom he conversed on the subject of suicide shortly before his death#fa4 ,from ,,diodotus ,cicero received instruction in ,stoicism before #hh ,b4,c4#fb2 he conceived a great affection for him1 and invited him to live in his house#fc3 he remained there till his death in #ei ,b4,c41 when he left ,cicero a considerable property#fd4 ,in his old age he was blind1 but he continued his studies1 and in particular that of mathematics1 as ardently as ever#fe4 ,,apollonius of ,tyre wrote a biography of ,zeno1 from which ,diogenes ,laertius often quotes#ff4 ,to this period perhaps belongs ,,hierocles1 who was bitterly opposed to ,epicurus on account of his choosing pleasure as the end of life1 and still more for his denial of providence#fg4 ,sidenote3 ,cicero4 #abb4 ,we have little reason to regret that only fragments at most remain to us of the works of these philosophers1 since ,,cicero presents to us a comprehensive view not only of the doctrines they professed1 but also of the criticisms which their opponents passed upon them1 and again of the replies they made to these criticisms4 ,in carrying out this work for ,stoicism and its rival systems ,cicero not only created the philosophic terminology of the future by his translations of technical terms from ,greek into ,latin1 but also established a new style of philosophic discussion4 ,by the friendly tone of his dialogues1 placed in the mouths of men whose common interest in ,greek studies made the divergencies of the schools to which they belonged a secondary matter2 by the amplitude of his style1 which gives itself time and space to approach a difficult conception from many points of view2 and by the simplicity of his language and illustrations1 which assumes that every philosophical contention can be plainly and forcibly put before the average man of letters1 he has set an example of the art of exposition which has perhaps not been surpassed since#fh4 ,his most systematic expositions of ,stoic doctrine are as follows4 ,in the ,academica a general view of ,zeno's teaching is given by ,m4 ,varro 7i #aj1 #ce to #aa1 #db71 and the ,stoic logic1 as accepted by ,antiochus#fi1 is defended by ,l4 ,licinius ,lucullus 7ii #a1 #a to #ai1 #fc74 ,in the de ,natura deorum 7bk ii7 the ,stoic physics is explained by ,q4 ,lucilius ,balbus2 in the de ,finibus 7bk iii7 the ,stoic ethics by ,m4 ,porcius ,cato1 as the most distinguished ,roman who has adopted them as a standard of life4 ,in the de ,officiis ,cicero adopts the form of a letter addressed to his son when studying at ,athens1 and avowedly adapts the substance of the work of ,panaetius already mentioned1 supplementing it from a memorandum of the teaching of ,posidonius which was specially prepared for him by ,,athenodorus ,,calvus#gj2 this book deals with ethics mainly in its practical applications4 ,in many of his other works1 such as the de ,amicitia1 de ,senectute1 ,tusculan disputations1 de ,fato1 de ,divinatione1 and ,paradoxa1 ,cicero makes use of ,stoic material without giving professedly an exposition of the ,stoic system4 ,sidenote3 ,areius ,didymus4 #abc4 ,the school to which ,cicero finally attached himself was that founded by ,,antiochus of ,ascalon 7circ4 #abe-ej ,b4,c47#ga1 who under the name of the #8old ,academy' taught doctrines which were practically indistinguishable from those of the diluted ,stoicism which now prevailed1 avoiding only the dogmatic temper and a few of the paradoxes of the ,stoics#gb4 ,this appears to have been the prevailing tone of philosophical discussion from the fall of the ,republic to the death of ,augustus4 ,brutus 7the #8tyrannicide'71 though family and political associations have linked his name with that of ,cato1 was in his philosophical opinions a follower of ,antiochus#gc4 ,not very different were probably the views of two teachers1 nominally ,stoics1 who held high positions in the household of ,augustus4 ,,athenodorus the younger of ,tarsus 7possibly the same as the ,athenodorus ,calvus mentioned in the last section7 was a pupil of ,posidonius1 and whilst teaching at ,apollonia counted amongst his pupils ,julius ,caesar's great-nephew ,octavius1 who was afterwards to become the emperor ,augustus4 ,octavius took his teacher with him to ,rome1 and he had the credit of exercising a restraining influence on his patron4 ,in ,b4,c4 #cj he was sent in his old age to reform the government of his native city ,tarsus4 ,he appears to have written chiefly on popular moral subjects#gd4 ,,areius ,,didymus of ,alexandria#ge1 who was for a longer period installed in the household of ,augustus#gf1 is of interest to us as the first of those who made excerpts from the works of earlier writers1 and to him we owe most of the ,stoic fragments found in the work of ,stobaeus4 ,he probably depended in the first instance on the writings of ,antiochus of ,ascalon4 ,he was instrumental in saving his native town ,alexandria when taken by ,augustus in ,b4,c4 #cj4 ,it is probable enough that his #8,epitome' was prepared for the use of ,augustus1 and provided the material for philosophical discussions at the banquet1 such as those to which ,horace so often refers#gg4 ,seneca tells us that he was acquainted with the inmost thoughts of the family of ,augustus1 and reports the language in which he consoled ,livia upon the death of her son ,drusus#gh 7,b4,c4 #i74 ,he was succeeded by ,,theon of ,alexandria1 also a ,stoic1 who took a special interest in physiology4 ,sidenote3 ,attalus4 #abd4 ,we know from ,horace that in the time of ,augustus ,stoic philosophers were found not only at the court1 but also in the public lecture-room1 and at the street-corners4 ,such were ,stertinius#gi1 of whom the commentators say that he was the author of #abj books on ,stoicism#hj2 ,crispinus#ha1 said to have been a bad poet#hb2 and ,damasippus#hc4 ,in ,horace's amusing sketches we find the ,stoic as he appeared to the unconverted4 ,he has sore eyes1 or else a troublesome cough#hd2 he presses his teaching upon his hearers unreasonably and unseasonably4 ,but in the reign of ,tiberius we find these popular lecturers held in very high esteem4 ,one of the most eminent was ,,attalus1 of whom ,seneca the philosopher gives us a glowing account4 ,seneca was the first each day to besiege the door of his school1 and the last to leave through it4 ,this philosopher must have exercised an extraordinary influence over the young men of his time4 ,in his mouth the paradox #8the wise man is a king' seemed a modest statement2 his pupils were half disposed to regard him as a god#he4 ,when he declaimed on the misery of human life1 a deep pity for their fellow-men fell upon them2 when he extolled poverty1 they felt disposed to renounce their wealth2 when he recommended the simple life1 they readily abandoned the use of meat and wine1 of unguents and of warm baths#hf4 ,seneca quotes from him in full an address on the vanity of wealth1 which shews his teaching to be very similar to that of the more famous ,musonius#hg4 ,he attached a special value to the discipline which hardships bring with them#hh4 ,he incurred the dislike of ,seianus1 who defrauded him of his property and reduced him to the position of a peasant#hi4 ,sidenote3 ,cornutus4 #abe4 ,our attention is next attracted by ,l4 ,,annaeus ,,cornutus 7circ4 #bj-ff ,a4,d471 who was born in ,africa1 and entered the house of the ,annaei1 presumably as a slave4 ,there he received his freedom1 and became the teacher of the two poets ,persius and ,lucan2 of these the former has left us an attractive account of his personality#ij4 ,he wrote in ,greek1 and one of his works1 #8,on the ,nature of the ,gods1' is still extant4 ,this book is a development of the system which we see followed by ,cicero in the de ,natura deorum 7based upon ,posidonius71 by which a reconciliation is effected between the ,stoic physics and the popular mythology4 ,by means of etymology and allegory1 all that is incredible or offensive in the old legends of the gods is metamorphosed into a rationalistic explanation of the phenomena of the universe4 ,thus ,zeus is the soul of the universe1 because he is the cause of life in all living things1 ,zeus being derived from #8live4' ,apollo is the sun1 and ,artemis the moon3 ,prometheus the providence that rules in the universe4 ,pan is the universe4 ,cronos consumes all his offspring except ,zeus1 for time consumes all except what is eternal4 ,hera1 the air 7 from 7 is sister and wife of ,zeus1 because the elements of fire and air are intimately associated4 ,the popularity of such a treatise goes far to explain to us the close connexion now becoming established between the ,stoic philosophy and the practices of ,roman religion4 ,sidenote3 ,seneca4 #abf4 ,roughly contemporary with ,annaeus ,cornutus1 but perhaps rather older1 was the famous ,latin writer ,l4 ,,annaeus ,,seneca 7circ4 #d ,b4,c4-#fe ,a4,d474 ,born in ,corduba in ,spain1 he may have inherited simple tastes from his provincial origin2 but it was the eloquence of ,attalus which moved him to a deliberate choice of the philosophic life#ia4 ,under this influence he was at one time tempted to throw away his wealth2 whilst the ,pythagorean philosopher ,sotion induced him to become for a time a vegetarian#ib4 ,to the end of his days he adhered to the #8simple life'2 he felt an aversion to wine1 oysters1 and all luxurious food2 he discarded hot baths and soft chairs as debilitating2 and of perfumes he would have only the best1 that is1 none at all#ic4 ,he was an ardent lover of books1 and appears to us as the last ,roman who made a systematic study of ,stoicism in the original authorities1 and thus grasped the system in its full extent4 ,he did not however claim1 like his teacher ,attalus1 to be a wise man2 far from that1 he laments that he is still in the deep waters of wickedness#id4 ,in an age when a governmental career was freely open to talent1 ,seneca's powers and industry carried him to high political station1 and greatly increased his inherited wealth4 ,he played a part in the court of ,claudius1 and in time became the tutor1 and ultimately the minister1 of ,nero4 ,he did not possess the zeal of a reformer1 and doubtless tolerated many an abuse1 and often bowed his head before power even when linked with tyranny#ie4 ,but if he did not imitate the unbending stiffness of ,cato1 we have still no reason to credit the personal calumnies that pursued him at court4 ,had his career as a whole been a discredit to his philosophical profession1 we may feel sure that ,juvenal would never have overlooked so sensational a contrast4 ,for the last few years of his life he resigned political power1 that he might devote himself to what he deemed a more important task1 the exposition of the practical teaching of ,stoicism#if4 ,finally he was1 or appeared to be1 drawn into a plot against the emperor1 and was called upon in consequence to put an end to his life4 ,sidenote3 ,his style4 #abg4 ,the literary style of ,seneca was severely criticized by critics almost contemporary with him4 ,gellius tells us that in his time it was by many not thought worth while to read his writings1 because the style was found to be vulgar1 the matter characteristic of half-educated men1 the argument petty and exaggerated#ig4 ,quintilian finds that much of his work is admirable1 but much also is tainted by a striving for cheap effect and a want of solid knowledge#ih2 and he thinks him in no way comparable to ,cicero#ii4 ,this judgment is generally maintained in the world of modern scholarship1 with the result that ,seneca's works are not read in our schools and universities1 and are little known even to professional scholars4 ,on the other side we may set the extraordinary popularity of ,seneca both in his own times#ajj and in those of the ,renascence4 ,it is possible to argue that his style represents the true tendency of the ,latin language in his day1 and that it is in the direct line towards the modern style of ,french prose1 generally considered the best in the world4 ,as regards his matter it is not possible to deny that he repeats the same moral teaching many times in slightly altered form#aja1 and that he seldom gives us a continuous or thorough treatment of any important subject#ajb4 ,his writings may well be compared with articles in our periodical literature and the hebdomadal productions of our pulpits2 they aim at immediate effect rather than at the slow building up of ordered knowledge4 ,just for that reason they admirably illustrate for us ,stoicism in its practical application to daily life2 and the extraordinary popularity which they enjoyed for many centuries seems to shew that they are in touch with deeply-rooted instincts of humanity4 ,sidenote3 ,his independence4 #abh4 ,seneca claims to be an independent thinker1 only adopting the views of ,stoic masters because their arguments convince him#ajc4 ,still he does not use the liberty he claims to assert any new principles1 but only to deviate occasionally in the direction of popular views4 ,thus he frequently adopts some dogma of ,epicurus or some ,cynic paradox to point a moral1 and appears unconscious of the deep-lying differences which keep these schools apart from ,stoicism2 and only in reply to some challenge does he state with any care the ,stoic position4 ,this is particularly the case with the problem of wealth1 which both ,epicurean and ,cynic disparage1 but the true ,stoic is called upon to defend as a #8thing of high degree4' ,yet when ,seneca is called upon to defend his own possession of wealth he states his case with admirable clearness4 ,sidenote3 ,weakening of ,stoicism4 #abi4 ,it is perhaps partly due to his style that it appears at times as if ,seneca's hold on ,stoic doctrine was often weak4 ,he has no real belief in conviction and scientific knowledge3 #8if we try to be exact everywhere1 we shall need to keep silence2 for there is something to be said against most statements#ajd4' ,for the detailed ,stoic system of logic he feels only contempt#aje4 ,in physics however his interest is keen1 probably under the influence of his favourite ,posidonius3 he sets forth with great clearness the theory of tone 71 intentio7#ajf3 he eloquently maintains the existence of gods1 abandoning the traditional proofs1 and basing his conviction upon the moral sense in man#ajg3 he holds firmly to the doctrine of the conflagration#ajh4 ,still we have constant reason to doubt whether these beliefs are linked together in his mind by any consistent principle4 ,his ethics are marked by a similar weakness3 the ,socratic #8strength and force' is wanting1 and is replaced by a spirit of quietism and resignation4 ,the important position which he has filled in ,roman politics awakens no enthusiasm in himself1 nor does the greatness of the ,roman empire excite his admiration4 ,his heart is in his books2 to them he gives up entirely his closing years4 ,his wise man will not go out of the way to mix in politics2 rather he will carefully consider how he may avoid the dangers of social strife#aji4 ,this enfeebled moral teaching is found also in the successors of ,seneca1 and in modern literature is constantly quoted as true ,stoic doctrine4 ,but though ,seneca's philosophy finds him many an excuse for his retirement1 he would have been a more faithful disciple of ,zeno and ,cleanthes if he had borne the burden of public life to the end4 ,sidenote3 ,musonius4 #acj4 ,to the same period as ,seneca belongs ,c4 ,,musonius ,,rufus1 in whom however we observe distinctly1 what we may conjecture had also been the case with ,attalus1 that ethical teaching is becoming divorced from philosophical theory1 and so the ,cynic standpoint approached4 ,musonius was a preacher with a singular impressiveness of address4 ,speaking from the heart on matters of direct moral import1 he won respect even from those who were least willing to be guided by him4 ,he disdained the applause of his hearers1 desiring instead to see each one tremble1 blush1 exult1 or stand bewildered according as the address affected him#aaj4 #8,if you have leisure to praise me1' he said to his pupils1 #8,i am speaking to no purpose4' #8,accordingly1' said one of them1 #8he used to speak in such a way that every one who was sitting there supposed that some one had accused him before ,rufus3 he so touched on what was doing1 he so placed before the eyes every man's faults#aaa4' ,amongst his pupils were ,aulus ,gellius the antiquarian1 ,epictetus1 and a certain ,pollio who made a collection of his sayings 7 71 of which extracts have been preserved for us by ,stobaeus4 ,they consist of moral maxims 77 such as #8,live each day as if your last#aab1' #8,nothing is more pleasurable than temperance#aac1' and discourses or #8diatribes' 77 dealing with subjects such as discipline1 endurance1 marriage1 obedience to parents1 and so forth#aad4 ,in elevation of standard these writings stand higher than those of the early ,stoics2 and the influence of ,musonius was so great that we may almost regard him as a third founder of the philosophy4 ,sidenote3 ,his part in politics4 #aca4 ,in public life ,musonius played a conspicuous part2 he was the ,cato of his generation1 trusted by all parties for his absolute rectitude of character1 and respected for his fearlessness2 but he was much less out of touch with the real conditions of the ,roman world4 ,when in ,a4,d4 #fb ,rubellius ,plautus found himself unable to quiet ,nero's suspicions of his loyalty1 it was believed that ,musonius encouraged him to await his end calmly1 rather than attempt rebellion#aae4 ,after the conspiracy of ,piso1 ,musonius was banished from ,rome by ,nero1 together with most of the eminent personalities of the capital#aaf4 ,on ,nero's death he returned to ,rome1 and when the armies of ,vespasian and ,vitellius were fighting in the suburbs of the city1 the senate sent delegates to propose terms of peace4 ,musonius joined them1 and ventured to address the common soldiers1 expatiating on the blessings of peace1 and sternly reproving them for carrying arms4 ,he was roughly handled and forced to desist4 ,tacitus speaks severely of this unseasonable display of philosophy#aag2 and certainly ,rome would not have been the gainer if the issue had remained undecided#aah4 ,but that such an attempt was possible in defiance of all military discipline speaks much both for the courage of the speaker and for the respect in which his profession was held4 ,musonius continued to play an honourable part in public life during the reign of ,vespasian1 and retained the confidence of the emperor even at a time when his advisers secured his assent to a measure for expelling other philosophers from the capital#aai4 ,sidenote3 ,euphrates and ,dio4 #acb4 ,in the reigns of ,titus and his successors pupils and converts of ,musonius played not inconspicuous parts in public life4 ,amongst them was one ,,euphrates1 of ,tyre or ,epiphania 7circ4 #ce-aah ,a4,d471 who in his day won all hearts and convinced all judgments4 #8,some persons1' says ,epictetus1 one of his fellow-pupils1 #8having seen a philosopher1 and having heard one speak like ,euphrates--and yet who can speak like him8--wish to be philosophers themselves#abj4' ,pliny made his acquaintance in his native land1 and was filled with affection for the man4 ,he found his style dignified and sublime2 but especially he noticed its sweetness1 which attracted even his opponents4 ,his personal appearance was even more charming2 he was tall1 handsome1 and the proprietor of a long and venerable beard4 ,his private life was beyond reproach1 and he was devoted to the education of his family of two sons and one daughter#aba4 ,he appears to have completely achieved the reconciliation of philosophy with worldly success4 ,more ascetic in temper was ,,dio of ,prusa 7circ4 #dj-aag ,a4,d471 who was first an opponent but afterwards a follower of ,musonius#abb4 ,a ,stoic in theory1 a ,cynic in practice1 he assumed the shabby cloak1 and wandered as a physician of souls4 ,his eloquence succeeded in calming a mutiny of soldiers which followed on the death of ,domitian1 and won for him from a following generation the title of the #8golden-mouthed4' ,he was held in high honour both by ,nerva and by ,trajan4 ,a large number of his harangues are still extant4#abc ,sidenote3 ,epictetus4 #acc4 ,the influence of such teachers was at any rate widespread1 and if we suspect that ,stoicism was already losing its intensive force as it extended the sphere of its influence1 in this it did but obey what we shall see to be its own law of creative activity#abd4 ,we still have to consider the two teachers who are of all the most famous and the most familiar2 not however because they most truly express the substance of ,stoicism1 but because they have most deeply touched the feelings of humanity4 ,these are ,,epictetus of ,hierapolis 7circ4 #ej-acj ,a4,d47 and ,marcus ,aurelius1 who later succeeded to the principate4 ,the contrast between their positions has often excited comment1 since ,epictetus was born a slave1 and only obtained his freedom in mature years1 that is1 after the death of ,nero in #fh ,a4,d4 ,in reality it is characteristic of the times that so many men of foreign and even servile origin rose to positions of eminence and became the associates and teachers of men of high official rank4 ,in the great slave households1 in particular1 of imperial ,rome unequalled opportunities lay open to talent2 the #8educational ladder' was everywhere set up to encourage the youth to make the best of his gifts4 ,further1 just as young nobles were frequently enamoured of slave girls1 so far superior to the ladies of their own class in wit1 gentleness of manners1 and loyalty in the face of all terrors and temptations#abe2 so their elders found a delight in the company of the thoughtful and intellectual men who came to the front through the competition of the slave schools4 ,thus the emperor ,claudius chose his ministers amongst his freedmen1 provoking thereby the sneers of the ,roman aristocracy1 but greatly advancing the good government of the ,roman empire2 and it was ,epaphroditus1 himself a freedman of ,nero1 who sent the young ,epictetus to study at the feet of ,musonius ,rufus4 ,epictetus was a man of warm feelings and clear head2 his addresses1 recorded for us by his hearer ,arrian1 serve admirably to stimulate the domestic virtues and to keep alive the religious spirit2 but his teaching lacks the force which befits the training of a statesman or a king4 ,in logic he inclines too much to suspense of judgment1 in ethics to resignation4 ,but he did not altogether miss the ,socratic force3 in his youth he had gone about inquiring of his neighbours if their souls were in good health1 and even when they replied #8,what is this to you1 my good man8 ,who are you8' he had persisted in giving trouble4 ,only when they raised their hands and gave him blows had he recognised that there was something wanting in his method#abf4 ,other young philosophers1 he felt1 lacked this energy1 and were men of words1 not deeds#abg4 ,like other philosophers1 he was expelled from ,rome by ,domitian in ,a4,d4 #hi1 when he retired to ,nicopolis2 there he gave lectures till the time of his death#abh4 ,sidenote3 ,his ,cynism4 #acd4 ,epictetus was a vigorous opponent of the group of young philosophers who delighted to display their talent upon the intricacies of the ,stoic logic1 and in his early youth he was taken to task by his teacher ,musonius for underrating this part of philosophy#abi4 ,he came however to see the great importance of a thorough training in the methods of reasoning1 so that in practical life a man should distinguish the false from the true1 as he distinguishes good coins from bad4 ,in physics he lays stress chiefly on theology1 and the #8will of ,god' fills a large place in his conception of the government of the world4 ,in his treatment of practical ethics he makes free use of illustrations from the social life of his own day3 he finds examples of ,socratic strength in the athlete and the gladiator2 and he makes it clear that the true philosopher is not 7as many believe the ,stoics to hold7 a man devoid of natural feeling1 but on the contrary affectionate and considerate in all the relations of life4 ,he has a special respect for the ,cynic1 who appears in his lectures not as the representative of a differing philosophical system1 but as philanthropist1 teacher1 comforter1 and missionary4 ,there is indeed in the addresses of ,epictetus a complete fusion of ,stoicism with ,cynism2 and we trace in them pictures not only of the ,cynic system as a whole1 but also of individual teachers like ,antisthenes and ,diogenes1 profoundly different from and much more human than the representations of them familiar through other literature2 they are in fact pictures of ,cynic teachers passed down or idealized by the members of their own sect4 ,by their side stand the pictures of ,ulysses the sage and ,heracles the purger of the world1 as they must have been described from generation to generation by ,cynic orators to their hearers amongst the poor and the unhappy4 ,sidenote3 ,arrian4 #ace4 ,in the second century ,a4,d4 the professed teachers of ,stoicism must have been very numerous2 with the death of ,domitian persecution had passed away4 ,the philosophers were everywhere held in high esteem1 and in turn their whole influence was used in support of the existing state of society and the official religion4 ,in the early part of the century ,,flavius ,,arrianus 7circ4 #ij-age ,a4,d47 is the most eminent of ,stoics2 and it was noted that his relation to his teacher ,epictetus much resembled that of ,xenophon to ,socrates4 ,to him we owe the publication of the #8discourses' 77 which he heard ,epictetus deliver4 ,in ,a4,d4 #abd1 when lecturing at ,athens1 he won the favour of the emperor ,hadrian1 and was appointed by him to high public offices1 in which he shewed himself a wise administrator and a skilful general2 in ,a4,d4 #acj he received the consulship2 and later he withdrew to his native town of ,nicomedia in ,bithynia1 where he filled a local priesthood and devoted himself to the production of works on history and military tactics4 ,to ,stoic doctrine he made no direct contribution4 ,sidenote3 ,rusticus4 ,after ,arrian had given up the teaching of philosophy for public life ,q4 ,,junius ,,rusticus succeeded to the position he left vacant4 ,to him1 amongst other teachers belonging to various philosophical schools1 was entrusted the education of the future emperor ,m4 ,aurelius1 who gives us the following picture of the teaching he received3 #8,from ,rusticus1 ,i first conceived the need of moral correction and amendment2 renounced sophistic ambitions and essays on philosophy1 discourses provocative to virtue1 or fancy portraitures of the sage or the philanthropist2 learned to eschew rhetoric and poetry and fine language2 not to wear full dress about the house1 or other affectations of the kind2 in my letters to keep to the simplicity of his own1 from ,sinuessa1 to my mother2 to be encouraging and conciliatory towards any one who was offended or out of temper1 at the first offer of advances upon their side4 ,he taught me to read accurately1 and not to be satisfied with vague general apprehension2 and not to give hasty assent to chatterers4 ,he introduced me to the memoirs of ,epictetus1 presenting me with a copy from his own stores#acj4' ,in ,rusticus we may confidently trace a successor of the school of ,musonius and ,epictetus4 ,sidenote3 ,marcus ,aurelius4 #acf4 ,m4 ,,aurelius ,,antoninus ,,pius 7#aba-ahj ,a4,d47 is commonly spoken of as #8the philosopher upon the throne1' but this description may be misleading4 ,aurelius was in the first instance a ,roman prince2 to the institutions of ,rome and to his own position as their chief representative he owed his chief allegiance4 ,he was undoubtedly an apt pupil of the courtly philosophers by whom he was surrounded2 he deliberately chose philosophy in preference to rhetoric1 and of the various schools of philosophy his judgment ranked ,stoicism highest4 ,he was fairly well instructed1 but by no means learned1 in its doctrines2 he adhered with sincerity1 but without ardour1 to its practical precepts4 ,in the leisure hours of a busy life it was his comfort and his relaxation to express his musings in the form of philosophic reflections4 ,but his attitude towards ,stoicism is always that of a judge rather than that of an advocate2 and much that the school received as convincing reasoning he rejected as ingenious pleading4 ,hence a large part of ,stoic doctrine1 and almost the whole of its detailed instruction1 disappears from his view2 but we have the advantage that the last of the ,stoic writers brings out into clearer relief those features of this philosophy which could still rivet attention in his own time1 and which therefore form part of the last message of the ancient world to the coming generations4 ,sidenote3 ,his belief in the cosmos4 #acg4 ,it follows at once from the judicial attitude of ,marcus ,aurelius that he cannot countenance the ,stoic claim to certainty of knowledge4 ,the objection of opponents that the wise man1 who alone 7according to ,stoic theory7 possesses such knowledge1 is nowhere to be found1 is sustained3 #8,things are so wrapped in veils1 that to gifted philosophers not a few all certitude seems unattainable4 ,nay to the ,stoics themselves such attainment seems precarious2 and every act of intellectual assent is fallible2 for where is the infallible man#aca8' ,yet ,aurelius does not relapse into scepticism4 ,one doctrine at least is so convincing that he cannot for a moment doubt it2 it does after all shine forth as true by its own light4 ,it is that all things are ultimately one1 and that man lives not in a chaos1 but in a cosmos3 #8,all things intertwine one with another1 in a holy bond2 scarce one thing is disconnected from another4 ,in due coordination they combine for one and the same order4 ,for the world-order is one made out of all things1 and god is one pervading all1 and being is one1 and law is one1 even the common reason of all beings possessed of mind1 and truth is one3 seeing that truth is the one perfecting of beings one in kind and endowed with the same reason#acb4' ,from the belief in a cosmos he is led on to a trust in ,providence2 theoretically1 because the doctrine of the chance clashing of atoms is out of harmony with the belief in ultimate unity2 practically1 because in such a conviction only man can find a starting-point for his own activity4 ,the choice is to him all-important2 either ,fortune or ,reason is king1 and claims allegiance from all4 #8,is it the portion assigned to you in the universe1 at which you chafe8 ,recall to mind the alternative--either a foreseeing providence1 or blind atoms--and all the abounding proofs that the world is as it were a city#acc4' #8,the world is either a welter of alternate combination and dispersion1 or a unity of order and providence4 ,if the former1 why crave to linger on in such a random medley and confusion8 why take thought for anything except the eventual 8dust to dust08 why vex myself8 do what ,i will1 dispersion will overtake me4 ,but on the other alternative ,i reverence1 ,i stand steadfast1 ,i find heart in the power that disposes all#acd4' ,sidenote3 ,his piety4 #ach4 ,aurelius makes full use of the ,stoic proofs of the existence of the gods1 but it soon appears to us that his attachment to the established religion was not in any way founded upon philosophical arguments4 ,in discussing this point he displays a certain heat which we have not yet had occasion to notice3 #8,if indeed they the gods take no thought for anything at all--an impious creed--then let us have done with sacrifice and prayer and oaths1 and all other observances by which we own the presence and the nearness of the gods#ace4' ,finally1 he breaks away altogether from philosophy and rests his convictions on personal experience3 #8,to those who press the question1 8,where have you seen the gods1 whence your conviction of their existence1 that you worship them as you do80 ,i reply--first1 they are visible even to the bodily eye2 secondly1 neither have ,i set eyes upon my soul1 and yet ,i do it reverence4 ,so it is with the gods2 from my continual experience of their power1 ,i have the conviction that they exist1 and yield respect#acf4' ,one further argument he held in reserve2 the sword1 the cross1 and the stake for the #8atheists' who refused to be convinced4 ,he was1 after all1 a king#acg4 ,sidenote3 ,ethics4 #aci4 ,in ethics1 ,aurelius states the main principles of ,stoicism with clearness2 but he altogether ignores the ,stoic paradoxes1 and does not trouble himself with any detailed theory of the virtues and vices4 ,firmness of character is to him the supreme good4 #8,be like the headland1 on which the billows dash themselves continually2 but it stands fast1 till about its base the boiling breakers are lulled to rest4 ,say you1 8,how unfortunate for me that this should have happened08 ,nay rather1 8,how fortunate1 that in spite of this1 ,i own no pang1 uncrushed by the present1 unterrified at the future60 ,the thing might have happened to any one1 but not every one could have endured it without a pang#ach4' ,but in spite of these doctrines1 we trace throughout his pages a tinge of melancholy4 ,too apt a pupil of ,epictetus1 he had learnt from him the principles of submission and resignation1 but he had not acquired the joyous confidence of an older period1 through which the wise man1 even if a slave1 felt himself a king4 ,rather1 though a king1 he felt himself in truth a slave and a subject to the universe that was his master4 ,he would not go against the universal order1 but he hardly felt the delight of active cooperation4 ,in this sense he represents to us the decadence of ,stoicism1 or 7to put it more correctly7 ,stoicism coloured by the decadence of ,rome4 ,sidenote3 ,absorption of the soul4 #adj4 ,on the question of continued existence after death ,aurelius takes up and emphasizes the teaching of ,epictetus1 ignoring the fact that other ,stoic teachers1 from ,zeno to ,seneca1 had taken larger views or at least allowed themselves an ampler language4 ,there had been1 indeed1 a change in the point of view4 ,the early ,stoics1 occupied with the question of physics1 had insisted upon the indestructibility of substance1 and the reuniting of the #8spirit' 77 with the all-pervading spirit from which it came at the beginning4 ,the ,roman school concerned itself more with the question of individuality and personality4 ,accepting fully the principle that that which is born must die1 it comes to the definite conclusion that that which we trace from the mother's womb through infancy and youth1 through success and failure in life1 through marriage and the family ties onwards to weakness and dotage1 must reach its end in death4 ,the #8,i' cannot survive the body4 ,the future existence of the soul1 if such there be1 is no longer 7as with ,seneca7 a matter of joyful expectation1 but of complete indifference4 ,epictetus had expressed this with sufficient clearness3 #8,death is a change1 not from the state which now is to that which is not1 but to that which is not now4 ,shall ,i then no longer exist8 ,you will not exist1 but you will be something else1 of which the world now has need2 for you also came into existence1 not when you chose1 but when the world had need of you#aci4' ,aurelius constantly repeats the doctrine in varied forms3 #8,you exist but as a part inherent in a greater whole4 ,you will vanish into that which gave you being2 or rather1 you will be re-transmuted into the seminal and universal reason#adj4' #8,death put ,alexander of ,macedon and his stable boy on a par4 ,either they were received into the seminal principles of the universe1 or were alike dispersed into atoms#ada4' ,sidenote3 ,preparation for death4 #ada4 ,the saddened outlook of ,marcus ,aurelius upon life harmonizes well with the resignation with which he contemplates a death1 which for himself individually will be the end4 ,hence it is that his reflections so often make the thought of death a guiding principle of ethics2 he who has learnt to look forward calmly to his last act has learnt thereby to abide patiently all the troubles which postpone it4 ,thus the last message of the princely philosopher1 as of his predecessor1 is that men should #8bear and forbear'3 #8,contemn not death1 but give it welcome2 is not death too a part of nature's will8 ,as youth and age1 as growth and prime1 as the coming of teeth and beard and grey hairs1 as begetting and pregnancy and the bearing of children1 as all other operations of nature1 even such is dissolution4 ,therefore the rational man should not treat death with impatience or repugnance or disdain1 but wait for it as one of nature's operations#adb4' #8,o for the soul ready1 when the hour of dissolution comes1 for extinction or dispersion or survival6 ,but such readiness must proceed from inward conviction#adc4' #8,serenely you await the end1 be it extinction or transmutation4 ,while the hour yet tarries1 what help is there8 what1 but to reverence and bless the gods1 to do good to men1 8to endure and to refrain08 and of all that lies outside the bounds of flesh and breath1 to remember that it is not yours1 nor in your power#add4' ,sidenote3 ,his yearnings4 #adb4 ,aurelius was no teacher of ,stoicism in his time3 his thoughts are addressed to himself alone#ade4 ,but the happy accident that has preserved this work1 which for nine centuries was lost to sight#adf1 enables us to obtain a view of this philosophy from which otherwise we should have been shut out4 ,we do not go to ,aurelius to learn what ,stoic doctrine was2 this is taken for granted throughout the book2 but we can see here how it affected a man in whom the intellectual outlook was after all foreshortened by sympathies and yearnings which had grown up in his nature4 ,the traditional criticism of the school as being harsh1 unsympathetic1 unfeeling1 breaks to pieces as we read these #8thoughts'2 rather we find an excess of emotion1 a surrender to human weakness4 ,a study of ,stoicism based on the works of ,aurelius alone would indeed give us but a one-sided picture2 but a study in which they were omitted would certainly lack completeness4 ,he is also our last authority4 ,in the centuries which succeeded1 other waves of philosophic thought washed over ,stoicism1 and contended in turn with more than one religion which pressed in from the ,east4 ,yet for a long time to come ,stoic principles were faithfully inculcated in thousands of ,roman homes1 and young men taught in childhood to model their behaviour upon the example of ,zeno1 ,cleanthes1 and ,epictetus formed the salt of the ,roman world4 ,if in riper years they joined1 in ever increasing numbers1 the ,christian church1 they brought with them something which the world could not afford to lose4 ,,footnotes #a ,dill1 ,roman ,society1 p4 #cdj4 #b #8omnis natura habet quasi viam quandam et sectam quam sequatur' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #bb1 #eg4 #8est tuae prudentiae sequi eius auctoritatem1 cuius sectam atque imperium secutus es' ad ,fam4 xiii #d1 #b4 #8,the sense of the word has been obscured by a false popular etymology which has connected the word with the ,latin secare #8to cut1' ,skeat1 ,etymological ,dictionary1 p4 #ecg4 #c ,see above1 #aaa4 #d #8dicebat modesta ,diogenes et sobria' ,a4 ,gellius ,n4 ,a4 vi 7vii7 #ad1 #aj4 #e ,for a full account of his life and teaching see ,schmekel1 ,philosophie der mittleren ,stoa1 pp4 #a-i4 #f ,strabo xiv #e1 #af4 #g ,ind4 ,stoic4 ,herc4 col4 #ea4 #h #8discipulus ,antipatri ,panaetius' ,cic4 ,div4 i #c1 #f4 #i #8credamus igitur ,panaetio a ,platone suo dissentienti8 quem omnibus locis divinum1 quem sapientissimum1 quem sanctissimum1 quem ,homerum philosophorum appellat' ,tusc4 disp4 i #cb1 #gi4 #aj ,fin4 iv #bh1 #gi4 #aa #8tristitiam atque asperitatem fugiens ,panaetius nec acerbitatem sententiarum nec disserendi spinas probavit' ib4 #ab 1 4 ,ind4 ,herc4 col4 #fa1 quoted by ,schmekel1 p4 #cgi4 #ac #8quam vellem ,panaetium nostrum nobiscum haberemus6 qui cum cetera1 tum haec caelestia vel studiosissime solet quaerere' ,cic4 ,rep4 i #aj1 #ae4 #ad #8ain' tandem8 etiam a ,stoicis ista de optima republica tractata sunt8 non sane1 nisi a ,diogene ,stoico et postea a ,panaetio' ,leg4 iii #f1 #ad4 #ae ,see below1 #caj1 note #eb4 #af #8accepi ,publi ,africani in legatione illa nobili ,panaetium unum omnino comitem fuisse' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #b1 #e4 #ag ,this date is determined on circumstantial evidence by ,schmekel1 pp4 #b1 #c4 #ah #8,scylax ,halicarnasseus1 familiaris ,panaeti1 excellens in astrologia1 idemque in regenda sua civitate princeps' ,cic4 ,div4 ii #db1 #hh4 #ai #8omnes enim trahimur et ducimur ad cognitionis et scientiae cupidinem2 in qua excellere pulchrum putamus2 labi autem1 errare1 nescire1 decipi1 et malum et turpe ducimus' ,off4 i #f1 #ah2 #8cum sit is ,panaetius1 qui id solum bonum iudicet1 quod honestum sit1 quae autem huic repugnent specie quadam utilitatis1 eorum neque accessione meliorem vitam fieri1 neque decessione peiorem' ib4 iii #c1 #ab4 #bj #8quod summum bonum a ,stoicis dicitur1 id habet hanc1 ut opinor1 sententiam1 cum virtute congruere semper1 cetera autem1 quae secundum naturam essent1 ita legere1 si ea virtuti non repugnarent' ,off4 iii #c1 #ac4 #ba #8,panaetius1 cum ad ,q4 ,tuberonem de dolore patiendo scriberet 444 nusquam posuit non esse malum dolorem' ,fin4 iv #i1 #bc2 see however below1 #cbb1 note #acb4 #bb ,see below1 ch4 xiii4 #bc #8cuius veri investigationis studio a rebus gerendis abduci contra officium est4 virtutis enim laus omnis in actione consistit2 a qua tamen fit intermissio saepe1 multique dantur ad studia reditus' ,cic4 ,off4 i #f1 #ai4 #bd ,he was however a skilled grammarian2 see ,schmekel1 p4 #bjg4 #be ,he wrote a book #8on providence'2 how far he or ,posidonius is ,cicero's authority for the treatment of the subject in ,nat4 de4 ii has been much disputed2 on this point see ,schmekel1 p4 #h1 n4 #d4 #bf #8id de quo ,panaetium addubitare dicebant1 ut ad extremum omnis mundus ignesceret' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #df1 #aah4 #bg ,schmekel1 p4 #cji1 and below1 #baa4 #bh ,ar4 ,did4 fr4 #cf 7,diels74 #bi ,schmekel1 p4 #cji4 #cj #8vim esse divinandi ,panaetius dubitare se dixit' ,cic4 ,div4 i #c1 #f4 #ca ,he came from ,apamea in ,syria1 but is often described as #8of ,rhodes1' as the latter part of his life was spent there4 #cb ,schmekel1 pp4 #i1 #aj4 #cc ib4 p4 #dbh4 #cd ,reid1 ,cic4 ,acad4 ,introd4 p4 #e4 #ce ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 ii #be1 #fa4 #cf ,n4 ,d4 i #dd1 #abc2 ii #cd1 #hh4 #cg #8ecce ,posidonius1 ut mea fert opinio1 ex his qui plurimum philosophiae contulerunt' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ij1 #bj4 #ch ,see below1 #aie4 #ci ,also the de ,divinatione and the first half of ,tusc4 disp4 i2 ,schmekel1 p4 #ih1 etc4 #dj #8de divinatione libros edidit 444 quinque noster ,posidonius' ,cic4 ,div4 i #c1 #f4 #da #8animi vitae necessitatibus serviunt1 disiunguntque se a societate divina1 vinclis corporis impediti' ib4 #di1 #aaj4 #db #8deflagrationem futuram aliquando caeli atque terrarum' ib4 #di1 #aaa4 #dc ,see #cbb1 note #acb4 #dd ,clem4 ,strom4 ii p4 #daf ,b 7,schmekel1 p4 #bgj72 see also below1 #cba1 note #abe4 #de ,schmekel1 p4 #fb4 #df ,see below1 #bad4 #dg ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ij2 ,schmekel1 pp4 #bia1 #bib4 #dh ,diog4 ,l4 vii #abg4 #di ,schmekel1 p4 #bid4 #ej ,see below1 #ceb4 #ea #8plenus est sextus liber de officiis ,hecatonis talium quaestionum2 sitne boni viri in maxima caritate annonae familiam non alere8 in utramque partem disputat1 sed tamen ad extremum utilitate officium dirigit magis quam humanitate' ,cic4 ,off4 iii #bc1 #hi4 #eb ib4 #bc1 #ij4 #ec #8nullius addictus iurare in verba magistri1 quo me cunque rapit tempestas1 deferor hospes' ,hor4 ,ep4 i #a1 #ad and #ae4 #ed #8qui erant ,athenis tum principes ,stoicorum' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #bb1 #fi2 cf4 de ,or4 i #aa1 #de4 #ee ,ind4 ,stoic4 ,herc4 col4 #eb 7,schmekel1 p4 #af72 but see ,pauly-,wissowa s4 v4 #ef i4e4 the earlier part of the first century ,b4,c4 #eg ,diog4 ,l4 vii #cd4 #eh #8mihi nimis videtur submisisse temporibus se ,athenodorus1 nimis cito refugisse' ,sen4 ,dial4 ix #d1 i4 #ei #8apud ,athenodorum inveni3--tunc scito esse te omnibus cupiditatibus solutum cum eo perveneris1 ut nihil deum roges1 nisi quod rogare possis palam' ,ep4 #aj1 #e4 ,but it is possible that the quotations are from the younger ,athenodorus4 #fj ,cic4 ,off4 ii #bd1 #hf2 but some think that ,cato's friend was an earlier ,antipater4 #fa ,plutarch1 ,cato minor #fe-fg and #fi4 #fb ,reid1 ,academics1 p4 #b4 #fc #8,diodoto quid faciam ,stoico1 quem a puero audivi1 qui mecum vivit tot annos1 qui habitat apud me1 quem et admiror et diligo8' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #cf1 #aae4 #fd ad ,att4 ii #bj1 #f4 #fe ,tusc4 disp4 v #ci1 #aac4 #ff vii #a1 #b1 #bd and #bh4 #fg #8verba haec ,hieroclis ,stoici1 viri sancti et gravis3 1 1 ' ,a4 ,gellius1 ,n4 ,a4 ix #e1 #h4 #fh ,for a fair-minded estimate of ,cicero's services to philosophy see ,reid1 ,academics of ,cicero1 pp4 #aj-bh4 #fi ,see next section4 #gj #8de tertio cum utile et honestum inter se pugnare videantur nihil scripsit ,panaetius4 eum locum ,posidonius persecutus4 ego autem et eius librum arcessivi1 et ad ,athenodorum ,calvum scripsi1 ut ad me mitteret' ,cic4 ad ,att4 xvi #aa1 #d4 #8,athenodorum nihil est quod hortere2 misit enim satis bellum ' ib4 #ad1 #d4 #ga ,he was head of the ,academy at ,athens1 where ,cicero heard him in the year #gi-gh ,b4,c41 and was patronized by ,lucullus4 #gb #8eadem dicit quae ,stoici' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #bb1 #fi4 #8erat1 si perpauca mutavisset1 germanissimus ,stoicus' ib4 #db1 #acb4 ,see further ,j4 ,s4 ,reid1 ,academics of ,cicero1 ,introd4 pp4 #ae-ai1 and notes to ,ac4 ii #ci1 #abc and #dj1 #abf4 #gc #8,brutus tuus1 auctore ,aristo et ,antiocho1 non sentit hoc sc4 nihil esse1 nisi virtutem1 bonum' ,tusc4 disp4 v #h1 #ba4 #8si addubitas1 ad ,brutum transeamus1 est enim is quoque ,antiochius' ad ,att4 xiii #be1 #c4 ,see also below1 #dcb4 #gd #8tu nihil errabis1 si paulo diligentius 7ut quid sit 1 quid intelligas71 ,athenodorus ,sandonis filius quid de his rebus dicat1 attenderis' ad ,fam4 iii #g1 #e4 #ge ,for the identification of the writer ,didymus with ,areius the #8philosophus' of ,augustus1 see ,diels1 ,proleg4 pp4 #hj-hh4 #gf #8,augustus eruditione etiam varia repletus per ,arei philosophi filiorumque eius ,dionysi et ,nicanoris contubernium' ,suet4 ,aug4 #hi4 #gg ,sat4 ii #f1 #gc-gf4 #gh ,sen4 ,dial4 vi #d and #e2 see below1 #cgg4 #gi #8,empedocles1 an ,stertinium deliret acumen' ,hor4 ,ep4 i #ab1 #bj2 #8insanis et tu1 stultique prope omnes1 si quid ,stertinius veri crepat' ,sat4 ii #c1 #cb and #cc4 #hj ,teuffel1 ,rm4 ,lit4 #bej1 #d4 #ha #8ne me ,crispini scrinia lippi compilasse putes' ,hor4 ,sat4 i #a1 #abj and #aba4 #hb ,teuffel1 as above1 #c4 #hc ,hor4 ,sat4 ii #c4 #hd ,hor4 ,ep4 i #a1 #ajh4 #he #8sublimem altioremque humano fastigio ,attalum credidi' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajh1 #ac4 #hf ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajh1 #ad-af4 #hg ib4 #aaj1 #ad-bj4 #hh #8,attalus ,stoicus dicere solebat2 malo me fortuna in castris suis quam in deliciis habeat' ib4 #fg1 #ae4 #hi ,sen4 ,rhet4 ,suas4 #b1 #ab4 #ij #8teneros tu suscipis annos ,socratico1 ,cornute1 sinu 444 tecum etenim longos memini consumere soles1 et tecum primas epulis decerpere noctes4 unum opus et requiem pariter disponimus ambo1 atque verecunda laxamus seria mensa4 444 nescio quod certe est1 quod me tibi temperat1 astrum' ,pers4 ,sat4 v #cf-ea4 #ia ,see above1 #abd4 #ib ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajh1 #ag4 #ic ib4 #ac-bc4 #id #8sapientem esse me dico8 minime' ,dial4 xii #e1 #b2 #8multum ab homine tolerabili1 nedum a perfecto1 absum' ,ep4 #eg1 #c2 #8ego in alto vitiorum omnium sum' ,dial4 vii #ag1 #d4 #ie #8si respublica corruptior est quam ut adiuvari possit1 444 non nitetur sapiens in supervacuum' ib4 viii #c1 #c4 #if #8in hoc me recondidi et fores clusi1 ut prodesse pluribus possem4 posterorum negotium ago4 illis aliqua1 quae possint prodesse1 conscribo4 salutares admonitiones litteris mando1 esse illas efficaces in meis ulceribus expertus4 rectum iter1 quod sero cognovi et lassus errando1 aliis monstro' ,ep4 #h1 #a to #c4 #ig #8cuius libros adtingere nullum pretium operae sit1 quod oratio eius vulgaria videatur et protrita1 res atque sententiae aut inepto inanique impetu sint aut levi et causidicali argutia1 eruditio autem vernacula et plebeia' ,a4 ,gellius1 ,n4 ,a4 xii #b1 #a4 #ih ,quint4 ,inst4 ,orat4 x #a1 #abe-aeh4 #ii #8potioribus praeferri non sinebam' ib4 #abf4 #ajj #8tum autem hic solus fere in manibus adulescentium fuit' ib4 #abe4 #aja #8eandem sententiam miliens alio atque alio amictu indutam referunt' ,fronto1 p4 #aeg4 #ajb ,how capable ,seneca was of continuous exposition we may gather from his excellent discussion of the #8causes' of ,aristotle and ,plato1 in ,epistle #fe3 see below4 #ajc #8non quia mihi legem dixerim nihil contra dictum ,zenonis ,chrysippive committere1 sed quia res ipsa patitur me ire in illorum sententiam' ,sen4 ,dial4 viii #c1 #a2 #8nostram opinionem accipe4 nostram autem cum dico1 non adligo me ad unum aliquem ex ,stoicis proceribus4 est et mihi censendi ius' ib4 vii #c1 #b4 #ajd #8si omnia argumenta ad obrussam coeperimus exigere1 silentium indicetur2 pauca enim admodum sunt sine adversario' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 iv #e1 #a4 #aje #8non tempero mihi1 quominus omnes nostrorum ineptias proferam' ib4 iv #f1 #a4 #ajf ,see the notes to #agg4 #ajg #8si hominem videris interritum periculis1 intactum cupiditatibus1 inter adversa felicem1 in mediis tempestatibus placidum1 ex superiore loco homines videntem1 ex aequo deos1 non subibit te eius veneratio8 444 non potest res tanta sine adminiculo numinis stare' ,ep4 #da1 #d and #e4 #ajh ,see below1 #bji1 note #aab4 #aji #8idem facit sapiens2 nocituram potentiam vitat1 hoc primum cavens1 ne cavere videatur' ,ep4 #ad1 #h2 #8circumspiciendum ergo nobis est1 quomodo a vulgo tuti esse possimus' ib4 #i4 #aaj ,a4 ,gellius1 ,n4 ,a4 v #a1 #c and #d4 #aaa ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #bc1 #bi4 #aab ,stob4 iii #a1 #dh4 #aac ib4 #e1 #ba4 #aad ,specimens are given below1 especially in ch4 xv4 #aae ,tac4 ,ann4 xiv #ei2 ,henderson1 ,nero1 p4 #adc4 #aaf ,tac4 ,ann4 xv #ga4 #aag ,hist4 iii #ha4 #aah #8reipublicae haud dubie intererat ,vitellium vinci' ib4 #hf4 #aai ,see below1 #ddg4 #abj ,disc4 iii #ae1 #h2 ,manual #bi4 #aba ,pliny1 ,ep4 i #aj4 #abb #8quid nostra memoria ,euphrates1 ,dio1 ,timocrates1 ,athenodotus8 quid horum magister ,musonius8 nonne summa facundia praediti1 neque minus sapientiae quam eloquentiae gloria incluti extiterunt8' ,fronto1 ,ep4 ad ,aur4 i #a 7,naber1 p4 #aae74 #abc ,see ,leben und ,werke ,dion's von ,prusa1 by ,h4 von ,arnim4 ,berlin1 #ahih4 #abd ,see below1 #baf4 #abe ,see the story of ,epicharis in connexion with the conspiracy of ,piso1 in ,tac4 ,ann4 xv #eg4 #abf ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #ab1 #ag to #be4 #abg #8plerosque istos1 qui philosophari viderentur1 philosophos esse eiuscemodi 8 1 02 id significat 8factis procul1 verbis tenus0 ,a4 ,gellius1 ,n4 ,a4 xvii #ai1 #a4 #abh ib4 xv #aa1 #d and #e4 #abi ,epict4 ,disc4 i #g1 #cb and #cc4 #acj ,m4 ,aurelius1 ,to himself1 i #g 7,rendall's translation74 #aca ,to himself1 v #aj4 #acb ib4 vii #i4 #acc ib4 iv #c4 #acd ,m4 ,aurelius1 ,to himself1 vi #aj4 #ace ib4 vi #dd4 #acf ,see further1 #deg and #deh4 #acg ,m4 ,aurelius1 ,to himself1 xii #bh4 #ach ib4 iv #di4 #aci ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #bd1 #ic and #id4 #adj ,m4 ,aurelius1 ,to himself1 iv #ad4 #ada ib4 vi #bd4 #adb ib4 ix #c4 #adc ib4 xi #c4 #add ib4 v #cc4 #ade ,rendall1 ,m4 ,aurelius1 ,introd4 p4 cxii4 #adf ib4 cxv4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,of ,,reason ,,and ,,speech4 ,sidenote3 ,parts of philosophy4 #adc4 ,the history of ,greek philosophy1 even before the time of ,zeno1 leads naturally to its division into the three parts of logic1 physics1 and ethics#a4 ,the ,ionic philosophers had chiefly occupied themselves with the nature and history of the universe1 that is1 with the problems of physics4 ,the sophists were greatly concerned with questions as to the validity of human knowledge1 that is1 with logic4 ,socrates shared this interest1 but attached greater importance to the discussion of moral activities1 that is1 to ethics4 ,it is however not clear when a formal division into these three parts was first made4 ,cicero attributes it to the immediate followers of ,plato in the ,academic school2 others assign it definitely to ,xenocrates#b4 ,the ,peripatetics and ,stoics both adopted the division1 but whereas the former assigned to ,logic an inferior position1 making it an introduction to philosophy1 the ,stoics insist that it is a part of philosophy itself#c2 and that of the three parts it comes first in the order of study1 #8as in the measuring of corn we place first the examination of the measure#d4' ,it must not however be thought that the three parts of philosophy can be separately treated1 for they are intertwined#e2 so that in treating of ,logic we shall constantly have need to assume a general knowledge of ,stoic views both on physics and ethics4 ,logic is subdivided into #8dialectic1' which deals with reasoning1 and #8rhetoric1' the art of speech4 ,the relation between reason and speech was in ancient times1 as now1 a matter of perplexity2 but it may be taken as a fundamental position of ,stoicism that the two should always be in agreement4 ,sidenote3 ,knowledge is attainable4 #add4 ,stoicism1 as one of the positive and dogmatic schools1 assumes that knowledge is attainable4 ,since this is the very point on which ,socrates never reached assurance1 except on the one particular that he himself knew nothing1 it was a matter of primary importance to the ,stoics to make good this position2 more especially since they held 7this time in agreement with ,socrates7 that virtue is but another form of knowledge4 ,yet the ,stoics could not agree with the ,cynics1 that true knowledge can be imparted without a study of its method#f4 ,knowledge is1 in their view1 a high privilege derived by man from his divine ancestry1 and shared by him with the deity alone2 and the whole duty of man may be summed up by saying that he should keep upright his reason#g4 ,they therefore devoted themselves with special zeal to this part of philosophy#h1 and were accordingly nicknamed #8the dialecticians#i4' ,their aim in this was solely the ascertainment and imparting of truth2 but the common view that their style was in consequence harsh and repellent will be found to need considerable qualification#aj4 ,sidenote3 ,are the senses true8 #ade4 ,the chief argument for the certainty of knowledge is that we assume as much in the practical affairs of life#aa2 and 7as we have already seen7 ,aristo found it ridiculous that his ,academic neighbour should not even know who he was#ab4 ,against it is the fact that men frequently disagree even as to what they see1 and commonly distinguish between what is known to them and what #8seems' to be this or that4 ,hence ,epictetus well defines the function of dialectic as #8a perception of the disagreement of men with one another1 and an inquiry into the cause of this disagreement2 a condemnation and distrust of that which only seems1 and some kind of investigation of that which seems1 as to whether it rightly seems3 and the discovery of some rule 77#ac4' ,of all kinds of knowledge that which comes through the senses appears to the ordinary man most worthy of confidence1 and of the five senses that of sight seems to the philosopher the most divine#ad4 ,in consequence1 the whole controversy hinges on the question whether the eyes can be trusted4 ,the positivist argues that the evidence of sight is so plain and unmistakeable that man1 if he had the choice1 could wish for no better informant4 ,the sceptic replies that nevertheless1 if a straight oar be placed partly in the water1 it appears to the eyes to be bent2 and that the feathers on a dove's neck1 though really alike1 appear to the eyes as many-coloured#ae4 ,to deal with such questions we must examine closely the nature of sensation4 ,sidenote3 ,process of sensation4 #adf4 ,the ,stoics fancifully derive the word 7#8sensation'7 from 7#8storage'72 it is therefore1 strictly speaking1 the process by which the mind is stored#af2 but it is also1 from an opposite point of view1 the process by which the mind reaches out towards an external object#ag4 ,from the object 77 proceed waves which strike upon the sense-organ 772 this impact is called a #8sensation' in a narrower sense4 ,at the same time there proceeds from the mind 7which is the ruling part or #8principate' of the soul71 a #8spirit' or thrill which goes out to meet this impact2 and this spirit and its operation are also called #8sensation#ah4' ,as a result of the contact of these two waves1 and simultaneously with it1 there is produced in the soul an effect like the imprint of a seal#ai1 and this imprint is the or #8mind-picture4' ,that the process may be sound1 it is necessary that the intellect be in a healthy state1 and further that the organ of sense be healthy1 the object really there1 and the place and the manner in accord#bj4 ,but we must carefully distinguish between the single sensation and the mind-picture4 ,a flash of light1 a cry1 a touch1 a smell1 a thrill of pleasure or pain1 is always that which the senses declare it to be#ba2 here there is no possibility of error2 so understood #8the sensations are always true#bb4' ,but if we go in each case a step further2 if we say #8that is white1' #8this is sweet1' #8this is musical1' #8this is fragrant1' #8that is rough1' we are now dealing with mind-pictures1 not with #8sensations' in the strict sense#bc4 ,and as to the mind-pictures we agree with the ,academics that things are not always what they seem2 #8of the mind-pictures some are true1 some are false#bd4' ,sidenote3 ,the criterion of clearness4 #adg4 ,in order then that we may distinguish the true mind-picture from the false1 we have need of a #8rule' 77 or #8criterion' 774 ,the true mind-picture is a stirring of the soul1 which reveals both what is taking place in the soul and the object which has caused this3 just as light reveals both itself and the objects that lie within its range#be4 ,on the other hand the false mind-picture is an empty twitching of a soul which is not in a healthy condition#bf2 no real object corresponds to it1 but to that which appears to be an object corresponding to it we give the name #8phantasm#bg4' ,when ,orestes thinks he sees the ,furies leaping upon him1 though his sister assures him that in real truth he sees nothing1 the vision of the ,furies is a phantasm4 ,the appearances of dreams are equally phantasms#bh4 ,now a true mind-picture differs from that of a phantasm by being clearer2 or1 in other words1 the distinctive note of a true mind-picture is its #8clearness' 71 perspicuitas7#bi4 ,clearness then is a quality which attaches itself to a true vision in a way in which it can never attach itself to a work of phantasy#cj4 ,to this clearness the mind cannot but bow#ca2 it is therefore 7so far as our study has proceeded7 the criterion of truth#cb4 ,sidenote3 ,assent4 #adh4 ,the mind-picture as such is not within a man's control2 but it rests with him to decide whether he will give it his #8assent' 71 adsensio or adsensus7#cc4 ,this assent is therefore an act of the soul1 in its capacity as will2 and can only be rightly exercised by a soul properly strung1 that is1 possessed of due tension4 ,assent wrongly given leads to #8opinion' 71 opinio71 and all wrong assent is error or #8sin' 71 peccatum74 ,this error may take place in two directions1 either by a hasty movement of the will 771 giving assent to a picture which is not really clear2 or by feebleness of will1 which leads to assent in a false direction 77#cd4 ,even haste however is a form of weakness1 so that we may say that all opining is a weak form of assent#ce4 ,to ensure a right assent due attention should be given to each of its parts2 it includes 7i7 the intention of mastering the object 772 7ii7 careful attention directed to the object1 or #8application' 772 and 7iii7 assent in the narrower sense#cf4 ,apart from assent1 three courses remain open3 these are 7i7 #8quiescence' 71 quiescere73 7ii7 #8suspense of judgment' 71 adsensum sustinere71 which is a settled quiescence2 and 7iii7 negation#cg4 ,sidenote3 ,comprehension4 #adi4 ,close upon assent follows #8comprehension' 71 comprehensio73 this is the ratification of the assent given1 the fixing irrevocably in the mind of the picture approved4 ,this picture now becomes a #8comprehension-picture' 7 71 and as such a unit of knowledge4 ,we may understand thereby that the mind has grasped the external object#ch1 and this is the plain meaning of ,zeno's simile2 or we may say that the object has gained a hold upon the mind1 and has left its stamp upon it4 ,both interpretations are consistent with ,stoic doctrine3 but the former view1 which represents the soul as active and masterful1 undoubtedly expresses the more adequately the meaning of the school#ci4 ,from this mutual grasp there follows an important physical deduction4 ,since only like can grasp like1 the soul must be like the object1 and the popular dualism of mind and matter is 7to this extent7 at an end#dj4 ,still this likeness is not complete2 and the soul in sensation does not grasp the object from every point of view1 but only so far as its own nature permits in each case#da4 ,for this reason the trained observer and the artist grasp far more of the object than the ordinary man#db4 ,sidenote3 ,from sensation to reason4 #aej4 ,the soul1 having grasped single mind-pictures1 retains its hold upon them by memory#dc2 the frequent exercise of which keeps each picture fresh and complete#dd4 ,as the air1 when an orchestra is performing1 receives the impression of many sounds at the same time1 and yet retains the distinctive tone of each#de1 so the soul by concurrent alterations of its texture preserves its hold on the separate pictures it has once grasped4 ,fresh operations of soul now supervene4 ,first1 from the comparison of many like pictures1 comes #8experience' 71 experientia7#df2 out of other comparisons1 #8similitude' 771 as #8,socrates' from his portrait2 and #8analogy' 71 proportio71 as #8the centre of the earth' from that of other spheres2 #8transference' 71 translatio71 as #8eyes in the heart'2 #8composition' 71 compositio71 as #8a ,hippocentaur'2 #8opposition' 71 transitio71 as #8death' from life2 #8deprivation' 7 71 as #8a cripple#dg4' ,all these are based on the general principle of likeness and unlikeness1 and may be summed up under the general heading of #8reason's work of comparison' 7collatio rationis7#dh1 or shortly1 of reason 77#di4 ,sensation shews us the present only2 but reason brings the past and the future within our view1 and points out to us the workings of cause and effect#ej4 ,sidenote3 ,perceptions and ,conceptions4 #aea4 ,with the mind-pictures 71 visa7 which are derived from sensation we may now contrast the #8notions' 71 notiones or intellegentiae7 which are derived from the combination of sensation and reasoning2 the former correspond generally to #8perceptions1' the latter to #8conceptions' in the language of modern philosophy#ea4 ,but each of the ,stoic terms is also used in a wider sense which includes the other4 ,the sensory pictures are inscribed upon the mind as upon a blank sheet from birth upwards2 in this sense they may well be called #8entries on the mind' 7 from 7#eb4 ,on the other hand the conceptions may be called #8rational mind-pictures'#ec2 quite as much as the sensory mind-pictures they need the prudent assent of the will before they become #8comprehensions1' when they are once more units capable of entering into further combinations and becoming part of scientific knowledge4 ,if then for the sake of clearness we use the modern terms1 we may say that perceptions correspond generally to individual objects which have a real existence1 whilst conceptions correspond to classes of things1 which 7according to the ,stoics7 have no real existence in themselves1 but only a sort of existence in our minds4 ,thus the #8ideas' of ,plato are all conceptions1 subjectively but not objectively existent#ed4 ,so far as our study has gone1 all conceptions are based on perceptions3 therefore all the elements of knowledge either come from sense and experience solely1 or from sense and experience combined with reasoning#ee2 and the most important reasoning process is that comparison of like perceptions which in this philosophy takes the place of induction#ef4 ,sidenote3 ,preconceptions4 #aeb4 ,but even if all #8conceptions' are ultimately derived from #8perceptions1' it does not follow that in each particular case the mind commences de novo to collect and shape its material4 ,on the contrary1 it is clear that not only all practical life1 but also all philosophy1 takes for granted a great many matters which are either allowed by general consent1 or at least assumed by the thinker2 and these matters are mostly of the nature of class-conceptions4 ,if it is stated that #8the consul entered ,rome in a chariot drawn by four horses1' we assume that the ideas expressed by #8consul1' #8chariot1' #8four1' #8horses1' are matters of general consent1 and we may go on to assume that the person of the consul and the locality called #8,rome' are also already known to the speaker and his hearers4 ,the general term in the post-,aristotelian writers for such legitimate assumptions is #8preconception' 71 anticipatio or praesumptio74 ,the precise meaning of this term 7of which the invention is ascribed to ,epicurus#eg7 appears not to be always the same4 ,most commonly the #8preconception' is a general term or conception1 and therefore to the ,stoics it is one variety of the 2 it is #8a mental shaping1 in accordance with man's nature1 of things general'#eh4 ,all such preconceptions are foreshadowings of truth1 especially in so far as they correspond to the common judgment of mankind#ei2 and the art of life consists in correctly applying these presumptions to the particular circumstances with which each individual man has to deal#fj4 ,if the preconceptions are rightly applied1 they become clearer by use1 and thus attain the rank of true knowledge by a process of development or #8unravelling' 7enodatio7#fa4 ,as to the nature of a preconception1 there is a great difference between ,epicurus and the ,stoics4 ,epicurus identifies all the terms #8preconception1' #8comprehension1' #8right opinion1' #8conception1' and #8general notion1' and maintains that each of these is nothing but memory of a sensation frequently repeated#fb2 the ,stoics however hold that preconceptions are established by the mind#fc1 and 7so far as they are common to all men7 by the universal reason4 ,this difference is fundamental4 ,epicurus1 as a materialist in the modern sense1 explains perception as a bodily function1 and #8conceptions' of every kind as mere echoes of such bodily functions4 ,the ,stoics on the other hand recognise at each stage the activity of mind1 and this in increasing degree as we proceed to the higher levels of thought4 ,sidenote3 ,notions of inner growth4 #aec4 ,we now approach the most critical point in the ,stoic theory of knowledge4 ,is it possible for man to possess knowledge which is not derived1 either directly or indirectly1 through the organs of sense8 ,such a question cannot be answered by any appeal to single ,stoic texts2 it needs an appreciation of the whole philosophic outlook1 and upon it depend the most vital principles of the system4 ,let us then first consider1 on the supposition that such knowledge exists1 what its nature is1 what its content1 and how it is attained by individual men4 ,knowledge cut off from the sense-organs is cut off from all human individuality2 it is therefore the expression of the common reason 7 71 and its parts are #8common notions' 7 or 71 shared by gods and men1 but by men only so far as they are partakers of the divine nature4 ,the principal content of such knowledge is also clear2 it includes the conception of what is morally good1 and the beliefs that gods exist and that the world is governed by their providence#fd4 ,lastly1 as of all general conceptions1 the rudiments or rough outlines only of these beliefs are inborn in men1 by virtue of their divine ancestry2 whence they are called #8innate notions' 7 1 insitae notiones7#fe4 ,these notions in their full development are not attainable by children at all1 nor by men till they attain to reason1 that is1 till they become wise men#ff4 ,sidenote3 #8,proofs' of inborn notions4 #aed4 ,the ,stoics are naturally reluctant to admit that doctrines which it is impious to deny are nevertheless unattainable except by perfect wisdom2 but their whole system points inevitably to this conclusion4 ,but there are intermediate stages between the rough inborn outlines of these truths and their ripe completeness4 ,as man grows in reason1 he becomes increasingly able to appreciate contributory truths1 derived from the combination of perception and reasoning1 that is1 by processes such as #8analogy' and #8comparison1' which point in the direction of the supreme beliefs4 ,in this sense1 and 7it is here suggested7 in this sense only1 can there be #8proofs' 77 of these#fg4 ,only in the crowning moment of that probation which is described later on1 at the moment of conversion1 these truths finally flash forth1 stirred up indeed by secondary evidence1 but really rooted in the man's deepest nature#fh2 they then reveal themselves to the soul with an illuminating power which is all their own1 but which carries with it the most complete conviction4 ,ordinary men must meanwhile somehow make shift with reflections or pale copies of this knowledge1 to which however the name of common or inborn notions can also be applied4 ,sidenote3 ,the inward touch4 #aee4 ,the list of #8common notions' is doubtless not limited to the high philosophical principles which we have mentioned2 for instance it must include such mathematical principles as #8two and two make four1' #8a straight line is the shortest distance between two points1' #8a three-sided figure has three angles1' and so forth4 ,with these however we have little direct concern4 ,of more interest to us is another kind of perception#fi recognised by the ,stoics as well as by other schools of philosophy1 that called the #8inward touch' 7 7#gj4 ,by this the soul becomes aware of its own workings1 most obviously of its pleasure and pain4 ,the doctrine of the #8inward touch' is of great philosophical importance1 for it breaks down the dualism of subject and object1 the barrier between the knowing and the known4 ,since these are the same in the specific cases named1 the door is open to the conclusion that everywhere there is a kinship between the two1 and that without this knowledge would be without firm foundation4 ,by this kinship we may also explain the fact that direct communications are made by the deity to man1 as by dreams1 oracles and augury#ga4 ,sidenote3 ,knowledge2 the parts and the whole4 #aef4 ,thus it appears that the elements of knowledge1 according to the ,stoics1 are sensations1 perceptions1 conceptions or notions1 and general or inborn notions4 ,as in the other parts of the ,stoic philosophy1 we shall regard this fourfold division as indicating generally the ground covered1 and not as setting up definite lines of demarcation4 ,the same material may be analyzed from other points of view1 as for instance in the study of words1 in which we shall find a division into objects1 statements1 conditional statements1 and syllogisms4 ,the elements may also be combined in various ways4 ,a combination or #8system' 77 which is directed towards a useful or pleasurable object1 such as music or grammar1 is called an #8art' 71 ars7#gb2 and arts are attainable by ordinary men4 ,the wise man1 on the other hand1 is not necessarily acquainted with the several arts2 his practice is to #8keep quiet' when matters are discussed which require such special knowledge4 ,the combination of all knowledge in one all-embracing system is #8science' 71 scientia72 the only science in the full sense is philosophy#gc2 and in this system no part can be at variance with any other part#gd4 ,the elements of knowledge also acquire the character of science1 when they are found to be parts of this compacted system1 and therefore incapable of coming into conflict with any other part#ge2 and in particular we find the term #8science' predicated of comprehensions which are firmly established and cannot be refuted by any argument#gf4 ,in the language of ,zeno's simile1 over the closed fist that grasps the object is placed the other hand1 keeping it with firmness and assurance in its place#gg2 or1 to use a comparison first suggested in ridicule of ,stoicism1 but which by the progress of architectural skill has since then been made less damaging1 science is like a firm and immoveable building constructed upon a shifting foundation#gh4 ,finally ordinary men can reach comprehension1 but only the wise man can attain to science#gi4 ,sidenote3 ,the criterion reviewed4 #aeg4 ,we revert to the difficult problem of the criterion of truth1 that is1 the discovery of a rule by which the true can separated from the false4 ,our authorities differ greatly as to what the ,stoic criterion is2 and this vacillation must have placed the ,stoics at a great disadvantage in their controversy with the ,academics1 who maintain that there is no criterion4 ,the most usual statement is that the #8comprehensive mind-picture' 7 7 is the criterion2 this view is expressly attributed to ,chrysippus1 ,antipater1 and ,apollodorus#hj4 ,as we have seen1 the meaning of this is that a true mind-picture can be distinguished from one that is false by the note of clearness1 and this general doctrine can be traced back to ,zeno#ha4 ,it appears at first sight to provide a criterion which can be applied by the percipient at the moment when it is needed1 and it was doubtless intended to be a practical tool in this sense2 but under the pressure of criticism the ,stoics were frequently compelled to modify it4 ,they could not but admit that in the case of dreams and drunken visions it is only at a later moment that the lack of clearness can be appreciated#hb2 whereas on the other hand a picture may be perfectly clear1 and yet the percipient1 because of some prepossession1 may not realize this4 ,such was the case when ,hercules brought ,alcestis from the world below2 her husband ,admetus received a true mind-picture of her1 but put no confidence in it1 because he knew her to be dead4 ,it follows that no mind-picture can be implicitly trusted for itself2 for our sense organs may be clouded1 or our previous experience in conflict with it4 ,if the ,academics urged that the sure note of clearness is not to be found in the senses#hc1 the ,stoics admitted as much when they now said that a true comprehensive picture must come from a real object#hd1 when they added the words that #8no objection must arise#he'2 thus really admitting that it must be not only persuasive1 but also such as no reasoning process can shake1 and such as has been examined from all sides#hf4 ,thus they shifted the centre of certainty from the single comprehension to the general field of science2 they still held to it in theory1 but no longer maintained its practical application4 ,for this too they had the authority of the older masters4 ,for we learn on the authority of ,posidonius that #8some of the older ,stoics' held the true criterion to be #8right reason' 7 7#hg1 and this is equivalent to saying that only the deity and the wise man possess the secret#hh4 ,in a loose sense any important part of the ,stoic theory of reason may be said to be a criterion2 thus ,chrysippus again said that #8the criteria are sensation and preconception1' and ,boethus set up many criteria1 as mind1 sense1 science1 and 7in practical matters7 appetite#hi4 ,sidenote3 ,general consent4 #aeh4 ,seeing that the full assurance of truth is not at every moment attainable1 it is necessary to be contented from time to time with something less complete4 ,amongst such tests the #8general consent of mankind' plays an important part1 especially in connexion with the dogma #8that gods exist4' ,we may indeed well believe that this criterion was not originally suggested by revolutionary philosophers1 but rather by conservative advocates of an established religion2 and therefore we are not surprised to see it emphasized first by ,posidonius and afterwards by ,seneca#ij4 ,general consent is however by itself no proof of truth1 but at most an indication of the presence of a #8common notion' in its rough shape4 ,if however we see that the #8common notion' grows stronger and more clear every day1 and if it is the more firmly held as men approach the standard of wisdom1 it becomes a strong support#ia4 ,sidenote3 ,probability the guide of life4 #aei4 ,from a very early period1 as we have already indicated1 ,stoic teachers accepted probability as the guide of life in its details1 being perhaps aided by the happy ambiguity of the expression #8reasonableness' 7 71 which suggests formally the pursuit of reason1 but in practice is a justification of every course of which a plausible defence can be brought forward4 ,ptolemy ,philopator1 we are told1 jestingly put wax fruit before ,sphaerus at his table1 and when ,sphaerus tried to eat it cried out that he was giving his assent to a false mind-picture4 ,sphaerus replied that he had not assented to the picture #8this is fruit1' but only to the picture #8this is probably fruit#ib4' ,antipater of ,tarsus1 when he explained that the very essence of virtue lay in the choice of natural ends upon probable grounds#ic1 was felt to be giving way to ,carneades#id4 ,panaetius justified the maintaining of that which is plausible by the advocate1 and ,cicero1 whose own conscience was not at ease in the matter1 was glad enough to quote so respectable an authority on his own behalf#ie4 ,in the ,roman imperial period a growing spirit of humility and pessimism led to a general disparagement of human knowledge1 centring in attacks on the trustworthiness of the senses4 ,so ,seneca speaks of the #8usual weakness' of the sense of sight#if1 and ,marcus ,aurelius feels that #8the organs of sense are dim and easily imposed upon#ig4' ,the older ,stoics had admitted the frequent errors of the senses#ih1 but they had been confident they could surmount this difficulty4 ,their latest disciples had lost the courage to do this1 and in consequence the practice of #8suspension of judgment1' which before had been the exception#ii1 became with them the rule4 ,nevertheless ,epictetus1 who alone amongst these later ,stoics was an ardent student of dialectics1 held fast to the main principle that certainty is attainable4 #8,how indeed' he said #8perception is effected1 whether through the whole body or any part1 perhaps ,i cannot explain1 for both opinions perplex me4 ,but that you and ,i are not the same1 ,i know with perfect certainty#ajj4' ,sidenote3 ,grammar4 #afj4 ,having now dealt with the theory of knowledge1 we may consider briefly the subordinate sciences 7or rather #8arts'7 of ,grammar1 ,logic 7in the narrower sense71 and ,style4 ,here we may leave the technical divisions and subdivisions of the ,stoics2 for these matters are substantially independent of the main lines upon which the ancient philosophies parted company1 and have for us only a secondary and historical interest4 ,the ,stoics distinguish five parts of speech3 #8name' 71 nomen71 as #8,diogenes'2 #8class-name' 71 appellatio71 as #8man1 horse'#aja2 #8verb' 71 verbum72 #8conjunction' 71 coniunctio72 and #8article' 71 articulus74 ,the last they define navely as a little word which is all ending1 and serves to distinguish the cases and numbers#ajb4 ,to the list of the parts of speech ,antipater added the #8mixed part' or participle 774 ,the noun has four cases 771 the #8upright case' 7 1 casus rectus2 this is of course a contradiction in terms72 and the #8oblique' cases 771 that is the #8class' case 771 the #8dative' 771 and the #8effect' case 774 ,the or verb is identical with the or #8predicate1' and may take the #8active' form 771 the #8passive' 771 or the #8neuter' 772 some verbs also express action and reaction1 and are called #8reflexive' 774 ,the ,stoics also distinguished the tenses4 ,time 77 being of three kinds1 past 771 present 771 and future 771 we have the following tenses which are #8definite' 773 the #8present imperfect' 7 71 the #8past imperfect' 7 71 the #8present perfect' 7 71 and the #8past perfect' 7 72 in addition to these we have the #8indefinite' tenses1 the future 771 and the past indefinite1 called simply indefinite 77#ajc4 ,sidenote3 ,theories of speech4 #afa4 ,so far we find in the ,stoic system the general framework of the grammar of the period1 much of it adapted with modifications from ,aristotle4 ,in some other details points of real grammatical or philosophical interest are raised4 ,such is the controversy between #8anomaly1' the recognition of the individuality of each word in its flexion1 and #8analogy1' in which the validity of the rules of declension and conjugation is insisted upon4 ,two ,stoic masters1 ,chrysippus and ,crates of ,mallos1 took up the cause of #8anomaly#ajd4' ,further the ,stoics held that all correct language exists by nature 771 and not by convention 771 as ,aristotle had maintained2 the elements of language being imitations of natural sounds#aje4 ,further1 they held that the natural relation between #8things' 71 significata7 and the words that express them 71 significantia7 can frequently be determined by etymology2 for instance #8voice' is #8the mind's lamp1' #8age' is #8enduring for ever#ajf4' ,like ,heraclitus and ,aristotle1 the ,stoics distinguished between #8thought' 7 1 ratio7 and #8speech' 7 1 oratio71 which the ,greek word tends to confuse#ajg2 thought is immaterial1 but speech1 as consisting of air in motion1 is body#ajh4 ,young children and animals do not possess real speech1 but only #8a sort of speech#aji4' ,sidenote3 ,propositions and ,syllogisms4 #afb4 ,words in combination form statements1 questions1 wishes1 syllogisms1 and so forth#aaj2 there is therefore no clear line drawn between what we call syntax and logic respectively4 ,whenever we have a complete combination of words expressing that which must either be false or true1 as #8,hannibal was a ,carthaginian1' #8,scipio destroyed ,numantia1' we call it a #8statement' or #8proposition' 77#aaa2 for phrases of all kinds we have the more general term #8phrase' 71 id quod dicitur7#aab4 ,of special interest is the conditional sentence 771 which has two parts1 the conditional clause 77 and the contingent clause 774 ,the conditional or leading clause always contains a sign 771 by means of which we reach proof3 thus in saying #8if it is day1 it is light' we mean that #8day' is a sign of light4 ,proof is #8speech on every subject gathering what is less clear from that which is more clear#aac4' ,its most important form is the syllogism1 of which ,chrysippus recognises five forms3 7i7 if ,a1 then ,b2 but ,a1 therefore ,b4 7ii7 if ,a1 then ,b2 but not ,b1 therefore not ,a4 7iii7 not ,a and ,b together2 but ,a1 therefore not ,b4 7iv7 either ,a or ,b2 but ,a1 therefore not ,b4 7v7 either ,a or ,b2 but not ,a1 therefore ,b#aad4 ,all these matters admit of endless qualifications1 subdivisions1 and developments1 and were therefore serviceable to those ,stoics who were before all things makers of books#aae4 ,examples of ,stoic syllogisms have been given above#aaf4 ,sidenote3 ,fallacies4 #afc4 ,closely connected with the theory of the syllogism is the enticing subject of the #8resolution of fallacies' 7 71 which the ,megarians had brought within the range of philosophy4 ,to this subject the ,stoics gave much attention#aag4 ,the most famous fallacy is that of the #8heap' 71 acervus72 #8if two are few1 so are three2 if three1 then four2 and so forth4' ,in this ,chrysippus took a special interest#aah2 his reply was to keep still#aai4 ,another is the #8liar' 71 mentiens72 #8when a man says 8,i lie10 does he lie or not8 if he lies1 he speaks the truth2 if he speaks the truth1 he lies#abj4' ,on this subject ,chrysippus wrote a treatise1 which ,epictetus thought not worth reading#aba4 ,seneca gives us examples of other fallacies1 which also are verbal quibbles#abb4 ,of an altogether different kind are those problems in which the question of determinism as opposed to moral choice is involved4 ,such is the #8reaper1' which maintains #8either you will reap or you will not reap2 it is not correct to say 8perhaps you will reap40' ,such again is the #8master-argument' of ,diodorus the ,megarian1 directly aimed against every moral philosophy#abc4 ,these difficulties we shall discuss later as touching the supreme problems which are presented to the human reason#abd4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #afd4 ,the scientific study of syllogisms and fallacies promises at first sight to be a guide to truth and a way of escape from error1 but experience shews it nevertheless to be barren4 ,it has however an advantage in securing a careful statement of teaching1 and for this purpose was much used by ,zeno and ,chrysippus4 ,the later members of the school realized that this advantage could be more simply gained by the practice of careful definition 71 definitio74 ,antipater thus defined definition itself3 #8definition is an expression which elaborates in detail without falling short or going too far#abe4' ,he and all other ,stoics of his time gave numerous definitions of the most important terms used in the system1 such as ,god1 fate1 providence1 the supreme good1 virtue1 and so forth2 and these are of great value in giving precision to their doctrine4 ,sidenote3 ,style4 #afe4 ,in considering ,style we first notice the distinction between dialectic in the narrower sense1 in which statements are made in the shortest and most precise form1 and rhetoric1 in which they are expanded at length#abf4 ,zeno compared one to the closed fist1 the other to the open palm#abg4 ,both ,cleanthes and ,chrysippus wrote upon rhetoric1 and it appears to have become a tradition to ridicule their teaching1 chiefly on the ground of the novel terms which the ,stoics introduced1 as 1 #abh4 ,but it is exactly in these new-fangled words that we observe one of the chief aims of the ,stoic theory of style1 namely the use of words which precisely and exclusively correspond to the objects described 71 proprietas verborum71 and which therefore lead up to transparent clearness of speech 71 pellucida oratio7#abi4 ,to this clearness the study of grammar is contributory2 #8barbarisms' 7faults in spelling and pronunciation7 must be avoided1 with proper help from the doctrines of #8anomaly' and #8analogy'2 for the ,stoics learnt in time that neither of these is exclusively true4 ,equally important is the avoidance of #8solecisms1' or faults in syntax4 ,in this way a pure use of language 71 ,latinitas7 is attained2 this is largely based upon the example of older writers1 such as ,homer in ,greek1 and ,cato the elder in ,latin#acj1 but not to such an extent as to employ words not commonly intelligible4 ,but little more is needed2 the ,stoic will say what he has to say with #8brevity' 71 brevitas72 the graces of style will be represented by #8becomingness' 71 decorum7 and #8neatness' 771 the latter including euphony4 ,these virtues of speech are sufficient for speaking well1 which is neither more nor less than speaking truthfully#aca2 for the ,stoic needs only to instruct his hearer1 and will not lower himself either to amuse him or to excite his emotions#acb4 ,style has three varieties1 according as it is employed in the council1 in the law-courts1 or in praise of goodness and good men#acc2 in the last there was no doubt greater room allowed for that expansiveness of speech which the ,stoics specially designated as #8rhetoric4' ,sidenote3 ,the ,stoic orator4 #aff4 ,the #8,stoic style' was a severe intellectual and moral discipline4 ,the speaker was called upon under all circumstances to speak the truth1 the whole truth1 and nothing but the truth4 ,he could hold back nothing from his audience1 even though his words might be offensive to their religious opinions1 their patriotic feelings1 or their sense of decency2 he could add no word which would touch their sympathies or kindle their indignation in the direction he himself might wish4 ,he had always before his eyes the example of ,socrates' defence before the ,athenian jury and its result4 ,the ,stoic appeared before his audience as a brave1 sane1 and rather rugged speaker1 painfully ill-equipped in all those arts which the circumstances demanded#acd4 ,even the ,stoics of the transition period1 in spite of their ,academic leanings and their literary acquirements1 made this impression at ,rome4 ,diogenes1 who had himself done much to elaborate the theory of style1 was noted as a quiet and self-restrained speaker#ace4 ,the influence of ,panaetius may be traced in his friend ,lucilius1 who in his book on style is never tired of ridiculing the artifices of rhetoricians4 ,then followed a succession of these reserved speakers1 which we shall trace in another chapter1 leading up to ,cato of ,utica1 by far the best-known and the most ridiculed of them all#acf4 ,it is not easy to form a fair judgment of the merits of the ,stoic style4 ,it must be admitted that the works of ,chrysippus are not readable2 but on the other hand ,antipater1 ,panaetius1 ,posidonius1 ,musonius ,rufus1 and ,epictetus were all writers or speakers of great attractiveness#acg4 ,sidenote3 ,paradox4 #afg4 ,in connexion with style we may call attention to the important function of paradoxes 71 inopinata71 that is1 propositions contrary to common opinion4 ,since all philosophies conflict with common opinion1 they must necessarily include many paradoxes#ach4 ,the chief ,stoic paradoxes are those which were borrowed directly from the ,cynic school1 and indirectly from the teaching of ,socrates#aci3 and ,cicero devotes a special work to their defence4 ,he includes the following3 7i7 that only what is honourable is good2 7ii7 that virtue is sufficient for happiness2 7iii7 that right actions and offences are equal2 7iv7 that all foolish men are mad2 7v7 that the wise man alone is free and every foolish man a slave2 7vi7 that the wise man alone is rich4 ,these of course include the very pith and marrow of ,stoic ethics2 and the form is calculated to arrest the attention of the crowd and to challenge defiantly its cherished opinions4 ,the ,stoics of literary taste and social position usually shew some distaste for paradoxes1 and prefer to state their teaching in ways more obviously reasonable4 ,but it should hardly be necessary to explain that no paradox is complete in itself1 but each needs to be interpreted according to the principles of the school which propounds it4 ,in proportion as the doctrines of any school win general recognition1 its paradoxes tend to find ready acceptance1 and may ultimately become truisms#adj4 ,the treatment of myths as allegories#ada may also be considered as the use of a kind of paradox2 this we shall find it most convenient to discuss in connexion with ,stoic views upon the nature of the gods4 ,sidenote3 ,dangers of logic4 #afh4 ,the study of logic is at first sight dismal and repulsive2 when progress has been made in it1 it seems illuminating2 in the end it becomes so alluring1 that the would-be philosopher may easily be lost for ever in its mazes#adb4 ,the early ,stoics had pressed this discipline upon their pupils2 those of the ,roman period1 themselves 7with the exception of ,epictetus7 weak dialecticians1 never cease to warn their hearers against its fascinations4 ,so ,seneca tells us that many logical inquiries have nothing to do with real life#adc2 and that the older ,stoics had wasted much time over them#add2 ,epictetus complains that his hearers never get beyond the resolving of syllogisms#ade1 and ,m4 ,aurelius thanks the gods that he never wasted his time in this way#adf4 ,sidenote3 ,stoic and ,academic logic4 #afi4 ,it was a favourite contention of ,cicero1 adopted from his teacher ,antiochus1 that the ,stoic dialectic was no original system1 but only a modification of the views of the old ,academy#adg4 ,such a conclusion seems partly due to the fact that the ,stoics of his own time had largely borrowed from the ,academic system in detail2 and partly to the overlooking by ,antiochus of an essential difference of spirit between the two schools4 ,plato is speculative1 ,zeno positive2 ,plato plays with a dozen theories1 ,zeno consistently adheres to one4 ,plato ranks the mind high1 ,zeno the will2 ,plato bases his system on the general concept1 ,zeno on the individual person or object4 ,it would seem that no contrast could be more complete4 ,nor does ,zeno's theory agree with that of ,epicurus4 ,both indeed are positive teachers1 and hold that the senses are messengers of truth4 ,but here ,epicurus stops1 whilst ,zeno goes on4 ,we have to understand rightly the functions and limitations of the senses1 or we shall quickly glide into error2 we have also to learn that the senses are but servants1 and that the mind rules them as a monarch by divine right1 coordinating the messages they bring1 shaping them according to its own creative capacity1 even adding to them from the material it has derived from its source4 ,the ,stoic theory is in fact a bold survey of the results of the reflection of the human mind upon its own operations2 it has1 as we might expect1 many gaps1 a good deal of overlapping description1 and some inconsistencies4 ,to sceptical objections it is of course unable to give answers which are logically satisfactory2 but its general position proved acceptable to men who sought in philosophy a guide to practical life4 ,sidenote3 ,questions of temperament4 #agj4 ,in the approximation between ,stoicism and the ,academy which characterizes the first century ,b4,c41 the ,stoic logic obtained in the end the upper hand2 and the logic of the so-called #8old ,academy' founded by ,antiochus is in all essentials that of the ,stoics4 ,nevertheless the objections urged against it by ,cicero represent not only his reason but also his sentiments4 ,the positive system appears at its best in the education of children2 and even at the present day the theory of knowledge which is tacitly adopted in schools is substantially that of the ,stoics4 ,it leads to careful observation1 earnest inquiry1 and resolute choice2 and thus lays the foundation of solidity of character4 ,but it must be admitted that it also works in the direction of a certain roughness and harshness of disposition4 ,not only is the ,stoically-minded man lacking in sympathy for beliefs different from his own1 which he is bound to regard as both foolish and wicked2 but he is also blind to that whole side of the universe which cannot be reduced to syllogistic shape4 ,thus we may account for the indifference or hostility with which most ,stoics regarded both literature and art#adh4 ,the ,academic1 on the other hand1 even if he lacked moral firmness and saw too clearly both sides of every question1 was saved by his critical powers from extreme assertions and harsh personal judgments1 and had a delicate appreciation of the finer shadings of life4 ,thus behind the formal differences of the two schools there lies a difference of character4 ,we have long since learnt that the fundamental questions between the two schools are incapable of solution by the human mind1 and we can therefore appreciate the one without condemning the other4 ,in practical life each theory has its appropriate sphere2 but the ,romans were hardly in the wrong when in matters of doubt they leaned towards the ,stoic side4 ,,footnotes #a #8veteres illi ,platonis auditores totam philosophiam tres in partes diviserunt2 quam partitionem a ,zenone esse retentam videmus' ,cic4 ,fin4 iv #b1 #d4 #b ,sext4 math4 vii #af 7,arnim ii #ch74 #c ,philopon4 ad ,anal4 pr4 f4 #d;a2 ,stein1 ,psychologie ii #ic4 ,see also ,arnim ii #di and #di;a4 #d ,epict4 ,disc4 i #ag1 #f4 #e ,diog4 ,l4 vii #dj4 #f 444 ,diog4 ,l4 vi #ajc and #aje4 #g 2 2 1 2 2 1 ,epict4 ,disc4 iv #h1 #ab4 #h #8,stoici 444 cum vehementer amaverint artem disputandi' ,aug4 ,civ4 ,de4 viii #g4 #i ,zeller1 ,stoics etc41 p4 #ff4 #aj ,see below1 #afd1 #afe4 #aa #8hi1 qui negant quicquam posse comprehendi 444 totam vitam evertunt funditus' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #aj1 #ca4 #ab ,see above1 #ic4 #ac ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #aa1 #ac4 #ad #8,stoici deum visum vocantes1 quod optimum putabant' ,chalc4 in ,tim4 #bff 7,arnim ii #hfc74 #ae ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #g1 #ai4 #af ,arnim ii #deh4 #ag #8mens enim ipsa1 quae sensuum fons est atque etiam ipsa sensus est1 naturalem vim habet1 quam intendit ad ea1 quibus movetur' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #aj1 #cj4 ,on the other hand the ,epicureans treat the senses as bodily1 and sensation as automatic4 #ah ' 1 ' 444 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #eb4 #ai ,cleanthes called it #8imprint' 772 ,chrysippus1 lest the word imprint should be interpreted too mechanically1 called it #8alteration' 77 ,sext4 math4 vii #bbg1 #cgb 7,arnim ii #ef72 #8visum objectum imprimet illud quidem et quasi signabit in animo suam speciem' ,cic4 de ,fato #ai1 #dc4 #bj ,sext4 math4 vii #dbd 7,arnim ii #fh72 #8ita est maxima in sensibus veritas1 si et sani sunt ac valentes1 et omnia removentur quae obstant et impediunt' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #g1 #ai4 #ba #8idem fit in vocibus1 in odore1 in sapore1 ut nemo sit nostrum qui in sensibus sui cuiusque generis iudicium requirat acrius' ib4 #bb ,at4 plac4 iv #i1 #d2 #8sensuum clara iudicia et certa sunt' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #g1 #ai4 #bc #8sequuntur ea1 quae non sensibus ipsis percipi dicuntur1 sed quodam modo sensibus1 ut haec3 8illud est album1 hoc dulce1 canorum illud1 hoc bene olens1 hoc asperum40 animo iam haec tenemus comprehensa1 non sensibus' ib4 #g1 #ba4 #bd 1 1 ,at4 plac4 iv #i1 #d 7,arnim ii #gh72 #8,zeno nonnulla visa esse falsa1 non omnia dixit' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #be1 #gj4 #be 1 444 1 ,at4 plac4 iv #ab1 #a 7,arnim ii #ed74 ,the object which causes the is technically called the 1 but also ,sext4 math4 vii #dbf4 #bf ,atius plac4 iv #ab1 #d4 #bg ib4 #ab1 #e4 #bh 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ej4 #bi #8visis ,zeno non omnibus adiungebat fidem1 sed iis solum quae propriam quandam haberent declarationem earum rerum quae viderentur' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #aa1 #da2 cf4 #aje4 #cj ,on this point the controversy between ,arcesilaus and ,zeno hinged2 see above1 #hd4 #ca #8necesse est animum perspicuis cedere' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #ab1 #ch4 #cb #8perspicuitas illa1 quam diximus1 satis magnam habet vim ut ipsa per sese ea quae sint nobis1 ita ut sunt1 indicet' ib4 #ad1 #de4 #cc #8adsensio nostra erit in potestate' ,cic4 ,fat4 #ai1 #dc2 #8adsensio non potest fieri nisi commota viso2 tamen id visum proximam causam habet1 non principalem' ib4 #ah1 #db2 #8,zeno adsensionem adiungit animorum1 quam esse vult in nobis positam et voluntariam' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #aa1 #dj4 #cd 1 1 ,stob4 ii #g1 #aa m 7,pearson1 ,z4 fr4 #ae73 cf4 ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #dg1 #aj4 #ce #8opinationem autem volunt esse imbecillam adsensionem' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 iv #g1 #ae2 #8opinio quae est imbecilla et cum falso incognitoque communis' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #aa1 #da2 so ,sext4 math4 vii #aea 7,arnim ii #ij74 #cf ,epict4 ,disc4 i #ba1 #b4 #cg ib4 i #ah1 #a2 ,sext4 math4 vii #daf4 #ch ,nem4 nat4 hom4 vii p4 #age ,m 7,stein1 ,psych4 ii #ace74 #ci ,cicero's point of view appears to be that the mind-picture grasps the object3 #8visum cum acceptum iam et adprobatum esset1 ,zeno comprehensionem appellabat1 similem eis rebus quae manu prehenderentur' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #aa1 #da4 ,see further ,stein1 ,psych4 ii #agd1 and ,r4 ,d4 ,hicks1 ,stoic and ,epicurean1 p4 #ga4 #dj ,this view is expressed by ,posidonius1 who bases it on ,plato's ,timaeus3 1 1 ,sext4 ,emp4 math4 vii #ic4 ,see also below1 #bff4 #da #8comprehensio facta sensibus et vera esse ,zenoni et fidelis videbatur2 non quod omnia1 quae essent in re1 comprehenderet1 sed quia nihil quod cadere in eam posset relinqueret' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #aa1 #db4 #db ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ea2 #8quam multa vident pictores in umbris et in eminentia1 quae nos non videmus6' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #g1 #bj4 #dc ,sext4 math4 vii #cgc 7,arnim i #fd72 #8mens alia visa sic arripit1 ut his statim utatur2 alia quasi recondit1 e quibus memoria oritur' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #aj1 #cj4 #dd #8quicquid frequens cogitatio exercet et renovat1 memoriae nunquam subducitur2 quae nihil perdit1 nisi ad quod non saepe respexit' ,sen4 ,ben4 iii #b1 #c4 #de ,so substantially ,chrysippus argued4 ,see ,sext4 math4 vii #bca4 #df 1 ,at4 plac4 iv #aa1 #b4 #dg ,diog4 ,l4 vii #eb4 #dh ,the details of this list are variously given3 e4g4 #8cum rerum notiones in animo fiant1 si aut usu aliquid cognitum sit1 aut coniunctione1 aut similitudine1 aut collatione rationis' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #aj1 #cc4 #di ,diog4 ,l4 vii #eb4 #ej #8homo autem1 quod rationis est particeps1 per quam consequentia cernit1 causas rerum videt1 earumque progressus et quasi antecessiones non ignorat1 similitudines comparat1 et rebus praesentibus adiungit atque adnectit futuras2 facile totius vitae cursum videt' ,cic4 ,off4 i #d1 #aa4 #ea ,so ,zeller1 ,stoics etc41 p4 #gi4 #eb 1 ,at4 plac4 iv #aa1 #a4 ,the metaphor of the tabula rasa can be traced back to ,plato and ,aristotle1 but in this application was first used by ,cleanthes4 ,locke presumably borrowed it from the ,stoics4 ,it must not be thought that this metaphor implies passivity on the part of the soul2 as the ,stoics use it1 the soul is from the beginning actively cooperating in obtaining impressions4 ,see ,stein1 ,psych4 ii pp4 #aab sqq41 note #bcj4 #ec 444 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ea4 #ed ,at4 plac4 i #aj1 #e 7,arnim i #fe72 cf4 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #fa4 #ee 1 ,sext4 math4 viii #ef 7,arnim ii #hh72 cf4 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #eb and #ec4 #ef #8cetera autem similitudinibus mens constituit' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #aj1 #cj4 #eg ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ag1 #dd4 #eh ' ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ed2 #8notionem appello quam ,graeci tum tum 2 ea est insita et praecepta cuiusque formae cognitio1 enodationis indigens' ,cic4 ,top4 #g1 #ca2 #8nobis notitiae rerum imprimuntur1 sine quibus nec intellegi quicquam nec quaeri disputarive potest' ,ac4 ii #g1 #ba4 ,see also ,at4 plac4 iv #aa1 #c4 ,if the concept can only be reached by special training1 it must not be called 4 #ei #8,there are certain things which men who are not altogether perverted see by the common notions which all possess4 ,such a constitution of the mind is named common sense 7 7' ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #f1 #h4 ,see also below1 #aeh4 #fj #8,we need discipline1 in order to learn how to adapt the preconception of what is reasonable or unreasonable to the several things conformably with nature' ,epict4 ,disc4 i #b1 #f4 #fa ,see ,cic4 ,top4 above1 note #eh4 #fb ,diog4 ,l4 x #cc4 #fc #8cetera autem similitudinibus mens constituit2 ex quibus efficiuntur notitiae rerum1 quas ,graeci tum tum vocant' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #aj1 #cj4 ,as to the possibility of distinguishing the two terms see ,prof4 ,reid's note4 #fd ,see notes to the next section4 #fe #8rerum plurimarum obscuras necessarias intelligentias enudavit qu4 incohavit81 quasi fundamenta quaedam scientiae' ,cic4 ,leg4 i #i1 #bf2 #8quae in animis imprimuntur1 de quibus ante dixi1 incohatae intelligentiae1 similiter in omnibus imprimuntur' ib4 i #aj1 #cj2 #8,as to good and evil1 beautiful and ugly 444 and what we ought to do and what we ought not to do1 who ever came into the world without having an innate idea of them8' ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #aa1 #c4 #ff 444 ,at4 plac4 iv #aa1 #d2 ib4 v #bc1 #a4 #fg 444 ' 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #eb2 #8collatione rationis boni notio facta est2 cum enim ab iis rebus1 quae sunt secundum naturam1 ascendit animus collatione rationis1 tum ad notionem boni pervenit' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #aj1 #cc2 #8nobis videtur observatio collegisse et rerum saepe factarum inter se collatio3 per analogian nostri intellectum et honestum et bonum iudicant4 noveramus corporis sanitatem2 ex hac cogitavimus esse aliquam et animi4 noveramus corporis vires2 ex his collegimus esse et animi robur' ,sen4 ,ep4 #abj1 #d2 #8de bonis ac malis sensus non iudicat2 quid utile sit1 quid inutile1 ignorat4 non potest ferre sententiam1 nisi in rem praesentem perductus est2 ratio ergo arbitra est bonorum ac malorum' ib4 #ff1 #ce4 #fh ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ec4 #fi ,for the classification as a sensation see above1 #adf4 #gj 7sc4 ,aristotelis7 #8 ' 1 ' ,at4 plac4 iv #h1 #g2 #8quid de tactu1 et eo quidem quem philosophi interiorem vocant aut doloris aut voluptatis8' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #g1 #bj4 ,this feeling1 if mistaken for the perception of an external object1 is an #8empty twitching'3 ' ,sext4 math4 vii #bda 7,arnim ii #fd74 ,see further ,hicks1 ,stoic and ,epicurean1 p4 #aaj4 #ga #8visa quaedam mitti a deo1 velut ea quae in somnis videantur1 quaeque oraculis auspiciis extis declarentur' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #ae1 #dg4 #gb ,arnim ii #ic and #ie2 #8ars vero quae potest esse nisi quae non ex una aut duabus1 sed ex multis animi perceptionibus constat8' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #g1 #bb2 #8ex quibus perceptis collatis inter se et comparatis artes quoque efficimus1 partim ad usum vitae1 partim ad oblectationem necessariis' ,n4 ,d4 ii #ei1 #adh4 #gc ,arnim ii #ie4 #gd ,epict4 ,disc4 i #bb1 #a4 #ge ,stob4 ii #g1 #e l 7see also ,wachsmuth's crit4 note74 #gf #8scientiam 444 quam nos non comprehensionem modo rerum1 sed eam stabilem quoque atque immutabilem esse censemus' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #h1 #bc2 #8quod erat sensu comprehensum 444 si ita erat comprehensum ut convelli ratione non posset1 scientiam ,zeno nominabat' ib4 i #aa1 #da2 #8quamcunque vero sententiam probaverit sapiens1 eam sic animo comprensam habebit1 ut ea quae sensibus' ib4 ii #cg1 #aai4 #gg ,see above1 #gg4 #gh ,plut4 comm4 not4 #dg1 #d4 #gi ,sext4 math4 vii #aea 7,arnim ii #ij72 #8scientiam1 cuius compotem nisi sapientem esse neminem' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #dg1 #ade4 #hj ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ed1 as in note #hd below4 #ha ,see especially ,pearson1 ,zeno fr4 #aa2 and above1 #hd4 #hb #8omnium deinde inanium visorum una depulsio est1 sive illa cogitatione informantur1 444 sive in quiete1 sive per vinum1 sive per insaniam4 nam ab omnibus eiusmodi visis perspicuitatem1 quam mordicus tenere debemus1 abesse dicemus4444 itaque1 simul ut experrecti sumus ex somno1 visa illa contemnimus neque ita habemus1 ut ea quae in foro gessimus' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #ag1 #ea4 #hc #8ab ,academia disputatum est1 non inesse in sensibus propriam1 quae nusquam alibi esset1 veri et certi notam' ib4 ii #cb1 #ajc2 #8dicunt ,academici hoc se unum tollere1 ut quicquam possit ita videri1 ut non eodem modo falsum etiam possit videri' ib4 #aa1 #cc4 #hd 1 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ed4 ,this view is attributed to ,zeno himself3 #8visum ,zeno ita definiit ex eo1 quod esset1 sicut esset1 impressum et signatum et effictum' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #bd1 #gg4 #he ,sext4 math4 vii #bec4 #hf ,sext4 math4 vii #aha4 ,such was the definition of ,carneades 7,schmekel1 p4 #cdd74 #hg ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ed 7see #hj1 note #fh74 #hh #8posse eum sapientem falsa a veris distinguere' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #ba1 #fg4 #hi ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ed4 ,see on this point ,hicks1 ,stoic and ,epicurean1 p4 #gj4 #ij #8multum dare solemus praesumptioni omnium hominum1 et apud nos veritatis argumentum est aliquid omnibus videri2 tanquam deos esse inter alia hoc colligimus1 quod omnibus insita de dis opinio est 444 neminem invenies1 qui non putet et sapientiam bonum et sapere bonum' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aag1 #f4 #ia #8opinionum commenta delet dies1 naturae iudicia confirmat' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #b1 #e4 #ib ,diog4 ,l4 vii #agg4 #ic ,plut4 comm4 not4 #bg1 #i4 #id 1 ib4 #bg1 #ae4 #ie #8iudicis est semper in causis verum sequi2 patroni nonnunquam verisimile1 etiam si minus sit verum1 defendere2 quod scribere 444 non auderem1 nisi idem placeret gravissimo ,stoicorum ,panaetio' ,cic4 ,off4 ii #ad1 #ea4 #if #8visus noster solita imbecillitate deceptus' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 i #b1 #c4 #ig ,to himself1 v #cc4 #ih ,see above1 #adf1 #adg4 #ii #8sapientem aliquando sustinere adsensionem' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #ag1 #ec4 #ajj ,epict4 ,disc4 i #bg1 #ag4 #aja ,the distinction between #8name' and #8class-name' was due to ,chrysippus3 see ,sandys1 ,classical ,scholarship1 i p4 #add4 #ajb ,diog4 ,l4 vii #eh4 #ajc ,for these and further particulars see ,sandys1 ,classical ,scholarship1 i ch4 ix2 ,r4 ,schmidt1 ,stoicorum ,grammatica1 pp4 #ah sqq4 #ajd #8,crates1 nobilis grammaticus1 fretus ,chrysippo1 homine acutissimo1 qui reliquit ,,iii libros1 contra analogiam atque ,aristarchum est nixus' ,varro ,l4 ,l4 ix #a 7,arnim ii #aea74 #aje ,orig4 cont4 ,celsum i #bd 7,arnim ii #adf74 #ajf ,varr4 ,l4 ,l4 vi #aa 7,arnim ii #afc74 #ajg ,see ,zeller1 ,stoics etc41 p4 #gc1 n4 #b2 ,aristotle's distinction is between and 4 #ajh #8vocem ,stoici corpus esse contendunt eamque esse dicunt ictum aera' ,a4 ,gellius1 ,n4 ,a4 v #ae1 #f4 #aji #8hunc qui primo dicitur iam fari ,chrysippus negat loqui1 sed ut loqui2 444 sic in corvis1 cornicibus1 pueris primitus incipientibus fari1 verba non esse verba' ,varro ,l4 ,l4 vi #ef 7,arnim ii #adc74 #aaj ,diog4 ,l4 vii #fc to #gh4 #aaa ,varro translates this by #8proloquium' 7,gell4 ,n4 ,a4 xvi #h1 #h71 ,cicero provisionally by #8pronuntiatum' 7,tusc4 disp4 i #g1 #ad74 #aab ,a statement or proposition is therefore a phrase #8complete in itself' 7 7 ,a4 ,gellius ,n4 ,a4 xvi #h1 #d4 #aac ,diog4 ,l4 vii #de4 #aad ib4 #hj and #ha4 #aae #8ex iis modis conclusiones innumerabiles nascuntur' ,cic4 ,top4 #ad1 #eg4 #aaf #hc4 #aag 1 1 1 ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #h1 #b4 #aah #8inventus1 ,chrysippe1 tui finitor acervi' ,pers4 ,sat4 vi #hj4 #aai #8placet enim ,chrysippo1 cum gradatim interrogetur1 tria pauca sint anne multa1 aliquanto prius quam ad multa perveniat1 quiescere' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #bi1 #ic4 ,cf4 ,sext4 math4 vii #daf4 #abj #8si te mentiri dicis idque verum dicis1 mentiris an verum dicis8' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #bi1 #ie4 #aba ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #ag1 #cd4 #abb #8mus syllaba est4 mus autem caseum rodit3 syllaba ergo caseum rodit 444 o pueriles ineptias6' ,sen4 ,ep4 #dh1 #f and #g2 #8quod non perdidisti1 habes2 cornua autem non perdidisti2 cornua ergo habes' ib4 #di1 #h4 #abc ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #ai1 #a sqq4 #abd ,see below1 #bbj1 #bba4 #abe ,diog4 ,l4 vii #fj4 #abf #8omnis oratio aut continua est aut inter respondentem et interrogantem discissa2 hanc 1 illam placuit vocari' ,sen4 ,ep4 #hi1 #ag4 #abg ,cic4 ,orator #cb1 #aac4 #abh #8scripsit artem rhetoricam ,cleanthes4 ,chrysippus etiam2 sed sic1 ut si quis obmutescere cupierit1 nihil aliud legere debeat4 itaque vides quo modo loquantur2 nova verba fingunt1 deserunt usitata' ,cic4 ,fin4 iv #c1 #g4 #abi ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ei4 #acj #8uni ,m4 ,porcio me dedicavi atque despondi atque delegavi' ,front4 et ,aur4 ,ep4 ii #ac4 #aca ,anon4 ad ,herm4 ,rhet4 ,gr4 vii #h4 ,hence speech was a virtue2 #8,stoicis hanc habeo gratiam1 quod soli ex omnibus eloquentiam virtutem ac sapientiam esse dixerunt' ,cic4 de ,or4 iii #ah1 #fe4 #acb #8fuerunt et clari quidam auctores1 quibus solum videretur oratoris officium docere2 namque et effectus duplici ratione excludendos putabant1 primum quia vitium esset omnis animi perturbatio1 deinde quia iudicem a veritate pelli misericordia gratia similibusque non oporteret1 et voluptatem audientium petere 444 vix etiam viro dignum arbitrabantur' ,quint4 ,inst4 or4 v ,prooem4 #acc ,diog4 ,l4 vii #db4 #acd #8orationis genus habent ,stoici fortasse subtile et certe acutum2 sed1 ut in oratore1 exile1 inusitatum1 abhorrens ab auribus vulgi1 obscurum1 inane1 ieiunum1 attamen eiusmodi quo uti ad vulgus nullo modo possit' ,cic4 de ,or4 iii #ah1 #ff4 #ace #8dicebat modesta ,diogenes et sobria' ,a4 ,gellius1 ,n4 ,a4 vi #ad1 #aj4 #acf ,see below1 chap4 xvi4 #acg ,see ,smiley1 ,latinitas and 4 #ach #8,philosophers utter words which are contrary to common opinion1 as ,cleanthes also said1 but not words contrary to reason' ,epict4 ,disc4 iv #a1 #agc2 #8where is the wonder if in philosophy many things which are true appear paradoxical to the inexperienced8' ib4 i #be1 #cc4 #aci #8ista quae appellant1 maxime videntur esse ,socratica' ,cic4 ,parad4 ,prooem4 #d4 #adj #8nihil est tam incredibile1 quod non dicendo fiat probabile' ,cic4 ,parad4 ,prooem4 #c2 #8,stoica paradoxa1 quorum nullum esse falsum nec tam mirabile quam prima facie videtur1 adprobabo' ,sen4 ,ep4 #hg1 #a4 #ada ,zeller1 ,stoics etc41 pp4 #ced-cgj4 #adb ,a4 ,gellius1 ,n4 ,a4 xvi #h1 #af and #ag4 #adc #8quaedam exercendi tantum ingenii causa quaeruntur1 et semper extra vitam iacent' ,sen4 ,ben4 vi #a1 #a4 #add #8multum illis temporis verborum cavillatio eripuit et captiosae disputationes1 quae acumen inritum exercent' ,ep4 #de1 #e4 #ade #8,we terminate in this1 in learning what is said1 and in being able to expound it to another1 in resolving a syllogism1 and in handling the hypothetical syllogism' ,epict4 ,disc4 iv #d1 #ad4 #adf #8,thanks to the gods too that1 in spite of my ardour for philosophy1 ,i did not fall into the hands of any sophist1 or sit poring over essays or syllogisms1 or become engrossed in scientific speculation' ,m4 ,aurelius ,to himself i #ag4 #adg #8verum esse arbitror1 ut ,antiocho nostro familiari placebat1 correctionem veteris ,academiae potius quam aliquam novam disciplinam putandam ,stoicorum rationem' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #ab1 #dc4 #adh #8tunc intellegere nobis licebit1 quam contemnenda miremur1 simillimi pueris1 quibus omne ludicrum in pretio est4 quid ergo inter nos et illos interest1 ut ,ariston ait1 nisi quod nos circa tabulas et statuas insanimus1 carius inepti8 illos reperti in litore calculi leves delectant1 nos ingentium maculae columnarum' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aae1 #h4 ,this tone is clearly derived from ,cynism1 as the reference to ,aristo indicates4 ,a modern ,cynic is still more sweeping in his condemnation3 #8all the nastiness and stupidity which you call science and art' 7,count ,leo ,tolstoy in the ,westminster ,gazette1 ,sept4 #c1 #aiaj74 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,foundations ,,of ,,physics4 ,sidenote3 ,physics4 #aga4 ,under the general heading of ,physics the ancients included a number of subjects which in modern times form independent branches of philosophy4 ,cleanthes subdivided the subject into ,physics proper and ,theology#a4 ,here it will be convenient to make a larger number of subdivisions1 so as to treat separately of 7i7 the ,foundations of ,physics1 generally called 7after ,aristotle's treatise7 #8,metaphysics'2 7ii7 ,physics proper1 that is1 the account of the ,universe and its history2 7iii7 the final problems involved in the history of the ,universe1 such as its government by ,divine ,providence1 the ,existence of ,evil1 ,free-will1 and ,chance2 7iv7 the problems of ,religion1 such as the existence of gods1 their number1 character1 and claims on mankind2 and 7v7 the nature of ,man1 including the modern subjects of ,psychology and ,physiology1 and to some extent of ,anthropology also1 treated by the ,stoics as a ,kingdom governed by the ,soul4 ,according to ,stoic principles these subjects cannot be separated one from the other1 or from the other parts of philosophy2 and therefore in treating each one we shall1 as before1 assume a general knowledge of all the others4 ,the ,stoics laid great stress upon the study of ,physics1 as the only sound basis for a scientific rule of human conduct2 and some of them 7beginning with ,chrysippus71 having especial regard to the elevated dignity of the study of ,theology1 were disposed to rank this branch of philosophy as the highest and last of its three principal divisions#b4 ,we shall however1 in accordance with a view more generally held1 reserve the last place for ,ethics#c4 ,sidenote3 ,fundamental ,conceptions4 #agb4 ,to the earlier ,greek philosophers1 as we have already seen1 it appeared that a single bold intuition was enough1 or almost enough1 to discover a sufficient foundation upon which to construct a reasoned account of all things4 ,thus the ,ionic philosophers took up as such a foundation one or more of the elements of air1 fire1 and water4 ,but as soon as these three1 together with earth1 were recognized as #8elements' existing side by side1 it became necessary to dig deeper1 so as to secure a foundation for these as well4 ,thus ,democritus resolved all four into #8atoms' and #8void'2 his theory was taken over by ,epicurus1 and remains to this day not only the most popular solution of the problem1 but also that which 7till quite recently7 was tacitly assumed as the basis of all scientific investigation4 ,anaxagoras1 working on different lines1 began his account of the universe with #8mind' on the one hand and a primal conglomerate #8matter' on the other2 a doctrine evidently based upon the popular dualism of soul and body1 and still the basis of all transcendental philosophy and established religious conceptions4 ,this ,aristotle varied by assuming rather an #8active' and a #8passive' principle1 force which works and matter upon which it works4 ,besides these conceptions many others need to be considered1 which if not absolutely fundamental1 are nevertheless matters of discussion in all philosophical schools1 as those of motion1 space1 time1 soul1 body1 ,god1 the universe1 cause1 effect1 will and necessity4 ,in this way the original inquiry into the foundation of the universe developes into a general study of fundamental conceptions2 and it is at this stage that it is taken over and dealt with by ,stoicism1 which adds to the list certain conceptions on which it lays a special stress and to which it gives a characteristic colour2 such are those of #8body1' #8spirit1' and #8tone4' ,sidenote3 ,the ,stoic monism4 #agc4 ,the fact that the ,stoics use from time to time the language of other schools or of popular speculation does not necessarily imply that this language is an adequate statement of their doctrine2 and we frequently#d find that the discussion of particular problems seems to be based on dualisms1 though these are in the end subordinated to monistic statements4 ,thus in logic we have already noticed the sharp contrast between the perceiving mind and the external object of perception 71 72 nevertheless mind and object are ultimately declared to be akin#e4 ,so in particular the popular dualism of #8soul' and #8body' is often accepted by the ,stoics1 and yet as steadily superseded by the paradox that #8soul is body4' ,the reason given for this is that #8body is that which acts and is acted upon#f'2 and this statement in the end overrides the ,aristotelian distinction of force and matter1 active principle and passive principle4 #8,body1' as conceived by the ,stoics1 is the one ultimate element1 the foundation and beginning of the universe2 it contains within itself the capacity of action1 and nothing but #8body' has this capacity4 ,body1 and nothing but body1 exists in the true sense2 that certain other things have a quasi-existence 7as we shall see later in this chapter7 is an embarrassment which only brings into clearer relief this distinctive feature of the system4 ,the ,stoic #8body1' though it is also called #8matter' 71 materia71 must not be confused with the #8matter' of modern philosophy1 which has derived from ,aristotle the implication of passivity#g2 much more closely it corresponds with the #8stuff' by which modern monistic philosophers denote the substratum of mind and body alike4 ,to call the ,stoics #8materialists' will generally prove misleading2 it is the ,epicurean system1 to which the ,stoics were sharply opposed1 which 7as we have seen7#h corresponds to modern materialism4 ,sidenote3 ,the nature of #8body4' #agd4 ,the conception of #8body' therefore replaces in the ,stoic system the various elements which the ,ionic philosophers assumed as the basis of the universe1 and combines both parts of such dualistic elements as were assumed by ,democritus1 ,anaxagoras and ,aristotle4 ,since it is the foundation of all things it must be capable of taking very various shapes4 ,in logic we have met with it under the name of the #8substratum' 7 1 id quod est7#i1 but it none the less includes the #8subject' or feeling and reasoning mind4 ,in the universe as a whole it is #8essence' 71 essentia72 in its parts it is #8matter' 71 silva7#aj2 but it also appears1 possessed of intelligence1 as the deity#aa1 and again is identified with #8breath' or #8spirit#ab1' and through this with the human soul#ac4 ,even in ethics it has its place2 for all causes are bodily1 and not least #8the good' and the respective virtues1 all of which are bodies1 for they act upon body#ad2 similarly the emotions such as anger and melancholy1 are of the nature of body#ae4 ,sidenote3 ,motion1 space and time4 #age4 ,the ,stoic #8body' in all its transformations is active and alert4 ,it contains in itself the principle or power of movement2 for though we observe that one body is set in motion by another1 yet this could not be the case unless in the beginning there had been a body which had movement of itself#af4 ,as to the nature of the primal movement1 the ,stoics agree with ,anaximenes that it may be described as alternate rarefaction and condensation4 ,rarefaction is a wave or #8spirit' spreading from the centre to the extremities2 condensation is a contrary movement from the extremities to the centre#ag4 ,the extension of body is #8space1' which therefore does not exist of itself1 but only as a function of body#ah4 ,where there is no body 7and body is limited71 there is no space1 but only the #8boundless void' beyond the universe#ai2 of this we cannot say that it #8exists'2 rather it #8not exists4' ,time also does not exist of itself1 but only in the movement of body#bj4 ,neither space nor time existed before the universe1 but have been all along bound up with it#ba4 ,sidenote3 ,body comprises life and thought4 #agf4 ,in almost every particular we find a sharp contrast between the ,stoic conception of #8body' and the ,epicurean #8atom4' ,the atom is extremely small and entirely unchangeable2 #8body' is immensely large and in a high degree plastic4 ,atoms alternate with void2 but #8body' spreads continuously throughout the entire universe2 it can never be torn apart or show a gap#bb4 ,atoms move downwards in parallel straight lines2 #8body' moves from the centre to the circumference1 and thence returns to the centre4 ,two atoms can never occupy the same space2 but #8body' everywhere moves through body1 penetrating it and combining with it throughout its whole extent#bc4 ,the atom is a convenient hypothesis within the range of modern physical and chemical science2 the conception of #8body' gains force as we enter the region of biology4 ,for life also is a movement which proceeds from a warm centre 7and warmth is body rarefied71 and extends towards a circumference which is in comparison gross and cold#bd4 ,going further1 we find that #8body' and its functions are so interpreted as to provide a key to the activities of the human reason and will4 ,sidenote3 ,tone or tension4 #agg4 ,to the central conception of body are attached in the ,stoic system various supplementary conceptions1 which serve to bring into clearer view its nature and powers4 ,of these the most characteristic is that of #8tone' or #8strain' 71 intentio74 ,this term appears originally to have expressed muscular activity#be1 and was next used by the ,cynics to denote that active condition of the soul which is the true end of life2 #8no labour1' said ,diogenes1 #8is noble1 unless its end is tone of soul#bf4' ,although we cannot trace the term #8tone' directly to ,zeno1 we find that he explains sleep as a relaxation of the soul1 substantially agreeing with later writers who call it a #8relaxation of the sensory tone around the soul#bg4' ,with ,cleanthes the word becomes fairly common1 first in the ethical application1 in which #8tone' is #8a shock of fire1 which if it be strong enough to stir the soul to fulfil its duties is called strength and force#bh1' and then in physics to explain the unceasing activity of the universe#bi1 personified by ,hercules in ,stoic allegorical theology#cj4 ,in later writers tone becomes constantly associated with the #8spirit' or #8thrill' which explains both the unity and the movement of all things#ca1 so that #8tone of spirit' or #8thrill-tone' 7 1 intentio spiritus7 explains to us the operations of body and mind alike#cb4 ,sidenote3 ,the seed power4 #agh4 ,body however is not only active but creative2 there is inherent in it a power1 which is that of the #8seed' 71 semen71 and which is most conspicuously illustrated in the seed of animals and plants4 ,it is the characteristic of seed that from a small beginning it developes a great plan1 and that this plan never changes#cc4 ,this plan or purpose is named by the ,stoics its #8reason' or #8word' 771 and at this point ,stoicism incorporates the doctrine of the #8,word' or universal reason with which it became acquainted through ,heraclitus4 ,the #8,word' or #8seed-power' 7 7 of the universe is one2 it is the primal fire in its work of creation2 it is ,zeus the ,creator who moulds gross matter into the things that are to be#cd2 it is wisdom which plies matter as it will#ce4 ,but there are also in individual objects1 animate and inanimate1 indestructible seed-powers1 countless in number1 displayed alike in growth1 procreation1 and purpose#cf2 these seed-powers are1 as it were1 spirits or deities1 spread throughout the universe1 everywhere shaping1 peopling1 designing1 multiplying2 they are activities of fiery spirit working through tension#cg in its highest development4 ,but the seed-power of the universe comprehends in itself all the individual seed-powers2 they are begotten of it1 and shall in the end return to it4 ,thus in the whole work of creation and re-absorption#ch we see the work of one ,zeus1 one divine ,word1 one all-pervading spirit#ci4 ,sidenote3 ,cause4 #agi4 ,closely akin to the theory of #8seed-powers' and the ,word is that of #8cause' 71 causa74 ,aristotle had already explained this term in connexion with cosmogony1 laying down that1 in order that a universe may come into being1 three #8causes' are required2 matter1 without which nothing can be made2 a workman1 to make things2 and the form or shape1 which is imposed on every work as on a statue4 ,to these may be added a fourth cause1 the purpose of the work4 ,thus to produce a statue we need the bronze1 the artist1 the design1 and the fee4 ,grammatically these causes may be expressed by the help of prepositions1 as the ex quo1 a quo1 in quo and propter quod#dj4 ,to this theory of multiple causes the ,stoics oppose the doctrine of a single #8first cause1' the maker of the universe4 ,this first cause can be none other than the primal creative fire in a new aspect2 equally it is the creative ,word4 ,it seems well to translate here in full the argument of ,seneca on this point1 for it stands almost alone as an example of his powers in continuous exposition3 ,the ,stoic dogma is that there is one cause only1 the maker4 ,aristotle holds that cause is threefold4 #8,the first cause1' he says1 #8is the material itself1 for without it nothing can be made4 ,the second cause is the maker4 ,the third is the design1 which is impressed on every single work as on a statue2' this ,aristotle calls the 4 ,i will now explain what he means4 ,the bronze is the first cause of a statue2 for it could never have been made1 had there not been stuff to be cast or wrought into shape4 ,the second cause is the sculptor2 for the bronze could never have been brought into the shape of a statue without the artist's touch4 ,the third cause is the design2 for the statue would not be called the #8javelin-man' or the #8crowned king' had not such a design been impressed upon it4 ,there is besides a fourth cause1 the purpose4 ,what is purpose8 ,it is that which induced the sculptor to undertake the work1 the aim that he had in view4 ,it may have been money1 if he intended to sell it2 or glory1 if he wished to make himself a name2 or religious feeling1 if he proposed to present it to a temple4 ,that for the sake of which a thing is done is therefore also a cause2 for you cannot think it right in making up a list of causes to omit something1 apart from which the thing would never have been made4 ,thus ,aristotle postulates a multiplicity of causes2 but we maintain that the list is either too long or too short4 ,if we hold that everything1 apart from which the thing would never have been made1 is a cause of its making1 then the list is too short4 ,we ought to reckon time as a cause1 for nothing can be made without time4 ,we ought to reckon space as a cause2 for if there is no room for a thing to be made1 it will certainly not be made4 ,movement too should be placed in the list2 for without movement nothing can be produced or destroyed2 without movement there can be neither art nor change4 ,we ,stoics look for a first and general cause4 ,such a cause must be single1 for the stuff of the universe is single4 ,we ask what that cause is1 and reply that it is the creative reason1 the deity4 ,the various causes in the list that has been made are not a series of independent causes1 but are all variations of a single cause1 namely #8the maker#da4' ,sidenote3 ,causation and free-will4 #ahj4 ,although the #8first cause' and the #8,word' are thus formally identified1 their associations in connexion with cosmogony are very different4 ,for whereas the #8,word' suggests reason and purpose1 and leads up to the dogma that the universe is governed by divine providence1 the term #8cause' suggests the linking of cause and effect by an unending chain1 the inevitable sequence of events which leaves no room for effort or hope4 ,these terms therefore point to the supreme problems of ,fate and divine ,purpose1 ,determinism and ,free-will1 and as such will be discussed in a later chapter#db4 ,here it is sufficient to note that the ,stoics not only accept1 but insist upon the use of terms suggesting both points of view1 and look therefore beyond their immediate opposition to an ultimate reconciliation2 and that the importance attached to the doctrine of a #8single and general cause' by no means excludes a multiplicity of individual causes depending upon it1 and capable of classification according to their relative importance#dc4 ,sidenote3 ,the categories4 #aha4 ,thus the conception of #8body1' so simple to the plain man1 becomes to the philosopher manifold and intricate4 ,its interpretation is to some extent brought into harmony with common speech through the doctrine of the #8categories' based upon ,aristotle's teaching#dd4 ,but whereas ,aristotle endeavoured in his categories to classify the various but independent classes of existences1 the ,stoics considered the different aspects in which the one primary body might be studied4 ,the first two categories1 those of #8substance' 77 and of #8quality' 771 agree with those of ,aristotle#de1 and clearly correspond to the grammatical categories of noun and adjective4 ,the third category is that of #8disposition' 7 71 as #8lying down' or #8standing#df4' ,the fourth is that of #8relative position' 7 71 as #8right' and #8left1' #8son' and #8father#dg4' ,some of the categories are further subdivided#dh2 but enough is here stated to shew the object of the analysis1 which in practice may have been useful in securing some completeness in the discussion of particular conceptions4 ,of #8substances' the ,stoics1 like others1 say that they #8exist1' and are #8bodies'2 of qualities they boldly say the same#di4 ,but they do not consistently apply the same terms to disposition and relative position2 in this direction they are at last led1 like other philosophers1 to speak of things which #8do not exist4' ,they could not take the modern view that all such discussions are verbal entanglements1 of which no solution is possible1 because they believed that there was a natural harmony between words and things4 ,we on the other hand shall be little inclined to follow their analysis into its manifold details#ej4 ,sidenote3 ,substance4 #ahb4 ,the analysis of the first two categories1 those of ,substance and ,quality1 leads us at once to the profoundest problems of ,metaphysics2 and even if we allow that the difficulty is primarily grammatical1 and resolves itself into a discussion of the functions of ,substantive and ,adjective1 it is none the less inextricably interwoven with all our habits of thought4 ,it would be unreasonable to expect from the ,stoics perfectly clear and consistent language on this point2 they absorb into their system much from popular philosophy1 and much from the teaching of ,aristotle in particular4 ,the view which is distinctively ,stoic is that ,substance and ,quality are both body#ea1 but in two different aspects4 ,the terms #8body' and #8substance' refer to the same reality1 but do not describe it with the same fulness4 ,yet because the very word #8substance' 77 suggests existence1 the ,stoics are drawn also to speak of #8substance without quality' 7 71 and seem to identify it with a dead #8matter' 771 or #8substratum' 771 as though life must be introduced into it from without#eb4 ,this is practically the view of ,aristotle1 embodied in the phrase #8matter without quality is potentially body'#ec2 but just so far as terms of this kind imply a dualistic explanation of the universe1 they are not really reconcileable with the fundamental principles of ,stoicism1 and they must therefore be understood with reservations4 ,it may often seem that the three terms #8body1' #8substance1' #8matter1' are practically interchangeable1 but they are of different rank4 ,for body exists eternally of itself2 whereas substance and matter1 except when loosely used as equivalents of body1 do not exist of themselves1 but substance always in association with quality#ed1 and matter always in association with force4 ,further we may distinguish between #8substance' in general1 or #8first matter1' which is a #8substratum' 77 to the universe1 and the #8matter' of particular things#ee4 ,the former never grows greater or less1 the latter may alter in either direction#ef4 ,sidenote3 ,quality4 #ahc4 ,quality 71 1 qualitas7 constitutes the second category4 ,it is defined by the ,stoics as a difference in a substance which cannot be detached from that substance1 but makes it #8such and such1' as for instance #8sweet1' #8round1' #8red1' #8hot#eg4' ,qualities1 say the ,stoics1 are bodies#eh4 ,this paradoxical statement may be understood in two ways2 first1 in that qualities do not exist independently1 but are aspects of #8body' which possesses quality2 secondly1 in that qualities are bodies in a secondary sense4 ,we may consider it evidence of the second point of view that language describes the qualities by nouns1 as #8sweetness1' #8rotundity1' #8redness1' #8heat'2 and indeed it is not so long since our own chemists described heat as a #8substance' under the name of #8caloric4' ,this point of view is carried to an extreme when the ,stoics say #8qualities are substances1' thus throwing the first two categories into one#ei4 ,much stronger is the tendency towards ,aristotle's views1 so that as substance becomes identified with dead matter1 quality is explained as the movement1 tension1 or current which endows it with life4 ,hence the ,stoics say #8the movement of rarefaction is the cause of quality#fj'2 #8matter is a dull substratum1 qualities are spirits and air-like tensions#fa'2 #8quality is a spirit in a certain disposition#fb'2 #8the air-current which keeps each thing together is the cause of its quality#fc4' ,all these expressions must however be interpreted in the light of the ,stoic theory as a whole4 ,finally we notice that1 corresponding to the two kinds of substance1 general and particular1 there are two kinds of quality1 as shewn in the #8generically qualified' 7 7 and the #8individually qualified' 7 72 for instance1 heat in the universe and heat in particular objects#fd4 ,sidenote3 ,disposition4 #ahd4 ,the third category is that of #8disposition' 7 1 res quodammodo se habens74 ,it differs from quality in its variableness2 for a brave man is always brave1 and fire is always hot2 but a man is sometimes standing1 sometimes lying2 fire is sometimes lambent1 sometimes still4 ,qualities therefore appear to correspond generally to the 7coniuncta7 of ,epicurus1 in that they can never be separated from a body#fe2 and dispositions rather with the 7eventa71 which come and go#ff4 ,the third category appears to be used by the ,stoics in a very wide sense1 and to correspond to several of the categories of ,aristotle#fg4 ,disposition is attached to quality as quality is attached to substance#fh2 and though dispositions are not expressly termed bodies1 yet we must consider them to be1 as the terms in the ,greek and ,latin sufficiently indicate1 bodies in particular aspects4 ,in the further applications of ,stoic theory disposition as defined above appears to be replaced in ,greek by the term 4 ,but this term is used in two different senses4 ,in the first place it is the movement of rarefaction and condensation1 by which a spirit or thrill passes from the centre of an object to the extremities1 and returns from the extremities to the centre#fi2 in this sense it is translated in ,latin by unitas1 and takes bodily form as an air-current#gj4 ,this force1 when it requires a further motive power in the direction of development1 becomes the principle of growth 71 natura71 and is displayed not only in the vegetable world1 but also in animals1 as in particular in the hair and nails#ga4 ,growth when it takes to itself the further powers of sensation and impulse becomes soul 71 anima71 and is the distinctive mark of the animal world#gb4 ,in a rather different sense or temporary condition is contrasted with or #8permanent disposition4' ,in this sense the virtues are permanent dispositions of the soul1 because virtue is unchanging2 the arts are temporary conditions4 ,the virtues belong to the wise man only1 the arts to the ordinary man4 ,this distinction however does not hold its ground in the ,roman period1 the word habitus 7representing 71 our #8habit1' being used in both senses#gc4 ,the virtues are bodies1 being dispositions of the soul which is bodily#gd4 ,sidenote3 ,relative position4 #ahe4 ,the fourth category1 that of #8relative position' 7 7 appears to be of less importance than the others#ge4 ,its characteristic is that it may disappear without altering that to which it belongs4 ,thus that which is on the right hand may cease to be so by the disappearance of that which was on its left2 a father may cease to be such on the death of his son#gf4 ,it seems difficult to describe the fourth category as one consisting of #8body1' but at least it is a function of body4 ,also it does not appear that #8relative position' can be predicated of the universe as a whole2 it is peculiar to individual objects1 but works towards their combination in a larger whole4 ,the fourth category has an important application in practical ethics in the doctrine of daily duties1 for these are largely determined by the relative positions 77 of the parties concerned3 such are the duties of a king to his people1 a father to his son1 a slave to his master#gg4 ,sidenote3 ,combination4 #ahf4 ,having fully considered bodies and their relationships1 we proceed to consider their combination4 ,in ordinary experience we meet with three kinds of combination2 juxtaposition 771 as in a mixture of various kinds of grain2 mixture 771 when solid bodies are interfused1 as fire and heat1 or fusion 771 when fluids are interfused1 as wine poured into the sea2 chemical mixture 771 when each of the two bodies fused disappears#gh4 ,of these the second in its most completed form 7 ' 1 universa fusio7 is of high importance4 ,for in this way we find that soul is fused with body#gi1 quality with substance#hj1 light with air#ha1 ,god with the universe#hb4 ,aristotle admits that there is this mixture between substance and qualities2 but as both of these are to the ,stoics bodies1 and so too are the members of the other pairs quoted1 the ,stoic doctrine must be summed up in the paradox #8body moves through body#hc4' ,this also follows from the ,stoic doctrine that there is no void in the universe4 ,correspondingly the sum total of body in its various aspects and mixtures completes the whole 771 which is identical with the #8world-order' or #8universe' 77#hd4 ,it seems likely that this important conception had been reached in very early times by the ,chaldaean astronomers2 it was definitely propounded by ,pythagoras#he1 had been taken up by ,socrates#hf and the ,sophists#hg1 and was in ,stoic times generally accepted both in popular philosophy and in scientific investigation4 ,sidenote3 ,quiddities4 #ahg4 ,up to this point the ,stoic system has been guided by a determined monism4 ,body is2 that which is not body is not4 ,yet in the end the ,stoics feel compelled to speak of certain things which are not body 71 incorporalia74 ,in the first instance there is the void beyond the universe#hh4 ,it is possible to dispute as to whether void may more correctly be said to exist or not to exist2 but at least it is a part of nature#hi1 and we need some term like #8the all' 7 7 to include both the universe and the void beyond#ij4 ,next we have to deal with statements 771 and mental conceptions of every kind1 which stand as a class in contrast with the real objects to which they may or may not respectively correspond#ia4 ,lastly1 the ,stoics included space and time1 which they had previously explained as functions of body1 in the list of things not bodily#ib4 ,having thus reached the two main classes of #8bodies1' and #8things not bodily1' the monistic principle can only be saved by creating a supreme class to include both4 ,let this then be called the existent 7 1 quod est7#ic1 or1 if it be objected that things incorporeal do not exist#id1 we may use the name #8quiddities' 71 quid7#ie4 ,in this way the monistic theory1 though a little damaged in vitality1 is again set on its feet so far as the ingenious use of words can help4 ,sidenote3 ,statements4 #ahh4 ,the language of the ,stoics with regard to the phenomena of speech and thought is not always easy to follow1 and perhaps not altogether consistent4 ,on the one hand1 attaching high importance to the reasoning power1 they desire to include its operations in that which is real and bodily4 ,thus the #8mind-pictures' and indeed all mental conceptions are bodily and even #8animal1' in the sense that they are operations of body#if2 and truthfulness1 ignorance1 science and art are all bodies in the sense that they are dispositions of the soul1 which is bodily#ig4 ,but #8phrases' 77 are definitely incorporeal1 and with them appear to be ranked all mental conceptions and general ideas2 about these there is a question1 not merely whether they exist or not1 but whether they may even be classed in the most general class of all as #8quiddities#ih4' ,nor can we call general conceptions true or false#ii2 though of some of them1 as of ,centaurs1 giants1 and the like1 we may say that they are formed by false mental processes#ajj4 ,finally statements are either true or false1 but are not to be called existent4 ,the whole discussion therefore ends with the broad distinction between the object1 which may be real or #8existent1' and the predication which may be #8true'2 and the attempt to unite these two conceptions is not persisted in#aja4 ,sidenote3 ,force and matter4 #ahi4 ,although the ,stoics aim consistently at the monistic standard1 they make frequent use of dualistic statements1 some of which we have already noticed4 ,the ,latin writers often contrast soul and body from the standpoint of ethics#ajb2 and we meet in all the ,stoic writers1 and often in unguarded language1 the favourite ,aristotelian dualism of force and matter1 or 7what comes to the same thing7 the active and passive principles4 #8,zeno' 7we are told7 #8laid down that there are two principles in the universe1 the active and the passive4 ,the passive is matter1 or essence without quality2 the active is the ,logos or deity within it#ajc4' ,so also ,cleanthes and ,chrysippus taught#ajd2 and in the ,roman period ,seneca regarded this as a well-understood dogma of the whole school#aje4 ,but even if direct evidence were lacking1 the whole bearing of the philosophy would shew that this dualism is also surmounted by an ultimate monism4 ,god and matter are alike body2 they cannot exist the one apart from the other#ajf4 ,of this ,cicero1 speaking for the ,stoics1 gives a proof2 matter could never have held together1 without some force to bind it2 nor force without matter#ajg4 ,we must not therefore be led by the term #8principles' 71 principia7 to think of force and matter in any other way than as two aspects of primary body1 separable as mental conceptions1 inseparable as physical realities4 ,the interpretation is essentially the same1 whether the ,stoics speak of ,god and the universe1 matter and cause1 body and tension1 or substance and quality1 and has been already discussed with some fulness under these separate headings4 ,sidenote3 ,the elements4 #aij4 ,the position of the four #8elements' 71 elementa7 is similar2 these are in the ,stoic philosophy subdivisions of the two principles just discussed4 ,for fire and air are of the nature of cause and movement2 water and earth of receptivity and passivity#ajh4 ,body is therefore made up of the four elements mixed#aji1 or perhaps rather of the elementary qualities of heat and cold1 dry and wet1 which they represent#aaj4 ,the doctrine of primary or elemental qualities had been taught before1 first by ,anaximenes1 then by ,hippocrates the physician1 and by ,aristotle#aaa2 the list of the four elements is traced back to ,empedocles4 ,for ,aristotle's #8fifth element' ,zeno found no use#aab4 ,sidenote3 ,conclusion4 #aia4 ,such are the fundamental conceptions or postulates with which the ,stoics approach the problems of physics4 ,it is not necessary for our purpose to compare their merit with those of ,aristotle1 or to set a value on the debt that ,zeno and his successors owed to the founder of the ,peripatetic school4 ,still less do we suggest that the ,stoics have perfectly analyzed the contents of the universe1 or have even produced an orderly and rounded scheme4 ,but at least it seems clear that their work shews intellectual power1 and that speculation is not necessarily less profound because it is pursued with a practical aim#aac4 ,the founders of the ,stoic philosophy had a wide reach2 they took all knowledge to be their province2 and they worked persistently towards the harmonization of all its parts4 ,,footnotes #a ,diog4 ,l4 vii #da4 #b ,arnim ii #db and #dd4 #c ,diog4 ,l4 vii #dj4 #d ,perhaps necessarily3 on the definition of monism1 see above1 #ce1 note #bb4 #e ,see above1 #adi1 #aec4 #f #8,zeno nullo modo arbitrabatur quicquam effici posse ab ea natura1 quae expers esset corporis 444 nec vero aut quod efficeret aliquid aut quod efficeretur1 posse esse non corpus' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #aa1 #ci2 #8cui tanta vis est1 ut inpellat et cogat et retineat et iubeat1 corpus est' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajf1 #i4 #g ,see above1 #fg4 #h #dc4 #i ,see above1 #aeg1 note #hd4 #aj ,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom4 ii p4 #dcf 7,arnim ii #cei72 ,plot4 ,enn4 ii #d1 #a 7,arnim ii #cbj74 in this sense is also called 1 see #ahb1 note #eb4 #aa 444 444 ,plut4 comm4 not4 #dh1 #b4 #ab #8vides autem tanto spiritum esse faciliorem omni alia materia1 quanto tenuior est' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ej1 #f4 #ac #8et hoc animus corpus est' ib4 #ajf1 #d4 #ad ,at4 plac4 i #aa1 #e2 #8placet nostris quod bonum est1 corpus esse' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aag1 #b2 #8quaeris1 bonum an corpus sit4 bonum facit1 prodest enim4 quod facit1 corpus est' ib4 #ajf1 #d4 #ae #8non puto te dubitaturum1 an adfectus corpora sint1 tanquam ira1 amor1 tristitia4 si dubitas1 vide an voltum nobis mutent1 an frontem adstringant1 an faciem diffundant1 an ruborem evocent1 an fugent sanguinem4 quid ergo8 tam manifestas notas corpori credis imprimi nisi a corpore8' ib4 #ajf1 #e4 #af #8dicimus non posse quicquam ab alio moveri1 nisi aliquid fuerit mobile ex semet' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #h2 #8is ardor1 qui est mundi1 non agitatus ab alio1 neque externo pulsu1 sed per se ipse ac sua sponte movetur' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #aa1 #ca4 #ag 444 1 7sc4 7 1 ,simpl4 ,arist4 cat4 p4 #gd2 #8tenorem1 qui rarescente materia a medio tendat ad summum1 eadem concrescente rursus a summo referatur ad medium' ,censorinus de die nat4 p4 #ge 7,zeller1 p4 #abh74 #ah ' ' ,ar4 ,did4 fr4 #be ,diels 7,arnim ii #ejc74 #ai 1 ,sext4 math4 x4 #c 7,arnim ii #eje72 ' 1 ,ar4 ,did4 7as note #ah74 #bj ,simpl4 ,arist4 cat4 p4 #hh l 7,arnim ii #eaj72 ,at4 plac4 i #bb1 #g4 #ba ' ' ,philo de mundi op4 #bf 7,arnim ii #eaa74 #bb ,the question is thus stated by ,seneca3 #8quaeramus continua sit omnis et plena materia 444 an diducta1 et solidis inane permixtum sit' ,sen4 ,dial4 viii #d1 #b2 and answered as follows #8nihil usquam inane est' ,n4 ,q4 iii #af1 #e4 ,cf4 ,arnim i #ie and ii #dbe4 #bc ,hipp4 ,phil4 #ba 7,arnim ii #dfi74 #bd #8animus ex inflammata anima constat1 ut potissimum videri video ,panaetio' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 i #ah1 #db4 ,the principle is however not carried out in the ,stoic universe1 in which the heat resides in the periphery1 and the central earth is cold4 #be ,eur4 fr4 #bia quoted by ,corn4 #ca 7,arnim i #ead72 1 ,stob4 ii #g1 #e b #d4 #bf ,epict4 ,fr4 #eg4 #bg ,see below1 #bij4 #bh 444 1 ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #g1 #d4 #bi 444 ,stob4 i #ag1 #c4 #cj ' 1 ' ,cornutus #ca4 #ca #8quid autem est1 quod magis credatur ex se ipso habere intentionem quam spiritus8' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #h4 #cb #8quid est illi animo motus nisi intentio8' ib4 ii #f1 #f2 #8quid cursus et motus omnis1 nonne intenti spiritus operae sunt8 hic facit vim nervis1 velocitatem currentibus' ib4 ii #f1 #d4 #cc ,simpl4 ,ar4 cat4 4 #cd 444 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #acf2 ib4 #acd4 #ce #8ratio materiam format et quocunque vult versat' ,sen4 ,ep4 #fe1 #b4 ,cf4 ,tert4 ,apol4 #ba4 #cf 1 ,proclus in ,parm4 iv #ace4 ,see further ,stein1 ,psychologie der ,stoa1 i p4 #di2 ,heinze1 ,lehre vom ,logos1 pp4 #ajg-abg4 #cg #8,the original impulse of providence gave the origin and first momentum to the cosmic ordering of things1 by selecting certain germs of future existences1 and assigning to them productive capacities of realisation1 change1 and phenomenal succession4' ,m4 ,aurelius1 ,to himself ix #a4 #ch #8ad initia deinde rerum redit sapientia aeternamque rationem sc4 toti inditam1 et vim omnium seminum sc4 singula proprie figurantem' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ij1 #bi4 ,see also the interpretation of the picture of ,samos1 #bed1 note #hc4 #ci 1 ' ,athen4 ,supp4 #f1 #g ,b 7,pearson ,z4 #de74 #dj ,see above1 #fg4 #da ,sen4 ,ep4 #fe1 #d to #f1 #aa and #ab4 #db ,see below1 ch4 ix4 #dc #8causarum enim1' inquit ,chrysippus1 #8aliae sunt perfectae et principales1 aliae adiuvantes et proximae' ,cic4 de ,fato #ah1 #da4 #dd ,see above1 #ff4 #de 444 ,simpl4 ,arist4 cat4 f #af 7,arnim ii #cfi74 #df ,plotinus ,ennead4 vi #a1 #cj 7,arnim ii #djj74 #dg ,simpl4 ,arist4 cat4 f #db 7,arnim ii #djc74 #dh ,for a fuller statement see ,zeller1 pp4 #ig-ajj4 #di ,see #ahc4 #ej ,for the position of #8things not existent' in the ,stoic system see further below1 #ahg4 #ea ' ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aej2 ,stob4 i #aa1 #e c4 #eb ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aej2 1 ,plot4 ,enn4 ii p4 #aad 7,arnim ii #cge74 #ec 1 ,dexipp4 ,arist4 cat4 p4 #bc1 #be 7,arnim ii #cgd74 #ed ,see ,plutarch1 comm4 not4 #ej1 #f4 #ee 1 ' ,dexippus ,arist4 cat4 p4 #bc1 #be 7,arnim ii #cgd74 #ef ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aej4 #eg ,simplic4 ,arist4 cat4 p4 #eg 7,arnim ii #cgh74 #eh 1 ,galen qual4 incorp4 #a xix1 p4 #dfc ,k 7,arnim ii #cgg74 #ei ,plut4 comm4 not4 #ej1 #a4 #fj see above1 note #ag ,simpl4 ,arist4 cat4 p4 #fh 7,arnim ii #deb74 #fa 1 ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #dc1 #d4 #fb ,alex4 ,aph4 ,arist4 ,top4 iv p4 #aha 7,arnim ii #cgi74 #fc ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #dc1 #b4 #fd ,zeller1 pp4 #ajc-ajg4 #fe #8pondus uti saxi1 calor ignis1 liquor aqua1 tactus corporibus cunctis' ,lucr4 ,r4 ,n4 i #ded1 #dee4 #ff #8servitium contra1 paupertas1 divitiaeque1 444 cetera quorum adventu manet incolumis natura abituque1 haec soliti sumus1 ut par est1 eventa vocare' ib4 #def-i4 #fg 1 ,dexipp4 ,arist4 cat4 p4 #cd1 #ai 7,arnim ii #cii74 #fh 1 ,plot4 ,enn4 vi #a1 #cj 7,arnim ii #djj74 #fi ' ,philo quod deus1 #ce 7,arnim ii #deh74 #gj ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #dc1 #b2 #8esse autem unitatem in aere vel ex hoc intellegi potest1 quod corpora nostra inter se cohaerent4 quid est enim aliud quod teneret illa1 quam spiritus8' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #f1 #f4 #ga 4 1 ,philo ,leg4 ,alleg4 ii #bb 7,arnim ii #deh74 #gb 4 ib4 #gc #8voluntas non erit recta1 nisi habitus animi rectus fuerit2 habitus porro animi non erit in optimo1 nisi totius vitae leges perceperit' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ie1 #eg4 #gd #8virtus autem nihil aliud est quam animus quodam modo se habens' ib4 #aac1 #b4 #ge #8,relative position' must be distinguished from #8correlation' 7 74 ,such terms as #8sweet' and #8bitter1' #8living' and #8dead' are said to be correlated4 ,simpl4 ,arist4 cat4 p4 #db 7,arnim ii #djc74 #gf ,simpl4 as in last note4 #gg ,see below1 #ccg4 #gh ,so ,ar4 ,did4 fr4 #bh1 and1 more exactly1 ,alex4 ,aph4 de mixt4 p4 #baf1 #ad ,br4 7,arnim ii #dgc74 ,another division is as follows3 #8quaedam continua esse corpora1 ut hominem2 quaedam esse composita1 ut navem2 quaedam ex distantibus1 tanquam exercitus1 populus1 senatus' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajb1 #f4 #gi 444 1 ,simpl4 ,arist4 phys4 p4 #ecj1 #i 7,arnim ii #dfg74 #hj ,arnim ii #daa and #dfg4 #ha ,alex4 ,aph4 de mixt4 p4 #baf1 #ad 7,arnim ii #dgc74 #hb #8,stoici enim volunt deum sic per materiam decucurrisse1 quomodo mel per favos' ,tertull4 adv4 ,hermog4 #dd2 and see below1 #bjg4 #hc ,note #b above4 #hd ,achill4 ,is4 #e1 p4 #abi 7,arnim ii #ebc74 #he ,see ,rendall1 ,m4 ,aurelius ,introd4 p4 xxix4 #hf ,xen4 ,mem4 iv #c1 #ac4 #hg ib4 i #a1 #aa4 #hh ,see below1 #aic4 #hi #8in rerum1 inquiunt1 natura quaedam sunt1 quaedam non sunt2 et haec autem1 quae non sunt1 rerum natura complectitur' ,sen4 ,ep4 #eh1 #ae4 #ij ,achill4 ,isag4 #e1 p4 #abi 7,arnim ii #ebc74 #ia ,sen4 as above4 #ib 1 ,sext4 math4 x #bah 7,arnim ii #cca74 #ic #8etiam nunc est aliquid superius quam corpus4 dicimus enim quaedam corporalia esse1 quaedam incorporalia1 quid ergo erit ex quo haec deducantur8 illud1 cui nomen modo parum proprium imposuimus1 8quod est0' ,sen4 ,ep4 #eh1 #aa4 #id 1 1 ,sext4 math4 viii #beh4 #ie 444 1 1 ,alex4 ,aphr4 ,arist4 ,top4 iv p4 #aee 7,arnim ii #cbi72 #8primum genus ,stoicis quibusdam videtur 8quid0' ,sen4 ,ep4 #eh1 #ae4 #if #8animalia sunt omnia1 quae cogitamus quaeque mente complectimur2 sequitur ut multa milia animalium habitent in his angustiis pectoris1 et singuli multa simus animalia4 non sunt1 inquit1 multa1 quia ex uno religata sunt et partes unius ac membra sunt' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aac1 #c and #i 7,seneca himself does not agree with this way of speaking74 #ig ' 444 ,sext4 math4 vii #ch 7,zeller1 p4 #abi74 #ih 1 ,ar4 ,did4 fr4 #dj 7,diels74 #ii ,sext4 math4 vii #bdf4 #ajj #8haec 444 quae animo succurrunt1 tanquam ,centauri1 gigantes1 et quicquid aliud falsa cogitatione formatum habere aliquam imaginem coepit1 quamvis non habeat substantiam' ,sen4 ,ep4 #eh1 #ae4 #aja 1 1 1 1 1 ,plut4 comm4 not4 #cj1 #ab4 #ajb ,see below1 #bhg4 #ajc 1 1 444 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #acd4 #ajd ib42 1 ,sext4 math4 ix #aa 7,arnim ii #cja74 #aje #8dicunt1 ut scis1 ,stoici nostri1 duo esse in rerum natura1 ex quibus omnia fiant1 causam et materiam4 materia iacet iners1 res ad omnia parata1 cessatura si nemo moveat2 causa autem1 id est ratio1 materiam format et quocunque vult versat' ,sen4 ,ep4 #fe1 #b2 #8universa ex materia et ex deo constant4 deus ista temperat1 quae circumfusa rectorem sequuntur4 potentius autem est ac pretiosius quod facit1 quod est deus1 quam materia patiens dei' ib4 #bc4 #ajf 1 1 ,syrianus ,arist4 met4 7,arnim ii #cjh74 #8,stoici naturam in duas partes dividunt1 unam quae efficiat1 alteram quae se ad faciendum tractabilem praebeat4 in illa prima esse vim sentiendi1 in hac materiam2 nec alterum sine altero esse posse' ,lact4 ,div4 inst4 vii #c4 #ajg #8neque enim materiam ipsam cohaerere potuisse1 si nulla vi contineretur1 neque vim sine ulla materia' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #f1 #bd4 #ajh ,arnim ii #dah2 #8e quibus elementis aer et ignis movendi vim habent et efficiendi2 reliquae partes accipiendi et quasi patiendi1 aquam dico et terram' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #g1 #bf4 #aji 1 ,justin de res4 #f 7,arnim ii #dad74 #aaj 1 ,galen const4 art4 med4 i p4 #bea ,k 7,arnim ii #dje74 #aaa ,galen meth4 med4 i #b1 ,x p4 #ae ,k 7,arnim ii #daa74 #aab ,see below1 #aif4 #aac ,cf4 ,mahaffy's ,greek ,life and ,thought2 #8it is quite wrong to suppose that these thinkers ,zeno and ,epicurus1 busy as they were with practical life1 despised or avoided speculation4 ,their philosophical theories demand hard reading and hard thinking' p4 #acg4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,universe4 ,sidenote3 ,study of the heavens4 #aib4 ,in including in their system the study of the physical universe the ,stoics broke daringly with ,socrates and his faithful followers the ,cynics4 ,these had joined with the ignorant and the prejudiced#a in ridiculing those whose eyes were always turned up towards the sky1 whilst they saw nothing of things that were nearer at hand and concerned them more closely4 ,but it was not for nothing that the most highly civilised nations of antiquity1 ,egyptians1 ,chaldaeans1 and ,babylonians1 had studied the starry heavens1 mapped out the constellations1 measured the paths of the wandering stars1 predicted eclipses1 reckoned with the tides1 the seasons1 and the winds2 with the result that their successors defied the common opinion by declaring the earth to be a sphere1 and to hold inhabitants whom they called ,antipodes1 because they walk with their feet turned up towards ours#b4 ,all this body of knowledge1 called generically the knowledge of the sky 7though it included the whole physical geography of the earth71 had impressed and fascinated the ,eastern world4 ,it seemed that as the eyes were raised to the sky1 so the mind of man was elevated and made ampler and nobler#c1 leaving behind it the petty contentions and rivalries of common life2 and further that true knowledge had surely been reached1 when the positions of the heavenly bodies and the eclipses of sun and moon could be predicted so long before with unfailing accuracy4 ,these feelings are now commonplaces of literature1 and were fully shared by the ,stoics4 #8,is not the sun1' says ,seneca1 #8worthy of our gaze1 the moon of our regard8 ,when the sky displays its fires at night1 and countless stars flash forth1 who is not absorbed in contemplation of them8 ,they glide past in their company1 concealing swift motion under the outward appearance of immobility4 ,we comprehend the movements of a few of them1 but the greater number are beyond our ken4 ,their dignity fills all our thoughts#d4' ,in the golden age which preceded our iron civilisation #8men lay at nights in the open fields1 and watched the glorious spectacle of the heavens4 ,it was their delight to note the stars that sank in one quarter and rose in another4 ,the universe swept round them1 performing its magnificent task in silence#e4' #8,their order never changes1 spring and autumn1 winter and summer succeed according to fixed laws#f4' ,and in the same tone writes the ,stoic poet3 #8unshaken the lights of heaven ever move onwards in their proper orbit#g4' ,the emotion roused in the ,stoic by the contemplation of the sky was thus identical with that expressed in ,judaic poetry by the #8,song of the ,three ,holy ,children#h1' and in more modern times by ,addison's famous hymn#i4 ,sidenote3 ,the world-order4 #aic4 ,the phenomena of earth and heaven combined1 in the general opinion of intelligent men1 to show the existence of a #8world-order' or #8universe#aj4' ,the ,stoics accepted this conception in their physics from ,heraclitus1 who had declared that #8neither god nor man created this world-order1' as in their ethics from ,diogenes1 the #8citizen of the universe#aa4' ,they therefore needed only to adjust an established notion to their own physical postulates4 ,we observe at once that the very conception of an ordered whole differentiates that whole from the absolute totality of all things4 ,the universe is indeed on the one hand identified with the substance of all things 7 71 but only as a thing made individual by the possession of quality 7 7#ab1 and necessarily one#ac4 ,it is self-created2 and it may therefore be identified with its creator1 the deity#ad2 it also includes all that is bodily#ae2 but outside there remains the boundless void#af4 ,it is therefore defined by ,chrysippus as #8the combination of heaven and earth and all natures that are in them1' or alternatively as #8the combination of gods and men and all that is created for their sake#ag4' ,sidenote3 ,its position4 #aid4 ,the ,stoic conception of the universe is therefore that of a continuous body1 having a definite outline1 and stationed in the boundless void4 ,that the universe has shape the ,stoics deduce from its having #8nature' 771 that is1 the principle of growth1 displayed in the symmetry of its parts#ah2 and its shape is the perfect shape of a sphere#ai4 ,within this sphere all things tend towards the middle#bj2 and we use the terms #8down' meaning #8towards the middle1' and #8up' meaning thereby from the middle#ba4 ,the ,peripatetics are therefore needlessly alarmed1 when they tell us that our universe will fall down1 if it stands in the void2 for1 first1 there is no #8up' or #8down' outside the universe2 and1 secondly1 the universe possesses #8unity' 77#bb which keeps it together#bc4 ,and here we see the folly of ,epicurus1 who says that the atoms move downwards from eternity in the boundless void2 for there is no such thing as #8downwards' in that which is unlimited#bd4 ,further1 the universe is divided into two parts1 the earth 7with the water and the air surrounding it7 which is stable in the middle1 and the sky or aether which revolves around it#be4 ,sidenote3 ,the heliocentric theory4 #aie4 ,thus early in their theory the ,stoics were led to make two assertions on questions of scientific fact1 in which they opposed the best scientific opinion of their own time4 ,for many authorities held that the earth revolved on its axis1 and that the revolution of the sky was only apparent4 ,such were ,,hicetas of ,syracuse#bf1 a ,pythagorean philosopher1 whose views were quoted with approval by ,theophrastus1 and later ,,ecphantus the ,pythagorean1 and ,,heraclides of ,pontus#bg4 ,from the point of view of astronomical science this view seemed well worthy of consideration1 as ,seneca in particular emphasizes#bh4 ,other astronomers had gone further1 declaring that the sun lay in the centre1 and that the earth and other planets revolved round it4 ,theophrastus stated that ,plato himself in his old age had felt regret that he had wrongly placed the earth in the centre of the universe2 and the heliocentric view was put forward tentatively by ,,aristarchus of ,samos1 and positively by the astronomer ,,seleucus1 in connexion with the theory of the earth's rotation#bi4 ,for this ,cleanthes had said that the ,greeks should have put ,aristarchus on trial for impiety1 as one who proposed to disturb #8the hearth of the universe#cj4' ,this outburst of persecuting zeal1 anticipating so remarkably the persecution of ,galileo1 was effective in preventing the spread of the novel doctrine4 ,posidonius was a great astronomer1 and recognised the heliocentric doctrine as theoretically possible#ca2 indeed1 as one who had himself constructed an orrery1 shewing the motion of all the planets#cb1 he must have been aware of its superior simplicity4 ,nevertheless he opposed it vigorously on theological grounds1 and perhaps more than any other man was responsible for its being pushed aside for some #aejj years#cc4 ,the precise ground of the objection is not made very clear to us1 and probably it was instinctive rather than reasoned4 ,it could hardly be deemed impious to place the sun1 whom the ,stoics acknowledged as a deity1 in the centre of the universe2 but that the earth should be reckoned merely as one of his attendant planets was humiliating to human self-esteem1 and jeopardised the doctrine of ,providence1 in accordance with which the universe was created for the happiness of gods and men only4 ,sidenote3 ,the elements4 #aif4 ,having determined that the earth is the centre of the universe1 and the sun above it1 the way is clear to incorporate in the system the doctrine of the four elements 71 naturae7#cd1 which probably had its origin in a cruder form of physical speculation than the doctrine of the heavenly bodies4 ,as we have seen above#ce1 the elements are not first principles of the ,stoic physics1 but hold an intermediate position between the two principles of the active and the passive on the one hand1 and the organic and inorganic world on the other4 ,earth is the lowest of the elements1 and also the grossest2 above it is placed water1 then air1 then fire2 and these are in constant interchange1 earth turning to water1 this into air1 and this into aether1 and so again in return4 ,by this interchange the unity of the universe is maintained#cf4 ,the transition from one element to the next is not abrupt1 but gradual2 the lowest part of the aether is akin to air#cg2 it is therefore of no great importance whether we speak with ,heraclitus of three elements1 or with ,empedocles of four4 ,the two grosser elements1 earth and water1 tend by nature downwards and are passive2 air and fire tend upwards and are active#ch4 ,zeno did not think it necessary to postulate a fifth element as the substance of soul1 for he held that fire was its substance#ci4 ,sidenote3 ,fire and breath4 #aig4 ,fire1 heat1 and motion are ultimately identical1 and are the source of all life#dj4 ,thus the elemental and primary fire stands in contrast with the fire of domestic use2 the one creates and nourishes1 the other destroys#da4 ,it follows that fire1 though it is one of the four elements1 has from its divine nature a primacy amongst the elements#db1 which corresponds to its lofty position in the universe#dc2 and the other elements in turn all contain some proportion of fire4 ,thus although air has cold and darkness as primary and essential qualities#dd1 nevertheless it cannot exist without some share of warmth#de4 ,hence air also may be associated with life1 and it is possible to retain the popular term #8spirit' 71 spiritus7 for the principle of life4 ,in the development of the ,stoic philosophy we seldom hear again of air in connexion with coldness2 and between the #8warm breath' 7anima inflammata7 and the primary fire there is hardly a distinction2 we may even say that #8spirit' has the highest possible tension#df4 ,sidenote3 ,god in the stone4 #aih4 ,air on its downward path changes to water4 ,this change is described as due to loss of heat#dg1 and yet water too has some heat and vitality#dh4 ,even earth1 the lowest and grossest of the elements1 contains a share of the divine heat2 otherwise it could not feed living plants and animals1 much less send up exhalations with which to feed the sun and stars#di4 ,thus we may say even of a stone that it has a part of the divinity in it#ej4 ,here then we see the reverse side of the so-called ,stoic materialism4 ,if it is true that ,god is body1 and that the soul is body1 it is equally true that even water1 the damp and cold element1 and earth1 the dry and cold element1 are both penetrated by the divinity1 by the creative fire without the operation of which both would fall in an instant into nothingness#ea4 ,sidenote3 ,the heavenly bodies4 #aii4 ,we return to the consideration of the heavenly bodies4 ,these are set in spheres of various diameter1 all alike revolving around the earth4 ,the succession we find described in ,plato's ,timaeus#eb2 the moon is nearest to the earth1 then comes the sun1 then in order ,venus1 ,mercury1 ,mars1 ,jupiter and ,saturn4 ,this theory was taken up by ,aristotle and after him by ,eudoxus1 from whom it passed to ,aratus and ,chrysippus#ec4 ,a tradition derived from ,chaldaean sources gave a different order1 setting ,venus and ,mercury nearer to the earth than the sun2 and this order was accepted by the middle ,stoics1 that is to say by ,panaetius and ,posidonius1 the latter placing ,venus nearer to the earth1 and therefore further from the sun1 than ,mercury#ed4 ,the moon1 like the earth1 obtains her light from the sun1 being crescent-shaped when nearest to him1 full-orbed when furthest away4 ,her distance from the earth is two million stadia 7#bej1jjj miles72 when she lies between the earth and the sun she eclipses his light1 but when she is on the side of the earth directly away from the sun she is herself eclipsed#ee4 ,her phases are explained by her position relative to the sun#ef4 ,the sun is #fj millions of miles from the earth#eg2 his diameter is #cg times as large as that of the earth#eh2 he appears larger when on the horizon because his rays are refracted through the thick atmosphere#ei4 ,the planets1 whether they revolve round the earth or the sun1 are falsely called #8wandering stars1' since their orbits have been fixed from all eternity#fj4 ,the fixed stars revolve round the earth at such a distance that the earth1 when compared with it1 is merely the central point#fa4 ,all the heavenly bodies are1 like the earth1 of spherical form#fb4 ,finally ,seneca1 in advance of the school1 declared the comets to be a regular part of the celestial world#fb;a4 ,sidenote3 ,cruder theories4 #bjj4 ,whilst the ,stoics generally were in sympathy with the best astronomical teaching of their time1 they combined with it many views based on much cruder forms of observation4 ,even ,seneca thinks it bold to suggest that the sun is not a little larger than the whole earth#fc2 and it is commonly held that not only the sun and moon1 but also the heavenly bodies generally1 feed upon moist exhalations from the ,ocean#fd4 ,cleanthes in particular seems to have viewed the astronomers with suspicion4 ,he alone regarded the moon not as a sphere1 but as a hemisphere with the flat side turned towards us#fe2 the stars he considered to be conical#ff4 ,these views1 very probably derived from ,heraclitus1 seem to point to the conception of the sky or aether as a single fixed fiery sphere1 in which the heavenly bodies only differ from the surrounding element by containing more closely packed masses of fiery matter#fg2 a conception which harmonizes far more closely with the ,stoic theory of the elements than the doctrines which are astronomically more correct4 ,cleanthes also explained that the sun could not venture to travel beyond his solstitial positions1 lest he should be out of reach of his terrestrial food#fh4 ,and ,cleanthes and ,posidonius agree that the sun keeps within the #8torrid zone' of the sky1 because beneath it flows the ,ocean1 from which the sun sucks up his nutriment#fi4 ,sidenote3 ,deity of the stars4 #bja4 ,from the relation of the heavenly bodies to the element of fire the ,stoics draw the conclusion that they are animated1 reasoning1 self-determined1 and divine2 in short1 that they are gods#gj4 ,this godhead pertains particularly to the sun#ga4 ,of this doctrine ,cleanthes is especially the upholder#gb1 deeming that the sun is the ruling power in the universe1 as reason in man#gc4 ,it is not clear whether the ,stoics derived their theory of the divinity of the heavenly bodies from logical deduction1 or whether they were here incorporating some ,eastern worship4 ,in favour of the latter point of view is the consideration that at this time the association of ,mithra with the sun was probably making some progress in the ,persian religion1 and that the popular names of the seven days of the week1 following the names of the sun1 moon1 and five planets1 must have been already current4 ,sidenote3 ,deity of the universe4 #bjb4 ,but in the ,stoic system this doctrine is overshadowed by the paradox that the universe itself is a rational animal1 possessed of free-will and divine4 ,this is the teaching of all the masters of the school1 beginning with ,zeno himself4 ,it appeared to him to follow logically from two principles1 the first that the universe possesses a unity1 the second that the whole is greater than its parts4 #8,there cannot be a sentient part of a non-sentient whole4 ,but the parts of the universe are sentient2 therefore the universe is sentient#gd4' #8,the rational is better than the non-rational4 ,but nothing is better than the universe2 therefore the universe is rational#ge4' #8,the universe is one#gf'2 we must not therefore think of it as of an army or a family1 which comes into a kind of existence merely through the juxtaposition of its members4 ,by the same reasoning the universe possesses divinity#gg4 ,upon this favourite ,stoic text is based the frequent assertion of modern commentators that the philosophy is pantheistic#gh2 but the more central position of ,stoicism is that the deity bears the same relation to the universe as a man's soul to his body#gi1 and the universe is therefore no more all divine than a man is all soul4 ,this view is expressed with great clearness by ,varro1 who says3 #8,as a man is called wise1 being wise in mind1 though he consists of mind and body2 so the world is called ,god from its soul1 though it consists of soul and body#hj4' ,the ,stoics are however in strong conflict with the ,epicureans and all philosophers who hold that the world is fundamentally all matter1 and that soul and mind are developments from matter4 #8,nothing that is without mind can generate that which possesses mind1' says ,cicero's ,stoic#ha1 in full opposition to modern popular theories of evolution4 ,further1 just as it may be questioned in the case of man whether the soul is situated in the head or in the heart1 so in the case of the universe we may doubt whether its soul1 or rather its #8principate1' is in the sun1 as ,cleanthes held#hb1 or in the sky generally1 as ,chrysippus and ,posidonius maintain#hc1 or in the aether1 as ,antipater of ,tyre taught#hd4 ,sidenote3 ,the earth's inhabitants4 #bjc4 ,in the study of the universe we are not called upon merely to consider the earth as a member of the celestial company2 we have to contemplate it as the home of beings of various ranks1 which also display to us the principle of orderly arrangement4 ,preminent amongst the inhabitants of the earth stands man1 who is distinguished by being the sole possessor of the faculty of reason1 and in addition owns all those capacities which are shewn in beings of lower rank4 ,the nature of man constitutes so large a part of philosophy that we must reserve its full consideration for a special chapter#he2 and must restrict ourselves here to treating of lower beings1 which fall into the three orders of animals1 plants1 and inanimate beings4 ,but since each of the higher orders possesses all the properties of every order that stands lower1 the study of the orders inferior to man is also the study of a large part of human nature4 ,the number and classification of these orders are not to be treated mechanically4 ,from one point of view gods and men form one class1 the rational1 as opposed to every kind of non-rational being4 ,on the other hand1 from the standpoint with which we are rather concerned at this moment1 gods1 men1 and animals are subdivisions of the order of animate beings1 below which stand the plants1 and lower still things without life4 ,animals1 as the name indicates1 possess life or soul2 the two lower orders possess something corresponding to soul1 but lower in degree4 ,the general term which includes soul in the animal and that which corresponds to it in the plants and in lifeless bodies is #8spirit' 772 soul therefore is the highest type of #8spirit4' ,sidenote3 ,the animals have not reason #bjd4 ,to the dumb animals the ,stoics consistently deny the faculty of reason2 and this position must have seemed to them self-evident1 since the same word ,logos expresses in the ,greek both reason and speech4 ,in the ,latin the point was no longer so clear2 still the words #8ratio' and #8oratio1' if not identical1 appeared to be connected by a natural association4 ,since the animals then are necessarily unreasoning1 those acts of animals which appear to show reason must be explained in some other way4 ,a dog pursues a wild animal by its scent2 it must therefore be admitted that in a way the dog recognises that #8this scent is the sign of the wild animal#hf'2 still he is incapable of expressing this belief in the form of a correct syllogism4 ,the industry of the ant is disposed of in a more summary way2 this animal shows a #8restless helplessness1' climbing up and down straws in meaningless industry2 many men however are no wiser#hg4 ,for their young the animals have a certain feeling1 yet their grief at losing them is comparatively short-lived#hh4 ,in spite1 however1 of these limitations the animal world is one part of the wonders of nature1 and is deserving of our admiration2 all animals have strong affection for their young so long as these need their protection#hi1 and the dog deserves special recognition both for his keen intelligence and for his loyalty towards his master#ij4 ,sidenote3 but a sort of reason4 #bje4 ,to define more accurately the nature of animals we must to some extent anticipate the discussion of human nature in a later chapter1 which follows the same general lines3 for in every point the animals are like men1 but inferior4 ,they possess soul1 but without reason#ia2 by soul we here mean the twin powers of observation and of independent movement#ib4 ,in a rough way the animals also possess a ruling part#ic4 ,their power of observation enables them to distinguish what is healthful to them from that which is injurious2 their power of movement shapes itself into pursuit of the healthful and avoidance of the injurious#id4 ,they possess also properties which resemble the human feelings1 such as anger1 confidence1 hope1 fear2 but they do not in a strict sense possess the same feelings as men#ie4 ,as they cannot attain to virtue1 neither can they fall into vice#if4 ,sidenote3 ,plant life4 #bjf4 ,from the animals we pass to the plants4 ,these seem to have soul1 because they live and die#ig2 yet they have not soul in any strict sense of the word4 ,it will therefore be better not to use this word1 but to speak of the #8growth-power' 77#ih4 ,the governing part is situated in the root#ii4 ,the growth of plants both in size and in strength is very remarkable1 inasmuch as little seeds1 which at first find themselves place in crevices1 attain such power that they split huge rocks and destroy noble monuments1 thus illustrating what is meant by tone or tension2 for it is a spirit which starts from the governing part 7the root7 and spreads to the trunk and branches1 conveying a force equally strong to construct and to destroy#ajj4 ,from another point of view we may say that the seed contains the ,logos or law of the fully developed plant1 for under no possible circumstances can any other plant grow from that seed except the plant of its kind#aja4 ,sidenote3 ,cohesion4 #bjg4 ,lowest in the scale come inanimate objects1 such as stones#ajb4 ,yet even these have a property which corresponds to soul1 and which keeps them together in a particular outward form or shape2 this property we call #8cohesion' 71 unitas7#ajc2 like soul itself1 it is a spirit pervading the whole#ajd1 and again it is the ,logos of the whole4 ,an external force cannot impart this unity3 so that the water contained in a glass is not an #8inanimate object' in this sense#aje4 ,in this lowest grade of #8spirit' we read in ,stoicism the antithesis of the materialism of ,epicurus1 who postulates for his #8atoms' the fundamental property of indivisibility1 and can only account for the coherence of the bodies formed from them by supplying them with an elaborate system of #8hooks and eyes1' which was a frequent subject of derision to his critics4 ,epicurus makes the indivisibility of the smallest thing his starting-point1 and from it constructs by degrees a compacted universe by arithmetical combination2 the ,stoics start from the indivisibility of the great whole1 and working downwards explain its parts by a gradual shedding of primitive force4 ,god is in fact in the stone by virtue of his power of universal penetration 7 ' 7#ajf4 ,sidenote3 ,gradations of spirit4 #bjh4 ,no existing thing can possess one of the higher grades of spirit without also possessing all the lower4 ,stones therefore have cohesion1 plants growth and cohesion1 animals soul growth and cohesion2 for these are not different qualities which can be combined by addition1 but appearances of the same fundamental quality in varying intensity4 ,man clearly possesses cohesion1 for he has an outward shape2 there does not however seem to be any part of him which has merely cohesion4 ,but in the bones1 the nails1 and the hair are found growth and cohesion only1 and these parts grow as the plants do4 ,in the eyes1 ears and nose1 are sensation1 as well as growth and cohesion2 that is1 there is soul in the sense in which the animals possess soul4 ,it is the intelligence only which in man possesses soul in the highest grade#ajg4 ,sidenote3 ,the conflagration4 #bji4 ,this universe1 in spite of its majesty1 beauty and adaptation1 in spite of its apparent equipoise and its essential divinity1 is destined to perish4 #8,where the parts are perishable1 so is the whole2 but the parts of the universe are perishable1 for they change one into another2 therefore the universe is perishable#ajh4' ,possibly this syllogism would not have appeared so cogent to the ,stoics1 had they not long before adopted from ,heraclitus the impressive belief in the final conflagration1 familiar to us from its description in the #8second epistle of ,peter#aji4' ,according to this theory1 the interchange of the elements already described#aaj is not evenly balanced1 but the upward movement is slightly in excess4 ,in the course of long ages1 therefore1 all the water will have been converted into air and fire1 and the universe will become hot with flame#aaa4 ,then the earth and all upon it will become exhausted for want of moisture1 and the heavenly bodies themselves will lose their vitality for want of the exhalations on which they feed4 ,rivers will cease to flow1 the earth will quake1 great cities will be swallowed up1 star will collide with star4 ,all living things will die1 and even the souls of the blest and the gods themselves will once more be absorbed in the fire1 which will thus regain its primitive and essential unity#aab4 ,yet we may not say that the universe dies1 for it does not suffer the separation of soul from body#aac4 ,sidenote3 ,is the universe perishable8 #baj4 ,in connexion with the doctrine of the conflagration the ,stoics were called upon to take sides upon the favourite philosophic problem whether the universe is perishable1 as ,democritus and ,epicurus hold1 or imperishable1 as the ,peripatetics say#aad4 ,in replying to this question1 as in the theory as a whole1 they relied on the authority of ,heraclitus#aae4 ,the word universe is used in two senses3 there is an eternal universe 7namely that already described as the universal substance made individual by the possession of quality#aaf71 which persists throughout an unending series of creations and conflagrations#aag4 ,in another sense the universe1 considered in relation to its present ordering1 is perishable#aah4 ,just in the same way the word #8city' is used in two senses2 and that which is a community of citizens may endure1 even though the collection of temples and houses also called the #8city' is destroyed by fire#aai4 ,sidenote3 ,dissentient ,stoics4 #baa4 ,the doctrine of the conflagration was not maintained by all ,stoic teachers with equal conviction4 ,zeno treated it with fulness in his book #8on the universe#abj'2 and ,cleanthes and ,chrysippus both assert that the whole universe is destined to change into fire1 returning to that from which1 as from a seed1 it has sprung#aba4 ,in the transition period1 owing to the positive influence of ,plato and ,aristotle1 and the critical acumen of ,carneades1 many leading ,stoics abandoned the theory#abb4 ,posidonius however1 though a pupil of ,panaetius 7the most conspicuous of the doubters#abc71 was quite orthodox on this subject2 though he pays to his master the tribute of asserting that the universe is the most permanent being imaginable#abd1 and that its existence will continue through an immense and almost unlimited period of time#abe4 ,in the ,roman period the conflagration is not only an accepted dogma1 but one that makes a strong appeal to the feelings4 ,for with the conflagration there comes to an end the struggle of the evil against the good2 and the ,deity may at last claim for himself a period of rest1 during which he will contemplate with calmness the history of the universe that has passed away#abf1 and plan for himself a better one to follow#abg4 ,sidenote3 ,the reconstruction4 #bab4 ,upon the conflagration will follow the reconstruction of the world 71 renovatio71 which will lead again to a conflagration2 the period between one conflagration and the next being termed a #8great year' 71 magnus annus74 ,the conception of the #8great year' was borrowed by the ,stoics from the ,pythagoreans#abh1 and leads us back ultimately to astronomical calculations2 for a great year is the period at the end of which sun1 moon and planets all return to their original stations#abi4 ,the phenomena of the sky recur in each new period in the same way as before2 and hence we readily infer that all the phenomena of the universe1 including the lives of individuals1 will recur and take their course again4 ,although this doctrine appears only slightly connected with the general ,stoic system1 it was an accepted part of it3 and ,seneca expresses an instinctive and probably universal feeling when he says that few would willingly repeat their past histories1 if they knew they were so doing#acj4 ,sidenote3 ,creation4 #bac4 ,we have put off till the end of this chapter the discussion of the ,stoic theory of ,creation1 because it is in fact one of the least defined parts of the system4 ,according to the theory of the great year creation is not a single work1 but a recurring event2 and therefore in one sense the history of the universe has neither beginning nor end4 ,it would however be a mistake to suppose that this point of view was always present to the minds of ,stoic teachers4 ,the question of the beginning of things is of primary importance to every philosophy1 and the ,stoics approached it from many points of view1 popular1 scientific1 mythological and theological1 and gave a number of answers accordingly4 ,to the orthodox ,stoic all these answers are ultimately one1 though the language in which they are expressed differs greatly2 whilst the critic of ,stoicism would assert that they are derived from different sources and are fundamentally irreconcileable4 ,seneca suggests four answers to the question #8,who made the universe8' ,it may be an omnipotent deity2 or the impersonal ,logos2 or the divine ,spirit working in all things by tension2 or 7lastly7 destiny1 that is1 the unalterable succession of cause and result#aca4 ,these answers we may examine in order4 ,sidenote3 ,the golden age4 #bad4 ,the view that #8,god made the world' is that of the theology which was now everywhere becoming popular2 and it is usually associated1 even when expounded by ,stoic teachers1 with dualistic views4 ,before the creation there existed a chaos1 matter without shape1 dark and damp#acb2 the ,deity formed a plan1 and brought life order and light into the mass3 from #8chaos' it became #8cosmos'#acc4 ,this deity is the same that is commonly named #acd or ,jove1 and is called the #8father of gods and men4' ,the universe so created was at first happy and innocent1 as is expressed in the tradition of the ,golden ,age4 ,men lived together in societies1 willingly obeying the wisest and strongest of their number#ace2 none were tempted to wrong their neighbours4 ,they dwelt in natural grottos or in the stems of trees1 and obtained nourishment from tame animals and wild fruits4 ,little by little they made progress in the arts1 and learnt to build1 to bake1 and to make use of metals4 ,these views were especially developed by ,posidonius1 who believed that in the ,mysians of his day1 who lived on milk and honey1 and abstained from flesh-meat1 he could still trace the manners of this happy epoch#acf4 ,it seems probable that it was from ,posidonius1 rather than from the ,pythagoreans1 that ,varro derived his picture of the ,golden ,age1 which has become familiar to us in turn through the version given by ,ovid in his ,metamorphoses#acg4 ,sidenote3 ,older stoic theory4 #bae4 ,these conceptions however are only familiar in the later forms of ,stoicism4 ,the teaching of the founders of ,stoicism is on this matter monistic1 and is based upon the teaching of ,heraclitus that the world was in the beginning a creative fire1 which was alike the creator and the material of creation4 ,the process of creation 77 may be regarded as identical with that of the mutation of the elements on the downward path#ach2 with the special note that when the stage of water is reached#aci the deity assumes the shape of the seed ,logos 7 7#adj1 and begets in the first instance the four elements#ada2 then1 from a combination of these1 trees and animals and all other things after their kind#adb4 ,yet even this statement is simplified if we regard the original fire as itself containing the seed ,logoi of all things that are to be created#adc4 ,to this is to be added that all this is well ordered1 as in a duly constituted state#add4 ,from this point of view the ,cosmos is a ,cosmopolis1 and we reach the border of the investigations which deal with the moral government of the universe1 and the political organization of mankind4 ,sidenote3 ,summary4 #baf4 ,we may sum up the history of the universe according to the ,stoics somewhat in the following way4 ,body is neither burden on the soul nor its instrument1 but all body is of itself instinct with motion1 warmth1 and life1 which are essentially the same4 ,this motion is not entirely that of contraction1 or immobility would result2 nor entirely that of expansion1 else the universe would be scattered into the far distance#ade4 ,one of these motions constantly succeeds the other1 as ,heraclitus says #8becoming extinguished by measure1 and catching light by measure#adf'2 as when a swimmer with all his strength can just hold his own against the force of the stream1 or a bird straining its pinions appears to rest suspended in the air#adg4 ,at the beginning of each world-period expansion or tension is supreme1 and only the world-soul exists4 ,next the fiery breath begins to cool1 the opposing principle of contraction asserts itself1 the universe settles down and shrinks2 the aether passes into air1 and air in its turn to water4 ,all this while tension is slackening1 first in the centre1 lastly even in the circumference2 yet the vital force is not entirely quenched2 beneath the covering of the waters lurks the promise of a new world4 ,the fire still unextinguished within works upon the watery mass or chaos until it evolves from it the four elements as we know them4 ,on its outer edge where it meets the expansive aether1 the water rarefies until the belt of air is formed4 ,all the while the outward and inward movements persist2 particles of fire still pass into air1 and thence into water and earth4 ,earth still in turn yields to water1 water to air1 and air to fire 7 74 ,thus by the interaction of conflicting tendencies an equilibrium 77 is established1 and the result is the apparent permanence of the phenomenal world#adh4 ,finally the upward movement becomes slightly preponderant1 water becomes absorbed in air and air transformed into fire1 once more the conflagration results and all the world passes into the fiery breath from which it came#adi4 ,,footnotes #a ,as1 for instance1 ,aristophanes in the ,clouds4 #b #8vos etiam dicitis esse e regione nobis1 e contraria parte terrae1 qui adversis vestigiis stent contra nostra vestigia1 quos ,antipodas vocatis' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #ci1 #abc4 #c #8cum tu1 inter scabiem tantam et contagia lucri1 nil parvum sapias et adhuc sublimia cures2 quae mare compescant causae2 quid temperet annum2 stellae sponte sua iussaene vagentur et errent' ,hor4 ,ep4 i #ab1 #ad-ag4 #d ,sen4 ,ben4 iv #bc1 #b to #d4 #e #8in aperto iacentes sidera superlabebantur et insigne spectaculum noctium4 mundus in praeceps agebatur silentio tantum opus ducens 444 libebat intueri signa ex media caeli parte vergentia1 rursus ex occulto alia surgentia' ,ep4 #ij1 #db4 #f #8vides ordinem rerum et naturam per constituta procedere4 hiems nunquam aberravit4 aestas suo tempore incaluit4 autumni verisque1 ut solet1 facta mutatio est4 tam solstitium quam aequinoctium suos dies rettulit' ,n4 ,q4 iii #af1 #c4 #g #8caelestia semper inconcussa suo volvuntur sidera lapsu' ,lucan ,phars4 ii #bfg1 #h4 #h #8,o all ye ,works of the ,lord1 bless ye the ,lord2 praise and exalt him above all for ever' ,daniel iii #eg to #hb4 #i #8,the spacious firmament on high1 with all the blue ethereal sky1 and spangled heavens1 a shining frame1 their great ,original proclaim1' etc4 ,j4 ,addison 7#agbh74 #aj ,see above1 #ahf4 #aa ,see below1 #cjc4 #ab ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ach4 #ac ' ib4 #adc4 #ad ,stob4 i #ba1 #e4 #ae 1 ,at4 plac4 i #e1 #a4 #af ,see #ahg1 note #ij2 ,seneca however thinks there may be more outside the universe than void2 #8illud scrutor1 quod ultra mundum iacet1 utrumne profunda vastitas sit an et hoc ipsum terminis suis cludatur2 qualis sit habitus exclusis' ,dial4 viii #e1 #f4 #ag ,ar4 ,did4 fr4 #ca4 #ah ,arnim ii #ecd4 #ai ,arnim ii #edg4 #bj 1 1 1 1 ,achilles ,isag4 #i 7,arnim ii #eed74 ,but according to another view only earth and water1 being naturally heavy1 tend towards the middle2 whereas air and fire1 being naturally light1 tend from it2 ib4 #d 7,arnim ii #eee74 ,see #aif4 #ba ,arnim ii #eeg4 #bb ,see above1 #ahd4 #bc ,arnim ii #edj4 ,the universe1 being #8body1' possesses #8up' and #8down1' #8front' and #8back1' and all the other relations1 according to the fourth category4 #bd ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #dd1 #a4 #be ,ar4 ,did4 fr4 #ca1 quoting from ,chrysippus4 ,so ,cornutus #a2 4 #bf #8,hicetas ,syracosius caelum solem lunam stellas supera denique omnia stare censet neque praeter terram rem ullam in mundo moveri1 quae cum circum axem se summa celeritate convertat et torqueat1 eadem effici omnia1 quae si stante terra caelum moveretur' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #ci1 #abc1 on which see ,prof4 ,reid's note4 #bg ,plut4 plac4 phil4 iii #ac1 #c4 ,the question of priority in the statement of this theory has been much discussed in recent years2 and it is contended that ,hicetas and ,ecphantus never existed except as characters in dialogues composed by ,heraclides of ,pontus1 the true discoverer4 ,see ,h4 ,steigmller1 ,archiv der ,geschichte der ,philosophie1 ,berlin #ahib2 ,otto ,voss1 de ,heraclidis ,pontici vita et scriptis1 ,rostock1 #ahif2 ,tannery1 ,pseudonymes antiques 7,revue des tudes grecques1 #ahig74 #bh #8pertinebit hoc excussisse1 ut sciamus utrum mundus terra stante circumeat an mundo stante terra vertatur4 fuerunt enim qui dicerent nos esse1 quos rerum natura nescientes ferat' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 vii #b1 #c4 ,seneca however appears for himself to reject the doctrine3 #8scimus praeter terram nihil stare1 cetera continua velocitate decurrere' ,ep4 #ic1 #i4 #bi ,plut4 qu4 ,plat4 viii #a1 #b and #c2 ,at4 plac4 ii #bd1 #h and iii #ag1 #i4 #cj ,plut4 fac4 lun4 #f1 #c4 #ca ,simplic4 ,arist4 phys4 p4 #fd4 #cb #8si in ,scythiam aut in ,britanniam sphaeram aliquis tulerit hanc1 quam nuper familiaris noster effecit ,posidonius1 cuius singulae conversiones idem efficiunt in sole et in luna et in quinque stellis errantibus1 quod efficitur in caelo singulis diebus et noctibus' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #cd1 #hh4 #cc ,schmekel1 p4 #dfe4 #cd #8in rerum natura elementa sunt quattuor' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 iii #ab1 #c4 #ce ,see above1 #aij4 #cf #8ex terra aqua1 ex aqua oritur aer1 ex aere aether2 deinde retrorsum vicissim ex aethere aer1 ex aere aqua1 ex aqua terra infima4 sic naturis his1 ex quibus omnia constant1 sursum deorsum ultro citro commeantibus1 mundi partium coniunctio continetur' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #cb1 #hd4 #cg #8necesse est ut et imus aether habeat aliquid aeri simile1 et summus aer non sit dissimilis imo aetheri1 quia non fit statim in diversum ex diverso transitus2 paulatim ista in confinio vim suam miscent1 ut dubitare possis an aer an hic iam aether sit' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #ad1 #b2 cf4 iv #aj4 #ch ,arnim ii #eee4 ,but see above1 #aid1 note #bj4 #ci #8de naturis autem sic ,zeno sentiebat1 ut in quattuor initiis rerum illis quintam hanc naturam1 ex qua superiores sensum et mentem effici rebantur1 non adhiberet3 statuebat enim ignem esse ipsam naturam quae quidque gigneret1 etiam mentem atque sensus4' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #aa1 #ci2 cf4 ,fin4 iv #e1 #ab4 #dj #8sic enim se res habet1 ut omnia quae alantur et crescant1 contineant in se vim caloris3 sine qua neque ali possent neque crescere4' ,n4 ,d4 ii #i1 #bc and #bd2 #8caloris natura vim habet in se vitalem1 per omnem mundum pertinentem' ib4 #da #8hic noster ignis1 quem usus vitae requirit1 confector est et consumptor omnium2 contra ille corporeus vitalis et salutaris omnia conservat alit auget sustinet sensuque afficit' ib4 ii #ae1 #da4 ,cicero is quoting from ,cleanthes 7fr4 #cj ,p72 the teaching of ,zeno was the same 7fr4 #ga ,b74 #db ' ,ar4 ,did4 fr4 #ba2 #8,stoici ignem1 444 unum ex his quattuor elementis1 et viventem et sapientem et ipsius mundi fabricatorem 4441 eumque omnino ignem deum esse putaverunt' ,aug4 ,civ4 ,de4 viii #e4 #dc #8ignem natura sursum vocat2 in illo igne purissimo nihil est quod deprimatur' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #ac1 #a and #b4 #dd ,plut4 prim4 frig4 #i1 #a2 #8aer frigidus per se et obscurus' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #aj4 #de #8ipse vero aer1 qui natura est maxime frigidus1 minime est expers caloris' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #aj1 #bf2 #8aer nunquam sine igne est4 detrahe illi calorem2 rigescet1 stabit1 durabitur' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 iii #aj1 #d4 #df #8quid autem est1 quod magis credatur ex se ipso habere intentionem quam spiritus8' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #h4 ,aristotle held that air was warm 7,arnim ii #dca74 #dg #8detrahe aeri calorem2 transiet in humorem' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 iii #aj1 #d4 #dh #8est aliquid in aqua vitale' ib4 v #e1 #b4 #di #8non esse terram sine spiritu palam est 444 illo dico vitali et vegeto et alente omnia4 hunc nisi haberet1 quomodo tot arbustis spiritum infunderet non aliunde viventibus1 et tot satis8444 totum hoc caelum1 444 omnes hae stellae 4441 hic tam prope a nobis agens cursum sol 444 alimentum ex terra trahunt' ib4 vi #af1 #a and #b4 #ej ,philod4 de ira p4 #gg ,gomp4 #ea #8ex quo concluditur1 calidum illud atque igneum in omni fusum esse natura' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #aj1 #bh4 #eb cap4 xi1 p4 #ch ,d4 #ec ,schmekel1 pp4 #dfc1 #d4 #ed ib4 p4 #dfd4 #ee ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ade and #adf2 ,posidonius is his general authority1 but the theory of the solar eclipse he refers to ,zeno4 #ef #8lunae tenuissimum lumen facit proximus accessus ad solem1 digressus autem longissimus quisque plenissimum' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #ai1 #ej4 #eg ,pliny1 ,nat4 hist4 ii #ba4 #eh ,such was the calculation of ,posidonius2 see ,mayor's note on ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #cf1 #ib4 ,the sun's diameter is in fact three times as large as ,posidonius thought4 #ei ,this explanation has so plausible a sound that it may not be superfluous to remark that it is scientifically valueless4 #fj ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #bj1 #ea4 #fa #8persuadent enim mathematici terram in medio mundo sitam ad universi caeli complexum quasi puncti instar obtinere1 quod illi vocant4' ,tusc4 disp4 i #ag1 #dj4 #fb ,diog4 ,l4 vii #add and #ade4 #fb;a #8ego nostris non adsentior2 non enim existimo cometen subitaneum ignem sed inter aeterna opera naturae' ,n4 ,q4 vii #ba1 #a4 #fc #8omni terrarum ambitu non semel maior' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 vi #af1 #b4 #fd ,at4 plac4 ii #ag1 #d2 #8sidera marinis terrenisque umoribus longo intervallo extenuatis aluntur' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #af1 #dc2 #8totum hoc caelum 444 halitu terrarum sustinetur' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 vi #af1 #b4 #fe ,ar4 ,did4 fr4 #cd2 for the text and interpretation see ,hirzel1 pp4 #aba1 #abb4 #ff ,at4 plac4 ii #ad1 #a and #b4 #fg #8solem quoque animantem esse oportet1 et quidem reliqua astra1 quae oriantur in ardore caelesti1 qui aether vel caelum nominatur' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #ae1 #da4 #fh ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 iii #ad1 #cg4 #fi #8ideo enim1 sicut et ,posidonius et ,cleanthes adfirmant1 solis meatus a plaga1 quae usta dicitur1 non recedit1 quia sub ipsa currit ,oceanus' ,macrob4 ,sat4 i #bc1 #b4 #gj #8hac mundi divinitate perspecta tribuenda est sideribus eadem divinitas1 quae ex mobilissima purissimaque aetheris parte gignuntur2 444 totaque sunt calida atque perlucida1 ut ea quoque rectissime animantia esse et sentire atque intellegere dicantur' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #ae1 #ci4 #ga ,sen4 ,ben4 vii #ca1 #c4 #gb #8,cleanthes 444 solem dominari et rerum potiri putat' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #da1 #abf4 #gc ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aci4 #gd #8idemque ,zeno hoc modo3 8nullius sensu carentis pars aliqua potest esse sentiens4 mundi autem partes sentientes sunt3 non igitur caret sensu mundus0' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #h1 #bb4 #ge #8quod ratione utitur1 id melius est quam id1 quod ratione non utitur4 nihil autem mundo melius3 ratione igitur mundus utitur' ib4 #h1 #ba2 see also #hc4 #gf ,diog4 ,l4 vii #adc2 #8haec ita fieri omnibus inter se concinentibus mundi partibus profecto non possent1 nisi ea uno divino et continuato spiritu continerentur' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #g1 #ai4 ,this unity of the universe is technically termed 1 #8consentiens conspirans continuata cognatio rerum' 7,cic4 as above74 ,it was denied by ,panaetius 7,schmekel1 pp4 #aia1 #aib74 #gg #8est ergo in eo virtus3 sapiens est igitur et propterea deus' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #ad1 #ci2 #8quid est autem1 cur non existimes in eo divini aliquid existere1 qui dei pars est8 totum hoc1 quo continemur1 et unum est et deus2 et socii sumus eius et membra' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ib1 #cj4 #gh #8,from what has been said it follows that the ,stoics admitted no essential difference between ,god and the world4 ,their system was therefore strictly pantheistic' ,zeller1 p4 #aef4 #gi 1 1 ,cornutus #b4 #hj ,varro ,fr4 i #bg b 7,aug4 ,civ4 ,de4 vii #f74 #ha #8nihil quod animi quodque rationis est expers1 id generare ex se potest animantem compotemque rationis' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #h1 #bb4 #hb ,see above1 #aja4 #hc ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aci4 #hd ib4 #he ,see below1 chap4 xi4 #hf ,sext4 math4 viii #bgj 7,arnim ii #gbg74 #hg #8inconsultus illis vanusque cursus est1 qualis formicis per arbusta repentibus1 quae in summum cacumen1 deinde in imum inanes aguntur4 his plerique similem vitam agunt1 quorum non immerito quis 8inquietam inertiam0 dixerit' ,sen4 ,dial4 ix #ab1 #c4 #hh ib4 vi #g1 #b4 #hi #8quid dicam1 quantus amor bestiarum sit in educandis custodiendisque eis1 quae procreaverunt1 usque ad eum finem1 dum possint se ipsa defendere8' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #ea1 #abi4 #ij #8canum vero tam fida custodia1 444 quid significat8' ib4 #fc1 #aeh4 #ia 1 ,plut4 virt4 mor4 #ab4 #ib ,galen adv4 ,iul4 v 7,arnim ii #gah74 #ic #8omnem naturam necesse est 444 habere aliquem in se principatum1 ut in homine mentem1 in belua quiddam simile mentis' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #aa1 #bi2 #8ipsum principale parum subtile1 parum exactum4 capit ergo visus speciesque rerum quibus ad impetus evocetur1 sed turbidas et confusas' ,sen4 ,dial4 iii #c1 #g and #h4 #id #8bestiis natura et sensum et motum dedit1 et cum quodam appetitu accessum ad res salutares1 a pestiferis recessum' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #ab1 #cd2 and so again1 ib4 #dg1 #abb4 #ie #8irasci quidem non magis sciunt quam ignoscere2 muta animalia humanis adfectibus carent1 habent autem similes illis quosdam impetus' ,sen4 ,dial4 iii #c1 #e and #f4 #if #8ira1 cum sit inimica rationi1 nusquam nascitur1 nisi ubi rationi locus est' ib4 #c1 #d4 #ig #8sunt quaedam quae animam habent nec sunt animalia4 placet enim satis et arbustis animam inesse2 itaque et vivere illa et mori dicimus' ,sen4 ,ep4 #eh1 #aj2 cf4 ,n4 ,q4 vi #af1 #a4 #ih 1 ,galen de ,hipp4 et ,plut4 vi4 #efa ,k 7,arnim ii #gaj74 ,aristotle had used the term in the same sense4 ,so too ,cicero3 #8iis quae gignuntur e terra natura nihil tribuit amplius quam ut ea alendo atque augendo tueretur' ,n4 ,d4 ii #ab1 #cc4 #ii ib4 ii #aa1 #bi4 #ajj #8parvula admodum semina 444 in tantum convalescunt ut ingentia saxa disturbent et monumenta dissolvant4 hoc quid est aliud quam intentio spiritus8' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #f1 #e2 and again #8quid aliud producit fruges et segetem imbecillam ac virentes exigit umbras ac distendit in ramos quam spiritus intentio et unitas8' ib4 ii #f1 #f4 ,see also ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #cb1 #ha4 #aja ,arnim ii #gac4 #ajb #8quaedam anima carent1 ut saxa2 itaque erit aliquid animantibus antiquius1 corpus scilicet' ,sen4 ,ep4 #eh1 #aj4 #ajc ,this use of must be kept distinct from that which is contrasted with 1 as habitus from dispositio3 see above1 #ahd4 #ajd ,galen introd4 s4 med4 xiv p4 #gbf ,k 7,arnim ii #gaf74 #aje #8unitas corporum ad naturam corporis refert1 nulla ope externa1 sed unitate sua cohaerentis' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #b1 #d4 #ajf ,alex4 de mixt4 p4 #bbf1 #bd-cj ,bruns 7,arnim ii #ajdh72 ,lucian ,hermot4 #ha4 ,see above1 #ahf4 #ajg ,this gradation of soul-power is most clearly explained by ,varro2 #8idem ,varro tres esse adfirmat animae gradus in omni universaque natura2 unum qui omnes partes corporis1 quae vivunt1 transit et non habet sensum sed tantum ad vivendum valetudinem2 hanc vim in nostro corpore permanare dicit in ossa ungues capillos1 sicut in mundo arbores sine sensu 444 crescunt et modo quodam suo vivunt2 secundum gradum animae1 in quo sensus est2 hanc vim pervenire in oculos aures nares os tactum2 tertium gradum esse animae summum1 quod vocatur animus1 in quo intellegentia praeminet2 hoc praeter hominem omnes carere mortales' ,aug4 ,civ4 ,de4 vii #bc4 #ajh ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ada4 #aji #8,the heavens shall pass away with a great noise1 and the elements shall be dissolved with fervent heat1 and the earth and the works that are therein shall be burned up4' #b ,peter iii #aj4 #aaj ,see above1 #aif4 #aaa ,the theory of the conflagration appears to have been attached to the ,stoic system from without1 and the logical contention is obviously weak4 ,for if the upward movement is in excess1 the earth should disappear before the water4 ,it should also always be remembered that the fire that finally remains is not the destructive1 but a constructive element4 #aab #8ex quo eventurum nostri putant id1 444 ut ad extremum omnis mundus ignesceret1 cum humore consumpto neque terra ali posset neque remearet aer2 cuius ortus1 aqua omni exhausta1 esse non posset3 ita relinqui nihil praeter ignem1 a quo rursum animante ac deo renovatio mundi fieret1 atque idem ornatus oriretur' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #df1 #aah4 #8cum tempus advenerit1 quo se mundus renovaturus extinguat1 viribus ista se suis caedent et sidera sideribus incurrent et omni flagrante materia uno igne quicquid nunc ex disposito lucet ardebit4 nos quoque felices animae atque aeterna sortitae1 parva ruinae ingentis accessio1 in antiqua elementa vertemur' ,sen4 ,dial4 vi #bf1 #f4 #aac ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #ci1 #b4 #aad #8quaeramus immortalis sit mundus1 an inter caduca et ad tempus nata numerandus' ,sen4 ,dial4 viii #d1 #ca4 #aae #8,heraclitus after all his speculations on the conflagration of the universe' ,to himself 7,rendall's transl471 iii #c4 ,aristotle interpreted ,heraclitus in the same way2 thus he paraphrases fr4 #bf 7,b71 #ff 7,d72 as follows3 ,met4 xi #aj4 #aaf ,see above1 #aic4 #aag ,clem4 ,al4 ,strom4 v #ad 7,arnim ii #eij7 relying on fr4 #bj 7,b71 #cj 7,d74 ,philo inc4 mund4 p4 #bbb1 #b 7,arnim ii #fbj74 #aah ,clem4 ,al4 as before1 relying on fr4 #ba 7,b71 #ca;a 7,d72 1 ,philo as above4 #aai ,ar4 ,did4 fr4 #bi4 #abj ,diog4 ,l4 vii #adb4 #aba ,ar4 ,did4 fr4 #cf4 #abb ,see above1 #aji4 #abc ,see above1 #aae4 ,for a full discussion of the motives of this change see ,schmekel1 pp4 #cjd-cah4 #abd #8ita stabilis mundus est atque ita cohaeret ad permanendum1 ut nihil ne excogitari quidem possit aptius' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #de1 #aae4 #abe #8mundi partium coniunctio certe perdiuturna est1 permanens ad longinquum et immensum paene tempus' ib4 #cc1 #he4 #abf #8,iuppiter1 resoluto mundo et dis in unum confusis paulisper cessante natura adquiescit sibi1 cogitationibus suis traditus' ,sen4 ,ep4 #i1 #af4 ,on the relation of to the see ,alex4 de mixt4 p4 #bbf1 #af ,b2 ,philo inc4 mund4 c4 #ad1 #ae4 #abg #8conflagratio fit1 cum deo visum ordiri meliora1 vetera finiri' ,n4 ,q4 iii #bh1 #g4 #abh ,zeller1 p4 #aff4 #abi ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #bj1 #ea3 see also ,schmekel1 p4 #bda4 #acj #8veniet iterum1 qui nos in lucem reponat dies2 quem multi recusarent1 nisi oblitos reduceret' ,sen4 ,ep4 #cf1 #aj4 ,socrates and ,plato will live again1 their friends and fellow citizens will be the same1 and they will be again treated as before2 ,nemes4 nat4 hom4 p4 #bgg 7,arnim ii #fbe74 ,this theory is plainly not reconcileable with ,seneca's hope of better things 7see note #abg74 ,see also ,hicks1 ,stoic and ,epicurean1 pp4 #cc sqq4 #aca #8quisquis formator universi fuit1 sive ille deus est potens omnium1 sive incorporalis ratio ingentium operum artifex1 sive divinus spiritus per omnia maxima et minima aequali intentione diffusus1 sive fatum et immutabilis causarum inter se cohaerentium series' ,sen4 ,dial4 xii #h1 #c4 #acb ,this chaos the ,stoics identified with the watery stage which preceded the creation of earth in the history of the elements3 see ,pearson on ,zeno fr4 #aab1 #aac4 #acc ,seneca's writings are penetrated with this conception3 #8hoc universum 444 dies aliquis dissipabit et in confusionem veterem tenebrasque demerget' ,dial4 xi #a1 #b2 cf4 ,ep4 #fe1 #ai4 #acd ' 1 ' ,cornutus #b4 #ace #8illo ergo saeculo1 quod aureum perhibent1 penes sapientes fuisse regnum ,posidonius iudicat' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ij1 #e4 #acf ,strabo vii #bif4 ,see generally ,schmekel1 pp4 #bhh-bij4 #acg ,ov4 ,met4 xv #if-adb2 ,schmekel p4 #bhh4 #ach ' ' ' ,diog4 ,l4 vii #acf4 #aci ,this stage1 at which the whole universe is water1 even though the four elements have not yet been created1 reflects the popular tradition as to ,chaos as in the last section3 see ,pearson p4 #ajb4 ,for the process of creation as described by ,cleanthes see ,pearson p4 #beb4 #adj ,see above1 #agh4 #ada 1 1 444 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #acf4 #adb ib4 #adb4 #adc 1 ,arist4 apud ,euseb4 praep4 ev4 xv 7,arnim i #ih74 #add 1 ib4 #ade ,galen de trem4 #f ,,vii1 p4 #faf ,k 7,arnim ii #ddf74 #adf ,heracl4 ,fr4 #bj 7,b71 #cj 7,d74 #adg ,galen de musc4 i #g and #h 7,arnim ii #dej74 #adh 1 ,philo an4 sac4 ,,ii #bdb ,m 7,arnim ii #faf74 #adi ,this concluding section is based upon a note1 which was prepared by ,mr ,a4 ,c4 ,pearson for an edition of ,chrysippus now abandoned1 and which has been kindly placed by him at my disposal4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,supreme ,,problems4 ,sidenote3 ,the #8mauvais pas4' #bag4 ,in the preceding chapter we have discussed the universe from the scientific standpoint4 #8,such1' say the ,stoics1 #8we find that the universe is2 such and such it was in the beginning1 and such it will be to the end4' ,their conclusions are reached by observation1 classification1 and analysis2 and yet not entirely by these1 for we must admit that there is also employed that power of scientific imagination which the ancients call #8divination4' ,still on the whole the investigation has been that of the student1 and the method that of speculation or contemplation dissociated from any consideration of the usefulness of the results attained4 ,in the study we now undertake all this is changed4 ,our philosophy proceeds to assert that the universe is good1 that it is directed by wise purpose1 and that it claims the reverence and obedience of mankind4 ,it calls upon its adherents to view the world with moral approval1 and to find in it an ethical standard4 ,such conclusions cannot be reached by purely discursive reason2 but they are such as are everywhere sought by practical men4 ,they appeal to a side of human nature different from that which passes judgment on the conclusions previously reached4 ,from the first position #8the universe is' to the second #8the universe is good' the step is slippery4 ,we are on the dizzy heights of philosophical speculation1 where the most experienced climbers find their way they know not how1 and can hardly hold out a hand to help those who are in distress4 ,the ,stoic teachers did not perhaps always follow the same track1 and now and again they stumbled on the way4 ,reasoning often proved a weak support1 but resolution carried them through somehow to the refuges on which their eyes were all along set4 ,sidenote3 ,fate1 providence1 and fortune4 #bah4 ,to the problem of the meaning and government of the universe three answers were current in the epoch with which we are dealing4 ,either all things take place by fate2 or the world is ruled by a divine providence2 or else fortune is supreme#a4 ,these three terms are not always mutually exclusive3 ,virgil speaks commonly of the #8fates of the gods#b'2 and #8fortune' is frequently personified1 not only in common speech1 as when the ,romans spoke of the #8fortune of the city1' but even by a philosopher like ,lucretius1 who speaks of #8,fortune the pilot#c1' with a half-humorous abandonment of exactitude4 ,the ,stoics have the merit of not only recognising fully these three powers1 but also of using the terms with relative consistency4 ,by fate then we mean an abstract necessity1 an impersonal tendency1 according to which events flow2 by providence a personal will2 by fortune the absence of both tendency and purpose1 which results in a constant shifting to and fro1 as when a man stands upon a ball1 and is carried this way and that#d4 ,all explanations1 both of general tendencies and of particular events1 must ultimately resolve themselves into one or other of these three2 every constructive system must necessarily aim at shewing that the three ultimately coincide1 and that philosophy is the guardian and guide of mankind in the understanding of their relations one to another#e4 ,sidenote3 ,fate4 #bai4 ,the ,stoics hold that #8all things happen by fate#f4' ,to this conclusion they are brought by the same reasoning that moved the ,chaldaeans4 ,the visible universe is1 and has motion4 ,the heavenly bodies move incessantly in their orbits2 there is no force either within or without them that can turn them aside a hair's breadth1 or make their pace quicker or slower4 ,no prayers of men1 no prerogatives of gods can make them change#g4 ,without cause there is no effect2 and each effect is in its turn a new cause4 ,thus is constructed an endless chain1 in which all things living and inanimate are alike bound4 ,if a man knew all the causes that exist1 he could trace out all the consequences4 ,what will be1 will be2 what will not be1 cannot be4 ,this first ,stoic interpretation of the universe is that of ,determinism2 it reiterates and drives home the principle that is here our starting-point1 #8the universe is4' #8,chrysippus1 ,posidonius1 and ,zeno say that all things take place according to fate2 and fate is the linked cause of things that are1 or the system by which the universe is conducted#h4' ,this #8fate' is only another name for #8necessity#i'2 fates cannot be changed#aj4 ,sidenote3 ,the #8fallacies' of determinism4 #bbj4 ,the doctrine of fate appears to contradict directly the belief in human free will1 and to lead up to the practical doctrine of laziness 7 1 ignava ratio74 ,once we allow it to be true that #8what will be1 will be1' it becomes useless to make any effort4 ,as at the present time1 this argument was familiar in cases of sickness4 ,one says to the sick person1 #8if it is your fate to recover1 then you will recover whether you call in the physician or not2 and if it is your fate not to recover1 then you will not recover in either case4 ,but it is your fate either to recover or not to recover2 therefore it will be useless to call in the physician4' ,to which another will reply3 #8you may as well argue that if it is your fate to beget a son1 you will beget one equally whether you consort with your wife or not2 therefore it will be useless to consort with your wife#aa4' ,with such verbal disputes ,chrysippus delighted to deal2 his reply to the #8lazy argument' was that certain things go together by fate 7iuncta fato1 confatalia7#ab4 ,thus in the above cases it may be determined by fate that you should both call in a physician and recover1 both consort with your wife and beget a son4 ,so once more when ,nestor says to the watchmen by his ships3 ,keep watch1 my lads3 let sleep seize no man's eyes1 ,lest foes1 loud laughing1 take us by surprize#ac4 ,some one then replies1 #8,no1 they will not1 even if we sleep1 if it is predestined that the dock be not seized4' ,to such an objection any one can give the right answer3 #8all these things are equally predestined1 and go together by fate4 ,there is no such thing as a watch kept by sleepers1 a victory won by runaways1 or a harvest reaped except after sowing good clean soil#ad4' ,sidenote3 ,logic of possibility4 #bba4 ,the doctrine of fate also seems to conflict with some of the commonest forms of speech4 ,for if it is correct to say #8,either this will happen1 or it will not happen1' it seems incorrect to say #8it may happen'2 and still more of the past1 since we must admit of any event that #8it has happened' or #8it has not happened1' there seems no room for the statement #8it might have happened4' ,chrysippus however maintains that the words #8may' and #8might' are correctly used1 or 7in other words7 that we may assert that it is or was #8possible' for things to happen1 whether or not they will happen or have happened4 ,for example1 the pearl here is breakable1 and may be broken1 though fate has ordained that it never will be broken4 ,cypselus might not have been tyrant of ,corinth1 though the oracle at ,delphi declared a thousand years before the time that he would be#ae4 ,this view had been sharply contested by ,diodorus the ,megarian2 and the controversy was summed up in the #8master argument4' ,this is stated as follows3 there are three propositions in conflict with one another in the sense that if any two of them are true1 the third is false4 ,they are these3 7i7 every past event is necessary2 7ii7 the impossible cannot follow on the possible2 7iii7 there are things possible that neither are nor will be true4 ,diodorus accepted the first two2 he therefore drew the conclusion that there is nothing possible except that which is or will be true2 or in other words he denied the existence of any category of #8things possible' distinct from that of facts past or future4 ,cleanthes and ,antipater accepted the second and third propositions3 ,chrysippus accepted the first and third1 but denied the second#af2 that is he admitted that the possible thing 7e4g4 the breaking of the pearl7 might become the impossible because fate had decided to the contrary4 ,the choice intimates much2 it shows that the ,stoics1 however strongly they assert the rule of fate or necessity1 intend so to interpret these terms as to reconcile them with the common use of words1 that is1 with the inherited belief in divine and human will1 breaking through the chain of unending cause and effect#ag4 ,sidenote3 ,definitions of fate4 #bbb4 ,the next step is professedly taken by way of definition of the word #8fate' 71 fatum74 ,exactly as the stuff of the universe1 fire1 has been explained to be no mere passive or destructive element1 but one possessed of creative force and reason1 so is fate declared to be no blind or helpless sequence of events1 but an active and wise power which regulates the universe4 ,fate is in fact but another name for the ,logos or ,world-reason4 ,on this point all ,stoic teachers are in the main agreed4 #8,fate1' said ,zeno1 #8is a power which stirs matter by the same laws and in the same way2 it may equally well be called providence or nature#ah4' ,chrysippus gives us several alternative definitions3 #8the essence of fate is a spiritual force1 duly ordering the universe#ai'2 it is #8the ,logos of the universe#bj1' or #8the law of events providentially ordered in the universe#ba'2 or1 #8the law by which things that have been have been1 that are are1 that will be will be#bb4' ,but an important difference appears between the views of ,cleanthes and ,chrysippus4 ,they are agreed that all that happens by providence also happens by fate4 ,but ,cleanthes will not allow1 as ,chrysippus is prepared to do1 that all things that happen by fate happen providentially#bc4 ,with ,cleanthes the conception of fate is wider than that of providence1 just as in ,virgil the fates are more powerful than ,jove4 ,cleanthes1 being deeply conscious of the evil existing in the universe1 refused to hold providence responsible for it4 ,chrysippus on the other hand identifies fate with the deity#bd4 ,sidenote3 ,providence4 #bbc4 ,providence 71 providentia7 differs from fate1 if at all1 by including an element of personality4 ,it is a principal dogma of the ,stoics that #8the universe is ruled by providence4' ,cicero indeed assures us that the word #8providence' is merely an abbreviation for #8the providence of the gods1' and that the dogma really asserts that #8the universe is ruled by the gods with foresight'2 and ,balbus1 the ,stoic advocate1 in his treatise1 rebukes his opponent ,cotta for having travestied the ,stoic doctrine by speaking of providence as #8a fortune-telling hag1' as though she were some kind of goddess governing the world#be4 ,but the travesty is at least as instructive as the exposition4 ,if #8providence' is on the one hand interpreted as ,god's providence#bf1 it is on the other hand equivalent to ,nature#bg1 and again to the ,mind of the universe2 it is the ,logos1 the universal ,law1 the creative force#bh2 not merely an attribute1 but a manifestation and bodily presentment of deity4 ,after the final conflagration three joining in one will be left1 ,zeus1 providence1 and the creative fire#bi4 ,lastly1 if we consider the process of logical demonstration1 it is from the reality of providence that the ,stoics deduce the existence of the gods2 only from the standpoint of dogmatic instruction is the order reversed4 ,sidenote3 ,beauty of the universe4 #bbd4 ,the work and functions of ,providence are open to our view1 for it has an aim and pathway of its own#cj4 ,its first aim is to create a universe capable of enduring2 next1 it makes that universe complete2 thirdly1 it endows it with every beauty and excellence#ca4 ,the beauty of the world is a favourite theme upon which ,stoic orators discourse at length2 this is1 in their view1 the best world that could possibly have been created#cb4 ,this sense of beauty appears to be derived from two sources1 the admiration and awe felt in contemplating the sky1 the sun moon and stars moving in it1 lofty mountains1 rushing rivers1 and deep caves#cc2 and the gentler delight stirred by the sight of the fertile field1 the vine-clad hill1 the river-pathway1 the flocks and herds1 which all subserve the convenience of man4 ,thus from beauty we pass to usefulness1 and the ,stoics now maintain that the world has been created and is maintained for the use of man#cd4 ,in strict language1 however1 we must say that the universe is made for the use of rational beings1 that is1 for gods and men#ce1 that it is a home or city in which gods and men alike have a share#cf4 ,from the protection of providence the animals1 according to the ,stoic view1 are in principle entirely excluded4 ,yet it did not escape notice that nature has often provided for their comfort in particulars1 giving them instincts that enable them to maintain life1 and an outward shape conformable to the conditions of their existence#cg4 ,and ,seneca especially found that man was apt to swell himself too greatly1 as if that world were made for him1 of which only a small part is adapted for him to dwell in1 and where day and night1 summer and winter would continue of themselves1 even if no man observed them#ch4 ,on the other hand zealots like ,chrysippus worked out the detailed application of this theory in a way that provoked the amusement of their critics#ci4 ,sidenote3 ,particular providence4 #bbe4 ,providence cares for mankind in general1 and therefore for the parts of mankind1 the various continents1 nations1 and cities4 ,the ,stoics are also inclined to hold that it cares for the individual#dj4 ,the difficulty of this belief is great4 ,busy cities are overthrown by the earthquake2 the crops of the careful farmer are blasted by the hailstorm2 ,socrates is condemned to death by the ,athenians2 ,pythagoras1 ,zeno and ,antiphon meet with violent ends4 ,yet we may not think that in any of these cases the sufferers were hated or neglected by the gods2 it is rather an inevitable necessity that has worked their ruin4 ,the gods who have great things in their charge1 must sometimes overlook small matters2 they must save the community by sacrificing the individual#da4 ,the storm may rage in the valley1 yet there is peace on the mountain heights#db4 ,the philosopher who is absorbed in contemplating the great whole cannot even see the flaws in its details4 #8,if the gods care for all men1' says ,cicero's authority1 #8it follows logically that they care for each single man#dc4' #8,nothing occurs on earth1 nor in the heaven above1 nor in the sea1 apart from thee1 ,o ,god1' sings ,cleanthes#dd4 #8,it is impossible1' says ,chrysippus1 #8that even the least of particulars can fall out otherwise than in accordance with the will of ,god1 with his ,word1 with law1 with justice1 and with providence#de4' ,sidenote3 ,existence of evil4 #bbf4 ,the doctrine of providence1 carried to a logical extreme1 leads to the denial of the existence of evil4 ,but the ,stoics did not draw this conclusion2 had they done so1 their whole treatment of ethics would have become futile4 ,we have therefore to scrutinize carefully the language that they employ4 ,if we meet with the paradox that #8this is the best of all possible worlds1' we must remember that all paradoxes need for their interpretation some sense of humour1 and that the #8best possible' is not the same as the #8best imaginable4' ,somewhere or other there is1 in a sense1 a limitation to the sphere of providence4 ,if again in poetical passages we learn that #8nothing occurs without ,god1' we must not forget the doctrine that good and evil are alike brought in the end into harmony with the divine nature4 ,the most exact statement of ,stoic doctrine would seem to be that evil exists indeed1 but is not the equal of the good either in intensity or in duration2 it is an incident1 not a first principle of the universe#df4 ,from this point of view it becomes possible to #8plead the cause of the gods1' to defend providence from the heavy accusations men bring forward against it#dg4 ,thus the ,stoics set about to prove that1 in spite of the existence of evil1 the universe is ruled by the foresight of a beneficent deity4 ,sidenote3 ,logical solutions4 #bbg4 ,the first argument for the defence is logical1 and is pressed by ,chrysippus4 ,good implies its opposite1 evil4 #8,there could be no justice1 unless there were also injustice2 no courage1 unless there were cowardice2 no truth1 unless there were falsehood#dh4' ,just in the same way we find coarse wit in a comedy1 which is objectionable in itself1 and yet somehow contributes to the charm of the poem as a whole#di4 ,the second argument is based upon the doctrine of #8necessary consequence' 774 ,the general design of the human head required that it should be compacted of small and delicate bones1 accompanying which is the inevitable disadvantage that the head may easily be injured by blows#ej4 ,war is an evil1 but it turns to good by ridding the world of superfluous population#ea4 ,in many other cases there may be explanations that are beyond our present knowledge1 just as there are many kinds of animals of which we do not yet know the use#eb4 ,sidenote3 ,moral solutions4 #bbh4 ,more important are those arguments which introduce moral considerations4 ,in the first place the generous intentions of providence are often thwarted by the perverseness of wicked men#ec1 just as many a son uses his inheritance ill1 and yet his father in bequeathing it to him did him a service#ed4 ,the ,deity treats good men as a ,roman father his children1 giving them a stern training1 that they may grow in virtue#ee2 those that he loves1 he hardens#ef4 ,earthquakes and conflagrations may occur on earth1 and perhaps similar catastrophes in the sky1 because the world needs to be purified from the wickedness that abounds#eg4 ,the punishment of the wicked1 for instance by pestilence and famine1 stands for an example to other men1 that they may learn to avoid a like disaster#eh4 ,often1 if the wicked have gone unpunished1 the penalty descends on their children1 their grandchildren1 and their descendants#ei4 ,sidenote3 ,divine power limited4 #bbi4 ,the very multiplicity of these explanations or excuses betrays the weakness of the case1 and the ,stoics are in the last resort driven to admit that the ,deity is neither all-knowing nor all-powerful1 and that the sphere of providence is limited by an all-encircling necessity4 ,thus ,chrysippus explains blunders in divination by saying that #8the ,deity cannot know everything#fj1' and though he ascribes to the ,deity all power1 yet when hard pressed he admits that he cannot do everything1 and that #8there is a good deal of necessity in the matter#fa4' ,in this way he is forced back to the position which the shrewder ,cleanthes had taken from the first#fb4 ,after we have taken away from fate all that has life or meaning1 there remains a residuum1 which we can but vaguely assign to some #8natural necessity#fc4' ,this point once granted1 we realize that it includes many of the detailed explanations previously given4 ,thus it is by #8natural necessity' that good cannot exist without evil2 that the past cannot be altered2 that the one must suffer for the many#fd2 that the good cannot always be separated from the bad#fe2 that character grows by the defiance of pain2 that the individual is everywhere exposed to disaster from tyranny1 war1 pestilence1 famine1 and earthquake4 ,sidenote3 ,god and men allied4 #bcj4 ,the recognition of the limitations of divine power creates a new tie between gods and men4 ,men are no longer the mere instruments of providence1 they are its fellow-workers2 we may even go further1 and boldly call them its fellow-sufferers#ff4 ,god has given man what he could1 not what he would#fg2 he could not change the stuff on which he had to work#fh2 if anything has not been granted to us1 it could not have been granted#fi4 ,under such circumstances a sensible man will not find fault with the gods1 who have done their best#gj2 nor will he make appeals to them to which they cannot respond#ga4 ,even less will he quarrel with a destiny that is both blind and deaf#gb4 ,sidenote3 ,fortune4 #bca4 ,in the ,stoic explanation of the universe fortune plays no part2 it has no existence in the absolute sense of the term#gc4 ,but in practical life1 and from the limited point of view of the individuals concerned1 fortune is everywhere met with4 ,her actions are the same as we have just seen to be ascribed to #8natural necessity'2 storms1 shipwrecks1 plagues1 wars1 and tyranny#gd4 ,fortune therefore by no means excludes causality1 but includes all events which are without meaning from the point of view of the individual#ge2 all advantages or disadvantages which he has not personally merited1 and which are not designed for his individual discipline4 ,so great is the sphere of ,fortune1 that it appears at first that she is mistress of human life2 and we may picture her as a tyrant1 mocking and merciless1 without principle and without policy#gf4 ,the further consideration of ,fortune belongs to the department of ,ethics4 ,sidenote3 ,has ,god or man free will8 #bcb4 ,the supreme problems of philosophy1 in their relation to gods and men1 the fellow-citizens of this universe1 centre in the question of free will4 ,if we grant that the divine power is to some extent less in range than the power of necessity1 does it still remain open to us to attribute to it within that range some real choice between alternatives1 something of that individual power which common opinion attributes to kings8 or must we on the other hand regard the divinity as a mere symbol of an unchanging law1 girt with the trappings of a royalty from which all real share in government has been withdrawn8 ,is man again a mere puppet under the control either of fate or of fortune1 or has he too some share in creating the destiny to which he must submit8 ,supposing him to have this power of will1 is it bound up with his privilege of reason1 or do the animals also possess it8 ,sidenote3 ,the ,stoics incline towards free will4 #bcc4 ,to such questions the ,stoics do not give the direct answer #8,yes' or #8,no4' ,the critics who wish to tie them down to one or other of the opposing views complain that they wriggle and grow flushed and excited about their answer#gg4 ,they accept apparently both views as dogmas1 asserting that #8all things take place by destiny' and that #8something rests with us#gh4' ,to the first dogma the whole of their treatment of physics points2 but the second is required as a postulate for any science of ethics#gh;a4 ,the ,stoics were in no way disposed to cut the knot by sacrificing one or the other of the principal parts of their philosophy4 ,they go back upon the terms in which the questions are propounded1 and endeavour by fresh investigation and more precise definition to do away with the obvious contradiction4 ,in this work they were observed to have a bias in favour of free will#gi4 ,the first sign of this bias we have already noticed in the vindication of the word #8possible#hj4' ,if our eyes are fixed merely on the movement of the heavenly bodies1 we shall hardly need a term which prints on future events a character which it denies to those that are past4 ,the astronomer can describe to us with equal precision an eclipse taking place a thousand years before the battle of ,salamis or a thousand years after4 ,but the word #8possible' opens the door to the emotions of hope and fear1 to the sense of right and wrong1 with regard to the whole range of future events4 ,however delicately the doctrine may be shaded1 the main issue is determined when we say of gods and men that they #8can#ha4' ,sidenote3 ,proximate and principal causes4 #bcd4 ,in order to reconcile the doctrines of causality and possibility1 we must first distinguish between outer and inner compulsion1 between #8proximate' and #8principal' causes4 ,if a boy starts a cylinder rolling down hill1 he gives it an opportunity without which it could not have rolled2 this is the proximate cause 71 proxima74 ,but the cylinder would not continue rolling except by an inner compulsion1 a law within itself1 by which it is the nature of cylinders to roll downwards#hb4 ,this is the leading or principal cause 71 antecedens or principalis74 ,so neither in thought nor in action can a man form a judgment1 unless there be a picture 71 visum7 presented to his mind4 ,the picture is a proximate cause#hc4 ,but assent to the picture rests with the man himself2 the man himself1 his reason1 his will1 is the principal cause4 ,here we touch on the dogma which is the foundation of ethics3 #8assent is in our power4' ,upon this rests the right of the philosopher to praise or blame1 the right of the lawgiver to reward and punish4 ,sidenote3 ,the divine nature immutable4 #bce4 ,we have to investigate further the inner compulsion1 the principal cause4 ,with regard to the gods their own disposition is a law to them1 their character holds them to their purpose1 their majesty makes their decrees immutable#hd4 ,this is the final answer of philosophy1 even though men cannot content themselves with it4 ,even amongst those most disposed to accept ,stoic principles1 there is a wish that the gods should be allowed a little play1 a choice at any rate in small matters not hampered by considerations of destiny and morality#he2 and upon this issue the poet may deviate a little from the sterner creed of the philosopher#hf4 ,nor must we so interpret the wisdom and benevolence of the gods as to deny the efficacy of prayer#hg4 ,sidenote3 ,man's wickedness4 #bcf4 ,in the case of men free will comes accompanied by a heavy burden of responsibility2 for by its exercise men have defied the gods and brought evil into the world4 ,in vain they accuse the gods and destiny1 when their own perverseness has exaggerated their destiny1 as ,homer bears witness3 #8,lo you now1 how vainly mortal men do blame the gods6 ,for of us they say comes evil1 whereas they even of themselves1 through the blindness of their own hearts1 have sorrows beyond that which is ordained#hh4' #8,through the blindness of their own hearts they perished1 fools#hi4' ,equally in vain it is that they protest against the penalties prescribed by the lawgiver for acts to which they allege fate has drawn them#ij4 ,of their wrongdoing the #8principal cause' lies in their own natures2 if these are from the first wholesome1 the blows of fate are deadened2 if they are boorish and undisciplined1 they rush of themselves into sin and error#ia4 ,into the further question1 whether a man is responsible for his own nature1 our authorities do not enter4 ,it is sufficient that in ethics a way will be pointed out1 by which all men1 if only they consent to undergo the necessary training1 may bring their wills into harmony with the will of the universe4 ,as to the animals1 they act upon impulse1 but cannot be said in a strict sense to possess will1 nor are they proper subjects for praise and blame4 ,sidenote3 ,no result without cause4 #bcg4 ,thus free will1 which at first sight appears equivalent to the negation of cause1 is by the ,stoics identified with the highest type of cause4 ,action without cause 7 71 effect which is self-caused 7 71 are totally denied#ib4 ,even if a man be given the choice between two actions which appear exactly equivalent1 as when he must begin walking either with the right or with the left foot1 there is always a cause which determines between them1 though 7as in all cases of #8chance'7 it is not discernible by human reasoning#ic4 ,in this way destiny1 cause1 will are all brought into harmony2 the dualism 7which after all cannot be entirely avoided7 is thrust out of sight4 #8,all things take place according to destiny1 but not all things according to necessity#id'2 thus is saved the principle of free choice 7 ' 74 ,in other words1 the ,stoic fixes his attention on the pulsating1 living1 willing powers of the universe1 and refuses to dwell upon any blind non-moral unbending #8necessity' of things1 even whilst he admits that such necessity is there4 ,sidenote3 ,pons ,stoicus4 #bch4 ,now that the various steps have been decided upon1 by which our philosophy progresses from physics to ethics1 it remains to connect them by a pathway in the form of a chain of reasoning4 ,we cannot affirm that the steps have been reached by any logical process1 or that the show of reasoning makes them any safer to tread in4 ,but the logical form is a convenient method of impressing dogmatic instruction on the memory1 and if it cannot remove difficulties inherent in the subject-matter1 it at least so distributes them that they may be overlooked by the zealous and defied by the adventurous4 ,thus then the argument runs3-- #8,if all things are determined by fate1 then the ordering of the universe must be smooth and unhindered2 if this is so1 there must be an ordered universe2 and if so1 there must be gods4 ,now if there are gods1 the gods are good2 and if they are good1 goodness exists2 and if goodness exists1 so also does wisdom4 ,and goodness and wisdom are the same for gods and for men#ie4 ,if this is so1 there must be a science of things to be done and to be avoided1 that is of right actions and of sins4 ,but right actions are praiseworthy1 and sins blameable4 ,things praiseworthy deserve reward1 and things blameable deserve punishment4 ,therefore if all things are determined by fate1 there must be rewards and punishments#if4' ,all this chain of argument is convincing to the man who is already a ,stoic2 to his opponent it seems to display its weakness at every joint4 ,,footnotes #a ,the three explanations are very clearly stated by ,seneca2 #8dicet aliquis--quid mihi prodest philosophia1 si fatum est8 quid prodest1 si deus rector est8 quid prodest1 si casus imperat8444 quicquid est ex his1 ,lucili1 vel si omnia haec sunt1 philosophandum est2 sive nos inexorabili lege fata constringunt1 sive arbiter deus universi cuncta disponit1 sive casus res humanas sine ordine impellit et iactat1 philosophia nos tueri debet' ,sen4 ,ep4 #af1 #d and #e4 #b e4g4 ,aen4 vi #cgf4 #c #8quod procul a nobis flectat ,fortuna gubernans' ,r4 ,n4 v #ajh4 #d #8vaga volubilisque ,fortuna' ,cic4 ,milo #bf1 #fi2 #8fortuna 444 amica varietati constantiam respuit' ,n4 ,d4 ii #af1 #dc4 #e ,seneca as in note #a4 #f ,diog4 ,l4 vii #adi2 #8,stoici omnia fato fieri dicunt' ,cic4 de ,fato #ae1 #cc4 #g #8et hoc secundum ,stoicos1 qui omnia dicunt fato regi et semel constituta nec a numinibus posse mutari' ,comment4 in ,lucan4 ii #cjf 7,arnim ii #ibd74 #h ,so ,diog4 ,l4 vii #adi4 ,cicero and ,seneca describe with admirable clearness the conception of fate3 #8fieri omnia fato ratio cogit fateri4 fatum autem id appello1 quod ,graeci 1 id est ordinem seriemque causarum1 cum causa causae nexa rem ex se gignat' ,cic4 ,div4 i #ee1 #abe2 #8quid enim intellegis fatum8 existimo necessitatem rerum omnium actionumque1 quam nulla vis rumpat' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #cf2 cf4 ,ep4 #ai1 #f and ,n4 ,q4 ii #ce1 #b4 #i ,at4 plac4 i #bg1 #b4 #aj #8,stoicorum dogma ,vergilius ostendit1 nulla ratione posse fata mutari' ,serv4 ad ,verg4 ,aen4 i #beg 7,arnim ii #ibc74 #aa ,orig4 cont4 ,cels4 ii #bj 7,arnim ii #ieg74 #ab ,cic4 de ,fato #ab1 #bh to #ac1 #cj4 #ac ,hom4 ,il4 xi #aib and #aic4 #ad ,plut4 fr4 #ae1 #c 7,stob4 ii #h1 #be74 #ae ,cic4 de ,fato #g1 #ac4 #af ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #ai1 #a sqq4 #ag ,cicero gives a humorous comment on this contention3 #8 me scito 2 quapropter si venturus es1 scito necesse esse te venire3 sin autem non es1 est te venire4 nunc vide1 utra te magis delectet1 ne1 an haec1 quam noster ,diodotus non concoquebat4 sed de his etiam rebus1 otiosi cum erimus1 loquemur2 hoc etiam est' ad ,fam4 ix #d4 #ah ,at4 plac4 i #bg1 #e4 #ai ib4 i #bh1 #c4 #bj ib4 #ba 1 ,at4 plac4 i #bh1 #c4 #bb ' 1 1 ib4 #bc #8ex quo fieri1 ut quae secundum fatum sunt etiam ex providentia sint1 eodemque modo quae secundum providentiam ex fato1 ut putat ,chrysippus4 alii vero1 quae quidem ex providentiae auctoritate1 fataliter quoque provenire1 nec tamen quae fataliter ex providentia1 ut ,cleanthes' ,chalc4 in ,timaeum #add 7,arnim ii #icc74 #bd #8,chrysippus 444 deum dicit esse 444 fatalem vim et necessitatem rerum futurarum' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ae1 #ci4 #be #8a te dictum est anum fatidicam a ,stoicis induci1 id est providentiam4 quod eo errore dixisti1 quod existimas ab his providentiam fingi quasi quandam deam singularem1 quae mundum omnem gubernet et regat4 plene autem et perfecte sic dici existimato1 providentia deorum mundum administrari' ib4 ii #bi1 #gc and #gd4 #bf 444 ,hippolyt4 ,philos4 #ba1 #a 7,arnim i #aec74 #bg ,at4 plac4 i #bg1 #e4 #bh #8talis igitur mens mundi cum sit1 ob eamque causam vel prudentia vel providentia appellari recte possit 7,graece enim dicitur7 444' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #bb1 #eh4 ,the term #8nature' is used in the same sense by ,epicurus also1 though it does not harmonize very well with his theory2 #8natura gubernans' ,r4 ,n4 v #gh4 #bi 1 1 ,plut4 comm4 not4 #cf1 #e4 #cj #8habet quasi viam quandam et sectam1 quam sequatur' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #bb1 #eg4 #ca ib4 #bb1 #eh4 #cb #8mundi quidem administratio nihil habet in se1 quod reprehendi possit2 ex iis enim naturis1 quae erant1 quod effici optimum potuit1 effectum est' ib4 #cd1 #hf4 #cc ib4 #ci1 #ih4 #cd #8omnia hominum causa facta esse et parata' ib4 ii #fa1 #aed4 #ce #8deorum et hominum causa factum esse mundum' ib4 #ec1 #acc4 #cf #8est enim mundus quasi communis deorum atque hominum domus aut urbs utrorumque' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #fb1 #aed2 #8intraturus es urbem dis hominibusque communem' ,sen4 ,dial4 vi #ah1 #a4 #cg ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #dg1 #abb4 #ch #8neque enim omnia deus homini fecit4 quota pars operis tanti nobis committitur8' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 vii #cj1 #c2 #8nimis nos suspicimus1 si digni nobis videmur propter quos tanta moveantur' ,dial4 iv #bg1 #b4 #ci ,thus #8horses assist men in fighting1 dogs in hunting3 lions and leopards provide a discipline in courage3 the sow is convenient for sacrifices to the gods1 who have given her a soul to serve as salt1 and keep the flesh from rotting4 ,the peacock is created for his tail1 and the peahen accompanies him for symmetry's sake4 ,the flea is useful to wake us out of sleep1 and the mouse to prevent us from being careless in leaving the cheese about4' ,all these particulars are attributed to ,chrysippus 7,arnim ii #aaeb1 #aafc74 #dj #8etiam singulis a dis immortalibus consuli et provideri solet' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #fe1 #afd4 #da #8nec vero si segetibus aut vinetis cuiuspiam tempestas nocuerit1 444 eum1 cui quid horum acciderit1 aut invisum deo aut neglectum a deo iudicabimus4 magna di curant1 parva neglegunt' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #ff1 #afg2 #8universorum maior dis cura quam singulorum est' ,sen4 ,dial4 i #c1 #a4 ,see also note #fd4 #db #8lege deum minimas rerum discordia turbat1 pacem magna tenent' ,lucan ,phars4 ii #bgc4 #dc #8licet contrahere universitatem generis humani eamque gradatim ad pauciores1 postremo deducere ad singulos' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #fe1 #afd4 #dd ,hymn1 vv4 #ae1 #af4 #de ,plut4 comm4 not4 #cd1 #e2 ,sto4 rep4 #cd1 #aj4 #df ,this appears to be the correct interpretation of the saying of ,epictetus--#8as a mark is not set up for the purpose of missing the aim1 so neither does the nature of evil exist in the world' ,manual #bg 7,long's transl4 ii p4 #bfi1 where see his note74 #dg #8faciam rem non difficilem1 causam deorum agam' ,sen4 ,dial4 i #a1 #a4 #dh ,gell4 ,n4 ,a4 vii #a1 #d and #e2 #8nulli vitium est1 nisi cui virtus potest esse' ,sen4 ,ep4 #abd1 #ai4 #di ,plut4 comm4 not4 #ad1 #a2 ,m4 ,ant4 vi #db4 #ej ,a4 ,gellius1 ,n4 ,a4 vii #a1 #i to #aa4 #ea ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #cb1 #b4 #eb ,lactantius de ira #ac 7,arnim ii #aagb74 #ec ,cleanthes ,hymn #ah4 #ed ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 iii #bh1 #gj4 #ee #8patrium deus habet adversus bonos viros animum et illos fortiter amat2 operibus1 inquit1 doloribus1 damnis exagitentur1 ut verum colligant robur' ,sen4 ,dial4 i #b1 #f4 #ef #8deus quos probat1 quos amat1 indurat1 recognoscit1 exercet' ib4 #d1 #g2 #8when a difficulty falls upon you1 remember that ,god1 like a trainer of wrestlers1 has matched you with rough young men' ,epict4 ,disc4 i #bd1 #a4 #eg ,this view of ,origen is conjecturally assigned to a ,stoic source 7,arnim ii #aagd74 ,see also ,philo ap4 ,euseb4 praep4 ev4 viii #ac4 #eh ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #ae1 #b4 #ei ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 iii #ch1 #ij2 ,sen4 ,ben4 iv #cb1 #a4 #fj ,arnim ii #aahc4 #fa ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #cg1 #b4 #fb ,see above1 #bbb4 #fc ,seneca uses the term #8law of mortality'3 #8minime dis irascamur3 non enim illorum1 sed lege mortalitatis patimur quicquid incommodi accidit' ,dial4 iv #bh1 #d4 #fd #8sciat illa ipsa1 quibus laedi videtur1 ad conservationem universi pertinere1 et ex iis esse1 quae cursum mundi officiumque consummant' ,ep4 #gd1 #bj4 #fe #8di multa ingratis tribuunt4 sed illa bonis paraverunt3 contingunt etiam malis1 quia separari non possunt4 excerpere singulos non potuerunt' ,ben4 iv #bh1 #a4 #ff #8quicquid est quod nos sic vivere sic mori iussit1 eadem necessitate et deos adligat' ,dial4 i #e1 #h4 #fg #8,god has given me the things which are in the power of the will4 ,how was he able to make the earthly body free from hindrance8 ,he could not1 and accordingly he has subjected to the revolution of the whole possessions1 household things1 house1 children1 wife' ,epict4 ,disc4 iv #a1 #ajj4 #8,what says ,zeus8 since ,i was not able to do for you what ,i have mentioned1 ,i have given you a small portion of us' ib4 i #a1 #aj-ab4 #fh #8non potest artifex mutare materiam' ,sen4 ,dial4 i #e1 #i2 see also ,plut4 comm4 not4 #cd1 and ,mayor on ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #cd1 #hf4 ,in technical language1 the gods cannot control the and 4 #fi #8quicquid nobis negatum est1 dari non potuit' ,sen4 ,ben4 ii #bi1 #c4 #gj #8dementes itaque et ignari veritatis illis imputant saevitiam maris1 immodicos imbres1 pertinaciam hiemis' ,dial4 iv #bg1 #b4 #ga #8frustra vota ac studia sunt2 habebit quisque quantum illi dies primus adscripsit' ib4 vi #ba1 #f4 #gb #8accusare fata possumus1 mutare non possumus3 stant dura et inexorabilia' ib4 xi #d1 #a4 #gc ,see above1 #bbf1 note #df4 ,fortune only has ultimate existence if identified with fate or providence2 #8sic nunc naturam voca1 fatum1 fortunam2 omnia eiusdem dei nomina sunt varie utentis sua potestate' ,ben4 iv #h1 #c4 #gd #8fortuna ceteros casus rariores habet1 primum ab inanimis procellas1 tempestates1 naufragia1 ruinas1 incendia2 deinde a bestiis ictus1 morsus1 impetus1 etc4' ,cic4 ,off4 ii #f1 #ai2 #8saepe 444 optimorum virorum segetem grando percussit4 fert sortem suam quisque' ,sen4 ,ben4 ii #bh1 #c4 #ge ,so ,fortune is technically defined as #8a cause not discerned by human reason'2 ,at4 plac4 i #bi1 #g4 #gf #8in regnum ,fortunae et quidem durum atque invictum pervenimus1 illius arbitrio digna atque indigna passuri' ,sen4 ,dial4 vi #aj1 #f2 #8hanc imaginem animo tuo propone1 ludos facere fortunam' ,ep4 #gd1 #g4 #gg #8,chrysippus aestuans laboransque quonam pacto explicet et fato omnia fieri et esse aliquid in nobis1 intricatur hoc modo' ,gellius ,n4 ,a4 vii #b1 #ae4 #gh 1 1 7seriem causarum7 ,oenom4 apud ,euseb4 pr4 ev4 vi p4 #beh 7,arnim ii #igh72 #8manente fato aliquid est in hominis arbitrio' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #ch1 #c4 #gh;a #8ubi igitur virtus1 si nihil situm est in nobis ipsis8' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #ab1 #ci4 #gi #8mihi quidem videtur1 cum duae sententiae fuissent veterum philosophorum1 una eorum qui censerent omnia ita fato fieri ut id fatum vim necessitatis adferret 444 altera eorum quibus viderentur sine ullo fato esse animorum motus voluntarii1 ,chrysippus tanquam arbiter honorarius medium ferire voluisse1 sed adplicat se ad eos potius1 qui necessitate motus animorum liberatos volunt' ,cic4 de ,fato #ag1 #ci4 #hj ,see above1 #bba4 #ha ,it seems clear that so far as human thought goes #8possibility' is only an abstraction from that which #8a man can do1' reached by widening the subject #8man' so as to include both superhuman powers and half-personified unseen forces4 ,in other words is derived from 1 possibilitas from potest4 ,such a combination as fortuna potest1 though quite common1 is really a contradiction in terms4 #hb #8qui protrusit cylindrum1 dedit ei principium motionis1 volubilitatem autem non dedit' ,cic4 de ,fato #ai1 #dc4 #hc #8quamquam adsensio non possit fieri nisi commota viso1 tamen id visum proximam causam habet1 non principalem' ib4 #ah1 #db4 #hd #8non externa cogunt deos1 sed sua illis in legem aeterna voluntas est4 statuerunt quae non mutarent1 444 nec unquam primi consilii deos paenitet4 vis sua illos in proposito tenet' ,sen4 ,ben4 vi #bc1 #a and #b2 #8deus scripsit quidem fata1 sed sequitur4 semper paret1 semel iussit' ,dial4 i #e1 #h4 ,so ,lucan3 #8qua cuncta coercet se quoque lege tenens' ,phars4 ii #i1 #aj4 #he #8disco 444 liceat illi sc4 deo hodieque decernere et ex lege fatorum aliquid derogare1 an maiestatis diminutio sit et confessio erroris mutanda fecisse8' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 i ,prol4 #c4 #hf #8illud te1 nulla fati quod lege tenetur1 pro ,latio obtestor' ,verg4 ,aen4 xii #hai1 #hbj4 #hg #8nos quoque existimamus vota proficere1 salva vi ac potestate fatorum' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #cg1 #b2 #8deos quorum notitiam nulla res effugit1 rogamus2 et illos vota non exorant1 sed admonent' ,ben4 v #be1 #d4 #hh ,hom4 ,od4 i #cb-cd 7,butcher and ,lang's translation74 #hi ib4 #g4 #ij #8propterea nocentium poenas legibus inique constitutas1 si homines ad maleficia non sponte veniunt1 sed fato trahuntur' ,a4 ,gellius ,n4 ,a4 vii #b1 #e4 #ia #8contra ea ,chrysippus argute disserit3 ingenia1 inquit1 ipsa proinde sunt fato obnoxia1 ut proprietas eorum est ipsa et qualitas4 nam si sunt per naturam primitus salubriter utiliterque ficta1 omnem illam vim quae de fato extrinsecus ingruit1 inoffensius tractabiliusque transmittunt4 sin vero sunt aspera et inscita et rudia 444 sua scaevitate et voluntario impetu in assidua delicta et in errores se ruunt' ,a4 ,gellius ,n4 ,a4 vii #b1 #f to #h4 #ib 444 ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #bc1 #b and #c4 #ic 2 ,alex4 ,aph4 de fato #h 7,arnim ii #igj74 #id ib4 #aj 7,arnim ii #ifj74 #ie 1 ,them4 ,or4 ii p4 #bg c 7,arnim iii #bea74 #if ,alex4 ,aphrod4 de fato #cg 7,arnim ii #ajje74 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,religion4 ,sidenote3 ,philosophy crystallized4 #bci4 ,we now turn from the supreme problems of philosophy to the formulation of religious belief and practice4 ,a complete change comes over the spirit of our study4 ,until now we have been reaching out to observe1 to define in words1 to coordinate in a monistic system every object1 every statement1 every generalisation of which the human mind can rightly take account4 ,we have kept eyes and ears open to learn from the ,east and from the ,west1 from the idealist and the materialist1 from the poet and from the critic4 ,at last we have reached our highest point in the dogmas of the providential ordering of the universe and the moral obligation of the individual man2 dogmas which1 as we have seen1 are expounded in logical form1 but are essentially such as logic can neither establish nor refute4 ,stoicism1 having once breathed in the mountain air of supreme principles1 now begins to descend to the plains of common life1 and to find the due application of its theories in the ordering of practical affairs4 ,the theory of religion is treated as the first stage in this downward path2 it is the adaptation of philosophy to the language of social life and individual aspiration4 ,by #8religion' we mean here the theory of the existence and character of the gods2 the practice of ceremonies in their honour and of prayers for their favour2 and further1 the theory and practice of divination4 ,upon all these questions philosophy sits as the supreme judge3 external authority1 embodied in the traditions of ,greece and ,rome respectively1 may claim consideration1 but not submission1 from the intellect4 ,sidenote3 ,historical changes of view4 #bdj4 ,in this attitude of the ,stoics towards religion we can easily distinguish certain historical changes4 ,zeno represents in the main the critical temper2 his tone is revolutionary and atheistic2 he contemplates the entire subversion of existing religious practices to make room for a purer system4 ,the principles of ,cleanthes are the same1 but finer expression in a more cheerful spirit2 he has no bitterness as to the present1 and much confidence in the future4 ,with ,chrysippus there sets in a tide of reconciliation2 the ingenuities of etymology and allegorical interpretation are set to work to prove that the old religion contains1 at least in germ1 the substance of the new4 ,the practical dangers of this method are obvious1 and have not escaped the notice of the critics of ,stoicism4 ,it may be well to smoothe the path of the convert by allowing him to use old formulas and practices with a new meaning2 it is not so easy to excuse the acceptance of a purely formal conversion1 by which philosophy enrols as its nominal adherents men who give it no real submission1 and increases its numbers at the cost of its sincerity4 ,posidonius stands out as the type of this weakness2 with him begins the subordination of philosophic principle to religious sentiment4 ,in the first period of ,roman ,stoicism the struggle was acute2 many of the ,stoics had the courage to defy the inherited prejudices of their fellow-countrymen1 others bowed before the storm4 ,those who condemn the ,stoics in a body as having sacrificed their convictions1 in order that they might hold the honoured and lucrative positions of defenders of the national religion#a1 show a lack both of sympathy and of critical discernment4 ,all through the ,roman period the ,stoics held in theory a definite and consistent position1 which will be expounded in this chapter2 in the application of their principles to practical problems they showed that variation of standard and temperament which history has always to record even of societies of honourable and intelligent men4 ,but it must be admitted that as the ,stoics increase in numbers1 their devotion to vital principles grows weaker1 till at last we recognise in ,marcus ,aurelius both the most critical of ,stoic thinkers1 and the man in whom the powers of thought are most definitely subjected to the play of old associations and prejudices4 ,sidenote3 ,dogmas of natural religion4 #bda4 ,the theoretic teaching of the ,stoics upon theology follows a very definite programme4 ,four dogmas need to be established3 7i7 that gods exist2 7ii7 that they are living1 benevolent1 and immortal2 7iii7 that they govern the universe2 and 7iv7 that they seek the good of men4 ,to each of these dogmas is attached a series of #8proofs1' such as are still in vogue as #8evidences of natural religion#b4' ,the whole of this body of teaching may be treated by us as an exposition in popular language of the central dogma that #8the universe is ordered by providence4' ,we have therefore first to consider whether the language used is really appropriate to the philosophic position1 or whether it concedes too much to accepted beliefs4 ,secondly we have to consider whether the #8proofs' employed really correspond to the monistic point of view as understood by the ,stoics1 or whether dualisms abandoned in principle are regaining their old position in connexion with practical problems4 ,now the third and fourth dogmas1 so far as they add to the first two1 import nothing more than the general doctrine of providence4 ,the first two dogmas1 taken together1 substitute for the abstract term #8providence' the more concrete1 and 7as we should phrase it7 the more personal conception of a #8god' or #8gods4' ,the supreme question of the ,stoic religion is therefore whether these terms are rightly used2 and it falls into two parts1 the use of the singular #8god1' carrying with it associations derived from ,persism and ,judaism2 and the use of the plural #8gods1' which carries with it a qualified approval of the polytheism of the ,greek and ,roman pantheons4 ,in accordance with the general principles of our philosophy1 the wider question must be first determined4 ,sidenote3 ,the #8nature' of gods4 #bdb4 ,the #8gods1' according to the ,stoics1 form a #8natura1' a department of the universe1 a category including one or more individuals4 ,hence the title of ,cicero's work1 #8de natura deorum'2 that is1 #8of the class of beings called gods4' ,each department of philosophy1 according to the ,stoic interpretation1 brings us in the end into touch with this world of deities4 ,in dialectics we are led up to the supreme ,reason1 the ,logos or ,word1 whose divine being permeates the universe#c4 ,metaphysics point us to ,body in the purest form#d2 to ,spirit which reaches from end to end of the universe#e2 to a first ,cause1 a ,cause of causes1 the initial link in the unending chain of events#f4 ,if we look to the elements in their unceasing interchange1 we find deity in all things that shift and suffer metamorphosis1 in water1 in earth1 and in air#g2 how much more then in fire1 which in one aspect is the purest of the elements1 and in another is the creative rational substance from which the whole universe issues#h8 ,god is indeed the universe1 and all that is in it1 though not in the pantheistic sense that he is evenly diffused throughout all things#i4 ,look towards this earth1 which lies at the centre of the world-order2 even in its most repulsive contents1 in its grossest matter1 there is deity#aj4 ,lift up your eyes to the heavens2 ,god is the all-encircling sea of fire called ,aether#aa2 he is sun#ab and stars#ac4 ,consider the universe in its history2 ,god is its creator#ad1 its ruler1 its upholder#ae4 ,analyze it2 he is its soul#af1 its mind#ag4 ,strain your sight to perceive the meaning of all things3 he is fate#ah2 he is nature#ai2 he is providence2 he is necessity#bj4 ,and if we look forward to the problems of politics and ethics1 we must say that ,god is the ,universal ,law that calls for the reverence of gods and men as a community#ba1 and equally demands1 under the name of conscience1 the unhesitating obedience of the individual#bb4 ,lastly1 in the history of mankind1 in its great men and useful discoveries1 the ,stoic masters recognised the element of divinity#bc4 ,in the language of to-day1 ,god is the pole in which all the parallels of human inquiry merge1 the x of the problem of the universe1 the unknown that is known in his works4 ,sidenote3 ,unity of ,god4 #bdc4 ,that ,god is one is a doctrine which the ,stoics take over from the ,cynics#bd 7who therein follow ,socrates71 and from the general opinion2 without making this a formal dogma1 they constantly assume it tacitly by using the term #8,god' 7 1 deus74 ,with equal readiness they accept in use plural and abstract nouns for the same conception1 as di immortales1 vis divina4 ,the interpretation of this apparent conflict of language must be found in the general principles of the ,stoic monism4 ,just as the elements are four1 and yet are all the creative fire in its changing shapes3 just as the virtues are many1 and yet there is but one ,virtue appearing under different circumstances3 so there is but one ,deity1 appearing under many names#be4 ,this view the assailants of ,stoicism reduce to the absurdity that some ,stoic gods are created and mortal1 whilst others are uncreated#bf2 and again that ,zeus is worse than a ,proteus1 for the latter changed into a few shapes only and those seemly1 whilst ,zeus has a thousand metamorphoses1 and there is nothing so foul that he does not in turn become#bg4 ,no one however who is familiar with the many points of view from which ,greek philosophers approach the problem of #8the one and the many' will be readily disturbed by this rather superficial criticism4 ,sidenote3 ,zeus4 #bdd4 ,in its practical application the belief in the one-ness of ,god assimilated itself to the worship of the ,greek and the ,latin ,jove or ,juppiter4 ,it would be impossible within the limits of this work to trace the growth of monotheistic feeling in the ,greco-,roman world in connexion with the names of these two deities1 which in the mythologies are members of societies4 ,we have already suggested that the most direct impulse came from ,persism3 but in connexion with ,roman history it is important to notice that a similar impulse arrived through the ,tuscan religion#bh4 ,the nature of the ,stoic worship of ,zeus is abundantly illustrated by the ,hymn of ,cleanthes#bi2 the intimate sense of companionship between ,zeus and his worshipper comes to light1 perhaps with a tinge of ,cynic sentiment1 in all the discourses of ,epictetus4 ,a special emphasis is laid on the fatherhood of ,zeus4 ,this attribute could be traced back to the poems of ,homer1 and is prominent throughout ,virgil's ,aeneid#cj4 ,it can be explained in connexion with the growth of all living substances#ca1 but has a more lofty meaning in that man alone shares with the gods the inheritance of reason#cb4 ,but the ,homeric association of ,zeus with mount ,olympus entirely disappears in ,stoicism in favour of the ,persian conception of a god dwelling in heaven#cc4 ,further the ,stoics agree with the ,persians that this god must not be thought of as having the form of any animal or man#cd2 he is without form#ce1 but capable of assuming all forms#cf4 ,sidenote3 ,definition of #8god4' #bde4 ,in the ,stoic system the conception of godhead as one and supreme much exceeds in importance the conception of a multiplicity of gods4 ,we may therefore reasonably consider at this point the four dogmas of the ,stoic theology4 ,the first point to be examined is the definition of the word #8god4' ,as adopted by the ,stoic school generally it runs thus3 #8a rational and fiery spirit1 having no shape1 but changing to what it wills and made like to all things#cg4' ,this definition corresponds satisfactorily to the ,stoic system of physics2 but even so we must notice that the statement #8,god is necessity#ch' is an exaggeration1 since #8necessity' is entirely devoid of the qualities of reasonableness and plasticity4 ,we find a different definition in ,antipater of ,tarsus1 which is emphasized by the ,stoics of the transition period generally3--#8,god is a living being1 blessed1 imperishable1 the benefactor of mankind#ci4' ,this definition points clearly the way to the ,stoic system of religion4 ,the difference between the two definitions marks then the step that has here to be taken4 ,there is an accentuation of the property of personality2 we pass from a #8rational spirit' to a #8living being4' ,there is the addition of a moral quality2 we pass from a plastic substance to a beneficent will4 ,the existence of deity in the first sense has been displayed to us by our whole analysis of the universe2 it is with regard to the existence of deity in the second sense that we need the constant support of the dogma of providence1 expounded in the technical proofs which we now proceed to examine4 ,sidenote3 ,gods exist3 the proof from consent4 #bdf4 ,the first ,stoic dogma is #8that gods exist'2 and of this the first and most familiar #8proof' is that which depends upon common consent4 ,amongst all men and in all nations there is a fixed conviction that gods exist2 the conception is inborn1 indeed we may say graven on the minds of all men#dj4 ,to this proof the ,stoics attach the highest possible importance2 but its justification1 as we have seen1 presents great difficulties#da4 ,cleanthes1 the most religiously minded of the early ,stoics1 had not troubled to conceal his contempt for the opinions of the crowd#db2 and the ridiculous belief in ,tartarus#dc is as widespread as that in the gods4 ,here then we must distinguish2 it is not sufficient that a conception should be universal1 if it appeals most to foolish folk1 and even so is decaying#dd4 ,we must not however at this moment inquire into the causes of this belief#de2 for this is to pass from the question at issue to other proofs of the dogma4 ,it seems clear that the value of this particular proof depends upon the ,stoic doctrine of #8inborn conceptions1' which we have already discussed#df4 ,without going over the whole ground again1 the substance of the argument as applied to the present question may be thus stated4 ,the mind of each individual man is by descent akin to the universal reason 7 1 universa ratio7#dg4 ,therefore all men carry with them from their birth predispositions in favour of certain preconceptions2 and the fact that these preconceptions are common to all is evidence of their divine origin4 ,these predispositions by the growth and training of the individual on the one hand1 by his contact with the outer world on the other hand through the organs of sense1 ripen into reason4 ,now all men are born with a predisposition to explain what is beyond their own reasoning powers by the hypothesis of a living and reasoning agent4 ,the belief in gods is therefore a #8preconception'2 and if it is confirmed by growth and experience1 it must be of divine origin and therefore self-proving4 ,in the language of our own times1 the belief in deity cannot be dispensed with as a working hypothesis2 its omission lames human reason4 ,sidenote3 ,the proof of the #8higher ,being4' #bdg4 ,the second proof #8that gods exist' is particularly associated with the name of ,chrysippus2 it may be summed up by saying #8there must be a ,being higher than man4' ,we begin by assuming that reason is the highest power in the universe#dh2 an axiom which is always subject to limitation on account of the existence of #8natural necessity4' ,according to the ,stoics1 reason is common to gods and men2 if1 for the sake of argument1 this is denied1 then reason is possessed by men alone1 for we can certainly find no better name than #8god' for higher reasoning beings#di4 ,if then there exists something greater than human reason can produce1 it must be the work of some reasoning being greater than man1 that is1 it must be the work of the gods4 ,but the heavenly constellations are such a work2 therefore they are the work of the gods1 and therefore gods exist#ej4 ,to this argument two others are supplementary4 ,first1 human reason itself must be derived from some source1 and what other can we name but the deity#ea8 ,secondly1 if there are no gods1 man must be the supreme being2 but such a claim is an arrogant infatuation#eb4 ,the same arguments are attributed in substance to ,zeno#ec2 nay1 so cogent are they that they are in part accepted even by ,epicurus#ed4 ,sidenote3 ,the proofs from the elements and the universe4 #bdh4 ,there follow two proofs connected with gradations in the scale of being4 ,earth and water are the two lower and grosser elements2 and since temperament depends greatly upon climate1 we find that men and the animals are all of somewhat heavy character4 ,air and fire are the higher and more refined elements2 how then can we think otherwise than that they are the home of more lofty beings#ee8 ,then again the universe is either a simple or a composite body4 ,that it is not composite is shown by the harmony 71 concentus7 of its parts2 it is therefore simple4 ,a simple body must be held together by spirit in some one of its grades1 either as unity1 growth1 or soul4 ,bodies held together merely by unity1 like stones or logs1 admit of very simple changes only2 but the universe admits of every kind of change and development1 and yet keeps together2 it must therefore be held together by spirit in its highest grade1 that is by soul and by reason4 ,being a whole1 it must be greater than its parts1 and include all that its parts possess4 ,but a nature greater than man1 and possessing soul and reason1 is god#ef4 ,sidenote3 ,the proof from providence4 #bdi4 ,the proof from the good gifts of providence has been already given in substance2 we may however notice the sharp reply given to ,epicurus1 who maintains that the wondrous contrivances of the ,creator for the benefit of man result from the chance clashings of particles4 #8,as well contend1' replies the ,stoic1 #8that words and verses come from the chance shifting of the twenty-one letters of the alphabet1 and that the poems of ,ennius could be produced by shaking together a sufficient quantity of these in a box1 and then pouring them out on the ground6 ,chance would hardly produce a single verse#eg4' ,the terrors of the universe1 its storms1 earthquakes1 deluges1 pestilences and wars1 which seem to militate against this proof1 are themselves turned into a fourth proof#eh4 ,a further proof1 which depends on the contemplation of the movements of the heavenly bodies#ei1 we have sufficiently considered in connexion with the influence of ,chaldaean and ,persian thought4 ,sidenote3 ,the proof from worship4 #bej4 ,there remain two proofs1 which at first sight may appear singular1 but are nevertheless very strongly urged1 the proofs from worship and divination2 which according to the ,stoics are practices that must be justified1 but cannot be justified without the postulate of the existence of gods4 ,the proof from worship is best known in the paradoxical form1 #8if there are altars1 there are gods1' which is attributed to ,chrysippus#fj4 ,this proof is fused by ,seneca with the proof from general consent#fa2 but its true character seems to be different4 #8,without gods there can be no piety1 for piety is the right worship of the gods4 ,without gods there can be no holiness1 for holiness is a right attitude towards the gods4 ,without gods there can be no wisdom1 for wisdom is the knowledge of things human and divine#fb4 ,but without piety1 holiness1 and wisdom a reasonable philosophy cannot be constructed4 ,therefore gods exist4' ,the argument in its simplest form is attributed to ,zeno himself4 #8,it is reasonable to honour the gods4 ,but it is not reasonable to honour the non-existent4 ,therefore gods exist#fc4' ,sidenote3 ,the proof from divination4 #bea4 ,the final argument is that from divination2 which is remarkable in view of the close association between divination and astrology1 and the derivation of the latter from a scientific system which finds no place for divine interpositions4 ,but both in ,greece and ,rome the forecasting of the future had long been reconciled with theology1 upon the hypothesis that the gods warn men for their good of coming events4 ,in accepting the truth of divination the ,stoics were following the ,socratic tradition#fd4 ,this belief was accepted by all the great ,stoic masters1 and was a #8citadel' of their philosophy#fe4 ,it is true that on this point ,panaetius exercised the privilege of a suspense of judgment#ff2 but all the more did his pupil1 the pious ,posidonius1 lay stress upon the subject1 on which he composed five books#ff1 of which the spirit is preserved to us in ,cicero's books de ,divinatione#fg4 ,to ,roman writers their inherited ,state practice of augury1 with its elaborate though half-forgotten science1 was long a motive for maintaining this belief#fh2 but the ancient reputation of the oracle at ,delphi maintained its hold still more persistently1 and was abandoned with even greater reluctance#fi4 ,nevertheless the whole group of beliefs was quietly pushed aside by the ,romans of the times of the empire1 if we may judge from the words of ,epictetus--#8what need have ,i to consult the viscera of victims and the flight of birds1 and why do ,i submit when he 7the diviner7 says 8it is for your interest80 ,have ,i not within me a diviner#gj8' ,sidenote3 ,divine qualities4 #beb4 ,our next enquiry is #8of what kind are the gods8' #8what are their qualities8' ,here the ,stoics break more decidedly with tradition4 ,antipater of ,tarsus1 as we have seen1 defined the deity as #8a living being1 happy1 immortal and benevolent towards men#ga4' ,it is clear that this description can only be applied in its fulness to the supreme deity1 for all other gods are destined to pass away in the general conflagration#gb4 ,that the supreme deity is possessed of life and of reason has already been assumed in the proofs of his existence2 but we have here a reaffirmation of ,stoic doctrine as against those that hold that the world is governed by blind destiny and chance4 ,in stating that the gods are happy the ,stoics agree with ,epicurus2 but according to them this happiness consists not in rest1 but in activity4 ,in this distinction the whole difference between the ,stoic and ,epicurean ideals of happiness1 that is1 between their ethical ends1 comes into sight4 ,the ,stoics affirm that the gods are occupied1 and that with matters of the greatest concern3 and that any other conception is unworthy of them#gc4 ,that the activity of the gods has for its aim the happiness of men is plainly the doctrine of providence2 and in making benevolence an attribute of deity#gd the ,stoics turn their backs for ever upon the belief in gods that are greedy1 jealous1 mischievous1 and haughty2 that is1 not merely on such deities as were still a part of the creed of the rustic#ge1 but also such as had provided the problems of the whole of ,greek tragedy1 and given the opportunity for the stinging attacks of ,epicurus on religion#gf4 ,in examining these attributes of the gods we have anticipated the enquiries which belong to the third and fourth categories2 namely as to the disposition and the relativity of the gods4 ,incidentally we have obtained an excellent illustration of the logical importance of definition and the four categories4 ,definition implies in advance what is contained in each of the categories1 and each category contains implicitly what is contained in the other three2 but the logical mechanism enables us so to express the doctrine that it is for ever fixed on the memory4 ,nor can we easily imagine that the world will ever forget this conception of a ,supreme ,god1 in his essence a living all-wise ,being2 in his attributes immortal1 immutable#gg1 active and benevolent2 in his disposition occupied in contemplating and controlling his great work the universe1 and in his relation to his creatures constantly concerned for their comfort and happiness4 ,sidenote3 ,stoicism and the old mythology4 #bec4 ,it must by this time be plain that the whole atmosphere of ,stoic religion was alien to that in which the gods of the ,greek and ,roman mythology had taken root4 ,the nominal absorption of these gods in the ,stoic system has therefore no theoretical importance2 it was a work of political adaptation4 ,the ,stoics themselves doubtless believed that they were restoring the original meaning of the pantheon1 and freeing it from corruptions for which the poets were responsible4 ,the original meaning was also1 in their judgment1 the true meaning4 ,public opinion was already in revolt against the old theology1 both on scientific and on moral grounds4 ,the current tales of the gods were both incredible and revolting#gh2 the worship of them too often an attempt to silence the voice of conscience#gi4 ,the ,stoics proposed to make the myths symbols of scientific truths1 and the ritual an incentive to honest living4 ,their interpretation was in the main physical2 the gods represent respectively the heavenly bodies1 the elements1 the plants2 the amours of the gods represent the continuous work of the great creative forces of nature4 ,to a lesser extent explanations are found in society and in history4 ,these interpretations are greatly assisted by etymologies1 according to the doctrine of dialectics that wisdom lies hid in words4 ,the whole process may seem to the modern critic puerile1 because the practical occasion for it has passed away2 but there are still to be found thinkers who hold that by such processes alone it is possible for human thought to progress without civil society being disrupted4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,stoic metamorphoses4 #bed4 ,according to this system ,juppiter becomes the fiery heaven1 the chief of the elements1 the source of all life#hj2 ,juno is the softer air1 into which the fire enters to become the germinating seed#ha4 ,thus she is called sister as a fellow-element#hb1 and wife as an instrument in the creative process4 ,from a slightly different point of view ,chrysippus interpreted ,zeus as ,god1 and ,hera as matter2 and their union as the commencement of the ,creation1 when ,god spread throughout matter the seed ,logoi#hc4 ,so again ,hephaestus 7,vulcan7 represents fire2 ,poseidon 7,neptune7 is the sea2 ,dis 7,pluto7 and ,rhea alike stand for the earth#hd4 ,demeter 7,ceres7 again is the corn-land#he1 and ,persephone 7,proserpine7 the growing crop2 as such she is lost to her mother and lamented by her for six months in every year#hf4 ,apollo is the sun1 ,luna or ,diana the moon#hg2 ,cronus1 son of ,earth and ,heaven1 is ,chronos 77 or ,time1 and he is said to devour his children1 because all that is begotten of time is in turn consumed by time#hh4 ,athene or ,minerva is the daughter of ,zeus1 to whom he has given birth without a partner1 because she is the divine ,reason by which he made the universe#hi4 ,chrysippus wrote at length on the allegorical interpretation of the three ,graces#ij2 and the work of ,cornutus entirely consists of expositions of this system4 ,other gods are recognised by the ,stoics as personifications of actions or feelings2 ,eros 7,cupid71 ,aphrodite 7,venus7 and ,pothos 7regret7 of feelings2 ,hope 71 ,spes71 ,justice 71 ,iustitia7 and ,wise ,law 77 of actions#ia4 ,so in particular ,ares 7,mars7 stands for war1 or the setting of array against array4 ,sidenote3 ,minor deities4 #bee4 ,we have already noticed that the gods that are borrowed from the popular mythology do not possess the divine attribute of immortality2 and in some of them the attribute of benevolence is not prominent4 ,there was thus a constant tendency to assign them to an order of nature of lower rank than the deity4 ,such an order was already constituted by the popular belief1 adopted by the ,stoics1 that the whole universe is full of spirits or daemons1 some kindly1 others mischievous4 ,highest in the former class stand the divine messengers1 who everywhere throughout the universe keep watch over the affairs of men and bring report thereof to ,god#ib4 ,this was a widespread belief1 most in harmony with the principles of ,persism1 but also met with in the ,rigveda#ic and in the poems of ,hesiod#id4 ,these watchmen are however not the spies of a cruel tyrant1 but the officers of a benevolent sovereign2 we find them early in ,roman literature identified with the stars#ie1 and this may account for the special recognition of the twins ,castor and ,pollux1 as kindly daemons that protect sailors from shipwreck#if4 ,there are also spirits which are careless1 idle1 or mischievous#ig2 these the deity may employ as his executioners#ih4 ,a daemon which is solely the embodiment of an evil or mischievous principle1 such as the ,druh of ,persism or the ,satan of ,judaism1 is however not to be found in the ,stoic system4 ,amongst daemons are also to be recognised the souls of men parted from their bodies1 some good and some evil#ii4 ,all beliefs of this kind are specially characteristic of the type of ,stoicism introduced by ,posidonius#ajj4 ,we may specially note the belief in the ,genius which accompanies each man from his birth to his death1 7and which closely corresponds to the guardian angel of ,persism17 because of the special vogue it obtained in the ,roman world#aja4 ,sidenote3 ,deified men4 #bef4 ,the ,stoics never failed to close their list of deities with the recognition of men raised to the sky for their services to their fellow-men4 ,such were ,hercules1 who rid the earth of monsters2 ,castor and ,pollux2 ,aesculapius the inventor of medicine2 ,liber the first cultivator of the vine1 and 7amongst the ,romans7 ,romulus the founder of the city4 ,these are deities established by the laws of each city#ajb4 ,the ,stoics do not raise their own leaders to this position1 but 7as we shall see in dealing with the question of the #8wise man'7 they assign to them almost equal honours4 ,this part of their theory appears to open the door to great practical abuses1 since it might be used to justify the claims of the sovereigns of ,egypt to be honoured as gods during their lifetime1 and those of the ,roman emperors that their predecessors should be worshipped as such after their death4 ,but it does not seem that such an abuse actually occurred2 and this part of the theory of gods always seems to have been regarded by the ,stoics rather as an explanation of historical facts than as a principle of civic submission4 ,sidenote3 ,worship4 #beg4 ,questions as to the worship of the gods belong strictly to the department of politics1 so far as public worship is concerned1 and of ethics1 so far as individuals are concerned4 ,it may however be convenient to anticipate the discussion of them1 since we cannot properly appreciate the ,stoic views of religion apart from their practical application4 ,we must therefore notice that ,stoicism in its beginnings1 in accordance with its ,cynic origin1 was revolutionary1 unorthodox1 in the popular language atheistic4 ,not only did it follow the principles of ,persism in condemning altogether the worship of images1 but it also poured scorn upon the building of temples and the offering of sacrifices4 ,thus ,zeno in his book on #8the ,state' forbids the making of temples and images1 because they are unworthy of the deity#ajc2 an idea which the ,romans recognised as not altogether strange to their own history1 seeing that for a hundred and seventy years 7presumably during the ,etruscan supremacy7 no images had been known at ,rome#ajd4 ,the ,stoic condemnation of sacrifice is mostly expressed by silence1 but it finds words in ,seneca#aje4 ,although they thus denounced in principle the whole existing system of public worship1 the ,stoics did not feel themselves prevented from taking part in it as a seemly and ancient custom#ajf2 and the ,roman ,stoics took a special pride in the reputation of the city for attention to #8religion1' that is to say1 to the ritual observances due to the gods#ajg4 ,sidenote3 ,stoic hymnology4 #beh4 ,meanwhile the ,stoics actively developed their own ideal of worship1 namely the rendering of praise and honour to the gods by means of hymns4 #8,it is reasonable1' said ,zeno1 #8to honour the gods#ajh4' ,the hymn of ,cleanthes shows the form in which this honour could find expression1 and though in the main it is an outburst of individual conviction1 yet it contains the germ of public hymnology#aji4 ,the value of music in public worship was recognised by ,diogenes of ,babylon#aaj4 ,posidonius laid it down that the best and most pious worship of the gods is to honour them with pure mind and voice#aaa4 ,epictetus speaks continually in this spirit1 and gives us examples of prose hymnology3 #8great is ,god1 who has given us implements with which we shall cultivate the earth#aab'2 #8,i give thee all thanks that thou hast allowed me to join in this thy assemblage of men1 and to see thy works1 and to comprehend this thy administration#aac4' ,thus ought we #8to sing hymns to the deity1 and bless him1 and tell of his benefits#aad4' ,sidenote3 ,prayer4 #bei4 ,prayer to the gods may be taken as more characteristic of private and individual worship1 though the paradox is worthy of attention that men should ask nothing of the gods that they cannot ask publicly#aae4 ,the whole problem of prayer is so fully and admirably treated upon ,stoic lines by ,juvenal in his ,tenth ,satire1 that nothing can be added to his exposition but the evidence that his teaching is in fact ,stoic4 ,let us then enter the temples and listen to men's prayers4 ,first they beg the doorkeeper for admission1 though the deity is equally near to them outside2 then they raise their hands to the sky1 or press their mouths close to the ear of an image#aaf4 ,to the unlistening deity they pour out wishes so shameful that they could not let a fellow-man share their secret#aag4 ,decrepit old men babble prayers for long life1 and make themselves out younger than they are#aah4 ,another prays for riches#aai1 or for some other thing that will do him harm#abj4 ,undertakers pray for a busy season#aba4 ,parents and nurses 7and these are the nearest to innocence7 pray for the success of their children in life#abb4 ,they may be excused1 but the thoughtful man should know that the advantages for which friends have prayed have often in the end proved a man's destruction#abc4 ,he should examine his own heart1 and recognise that his prayers till now have been unworthy and foolish#abd4 ,since the gods wish us well1 let us leave it to them to choose what is best for us#abe4 #8,look up to ,god1 and say3--deal with me for the future as thou wilt3 ,i am of the same mind as thou art4 ,i am thine1 ,i refuse nothing that pleases thee#abf4' #8,seek not that the things which happen should happen as you wish2 but wish the things that happen to be as they are3 and you will have a tranquil flow of life#abg4' ,sidenote3 ,self-examination4 #bfj4 ,prayer so regarded becomes not merely an act of resignation1 in which a man ceases to battle against a destiny that is too strong for him2 it is a daily examination of his soul1 to know whether it is in tune with the purposes of the universe4 ,this examination is a religious exercise1 never to be omitted before sleep4 ,it is inculcated both by ,seneca and ,epictetus4 #8,how beautiful' says ,seneca1 #8is this custom of reviewing the whole day6 how quiet a sleep follows on self-examination6 ,the mind takes its place on the judgment-seat1 investigates its own actions1 and awards praise or blame according as they are deserved#abh4' ,and ,epictetus adopts the verses ascribed to ,pythagoras3 #8,let sleep not come upon thy languid eyes ,before each daily action thou hast scanned2 ,what's done amiss1 what done1 what left undone2 ,from first to last examine all1 and then ,blame what is wrong1 in what is right rejoice#abi4' ,sidenote3 ,religious duty4 #bfa4 ,we are now in a position to sum up in technical language#acj the obligations of religion freed from superstition#aca4 ,our duty towards the gods is rightly to believe in them1 to acknowledge their greatness and benevolence1 to submit to them as the creators and rulers of the universe#acb4 ,we may not light lamps in their honour on sabbath-days1 nor crowd round their temples in the early hours of the morning2 we may not offer ,jove a towel nor ,juno a mirror#acc4 ,our service to them is to make ourselves like to them2 he who would win their favour1 must be a good man#acd4 ,wheresoever they call us1 we must follow with gladness1 for they are wiser than we#ace4 ,without ,god we must attempt nothing1 but we must always reflect1 examine ourselves1 and seek to learn the divine will#acf4 ,we came here when it pleased ,god1 and we must depart when he shall please#acg4 #8,so live1' says the ,stoic teacher1 #8with your fellow-men1 as believing that ,god sees you3 so hold converse with ,god1 as to be willing that all men should hear you#ach4' ,,footnotes #a e4g4 ,theodor ,mommsen1 ,roman ,history iii #dcb 7,dickson's translation74 #b #8omnino dividunt nostri totam istam de dis immortalibus quaestionem in partes quattuor4 primum docent esse deos2 deinde quales sint2 tum1 mundum ab iis administrari2 postremo1 consulere eos rebus humanis' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #a1 #c4 #c #81 quem deum ,zeno nuncupat' ,lact4 ver4 sap4 #i 7,arnim i #afj72 #8rationem deum vocat ,zeno' ,min4 ,felix #ai1 #aj 7ib472 #8,zeno rationem quandam1 per omnem naturam rerum pertinentem1 vi divina esse adfectam putat' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ad1 #cf4 #d 1 1 ,hippol4 ,phil4 #ba 7,arnim ii #ajbi74 #e ' ,theoph4 ,autol4 i #d 7,arnim ii #ajcc74 #f #8ille est prima omnium causa1 ex qua ceterae pendent' ,sen4 ,ben4 iv #g1 #b2 #8hic est causa causarum' ,n4 ,q4 ii #de1 #b4 #g #8,chrysippus ait ea quae natura fluerent et manarent divina esse1 ut aquam et terram et aera' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ae1 #ci4 #h #8,chrysippus deum ait ignem praeterea esse' ib42 #8et deum ipsum ignem putavit ,zeno' ,august4 adv4 ,ac4 iii #ag1 #ch 7,arnim i #aeg72 ,euseb4 pr4 ev4 #ae 7,arnim ii #ajej74 #i ,diog4 ,l4 vii #adh2 #8,cleanthes ipsum mundum deum dicit esse' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ad1 #cg2 #8vis illum vocare mundum8 non falleris' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #de1 #c2 #8quid est deus8 quod vides totum et quod non vides totum2 solus est omnia' ib4 i ,prol4 #ac2 #8,iuppiter est quodcunque vides quocunque moveris' ,lucan ,phars4 ix #ehj4 #aj ,arnim ii #ajcg and #ajci4 #aa #8,zenoni et reliquis fere ,stoicis aether videtur summus deus' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #da1 #abf4 #ab #8,cleanthes 444 solem dominari et rerum potiri putat' ib4 #ac #8,zeno astris idem sc4 vim divinam tribuit' ,n4 ,d4 i #ad1 #cf2 #8,cleanthes divinitatem omnem tribuit astris' ib4 #ad1 #cg4 #ad #8tibi licet hunc auctorem rerum nostrarum compellare' ,sen4 ,ben4 iv #g1 #a4 #ae #8rectorem custodemque universi' ,n4 ,q4 ii #de1 #a2 #8stant beneficio eius omnia' ,ben4 iv #g1 #a4 #af ,arnim i #ecb4 #ag #8,chrysippus ait vim divinam esse positam in universae naturae animo atque mente' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ae1 #ci2 #8quid est deus8 mens universi' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 i ,prol4 #ac2 cf4 ,arnim i #aeg4 #ah ,arnim iii ,ant4 #ce2 #8hunc eundem et fatum si dixeris1 non mentieris' ,sen4 ,ben4 iv #g1 #b4 #ai #8quid aliud est natura quam deus8' ib4 #a4 #bj #8,chrysippus deum dicit esse necessitatem rerum futurarum' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ae1 #ci2 cf4 ,arnim ii #ajgf4 #ba 1 ,cleanthes ,hymn #ch1 #ci2 #8naturalem legem ,zeno divinam esse censet' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ad1 #cf4 #bb #8,chrysippus legis perpetuae et aeternae vim1 quae quasi dux vitae atque magistra officiorum sit1 ,iovem dicit esse' ib4 #ae1 #dj4 #bc #8,chrysippus homines etiam eos1 qui immortalitatem essent consecuti deos dicit esse' ib4 #ae1 #ci2 #8,persaeus 444 inventa ipsa divina dicit' ib4 #ae1 #ch4 #bd #8,antisthenes populares deos multos1 naturalem unum esse dicit' ib4 i #ac1 #cb4 #be ' 1 444 ,cleanthes ,hymn #a and #b2 #8,stoici dicunt non esse nisi unum deum et unam eandemque potestatem1 quae pro ratione officiorum variis nominibus appellatur' ,servius ad ,verg4 ,georg4 i #e 7,arnim ii #ajgj74 #bf 1 ' ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #ch1 #e 7quoting from ,chrysippus74 #bg ,galen qual4 inc4 #f 7,arnim ii #ajef74 #bh #8ne hoc quidem illi altissimi viri crediderunt1 ,iovem1 qualem in ,capitolio et in ceteris aedibus colimus1 mittere manu fulmina1 sed eundem quem nos ,iovem intellegunt1 rectorem custodemque universi1 animum ac spiritum mundi1 operis huius dominum et artificem1 cui nomen omne convenit 444 idem ,etruscis visum est' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #de1 #a and #c4 #bi ,see above1 #ig4 #cj #8hominum sator atque deorum' ,aen4 i #bed1 and so passim4 #ca #8tum pater omnipotens fecundis imbribus ,aether coniugis in gremium laetae descendit1 et omnes magnus alit1 magno commixtus corpore1 fetus' ,virgil ,georg4 ii #cce-cbg4 #cb ,this seems undoubtedly to be the meaning underlying the corrupt text of ,cleanthes ,hymn #d2 ,pearson well compares ' 7scil4 7 ,euseb4 praep4 ev4 xv #ae4 ,see above1 #ig4 #cc 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ach2 4441 ,corn4 ,n4 ,d4 #h4 #cd 1 ,philod4 de piet4 #aa 7,arnim ii #ajgf72 #8est aliquid in illo ,stoici dei1 iam video2 nec cor nec caput habet' ,sen4 ,apoc4 #h1 #a4 #ce #8,stoici negant habere ullam formam deum' ,lact4 de ira #ah 7,arnim ii #ajeg74 #cf ,in connexion with the association of ,god with the universe we may say 7but only in a secondary sense7 that ,god has spherical form2 ,frag4 ,herc4 p4 #bej 7,arnim ii #ajfj72 #8quae vero vita tribuitur isti rotundo deo8' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #aj1 #bd4 #cg 1 1 ' ,at4 plac4 i #f1 #a4 #ch ,see above1 #bdb1 note #bj4 #ci ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #ch1 #c4 ,a similar definition is given in ,diog4 ,l4 vii #adg as indicating the view of the ,stoics generally4 #dj #8inter omnes omnium gentium sententia constat2 omnibus enim innatum est et in animo quasi insculptum1 esse deos' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #d1 #ab2 #8nec ulla gens usquam est adeo extra leges moresque proiecta1 ut non aliquos deos credat' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aag1 #f4 #da ,see above1 #aeh4 #db ,cleanthes apud ,clem4 ,al4 ,strom4 v #c 7,arnim i #eei74 #dc ,see below1 #bid4 #dd #8videmus ceteras opiniones fictas atque vanas diuturnitate extabuisse 444 quae enim anus tam excors inveniri potest1 quae illa quae quondam credebantur apud inferos portenta1 extimescat8 opinionum enim commenta delet dies' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #b1 #e4 #de ,as for instance ,cicero does 7following ,posidonius7 ,n4 ,d4 ii #e1 #ac4 #df ,see above1 #aeh4 #dg ,sext4 math4 ix #ic1 see #adi4 #dh ,see the next note4 #di #8si di non sunt1 quid esse potest in rerum natura homine melius8 in eo enim solo ratio est1 qua nihil potest esse praestantius' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #f1 #af4 #ej #8si enim' inquit ,chrysippus #8est aliquid in rerum natura1 quod potestas humana efficere non possit2 est certe id1 quod illud efficit1 homine melius4 atqui res caelestes ab homine confici non possunt4 est igitur id1 quo illa conficiuntur1 homine melius4 id autem quid potius dixeris quam deum8' ib4 #ea #8et tamen ex ipsa hominum sollertia esse aliquam mundi mentem1 et eam quidem acriorem et divinam1 existimare debemus4 unde enim haec homo arripuit8 ut ait apud ,xenophontem ,socrates' ib4 #ah4 #eb #8esse autem hominem1 qui nihil in omni mundo melius esse quam se putet1 insipientis arrogantiae est' ib4 #af4 #ec ,see above1 #hc4 #ed #8placet enim illi sc4 ,epicuro esse deos1 quia necesse sit praestantem esse aliquam naturam1 qua nihil sit melius' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #ag1 #df4 ,see however ,mayor's note4 #ee #8tantum vero ornatum mundi1 tantam varietatem pulchritudinemque rerum caelestium 444 si non deorum immortalium domicilium putes1 nonne plane desipere videare8 an ne hoc quidem intellegimus1 omnia supera esse meliora1 terram autem esse infimam1 quam crassissimus circumfundat aer8' etc4 ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #f1 #ag4 ,for the original argument of ,chrysippus see ,sext4 math4 ix #hf 7,arnim ii #ajad74 #ef #8haec ita fieri omnibus inter se concinentibus mundi partibus profecto non possent1 nisi ea uno divino et continuato spiritu continerentur' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #g1 #ai4 ,here cf4 ,sext4 math4 ix #gh to #he 7,arnim ii #ajac74 #eg ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #cg1 #ic4 #eh ,the third in the exposition of ,cleanthes3 #8tertiam causam dixit ,cleanthes esse1 quae terreret animos fulminibus tempestatibus 444 pestilentia terrae motibus' ib4 #e1 #ad4 #ei #8quartam causam esse1 eamque vel maximam1 conversionem caeli' ib4 #e1 #ae4 #fj ,arnim ii #ajai4 #fa #8non in hunc furorem omnes mortales consensissent adloquendi surda numina et inefficaces deos1 nisi nossemus illorum beneficia' ,sen4 ,ben4 iv #d1 #b4 #fb ,sext4 math4 ix #abc 7,arnim ii #ajag74 #fc ib4 #acc 7,arnim i #aeb74 ,pearson 7,z4 #ajh7 describes the argument as a #8transparent sophistry'2 but at the present time there is a widespread tendency towards its revival2 see ,hffding1 ,philosophy of ,religion1 ch4 iii4 #fd ,xen4 ,mem4 i #a1 #b4 #fe ,cic4 ,div4 i #e1 #i and #f1 #aj4 #ff ib4 #c1 #f2 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #adi4 #fg ,divination is based upon the 7continuatio coniunctioque naturae71 ,cic4 ,div4 ii #fi1 #adb4 ,see also ,epict4 ,disc4 i #ad1 and above1 #bdh4 #fh #8,tuscis summa est fulgurum persequendorum scientia' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #cb1 #b4 #fi #8non ullo saecula dono nostra carent maiore deum1 quam ,delphica sedes quod siluit' ,lucan ,phars4 v #aaa-aac2 cf4 #hf-if4 #gj ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #g1 #c and #d4 ,the ,stoic belief in divination is very severely criticized by ,zeller3 #8these vagaries show in ,stoicism practical interests preponderating over science' ,stoics1 etc4 p4 #bhj4 ,but the belief in is traced back to ,zeno and ,cleanthes1 who were hardly #8practical' men in the sense in which ,zeller seems to use the word4 #ga ,see above1 #bde4 #gb ,see above1 #bji4 #gc ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #cj1 #gg4 #gd #8di immortales nec volunt obesse nec possunt4 natura enim illis mitis et placida est' ,sen4 ,dial4 iv #bg1 #a2 #8di aequali tenore bona sua per gentes populosque distribuunt1 unam potentiam sortiti1 prodesse' ,ben4 vii #ca1 #d4 #ge #8,faune1 ,nympharum fugientum amator1 per meos fines et aprica rura lenis incedas1 abeasque parvis aequus alumnis' ,hor4 ,c4 iii #ah1 #a-d4 #gf #8tantum relligio potuit suadere malorum' ,lucr4 ,r4 ,n4 i #ajb4 #gg #8,does the ,zeus at ,olympia lift up his brow8 ,no1 his look is fixed as becomes him who is ready to say--,irrevocable is my word and shall not fail' ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #h1 #bf 7quoting from ,hom4 ,il4 i #ebf74 #gh #8sic vestras hallucinationes fero quemadmodum ,iuppiter ineptias poetarum1 quorum alius illi alas imposuit1 alius cornua2 alius adulterum illum induxit et abnoctantem1 alius saevum in deos1 alius iniquum in homines1 alius parricidam et regni alieni paternique expugnatorem' ,sen4 ,dial4 vii #bf1 #f4 #gi ,this feeling finds expression at ,rome as far back as the times of ,hannibal2 #8hoc scelesti illi in animum inducunt suum1 ,iovem se placare posse donis1 hostiis2 et operam et sumptum perdunt' ,plaut4 ,rud4 #bb to #bd4 #hj #8,chrysippus disputat aethera esse eum1 quem homines ,iovem appellarent' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #ae1 #dj4 #ha #8aer autem1 ut ,stoici disputant1 ,iunonis nomine consecratur 444 effeminarunt autem eum ,iunonique tribuerunt1 quod nihil est eo mollius' ib4 ii #bf1 #ff4 #hb #8quoniam tenuitate haec elementa paria sunt1 dixerunt esse germana' ,serv4 ad ,verg4 ,aen4 i #dg 7,arnim ii #ajff74 #hc ,rival philosophers in the earlier times1 and the church fathers later1 concurred in reviling ,chrysippus because he extended this principle of interpretation to a #8disgraceful' representation found in ,argos or ,samos1 in which ,hera receives the divine seed in her mouth2 yet ,christian antiquity was about to absorb the similar notion of the conception of the ,virgin ,mary through the ear 7#8quae per aurem concepisti' in an old ,latin hymn74 ,chrysippus of course rightly estimated the absurdity of criticising cosmic processes as if they were breaches of social decency1 and by so doing relieved the pious souls of his own day from a real source of distress4 ,see ,arnim ii #ajga-ajgd4 #hd ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #bf1 #ff4 #he ib4 i #ae1 #dj and ii #bf1 #ff4 #hf #8,proserpinam1 quam frugum semen esse volunt absconditamque quaeri a matre fingunt' ib4 #hg ib4 #bg1 #fh4 #hh ' ,cornutus ,n4 ,d4 #f4 ,the castration of ,uranus by ,cronus is thus explained by the ,stoics3 #8caelestem naturam1 id est igneam1 quae per sese omnia gigneret1 vacare voluerunt ea parte corporis1 quae coniunctione alterius egeret ad procreandum' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #bd1 #fd4 #hi ,justin ,apol4 i #fd 7,arnim ii #ajif74 #ij ,sen4 ,ben4 i #c1 #i4 #ia ,at4 plac4 i #f1 #ac4 #ib 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aea4 #ic #8sya vruasya spo n n mianti bhraya' ,rigv4 ix #gc1 #d4 #id ,hes4 ,op4 et ,di4 #beb1 #bec2 see also #cc4 #ie #8et alia signa de caelo ad terram accidunt2 qui'st imperator divum atque hominum ,iuppiter1 is nos per gentis hic alium alia disparat1 hominum qui facta mores pietatem et fidem noscamus' ,plaut4 ,rud4 #h-ab4 #if 8 0 ,sext4 math4 ix #hf 7,arnim ii #ajad72 #8clarum ,tyndaridae sidus ab infimis quassas eripiunt aequoribus rates' ,hor4 ,c4 iv #h1 #ca and #cb4 #ig ,plut4 def4 orac4 #ag4 #ih 1 qu4 ,rom4 #ea4 #ii ,arnim ii #aaja4 #ajj #8,posidonius censet homines somniare1 quod plenus aer sit immortalium animorum' ,cic4 ,div4 i #cj1 #fd4 #aja #8,genius1 natale comes qui temperat astrum naturae deus humanae1 mortalis in unum quodque caput' ,hor4 ,ep4 ii #b1 #ahg-ahi2 #8sepone in praesentia1 quae quibusdam placent1 uni cuique nostrum paedagogum dari deum1 ex eorum numero quos ,ovidius ait 8de plebe deos0' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aaj1 #a2 #8,zeus has placed by every man a guardian1 every man's daemon1 to whom he has committed the care of the man2 a guardian who never sleeps1 is never deceived' ,epict4 ,disc4 i #ad1 #ab4 ,m4 ,aurelius identifies this daemon with the principate 7,to himself v #bg74 #ajb ,at4 plac4 i #f1 #i and #ae2 ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #bd1 #fb4 #ajc ,arnim i #bfd4 ,the feeling is reflected by ,lucan3 #8estne dei sedes1 nisi terra et pontus et ar1 et caelum et virtus8 superos quid quaerimus ultra8' ,phars4 ix #egh-i4 #ajd #8,varro dicit antiquos ,romanos plus annos centum et septuaginta deos sine simulacro coluisse3 8quod si adhuc mansisset1 castius di observarentur0' ,august4 ,civ4 ,de4 iv #ca4 #aje #8ne in victimis quidem deorum est honor' ,sen4 ,ben4 i #f1 #c4 #ajf #8,to make libations and to sacrifice and to offer first-fruits according to the custom of our fathers1 purely and not meanly nor scantily nor above our ability1 is a thing which belongs to all to do' ,epict4 ,manual #ca1 #e4 #ajg #8si conferre volumus nostra cum externis2 ceteris rebus aut pares aut etiam inferiores reperiemur1 religione1 id est cultu deorum1 multum superiores' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #c1 #h4 #ajh ,see above1 #bej4 #aji ' 1 1 ,hymn #cf1 #cg4 #aaj 7 7 77 7 7 ,philod4 mus4 iv #ff 7,arnim iii ,diog4 #fd74 #aaa #8cultus autem deorum est optimus idemque castissimus atque sanctissimus plenissimusque pietatis1 ut eos semper pura integra incorrupta et mente et voce veneremur' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #bh1 #ga4 #aab ,epict4 ,disc4 i #af1 #ag4 #aac ib4 iii #e1 #aj4 #aad ib4 i #af1 #ae4 #aae ,see above1 #aba4 #aaf #8non sunt ad caelum elevandae manus1 nec exorandus aedituus1 ut nos ad aurem simulacri admittat2 prope est a te deus' ,sen4 ,ep4 #da1 #a4 #aag #8turpissima vota dis insusurrant2 si quis admoverit aurem1 conticescent' ib4 #aj1 #e4 #aah ,sen4 ,dial4 x #aa1 #a4 #aai ib4 xi #d1 #b4 #abj ,ben4 ii #ad1 #e4 #aba ib4 vi #ch1 #a4 #abb ,ep4 #cb1 #d4 #abc #8etiamnunc optas1 quod tibi optavit nutrix tua aut paedagogus aut mater8 o quam inimica nobis sunt vota nostrorum6' ,sen4 ,ep4 #fj1 #a4 #abd #8se quisque consulat et in secretum pectoris sui redeat et inspiciat1 quid tacitus optaverit4 quam multa sunt vota1 quae etiam sibi fateri pudet6 quam pauca1 quae facere coram teste possimus6' ,ben4 vi #ch1 #e4 #abe ,this sentiment we can trace back to the time of ,plautus3 #8stulti hau scimus frustra ut simus1 quom quid cupienter dari petimus nobis3 quasi quid in rem sit possimus noscere' ,plautus ,pseud4 #fhc-e4 #abf ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #af1 #db4 #abg ,manual #h4 #abh ,sen4 ,dial4 v #cf1 #b4 ,he describes his practice with nave detail3 #8cum sublatum e conspectu lumen est et conticuit uxor moris mei iam conscia1 totum diem meum scrutor' ib4 #c4 #abi ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #aj1 #b and #c 7,long's transl474 #acj #8quomodo sint di colendi1 solet praecipi' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ie1 #dg4 #aca #8non enim philosophi solum1 verum etiam maiores nostri superstitionem a religione separaverunt' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #bh1 #ga4 #acb #8primus est deorum cultus deos credere1 deinde reddere illis maiestatem suam1 reddere bonitatem1 sine qua nulla maiestas est2 scire illos esse1 qui praesident mundo' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ie1 #ej4 #acc ib4 #ie1 #dg4 #acd #8vis deos propitiare8 bonus esto4 satis illos coluit1 quisquis imitatus est' ib4 #ie1 #ej4 #ace #8,you must believe that you have been placed in the world to obey them1 and to yield to them in everything which happens1 and voluntarily to follow it as being accomplished by the wisest intelligence' ,epict4 ,manual #ca1 #a4 #acf ,disc4 iii #bb1 #ec 7compare ,long's transl4 ii p4 #hc74 #acg ib4 iii #bf1 #cj4 #ach #8sic vive cum hominibus1 tanquam deus videat2 sic loquere cum deo1 tanquam homines audiant' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aj1 #e4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,the ,,soul4 ,sidenote3 ,man a part of the universe4 #bfb4 ,from the contemplation of the universe as a whole1 both from the purely scientific standpoint in the study of physics1 and from the more imaginative point of view in the dogmas of religion1 we now pass on to the more intimate study of the individual man1 consisting of body and soul4 ,in its main outlines the ,stoic theory has already been sketched4 ,thus it follows from the monistic standpoint that man is not ultimately an #8individual' or unit of the universe2 for the universe itself is the only true unit1 and a man is a part of it which cannot even for a moment break itself off completely from the whole4 ,it is therefore only in a secondary and subordinate sense1 and with special reference to the inculcation of ethics1 that we can treat ,zeno or ,lucilius as separate and independent beings4 ,again1 when we say that man #8consists of body and soul1' we are merely adopting popular language2 for body and soul are ultimately one1 and differ only in the gradation of spirit or tone which informs them4 ,then we have already learnt in dialectics that the highest power of man is that of #8assent' or free choice1 which is displayed in every exercise of reason2 and the same power1 though in a different aspect1 is at work in every moral act4 ,the doctrine of the universe is based upon the postulate that it is a living rational being on the largest scale2 and it follows1 that each man is a #8microcosm1' and contains in himself a complete representation of the universe in miniature4 ,lastly1 we see that man takes his place in the universe1 a little lower than gods and daemons1 and as greatly higher than animals as these in their turn surpass plants and inanimate objects2 and that his nature1 considered as composite1 includes all the varying gradations of spirit to which these orders correspond within the universe4 ,in all his parts alike the divine element is immanent and it binds them together in a coherent unity 7 74 ,it remains for us to put together from these and like points of departure a complete picture of human nature4 ,sidenote3 ,the soul's kingdom4 #bfc4 ,to indicate the general trend of ,stoic thought on this subject we propose the title #8the kingdom of soul4' ,starting with the popular distinction between body and soul1 we find that the biologist and the physician alike are preoccupied with the study of the body1 that is1 of physiology4 ,only as an afterthought and supplement to their work are the functions of soul considered2 and they are treated as far as possible by the methods suggested by the study of the body4 ,all this is reversed in the ,stoic philosophy4 ,the study of the soul stands in the front1 and is treated by methods directly suggested by observation of the soul's functions4 ,the body is not entirely ignored1 but is considered of comparatively small importance4 ,further1 the soul itself is manifold1 and is likened to a ,state1 in which all is well if the governing part have wisdom and benevolence proportionate to its power1 and if the lower parts are content to fulfil their respective duties2 but if the balance of the ,state is upset1 all becomes disorder and misery#a4 ,lastly1 this kingdom is itself a part of a greater whole1 namely of the ,cosmopolis or universal ,state4 ,by the comparison with a kingdom we are also directed towards right moral principle4 ,for as the citizen of ,corinth or ,sparta ought not to repine because his city is of less grandeur than ,athens1 so no man should be anxious because his external opportunities are limited4 ,he has a kingdom in his own mind and soul and heart4 ,let him be content to find his happiness in rightly administering it4 ,sidenote3 ,man a picture of the universe4 #bfd4 ,the doctrine that man is a representation or reflection of the universe is of unknown antiquity4 ,it seems to be clearly implied by the teaching of ,heraclitus1 in so far as he lays it down that both the universe and man are vivified and controlled by the ,logos#b4 ,the technical terms #8macrocosm' 7 7 and #8microcosm' 7 71 are1 as we have seen1 employed by ,aristotle#c4 ,but even if we suppose that this conception is a commonplace of ,greek philosophy1 it is in ,stoicism alone that it is of fundamental importance1 and knit up with the whole framework of the system4 ,and accordingly we find that all the ,stoic masters laid stress upon this principle4 ,the words of ,zeno suggest to ,cicero that #8the universe displays all impulses of will and all corresponding actions just like ourselves when we are stirred through the mind and the senses#d4' ,cleanthes used the dogma of the soul of the universe to explain the existence of the human soul as a part of it#e4 ,chrysippus found a foundation for ethics in the doctrine that man should study and imitate the universe#f4 ,diogenes of ,babylon says boldly that ,god penetrates the universe1 as soul the man#g2 and ,seneca that the relation of ,god to matter is the same as that of the soul to the body#h4 ,it is little wonder therefore if by ,philo's time the analogy had become a commonplace1 and philosophers of more than one school were accustomed to say that #8man is a little universe1 and the universe a big man#i4' ,god is therefore the soul of the universe#aj2 on the other hand the soul is ,god within the human body#aa1 a self-moving force encased in relatively inert matter1 providence at work within the limitations of natural necessity4 ,sidenote3 ,soul and body4 #bfe4 ,the dualism of body and soul appears in a sharply defined shape in ,persism1 and upon it depends the popular dogma of the immortality of the soul1 which 7as we have already noticed7 reached the ,greco-,roman world from a ,persian source#ab4 ,it appears to be rooted in the more primitive ways of thinking termed #8,animism' and #8,spiritism1' in which men felt the presence both in natural objects and within themselves of forces which they conceived as distinct beings4 ,according to this system a man's soul often assumes bodily shape1 and quits his body even during life1 either in sleep or during a swoon2 sometimes indeed it may be seen to run away and return in the shape of a mouse or a hare4 ,at death it is seen to leave the man as a breath of air1 and to enter the atmosphere4 ,but besides his soul a man possesses a shadow1 a likeness1 a double1 a ghost1 a name2 and all these in varying degrees contribute to form what we should call his personality4 ,in the animistic system the soul survives the man1 and why not8 ,but this survival is vaguely conceived1 and only credited so far as the evidence of the senses supports it4 ,its formulation in the doctrine of immortality belongs to a more advanced stage of human thought#ac4 ,sidenote3 ,soul and body are one4 #bff4 ,this dualistic conception could be and was incorporated in the ,stoic system to the same extent as the dualism of ,god and matter1 but no further4 ,ultimately1 as we have already learnt1 soul and body are one2 or1 in the language of paradox1 #8soul is body#ad4' ,this follows not only from the general principles of our philosophy1 but also specifically from observation of the facts of human life4 #8,the incorporeal1' argued ,cleanthes1 #8cannot be affected by the corporeal1 nor the corporeal by the incorporeal1 but only the corporeal by the corporeal4 ,but the soul is affected by the body in disease and in mutilation1 and the body by the soul1 for it reddens in shame and becomes pale in fear3 therefore the soul is body#ae4' ,and similarly ,chrysippus argues3 #8death is the separation of soul from body4 ,now the incorporeal neither joins with nor is separated from body1 but the soul does both4 ,the soul therefore is body#af4' ,this doctrine is commonly adduced as evidence of the #8materialism' of the ,stoics3 yet the ,stoics do not say that #8soul is matter1' and 7as we shall see7 they explain its workings upon principles quite different to the laws of physics or chemistry4 ,the essential unity of body and soul follows also from the way in which we acquire knowledge of them4 ,for we perceive body by the touch2 and we learn the workings of the soul by a kind of touch1 called the inward touch 7 7#ag4 ,sidenote3 ,mind1 soul and body4 #bfg4 ,having realised that the division of man into soul and body is not ultimate1 we may more easily prepare ourselves to make other divisions4 ,a division into three parts1 7i7 body1 7ii7 soul or life 71 anima71 and 7iii7 mind 71 animus71 was widely accepted in ,stoic times1 and in particular by the school of ,epicurus2 the mind being that which man has1 and the animals have not#ah4 ,the ,stoics develope this division by the principle of the microcosm4 ,mind is that which man has in common with the deity2 life that which he has in common with the animals2 growth 71 natura71 that which he has in common with the plants1 as for instance is shown in the hair and nails#ai4 ,man also possesses cohesion 71 unitas7 but never apart from higher powers4 ,further these four1 mind1 soul1 growth1 and cohesion1 are not different in kind1 but all are spirits 77 which by their varying degrees of tension 71 intentio7 are1 to a less or greater extent1 removed from the divine being1 the primal stuff4 ,in this sense man is not one1 nor two1 but multiple1 as the deity is multiple#bj4 ,sidenote3 ,the soul is fire and air4 #bfh4 ,the soul in its substance or stuff is fire1 identical with the creative fire which is the primal stuff of the universe#ba4 ,but the popular conception1 according to which the soul is air or breath1 and is seen to leave the body at death1 is also not without truth#bb4 ,there is a very general opinion that the soul is a mixture of fire and air1 or is hot air#bc4 ,by this a ,stoic would not mean that the soul was a compound of two different elements1 but that it was a variety of fire in the first stage of the downward path1 beginning to form air by relaxation of its tension3 but even so this form of the doctrine was steadily subordinated to the older doctrine of ,heraclitus1 that the soul is identical with the divine fire4 ,formally the soul is defined1 like the deity himself1 as a #8fiery intelligent spirit#bd'2 and in this definition it would seem that we have no right to emphasize the connexion between the word #8spirit' 77 and its original meaning #8breath1' since the word has in our philosophy many other associations4 ,it is further a ,stoic paradox that #8the soul is an animal1' just as ,god is an animal4 ,but the soul and the man are not on that account two animals2 all that is meant is that men and the brutes1 by reason of their being endowed with soul1 become animals#be4 ,sidenote3 ,the temperaments4 #bfi4 ,according to another theory1 which is probably not specifically ,stoic1 but derived from the ,greek physicians1 the soul is compounded of all four elements in varying proportion1 and the character of each soul 7subject1 in the ,stoic theory1 to the supreme control of reason#bf7 is determined by the proportion or #8temperament' 71 temperatura7 of the four elements4 ,there are accordingly four temperaments1 the fervid1 the frigid1 the dry1 and the moist1 according to the preponderance of fire1 air1 earth1 and water respectively#bg4 ,dull and sleepy natures are those in which there is an excess of the gross elements of earth and water#bh2 whilst an excess of cold air makes a man timorous1 and an excess of fire makes him passionate#bi4 ,these characters are impressed upon a man from birth and by his bodily conditions1 and within the limits indicated above are unalterable#cj4 ,the #8temperaments' have always been a favourite subject of discussion in popular philosophy#ca4 ,sidenote3 ,the soul's parts4 #bgj4 ,the characteristic attribute of the soul is that it is self-moved 77#cb4 ,although in this point the ,stoics agree with ,plato1 they do not go on to name life as another attribute1 for they do not agree with the argument of the ,phaedo that the soul1 having life as an inseparable attribute1 is incapable of mortality4 ,we pass on to the dispositions of the soul1 which correspond to its #8parts' in other philosophies1 and are indeed often called its parts4 ,but the soul has not in the strict sense parts#cc2 what are so called are its activities#cd1 which are usually reckoned as eight in number1 though the precise reckoning is of no importance#ce4 ,the eight parts of the soul are the ruling part or #8principate#cf1' the five senses1 and the powers of speech and generation4 ,the seven parts or powers other than the principate are subject to it and do its bidding1 so that the soul is1 as we have called it1 a kingdom in itself4 ,these seven parts are associated each with a separate bodily organ1 but at the same time each is connected with the principate4 ,they may therefore be identified with #8spirits which extend from the principate to the organs1 like the arms of an octopus#cg1' where by a #8spirit' we mean a pulsation or thrill1 implying incessant motion and tension4 ,the principate itself1 that is the mind1 is also a spirit possessed of a still higher tension2 and the general agreement of the ,stoics places its throne conveniently at the heart and in the centre of the body#ch4 ,accordingly ,posidonius defined the soul's parts as #8powers of one substance seated at the heart#ci4' ,sidenote3 ,aspects of the principate4 #bga4 ,if we now fix our attention on the principate itself1 we find it no more simple than the universe1 the deity1 the man1 or the soul4 ,in particular it resembles the deity in that1 although essentially one1 it is called by many names4 ,it is the soul in its reasoning aspect1 the reason1 the intellect 7 1 1 7#dj2 it is also the #8ego1' that is1 the will1 the energy1 the capacity for action#da4 ,it is in one aspect the divinity in us1 world-wide1 universal2 in another the individual man with his special bent and character2 so that we may even be said to have two souls in us1 the world-soul and each man's particular soul#db4 ,the principate becomes also in turn each of the other functions or parts of the soul1 for each of them is an aspect of the principate 7 7#dc4 ,in addition the principate has many titles of honour1 as when ,marcus ,aurelius terms it the ,pilot#dd1 the ,king and ,lawgiver#de1 the ,controller and ,governor#df1 the ,god within#dg4 ,sidenote3 ,the principate as reason4 #bgb4 ,although for the purpose of discussion we may distinguish between reason and will1 they are in fact everywhere intermingled4 ,thus the principate as the reasoning part of the soul includes the powers of perception1 assent1 comprehension1 and of reason in the narrower sense1 that is1 the power of combining the various conceptions of the mind1 so as ultimately to form a consistent system#dh4 ,but amongst these powers assent is equally an act of the will2 and on the other hand the judgments formed by the reasoning mind are not purely speculative1 but lead up to action2 so that it is the reasoning power which must be kept pure1 in order that it may duly control the soul's inclinations and aversions1 its aims and shrinkings1 its plans1 interests and assents#di4 ,if in the ,stoic theory the greater emphasis always appears to be laid on the reason1 it is the more necessary in interpreting it to bear in mind that we are speaking of the reason of an active and social being4 ,sidenote3 ,the principate as will4 #bgc4 ,the maintenance of the principate as will in a right condition is the problem of ethics2 and it is important to understand what this right condition is4 ,the answer is to be found in a series of analogies1 drawn from all departments of philosophy4 ,thus from the standpoint of physics the right condition is a proper strain or tension1 as opposed to slackness or unsteadiness#ej4 ,in theology it is the agreement of the particular will with the divine or universal will#ea4 ,from the point of view of the will itself it is the strength and force 7 7 of the will1 the attitude that makes a man say #8,i can#eb4' ,again it is that state of the soul which corresponds to health in the body#ec2 and in a quiet mood the ,stoic may describe it as a restful and calm condition#ed4 ,finally1 if the soul as a whole is compared to a ,state1 the principate in its function as the will may at its best be compared to a just and kind sovereign2 but if this aim is missed1 it may turn into a greedy and ungovernable tyrant#ee4 ,sidenote3 ,the principate1 divine and human4 #bgd4 ,the principate1 as it is of divine origin#ef1 and destined1 as we shall see1 to be re-absorbed in the deity1 may rightly be called god3 it is a god making its settlement and home in a human body#eg3 it keeps watch within over the moral principle#eh4 ,in the language of paradox we may say to each man1 #8,you are a god#ei4' ,of this principle we see the proof in that man interests himself in things divine#fj1 and in it we find the first incentive to a lofty morality#fa4 ,as however the deity is not conceived in human form1 and is not subject to human weaknesses1 there comes a point at which1 in the study of the human principate1 we part company with the divine2 and this point we reach both when we consider the principate with regard to its seven distinctly human manifestations1 and when we consider its possible degradation from the standard of health and virtue4 ,we now turn to the seven parts or powers of the human soul which are subordinate to the reasoning faculty4 ,sidenote3 ,powers of the principate4 #bge4 ,the first five powers of the principate are those which are recognised in popular philosophy as the #8five senses4' ,to materialistic philosophers nothing is plainer than that these are functions of the body2 is it not the eye which sees1 and the ear which hears#fb8 ,this the ,stoic denies4 ,the eye does not see1 but the soul sees through the eye as through an open door4 ,the ear does not hear1 but the soul hears through the ear4 ,sensation therefore is an activity of the principate1 acting in the manner already described in the chapter on #8,reason and ,speech#fc4' ,the soul is actively engaged1 and sends forth its powers as water from a fountain2 the sense-organs are passively affected by the objects perceived#fd4 ,subject to this general principle1 sensation 71 sensus7 may be variously defined4 ,it is #8a spirit which penetrates from the principate to the sensory processes'2 it includes alike the mind-picture 71 visum71 that is1 the first rough sketch which the mind shapes when stimulated by the sense-organ2 the assent 71 adsensus71 which the mind gives or refuses to this sketch2 and the final act of comprehension 71 comprehensio7 by which this assent is sealed or ratified#fe4 ,of these the middle stage is the most important1 so that we may say paradoxically #8sense is assent#ff4' ,only in a secondary and popular way can we use the word sensation to denote the physical apparatus of the sensory organs 771 as when we say of a blind man #8he has lost the sense of sight#fg4' ,sidenote3 ,the five senses4 #bgf4 ,the nature of sensation is more particularly described in the case of sight and hearing4 ,in the first case there proceed from the eyes rays1 which cause tension in the air1 reaching towards the object seen#fh2 this tension is cone-shaped1 and as the distance from the pupil of the eye increases1 the base of the cone is increased in size1 whilst the vigour of the sight diminishes4 ,this human activity effects vision of itself in one case2 for we say #8darkness is visible1' when the eye shoots forth light at it1 and correctly recognises that it is darkness#fi4 ,but in complete vision there is an opposing wave-motion coming from the object1 and the two waves become mutually absorbed3 hence ,posidonius called sight #8absorption' 77#gj4 ,similarly1 in the case of hearing1 the pulsation 7which1 as we have seen1 comes in the first instance from the principate7 spreads from the ear to the speaker1 and 7as is now more distinctly specified7 from the speaker to the hearer2 this reverse pulsation being circular in shape1 like the waves excited on the surface of a lake by throwing a stone into the water#ga4 ,of the sensations of smell1 taste and touch we only hear that they are respectively 7i7 a spirit extending from the principate to the nostrils1 7ii7 a spirit extending from the principate to the tongue1 and 7iii7 a spirit extending to the surface of the body and resulting in the easily-appreciated touch of an object#gb4 ,sidenote3 ,other activities4 #bgg4 ,the ,stoic account of the functions of the soul displayed in the ordinary activities of life is either defective or mutilated2 for even a slight outline of the subject should surely include at least breathing1 eating 7with drinking71 speech1 walking1 and lifting4 ,we need not however doubt that these1 equally with the five senses1 are all #8spirits stretching from the principate' to the bodily organs4 ,this is expressly stated of walking#gc4 ,of all such activities we must consider voice to be typical1 when it is described as the sixth function of the soul4 ,voice is described as #8pulsating air#gd1' set in motion by the tongue#ge2 but we can trace it back through the throat to some source below1 which we can without difficulty identify with the heart1 the seat of the principate#gf4 ,the voice is indeed in a special relationship to the principate1 since the spoken word is but another aspect of the thought which is expressed by it#gg4 ,sidenote3 ,procreation4 #bgh4 ,the seventh and last of the subordinate powers of the soul1 according to the ,stoics1 is that of procreation4 ,this part of their system is of great importance1 not only for the study of human nature1 but even in a higher degree for its indirect bearing upon the question of the development of the universe through #8procreative principles' 7 71 or1 as we have termed them above1 #8seed powers#gh4' ,that all things grow after their kind is of course matter of common knowledge2 no combination of circumstances1 no scientific arrangement of sustenance can make of an acorn anything but an oak1 or of a hen's egg anything but a chicken4 ,but in the common view this is1 at least primarily1 a corporeal or material process2 whereas the ,stoics assert that it is not only a property of the soul1 but one so primary and fundamental that it must be also assumed as a first principle of physical science4 ,before approaching the subject from the ,stoic standpoint1 it may be well to see how far materialistic theories1 ancient and modern1 can carry us4 ,sidenote3 ,heredity4 #bgi4 ,lucretius finds this a very simple matter3 #8,children often resemble not only their parents1 but also their grandparents and more remote ancestors4 ,the explanation is that the parents contain in their bodies a large number of atoms1 which they have received from their ancestors and pass on to their descendants4 ,in the chance clashing of atoms in procreation ,venus produces all kinds of effects1 bringing about resemblances between children and their forebears1 not only in the face and person1 but also in the look1 the voice1 and the hair#gi4' ,this account has a generally plausible sound until we bear in mind that it is the fundamental property of atoms that1 though their own variety is limited1 they can form things in infinite variety by changes in their combination and arrangement4 ,they are like the letters out of which words1 sentences1 and poems are made up2 and we can hardly expect to reproduce the voice or the spirit of an ,aeschylus by a fresh shuffling of the letters contained in the ,agamemnon4 ,on the contrary1 seeing that the atoms contained in the bodies of parents have largely been drawn from plants and animals1 we could confidently reckon upon finding the complete fauna and flora of the neighbourhood amongst their offspring4 ,lucretius in effect postulates in his theory that particular atoms have a representative and creative character1 passing from father to child in inseparable association with the marks of the human race1 and endowed with a special capacity of combining with other like atoms to form the substratum of specifically human features4 ,in giving his atoms these properties he is insensibly approximating to the ,stoic standpoint4 ,sidenote3 ,modern theories4 #bhj4 ,modern biologists deal with this subject with the minuteness of detail of which the microscope is the instrument1 and with the wealth of illustration which results from the incessant accumulation of ascertained facts4 ,but they are perhaps open to the criticism that where they reach the borders of their own science1 they are apt to introduce references to the sciences of chemistry and physics as explaining all difficulties1 even in regions to which these sciences do not apply4 ,the following account is taken from one of the most eminent of them3 #8,hertwig discovered that the one essential occurrence in impregnation is the coalescence of the two sexual cells and their nuclei4 ,of the millions of male spermatozoa which swarm round a female egg-cell1 only one forces its way into its plasmic substance4 ,the nuclei of the two cells are drawn together by a mysterious force which we conceive as a chemical sense-activity akin to smell1 approach each other and melt into one4 ,so there arises through the sensitiveness of the two sexual nuclei1 as a result of erotic chemotropism1 a new cell which unites the inherited capacities of both parents2 the spermatozoon contributes the paternal1 the egg-cell the maternal characteristics to the primary-cell1 from which the child is developed#hj4' ,in another passage the same author sums up his results in bold language from which all qualifications and admissions of imperfect knowledge have disappeared3 #8,physiology has proved that all the phenomena of life may be reduced to chemical and physical processes4 ,the cell-theory has shown us that all the complicated phenomena of the life of the higher plants and animals may be deduced from the simple physico-chemical processes in the elementary organism of the microscopic cells1 and the material basis of them is the plasma of the cell-body#ha4' ,sidenote3 ,their inadequacy4 #bha4 ,these utterances may be considered typical of modern materialistic philosophy in its extreme form4 ,we may nevertheless infer from the references to a #8mysterious force1' #8chemical sense-activity akin to smell1' and #8erotic chemotropism1' that the analogies to biological facts which the writer finds in chemical science stand in need of further elucidation4 ,we may notice further that the #8atom' has entirely disappeared from the discussion1 and that the #8material basis' of the facts is a #8plasma' or #8plasmic substance1' something in fact which stands related to a #8protoplasm' of which the chemical and physical sciences know nothing1 but which distinctly resembles the #8fiery creative body' which is the foundation of the ,stoic physics4 ,further we must notice that the old problem of #8the one and the many' reappears in this modern description2 for the cell and its nucleus are neither exactly one nor exactly two1 but something which passes from two to one and from one to two2 further the nuclei of the two cells1 being drawn together1 coalesce1 and from their union is developed a #8new cell' which unites the capacities of its #8parents4' ,modern science1 therefore1 although it has apparently simplified the history of generation by reducing it to the combination of two units out of many millions that are incessantly being produced by parent organisms1 has left the philosophical problem of the manner of their combination entirely unchanged4 ,in these microscopic cells is latent the whole physical and spiritual inheritance of the parents1 whether men1 animals or plants1 from which they are derived2 just as the atoms of ,epicurus possess the germ of free will#hb1 so the cells of ,haeckel smell and love1 struggle for marriage union1 melt away in each other's embrace1 and lose their own individuality at the moment that a new being enters the universe4 ,sidenote3 ,creation and procreation4 #bhb4 ,if then the phenomena of reproduction are essentially the same1 whether we consider the relations of two human beings or those of infinitesimal elements which seem to belong to another order of being1 we are already prepared for the ,stoic principle that the creation of the universe is repeated in miniature in the bringing into life of each individual amongst the millions of millions of organic beings which people it4 ,from this standpoint we gain fresh light upon the ,stoic theory of creation1 and particularly of the relation of the eternal ,logos to the infinite multitude of procreative principles or #8seed-powers4' ,again1 it is with the general theory of creation in our minds that we must revert to the ,stoic explanation of ordinary generation4 ,this is to him no humble or unclean function of the members of the body2 it is the whole man1 in his divine and human nature1 that is concerned#hc4 ,the #8procreative principle' in each man is a part of his soul#hd2 #8the seed is a spirit' 7or pulsation7 #8extending from the principate to the parts of generation#he4' ,it is an emanation from the individual in which one becomes two1 and two become one4 ,just as the human soul is a #8fragment' of the divine1 so is the seed a fragment torn away1 as it were1 from the souls of parents and ancestors#hf4 ,sidenote3 ,motherhood4 #bhc4 ,in the seed is contained the whole build of the man that is to be#hg4 ,it is therefore important to know whether the procreative principle in the embryo is derived from one or both parents1 and if the latter1 whether in equal proportion4 ,the ,stoics do not appear to have kept entirely free from the common prepossession1 embodied in the law of paternal descent1 according to which the male element is alone active in the development of the organism2 and so they allege that the female seed is lacking in tone and generative power#hh4 ,on the other hand observation appeared to them to show that children inherit the psychical and bodily qualities of both parents1 and the general tendency of their philosophy was towards the equalization of the sexes4 ,on the whole the latter considerations prevailed1 so that the doctrine of ,stoicism1 as of modern times1 was that qualities1 both of body and soul1 are inherited from the seed of both parents#hi2 wherein the possibility remains open1 that in particular cases the debt to one parent may be greater than to the other#ij4 ,sidenote3 ,impulses4 #bhd4 ,the ,stoic psychology is in its fundamental principles wholly distinct from that of ,plato2 which does not at all prevent its exponents1 and least of all those like ,panaetius and ,posidonius who were admirers of ,plato1 from making use of his system as an auxiliary to their own4 ,plato divided the soul into three parts2 the rational part1 the emotional 7and volitional7 part1 and the appetitive#ia4 ,both the two latter parts need the control of the reason1 but the emotional part inclines to virtue1 the appetitive to vice#ib4 ,the rational part1 as with the ,stoics1 is peculiar to man2 the other two are also possessed by the animals1 and the appetitive soul even by plants4 ,the ,stoics do not however seriously allow any kinship between virtue and the emotions1 and they deal with this part of the subject as follows4 ,nature has implanted in all living things certain impulses which are directed towards some object4 ,an impulse towards an object is called #8appetite' 71 appetitus or impetus72 an impulse to avoid an object is called #8aversion' 71 alienatio7#ic4 ,in man appetite should be governed by reason2 if this is so1 it becomes #8reasonable desire' 7 1 recta appetitio7#id2 if otherwise1 it becomes #8unreasonable desire' 7 7 or #8concupiscence' 71 libido74 ,to living things lower in the scale than man terms that are related to reason can of course not apply4 ,sidenote3 ,will and responsibility4 #bhe4 ,practical choice is1 according to the ,stoics1 exactly analogous to intellectual decision4 ,just as the powers of sensation never deceive us#ie1 so also the impulses are never in themselves irrational#if4 ,an impulse is an adumbration of a course of action as proper to be pursued#ig2 to this the will gives or refuses its assent#ih4 ,it is the will1 and the will only1 which is liable to error1 and this through want of proper tone and self-control4 ,if there is this want1 it appears in a false judgment1 a weak assent1 an exaggerated impulse2 and this is what we call in ethics a perturbation#ii4 ,a healthy assent leads up to a right action3 a false assent to a blunder or sin4 ,hence we hold to the ,socratic paradox that #8no one sins willingly' 7 72 for the true and natural will cannot sin2 it must first be warped to a false judgment and weakened by slackness of tone4 ,we can equally use the paradox that #8every voluntary action is a judgment of the intellect1' or 7in few words7 that #8virtue is wisdom' 7 74 ,in such views we find a starting-point for dealing with the problems of ethics1 including those of the ethical ideal or supreme good1 its application to daily duties1 and its failure through ignorance or weakness of soul4 ,sidenote3 ,the body4 #bhf4 ,we pass on to consider the body1 but at no great length2 partly because many functions often considered as bodily are by the ,stoics treated as belonging to the soul 7as sensations and impulses71 partly because the study of the body is rather the task of the physician than of the philosopher4 ,in the body we may notice separately 7i7 the bones1 sinews1 and joints1 constituting the framework on which the whole is built up2 7ii7 the surface1 including beauty of outline and features1 and 7iii7 the complexion1 which suffuses a glow over the surface and most attracts the attention#ajj4 ,no absolute distinction can be made between body and soul4 ,generally speaking1 we may say that body is composed of the two grosser elements1 earth and water1 whilst soul 7as we have seen7 rests on the two higher elements of air and fire#aja2 of the gradations of spirit body possesses distinctively 7but not exclusively7 that of coherence 771 whilst it shares with the soul the principle of growth 77#ajb4 ,yet these contrasts are after all only secondary4 ,as surely as soul is body so body is soul1 and divinity penetrates into its humblest parts4 ,in its practical applications ,stoicism dwells so little on the body that the wise man seems hardly conscious of its existence4 ,sidenote3 #8,the flesh4' #bhg4 ,side by side with the strictly ,stoic view of the body we find in all the ,roman literature another conception which is strongly dualistic1 and which we cannot but think to be drawn from some non-,stoic source#ajc4 ,according to this view the body1 often called the #8flesh1' is essentially evil#ajd2 it is the prison-house of the soul#aje1 the source of corruption of the will#ajf1 the hindrance to a clear insight of the intelligence4 ,in the language picturesquely adopted in the ,pilgrim's ,progress 7after ,st ,paul71 it is a burden which the enlightened man longs to shake off#ajg4 ,for the body so understood we find abusive names2 it is the husk in which the grain is concealed#ajh1 the ass from which the owner should be ready to part at any moment#aji4 ,this language tends to be exaggerated and morbid1 and leads in practice to asceticism#aaj4 ,it appealed in ancient as in modern times to a widespread sentiment1 but is not reconcileable with the main teaching of the ,stoic philosophy4 ,sidenote3 ,dignity of the body4 #bhh4 ,according to the true ,stoic view1 the body is a dwelling-place or temple inhabited for a time by the principate1 its divinity#aaa4 ,therefore the body as such is deserving of respect1 even of veneration#aab4 ,in particular the erect form of the human body is a mark of divine favour1 by which it is hinted that man is fitted to contemplate the operations of the heavens#aac4 ,the whole framework of the body1 from the organs of sensation to those by which we breathe1 swallow1 and digest1 is a masterpiece of divine skill1 and an evidence of the care of providence for man#aad4 ,and even as an architect provides that those parts of the house which are offensive to sight and smell should be out of sight1 so has nature hidden away those parts of the body which are necessarily offensive1 at a distance from the organs of sense#aae4 ,the ,stoic conception of the dignity of the body is symbolized in practical ethics by the culture of the beard1 in which is latent the broad principle of attention to the cleanliness and healthy development of every part of the body4 ,it is a mark of the ,oriental associations of ,stoicism that this respect for the body is never associated with the ,hellenic cult of the body as displayed in art and gymnastics4 ,sidenote3 ,junction of soul and body4 #bhi4 ,having now studied man in all his parts1 it is time to consider how those parts are compacted together1 how man grows and decays1 and what varieties of mankind exist4 ,first then the principate is combined with the lower functions of the soul1 and every part of the soul1 by the process of interpenetration 7 7#aaf2 or 7from a slightly different point of view7 upon body which has cohesion 77 is overlaid growth1 on growth soul1 and on soul reason2 so that the higher tension presupposes the lower1 but not vice versa4 ,in the act of generation the soul loses its higher tensions2 and consequently the embryo possesses neither human nor animal soul1 but only the principles of cohesion and growth4 ,it is in fact a vegetable#aag1 but necessarily differs from other vegetables in having the potentiality of rising to a higher grade of spirit#aah4 ,at the moment of birth its growth-power 77 is brought into contact with the cold air1 and through this chill it rises to the grade of animal life1 and becomes soul 7 from 7#aai4 ,this etymological theory provokes the ridicule of opponents1 who do not fail to point out that soul1 standing nearer to the divine fire than growth1 ought to be produced by warmth rather than by coolness2 but the ,stoics probably had in mind that contact with either of the two higher elements must raise the gradation of spirit4 ,the infant1 according to this theory1 is an animal1 but not yet a man2 it has not the gift of reason#abj4 ,to attain this higher stage there is need both of growth from within1 and of association with reasonable beings without2 in these ways reason may be developed in or about the seventh year#aba4 ,in the whole of its growth the soul needs continually to be refreshed by the inbreathing of air1 and to be sustained by exhalations from the blood#abb4 ,here we touch upon one of those fundamental doctrines of the system1 derived by ,zeno from ,heraclitus#abc1 which bind together the great and the little world4 ,just as the heavenly bodies are maintained by exhalations from the ,ocean#abd1 so the soul is dependent upon the body for its daily food4 ,hence follows the important consequence that weakness and disease of the body react upon the soul2 the philosopher must keep his body in health for the soul's good1 if for no other reason#abe4 ,if the ,stoics in discussing problems of ethics constantly maintain that the health of the soul is independent of that of the body1 such statements are paradoxical and need qualification#abf4 ,sidenote3 ,sleep and death4 #bij4 ,the mutual action of body and soul is most readily illustrated by sleep4 ,the ,stoics do not hold1 as the ,animists do1 that the soul quits the body in sleep2 nor do they agree with another popular view1 that the soul then quits the extremities of the body and concentrates itself at the heart#abg4 ,sleep is due to a relaxation1 contraction1 or weakening of the spirit#abh2 a lowering of its grade1 which nevertheless is clearly no sign of ill health4 ,in old age there is often an imperfection of the reason1 and this is also seen in the sick1 the tired1 and the anaemic#abi4 ,in death there is a complete relaxation of tone in the breath that we can feel1 that is1 in such spirit as belongs to the body#acj2 there follows the separation of soul from body4 ,sidenote3 ,the beyond4 #bia4 ,we are thus brought to the critically important question of the existence of the soul after death4 ,on this point we shall not expect to find that all ,stoic teachers agree in their language4 ,in ,zeno himself we shall be sure to find that variety of suggestion which is accounted for by his eagerness to learn from all sources2 and later writers will also differ according to their respective inclinations either to draw strictly logical conclusions from the ,stoic physics1 or to respect the common opinion of mankind and to draw from it conclusions which may be a support to morality#aca4 ,these variations need not discourage us from the attempt to trace in general outline the common teaching of the school4 ,we have already seen that the various parts of the ,stoic system are not bound together by strictly logical processes2 where two conclusions appear contradictory1 and yet both recommend themselves to the judgment1 the ,stoics are not prepared to sacrifice either the one or the other1 but always seek to lessen1 if they cannot altogether remove1 the difficulties which stand in the way of accepting both4 ,on the other hand1 we need not too readily admit the charge of insincerity1 whether it is found in the candid admission of its temptations by ,stoic teachers#acb1 or in the less sympathetic criticisms of ancient or modern exponents of the system#acc4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,stoic standpoint4 #bib4 ,on certain points all ,stoic teachers seem to be agreed2 first that the soul is1 as regards its substance1 imperishable2 secondly1 that the individual soul cannot survive the general conflagration#acd2 lastly1 that it does not of necessity perish with the body#ace4 ,the first two dogmas follow immediately from the fundamental principles of the ,stoic physics1 and point out that every soul will find its last home by being absorbed in the divine being4 ,the third dogma leaves play for ethical principles2 subject to the monistic principle of an ultimate reconciliation1 there is room for some sharp distinction between the destiny of good and bad souls1 such as stands out in the ,persian doctrine of rewards and punishments after death4 ,and so we find it generally held that the souls of the good survive till the conflagration1 whilst those of the wicked have but a short separate existence1 and those of the lower and non-rational animals perish with their bodies#acf4 ,if this difference in duration will satisfy the moral sense1 the nature of the further existence of the soul may be determined on physical principles4 ,sidenote3 ,the released soul4 #bic4 ,in the living man the soul1 as we have already seen reason to suppose1 derives its cohesion 77 and shape from its association with the body4 ,separated from the body1 it must assume a new shape1 and what should that be but the perfect shape of a sphere#acg8 ,again1 the soul being compounded of the elements of air and fire must by its own nature1 when freed from the body1 pierce through this murky atmosphere1 and rise to a brighter region above1 let us say to that sphere which is just below the moon#ach4 ,here then souls dwell like the stars1 finding like them their food in exhalations from the earth#aci4 ,here they take rank as daemons or heroes 7of such the air is full71 and as such are joined in the fulfilment of the purposes of divine providence#adj4 ,yet it must be admitted that this bright destiny1 if substantiated by the laws of physics1 is also subject to physical difficulties4 ,suppose for instance that a man is crushed by the fall of a heavy rock2 his soul will not be able to escape in any direction1 but will be at once squeezed out of existence#ada4 ,to fancies of this kind1 whether attractive or grotesque1 we shall not be inclined to pay serious attention4 ,sidenote3 ,tartarus4 #bid4 ,in this general theory hope is perhaps held out before the eyes of good souls1 but there is little to terrify the wicked1 even if it be supposed that their souls neither survive so long1 nor soar so high1 as those of the good#adb4 ,as against it we are told by a ,church ,father that ,zeno accepted the ,persian doctrine of future rewards and punishments1 and with it the primitive belief in an ,inferno in its crudest form#adc4 ,we must agree with the first ,english editor of the fragments of ,zeno that #8it is hardly credible that ,zeno can have attached any philosophical importance to a theory stated in these terms#add'2 they can at the best only have occurred in some narration in the style of the ,platonic myths1 intended to illustrate a principle but not to convey a literal truth#ade4 ,for just as the whole ,hellenistic world1 including the ,stoics1 stood aloof from the ,persian doctrine of a spirit of evil1 so it firmly rejected the dogma of a hell4 ,lucretius makes it a principal argument in favour of the philosophy of ,epicurus that it drives out of men's hearts the fear of ,tartarus#adf2 but writers partly or wholly ,stoic are not less emphatic4 #8,ignorance of philosophy1' says ,cicero1 #8has produced the belief in hell and its terrors#adg4' ,in the mouth of the representative of ,stoicism he places the words #8,where can we find any old woman so silly as to believe the old stories of the horrors of the world below8#adh' #8,those tales' says ,seneca #8which make the world below terrible to us1 are poetic fictions4 ,there is no black darkness awaiting the dead1 no prison-house1 no lake of fire or river of forgetfulness1 no judgment-seat1 no renewal of the rule of tyrants#adi4' ,sidenote3 ,purgatory of ,virgil4 #bie4 ,of far more importance to us is the theory of purgatory familiar through the description in ,virgil's ,aeneid3 #8,in the beginning the earth and the sky1 and the spaces of night1 ,also the shining moon1 and the sun ,titanic and bright ,feed on an inward life1 and1 with all things mingled1 a mind ,moves universal matter1 with ,nature's frame is combined4 ,thence man's race1 and the beast1 and the feathered creature that flies1 #e ,all wild shapes that are hidden the gleaming waters beneath4 ,each elemental seed has a fiery force from the skies1 ,each its heavenly being1 that no dull clay can disguise1 ,bodies of earth ne'er deaden1 nor limbs long destined to death4 ,hence their fears and desires1 their sorrows and joys2 for their sight1 #aj ,blind with the gloom of a prison1 discerns not the heavenly light4 ,nor1 when life at last leaves them1 do all sad ills1 that belong ,unto the sinful body1 depart2 still many survive ,lingering within them1 alas6 for it needs must be that the long ,growth should in wondrous fashion at full completion arrive4 #ae ,so due vengeance racks them1 for deeds of an earlier day ,suffering penance2 and some to the winds hang viewless and thin1 ,searched by the breezes2 from others the deep infection of sin ,swirling water washes1 or bright fire purges1 away4 ,each in his own sad ghost we endure2 then1 chastened aright1 #bj ,into ,elysium pass4 ,few reach to the fields of delight ,till great time1 when the cycles have run their courses on high1 ,takes the inbred pollution1 and leaves to us only the bright ,sense of the heaven's own ether1 and fire from the springs of the sky#aej4' ,although we cannot accept ,virgil as a scientific exponent of ,stoic teaching1 yet there is much reason to suppose that he is here setting forth a belief which met with very general acceptance in our school1 and of which the principle is that the sufferings of the disembodied are not a punishment for past offences1 but the necessary means for the purification of the soul from a taint due to its long contact with the body4 ,sidenote3 ,probable ,stoic origin4 #bif4 ,the language in which ,virgil first describes the creation and life of the universe closely resembles that of ,stoicism2 the phrases #8elemental seed1' #8fiery force1' #8heavenly being' might be used by any ,stoic teacher4 ,the conception of the body as a #8prison-house1' even though it does not express the most scientific aspect of ,stoic physics1 was nevertheless1 as we have seen1 familiar to ,stoics of the later centuries4 ,the ethical conception1 again1 of the doctrine of purgatory is exactly that of which the ,stoics felt a need in order to reconcile the dualism of good and evil souls with the ultimate prevalence of the divine will4 ,again1 we can have no difficulty in supposing that ,virgil drew his material from ,stoic sources1 seeing that he was characteristically a learned poet1 and reflects ,stoic sentiment in many other passages of his works#aea4 ,we have also more direct evidence4 ,the ,church ,father whom we have already quoted not only ascribes to the ,stoics in another passage the doctrine of purgatory1 but expressly quotes this passage from ,virgil as an exposition of ,stoic teaching4 ,and here he is supported to some extent by ,tertullian1 who says that the ,stoics held that the souls of the foolish after death receive instruction from the souls of the good#aeb4 ,finally1 we have the doctrine definitely accepted by ,seneca#aec4 ,sidenote3 ,views of ,greek ,stoics4 #big4 ,we may now consider more particularly the views and feelings of individual ,stoic teachers4 ,it appears to us accordingly that ,zeno left his followers room for considerable diversity of opinion1 and quoted the ,persian doctrine because of its suggestiveness rather than for its literal truth4 ,of ,cleanthes we are told that he held that all souls survived till the conflagration1 whilst ,chrysippus believed this only of the souls of the wise#aed4 ,panaetius1 although a great admirer of ,plato1 is nevertheless so strongly impressed by the scientific principle that #8all which is born must die1' that he is here again inclined to break away from ,stoicism1 and to suspend his judgment altogether as to the future existence of the soul#aee2 the belief in a limited future existence was meaningless to a philosopher who disbelieved in the conflagration4 ,of the views of ,posidonius we have the definite hint1 that he taught that the #8air is full of immortal souls#aef'2 and this is in such harmony with the devout temper of this teacher that we may readily believe that he enriched the somewhat bare speculations of his predecessors by the help of an ,oriental imagination1 and that he introduced into ,stoicism not only the doctrine of daemons but also that of purgatory1 holding that souls were both pre-existent and post-existent4 ,sidenote3 ,view of ,seneca4 #bih4 ,in the period of the ,roman principate the question of the future existence of the soul acquires special prominence4 ,seneca is criticized on the ground that he affects at times a belief which he does not sincerely entertain1 partly in order to make his teaching more popular1 partly to console his friends in times of mourning4 ,the facts stand otherwise4 ,at no time does ,seneca exceed the limits of the accepted ,stoic creed2 he bids his friends look forward to the period of purgation#aeg1 the life of pure souls in the regions of the aether1 and the final union with the divine being4 ,it is after purgation that the soul by the refinement of the elements of which it is built forces its way to higher regions#aeh2 it finds a quiet and peaceful home in the clear bright aether#aei2 it has cast off the burden of the flesh#afj2 it is parted by no mountains or seas from other happy souls#afa2 it daily enjoys free converse with the great ones of the past#afb2 it gazes on the human world below1 and on the sublime company of the stars in its own neighbourhood#afc4 ,at a later epoch all blessed souls will be re-absorbed in the primal elements#afd1 suffering change but not forfeiting their immortal nature#afe4 ,the somewhat exuberant language of ,seneca has frequently been adopted by ,christian writers1 to express a belief which is not necessarily identical#aff2 but for the associations thus created ,seneca must not be held responsible4 ,sidenote3 ,personality cannot survive4 #bii4 ,with the decay of interest in the ,stoic physics there begins a tendency to overlook the intermediate stage of the soul's life1 and to dwell solely on its final absorption2 whilst at the same time it is urged from the ethical standpoint that no possible opinion as to the soul's future should disturb the calm of the virtuous mind4 ,on one further1 but important1 point the ,stoic teaching becomes clearer4 ,in no case is the soul that survives death to be identified with the man that once lived4 ,cut off from all human relations1 from the body and its organs1 and from its own subordinate powers#afg1 it is no longer #8you1' but is something else that takes your place in the due order of the universe4 ,in all this the ,stoic doctrine remains formally unchanged2 but its expression is now so chastened that it seems only to give a negative reply to the inherited hope1 and the chief comfort it offers is that #8death is the end of all troubles4' ,this change of tone begins in ,seneca himself2 it is he who says to the mourner #8your loved one has entered upon a great and never-ending rest#afh'2 #8death is release from all pain and its end#afi'2 #8death is not to be4 ,i know all its meaning4 ,as things were before ,i was born1 so they will be after ,i am gone#agj4' #8,if we perish in death1 nothing remains#aga4' ,in ,epictetus and ,marcus ,aurelius this new tone rings out much more clearly2 if we like so to speak1 more unrelentingly4 ,to the characteristic passages from these writers which are quoted above#agb may be added the following1 perhaps the most precise of all3 #8,if souls survive death1 how can the air hold them from all eternity8 ,how1 we reply1 does earth hold the bodies of generation after generation committed to the grave8 ,just as on earth1 after a certain term of survival1 change and dissolution of substance makes room for other dead bodies1 so too the souls transmuted into air1 after a period of survival1 change by processes of diffusion and of ignition1 and are resumed into the seminal principle of the universe1 and in this way make room for others to take up their habitation in their stead4 ,such is the natural answer1 assuming the survival of souls#agc4' ,such are the last words of ,stoicism1 not wholly satisfying either to knowledge or to aspiration1 but assuredly based on a wide outlook and a keen discrimination4 ,sidenote3 ,men and women4 #cjj4 ,the whole nature of man1 as discussed up to this point1 is common to every individual born into the world1 with some exceptions dependent on age or temperament which have been explained incidentally4 ,it remains to discuss shortly the important differences which result from sex1 nationality1 and location4 ,there seems every reason to believe that the equality of men and women1 though at the time seemingly paradoxical1 was generally accepted by the earlier ,stoics1 and adopted as a practical principle in ,stoic homes4 ,the whole treatment of human nature by the ,stoics applies equally to man and woman1 and points to the conclusion that as moral agents they have the same capacities and the same responsibilities#agd4 ,seneca in writing to a great lady of philosophical sympathies states this as his firm conviction#age1 and the lives of many ,stoic wives and daughters 7to whom we shall refer in a later chapter7#agf showed it to have a firm basis in fact4 ,we need attach no great importance to those more distinctively masculine views which ,seneca occasionally expresses1 to the effect that woman is hot-tempered1 thoughtless1 and lacking in self-control#agg1 or to the ,peripatetic doctrine that man is born to rule1 women to obey#agh2 for these sentiments1 however welcome to his individual correspondents1 were not rooted in ,stoic theory nor exemplified in the ,roman society of his own days4 ,sidenote3 ,class and race4 #cja4 ,it follows with equal certainty from the early history of ,stoicism1 and in particular from the doctrine of the ,cosmopolis1 that differences of class and race were hardly perceived by its founders4 ,for this there was further historical cause in the spread of ,hellenistic civilisation1 which was of an entirely catholic spirit and welcomed disciples from all nationalities#agi4 ,the doctrine of ,aristotle1 that some nations are by nature fitted only for slavery1 finds no echo in the ,stoic world#ahj4 ,there we look in vain for any trace of that instinctive feeling of national difference1 that sensitiveness to race and colour1 which can easily be recognised in the early history of ,greece and ,rome1 and which has become so acute in the development of modern world-politics4 ,the ,roman ,stoics1 as we shall see later1 might individually be proud of advantages of birth1 but they never associated this feeling with their philosophy4 ,here and there1 however1 we find signs of a scientific interest in the question of differences of national character1 which are generally ascribed to the influences of climate4 ,seneca1 for instance1 remarks that the inhabitants of northern climates have characters as rude as their sky2 hence they make good fighters1 but poor rulers#aha4 ,yet when he contemplates the northern barbarians1 his mind is mainly occupied by admiration2 and1 like other pro-,germans of the period1 he foresees with prophetic clearness a danger threatening the ,roman empire4 #8,should the ,germans once lay aside their fierce domestic quarrels1 and add to their courage reason and discipline1 ,rome will indeed have cause to resume the virtues of its early history#ahb4' ,the roots of true greatness of soul1 then1 lie deeper than in literary culture or philosophic insight4 ,it is a part of the irony of history that ,stoicism1 which aimed above all things at being practical1 should diagnose so correctly the growing weakness of the ,roman world1 and yet fail to suggest any remedy other than a reversion to an epoch in which philosophy was unknown4 ,,footnotes #a #8rex noster est animus3 hoc incolumi cetera manent in officio1 parent1 obtemperant2 cum ille paullum vacillavit1 simul dubitant4 ubi vero impotens1 cupidus1 delicatus est1 fit tyrannus2 tunc eum excipiunt adfectus impotentes' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aad1 #bd4 #b ,see ,l4 ,stein ,psych4 i p4 #bjf4 #c ,see above1 #fh4 #d #8natura mundi omnes motus habet voluntarios conatusque et appetitiones1 quas ,graeci vocant1 et his consentaneas actiones sic adhibet ut nosmetipsi1 qui animis movemur et sensibus' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #bb1 #eh4 #e ' 1 ,hermias irris4 gent4 phil4 #g 7,arnim i #die74 #f #8ipse autem homo ortus est ad mundum contemplandum et imitandum' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #ad1 #cg4 #g ,philod4 piet4 #ae 7,arnim iii ,diog4 #cc74 #h #8quem in hoc mundo locum deus obtinet1 hunc in homine animus2 quod est illic materia1 id in nobis corpus est' ,sen4 ,ep4 #fe1 #bd4 #i ,philo rer4 div4 i #did ,m 7,stein ,psych4 i #bjg74 #aj ,see above1 #bdb4 #aa ,see below1 #bgd4 #ab ,see above1 #aa4 #ac ,on the whole subject see ,tylor1 ,anthropology1 ch4 xvi2 ,primitive ,culture1 chs4 xi-xvii2 ,jevons1 ,introd4 to the history of ,religion1 ch4 v4 #ad ,see above1 #agd4 #ae ,nemes4 nat4 hom4 ii #he and #hf 7,arnim i #eah74 #af ib4 #ii 7,arnim ii #gij74 #ag ,here we come into close touch with modern ways of thinking4 ,the soul is the self as known subjectively and from within1 as appealed to in the argument of ,descartes #8cogito1 ergo sum4' ,the body is the self as known objectively and from without1 first in our neighbours who obstruct our efforts 7#8officium quod corporis exstat1 officere atque obstare' ,lucr4 ,r4 ,n4 i #ccg1 #h71 and then by analogy in ourselves4 ,the ,stoic theory then asserts that subjective and objective knowledge are ultimately the same1 both being activities of the same ,logos4 ,see above1 #adi4 #ah ,the distinction is most clearly made by ,juvenal3 #8sensum a caelesti demissum traximus arce1 cuius egent prona et terram spectantia4 mundi principio indulsit communis conditor illis tantum animas1 nobis animum quoque1 mutuus ut nos adfectus petere auxilium et praestare iuberet' ,sat4 xv #adf-aej4 #ai ,see above1 #bjf4 #bj ,see above1 #bjc4 #ba #8,zenoni ,stoico animus ignis videtur' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 i #aj1 #ai4 #bb #8spiritum quippe animam esse ,zenon quaerit hactenus2 quo recedente a corpore moritur animal1 hoc certe anima est4 naturali porro spiritu recedente moritur animal2 naturalis igitur spiritus anima est' ,chalc4 in ,tim4 #bbj 7,arnim i #ach74 #bc #8probabilius enim videtur1 tale quiddam esse animum1 ut sit ex igni atque anima temperatum' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 iii #ad1 #cf2 cf4 ,arnim ii #ghf4 ,this view was accepted by ,panaetius3 #8is animus 444 ex inflammata anima constat1 ut potissimum videri video ,panaetio' ,tusc4 disp4 i #ah1 #db4 ,the #8fire' and #8air' here referred to are not the ordinary elements3 4 1 1 ,alex4 ,aphr4 de anima p4 #aae1 #f 7,arnim ii #ghe74 ,see further ,stein ,psychologie i pp4 #aja to #ajc4 #bd ,at4 plac4 iv #c1 #c4 #be #8animum constat animal esse1 cum ipse efficiat1 ut simus animalia2 et cum ab illo animalia hoc nomen traxerint' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aac1 #b2 #8et animus meus animal est et ego animal sum2 duo tamen non sumus4 quare8 quia animus mei pars est' ib4 #e4 #bf ,tertullian deals with this point as against ,valentinian heretics2 de an4 #ba4 #bg #8cum elementa sint quattuor1 ignis aquae aeris terrae1 potestates pares his sunt1 fervida frigida arida atque umida2 eadem animalium hominumque discrimina sunt' ,sen4 ,dial4 iv #ai1 #a and #b2 #8cuius in homine elementi portio praevalebit1 inde mores erunt' ib4 #b4 #bh #8languida ingenia et in somnum itura inertibus nectuntur elementis' ib4 i #e1 #i4 #bi #8iracundos fervida animi natura faciet2 frigidi mixtura timidos facit' ib4 iv #ai1 #b4 #cj #8quaecunque adtribuit condicio nascendi et corporis temperatura1 haerebunt' ,ep4 #aa1 #f4 #ca ,for a treatment of the subject on modern lines see ,ribot1 ,the emotions1 chs4 xii and xiii2 and the works of ,fouille1 ,paulhan1 and other ,french writers4 ,for the earlier history see ,summers on ,sen4 ,ep4 #aa1 #c1 and ,stein ,psych4 i p4 #age4 #cb ,galen def4 med4 #bi 7,arnim ii #ghj72 #8nosmetipsi qui animis movemur' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #bb1 #eh2 #8humanus animus agilis est et pronus ad motus' ,sen4 ,dial4 ix #b1 #aa4 #cc 1 1 qu4 8 ' ,alex4 ,aph4 de anima p4 #aah 7,arnim ii #hbc74 #cd #8huiusmodi autem non tam partes animae habebuntur quam vires et efficaciae et operae' ,tert4 de an4 #ad4 ,they may also be called the soul's qualities3 1 ,stob4 i #di1 #cc4 #ce ,see above1 #gi2 for other divisions ,tert4 de an4 #ad 7,arnim i #add71 ,cic4 ,off4 i #bh1 #aja1 and generally ,stein1 ,psych4 i p4 #abc4 #cf ,on this translation see #aja1 note #ha4 #cg ,at4 plac4 iv #d1 #d4 #ch ,arnim ii #hch4 ,since many philosophers think the mind seated in the head1 ,chrysippus collects many arguments to the contrary2 for instance that women say1 when they don't agree with a statement1 #8it won't go down1' pointing all the while to the heart1 ,galen plac4 ,hipp4 et ,plat4 iii #e1 p4 #cbc ,k 7,arnim ii #hib74 ,further that is derived from 1 the heart being the seat of government ib4 7,arnim ii #hif74 ,he could support his view by thousands of quotations from the poets4 ,on the other hand we find the suggestion that the principate resides in our spherical heads1 as in a universe 7,at4 plac4 iv #ba1 #d74 ,this latter view may be due to ,academic influence 7,schmekel1 p4 #bei74 #ci ,galen plac4 ,hipp4 et ,plat4 p4 #ea ,k4 #dj 1 ,alex4 ,aphr4 de an4 p4 #ih1 #bd 7,arnim ii #hci74 ,in this direction ,epictetus defines the rational faculty as #8that which contemplates both itself and all other things' ,disc4 i #a1 #d4 #da ,galen plac4 ,hipp4 et ,plat4 ii #b p4 #bae ,k4 #db #8intellegendum est etiam1 duabus quasi nos a natura indutos esse personis1 quarum una communis est ex eo1 quod omnes participes sumus rationis2 altera autem1 quae proprie singulis est tributa' ,cic4 ,off4 i #cj1 #ajg4 #dc ,arnim ii #hbc4 #dd ,to himself vii #fd4 #de ib4 iv #ab4 #df ib4 v #bg4 #dg ib4 iii #e1 v #aj1 xii #a2 so too ,epictetus #8,god is within1 and your daemon is within' ,disc4 i #ad1 #ad4 #dh ,see above1 #adf-aef4 #di 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 ' 2 ,epict4 ,disc4 iv #aa1 #f and #g4 #ej ,stob4 ii #g #e;b #d2 #8quaerimus quomodo animus semper secundo cursu eat' ,sen4 ,dial4 ix #b1 #d2 #8quidam se domi contrahunt1 dilatant foris ac extendunt2 vitium est haec diversitas et signum vacillantis animi ac nondum habentis tenorem suum' ,ep4 #bj1 #c4 #ea ,see above1 #if4 #eb #8satis natura homini dedit roboris1 si illo utamur2 nolle in causa est1 non posse praetenditur' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aaf1 #h4 #ec #8animi motus eos putemus sanissimos validissimosque1 qui nostro arbitrio ibunt1 non suo ferentur' ,dial4 iv #ce1 #b4 #ed #8hanc stabilem animi sedem ,graeci vocant1 ego tranquillitatem voco' ib4 ix #b1 #c4 #ee ,ep4 #aad1 #bd 7see above1 #bfc1 note #a74 #ef #8non est mens ex terreno et gravi concreta corpore1 ex illo caelesti spiritu descendit' ,dial4 xii #g1 #g2 #8ratio nihil aliud est quam in corpus humanum pars divini spiritus mersa' ,ep4 #ff1 #ab4 #eg #8animus1 sed hic rectus bonus magnus 444 quid aliud voces hunc quam deum in corpore humano hospitantem8' ib4 #ca1 #aa4 #eh #8sacer inter nos spiritus sedet1 malorum bonorumque nostrorum observator et custos' ib4 #da1 #b4 #ei #8deum te igitur scito esse3 si quidem deus est qui viget1 qui sentit1 qui meminit' ,cic4 ,rep4 vi 7,somn4 ,scip47 #bd1 #bf4 #fj ,physics1 and in particular astronomy1 is meant3 #8animus hoc habet argumentum divinitatis suae1 quod illum divina delectant2 nec ut alienis sed ut suis interest' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 i ,prol4 #ab2 cf4 ,horace ,ep4 i #ab1 #ad-ai4 #fa #8,when you are in social intercourse1 when you are exercising yourself1 when you are engaged in discussion1 know you not that you are nourishing a god1 that you are exercising a god8 ,wretch1 you are carrying about a god with you1 and you know it not4' ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #h1 #ab4 #fb #8dicere porro1 oculos nullam rem cernere posse1 sed per eos animum ut foribus spectare reclusis1 difficile est' ,lucr4 ,n4 ,d4 iii #cfj-cfb2 cf4 ,arnim ii #hfb4 ,see also ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 iii #d1 #i1 and ,mayor's valuable note4 ,modern psychologists side with the ,stoics4 #fc ,see above1 #adf1 note #ah4 #fd 1 ,at4 plac4 iv #bc1 #a4 #fe ,see above1 #adf1 note #ah4 #ff ,porph4 de anima 7,arnim ii #gd72 #8dicunt ,stoici sensus ipsos adsensus esse' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #cc1 #ajh4 #fg 444 1 ' ,diog4 ,l4 vii #eb4 #fh #8,stoici causas esse videndi dicunt radiorum ex oculis in ea1 quae videri queunt1 emissionem aerisque simul intentionem' ,gell4 ,n4 ,a4 v #af1 #b2 #8,stoici videndi causam in nativi spiritus intentione constituunt1 cuius effigiem coni similem volunt' ,chalc4 ,tim4 #bcg 7,arnim ii #hfc74 #fi ,arnim ii #hfi4 #gj 7sc4 7 ,at4 plac4 iv #ac1 #c4 #ga ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aeh4 #gb ,arnim ii #hcf4 #gc #8,cleanthes ambulationem ait spiritum esse a principali usque in pedes permissum' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aac1 #bc4 #gd #8vocem ,stoici corpus esse contendunt1 eamque esse dicunt ictum aera' ,gellius ,n4 ,a4 v #ae1 #f4 #ge #8quid enim est vox nisi intentio aeris1 ut audiatur1 linguae formata percussu8' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 ii #f1 #c4 #gf 1 4 1 ,galen4 plac4 ,hipp4 et ,plat4 ii #e p4 #bje ,mller4 #gg ,see above1 #afa4 #gh ,see above1 #agh4 #gi ,lucr4 ,r4 ,n4 iv #abad-abbj4 #hj ,e4 ,haeckel1 ,weltrthsel 7,volksausg47 p4 #cj4 ,the italics are those of the author of this book4 #ha ib4 ,anmerkungen1 p4 #aeh4 #hb ,though ,lucretius laughs at the idea of attributing laughter and tears to the elements 7#8hac ratione tibi pereunt primordia rerum3 fiet1 uti risu tremulo concussa cachinnent1 et lacrumis salsis umectent ora genasque' ,r4 ,n4 i #iag-iai71 yet he attributes to them the essential power of free-will3 #8si 444 nec declinando faciunt primordia motus principium quoddam1 quod fati foedera rumpat1 unde est haec1 inquam1 fatis avolsa voluntas8' ,r4 ,n4 ii #bec-beg4 #hc ,at4 plac4 v4 #aa1 #c2 #8,when you consort with your wife 444 you are carrying about a god with you' ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #h1 #ab4 #hd 444 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aeg4 #he 1 ,at4 plac4 iv #ba1 #d2 cf4 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aei4 #hf ,euseb4 pr4 ev4 xv #bj1 #a 7,arnim i #abh74 ,that the separation or #8tearing away' 77 is not complete or absolute seems to follow from the general principles of ,stoic physics3 see above #bfb4 #hg #8in semine omnis futuri hominis ratio comprehensa est' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 iii #bi1 #c4 #hh #8utrum ex patris tantummodo semine partus nascatur1 ut 444 ,stoici scripserunt' ,censor4 di4 nat4 #e2 cf4 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aei1 ,at4 plac4 v #e1 #b4 #hi ,the evidence for this is mainly indirect4 1 1 ,nemes4 nat4 hom4 ii #he and #hf 7,arnim i #eah72 #8quod declaret eorum similitudo1 qui procreentur2 quae etiam in ingeniis1 non solum in corporibus appareat' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 i #cb1 #gi4 #ij 1 1 1 ,at4 plac4 v #aa1 #d4 #ia ,see above1 #fc4 #ib #8inrationalis pars animi duas habet partes1 alteram animosam ambitiosam impotentem positam in adfectionibus1 alteram humilem languidam voluptatibus deditam' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ib1 #h4 #ic #8appetitio 7eam enim esse volumus 71 qua ad agendum impellimur1 et id appetimus quod est visum' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #h1 #bd4 #id ,this is termed by ,panaetius simply2 the term is also used3 see #bgb1 note #di4 #ie ,see above1 #adf4 #if ,zeller 7,stoics1 p4 #bdc7 states that man has irrational as well as rational impulses4 ,this seems to be incorrectly expressed4 #ig ,stob4 ii #g1 #i4 #ih #8omne rationale animal nihil agit1 nisi primum specie alicuius rei inritatum est1 deinde impetum cepit1 deinde adsensio confirmavit hunc impetum4 quid sit adsensio dicam4 oportet me ambulare3 tunc demum ambulo1 cum hoc mihi dixi et adprobavi hanc opinionem meam' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aac1 #ah4 #ii ' 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii ,,iii2 #8omnes perturbationes iudicio censent fieri et opinione' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 iv #g1 #ad2 1 ,galen de peccatis ii #a p4 #ei ,k 7,arnim iii #agb72 ' 444 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aaj4 #ajj #8in corpore nostro ossa nervique et articuli1 firmamenta totius et vitalia1 minime speciosa visu1 prius ordinantur2 deinde haec1 ex quibus omnis in faciem adspectumque decor est4 post haec omnia qui maxime oculos rapit1 color1 ultimus perfecto iam corpore adfunditur' ,sen4 ,dial4 iv #a1 #b4 #aja ,see above1 #bfh4 #ajb ,galen plac4 ,hipp4 et ,plat4 iii #a p4 #bea ,m1 quoting ,chrysippus 7,arnim ii #hhe74 #ajc ,schmekel traces the introduction of this doctrine to ,posidonius1 and finds in it the starting-point of the later mysticism1 ,philos4 d4 mittl4 ,stoa1 pp4 #djj sqq4 ,see also ,l4 ,stein1 ,psych4 i #aid4 #ajd #8nos corpus tam putre sortiti' ,sen4 ,ep4 #abj1 #ag2 #8inutilis caro et fluida1 receptandis tantum cibis habilis1 ut ait ,posidonius' ib4 #ib1 #aj4 #aje #8haec quae vides ossa circumiecta nobis1 nervos et obductam cutem1 voltumque et ministras manus1 et cetera quibus involuti sumus1 vincula animorum tenebraeque sunt4 obruitur his animus1 effocatur1 inficitur1 arcetur a veris et suis in falsa coniectus4 omne illi cum hac carne grave certamen est' ,sen4 ,dial4 vi #bd1 #e2 #8corpusculum hoc1 custodia et vinculum animi' ib4 xii #aa1 #g4 #ajf #8,what am ,i8 a poor miserable man with my wretched bit of flesh4 ,through this kinship with the flesh1 some of us become like wolves' ,epict4 ,disc4 i #c1 #e and #g4 #ajg #8corpus hoc animi pondus et poena est' ,sen4 ,ep4 #fe1 #af2 #8quantum per moras membrorum et hanc circumfusam gravem sarcinam licet' ,dial4 xii #aa1 #f2 #8corporis velut oneris necessarii non amator sed procurator est' ,ep4 #ib1 #cc4 #ajh #8,epicurus placed the good in the husk' ,epict4 ,disc4 i #bc1 #a4 #aji #8,you ought to possess your whole body as a poor ass loaded4 ,when the body is an ass1 all the other things are bits belonging to the ass1 pack-saddles1 shoes1 barley1 fodder' ib4 iv #a1 #gi and #hj4 #aaj ,in particular to the practice of self-mutilation1 with which ,seneca is disgusted3 #8cottidie comminiscimur1 per quae virilitati fiat iniuria 444 alius genitalia excidit' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 vii #ca1 #c4 #aaa #8nec domum esse hoc corpus1 sed hospitium et quidem breve hospitium' ,sen4 ,ep4 #abj1 #ad2 #8hoc corpus natura ut quandam vestem animo circumdedit' ib4 #ib1 #ac4 #aab #8inter me teque conveniet corpus in honorem animi coli' ib4 #ib1 #a4 ,in the same spirit ,seneca writes in condemnation of the gladiatorial conflicts #8homo sacra res homini' ib4 #ie1 #cc4 #aac #8natura voltus nostros erexit ad caelum' ib4 #id1 #ef2 #8natura 444 ut ab ortu sidera in occasum labentia prosequi posset1 sublime fecit homini caput et collo flexili imposuit' ,dial4 viii #e1 #d4 ,see also ,mayor on ,juv4 ,sat4 xv #adg4 #aad ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 ii #ed to #eh4 #aae #8quae partes corporis1 ad naturae necessitatem datae1 adspectum essent deformem habiturae atque turpem1 eas natura contexit atque abdidit' ,off4 i #ce1 #abg4 #aaf ,in the ,epicurean system atoms of soul are dispersed amongst atoms of body1 there being a mixture of the two1 which however does not go beyond juxtaposition2 in the ,stoic system soul permeates body4 ,the ,stoic explanation is frequently referred to by opponents as a reductio ad absurdum3 ,alex4 ,aphr4 ,arist4 ,top4 ii #ic 7,arnim ii #gih74 ,the relation of the principate to the man as a whole is also called 7constitutio72 #8constitutio est principale animi quodam modo se habens erga corpus' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aba1 #aj4 #aag 1 ,at4 plac4 v #ad1 #b2 ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #da1 #a4 #aah ,stein1 ,psych4 i p4 #aae4 #aai 1 ,plut4 as above4 #abj #8infans nondum rationalis est' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aba1 #ad2 #8tu me expertem rationis genuisti1 onus alienum' ,ben4 iii #ca1 #b4 #aba ,see above1 #aec1 note #ff4 #abb sc4 ,galen comm4 ,hipp4 #f 7,arnim ii #ghb72 1 ' plac4 ,hipp4 et ,plat4 ii #h 7,arnim i #adj72 #8poor soul itself mere exhalation of the blood' ,m4 ,aurel4 ,to himself v #cc4 #abc 1 444 #8 4' ,ar4 ,did4 fr4 #ci1 #b and #c 7,diels72 the reference to ,heraclitus is not necessarily an exact quotation by ,zeno1 see ,bywater's critical note on fr4 #db2 on the other side ,diels' note on fr4 #ab4 ,l4 ,stein is of opinion that the ,stoics missed the meaning of ,heraclitus whilst accepting his terminology2 see ,psych4 i1 note #ahb4 #abd ,see above1 #bjj4 #abe ,see #caf1 note #ajj4 #abf ,theod4 ,gr4 aff4 cur4 #aa2 see generally the discussion by ,stein1 ,psych4 i pp4 #aci1 #adj4 #abg ,plut4 fr4 7de an47 #f1 #c4 #abh ,at4 plac4 v #bc1 #d1 cf4 ,plut4 ,qu4 conv4 ,,iv ii #d1 #f2 #8contrahi autem animum ,zeno et quasi labi putat atque concidere1 et id ipsum esse dormire' ,cic4 ,div4 ii #eh1 #aai4 ,see also above1 #agg4 #abi #8senes difficiles et queruli sunt1 ut aegri et convalescentes1 et quorum aut lassitudine aut detractione sanguinis exhaustus est calor' ,sen4 ,dial4 iv #ai1 #d4 #acj 1 ,at4 plac4 v #bc1 #d4 #aca #8cum animarum aeternitatem disserimus1 non leve momentum apud nos habet consensus hominum aut timentium inferos aut colentium' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aag1 #f4 #acb #8iuvabat de aeternitate animarum quaerere1 immo mehercules credere4 credebam enim me facile opinionibus magnorum virorum rem gratissimam promittentium magis quam probantium' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajb1 #b2 cf4 ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 i #aa1 #bd4 #acc ,so especially ,l4 ,stein3 #8um nun ihre ,philosophie populr und mundgerecht zu machen1 liessen sich die ,stoiker zuweilen zu usserungen herbei1 die dazu angethan waren1 ihr ganzes philosophisches ,system umzustossen' ,psych4 i #adi4 ,further their ,scottish critic3 #8thus did the later ,stoicism try to meet the claims of the human heart1 which the earlier ,stoicism had to a large extent ignored' ,w4 ,l4 ,davidson1 ,the ,stoic creed1 p4 #ih2 again #8die ,lehre von der ,fortdauer der ,seele 444 war nur fr die grosse ,menge berechnet' ,h4 ,a4 ,winckler1 ,stoicismus1 p4 #ej4 ,zeller is much more judicial1 ,stoics1 pp4 #bag-bbb4 #acd 1 ,ar4 ,did4 fr4 #ci1 #e4 #ace 1 ' ' ib4 #f2 #8,stoici 444 diu mansuros aiunt animos1 semper negant' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 i #ca1 #gg4 #acf 1 444 ,ar4 ,did4 fr4 #ci1 #f and #g4 #acg ,arnim ii #hae4 #ach 444 ,sext4 math4 ix #ga to #gc 7,arnim ii #hab72 ,ar4 ,did4 fr4 #ci1 #d2 #8si animae permanent et conservant habitum suum1 444 necesse est ferantur ad caelum et ab his perrumpatur et dividatur crassus hic et concretus aer2 calidior enim est vel potius ardentior animus1 quam est hic aer' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 i #ah1 #db2 #8itaque sublimantur animae sapientes 444 apud ,stoicos sub lunam' ,tert4 de an4 #ed 7,arnim ii #had74 #aci ,sext4 math4 ix #gc2 #8fortium animas existimant in modum siderum vagari in aere' ,comm4 in ,lucan4 ix #f 7,arnim ii #hag74 #adj 1 ,sext4 as in note #ach2 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aea2 #8plenus est aer immortalium animorum' ,cic4 ,div4 i #cj1 #fd1 quoting from ,posidonius4 #ada #8,stoici existimant animam hominis magno pondere extriti permanere non posse et statim spargi' ,sen4 ,ep4 #eg1 #g2 ,seneca himself rejects this opinion4 #adb 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aeg4 #adc #8esse inferos ,zenon docuit et sedes piorum ab impiis esse discretas2 et illos quidem quietas ac delectabiles incolere regiones1 hos vero luere poenas in tenebrosis locis atque in caeni voraginibus horrendis' ,lactant4 ,div4 inst4 vii #g1 #ac 7,arnim i #adg72 #8reliquas animas ad inferos deiciunt' ,tert4 de an4 #ed4 ,cf4 ,cic4 fr4 #bdj1 #f4 #add ,pearson1 ,fragments1 p4 #adf4 #ade ,so ,hirzel1 ,untersuchungen ii p4 #bi note4 #adf #8et metus ille foras praeceps ,acheruntis agendus1 funditus humanam qui vitam turbat ab imo1 omnia suffuscans mortis nigrore1 neque ullam esse voluptatem liquidam puramque relinquit' ,r4 ,n4 iii #cg-dj4 #adg ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 i #af1 #cf4 #adh ,n4 ,d4 ii #b1 #e4 #adi #8cogita illa1 quae nobis inferos faciunt terribiles1 fabulam esse2 nullas imminere mortuis tenebras nec carcerem nec flumina igne flagrantia nec oblivionis amnem nec tribunalia 444 nec ullos iterum tyrannos4 luserunt ista poetae et vanis nos agitavere terroribus' ,sen4 ,dial4 vi #ai1 #d4 ,here we have the opposite extreme to the statement in note #aca4 #aej ,virgil ,aen4 vi #gbd-gdg 7transl4 by ,lord ,bowen74 ,for the corresponding description of ,paradise1 see ib4 #fch-fdd4 ,the substance of this discussion is drawn from ,hirzel's full note in his ,untersuchungen ii pp4 #be-ca4 #aea ,for instance ,georg4 iv #bba sqq4 ,see also below1 #dcd1 #dce4 #aeb #8impias vero animas ,stoici dicunt 444 habere aliquid imbecillitatis ex contagione carnis1 cuius desideriis ac libidinibus addictae ineluibilem quendam fucum trahant labemque terrenam1 quae cum temporis diuturnitate penitus inhaeserit1 eius naturae reddi animas1 ut 444 cruciabiles fiant per corporis maculam1 quae peccatis inusta sensum doloris attribuit4 quam sententiam poeta sic explicavit--8quin et supremo etc40' ,lact4 ,div4 inst4 vii #bj1 #i and #aj 7,arnim ii #hac72 #8,stoicos miror1 quod imprudentes animas circa terram prosternant1 cum illas a sapientibus multo superioribus erudiri adfirment' ,tert4 de an4 #ed 7,arnim i #adg1 reading #8prudentes' on his own conjecture74 ,on the other hand ,augustine 7,civ4 ,de4 xxi #ac7 ascribes the doctrine to #8,platonici quidam' and ,comm4 ,luc4 ix #i 7p4 #bia ,us47 to ,pythagoras4 ,see ,schmekel1 p4 #aje4 #aec #8facillimum ad superos iter est animis cito ab humana conversatione dimissis4 facilius quicquid est illud obsoleti inlitique eluunt' ,sen4 ,dial4 vi #bc1 #a2 #8filius tuus paulum supra nos commoratus1 dum expurgatur et inhaerentia vitia situmque omnem mortalis aevi excutit' ib4 #be1 #a4 #aed ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aeg4 #aee ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 i #cb1 #gi4 #aef ,see above1 #bed1 #bic2 for the teaching of ,posidonius as to the pre-existence of the soul1 see ,schmekel1 p4 #bej4 #aeg ,see above1 #bif4 #aeh #8animus beneficio subtilitatis suae erumpit' ,sen4 ,ep4 #eg1 #h4 #aei #8ibi illum aeterna requies manet e confusis crassisque pura et liquida visentem' ,dial4 vi #bd1 #e4 #afj #8emissis animis meliora restant onere detracto' ,ep4 #bd1 #ah4 ,so in the ,burial ,service #8the souls of the faithful1 after they are delivered from the burden of the flesh1 are in joy and felicity4' #afa #8non illos interfusa maria discludunt nec altitudo montium2 tramites omnium plani' ,dial4 vi #be1 #c4 #afb #8ad excelsa sublatus inter felices currit animas1 ,scipiones ,catonesque1 interque contemptores vitae et mortis beneficio liberos' ib4 #a4 #afc #8rerum naturae spectaculo fruitur et humana omnia ex superiore loco despicit1 divina vero propius intuetur' ib4 xi #i1 #c4 #afd #8nos quoque1 felices animae atque aeterna sortitae1 parva ruinae ingentis accessio1 in antiqua elementa vertemur' ib4 vi #bf1 #g4 #afe #8animus1 si superstes est corpori1 nullo genere perire potest1 quoniam nulla immortalitas cum exceptione est' ,ep4 #eg1 #i4 #aff ,see ,winckler1 ,der ,stoicismus eine ,wurzel des ,christenthums1 p4 #eb4 #afg #8haec sunt ignorantis1 cum de aeternitate animorum dicatur1 de mente dici1 non de partibus iis1 in quibus aegritudines irae libidinesque versentur' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 i #cc1 #hj4 #afh #8excepit illum magna et aeterna pax' ,sen4 ,dial4 vi #ai1 #f4 #afi #8mors dolorum omnium exsolutio est et finis' ib4 #ai1 #e4 #agj #8mors est non esse4 id quale sit1 iam scio4 hoc erit post me1 quod ante me fuit' ,ep4 #ed1 #d4 #aga #8mors nos aut consumit aut exuit2 444 consumptis nihil restat' ib4 #bd1 #ah4 #agb ,see above1 #adj and #ada4 #agc ,m4 ,aurel4 ,to himself iv #ba4 #agd ,see below1 #cjf4 ,cleanthes wrote a book to show that #8virtue is the same in men and women'2 see ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ajc4 #age #8quis dixit naturam maligne cum muliebribus ingeniis egisse1 et virtutem illarum in artum retraxisse8 par illis1 mihi crede1 vigor1 par ad honesta1 libeat1 facultas est2 dolorem laboremque ex aequo1 si consuevere1 patiuntur' ,sen4 ,dial4 vi #af1 #a4 #agf ,see below1 #dca1 #dci1 #ddd1 #ddf4 #agg #8muliebre est furere in ira' ,sen4 ,clem4 i #e1 #e2 #8mulier aeque imprudens atque animal est1 et nisi scientia accessit et multa eruditio1 ferum1 cupiditatum incontinens' ,dial4 ii #ad1 #a4 #agh #8utraque turba i4e4 sexus ad vitae societatem tantundem confert1 sed altera pars ad obsequendum1 altera imperio nata est' ib4 #a1 #a4 #agi ,see below1 #cjc4 #ahj ,see below1 #cji4 #aha #8fere itaque imperia penes eos fuere populos1 qui mitiore caelo utuntur4 in frigora septentrionemque vergentibus immansueta ingenia sunt' ,sen4 ,dial4 iv #ae1 #e4 ,so too ,lucan3 #8omnis in ,arctois populus quicunque pruinis nascitur1 indomitus bellis et mortis amator' ,phars4 viii #cfc-f4 #ahb #8agedum illis corporibus illis animis luxum opes ignorantibus da rationem1 da disciplinam3 ut nihil amplius dicam1 necesse erit certe nobis mores ,romanos repetere' ,sen4 ,dial4 iii ,,ii1 #d4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,law ,,for ,,humanity4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,right ,law4 #cjb4 ,the department of ,ethics contains two divisions3 ethics 7in the stricter sense7 which is concerned with the action of the individual2 and politics1 which has to do with the order of the ,state4 ,it has been maintained that in ,stoicism the latter is altogether subordinated1 and that the central aim of this philosophy is to erect a shelter for the individual#a4 ,the truth of this view is more than doubtful4 ,stoic ethics are not based on the needs of the individual1 but on the demands of the supreme ,law4 #8,if there is a universe1 then there is a universal law1 bidding us do this and refrain from that4' #8,if there are gods1 there is virtue#b4' ,we have already noticed that ,zeno's earliest work was #8on the ,state#c1' and that it is an attempt to show how a state can be ordered by wise laws4 ,the whole theory of the ,logos leads up to the same point4 ,the same eternal ,wisdom through which the primal stuff took shape is1 in another function1 the ,right ,rule 7 1 vera ratio7 which commands and forbids#d4 ,right ,rule and ,common ,law 7 1 lex communis7 are terms of identical meaning1 by which a standard of supreme authority is set up#e2 ,state law and conventional morality1 though always of narrower range1 and often of inferior purity1 are yet a reflection of universal ,law4 ,the moral law must therefore first be studied in its bearings on man as a political and social animal4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,cosmopolis4 #cjc4 ,the root-principle of the ,stoic ,state is that it is world-wide1 a cosmopolis4 ,this title arose from the practice1 attributed to ,socrates and ,diogenes 7as well as others71 of replying to the current question #8,of what city are you8' by the answer #8,of the universe#f4' ,we must therefore regard ourselves as members not of a clan or city1 but of a world-wide society#g4 ,in this society all distinctions of race1 caste and class are to be subordinated to the sense of kinship and brotherhood#h4 ,this principle is equally opposed to the nationalist prejudices which rank ,hellene above barbarian1 to philosophical theories 7such as that of ,aristotle7 which distinguish intelligent peoples fitted by nature to rule and others only fitted to obey#i1 and to ideal states 7such as that of ,plato7 in which a ruling class is to be developed by artifice and schooling4 ,only the brute animals are excluded from this community1 for they are not possessed of reason2 they have therefore no rights1 but exist for the service of men#aj4 ,all human beings are capable of attaining to virtue1 and as such are natural-born citizens of the ,cosmopolis#aa4 ,loyalty to this state1 however1 in no wise hinders a due loyalty to existing states which may be regarded as partial realizations of it4 ,socrates submitted to the laws of ,athens even when they bade him die2 ,zeno and ,cleanthes declined the citizenship of that famous city1 lest they should be thought to hold cheap the places of their birth#ab2 and amongst the ,romans ,seneca frequently insists that every man is born into two communities1 the ,cosmopolis and his native city#ac4 ,sidenote3 ,the law of nature4 #cjd4 ,the world-state is not held together either by force or by state-craft1 but by goodwill4 ,we must be able say #8,love is god there1 and is a helpmate to make the city secure#ad4' ,this feeling of love and friendship grows up naturally between wise men1 because they partake in the reason of the universe2 so that we may equally well say that the bond of the state is the ,logos 7ratio atque oratio7#ae4 ,since reason and the universal law exist in the community from the beginning1 law does not need to be created2 it exists of itself1 and by natural growth 77#af4 ,the writing down of laws is only a stage in their development#ag4 ,sidenote3 ,zeno's revolutionary views4 #cje4 ,the theory of the world-state1 as first sketched by ,zeno1 found no place for any of the cherished institutions of the ,athens in which it was preached4 ,in the heavenly city must be neither temples nor images#ah2 so far the aims of the ,persian invader are to be carried out4 ,the reason given is far from flattering to the artistic pride of the ,athenians1 for they are told that their magnificent buildings and statues of world-wide renown are only the work of common builders and workmen#ai4 ,nor must there be law-courts#bj or gymnasia4 ,the practice of hearing both sides in a law-court is unreasonable1 because if the plaintiff has proved his case it is useless to hear the defendant1 and if he has not proved it1 it is superfluous#ba4 ,the training of the youth in grammar1 music1 and gymnastic is worthless#bb1 for the true education is in virtue4 ,coined money1 as in modern communistic ,utopias1 should not be required either for commerce or for travel#bc4 ,sidenote3 ,women to be in common4 #cjf4 ,with regard to the position of women ,zeno1 agreeing to some extent with ,plato1 asserted the startling doctrine that #8women should be in common1 and men should mate with them as they pleased#bd4' ,that ,zeno was suggesting1 even for an imaginary state1 any sort of loose living1 need not for a moment be supposed2 his continence was notable#be2 he expressly approves of marriage#bf2 and the members of his school were honourably known by their aversion to adultery#bg4 ,but ,zeno could not base his theory of the relation of the sexes merely upon established practice4 ,we may assume that he observed that in the world of animals and of birds mating was free#bh1 whereas in human society it was encumbered by national prejudices1 class privilege1 and personal jealousy2 and in particular that woman was regarded as a chattel1 contrary to the fundamental principle of his state#bi4 ,by his doctrine of #8free mating' he aimed at the root of these evils4 ,the gradual abolition at ,rome of the restrictions on #8connubium' illustrates the application of his principle1 just as the prohibition of #8miscegenation' in modern ,america illustrates its denial4 ,zeno may well have perceived how deeply the potentiality of marriage affects all social relations1 and it is probable that the progress of ,stoicism did much to break down the racial barriers that existed in ,zeno's time1 but which had almost completely disappeared five centuries later throughout the civilized world4 ,another application of his doctrine is found in the life of ,cato of ,utica#cj4 ,but its general meaning is clear3 marriage exists not by nature1 but by institution 772 its law is human and mutable1 but nevertheless within proper limits is one that may not be transgressed4 ,by the side of the text of ,zeno we still have the authorized comment of ,epictetus#ca4 ,sidenote3 ,incest no abomination4 #cjg4 ,the ,stoics did not shrink from insisting upon the abstract principle of the community of women even in an extreme case in which their doctrine encountered a violent prejudice4 ,no natural law1 they maintained1 prohibits marriage relationship between near relatives#cb4 ,the tale of ,oedipus and ,jocasta1 which is so prominent a theme in the great ,athenian tragedies1 appears to ,zeno to be a matter about which too much ado has been made#cc4 ,for suppose the case that all the world were destroyed by flood except one man and his daughter2 would it not be better that he should beget children by her1 and that the whole human race should not perish#cd8 ,in this reference to the traditional flood we may readily trace one reason why the ,stoics insisted on their principle4 ,for at the beginning of human history we are compelled to postulate an ,adam and an ,eve1 a human pair related in their birth and at the same time united as parents of the race#ce4 ,go back to the beginnings of the universe2 there too we must postulate the same combination of relationships1 and so only can we understand the poets when they speak of ,hera as #8wife and sister of ,zeus#cf4' ,sidenote3 ,burial a convention4 #cjh4 ,perhaps even more shocking to ,hellenic feeling was ,zeno's indifference to the treatment of the dead1 ,burial was to him no sacred duty to the departed one2 it was equally right to throw the body to the fire1 as the ,indians1 or to the vultures1 as the ,persians#cg4 ,nor is there any need to condemn those nations amongst which the dead are eaten by their own relatives#ch1 for all these things are matters not of principle but of convenience1 and to eat human flesh may still be desirable if circumstances require it#ci1 as for instance in shipwreck1 or if a limb is amputated#dj4 ,the problem of the disposal of the dead became a favourite subject of discussion in ,stoic circles4 ,chrysippus wrote at length on the subject1 comparing the customs of various nations as well as the habits of animals1 in order to ascertain the law of nature4 ,he reaches the conclusion that dead bodies should be disposed of in the simplest possible way1 not being regarded as of more importance than the hair or nail-parings from which we part in life#da4 ,cicero shortly sums up this discussion in the ,tusculan disputations1 and draws the conclusion that whilst the living must consider what it is fitting for them to do1 to the dead man it is a matter totally indifferent#db4 ,in the imperial period this consideration is of importance as showing that the tyrant has no power after death#dc4 ,sidenote3 ,slavery4 #cji4 ,the ,stoic view of slavery can readily be inferred4 ,without proposing the immediate abolition of this social institution1 the ,stoics treated it as essentially contrary to nature#dd4 ,the earliest teachers seem to have passed over the subject in silence2 ,panaetius 7as might be expected from his social position71 justified slavery by the arguments of ,plato and ,aristotle in exceptional cases3 #8all those who through the infirmity of their nature are unfit to govern themselves1 are rightly made slaves'#de4 ,according to this theory we may speak of a #8natural slave' 7 71 who as such can no more have rights in the community than the lower animals4 ,the true ,stoic theory appears however to be formulated by a definition of ,chrysippus1 who says that a slave is a #8labourer hired for life#df4' ,this definition makes of slavery a contract1 to which there are two parties2 and ,seneca rightly uses this definition to argue that the relations of master to slave are those of man to man1 and that as the master may wrong his slave1 so the slave may do a service to his master#dg4 ,all this is really implied in the dogma that #8women and slaves may become philosophers1' as is realized by the ,church ,father ,lactantius#dh4 ,sidenote3 ,constitutions4 #caj4 ,the ,stoic principles of politics may be realized under any form of government1 and the theory of ,constitutions1 like that of grammar1 belongs to a neutral ground on which philosophers of different schools may work in harmony4 ,the ,peripatetics appear first to have taken up this study2 of the ,stoics ,diogenes of ,babylon#di1 who himself acted as a political representative of ,athens1 is stated to have shown interest in this subject2 and after him ,panaetius developed a complete theory1 of which the substance is preserved for us in ,cicero's de ,re publica#ej4 ,according to this theory1 which ,cicero puts in the mouth of ,scipio ,africanus1 surrounded by ,roman ,stoics of distinction such as ,laelius1 ,tubero1 and ,furius ,philo1 the best constitution is one in which the elements of monarchy1 aristocracy and democracy are combined1 though a bias remains in favour of monarchy#ea4 ,this mixed constitution1 according to the teaching of ,panaetius and his pupil ,polybius1 is best illustrated in the ,roman state#eb2 whereas tyranny1 the perversion of monarchy1 is the worst of all governments4 ,by such reasoning the ,roman nobles of the first century ,b4,c4 and the first century ,a4,d4 alike persuaded themselves easily that ,stoic teaching supported the position of the republican party4 ,but in fact they were maintaining ,peripatetic theories of government1 and the real ,stoic theory was far more in accord with that practice of the principate1 according to which all citizens are treated with respect1 and the government of them is placed in the hands of men selected for their personal merit4 ,we shall discuss the whole question of the relation of ,stoicism to ,roman politics in a later chapter#ec2 but we may notice here that those ,stoics practically abandoned the theory of providence who looked into the history of their own times with the intention of seeing nowhere the #8king1' and everywhere the #8tyrant4' ,on the other hand the practical statesmen who set about to re-create ,roman law on the principle of substituting everywhere human rights for class privileges were men thoroughly imbued with the ,stoic spirit1 whether or not they were avowed disciples of this philosophy4 ,sidenote3 ,the citizen4 #caa4 ,we must therefore maintain that the true ,stoic state1 whether it be called monarchy or democracy1 calls for a revolt against nationalism1 antiquity1 custom1 pride1 and prejudice2 and a new construction based upon universal reason and individual liberty4 ,for the realization of this state it is first necessary to build up the individual1 to fill his mind with the conception of reason and love1 to strengthen his will to a true independence3 for it is not buying or selling that makes the slave1 but the will within#ed4 ,all are in truth slaves except the wise man2 for freedom is the power of directing one's own actions#ee4 ,here then we pass from the community to the individual1 from politics to ethics in the narrower sense4 ,sidenote3 ,the supreme good4 #cab4 ,for the individual man the ethical problem is to bring himself1 a part of nature1 into harmony with the whole4 ,whether we think of destiny1 of providence1 of the gods1 or of the state1 success for the individual is to agree and to cooperate2 to struggle and to rebel is to fail4 ,this success is the end 77 for which man exists1 the supreme good 7summum bonum71 the ultimate good 7ultimum bonorum71 that towards which all other right action works1 whilst it works itself for no other end#ef4 ,its name in the individual is virtue 71 virtus71 and it is an active and firmly-established disposition of the soul#eg4 ,it follows from the monistic principle that the end for man is one1 and that virtue is one2 but nevertheless each is capable of being regarded in many aspects4 ,the harmony of the ethical end with other parts of the ,stoic philosophy is marked by such phrases as #8life according to nature#eh1' the rule #8keep company with ,god#ei1' and the identification of virtue and reason#fj4 ,sidenote3 ,consistency with nature4 #cac4 ,because virtue is one thing and not many1 it makes a man's life one consistent whole1 and stands in sharp contrast to the changing and undecided ways of the crowd4 ,virtue is therefore frequently defined as consistency in life#fa1 an even steady course of action#fb1 self-consistency#fc1 a principle in agreement with its applications#fd4 ,the opposite of virtue is the unending restlessness and indecision of the man in the crowd#fe4 ,accordingly we are told that the earliest ,stoics thought it a sufficient definition of wisdom or virtue that it was something simple#ff2 and similarly ,zeno said that the end of life was #8to live consistently#fg4' ,to this short definition the words #8with nature' were soon added#fh1 whereby the distinctiveness of the original definition was diminished3 for all the philosophical schools are agreed that the right life must be guided by nature 771 not by convention 774 ,from the time of ,chrysippus the relation of right living to nature was further analyzed4 ,chrysippus defined the #8nature' referred to as #8universal and human nature#fi1' thereby further approximating to the teaching of rival schools2 but on the other hand he gave this new and more characteristic explanation #8to live virtuously is to live according to scientific knowledge of the phenomena of nature1 doing nothing which the ,universal ,law forbids1 which is the ,right ,reason which pervades all things1 and is the same as ,zeus1 the ,lord of the ordering of this world#gj4' ,diogenes of ,babylon introduced the words #8to take a reasonable course in choosing or refusing things in accordance with nature#ga4' ,antipater's definition is #8to live with preference for what is natural1 and aversion to what is against nature#gb1' thus throwing the stress on the doctrine of the #8things of high degree#gc4' ,panaetius made a distinct step forward when he admitted the claims of universal nature to be supreme1 but 7subject to them7 held that each man should follow the pointings of his individual nature#gd2 this teaching however comes rather near to naming a twofold end4 ,cicero follows ,panaetius in his de ,officiis#ge1 but in the de ,finibus adheres more closely to ,chrysippus#gf1 and ,seneca agrees with him in laying stress on the need of scientific knowledge of natural events#gg4 ,in the main therefore #8life according to nature' means to the ,stoics life in accordance with the general movement of the universe1 to which the particular strivings of the individual must be subordinated4 ,sidenote3 ,obedience to ,god4 #cad4 ,from the religious standpoint virtue is willing cooperation with the deity1 in preference to that unwilling cooperation to which even evil-doers are forced4 ,this conception1 first set forth by ,cleanthes in a poem that we have quoted above#gh1 is enforced by ,seneca and ,epictetus also in varying phrases4 #8,i do not obey ,god1' says ,seneca1 #8,i agree with him4 ,i go with him heart and soul1 and not because ,i must#gi4' ,with a slight change of language this leads us to the paradox that #8obedience to ,god is liberty#hj4' #8,i have placed my impulses1' says ,epictetus1 #8in obedience to ,god4 ,is it his will that ,i shall have fever8 ,it is my will too4 ,is it his will that ,i should obtain anything8 ,it is my wish also4 ,does he not wish it8 ,i do not wish it#ha4' ,the personal bent of ,epictetus leads him to develope this idea in the direction of suffering rather than of acting4 #8,if the good man had foreknowledge of what would happen1 he would cooperate towards his own sickness and death and mutilation1 since he knows that these things are assigned to him in accordance with the universal arrangement#hb4' ,the proof that this must be so rests on the unity of the ,divine and individual purposes3 #8,good cannot be one thing1 and that at which we are rationally delighted another thing#hc4' ,sidenote3 ,social duty4 #cae4 ,it is not perhaps quite so clearly stated that the virtue of the individual is that disposition which will make him the best possible member of society1 that is1 the best possible citizen of the ,cosmopolis4 ,yet this is everywhere implied4 ,in the first place the wise man will take part in the life of the community#hd1 he will marry and bring up children#he4 ,in the second place the virtue of man differs first from the corresponding quality in the animals in that man is formed by nature for social union2 hence his reason only comes into play simultaneously with the recognition that he is a member of a community1 and as such bound to prefer the good of the whole to that of a part4 #8,nature1' says ,panaetius1 #8through reason unites man to man1 so that they have a common bond in conversation and life2 it induces men to approve and take part in public gatherings and festivals1 and to collect the materials for a social and cultivated life for themselves1 their children1 and all whom they hold dear#hf4' ,sidenote3 ,health of soul4 #caf4 ,virtue1 as a disposition of the soul#hg1 reflects all the aspects in which the soul itself is regarded4 ,since the principate is both wisdom and will1 so virtue is wisdom1 according to the paradox of ,socrates and the ,cynics#hh4 ,because virtue is wisdom1 it can be taught#hi2 in fact1 it can only be acquired by teaching2 and equally evil-doing can be cured by teaching#ij4 ,but no less virtue is will4 ,cleanthes emphasized this aspect1 and identified virtue both with the ,socratic #8strength of character' and with the ,stoic #8tone#ia4' ,in so far as virtue is will1 it is to be acquired by constant practice#ib4 ,a true judgment is endangered by hasty assent2 a healthy will by slackness of the soul's sinews4 ,in the ,stoic system vigour and strength of mind is everywhere identified with the #8true tone' 77#ic2 the possibility of overstrain is not considered4 ,but in the development of the ideal we have two varying aspects of virtue presented to us4 ,at one moment we see the man of action1 engaged in the thick of the battle1 sun-browned1 dusty1 horny-handed#id2 with this model before him we find ,musonius objecting altogether to relaxation of moral tone as being equivalent to its loss#ie4 ,at another moment we see the man of quiet conviction1 who goes his way unmoved in the face of the howls of the mob or the threats of the tyrant#if2 he is distinguished by a mental calm#ig which no storms can shake4 ,any discrepancy between these views is finally reconciled by introducing a comparison between the soul and the body4 ,the philosophers had at all times been greatly influenced by the theories and practice of the physicians2 and they were proud to call themselves physicians of the soul4' ,chrysippus spent much time in comparing diseases of the soul to those of the body#ih4 ,equally there must be a healthy state of the soul corresponding to that of the body1 in which all its parts are in harmony#ii4 ,hence in the ,stoic prayer health of soul is asked for1 side by side with health of body#ajj2 and ,seneca bases a singularly complete statement of the ,stoic conception of happiness upon a permanently healthy condition of the mind#aja4 ,sidenote3 ,virtue lies in intention4 #cag4 ,virtue is a state of the mind1 a disposition of the soul2 it is not an act4 ,hence the bent of the mind 7inclinatio71 its aim 7intentio71 its desire 71 voluntas7 is everything2 the performance through the organs of the body is nothing#ajb4 ,this ,stoic dogma is to-day so familiar in divinity1 law1 and society that it is not easy to realize how paradoxical it seemed when first stated4 ,by its proclamation the ,stoics defied the whole system of tabu by which the ancient world prohibited certain acts as in themselves dangerous and detestable2 a system still in force in many departments of life and theoretically defended by the #8intuitive system of morals4' ,the defenders of tabu were bitterly affronted1 and indignantly asked questions which mostly concerned the sexual relations1 with regard to which tabu appears to have been at the time most vigorous4 #8,is there nothing wrong in cannibalism8 in foul language8 in incest8 in the accursed relations with boy favourites 778' ,to these questions firm-minded ,stoics were bound to give a negative answer1 thereby laying themselves open to the charge of being defenders of immorality4 ,this charge however is never to be taken seriously2 the high practical morality of the ,stoics placed them beyond reproach4 ,but it was also easy to raise a laugh by quotations from these austere moralists which sounded like a defence of licentiousness4 ,the solution of the difficulty in each individual case follows exactly the same lines as in politics2 and there is the same divergence of method between the early ,stoics1 who assert their principles at all costs1 and those of the transition period1 who are intent upon adapting them to the existing conditions of society4 ,here we need only discuss the questions of principle1 as we deal with questions affecting practical life in another chapter#ajc4 ,sidenote3 ,tabus4 #cah4 ,the principal tabus affecting the individual have to do with cannibalism1 the sexual relations1 nudity1 and obscenity4 ,of the first we have already spoken2 the other three appeared to the ,stoics partly due to inherited prejudices1 partly to the theory that the body is in itself vile and corrupt4 ,of neither point of view could the ,stoics approve4 ,hence their repeated assertions that no sexual act1 whether commonly described as natural or as unnatural1 is in itself to be condemned1 but only according as it is seemly or unseemly for the individual#ajd4 ,it was perhaps unnecessary to explain to ,greeks that the naked body is in itself no offensive sight1 but doubtless the ,stoics had to make this clear to their ,oriental pupils2 ,zeno at any rate laid down the principle when he said that men and women should wear the same clothes 7meaning such as nature requires for warmth and not such as fashion prescribes71 and hide no part of the body#aje4 ,as to decency of language1 it did not occur to the ,stoics to discuss this question in connexion with the history of literature4 ,since truth is always good1 and the very purpose of language is to express truth1 a wise man will always say straight out what he needs to say#ajf4 ,sidenote3 ,virtue in its applications4 #cai4 ,up to this point we find a broad resemblance between the ethical principles of the ,stoics and the ,cynics4 ,both assert the sole supremacy of virtue1 ridicule traditional prejudices1 and bid defiance to external circumstances4 ,but there is at the same time divergence4 ,to the ,cynics virtue stands out as alone1 needing no theory1 and by itself in the universe4 ,to the ,stoics virtue is but one expression of that universal reason which is equally at work in the universe and in the human mind4 ,the ,stoics are therefore under the obligation of bringing virtue into touch with circumstances1 the soul into harmony with the body4 ,from this arises their doctrine that virtue is bound up with the study both of universal and of individual nature1 and that amongst things indifferent there are some that the good man must seek1 and others that he must avoid4 ,the critics of ,stoicism1 both ancient and modern1 regard this doctrine as an afterthought#ajg1 suggested by practical difficulties1 and alien from the original teaching of ,zeno4 ,this seems to be a misapprehension4 ,undoubtedly ,zeno had said3 #8some things are good1 some are evil1 some indifferent4 ,good are wisdom1 temperance1 justice1 fortitude1 everything that is virtue or an aspect of virtue2 evil are folly1 intemperance1 injustice1 cowardice1 everything that is vice or an aspect of vice4 ,indifferent are life and death1 glory and disgrace1 pain and pleasure1 riches and wealth1 disease1 health1 and so forth#ajh4' ,but there is a difference between a principle and its application2 and this very list of things indifferent indicates by its contrasts an underlying difference1 though it is not the difference between good and evil4 ,zeno was therefore quite consistent in proceeding to examine the nature of this difference4 ,sidenote3 ,worth and ,unworth4 #cbj4 ,this secondary difference is termed by the ,stoics a difference of worth 71 aestimatio7#aji4 ,health1 life1 riches1 have positive worth in greater or less degree2 disease1 death1 poverty1 have negative worth 71 inaestimabile7#aaj4 ,between these lie things that are absolutely indifferent1 as1 for example1 whether the number of hairs on one's head is odd or even#aaa1 or whether we take up one or the other of two coins that have the same general appearance and the same stamp#aab4 ,even here a slight distinction has to be made2 as to whether the hairs on the head are odd or even in number we have not the slightest concern2 but in the matter of the coins we must make a choice1 and that quickly4 ,let us then settle the matter anyhow1 by chance as common folk say2 #8for a reason that is not clear to us1' as the ,stoics say1 not willing to admit an effect without a cause1 and yet leaving the matter much where it was#aac4 ,and now as to the things that have #8worth'2 it is clear that in some sense they are #8according to nature1' and in the same sense those things that have #8negative worth' are opposed to nature#aad2 and the former in some way approximate to the character of the good#aae4 ,it is then necessary to describe them by some term other than #8good4' ,zeno selected the term #8of high degree1' which ,cicero translates variously by producta1 promota1 praecipua1 praelata1 and praeposita4 ,this term1 we are told1 ,zeno borrowed from court life3 #8for no one would think of calling a king 8of high degree10 but only those who are of a rank next to his1 though far below#aaf4' ,the opposites were described as 7remota1 reiecta7 #8things of low degree#aag4' ,seneca1 who states the theory with great clearness#aah1 commonly uses the handier terms commoda 7#8advantages'7 and incommoda 7#8disadvantages'7#aai4 ,in their treatment of the separate matters which fall under these divisions the ,stoics were in close agreement with the ,peripatetic theory of natural ends 7 7#abj3 but their loyalty to their own school came into question1 if they actually termed them #8good' or #8evil1' as ,chrysippus thought permissible if sufficient precautions were taken#aba1 and as ,seneca often describes them in his less careful moods#abb4 ,sidenote3 ,the aim of virtue4 #cba4 ,the advocates of ,stoicism maintain that the theory of #8advantages' is essential to their system1 because without it virtue has no meaning1 and practical life no guide#abc2 whereas as soon as this theory is established1 we can assign to virtue the permanent and distinctive character1 that it aims at securing #8advantages' and avoiding #8disadvantages#abd4' ,now we are able to enlarge1 though we do not alter1 our definition of the supreme good2 the #8consistent life1' the #8life consistent with nature1' is the #8life which is accompanied by a true knowledge of the things that happen by nature'2 to which words we now add #8choosing those things which are in accordance with nature1 and avoiding those things which are against nature#abe4' ,nevertheless1 virtue consists wholly in the aiming at the mark1 and not at all in the hitting it4 ,as the true sportsman finds all his pleasure in throwing his quoit according to the rules of the game1 and in aiming his arrow at the centre of the target1 but cares not in the least 7so it would seem7 whether he succeeds#abf2 so the wise man1 even though 7by those circumstances which he cannot control1 and which in this connexion we call #8the play of fortune'7 he gain no #8advantage' at all1 but suffer dishonour1 captivity1 mutilation1 and death1 still possesses the supreme good1 still is as completely happy as though he enjoyed all things4 ,this is the ,stoic doctrine of the #8sufficiency of virtue1' expressed in the language of paradox1 but nevertheless the central point of their whole ethical system2 and its force is really intensified by the doctrine of #8advantages1' which to a superficial critic appears to relax it4 ,sidenote3 ,sufficiency of virtue4 #cbb4 ,the doctrine of the sufficiency 71 sufficientia7 of virtue was consistently taught by the ,stoics of all periods1 though in ever-varying phraseology4 ,zeno adopted the ,cynic phrase #8virtue is sufficient for happiness1' or in other words #8virtue needs but herself for a happy life#abg4' ,chrysippus maintains that there are only three logical views as to the supreme good1 that it is virtue or pleasure or both#abh1 and for himself he chooses the first4 ,happiness therefore is not made greater if advantages are added to virtue2 or rather1 virtue does not permit addition 7accessio7#abi4 ,in the transition period ,antipater of ,tarsus is said to have faltered1 and to have attributed a little importance1 though very little1 to external advantages#acj2 but1 as we have seen above#aca1 his definition of the supreme good is in full accord with the general teaching of the school4 ,panaetius and ,posidonius held to the orthodox doctrine both in word and deed1 if we may trust the direct statements of ,cicero#acb2 nevertheless they were so anxious to assimilate their expressions to those of ordinary life1 that the conclusion could easily be drawn that in their hearts they too attached importance to external goods#acc4 ,one authority indeed states that they held health1 strength1 and estate to be #8needful' for happiness1 thus abandoning the sufficiency of virtue#acd2 but in the absence of direct quotation we shall hardly be willing to accept this statement as implying anything different from the distinction of ,chrysippus1 viz4 that #8the wise man needs nothing1 but has use for everything#ace4' ,but any faltering shown by the transition writers was more than made good by the zeal of the teachers under the principate4 ,seneca enforces the paradox in a score of phrases2 in the form of a proverb #8virtue is its own reward#acf'2 in rhetorical exuberance #8virtue can defy death1 ill fortune1 and tyranny#acg'2 it is #8independent even of the deity#ach'2 and #8no circumstances can increase or impair its perfection#aci4' ,epictetus often dwells on the same theme#adj1 and the whole work of ,marcus ,aurelius is a meditation upon it#ada4 ,nor is the dogma merely scholastic2 the teachers of the ,roman period lay special emphasis on the practical importance of upholding the ideal of virtue1 as alike single and complete in itself#adb4 ,sidenote3 ,virtue and the virtues4 #cbc4 ,but virtue1 though single in its essence1 is manifold in its applications2 though it can only be possessed as a whole1 it is attained by stages4 ,by this amplification of the ,stoic doctrine the way is prepared for that adaptation of ethical doctrine to varieties of circumstance which will be the special subject of our next chapter4 ,by the side of virtue stand #8the virtues1' sometimes conceived as virtue herself endowed with various qualities#adc1 more often as virtue at work in different spheres of action4 ,in this way virtue assumes in turn the shape of each one of the four virtues as commonly understood1 namely ,wisdom1 ,justice1 ,courage1 and ,soberness#add2 we may1 if we please1 reckon with a smaller or greater number#ade2 yet we must always remember that the virtues are so knit together1 that he who truly possesses one1 possesses all#adf4 ,virtue again is displayed in single acts1 each of which 7whatever its sphere7 is a #8right action' 71 recte factum7#adg4 ,in proportion as virtue is displayed in its various qualities and spheres1 and in successive right actions1 it gains itself a larger field2 it cannot be said to increase1 but it is in a way spread out and broadened#adh4 ,sidenote3 ,how virtue is won4 #cbd4 ,virtue1 as it is displayed in individual men1 has also a history4 ,this follows clearly from ,stoic principles1 since virtue is an aspect of reason1 and children are not possessed of reason#adi4 ,virtue therefore comes by training1 not by birth#aej2 by art1 not by nature#aea4 ,in the period that precedes the attainment of virtue1 there exist states of the soul which are the semblances and the forerunners of virtue2 and he who is on his way towards wisdom1 and whom we call #8the probationer' 71 proficiens#aeb71 by learning and practice comes daily nearer to his goal1 till in the crowning moment he wins it as a whole2 for virtue is no sum of lesser dispositions reached by a gradual addition of item to item1 but a thing complete in itself#aec4 ,can virtue thus won be lost at a later time8 ,virtue1 it may seem1 is not really such1 unless it is indestructible2 and the ,cynics and the earlier ,stoics taught accordingly that virtue cannot be lost#aed1 that it is a #8possession for ever4' ,in this point1 as in so many others1 ,chrysippus yielded to criticism1 and admitted that virtue might be lost through intoxication or indigestion#aee1 to which causes might well be added the failure of the reason through insanity or old age#aef4 ,but in spite of these difficulties the general feeling of the ,stoic school held firmly to the doctrine that virtue once acquired is acquired for ever#aeg4 ,sidenote3 ,wise men4 #cbe4 ,virtue and vice are not mere theories of the philosopher2 they exist and can be studied in human shape1 in the wise and foolish men of myth1 history1 and society4 ,the lesson of virtue in particular can best be learnt by considering virtuous men#aeh4 ,here the ,stoics followed closely the teaching of their predecessors the ,cynics#aei4 ,as the best of models they accepted ,hercules1 the man rightly deemed a god#afj1 who travelled over all the world1 purging it of every lawlessness1 and bringing with him justice1 holiness1 and peace#afa4 ,next comes ,ulysses1 who like ,hercules was untiring in his labours1 triumphant over pain1 and a conqueror throughout all the world#afb2 an example to all men of endurance and vigour#afc4 ,to barbarians ,cyrus1 king of ,persia1 was a like example to prove that suffering is a good#afd4 ,many such are counted amongst the philosophers2 first ,heraclitus1 not for his insight into nature1 but for his control over his passions#afe2 then ,socrates1 who in life and death was equally a model as a man and as a citizen#aff4 ,diogenes the ,cynic is worthy of special honour1 for he was so filled with love for mankind and obedience to ,god1 that he willingly undertook a life of labour and bodily suffering1 and thus won himself the true freedom#afg1 and became truly happy1 truly divine#afh4 ,zeno the most temperate of philosophers#afi1 and ,cleanthes#agj the most enduring1 were men of like type within the ,stoic school itself4 ,sidenote3 ,wise ,romans4 #cbf4 ,to the list of wise men recognised by the ,greeks the ,romans were proud to add other names from their own history1 thereby associating their philosophic principles with patriotic pride4 ,from their mythology ,aeneas was selected1 the man who crushes his desires that he may loyally cooperate with the destiny of his people2 from the times of the republic ,scipio ,africanus minor and his gentle companion ,laelius#aga2 whilst in ,publius ,rutilius ,rufus a ,roman could be found who1 like ,socrates1 would not when on his trial consent to any other defence than a plain statement of the facts1 in which he neither exaggerated his own merits nor made any plea for mercy#agb4 ,but amongst all ,romans ,cato of ,utica was pre-eminent#agc4 ,if ,cicero1 as a contemporary and a colleague in political life1 was little liable to illusions as to his character and success1 his testimony to ,cato's sincerity is all the more valuable#agd2 nor can we believe that ,cato's voluntary death would so soon and so greatly have stirred ,roman feeling1 had it not come as the climax of a life worthily spent#age4 ,the period of the principate brought to the front both men and women whose fearless lives and quiet self-approved deaths proved them to be worthy successors to the heroes of the past2 and at the same time we notice a disposition to find some at least of the elements of the heroic character in simple uneducated folk1 as in the soldier1 the athlete1 and the gladiator1 so that these too serve in their degree as models for those that seek wisdom#agf4 ,sidenote3 ,wise men are few4 #cbg4 ,the founders of ,stoicism never doubted that wise men had existed and did exist2 they looked forward to a time not far distant when there should be a ,cosmopolis in which every citizen should be wise4 ,this robust belief was not maintained by their successors4 ,according to ,chrysippus1 only one or two wise men have ever existed#agg2 and he expressly denies that he himself or any of his acquaintance are amongst the number#agh4 ,the ,stoics of the transition period avoided the topic as troublesome#agi2 and their opponents naturally pressed it on them all the more4 ,zeno had said #8,it is reasonable to honour the gods3 it is not reasonable to honour the non-existent3 therefore the gods exist4' ,this was now parodied3 #8,it is reasonable to honour wise men3 it is not reasonable to honour the non-existent3 therefore wise men exist4' ,if this argument was unsatisfactory1 as we are told#ahj1 to the ,stoics1 because they had not yet discovered their wise man anywhere1 we are not surprised to find that sometimes they refer him to the golden age#aha1 at other times convert him into an ideal#ahb4 ,the ,stoics under the ,roman principate re-affirmed vigorously the existence of the wise man#ahc4 ,seneca however admits that his appearance is as rare as that of the phoenix#ahd1 and altogether disclaims any such character for himself individually#ahe4 ,epictetus is far more true to the spirit of the old doctrine1 when he not only abstains from any morbid depreciation of his own character1 but also urges his pupils never to give up the hope of reaching perfection#ahf4 ,sidenote3 ,the glory of virtue4 #cbh4 ,thus the ,stoics founded their moral ideal on the triple basis of the good citizen1 the healthily-disposed soul1 and the examples of wise men4 ,in impressing this part of their system on their pupils1 they made little use of definitions or syllogisms1 but all the more they resorted to rhetorical description4 ,as in their physics the ,logos became almost a person1 so here the picture of ,virtue is drawn1 as by ,prodicus in the old allegory of the choice of ,hercules1 drawing men to her not by the pleasures she offers but by her majesty and beauty#ahg4 ,cleanthes in particular heaps epithets of praise on virtue#ahh2 more usually it is sufficient to insist that virtue is good1 praiseworthy1 and expedient4 ,that #8the wise man is a king#ahi' almost ceases to be a paradox1 since the soul is rightly compared to a kingdom2 that he is rich1 handsome1 free1 and invincible can equally be argued on ,stoic principles#aij4 ,to carry such statements further seems to savour of pedantry1 to ridicule them at any stage is easy4 ,yet the statement that seems the boldest of all1 that #8the wise man is happy even on the rack#aia1' was many a time verified by the experience of individual ,stoics#aib4 ,that the wise man is a god1 though subject to the limitations of mortality1 is maintained without hesitation#aic4 ,sidenote3 ,stoic ethics4 #cbi4 ,the ,stoic morality differs not only in form and in its reasoned basis1 but in substance1 both from the popular morality of the time and the ideals of rival philosophical schools4 ,the ,stoic heroes differ from those of ,homer by a world-age2 they possess what the ,romans called humanitas1 powers of reasoning and of sympathizing unknown to an age of warriors4 ,the ,epicurean sage was not1 as popular criticism and that of many ,stoics unjustly described him1 a man of gross tastes and reckless selfishness2 but he was essentially easy-going and a quietist1 little inclined to risk his peace of mind by meddling with the troubles of others4 ,to the ,cynics the ,stoics owed much in their principles1 to the ,academics 7as we shall see7 much in their application of them2 they stood between the two1 more reasonable and judicious than the former1 firmer in principle than the latter1 possessed of a breadth of outlook which neither of these schools could claim4 ,,footnotes #a e4g4 ,zeller1 ,stoics etc4 pp4 #af1 #ag2 ,stein ,psych4 ii p4 #ada4 #b ,see ,alex4 ,aph4 de fato1 chs4 #ce and #cg 7,arnim ii #ajjc and #ajje74 #c ,see above1 #ge4 #d 1 ,alex4 ,aph4 #ce1 p4 #bjg1 #h ,b2 cf4 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #hh4 #e #8,chrysippus sic incipit3 444 ' ,marcianus i p4 #aa1 #be 7,arnim iii #cad72 #8lex est ratio summa1 insita in natura1 quae iubet ea quae facienda sunt prohibetque contraria' ,cic4 ,leg4 i #f1 #ah4 #f #8,socrates cum rogaretur cuiatem se esse diceret1 ,mundanum1 inquit4 totius enim mundi se incolam et civem arbitrabatur' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 v #cg1 #ajh2 80 ,diog4 ,l4 vi #fc2 so ,epict4 ,disc4 i #i1 #a4 #g ,arnim i #bfb2 #8patriam meam esse mundum sciam' ,sen4 ,dial4 vii #bj1 #e4 #h #8membra sumus corporis magni2 natura nos cognatos edidit' ,ep4 #ie1 #eb4 #i #8quaecunque est hominis definitio1 una in omnes valet4 quod argumenti satis est1 nullam dissimilitudinem esse in genere' ,cic4 ,leg4 i #aj1 #bi and #cj4 #aj ,diog4 ,l4 vii #abi2 #8quomodo hominum inter homines iuris esse vincula putant1 sic homini nihil iuris esse cum bestiis' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #bj1 #fg4 ,the honour of being the first to recognise the principle of consideration for our dumb partners belongs to the ,hindus4 #aa #8nec est quisquam gentis ullius1 qui ducem naturam nactus ad virtutem pervenire non possit' ,cic4 ,leg4 i #aj1 #ca2 #8if the mind-element is common to us all1 so likewise is that reason which makes us rational2 and therefore too that reason which bids us do or leave undone2 and therefore the world-law2 therefore we are fellow-citizens and share a common citizenship' ,m4 ,aurel4 ,to himself iv #d4 #ab ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #d1 i4 #ac #8duas respublicas animo conplectamur1 alteram magnam et vere publicam1 qua di atque homines continentur2 444 alteram1 cui nos adscripsit condicio nascendi' ,sen4 ,dial4 viii #d1 #a4 ,so too ,epictetus3 #8,what is a man8 a part of a state1 of that first which consists of gods and men2 then of that which is called next to it1 which is a small image of the universal state' ,disc4 ii #e1 #bf4 #ad 1 ,athen4 xiii #ab 7,arnim i #bfc72 #8salva autem esse societas nisi custodia et amore partium non potest' ,sen4 ,dial4 iv #ca1 #g4 #ae #8eius societatis humanae vinculum est ratio et oratio1 quae conciliat inter se homines coniungitque naturali quadam societate' ,cic4 ,off4 i #af1 #ej4 #af 1 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #abh2 #8ius esse natura ,stoici censent' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ba1 #ga4 #ag #8non tum denique lex incipit esse1 cum scripta est1 sed tum cum orta est' ,cic4 ,leg4 ii #e1 #aj4 #ah ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #f1 #a2 ,theod4 ,aff4 iii #gd 7,arnim i #bfd74 #ai ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #f1 #a4 #bj ,diog4 ,l4 vii #cc4 #ba ,plutarch1 in quoting this argument1 makes the telling rejoinder that upon the same principle ,zeno need not have published an answer to ,plato's ,republic2 ,sto4 rep4 #h1 #a4 #bb ,diog4 ,l4 vii #cb4 ,this particular condemnation was not uncongenial to the ,stoics of the principate1 and may partly account for the decay of literature in imperial ,rome4 ,but ,chrysippus had meanwhile supplied the needed qualification that these studies are useful as a training preliminary to virtue2 see ,diog4 ,l4 vii #abi1 and cf4 #ccf4 #bc ,diog4 ,l4 vii #cc4 ,probably usury was also condemned by ,zeno1 as it was by ,seneca3 #8quid computationes et venale tempus et sanguinolentae centesimae8' ,sen4 ,ben4 vii #aj1 #d4 #bd ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aca4 #be #8,more continent than ,zeno' became a proverb at ,athens2 ib4 #bg4 #bf ib4 #aba4 #bg ,origen cont4 ,celsum1 vii #fc 7,arnim iii #gbi74 #bh ,this principle is stated by ,chrysippus3 ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #bb1 #a4 #bi ,the essential equality of the sexes in ,stoic theory is illustrated in the development of ,roman law3 #8led by their theory of natural law1 the ,roman jurisconsults had evidently 444 assumed the equality of the sexes as a principle of their code of equity' ,maine1 ,ancient ,law1 p4 #aed4 ,cf4 on the whole subject ,gomperz1 ,greek ,thinkers1 bk v ch4 #ac3 e4g4 #8to the common ,greek sentiment exclusive personal appropriation of women and the resulting inequality in ownership was as yet very far from seeming so much of a law of nature1 or meeting with such unconditional acceptance as 444 in modern times' 7vol4 iii p4 #aai74 #cj ,see #dca4 #ca #8,what then1 are not women common by nature8 ,so ,i say also4 ,is not the theatre common to the citizens8 ,when then they have taken their seats1 come 7if you think proper7 and eject one of them6' ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #d1 #h4 #cb ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ahh4 ,a ,church ,father has caught the point better2 1 ,origen cont4 ,cels4 iv #de 7,arnim iii #gdc74 ,for the ,persian view see ,diog4 ,l4 ,prol4 #h4 #cc ,arnim i #bef4 #cd ,origen1 as above4 #ce ,see below1 #dgh4 #cf ,see above1 #bed4 #cg ,arnim i #bec4 #ch ib4 i #bed4 #ci ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aba4 #dj ,arnim iii #gdh4 #da ,arnim iii #geb4 ,for the same view in earlier times see ,gomperz1 ,greek ,thinkers1 i p4 #djc4 #db i #de1 #ajh4 #dc #8ille divinus animus egressurus hominem1 quo receptaculum suum conferatur1 ignis illud exurat an terra contegat1 an ferae distrahant1 non magis ad se iudicat pertinere quam secundas ad editum infantem' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ib1 #cd2 #8,but you will be cast out unburied 444 ,if the corpse is ,i1 ,i shall be cast out2 but if ,i am different from the corpse1 speak more properly' ,epict4 ,disc4 iv #g1 #ca4 #dd ,for a plain statement to this effect we have to look to ,philo3 ,sept4 et fest4 di4 p4 #bhc ,m 7,arnim iii #ceb74 #de #8est genus iniustae servitutis1 cum hi sunt alterius1 qui sui possunt esse' ,cic4 ,rep4 iii #be1 #cg4 #df #8servus1 ut placet ,chrysippo1 perpetuus mercennarius est' ,sen4 ,ben4 iii #bb1 #a2 #8non male praecipiunt1 qui servis ita iubent uti1 ut mercennariis3 operam exigendam1 iusta praebenda' ,cic4 ,off4 i #ac1 #da4 #dg #8potest servus dare beneficium domino1 si a domino iniuriam accipere' ,sen4 ,ben4 iii #bb1 #c4 #dh #8quod si natura hominis sapientiae capax est1 oportuit et opifices et rusticos et mulieres doceri1 ut sapiant3 populumque sapientium ex omni lingua et condicione et sexu et aetate conflari4 senserunt hoc adeo ,stoici1 qui et servis et mulieribus philosophandum esse dixerunt' ,lact4 ,div4 inst4 iii #be 7,arnim iii #bec74 #di ,see above1 #aaj4 #ej ,schmekel1 ,phil4 d4 mittleren ,stoa1 pp4 #fc1 #fi4 #ea #8eorum nullum ipsum per se separatum probo2 anteponoque singulis illud1 quod conflatum fuerit ex omnibus4 sed si unum ac simplex probandum sit1 regium probem atque inprimis laudem' ,cic4 ,rep4 i #ce1 #ed2 #8optimus civitatis status sub rege iusto est' ,sen4 ,ben4 ii #bj1 #b4 #eb #8memineram persaepe te cum ,panaetio disserere solitum coram ,polybio 444 optimum longe statum civitatis esse eum1 quem maiores nostri nobis reliquissent' ,cic4 ,rep4 i #ba1 #cd4 #ec ,see below1 ch4 xvi4 #ed ,arnim iii #ced4 #ee ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aba4 #ef 1 ,stob4 ii #g1 #c b4 #eg #8virtus nihil aliud est quam animus quodammodo se habens' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aac1 #b2 #8virtus est adfectio animi constans conveniensque' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 iv #ae1 #cd4 #eh ,in numerous variations3 for the present it is sufficient to quote ,cicero's phrase #8convenienter naturae vivere' ,fin4 iii #i1 #ca1 etc41 and from ,seneca #8virtus secundum naturam est2 vitia inimica et infesta sunt' ,ep4 #ej1 #h4 ,cf4 also #8we ought to go to be instructed1 in order that we may maintain our minds in harmony with the things that happen' ,epict4 ,disc4 i #ab1 #ag4 #ei #8virtus habebit illud in animo vetus praeceptum3 deum sequere' ,sen4 ,dial4 vii #ae1 #e4 #fj #8ipsa virtus brevissime recta ratio dici potest' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 iv #ae1 #cd4 #fa #8virtutis definitio est--habitus consentiens vitae' ,comm4 in ,lucan4 ii #chj 7,arnim iii #aii74 #fb #8perfecta virtus aequalitas est ac tenor vitae per omnia consonans sibi' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ca1 #h4 #fc #8ante omnia hoc cura1 ut constes tibi' ib4 #ce1 #d4 #fd #8virtus convenientia constat3 omnia opera eius cum ipsa concordant et congruunt' ib4 #gd1 #cj4 #fe #8stultitia semper incipit vivere3 quam foeda est hominum levitas cottidie nova vitae fundamenta ponentium1 novas spes in exitu incohantium6 quid est turpius quam senex vivere incipiens8' ib4 #ac1 #af and #ag4 #ff #8,zeno is erat qui 444 id appellaret honestum1 quod esset simplex quoddam et solum et unum bonum' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #aj1 #cf4 ,so ,seneca3 #8quid est sapientia8 semper idem velle atque idem nolle' ,sen4 ,ep4 #bj1 #e4 #fg ,see above1 #ha4 #fh ,whether by ,zeno 7,diog4 ,l4 vii #hg71 or by ,cleanthes 7,stob4 ii #g1 #f a3 ,arnim i #eeb7 is a matter of no importance4 #fi ,see above1 #ajh4 ,the emphasis on individual nature is sometimes still greater2 ,galen plac4 ,hipp4 et ,plat4 v #e1 p4 #dfh ,k 7from ,chrysippus74 #gj ,diog4 ,l4 vii #hg and #hh4 #ga ,stob4 ii #g1 #f a4 ,see also above1 #beh4 #gb ,stob4 ii #g1 #f a4 #gc ,see below1 #cbj4 #gd ,clem4 ,al4 ,strom4 ii #ba1 #abi4 #ge #8sic est faciendum1 ut contra universam naturam nihil contendamus2 ea tamen conservata1 propriam naturam sequamur' ,off4 i #ca1 #aaj4 #gf #8vivere adhibentem scientiam earum rerum1 quae natura evenirent' ,fin4 iv #f1 #ad4 #gg #8huc et illud accedit1 ut perfecta virtus sit aequalitas ac tenor vitae per omnia consonans sibi1 quod non potest esse nisi rerum scientia contingit et ars1 per quam humana ac divina noscantur2 hoc est summum bonum' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ca1 #h4 #gh ,see above1 #ih4 #gi #8non pareo deo1 sed adsentior4 ex animo illum1 non quia necesse est1 sequor' ,sen4 ,ep4 #if1 #b4 #hj #8deo parere libertas est' ,dial4 vii #ae1 #g4 #ha ,epict4 ,disc4 iv #a1 #hi and #ij4 #hb ib4 ii #aj1 #e4 #hc ib4 iii #g1 #g4 #hd #8,zenon ait3 accedet ad rempublicam sapiens1 nisi si quid impedierit' ,sen4 ,dial4 viii #c1 #b2 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aba4 #he ,see #cjf1 note #bf4 #hf ,cic4 ,off4 i #d1 #ab4 #hg ,stob4 ii #g1 #e b #a4 #hh ,xen4 ,mem4 iii #i1 #e2 see also above1 #dh1 #eb4 #hi ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ia4 #ij #8,they are thieves and robbers1 you may say4 ,what do you mean by thieves and robbers8 ,they are mistaken about good and evil4 ,show them their errors1 and you will see how they desist from their errors' ,epict4 ,disc4 i #ah1 #c and #d4 #ia ,see above1 #agg1 note #bh4 #ib #8,if you would be a good reader1 read2 if a writer1 write4 ,generally1 if you would make anything a habit1 do it2 if you would not make it a habit1 do not do it' ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #ah1 #b and #d2 #8nihil est quod non humana mens vincat1 et in familiaritatem adducat adsidua meditatio' ,sen4 ,dial4 iv #ab1 #c4 #ic 1 ,chrys4 ap4 ,galen plac4 ,h4 et ,plat4 iv #f1 p4 #djc ,k 7,arnim iii #dgc74 #id #8virtutem convenies 444 pro muris stantem1 pulverulentam1 coloratam1 callosas habentem manus' ,sen4 ,dial4 vii #g1 #c4 #ie #8,saturnalia ,athenis agitabamus hilare prorsum et modeste1 non 7ut dicitur7 8remittentes animum10 nam 8remittere0 inquit ,musonius 8animum quasi amittere est0' ,gellius1 ,n4 ,a4 xviii #b1 #a4 #if #8iustum ac tenacem propositi virum non civium ardor prava iubentium1 non vultus instantis tyranni mente quatit solida' ,hor4 ,c4 iii #c1 #a-d4 #ig #8hanc stabilem animi sedem ,graeci vocant2 ego tranquillitatem voco' ,sen4 ,dial4 ix #b1 #c4 #ih ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 iv #aj1 #bc4 #ii #8ut enim corporis temperatio1 cum ea congruunt inter se ex quibus constamus1 sanitas1 sic animi dicitur1 cum eius iudicia opinionesque concordant1 eaque animi est virtus' ib4 #ac1 #cj4 #ajj #8roga bonam mentem1 bonam valetudinem animi1 deinde tunc corporis' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aj1 #d2 #8orandum est1 ut sit mens sana in corpore sano' ,juv4 ,sat4 x #cef4 #aja #8beata est vita conveniens naturae suae1 quae non aliter contingere potest1 quam si primum sana mens est et in perpetua possessione sanitatis suae1 deinde fortis et vehemens1 tum pulcherrima ac patiens1 apta temporibus1 corporis sui pertinentiumque ad id curiosa non anxie' ,sen4 ,dial4 vii #c1 #c4 #ajb #8actio recta non erit1 nisi fuerit recta voluntas' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ie1 #eg2 #8gratus potest esse homo voluntate' ,ben4 ii #ca1 #a2 #8sic timere1 sic maerere1 sic in libidine esse peccatum est1 etiam sine effectu' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #i1 #cb2 #8,the being of the good is a certain kind of will 772 the being of the bad is a certain kind of will4 ,what then are externals8 ,material for the will' ,epict4 ,disc4 i #bi1 #a and #b4 #ajc ,see below1 #chc4 #ajd ,arnim i #bej4 #aje ,diog4 ,l4 vii #cc4 #ajf #8placet ,stoicis1 suo quamque rem nomine appellare4 sic enim disserunt1 nihil esse obscenum1 nihil turpe dictu' ,cic4 ,fam4 ix #bb1 #a4 ,see further below1 #cdd4 #ajg #8postea tuus ille ,poenulus1 causam non obtinens repugnante natura1 verba versare coepit et primum rebus iis1 quas non bonas dicimus1 concessit ut haberentur aestimabiles1 et ad naturam accommodatae' ,fin4 iv #bj1 #ef2 #8the stricter ,stoic theory of the good was modified by the admission of ' ,zeller1 ,stoics1 p4 #bij4 ,the true note is struck by ,rendall1 ,introd4 p4 xlv3 #8the course of ,stoic ethics is1 in fact1 the progressive enlargement and clarification of the ,cynic ideal of conduct1 under the stress of that larger conception of 8nature0 which was inherent in ,stoic monism4 ,the full content and interpretation of the formula was only gradually realised4 ,its deeper implications unfolded themselves through life even more than through thought1 and find their fullest exposition in the pages of the ,roman ,stoics4' #ajh ,stob4 ii #g1 #e a4 #aji #8aestimatio1 quae dicitur' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #aj1 #cd4 ,posidonius seems to have practically substituted for 1 but in strict usage the latter term is narrower1 and includes only such things as have measurable worth4 #aaj #8inter illa1 quae nihil valerent ad beate misereve vivendum1 aliquid tamen quo differrent esse voluerunt1 ut essent eorum alia aestimabilia1 alia contra1 alia neutrum' ib4 #ae1 #ej2 1 4 1 ,stob4 ii #g1 #g g2 #8quae essent sumenda ex iis alia pluris esse aestimanda1 alia minoris' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #aj1 #cg4 #aaa ,stob4 ii #g1 #g4 #aab ,arnim iii #abb4 #aac ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #bc1 #f4 #aad #8cetera autem1 etsi nec bona nec mala essent1 tamen alia secundum naturam dicebat ,zeno1 alia naturae esse contraria4 his ipsis alia interiecta et media numerabat' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #aj1 #cf4 #aae ,stob4 ii #g1 #g g4 #aaf #8hoc ,zeno nominavit1 cum uteretur in lingua copiosa factis tamen nominibus ac novis4 8ut enim10 inquit1 8nemo dicit in regia regem ipsum quasi productum esse ad dignitatem 7id enim est 71 sed eos qui in aliquo honore sint1 quorum ordo proxime accedit1 ut secundus sit1 ad regium principatum0' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ae1 #ea4 #aag #8quae pluris1 ea praeposita appellabat2 reiecta autem1 quae minoris' ,ac4 i #aj1 #cg2 #8quae appellemus vel promota et remota1 vel1 ut dudum diximus1 praeposita vel praecipua1 et illa reiecta' ,fin4 iii #af1 #eb4 #aah #8quis porro sapientum1 nostrorum dico1 quibus unum est bonum virtus1 negat etiam haec1 quae indifferentia vocamus1 habere in se aliquid pretii et alia aliis esse potiora8 quibusdam ex iis tribuitur aliquid honoris1 quibusdam multum' ,sen4 ,dial4 vii #bb1 #d4 #aai #8itaque commoda vocentur1 et ut nostra lingua loquar1 producta' ,ep4 #gd1 #ag4 #abj ,see above1 #hb4 #aba #8bonum appello quidquid secundum naturam est2 quod contra1 malum2 nec ego solus1 sed tu etiam1 ,chrysippe1 in foro1 domi2 in schola desinis' ,cic4 ,fin4 v #bi1 #hi2 cf4 ,arnim iii #acg4 #abb #8sunt animi bona1 sunt corporis1 sunt fortunae2 illa animi bona a stulto ac malo submoventur' ,sen4 ,ben4 v #ac1 #a4 #abc #8deinceps explicatur differentia rerum2 quam si non ullam esse diceremus1 et confunderetur omnis vita1 ut ab ,aristone2 neque ullum sapientiae munus aut opus inveniretur2 cum inter res eas quae ad vitam degendam pertinerent1 nihil omnino interesset1 neque ullum delectum haberi oporteret' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ae1 #ej4 #abd #8virtutis hoc proprium est1 earum rerum quae secundum naturam sint1 habere delectum' ib4 #d1 #ab4 #abe #8relinquitur ut summum bonum sit vivere scientiam adhibentem earum rerum quae natura eveniant1 selegentem quae secundum naturam1 et si quae contra naturam sunt1 reicientem2 id est1 convenienter congruenterque naturae vivere' ib4 #i1 #ca 7after ,posidonius74 #abf #8ut si hoc fingamus esse quasi finem et ultimum1 ita iacere talum1 ut rectus assistat2 qui ita talis erit iactus1 ut cadat rectus1 praepositum quiddam habebit ad finem2 qui aliter1 contra4 neque tamen illa praepositio ad eum quem dixi finem pertinebit3 sic ea1 quae sunt praeposita1 referuntur illa quidem ad finem1 sed ad eius vim naturamque nihil pertinent' ib4 #af1 #ed2 compare also #f1 #bb2 #8non est turpe non consequi1 dummodo sequaris' ,sen4 ,ben4 v #e1 #c4 #abg ,diog4 ,l4 vii #abg2 #8a ,zenone hoc magnifice tanquam ex oraculo editur3 virtus ad bene vivendum se ipsa contenta est' ,cic4 ,fin4 v #bg1 #gi2 cf4 ,pearson1 ,fragments1 p4 #ai4 #abh #8testatur saepe ,chrysippus tres solas esse sententias1 quae defendi possint1 de finibus bonorum2 aut enim honestatem esse finem aut voluptatem aut utrumque' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #de1 #ach4 #abi #8crescere bonorum finem non putamus' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ad1 #dh2 #8honestum nullam accessionem recipit' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ff1 #i2 #8summum bonum nec infringitur nec augetur2 in suo modo permanet1 utcunque se fortuna gessit4 utrum maiorem an minorem circulum scribas1 ad spatium eius pertinet1 non ad formam' ib4 #gd1 #bf and #bg4 #acj ,see above1 #aaj4 #aca ,see above1 #cac4 #acb #8cum ,panaetius sit is1 qui id solum bonum iudicet1 quod honestum sit' ,cic4 ,off4 iii #c1 #ab2 #8solebat narrare ,pompeius se1 cum ,rhodum venisset decedens ex ,syria1 audire voluisse ,posidonium2 sed cum audivisset eum graviter esse aegrum1 quod vehementer eius artus laborarent1 voluisse tamen nobilissimum philosophum visere 444 itaque eum graviter et copiose de hoc ipso1 nihil esse bonum1 nisi quod honestum esset1 cubantem disputavisse3 cumque quasi faces ei doloris admoverentur1 saepe dixisse3 8nihil agis1 dolor3 quamvis sis molestus1 nunquam te esse confitebor malum0' ,tusc4 disp4 ii #be1 #fa2 cf4 ,sen4 ,ep4 #hg1 #ce4 #acc ,see above1 #aad4 #acd ,diog4 ,l4 vii #abh4 #ace #8sapientem nulla re egere1 et tamen multis ei rebus opus esse' ,sen4 ,ep4 #i1 #ad4 #acf #8virtus ipsa pretium sui' ,dial4 vii #i1 #d2 #8recte factorum verus fructus est fecisse' ,clem4 i #a1 #a2 #8virtutum omnium pretium in ipsis est' ,ep4 #ha1 #bj4 #acg #8sapienti non nocetur a paupertate1 non a dolore1 non ab aliis tempestatibus vitae2 ipse semper in actu est2 in effectu tunc maximus1 cum illi fortuna se obposuit' ib4 #he1 #cg4 #ach #8virtutem nemo unquam deo acceptam rettulit 444 iudicium hoc omnium mortalium est1 fortunam a deo petendam1 a se ipso sumendam esse sapientiam' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 iii #cf1 #hf and #hh2 #8aequum mi animum ipse parabo' ,hor4 ,ep4 i #ah1 #aab2 #8monstro1 quod ipse tibi possis dare' ,juv4 ,sat4 x #cfc4 #aci ,see note #abi4 #adj #8,do you seek a reward for a good man greater than doing what is good and just8 ,does it seem to you so small and worthless a thing to be good and happy8' ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #bd1 #ea and #eb4 #ada #8,what does not make the man himself worse1 does not make his life worse either1 nor injure him1 without or within' ,to himself iv #h4 #adb #8nec summum bonum habebit sinceritatem suam1 si aliquid in se viderit dissimile meliori' ,sen4 ,dial4 vii #ae1 #a2 #8,no man is able to make progress when he is wavering between opposite things2 but if you have preferred this 7one thing7 to all things1 if you choose to attend to this only1 to work out this only1 give up everything else' ,epict4 ,disc4 iv #b1 #d4 #adc ,chrysippus wrote a book 2 see ,arnim iii #bef4 #add ,see below1 #cce-cej4 #ade ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ib4 #adf 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #abe2 #8quicquid honeste fit1 una virtus facit1 sed ex consilii sententia' ,sen4 ,ep4 #fg1 #aj2 #8virtutibus inter se concordia est' ,clem4 i #e1 #c4 #adg #8videmus esse quiddam1 quod recte factum appellemus2 id autem est perfectum officium' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ah1 #ei2 #8rectum1 quod dicebas' ib4 iv #f1 #ae4 #adh #8quamquam negant nec virtutes nec vitia crescere2 attamen utrumque eorum fundi quodammodo et quasi dilatari putant' ib4 iii #ae1 #dh4 #adi ,see above1 #aec1 note #ff4 #aej #8scit sapiens neminem nasci sapientem sed fieri' ,sen4 ,dial4 iv #aj1 #f4 #aea #8non dat natura virtutem2 ars est bonum fieri' ,ep4 #ij1 #dd4 #aeb ,zeno probably took over the term from the ,peripatetics1 see ,diog4 ,l4 vii #abg2 its implications he adapted to ,stoic principles4 ,see ,plut4 prof4 virt4 #ab4 #aec #8hoc autem ipsum bonum non accessione neque crescendo aut cum ceteris comparando1 sed propria vi sua et sentimus et appellamus bonum' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #aj1 #cd4 #aed ,stob4 ii #g1 #aa g2 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #abg4 #aee 444 ib4 #aef ,see above1 #bhi4 #aeg #8semel traditi nobis boni perpetua possessio est2 non dediscitur virtus4 contraria enim mala in alieno haerent1 ideo depelli et exturbari possunt' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ej1 #h4 ,just in the same spirit we say that a new language or 7say7 the art of swimming1 if once learnt1 is learnt #8for good4' #aeh #8aliquis vir bonus nobis eligendus est1 ac semper ante oculos habendus1 ut sic tanquam illo spectante vivamus1 et omnia tanquam illo vidente faciamus' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aa1 #h1 quoting however from ,epicurus4 #aei #8,heracles was the model whom ,antisthenes and the other ,cynics held up for imitation1 the patron saint1 so to speak1 of the school4 ,antisthenes wrote a dialogue entitled 8,heracles0 and1 with this for guidance1 his followers delighted to tell again the story of the hero's laborious and militant life1 identifying1 by ingenious allegories1 the foul monsters which he vanquished with the vices and lusts that beset the souls of men' ,gomperz1 ,greek ,thinkers1 ii p4 #aea2 #8the more generous ,cynics aver that the great ,heracles also1 as he became the author of other blessings1 so also left to mankind the chief pattern of this 7,cynic7 life' ,julian1 ,or4 vi p4 #ahg1 #c 7,mayor on ,juv4 ,sat4 x #cfa74 ,so also in ,buddhism3 #8besides the ideal ,king1 the personification of ,power and ,justice1 another ideal has played an important part in the formation of early ,buddhist ideas regarding their master4 ,it was the ideal of a perfectly ,wise ,man1 the personification of ,wisdom1 the ,buddha' ,rhys ,davids1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #ada4 #afj #8,herculem illum1 quem hominum fama1 beneficiorum memor1 in concilio caelestium collocavit' ,cic4 ,off4 iii #e1 #be4 #afa #8,hercules nihil sibi vicit3 orbem terrarum transiit non concupiscendo sed vindicando1 quid vinceret2 malorum hostis1 bonorum vindex1 terrarum marisque pacator' ,sen4 ,ben4 i #ac1 #c4 ,see also the brilliant descriptions in ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #bd4 #afb #8,ulixen et ,herculem 444 ,stoici nostri sapientes pronuntiaverunt1 invictos laboribus1 contemptores voluptatis et victores omnium terrarum' ,sen4 ,dial4 ii #b1 #a4 ,yet there is something to be said on the other side3 #8,ulysses felt a desire for his wife1 and wept as he sat on a rock4444 ,if ,ulysses did weep and lament1 he was not a good man' ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #bd1 #ah4 #afc ,so ,horace1 quite in the ,stoic spirit3 #8rursus quid virtus et quid patientia possit1 utile proposuit nobis exemplar ,ulixen' ,hor4 ,ep4 i #b1 #ag and #ah4 #afd ,diog4 ,l4 vi #a1 #b4 #afe #8,by acting thus ,heraclitus and those like him were deservedly divine1 and were so called' ,epict4 ,manual #ae4 #aff #8praeclara est aequabilitas in omni vita1 et idem semper vultus eademque frons1 ut de ,socrate accepimus' ,cic4 ,off4 i #bf1 #ij2 #8,socrates 444 violated nothing which was becoming to a good man1 neither in making his defence nor by fixing a penalty on himself2 nor even in the former part of his life when he was a senator or when he was a soldier' ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #bd1 #fa4 #afg ,see above1 #ag4 #afh #8si quis de felicitate ,diogenis dubitat1 potest idem dubitare et de deorum immortalium statu' ,sen4 ,dial4 ix #h1 #e2 #8,by acting thus ,diogenes 444 was deservedly divine1 and was so called' ,epict4 ,manual #ae4 #afi ,see above1 #cjf1 note #be4 #agj ,diog4 ,l4 vii #agj2 #8,learn how those live who are genuine philosophers3 how ,socrates lived1 who had a wife and children2 how ,diogenes lived1 and how ,cleanthes1 who attended to the school and drew water' ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #bf1 #bc4 #aga #8aut ,cato ille sit aut ,scipio aut ,laelius' ,sen4 ,ep4 #be1 #f2 #8elige remissioris animi virum ,laelium' ib4 #aa1 #aj4 #agb #8nam cum esset ille vir ,p4 ,rutilius ,rufus exemplum1 ut scitis1 innocentiae1 cumque illo nemo neque integrior esset in civitate neque sanctior1 non modo supplex iudicibus esse noluit1 sed ne ornatius quidem aut liberius causam dici suam1 quam simplex ratio veritatis ferebat' ,cic4 de ,or4 i #ec1 #bbi2 cf4 ,sen4 ,dial4 i #c1 #d and #g2 and see further1 #dcj4 #agc #8,catonem certius exemplar sapientis viri nobis deos immortales dedisse quam ,ulixen et ,herculem prioribus saeculis' ,sen4 ,dial4 ii #b1 #a4 #agd #8ego te ,cato verissime dixerim peccare nihil' ,cic4 ,mur4 #bi1 #fj4 #age #8,catonis nobile letum' ,hor4 ,c4 i #ab1 #ce and #cf2 and see below1 #dcj4 #agf #8nobis quoque militandum est' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ea1 #f2 #8,this is the true athlete4 ,great is the combat1 divine is the work' ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #ah1 #bh4 ,see also below1 #djb4 #agg ,euseb4 pr4 ev4 vi #h1 #ac2 ,alex4 ,aph4 de fato #bh1 p4 #aii1 #af ,b4 #agh ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #ca1 #e4 #agi #8qui sapiens sit aut fuerit1 ne ipsi quidem solent dicere' ,cic4 ,ac4 ii #dg1 #ade4 ,thus ,panaetius made no reference to the wise man2 whilst ,posidonius only defended his possible existence in the future 7,schmekel1 pp4 #bac1 #bgh74 #ahj ,sext4 math4 ix #acc4 #aha ,see above1 #bad4 #ahb ,even if ,cicero is not the creator of the conception of an #8ideal character1' nowhere else can we find its meaning so clearly expressed4 ,so of the wise man2 #8iste vir altus et excellens1 magno animo1 vere fortis1 infra se omnia humana ducens1 is1 inquam1 quem efficere volumus1 quem quaerimus certe1 et confidere sibi debet1 et suae vitae et actae et consequenti1 et bene de se iudicare' ,fin4 iii #h1 #bi4 #ahc #8non est quod dicas hunc sapientem nostrum nusquam inveniri' ,sen4 ,dial4 ii #g1 #a4 #ahd #8ille alter sapiens primae notae fortasse tanquam phoenix semel anno quingentesimo nascitur' ,ep4 #db1 #a1 cf4 ,alex4 ,aphr4 p4 #cd1 n4 #b2 #8scit sapiens paucissimos omni aevo sapientes evadere' ,sen4 ,dial4 iv #aj1 #f4 #ahe ,see above1 #abf4 #ahf #8,socrates in this way became perfect1 in all things improving himself1 attending to nothing except to reason4 ,but you1 though you are not yet a ,socrates1 ought to live as one who wishes to be a ,socrates' ,epict4 ,manual #ej4 ,epictetus did not however ignore failures3 #8we ,stoics say one thing1 but we do another2 we talk of the things which are beautiful1 but we do what is base' ,disc4 iii #g1 #ah4 #ahg ,see above1 #db4 #ahh ,see above1 #ih4 #ahi ,this is again a ,socratic paradox3 ,xen4 ,mem4 iii #i1 #aj4 #aij ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #bb1 #ge and #gf4 #aia #8eorum1 qui dolorem in malis non habent1 ratio certe cogit1 uti in omnibus tormentis conservetur beata vita sapienti' ib4 iii #ac1 #db2 ,arnim iii #ehe1 #ehf2 #8shew me a man who is sick and happy1 in danger and happy1 in exile and happy1 in disgrace and happy4 ,shew him2 ,i desire1 by the gods1 to see a ,stoic' ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #ai1 #bd4 #aib ,see below1 #dca1 #dci4 #aic #8bonus tempore tantum a deo differt' ,sen4 ,dial4 i #a1 #e2 #8sapiens excepta mortalitate similis deo' ib4 ii #h1 #b2 and see above1 #bgd4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,daily ,,duties4 ,sidenote3 ,from principles to practice4 #ccj4 ,as in our study of the ,stoic philosophy we turn aside from the supreme problems of the universe1 such as gather round the questions of the divine purpose1 the existence of evil1 and unfettered choice1 our way becomes easier4 ,our new problems1 dealing with the constitution of the human soul1 and the ideals of human life in the state and in the individual1 are perhaps not simpler in themselves1 but they are of narrower range1 and in finding our way over the first rough ground we learn to tread with some assurance1 so that we now feel ourselves1 as it were1 on a downward path4 ,for all that1 the problems of the universal law and the perfect man must still be compared to mountain tops1 if not to the highest peaks of all4 ,but from this point on we steadily descend towards the plains1 to that common and practical life by which the worth of philosophy is tested4 ,we no longer gaze on the same bright sunlight or breathe the same invigorating air2 philosophy enters a region of mists and shadows1 and even learns to adapt her language to new neighbours4 ,but her meaning is the same as before1 and the pathway to the heights is not closed behind her4 ,sidenote3 ,the daily round4 #cca4 ,the region we have now reached is that of #8daily duties1' by which phrase we propose to translate here the ,greek and the ,latin officia#a4 ,this word is defined by ,zeno as meaning #8that which it comes in one's way to do#b1' and its quiet sound at once brings it into contrast with the proud claims of ,virtue4 ,the contrast is in fact great4 ,virtue1 displaying itself in ,right ,action1 is only possible for reasoning beings1 that is1 for gods and men2 and within our view it is only attained1 if at all1 by the wise man4 ,but daily duty is common to the wise and the unwise#c2 it not only extends to children1 but also to the unreasoning animals#d and to plants#e4 ,virtue always contemplates the ,universal law2 for daily duty it is sufficient to follow the individual nature#f4 ,virtue cannot even be understood except by the trained philosopher1 whilst the principles of daily duty may be explained to the simple4 ,to use a comparison from mathematics1 daily duty is the projection of virtue upon the plane of ordinary life4 ,between the two there always remains an assured correspondence4 ,each ,right ,action which ,virtue achieves is at the same time the performance of a daily duty1 and that in the most complete manner#g2 each daily duty performed by the unwise is a step by which he may in the end climb to ,wisdom#h4 ,sidenote3 ,first laws of nature4 #ccb4 ,the subject of #8daily duties' was treated both by ,zeno#i and by ,cleanthes#aj1 and is implied in the theory of ,stoic ethics as a whole2 it has also a special relation to the doctrine of advantages and disadvantages4 ,nevertheless the ,stoics do not directly say that daily duty consists in the seeking of advantages1 but that it is based upon primary ends which nature sets up 7 1 principia naturae7#aa4 ,this phrase indicates the source of this part of the ,stoic philosophy2 it marks teaching common to the ,peripatetic school and the ,academy1 and accepted by ,zeno from his teacher ,polemo#ab4 ,we are not informed how ,zeno and ,cleanthes elaborated this subject2 and when we find it taken up in earnest1 the spirit of the ,academy is firmly established4 ,thus the ,stoic demand for certain knowledge is here set aside2 and we are told that the standard of daily duty is #8that which when done can reasonably be defended#ac'2 which definition closely corresponds with the definition of the supreme good by ,diogenes of ,babylon #8to take a reasonable course in the choice of things according to nature#ad4' ,thus strong will and assured conviction are no longer required2 the door is thrown open for convention1 opportunism1 and respectability4 ,the daring moral theories and bold paradoxes of the founders of ,stoicism tend to disappear from sight1 and are replaced by shrewd good sense and worldly wisdom3 in short1 by the doctrine of #8making the best of both worlds4' ,the subject was therefore congenial to ,panaetius1 who was both a practical statesman and an admirer of ,plato and ,aristotle2 and it was from this standpoint that ,stoicism so rapidly won its way with the ,roman nobility of the last century of the republic4 ,panaetius' book was the basis of ,cicero's work de ,officiis1 which is the only systematic treatise which we possess on ,stoic ethics1 and therefore generally the most convenient source of information4 ,as however this work leans very strongly towards ,peripatetic views1 it will frequently be necessary to refer to other authorities1 amongst which ,cicero's de ,finibus best represents the older ,stoics1 and ,seneca and ,epictetus the ,stoics of the ,roman principate4 ,sidenote3 ,from the animals to man4 #ccc4 ,it is no departure from the fundamental principles of ,stoicism when we learn that the #8first lessons of nature' are those which are imprinted upon every animal at its birth#ae2 ,zeno himself had sought for the natural law of marriage by a like method#af4 ,the first natural lesson is that each animal seeks1 not indeed pleasure as the ,epicureans hold1 but its own preservation and the maintenance of its life in its completeness#ag4 ,at a later stage is imparted the desire of sexual union for procreation's sake1 and with it some kind of affection for each one's offspring#ah4 ,but nature's best lessons are reserved for man2 as to look into the future1 and regard life as a whole#ai2 to interest himself in his fellows1 to attend public festivities1 and to procure the amenities of a civilized life for himself and those dependent upon him#bj2 in spare hours1 to acquire information on points of historical or philosophical interest#ba2 in riper life to claim freedom1 and to refuse to submit to any arbitrary commands#bb2 and finally1 to perceive in all things harmony and beauty1 and to avoid any disturbance of it by wilful action#bc4 #8,such1' says ,cicero1 #8is the picture of a beautiful life2 and could we see it with our eyes 7as ,plato says71 great would be our desire to possess ,wisdom for a bride#bd4' ,sidenote3 ,wavering as to the standard4 #ccd4 ,in this general sketch we miss a clear ethical standard4 ,the first lessons of nature may easily be perverted1 so far as they are common to men and animals1 for they point towards the acts of eating1 drinking1 and sexual union1 all of which are associated by the ordinary man with pleasure in a vicious sense4 ,hence arises a danger 7from which many ,stoics do not keep clear71 that we may fall into the terrible error of the ,epicureans1 and hold that pleasure itself is a first law of nature#be4 ,it is therefore necessary to lay it down that man should aim specially at those results which are characteristic of human nature1 that is at the development of powers which he does not share with the lower animals4 ,so far the ,academy and the ,porch might travel together4 ,but the only1 higher capacities recognised by the ,stoics are reason and the political sense1 which is an aspect of the universal reason2 such matters as antiquarian interests and the appreciation of beauty could only be introduced under ,academic influence4 ,the last1 however1 as we shall see1 is to become with ,panaetius the predominant consideration#bf4 ,sidenote3 ,the four virtues4 #cce4 ,from the enunciation of general principles we pass on to the separate virtues4 ,virtue in the strict sense can only be possessed by the wise man2 he therefore alone can practise the virtues2 nevertheless we may use this and like terms in a secondary sense to describe those adumbrations or reflections of virtue which fall within the reach of the ordinary man#bg4 ,the classification of the virtues varies4 ,panaetius divided virtue into two parts1 theoretical and practical1 and ,seneca follows him on this point#bh4 ,it was perhaps ,chrysippus who distinguished between virtues that are #8arts' 77 and which are based on theoretical principles1 and those which are #8acquirements' 771 being attained by practice#bi4 ,but generally speaking the division of ,virtue into the four cardinal virtues of ,wisdom1 ,justice1 ,courage1 and ,soberness is accepted as sufficient2 by subdivision the number of virtues may be increased to any extent2 and in scholastic classifications of virtue we find lists which have multiplicity for their direct aim#cj4 ,sidenote3 ,wisdom4 #ccf4 ,wisdom 71 prudentia7 is considered by ,zeno not only as the first of the virtues1 but as the foundation of all2 so that ,courage is wisdom in suffering1 ,justice is wisdom in distribution1 and ,soberness is wisdom in enjoyment#ca4 ,his successors treated ,science 71 scientia7 as the parent virtue#cb1 thus placing ,wisdom side by side with the other cardinal virtues1 yet losing the point of ,zeno's genealogy4 ,the writers of the later periods desired to recognise separately contemplative wisdom1 and therefore introduced as a subdivision of the first cardinal virtue #8,speculation' 71 sapientia7#cc4 ,but the ,stoics generally held that all wisdom must justify itself by practical results4 ,the study of the so-called #8liberal arts' has a value for children1 for it prepares the way for virtuous training#cd4 ,logic is needed to protect us against fallacious reasoning#ce1 and physics that we may rightly understand the universe and its providential government1 upon which the conception of duty depends#cf2 in this sense we may speak of logic and physics as virtues1 that is1 as subdivisions of the virtue of wisdom#cg4 ,the study of physics is also admirable because it elevates the soul#ch4 ,geometry1 law1 and astrology are useful in the several professions#ci4 ,but study when carried to excess1 as by antiquarians1 bookworms1 and other learned time-wasters1 is nothing but folly#dj4 ,sidenote3 ,justice4 #ccg4 ,the second cardinal virtue is ,justice 71 iustitia71 of which ,chrysippus drew a striking allegorical picture4 #8,she is of virgin form1 to show that she is incorruptible and does not give way to bad men2 444 of firm and fierce aspect1 444 inspiring fear in the wicked1 confidence in the good2 her eyes are keen-sighted1 her bearing is at once sad and awe-inspiring#da4' ,cicero distinguishes ,justice in the narrower sense from #8,beneficence4' ,justice proper is a political virtue1 and consists in respect for the rights and property of individuals4 ,by nature indeed all things are common2 but since they have become private property by occupation1 conquest1 law1 contract1 and so forth1 individuals may keep their own1 provided they do not forget that they have always the duty of contributing to the common good#db1 and that even slaves have reasonable claims upon them#dc4 ,beneficence needs the guidance of principle1 and must be determined by considerations of person and occasion4 ,the claims of persons upon us depend on propinquity2 country1 parents1 wife and children must be first considered1 then other relatives1 then fellow-citizens1 lastly men in general#dd4 ,the consideration of the degrees of propinquity 77 was a favourite subject with ,epictetus1 and a useful defence against those who maintained that the ,stoic sage was lacking in natural affection#de4 ,the virtue of ,justice appealed specially to the statesman in both its applications1 and is dealt with fully by ,panaetius1 and by ,cicero after him4 ,sidenote3 ,courage4 #cch4 ,the third cardinal virtue is ,courage 71 fortitudo71 which retains the tradition of the #8strength and force' of ,socrates4 ,this again1 according to ,cicero1 has two parts1 one passive1 which consists in despising fortune and its buffets1 and is in harmony with the picture of the wise man as usually drawn2 the other part1 which we may call ,greatness of ,soul 71 magnitudo animi7 is shown in the undertaking of great enterprises4 ,the virtue of ,courage is characteristically ,stoic1 and may be considered1 like its counterpart ,wisdom1 as the foundation and source of all the virtues2 the knowledge of good and evil can only be attained by the soul that is duly strung to vigorous resolution#df4 ,the ,stoics of the principate perhaps insist most of all on this virtue1 which alone makes men independent of all that it lies with ,fortune to give and to take away4 ,the man of courage will therefore detach himself from fortune's gifts2 he will treat them as household furniture lent to him which may be at any moment recalled#dg4 ,sidenote3 ,death not to be feared4 #cci4 ,courage appears in its highest development in the face of tyranny and death4 ,it is the tyrant's boast that he has men in his power3 but the brave man is an exception4 ,his rank and his property may be taken away2 he may be subjected to the torture2 his life may be forfeited2 but the soul1 that is the man himself1 is beyond the tyrant's reach#dh4 ,to pain he answers #8if ,i can bear it1 it will be light2 if ,i cannot bear it1 it cannot be long#di4' ,amidst all the extremities of fire and rack men have been found who never groaned1 never begged for mercy1 never answered a question1 and indeed laughed heartily#ej4 ,of death the ,stoic has no fear2 not only is it no evil1 but it is to be welcomed as part of the course of nature#ea2 it is the best of friends1 for it offers a release from all troubles1 and in particular from the oppression of the tyrant#eb4 ,we do not indeed deny that normally life is an advantage1 that nature's first lesson is self-preservation1 and that death in itself is a thing terrible to contemplate#ec2 but life is not the more desirable for its length#ed2 and when old age begins to shatter the powers of the mind1 and to degrade the man to the life of a vegetable1 nature is calling him to quit his mortal body#ee4 ,at no period is life worth purchasing at the cost of the loss of honour1 without which it loses its savour#ef4 ,the philosopher therefore will not merely see with calm confidence the approach of death2 he will go forward to meet it of his own free will1 if only he is assured that reasonable choice points that way4 ,sidenote3 ,reasonable departure4 #cdj4 ,the doctrine of #8reasonable departure' 7 1 rationalis e vita excessus7 plays a prominent part in the ,stoic ethics4 ,it cannot rightly be described as the recommendation of suicide2 for the ,stoics do not permit a man to pass sentence of death upon himself1 but only to cooperate in carrying out the decree of a higher power4 ,the doctrine is intended in the first instance to justify death gloriously met in fighting for one's country or one's friends2 next when intolerable pain or incurable disease plainly indicates the will of the deity#eg2 in the development of ,roman history a third reason was found in the loss of political freedom#eh4 ,these reasons are not added to1 but only systematized1 when we are told that it is an #8ordinary duty' to quit life when a man's natural advantages 7 7 are outweighed by the corresponding disadvantages#ei2 for amongst #8natural advantages' are included in this connexion all those considerations of which an honourable man will rightly take account2 and the calculation may equally lead him to the conclusion that1 in spite of old age and suffering1 and though he has never attained to true wisdom1 his simple duty is to wait quietly in life#fj4 ,sidenote3 ,its dangers4 #cda4 ,the practice of #8reasonable departure' was largely recommended to the ,stoics by the examples of ,socrates 7whose death they regarded as voluntary#fa7 and of ,cato#fb2 and it was at first no small matter of pride to them to find that these examples found imitators1 and that their system thus showed its power over the greatest of the terrors that beset humanity4 ,but under the ,roman principate #8free departure' soon became so common that it was a reproach rather than a glory to its advocates1 a social disease pointing to morbidity of soul rather than to healthy resolution#fc4 ,hence the philosophers turned from recommendation to reproof4 #8,a brave and wise man must not flee from life1 but quit it1' says ,seneca#fd2 #8nothing is more disgraceful than to long for death'#fe4 #8,friends1' says ,epictetus1 #8wait for ,god2 when he shall give you the signal1 then go to him#ff4' ,sidenote3 ,courage is active4 #cdb4 ,the #8free departure' is the most striking illustration of passive courage1 but even before it was abused ,cicero at least had perceived the attraction which this attitude of soul possesses1 and its opposition to the spirit of active enterprise which he calls ,greatness of ,soul1 and which he advocates perhaps more on ,academic than on ,stoic lines4 ,still the ,stoics had already defined ,courage as #8virtue fighting in the front rank in defence of justice#fg4' ,a good man must indeed regard power and wealth as things indifferent2 but he is to be blamed if he makes this an excuse for avoiding public life1 and leaving to others magistracies at home or commands in the wars#fh4 ,in the old world the love of glory and praise on the one hand1 angry feeling against enemies on the other1 has led men to seek these positions2 but now they should seek them at home that they may have a wide field for the exercise of their virtues#fi1 and in the wars in order that all war may be brought to an end#gj4 ,by the older ,stoics this ,greatheartedness was advocated by precept and example3 ,zeno had said that the wise man should take part in public life#ga1 and his hearers ,persaeus and ,philonides had taken service under ,antigonus ,gonatas#gb1 and ,sphaerus with ,cleomenes ,,iii1 king of ,sparta#gc4 ,we shall see later how large was the part played in ,roman political life by men who were ,stoics or inclined to ,stoicism1 in an age in which there was a strong current of fashion in favour of a quiet life4 ,we must therefore recognise in ,courage1 fully as much as in ,wisdom or ,justice1 a political as well as a private virtue4 ,sidenote3 ,soberness4 #cdc4 ,the fourth cardinal virtue is ,soberness 71 temperantia74 ,of this there are various definitions1 and amongst them that it is the principle which regulates our natural appetites so that they are neither in excess nor in defect#gd4 ,from ,cicero's point of view ,soberness embraces all the virtues1 for it is in the due regulation of the impulses that virtue consists4 ,the standard to be attained is a healthy state of the soul2 and this is to be judged1 upon the analogy of the body1 by the canon of that which is beautiful1 symmetrical1 and becoming 71 decorum7#ge4 #8,just as bodily beauty is symmetry established between the limbs mutually1 and also between each and the whole body1 so beauty of the soul is symmetry between the reasoning power and its parts1 and mutually between each of those parts#gf4' ,although this is in principle a doctrine accepted by the whole ,stoic school1 yet in its application we may easily find an entirely new departure1 that is1 if the appeal is made to an artistic standard which depends upon the taste of the individual4 ,the door is then thrown open to an abandonment of the ,cynico-,stoic theory of life according to reason1 and to the acceptance of the standard of good feeling1 which may easily be so stretched as to include existing prejudices and conventions4 ,this danger is realized in ,cicero's treatment of the virtue of #8decorum1' which in its distinctive sense is defined as having the element of #8gentlemanliness' in itself#gg4 ,it begins with respect for the feelings and opinions of others#gh2 it avoids all rough games and obscene jests#gi2 it makes choice of a profession adapted to the natural character of the individual#hj2 it observes1 as the actor does1 the proprieties of youth and age1 rich and poor1 citizen and foreigner#ha2 it prescribes dignity as fitting for men1 gracefulness for women#hb4 ,in particular decorum is displayed in modesty 7verecundia74 ,this is shown by keeping out of sight those parts of the body which nature1 though she could not dispense with them1 has concealed and covered2 in attending to their functions with the utmost secrecy2 and in referring both to these parts of the body and to their uses by words that do not properly describe them#hc4 ,sidenote3 ,cynism or #8decorum'8 #cdd4 ,cicero's treatment of #8decorum' is so full of good sense that his de ,officiis was the most widely-known textbook of ,greco-,roman ethics in medieval schools1 and has retained its importance in the classical public schools of the present day4 ,but its logical justification on ,stoic principles is far from easy4 ,we are therefore not surprised to find that1 just as ,zeno and the main body of his followers had proclaimed in advance that such doctrine was false in principle and ridiculous in detail1 so conversely the followers of ,panaetius found it necessary expressly to repudiate the teaching of a large number of ,stoics#hd4 ,we have in fact here a sharp conflict between the cultured and ,platonizing ,stoics on the one side1 and the general feeling of the school on the other4 ,cicero elsewhere treats it as an accepted ,stoic doctrine that #8the wise man will blurt things straight out#he'2 and the theory of #8gentlemanly professions' can never have appealed to any large social circle4 ,in the period of the principate we find the theory of #8decorum1' as a whole1 abandoned4 ,seneca1 personally as sensitive as ,cicero himself1 recognises the absurdity of wasting time in hinting at a plain meaning#hf1 nor does he limit his choice of illustration even when addressing a lady of high social position#hg4 ,we must look then in some other direction than the de ,officiis for a duly proportioned exposition of the ,stoic virtue of ,soberness4 ,sidenote3 ,the appetites4 #cde4 ,reverting to the definitions of this virtue1 we find1 amongst those that are generally accepted1 first1 that it is #8the science of things that are to be sought or avoided or neither#hh'2 secondly1 that it is #8concerned with the human appetites#hi4' ,now the term #8appetite' or #8impulse' 71 appetitus7 includes in the ,stoic philosophy all those first movements of the soul which draw us on towards some object1 and which are adumbrations of right conduct requiring revision and control by reason4 ,but it seems clear that ,soberness has little to do with those higher impulses that are characteristic of man1 such as the love of knowledge or of society1 since other virtues are concerned with these4 ,it remains that ,soberness is the virtue which is concerned with the appetites common to men and the lower animals1 which we may shortly call the #8lower appetites'2 they are1 as we have already stated1 the desires of eating1 drinking1 and sexual union4 ,it is just in this sphere that ,pleasure arises1 in the sense in which it is condemned by the ,cynics and popular moralists#ij4 ,we may therefore shortly define ,soberness as a right disposition of soul in relation to ,pleasure4 ,its peculiar characteristic is that it is in the main a negative virtue1 displaying itself in abstinence from indulgence#ia4 ,sidenote3 ,two views of ,pleasure4 #cdf4 ,in order then rightly to understand the virtue of ,soberness1 we need a clear idea of the attitude of the ,stoics towards ,pleasure4 ,zeno1 as we have seen1 whilst definitely placing ,pleasure in the category of things indifferent1 had nevertheless allowed it to be understood that it might be an advantage 771 and the seeking after it natural 7 7#ib2 and this is stated to have been the express teaching of ,hecato1 ,apollodorus1 and ,chrysippus#ic4 ,to other ,stoics this appeared to be a disastrous concession to ,epicurean views4 ,cleanthes1 who had scornfully described the ideal of ,epicurus by the picture of ,pleasure enthroned as queen1 with the ,virtues submissively attending as her handmaidens#id1 interpreted the word #8indifferent' more strictly2 he refused to admit that pleasure was #8natural' or possessed any worth#ie4 ,in this view he was supported by a great many ,stoics1 and practically by ,archedemus1 when he said that pleasure was natural but valueless1 like the hairs under the armpit#if4 ,hence followed the acceptable conclusion that no sensible man would pay much attention to so trivial a matter#ig4 ,thus the one word #8indifferent' came to include two views which were substantially opposed1 the one inclining to the ,academic standpoint1 and the other to ,cynism4 ,sidenote3 ,pleasure an aftergrowth1 or an evil4 #cdg4 ,from this contradiction an escape was sought by making a distinction4 ,in one sense pleasure is an affection of the body1 namely a tickling 7titillatio7 of organs of sense1 most readily illustrated in the eating of dainties4 ,this kind of pleasure1 even if it is not an advantage naturally sought1 yet has some likeness to one2 though it is not directly to be aimed at1 yet it may be welcomed when nature grants it to us as an extra#ih4 ,this new view practically coincides with that of ,aristotle1 who calls pleasure an #8aftergrowth' 71 accessio71 which of itself follows on virtuous action1 and is attached to it as the scent to a flower#ii4 ,but much more commonly1 in ethical discussions1 #8pleasure' denotes the excitement which is more strictly termed #8hilarity' 71 sublatio animi71 and is the unhealthy condition of the soul when it is unduly attracted to an object of choice#ajj4 ,for this mischief ,cicero suggests the ,latin term laetitia1 which is perhaps not altogether adequate#aja4 ,this #8pleasure' may be unreservedly condemned as not merely indifferent1 but actually contrary to nature#ajb2 whilst the virtuous and natural disposition is that of the man who not only contemplates toil and pain with calm mind1 but actually welcomes them as possible stepping-stones towards his own true advantage#ajc4 ,sidenote3 ,active soberness4 #cdh4 ,although the prevailing tendency in ,stoic teaching is to consider ,soberness as a negative virtue1 and as opposed to the perturbation of ,hilarity1 there is not wanting some recognition of its positive side4 ,for ,soberness also demands that there shall be a healthy activity of the soul in matters such as eating1 drinking1 and the relations of sex2 abstinence is not in itself an end1 and if pursued out of season is both a folly and a fault4 ,but this point of view is not adequately treated by any ,stoic writer4 ,panaetius in discussing daily duties omitted to consider the proper care of the body1 as was afterwards noticed by ,antipater of ,tyre2 and ,cicero gets little further than a general recommendation of common sense and self-restraint in all the circumstances of life#ajd4 ,the ,romans of the principate were disposed to leave the matter to the physician1 suggesting only that food should suffice to allay hunger1 drink to put an end to thirst1 and clothing to keep away cold#aje2 but it is probable that popular moral discourses stopped short of this1 and favoured some amount of endurance as a discipline for the soul#ajf4 ,sidenote3 ,sober love4 #cdi4 ,with regard to the relations of sex1 the ,socratic tradition was favourable to a more positive treatment4 ,accordingly the ,stoics 7not without some feeling that they are adopting a paradoxical position7 assert that love 71 amor7 is an essential1 both for the maintenance of the ,state#ajg and for the character of the good man4 ,zeno had laid it down that #8the wise man will love#ajh4' ,we must1 however1 make a sharp distinction between love as the desire of sexual union1 and the higher ,love 7 7 which is defined anew as #8an effort to make friends suggested by a beautiful object#aji4' ,upon this impulse1 which is natural in the widest sense1 is based friendship in the young1 and the more lasting tie between husband and wife4 ,by imposing self-restraint on the man1 and inviting the woman to share the lessons of philosophy1 the ,stoics introduced a new relation between husband and wife based upon equality and comradeship#aaj4 ,a notable precedent was furnished by the ,cynic community1 when the witty and learned ,hipparchia joined ,crates in the life of the beggar-preacher#aaa2 and ,roman ,stoicism supplies us with numerous instances of the same companionship#aab4 ,under such conditions marriage is no longer a matter of free choice2 it is a civic duty incumbent on the young ,stoic4 ,the ,stoics of the ,roman principate well perceived the danger that threatened the society in which they lived through the growing practice of celibacy#aac4 ,sidenote3 ,of marriage4 #cej4 ,the ,stoic attitude towards marriage is well illustrated by the following extract from a discourse by ,antipater of ,tarsus3 #8,a youth of good family and noble soul1 who has a sense of social duty1 will feel that no life and no household is complete without wife and child4 ,he will also bear in mind his duty towards the ,state1 for how can that be maintained unless1 as the fathers decay and fall away like the leaves of a fine tree1 the sons marry in the flower of their age1 and leave behind them fresh shoots to adorn the city1 thereby providing for its protection against its enemies8 ,he will look upon marriage also as a duty towards the gods2 for if the family dies out1 who will perform the accustomed sacrifices8 ,besides this he who knows nothing of wife and child has not tasted the truest joys of affection4 ,for other friendships are like platefuls of beans or other like mixtures of juxtaposition1 but the union of man and wife is like the mixing of wine and water1 or any other case of penetration 7 ' 72 for they are united not only by the ties of substance and soul and the dearest bond of children1 but also in body4 ,other alliances are for occasion1 this is bound up with the whole purpose of life1 so that the parents on each side gladly allow that the wife should be first in her husband's affection1 and the husband in his wife's4 ,but in these days of dissolution and anarchy all things change for the worse and marriage is thought a hard thing2 and men call the celibate life divine because it gives opportunity for licentiousness and varied pleasures1 and they bar the door against a wife as against an enemy4 ,others have their fancy taken by beauty or dowry1 and no longer look for a wife who is piously brought up and obedient and a good manager2 nor do they trouble to instruct their wives in these matters4 ,but if a man would attend to the warnings of philosophers1 of all burdens a lawful wife would be the lightest and sweetest4 ,such a man would have four eyes instead of two1 and four hands instead of two1 to supply all his needs3 and if he desired leisure to write books or take part in politics1 he could hand over the whole business of housekeeping to his partner#aad4' ,sidenote3 ,advantages sought4 #cea4 ,the four cardinal virtues1 however widely they are interpreted1 do not exhaust the field of daily duties4 ,all objects that are #8advantages' 77 are prima facie such that the good man aims at securing them2 although if sufficient reason appears1 he will entirely forego them4 ,the advantages of the soul1 good natural disposition1 #8art1' and #8progress' are discussed elsewhere in this chapter2 as advantages of the body are reckoned life1 health1 strength1 good digestion1 good proportions1 and beauty2 whilst external advantages are wealth1 reputation1 noble birth1 and the like#aae4 ,in all the details there is a lack of exactitude and of agreement amongst the teachers4 ,according to ,seneca1 men may reasonably wish for tallness#aaf1 and there is a kind of beauty 7not dependent on youth7 of which women may be proud without blame#aag4 ,fine clothes make no one the better man1 but a certain degree of neatness and cleanliness in dress is an advantage#aah4 ,for nobility the ,stoics have little regard2 all men are derived through an equal number of degrees from the same divine origin2 virtue is the true nobility#aai4 ,good name 71 gloria7 is commonly reckoned amongst #8advantages'#abj2 but ,chrysippus and ,diogenes are said to have taught that a good man need not move a finger for the sake of reputation1 unless some advantage can be obtained by it4 ,later teachers1 influenced 7as we are told7 by the criticisms of ,carneades1 made it absolutely plain that they reckoned good name 7apart from anything attainable by it7 as an advantage1 and they even considered it natural that a man should think of posthumous reputation#aba4 ,the general feeling of the school seems to be that the approval of others is too uncertain to be a fitting aim2 its place is taken by the approval of #8conscience4' ,this term1 which originally expressed the burden of a guilty secret1 became in the ,roman period modified in meaning1 and could thus express the approval awarded to a man by his inner and personal consciousness1 even when all the world disapproves his acts3 this self-approval is closely akin to peace of mind#abb4 ,sidenote3 ,wealth4 #ceb4 ,on no subject would it be easier to find apparently contradictory views amongst ,stoic writers than on that of wealth4 ,to decry wealth and praise poverty is to some extent a commonplace with all the philosophical schools2 and with ,seneca in particular this was so frequent a practice#abc that his hearers found some inconsistency between his words and his deeds2 for he was1 as is well known1 a rich man4 ,but the position of the school is clear4 #8,riches are not a good' is a ,stoic paradox1 emphasized in a hundred forms1 and by every teacher#abd2 but nevertheless they are an #8advantage1' and thus are rightly aimed at by the good man#abe4 ,to the wealthy ,stoics generally1 and to the ,romans of the republican period especially1 the maintenance of the family property 7res familiaris7 was a duty of high importance2 and the wasting of it in wholesale largess1 a serious misdeed#abf4 ,the ,stoic view was sufficiently summed up in a proverb borrowed from ,epicurus or one of his followers3 #8he who feels the need of wealth least1 can make the best use of it#abg4' ,although ,panaetius did not write a special chapter on the acquisition and use of wealth#abh1 yet his views on the latter point are made sufficiently plain in his treatment of the virtue of ,justice#abi4 ,the justification of wealth lies in the intention to use it well1 and this was a favourite subject with ,hecato of ,rhodes#acj4 ,as to its acquisition and investment1 ,cicero is content to refer us to the high-principled men who conduct the financial affairs of the capital#aca4 ,sidenote3 ,liberty4 #cec4 ,amongst those popular terms which hold an ambiguous place in the ,stoic philosophy we must reckon #8liberty' 71 libertas74 ,in one sense liberty is a condition of soul such as characterizes the free-born citizen in contrast to the slave2 this liberty differs but little from the virtue of ,greatness of ,soul already described#acb1 and in its full meaning is a good1 which the wise man alone can possess#acc4 ,but in another sense liberty is an external advantage1 sometimes defined as #8the power of living as you wish#acd1' and as such eagerly desired by the slave2 more often perhaps it is conceived as #8the right of saying what you please#ace4' ,in this sense liberty is equivalent to the which was the watchword of the democracy of ,athens1 and was the equally cherished privilege of the nobility of ,rome#acf2 in a slightly different sense it was the boast of the ,cynic missionary4 ,the ,stoics take a middle position2 whilst all recognise that some sort of liberty is a precious privilege#acg1 and are prepared on occasion to sacrifice life or position for its sake#ach1 there are not wanting voices to remind us that it is unreasonable to speak out one's mind without regard to persons or circumstances#aci1 that the wrath of tyrants ought not lightly to be provoked#adj1 and that the most terrible of all oppressors is the soul that has lost its self-control#ada4 ,sidenote3 ,disadvantages4 #ced4 ,just as virtue chooses advantages in accordance with natural laws1 so it refuses disadvantages in accordance with a disinclination 71 alienatio71 which is equally natural and right so long as it is controlled by reason#adb4 ,since to every advantage there is opposed a corresponding disadvantage1 to choose the one is necessarily to refuse the other2 and the doctrine of #8reasonable refusal' is that of reasonable choice in its negative form4 ,it will therefore be sufficient to give a formal statement of the theory4 ,disadvantages1 or things that have negative value 771 may be subdivided according as they are disadvantages in themselves1 as an ungainly figure2 or as they bring about other disadvantages1 as shortness of ready money2 or for both reasons1 as bad memory or ill-health#adc4 ,they may also be subdivided into three classes1 according as they affect the soul1 the body1 or things external4 ,disadvantages of the soul are such things as inborn vulgarity or dulness of wit2 of the body1 ill-health1 and dulness of the organs of sensation2 of external things1 poverty1 loss of children1 and the contempt of our neighbours#add4 ,sidenote3 ,healthy affections4 #cee4 ,since the virtues are permanent dispositions 77 of the soul1 rooted in firm principles in which the wise man never wavers1 but to which none else can attain1 some other name is required to describe those more passing but yet wholesome moods which stand in contrast with the evil #8affections' or perturbations of the soul which will be discussed in our next chapter4 ,a beginning is made in this direction with the three #8good affections' 71 constantiae1 sapientis affectiones74 ,here a new use of terms is introduced4 ,strictly speaking an #8affection' is an evil state of soul2 but as we have no corresponding word for a good and calm condition1 the use of the word #8affection' is extended in this direction#ade4 ,each of these #8good affections' is introduced to us in contrast with a perturbation to which it bears a superficial resemblance4 ,thus contrasted with ,fear is #8,caution' 71 cautio71 which is right avoidance1 and is entirely consistent with ,courage rightly understood4 ,subdivisions of ,caution are 7i7 #8,shame' 71 verecundia71 the avoidance of deserved blame1 and 7ii7 #8,sanctity' 77 the avoidance of offences against the gods#adf4 ,contrasted with ,greed is #8,readiness' 71 voluntas71 the reasonable stretching out after future advantages#adg2 contrasted with ,hilarity is ,joy 71 gaudium71 the reasonable appreciation of present advantages#adh4 ,both ,readiness and ,joy are entirely consistent with ,soberness rightly understood4 ,to the perturbation of ,grief no good affection is named as bearing any resemblance2 but we need not for that reason question but that the wise man may entertain some quiet form of sympathy for the troubles of others1 and of regret for the blows which fortune deals to him in political disappointment or personal bereavement#adi4 ,the #8good affections' are possessed by the wise man only#aej2 but not all wise men possess them1 nor any at all times#aea4 ,on the other hand it is a daily duty to approximate to them1 so that on this ground the good citizen enters into competition with the wise man on not altogether uneven terms#aeb4 ,the whole doctrine of #8good affections' may be conceived as an answer to those who accuse the ,stoic of lack of feeling#aec2 for the much derided #8apathy' of the school is substituted the doctrine of #8eupathy4' ,wisdom is not to be compared to the surface of a frozen sea1 but to that of a rippling river4 ,the lectures of ,musonius and ,epictetus bring out on every point the meaning of #8eupathy' in its various applications4 ,sidenote3 ,the ethical motive4 #cef4 ,we have now sketched the ,stoic system of daily duties in its main features1 and this sketch will be made more complete in many particulars in the course of the next two chapters4 ,to the modern reader the question here suggests itself--what compelling force has this system8 what motive is supplied to the ordinary man for thus planning out his life8 ,to this question the ancient philosophers did not directly address themselves2 nevertheless their answers are implied in their teaching as a whole4 ,thus the ,stoics would doubtless reply1 first1 that daily duties are prescribed to us by reason#aed2 not perhaps always by reason in its highest sense1 to which we must not appeal in every individual action1 but at least by the spirit of reasonableness 774 ,secondly1 that the common opinion of mankind1 growing daily stronger1 recommends them2 they are1 as we have seen from the beginning1 things that it comes in our way to do1 that every good citizen and good man will be sure to do4 ,as to future rewards and punishments1 though these are not excluded by ,stoicism1 they are certainly never pressed as motives for right living4 ,but the strongest of all motives is undoubtedly the mental picture of the wise man1 the vision of that which is #8absolutely good4' ,critics may urge3 #8it is a picture that never has been or will be realized in men's lives1 a vision of that which is very far off and which you will never see or touch4' ,this the ,stoics hardly care to deny1 but the difficulty does not disturb them4 ,the vision attracts by its own beauty1 the hope of attainment is cherished by all but the worst#aee4 ,we have spoken of the #8ordinary man1' or1 as the ,stoics put it1 of #8us who are not wise men4' ,but1 strictly speaking1 there is no room for the ordinary man in the system1 but only for the #8probationer' 71 proficiens74 ,it remains for us to trace the upward path from daily duty to virtue1 along which every good man is endeavouring to advance4 ,sidenote3 ,progress4 #ceg4 ,the doctrine of progress 71 progressio7 is not peculiar to ,stoicism1 but it is nevertheless an essential feature of it#aef4 ,critics may indeed dispute as to whether virtue has ever been in practice attained2 but the ,stoic must hold fast to the ethical principles that #8virtue can be taught#aeg' and that #8virtue is an art#aeh4' ,every man has from birth a capacity for acquiring virtue#aei1 which varies in degree according to his natural disposition of soul#afj2 on this foundation every man builds by concurrent learning and practice#afa4 ,the child is greatly helped if he possesses the trait of #8modesty' 71 verecundia71 which is essentially a readiness to defer to others and to learn from those who are older and wiser#afb2 though later it may turn to #8false shame1' which is a hindrance#afc4 ,he will then learn to understand and perform his daily duties2 and as his character ripens1 this performance will daily become easier and more pleasurable to him#afd1 more certain and more steady in itself4 ,and now daily duties come near to ,right ,actions1 which are indeed daily duties perfected 7 1 perfectum officium71 and complete in every point#afe4 ,in order to rise to this higher standard the good man must first perform his duty in all particulars#aff2 he must do so with regularity and in harmony with the order of nature#afg2 he will then need only a certain fixity1 conviction1 and stability to pass into the ranks of the wise#afh4 ,sidenote3 ,conversion4 #ceh4 ,the stages of progress are variously expounded by ,stoic writers#afi2 but on one principle all are agreed4 ,progress is not a half-way stage between vice and virtue1 as the ,peripatetics teach#agj2 it is a long preparation1 to be followed by a change sudden and complete 71 conversio7#aga4 ,the final step1 by which a foolish man becomes in an instant wise1 is different in kind to all that have gone before4 ,this position is a necessary consequence of the doctrine that #8the good is not constituted by addition#agb1' and is enforced by various illustrations4 ,the probationer is like a man who has long been under water2 little by little he rises to the surface1 but all in a moment he finds himself able to breathe4 ,he is like a puppy in whom the organ of sight has been for days past developing2 all at once he gains the power of vision#agc4 ,just so when progress reaches the end there dawns upon the eyes of the soul the complete and dazzling vision of the good1 of which till now only shadows and reflections have been perceived4 ,for a moment he is wise1 but does not even yet realize his own wisdom2 then again in a moment he passes on to the complete fruition of happiness#agd4 ,sidenote3 ,duty4 #cei4 ,thus from the lowlier conception of #8daily duties' we have again climbed upwards to the supreme ethical end1 to absolute goodness1 which is ,virtue in her full royalty and the ,universal ,law 7 7 as it appeals to the individual man4 ,in this connexion the ideal is familiar in modern times under the name of ,duty4 ,the ancient ,stoics perhaps never quite reached to any such complete formulation of their ethical theory in a single word2 but their general meaning is perfectly expressed by it4 ,just as the ,socratic paradoxes mark the quarrel of philosophy with outworn ideas expressed in conventional language1 so its reconciliation with the general opinion is marked by those newly-coined terms such as #8conscience' and #8affection' which are now familiar household words4 ,we cannot indeed demonstrate that #8,duty exists1' any more than we can that deity or providence exists2 but we may well say that without it ethical discussion would in our own day be hardly possible4 ,the following stanzas from ,wordsworth's #8,ode to ,duty1' based upon a ,stoic text#age1 may be a useful reminder1 not only of the dominant position of this conception in modern thought1 but also of the continued tendency of the human mind to express its supreme convictions in anthropomorphic language4 #8,stern daughter of the ,voice of ,god6 ,o ,duty6 if that name thou love ,who art a light to guide1 a rod ,to check the erring1 and reprove3 ,thou who art victory and law ,when empty terrors overawe3 ,from vain temptations dost set free2 ,and calm'st the weary strife of frail humanity6 ,stern ,lawgiver6 yet thou dost wear ,the ,godhead's most benignant grace2 ,nor know we anything so fair ,as is the smile upon thy face3 ,flowers laugh before thee on thy beds ,and fragrance in thy footing treads3 ,thou dost preserve the stars from wrong2 ,and the most ancient heavens1 through thee1 are fresh and strong4 ,to humbler functions1 awful ,power6 ,i call thee3 ,i myself commend ,unto thy guidance from this hour2 ,o let my weakness have an end6 ,give unto me1 made lowly wise1 ,the spirit of self-sacrifice2 ,the confidence of ,reason give2 ,and in the light of truth thy ,bondman let me live6'#agf ,,footnotes #a ,the ,english term1 like so many we have to use1 is an imperfect translation2 in discussing such questions as marriage and death we speak instead of #8ordinary' or #8simple' duties4 #b ' 1 #8 ' ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ajh4 #c #8est quoddam commune officium sapientis et insipientis' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ah1 #ei4 #d ,stob4 ii #g1 #h4 #e ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ajg4 #f ,stob4 ii #g1 #h4 #g 1 ,stob4 as above2 #8sapiens iudicat1 cum agit1 officium illud esse' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ah1 #ei4 #h ,see below1 #ceg1 #ceh4 #i ,diog4 ,l4 vii #d4 #aj ib4 #age4 #aa #8omnia officia eo referuntur1 ut adipiscamur principia naturae' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #f1 #bb4 #ab #8,zenonem cum ,polemone disceptantem1 a quo quae essent principia naturae acceperat' ib4 iv #af1 #de4 #ac ' ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ajg2 #8est autem officium1 quod ita factum est1 ut eius facti probabilis ratio reddi possit' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ag1 #eh2 #8ratio non debet agere quidquam1 cuius non possit causam probabilem reddere' ,off4 i #bi1 #aja2 #8huic respondebimus1 nunquam exspectare nos certissimam rerum comprehensionem1 quoniam in arduo est veri exploratio2 sed ea ire1 qua ducit verisimilitudo1 omne hac via procedit officium' ,sen4 ,ben4 iv #cc1 #b2 and see above1 #aei4 #ad ,see above1 #aaj4 #ae #8quod secundum naturam est1 quod contigit protinus nato1 non dico bonum sed initium boni' ,sen4 ,ep4 #abd1 #g4 #af ,see above1 #cjf4 #ag #8placet his1 simul atque natum sit animal1 ipsum sibi conciliari et commendari ad se conservandum1 et ad suum statum eaque1 quae conservantia sunt eius status1 diligenda' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #e1 #af2 the maintenance of a complete life is illustrated by the desire to avoid the loss of a limb or deformity1 ib4 #ag4 #8,universally 7be not deceived7 every animal is attached to nothing so much as to its own interest' ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #bb1 #ae4 #ah #8commune autem animantium omnium est coniunctionis appetitus procreandi causa1 et cura quaedam eorum1 quae procreata sunt' ,cic4 ,off4 i #d1 #aa4 #ai ib4 #bj ib4 #ab4 #ba ,cic4 ,off4 i #d1 #ac4 #bb ib4 #bc ib4 #ad4 #bd #8formam quidem ipsam1 ,marce fili1 et tanquam faciem honesti vides2 quae si oculis cerneretur1 mirabiles amores1 ut ait ,plato1 excitaret sapientiae' ib4 #e1 #ad4 #be #8in principiis autem naturalibus plerique ,stoici non putant voluptatem esse ponendam3 quibus ego vehementer assentior1 ne si voluptatem natura posuisse in iis rebus videatur1 quae primae appetuntur1 multa turpia sequantur' ,fin4 iii #e1 #ag4 ,yet ,cicero1 still writing as a ,stoic1 can say3 #8beluae nihil sentiunt nisi voluptatem1 ad eamque feruntur omni impetu' ,off4 i #cj1 #aje4 ,see below1 #cdf1 #cdg4 #bf ,see below1 #cdc1 #cdd4 #bg #8in iis1 in quibus sapientia perfecta non est1 ipsum illud quidem perfectum honestum nullo modo1 similitudines honesti esse possunt' ,cic4 ,off4 iii #c1 #ac2 #8vivitur cum iis1 in quibus praeclare agitur1 si sunt simulacra virtutis' ib4 i #ae1 #df2 #8est autem quaedam animi sanitas1 quae in insipientem etiam cadat1 cum curatione medicorum turbatio mentis aufertur' ,tusc4 disp4 iv #ac1 #cj4 #bh ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ib2 #8in duas partes virtus dividitur1 in contemplationem veri et actionem' ,sen4 ,ep4 #id1 #de4 #bi 7leg4 ,hirz4 ii #dhb7 1 1 1 ,stob4 ii #g1 #e b #d4 #cj ,for the virtues recognised by ,chrysippus and others see ,arnim iii #bfb-bic2 we find a sufficiently long list in ,seneca3 fortitudo1 fides1 temperantia1 humanitas1 simplicitas1 modestia ac moderatio1 frugalitas et parsimonia1 clementia1 ,ep4 #hh1 #bi and #cj4 #ca ,plut4 virt4 mor4 #b2 de fort4 #b2 ,sto4 rep4 vii #a4 #cb ,thus became ,stob4 ii #g #e b #a1 cf4 ,alex4 ,aph4 de fato #cg 7,arnim iii #bhc74 #cc #8omnis cogitatio motusque animi aut in consiliis capiendis de rebus honestis aut in studiis scientiae cognitionisque versatur' ,cic4 ,off4 i #f1 #ai2 #8natura nos ad utrumque genuit1 et contemplationi rerum et actioni' ,sen4 ,dial4 viii #e1 #a4 #cd #8quid ergo8 nihil nobis liberalia conferunt studia8 ad alia multum1 ad virtutem nihil4 quare ergo liberalibus studiis filios erudimus8 quia animum ad accipiendam virtutem praeparant' ,ep4 #hh1 #bj4 #ce #8sine hac arte 7sc4 dialectica7 quemvis arbitrantur a vero abduci fallique posse' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ba1 #gb4 #cf #8qui convenienter naturae victurus sit1 ei proficiscendum est ab omni mundo atque ab eius procuratione' ib4 #bb1 #gc4 #cg #8ad eas virtutes dialecticam etiam adiungunt et physicam1 easque ambas virtutum nomine appellant' ib4 #ba1 #gb4 #ch #8ad hoc nobis proderit inspicere rerum naturam4 primo discedemus a sordidis2 deinde animum ipsum1 quo summo magnoque opus est1 seducemus a corpore2 deinde in occultis exercitata subtilitas non erit in aperta deterior' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 iii ,praef4 #ah4 #ci #8quae omnes artes sc4 astrologia1 geometria1 ius civile in veri investigatione versantur1 cuius studio a rebus gerendis abduci contra officium est' ,cic4 ,off4 i #f1 #ai4 #dj #8est vitium1 quod quidam nimis magnum studium 444 in res conferunt non necessarias' ib4 #f1 #ah4 #da ,a4 ,gellius1 ,n4 ,a4 xiv #d1 #d4 #db ,cic4 ,off4 i #g1 #ba and #bb4 #dc ib4 #ac1 #da4 #dd #8principes sint patria ac parentes2 proximi liberi1 totaque domus1 quae spectat in nos solos2 deinde bene convenientes propinqui' ,cic4 ,off4 i #ag1 #eh4 #de #8,i ought not to be free from affections 77 like a statue1 but ,i ought to maintain the relations 77 natural and acquired1 as a pious man1 as a son1 as a father1 as a citizen' ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #b1 #d2 #8,duties are usually measured by relations 7 74 ,is a man a father8 ,the precept is to take care of him1 to yield to him in all things4 ,does a brother wrong you8 ,maintain then your own position towards him' ,manual #cj4 ,all the duties of relationship on the one side imply corresponding duties on the other side2 #8invicem ista1 quantum exigunt1 praestant1 et parem desiderant regulam1 quae 7ut ait ,hecaton7 difficilis est' ,sen4 ,ben4 ii #ah1 #b4 #df #8fortitudo scientia est distinguendi1 quid sit malum et quid non sit' ,ep4 #he1 #bh2 #8quomodo igitur ,chrysippus8 fortitudo est1 inquit1 scientia rerum perferendarum1 vel affectio animi in patiendo ac perferendo1 summae legi parens sine timore' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 iv #bd1 #ec4 #dg #8quicquid est hoc1 ,marcia1 quod circa nos ex adventicio fulget1 liberi honores opes1 ampla atria et exclusorum clientium turba referta vestibula1 clara nobilis aut formosa coniunx ceteraque ex incerta et mobili sorte pendentia1 alieni commodatique adparatus sunt2 nihil horum dono datur2 collaticiis et ad dominos redituris instrumentis scena adornatur' ,sen4 ,dial4 vi #aj1 #a2 #8victrix fortunae sapientia' ,juv4 ,sat4 xiii #bj4 #dh #8cum potentes et imperio editi nocere intendent1 citra sapientiam omnes eorum impetus deficient' ,sen4 ,dial4 ii #d1 #a4 #di #8levis est1 si ferre possum2 brevis est1 si ferre non possum' ,ep4 #bd1 #ad4 #ej #8inter haec tamen aliquis non gemuit4 parum est1 non rogavit4 parum est1 non respondit4 parum est3 risit1 et quidem ex animo' ib4 #gh1 #ai4 #ea #8mors optimum inventum naturae' ,dial4 vi #bj1 #a2 #8fortem posce animum1 mortis terrore carentem1 qui spatium vitae extremum inter munera ponat naturae' ,juv4 ,sat4 x #ceg-i4 #eb #8caram te1 vita1 beneficio mortis habeo' ,sen4 ,dial4 vi #bj1 #c2 #8nullo nos invida tanto armavit natura bono1 quam ianua mortis quod patet' ,silius ,pun4 xi #ahf-h2 #8adeo mors timenda non est1 ut beneficio eius nihil timendum sit' ,sen4 ,ep4 #bd1 #aa4 #ec #8mors quin habeat aliquid in se terribile1 ut et animos nostros1 quos in amorem sui natura formavit1 offendat1 nemo dubitat' ib4 #cf1 #h4 #ed ,so ,heraclitus had said #8unus dies par omni est' ib4 #ab1 #g2 #8ut prorogetur tibi dies mortis1 nihil proficitur ad felicitatem3 quoniam mora non fit beatior vita1 sed longior' ,ben4 v #ag1 #f4 #ee #8si senectus coeperit concutere mentem1 si partes eius convellere1 si mihi non vitam reliquerit sed animam1 prosiliam ex aedificio putri ac ruenti' ,ep4 #eh1 #ce4 #ef #8melius nos ,zenonis praecepta docent2 nec enim omnia1 quaedam pro vita facienda putant' ,juv4 ,sat4 xv #ajf to #ajh4 #eg ,diog4 ,l4 vii #acj4 ,ingenious members of the school found five good reasons for voluntarily quitting life1 resembling the causes for breaking up a banquet4 ,as the guests part1 because of 7i7 a sudden need1 such as the arrival of a friend1 7ii7 revellers breaking in and using violent language1 7iii7 the food turning bad1 7iv7 the food being eaten up1 or 7v7 the company being drunk2 so the wise man will depart1 because of 7i7 a call to sacrifice himself for his country1 7ii7 tyrants doing him violence1 7iii7 disease hindering the use of the body1 7iv7 poverty1 7v7 madness1 which is the drunkenness of the soul4 ,see ,arnim iii #gfh4 #eh ,notably in the case of ,cato4 #ei #8in quo plura sunt1 quae secundum naturam sunt1 huius officium est in vita manere2 in quo autem aut sunt plura contraria1 aut fore videntur1 huius officium est e vita excedere' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ah1 #fj4 #fj #8perspicuum est etiam stultorum1 qui iidem miseri sint1 officium esse manere in vita1 si sint in maiore parte earum rerum1 quas secundum naturam esse dicimus' ib4 iii #ah1 #fa4 #fa ,he might easily have obtained acquittal by a judicious defence3 ,xen4 ,mem4 iv #d1 #d4 #fb #8,catoni gladium adsertorem libertatis extorque3 magnam partem detraxeris gloriae' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ac1 #ad4 #fc #8ille adfectus multos occupavit1 libido moriendi' ib4 #bd1 #be2 #8quid ergo8 non multos spectavi abrumpentes vitam8 ego vero vidi1 sed plus momenti apud me habent qui ad mortem veniunt sine odio vitae1 et admittunt illam1 non adtrahunt' ib4 #cj1 #ae4 #fd ib4 #bd1 #be4 #fe ib4 #aag1 #bb4 #ff ,epict4 ,disc4 i #i1 #af4 #fg #8probe definitur a ,stoicis fortitudo1 cum eam virtutem esse dicunt propugnantem pro aequitate' ,cic4 ,off4 i #ai1 #fb4 #fh ib4 #ba1 #ga4 #fi ib4 #bf1 #ib4 #gj ib4 #bc1 #hj4 #ga #8,zenon ait2 accedet ad rempublicam sapiens1 nisi si quid impedierit' ,sen4 ,dial4 viii #c1 #b4 #gb ,see above1 #hi1 #ij4 #gc ,see above1 #ia4 #gd #8efficiendum autem est1 ut appetitus rationi obediant1 eamque neque praecurrant1 nec propter pigritiam aut ignaviam deserant1 sintque tranquilli atque omni perturbatione animi careant' ,cic4 ,off4 i #bi1 #ajb4 #ge #8hoc loco continetur id1 quod dici ,latine decorum potest2 ,graece enim dicitur2 huius vis ea est1 ut ab honesto non queat separari' ib4 i #bg1 #ic4 #gf ,stob4 ii #g1 #e b #d2 #8ut corporis est quaedam apta figura membrorum cum coloris quadam suavitate1 ea quae dicitur pulchritudo2 sic in animo opinionum iudiciorumque aequabilitas et constantia1 cum firmitate quadam et stabilitate1 pulchritudo vocatur' ,tusc4 disp4 iv #ac1 #ca4 #gg #8id decorum volunt esse1 quod ita naturae consentaneum sit1 ut in eo moderatio et temperantia appareat cum specie quadam liberali' ,off4 i #bg1 #if4 #gh #8adhibenda est igitur quaedam reverentia adversus homines1 et optimi cuiusque et reliquorum' ib4 #bh1 #ii2 #8to order myself lowly and reverently to all my betters' ,english ,church ,catechism4 #gi ,cic4 ,off4 i #bi1 #ajd4 #hj #8id enim maxime quemque decet1 quod est cuiusque maxime suum4 suum quisque igitur noscat ingenium' ib4 #ca1 #aac-d4 ,retail trading1 and all the arts that subserve luxury1 are illiberal2 agriculture is the most truly liberal3 ib4 #db1 #aej and #aea4 #ha ib4 #cd1 #abb-abd4 #hb #8venustatem muliebrem ducere debemus1 dignitatem virilem' ib4 #cf1 #acj4 ,in the same spirit ,epictetus says #8we ought not to confound the distinctions of the sexes' ,disc4 i #af1 #ad4 #hc ,cic4 ,off4 i #ce1 #abg4 #hd #8nec vero audiendi sunt ,cynici1 aut si qui fuerunt ,stoici paene ,cynici1 qui reprehendunt et irrident1 quod ea quae re turpia non sint1 verbis flagitiosa ducamus2 illa autem1 quae turpia sint1 nominibus appellemus suis' ib4 i #ce1 #abh2 #8,cynicorum autem rationem atque vitam alii cadere in sapientem dicunt1 si quis eiusmodi forte casus inciderit1 ut id faciendum sit3 alii nullo modo' ,fin4 iii #bj1 #fh4 #he #8habes scholam ,stoicam1 4 ego servo et servabo 7sic enim adsuevi7 ,platonis verecundiam4 itaque tectis verbis ea ad te scripsi1 quae apertissimis agunt ,stoici' ,fam4 ix #bb1 #e4 ,see also above1 #cah4 #hf #8rem ineptissimam fecero1 si nunc verba quaesiero1 quemadmodum dicam illum matelam sumpsisse' ,sen4 ,ben4 iii #bf1 #b4 #hg ,dial4 vi #bj1 #c4 #hh ' ,stob4 ii #g1 #e b #a4 #hi ib4 #g1 #e b #b4 #ij was the expression of ,antisthenes1 see ,diog4 ,l4 vi #c2 #8voluptas est 444 res humilis1 membrorum turpium aut vilium ministerio veniens' ,sen4 ,ben4 vii #b1 #b4 #ia #8intellegitur appetitus omnes contrahendos sedandosque esse' ,cic4 ,off4 i #bi1 #ajc4 #ib ,see above1 #cai4 ,it does not seem possible to accept ,pearson's view 7on ,z4 fr4 #abh7 that ,zeno intended to be the 1 and the 2 but both he and his successors undoubtedly recognised the value of 7toil7 as a discipline4 ,the following remarks communicated to the writer by ,mr ,pearson throw much light on a really difficult question4 #8,even the ,cynics are forced to admit that not all 8pleasure0 is to be condemned 7the evidence is in ,zeller's ,socratics1 p4 #cjh71 but the only form of it which deserves consideration is that which is the result and after-effect of 4 ,in other words1 it may be argued that true pleasure is the cessation of pain 7,plat4 ,phileb4 #dd ,b74 ,the glorification of ,heracles the toilsome hero corresponds2 but pleasure as understood by the vulgar is unhesitatingly to be rejected4 ,zeno was the inheritor of all this1 and1 if he ever said that was 1 his remark can only have applied to the -2 and such certainly was the view of ,chrysippus 7,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #cj1 #b74' ,in the passage here referred to from ,plutarch takes the place of as a 2 so also in ,stob4 ii #g1 #g e and ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ae1 #ea4 ,see further #cdg1 #cga4 #ic as an advantage is contrasted with 7suffering7 as a disadvantage in the list attributed to these writers in ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ajb4 #id ,cic4 ,fin4 ii #ba1 #fi4 #ie ' ,sext4 math4 xi #gd 7,arnim iii #aee74 #if ,arnim iii #acf1 #aee4 #ig #8sit impudens1 si voluptas pluris esse contendat dulcedinem corporis1 et titillationem1 ex eave natam laetitiam1 quam gravitatem animi' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #a1 #a2 #8quis mortalium per diem noctemque titillari velit8' ,sen4 ,dial4 vii #e1 #d2 #8quidni ista bene penset cum minutis et frivolis et non perseverantibus corpusculi motibus8' ib4 #d1 #d4 #ih #8voluptas habet quiddam simile naturali bono' ,cic4 ,leg4 i #aa1 #ca2 #8voluptas condimenti fortasse nonnihil1 utilitatis certe nihil habebit' ,off4 iii #cc1 #abj2 #8voluptatem natura necessariis rebus admiscuit1 non ut illam peteremus1 sed ut ea1 sine quibus non possumus vivere1 gratiora nobis illius faceret accessio' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aaf1 #c2 #8virtus voluptatem non praestat1 sed et hanc2 nec huic laborat1 sed labor eius1 quamvis aliud petat1 hoc quoque adsequetur' ,dial4 vii #i1 #a4 ,that this view was held by ,chrysippus appears from ,diog4 ,l4 vii #hf 7cf4 ,arnim iii #bbi a72 see also above1 notes #ib and #ic4 #ii ,eth4 ,n4 x #g4 #ajj ' ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aad 7of ,chrysippus72 #8hoc interest1 quod voluptas dicitur etiam in animo1 vitiosa res1 ut ,stoici putant1 qui eam sic definiunt2 sublationem animi sine ratione1 opinantis se magno bono frui' ,cic4 ,fin4 ii #d1 #ac2 #8vitium esse voluptatem credimus' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ei1 #a4 #aja #8quam perturbationem ,stoici appellant1 ego malo laetitiam appellare1 quasi gestientis animi elationem voluptariam' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #aj1 #ce4 ,sometimes ,cicero translates with more fulness by laetitia gestiens or nimia2 ,tusc4 disp4 iv #f1 #ac4 #ajb 1 ,sext4 math4 xi #gc 7,arnim iii #aee74 #ajc ,see below1 #cga1 #djb1 #djc4 ,on the whole subject see further ,hicks1 ,stoic and ,epicurean1 pp4 #aaj to #aab4 #ajd #8,antipater ,tyrius1 ,stoicus1 qui ,athenis nuper est mortuus1 praeteritam censet a ,panaetio valetudinis curationem4 valetudo sustentatur notitia sui corporis et observatione1 quae res aut prodesse soleant aut obesse1 et continentia in victu omni atque cultu corporis tuendi causa1 postremo arte eorum1 quorum ad scientiam haec pertinent' ,cic4 ,off4 ii #bd1 #hf4 #aje #8hanc sanam et salubrem formam vitae tenete1 ut corpori tantum indulgeatis1 quantum bonae valetudini satis est 444 cibus famem sedet1 potio sitim extinguat1 vestis arceat frigus1 domus munimentum sit adversus infesta corporis' ,sen4 ,ep4 #h1 #e2 and so ,musonius1 below1 #cha4 #ajf ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #bb and #bf4 #ajg ,see above1 #cjd4 #ajh ,diog4 ,l4 vii #abi2 #8,stoici sapientem amaturum esse dicunt' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 iv #cd1 #gb4 #aji ,diog4 ,l4 vii #acj2 #8,stoici amorem ipsum conatum amicitiae faciendae ex pulchritudinis specie definiunt' ,cic4 as above4 ,the or conatus is a variety of the or appetitio1 ,hirzel p4 #cij4 #aaj ,not of course new in any absolute sense2 in the country at least such relations must always have been common4 #aaa ,diog4 ,l4 vi #if-ih4 #aab ,see above1 #cjj1 and #cjf1 note #bi2 and below1 #dca1 #dci1 #ddd1 and #ddf4 #aac #8in consensu vidui caelibatus nemo uxorem duxit1 nisi qui abduxit' ,sen4 ,ben4 i #i1 #d4 #aad ,stob4 iv #bb1 #be2 and see further1 #djf1 #djg4 #aae ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ajf4 #aaf #8non contemnet se sapiens1 etiamsi fuerit minimae staturae2 esse tamen se procerum volet' ,sen4 ,dial4 vii #bb1 #b4 #aag #8unicum tibi ornamentum pulcherrima et nulli obnoxia aetati forma' ib4 xii #af1 #d4 #aah #8contra naturam est1 faciles odisse munditias' ,sen4 ,ep4 #e1 #d2 #8non splendeat toga1 ne sordeat quidem' ib4 #e1 #c4 #aai #8unus omnium parens mundus est3 ad hunc prima cuiusque origo perducitur' ,ben4 iii #bh1 #b2 #8philosophia stemma non inspicit 444 animus facit nobilem' ,ep4 #dd1 #a and #e4 #abj ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ajf2 ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ae1 #ea4 #aba #8de bona autem fama 444 ,chrysippus quidem et ,diogenes1 detracta utilitate1 ne digitum quidem eius causa porrigendum esse dicebant4 qui autem post eos fuerunt1 cum ,carneadem sustinere non possent1 hanc quam dixi bonam famam propter se praepositam et sumendam esse dixerunt' ib4 #ag1 #eg4 ,cicero and ,seneca were both keenly sensitive to the judgment of posterity3 #8paucis natus est1 qui populum aetatis suae cogitat3 multa annorum milia1 multa populorum supervenient3 ad illa respice4 etiamsi omnibus tecum viventibus silentium livor indixerit1 venient qui sine offensa sine gratia iudicent' ,sen4 ,ep4 #gi1 #ag4 #abb #8pacem demus animo1 quam dabit 444 intenta mens ad unius honesti cupiditatem4 conscientiae satis fiat2 nil in famam laboremus' ,dial4 v #da1 #b4 #abc #8multis ad philosophandum obstitere divitiae2 paupertas expedita est1 secura est' ,ep4 #ag1 #c2 #8transeamus ad patrimonia1 maximam humanarum aerumnarum materiam' ,dial4 ix #h1 #a4 #abd #8,posidonius sic interrogandum ait3 quae neque magnitudinem animo dant nec fiduciam nec securitatem1 non sunt bona4 divitiae autem 444 nihil horum faciunt2 ergo non sunt bonum' ,ep4 #hg1 #ce4 #abe #8divitias nego bonum esse2 nam si essent1 bonos facerent4 ceterum et habendas esse et utiles et magna commoda vitae adferentis fateor' ,dial4 vii #bd1 #e2 #8sapiens non amat divitias1 sed mavult4 maiorem virtuti suae materiem subministrari vult' ib4 #ba1 #d4 #abf #8largitio quae fit ex re familiari1 fontem ipsum benignitatis exhaurit' ,cic4 ,off4 ii #ae1 #eb2 #8mentitur prodigus liberalem1 cum plurimum intersit utrum quis dare sciat an servare nesciat' ,sen4 ,ep4 #abj1 #h4 #abg #8is maxime divitiis fruitur1 qui minime divitiis indiget' ib4 #ad1 #ag4 #abh ,cic4 ,off4 ii #bd1 #hf4 #abi ,see above1 #ccg4 #acj #8,hecatonem quidem ,rhodium1 discipulum ,panaeti1 video in iis libris1 quos de ,officiis scripsit ,q4 ,tuberoni1 dicere 8sapientis esse1 nihil contra mores leges instituta facientem1 habere rationem rei familiaris4 neque enim solum nobis divites esse volumus1 sed liberis propinquis amicis1 maximeque reipublicae4 singulorum enim facultates et copiae divitiae sunt civitatis0' ,cic4 ,off4 iii #ae1 #fc4 #aca #8toto hoc de genere1 de quaerenda1 de collocanda pecunia1 commodius a quibusdam optimis viris1 ad ,ianum medium sedentibus1 quam ab ullis philosophis ulla in schola disputatur' ib4 ii #be1 #ij2 and see further1 #djh4 #acb ,see above1 #cdb4 #acc ' 1 444 ' ,stob4 ii #g1 #aa i4 #acd #8quid est enim libertas8 potestas vivendi ut velis' ,cic4 ,par4 #e1 #cd4 #ace #8asperitas agrestis vult libertas dici mera' ,hor4 ,ep4 i #ah1 #f and #h4 #acf ,juv4 ,sat4 i #aea-aec4 #acg #8non potest gratis constare libertas2 hanc si magno aestimas1 omnia parvo aestimanda sunt' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajd1 #cd1 where the reference is to #8libertas' in both senses4 #ach #8nec civis erat1 qui libera posset verba animi proferre1 et vitam impendere vero' ,juv4 ,sat4 iv #ij and #ia4 #aci ,muson4 apud ,stob4 iii #dj1 #i 7,hense1 p4 #ged1 #f74 #adj #8sapiens nunquam potentium iras provocabit2 immo declinabit1 non aliter quam in navigando procellam' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ad1 #g4 #ada #8,can we abolish the acropolis that is in us1 and cast out the tyrant within us1 whom we have daily over us8' ,epict4 ,disc4 iv #a1 #hf4 #adb 444 ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #cj1 #b2 #8in aliis satis esse causae ,stoici voluerunt quamobrem quibusdam anteponerentur1 ut 444 in doloris vacuitate' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ae1 #ea4 #adc ,stob4 ii #g1 #g b2 ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ag1 #ef4 #add ,stob4 as above4 #ade ,for a similar change in the meaning of the word #8conscience' see above1 #cea2 the new use of this word as of the word #8affection' is that now commonly understood in ethical discussion4 #adf ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aaf2 #8declinatio malorum si cum ratione fiet1 cautio appelletur1 eaque intellegatur in solo esse sapiente' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 iv #f1 #ac4 #adg #8eiusmodi appetitionem ,stoici appellant1 nos appellamus voluntatem3 quam sic definiunt--voluntas est1 quae quid cum ratione desiderat' ib4 #f1 #ab4 #adh #8cum ratione animus movetur placide atque constanter1 tum illud gaudium dicitur' ib4 #f1 #ac4 #adi ,see below1 #cgd1 #cgi4 #aej #8scio gaudium nisi sapienti non contingere4 est enim animi elatio suis bonis verisque fidentis' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ei1 #a and #b2 #8sola virtus praestat gaudium perpetuum' ib4 #bg1 #c4 #aea ,stob4 ii #g1 #e c4 #aeb #8in huius gaudii possessione esse te volo' ,sen4 ,ep4 #bc1 #d4 #aec #8 enim atque quorundam etiam ex eadem porticu prudentiorum hominum1 sicut iudicio ,panaetii1 inprobata abiectaque est' ,a4 ,gellius ,n4 ,a4 xii #e1 #aj4 #aed ,galen plac4 ,hipp4 et ,plat4 iv #b1 p4 #cfh ,k4 #aee #8negat ,zenon ,platonem1 si sapiens non sit1 eadem esse in causa1 qua tyrannum ,dionysium4 huic mori optimum esse propter desperationem sapientiae2 illi propter spem vivere' ,cic4 ,fin4 iv #bj1 #ef4 #aef ,see above1 #bhi1 #cbd4 #aeg ,for the ,socratic paradox #8virtue can be taught1' see above1 #df1 also ,diog4 ,l4 vii #ia2 #8nemo est casu bonus4 discenda virtus est' ,sen4 ,ep4 #abc1 #af4 #aeh ,arnim iii #bad4 #aei #8omnibus natura fundamenta dedit semenque virtutum' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajh1 #h4 #afj ,the emphasis occasionally laid on 7bona indoles7 reflects aristocratic and ,platonic influences1 see ,pearson1 pp4 #bje1 #bjf2 #8those who have a good natural disposition 7 71 even if you try to turn them aside1 cling still more to reason' ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #f1 #i4 #afa #8,modest actions preserve the modest man1 and immodest actions destroy him2 actions of fidelity preserve the faithful man1 and the contrary actions destroy him' ib4 ii #i1 #aa2 #8,what then is progress8 if any of you1 withdrawing himself from externals1 turns to his own will 77 to exercise it and to improve it by labour' ib4 i #d1 #ah4 #afb ,cic4 de ,off4 i #bh1 #ii 7 #cdc above72 #8verecundiam1 bonum in adulescente signum' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aa1 #a4 #afc #8obstitit verecundia1 quae multorum profectus silentio pressit' ,dial4 vi #bd1 #b2 cf4 ,ep4 #dj1 #ad4 #afd #8paulatim voluptati sunt quae necessitate coeperunt' ,dial4 i #d1 #ae4 #afe ,stob4 ii #g1 #h1 #h a1 and #aa a2 ,cic4 ,off4 i #c1 #h and iii #c1 #ad4 #aff ' ' 1 1 ,stob4 iv 7,flor47 #ajc1 #bb ,m 7,arnim iii #eaj74 #afg #8primum est officium1 ut se conservet in naturae statu2 deinceps ut ea teneat1 quae secundum naturam sint2 444 deinde ea selectio perpetua2 tum ad extremum constans consentaneaque naturae2 in qua primum inesse incipit et intellegi1 quid sit1 quod vere bonum possit dici' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #f1 #bj4 #afh ,stob4 as above2 #8illud1 quod ultimum venit1 ut fidem tibi habeas et recta ire te via credas' ,sen4 ,dial4 ix #b1 #b4 ,epictetus uses the technical term #8unchangeable firmness of mind' ,disc4 iii #b1 #h4 #afi ,see especially ,seneca1 ,epp4 #ge and #ie4 #agj ,diog4 ,l4 vii #abg4 #aga 1 ,clem4 ,al4 ,strom4 iv #f1 #bh 7,arnim iii #bba74 #agb ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ad1 #de2 and see above1 #cbb4 #agc #8ut qui demersi sunt in aqua1 nihilo magis respirare possunt1 si non longe absunt a summo1 ut iam iamque possint emergere1 quam si etiam tum essent in profundo2 nec catulus ille1 qui iam appropinquat ut videat1 plus cernit quam is qui modo est natus2 item1 qui processit aliquantum ad virtutis aditum1 nihilominus in miseria est1 quam ille qui nihil processit' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #ad1 #dh4 #agd ,as to the man who is #8wise without knowing it' 7 7 see ,arnim iii #eci to #edb1 and ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #ai1 #c and #d4 #age #8iam non consilio bonus1 sed more eo perductus1 ut non tantum recte facere posset1 sed nisi recte facere non posset' ,sen4 ,ep4 #abj1 #aj4 #agf ,written in #ahje4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,sin ,,and ,,weakness4 ,sidenote3 ,sin4 #cfj4 ,the ,stoic view of the universe is coloured by optimism4 ,all comes from ,god1 all works towards good4 ,none the less the ,stoic morals are stern4 ,men in the mass are both foolish and wicked2 they defy ,god's will and thwart his purpose4 ,the world is full of sin1 and all sins 7to use the ,socratic paradox7 are equal4 ,what then is sin8 ,it is a missing of the mark at which virtue aims 772 it is a stumbling on the road 7peccatum72 it is a transgressing of the boundary line#a4 ,it is the child of ignorance1 the outward expression of ill health of the soul4 ,everywhere and in every man it weakens1 hampers1 and delays the work of virtue4 ,it cannot however finally triumph1 for it is at war with itself4 ,the ,persians were wrong when they conceived an ,evil ,power1 a concentration of all the powers of mischief in one personality4 ,this cannot be1 for sin lacks essential unity4 ,it destroys but does not build2 it scatters but it does not sow4 ,it is an earth-born giant1 whose unwieldy limbs will in the end be prostrated by a combatant1 small to the outward view1 but inspired with divine forcefulness4 ,if we understand what sin is1 we shall see its repulsiveness2 if we learn how it spreads1 we shall seek protection against its infecting poison2 if we attack it in detail1 in individual men and in their daily acts1 we shall in the end lay it low4 ,philosophy then proceeds to arm itself for its task4 ,sidenote3 ,the four sinful conditions are errors4 #cfa4 ,sin is ignorance2 more accurately1 it is that which appears to be knowledge1 but is not knowledge2 it is false judgment4 ,if we follow the process by which knowledge is attained1 we find that there is no error in the mind-picture 7visum71 whether it is sensory or partly sensory and partly rational2 this is an adumbration automatically presented to the mind4 ,but #8assent is in our power'2 it is both an intellectual and a moral act4 ,a too hasty assent to that which appears to be but is not is both an error and an offence2 and most particularly so when it lies in the application of the general conceptions 77 of #8good' and #8evil' to particular cases#b4 ,in this way we quickly reach four sinful conditions1 which come about by mistaking things indifferent1 that is1 advantages and disadvantages1 for things good or evil4 ,these are3 7i7 ,fear 71 metus71 in which a future disadvantage is mistaken for a future evil2 7ii7 ,greed 71 libido71 in which a future advantage is mistaken for a future good2 7iii7 ,grief 71 aegritudo71 in which a present disadvantage is mistaken for a present evil2 7iv7 ,hilarity 71 laetitia71 in which a present advantage is mistaken for a present good#c4 ,in the case of the last two evils the title presents difficulty in all languages2 thus for ,grief we might substitute any term such as ,discontent1 ,vexation1 ,worry or ,fretfulness2 it is a lack of ,courage in bearing pain or disappointment4 ,again for ,hilarity we might substitute ,elation1 ,exaltation1 ,excitement3 it is a lack of ,soberness in the moment of pleasure4 ,sidenote3 ,they are also maladies4 #cfb4 ,from another point of view all sin is due to a lack of moral force1 a want of tone in the moral sinews1 an unhealthy condition of the soul#d4 ,ultimately this point of view agrees with that just described3 for it is the lack of health and strength which leads to hasty and ill-judged assent#e4 ,but for practical purposes we may use this distinction to lead up to a difference of grade4 ,thus we may associate ignorance with that rooted perversity of mind which is the exact opposite of virtue1 and which is therefore in the strictest sense #8vice' 71 vitium7#e2 and want of tone with a passing condition which we cannot deny to be an evil1 but may nevertheless describe by the gentler terms #8perturbation' and #8affection#f4' ,such an evil is a disturbance of the soul's calm1 an #8infection' of its health4 ,it may exist in three grades to be hereafter described1 as a #8ruffling1' a #8disturbance1' a #8disease'2 and in both the latter forms it must be rooted out1 for in both grades it is an evil1 and in the last it is a vice which threatens to poison the man's whole nature4 ,hence we reach the ,stoic paradox that #8the affections must be extirpated#g4' ,but although this is our only ethical standard1 we are not debarred from suggesting remedies which may alleviate the malady in particular persons and under special circumstances4 ,sidenote3 ,fear4 #cfc4 ,the evil of ,fear 71 formido1 metus7 is practically opposed to the virtue of ,courage4 ,here philosophy builds upon the foundations of common opinion1 and its task is the easier4 ,the youth who is brought up not to regard suffering1 poverty1 exile1 or death as evils1 will never be afraid4 ,since it is death that most alarms mankind by its grim aspect1 he who can face this giant without trembling will not know fear1 or at the most will only feel a slight ruffling of the soul4 ,in asserting that #8fear should be rooted out' the ,stoics cross no general sentiment2 the tradition of the heroic age is the same4 ,sidenote3 ,greed4 #cfd4 ,the treatment of ,greed 71 libido7 is similar4 ,this fault is opposed to the ,soberness with which men should aim at advantages2 and when we have determined the standard of ,soberness every transgression of it reveals ,greed4 ,but under this heading the ,stoics include the vices of ,anger#h and ,cruelty1 for which the heroic age had no condemnation4 ,in regard to the former they come into conflict with the ,peripatetics also1 who maintain that ,anger serves useful ends1 and should be controlled1 not extirpated#i4 ,the consideration of this condition of mind will therefore bring out the divergence between the two schools4 ,sidenote3 ,anger4 #cfe4 ,the ,peripatetics assign ,anger to the passionate part of the soul 7 72 they admit that it needs to be restrained by reason1 but hold that within proper limits it is both natural and necessary4 ,in war it is essential to heroic action2 he who is filled with it despises danger1 and rushes on to great achievements#aj4 ,it is no less necessary in peace1 in order that the wicked may not go unpunished#aa4 ,aristotle says compendiously that #8anger is the spur of virtue#ab1' the armour of the man of high soul4 ,to this point of view the ,stoics are opposed alike on the ground of principle and of experience4 ,we do not need disease as a means to health#ac1 or armour which sways instead of being swayed#ad4 ,a good man will face danger unmoved1 from the sense of duty2 and will face it more firmly and more perseveringly than he whose passions are excited#ae4 ,he will punish wrong-doers either for their amendment or for the protection of others1 without being angry with them#af4 ,fabius the ,delayer conquered his own spirit before he overcame ,hannibal#ag2 and the very gladiators strike1 not when their feelings move them1 but when the opportunity has come#ah4 ,sidenote3 ,degrees of anger2 remedies for it4 #cff4 ,anger is technically defined as #8the greedy desire of avenging an injury1' or 7more precisely7 as #8the greedy desire to punish one whom you deem to have injured you unjustly#ai4' ,that it is a temporary madness has always been held by the wise#bj2 and this is indicated by the appearance of the angry1 the threatening look1 the heightened colour1 the gnashing teeth1 the stamp of the foot#ba2 also by the fact that children are specially prone to anger1 even for frivolous causes#bb1 and that anger is often directed against harmless persons or objects#bc4 ,nevertheless anger does not consist of a merely instinctive feeling1 but implies the assent of the will#bd2 so that we can always trace the three stages1 first the appearance of an injury done 7species oblata iniuriae71 secondly the assent 7animus adsentit atque adprobat71 thirdly the outbreak of anger 7sequitur ira7#be4 ,to check anger the first necessity is time#bf3 reflection will often show us that we have not been injured at all1 or not so much as we supposed#bg4 ,then it is well to put ourselves in the place of the offender1 and try to look at the offence from his point of view#bh4 ,where anger has become a disease 7iracundia71 more violent remedies must be used2 some have been cured by looking at themselves in a mirror#bi2 others must apply the #8contrary twist#cj1' and learn when struck to turn quietly away#ca4 ,sidenote3 ,variations of anger4 #cfg4 ,anger is an evil that has many varieties1 and the precisians exercise their ingenuity in distinguishing the bitter-humoured 7amarus71 the fiery 7stomachosus71 the fierce 7rabiosus71 the man who is hard to get on with 7difficilis71 and many other shades of character4 ,but one variety deserves special notice1 because the evil disposition exists though its expression is checked4 ,the angry man of this type does not allow himself to go beyond complaint and criticism1 but he nurses his feeling in the depths of his heart#cb4 ,he would on no account express himself in loud outcries1 but his displeasure is easily excited and persistent4 ,this evil we call moroseness2 it is a feeling characteristic of a decadent society#cc1 and 7like all other kinds of anger7 it calls for unsparing repression4 ,sidenote3 ,cruelty4 #cfh4 ,cruelty1 a tendency to excess in punishment#cd1 is an evil constantly attendant upon the possession of power1 and directly opposed to the virtue of clemency4 ,roman history has exhibited many examples of it1 beginning with ,sulla who ordered seven thousand ,roman citizens to be slain on one day#ce1 continuing with the many masters who are hated for cruelty to their slaves#cf4 ,it cuts at the root of the ties of humanity and degrades man to the level of the beast#cg2 in its extreme form it becomes a madness1 when the slaying of a man is in itself a pleasure#ch4 ,as a remedy for cruelty in its milder forms it is well to consider the true objects of punishment2 first1 to reform the offender2 secondly1 to make others better by a warning2 thirdly1 to give a sense of safety to the community by removing offenders#ci4 ,all these objects are better effected if punishment is moderate and rare1 and appears to be awarded with reluctance4 ,when cruelty has become a disease it is necessary to remind the tyrant that his manner of life is a pitiable one#dj1 and that a complete cure can be worked by putting him to death#da4 ,sidenote3 ,grief4 #cfi4 ,in reckoning ,grief in its countless varieties as an evil the ,stoics did not altogether run counter to public opinion4 ,in the heroic age grief was indeed not forbidden1 but it was sharply limited2 women might grieve1 men should remember4 ,but in prescribing the total extinction of this state of mind the ,stoics appeared to pass the bounds of human nature2 public feeling revolted against what seemed impossible of attainment4 ,our position to-day is not greatly altered2 but we may notice that whereas in ordinary social life ,grief is not only tolerated but approved1 yet in battle1 earthquake1 flood1 and pestilence our ideal of the hero is one which almost entirely excludes the indulgence of this emotion4 ,grief takes many forms1 as ,fretfulness1 ,disappointment1 ,restlessness1 ,pity1 and ,mourning2 we proceed to examine them in order4 ,sidenote3 ,fretfulness4 #cgj4 ,the simplest form of ,grief is fretfulness under bodily pain1 the effect of depression of the soul and contraction of its sinews#db4 ,in all ages and under all philosophies the capacity of bearing pain without flinching is the primary test of virtue2 and in the ,cynic and ,stoic schools alike the dogma #8pain is no evil' is of critical importance4 ,in this matter correct doctrine needs to be strengthened by life-long discipline2 but it is not required by ,stoic principles that general principles should be forced upon the acceptance of individual sufferers4 ,panaetius therefore acted quite correctly when1 in writing to ,quintus ,tubero on the subject of the endurance of pain1 he abstained from pressing the usual paradox#dc4 ,but all who see this trial awaiting them will do well to consider how much hardship men willingly endure for evil purposes1 such as those of lust1 money-making1 or glory4 ,cocks and quails will fight to the death for victory3 jugglers will risk their lives swallowing swords1 walking on tight ropes1 or flying like birds1 when in each case a slip means death#dd4 ,if we compose our minds long before to meet suffering1 we shall have more courage when the time comes#de4 ,sidenote3 ,discipline of pain4 #cga4 ,still more effective is active training#df4 ,happy was the ,spartan youth who came to ,cleanthes to ask him whether pain was not a good2 his education had taught him that this was a more practical question than that other1 whether pain is an evil#dg4 ,recruits cry out at the slightest wound1 and are more afraid of the surgeon's touch than of the sword2 on the other hand veterans watch the life-blood draining away without a sigh#dh4 ,some men groan at a box on the ear1 whilst others smile under the scourge#di4 ,inexperience therefore is the chief cause for weakness under pain2 familiarity with it brings strength#ej4 ,sidenote3 ,disappointed ambition4 #cgb4 ,the ,grief that gives way to pain of mind has very various forms2 but that which is due to disappointed ambition is perhaps the most typical4 ,even men who had overcome the fear of death were known to shudder at the bitterness of soul 7aegritudo animi7 which accompanies defeat in a contested election 7repulsa7 in a republic1 or displacement from the favour of the powerful under a monarchy#ea4 ,for this malady the complete remedy is found in the paradox that #8the wise man is king1' that virtue can never be unseated from the curule chair#eb2 temporary alleviations may be found1 even by philosophers1 in biting sarcasms aimed at the incapacity of one's fellow-citizens#ec4 ,it may be in the abstract the duty of a good man to take part in politics2 but experience shows that the ,state has yet to be discovered which can tolerate a sage1 or which a sage can tolerate#ed4 ,hence we find even ,stoic teachers relapsing into practical ,epicureanism1 and bidding their followers to let the community go hang1 and to reserve their energies for some nobler occupation#ee4 ,to these lapses from sound principle we need not attach any serious importance2 the individual ,stoic did not always live up to his creed4 ,sidenote3 ,restlessness4 #cgc4 ,restlessness is grief of mind without known cause2 the unquiet soul rushes hither and thither1 vainly seeking to be free from its own company#ef4 ,the lesson that ,horace had pressed a century earlier1 that disquiet can only be cured by quiet1 has not been learnt#eg4 ,in ,homer ,achilles tosses on his bed in fever1 lying first on his face1 then on his back1 never long at rest in any position2 and so to-day our wealthy man first travels to luxurious ,campania1 then to the primitive district of the ,bruttii2 north and south are tried in turn1 and alike disapproved1 whilst after all the fault is not in the place1 but in the man#eh4 ,in this temper men come to hate leisure and complain that they have nothing to do#ei4 ,this folly reaches an extreme when men trust themselves to the sea1 take the chance of death without burial1 and place themselves in positions in which human skill may avail nothing#fj4 ,it even leads to great political disasters1 as when ,xerxes attacks ,greece because he is weary of ,asia1 and ,alexander invades ,india because the known world is too small for him#fa4 ,the times will come1 when men will seek novelty by travelling through the air or under the sea2 they will force their way through the cold of the poles and the damp heat of the forests of ,africa4 ,the remedy lies either in humbler submission to the will of the deity1 or in a sense of humour which sees the absurdity of taking so much trouble for so little advantage#fb4 ,sidenote3 ,pity4 #cgd4 ,pity is that weakness of a feeble mind1 which causes it to collapse at the sight of another man's troubles#fc1 wrongly believing them to be evils4 ,pity looks at the result1 not at the cause1 and it is most keenly felt by women of all ages1 who are distressed by the tears even of the most abandoned criminals1 and would gladly burst open the doors of the gaols to release them#fd4 ,the cause of pity lies in a too rapid assent2 we are caught napping by every sight that strikes on our senses4 ,if we see a man weeping1 we say #8he is undone'3 if we see a poor man1 we say #8he is wretched2 he has nothing to eat#fe4' ,now we ,stoics have a bad name1 as though we recommended to governors a system of harsh punishments#ff2 but1 on the contrary1 none value more highly than we the royal virtue of clemency#fg4 ,only let it be considered that a wise man must keep a calm and untroubled mind1 if only that he may be ready to give prompt help to those who need it2 a saving hand to the shipwrecked1 shelter to the exile1 the dead body of her son to a mother's tears4 ,the wise man will not pity1 but help#fh4 ,sidenote3 ,sensibility4 #cge4 ,nearly akin to the evil of pity is that sensitiveness to the sufferings of others which leads men1 contrary reason1 to turn the other way and avoid the sight of them4 ,of this weakness ,epictetus gives us a lively picture3 #8,when he was visited by one of the magistrates1 ,epictetus inquired of him about several particulars1 and asked if he had children and a wife4 ,the man replied that he had2 and ,epictetus inquired further1 how he felt under the circumstances4 #8,miserable1' the man said4 ,then ,epictetus asked #8,in what respect8 ,for men do not marry and beget children in order to be wretched1 but rather to be happy4' #8,but ,i1' the man replied1 #8am so wretched about my children that lately1 when my little daughter was sick and was supposed to be in danger1 ,i could not endure to stay with her1 but ,i left home till a person sent me news that she had recovered4' #8,well then1' said ,epictetus1 #8do you think that you acted right8' #8,i acted naturally1' the man replied2 #8this is the case with all or at least most fathers4' #8,let us be careful1' said ,epictetus1 #8to learn rightly the criterion of things according to nature4 ,does affection to those of your family appear to you to be according to nature and to be good8' ,certainly4' #8,is then that which is consistent with reason in contradiction with affection8' #8,i think not4' #8,well then1 to leave your sick child and to go away is not reasonable1 and ,i suppose that you will not say that it is2 but it remains to inquire if it is consistent with affection4' #8,yes1 let us consider4' #8,has the mother no affection for her child8' #8,certainly she has4' #8,ought then the mother to have left her1 or ought she not8' #8,she ought not4' #8,and the nurse1 does she love her8' #8,she does4' #8,ought then she also to have left her8' #8,by no means4' #8,but if this is so1 it results that your behaviour was not at all an affectionate act#fi4' ,seneca draws for us the same picture of sentimental neglect of duty4 #8,of our luxurious rich1' he says1 #8no one sits by the side of his dying friend1 no one watches the death of his own father1 or joins in the last act of respect to the remains of any member of his family#gj4' ,sidenote3 ,sensitiveness4 #cgf4 ,another form of the evil of ,grief is that of undue sensitiveness to criticism and abuse4 ,this mental weakness is illustrated by the case of ,fidus ,cornelius1 who burst into tears because some one in the senate called him a #8plucked ostrich'2 and in an earlier period ,chrysippus had been acquainted with a man who lost his temper merely because he was called a #8sea-calf#ga4' ,others are annoyed by seeing their eccentricities imitated1 or by reference to their poverty or old age4 ,the remedy for all these things is humour2 no one can be laughed at who turns the laugh against himself#gb4 ,another is to cease thinking about oneself#gc4 ,sidenote3 ,mourning4 #cgg4 ,the hardest to bear of all distresses is the loss of friends by death1 and most particularly1 the loss by parents of their children4 ,to meet this trouble a special class of literature1 called consolationes1 grew up1 not confined to any one school of philosophers4 ,the treatise of ,crantor the ,academic was famous in ,cicero's time#gd2 and in the letter of ,servius ,sulpicius to ,cicero upon his daughter's death we have an admirable example of the #8consolation' in private correspondence#ge4 ,sulpicius bids ,cicero think of all the grief and trouble in the world1 the loss of political liberty at ,rome1 the destruction of so many famous cities of antiquity1 until he feels that man is born to sorrow1 and that his own loss is but a drop in the ocean of the world's suffering4 ,he also calls on the mourner to think of his own character1 and to set an example of firmness to his household#gf4 ,cicero found his real comfort in none of these things1 but in industrious authorship4 ,we have unfortunately no example of a #8,consolation' by ,musonius4 ,seneca has left us two treatises in this style1 one a formal document addressed to the minister ,polybius on the death of his brother1 the other a more personal appeal to ,marcia1 a lady of an #8old ,roman' family1 on the death of a son4 ,besides the arguments already used by ,sulpicius#gg1 he recommends to ,polybius attention to the public service and the reading of ,homer and ,virgil#gh4 ,both to him and to ,marcia he pictures the happiness of the soul now admitted to the company of the blest#gi1 or at any rate at peace and freed from all the pains of life#hj4 ,in writing to ,marcia he recalls with effect the examples of ,octavia the sister1 and ,livia the wife of ,augustus1 each of whom lost a promising son in early manhood4 ,octavia gave herself up to her grief1 never allowed her dead son to be mentioned in her presence1 and wore mourning to the day of her death1 though she was surrounded by her children and grandchildren4 ,livia1 after paying the last tokens of respect1 laid aside her grief1 recalled with pleasure her son's achievements1 and 7advised so to act by her philosopher ,areius7 devoted herself to her social duties1 refusing to make all ,rome sad because one mother had lost a son#ha4 ,sidenote3 ,resignation4 #cgh4 ,the consolations of ,epictetus include less philosophical speculation1 and more religious resignation4 ,to begin with1 preparation should be made for the loss of children4 ,parental affection should not pass the bounds of reason2 every time that a father embraces his child1 he should reflect #8this child is only lent to me1' #8this child is mortal#hb4' ,if the child dies1 his first thought should be #8he who has given takes away#hc4' ,to others he will say #8,i have restored the child#hd4' ,his abiding mood will be that of resignation to the divine will4 ,he will realize that in the course of a long life many and various things must happen2 and that it is impossible to live to old age1 without seeing the death of many whom we love#he4 ,sidenote3 ,comfort4 #cgi4 ,all #8consolations' aim at diminishing the grief of mourners1 nature being inclined rather to excess than to defect in this matter4 ,but the ,stoics could not altogether avoid the direct issue whether or not grief is a sin1 and weeping a weakness4 ,the plain teaching of the school was that #8death is no evil1' and therefore that grief for the dead is against reason4 ,and to this view the teachers give from time to time formal adhesion1 as being the better cause#hf4 ,but in individual cases they find that to a certain extent there is not only excuse1 but justification1 for grief and tears2 and thus they come into touch with the common feelings of humanity#hg1 whilst the plea of #8natural necessity' serves to ward off the criticism of sterner philosophers#hh4 ,from this concession emerges in the ,roman period the definite precept of a time-limit for grief#hi2 and its undue continuance is sternly denounced as due to love of ostentation#ij1 and the morbid enjoyment of sorrow by an ill-balanced mind#ia4 ,grief in this shape is a dangerous disease2 there must be no trifling with it1 but it must be totally destroyed#ib4 ,sidenote3 ,misanthropy4 #chj4 ,lastly1 we include under the heading of ,grief a weakness which often developes into serious disease2 that general discontent1 which is voiced in complaints as to the wickedness of the age#ic and the degeneracy of young ,rome4 ,such discontent has always been characteristic of the old#id2 but under the principate it has developed into a special evil1 the #8hatred of the human race' 7odium generis humani74 ,of this fault even philosophers may be suspected2 for it must be admitted that men are bad1 have been bad1 and always will be bad#ie2 in short1 that the whole human race is made up of madmen#if4 ,but wise men will bear with this fact quietly and with a smile#ig4 ,it is futile to bring accusations against the whole race#ih1 and a delusion to think our own times worse than those of our predecessors4 ,the old ,romans1 to whom we look up as models of virtue1 made just the same complaints of their own times2 and as a matter of fact the standard of general morality never varies greatly from its average1 either in an upward or a downward direction#ii4 ,sidenote3 ,eating4 #cha4 ,the fault of ,hilarity 7 1 elatio animi7 is a departure from ,soberness and cheerful ,joy with regard to the things that appeal to our appetites1 and this in the direction of excess4 ,with regard to food1 it corresponds to #8greediness' in modern speech4 ,the matter is but little discussed1 but we have two interesting lectures by ,musonius1 which are chiefly concerned with this vice1 from which we take the following extracts3 #8,greediness' is an unpleasant fault1 making men to resemble pigs and dogs3 but on the other hand healthy eating requires much supervision and practice 7 74 ,of all pleasures that tempt men1 greediness is the hardest to contend against2 for it assails us twice every day4 ,to eat too much is wrong2 to eat too fast is wrong2 so it is also to take too much pleasure in food1 to prefer the sweet to the wholesome1 or not to give your companions a fair share4 ,another fault is to let meals interfere with business4 ,in all these points we should look chiefly to health4 ,now we observe that those who use the simplest foods are generally the strongest2 servants are stronger than their masters1 countryfolk than townsmen1 the poor than the rich4 ,there is therefore good reason to prefer cheap food to that which is costly1 and that which is ready to hand to that which is only obtained with great trouble4 ,further1 some foods are more congenial than others to men's nature2 as those which grow from the earth1 or can be obtained from animals without killing them4 ,food that requires no cooking has an advantage1 as ripe fruit1 some vegetables1 milk1 cheese1 and honey4 ,flesh food is for many reasons objectionable4 ,it is heavy and impedes thought2 the exhalations from it are turbid and overshadow the soul4 ,men should imitate the gods1 who feed on the light exhalations of earth and water4 ,but to-day we have even worse corruptions4 ,many men are dainty and cannot eat food without vinegar or some other seasoning4 ,also we call in art and machinery to aid our pleasures1 and actually have books written on cookery4 ,all this may serve to titillate the palate1 but is mischievous to health#ajj4' ,the sarcasms of ,seneca are aimed not so much against excess in quantity or fastidiousness in quality1 as against the collection of dainties from all parts of the world#aja4 ,sidenote3 ,drinking4 #chb4 ,as to drinking1 the ,stoic period marks a great change in feeling4 ,in the times of ,zeno1 hard drinking had almost the honour of a religious ceremony2 and the banquet 77 was the occasion of many a philosophical discussion4 ,zeno began by laying it down as a principle that #8the wise man will not be drunken#ajb1' and ,chrysippus went so far as to name drunkenness as causing the loss of virtue#ajc4 ,but the prohibition was carefully guarded4 ,the earlier teachers permitted #8wininess#ajd'2 and ,seneca justifies this means of banishing care1 pointing out many instances of public men of drinking habits who discharged their duties admirably#aje4 ,yet on the whole he inclines to a stricter view1 finding that #8drunkenness is a voluntary madness1' and that it removes that sense of shame which most hinders men from wrongdoing#ajf4 ,meanwhile a change in public taste1 and perhaps the continual example of ,cynic missionaries1 had produced a tide of feeling in favour of simple living4 ,the philosophical discussions sketched by ,cicero take place at all times of the day1 but most usually in the morning hours2 they are never associated with riotous banqueting1 but if necessary the meal is cut short to make room for the talk4 ,under the principate the fare is of the simplest2 ,seneca himself was a vegetarian in his youth#ajg2 his teacher ,attalus was well content with porridge and water1 and found an audience ready to approve his taste#ajh4 ,sidenote3 ,sexual indulgence4 #chc4 ,a similar but more profound change had taken place at the same time in regard to sexual relations4 ,in the time of ,socrates courtesans and boy-favourites played a large part in social life2 associated with the banquet1 they formed part of the accepted ideal of cultured enjoyment2 even moralists approved of them as providing a satisfaction to natural desires and indirectly protecting the sanctity of the home#aji4 ,the same attitude of mind is shown by ,seneca under similar circumstances1 when he recommends that princes be indulged with mistresses in order to make their character more gentle#aaj4 ,but little by little a more severe standard prevailed#aaa4 ,from the first the ,stoics set themselves against the pursuit of other men's wives#aab4 ,with regard to other relations1 they did not feel called upon to condemn them in other men#aac2 they were indeed1 in themselves1 matters of indifference#aad2 but they found it contrary to reason that a man's thoughts should be occupied with matters so low1 or that he should bring himself into subjection to irregular habits and become a slave to a woman#aae4 ,as the courtesan was gradually excluded by this rule#aaf1 the general opinion fell back on the slave as the most accessible and least dangerous object of indulgence#aag4 ,but the philosophers of the principate1 following ,zeno1 who in these matters took the 7decorum7 as his rule#aah1 find it in a high degree unfitting that the master1 who should in all things be a model of self-control in his own household1 should display so grave a weakness to his slaves4 ,sidenote3 ,chastity4 #chd4 ,thus little by little there emerged the ideal of a strict chastity1 to the principle of which not even the marriage relation should form an exception#aai4 ,every falling off from this ideal is sin or transgression#abj2 and it is especially true in this matter that each act of weakness leaves its trace on the character1 and that he who yields becomes a feebler man#aba4 ,the ,socratic paradox1 that the wise man will be a lover#abb1 is consistently maintained by the ,stoics2 but the practical limitations of this doctrine are well illustrated by the following striking passage from the lectures of the ,stoic ,musonius3-- #8,men who do not wish to be licentious and bad should consider that sexual relations are only lawful in marriage1 and for the begetting of children2 such as aim at mere pleasure are lawless1 even in marriage4 ,even apart from adultery and unnatural relations1 all sexual connexions are disgraceful2 for what sober-minded man would think of consorting with a courtesan1 or with a free woman outside marriage8 and least of all would he do so with his own slave4 ,the lawlessness and foulness of such connexions is a disgrace to all who form them2 as we may see that any man who is capable of a blush does his utmost to conceal them4 ,yet one argues3 8in this case a man does no injustice2 he does not wrong his neighbour or deprive him of the hope of lawful issue40 ,i might reply that every one who sins injures himself1 for he makes himself a worse and less honourable man4 ,but at any rate he who gives way to foul pleasure and enjoys himself like a hog is an intemperate man2 and not least he who consorts with his own slave-girl1 a thing for which some people find excuse4 ,to all this there is a simple answer2 how would such a man approve of a mistress consorting with her own man-servant8 ,yet ,i presume he does not think men inferior to women1 or less able to restrain their desires4 ,if then men claim the supremacy over women1 they must show themselves superior in self-control4 ,to conclude2 sexual connexion between a master and his female slave is nothing but licentiousness#abc4' ,sidenote3 #8,bear and forbear4' #che4 ,thus our detailed study of the four perturbations has led us to lay little stress on ,fear and ,greed1 the weaknesses of the heroic period when men's minds were actively turned to the future1 and to concentrate our attention on ,grief and ,hilarity1 the two moods in which life's troubles and temptations are wrongly met with as they arrive4 ,as we follow the history of ,stoic philosophy through the times of the ,roman principate1 we find that this tendency to lay stress on the training of the passive character increases3 till ,epictetus tells us that of all the vices far the worst are #8lack of endurance' 7intolerantia71 which is the developed form of ,grief1 and #8lack of restraint' 7incontinentia71 which is the persistent inclination towards ,hilarity#abd4 ,hence the cure for vice is summed up by him in the golden word1 #8bear and forbear#abe'2 that is1 practise ,courage and cast off ,grief1 practise ,soberness and keep ,hilarity far from you4 #8,a good rule1' a ,peripatetic would reply1 #8for women and slaves4' ,sidenote3 ,avoidance of temptation4 #chf4 ,this negative attitude is most strongly marked in ,epictetus in connexion with the dangers of sexual passion4 ,thus his short advice to all young men with regard to the attractions of women is #8,flee at once#abf'2 and even in this his advice was countenanced in advance by the more tolerant ,seneca#abg4 ,it would appear from both writers that the battle between the sexes had become unequal at this period1 so often is the picture drawn of the promising and well-educated youth literally and hopelessly enslaved by a mistress presumably without birth1 education1 or honour#abh4 ,it causes us some surprise to find that the distinction between heavenly and earthly love#abi is not brought in as a corrective of the latter4 ,only in a general way the suggestion is made that seductive attractions should be driven out by virtuous ideals3 #8,do not be hurried away by the appearance1 but say3 8,appearances1 wait for me a little2 let me see who you are and what you are about2 let me put you to the test40 ,and do not allow the appearance to lead you on and draw lively pictures of the things which will follow2 for if you do1 it will carry you off wherever it pleases4 ,but rather bring in to oppose it some other beautiful and noble appearance and cast out this base appearance4 ,and if you are accustomed to be exercised in this way1 you will see what shoulders1 what sinews1 what strength you have4444 ,this is the true athlete4444 ,stay1 wretch1 do not be carried away4 ,great is the combat1 divine is the work2 it is for kingship1 for freedom1 for happiness4 ,remember ,god2 call on him as a helper and protector#acj4' ,sidenote3 ,gradations of vice4 #chg4 ,from the study of the separate evils we revert to the general theory of ,vice4 ,and here we must recall the point that so far as vice is weakness or ill-health of the soul1 it admits of gradations1 which may conveniently be stated as three1 namely 7i7 rufflings of the soul2 7ii7 commotions1 infections1 or illnesses2 7iii7 diseases or vices proper#aca4 ,it is not quite easy to classify the rufflings or first slight disturbances of the soul 7prima agitatio animi7 under the four perturbations2 but the bodily indications of them seem to be more marked in the weaknesses of the active or heroic character1 namely ,fear and ,greed4 ,thus in the direction of ,fear we meet with hair standing on end--pallor of complexion--trembling limbs--palpitation1 and dizziness1 all of which are bodily indications that fear is not far off2 in the direction of ,anger 7a form of ,greed7 we meet with heightened colour1 flashing eyes1 and gnashing teeth#acb4 ,in the direction of ,grief we meet with tears and sighs1 and in that of ,hilarity the automatic sexual movements1 amongst which we must perhaps include blushing4 ,sidenote3 ,rufflings4 #chh4 ,it does not appear that the early ,stoic masters occupied themselves much with the gradations of vice2 although a text can be taken from ,zeno for a discourse on this subject4 ,neither does the earnest and cynically-minded ,epictetus care to dwell on such details4 ,on the other hand ,seneca lays the greatest possible stress on the doctrine that #8rufflings' are not inconsistent with virtue4 ,for this two arguments are available1 which are perhaps not quite consistent4 ,first1 the bodily indications are beyond the control of the mind2 they are necessary consequences of the union of body and soul1 that is1 of our mortal condition#acc4 ,secondly1 the #8rufflings' correspond to the mind-pictures presented to the soul in thought1 and therefore are neither moral nor immoral until the soul has given its assent to them#acd4 ,from either point of view we arrive at a result congenial to this philosopher4 ,the wise man is1 in fact1 subject to slight touches of such feelings as grief and fear#ace2 he is a man1 not a stone4 ,secondly1 the sovereignty of the will remains unimpaired2 give the mind but time to collect its forces1 and it will restrain these feelings within their proper limits#acf4 ,the doctrine is in reality1 though not in form1 a concession to the ,peripatetic standpoint2 it provides also a convenient means of defence against the mockers who observe that professors of philosophy often exhibit the outward signs of moral weakness4 ,sidenote3 #8,commotions4' #chi4 ,if the soul gives way to any unreasoning impulse1 it makes a false judgment and suffers relaxation of its tone3 there takes place a #8commotion' or #8perturbation' 71 affectus1 perturbatio71 which is a moral evil#acg4 ,the ,greek word admits of two interpretations2 it may mean a passive state or a disease2 we here use it in the milder sense4 ,by an #8emotion' we mean that the soul is uprooted from its foundation1 and begins as it were to toss on the sea2 by #8affection' that it is seized or infected by some unwholesome condition#ach2 by #8perturbation' that it has ceased to be an orderly whole1 and is falling into confusion4 ,when we regard these words in their true sense1 and shake off the associations they carry with them in ,english1 it is clear that all of them denote moral evils2 nevertheless they cannot rightly be called #8diseases' of the soul#aci4 ,the evils and weaknesses which have been discussed are commonly displayed in #8commotions' or #8perturbations1' and are normally equivalent to them4 ,sidenote3 ,diseases of the soul4 #cij4 ,the soul by giving way to perturbations becomes worse2 it acquires habits of weakness in particular directions4 ,this weakness from a passing disposition 77 changes into a permanent disposition or habit 771 and this is in the full sense a #8disease' of the soul#adj4 ,these diseases or vices are1 strictly speaking1 four in number#ada3 but the ,stoics run into great detail as regards their titles and subdivisions4 ,diseases in the ordinary sense 77 display restlessness and want of self-control2 such are ambition1 avarice1 greediness1 drunkenness1 running after women#adb1 passionate temper1 obstinacy1 and anxiety4 ,an opposite class of maladies consists of unreasonable dislikes 7 1 offensiones72 such are inhospitality1 misogynism1 and quarrelling with the world in general#adc4 ,sidenote3 ,men are good or bad4 #cia4 ,the study of vice in its various forms and gradations leaves untouched the main positions of ,stoic ethics1 including the ,socratic paradoxes4 ,men are of two classes only1 the wise and the foolish1 the good and the bad#add4 ,this bold dualism the ,stoics hold in common with the ,persians#ade2 and though it is on the one hand tempered so as to meet the common opinion that most men are of middling character1 and on the other hand subordinated to the monistic principle that good shall in the end prevail1 it remains the key-stone of this department of philosophy4 ,virtue is a right state of mind2 everything that falls short of it is therefore a wrong state of mind4 ,virtue and vice lie in the inward disposition1 not in the outward act#adf2 and one who has crossed the line is equally out of bounds whatever the distance to which he has travelled on the far side#adg4 ,each man has therefore an all-important choice to make4 ,the great ,stoic teachers were filled with a yearning after righteousness and reconciliation with the divine purpose and a disgust and horror of the condition of the man who is at variance with his ,creator1 his neighbour1 and himself#adh4 ,these convictions they encased as usual in paradoxes and syllogisms4 ,sidenote3 ,all sins are equal4 #cib4 ,that #8the affections must be extirpated#adi' ceases to be a paradox1 as soon as we have defined affections as states of mind contrary to reason1 and have made room for the #8reasonable affections' of caution1 good will1 and joy#aej4 ,that #8all sins are equal#aea' remains still1 as of old1 a stumbling block#aeb4 ,yet this ,socratic paradox has a simple interpretation2 it is a protest against the light-heartedness which tolerates #8petty' acts of wrongdoing1 and is indifferent to the evil habits of mind thus acquired#aec4 ,two of the ,stoic teachers of the transition period1 ,heraclides of ,tarsus and ,athenodorus1 are said to have abandoned the paradox#aed1 and all ,stoics were ready to admit that sins are #8unlike'#aee4 ,but1 as usual1 the main body held firmly to a doctrine in which they had discovered a real practical value4 ,just the same principle is expressed by other paradoxes1 as that #8he who has one vice has all1 though he may not be equally inclined to all#aef'2 and again that #8he who is not wise is a fool and a madman#aeg4' ,sidenote3 ,sin is curable4 #cic4 ,in spite of the parallelism of virtue and vice the latter is destined to subordination1 not only in the history of the universe1 but also in the individual man4 ,even if sins are equal1 vice as ill health of the soul has degrees4 ,the first #8rufflings' of the soul are1 as we have seen1 not to be reckoned as real evils2 its #8perturbations' give the hope of a coming calm2 and grievous though its #8diseases' are1 we have no suggestion of incurable sin1 or of the hopeless offender4 ,even he who has most fallen retains the germs of virtue1 and these may again ripen under a proper discipline#aeh4 ,sidenote3 ,stoic austerity4 #cid4 ,the attitude of the ,stoic school towards sin and weakness exposed it1 as we have seen1 to constant criticism and ridicule4 ,to some extent this was due to the profession of philosophy in itself3 for every such profession implied some claim to clearer knowledge and more consistent action than that of the crowd#aei4 ,but the ,stoics also sought to be #8austere' with regard to social pleasures1 and thus it seemed that they neither offered others a share in their own happiness nor sympathetically partook in that of others#afj2 whilst at the same time they claimed exemption from the weaknesses and failings of their neighbours4 ,we have seen both ,seneca and ,epictetus anxious to meet criticism on these points by laying stress on those touches of natural feeling in which wise and foolish alike share4 ,but in addressing the members of the sect their tone is very different2 they hold out1 as a prize worth the winning1 the prospect of attaining to that calm and unchanging disposition of mind which has for ever left behind the flutterings of fear and greed1 of grief and hilarity1 and which is attuned to reason alone#afa4 ,epictetus indeed often expresses elation and pride upon this theme3 #8,i will show the sinews of a philosopher4 ,what are these8 ,a desire 77 never disappointed1 an aversion 77 which never meets with that which it would avoid1 a proper pursuit 771 a diligent purpose 771 an assent which is not rash4 ,these you shall see#afb4' #8,men1 if you will attend to me1 wherever you are1 whatever you are doing1 you will not feel sorrow1 nor anger1 nor compulsion1 nor hindrance1 but you will pass your time without perturbations and free from everything4 ,when a man has this peace 7not proclaimed by ,caesar1 for how should he be able to proclaim it87 but by ,god through reason1 is he not content when he reflects--,now no evil can happen to me#afc8' ,,footnotes #a #8est peccare tanquam transilire lineas' ,cic4 ,par4 iii #bj4 #b #8,who among us does not speak of good and bad1 of useful and not useful8444 ,adapt the preconception properly to the particular things' ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #ag1 #aj and #aa4 #c #8omnes hae perturbationes sunt genere quattuor1 partibus plures2 aegritudo1 formido1 libido1 quamque ,stoici communi nomine corporis et animi appellant1 ego malo laetitiam appellare1 quasi gestientis animi elationem voluptariam' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #aj1 #ce2 #8est igitur aegritudo opinio recens mali praesentis1 444 laetitia opinio recens boni praesentis2 444 metus opinio impendentis mali1 444 libido opinio venturi boni' ,tusc4 disp4 iv #g1 #ad2 #8hinc metuunt cupiuntque1 dolent gaudentque' ,verg4 ,aen4 vi #gcc4 ,see also ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aaj and ,stob4 ii #g1 #aj b4 #d 1 1 1 1 ,galen ,hipp4 et ,plat4 v i1 p4 #dbi ,k2 cf4 ib4 iv p4 #chg ,k 7,arnim i #dfa74 #e ,in this sense there are four vices1 each the precise opposite of one of the virtues2 they are 7insipientia71 7iniustitia71 7ignavia7 and 7intemperantia72 and each of these is rooted in a fixed perverse judgment1 so that he who has one vice has all 7,stob4 ii #g1 #aa k1 p4 #ajf1 #g ,wachsmuth74 #f ,this view is summed up in the phrase that #8the perturbations are 1 but not ' 7,stob4 ii #g1 #e b71 which accords with the principle that only vice and what is akin to vice is evil4 ,the ,roman writers realized the difficulty in the use of words3 #8morbi autem et aegrotationes partes sunt vitiositatis2 sed perturbationes sintne eiusdem partes quaestio est4 vitia enim adfectiones sunt manentes1 perturbationes autem moventes1 ut non possint adfectionum manentium partes esse' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 iv #ac1 #bi and #cj4 #g #8utrum satius sit modicos habere adfectus an nullos1 saepe quaesitum est2 nostri illos expellunt1 ,peripatetici temperant' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aaf1 #a2 #8vacandum omni est animi perturbatione1 tum cupiditate et metu1 tum etiam aegritudine et voluptate nimia et iracundia' ,cic4 ,off4 i #bj1 #fi2 #8contra adfectus impetu1 non subtilitate pugnandum est' ,sen4 ,dial4 x #aj1 #a4 #h ,stob4 ii #g1 #aj c2 ib4 #aj b4 #i ,here ,panaetius is faithful to the ,stoic view3 #8ira procul absit1 cum qua nihil recte fieri1 nihil considerate potest' ,cic4 ,off4 i #ch1 #acf4 #aj #8ira extollit animos et incitat2 nec quicquam sine illa magnificum in bello fortitudo gerit' ,sen4 ,dial4 iii #g1 #a4 #aa #88non potest0 inquit 8fieri0 ,theophrastus1 8ut non vir bonus irascatur malis0' ib4 #ad1 #a2 #88quid ergo80 inquit 8vir bonus non irascitur1 si caedi patrem suum viderit1 si rapi matrem80' ib4 #ab1 #a4 #ab #8stat ,aristoteles 7fr4 #hj ,rose7 defensor irae et vetat illam nobis exsecari2 calcar ait esse virtutis' ,sen4 ,dial4 v #c1 #a4 #ac #8abominandum remedii genus est sanitatem debere morbo' ib4 iii #ab1 #f4 #ad #8haec arma quae ,aristoteles virtuti dat1 ipsa per se pugnant1 non expectant manum1 et habent non habentur' ib4 #ag1 #a4 #ae #8adfectus cito cadit1 aequalis est ratio' ib4 #ag1 #e4 #af #8corrigendus est qui peccat meliorque faciendus1 non sine castigatione1 sed sine ira' ib4 #ae1 #a4 #ag #8,fabius iram ante vicit quam ,hannibalem' ib4 #aa1 #e4 #ah #8nec athletae cum ira suadet1 feriunt1 sed cum occasio 444 ira enim perturbat artem' ib4 iv #ad1 #b and #c4 #ai ,stob4 ii #g1 #aj c2 #8ira est cupiditas ulciscendae iniuriae1 aut1 ut ait ,posidonius1 cupiditas puniendi eius1 a quo te inique putes laesum' ,sen4 ,dial4 iii #b1 #d4 #bj #8ira furor brevis est' ,hor4 ,ep4 i #b1 #fb2 #8quidam ex sapientibus viris iram dixerunt brevem insaniam' ,sen4 ,dial4 iii #a1 #b4 #ba ib4 #d4 #bb #8non pietas iram1 sed infirmitas movet1 sicut pueris1 qui tam parentibus amissis flebunt quam nucibus' ib4 #ab1 #d4 #bc #8nec in ea tantum1 quae destinavit1 sed in occurrentia obiter furit' ib4 v #a1 #c4 #bd #8nobis placet nihil iram per se audere1 sed animo adprobante' ib4 iv #a1 #d2 #8nunquam impetus sine adsensu animi est' ib4 #c1 #d4 #be ib4 #c-e4 #bf #8maximum remedium irae mora est' ib4 #bi1 #a2 #8,keep quiet1 and count the days on which you have not been angry' ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #ah1 #ab4 #bg #8pleraque eorum1 propter quae irascimur1 offendunt nos magis quam laedunt' ,sen4 ,dial4 v #bh1 #d2 #8contempt is that which putteth an edge upon anger1 as much or more than the hurt itself' ,bacon1 ,essay #eg4 #bh #8eo nos loco constituamus1 quo ille est cui irascimur' ,sen4 ,dial4 #ab1 #c4 #bi #8quibusdam1 ut ait ,sextius1 iratis profuit adspexisse speculum' ib4 iv #cf1 #a4 #cj ,see below1 #djc4 #ca #8percussit te3 recede4 referiendo enim et occasionem saepius feriendi dabis et excusationem' ib4 #cd1 #e4 #cb #8quaedam irae ultra querelas et adversationes non exeunt4 quaedam altae gravesque sunt et introrsus versae' ib4 iii #d1 #c4 #cc #8inter hos morosum ponas licet1 delicatum iracundiae genus4 quaedam enim sunt irae1 quae intra clamorem concidant1 quaedam non minus pertinaces quam frequentes' ,sen4 ,dial4 #b and #c4 #cd ,defined as #8atrocitas animi in exigendis poenis' or #8inclinatio animi ad asperiora' ,sen4 ,clem4 ii #d1 #a and #c4 #ce ib4 i #ab1 #a4 #cf #8domini crudeles tota civitate commonstrantur invisique et detestabiles sunt' ib4 #ah1 #c4 #cg #8ferina ista rabies est sanguine gaudere et vulneribus' ib4 #bd1 #c4 #ch #8tunc ille dirus animi morbus ad insaniam pervenit ultimam1 cum crudelitas versa est in voluptatem et iam occidere hominem iuvat' ib4 #be1 #c4 #ci ib4 #bb1 #a4 #dj #8puta tutam esse crudelitatem2 quale eius regnum est8' ib4 #bf1 #b4 #da #8optimum est abire ei1 qui ad se nunquam rediturus est' ,ben4 vii #bj1 #c4 #db ' ,stob4 ii #g1 #aj b2 #8est aegritudo opinio recens mali praesentis1 in quo demitti contrahique animo rectum esse videatur' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 iv #g1 #ad4 #dc ,see above1 #aad4 #dd ,muson4 ap4 ,stob4 iii #bi1 #ge4 #de #8nemo non fortius ad id1 cui se diu composuerat1 accessit et duris quoque1 si praemeditata erant1 obstitit' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajg1 #d2 and see further1 #cci4 #df #8id in quoque solidissimum est quod exercuit4 ad contemnendam malorum potentiam animus patientia pervenit' ,sen4 ,dial4 i #d1 #ac4 #dg ,stob4 ii #ca1 #abe 7,wachsmuth1 p4 #bdb1 #cj74 ,the point is however complicated by the ambiguity of the ,greek word 1 which corresponds equally to dolor and labor in ,latin2 see ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 ii #ae1 #ce4 #dh #8tirones leviter saucii tamen vociferantur et manus medicorum magis quam ferrum horrent2 at veterani1 quamvis confossi1 patienter ac sine gemitu velut aliena corpora exsaniari patiuntur' ib4 xii #c1 #a4 #di #8scio alios inter flagella ridere1 alios gemere sub colapho' ,ep4 #ac1 #e4 #ej #8magna autem pars apud imperitos mali novitas2 hoc ut scias1 ea quae putaverant aspera1 fortius1 cum adsuevere1 patiuntur' ib4 #gf1 #cd4 #ea #8quae maxima credis esse mala1 exiguum censum turpemque repulsam' ,hor4 ,ep4 i #a1 #dc4 #eb #8virtus1 repulsae nescia sordidae1 intaminatis fulget honoribus2 nec sumit aut ponit secures arbitrio popularis aurae' ,hor4 ,c4 iii #b1 #ag-bj4 #ec #8,chrysippus1 when asked why he took no part in politics1 replied3 #8because1 if a man is a bad politician1 he is hateful to the gods2 if a good politician1 to his fellow-citizens' ,stob4 iv #d1 #bi4 #ed #8si percensere singulas res publicas voluero1 nullam inveniam1 quae sapientem aut quam sapiens pati possit' ,sen4 ,dial4 viii #h1 #c4 #ee #8si potes1 subduc te istis occupationibus2 si minus1 eripe' ,ep4 #ai1 #a4 #ef #8mobilis et inquieta homini mens data est4 nunquam se tenet1 vaga et quietis impatiens1 et novitate rerum laetissima' ib4 xii #f1 #f4 #eg #8ratio et prudentia curas 444 aufert2 caelum non animum mutant1 qui trans mare currunt' ,hor4 ,ep4 i #aa1 #be-bg4 #eh ,sen4 ,dial4 ix #ab-ae4 #ei #8inde ille adfectus otium suum detestantium querentiumque nihil ipsos habere quod agant' ib4 #b1 #aj4 #fj #8incertam fortunam experimur1 vim tempestatum nulla humana ope superabilem1 mortem sine spe sepulturae4 non erat tanti' ,n4 ,q4 v #ah1 #f and #g2 #8non eadem est his et illis causa solvendi1 sed iusta nulli' ib4 #af2 #8quid non potest mihi suaderi1 cui persuasum est ut navigarem8' ,ep4 #ec1 #a4 #fa ,n4 ,q4 v #ah1 #aj4 #fb #8magis ridebis1 cum cogitaveris vitae parari1 in quae vita consumitur' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 #af4 #fc #8misericordiam boni viri vitabunt2 est enim vitium pusilli animi1 ad speciem alienorum malorum succidentis' ,clem4 ii #e1 #a4 #fd #8anus et mulierculae sunt1 quae lacrimis nocentissimorum moventur1 quae1 si liceret1 carcerem effringerent' ib4 #fe ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #c1 #ag4 #ff #8cum dicas esse pares res furta latrociniis1 et magnis parva mineris falce recisurum simili te1 si tibi regnum permittant homines' ,hor4 ,sat4 i #c1 #aba-abd2 #8scio male audire apud imperitos sectam ,stoicorum tanquam nimis duram et minime principibus regibusque bonum daturam consilium 444 sed nulla secta benignior leniorque est' ,sen4 ,clem4 ii #e1 #b and #c4 #fg ,see below1 #dji4 #fh #8non miserebitur sapiens1 sed succurret' ,sen4 ,clem4 ii #f1 #c4 #fi ,epict4 ,disc4 i #aa4 #gj #8ex his nemo morienti amico adsidet1 nemo videre mortem patris sui sustinet1 quotusquisque funus domesticum ad rogum sequitur8 fratrum propinquorumque extrema hora deseritur' ,sen4 ,n4 ,q4 iii #ah1 #f4 #ga ,dial4 ii #ag1 #a4 #gb #8,vatinius in pedes suos ipse plurima dicebat et in fauces concisas4 sic inimicorum et in primis ,ciceronis urbanitatem effugerat' ,sen4 ,dial4 ii #ag1 #c2 #8nemo risum praebuit qui ex se cepit' ib4 #b4 #gc #8cum primum te observare desieris1 imago ista tristitiae discedet' ,ep4 #fc1 #c4 #gd ,cicero wrote a treatise #8de ,consolatione' based on this work1 but only a few fragments remain4 ,plutarch's #8,consolation' for ,apollonius was drawn from the same source 7,schmekel1 p4 #aej74 #ge ,cic4 ,fam4 iv #e4 #gf #8denique noli te oblivisci ,ciceronem esse1 et eum qui aliis consueris praecipere et dare consilium' ib4 #e1 #e4 #gg #8maximum ergo solatium est cogitare id sibi accidisse1 quod ante se passi sunt omnes omnesque passuri' ,sen4 ,dial4 xi #a1 #d4 ,on the other side #8malevoli solatii est turba miserorum' ib4 vi #ab1 #e2 #8cogita fratribus te tuis exemplo esse debere' ib4 xi #e1 #d4 #gh ib4 #h1 #b4 #gi ib4 #i1 #c2 #8inter felices currit animas' ib4 vi #e1 #a4 #hj ib4 xi #i1 #d2 #8excepit illum magna et aeterna pax' ib4 vi #ai1 #f4 ,see also above1 #bih1 #bii4 #ha ,sen4 ,dial4 vi #c to #e2 above1 #abc4 #hb #8,if you are kissing your wife or child1 say that it is a human being whom you are kissing2 for when the wife or child dies1 you will not be disturbed' ,epict4 ,manual #c 7after ,anaxagoras74 #hc ,disc4 iv #a1 #aja4 #hd #8,never say about anything1 ,i have lost it1 but say1 ,i have restored it4 ,is your child dead8 ,it has been restored4 ,is your wife dead8 ,she has been restored' ,manual #aa4 #he ,disc4 iii #bd1 #bg4 #hf #8illud1 ut non doleas1 vix audebo exigere2 et esse melius scio4 sed cui ista firmitas animi continget8' ,sen4 ,ep4 #fc1 #a4 #hg #8inhumanitas est ista1 non virtus1 funera suorum iisdem oculis1 quibus ipsos1 videre' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ii1 #ae2 cf4 ,dial4 xii #a1 #b4 #hh #8cum primus nos nuntius acerbi funeris perculit1 lacrimas naturalis necessitas exprimit' ,ep4 #ii1 #ah4 #hi #8nos quod praecipimus1 honestum est2 cum aliquid lacrimarum adfectus effuderit1 non esse tradendum animum dolori' ib4 #bg4 #ij #8at enim naturale desiderium suorum est4 quis negat8 sed plus est quod opinio adicit quam quod natura imperavit' ,dial4 vi #g1 #a4 #ia #8fit infelicis animi prava voluptas dolor' ib4 #a1 #g4 #ib #8non possum molliter adsequi tam durum dolorem2 frangendus est' ib4 #ic #8obirascens fortunae animus et de seculo querens' ,sen4 ,dial4 ix #b1 #aa4 #id #8difficilis1 querulus1 laudator temporis acti se puero1 censor castigatorque minorum' ,hor4 ,a4 ,p4 #agc1 #agd4 #ie #8idem semper de nobis pronuntiare debebimus2 malos esse nos1 malos fuisse1 invitus adiciam et futuros esse' ,sen4 ,ben4 i #aj1 #c2 #8cupidi omnes et maligni omnes et timidi omnes' ib4 v #ag1 #c4 #if #8non est quod irascaris2 omnes insaniunt' ib4 #ig #8satius est humana vitia placide accipere' ib4 ix #ae1 #e2 #8omnia vulgi vitia non invisa nobis1 sed ridicula videantur' ib4 #b4 #ih #8generi humano venia tribuenda est' ib4 iv #aj1 #b4 #ii #8hoc maiores nostri questi sunt1 hoc nos querimur1 hoc posteri nostri querentur1 eversos mores1 regnare nequitiam1 in deterius res humanas et omne nefas labi2 at ista eodem stant loco stabuntque1 paulum dumtaxat ultra aut citra mota' ,ben4 i #aj1 #a4 #ajj ,stob4 iii #ag1 #db and #ah1 #cg4 #aja #8ad vos deinde transeo1 quorum profunda et insatiabilis gula hinc maria scrutatur1 hinc terras4 alia hamis1 alia laqueis1 alia retium variis generibus cum magno labore persequitur4 nullis animalibus nisi ex fastidio pax est' ,sen4 ,ep4 #hi1 #bb4 ,another form of luxury is in the eating of food extremely hot or extremely cold3 #8quemadmodum nihil illis satis frigidum1 sic nihil satis calidum est1 sed ardentes boletos demittunt' ,n4 ,q4 iv #ac1 #aj4 #ajb ,see above1 #hc1 note #hb4 #ajc ,see above1 #cbd1 note #aee4 #ajd 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aah4 ,this was the view of ,chrysippus2 see ,a4 ,c4 ,pearson in ,journ4 ,phil4 xxx pp4 #bba sqq4 #aje #8nonnunquam et usque ad ebrietatem veniendum est1 non ut mergat nos1 sed ut deprimat4 eluit enim curas et ab imo animum movet' ,sen4 ,dial4 ix #ag1 #h2 see further ,ep4 #hc1 #ad and #ae4 #ajf #8nihil aliud esse ebrietatem quam voluntariam insaniam' ,ep4 #hc1 #ah2 #8omne vitium ebrietas et incendit et detegit1 obstantem malis conatibus verecundiam removet4 plures enim pudore peccandi quam bona voluntate prohibitis abstinent' ib4 #hc1 #ai4 #ajg ,see above1 #abf4 #ajh ,sen4 ,ep4 #aaj1 #ad and #ah4 #aji ,xen4 ,mem4 ii #a1 #e4 #aaj #8si pro magno petet munere artifices scenae et scorta et quae feritatem eius emolliant1 libens offeram' ,sen4 ,ben4 vii #bj1 #c4 ,the furthering of the amour of ,nero with ,acte was a practical application of this theory3 #8tradit ,cluvius 444 ,senecam contra muliebres illecebras subsidium a femina petivisse1 immissamque ,acten libertam' ,tac4 ,ann4 xiv #b1 #b4 #aaa #8non est itaque quod credas nos plurimum libidini permisisse4 longe enim frugalior haec iuventus quam illa est' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ig1 #i4 #aab ,see above1 #cjf1 note #bg4 #aac #8,as to pleasure with women1 abstain as far as you can before marriage2 but if you do indulge in it1 do it in the way which is conformable to custom4 ,do not however be disagreeable to those who indulge in these pleasures' ,epict4 ,manual #cc1 #h4 #aad ,stob4 ii #g1 #e b #i2 cf4 #cag4 #aae #8eleganter mihi videtur ,panaetius respondisse adulescentulo cuidam quaerenti1 an sapiens amaturus esset3 8de sapiente0 inquit 8videbimus2 mihi et tibi1 qui adhuc a sapiente longe absumus1 non est committendum ut incidamus in rem commotam1 impotentem1 alteri emancipatam1 vilem sibi0' ,sen4 ,ep4 #aaf1 #e2 #8,did you never love any person1 a young girl1 slave or free8444 have you never flattered your little slave8 have you never kissed her feet8 ,what then is slavery8' ,epict4 ,disc4 iv #a1 #ae and #ag4 #aaf #8magno pudoris impendio dilecta scorta' ,sen4 ,dial4 ii #f1 #g4 #aag ,hor4 ,sat4 i #b1 #aaf-aai4 #aah ,see above1 #cah1 note #ajd4 #aai #8,do not admire the beauty of your wife1 and you will not be angry with the adulterer' ,epict4 ,disc4 i #ah1 #aa4 ,ascetic principles were already practised in ,seneca's time2 #8vino quidam1 alii ,venere1 quidam omni umore interdixere corporibus' ,dial4 iv #ab1 #d4 #abj #8lapsa est libido in muliere ignota 444 peccavit vero nihilominus1 si quidem est peccare tanquam transilire lineas' ,cic4 ,par4 iii #a1 #bj4 #aba #8,when you have been overcome in sexual intercourse with a person1 do not reckon this single defeat only1 but reckon that you have also increased your incontinence' ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #ah1 #f4 #abb ,diog4 ,l4 vii #abi4 #abc ,stob4 iii #f1 #bc4 #abd #8idem ille ,epictetus solitus dicere est duo esse vitia multo omnium gravissima ac taeterrima1 intolerantiam et incontinentiam1 cum aut iniurias1 quae sunt ferendae1 non toleramus neque ferimus1 aut a quibus rebus voluptatibusque nos tenere debemus1 non tenemus' ,a4 ,gellius1 ,n4 ,a4 xvii #ai1 #e4 #abe #8verba haec duo dicebat3 et ib4 #f4 #abf #8,at first fly far from that which is stronger than yourself2 the contest is unequal between a charming young girl and a beginner in philosophy' ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #ab1 #ab4 #abg #8id agere debemus1 ut inritamenta vitiorum quam longissime profugiamus' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ea1 #e2 #8ei1 qui amorem exuere conatur1 evitanda est omnis admonitio dilecti corporis' ib4 #fi1 #c4 #abh ,epict4 ,disc4 iv #a1 #ae-ba4 #abi ,see above1 #cdi4 #acj ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #ah1 #bd-bi4 #aca ,the terms #8ruffling' 7levis motus71 and #8commotions' 7emotiones7 or #8perturbations' 7perturbationes7 are metaphors taken from the disturbance of a calm sea2 the remaining terms properly describe bodily ill-health4 ,the ,english words #8emotions1' #8affections' have almost entirely lost their original force1 and are therefore no longer suitable as translations4 ,the substitution of #8commotion' for #8emotion' has already been adopted by ,maudsley1 ,pathology of the ,human ,mind4 #acb #8ad peiores nuntios subriguntur pili1 et rubor ad improba verba subfunditur sequiturque vertigo praerupta cernentes' ,sen4 ,dial4 iv #b1 #a2 #8erubescunt pudici etiam loqui de pudicitia' ,cic4 ,leg4 i #ai1 #ej4 ,see also the following notes4 #acc #8si quis pallorem et lacrimas procidentis et inritationem humoris obsceni altumve suspirium et oculos subito acriores aut quid his simile indicium adfectus animique signum putat1 fallitur nec intellegit corporis hos esse pulsus' ,sen4 ,dial4 iv #c1 #b2 #8est primus motus non voluntarius quasi praeparatio adfectus et quaedam comminatio' ib4 #d1 #a4 #acd #8prima illa agitatio animi1 quam species iniuriae incussit1 non magis ira est quam ipsa iniuriae species' ib4 #c1 #e4 #ace #8sapiens sentit levem quendam tenuemque motum1 nam1 ut dicit ,zenon1 in sapientis quoque animo1 etiam cum vulnus sanatum est1 cicatrix manet4 sentiet itaque suspiciones quasdam et umbras adfectuum2 ipsis carebit' ib4 iii #af1 #g2 #8scio inveniri quosdam1 qui negent doliturum esse sapientem2 hi non videntur mihi unquam in eiusmodi casum incidisse' ib4 xi #ah1 #e2 #8nullo dolore adfici inhumana duritia est' ib4 xii #af1 #a4 #acf #8nec hoc dico1 non sentit illa1 sed vincit' ib4 i #b1 #b2 #8invicti esse possumus1 inconcussi non possumus' ,n4 ,q4 ii #ei1 #c4 #acg #8adfectus est non ad oblatas rerum species moveri1 sed permittere se illis et hunc fortuitum motum prosequi' ,dial4 iv #c1 #a2 #8,zeno perturbationes voluntarias esse putabat opinionisque iudicio suscipi1 et omnium perturbationum arbitrabatur matrem esse immoderatam quandam intemperantiam' ,cic4 ,ac4 i #aj1 #ci2 perturbationes autem nulla naturae vi commoventur1 omniaque ea sunt opiniones et iudicia levitatis' ,fin4 iii #aj1 #ce4 #ach #8neque enim sepositus est animus et extrinsecus speculatur adfectus1 sed in adfectum ipse mutatur' ,sen4 ,dial4 iii #h1 #b4 #aci #8perturbationes animorum1 quas ,graeci appellant1 poteram ego verbum ipsum interpretans1 morbos appellare3 sed non conveniret ad omnia4 quis enim misericordiam aut ipsam iracundiam morbum solet dicere8 sed illi dicunt 4 sit igitur perturbatio1 quae nomine ipso vitiosa declarari videtur' ,cic4 ,fin4 iii #aj1 #ce4 #adj 1 ,gal4 loc4 aff4 i #c1 p4 #cb ,k 7,arnim iii #dbi72 on the other hand a is called ,stob4 vii #g1 #aj e2 #8adfectus sunt motus animi improbabiles1 subiti et concitati1 qui frequentes neglectique fecere morbum' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ge1 #ab2 #8morbi sunt inveterata vitia et dura2 altius haec animum implicuerunt et perpetua eius mala esse coeperunt' ib4 #aa4 #ada ,for the technical terms see above1 #cfb1 note #f4 #adb ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 iv #aa1 #be4 #adc 1 1 1 ,stob4 vii #g1 #aj e2 #8offensionum autem definitiones sunt eius modi1 ut inhospitalitas sit opinio vehemens valde fugiendum esse hospitem1 eaque inhaerens et penitus insita1 et mulierum odium1 ut ,hippolyti1 et ut ,timonis generis humani' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 iv #aa1 #bg4 #add ' 1 1 ,stob4 ii #g1 #aa g4 #ade ,see above1 #h4 #adf ,see above1 #cag4 #adg #8cum lineam transilieris culpa commissa est2 quam longe progrediare1 cum semel transieris1 ad augendam culpam nihil pertinet' ,cic4 ,parad4 iii #bj4 #adh ,here we must altogether part company from ,bishop ,lightfoot1 who writes #8the ,stoic1 so long as he was true to the tenets of his school1 could have no real consciousness of sin' ,philippians1 p4 #bij4 ,it may however be admitted that the feelings we ascribe to the ,stoics are more forcibly expressed by ,cleanthes1 ,antipater1 ,musonius and ,epictetus than by ,seneca4 #adi ,see above1 #cfb1 note #g4 #aej ,see above1 #cee4 #aea 1 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #abj4 #aeb #8omne delictum scelus esse nefarium1 nec minus delinquere eum qui gallum gallinaceum1 cum opus non fuerit1 quam eum qui patrem suffocaverit' ,cic4 ,mur4 #bi1 #fa4 #aec #8parva1 inquis1 res est4 at magna culpa1 nec enim peccata rerum eventu1 sed vitiis hominum metienda sunt' ,cic4 ,par4 iii #bj2 #8facilius est excludere perniciosa quam regere' ,sen4 ,dial4 iii #g1 #b2 #8optimum est ipsis repugnare seminibus' ib4 #h1 #a2 #8si das aliquid iuris tristitiae timori cupiditati ceterisque motibus pravis1 non erunt in nostra potestate' ,ep4 #he1 #aa4 #aed ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aba4 #aee 1 ' ,stob4 ii #g1 #aa l4 #aef #8stultus omnia vitia habet1 sed non in omnia natura pronus est2 alius in avaritiam1 alius in luxuriam1 alius in petulantiam inclinatur 444' ,sen4 ,ben4 iv #bg1 #a2 #8omnes stulti mali sunt2 qui autem habet vitium unum1 omnia habet' ib4 v #ae1 #a4 #aeg #8intellegendum est eos sensisse hoc idem1 quod a ,socrate acceptum diligenter ,stoici retinuerunt1 omnes insipientes esse non sanos' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 iii #e1 #aj4 #aeh 1 ,cleanthes ap4 ,stob4 ii #g1 #e b #h2 #8in pessima ab optimis lapsus necesse est etiam in malo vestigia boni teneat4 nunquam tantum virtus exstinguitur1 ut non certiores animo notas imprimat1 quam ut illas eradat ulla mutatio' ,sen4 ,ben4 vii #ai1 #e2 #8inest interim animis voluntas bona1 sed torpet1 modo deliciis ac situ1 modo officii inscitia' ib4 v #be1 #f4 #aei #8satis ipsum nomen philosophiae1 etiamsi modice tractetur1 invidiosum est' ,ep4 #e1 #b4 #afj 1 ' ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aag4 #afa #8sapiens nec cupit nec timet beneficio rationis' ,sen4 ,dial4 vii #e1 #a2 #8erectus laetusque est1 inde continuo gaudio elatus' ib4 ii #i1 #c4 #afb ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #h1 #bi4 #afc ib4 iii #ac1 #aa to #ac4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,counsels ,,of ,,perfection4 ,sidenote3 ,precepts4 #cie4 ,we have now set forth the ,stoic theory of ethics1 both in its high philosophic framework and in its more detailed treatment1 in which it prescribes what is to be done and what to be left undone1 and how the soul is to be disciplined in health and medicined in sickness4 ,it remains for us to study the application of the system to individual cases1 a matter which perhaps lies outside the scope of philosophy as understood at the present day1 but is an essential part of the work of churches and social organizations4 ,this department of philosophy was termed by the ancients #8precepts1' or 7more fully7 #8advice1 dissuasion1 admonition1 exhortation1 consolation1 warnings1 praise1 reproof' and so forth#a2 by some philosophers1 as for instance by ,aristo of ,chios1 it was held in contempt1 by others 7less inclined to ,cynism7 it was considered alone worthy of pursuit#b4 ,but the steady conviction of the main body of ,stoic teachers was that theory and precept must go hand in hand#c2 that moral principles have no strength apart from their daily application#d1 and that practical suggestions apart from a sound and reasoned system are like leaves cut from the bough1 without lasting greenness#e4 ,since precepts apply directly to individual persons and particular circumstances1 they presuppose some relationship between teacher and hearer#f2 the latter must be either a convert to the school or one who has grown up under its influence4 ,in the ,roman period the department of precepts is of increasing importance2 we have something to learn from ,antipater1 ,panaetius and ,cicero1 but we find much more material in the lectures 71 #8diatribes'7 and letters of ,musonius1 ,seneca1 ,epictetus and other teachers of the period of the principate4 ,sidenote3 ,training of the young4 #cif4 ,the #8precepts' which we find illustrated by our various authorities are not easily systematized1 but they have all the more the charm of personal intimacy2 through them we are admitted to the home life of the ,stoics4 ,as ,seneca wrote to ,lucilius1 so every day did ,stoic fathers1 ,stoic teachers1 ,stoic jurists1 address those who came within their influence4 ,believing every man to have the seed of virtue in him1 they had confidence that by their words it would often be stirred to life#g2 and that in other cases1 in which the promising shoot had become overshadowed by ignorance or evil habits1 it would by the same means begin to grow again#h4 ,but the full benefits of precepts could only be seen where they fell on well-prepared ground1 and formed part of a training extending from infancy to the grave2 where the instructor could daily ensure their enforcement and observe their effect4 ,this opportunity was necessarily found most often in the teaching of the young2 and the ,stoic system of precepts1 though not restricted to one period of life1 was to a large extent a foreshadowing of a #8,theory of ,education4' ,it was under all circumstances guided by the rule of #8little by little4' ,precepts must be few#i1 and must be in themselves easy for the individual to carry out#aj2 but by steady practice great things will be accomplished4 ,sidenote3 ,the teacher's example4 #cig4 ,since the value of precepts depends on the personal influence of the instructor1 it is clear that his example will be of the greatest importance1 and we may first ask what the discipline is to which he himself submits4 ,here the ,cynic teacher seems to have the advantage1 for he lives in the sight of all men2 and the ,indian1 who allows himself to be scorched or burnt to show his contempt for pain1 makes a still more forcible appeal#aa4 ,the ,stoic does not parade himself in this fashion1 but neither does he lock the door of his private life against any who wish to examine it#ab4 ,in the early morning he shakes off sleep1 rousing himself to do the day's work of a man#ac4 ,having clothed himself1 he turns his mind towards his ,maker1 and sings his praises2 he resolves during the coming day to cooperate in his purposes1 and to bear cheerfully any burden that may be placed upon him#ad4 ,he will then give a short time to gymnastic exercises for the good of his health#ae2 after which1 if his strength allows it1 he will take1 winter or summer1 a plunge into the cold bath#af2 next comes the slightest of meals#ag2 then a short nap or reverie#ah4 ,from this he is aroused by the stir around him1 and he then applies himself to the day's studies1 being careful to alternate reading and writing1 so that his mind may be neither exhausted by the latter nor relaxed by the former#ai4 ,later on he will consider his practical duties towards his relatives1 his friends1 and society in general4 ,he will order his household and settle the disputes of his dependents4 ,he will visit his friends1 saying a word here and there in season#bj1 but not 7like the ,cynics7 to all and sundry#ba4 ,he will encourage those who are making progress in virtue1 and sharply warn those who are in danger of a fall#bb4 ,he advises a young mother to nurse her child at her own breast2 and when he meets with objections1 points out the wisdom and propriety of obeying the prescriptions of nature#bc4 ,returning home1 he will again enjoy some slight bodily exercise1 joining perhaps in a game of ball2 his thoughts however will not always turn on success in the game1 but he will consider how many principles in physics and ethics may be illustrated by it#bd4 ,now that evening comes on1 he sits down to a meal 7not over-elaborate7 in the company of one or two favourite pupils#be4 ,afterwards comes the temptation to burn the midnight oil in gathering seeds of wisdom for the morrow from the well-thumbed manuscript of ,cleanthes or1 it may be1 of ,epicurus#bf4 ,retiring to his chamber1 he will examine his conscience1 review the events of the past day1 and be at peace with himself before he sleeps#bg4 ,sidenote3 ,the child's life4 #cih4 ,with the training of children the ,stoic teacher is perhaps not altogether familiar1 but he knows its importance#bh2 it must be based on simplicity and austerity1 for just at this time indulgence and luxury are most dangerous stimulants to the passions#bi4 ,the child must learn to eat and drink in a mannerly way#cj1 to refrain from loud talking and laughing#ca1 to express himself in respectful and graceful words#cb4 ,he must be taught to do right before he can understand the reason why#cc1 or else by doing wrong he will make it difficult for himself afterwards to do right2 he must be ruled until he can rule himself#cd4 ,for this reason we give children proverbs 7sententiae7 or anecdotes 77 to write out and learn1 such as #8honesty is the best policy' or #8,socrates being asked of what city he was 444'2 and these short pithy sayings sink deep#ce4 ,but in the school life of children no attempt must be made to grapple with the real problems of life1 because these are too hard for them1 though parents often forget this objection#cf4 ,games and amusements may be permitted2 for though in discussions on high principle the ,stoics may be entirely opposed to #8relaxation of soul#cg1' yet in practical life they freely admit its importance#ch4 ,all dealings with children should be gentle2 the discipline of the rod has long ago been abandoned by all sensible parents and teachers#ci4 ,sidenote3 ,harm of soft living4 #cii4 ,soft living is at all ages to be avoided#dj4 ,it is in these days a danger to the bodily health2 for when a man is accustomed to be protected from a draught by glass windows1 to have his feet kept warm by foot-warmers constantly renewed1 and his dining-room kept at an even temperature by hot air1 the slightest breeze may put him in danger of his life#da4 ,those who envy men who #8live softly' forget that their character becomes soft thereby#db4 ,in particular clothing should not be such as altogether to protect the body from heat in summer1 and from cold in winter4 ,it is better to wear one shirt than two1 best still to have only a coat4 ,then again1 if you can bear it1 it is better to go without shoes2 for after all to be shod is not very different from being fettered1 and runners do not use shoes#dc4 ,so also avoid luxurious furniture2 of what use is it that couches1 tables and beds should be made of costly woods1 and adorned with silver and gold8 ,we eat1 drink1 and sleep better without these things4 ,in all these matters the ,spartans set us a good example2 for while disease injures the body only1 luxury corrupts both body and soul#dd4 ,sidenote3 ,training of girls4 #djj4 ,boys and girls must be educated alike4 ,this nature teaches us1 for we train colts and puppies without any regard for the difference of sex4 ,the true education of children is in the practice of the virtues1 and these are the same for men and for women4 ,women need ,wisdom to understand the ordering of a household1 ,justice to control the servants1 ,soberness that they may be modest and unselfish4 ,but they also need ,courage2 in spite of the name #8manliness' 771 this is not a virtue reserved for men4 ,without it women may be led by threats into immodest acts4 ,females of all kinds fight to defend their young2 the ,amazons too were good fighters1 and it is only for want of practice that women cannot do the same to-day4 ,that men1 being the stronger1 should do the heavier work1 and women the lighter1 is an arrangement which is often convenient1 but circumstances may require the contrary4 ,girls at any rate must learn equally with boys to bear suffering1 not to fear death1 not to be in low spirits about anything that happens2 to avoid grasping habits1 to love equality and benevolence1 and to do no harm to man or woman#de4 ,sidenote3 ,obedience to parents4 #dja4 ,children should obey their parents1 but in the spirit of reason4 ,we do not obey a father who gives orders for the treatment of a sick person contrary to those of the physician2 nor one1 who being himself ill1 demands things that are not good for him2 nor one who bids his son steal1 or appropriate trust funds1 or sacrifice his youthful bloom4 ,we do not even obey him when he tells us to spell a word wrongly or strike a false note on the lyre4 ,if your father forbids you to philosophize1 show him by your manner of life1 by prompt obedience1 by good temper1 by unselfishness1 how good a thing philosophy is4 ,but after all1 the command of the universal ,father is more urgent upon you2 which is1 to be just1 kind1 benevolent1 sober1 high-souled2 above labours and above pleasures2 pure from all envy and plotting4 ,you need not assume the outward appearance of a philosopher2 for the power of philosophy is in the innermost part of the soul1 which the father can no more reach than the tyrant#df4 ,sidenote3 ,example of gladiators and soldiers4 #djb4 ,the fancy of young men is easily attracted by the vision of virtue1 but it is hard for them to persevere2 they are like soft cheese which slips away from the hook by which it is taken up#dg4 ,we must therefore put before them an ideal which appeals to them1 and in which the advantages of fixed purpose and severe training are apparent to the eye4 ,such is the training of the athlete1 the gladiator1 and the soldier#dh4 ,the teachers of wrestling bid the pupil try again after each fall#di2 the trained boxer is eager to challenge the most formidable opponent#ej4 ,the gladiator has learnt the lesson that pain is no evil1 when he stands up wounded before a sympathetic crowd and makes a sign that it matters nothing#ea4 ,but most of all the soldier's oath serves as an example1 when he pledges himself to serve ,caesar faithfully all his life3 let the young philosopher pledge himself to serve his ,god as faithfully1 to submit to the changes and chances of human life1 and to obey willingly the command to act or to suffer#eb4 ,without effort1 as ,hesiod has taught us1 no greatness can be attained#ec4 ,sidenote3 ,the #8contrary twist4' #djc4 ,in youth bad habits are apt to acquire some strength before they can be rooted out1 and it will be well to anticipate this evil by exercising body and soul in advance in a direction contrary to that of the most common temptations4 ,the teacher will therefore give to his precepts an exaggerated character1 reckoning upon human frailty to bring about a proper standard in practice#ed4 ,thus since luxury is a chief enemy of virtue1 the body should at least occasionally be brought low4 ,a practice approved by the example of eminent men is to mark out from time to time a few days for the exercise of the simple life2 during this time life is to be maintained on coarse bread and water1 in rough dress and all the surroundings of poverty#ee4 ,since ,cynism is a #8short cut to virtue#ef1' philosophers may well employ the methods of ,diogenes for short periods1 as a corrective to any tendency to excess2 rich people do as much for love of change#eg4 ,sidenote3 ,personal appearance4 #djd4 ,on the question of personal appearance there is much to be said on both sides4 ,foppishness is a disagreeable vice1 and it is contemptible that a young man should smell of perfumes4 ,on the other hand a total disregard of appearances is not approved by the ,stoics2 #8it is against nature' says ,seneca #8to be averse to neatness in appearance#eh4' ,in these outward matters a sensible man will conform to fashion1 nor will he wish to make the name of philosopher still more unpopular than it is#ei4 ,the founders of ,stoicism laid it down that men and women should wear the same dress2 but the later teachers laid stress on the natural distinction of the sexes2 and to men the beard should be an object of just pride1 for it is more becoming than the cock's comb1 or the lion's mane#fj4 ,this is to the ,stoic a point of honour2 he should part with his head more readily than with his beard#fa4 ,but the beard may be trimmed2 for1 as ,zeno has observed1 nature provides rather against the #8too little' than against the #8too much1' and reason must come to her help4 ,women do right to arrange their hair so as to make themselves more beautiful2 but for men any kind of artistic hair-dressing is contemptible#fb4 ,sidenote3 ,solitude and society4 #dje4 ,the young should train themselves alternately to bear solitude and to profit by society#fc3 since the wise man is never dependent on his friends1 though none can take better advantage of them#fd4 ,in living alone a man follows the example of the deity1 and comes to know his own heart#fe4 ,but solitude must not be a screen for secret vices2 a man only uses it rightly when he can without shame picture the whole world watching his hours of privacy#ff4 ,the right choice of friends calls for true wisdom2 for the soul cannot but be soiled by bad company#fg4 ,the only true friendship is based on the mutual attraction of good folk#fh2 therefore the wise are friends one to another even whilst they are unacquainted#fi4 ,it is well to consider much before choosing a friend1 but afterwards to give him implicit trust#gj2 for a true friend is a second self#ga4 ,such friendship can only arise from the desire to love and be loved#gb2 those who seek friends for their own advantage1 will be abandoned by them in the day of trial#gc4 ,in the companionship of well-chosen friends there grows up the #8common sense1' which is an instinctive contact with humanity as a whole1 making each man a partner in the thoughts and needs of all around him4 ,this feeling is a principal aim of philosophy#gd4 ,but the young philosopher should make no enemies2 he should be free from that dislike of others which so often causes a man to be disliked1 and should remember that he who is an enemy to-day may be a friend to-morrow#ge4 ,sidenote3 ,comradeship in marriage4 #djf4 ,as the young ,stoic passes from youth to manhood1 he will turn his mind towards marriage as a political and social duty#gf2 but if he is really touched by the divine flame1 he will also find in it that enlargement of his own sympathies and opportunities of which the wise man is always glad#gg4 ,under the ,roman principate we observe a rapid development of personal sympathy between husband and wife2 and though in society girls who attended philosophers' classes had an ill name as being self-willed and disputatious#gh1 yet it is from this very circle that the ideal of a perfect harmony of mind and purpose was developed most fully4 ,musonius often speaks on this subject3 #8,husband and wife enter upon a treaty to live and to earn together1 and to have all things in common1 soul1 body and property4 ,unlike the lower animals1 which mate at random1 man cannot be content without perfect community of thought and mutual affection4 ,marriage is for health and for sickness alike1 and each party will seek to outrun the other in love1 not seeking his own advantage1 but that of his partner#gi4' #8,a man should look for a healthy body1 of middle stature1 capable of hard work1 and offering no attraction to the licentious4 ,but the soul is far more important2 for as a crooked stick cannot be fitted with one that is straight1 so there can be no true agreement except between the good#hj4' ,seneca is reticent as to marriage1 but we have no reason to doubt that his life with ,paulina was typical of the best ,stoic marriages4 ,thus he excuses himself for taking more thought for his health than a philosopher should1 by saying that the happiness of ,paulina depends upon it4 #8,her life is wrapped up in mine1 for its sake ,i must take care of my own4 ,what can be more delightful than to be so dear to one's wife1 that for her sake one becomes dearer to himself#ha6' ,sidenote3 ,celibacy4 #djg4 ,on the question of marriage ,epictetus strikes a contrary note1 characteristic of his time1 and of his bias towards ,cynic practice3 #8,in the present state of things1 which is like that of an army placed in battle order1 is it not fit that the ,cynic should without any distraction be employed only on the ministration of ,god8 ,to say nothing of other things1 a father must have a heating apparatus for bathing the baby2 wool for his wife when she is delivered1 oil1 a bed1 a cup2 and so the furniture of the house is increased4 ,where then now is that king1 who devotes himself to the public interests1 8,the people's guardian and so full of cares#hb0 whose duty it is to look after others2 to see who uses his wife well1 who uses her badly1 who quarrels1 who administers his family well1 and who does not8 ,consider what we are bringing the ,cynic down to1 how we are taking his royalty from him#hc6' ,to this very definite conception of a celibate order of philosophers1 devoting themselves to the good of humanity and entitled thereby to become the rulers of society1 ,musonius makes the following reply in advance from the true ,stoic standpoint3 #8,marriage was no hindrance to ,pythagoras1 ,socrates or ,crates2 and who were better philosophers than they8 ,since marriage is natural1 philosophers should set the example of it4 ,why else did the ,creator separate the human race into two divisions1 making the honourable parts of the body distinct for each1 and implanting in each a yearning for the other1 but that he wished them to live together and to propagate the race8 ,he who would destroy marriage1 destroys the family and the commonwealth4 ,no relationship is so essential or so intimate2 friend does not agree so well with friend1 nor does a father feel so keenly separation from his son4 ,and why should a philosopher be different from other men8 ,only that which is unbecoming is a hindrance to a philosopher2 but by doing his daily duty as a man he will become kindlier in disposition and more social in his thoughts#hd4' ,sidenote3 ,means of livelihood4 #djh4 ,the head of a household must have a means of living2 and therefore the making of money 71 cura rei familiaris7 comes within the range of precepts4 ,the ,greek writers recognised three proper means of livelihood2 7i7 from kingship1 that is1 to be either a king or a king's minister or general2 7ii7 from politics1 that is1 by acting as a magistrate or a judge2 7iii7 from sophistry1 that is1 by teaching philosophy to those who are wishing to learn#he4 ,to each profession there are obvious objections2 indeed the sharp critic of ,stoicism can see no reason why a wise man1 who lacks nothing1 should trouble himself about money-making4 ,each of the three professions named assumes the existence of men willing to be guided by philosophy1 and these are not easily found4 ,if pupils are taken1 the question arises whether fees should be paid in advance or not4 ,now it is certainly more reasonable that a student should only pay if he profits by his teaching2 but on the other hand no one can absolutely promise to make a man good in a year1 and deferred payments are often found unsatisfactory#hf4 ,under the ,roman principate we hear little of the professions connected with public life2 but it is clear that the teacher and the physician are held in special regard#hg4 ,seneca has not the breadth of mind to respect the painter or the sculptor1 any more than the wrestler or the stage-engineer#hh4 ,yet ,chrysippus had suggested a bolder standpoint when he said that #8the wise man will turn three somersaults for a sufficient fee#hi'2 and no rule can be laid down except that a man should earn his own living without injuring his neighbour#ij4 ,agriculture1 as a calling favourable both to health of body and to innocence of soul1 continued to be praised1 but was seldom practised except as an amusement#ia4 ,sidenote3 ,kingly duties4 #dji4 ,for every profession philosophy has appropriate precepts1 beginning with the king4 ,there came one day to ,musonius a king of ,syria1 for in those times there were kings subject to the ,roman empire4 ,musonius addressed him thus3 #8,you ought to be a philosopher as much as ,i4 ,your wish is to protect and benefit your fellow-men2 to do that1 you must know what is good and what is evil4 ,a king too must understand ,justice2 for wars and revolts come about because men quarrel about their rights4 ,also he must show ,soberness and ,courage1 that he may be an example to his subjects#ib4 ,the ancients thought that a king should be a living law 7 71 and an imitator of ,zeus4 ,only a good man can be a good king4' ,the king was highly pleased1 and asked him to name any boon he would4 #8,abide by my words1' said ,musonius1 #8that will be the best boon both for me and for you#ic4' ,two precepts in particular are addressed to kings4 ,the first1 that they should encourage friends who will speak the truth to them4 ,even ,augustus ,caesar needed this lesson2 bitterly as he lamented the deaths of ,agrippa and ,maecenas1 he would not have allowed them to speak frankly had they lived#id4 ,the second1 that they should practise clemency1 following the example of ,julius ,caesar1 who destroyed the evidence upon which he might have punished his enemies#ie4 ,none does this virtue better become than kings and rulers#if4 ,sidenote3 ,court life4 #daj4 ,to the man of high rank it is natural to desire to move in the society of the great and the powerful4 ,epictetus gives us a striking description of the man who desires to be on the list of the #8,caesaris amici1' which he thinks to be a good1 though experience shows that it is not such4 #8,of whom shall we inquire8 ,what more trustworthy witness have we than this very man who is become ,caesar's friend8 8,come forward and tell us1 when did you sleep more quietly1 now or before you became ,caesar's friend80 ,immediately you hear the answer1 8,stop1 ,i entreat you1 and do not mock me2 you know not what miseries ,i suffer1 and sleep does not come to me2 but one comes and says1 ,caesar is already awake1 he is now going forth2 then come troubles and cares40 8,well1 and did you sup with more pleasure1 now or before80 ,hear what he says about this also4 ,he says that if he is not invited1 he is pained2 and if he is invited1 he sups like a slave with his master1 all the while being anxious that he does not say or do anything foolish4 ,as befits so great a man1 ,caesar's friend1 he is afraid that he may lose his head4 ,i can swear that no man is so stupid as not to bewail his own misfortunes the nearer he is in friendship to ,caesar#ig4' ,it is exactly under these circumstances that a thorough training in philosophy is of really practical value4 #8,when you are going in to any great personage1 remember that another also from above sees what is going on1 and that you ought to please him rather than that other4 ,he then who sees from above asks you3 8,in the schools what used you to say about exile and bonds and death and disgrace80 8,that they are things indifferent40 8,and the end of life1 what is it80 8,to follow thee40 8,do you say this now also80 8,i do40 ,then go in to the great personage boldly and remember these things3 and you will see what a youth is who has studied these things1 when he is among men who have not studied them4 ,i imagine that you will have such thoughts as these2 8,why do we make such great and so many preparations for nothing8 ,is this the thing which is named power8 ,all this is nothing#ih40' ,yet a wise man will never challenge the anger of the powerful2 he will turn aside from it1 as a sailor from a storm#ii4 ,the virtuous affection of caution must be called in to help him1 so many are his dangers4 ,an independence of look1 a slight raising of the voice1 an outspoken expression1 an appeal to public opinion1 even unsought popularity are enough to excite suspicion#ajj4 ,perhaps after all the poet may be the wisest1 who advises good men to stay away from court altogether1 for it is a place where there is no room for them#aja4 ,sidenote3 ,life in the city4 #daa4 ,a common cause of moral corruption is the routine of city life4 ,here fashion dictates a round of occupations which are unnatural1 but in which men and women are alike absorbed#ajb4 ,half of the morning is absorbed in sleep#ajc2 then follows the visit to the public shows1 which are centres of demoralisation#ajd1 and conversation with numerous friends1 each one of whom suggests some abandonment of principle#aje4 ,in the clubs all the most worthless members of society foregather#ajf4 ,the baths1 which were at one time simply constructed1 and for the purpose of cleanliness1 are now instruments of luxury2 and the water is now so hot as to be better fitted for torture than pleasure#ajg4 ,for the evening meal there must always be some novelty discovered1 even if it is only to begin with the dessert and end with the eggs#ajh2 even the order of the seasons must be inverted1 that roses may adorn the table in winter#aji4 ,upon the ill-spent day follows a disorderly night1 and a heavy headache the next morning#aaj4 ,from the temptations of such a life the adherent of ,stoicism will gladly escape4 ,sidenote3 ,life in the country4 #dab4 ,a more real happiness is reserved for the man who gives up town life for that of the country4 ,for it is most natural to win sustenance from the earth1 which is our common mother1 and liberally gives back many times over what is entrusted to her2 and it is more healthy to live in the open than to be always sheltering in the shade4 ,it matters little whether one works on one's own land or on that of another2 for many industrious men have prospered on hired land4 ,there is nothing disgraceful or unbecoming in any of the work of the farm2 to plant trees1 to reap1 to tend the vine1 to thrash out the corn1 are all liberal occupations4 ,hesiod the poet tended sheep1 and this did not hinder him from telling the story of the gods4 ,and pasturage is 7says ,musonius7 perhaps the best of all occupations2 for even farm work1 if it is exhausting1 demands all the energies of the soul as well as of the body1 whereas whilst tending sheep a man has some time for philosophizing also4 ,it is true that our young men to-day are too sensitive and too refined to live a country life2 but philosophy would be well rid of these weaklings4 ,a true lover of philosophy could find no better discipline than to live with some wise and kindly man in the country1 associating with him in work and in relaxation1 at meals and in sleeping1 and so #8learning goodness1' as ,theognis tells us to do1 #8from the good#aaa4' ,sidenote3 ,the householder4 #dac4 ,within the household the head of it is a little king1 and needs to display the kingly virtues of ,justice and ,soberness4 ,in his dealings with the perverse he must consider how far each man is capable of bearing the truth#aab4 ,indeed1 willingness to listen to reproof is no small virtue2 few words are best1 so that the wrongdoer may be left as far as possible to correct his own ways#aac4 ,punishment must be reserved for extreme cases1 and is always to be administered with calmness2 it is felt more keenly when it comes from a merciful master#aad4 ,persistent kindness wins over even bad men#aae4 ,it is further the privilege of the head of a household to distribute kindnesses to those below him4 ,his wealth he must regard as given him in trust2 he is only the steward of it1 and must neither hoard nor waste2 for he must give both a debit and a credit account of all#aaf4 ,but if the right use of money causes the possessor anxious thought1 no trace of this should appear to others2 giving should be without hesitation1 and as a delight#aag4 ,the good citizen will pay his taxes with special pleasure1 because in his eyes the welfare of the community stands higher than his own or that of his family#aah2 but he will not refuse a kindness even to an enemy who is in need#aai2 and in giving a farthing to a beggar1 he will imply by his manner that he is only paying what the other is entitled to as his fellow-man#abj4 ,in short1 he will give as he would like to receive#aba1 and with the feeling that the chief pleasure of ownership is to share with another#abb4 ,sidenote3 ,treatment of slaves4 #dad4 ,the good householder will associate on easy terms with his slaves1 remembering that they too are men1 made of flesh and blood as he is himself#abc4 ,it is however a difficult matter to decide whether a master should dine with his slave4 ,men of the old ,roman type find this a disgraceful practice1 but the philosopher should decide in its favour#abd4 ,we do not need to inquire into a man's social position1 if his character is attractive#abe4 ,plato has well said that we cannot find a king who is not descended from a slave1 or a slave who is not descended from a king#abf2 and in fact many a ,roman slave was far better educated than his master#abg4 ,even if we do not suppose that ,seneca's rule was commonly practised in great ,roman houses1 the suggestion itself throws a pleasing light on the position of a ,roman slave4 ,but if the master was thus called upon to ignore differences of social position1 as much might be expected of the slave4 ,with him it was doubtless an instinct to prize liberty1 #8the power of living as you like1' as the dearest of possessions4 ,yet many a slave who won this reward by years of faithful service found that liberty delusive1 and would have been wiser to stay in the home where he was valued#abh4 ,sidenote3 ,large families4 #dae4 ,a question of pressing practical importance is that of large families 774 ,statesmen have always considered it best that the homes of citizens should be crowded with children2 and for this reason the laws forbid abortion and the hindrance of conception2 they demand fines for childlessness1 and pay honours to those who bring up large families4 ,public opinion takes the same view2 the father of many children is honoured as he goes about the city1 and how charming is the sight of a mother surrounded by a swarm of children#abi6 ,no religious procession is so imposing4 ,for such parents every one feels sympathy1 and every one is prepared to cooperate with them#acj4 ,but nowadays even rich parents refuse to rear all their children1 so that the first-born may be the richer4 ,but it is better to have many brothers than few2 and a brother is a richer legacy than a fortune4 ,a fortune attracts enemies1 but a brother helps to repel them#aca4 ,sidenote3 ,comfort in poverty4 #daf4 ,we have now accompanied the man of mature years in his duties and his temptations3 philosophy has also a word to speak with regard to his trials4 ,it is well indeed if he is convinced that the buffets of fortune are no real evils2 but this doctrine can be supplemented by other consolations4 ,of the most bitter of all sufferings1 bereavement by the death of friends and children1 we have already spoken2 we may now consider two other conditions usually held to be evil1 namely poverty and exile4 ,in poverty the first comfort is in the observation that poor men are usually stronger in body than the rich#acb1 and quite as cheerful in mind#acc4 ,further the poor are free from many dangers which beset the rich2 they can travel safely even when highwaymen are watching the road#acd4 ,poverty is an aid to philosophy1 for a rich man1 if he wishes to philosophize1 must freely choose the life of the poor#ace4 ,a poor man is not troubled by insincere friends#acf4 ,in short1 poverty is only hard for him who kicks against the pricks#acg4 ,sidenote3 ,comfort in exile4 #dag4 ,the subject of exile has the special interest that in fact so many philosophers endured this evil4 ,to the ,stoic there is in principle no such thing as exile1 since the whole world is his country2 but he does not for this reason disregard other sources of consolation4 ,cicero was plainly miserable1 not only when he was formally exiled1 but also when he was away from ,rome in an honourable position2 ,seneca at least made the attempt to bear exile more bravely4 ,is it then so hard to be away from one's native place8 ,rome is crowded with strangers1 who have come thither for pleasure or profit1 study or novelty#ach4 ,true1 it is a beautiful town2 but there is no place on earth so bare and unsightly1 not even this ,corsica to which ,seneca is banished1 but that some men choose it to reside in as a matter of taste#aci4 ,whole peoples have changed their abode1 and we find ,greek cities in the midst of barbarism1 and the ,macedonian language in ,india#adj2 wherever he conquers the ,roman dwells#ada4 ,the exile has everywhere the company of the same stars above#adb1 of the same conscience within him#adc2 even if he is separated from those near and dear to him1 it is not for the first time1 and he can still live with them in his thoughts and affections4 ,sidenote3 ,old age4 #dah4 ,free or slave1 rich or poor1 powerful or insignificant1 wherever a man stands in the order of society1 old age comes at last and imperiously stops all ambitions4 ,it is1 in the general opinion1 a time of sadness#add2 to associate it with pleasure is not scandalous1 only because it is paradoxical#ade4 ,cicero's work de ,senectute shows how old age became attractive according to ,roman tradition2 ,seneca is hardly so successful4 ,with the fading of hope the stimulus to effort dies away in old age#adf2 but though philosophy forbids idleness1 nature cries out for rest4 ,we cannot then approve when old men follow their professional occupations with undiminished zeal#adg1 and we must highly blame those who cannot quit their pleasures#adh4 ,the great boon which old age brings is leisure2 for this many great men1 amongst them ,augustus1 have longed in vain#adi4 ,this leisure gives the opportunity of making acquaintance with great men through their books1 but better still1 that of making acquaintance with our own selves4 ,sidenote3 ,musonius' #8viaticum4' #dai4 #8,give me1' said one to ,musonius1 #8a viaticum for old age4' ,he replied as follows3 #8,the rule is the same as for youth1 to live methodically and according to nature#aej4 ,do not grieve because you are cut off from the pleasures of youth2 for man is no more born for pleasure than any other animal3 indeed man alone is an image of the deity#aea1 and has like excellences4 ,and do not consider the divine excellences as beyond your reach2 for we have no other notion of the gods than such as we derive from observing good men1 whom therefore we call divine and godlike4 ,he who has acquired in youth sound principles and systematic training will not be found to complain in old age of the loss of pleasures1 of weakness of body1 or because he is neglected by friends and acquaintance2 he will carry about with him a charm against all these evils1 namely his own education4 ,but if he has not been rightly educated1 he will do well to go to a friend wiser than himself1 and listen to his teaching and profit by it4 ,and specially he will ponder over death1 how it comes in nature's course to all1 and therefore is no evil4 ,with such thoughts he will be cheerful and contented1 and so he will live a happy life4 ,but let no one say that wealth brings happiness in old age2 that it does not bring a contented spirit is witnessed every day by a crowd of rich old men1 who are in bad temper and low spirits1 and feel deeply aggrieved#aeb4' ,sidenote3 ,will-making4 #dbj4 ,when we see death before us there remains a last act to be performed4 ,we look at the wealth which no longer belongs to us1 and consider to whom it can most worthily be entrusted4 ,we stand in the position of a judge who can no longer be bribed1 and1 with all the wisdom and good will that we have1 we give this last verdict on those around us#aec4 ,sidenote3 ,death4 #dba4 ,for death the whole of philosophy is a preparation2 yet when it is no longer a matter of uncertain fear1 but close at hand and sure1 some last words are to be said4 ,all this is in the course of nature1 is according to the will of the ,creator4 #8,god opens the door and says to you1 8,go40 8,go whither80 ,to nothing terrible1 but to the place from which you came1 to your friends and kinsmen1 to the elements#aed4 ,what there was in you of fire goes to fire2 of earth1 to earth2 of air1 to air2 of water1 to water4 ,there is no ,hades1 nor ,acheron1 nor ,cocytus1 but all is full of gods and demons#aee4 ,god has invited you2 be content when he calls others to the feast in your place4' ,the philosopher does not look forward to renewing his personal life1 or to meeting again with parent1 wife1 or child4 ,but death is a release from all his pains and troubles2 and he who has striven to live his life well will know how to meet death also at its due time#aef4 ,if it come to him in the shipwreck1 he will not scream nor blame ,god2 if in the arena1 he will not shrink from his enemy1 whether man or beast4 ,in this last short crisis he will bear witness that he accepts contentedly his mortal lot#aeg4 ,,footnotes #a #8omnia ista monitiones1 consolationes1 dissuasiones1 adhortationes1 obiurgationes1 laudationes monitionum genera sunt' ,sen4 ,ep4 #id1 #ci4 #b #8eam partem philosophiae1 quae dat propria cuique personae praecepta 444 quidam solam receperunt1 sed ,ariston ,stoicus e contrario hanc partem levem existimat' ib4 #id1 #a and #b4 ,the ,cynics gave exhortations1 but without having a system for the purpose4 ,see above1 #eb4 #c #8,posidonius non tantum praeceptionem1 sed etiam suasionem et consolationem et exhortationem necessariam iudicat' ib4 #ie1 #fe4 ,cf4 ,cic4 ,off4 i #c1 #g2 ,sen4 ,ep4 #id1 #cd4 #d #8ipsum de malis bonisque iudicium confirmatur officiorum exsecutione1 ad quam praecepta perducunt' ib4 #e #8quemadmodum folia virere per se non possunt1 ramum desiderant2 sic ista praecepta1 si sola sunt1 marcent2 infigi volunt sectae' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ie1 #ei4 #f ,see below1 #cig1 note #ba4 #g ,sen4 ,ep4 #id1 #bi and #ajh1 #h4 #h #8inest interim animis voluntas bona1 sed torpet2 modo deliciis et situ1 modo officii inscitia' ,ben4 v #be1 #f4 #i #8plus prodesse1 si pauca praecepta sapientiae teneas1 sed illa in promptu tibi et in usu sint1 quam si multa quidem didiceris1 sed illa non habeas ad manum' ,ben4 vii #a1 #c2 #8,we ought to exercise ourselves in small things1 and beginning with them to proceed to the greater' ,epict4 ,disc4 i #ah1 #ah4 #aj #8debet semper plus esse virium in actore quam in onere4 necesse est opprimant onera1 quae ferente maiora sunt' ,sen4 ,dial4 ix #f1 #d4 #aa ,arnim i #bda4 #ab #8sic certe vivendum est1 tanquam in conspectu vivamus' ,sen4 ,ep4 #hc1 #a4 #ac #8,in the morning1 when you feel loth to rise1 fall back upon the thought 8,i am rising for man's work4 ,why make a grievance of setting about that for which ,i was born1 and for sake of which ,i have been brought into the world8 ,is the end of my existence to lie snug in the blankets and keep warm80' ,m4 ,aurel4 ,to himself v #a4 #ad #8,i obey1 ,i follow1 assenting to the words of the ,commander1 praising his acts2 for ,i came when it pleased him1 and ,i will also go away when it pleases him2 and while ,i lived it was my duty to praise ,god' ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #bf1 #bi and #cj4 ,see also above1 #beh4 #ae #8minimum exercitationi corporis datum' ,sen4 ,ep4 #hc1 #c4 #af #8ab hac fatigatione magis quam exercitatione in frigidam descendi' ib4 #e4 #ag #8panis deinde siccus et sine mensa prandium' ib4 #f4 #ah #8brevissimo somno utor et quasi interiungo4 satis est mihi vigilare desiisse4 aliquando dormisse me scio1 aliquando suspicor' ib4 #ai #8nec scribere tantum nec tantum legere debemus2 altera res contristabit1 vires exhauriet 7de stilo dico71 altera solvet ac diluet' ,sen4 ,ep4 #hd1 #b4 #bj #8nulli enim nisi audituro dicendum est' ib4 #bi1 #a4 #ba #8,diogenes et alii ,cynici libertate promiscua usi sunt et obvios monuerunt4 hoc1 mi ,lucili1 non existimo magno viro faciendum' ib4 #bi1 #a and #c4 #bb #8audebo illi mala sua ostendere' ib4 #d4 #bc ,a4 ,gellius1 ,n4 ,a4 xii #a4 ,favorinus1 of whom this is related1 was not himself a ,stoic4 #bd ,sen4 ,ben4 ii #ag1 #c to #e and #cb1 #a to #d4 #be ,see above1 #abe1 note #ij4 #bf #8at te nocturnis iuvat impallescere chartis2 cultor enim iuvenum purgatas inseris aures fruge ,cleanthea' ,pers4 ,sat4 v #fb-fd2 #8quid est tamen1 quare tu istas ,epicuri voces putes esse1 non publicas8' ,sen4 ,ep4 #h1 #h4 #bg #8qualis ille somnus post recognitionem sui sequitur8 quam tranquillus1 quam altus ac liber6' ,dial4 v #cf1 #b4 #bh #8plurimum proderit pueros statim salubriter institui' ib4 iv #ba1 #a4 #bi #8tenuis ante omnia victus sit et non pretiosa vestis' ib4 #aa2 #8nihil magis facit iracundos quam educatio mollis et blanda' ib4 #f4 #cj #8if he 444 eats as a modest man1 this is the man who truly progresses' ,epict4 ,disc4 i #d1 #bj and #ba4 #ca #8veritatis simplex oratio est' ,sen4 ,ep4 #di1 #ab2 #8,let silence be the general rule1 or let only what is necessary be said1 and in a few words4 ,let not your laughter be much' ,epict4 ,manual #cc1 #b and #d4 #cb #8loquendum est pro magnitudine rei impensius et illa adicienda--pluris quam putas obligasti' ,sen4 ,ben4 ii #bd1 #d4 #cc #8inbecillioribus quidem ingeniis necesse est aliquem praeire--hoc vitabis1 hoc facies' ,ep4 #id1 #ej4 #cd #8regi ergo debet1 dum incipit posse se regere' ib4 #ea4 #ce #8facilius singula insidunt circumscripta et carminis modo inclusa4 ideo pueris et sententias ediscendas damus et has quas ,graeci chrias vocant' ib4 #cc1 #f and #g4 #cf #8,he is ridiculous who says that he wishes to begin with the matters of real life1 for it is not easy to begin with the more difficult things2 and we ought to use this fact as an argument to parents' ,epict4 ,disc4 i #bf1 #d and #e4 #cg ,see above1 #caf4 #ch #8lusus quoque proderunt4 modica enim voluptas laxat animos et temperat' ,sen4 ,dial4 iv #bj1 #c2 #8danda est animis remissio' ib4 ix #ag1 #e2 #8mens ad iocos devocanda est' ib4 #d4 #ci ,chrysippus had approved of the rod3 #8caedi discentis1 quamlibet receptum sit et ,chrysippus non improbet1 minime velim' ,quint4 ,inst4 ,or4 i #c1 #ad4 ,but ,seneca writes quite otherwise3 #8uter praeceptor dignior1 qui excarnificabit discipulos1 si memoria illis non constiterit 444 an qui monitionibus et verecundia emendare ac docere malit8' ,clem4 i #af1 #b and #c4 #dj #8fugite delicias1 fugite enervatam felicitatem' ,sen4 ,dial4 i #d1 #i4 #da #8quem specularia semper ab adflatu vindicaverunt1 cuius pedes inter fomenta subinde mutata tepuerunt1 cuius cenationes subditus ac parietibus circumfusus calor temperavit1 hunc levis aura non sine periculo stringet' ib4 #db #8audire solemus sic quorundam vitam laudari1 quibus invidetur--molliter vivit hoc dicunt--mollis est' ,ep4 #hb1 #b4 #dc ,stob4 iii #bi1 #gh 7from ,musonius74 #dd ib4 #bi1 #ge4 #de ,muson4 apud ,stob4 ii #ca1 #abc4 #df ,muson4 ib4 iv #gi1 #be4 #dg #8,it is not easy to exhort weak young men2 for neither is it easy to hold soft cheese with a hook' ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #f1 #i4 #dh ,see above1 #cbf4 #di #8,see what the trainers of boys do4 ,has the boy fallen8 ,rise1 they say1 wrestle again till you are made strong' ,epict4 ,disc4 iv #i1 #ae4 #ej #8athletis cura est1 cum fortissimis quibusque confligere' ,sen4 ,dial4 i #b1 #c4 #ea #8gladiator fortissimus respiciens ad clamantem populum significat nihil esse et intercedi non patitur' ib4 ii #af1 #b4 #eb #8ad hoc sacramentum adacti sumus1 ferre mortalia' ib4 vii #ae1 #g2 ,epict4 ,disc4 i #ad1 #ae and #af4 #ec ,see above1 #cc2 and compare ,horace in his ,stoic mood3 #8nil sine magno vita labore dedit mortalibus' ,sat4 i #i1 #ei and #fj4 #ed #8quaedam praecipimus ultra modum1 ut ad verum et suum redeant' ,sen4 ,ben4 vii #bb1 #a2 #8,we ought to oppose to this habit a contrary habit1 and where there is great slipperiness in the appearances1 there to oppose the habit of exercise4 ,i am rather inclined to pleasure2 ,i will incline to the contrary side above measure for the sake of exercise' ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #ab1 #f and #g4 #ee #8interponas aliquot dies1 quibus contentus minimo ac vilissimo cibo1 dura atque horrida veste1 dicas tibi 8hoc est quod timebatur80 444 grabatus ille verus sit et sagum et panis durus ac sordidus--hoc triduo ac quatriduo fer' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ah1 #e and #g2 #8quod tibi scripsi magnos viros saepe fecisse' ib4 #bj1 #ac4 #ef ,diog4 ,l4 vii #aba4 #eg #8divites sumunt quosdam dies1 quibus humi cenent1 et remoto auro argentoque fictilibus utantur' ,sen4 ,dial4 xii #ab1 #c4 #eh #8contra naturam est faciles odisse munditias' ,sen4 ,ep4 #e1 #d2 #8,i would rather that a young man1 who is making his first movements towards philosophy1 should come to me with his hair carefully trimmed' ,epict4 ,disc4 iv #aa1 #be4 #ei #8asperum cultum et intonsum caput et neglegentiorem barbam evita4 intus omnia dissimilia sint1 frons populo conveniat' ,sen4 ,ep4 #e1 #b4 #fj #8,we ought not to confound the distinctions of the sexes4444 ,how much more becoming is the beard than the cock's comb and the lion's mane6 ,for this reason we ought to preserve the signs which ,god has given' ,epict4 ,disc4 i #af1 #ac and #ad4 #fa #8,come then1 ,epictetus1 shave yourself4' ,if ,i am a philosopher1 ,i answer1 #8,i will not shave myself4' #8,but ,i will take off your head4' #8,if that will do you any good1 take it off' ,epict4 ,disc4 i #b1 #bi4 #fb ,stob4 iii #f1 #bd 7from ,musonius74 #fc #8miscenda tamen ista et alternanda sunt1 solitudo ac frequentia' ,sen4 ,dial4 ix #ag1 #c4 #fd #8ita sapiens se contentus est1 non ut velit esse sine amico1 sed ut possit' ,ep4 #i1 #e4 #fe #8proderit per se ipsum secedere2 meliores erimus singuli' ,dial4 viii #a1 #a2 #8,a man ought to be prepared in a manner to be able to be sufficient for himself and to be his own companion4 ,for ,zeus dwells by himself and is tranquil by himself' ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #ac1 #f and #g4 #ff #8tunc felicem esse te iudica1 cum poteris vivere in publico2 parietes plerumque circumdatos nobis iudicamus1 non ut tutius vivamus sed ut peccemus occultius' ,sen4 ,ep4 #dc1 #c4 #fg #8,it is impossible that a man can keep company with one who is covered with soot without being partaker of the soot himself' ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #af1 #c4 #fh ,diog4 ,l4 vii #abd4 #fi #8,stoici censent sapientes sapientibus etiam ignotis esse amicos2 nihil est enim virtute amabilius' ,cic4 ,n4 ,d4 i #dd1 #aba2 so ,stob4 ii #g #aa i4 #gj #8post amicitiam credendum est1 ante amicitiam iudicandum' ,sen4 ,ep4 #c1 #b4 #ga 8 0 ,diog4 ,l4 vii #bc4 #gb #8,hecaton ait2 ego tibi monstrabo amatorium3 si vis amari1 ama' ,sen4 ,ep4 #i1 #f2 #8multos tibi dabo1 qui non amico sed amicitia caruerunt' ib4 #f1 #c4 #gc ib4 #i1 #h4 #gd #8hoc primum philosophia promittit1 sensum communem1 humanitatem et congregationem' ib4 #e1 #d2 #8nullius boni sine socio iucunda possessio est' ib4 #f1 #d4 #ge #8monemus1 ut ex inimico cogitet fieri posse amicum' ib4 #ie1 #fc4 #gf ,see above1 #cdi4 #gg #8sapiens ducit uxorem se contentus1 et liberos tollit se contentus' ,sen4 ,ep4 #i1 #ag2 #8,if indeed you had this purpose1 you would be content in sickness1 in hunger1 and in death4 ,if any among you has been in love with a charming girl1 he knows that ,i say what is true' ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #e1 #ah and #ai4 #gh 1 1 ,mus4 apud ,stob4 ii #ca1 #abf4 #gi ,stob4 iv #bb1 #ij4 #hj ,stob4 iv #bb1 #ajd4 #ha #8nam cum sciam spiritum illius sc4 ,paulinae in meo verti1 incipio1 ut illi consulam1 mihi consulere4 quid enim iucundius quam uxori tam carum esse1 ut propter hoc tibi carior fias8' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajd1 #b and #e4 #hb ,hom4 ,il4 ii #be4 #hc ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #bb1 #fi to #ge4 #hd ,stob4 iv #bb1 #bj4 #he ,stob4 ii #g1 #aa m4 #hf ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #bj1 #aj4 #hg #8omnium horum medicorum et praeceptorum apud nos magna caritas1 magna reverentia est' ,sen4 ,ben4 vi #ae1 #a2 #8ex medico ac praeceptore in amicum transeunt' ib4 #af1 #a4 #hh ,ep4 #hh1 #ah and #bb4 #hi ,plut4 ,sto4 rep4 #cj1 #c4 #ij #8sic in vita sibi quemque petere quod pertineat ad usum1 non iniquum est2 alteri deripere ius non est' ,cic4 ,off4 iii #aj1 #db4 #ia ,see below1 #dab4 #ib ,so too ,epictetus3 #8,to whose example should the many look except yours the governors'8' ,disc4 iii #d1 #c4 #ic ,stob4 iv #g1 #fg4 #id ,sen4 ,ben4 vi #cb1 #d4 #ie ,dial4 iv #bc1 #d4 #if #8nullum tamen clementia ex omnibus magis quam regem aut principem decet' ,clem4 i #c1 #c4 #ig ,epict4 ,disc4 iv #a1 #df to #ej4 #ih ib4 i #cj1 #a to #g4 #ii #8sapiens nunquam potentium iras provocabit1 immo declinabit1 non aliter quam in navigando procellam' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ad1 #g4 #ajj ,dial4 iii #ah1 #b4 #aja #8exeat aula qui volet esse pius4 virtus et summa potestas non count3 semper metuet1 quem saeva pudebunt' ,lucan ,phars4 viii #dic to #die4 #ajb ,sen4 ,ep4 #gg1 #f1 and #ie1 #bj and #ba4 #ajc #8turpis1 qui alto sole semisomnus iacet1 cuius vigilia medio die incipit' ib4 #abb1 #a4 #ajd #8nihil tam damnosum bonis moribus quam in aliquo spectaculo desidere' ib4 #g1 #b4 #aje #8inimica est multorum conversatio2 nemo non aliquod nobis vitium aut commendat aut imprimit aut nescientibus adlinit' ib4 #ajf #8vilissimus quisque tempus in aliquo circulo terit' ,dial4 i #e1 #d4 #ajg ,ep4 #hf1 #i and #aj4 #ajh ib4 #aad1 #i4 #aji ib4 #abb1 #h4 #aaj #8oculos hesterna graves crapula' ib4 #abb1 #b4 #aaa ,stob4 iv #ae1 #ah4 ,seneca gives a more qualified approval to country life3 #8non est per se magistra innocentiae solitudo1 nec frugalitatem docent rura2 sed ubi testis et spectator abscessit1 vitia subsidunt1 quorum monstrari et conspici fructus est' ,ep4 #id1 #fi4 #aab #8de cetero vide1 non tantum an verum sit quod dicis1 sed an ille cui dicitur veri patiens sit' ,dial4 v #cf1 #d4 #aac #8moneri velle ac posse secunda virtus est2 flectendus est paucis animus1 sui rector optimus' ,ben4 v #be1 #d4 #aad #8gravior multo poena videtur1 quae a miti viro constituitur' ,clem4 i #bb1 #c4 #aae #8vincit malos pertinax bonitas' ,ben4 vii #ca1 #a4 #aaf #8quid tanquam tuo parcis8 procurator es1 in depositi causa divitiae sunt' ,ben4 vi #c1 #b2 #8donabit cum summo consilio dignissimos eligens1 ut qui meminerit tam expensorum quam acceptorum rationem esse reddendam' ib4 #bc1 #e4 #aag #8demus ante omnia libenter1 cito1 sine ulla dubitatione' ,ben4 ii #a1 #a4 #aah ,cic4 ,off4 i #ag1 #eg4 #aai #8non desinemus opem ferre etiam inimicis' ,sen4 ,dial4 viii #a1 #d4 #abj #8sapiens dabit egenti stipem 7non hanc contumeliosam1 qua pars maior horum qui se misericordes videri volunt1 abicit et fastidit quos adiuvat contingique ab his timet7 sed ut homo homini ex communi dabit' ,clem4 ii #f1 #b4 #aba #8sic demus1 quomodo vellemus accipere' ,ben4 ii #a1 #a4 #abb #8nullius boni sine socio iucunda possessio est' ,ep4 #f1 #d4 #abc #8servi sunt8 immo homines4 servi sunt8 immo humiles amici' ib4 #dg1 #a2 #8animas servorum et corpora nostra materia constare putat paribusque elementis' ,juv4 ,sat4 xiv #af and #ag4 #abd #8cognovi familiariter te cum servis tuis vivere4 hoc eruditionem decet4 rideo istos1 qui turpe putant cum servo suo cenare' ,sen4 ,ep4 #dg1 #a and #b4 #abe #8refert cuius animi sit1 non cuius status' ,ben4 iii #ah1 #b4 #abf ,ep4 #dd1 #d4 #abg #8,calvisius ,sabinus magna summa emit servos1 unum qui ,homerum teneret1 unum qui ,hesiodum4 novem praeterea lyricis singulos adsignavit4 magno emisse illum non est quod mireris3 non invenerat1 faciendos locavit' ,ep4 #bg1 #f4 #abh ,epict4 ,disc4 iv #a1 #cc to #dj4 #abi ,but hear ,epictetus on the other side3 #8,are those men greater benefactors to mankind who introduce into the world to occupy their own places two or three grunting children1 or those who superintend as far as they can all mankind8 ,did ,priamus who begat fifty worthless sons contribute more to the community than ,homer8' ,disc4 iii #bb1 #gg and #gh4 #acj ,stob4 iv #bd1 #ae 7from ,musonius74 #aca ib4 #bg1 #ba4 #acb ,see above1 #cii4 #acc #8compara inter se pauperum et divitum voltus2 saepius pauper et fidelius ridet' ,sen4 ,ep4 #hj1 #f4 #acd #8etiam in obsessa via pauperi pax est' ib4 #ad1 #i4 #ace #8si vis vacare animo1 aut pauper sis oportet aut pauperi similis' ib4 #ag1 #e4 #acf #8paupertas veros certosque amicos retinebit2 discedet quisquis non te1 sed aliud sequebatur4 vel ob hoc unum amanda paupertas quod1 a quibus ameris1 ostendet' ib4 #bj1 #g4 #acg #8paupertas nulli malum est nisi repugnanti' ib4 #abc1 #af4 #ach ,dial4 xii #f1 #b4 #aci #8usque eo commutatio ipsa locorum gravis non est1 ut hic quoque locus a patria quosdam abduxerit' ib4 #e4 #adj ib4 #g1 #a4 #ada #8ubicunque vicit ,romanus habitat' ib4 #g1 #g4 #adb ib4 #h1 #f4 #adc #8licet in exilium euntibus virtutes suas secum ferre' ib4 #h1 #a4 #add #8subeunt morbi tristisque senectus' ,verg4 ,g4 iii #fg quoted by ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajh1 #bi4 #ade #8plena est voluptatis senectus1 si illa scias uti' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ab1 #d4 #adf #8nihil magis cavendum est senectuti1 quam ne languori se desidiaeque dedat' ,cic4 ,off4 i #cd1 #abc2 #8iuvenes possumus discere1 possumus facilem animum et adhuc tractabilem ad meliora convertere' ,sen4 ,ep4 #ajh1 #bg4 #adg #8adeone iuvat occupatum mori8' ,sen4 ,dial4 x #bj1 #c4 ,he instances an old gentleman of #ij1 who had consented to resign his official post at that age2 but when the time came1 he threw his whole household into mourning until he got his work back again4 #adh #8luxuria cum omni aetate turpis1 tum senectuti foedissima est' ,cic4 ,off4 i #cd1 #abc4 #adi ,sen4 ,dial4 x #d1 #a and #b4 #aej 4 #aea 7see on hymn of ,cleanthes1 l4 #e1 in #ig74 #aeb ,stob4 ,flor4 #aag1 #h 7,m74 #aec #8ubi mors interclusit omnia et ad ferendam sententiam incorruptum iudicem misit1 quaerimus dignissimos quibus nostra tradamus2 nec quicquam cura sanctiore componimus quam quod ad nos non pertinet' ,sen4 ,ben4 iv #aa1 #e4 #aed #8reverti unde veneris quid grave est8' ,dial4 ix #aa1 #d4 #aee ,epict4 ,disc4 iii #ac1 #ad and #ae2 ib4 iv #a1 #ajf4 #aef #8male vivet quisquis nesciet bene mori' ,sen4 ,dial4 ix #aa1 #d2 and see above1 #bih1 #bii4 #aeg #8quod tam cito fit1 timetis diu8' ,sen4 ,dial4 i #f1 #i2 #8puto fortiorem eum esse1 qui in ipsa morte est quam qui circa mortem4 mors enim admota etiam imperitis animum dedit non vitandi inevitabilia2 sic gladiator tota pugna timidissimus iugulum adversario praestat et errantem gladium sibi adtemperat' ,ep4 #cj1 #h2 #8the ship is sinking6 what then have ,i to do8 ,i do the only thing that ,i can1 not to be drowned full of fear1 nor screaming nor blaming ,god1 but knowing that what has been produced must also perish2 for ,i am not an immortal being' ,epict4 ,disc4 ii #e1 #aa to #ac4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,stoicism ,,in ,,roman ,,history ,,and ,,literature4 ,sidenote3 ,spread of ,stoicism4 #dbb4 ,although up to this point it has been our main purpose to set forth the doctrines of ,stoicism1 we have seen incidentally that these came to exercise a wide influence in ,roman society1 and that the later teachers are far less occupied in the attainment of truth than in the right guidance of disciples who lean upon them4 ,in the present chapter we propose to describe more particularly the practical influence of ,stoicism4 ,our information1 whether drawn from history or from poetry1 refers generally to the upper classes of ,roman society2 as to the influence of the sect amongst the poor we have no sufficient record4 ,but although it is very generally held that the ,stoics made no effort to reach the working classes of ,rome1 or met with no success in that direction#a1 the evidence points rather to an opposite conclusion1 at any rate as regards all that development of the system which was coloured by ,cynism1 the philosophy of the poor#b4 ,our actual records are therefore rather of the nature of side-lights upon the system2 the main stream of ,stoic influence may well have flowed in courses with which we are imperfectly acquainted1 and its workings may perhaps come to light first in a period of history which lies beyond our immediate scope4 ,sidenote3 ,conversion direct and indirect4 #dbc4 ,individual ,romans who professed themselves disciples of the ,porch owed their allegiance to the sect to two causes1 in varying proportion4 ,on the one hand they had attended lectures or private instruction given by eminent ,stoic teachers1 or had immersed themselves in ,stoic literature4 ,this influence was in almost all cases the influence of ,greek upon ,roman1 and the friendship between the ,stoic ,panaetius and ,scipio ,aemilianus was the type of all subsequent discipleship4 ,scipio himself did not perhaps formally become a ,stoic1 but he introduced into ,roman society the atmosphere of ,stoicism1 known to the ,romans as humanitas2 this included an aversion to war and civil strife1 an eagerness to appreciate the art and literature of ,greece1 and an admiration for the ideals depicted by ,xenophon1 of the ruler in ,cyrus1 and of the citizen in ,socrates#c4 ,all the ,stoic nobles of the time of the republic are dominated by these feelings4 ,on the other hand individuals were often attracted by the existence of a society which proclaimed itself independent of the will of rulers1 and offered its members mutual support and consolation4 ,such men were often drawn into ,stoicism by the persuasion of friends1 without being necessarily well-grounded in philosophical principle2 and in this way small groups or cliques might easily be formed in which social prejudice or political bias outweighed the formal doctrine of the school4 ,such a group was that of the #8old ,romans' of the first century of the principate2 and with the spread of ,stoicism this indirect and imperfect method of attachment constantly grows in importance as compared with direct discipleship4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,scipionic circle4 #dbd4 ,of the first group of ,roman ,stoics the most notable was ,c4 ,,laelius1 the intimate friend of ,scipio1 who became consul in #adj ,b4,c4 ,in his youth he had listened to the teaching of ,diogenes of ,babylon1 in later life he was the friend of ,panaetius#d4 ,he was in his time a notable orator with a quiet flowing style#e2 his manners were cheerful#f1 his temper was calm#g2 and1 as we have seen#h1 he seemed to many the nearest of all the ,romans to the ideal of the ,stoic sage4 ,he is brought on as the chief speaker in ,cicero's de ,amicitia4 ,another close friend of ,africanus was ,,sp4 ,,mummius1 the brother of the conqueror of ,achaia2 his oratory was marked by the ruggedness characteristic of the ,stoic school#i4 ,passing mention may be made of ,l4 ,,furius ,,philus1 consul in #acf ,b4,c41 and a member of the same group1 though his philosophical views are not known to us#aj4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,gracchan period4 #dbe4 ,from the #8humane' movement sprang the ,gracchan reforms1 which all alike aimed at deposing from power the class to which the reformers by birth belonged4 ,to the temper of mind which made such a desire possible ,stoic doctrine had largely contributed4 ,the ,greeks had taught their ,roman pupils to see in the nascent ,roman empire1 bearing the watchword of the #8majesty of the ,roman name' 7maiestas nominis ,romani71 at least an approximation to the ideal ,cosmopolis3 and many ,romans so far responded to this suggestion as to be not unfriendly towards plans for extending their citizenship and equalizing the privileges of those who enjoyed it4 ,c4 ,,blossius of ,cumae1 a pupil of ,antipater of ,tarsus1 went so far as to instigate ,tiberius ,gracchus to the schemes which proved his destruction#aa2 whilst other ,stoics1 equally sincere in their aims1 disagreed with the violence shown by ,tiberius in his choice of method4 ,amongst the latter was ,q4 ,,aelius ,,tubero1 a nephew of ,africanus#ab1 who became consul in #aah ,b4,c4 ,he devoted himself day and night to the study of philosophy#ac1 and though of no mark as an orator1 won himself respect by the strictness and consistency of his life#ad4 ,panaetius1 ,posidonius1 and ,hecato all addressed treatises to him#ae2 and he is a leading speaker in ,cicero's ,republic4 ,sidenote3 ,laelius to ,lucilius4 #dbf4 ,after the fall of the ,gracchi the ,stoic nobles continued to play distinguished and honourable parts in public life4 ,a family succession was maintained through two daughters of ,laelius1 so that here we may perhaps recognise the beginning of the deservedly famous #8,stoic marriages4' ,of the two ladies the elder was married to ,q4 ,,mucius ,,scaevola1 known as #8the augur1' who was consul in #aag ,b4,c4 ,he was a devoted friend of ,panaetius1 and famous for his knowledge of civil law#af4 ,the younger daughter was married to ,c4 ,,fannius1 who obtained some distinction as a historian#ag4 ,in ,c4 ,,lucilius we find the ,latin poet of ,stoicism2 the views which he expresses in his satires on religion and ethics are in the closest agreement with the teaching of ,panaetius#ah1 and the large circulation of his poems must have diffused them through wide circles#ai4 ,at the same time his attacks on the religious institutions of ,numa and his ridicule of his own childish beliefs may well have brought philosophy into ill odour as atheistic and unpatriotic3 and we find the statesmen of the next generation specially anxious to avoid any such imputations4 ,sidenote3 ,scaevola #8the pontifex4' #dbg4 ,a dominating figure is that of ,q4 ,,mucius ,,scaevola1 commonly called #8the pontifex1' who was a nephew of his namesake mentioned above1 and derived from him his interest in civil law2 he was consul in #ie ,b4,c4 ,he overcame the difficulty about the popular religion by distinguishing on ,stoic lines three classes of deities1 7i7 mythical deities1 celebrated by the poets with incredible and unworthy narrations#bj2 7ii7 philosophical deities1 better suited for the schools than for the market-place2 7iii7 civic deities1 whose ceremonies it is the duty of state officials to maintain#ba1 interpreting them so as to agree with the philosophers rather than with the poets#bb4 ,in this spirit he filled the position of chief officer of the state religion4 ,he was however no time-server2 for being appointed after his consulship to be governor of ,asia1 he joined with his former quaestor ,p4 ,,rutilius ,,rufus in the design of repressing the extortion of the publicani4 ,a decisive step taken by him was to declare all dishonourable contracts invalid#bc2 and more than a generation later his just and sparing administration was gratefully remembered both at ,rome and in the provinces#bd4 ,the equites took their revenge not on ,scaevola but on ,rutilius#be1 whom they brought to trial in #ib ,b4,c41 when ,scaevola pleaded his cause in a simple and dignified way that became a ,stoic1 but did not exclude some traces of elegance#bf4 ,he is regarded as the father of ,roman law1 for he was the first to codify it1 which he did in eighteen volumes#bg4 ,he also wrote a special work on definitions1 which no doubt reflected the interest which the ,stoics took in this part of logic4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,stoic lawyers4 #dbh4 ,it seems beyond dispute that the systematic study of law1 which developed in later centuries into the science of ,roman jurisprudence1 and as such has exercised a weighty influence on the development of ,western civilisation1 had its beginnings amongst a group of men profoundly influenced by ,stoic teaching4 ,it does not therefore follow that the fundamental ideas expressed by such terms as ius gentium1 lex naturae1 are exclusively ,stoic in origin4 ,the former phrase appears to have been in common use at this time to indicate the laws generally in force amongst the peoples that surrounded ,rome2 the latter is a philosophical term derived from the ,greek1 denoting an ideal law which ought to exist amongst men everywhere#bh4 ,the principle of obedience to nature is not peculiar to the ,stoic philosophy1 but belongs to the common substratum of all philosophical thought4 ,it does however seem to be the case that the ,stoic theory of the #8common law' 7 7 was in fact the stimulus which enabled the ,romans to transform their system of #8rights1' gradually throwing over all that was of the nature of mechanical routine or caste privilege1 and harmonizing contradictions by the principle of fairness4 ,the successor of ,scaevola was ,c4 ,,aquilius ,,gallus1 praetor in #ff ,b4,c4 with ,cicero1 of whom it is specially noted that he guided his exposition of law by the principle of equity#bi2 and after him ,s4 ,,sulpicius ,,rufus1 the contemporary and intimate friend of ,cicero4 ,we do not know that he was a ,stoic1 but he was a student of dialectic under ,l4 ,,lucilius ,,balbus1 who as well as his brother belonged to this school#cj2 and he followed ,stoic principles in studying oratory just enough to make his exposition clear#ca4 ,he was the acknowledged head of his profession1 and compiled #ahj books on law#cb4 ,in the civil war he took sides with ,caesar#cc4 ,sidenote3 ,stoics of the ,sullan period4 #dbi4 ,amongst men of high rank definitely pledged to ,stoicism in the generation preceding ,cicero are further ,l4 ,,aelius ,,stilo 7circ4 #ade-ge ,b4,c47#cd1 who devoted himself to ,roman grammar and antiquities1 and was the teacher of both ,cicero and ,varro2 ,q4 ,,lucilius ,,balbus1 whose knowledge of this philosophy rivalled that of his ,greek teachers#ce1 and who is the exponent of the ,stoic view in ,cicero's de ,natura ,deorum1 the scene of which takes us back to about #gf ,b4,c42 ,,sextus ,,pompeius1 uncle of ,pompey the ,great1 and distinguished both as a philosopher and as a jurist#cf2 and more particularly ,p4 ,,rutilius ,,rufus1 to whom we have already referred#cg4 ,a pupil and devoted admirer of ,panaetius#ch1 a trained philosopher#ci1 and a sound lawyer#dj1 he brought his career at ,rome to an abrupt end by his firm resistance to the publicani1 as already recounted#da4 ,with true cosmopolitanism he retired to ,smyrna1 and accepted the citizenship of that town4 ,his stern principles did not prevent him from saving his life in the massacre ordered by ,mithradates1 by assuming ,greek dress#db2 the massacre itself was the ripe fruit of the abuses which he had endeavoured to repress4 ,he is one of the characters in ,cicero's de ,republica4 ,sidenote3 ,cato4 #dcj4 ,of the ,stoics of ,cicero's time the most eminent was ,m4 ,,porcius ,,cato 7#ie-dh ,b4,c474 ,in him ,stoicism received a special colouring by association with the traditions of ancient ,roman manners4 ,in his early years he became a pupil of ,antipater of ,tyre#dc1 and so far adopted the ,cynic ideal as to train himself for public life by freely submitting to hunger1 cold1 and hardship#dd4 ,after a period of service in the army he made a journey to ,asia to secure the companionship of ,athenodorus the elder#de4 ,he became a practised speaker2 and though he adhered firmly to the ,stoic tradition of plain language and short sentences#df1 yet could become eloquent on the great themes of his philosophy#dg1 and could win the approval of the people even for its paradoxes#dh4 ,he was resolutely opposed to bribery and extortion4 ,as quaestor in ,b4,c4 #ff he introduced reform into the public finances1 and put an end to embezzlements by officials4 ,his popularity became very great1 and he was elected tribune of the plebs towards the end of the year #fc ,b4,c41 when his voice decided the senators to decree the death of the associates of ,catiline4 ,with his subsequent policy ,cicero finds fault1 because ,cato refused to connive at the extortions of the publicani3 and from ,cicero's criticisms has arisen the accepted view that ,cato was an unpractical statesman4 ,on the other hand it may well be held that if the ,roman aristocracy had included more men like ,cato1 the republic might have been saved3 and towards the end of his life ,cicero bitterly lamented that he had not sufficiently valued the sincere friendship which ,cato offered him#di4 ,in the year #ed ,b4,c4 the candidates for the office of tribune paid him a singular compliment2 each deposited with him a large sum of money1 which he was to forfeit if in ,cato's opinion he was guilty of bribery#ej4 ,his whole political life was guided by the strictest moral principle#ea2 even in so unimportant a matter as ,cicero's request for a triumph he would do nothing to oblige a friend#eb4 ,in private life he attempted to put into practice the principle of the community of women taught in ,zeno's ,republic4 ,he had married ,marcia1 daughter of ,philippus1 and had three children by her3 in #ef ,b4,c4 he gave her up to his friend ,c4 ,hortensius1 whose family was in danger of becoming extinct3 finally on the threatening of the civil war in ,b4,c4 #ej he took her back to his own home4 ,at a time when the marriage bond was lightly treated by many of his contemporaries he at least rose above petty motives4 ,in the civil war he took sides strongly against ,caesar1 his old political opponent4 ,his self-sought death after ,pharsalia won him a distinction which he had earned better by his life3 and the unmeasured praise bestowed upon him a century later is perhaps due more to political bias than to philosophical respect#ec4 ,the few words with which ,virgil honours his memory are more effective1 when he pictures ,cato as chosen to be a judge in the world of the blest#ed4 ,cato represents the ,stoic view as to the summum bonum in ,cicero's de ,finibus4 ,sidenote3 ,varro1 ,brutus and ,porcia4 #dca4 ,contemporary with ,cicero and ,cato was ,m4 ,,terentius ,,varro 7,b4,c4 #aaf-bh74 ,in his public career and political principles he was not unlike ,cato2 in his literary activity he more resembled ,cicero4 ,both ,varro and ,cicero were deeply influenced by ,stoic teaching1 but as they were by no means professed adherents of this philosophy#ee1 they may be here passed by4 ,in the next generation ,m4 ,,junius ,,brutus 7#he-db ,b4,c47 concerns us more3 for by his marriage with ,,porcia1 ,cato's daughter and an ardent ,stoic1 he came into a family connexion with the sect1 with which his personal views1 as we have seen1 were not entirely in agreement#ef4 ,still ,brutus was not altogether unfitted to play the part of ,cato's successor2 he was no mean orator#eg1 and wrote more than one philosophical treatise#eh2 whilst ,cicero dedicated several of his philosophical works to him#ei4 ,but the practical ,stoicism of ,porcia1 who stabbed herself in the thigh to show that she was fit to be trusted with a political secret1 shines out more brightly than the speculations of her husband4 ,in her honour ,martial has written one of the few epigrams in which he allows himself to be caught in a mood of admiration3 yet his story of ,porcia's death must be rejected as unhistorical#fj4 ,sidenote3 ,horace4 #dcb4 ,after the death of ,brutus ,stoicism ceases for a while to play a prominent part in ,roman history2 but its indirect influence is very marked in the two great poets of the ,augustan epoch1 ,horace and ,virgil4 ,of these ,,horace is in the main an ,epicurean1 and as such is quite entitled to use the ,stoic paradoxes as matter for ridicule1 and even to anticipate dangerous consequences from their practical application#fa4 ,but in fact his works show a constantly increasing appreciation of the ethics of ,stoicism4 ,he recognises the high ideals and civic activity of its professors#fb1 and he draws a noble picture of the ,stoic sage1 confident in his convictions1 and bidding defiance to the crowd and the tyrant alike#fc4 ,of that practical wisdom and genial criticism which has made ,horace the favourite poet of so many men eminent in public life1 no small part consists of ,stoic principles deftly freed from the paradoxical form in which they were conveyed to professed adherents4 ,sidenote3 ,virgil4 #dcc4 ,with this picture of ,stoicism seen from without we must contrast that given us by ,,virgil1 who inherited the ,stoic tradition from ,aratus#fd1 his model for the ,georgics4 ,virgil's mind is penetrated by ,stoic feeling1 and his works are an interpretation of the universe in the ,stoic sense2 but like so many of his contemporaries he holds aloof from formal adherence to the sect1 and carefully avoids its technical language4 ,quite possibly too he incorporated in his system elements drawn from other philosophies4 ,in physics he accepts the principle that the fiery aether is the source of all life#fe2 it is identical with the divine spirit#ff and the all-informing mind#fg4 ,from this standpoint he is led on to the doctrine of purgatory#fh1 and from that he looks forward to the time of the conflagration1 when all creation will be reconciled by returning to its primitive unity in the primal fire-spirit#fi4 ,still ,virgil's picture must be regarded rather as an adaptation than as an exposition of ,stoicism2 it lacks the sharp outlines and the didactic tone of the poetry of ,cleanthes or ,lucretius1 and other interpretations are by no means excluded4 ,sidenote3 ,virgil's theology4 #dcd4 ,with the problem of the government of the universe ,virgil's mind is occupied throughout the ,aeneid4 ,he is constantly weighing the relative importance of the three forces1 fate1 the gods1 and fortune1 precisely as the philosophers do4 ,to each of the three he assigns a part in the affairs of men2 but that taken by fate is unmistakably predominant4 ,the individual gods have very little importance in the poem2 they are to a large extent allegorical figures1 representing human instincts and passions2 they cannot divert destiny from its path1 though with their utmost effort they may slightly delay its work or change its incidence4 ,above all these little gods ,jove towers aloft1 a power magnificent and munificent2 at his voice the gods shudder and the worlds obey4 ,but the power of ,jove rests upon his complete acceptance of the irrevocable decrees of fate#gj4 ,the critic may even describe him as a puppet-king1 who wears an outward semblance of royalty1 but is really obedient to an incessant interference from a higher authority4 ,virgil however appears truly to hold the ,stoic principle that ,fate and ,jove are one2 he thus takes us at once to the final problem of philosophy1 the reconciliation of the conceptions of ,law formed on the one hand by observing facts 7the modern #8,laws of ,nature'7 and on the other hand by recognising the moral instinct 7the modern #8,moral ,law'74 ,as we have seen1 a reconciliation of these two by logic is intrinsically impossible4 ,virgil however shows us how they may be in practice reconciled by a certain attitude of mind2 and because that attitude is one of resignation to and cooperation with the supreme power1 it would seem right to place ,virgil by the side of ,cleanthes as one of the religious poets of ,stoicism4 ,sidenote3 ,virgil's ethics4 #dce4 ,virgil's conception of ethics is displayed in the character of ,aeneas4 ,much modern criticism revolts against the character of ,aeneas exactly as it does against that of ,cato1 and for the same reason1 that it is without sympathy for ,stoic ethics4 ,to understand ,aeneas we must first picture a man whose whole soul is filled by a reverent regard for destiny and submission to ,jove1 who represents destiny on its personal side4 ,he can therefore never play the part of the hero in revolt2 but at the same time he is human1 and liable to those petty weaknesses and aberrations from which even the sage is not exempt4 ,he can hesitate or be hasty1 can love or weep2 but the sovereignty of his mind is never upset4 ,in a happy phrase ,virgil sums up the whole ethics of ,stoicism3 #8,calm in his soul he abides1 and the tears roll down1 but in vain#ga4' ,in contrast to ,aeneas stands ,dido1 intensely human and passionate1 and in full rebellion against her destiny4 ,she is to him ,eve the temptress1 ,cleopatra the seducer2 but she is not destined to win a final triumph4 ,a modern romance would doubtless have a different ending4 ,sidenote3 ,ovid4 #dcf4 ,amongst writers who adopted much of the formal teaching of ,stoicism without imbibing its spirit we may reckon ,,ovid 7#dc ,b4,c4-#ah ,a4,d474 ,not only does he accept the central idea of ,stoicism1 that it is the divine fire by virtue of which every man lives and moves#gb1 but he opens his greatest work by a description of the creation#gc which appears to follow ,stoic lines1 and in which the erect figure of man is specially recognised as the proof of the preeminence which ,providence has assigned to him over all the other works of the ,creator#gd4 ,but the tales related in the ,metamorphoses show no trace of the serious religious purpose of ,virgil2 and the society pictured in ,ovid's love poems gives only a caricature of the ,stoic doctrines of the community of women1 the absence of jealousy1 and outspokenness of speech4 ,finally the plaintive tone of the ,tristia shows how little ,ovid was in touch with ,stoic self-control amidst the buffetings of fortune4 ,sidenote3 ,cremutius ,cordus4 #dcg4 ,in the time of the next princeps we first find ,stoicism associated with an unsympathetic attitude towards the imperial government4 ,there was nothing in ,stoic principles to suggest this opposition4 ,tiberius himself had listened to the teaching of the ,stoic ,nestor1 and the simplicity of his personal life and the gravity of his manners might well have won him the support of sincere philosophers4 ,but if ,stoicism did not create the spirit of opposition1 it confirmed it where it already existed4 ,the memory of ,cato associated ,stoic doctrines with republican views3 vague idealisations of ,brutus and ,cassius suggested the glorification of tyrannicide4 ,,cremutius ,,cordus 7ob4 ,a4,d4 #be7 had offended ,seianus by a sarcastic remark3 for when ,tiberius repaired the theatre of ,pompey1 and the senate voted that a statue of ,seianus should be erected there1 ,cordus said that this meant really spoiling the theatre#ge4 ,seianus then dropped a hint to his client ,satrius1 who accused ,cordus before the senate of writing a history in which he highly praised ,brutus1 and declared ,cassius to have been #8the last of the ,romans4' ,a word of apology would have saved the life of ,cordus2 he resolved to die by his own act#gf1 to the great annoyance of his prosecutors#gg4 ,from this time on suicide became an object of political ambition4 ,the ,stoic tradition continued in the family of ,cordus1 and to his daughter ,marcia1 as a fellow-member of the sect1 ,seneca addressed the well-known ,consolatio#gh2 but the title of #8old ,romans' describes far better the true leanings of the men of whom ,cordus was the forerunner4 ,sidenote3 ,kanus ,iulius4 #dch4 ,in the reign of ,gaius 7,caligula7 we first find philosophers as such exposed to persecution2 and we may infer that1 like the ,jews1 they resisted tacitly or openly the claim of the emperor to be worshipped as a god4 ,,iulius ,,graecinus1 according to ,seneca1 was put to death for no other reason than that he was a better man than a tyrant liked to see alive#gi4 ,,kanus ,,iulius reproved the emperor to his face1 and heard with calmness his own doom pronounced4 ,during the ten days still left to him he went quietly on with his daily occupations2 he was engaged in a game of chess when the centurion summoned him4 #8,after my death1' he said to his opponent1 #8do not boast that you won the game4' ,his philosopher accompanied him1 and inquired how his thoughts were occupied4 #8,i propose1' said ,kanus1 #8to observe whether at the last moment the soul is conscious of its departure4 ,afterwards1 if ,i discover what the condition of departed souls is1 ,i will come back and inform my friends#hj4' ,sidenote3 ,arria the elder4 #dci4 ,in the reign of ,claudius we find ,stoics engaged in actual conspiracy against the emperor4 ,the name of ,,paetus ,,caecina introduces us to a famous ,stoic family1 for his wife was ,,arria the elder4 ,pliny tells us1 on the authority of her granddaughter ,fannia1 how when her husband and son both fell sick together1 and the latter died1 she carried out the whole funeral without her husband's knowledge2 and each time that she entered his sick chamber1 assumed a cheerful smile and assured him that the boy was much better4 ,whenever her grief became too strong1 she would leave the room for a few minutes to weep1 and return once more calm4 ,when ,scribonianus in ,illyria rebelled against ,claudius1 ,paetus took his side2 upon his fall he was brought a prisoner to ,rome4 ,arria was not allowed to accompany him1 but she followed him in a fishing boat4 ,she encouraged him to face death by piercing her own breast with a dagger1 declaring #8it doesn't hurt#ha1' and upon his death she determined not to survive him4 ,thrasea1 her son-in-law1 tried to dissuade her4 #8,if ,i were condemned1 would you1' said he1 #8wish your daughter to die with me8' #8,yes1' said ,arria1 #8if she had lived with you as long and as happily as ,i with ,paetus4' ,here we have a deliberate justification of the ,hindu practice of the ,sat4 ,sidenote3 ,seneca4 #ddj4 ,in the reign of ,nero the ,stoics are still more prominent1 and almost always in opposition4 ,,seneca1 of course1 the emperor's tutor and minister1 is on the government side2 and from his life we can draw the truest picture of the imperial civil servant in high office4 ,we shall certainly not expect to find that ,seneca illustrated in his own life all the virtues that he preached2 on the other hand we shall not readily believe that the ardent disciple of ,attalus#hb and affectionate husband of ,paulina was a man of dissolute life or of avaricious passions4 ,simple tastes1 an endless capacity for hard work1 and scrupulous honesty were the ordinary marks of the ,roman official in those days1 as they are of members of the ,civil ,service of ,india to-day#hc4 ,seneca is often accused of having been too supple as a minister2 but he was carrying out the principles of his sect better by taking an active part in politics than if he had1 like many others1 held sullenly aloof#hd4 ,he did not indeed imitate ,cato or ,rutilius ,rufus1 who had carried firmness of principle to an extent that laid them open to the charge of obstinacy2 but in submitting frankly to power greater than his own he still saw to it that his own influence should count towards the better side4 ,for the story of his political career we cannot do better than to refer to the latest historian of his times#he2 of his work as a philosopher1 to which he himself attributed the greater importance1 a general account has been given above#hf and more particular discussions form the central theme of this book4 ,sidenote3 ,persius and ,lucan4 #dda4 ,from ,seneca we pass naturally to some mention of the poets ,persius and ,lucan4 ,a4 ,,persius ,,flaccus 7#cd-fb ,a4,d47 became at #af years of age the pupil and companion of the ,stoic philosopher ,cornutus3 he was also a relative of the ,arriae already mentioned4 ,he gives us a charming picture of his teacher's ways of life1 which were doubtless typical#hg3 and his summary view of the scope of philosophy well indicates how its proportions had shrunk at this period4 ,dialectic is not mentioned1 and physics has interest only in its bearing upon the position and duty of the individual4 #8,go1 study1 hapless folk1 and learn to know ,the end and object of our life--what are we2 ,the purpose of our being here2 the rank ,assigned us at the start1 and where and when ,the turn is smoothest round the perilous post2 ,the bounds of wealth2 life's lawful aims2 the use ,of hoards of coin new-minted2 what the claims ,of fatherland and kinsfolk near and dear2 ,the will of ,god concerning thee1 and where ,thou standest in the commonwealth of man#hh4' ,his contemporary ,m4 ,,annaeus ,,lucanus 7#ci-fe ,a4,d471 a nephew of ,seneca1 plunged more deeply both into philosophy and into politics4 ,in both he displayed ardour insufficiently tempered with discretion2 he had a far keener sense of his personal grievances than became a ,stoic1 and was much more of a critic than of a reformer4 ,yet hardly any writer expresses more forcibly the characteristic doctrines of ,stoicism1 as they seized the imagination of young ,romans of the upper classes4 ,amongst such doctrines that of the conflagration was clearly prominent4 #8,so when this frame of things has been dissolved1 ,and the world's many ages have received ,their consummation in one final hour1 ,chaos recalled shall gain his utmost seat1 ,the constellations in confusion dire ,hurled each on each together clash2 the stars ,flaming shall fall into the deep2 the earth ,no longer shall extend her barrier shores1 ,and fling the waters from her2 and the ,moon ,shall meet the ,sun in fratricidal war#hi4' #8,one pyre awaits the ,universe2 in ruin ',twill mix with bones of men the heavenly spheres#ij4' ,lucan emphasizes the pantheistic interpretation of the divine nature2 #8,god is all eye can see or heart can feel#ia4' #8,the powers of heaven are round about us all2 ,and though from out the temple come no voice1 ,nought can we do without the will of ,god#ib4' ,to the idealized ,cato he addresses the noblest praises2 #8,for sure a consecrated life is thine1 ,the laws of heaven thy pattern1 ,god thy guide#ic4' #8,see the true ,father of his country1 worth ,the homage of thine altars1 ,rome2 for they ,who swear by him shall never be ashamed4 ,if e'er the yoke is lifted from thy neck1 ,now or hereafter he shall be thy ,god#id4' ,sidenote3 ,civil service and #8old ,romans4' #ddb4 ,the careers of ,seneca and ,musonius1 and the early years of ,lucan himself1 indicate sufficiently that there was no essential opposition between ,stoic principles and the ,roman principate2 in other words1 that ,stoics as such were not #8republicans4' ,rather the contrary2 for nearly all the ,greek philosophers had been inclined to favour monarchy1 and the ,stoics had been conspicuous in the desire to abolish the distinctions of birth and class upon which the ,roman aristocracy laid so much stress1 and which the principate was disposed to ignore4 ,but in fact ,stoicism was the common mould in which the educated youth of ,rome were shaped at this period2 it produced honest1 diligent1 and simple-minded men1 exactly suited to be instruments of the great imperial bureaucracy4 ,large numbers entered the service of the state1 and were heard of no more2 such an one 7except for ,seneca's incidental account of him7 was ,c4 ,,lucilius1 ,seneca's correspondent4 ,the great work of ,roman government was carried on in silence1 just as that of ,india in the present day4 ,this silence was probably on the whole beneficial to society1 though it was often felt as a constraint by the individual4 ,for this reason and many others there were at ,rome 7as everywhere and at all times7 many able but disappointed men2 they became the critics of the government1 and from being critics they might at any time become conspirators2 but at no period did they seriously aim at restoring the republican system4 ,their political creed was limited1 and did not look beyond the interests of the class from which they sprang4 ,they claimed for members of the senate at ,rome their ancient personal privileges1 and especially that of libertas1 that is1 freedom to criticize and even to insult the members of the government2 they sang the praises of ,cato1 celebrated the birthdays of ,brutus and ,cassius#ie1 and practised a kind of #8passive resistance' based on ,oriental methods1 by quitting life without hesitation when they were baulked in their immediate wishes by the government4 ,when the administration was carried on decently these men were ridiculous2 when from time to time it became a scandal they were heroes4 ,sidenote3 ,republican prejudices4 #ddc4 ,the early years of ,nero's reign show us plainly that true spirit of ,stoicism was far more developed on the side of the government than on that of the aristocracy4 ,nothing distinguishes ,seneca more honourably than his humane attitude towards the slave population2 and he was chief minister of the princeps when in the year ,a4,d4 #fa a #8notable case#if' arose1 in which the human rights of slaves were involved4 ,the city prefect1 ,pedanius ,secundus1 was killed by one of his slaves4 ,it was contended in the senate that by ancient custom the whole household1 old and young1 guilty and innocent1 must be put to death alike2 and this view prevailed and was carried into effect4 ,public opinion1 according to ,tacitus#ig1 was unanimous against such severity2 it looked1 not unreasonably1 to the emperor and his minister to prevent it#ig;a4 ,they on the contrary left the decision to the free judgment of the senate4 ,where now were the men of philosophic principle1 of world-wide sympathies1 of outspoken utterance8 ,the historian tells us that not one was found in the senate4 ,the honourable men who could defy an emperor's death-sentence still lacked the courage to speak out against the prejudices of their own class2 many indeed uttered exclamations1 expressing pity for the women1 the young1 and the indubitably innocent1 and even voted against the executions2 but even in so simple a matter there was not a man to follow the lead of ,catiline in ,cicero's days1 and take up as his own the cause of the oppressed4 ,the leader of the merciless majority was ,c4 ,cassius ,longinus1 a celebrated jurist1 and one who regularly celebrated the honours of ,cassius the conspirator4 ,sidenote3 ,nero and the ,stoics4 #ddd4 ,but although the administration of which ,nero was the head was largely manned by professed ,stoics1 and stood as a whole for the better sympathies of the ,roman people1 the course of court intrigue brought about a fierce conflict between the government and a growing force of public opinion of which the #8old ,roman' group of ,stoics were sometimes the spokesmen1 and at other times the silent representatives4 ,to ,nero the consideration of his own safety was predominant over every consideration of justice to individuals1 and herein he stood condemned 7and knew that it was so7 by the judgment of all men of philosophic temper4 ,the first of his victims1 and perhaps the most deserving of our admiration1 was ,,rubellius ,,plautus1 accused by ,tigellinus because he maintained the irritating cult of the #8tyrannicides1' and had joined the disloyal sect of the ,stoics#ih4 ,the charge of disloyalty against himself and his companions he disproved2 for1 advised by his ,stoic teachers ,coeranus and ,musonius1 he declined to take part in a rising which might have been successful1 and calmly awaited his fate 7#fj ,a4,d474 ,in the conspiracy of ,piso1 which broke out a few years later1 ,,plautus ,,lateranus is named by the historian as one of the few whose motives were honourable and whose conduct was consistently courageous#ii4 ,the later years of ,nero's reign are illuminated in the pages of ,tacitus by the firmness of men like ,,thrasea ,,paetus1 ,,paconius ,,agrippinus1 and ,,barea ,,soranus1 and the heroic devotion of women like the younger ,,arria1 ,thrasea's wife1 and ,,servilia1 the daughter of ,soranus#ajj4 ,in the persecution of this group the modern historian finds extenuating circumstances1 but at ,rome itself it appeared as though the emperor were engaged in the attempt to extirpate virtue itself#aja4 ,sidenote3 ,helvidius ,priscus4 #dde4 ,upon the fall of ,nero the #8old ,romans' came for a short time into power under the principate of ,galba1 and amongst others ,,helvidius ,,priscus1 ,thrasea's son-in-law1 returned from exile4 ,from the account of ,tacitus he appears to have been a very sincere adherent of the ,stoic school4 #8,he was not like others who adopt the name of philosopher in order to cloak an idle disposition4 ,he followed those teachers who maintain that only the honourable is good1 and only the base is evil2 power1 nobility1 and other things external to the soul being neither good nor evil4 ,he designed so to fortify himself thereby against the blows of fortune that he could play his part in public affairs without flinching#ajb4' ,his first act on returning to ,rome was to commence a prosecution of the accuser of ,thrasea4 ,the senate was divided in opinion as to the wisdom of this step1 and when ,helvidius abandoned the suit some praised his charity1 whilst others lamented his indecision#ajc4 ,he resumed his attempt1 as we shall see1 at a later time4 ,sidenote3 ,his fall4 #ddf4 ,vespasian was undoubtedly tolerant in his views3 his reign began with the restitution of honours to the deceased ,galba1 and the much-respected ,musonius#ajd seized the opportunity to attack in the senate ,p4 ,egnatius ,celer1 whose treachery had brought about the fall of ,soranus#aje1 for false evidence4 ,the trial was postponed1 but resulted a little later in the condemnation of ,celer#ajf4 ,public opinion took the side of ,musonius3 but the accused found a champion in ,demetrius the ,cynic philosopher1 and at least defended himself with the ability and courage of his sect4 ,thereupon ,helvidius resumed his prosecution of the accuser of ,thrasea2 but the emperor1 now anxious to let bygones be bygones1 refused to approve#ajg4 ,this second failure appears to have embittered ,helvidius3 his opposition to ,vespasian became open and insulting1 and brought about his death#ajh4 ,the life of his wife ,,fannia was worthy of the two ,arriae1 her grandmother and her mother4 ,twice she followed her husband into exile2 a third time she brought this punishment upon herself1 by encouraging his friend ,senecio to publish his biography1 supplying him with the materials1 and openly justifying her action4 ,in her private life she had singular charm and affability2 and her death appeared to ,pliny to close an era of noble women#aji4 ,sidenote3 ,renewal of the ,stoic opposition4 #ddg4 ,it seems probable that the ,stoic nobles found the low birth of ,vespasian as intolerable as the tyranny of ,nero2 at any rate they soon resumed their attitude of opposition to the government1 and the punishment of ,helvidius1 if intended as a warning1 proved rather a provocation4 ,it appears that he and the #8old ,romans' began a systematic propaganda in favour of what they called #8democracy#aaj1' that is1 the government of the ,roman empire by the senatorial class2 and they probably involved many professed philosophers in this impracticable and reactionary movement4 ,vespasian resolved on expelling all the philosophers from ,rome4 ,from this general sentence the best known of all1 ,musonius1 was excepted#aaa1 and we must infer that he had shown the good sense to keep himself free from political entanglements4 ,in spite of this act of ,vespasian1 ,stoicism continued to gain ground1 and during the greater part of the period of the ,flavian dynasty met with little interference4 ,sidenote3 ,persecution by ,domitian4 #ddh4 ,but towards the end of the reign of ,domitian a more violent persecution broke out4 ,,arulenus ,,rusticus had been tribune of the plebs in #ff ,a4,d41 and had then proposed to use his veto in an attempt to save the life of ,thrasea ,paetus#aab4 ,in #fi ,a4,d4 he was praetor1 and as such headed an embassy sent by the senate to the soldiers under ,petilius ,cerealis4 ,on this occasion he was roughly handled and wounded1 and barely escaped with his life#aac4 ,after many years of quiet1 he was accused in #ic ,a4,d41 when ,pliny was praetor1 of having written and spoken in honour of ,thrasea ,paetus1 ,herennius ,senecio1 and ,helvidius ,priscus2 he was condemned to death and his books were destroyed#aad4 ,,senecio was condemned at the same time for having written the biography of ,helvidius ,priscus1 and for the further offence that since holding the quaestorship he had not become a candidate for any higher office#aae4 ,about the same time were banished ,artemidorus1 the most single-minded and laborious of philosophers1 whom ,musonius had selected out of a crowd of competitors as the fittest to claim his daughter in marriage#aaf2 ,junius ,mauricus1 brother of ,arulenus ,rusticus1 who had joined ,musonius in the attempt to secure the punishment of the delatores of ,nero's time#aag2 ,demetrius1 and ,epictetus#aah2 and further many distinguished ladies1 including ,arria and her daughter ,fannia#aai4 ,but from the time of the death of ,domitian in ,a4,d4 #if the imperial government became finally reconciled with ,stoicism1 which was now the recognised creed of the great majority of the educated classes at ,rome1 of all ages and ranks4 ,as such it appears in the writings of ,,juvenal1 who not only introduces into serious literature the ,stoic principle of #8straight speaking1' but actually expounds much of the ethical teaching of ,stoicism with more directness and force than any professed adherent of the system4 ,sidenote3 ,stoic reform of law4 #ddi4 ,stoicism1 received into favour in the second century ,a4,d41 won new opportunities and was exposed to new dangers4 ,its greatest achievement lay in the development of ,roman law4 ,as we have just seen#abj1 the #8old ,romans' of ,nero's day1 in spite of their profession of ,stoicism1 were unbending upholders of the old law1 with all its harshness and narrowness2 and we have to go back a hundred years to the great lawyers of the times of ,sulla and ,cicero#aba to meet with men prepared to throw aside old traditions and build anew on the foundations of natural justice4 ,but the larger view had not been lost sight of4 ,it remained as the ideal of the more generous-minded members of the imperial civil service2 and in the times of the emperors ,antoninus ,pius 7#ach-afa ,a4,d47 and ,marcus ,aurelius 7#afa-ahj ,a4,d47 it became the starting-point for a new development of ,roman law1 which is one of the great achievements of ,roman history4 ,the most eloquent of the historians of the origins of ,christianity thus describes this movement4 #8,le stocisme avait dj pntr le droit romain de ses larges maximes1 et en avait fait le droit naturel1 le droit philosophique1 tel que la raison peut le concevoir pour tous les hommes4 ,le droit strict cde l'quit2 la douceur l'emporte sur la svrit2 la justice parat insparable de la bienfaisance4 ,les grands jurisconsultes d',antonin continurent la mme uvre4 ,le dernier ,volusius ,moecianus fut le matre de ,marc-,aurle en fait de jurisprudence1 et1 vrai dire1 l'uvre des deux saints empereurs ne saurait tre spare4 ,c'est d'eux que datent la plupart de ces lois humaines et senses qui flchirent la rigueur du droit antique et firent1 d'une lgislation primitivement troite et implacable1 un code susceptible d'tre adopt par tous les peuples civiliss#abb4' ,in the legislation of ,antoninus and ,aurelius the humane and cosmopolitan principles of ,stoic politics at last triumph over ,roman conservatism4 ,the poor1 the sick1 the infant1 and the famine-stricken are protected4 ,the slave is treated as a human being2 to kill him becomes a crime1 to injure him a misdemeanour2 his family and his property are protected by the tribunals4 ,slavery in fact is treated as a violation of the rights of nature2 manumission is in every way encouraged4 ,the time is within sight when ,ulpian will declare that #8all men1 according to natural right1 are born free and equal#abc4' ,this legislation is not entirely the work of professed ,stoics2 it is nevertheless the offspring of ,stoicism4 ,sidenote3 ,repression of zeal4 #dej4 ,there was in the second century1 as there is still1 a sharp antagonism between the manners of cultivated society and the ardent profession of intellectual convictions4 ,an anecdote related by ,gellius well illustrates the social forces which were now constantly at work to check superfluous enthusiasm4 #8,there was with us at table a young student of philosophy who called himself a ,stoic1 but chiefly distinguished himself by an unwelcome loquacity4 ,he was always bringing up in season and out of season recondite philosophical doctrines1 and he looked upon all his neighbours as boors because they were unacquainted with them4 ,his whole talk was strown with mention of syllogisms1 fallacies1 and the like1 such as the 8master-argument10 the 8quiescent10 and the 8heap02 and he thought that he was the only man in the world who could solve them4 ,further he maintained that he had thoroughly studied the nature of the soul1 the growth of virtue1 the science of daily duties1 and the cure of the weaknesses and diseases of the mind4 ,finally he considered he had attained to that state of perfect happiness which could be clouded by no disappointment1 shaken by no pains of death#abd4' ,such a man1 we may think1 might soon have become an apostle of sincere ,stoicism1 and might have left us a clear and systematic exposition of ,stoic doctrine as refined by five centuries of experience4 ,it was not to be4 ,the polished ,herodes ,atticus crushed him with a quotation from the discourses of ,epictetus4 ,not many offended in the same way4 ,even ,seneca had been severe on useless study in the regions of history and antiquity#abe2 the new philosophers despised the study even of philosophy4 ,sidenote3 ,state establishment of philosophy4 #dea4 ,the ,stoicism of the second century is therefore much less sharply defined than that of earlier times4 ,its doctrines1 acquired in childhood1 are accepted with ready acquiescence2 but they are not accompanied by any firm repudiation of the opposing views of other schools4 ,once more1 as in the time of ,augustus1 the #8philosopher' comes to the front2 the particular colour of his philosophy seems of less importance#abf4 ,it is philosophy in general which wins the patronage of the emperors4 ,nerva allowed the schools of the philosophers to be re-opened2 ,trajan interested himself in them as providing a useful training for the young4 ,hadrian went further1 and endowed the teachers of philosophy at ,rome2 ,antoninus ,pius did the same throughout the provinces4 ,marcus ,aurelius established representatives of each of the philosophic schools at ,athens2 and amongst later emperors ,septimius ,severus1 aided by his wife ,julia ,domna1 was conspicuous in the same direction4 ,the philosophers1 who had firmly resisted persecution1 gradually sacrificed their independence under the influence of imperial favour4 ,they still recited the dogmas of their respective founders1 but unconsciously they became the partisans of the established forms of government and religion4 ,yet so gentle was the decay of philosophy that it might be regarded as progress if its true position were not illuminated by the attitude of ,marcus ,aurelius towards the ,christians4 ,for ,marcus ,aurelius was universally accepted as the most admirable practical representative of philosophy in its full ripeness1 and no word of criticism of his policy was uttered by any teacher of ,stoicism4 ,sidenote3 ,the pagan revival4 #deb4 ,the decay of precise philosophic thought was accompanied by a strong revival of pagan religious sentiment4 ,the atmosphere in which ,marcus ,aurelius grew up1 and by which his political actions were determined far more than by his philosophic profession1 is thus sympathetically described by the latest editor of his ,reflections4 #8,in house and town1 the ancestral ,penates of the hearth and the ,lares of the streets guarded the intercourse of life2 in the individual breast1 a ministering ,genius shaped his destinies and responded to each mood of melancholy or of mirth4 ,thus all life lay under the regimen of spiritual powers1 to be propitiated or appeased by appointed observances and ritual and forms of prayer4 ,to this punctilious and devout form of ,paganism ,marcus was inured from childhood2 at the vintage festival he took his part in chant and sacrifice2 at eight years old he was admitted to the ,salian priesthood2 8he was observed to perform all his sacerdotal functions with a constancy and exactness unusual at that age2 was soon a master of the sacred music2 and had all the forms and liturgies by heart40 ,our earliest statue depicts him as a youth offering incense2 and in his triumphal bas-reliefs he stands before the altar1 a robed and sacrificing priest4 ,to him 8prayer and sacrifice1 and all observances by which we own the presence and nearness of the gods10 are 8covenants and sacred ministries0 admitting to 8intimate communion with the divine#abg40' ,the cult thus summarized is not that of the ,greek mythology1 much less that of the rationalized ,stoic theology4 ,it is the primitive ritualism of ,italy1 still dear to the hearts of the common people1 and regaining its hold on the educated in proportion as they spared themselves the effort of individual criticism4 ,sidenote3 ,state persecution4 #dec4 ,it was by no mere accident that ,marcus ,aurelius became the persecutor of the ,christians4 ,he was at heart no successor of the ,zeno who held as essential the doctrine of a supreme deity1 and absolutely rejected the use of temples and images4 ,in the interval1 official ,stoicism had learnt first to tolerate superstition with a smile1 next to become its advocate2 now it was to become a persecutor in its name4 ,pontius ,pilatus is said to have recognised the innocence of the founder of ,christianity1 and might have protected him had his instructions from ,rome allowed him to stretch his authority so far2 ,gallio#abh was uninterested in the preaching of ,paul2 but ,aurelius was acquainted with the ,christian profession and its adherents#abi1 and opposed it as an obstinate resistance to authority#acj4 ,the popular antipathy to the new religion1 and the official distaste for all disturbing novelties1 found in him a willing supporter#aca4 ,thus began a new struggle between the power of the sword and that of inward conviction4 ,because reason could not support the worship of the pagan deities1 violence must do so#acb4 ,it became a triumph of the civil authority and the popular will to extort a word of weakness by two years of persistent torture#acc4 ,no endowed professor or enlightened magistrate raised his voice in protest2 and in this feeble acquiescence ,stoicism perished4 ,sidenote3 ,revolt of the young ,stoics4 #ded4 ,for the consciences of the young revolted4 ,trained at home and in school to believe in providence1 in duty1 and in patient endurance of evil1 they instinctively recognised the ,socratic force and example not in the magistrate seated in his curule chair1 nor in the rustic priest occupied in his obsolete ritual1 but in the teacher on the cross and the martyr on the rack#acd4 ,in ever increasing numbers men1 who had from their ,stoic education imbibed the principles of the unity of the ,deity and the freedom of the will1 came over to the new society which professed the one without reservation1 and displayed the other without flinching4 ,with them they brought in large measure their philosophic habits of thought1 and 7in far more particulars than is generally recognised7 the definite tenets which the ,porch had always inculcated4 ,stoicism began a new history1 which is not yet ended1 within the ,christian church2 and we must now attempt to give some account of this aftergrowth of the philosophy4 ,,footnotes #a ,lightfoot1 ,philippians1 p4 #cai2 ,dill1 ,roman ,society1 p4 #ccd2 ,warde ,fowler1 ,social ,life at ,rome1 p4 #bg4 #b ,the practice of street-preaching1 as described by ,horace and ,epictetus1 points this way2 and the world-wide diffusion of ,stoicism1 in more or less diluted forms1 is hardly reconcileable with its restriction to a single class of society4 #c #8semper ,africanus ,socraticum ,xenophontem in manibus habebat' ,cic4 ,tusc4 disp4 ii #bf1 #fb2 #8,cyrus ille a ,xenophonte ad effigiem iusti imperi scriptus 444 quos quidem libros ,africanus de manibus ponere non solebat' ad ,quint4 ,i i #h1 #bc4 #d #8ille ,laelius qui ,diogenem ,stoicum adulescens1 post autem ,panaetium audierat' ,fin4 ii #h1 #bd4 #e #8lenitatem ,laelius habuit' ,cic4 de ,or4 iii #g1 #bh2 #8,c4 ,laelius et ,p4 ,africanus imprimis eloquentes' ,brut4 #ba1 #hb4 #f #8in ,c4 ,laelio multa hilaritas' ,off4 i #cj1 #ajh4 #g #8praeclara est aequabilitas in omni vita et idem semper vultus eademque frons1 ut de ,socrate itemque de ,c4 ,laelio accepimus' ib4 #bf1 #ij4 #h ,see above1 #cbf4 #i #8,sp4 ,mummius nihilo ornatior1 sed tamen astrictior2 fuit enim doctus ex disciplina ,stoicorum' ,cic4 ,brut4 #be1 #id4 #aj #8non tulit ullos haec civitas humanitate politiores ,p4 ,africano1 ,c4 ,laelio1 ,l4 ,furio1 qui secum eruditissimos homines ex ,graecia palam semper habuerunt' de ,or4 ii #cg1 #aed4 #aa ,cic4 ,amic4 #aa1 #cg4 #ab #8,ti4 ,gracchum a ,q4 ,tuberone aequalibusque amicis derelictum videbamus' ib4 #ac de ,or4 iii #bc1 #hg4 #ad #8quoniam ,stoicorum est facta mentio1 ,q4 ,aelius ,tubero fuit illo tempore1 nullo in oratorum numero1 sed vita severus et congruens cum ea disciplina quam colebat' ,brut4 #ca1 #aag4 #ae ,fin4 iv #i1 #bc2 ,off4 iii #ae1 #fc4 #af #8,panaetii illius tui' ,cic4 de ,or4 i #aa1 #de2 #8,mucius augur oratorum in numero non fuit3 iuris civilis intellegentia atque omni prudentiae genere praestitit' ,brut4 #bf1 #ajb4 #ag #8,c4 ,fannius1 ,c4 ,laeli gener1 444 instituto ,laelii ,panaetium audiverat4 eius omnis in dicendo facultas ex historia ipsius non ineleganter scripta perspici potest' ib4 #aja4 #ah ,schmekel1 ,mittlere ,stoa1 pp4 #ddd1 #dde4 #ai ,see especially his praise of virtue1 beginning #8virtus1 ,albine1 est pretium persolvere verum queis in versamur1 queis vivimu' rebu' potesse' fr4 #a4 #bj #8primum genus poticum nugatorium dicit ,scaevola esse1 quod multa de dis fingantur indigna' ,aug4 ,civ4 ,de4 iv #bg1 on the authority of ,varro4 #ba #8tertium genus' inquit ,varro #8quod in urbibus cives1 maxime sacerdotes1 nosse atque administrare debent' ,aug4 ,civ4 ,de4 vi #e4 #bb #8maior societas nobis debet esse cum philosophis quam cum poetis' ib4 #f4 #bc #8ego habeo exceptionem tectiorem ex ,q4 ,mucii ,p4 ,f4 edicto ,asiatico2 extra quam si ita negotium gestum est1 ut eo stari non oporteat ex fide bona2 multaque sum secutus ,scaevolae' ,cic4 ,att4 vi #a1 #ae4 #bd #8hanc gloriam iustitiae et abstinentiae fore inlustriorem spero4 quod ,scaevolae contigit' ib4 v #ag1 #e4 #be ,see above1 #cbf4 #bf #8dixit causam illam quadam ex parte ,q4 ,mucius1 more suo1 nullo adparatu1 pure et dilucide' ,cic4 de ,or4 i #ec1 #bbi2 #8,scaevola parcorum elegantissimus' ,brut4 #dj1 #adh4 #bg #8,q4 ,mucius pontifex maximus ius civile primus constituit1 generatim in libros xviii redigendo' ,pompon4 ,dig4 i #b1 #b1 #da4 #bh ,h4 ,nettleship1 ,ius ,gentium 7,journal of ,philology xiii #bf1 pp4 #afi sqq474 #bi #8qui iuris civilis rationem nunquam ab aequitate seiunxerit' ,cic4 ,caec4 #bg1 #gh4 #cj #8cum discendi causa duobus peritissimis operam dedisset1 ,l4 ,lucilio ,balbo et ,c4 ,aquilio ,gallo' ,brut4 #db1 #aed2 cf4 de ,orat4 iii #ba1 #gh4 #ca #8,servius mihi videtur eloquentiae tantum assumpsisse1 ut ius civile facile possit tueri' ,brut4 #dj1 #aej4 #cb #8,servius longe omnium in iure civili princeps' ib4 #da1 #aea3 ,pomp4 ,dig4 i #b1 #b1 #dc4 #cc ,for an interesting account of his career and death see ,warde ,fowler1 ,social ,life at ,rome1 pp4 #aah-aba4 #cd #8idem ,aelius ,stoicus esse voluit' ,cic4 ,brutus #ef1 #bjf4 #ce #8,q4 ,lucilius ,balbus tantos progressus habebat in ,stoicis1 ut cum excellentibus in eo genere ,graecis compararetur' ,n4 ,d4 i #f1 #ae4 #cf #8,sextus frater praestantissimum ingenium contulerat ad summam iuris civilis et rerum ,stoicarum scientiam' ,brutus #dg1 #age4 #cg ,see #dbg4 #ch #8,posidonius scribit ,p4 ,rutilium dicere solere1 quae ,panaetius praetermisisset1 propter eorum quae fecisset praestantiam neminem esse persecutum' ,cic4 ,off4 iii #b1 #aj4 #ci #8,p4 ,rutilius1 doctus vir et ,graecis litteris eruditus1 prope perfectus in ,stoicis' ,brutus #cj1 #aad4 #dj #8multa praeclara de iure' ib4 #da ,see above1 #cbf4 #db ,cic4 pro ,rabir4 #aj1 #bg4 #dc ,plut4 ,cato minor #d1 #a4 #dd ib4 #e1 #c4 #de ib4 #aj1 #a4 #df #8,cato perfectus1 mea sententia1 ,stoicus1 444 in ea est haeresi1 quae nullum sequitur florem orationis neque dilatat argumentum2 sed minutis interrogatiunculis1 quasi punctis1 quod proposuit efficit' ,cic4 ,par4 ,pro4 #b4 #dg #8,cato dumtaxat de magnitudine animi1 de morte1 de omni laude virtutis1 ,stoice solet1 oratoriis ornamentis adhibitis1 dicere' ,cic4 ,par4 ,pro4 #c4 #dh #8animadverti ,catonem 444 dicendo consequi ut illa loci graves ex philosophia populo probabilia viderentur' ib4 #a4 #di #8doleo plus apud me simulationem aliorum quam ,catonis fidem valuisse' ad ,att4 iii #ae1 #b 7in ,b4,c4 #dh74 #ej ib4 iv #ae1 #g4 #ea #8,catoni vitam ad certam rationis normam dirigenti et diligentissime perpendenti momenta officiorum omnium' ,mur4 #b1 #c4 #eb ,cato apud ,cic4 ad ,fam4 xv #e1 #b4 #ec ,see for instance below1 #dda1 note #id4 #ed #8his sc4 piis dantem iura ,catonem' ,verg4 ,aen4 viii #fgj4 #ee #8illam 444 ad ,varronem transferamus3 etenim sunt 1 quae iste valde probat' ,cic4 ,att4 xiii #ab1 #c2 #8in iis quae erant contra praeclare collecta ab ,antiocho1 ,varroni dedi2 444 aptius esse nihil potuit ad id philosophiae genus1 quo ille maxime mihi delectari videtur' ib4 #ai1 #c and #e4 #ef ,see above1 #abc4 #eg #8tu1 ,brute1 qui non linguam modo acuisses exercitatione dicendi1 sed et ipsam eloquentiam locupletavisses graviorum artium instrumento' ,cic4 ,brutus #ig1 #cca4 #eh #8,brutus in eo libro quem de virtute composuit' ,sen4 ,dial4 xii #i1 #d2 #8,brutus in eo libro quem inscripsit1 dat multa praecepta' ,ep4 #ie1 #de4 ,there was also a treatise de patientia4 #ei ,the de ,finibus1 de ,natura ,deorum1 and ,tusculanae disputationes4 #fj ,mart4 ,ep4 i #db4 #fa ,see above1 #cgd1 note #ff4 #fb #8nunc agilis fio et mersor civilibus undis1 virtutis verae custos rigidusque satelles' ,ep4 i #a1 #af and #ag4 #fc ,see above1 #caf1 note #if4 #fd ,see above1 #ij4 #fe #8igneus est ollis vigor et caelestis origo seminibus' ,aen4 vi #gcj1 #gca4 #ff #8caelum et terras spiritus intus alit' ib4 #gbd1 #gbf4 #fg #8totamque infusa per artus mens agitat molem' ib4 #gbf1 #gbg4 #fh ,see above1 #bie to #big4 #fi #8donec longa dies1 perfecto temporis orbe1 concretam exemit labem1 purumque reliquit aetherium sensum atque aurai simplicis ignem' ,aen4 vi #gde to #gdg4 #gj #8desine fata deum flecti sperare precando' ib4 #cgf4 #ga #8mens immota manet2 lacrimae volvuntur inanes' ,aen4 iv #ddi2 the #8lacrimae inanes' indicate the ruffling of the soul1 in which the intelligence and will take no part4 #gb #8est deus in nobis3 agitante calescimus illo' ,ov4 ,f4 vi #e4 #gc #8ante mare et terras1 et quod tegit omnia caelum1 unus erat toto ,naturae vultus in orbe1 quem dixere ,chaos1 etc4' ,met4 i #e to #hh4 #gd #8os homini sublime dedit1 caelumque tueri iussit1 et erectos ad sidera tollere vultus' ib4 #he and #hf4 #ge #8exclamavit ,cordus tunc vere theatrum perire' ,sen4 ,dial4 vi #bb1 #d4 #gf ,tac4 ,ann4 iv #cd4 ,tacitus entirely ignores the personal motives underlying the story1 and quite unnecessarily suggests that ,tiberius was adopting the policy of repressing freedom of historical narration4 #gg #8accusatores queruntur mori ,cordum' ,sen4 ,dial4 vi #bb1 #g4 #gh ,that ,cremutius ,cordus was a professed ,stoic seems a fair inference from the story as a whole1 and yet1 as in several similar cases1 is not expressly stated4 #gi #8quem ,graecinum ,iulium ,c4 ,caesar occidit ob hoc unum1 quod melior vir erat quam esse quemquam tyranno expedit' ,sen4 ,ben4 ii #ba1 #e4 #hj ,dial4 ix #ad1 #d-aj4 #ha #8casta suo gladium cum traderet ,arria ,paeto1 quem de visceribus traxerat ipsa suis1 8si qua fides1 vulnus quod feci non dolet10 inquit1 8sed quod tu facies1 hoc mihi1 ,paete1 dolet0' ,martial ,ep4 i #ad2 #8praeclarum illud eiusdem1 ferrum stringere1 perfodere pectus1 extrahere pugionem1 porrigere marito1 addere vocem immortalem et paene divinam 8,paete1 non dolet0' ,pliny ,ep4 iii #af1 #f4 #hb ,see above1 #abf4 #hc #8non derunt et frugalitatis exactae homines et laboriosae operae' ,sen4 ,dial4 x #ah1 #d4 ,for the ,british official the authority of the author of ,tales from the ,hills will suffice4 #hd ,see below1 #ddh1 note #aae4 #he ,henderson's ,nero1 pp4 #ca-ch1 #ej-adb1 #beg-bhh4 #hf ,see above1 #abg-abi4 #hg ,see above1 #abe4 #hh ,persius ,sat4 iii #ff-gb4 ,the translations in this section are by ,mr ,w4 ,h4 ,porter4 #hi ,phars4 i #gb to #hj4 #ij ib4 vii #had and #hae4 #ia ,see above1 #bdb1 note #i4 #ib ,phars4 ix #egc and #egd4 #ic ib4 #eef and #eeg4 #id ib4 #fja to #fjd4 ,the force of this tribute is impaired by the similar praise given to ,pompey 7,phars4 vii #fhb-fhi7 and to ,brutus 7ib4 #ehh and #ehi74 #ie #8quale coronati ,thrasea ,helvidiusque bibebant ,brutorum et ,cassi natalibus' ,juv4 ,sat4 v #cf and #cg4 ,see also ,g4 ,boissier1 ,l',opposition sous les ,csars4 #if ,henderson's ,nero1 pp4 #ij sqq4 #ig ,annals xiv #db1 #b4 #ig;a ,the government had in fact appointed an officer for the prevention of cruelty to slaves3 #8de iniuriis dominorum in servos qui audiat positus est1 qui et saevitiam et libidinem et in praebendis ad victum necessariis avaritiam compescat' ,sen4 ,ben4 iii #bb1 #c4 #ih ,tac4 ,ann4 xiv #eg4 #ii ,see ,henderson's ,nero1 pp4 #beg-bhc4 #ajj ,tac4 ,ann4 xvi #ba-ce4 #aja #8,nero virtutem ipsam exscindere concupivit' ib4 #ba4 #ajb ,hist4 iv #e4 #ajc ,tac4 ,hist4 iv #f4 #ajd ,see above1 #acj1 #aca4 #aje ,see above1 #ddd4 #ajf ,tac4 ,hist4 iv #dj4 #ajg ib4 #dc and #dd4 #ajh ,dill1 ,roman ,society1 p4 #aeb4 #aji ,pliny ,ep4 vii #ai1 #g4 #aaj 1 1 ,dion ,cassius lxvi #ab4 #aaa ,dion ,cassius lxvi #ac4 #aab ,see above1 #ddd4 #aac ,tac4 ,hist4 iii #hj4 #aad ,agr4 #b2 ,suetonius1 ,dom4 #aj4 #aae ,dion ,c4 lxvii #ac1 ,tac4 ,agr4 #de4 #aaf ,pliny ,ep4 iii #aa1 #g4 #aag ,tac4 ,hist4 iv #dj4 #aah ,a4 ,gellius ,n4 ,a4 xv #aa1 #e 7for ,epictetus74 #aai ,pliny ,ep4 iii #aa1 #c2 #8tot nobilissimarum feminarum exilia et fugas' ,tac4 ,agr4 #de4 #abj ,see above1 #ddc4 #aba ,see above1 #dbh1 #dbi4 #abb ,renan1 ,marc-,aurle1 pp4 #bb1 #bc2 cf4 ,maine1 ,ancient ,law1 pp4 #ee1 #ef4 #abc ,renan1 ,marc-,aurle1 p4 #cj4 #abd ,aulus ,gellius ,n4 ,a4 i #b1 #c to #e4 #abe #8nam de illis nemo dubitabit1 quin operose nihil agant1 qui litterarum inutilium studiis detinentur1 quae iam apud ,romanos quoque magna manus est 444 ecce ,romanos quoque invasit inane studium supervacua discendi1' etc4 ,sen4 ,dial4 x #ac1 #a and #c4 ,the condemnation extends to the whole study of history1 ,n4 ,q4 iii ,pr4 #abf #8,in the purely moral sphere to which philosophy was now confined1 the natural tendency of the different schools1 not even excluding the ,epicurean1 was to assimilation and eclecticism' ,dill1 ,roman ,society1 p4 #cdc4 #abg ,rendall1 ,m4 ,aurelius to himself1 ,introd4 pp4 cxxvii1 cxxviii4 #abh ,the connexion 7if any7 of ,gallio the proconsul of ,achaia 7,acts xviii #ab7 with the ,junius ,gallio who adopted ,seneca's elder brother is uncertain4 #abi ,renan1 ,marc-,aurle1 p4 #ee1 note #b4 #acj ,m4 ,aurel4 ,to himself xi #c4 #aca ,renan1 ,m4-,a4 p4 #cbi4 #acb #8quia ratione congredi non queunt1 violentia premunt2 incognita causa tanquam nocentissimos damnant' ,lact4 ,inst4 ,epit4 #dg 7#eb71 #d4 #acc #8vidi ego in ,bithynia praesidem gaudio mirabiliter elatum tanquam barbarorum gentem aliquam subegisset1 quod unus qui per biennium magna virtute restiterat1 postremo cedere visus esset' ,div4 inst4 v #aa1 #ae4 #acd #8nam cum videat vulgus dilacerari homines et invictam tenere patientiam1 existimant nec perseverantiam morientium vanam esse nec ipsam patientiam sine deo cruciatus tantos posse superare 444 dicit ,horatius3 8iustum ac tenacem 4440 quo nihil verius dici potest1 si ad eos referatur qui nullos cruciatus nullam mortem recusant' ib4 #ac1 #aa to #ag4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,stoic ,,strain ,,in ,,christianity4 ,sidenote3 ,neighbours1 but strangers4 #dee4 ,during the first century and a half of the ,christian era ,stoicism maintained an active and successful propaganda1 without becoming conscious that meanwhile a new force was spreading in the ,hellenic world which was soon to challenge its own supremacy4 ,there is no evidence to show that any of the ,stoic teachers with whom we have been concerned knew anything of ,christianity beyond the bare name1 until the two systems came into conflict in the time of ,marcus ,aurelius2 and it is in the highest degree improbable that any of them were influenced in their opinions1 directly or indirectly1 by the preaching of ,christianity#a4 ,on the other hand the apostles of the newer faith1 as often as they entered any of the chief cities of the ,roman empire1 met at once not only with the professed adherents of ,stoicism1 but also with a still wider world of educated men and women which was penetrated by ,stoic conceptions4 ,from the first it was incumbent on ,christian teachers to define their attitude towards this philosophy2 and it is our purpose in this chapter to sketch shortly the manner in which they did so4 ,this task belongs primarily to the historian of ,christianity1 but the present work would be incomplete without some adumbration of this important field of study4 ,from the middle of the second century the relations between the two systems alter in character3 there then sets in a steady stream of conversion by which the younger ,stoics are drawn away from the older creed1 and carry over to its rival not only their personal allegiance but also their intellectual equipment4 ,sidenote3 ,common influences4 #def4 ,it is necessarily a difficult task to estimate the influence of ,stoicism upon the historical development of ,christianity1 and it is impossible to do so without trenching upon ground which is highly debateable4 ,upon parallels between phrases used by ,stoic and ,christian writers respectively not too much stress should be laid#b4 ,many of these can be traced back to common sources from which each religion drew in turn4 ,from ,persism the ,stoic creed inherited much through ,heraclitus1 and ,christianity through ,judaism4 ,the kindred doctrines of ,buddhism and ,cynism present themselves to our view in ,christianity in the ,sermon on the mount1 and in ,stoicism through the discourses of ,epictetus4 ,individuals in either camp were also influenced in varying degrees by a wave of feeling in favour of asceticism and resignation which spread over the whole ,greco-,roman world about this time1 resulting from exaggerated attention being paid to the individual consciousness at the cost of social and political life4 ,we should therefore endeavour to keep our eyes steadily fixed on the essential features of ,stoicism rather than on its details1 and inquire how these were regarded by ,christian teachers in successive generations4 ,sidenote3 ,progressive influence of ,stoicism4 #deg4 ,a starting-point is obviously afforded us by the speech of ,st ,paul upon ,mars' hill1 in which he accepts a verse from the ,stoic poet ,aratus#c as a text upon which to proclaim the fatherhood of ,god4 ,this ,stoic doctrine 7like many others to which he refers in his writings7 is treated by ,paul as embodying an elementary truth1 and as a starting-point for fuller knowledge2 from any other point of view philosophy is regarded as a snare and an imposture#d4 ,a generation later we find that the editor of the fourth gospel boldly places the ,stoic version of the history of creation in the forefront of his work#e4 ,later on in the second century we find the doctrines of the double nature of the ,christ and of the variety inherent in the ,deity becoming incorporated in technical ,stoic forms as part of a defined ,christian creed4 ,from whatever point we regard the ,stoic influence1 it appears during this period as an increasing force4 ,we shall speak of it here as the #8,stoic strain' in ,christianity2 meaning by this that a certain attitude of the intellect and sympathies1 first developed in ,stoicism1 found for itself a home in early ,christianity2 that men1 ,stoics by inheritance or training1 joined the church not simply as disciples1 but to a large extent as teachers also4 ,this point of view can perhaps best be explained by a sketch of the development of ,christian doctrine as it might be regarded by fair-minded ,stoics1 attached to the principles of their philosophy but suspicious of its close relations with the religion of the ,state1 and ready to welcome any new system which might appeal to their reason as well as to their moral sense4 ,sidenote3 ,jesus from the ,stoic standpoint4 #deh4 ,a ,stoic of the time of ,vespasian 7,a4,d4 #fi to #gi7 might well be supposed to be made acquainted with the beginnings of ,christianity by some ,christian friend4 ,the story he would hear would take the form of one of those #8oral gospels' which are now generally supposed to have preceded the shaping of the #8gospels' of our ,new ,testament1 and to have corresponded generally to the common parts of the first three gospels and some of the narratives of the fourth#f4 ,he would thus learn that the founder was a ,jew named ,,jesus1 the son of ,joseph a carpenter of ,nazareth#g4 ,this ,jesus had in his childhood sat at the feet of the philosophic ,rabbis of ,jerusalem#h1 and had learnt from them to interpret the documents of ,hebraism1 #8the law and the prophets1' in the sense of the world-religions1 and by the principle of allegorism to give a new and truer meaning to such parts of them as seemed obsolete or incredible#i4 ,upon reaching manhood he had been shocked to find that the general body of the ,pharisees1 to which his teachers belonged1 was far more interested in maintaining prejudices of race and class than in boldly proclaiming principles of world-wide application2 and that whilst freely avowing their own opinions amongst friends1 they held it indiscreet to reveal them to the crowd#aj4 ,after a period of prolonged reflection and inward struggle#aa he resolved on coming forward as a teacher in his own name4 ,sidenote3 ,the wise man4 #dei4 ,at this point our ,stoic would assuredly be impressed by the #8strength and force' of character displayed in the preaching of the young ,jesus1 and would so far be disposed to rank him with ,socrates and with ,zeno4 ,in the content of ,jesus' teaching he would at once recognise some of the prominent characteristics of ,zeno's ,republic4 ,for ,jesus too spoke of a model state1 calling it the #8kingdom of heaven'2 and in this state men of all nations were to find a place4 ,not only the ceremonies of the old ,hebrew religion1 its sacrifices and its sabbaths1 were to be superseded#ab2 the temple itself at ,jerusalem was to cease to be a place of worship#ac2 the social and economic system of the ,jewish people was to be remodelled2 the rich were to be swept away1 and the poor to enter into their inheritance#ad4 ,men's prayers were no longer to be offered to the ,god of ,abraham1 but to the ,father in heaven1 surrounded by spirits like those of ,persism1 the ,name1 the ,will1 the ,kingdom1 the ,glory and the ,majesty#ae4 ,that ,jesus also spoke1 after the ,persian fashion1 of rewards for the good and the wicked in a future existence might interest our ,stoic less1 but would not be inconsistent with the traditions of his own sect4 ,sidenote3 ,the emotions in ,jesus4 #dfj4 ,whilst recognising this strength of character and sympathizing generally with the gospel message1 our ,stoic could not fail to observe that the ,christian tradition did not claim for the ,founder the imperturbable calm which the wise man should under all circumstances possess4 ,from time to time his spirit was troubled#af2 sometimes by ,anger1 as when he denounced in turn the ,pharisees1 the scribes1 and the traders in the temple2 sometimes by ,pity1 as when he wept over ,jerusalem2 by ,fear1 as in the garden of ,gethsemane#ag2 then again by ,shame1 as in the meeting with the woman taken in adultery#ah2 and even by ,hilarity1 as when he participated in the marriage revels at ,cana4 ,yet perhaps1 taking the character as a whole1 a ,stoic would not be surprised that the disciples should remember only the sweetness1 the patience1 and the perseverance of their master2 that they should account him a perfect man#ai1 attributing his faults to the weakness of the body#bj1 and not to any taint of soul2 and finally that they should accept him as their ,lord and their ,god#ba4 ,for all these points of view1 without being specifically ,stoic1 find some kind of recognition within ,stoicism itself4 ,sidenote3 ,mythologic ,christianity4 #dfa4 ,but as our inquirer proceeded to trace the history of ,christianity after its ,founder's death1 he would soon find the beginnings of division within the ,christian body4 ,he would learn1 for instance1 that the ,christians of ,jerusalem1 who even during their ,master's lifetime had been puzzled by his condemnation of ,hebrew traditions1 had quickly relapsed upon his death into the ways of thinking to which in their childhood they had been accustomed4 ,they had become once more ,hebrews1 and even ardent advocates of an obsolete ceremonialism2 and in this respect they seemed entirely to have forgotten the teaching of their ,founder4 ,but their allegiance to his person was unshakeable2 and they cherished the conviction that during the lifetime of most of them he would rejoin them1 and establish that earthly kingdom which in their hearts they had never ceased to covet4 ,in view of this imminent revolution1 quite as much as out of respect for the teaching of the ,sermon on the mount1 they encouraged their members to spend their savings on immediate necessities1 and soon fell into dire poverty4 ,to ,christianity as an intellectual system they contributed nothing2 #8little children' at heart#bb1 they were content to live in a perfect affection one towards another1 and their miserable circumstances were cheered by visions of angels and a sense of their master's continual presence#bc4 ,from this company our ,stoic might easily turn aside as from a band of ignorant fanatics1 displaying the same simplicity and conservatism as the idol-worshippers of ,rome1 with the added mischief of being disloyal towards the majesty of the empire1 and a possible danger to its security#bd4 ,sidenote3 ,philosophic ,christians4 #dfb4 ,in startling contrast to this band of simple-minded brethren would appear the ,christian propagandists whose temper is revealed to us in the latter part of the book of ,acts1 in the epistles of ,paul1 the first epistle of ,peter1 and the epistle to the ,hebrews4 ,these fiery preachers1 equally attached to the name of their ,lord1 might appear to have been singularly indifferent to his person and his history1 and even to have paid little heed to the details of his teaching as recorded in the oral gospels#be4 ,but they were entirely possessed by his secret--the transmutation of ,hebraism into a world-religion2 and they had an ardent desire to present it to the ,roman world in a form that would win intellectual assent4 ,into this effort they threw their whole personality2 all the conceptions which filled their minds1 some of them childish and common to them with uncivilised peoples1 others derived from ,jewish tradition or ,hellenistic philosophy1 were crudely but forcibly fused in the determination to present #8the ,christ' to the world1 as the solution of its difficulties and the centre of its hopes4 ,the outpourings of these men were as unintelligible and unsympathetic to the fraternity at ,jerusalem as they are to the average church-goer to-day2 only breaking out here and there into the flame of clear expression when at last some long-sought conception had been grasped#bf4 ,of such preachers ,st ,paul is for us the type1 and we may describe them as the #8,paulists4' ,paul himself is self-assertive in tone1 as a man may be who feels himself misunderstood and misjudged in his own circle#bg4 ,but an ardent ,stoic might well have recognised in him a kindred spirit1 an intellect grappling boldly with the supreme problems1 and laying the foundations of a new philosophy of life4 ,sidenote3 ,st ,paul and ,stoicism4 #dfc4 ,,paul was a man of ,jewish descent1 intensely proud of his nationality2 but nevertheless brought up in the city of ,tarsus1 which had for centuries been a centre of ,hellenistic philosophy of every type#bh1 and more especially of ,stoicism#bi4 ,this philosophy is to ,paul's mind entirely inadequate and even dangerous2 nevertheless he is steeped in ,stoic ways of thinking1 which are continually asserting themselves in his teaching without being formally recognised by him as such4 ,thus the #8universe' 771 which to the ,stoic includes everything with which he is concerned1 and in particular the subject-matter of religion1 becomes with ,paul the #8world1' that out of which and above which the ,christian rises to the #8eternal' or spiritual life4' ,yet this contrast is not final#cj2 and whether or not the ,pauline #8spirit' is derived from the ,stoic 1 the ,pauline system1 as it is elaborated in detail1 increasingly accommodates itself to that of the ,stoics4 ,our supposed inquirer would examine the points both of likeness and of contrast4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,paulist logic4 #dfd4 ,the teaching of ,paul was1 like that of the ,stoics1 positive and dogmatic#ca4 ,he accepted unquestioningly the evidence of the senses as trustworthy1 without troubling himself as to the possibility of hallucinations1 from which nevertheless his circle was not free#cb4 ,he also accepted the theory of #8inborn ideas1' that is1 of moral principles engraved upon the heart#cc2 and for the faculty of the soul which realizes such principles he uses the special term #8conscience' 77#cd2 conscience being described1 with a correct sense of etymology and possibly a touch of humour1 as that within a man which becomes a second witness to what the man says#ce4 ,from another point of view the conscience is the divine spirit at work in the human spirit#cf4 ,closely associated with conscience in the ,pauline system is #8faith' 771 a faculty of the soul which properly has to do with things not as they are1 but as we mean them to be#cg4 ,the ,stoic logic had failed to indicate clearly how from the knowledge of the universe as it is men could find a basis for their hopes and efforts for its future2 the missing criterion is supplied by the ,paulist doctrine of #8faith1' which may also be paradoxically described as the power always to say #8,yes#ch4' ,the fraternity at ,jerusalem appear to have been alarmed not so much at the principle of faith1 as at the manner in which ,st ,paul used it to enforce his own doctrines2 we find them by way of contrast asserting the ,academic position that #8none of us are infallible#ci4' ,we may here notice that the next generation of ,christians again brought the theory of faith into harmony with ,stoic principles1 by explaining that the power of knowing the right is strictly dependent upon right action#dj4 ,sidenote3 ,paulist metaphysics4 #dfe4 ,in their metaphysical postulates the ,paulists started1 like all ancient philosophers1 with the contrast between soul and body1 but this they transformed into that between #8spirit' and #8flesh4' ,to them the #8spirit' included the whole message of ,christianity1 the #8flesh' the doctrine and practice of the ,gentile world#da4 ,the terms themselves were in use in the oral gospel#db1 but the ,paulists developed the content of #8spirit1' until it included a whole world of conceptions1 encircling and interfused with the world of sense-experience4 ,but ,paul did not desire that this spiritual world should be regarded as wanting in reality1 or as a mere product of the imagination3 and to express this objectivity of spirit he adopted the ,stoic term #8body4' ,body then expresses the underlying monistic principle of all nature2 and we may say #8spirit-body' exists#dc1 with the same confidence with which we speak of animal body or #8flesh-body4' ,there has been a flesh-body of ,jesus2 with that we have no more concern#dd4 ,there exists eternally a spirit-body of ,christ2 from that his church draws its life4 ,the ,christian feeds upon the spirit of his ,master2 but in paradoxical phrase we may say that he eats his body and drinks his blood#de4 ,what is not #8body' has no real existence at all#df4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,christian universe4 #dff4 ,st ,paul in his letters appears entirely lacking in that reverent feeling towards the physical universe1 that admiration for sun1 moon and stars1 which marked the earlier world-religions1 and which he perhaps associated with ,babylonian idolatry4 ,as we have seen1 he only used the ,stoic term for universe in disapproval4 ,and yet the conception of the history of the universe was deeply impressed upon the ,paulists1 and almost precisely in ,stoic form4 ,god1 the ,father1 is the beginning of all things2 from him they come1 and to him they shall all return#dg4 ,from the ,father went forth an image of him#dh1 his first-born ,son#di1 his word1 the ,christ2 by this he created the world1 and for this the world exists#ej4 ,by a further outpouring of the divine spirit1 men are created with the capacity of becoming the #8images' or bodily representations of ,god and his ,son#ea4 ,to this general doctrine individual ,paulists add special features2 ,st ,paul himself introduces #8woman' as a fourth order of creation1 an image or #8vessel' bearing the same relation to man as man to ,christ#eb2 and a writer 7of distinctly later date7 seems to refer not only to the creation of the elements#ec1 but also to their coming destruction by the conflagration#ed4 ,of the creation of the animals no notice is taken#ee4 ,sidenote3 ,the divine immanence4 #dfg4 ,from this theory of creation it would seem to follow as a consequence that the world is inhabited by the ,deity1 and is essentially good4 ,this is the ,stoic doctrine1 and it is accepted boldly by ,paul4 ,god dwells in the universe1 and the universe in him2 man is not in the strict sense an individual1 for apart from ,god he does not exist at all#ef4 ,but there nevertheless remains the fact of the existence of evil1 both physical and moral1 in apparent defiance of the divine will4 ,here too the ,paulists agree with ,stoic teaching2 they hold that evil serves a moral purpose as a training in virtue#eg2 that ,god turns evil to his own purpose1 so that in the final issue all things are working together for good#eh2 that ,god is active through his ,word in restoring a unity that has been for a time broken#ei4 ,neither can man shift on to his ,maker the responsibility for his own wrongdoing2 that is 7as ,cleanthes had taught before7 the work of men following out their own ways in accordance with some bias which is in conflict with their divine origin#fj4 ,in spite of all this common ground ,paul maintains with at least equal emphasis doctrines of a gloomier type4 ,the universe1 as it is1 is evil2 its rulers are the powers of darkness#fa4 ,st ,paul by no means put out of sight1 as the ,stoics did1 the doctrine of an ,evil ,spirit2 on the contrary1 this conception dominates his mind and multiplies itself in it4 ,sin in particular is in his eyes more widespread1 more hideous1 more dangerous than it is to the ,stoic philosopher4 ,to this point we must revert later4 ,sidenote3 ,religion4 #dfh4 ,with regard to religious belief and practice 7we are here using the word #8religion' in the narrower sense1 as in the previous chapter on this subject7 ,paul was in the first place a monotheist1 and addresses his prayers and praises alike to the ,father in heaven1 and to him alone4 ,at the same time he does not regard the ,deity as dwelling in a world apart2 he is to be worshipped in and through the ,christ1 who is the point of contact between him and humanity#fb4 ,from the ceremonial practices of ,hebraism all the ,paulists break away completely4 ,its bloody sacrifices take away no sin#fc2 the solemn rite of circumcision is nothing in itself#fd1 and in practice it is an impediment to the acceptance of ,christ#fe4 ,the disposition to observe days and seasons1 sabbaths and new moons1 is a matter for serious alarm#ff4 ,in place of this ritualism is to be substituted #8a worship according to reason#fg1' which is in close agreement with ,stoic practice4 ,to think rightly of the ,deity#fh1 to give thanks to him#fi1 to honour him by an innocent life#gj1 is well pleasing to ,god2 and the writings of ,paul1 like those of ,epictetus1 include many a hymn of praise1 and show us the existence at this time of the beginnings of a great body of religious poetry#ga4 ,sidenote3 ,human nature4 #dfi4 ,in the analysis of human nature ,paul again started from the ,stoic basis4 ,in the first place he recognised the fundamental unity of the man as a compacted whole#gb2 subject to this monism1 he recognised three parts1 the spirit1 the animal life1 and the flesh#gc4 ,of these only the two extremes1 the spirit and the flesh1 are usually mentioned2 but these do not strictly correspond to the traditional distinction of soul and body4 ,the soul 71 anima7 is that which man has in common with the animals2 the spirit 71 spiritus7 is that which he has in common with ,god4 ,where therefore only two parts are mentioned1 the soul and the flesh must be considered both to be included under the name #8flesh4' ,soul and flesh are peculiar to the individual man2 spirit is the common possession of the ,deity and of all men#gd4 ,thus ,god and man share in the spiritual nature1 and become partners in an aspect of the universe from which animals1 plants1 and stones are definitely excluded#ge4 ,the #8spirit' of ,st ,paul therefore corresponds closely to the #8principate' of the ,stoics1 and though the ,christian apostle does not lay the same emphasis on its intellectual aspect1 he fully recognises that the spiritual life is true wisdom1 and its perversion folly and darkness#gf4 ,sidenote3 ,resurrection and immortality4 #dgj4 ,from this analysis of human nature ,paul approaches the central doctrine of the ,christian community1 that of the resurrection of its ,founder4 ,to the simple-minded fraternity at ,jerusalem the resurrection of ,jesus was a marvel1 an interference with the orderly course of divine providence1 a proof of the truth of the gospel message4 ,jesus has returned to his disciples in the body as he lived2 he has again departed1 but before this generation has passed away he will return to stay with them and establish his kingdom4 ,to ,st ,paul all this is different4 ,he accepts implicitly the fact of the resurrection1 but as typical1 not as abnormal4 ,as ,christ has risen1 so will his followers rise4 ,but ,christ lives in the spirit2 by their intrinsic nature neither the flesh-body nor the soul-body can become immortal#gg4 ,and in the spirit ,christ's followers are joined with him1 and will be more fully joined when they are rid of the burden of the flesh#gh4 ,this continued existence is no mere fancy2 it is real1 objective1 and 7in philosophical language7 bodily4 ,though by the creation all men have some share in the divine spirit1 yet immortality 7at any rate in the full sense7 is the privilege of the faithful only2 it is won1 not inherited4 ,paul does not venture to suggest that human individuality and personality are retained in the life beyond4 ,he draws no picture of the reunion of preacher and disciple1 of husband and wife1 or of mother and child4 ,it is enough for him to believe that he will be reunited with the glorified ,christ1 and be in some sense a member of the heavenly community#gi4 ,sidenote3 ,the seed theory4 #dga4 ,on its philosophical side the ,paulist view of immortality is closely akin to the ,stoic1 and is exposed to the same charge of logical inconsistency4 ,if the whole man is one1 how can we cut off the flesh-body and the soul-body from this unity1 and yet maintain that the spirit-body is not also destroyed8 ,to meet this difficulty ,st ,paul1 in one of his grandest outbursts of conviction1 propounds the doctrine of #8seeds1' closely connected with the ,stoic doctrine of seed-powers' 7 7#hj1 and with the general principles of biological science as now understood4 ,this seed is the true reality in man2 it may throw off both soul and flesh1 and assume to itself a new body1 as a tree from which the branches are lopped off will throw out new branches4 ,thus1 and not otherwise1 was ,christ raised2 and as ,christ was raised1 so will his followers be raised#ha4 ,man is not in any final sense a unit2 as the race is continued by the breaking off of the seed from the individual1 so is the spirit-life won by the abandonment of soul and flesh4 ,sidenote3 ,life and death4 #dgb4 ,at this point we are brought face to face with a very old paradox1 that life is death1 and death is life4 ,what is commonly called life is that of the soul and the flesh1 which the animals share and which may mean the atrophy of man's higher part2 on the other hand death has no power over the life of the spirit1 which is therefore called #8eternal life' or #8life of the ages4' ,to enter upon this #8eternal life' is the very kernel of the gospel message#hb2 in the language of philosophy it is the bridge between physics and ethics4 ,although the steps by which it is reached can be most clearly traced in the ,pauline epistles1 yet the general conclusion was accepted by the whole ,christian church4 ,from this point of view ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 by virtue of their communion with ,god1 are still alive#hc2 he who holds his life dear1 loses it2 and he who makes it of no account keeps it to the life of the ages#hd2 he who listens to the teaching of ,jesus and believes in the ,father who sent him1 has passed over out of death into life#he4 ,sidenote3 ,moral principles4 #dgc4 ,from the doctrine of #8eternal life' follow the first principles of morals3 eternal life is the moral end 77 or summum bonum#hf4 ,the spirit is everything1 the act nothing2 good lies in the intention1 not in the performance#hg2 we are saved by faith1 not by works#hh4 ,therefore all tabus fall away2 #8to the pure everything is pure#hi'2 #8in its own nature no food is impure2 but if people regard any food as impure1 to them it is#ij'2 #8our ungraceful parts come to have a more abundant grace#ia'2 #8everything that ,god has created is good#ib4' ,and because ,god and all men share in one spirit1 all men are fellow-citizens in the cosmopolis#ic4 ,to this ,st ,paul sacrifices all personal advantages of which otherwise he might be justly proud1 his ,hebrew descent1 his free citizenship in the ,roman empire1 and even his standing in sex above an inferior part of the creation#id4 ,the spiritual condition is expressed in terms of certain emotional attitudes which correspond to the three ,stoic #8constancies#ie'2 the details vary1 but love1 joy1 peace1 gentleness and sweet reasonableness#if are frequently recurring terms1 whilst faith1 hope and love are recommended in one passage of the highest eloquence1 love 71 caritas7 being given the highest place of all#ig4 ,sidenote3 ,virtues and vices4 #dgd4 ,in the treatment of the virtues and vices we miss the familiar series of the four virtues1 though three of them find a place here or there in some more elaborate list#ih4 ,the vices are treated with much more fulness4 ,those connected with the sexual relations and functions are invariably the first to be condemned2 incest1 adultery1 harlotry1 foul conversation1 are named in almost every list#ii4 ,next in importance are ill-feeling and quarrelsomeness2 heavy drinking comes after these4 ,more upon ,stoic lines is the reproof of #8excessive grief#ajj4' ,the necessity of steady progress is strongly pressed1 and the term used 77 is that with which we are familiar in ,greek philosophy#aja4 ,in all the ,paulist writers there is also incessant insistence upon the importance of the regular performance of daily duties#ajb4 ,experience not only of the disasters which befel the church at ,jerusalem1 but also of similar tendencies nearer at hand1 had impressed deeply on ,paul the insufficiency of moral teaching which relied on general principles and emotional feeling only1 especially if such teaching 7as in the ,sermon on the mount7 was mainly negative4 ,the ,paulists at any rate set forth1 almost in a fixed form1 a body of instructions to serve the community as a whole1 and social#ajc rather than ethical in nature4 ,this teaching follows closely the ,stoic teaching of the same period1 and is based upon the relationships 771 such as those of king and subject1 master and slave1 husband and wife1 parent and child#ajd4 ,it is conservative in character1 advocating kindness1 contentment1 and zeal in social relations as they exist4 ,thus whilst we recognise the spirit of ,zeno in the ,sermon on the mount1 we find that of ,panaetius in the ,pauiist discourses4 ,sidenote3 ,sage and saint4 #dge4 ,as against the ,stoic sage the ,paulists set up as their ideal the saint1 and used all the resources of eloquence in his commendation4 ,he is the true king and priest#aje2 even if he is a beggar1 he is surpassingly rich#ajf2 he alone1 though a slave1 is free#ajg4 ,on the other hand the sinner is always a slave#ajh2 even his good acts are without real value#aji4 ,all such phrases would be familiar to our ,stoic inquirer2 but perhaps he might be specially impressed by finding once more the doctrine of the #8sufficiency of virtue' amongst the ,christians4 ,the term is indeed altered#aaj1 but it bears the same meaning as regards independence of wealth1 health and liberty1 though with more emphasis upon support from a divine source4 ,sidenote3 ,st ,paul and sin4 #dgf4 ,it is generally agreed that in the writings of ,st ,paul there is displayed a special sense of shame and horror in speaking of sin#aaa1 which entirely differentiates his teaching from that of the ,stoics4 ,this difference1 however1 cannot be due to ,st ,paul treating sin as #8defiance towards a loving ,father#aab1' for this view was also that of ,cleanthes and the ,stoics generally2 and ,paul's horror of sin depends on no reasoning1 but is felt by him as instinctive4 ,it remains to add that our ,stoic inquirer would find an apparent conflict between this instinct and ,paul's reasoning4 ,the sin of which ,st ,paul finds it #8a shame even to speak#aac' is sexual2 and so far as it consists in abnormal social habits1 such as those relations between persons of the same sex which had found excuse in the classical world1 the ,stoic would at once agree that these practices were #8against nature#aad' and were unseemly4 ,again1 the marriage of near relations1 though not against nature in the sense in which nature is illustrated by the animal world1 is still opposed to so deep-seated a social tradition as to merit instinctive condemnation#aae4 ,but the instincts of ,st ,paul go far deeper2 the marriage relation is to him at the best a concession to human frailty1 and falls short of the ideal#aaf4 ,nor is this merely a personal view of ,paul2 it is deeply impressed upon the consciousness of the whole ,christian church4 ,how1 it would be asked1 can this be reconciled with the abolition of the tabu1 with the principle that #8all things are pure1' or even with the obvious purpose of the ,creator when he created mankind male and female8 ,sidenote3 ,the sex tabus4 #dgg4 ,it would seem that here we have touched a fundamental point in the historical development of the moral sentiments4 ,the sexual tabus are the most primitive and deeply-seated in human history4 ,from this point of view woman is by nature impure1 the sex-functions which play so large a part in her mature life being to the savage both dangerous and abhorrent4 ,hence the view1 so strongly held by ,st ,paul1 that woman as a part of the creation is inferior to man4 ,but man too becomes by his sex-functions impure1 though for shorter periods2 and by union with woman lowers himself to her level4 ,hence the unconquerable repugnance of ,st ,paul to the sexual relation under any conditions whatever#aag2 a repugnance which reason and religion keep within limits#aah1 but which yet always breaks out afresh in his writings4 ,hence also he assumes as unquestionable the natural unseemliness of the sexual parts of the body2 in all these points not going beyond feelings which are to-day as keen as ever1 though no philosopher has found it easy to justify them4 ,but in certain points ,st ,paul outpaces the general feeling1 and shows himself an extreme reactionary against the philosophic doctrines which he shared with the ,stoic4 ,he extends his dislike1 in accordance with a most primitive tabu1 to woman's hair#aai2 he desires the subordination of woman to man to be marked in her outward appearance#abj2 and he forbids women to speak in the general meetings of church members#aba4 ,sidenote3 ,hebrew feeling4 #dgh4 ,this intense feeling on the part of ,st ,paul required1 as his writings assume1 no justification2 it was therefore an inherited feeling1 as familiar to many an ,oriental as it is usually strange and unsympathetic to the ancient and modern ,european4 ,it appears also to be rooted in ,hebrew tradition2 for if we are at liberty to interpret the myth of ,adam and ,eve by the parallel of ,yama and ,yam in the ,rigveda#abb1 the fall of man was nothing else than the first marriage1 in which ,eve was the suitor and ,adam the accomplice4 ,in the dramatic poem of the ,rigveda ,yama corresponds to the ,hebrew ,adam1 his sister ,yam to ,eve#abc4 ,yam yearns to become the mother of the human race2 ,yama shudders at the impiety of a sister's embrace4 ,zeno had already conceived the world-problem in much the same shape#abd2 but to the ,oriental it is more than a problem of cosmology2 it is the fundamental opposition of sex attitude1 the woman who longs for the family affections against the man who seeks an ideal purity4 ,in ,genesis the prohibition of the apple appears at first sight colourless1 yet the meaning is hardly obscure4 ,after touching the forbidden fruit man and woman first feel the shame of nakedness2 and ,eve is punished by the coming pains of child-bearing1 and a rank below her husband's4 ,none the less she has her wish1 for she becomes the mother of all living4 ,it is hard to think that ,paul1 who always traces human sin back to the offence of ,adam1 and finds it most shamelessly displayed in the sex-relationships of his own time1 could have conceived of the ,fall in any very different way4 ,sidenote3 ,the taint in procreation4 #dgi4 ,according then to a point of view which we believe to be latent in all the teaching of ,paul on the subject of sin1 the original taint lay in procreation1 and through the begetting of children has passed on from one generation of mankind to another2 #8through the succession from ,adam all men become dead#abe4' ,as an ethical standpoint this position is very alien from ,stoicism2 with the ,stoic it is a first law of nature which bids all men seek for the continuance of the race2 with the ,apostle the same yearning leads them to enter the pathway of death4 ,it would lead us too far to attempt here to discuss this profound moral problem1 which has deeply influenced the whole history of the ,christian church4 ,we are however greatly concerned with the influence of this sentiment on ,pauline doctrine4 ,for it follows that in order to attain to a true moral or spiritual life man needs a new begetting and a new birth#abf2 he must become a son of ,god through the outpouring of his spirit#abg4 ,this is one of the most familiar of ,pauline conceptions1 and for us it is easy to link it on to the ,stoico-,pauline account of the creation1 according to which man was in the first instance created through the ,word of ,god1 and endowed with his spirit4 ,but to the community at ,jerusalem all conceptions of this kind appear to have been hardly intelligible1 and tended to aggravate the deep distrust of the teachings and methods of ,st ,paul and his companions1 which was rooted in his disregard of national tradition4 ,sidenote3 ,the quarrel4 #dhj4 ,this difference of mental attitude soon broke out into an open quarrel4 ,so much was inevitable2 and the fact that the quarrel is recorded at length in the texts from which we are quoting is one of the strongest evidences of their general accuracy4 ,the ,christians at ,jerusalem formed themselves into a nationalist party2 they claimed that all the brothers should be in the first instance conformists to ,hebrew institutions4 ,paul went up to ,jerusalem#abh1 eager to argue the matter with men of famous name4 ,he was disillusioned1 as is so often the traveller who returns after trying experiences and much mental growth to the home to which his heart still clings4 ,peter and the others had no arguments to meet ,paul's2 he could learn nothing from them#abi2 they had not even a consistent practice#acj4 ,at first ,paul's moral sense was outraged2 he publicly rebuked ,peter as double-faced4 ,after a little time he realized that he had met with children2 he remembered that he had once thought and acted in the same way#aca4 ,jews in heart1 the home apostles still talked of marvels#acb1 still yearned for the return of ,jesus in the flesh#acc4 ,a philosophic religion was as much beyond their grasp as a consistent morality4 ,through a simple-minded application of the doctrines of the ,sermon on the mount they had slipped into deep poverty#acd2 they were ready to give ,paul full recognition in return for charitable help4 ,this was not refused them2 but to his other teaching ,paul now added a chapter on pecuniary independence#ace2 and in his old age he left to his successors warnings against #8old wives' fables#acf' and #8,jewish legends#acg4' ,sidenote3 ,the development of ,christian mythology4 #dha4 ,thus for the first time the forces of mythology within the ,christian church clashed with those of philosophy4 ,for the moment ,paul appeared to be the victor2 he won the formal recognition of the church1 with full authority to continue his preaching on the understanding that it was primarily directed to the ,gentile world#ach4 ,external events were also unfavourable to the ,hebraists3 the destruction of ,jerusalem deprived them of their local centre2 the failure of ,jesus to reappear in the flesh within the lifetime of his companions disappointed them of their most cherished hope4 ,but their sentiments and thoughts remained to a great extent unchanged4 ,to ,paul they gave their respect1 to ,peter their love2 and the steady tradition of the ,christian church has confirmed this judgment4 ,no saint has been so loved as ,peter2 to none have so many churches been dedicated by the affectionate instinct of the many2 whilst even the dominant position of ,paul in the sacred canon has hardly secured him much more than formal recognition except by the learned4 ,so again it was with ,paul's teaching2 formally recognised as orthodox1 it remained misunderstood and unappreciated3 it was even rapidly converted into that mythological form to which ,paul himself was so fiercely opposed4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,virgin birth and the resurrection4 #dhb4 ,this divergence of view is illustrated most strikingly in the two doctrines which for both parties were the cardinal points of ,christian belief1 the divine nature of the ,founder and his resurrection4 ,on the latter point the standpoint of the ,hebraists is sufficiently indicated by the tradition of the gospels1 all of which emphatically record as a decisive fact that the body of ,jesus was not found in his grave on the third day2 to the ,paulists this point is entirely irrelevant1 and they pass it by unmentioned#aci4 ,to ,paul again the man ,jesus was of human and natural birth1 born of the posterity of ,david1 born of a woman1 born subject to the law#adj2 in his aspect as the ,christ he was1 as his followers were to be1 begotten of the spirit and born anew#ada4 ,his statement as to descent from ,david 7which hardly means more than that he was of ,jewish race7 was crystallized by the mythologists in two formal genealogies1 which disagree so entirely in detail that they have always been the despair of verbal apologists1 but agree in tracing the pedigree through ,joseph to ,jesus4 ,the phrase #8begotten of the spirit' was interpreted with equal literalness2 but the marvel-lovers were for a time puzzled to place the #8spirit' in the family relationship4 ,in the first instance the spirit seems to have been identified with the mother of ,jesus#adb2 but the misunderstanding of a ,hebrew word which does not necessarily connote physical virginity#adc assisted to fix the function of fatherhood upon the divine parent4 ,the antipathy to the natural process of procreation which we have traced in ,st ,paul himself1 and which was surely not less active amongst many of the ,hebraists1 has contributed to raise this materialisation of a philosophic tenet to a high place amongst the formal dogmas of historic ,christianity4 ,sidenote3 ,the doctrine of the ,word4 #dhc4 ,but if the tendency to myth-making was still alive in the ,christian church1 that in the direction of philosophy had become self-confident and active4 ,the ,paulists had taken the measure of their former opponents2 they felt themselves superior in intellectual and moral vigour1 and they knew that they had won this superiority by contact with the ,gentile world4 ,more than before they applied themselves to plead the cause of the ,christ before the ,gentiles2 but the storm and stress of the ,pauline epistles gave way in time to a serener atmosphere1 in which the truths of ,stoicism were more generously acknowledged4 ,a ,stoic visitor of the reign of ,trajan would meet in ,christian circles the attitude represented to us by the fourth gospel1 in which the problem of the ,christ-nature stands to the front1 and is treated on consistently ,stoic lines4 ,st ,paul had spoken of ,jesus as #8for us a wisdom which is from ,god#add' and had asserted that #8from the beginning he had the nature of ,god#ade'2 his successors declared frankly that ,christ was the ,logos1 the ,word#adf2 and in place of the myth of the ,virgin ,birth they deliberately set in the beginning of their account of ,christ the foundation-principles of ,stoic physics and the ,paulist account of the spiritual procreation of all ,christians4 #8,in the beginning was the ,word1 and the ,word was with ,god1 and the ,word was ,god4 ,he was in the beginning with ,god4 ,all things came into being through him1 and apart from him nothing that exists came into being#adg4' #8,to all who have received him1 to them--that is1 to those who trust in his name--he has given the privilege of becoming children of ,god2 who were begotten as such not by human descent1 nor through an impulse of their own nature1 nor through the will of a human father1 but from ,god4 #8,and the ,word came in the flesh1 and lived for a time in our midst1 so that we saw his glory1 the glory as of the ,father's only ,son1 sent from his presence4 ,he was full of grace and truth#adh4' ,the ,stoic character of this teaching is no longer latent1 but proclaimed2 and the ,church ,fathers recognise this in no doubtful terms#adi4 ,sidenote3 ,the doctrine of the ,trinity4 #dhd4 ,during the whole of the second century ,a4,d4 men trained in ,stoic principles crowded into the ,christian community4 ,within it they felt they had a special work to do in building up ,christian doctrine so that it might face all storms of criticism4 ,this effort gradually took the shape of schools modelled upon those of the philosophic sects4 ,such a school was founded by an ex-,stoic named ,,pantaenus at ,alexandria in #aha ,a4,d42 and his successors ,,clemens of ,alexandria 7ob4 c4 #bae ,a4,d47 and ,,origenes 7c4 #ahf-bec ,a4,d47 specially devoted themselves to developing the theory of the divine nature upon ,stoic lines4 ,not all the particulars they suggested were accepted by the general feeling of the ,christian body1 but from the discussion was developed gradually the ecclesiastical doctrine of the ,trinity#aej4 ,the elements of this doctrine have been already traced in ,st ,paul's epistles1 in which the dominating conceptions are those of ,god the ,father1 the ,christ1 and the divine spirit4 ,for these in the next generation we find the ,father1 the ,word1 and the ,spirit2 and the last term of the triad becomes increasingly identified with the #8holy spirit' of ,stoicism4 ,but these three conceptions 7with others7 are in ,stoic doctrine varying names or aspects of the divine unity4 ,seneca1 for instance1 had written in the following tone3 #8,to whatever country we are banished1 two things go with us1 our part in the starry heavens above and the world around1 our sole right in the moral instincts of our own hearts4 ,such is the gift to us of the supreme power which shaped the universe4 ,that power we sometimes call 8the all-ruling ,god10 sometimes 8the incorporeal ,wisdom0 which is the creator of mighty works1 sometimes the 8divine spirit0 which spreads through things great and small with duly strung tone1 sometimes 8destiny0 or the changeless succession of causes linked one to another#aea4' ,here the larger variety of terms used by the early ,stoic teachers#aeb is reduced to four aspects of the first cause1 namely ,god1 the ,word1 the divine spirit1 and destiny4 ,the ,christian writers struck out from the series the fourth member1 and the doctrine of the ,trinity was there4 ,its stiff formulation for school purposes in the shape #8these three are one' has given it the appearance of a paradox2 but to persons conversant with philosophic terminology such a phrase was almost commonplace1 and is indeed found in various associations#aec4 ,the subsequent conversion of the members of the triad into three #8persons' introduced a simplification which is only apparent1 for the doctrine must always remain meaningless except as a typical solution of the old problem of #8the ,one and the many1' carried up to the level of ultimate ,being#aed4 ,sidenote3 ,subsequent history4 #dhe4 ,in the ages that have since followed mythology and philosophy have been at work side by side within the ,christian church4 ,at no time had ,christians of philosophic temperament entirely thrown off the belief in marvels1 and this in increasing degree infected the whole ,hellenistic world from the second century onwards4 ,but this spirit of concession proved no sure protection to men who1 after all1 were guilty of thinking4 ,it was substantially on this ground that the first persecutions began within the church4 ,demetrius1 bishop of ,alexandria 7circ4 #bcj ,a4,d471 excommunicated ,origen1 and obtained the support of the great majority of the ,christian churches for his action2 still ,origen steadily held his ground1 and has found advocates in all ages of ,christian history#aee4 ,throughout the #8dark ages' philosophical thought lay almost extinguished1 and a childish credulity attained such monstrous dimensions as to threaten the very existence of social life4 ,in the ecclesiastical chronicles of the middle ages miracles are so frequent that the orderly course of nature seems the exception2 angels and devils are so many that men are almost forgotten4 ,to these hallucinations and fictions of the monastery1 so deservedly ridiculed in the ,ingoldsby ,legends#aef1 the practical experience of daily life must always have supplied some corrective2 the swollen claim of #8faith' to say yes to every absurdity had to be met by the reassertion of criticism1 the right to say #8no4' ,the ,reformation1 at the cost of infinite effort and sacrifice1 swept away the miracles of the saints2 modern criticism has spared none of the marvels of the ,old ,testament1 and is beginning to lay its axe to the root of those of the ,new4 ,every day the conviction that #8miracles do not happen' gains ground amongst intelligent communities2 that is 7in philosophic language7 the dualism of ,god and ,nature is being absorbed in the wider monism according to which ,god and ,nature are one4 ,sidenote3 ,christian philosophy4 #dhf4 ,as the credit of ,christian mythology diminishes1 the philosophic content of the new religion is regaining its authority4 ,the doctrine of the #8spiritual life' has not yet lost its freshness or its power2 but the more closely it is examined1 the more clearly will it be seen that it is rooted in the fundamental ,stoic conceptions of providence and duty1 and that1 in the history of the ,christian church1 it is specially bound up with the life and writings of the apostle ,paul4 ,it is not suggested that the sketch of ,christian teaching contained in this chapter is in any way a complete or even a well-proportioned view of the ,christian faith2 for we have necessarily thrown into the background those elements of the new religion which are drawn from ,judaism#aeg or from the personality of the ,founder4 ,nor have we found in ,paul a ,stoic philosopher3 it remains for a more direct and profound study to determine which of the forces which stirred his complex intellect most exactly represents his true and final convictions4 ,no man at any rate ever admitted more frankly the conflict both of moral and of intellectual cravings within himself2 no man ever cautioned his followers more carefully against accepting all his words as final4 ,with these reservations we may perhaps venture to join in the hopes of a recent writer who was endowed with no small prophetic insight3 #8,the doctrine of ,paul will arise out of the tomb where for centuries it has lain buried4 ,it will edify the church of the future2 it will have the consent of happier generations1 the applause of less superstitious ages4 ,all will be too little to pay the debt which the church of ,god owes to this 8least of the apostles1 who was not fit to be called an apostle1 because he persecuted the church of ,god#aeh40' ,sidenote3 ,stoicism in the present4 #dhg4 ,when that day comes1 it will be recognised that ,stoicism is something more than what the ,church ,fathers meant when they described it as part of the #8preparation of the gospel'2 that it may rather be regarded as forming an integral part of the ,christian message1 or 7as it has been recently called7 a #8root of ,christianity#aei4' ,if this view is correct1 ,stoicism is not dead nor will it die2 whether it is correct or not1 the study of ,stoicism is essential to the full understanding of the ,christian religion1 as also to that of many other fundamental conceptions of our modern life4 ,still the ,christian churches celebrate yearly in quick succession the twin festivals of ,pentecost and ,trinity1 in which the groundwork of the ,stoic physics is set forth for acceptance by the faithful in its ,christian garb2 whilst the scientific world has lately in hot haste abandoned the atomic theory as a final explanation of the universe1 and is busy in re-establishing in all its essentials the ,stoic doctrine of an all-pervading aether4 ,in the practical problems of statesmanship and private life we are at present too often drifting like a ship without a rudder1 guided only by the mirages of convention1 childishly alarmed at the least investigation of first principles2 till the most numerous classes are in open revolt against a civilisation which makes no appeal to their reason1 and a whole sex is fretting against a subordination which seems to subserve no clearly defined purpose4 ,in this part of philosophy we may at least say that ,stoicism has stated clearly the chief problems1 and has begun to pave a road towards their solution4 ,but that solution will not be found in the refinements of logical discussion3 of supreme importance is the force of character which can at the right moment say #8yes' or say #8no4' ,in this sense also 7and not by any more mechanical interpretation7 we understand the words of the ,founder of ,christianity3 #8let your language be 8,yes1 yes0 or 8,no1 no02 anything in excess of this comes from the ,evil one#afj4' ,to the simple and the straightforward1 who trust themselves because they trust a power higher than themselves1 the future belongs4 ,,footnotes #a ,as to supposed instances to the contrary see ,winckler1 ,stoicismus1 pp4 #e to #ad4 #b ,for material of this kind see ,winckler's dissertation just quoted1 and ,lightfoot's ,philippians1 pp4 #bgh-bij4 #c #8,for we are also his offspring' ,acts xvii #bh4 #d #a ,cor4 i #bj-be4 #e ,john i #a4 #f ,in the references to the ,new ,testament books in this chapter no attempt is made to apply any precise critical theory of their origin or date4 ,since we suppose that all ,christian doctrine was enunciated orally long before it was committed to writing1 the date and circumstances of the written record become for the present purpose of secondary importance4 ,translations from the ,new ,testament are1 as a rule1 taken from ,dr ,r4 ,f4 ,weymouth's ,new ,testament in ,modern ,speech 7,london #aijc74 ,this admirable translation has for the present purpose the great negative advantage of keeping in the background the mass of associations which hinder the modern reader from taking the words of the writers in their simple and natural sense2 but on the other hand1 ,dr ,weymouth sometimes disguises the technical terms of ancient philosophy so far as to make them unrecognisable4 ,in such cases the ,revised ,version is quoted1 and occasionally the ,greek text4 #g ,matt4 xiii #ee1 ,luke ii #dh2 and see below1 #dhb4 #h ,luke ii #df1 #dg4 ,such men would of course be typical of the spirit of #8,judaism1' see #bb above4 #i ,see the treatment of the ,jonah myth 7,matt4 xii #dj and #da71 and of the prophecy of the return of ,elijah 7,matt4 xvii #aj to #ac74 #aj ,matt4 xxiii #ac4 #aa ,matt4 iv #a to #aa2 ,mark i #ac2 ,luke iv #a to #ad4 #ab ,matt4 xii #a to #ac2 ,mark ii #bc to #bh2 ,luke vi #a to #aj4 #ac ,john iv #ba4 #ad ,matt4 v #e4 #ae ,matt4 vi #i to #ac2 a doxology is first found in the ,,ms of the ,teaching of the ,apostles1 and it was probably not specifically connected with the prayer originally4 #af ,john xiii #ba4 #ag ,luke xxii #dd4 #ah ,john viii #f and #h4 #ai ,matt4 v #dh2 ,luke vi #dj4 #bj ,matt4 xxvi #da2 ,mark xiv #ch4 ,the author of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews adopts the technical terms of ,stoicism more completely4 ,according to him ,christ was touched with all the passions of weak men1 but to a degree falling short of sin2 444 ,heb4 iv #ae4 ,thus the agony in the garden1 though accompanied by loud cries and tears1 did not pass the limits of the healthy affection of caution 771 or 7as we might say7 #8anxiety'2 ib4 v #g4 #ba ,john xx #bh4 #bb ,mark x #ae4 #bc ,acts xii #ae4 #bd ,this antipathy to the ,roman government finds biting expression in the ,apocalypse of ,john4 #be ,there seems to be no definite reference even to the ,lord's prayer1 or to any of the parables1 in the books named above4 #bf ,for instance1 that of #8love' in #a ,cor4 xiii1 and of #8faith' in ,hebrews xi4 #bg ,for the conflict between ,st ,paul and the church at ,jerusalem1 see below1 #dhj2 for his tone towards those who differed from him1 see ,galatians i #h and #i2 ,col4 ii #d2 #a ,tim4 i #bj1 vi #c to #e2 ,titus i #aj4 ,a gentle expostulation as to this style of controversy is found in the epistle of ,james1 see note #ci4 #bh #8,with such zeal do the inhabitants of ,tarsus study philosophy and literature1 that they surpass ,athens1 ,alexandria1 and all other schools of learning4444 ,rome knows well how many men of letters issue from this city1 for her streets swarm with them' ,strabo xiv p4 #fgc4 #bi ,juv4 ,sat4 iii #aag and #aah2 and see above1 #be1 note #fe4 #cj ,romans viii #bj and #ba4 #ca ,romans vi #ag1 #a ,cor4 i #aj4 #cb #b ,cor4 xii #b to #e4 #cc #8a knowledge of the conduct which the ,law requires is engraven on the hearts of the ,gentiles' ,rom4 ii #ae4 #cd ib4 #ce #8my conscience adds its testimony to mine' ,rom4 ix #a4 #cf ib4 #cg #8,faith is a well-grounded assurance of that for which we hope' ,heb4 xi #a4 ,thus whilst sense-knowledge1 and especially sight1 calls for acceptance because it is #8objective1' and detached from personal bias1 faith is essentially subjective1 and suggests a power by which 7in harmony with a divine source7 personality dominates fact4 #ch #b ,cor4 i #ai4 #ci #8,do not be eager to become teachers2 for we often stumble and fall1 all of us' ,james iii i and #b4 #dj #8,he who does what is honest and right comes to the light' ,john iii #ba2 #8if any one is willing to do ,his will1 he shall know about the teaching' ib4 vii #ag4 #da #8,the cravings of the flesh are opposed to those of the spirit1 and the cravings of the spirit are opposed to those of the flesh' ,gal4 v #ag2 cf4 ,romans viii #ab and #ac4 #db ,see above1 #dfj1 note #bj4 #dc #8,there are bodies which are celestial and there are bodies which are earthly' #a ,cor4 xv #dj2 #8as surely as there is an animal body1 so there is also a spiritual body' ib4 #dd4 #dd #b ,cor4 v #af4 #de #a ,cor4 xi #bd1 #be4 #df #8which are a shadow of the things to come1 but the body is ,christ's' ,col4 ii #ag 7,revised ,version74 #dg #8,the universe 7 7 owes its origin to ,him1 was created by ,him1 and has its aim and purpose in ,him' ,rom4 xi #cf 7,weymouth's translation72 #8of him and through him and unto him are all things' ib4 7,revised ,version72 #8,god1 the ,father1 who is the source of all things' #a ,cor4 viii #f4 ,see further ib4 xv #bd and #bh4 #dh #8,christ1 who is the image of ,god' #b ,cor4 iv #d2 #8he brightly reflects ,god's glory and is the exact representation of ,his being' ,hebr4 i #c4 #di #8,christ is the visible representation of the invisible ,god1 the ,first-born and ,lord of all creation' ,col4 i #ae2 #8it is in ,christ that the fulness of ,god's nature dwells embodied' ib4 ii #i4 #ej #8in him were all things created 4442 all things have been created through him and unto him' ib4 i #af 7,revised ,version72 #8through whom ,god made the ages' ,hebrews i #b4 ,compare the discussion on the four causes above1 #agi1 and the phrase of ,marcus ,aurelius3 1 1 ,to himself1 iv #bc4 #ea #8,those he has also predestined to bear the likeness of his ,son' ,rom4 viii #bi2 #8a man is the image and glory of ,god' #a ,cor4 xi #g4 #eb #8woman is the glory of man2 woman takes her origin from man' #a ,cor4 xi #g and #h 7with special reference to ,eve72 cf4 #a ,thess4 iv #d 7,r4 ,v471 #a ,pet4 iii #g4 #ec #8there were heavens which existed of old1 and an earth1 the latter arising out of water by the word of ,god' #b ,pet4 iii #e4 #ed #8the heavens will pass away with a rushing noise1 the elements be destroyed in the fierce heat1 and the earth and all the works of man be utterly burnt up' ib4 #aj4 ,but compare #a ,cor4 iii #ac to #ae4 #ee ,the omission is due to contempt of dumb creatures1 see #a ,cor4 ix #i4 #ef #8,it is in closest union with ,him that we live and move and have our being' ,acts xvii #bh2 #8one ,god and ,father of all 444 rules over all1 acts through all1 and dwells in all' ,eph4 iv #f4 #eg #8,god is dealing with you as sons2 for what son is there whom his father does not discipline8' ,heb4 xii #g4 #eh #8for those who love ,god all things are working together for good' ,rom4 viii #bh4 #ei #8,god was in ,christ reconciling the world to ,himself' #b ,cor4 v #ai2 cf4 ,col4 i #bj4 #fj #8these men are without excuse1 for 444 their senseless minds were darkened 444 in accordance with their own depraved cravings' ,romans i #bj to #bd4 ,the point is brought out still more plainly by a writer of the opposite party1 ,james i #ac to #ae4 #fa #8ours is not a conflict with mere flesh and blood1 but with the despotisms1 the empires1 the forces that control and govern this dark world1 the spiritual hosts of evil arrayed against us in the heavenly warfare' ,eph4 vi #ab4 #fb #8let your thanks to ,god the ,father be presented in the name of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ' ib4 v #bj4 #fc #8it is impossible for the blood of bulls and goats to take away sins' ,hebr4 x #d4 #fd #8in ,christ ,jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision is of any importance' ,gal4 v #f4 #fe #8if you receive circumcision ,christ will avail you nothing' ib4 v #b4 #ff #8you scrupulously observe days and months1 special seasons1 and years4 ,i am alarmed about you' ib4 iv #aj and #aa2 cf4 ,col4 ii #af to #ai4 #fg 1 ,rom4 xii #a4 #fh #b ,cor4 xiii #e4 #fi #a ,cor4 xiv #ae4 #gj #a ,tim4 ii #h4 #ga ,rom4 xvi #be to #bg2 #a ,cor4 i #d2 #b ,cor4 i #c2 ,eph4 i #c to #ad1 iii #bj and #ba2 #a ,tim4 i #ag4 ,compare #a ,peter i #c to #e4 #gb #8,the whole body--its various parts closely fitting and firmly adhering to one another--grows by the aid of every contributory link1 with power proportioned to the need of each individual part' ,eph4 iv #af2 cf4 ,rom4 xii #d and #e4 #gc #a ,cor4 xv #dd4 #gd ,the point is continually emphasized that there is only one spirit4 ,in ,english translations the double printed form1 ,spirit and spirit1 disguises the real meaning1 #8if there is any common sharing of the spirit' ,philipp4 ii #a4 #ge #8,you may1 one and all1 become sharers in the very nature of ,god' #b ,peter i #d4 #gf ,rom4 i #ba4 #gg #8our mortal bodies cannot inherit the kingdom of ,god1 nor will what is perishable inherit what is imperishable' #a ,cor4 xv #ej2 #8if we have known ,christ as a man 7 71 yet now we do so no longer' #b ,cor4 v #af4 ,the ,pauline doctrine of the spiritual resurrection1 in spite of its place in the sacred canon1 has never been recognised by popular ,christianity1 but it has found notable defenders in ,origen in ancient times1 and in ,bishop ,westcott recently4 #8,no one of ,origen's opinions was more vehemently assailed than his teaching on the ,resurrection4 ,even his early and later apologists were perplexed in their defence of him4 ,yet there is no point on which his insight was more conspicuous4 ,by keeping strictly to the ,apostolic language he anticipated results which we have hardly yet secured4 ,he saw that it is the 8spirit0 which moulds the frame through which it is manifested2 that the body is the same1 not by any material continuity1 but by the permanence of that which gives the law1 the ratio as he calls it1 of its constitution 7,frag4 de res4 ii #a1 p4 #cd74 ,our opponents say now that this idea is a late refinement of doctrine1 forced upon us by the exigencies of controversy4 ,the answer is that no exigencies of controversy brought ,origen to his conclusion4 ,it was1 in his judgment1 the clear teaching of ,st ,paul' ,westcott1 ,religious ,thought in the ,west1 p4 #bdd4 #gh #8my earnest desire being to depart and to be with ,christ' ,philipp4 i #bc4 #gi #8,we shall be with the ,lord for ever' #a ,thess4 iv #ag4 ,so another ,paulist writer3 #8we see them eager for a better land1 that is to say1 a heavenly one4 ,for this reason ,god has now prepared a city for them' ,heb4 xi #af4 #hj ,the term used is #8grain' in #a ,cor4 xv #cg1 but #8seed' ib4 #ch4 ,the ,stoic term is found in ,justin ,martyr ,apol4 ii #h and #ac4 #ha #a ,cor4 xv #af1 #ag4 #hb #8while we are at home in the body we are banished from the ,lord2 for we are living a life of faith1 and not one of sight' #b ,cor4 v #f2 #8we by our baptism were buried with him in death1 in order that we should also live an entirely new life' ,rom4 vi #d2 #8surrender your very selves to ,god as living men who have risen from the dead' ib4 #ac4 #hc #8,he is not the ,god of dead1 but of living men' ,matt4 xxii #cb4 #hd ,matt4 x #ci1 xvi #be1 ,john xii #be4 #he ,john v #bd4 #hf #8the end eternal life' ,rom4 vi #bb 7,revised version72 #8you have the ,life of the ages as the final result' ib4 7,weymouth74 #hg #8the end sought is the love which springs from a pure heart1 a clear conscience1 and a sincere faith' #a ,tim4 i #e4 #hh #8it is as the result of faith that a man is held to be righteous1 apart from actions done in obedience to ,law' ,rom4 iii #bh4 #hi ,titus i #ae4 #ij ,romans xiv #ad4 #ia #a ,cor4 xii #bc4 #ib #a ,tim4 iv #d4 #ic ,eph4 ii #ai4 #id #8in ,him the distinctions between ,jew and ,gentile1 slave and free man1 male and female1 disappear' ,gal4 iii #bh4 #ie ,see above1 #cee4 #if #b ,cor4 x #a4 #ig #a ,cor4 xiii4 ,for the constancy of ,caution see #dfj1 note #bj4 #ih ,justice 77 #a ,tim4 vi #aa2 ,courage 77 #a ,tim4 vi #aa1 77 #b ,tim4 i #g2 ,soberness 77 ,gal4 v #bc4 #ii ,rom4 i #bf to #cj2 ,gal4 v #ai and #bj2 ,col4 iii #e4 #ajj #b ,cor4 ii #g1 vii #aj4 #aja #8,i shall go on working to promote your progress' ,philipp4 i #be2 #8with my eyes fixed on the goal ,i push on' ib4 iii #ad4 ,there is also 7paradoxically7 progress in wrongdoing2 #8they will proceed from bad to worse in impiety' #b ,tim4 ii #af4 #ajb ,the technical term used is 7,eph4 v #d1 ,philem4 #h71 once only 7in negative form7 7,rom4 i #bh74 #ajc ,in the sense in which the word #8political' is used above1 #cjb-caa4 #ajd ,rom4 xiii #a to #i2 ,ephes4 v and vi2 ,col4 iii #ah to #be2 ,titus ii #a to #aj2 #a ,peter ii and iii4 #aje #8,you are a priesthood of kingly lineage' #a ,peter ii #i4 #ajf #8as poor1 but we bestow wealth on many2 as having nothing1 and yet we securely possess all things' #b ,cor4 vi #aj4 #ajg #8where the spirit of the ,lord is1 freedom is enjoyed' #b ,cor4 iii #ag4 #ajh #8every one who commits sin is the slave of sin' ,john viii #cd4 #aji #8if ,i am destitute of love1 ,i am nothing' #a ,cor4 xiii #b4 #aaj ,it is not 7#b ,cor4 iii #e and #f71 the latter word being used in a different sense1 for which see #dhj1 note #ace4 #aaa ,the term 71 peccatum7 is ,stoic4 #aab ,lightfoot1 ,philippians1 p4 #bif4 ,this view has become familiar through ,milton's treatment of the ,fall of man in ,paradise ,lost4 ,there the prohibition of the forbidden fruit is nothing but a test of readiness to obey4 ,this point of view seems quite foreign to ,st ,paul1 who always speaks of sin as sinful in itself1 not in consequence of the ,creator's will4 #aac ,eph4 v #ab 7,r4 ,v474 #aad ,rom4 i #bf4 #aae #a ,cor4 v #a4 #aaf #a ,cor4 vii #a to #h4 #aag #8,it is well for a man to abstain altogether from marriage4 ,but because there is so much fornication every man should have a wife of his own' #a ,cor4 vii i and #b4 #aah #8,if you marry1 you have not sinned' ib4 #bh4 #aai #8if a woman will not wear a veil1 let her also cut off her hair' #a ,cor4 xi #f4 ,for the savage tabu of women's hair see ,jevons1 ,introduction to the ,history of ,religion1 p4 #gh4 #abj #a ,cor4 xi #aj4 #aba ib4 xiv #cd and #ce4 #abb ,rigveda x #aj4 #abc ,see the author's translation in his ,rigveda 7,london1 #aijj74 #abd ,see above1 #cjg4 #abe #8just as through ,adam all die1 so also through ,christ all will be made alive again' #a ,cor4 xv #bb4 #abf #8,god in his great mercy has begotten us anew' #a ,peter i #c2 #8you have been begotten again from a germ not of perishable1 but of imperishable life' ib4 #bc4 #abg #8you are all sons of ,god through faith' ,gal4 iii #bf4 #abh ,gal4 ii #a4 #abi ib4 #f4 #acj ib4 #ab4 #aca #a ,cor4 xiii #aa4 #acb ib4 i #bb4 #acc ,james v #h4 #acd ,james i #bg1 ii #ae to #ag1 v #a to #c4 #ace #b ,cor4 ix #h 7the technical term is 72 #8if a man does not choose to work1 neither shall he eat' #b ,thess4 iii #aj4 #acf #8worldly 7i4e4 materialistic7 stories1 fit only for credulous old women1 have nothing to do with' #a ,tim4 iv #g4 #acg ,titus i #ad4 #ach ,galatians ii #i4 #aci #8,christ was put to death in the flesh1 but made alive in the spirit' #a ,peter iii #ah4 #adj #8,jesus ,christ who1 as regards ,his human descent1 belonged to the posterity of ,david1 but as regards the holiness of ,his ,spirit was decisively proved by the ,resurrection to be the ,son of ,god' ,romans i #d2 #8,god sent forth ,his ,son1 born of a woman1 born subject to ,law' ,gal4 iv #d4 #ada #a ,peter i #c4 #adb ,in the account of the transfiguration in the ,gospel to the ,hebrews 7p4 #ae1 #cf ,hilgenfeld2 ,preuschen ,antileg4 #d7 ,jesus says #8,lately my mother1 the holy spirit1 seized me by one of my hairs and carried me away to the great mountain of ,thabor4' ,here ,origen restores a philosophical interpretation by referring to ,matt4 xii #ej2 #8whoever shall do the will of my ,father 444 is my mother' ,comm4 in ,joh4 ii #ab1 p4 #fd ,d4 ,modern writers find an identification of ,mary with the ,wisdom 77 of ,god4 ,see ,gruppe1 ,griechische ,mythologie und ,religionsgeschichte1 vol4 ii p4 #afad4 #adc ,matt4 i #bc4 #add #a ,cor4 i #cj4 #ade ,philipp4 ii #f4 #adf #8,that which was from the beginning 444 concerning the ,word of life' #a ,john i #a2 #8his name is the ,word of ,god' ,rev4 xix #ac4 #adg ,john i #a to #c4 #adh ,john i #ab to #ad4 #adi #8apud vestros quoque sapientes 7id est sermonem atque rationem7 constat artificem videri universitatis' ,tert4 ,apol4 #ba2 #8,zeno opificem universitatis praedicat1 quem et fatum et necessitatem et animum ,iovis nuncupat' ,lact4 ,div4 inst4 iv #i4 ,naturally the ,christian writers regard the ,stoic doctrine of the ,logos as an #8anticipation' of their own1 exactly as in modern times the ,darwinists1 having borrowed from ,epicurus the doctrine of atoms1 regard the original doctrine as a #8marvellous anticipation' of modern science4 ,justin ,martyr goes further1 and concludes that all believers in the ,logos were 7by anticipation7 ,christians3 ,apol4 i #df4 #aej ,the term is first used by ,theophilus 7c4 #ahj ,a4,d471 of ,god1 his ,word1 and his ,wisdom4 #aea ,in this passage an #8anticipation' of the doctrine of the ,trinity has many times been discovered2 for instance in the #ahth century by the ,jesuit ,huet 7,winckler1 der ,stoicismus1 p4 #i72 in our own country by ,dr ,heberden 7see ,caesar ,morgan1 ,an investigation of the ,trinity of ,plato1 ,holden's edition1 #ahec1 p4 #aee72 and again recently by ,amde ,fleury and others 7,winckler1 p4 #h74 #aeb ,see above1 #bdb4 #aec ,for instance in #a ,john v #h1 and 7in substance7 in #a ,cor4 xiii #ac4 #aed ,whatever may be the ecclesiastical or legal sense of the word #8person1' in its original philosophical meaning it expresses an aspect of individuality1 and not an individual3 see ,cicero's use of the term quoted above1 #bga1 note #db4 #aee ,see above1 #dgj1 note #gg4 #aef ,this book claims rank as a classic2 amongst others of similar purpose may be mentioned ,r4 ,garnett's ,twilight of the gods 7,new edition1 ,london #aijc74 #aeg ,amongst these elements we include all that ,christianity has drawn from ,persism through ,judaism4 ,we have indeed referred to the ,persian beliefs embodied in the #8,lord's prayer'2 but it has lain outside our scope to discuss the ,eschatology which figures so largely in popular conceptions of ,christianity1 but is now thought to be but slightly connected with its characteristic message4 ,on this point see especially ,carl ,clemen1 ,religionsgeschichtliche ,erklrung des ,neuen ,testaments 7,giessen1 #aiji71 pp4 #ij-ace4 #aeh ,matthew ,arnold1 ,st ,paul and ,protestantism 7,popular edition1 p4 #hj74 #aei ,the full title of ,winckler's book from which we have often already quoted is ,der ,stoicismus eine ,wurzel des ,christenthums4 #afj ,matt4 v #cg4 ,,bibliography4 ,the numbers in brackets are those of the ,british ,museum catalogue4 ,the dates given are usually those of the latest available edition4 ,i4 ,,ancient ,,writers ,,and ,,philosophers4 ,achilles 7the astronomer74 ,isagoge ad ,arati phaenomena4 ,in ,migne's ,patrology4 7#bjja c47 ,a better text in ,e4 ,maass' ,aratea2 see #8,aratus4' ,atius 7#ast cent4 ,a4,d474 ,placita philosophiae4 ,in #8,doxographi ,graeci' ed4 ,h4 ,diels1 #ahgi4 7#bjdd f47 ,alexander of ,aphrodisias 7circ4 #bjj ,a4,d474 ,in ,aristotelis metaphysica1 ed4 ,m4 ,hayduck 7,ac4 #hee_/i72 in ,arist4 ,top4 ed4 ,m4 ,wallies 7,ac4 #hee_/i72 de anima1 de fato1 de mixtione1 etc4 ed4 ,i4 ,bruns 7#bjdd f74 ,ammonius 7the grammarian7 of ,alexandria4 ,in ,aristotelis analytica1 ed4 ,m4 ,wallies4 7,ac4 #hee_/i47 ,antigonus 7of ,carystus1 circ4 #bej ,b4,c474 ,mirae auscultationes1 ed4 ,a4 ,westermann1 in #8,paradoxographi ,graeci4' ,his life of ,zeno is the basis of that given by ,diogenes ,laertius4 ,antigonus von ,carystos1 by ,wilamowitz-,moellendorf1 #ahha4 7#abijb ee #be47 ,antipater 7of ,tarsus74 ,fragments in ,h4 von ,arnim #8,stoicorum veterum fragmenta4' 7#hdfj k47 ,antoninus1 ,m4 ,aur4 ,see ,aurelius4 ,apollonius 7of ,tyana2 ,neo-,pythagorean philosopher1 ob4 #ig ,a4,d474 ,ap4 of ,t41 a study of his life and times1 by ,f4 ,w4 ,groves ,campbell1 #aijh4 7#ajfjf l #d47 ,see also ,mead1 ,g4 ,r4 ,s41 and ,whittaker1 ,t4 ,aratus4 ,phaenomena1 ed4 ,e4 ,maass1 #ahic4 7#aacab f #eh47 ,comm4 in ,aratum reliquiae1 coll4 ,e4 ,maass1 #ahih4 7#aacac gg #a47 ,maass1 ,e4 ,aratea4 #ahib4 ,areius ,didymus 7time of ,augustus74 ,the presumed fragments collected by ,h4 ,diels in #8,doxographi ,graeci4' #ahgi4 7#bjdd f47 ,aristo4 ,de ,aristone ,chio et ,herillo ,carthaginiensi ,stoicis commentatio4 ,n4 ,saal1 #aheb4 7#ajfje e #cc47 ,see also the article by ,h4 von ,arnim1 in ,pauly-,wissowa ii #ieg sqq4 ,aristotle4 ,the commentaries on ,aristotle are valuable authorities for ,stoic teaching2 new editions are in course of publication by the ,royal ,prussian ,society of ,science4 ,the most important for our purpose are those of ,alexander1 ,dexippus1 ,philoponus1 ,simplicius1 and ,themistius4 7,ac4 #hee_/i47 ,butcher1 ,s4 ,h4 ,aristotle's ,theory of ,poetry and ,fine ,art4 #aijb4 7#bbcf cc #i47 ,contains a discussion of the phrase 4 ,hicks1 ,r4 ,d4 ,arist4 de anima1 #aijg4 ,wallace1 ,edwin4 ,aristotle's ,psychology in ,greek and ,english1 with introd4 and notes4 #ahhb4 7#bbcf cc47 ,arrianus1 ,flavius 7#bnd cent4 ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,a4 ,g4 ,roos1 in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bjdg c47 ,athenaeus4 ,ed4 ,g4 ,kaibel1 #c vols41 in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bjdg e47 ,augustinus 7#cec-dcj ,a4,d474 ,in the ,corpus ,script4 ,eccles41 vols4 #be-bh4 7#bjjc d47 ,aurelius1 ,m4 ,antoninus4 ,ed4 with commentary by ,gataker1 #afeb1 with preface #8de ,stoica disciplina cum sectis aliis collata4' ,of this book ,g4 ,long says1 #8it is a wonderful monument of learning1 and certainly no ,englishman has yet done anything like it4' 7#abbje ff #c47 ,also ed4 by ,j4 ,stich1 in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bjdg e47 ,also by ,j4 ,h4 ,leopold1 in ,script4 ,cl4 ,bibl4 ,oxon4 7#bjdf b47 ,there are numerous translations4 ,by ,m4 ,casaubon1 #eth ed4 #afib 7#bca c #ad71 and edited with introd4 by ,w4 ,h4 ,d4 ,rouse1 #ahii2 by ,g4 ,long1 #ahfb1 and with an essay by ,matthew ,arnold attached1 #aijd 7#abbjd p #c_/ae72 by ,j4 ,collier1 revised by ,alice ,zimmern1 #ahia 7#jabbjg l #c72 by ,john ,jackson1 #aijf 7#hdaj ee #bc72 and by ,g4 ,h4 ,rendall1 with introductory study on #8,stoicism and the last of the ,stoics1' #ahih 7#jhdfa g #a74 ,treatises by the following3 ,alston1 ,l4 ,stoic and ,christian in the second century4 #aijf4 7#decb de #f47 ,bach1 ,n4 ,de ,m4 ,aurelio ,ant4 ,imperatore philosophante4 ,bodek1 ,arn4 ,m4 ,aur4 ,ant4 als ,freund und ,zeitgenosse des ,rabbi ,jehuda ha-,nasi1 #ahfh4 7#ajfje ee #bi47 ,braune1 ,a4 ,m4 ,aurel's ,meditationen1 #ahgh4 ,crossley1 ,hastings4 ,the fourth book1 with translation1 commentary1 and appendix on ,c4 ,fronto1 #ahhb4 7#hdfb d #ab47 ,dartigne-,peyrou1 ,j4 ,marc-,aurle dans ses rapports avec le christianisme1 #ahig4 7#decj ee #cj47 ,davis1 ,c4 ,h4 ,s4 ,greek and ,roman ,stoicism and some of its disciples1 #aijc4 7#jhdfa g #aa47 ,ellis1 ,robinson4 ,the correspondence of ,fronto and ,m4 ,aurelius4 7#aacab g #aa_/d47 ,knigsbeck1 ,max4 ,de ,stoicismo ,m4 ,antonini1 #ahfa4 7#hdfa bbb #cc47 ,pollock1 ,sir ,fred4 ,see ,mind1 #ast series1 vol4 iv1 pp4 #dg-fh4 ,renan1 ,j4 ,e4 ,marc-,aurle et la fin du monde antique4 #ahhb4 7,a1 ,b #cejij47 ,translated by ,w4 ,hutchinson1 #aijd4 7#jabbjh ee #abj47 ,russell1 ,e4 ,w4 ,marcus ,aurelius and the later ,stoics4 #aiaj4 ,schuster1 ,j4 ,ethices ,stoicae apud ,m4 ,aur4 ,ant4 fundamenta4 #ahfi4 ,smith1 ,b4 ,e4 ,selections from the original ,greek1 with introd4 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 7#hdaa de #d47 ,steinhauser1 ,k4 ,filosofie stoicka a ,cisar ,mark ,aurel4 ,caslau1 #ahib4 ,suckau1 ,m4 ,e4 tude sur ,marc-,aurle1 sa vie et sa doctrine1 #aheh4 7#hdfa c4 #aj47 des ,vergers1 ,m4 ,noel4 ,essai sur ,marc-,aurle1 #ahfj4 7#ajfje ee #ai47 ,watson1 ,p4 ,b4 ,m4 ,aurelius ,ant4 #ahhd4 ,zeller1 ,ed4 ,see his ,vortrge und ,abhandlungen1 pp4 #hb-ajg4 ,censorinus4 ,de die natali liber1 ed4 ,f4 ,hultsch4 7#bjdg g47 ,chalcidius4 ,in ,timaeum1 ed4 ,wrobel4 7#hdfb dd #b47 ,chrysippus4 ,see ,stoicorum veterum fragmenta1 ed4 ,hans von ,arnim4 #c vols41 #aijc-e4 7#hdfj k47 ,baguet1 ,f4 ,n4 ,g4 ,de ,chrysippi vita1 etc4 ,louvain1 #ahbb4 ,bergk1 ,theodor4 ,de ,chrys4 libris 4 ,cassel1 #ahda4 ,gercke1 ,a4 ,chrysippea4 #ahhe4 7,r4 ,,pp4 #dihf47 ,nicolai1 ,r4 ,de logicis ,chrysippi libris4 ,quedlinburg1 #ahei4 ,petersen1 ,c4 ,philosophiae ,chrysippeae fundamenta4 #ahbg4 7#gad d #ch47 ,cicero1 ,m4 ,tullius4 ,philosophica omnia1 ed4 ,r4 ,klotz4 #b vols4 #ahdj1 #a4 ,libros qui ad rempublicam et ad philosophiam spectant ed4 ,th4 ,schiche4 #i vols4 ,prag1 #ahha-ahij4 7#aacje bb47 ,bernhardt1 ,c4 ,m4 ,de ,cicerone graecae philosophiae interprete4 #ahfe4 ,brandis1 ,c4 ,a4 ,see ,rheinisches ,museum iii #eda sqq4 7,r4 ,,pp4 #dihj1 #a47 ,gedike1 ,fr4 ,zusammenstellung der auf die ,geschichte der ,philosophie bezglichen ,stellen des ,cicero4 ,berlin1 #ahad4 ,hirzel1 ,rudolf4 ,untersuchungen zu ,cicero's philosophischen ,schriften4 #c vols41 #ahgg-hc4 7#hdfb cc #ab47 ,levin1 ,t4 ,w4 ,six lectures introductory to the philosophical writings of ,cicero4 #ahga4 7#hdfa ee #ai47 ,merguet1 ,p4 ,a4 ,h4 ,lexicon zu den philosophischen ,schriften ,cicero's4 #c vols4 #ahhi-id4 7#abicc l #ac47 ,thiaucourt1 ,c4 ,essai sur les traits philosophiques de ,ciceron et leurs sources grecques4 #ahhe4 7#hdfj f #h47 ,,academica4 ,edited with full commentary by ,j4 ,s4 ,reid4 ,also translation4 #b vols4 #ahhe4 7#bbhb d #b47 ,,de ,,divinatione4 ,,de ,,fato4 ,,de ,,finibus4 ,ed4 ,j4 ,n4 ,madvig4 #crd ed41 #ahgf4 7#hdjh g #f47 ,ed4 with introd4 and commentary by ,w4 ,m4 ,l4 ,hutchinson1 #aiji4 7#jhdjg f #bf47 ,,de ,,legibus4 ,,de ,,natura ,,deorum4 ,ed4 with introd4 and comm4 by ,j4 ,b4 ,mayor4 #c vols4 #ahhj-e4 7#bbcf e #h47 ,,de ,,officiis4 ,ed4 ,h4 ,holden1 #gth ed4 #ahia4 7#bbhb a #a47 ,erklrende ,ausgabe von ,c4 ,f4 ,w4 ,mller1 #ahhb4 ,translated by ,g4 ,b4 ,gardiner1 #ahii4 ,,paradoxa4 ,erklrt von ,max ,schneider1 #ahia4 ,,de ,,republica4 ,la ,rpublique de ,ciceron traduite 444 avec un discours prliminaire1 par ,a4 ,f4 ,villemain4 #aheh4 7#abbch ee #b47 ,,tusculanae ,,disputationes4 ,erk4 von ,otto ,heine1 #ahif4 ,corssen1 ,p4 ,de ,posidonio ,rhodio ,m4 ,tulli ,ciceronis in libro i ,tusc4 disp4 et in ,somnio ,scipionis auctore4 ,rhein4 ,mus4 xxxvi p4 #eje sqq4 7,r4 ,,pp4 #dihj1 #a47 ,zietschmann1 ,g4 ,de ,tusc4 disp4 fontibus4 #ahfh4 ,cleanthes4 ,the fragments collected by ,a4 ,c4 ,pearson1 #ahia 7#bbhj aa #c72 and by ,h4 von ,arnim in #8,stoic4 veterum fragm4' #aijc-e4 7#hdfj k47 ,mohnike1 ,g4 ,c4 ,f4 ,cleanthes der ,stoiker4 7#hcb b #ad47 ,wachsmuth1 ,c4 7i7 ,cleanthis physica2 7ii7 commentatio de ,cleanthe ,assio1 #ahgd4 ,clemens 7of ,alexandria1 #aej-baa ,a4,d41 and head of the ,catecheten-school there71 ed4 ,g4 ,dindorf1 #d vols4 #ahfi4 7#chje bbb #bb47 ,protreptikos and ,paidagogos ed4 ,otto ,sthlin1 #aije4 de ,faye1 ,e4 ,clm4 d',alexandrie4 tudes sur les rapports du ,christianisme et de la philosophie grecque au ,i,ie sicle1 #aijf4 7,r4 ,ac4 #hibi_/g47 ,cornutus1 ,lucius ,annaeus4 ,de natura deorum #a ed4 ,fr4 ,osann2 adj4 est ,j4 de ,volloison1 de theologia physica ,stoicorum commentatio4 #ahdd4 7#ache g #d47 ,ed4 ,g4 ,lang4 #ahha4 7#bjdh a47 de ,martini1 ,g4 ,j4 ,disp4 de ,l4 ,a4 ,cornuto1 #ahbe4 7#hdfa cc #ab47 ,reppe1 ,r4 ,de ,l4 ,a4 ,cornuto4 #aijf4 ,crates 7of ,mallos74 ,de ,cr4 ,mall4 adiectis eius reliquiis4 ,c4 ,wachsmuth1 ,leipzig1 #ahfj4 ,demetrius 7of ,magnesia1 #ast cent4 ,b4,c474 ,d4 ,magnetis fragm4 #aheh4 7#aacce f #dc47 ,he wrote a life of ,zeno which is quoted by ,themistius4 ,dexippus 7,platonist of #dth century ,a4,d47 ,ed4 ,a4 ,busse4 7,ac4 #hee_/i47 ,diocles 7of ,magnesia74 ,he wrote lives of the philosophers1 from which ,diogenes ,laertius quotes freely4 ,diogenes 7of ,seleucia or ,babylon74 ,see ,h4 von ,arnim #8,sto4 vet4 fragmenta4' 7#hdfj k47 ,diogenes ,laertius 7#8,laertius' is a nickname based on a verse of ,homer2 about #bcj ,a4,d474 ,lives of the philosophers1 in ten volumes1 based upon earlier works4 ,our principal authority for ,stoic doctrine4 ,in ,bibl4 ,teub41 #b vols4 7#ajfjf a #bc47 ,english trans1 by ,c4 ,d4 ,yonge1 #ahdh4 ,dion ,cassius4 ,historia ,romana4 ,ed4 ,j4 ,melber in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bjdh a47 ,dion of ,prusa 7popular philosopher1 circ4 #ej ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,j4 de ,arnim4 7#aacia ee #e47 von ,arnim1 ,h4 ,leben und ,werke des ,dio von ,prusa1 mit einer ,einleitung #8,sophistik1 ,rhetorik1 und ,philosophie in ihrem ,kampfe um die ,jugendbildung4' #ahih4 7#hdfj g #bj47 ,dionysius 7of ,halicarnassus74 ,ed4 ,h4 ,usener and ,l4 ,radermacher4 ,in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bjdh a47 ,contains an account of ,chrysippus4 ,epictetus4 ,ep4 diss4 libri ,,iv4 ,gr4 et ,lat4 ,ann4 ill4 ,j4 ,schweighuser1 #agii1 #ahjj4 7#hdei g #d47 ,ep4 dissertationes1 ed4 ,h4 ,schenkl4 ,in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bbgh k #e47 ,the references to the life of ,epictetus are also collected here4 ,a commentary exists dating from the #fth century ,a4,d4 ,see ,simplicius4 ,translation with notes1 a life of ,epictetus1 and a view of his philosophy1 by ,g4 ,long1 #ahdh4 7#hdfj ccc #cj47 ,popular edition in #b vols41 #ahia4 ,asmus1 ,r4 ,quaestiones ,epicteteae4 ,freiburg1 #ahhh4 7#hdfc i #f_/b47 ,bernard1 ,edw4 ,r4 ,great ,moral ,teachers2 ,epictetus4 7#hdaj p #bi47 ,bonhffer1 ,a4 ,epictet und die ,stoa4 #ahij4 7#hdfj g #aa47 ,die ,ethik des ,stoker's ,epictet4 #ahid4 ,brandis1 ,c4 ,a4 ,epictetus 7,dict4 of ,greek and ,roman ,biography74 ,braune1 ,a4 ,epictet und das ,christenthum4 ,zeits4 f4 kirchl4 ,wiss41 #ahhd-i4 ,bruns1 ,ivo4 ,de schola ,epicteti4 ,kiel1 #ahig4 ,crossley1 ,h4 ,golden sayings of ,epictetus1 etc4 #aijc4 7#hdfb de #h47 ,farrar1 ,f4 ,w4 ,seekers after ,god3 ,epictetus4 #ahgf4 7#cfje bb #c47 ,grosch1 ,g4 ,die ,sittenlehre des ,epictetus4 ,wernigerode1 #ahfg4 ,rouse1 ,w4 ,h4 ,d4 ,words of the ancient wise1 from ,epictetus4 #aijf4 7#hdfb de #ad47 ,schenkl1 ,h4 ,die epiktetischen ,fragmente4 ,wien1 #ahhh4 ,schranka1 ,e4 ,m4 ,der ,stoker ,epictetus und seine ,philosophie4 ,frankfurt1 #ahhe4 ,stuhrmann1 ,j4 ,de vocabulis notionum philosophicarum ab ,epicteto adhibitis4 ,neustadt1 #ahhe4 ,thurot1 ,charles4 ,epictte1 ,manuel4 #ahib4 7#hdfj aaa #cg47 ,zahn1 ,theodor4 ,der ,stoker ,epiktet und sein ,verhltniss zum ,christenthum4 ,erlangen1 #ahie4 ,epiphanius 7,bishop of ,constantia74 ,adversus haereses prooemium4 7#cfbg c #ai47 ,eusebius4 ,evangelica praeparatio1 etc4 ,berlin1 #ahig4 7#bjjd f47 ,fragmenta ,herculaniensia4 ,ed4 by ,walter ,scott4 #ahhe4 7#ggjf ee #ac47 ,fronto4 ,m4 ,cornelii ,frontonis et ,m4 ,aurelii imperatoris epistulae4 ,ed4 ,s4 ,a4 ,naber4 #ahfg4 7#ajije ccc #ai47 ,galenus1 ,claudius 7of ,pergamus2 circ4 #aca-bjj ,a4,d4 ,he was a physician who attended the family of ,marcus ,aurelius1 and he gives large extracts from ,chrysippus' books de anima and de affectibus74 ,ed4 ,c4 ,g4 ,kuhn1 #bj vols41 #ahba-c4 7#eda d #a to #bj47 ,this edition has a good index2 its pages are referred to by the letter ,k4 ,also edited by ,marquardt1 ,mller1 and others in ,bibl4 ,teub4 #ahhd-ic4 7#bjdh b47 ,also an edition by ,iw4 ,mller of the book de placitis ,hipp4 et ,plat41 the pages of which are referred to by the letter ,m4 ,gellius1 ,aulus 7#bnd cent4 ,a4,d474 ,post ,m4 ,hertz ed4 ,c4 ,hosius in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bjdh b47 ,hecataeus 7a geographer of ,miletus1 circ4 #ejj ,b4,c474 ,fragm4 ,gr4 et ,lat4 ed4 ,c4 et ,th4 ,mller in #8,hist4 ,graec4 fragmenta1' vol4 i4 ,paris1 #ahgh-he4 7#bjec b47 ,hecato 7of ,rhodes74 ,panaetii et ,hecatonis fr4 coll4 ,h4 ,n4 ,fowler4 #ahhe4 ,heracleides 7of the ,pontus2 a pupil of ,plato1 and propounder of the heliocentric system74 ,see ,steigmller1 ,h4 in the ,archiv f4 d4 ,geschichte d4 ,philosophie xv1 pp4 #ada sqq4 7,,pp4 #abec ba47 ,heracleitus 7of ,ephesus74 ,h4 ,ephesii reliquiae2 rec4 ,i4 ,bywater1 #ahgg4 7#hdfj ee #ah47 ,h4 ,diels in #8die ,fragmente der ,vorsokratiker1' #aijc4 7#bjdd e47 ,h4 von ,ephesos1 gr4 und deutsch1 von ,h4 ,diels1 #aiji4 ,bernays1 ,j4 ,neue ,bruchstcke des ,h4 7#dihj1 #a and #bjd g h72 die ,heraklitischen ,briefe1 #ahfi4 7#hdfa dd #ah47 ,campbell1 ,lewis4 ,heraclitus and ,parmenides1 in his edition of ,plato's ,theaetetus4 #ahhc4 7#abbjd f #ai47 ,diels1 ,h4 ,heraklit3 eine ,studie4 #aijd4 7#hdfa ee #da47 ,drummond1 ,james4 ,see his ,philo-,judaeus1 #ahhh4 7#hdhe d f #ah47 ,gladisch1 ,a4 ,herakleitos und ,zoroaster4 #ahei4 7#dejd d #ae47 ,gomperz1 ,th4 ,zu ,heraklit's ,lehre4 #ahhg4 ,lassalle1 ,f4 ,j4 ,g4 ,die ,philosophie ,h4 #b vols41 #aheh4 7#hdfa e #bb47 ,also a new edition by ,lwenthal in #d vols4 ,pfleiderer1 ,edmund4 ,die ,philosophie des ,h4 im ,lichte der ,mysterienidee4 #ahhf4 7#hdhe e #bh47 ,schfer1 ,g4 ,die ,philosophie d4 ,heraklit von ,ephesus u4 d4 moderne ,heraklitforschung4 #aijb4 ,schultz1 ,w4 ,pythagoras und ,heraklit4 #aije4 ,wendland1 ,p4 ,ein ,wort des ,h4 im neuen ,testament4 #ahii4 ,herillus4 ,krug1 ,w4 ,t4 ,h4 de summo bono sententia1 #ahbb4 ,hermias 7perhaps #eth or #fth cent4 ,a4,d474 ,irrisio gentilium philosophorum4 ,ed4 ,j4 ,c4 ,th4 von ,otto1 ,jena1 #ahgb4 ,quoted in ,diels' #8,doxographi ,graeci4' ,herodotus4 ,the history transl4 into ,english by ,g4 ,c4 ,macaulay4 #b vols4 #ahij4 7#bbhj aa #b47 ,hierocles 7,stoic74 ,ethische ,elementarlehre1 her4 von ,h4 von ,arnim und ,schubart4 #aijf4 ,prchter1 ,k4 ,hierokles der ,stoiker4 #aija4 ,hippolytus 7,bishop in #bnd cent4 ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,g4 ,n4 ,bonwetsch and ,h4 ,achelis4 #ahig4 7#bjjd f47 ,iamblichus 7,neo-platonist philosopher1 early in #dth cent4 ,a4,d474 ,rec4 ,g4 ,parthey1 #aheg4 ,iulianus 7the emperor74 ,ed4 ,f4 ,c4 ,hertlein1 in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bjdh d72 transl4 by ,c4 ,w4 ,king 7#bejj f #ac47 ,gardner1 ,alice4 ,julian the ,philosopher4 #ahij4 7#ajfja f #cj47 ,rendall1 ,g4 ,h4 ,the ,emperor ,julian1 ,paganism and ,christianity4 #ahgi4 7#decd cc #h47 ,iustinus 7historian1 circ4 #dth cent4 ,a4,d474 ,historiarum ,philippicarum libri xliv4 ,ed4 ,c4 ,h4 ,frotscher4 #c vols41 #ahbg4 7#ijdj cc #ab47 ,iustinus 7the martyr3 circ4 #aje-afe ,a4,d474 ,op4 ,gr4 et ,lat4 ed4 ,j4 ,c4 ,th4 von ,otto4 #c vols4 #ahgf-ha4 7#cfbb cc #c47 ,lactantius 7#crd cent4 ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,s4 ,brandt and ,g4 ,laubmann in ,corpus ,script4 ,eccl4 ,lat4 7#bjjc d47 ,lucanus1 ,m4 ,annaeus4 ,pharsalia1 ed4 ,c4 ,e4 ,haskins4 #ahhg4 7#bjde e47 ,scholia in ,lucanum4 #ahfi4 7#aacab g #cj47 ,diels1 ,h4 ,seneca und ,lucan4 ,abh4 d4 ,ak4 d4 ,wiss4 z4 ,berlin1 #ahhe4 7,ac4 #hee_/f47 ,lucianus 7of ,samosata1 #acj-bjj ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,j4 ,sommerbrodt4 #c vols4 #ahhf-ii4 ,ed4 ,nils ,niln in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bjdh d47 ,bernays1 ,j4 ,lucian und die ,kyniker4 #ahgi4 7#hdfb cc #aj47 ,lucilius1 ,c4 ,rec4 ,f4 ,marx4 #b vols4 ,leipzig1 #aijd-f4 ,lucretius1 ,t4 ,carus4 ,ed4 ,h4 ,a4 ,j4 ,munro4 #c vols4 #ahic4 7#bjde h47 ,masson1 ,j4 ,lucretius1 ,epicurean and ,poet2 with notes and comments by ,j4 ,s4 ,reid4 #b vols4 #aijg-i4 7#bbhb c #bb47 ,macrobius4 ,ed4 ,f4 ,eyssenhardt in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bbgh c #i47 ,on the see ,saturnalia vii #af4 ,marcellinus1 ,ammianus 7historian1 of #eth cent4 ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,v4 ,gardthausen in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bjdh d47 ,ed4 ,c4 ,u4 ,clark1 ,berlin1 #aiaj4 ,michael1 ,h4 ,de ,amm4 ,marc4 studiis ,ciceronianis4 ,breslau1 #ahgd4 ,maximus 7of ,tyre3 #bnd cent4 ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,f4 ,dbner1 ,paris1 #ahdj4 7#bjdf e47 ,ed4 ,h4 ,hobein1 #aiaj4 ,transl4 by ,t4 ,taylor4 #b vols4 #ahjd4 7#ache g #c47 ,minucius1 ,m4 ,felix 7#crd cent4 ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,h4 ,bnig in ,bibl4 ,teub4 #aijc4 7#bjdg a47 ,musonius1 ,c4 ,rufus4 ,ed4 ,o4 ,hense in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bjdh e47 ,baltzer1 ,e4 ,musonius' ,charakterbild aus der rmischen ,kaiserzeit4 #ahga4 ,bernhardt1 ,otto4 ,zu ,musonius ,rufus4 ,sorau1 #ahff4 ,pflieger1 ,t4 ,musonius bei ,stobaeus4 ,tauberbischofsheim1 #ahig4 ,wendland1 ,p4 ,quaestiones ,musonianae4 ,berlin1 #ahhf4 7#aacab dd #ab_/d47 ,nemesius 7#eth cent4 ,a4,d4474 ,de natura hominis 7in ,greek74 ,in ,migne's ,patrology4 7#bjja d47 ,nemesius drew largely from ,atius4 ,origenes 7#ahe-bed ,a4,d474 ,in ,migne's ,patrology4 7#bjjd f47 ,commentary on ,st ,john1 ed4 ,a4 ,e4 ,brooke4 #ahif4 ,philosophumena3 revised text with introd4 etc41 by ,j4 ,a4 ,robinson1 #ahic4 ,fairweather1 ,w4 ,origen and ,greek ,patristic ,theology4 7#ajfjj eee #g_/ac47 ,falconer1 ,j4 ,w4 ,origen and the return to ,greek theology4 ,biblia ,sacra liii1 pp4 #dff sqq4 ,westcott1 ,b4 ,f4 ,origen and the beginnings of ,christian philosophy4 ,in his ,essays in the history of religious thought in the ,west4 #ahia4 7#hdhf aaa #a47 ,orphica4 ,ed4 ,e4 ,abel4 ,prag1 #ahhe4 ,maass1 ,e4 ,orpheus2 ,untersuchungen z4 gr4 rm4 altchristl4 ,jenseitsdichtung und ,religion4 #ahie4 ,panaetius 7#ahj-aaj ,a4,d474 ,p4 et ,hecatonis librorum fragm4 coll4 ,h4 ,n4 ,fowler1 #ahee4 ,disputatio hist4 de ,p4 ,rhodio4 ,f4 van ,lynden4 ,leyden1 #ahjb4 7#hdfj cc #af47 ,papiri ,ercolanesi1 ed4 ,d4 ,comparetti4 ,turin1 #ahge4 ,contains an index to the ,stoic philosophers4 ,pausanias4 ,ed4 ,h4 ,hitzig and ,h4 ,blmer1 #ahif-aiaj4 7#bjdd f47 ,transl4 with comm4 by ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 #ahih4 7#bjdd e47 ,persius1 ,a4 ,flaccus4 ,ed4 with transl4 and comm4 by ,j4 ,conington4 ,third edition by ,h4 ,nettleship1 #ahic4 ,houck1 ,m4 ,e4 ,de ratione stoica in ,persii satiris conspicua4 ,daventriae1 #ahid4 ,philo 7of ,alexandria1 circ4 #bj ,b4,c4 to #ej ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,t4 ,mangey1 #agdb4 7#fia k #gh47 ,ed4 ,l4 ,cohn et ,p4 ,wendland1 #ahif-aijf4 7#hdei h and #cfbc de47 ,arnim1 ,h4 von4 ,quellenstudien z4 ,p4 von ,al4 #ahhh4 ,drummond1 ,james4 ,philo ,judaeus4 #ahhh4 ,freudenthal4 ,j4 ,die ,erkenntnisslehre ,p4's von ,al4 #ahia4 ,harnack1 ,a4 ,de ,phil4 ,jud4 inquisitio4 #ahgi4 ,heinze1 ,max4 ,die ,lehre vom ,logos in d4 griech4 ,philosophie4 #ahgb4 ,lake1 ,j4 ,w4 ,plato1 ,philo and ,paul2 or the pagan conception of a divine the basis of the ,christian dogma4 #ahgd4 7#djbg e #g_/e47 ,mills1 ,l4 ,h4 ,zarathustra1 ,philo1 the ,achaemenids1 and ,israel4 #aije4 7#dejf ee #bf47 ,wendland1 ,p4 ,die philos4 ,quellen des ,p4 in s4 ,schrift ber die ,vorsehung4 #ahia4 ,p4's ,schrift ber die ,vorsehung4 #ahib4 7#hdfj f #d47 ,philodemus 7of ,gadara1 #ast cent4 ,b4,c474 ,in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bjdh e47 ,gomperz1 ,th4 ,zu ,philodem's ,bch4 v4 d4 ,musik4 #ahhe4 ,philoponus 7,aristotelian commentator1 #gth cent4 ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,m4 ,hayduck and others for ,royal ,prussian ,academy4 #ahhg-4 7,ac4 #hee_/i47 ,the comm4 in ,aristotelis physica is of special value for its account of the ,stoic logic4 ,plotinus 7,neo-platonist1 #bje-bgj ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,r4 ,volkmann in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bjdh f47 ,he criticized specially the ,stoic doctrine of categories4 ,plutarchus 7circ4 #df-abj ,a4,d474 ,moralia1 ed4 ,g4 ,n4 ,bernardakis in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bjdg a1 etc47 ,posidonius4 ,pos4 ,rhodii rell4 coll4 ,j4 ,bake4 #ahaj4 7#ia i #a47 ,corssen1 ,p4 ,de ,pos4 ,r4 ,ciceronis in lib4 i4 ,tusc4 disp4 et in somn4 ,scip4 auctore4 #ahgh4 ,rhein4 ,mus4 xxxvi p4 #eje4 7,r4 ,,pp4 #dihj1 #a and #bjdi h i47 ,hultsch1 ,f4 ,pos4 ber d4 ,grsse und ,entfernung d4 ,sonne4 #ahig4 7,ac4 #fggj47 ,scheppig1 ,r4 ,de ,pos4 ,apamensi4 ,berlin1 #ahgj4 7#hcfg f #g_/ab47 ,schhlein1 ,f4 ,zu ,posidonius ,rhodius4 ,freising1 #ahia4 ber ,p4's ,schrift 4 #aijj4 ,tpelmann1 ,v4 ,e4 ,p4 ,de ,pos4 ,rhodio rerum scriptore4 ,bonn1 #ahfg4 7#hcfc b #g_/ac47 ,proclus ,diadochus 7,platonic commentator1 #eth cent4 ,a4,d474 ,in ,bibl4 ,teub4 ,seneca1 ,l4 ,annaeus4 ,opera1 ed4 by ,o4 ,hense and others1 in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bjdh g #ae1 #af47 ,quaestiones ,naturales4 ,transl1 by ,j4 ,clarke1 with notes by ,sir ,archibald ,geikie4 #aiaj4 7#jhgji c #b47 ,aubertin1 ,c4 ,snque et ,s4 ,paul4 #ahfi4 7#dhjg dd #c47 ,badstbner1 ,e4 ,beitr4 z4 ,erkl4 der philos4 ,schriften ,sen4's4 ,hamburg1 #aija4 7#hdfj l #e47 ,baumgarten1 ,m4 ,l4 ,a4 ,seneca u4 d4 ,christenthum4 #ahie4 ,baur1 ,f4 ,c4 ,seneca und ,paulus4 #aheh4 ,in ,zeitsch4 f4 wiss4 ,theologie1 #a1 #b and #c4 7,,pp4 #hh c47 ,bernhardt1 ,w4 ,die ,anschauung des ,seneca vom ,universum #ahfa4 7#hgje ee #ae_/e47 ,betzinger4 ,weltfrohes u4 ,weltfreies aus ,s4's ,schriften4 ,s4 u4 d4 ,christenthum4 #ahii4 ,bock1 ,f4 ,aristoteles ,theophrastus ,seneca de matrimonio4 ,leipzig1 #ahih4 ,burgmann1 ,rud4 ,s4's ,thologie in ihrem ,verhltniss zum ,stoicismus und zum ,christenthum4 #ahgb4 ,diels1 ,h4 ,seneca und ,lucan4 ,abh4 d4 ,ak4 d4 ,wiss4 z4 ,berlin1 #ahhe4 7,ac4 #hee_/f47 ,fleury1 ,amde4 ,saint ,paul et ,snque4 #b vols4 #ahec4 ,gercke1 ,alf4 ,seneca-studien4 #ahie4 7,r4 ,,pp4 #dihf ,bd4 #bb1 ,heft #a47 ,heikel1 ,j4 ,a4 ,seneca's ,charakter und politische ,thtigkeit4 ,helsingfors1 #ahhh4 ,hense1 ,o4 ,f4 ,seneca und ,athenodorus4 ,freiburg1 #ahic4 ,lightfoot1 ,j4 ,b4 ,st ,paul and ,seneca4 ,in his ,philippians1 #ahgi4 7#cbff ff #f47 ,martens1 ,a4 ,de ,l4 ,a4 ,sen4 vita1 etc4 ,altona #ahga4 7#ajfje ee #f47 ,martha1 ,c4 ,snque4 ,c4 ,r4 ,acad4 d4 ,sci4 mor4 et pol41 cxxxv1 #ahia4 ,ribbeck1 ,w4 ,l4 ,a4 ,sen4 der ,philosoph1 und sein ,verhltniss zu ,epikur1 ,plato1 und dem ,christenthum4 ,hannover1 #ahhg4 7#hdfd dd #cd_/i47 ,rubin1 ,sol4 ,die ,ethik ,s4's in ihrem ,verhltniss zur lteren und mittleren ,stoa4 ,mnchen1 #aija4 7#hdji m #ae47 ,summers1 ,w4 ,c4 ,select letters4 #aiaj4 7#jajiaj e #ce47 ,thomas1 ,p4 ,morceaux choisis4 ,extrait des lettres ,lucilius et des traits de morale4 #ahif4 ,servius4 ,comm4 ad ,verg4 ,aen4 7#aacab i #ce47 ,sextus ,empiricus 7#crd cent4 ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,i4 ,bekker1 #ahdb4 7#ache i #c47 ,simplicius 7,aristotelian commentator1 #fth cent4 ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,heiberg and others for ,royal ,prussian ,academy4 7,ac4 #hee_/i47 ,stobaeus1 ,johannes 7#dth or #eth cent4 ,a4,d474 ,a collector of extracts4 ,his works were formerly divided into ,eclogae and ,florilegium4 ,in the current edition by ,c4 ,wachsmuth and ,o4 ,hense1 #d vols41 ,berlin1 #ahhd- 7#hdfb ee71 this distinction is dropped4 ,this edition is not yet complete1 and occasionally reference has to be made to ,a4 ,meineke's edition of the ,florilegium1 #f vols41 ,leipzig1 #ahee-g4 7#bjdg a47 ,strabo 7geographer1 circ4 #ed ,b4,c4 to #bd ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,a4 ,meineke4 #c vols4 ,leipzig1 #ahgg4 ,also in ,didot's ,script4 ,gr4 ,bibl4 7#bjdf c47 ,suidas 7lexicographer74 ,lexicon1 ed4 ,i4 ,bekker4 #ahed4 7#abibc ee #ad47 ,tertullianus 7#afj-bbj ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,a4 ,reifferscheid et ,g4 ,wissowa1 in the ,corpus ,script4 ,eccl4 #ahij-4 7#bjjc d47 ,themistius 7,aristotelian commentator1 circ4 #cej ,a4,d474 ,ed4 ,r4 ,heinze and others for ,royal ,prussian ,academy4 7,ac4 #hee_/i47 ,theodoretus 7bishop of ,cyrus1 circ4 #dbe ,a4,d474 ,graecorum affectionum curatio1 ed4 ,j4 ,raeder in ,bibl4 ,teub4 7#bjdi a47 ,he has preserved long extracts from ,atius4 ,theophilus 7bishop74 ,ed4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wolf1 #agbd4 7#cfbb cc #c47 ,varro1 ,m4 ,terentius4 ,de lingua ,latina quae supersunt ed4 ,g4 ,goetz et ,fr4 ,schll4 7#abicc v #b47 ,antiquitates divinae1 ed4 ,r4 ,agahd4 ,in ,bibl4 ,teub4 ,xenocrates4 ,darstellung d4 ,lehre und ,sammlung d4 ,fragmente1 von ,r4 ,heinze4 #ahib4 ,zeno4 ,the fragments of ,zeno and ,cleanthes1 by ,a4 ,c4 ,pearson4 #ahia4 7#bbhj aa #c47 ,also in von ,arnim's ,stoicorum veterum fragmenta1 #aijc to #aije4 7#hdfj k47 ,meuleman4 ,commentatio literaria de ,zenone ,stoico4 ,groningen1 #aheh4 ,troost1 ,k4 ,z4 ,citiensis de rebus physicis doctrina4 #ahia4 7,,pp4 #diia e47 ,wachsmuth1 ,c4 ,commentatio de ,zenone ,citiensi4 #ahgd4 ,wellmann1 ,e4 ,die ,philosophie des ,stoker's ,z4 #ahgc4 ,zoroaster4 ,see article by ,karl ,f4 ,geldner in the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica4 ,zoroaster the prophet of ancient ,iran1 by ,a4 ,v4 ,williams-,jackson4 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 7#deje eee #i47 ,see also ,philo 7,mills74 ,,ii4 ,,modern ,,writers4 ,aall1 ,anathon4 ,der ,logos4 ,geschichte seiner ,entwicklung in d4 griech4 ,philosophie und in d4 christlichen ,literatur4 #b vols4 #ahif1 #i4 7#jhdfa h #h47 ,adam1 ,james4 ,the religious teachers of ,greece4 #aijh4 7#dejf i #g47 ,allard1 ,p4 ,le ,christianisme et l',empire romain de ,nron ,thodose4 #bnd ed41 #ahig4 7#bbjh a47 ,alston1 ,l4 ,stoic and ,christian in the second century4 #aijf4 7#decb de #f47 ,apelt1 ,o4 ,beitrge zur ,geschichte d4 gr4 ,philosophie4 #ahia4 7#hdhf e #c47 ,archiv fr ,geschichte der ,philosophie4 ,herausg4 von ,ludwig ,stein4 ,berlin1 #ahhh-4 7,,pp4 #abec ba47 ,arnim1 ,hans von4 ,stoicorum veterum fragmenta4 #c vols41 #aijc-e4 7#hdfj k47 ,see also ,aristo and ,philo4 ,arnold1 ,matthew4 ,essay attached to an edition of ,long's ,marcus ,aurelius1 #aijd4 7#abbjd p #c_/ae47 ,st ,paul and ,protestantism4 ,popular edition1 #ahhg4 7#cbff bb #a47 ,aubertin1 ,c4 ,de sapientiae doctoribus1 qui a ,ciceronis morte ad ,neronis principatum ,romae viguerunt4 ,paris1 #aheg4 7#hdfa bb #h47 ,see also ,seneca4 ,aust1 ,e4 ,die ,religion der ,rmer4 ,mnster i4 ,w41 #ahii4 7#dejf f #bi47 ,avenel1 ,j4 d'4 ,le ,stocisme et les ,stociens4 #ahhf4 ,baldensperger1 ,w4 ,das ,selbstbewusstsein ,jesu's im ,lichte der messianischen ,hoffnungen seiner ,zeit4 #bnd ed41 #ahib4 7#dbbf h #b47 ,barth1 ,paul4 ,die ,stoa4 ,stuttgart1 #aijh4 7#jhdfd f47 ,baumhauer1 ,j4 ,c4 ,m4 von4 ,veterum philosophorum1 praecipue ,stoicorum1 doctrina de morte voluntaria4 ,bonn1 #ahdb4 7#hdfj e #ac47 ,bumker1 ,cl4 ,das ,problem d4 ,materie in d4 griech4 ,philosophie4 ,mnster1 #ahij4 ,baur1 ,f4 ,ch4 ,zur ,geschichte d4 alten ,philosophie und ihres ,verhltnisses zum ,christenthum4 #ahgf4 ,benn1 ,a4 ,w4 ,the ,greek ,philosophers4 #b vols4 #ahhb4 7#hdfa dd #ad47 ,bergson1 ,henri ,l4 ,l'volution cratrice4 #aijg4 7#gjjf g #bi47 ,bernays1 ,j4 ,lucian und die ,kyniker4 #ahgi4 7#hdfb cc #aj47 ,bois1 ,henri4 ,essai sur les origines de la philosophie judo-alexandrine4 #ahij4 7#hdhf bbb #bh47 ,boissier1 ,gaston4 ,la fin du paganisme4 #ahia4 7#decj ,le #a47 ,l'opposition sous les ,csars4 #eth ed41 #aije4 7#jijci bb #i47 ,la religion romaine d',auguste jusqu'aux ,antonins4 #b vols4 #bnd ed41 #ahgh4 7#bbab g47 ,bonhffer1 ,adolf4 ,zur stoischen ,psychologie4 ,philologus liv1 #ahie1 pp4 #djbc-ddbi4 7,r4 ,,pp4 #ejdc47 ,see also ,epictetus4 ,borchert1 ,l4 ,num ,antistius ,labeo 444 ,stoicae philosophiae fuerit addictus8 ,breslau1 #ahfi4 7#fjjf e #aa_/b47 ,brandis1 ,christian ,august4 ,handbuch d4 ,gesch4 d4 gr-rm4 ,philosophie4 #c vols4 #ahce-ff4 7#achf d #bj47 ,gesch4 d4 ,entwicklungen d4 gr4 ,philosophie und ihrer ,nachwirkungen im rmischen ,reiche4 #b vols4 #ahfb-d4 7#bbcf e #b47 ,brheir1 mile4 ,la thorie des incorporels dans l'ancien stocisme4 ,archiv f4 d4 ,gesch4 d4 ,philosophie xxi1 pp4 #aae-abe4 7,,pp4 #abec ba47 ,brochard1 ,victor4 ,sur la logique des stociens4 ,archiv f4 d4 ,gesch4 d4 ,philosophie v1 p4 #ddi4 7,,pp4 #abec ba47 ,bryant1 ,j4 ,h4 ,the mutual influence of ,christianity and the ,stoic school4 #ahff4 7#hdfa bbb #bg47 ,burnet1 ,j4 ,early ,greek ,philosophy4 #aijh4 7#bjbc c47 ,caird1 ,edward4 ,the ,evolution of ,theology in the ,greek ,philosophers4 #b vols41 #aijd4 ,on ,stoicism see vol4 ii1 chs4 xvi to xx4 ,caldecott1 ,alfred4 ,the philosophy of religion4 #aija4 7#dcgb cc #bi47 ,campbell1 ,lewis4 ,religion in ,greek literature4 ,see also ,heracleitus4 #ahih4 7#dejc g #ae47 ,capes1 ,william ,wolfe4 ,stoicism4 #ahhb4 7#ddba f #fd47 ,caspari1 ,e4 ,de ,cynicis1 qui fuerunt aetate imperatorum ,romanorum4 ,chemnitz1 #ahif4 ,cheyne1 ,t4 ,k4 ,zoroastrianism and ,primitive ,christianity4 ,hibbert ,journal1 #aijc1 #d4 7,r4 ,,pp4 #cbd ga47 ,clemen1 ,carl4 ,die religionsgeschichtliche ,bedeutung des stoisch-christlichen ,eudmonismus in ,justin's ,apologie4 #ahia4 ,religionsgeschichtliche ,erklrung des neuen ,testaments4 #aiji4 ,collins1 ,j4 ,churton4 ,studies in ,shakespeare4 #aijd4 ,gives parallels between ,seneca's tragedies and ,shakespeare4 7#bcjj b #i47 ,cruttwell1 ,c4 ,h4 ,a literary history of early ,christianity4 #b vols41 #ahic4 7#bbjh b #c47 ,cumont1 ,fr4 ,textes et monum4 fig4 relatifs aux mystres de ,mithra4 #b vols41 #ahii4 ,la thologie solaire du paganisme romain4 #aiji4 ,les ,religions ,orientales dans le paganisme romain4 #bnd ed41 #aiji4 ,dhne1 ,a4 ,f4 ,geschichtliche ,darstellung der jdisch-alexandrinischen ,religionsphilosophie4 #b vols4 #ahcd4 7#acfc d #h47 ,davids1 ,t4 ,w4 ,rhys4 ,buddhism4 #aija4 7#deje cc #bf47 ,hibbert ,lectures on some points in the history of ,buddhism4 #ahha4 7#bbag aa #aa47 ,davidson1 ,william ,leslie4 ,the ,stoic creed4 #aijg4 7#cfje i47 ,deussen1 ,paul4 ,allgemeine ,geschichte der ,philosophie1 mit besonderer ,rcksicht der ,religionen4 #ahid4 7#hdhf d47 ,dictionary of ,philosophy and ,psychology1 ed4 by ,j4 ,m4 ,baldwin4 #c vols41 #aije4 7#bjbc h47 ,diderot1 ,denis4 ,essai sur les rgnes de ,claude et de ,nron1 et sur les murs et les crits de ,snque4 #b vols41 #aghb4 ,diels1 ,h4 ber die ,philosophenschulen der ,griechen 7,zeller-,aufstze1 #ahhg74 ,die ,fragmente der ,vorsokratiker1 gr4 und deutsch von ,h4 ,d4 #bnd ed41 #aijf-aj4 7#bjdd e47 ,doxographi ,graeci1 #ahgi4 ,dill1 ,s4 ,roman ,society from ,nero to ,marcus ,aurelius4 #aijd4 7#jijci cc #c47 ,dring1 ,a4 ,geschichte d4 griech4 ,philosophie4 #b vols41 #aijc4 ,dourif1 ,j4 ,du ,stoicisme et du ,christianisme considers dans leurs rapports4 #ahfc4 7#hdgj e #af47 ,drummond1 ,james4 ,philo-,judaeus1 or the ,jewish-,alexandrian ,philosophy in its development and completion4 #ahhh4 7#hdhe df #ah47 ,dyroff1 ,a4 ,die ,ethik der alten ,stoa4 #ahig1 #h4 7,,pp4 #diia e47 ,eisler1 ,rudolf4 ,geschichte der ,philosophie im ,grundriss4 #ahie4 ,wrterbuch der phil4 ,begriffe und ,ausdrcke4 #crd ed41 #aiaj4 7#bbcf c #ah47 ,eucken1 ,rudolph4 ,die ,lebensanschauungen der grossen ,denker4 #aiji4 7#hdhf ee #f47 ,geschichte der philos4 ,terminologie in ,umriss4 #ahgi4 7#hdhf de #e47 ,ewald1 ,p4 ,der ,einfluss d4 stosch-ciceronianischen ,moral a4 d4 ,darstellung d4 ,ethik bei ,ambrosius4 #ahha4 7#hdfc df #be_/f47 ,fairweather1 ,w4 ,the ,background of the ,gospels2 or ,judaism in the period between the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 #aijh4 7#jcbbe h #ae47 ,favre1 ,mme ,jules4 ,la morale stocienne4 #ahhh4 7#hdfj bb #bg47 ,feine1 ----4 ,stocismus und ,christenthum4 ,theol4 ,lit4-,blatt #aije1 pp4 #gc sqq4 ,ferraz1 ----4 ,de ,stoica disciplina apud poetas ,romanos4 ,paris1 #ahfc4 ,fischer1 ,kuno4 ,geschichte d4 neueren ,philosophie4 ,jubilums-ausgabe1 #ahig-aija4 7#hdhf ee47 ,fowler1 ,w4 ,warde4 ,social life at ,rome in the age of ,cicero4 #aijh4 7#bchb e #aj47 ,franke1 ,carl4 ,stocismus und ,christenthum4 ,breslau1 #ahgf4 7#dcgh l #a47 ,freudenthal1 ,jakob4 ,ueber den ,begriff des ,wortes bei ,aristoteles4 #ahfc4 7#aacab d #i47 ,zur ,geschichte d4 ,anschauungen ber die jdischhellenische ,religionsphilosophie4 #ahfi4 7#djcd dd #cf_/f47 ,die ,erkenntnisslehre ,philo's von ,alexandria4 #ahia4 ,friedlnder1 ,l4 ,darstellungen aus d4 ,sittengeschichte ,roms4 #hth ed4 #aiaj4 7#bbeh b #b47 ,authorized translation of #gth ed4 by ,l4 ,a4 ,magnus4 #aijh4 7#jijci dd47 ,friedlnder1 ,moritz4 ,die religisen ,bewegungen innerhalb des ,judasmus4 #aije4 7#deaf eee #bf47 ,geldner1 ,k4 ,see article #8,zoroaster' in ,encyclopaedia ,britannica4 ,giesecke1 ,alfred4 ,de philosophorum veterum quae ad exsilium spectant sententiis4 #ahia4 7#hdfj dd #be47 ,giles1 ,j4 ,a4 ,the writings of the early ,christians of the second century4 #aheg4 7#cfbg c #dd47 ,girard1 ,j4 ,le sentiment religieux en ,grce d',homre ,eschyle4 #ahfi-gi4 ,gladisch1 ,a4 ,herakleitos und ,zoroaster4 #ahei4 7#dejd d #ae47 ,die ,religion und die ,philosophie in ihrer weltgeschichtlichen ,entwicklung4 #aheb4 7#deca c #aa47 ,glover1 ,t4 ,r4 ,the conflict of religions in the ,early ,roman ,empire4 #crd ed41 #aiji4 ,gomperz1 ,theodor4 ,griechische ,denker4 #c vols4 #aijc-h4 7#hdhf dd47 ,english translation by ,laurie ,magnus and ,g4 ,g4 ,berrie4 #aije4 ,gttling1 ,c4 ,w4 ,diogenes der ,cyniker oder die ,philosophie des griechischen ,proletariats4 ,halle1 #ahea4 ,grant1 ,sir ,alexander4 ,the ,ancient ,stoics4 #aheh4 7,,pp4 #faai c47 ,gruppe1 ,o4 ,griechische ,mythologie und ,religionsgeschichte4 #b vols41 #aijf4 7#bjdd g47 ,haake1 ,a4 ,die ,gesellschaftslehre der ,stoker4 #ahhg4 ,hbler1 ,a4 ,zur ,kosmogonie der ,stoker4 ,jahrb4 f4 ,phil1 und ,pd4 cxlvii1 #ahic1 pp4 #bih-cjj4 ,haeckel1 ,e4 ,die ,weltrthsel4 #ahii4 ,english transl41 #8,the ,riddle of the ,universe1' by ,j4 ,mc,cabe4 #aijh4 ,hamelin1 ----4 ,sur la logique des stociens4 ,ann4 philosophiques1 #aijb1 p4 #bc4 ,hardy1 ,e4 ,g4 ,christianity and the ,roman ,government4 #ahid4 7#decb df #b47 ,harnack1 ,a4 ,lehrbuch der ,dogmengeschichte4 #c vols41 #crd ed41 #ahid-g4 7#cedd i47 ,history of ,dogma1 transl4 by ,n4 ,buchanan1 ,j4 ,millar1 and ,w4 ,mc,gilchrist4 #g vols4 #ahid-i4 7#bbjf cc #c47 ,harrison1 ,j4 ,e4 ,prolegomena to the study of ,greek ,religion4 #bnd ed41 #aijh4 ,hatch1 ,e4 ,the influence of ,greek ideas and usages upon the ,christian church4 #ahij4 7#bbag aa #d47 ,heinze1 ,max4 ,die ,lehre vom ,logos in d4 griechischen ,philosophie4 #ahgb4 ,zur ,erkenntnisslehre der ,stoker4 ,leipziger ,prog41 #ahgi1 #hj4 ,stoicorum de fato doctrina4 ,stoicorum de affectibus doctrina4 ,stoicorum ethica ad origines suas relata4 #ahfb4 ,henderson1 ,bernard ,w4 ,the life and principate of the ,emperor ,nero4 #aijc4 7#ajfjf e #ab47 ,hepke1 ----4 ,de philosophis qui ,romae docuerunt usque ad ,antoninos4 ,berlin1 #ahdb4 ,herford1 ,c4 ,h4 ,the ,stoics as teachers4 #ahhi4 ,hicks1 ,e4 ,traces of ,greek ,philosophy and ,roman ,law in the ,new ,testament4 #ahif4 7#ddcj aaa #bb47 ,hicks1 ,r4 ,d4 ,stoic and ,epicurean4 #aiaj4 ,hirzel1 ,rudolf4 ,de logica ,stoicorum4 #ahgi4 7#gjjf c #ag47 ,see also ,cicero4 ,hffding1 ,h4 ,philosophy of ,religion4 ,transl4 by ,b4 ,e4 ,meyer1 #aijf4 ,hber1 ,n4 ,die ,philosophie der ,kirchenvter4 #ahei4 ,jevons1 ,frank ,byron4 ,an ,introduction to the ,history of ,religion4 #bnd ed41 #aijb4 7#bbag bb #i47 ,kaerst1 ,j4 ,geschichte des hellenistischen ,zeitalters4 #aiji4 ,knauer1 ,vincenz4 ,die ,hauptprobleme der ,philosophie4 #ahib4 7#hdfb g #b47 ,krische1 ,a4 ,b4 ,forschungen auf dem ,gebiete der alten ,philosophie4 #ahdj4 7#aacd c #ai47 ,laberthonnire1 ,p4 ,l4 ,essai de philosophie religieuse4 ,laferrire1 ,l4 ,f4 ,j4 ,mmoire concernant l'influence du ,stoicisme sur la doctrine des ,jurisconsultes romains4 ,mm4 de l'acad4 d4 sciences morales1 x1 #ahfj1 pp4 #egi-fhe4 7#ebed aaa #aa47 ,le ,blant1 ,edmond4 ,les persecutions et les martyrs aux premiers sicles de ntre re4 #ahic4 7#decj ee #bd47 ,lehmann1 ,edv4 ,die ,perser4 ,in de la ,saussaye's ,lehrbuch der ,religionsgeschichte4 #bnd ed41 #ahig4 7#ceed i47 ,lewes1 ,g4 ,h4 ,history of ,philosophy4 ,new ed41 #ahig4 7#bjbc a47 ,lightfoot1 ,j4 ,b4 ,see ,seneca4 ,lindsay1 ,james4 ,studies in ,european ,philosophy4 #aiji4 ,chap4 iv deals with #8the ethical philosophy of ,marcus ,aurelius4' ,lodge1 ,sir ,oliver ,j4 ,life and ,matter4 #bnd ed41 #aiji4 7#jhdfa f #dj_/a47 ,long1 ,george4 ,see ,aurelius1 ,epictetus4 ,luthe1 ,werner4 ,die ,erkenntnisslehre der ,stoiker4 #ahij4 7#jhdfd f #i_/a47 ,mahaffy1 ,j4 ,p4 ,greek ,life and ,thought4 #ahif4 7#ijbf bbb #c47 ,the progress of ,hellenism in ,alexander's ,empire4 #aije4 7#ijbe bbb #bh47 ,the empire of the ,ptolemies4 #ahie4 7#bchb b #e47 ,a survey of ,greek civilisation4 #ahig4 7#bbeh b #ai47 ,martha1 ,c4 ,les moralistes sous l'empire romain4 ,philosophes et potes4 #ahfe4 7#hdjg ff #ag47 ,see also ,seneca4 ,masson1 ,j4 ,see ,lucretius4 ,mayor1 ,j4 ,b4 ,a sketch of ancient philosophy from ,thales to ,cicero4 #ahha4 7#bcbb b #eg47 ,mead1 ,g4 ,r4 ,s4 ,apollonius of ,tyana4 #aija4 7#ajfjf cc #h47 ,monte1 ,p4 ,le ,stocisme ,rome4 #ahfe4 7#hdfa aaa #f47 ,montefiore1 ,claude ,g4 ,the ,wisdom of ,solomon4 #ahhg4 7,ac4 #bjgf47 ,natorp1 ,paul4 ,forschungen zur ,geschichte des ,erkenntniss-problems im ,alterthum4 #ahhd4 7#hdfj h #g47 ,naville1 ,h4 ,adrien4 ,julian l',apostat et la philosophie du polytheisme4 #ahgg4 7#dejd bb #e47 ,neander1 ,a4 ,vorlesungen ber ,geschichte d4 christlichen ,ethik4 #ahfd4 ,on ,stoicism see pp4 #bi-eg4 ,nettleship1 ,henry4 ,jus ,gentium4 ,journal of ,philology xiii 7#ahhe71 p4 #bf4 ,neumann1 ,c4 ,j4 ,der rmische ,staat und die allg4 ,kirche bis auf ,diocletian4 #ahij4 7#decd d #af47 ,ogereau1 ,f4 ,essai sur le systme philosophique des stociens4 #ahhe4 7#hdfj ee #bj47 ,oldenberg1 ,h4 ,buddha2 his life1 his doctrine1 his order4 ,transl4 by ,w4 ,hoey4 #ahhb4 7#gei d #d47 ,orttoff1 ,jo4 ,andr4 ber den ,einfluss d4 stoschen ,philosophie auf die rmische ,jurisprudenz4 #agig4 ,pater1 ,walter ,h4 ,marius the ,epicurean4 #b vols41 #ahib4 7#abfbj dd #ah47 ,pauly1 ,a4 ,f4 von4 ,realencyclopdie d4 klassischen ,altertumswissenschaft4 ,neue ,bearbeitung1 herausg4 von ,g4 ,wissowa4 #ahic-4 7#bjdf f47 ,poussin1 ,l4 de la ,valle4 ,bouddhisme3 opinions sur l'histoire de la ,dogmatique4 #aiji4 ,prchter1 ,karl4 ,hierocles der ,stoker4 #aija4 7#hdfj h #bc47 ,prosopographia ,imperii ,romani ,saec4 ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii4 ,ed4 ,e4 ,klebs and others4 #ahig-4 ,gives the authorities for biographies of this period4 ,ramsay1 ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,the ,church in the ,roman empire before ,a4,d4 #agj4 #gth ed4 #aijc4 7#bbjh b #b47 ,rauch1 ,g4 ,der ,einfluss d4 stoschen ,philosophie an d4 ,lehrbildung ,tertullianus4 ,ravaisson1 ,f4 ,essai sur le ,stocisme4 #ahef4 ,renan1 ,j4 ,e4 ,see ,aurelius4 ,rendall1 ,g4 ,h4 ,the ,emperor ,julian1 ,paganism and ,christianity4 #ahgi4 7#decd cc #h47 ,see also ,aurelius4 ,renouvier1 ,c4 ,b4 ,uchronie4 ,deals with the secular importance of ,stoicism4 7#hjjh g #a47 ,rville1 ,jean4 ,la religion ,rome sous les ,svres4 #ahhf4 7#deje ee #ai47 ,richter1 ,d4 ,die berlieferung der stoschen ,definitionen ber die ,affekte4 #ahgc4 ,sachau1 ,c4 ,e4 ,drei aramasche ,papyrus-,urkunden aus ,elephantine4 #aijg4 ,royal ,prussian ,society4 7,ac4 #hee_/f47 ,saussaye1 ,p4 ,d4 ,c4 de la4 ,lehrbuch der ,religionsgeschichte4 #crd ed41 #b vols41 #aije4 7#ceed i47 ,schiller1 ,hermann4 ,die stosche ,opposition unter ,nero4 #ahfg1 #h4 7#hdhe bbb #bh47 ,schmekel1 ,august4 ,die ,philosophie der mittleren ,stoa in ihrem geschichtlichen ,zusammenhange dargestellt4 #ahib4 7#hdhe df #ai47 ,schmidt1 ,c4 ,g4 ,a4 ,essai historique sur la socit civile dans le monde romain et sur sa transformation par le christianisme4 #ahec4 7#deca c #be47 ,trans4 by ,mrs ,thorpe1 #aijg4 7#decb de #aj47 ,schmidt1 ,r4 ,t4 ,stoicorum ,grammatica4 #ahci4 7#hdfb b #a47 ,schulze1 ,vict4 ,geschichte des ,untergangs der gr4-rm4 ,heidenthums4 #b vols4 #ahhg-if4 7#decj ee #h47 ,seeck1 ,o4 ,geschichte des ,untergangs der antiken ,welt4 #crd ed41 #aiaj-4 7#jijci dd47 ,sidgwick1 ,henry4 ,outlines of the ,history of ,ethics4 #ahhf4 ,ch4 #aa deals with #8,greco-,roman ,ethics4' ,smiley1 ,c4 ,n4 ,latinitas und 4 ,wisconsin1 #aijf4 ,sonnenschein1 ,e4 ,a4 ,the new ,stoicism4 ,hibbert ,journal1 ,april #aijg4 7,r4 ,,pp4 #cbd ga47 ,shakespeare and ,stoicism4 ,university ,review1 i #a4 7,,pp4 #aahg ief47 ,spiess1 ,e4 ,logos ,spermatikos4 ,parallelstellen z4 neuen ,test4 aus d4 ,schriften d4 alten ,griechen4 #ahga4 7#cbbe ee #bi47 ,stein1 ,ludwig4 ,psychologie der ,stoa4 #b vols41 #ahhf-h4 7,,pp4 #diia e47 ,die ,willensfreiheit etc4 bei den jdischen ,philosophen4 #ahhb4 7#hdfi bbb #bf47 ,dualismus oder ,monismus4 #aiji4 ,steinthal1 ,h4 ,geschichte der ,sprachwissenschaft bei den ,griechen und ,rmern4 #bnd ed41 #ahij1 #a4 7#abibd h #ah47 ,on the ,stoic grammar see i pp4 #bfe sqq4 ,stern1 ,j4 ,homerstudien der ,stoker4 ,lrrach1 #ahic4 ,stock1 ,st ,george ,w4 ,j4 ,stoicism4 7,phil4 ,ancient and ,modern47 #aijh4 7#hdfg de47 ,striller1 ,f4 ,de ,stoicorum studiis rhetoricis4 ,breslau1 #ahhf4 7#abijb f #be47 ,susemihl1 ,fr4 ,geschichte der gr4 ,litteratur in d4 ,alexandrinerzeit4 #b vols41 #ahia1 #b4 7#bjde g47 ,teuffel1 ,w4 ,s4 ,history of ,roman ,literature4 ,translated by ,g4 ,c4 ,w4 ,warr4 #b vols41 #ahij4 7#bjde g47 ,thiersch1 ,w4 ,j4 ,politik und ,philosophie in ihrem ,verhltniss zur ,religion unter ,traianus1 ,hadrianus1 und den beiden ,antoninen4 ,marburg1 #ahec4 7#degc e #cg47 ,thomas1 ,a4 ,rome et l',empire aux deux premiers sicles de ntre re4 #ahig4 7#ijci d #i47 ,transl43 ,roman ,life under the ,caesars4 #ahii4 7#ggja aa #aa47 ,thomson1 ,sir ,j4 ,j4 ,the corpuscular theory of matter4 #aijg4 7#jhgji dd #af47 ,tiedemann1 ,d4 ,system der stoischen ,philosophie4 #aggf4 ,tucker1 ,t4 ,g4 ,life in the ,roman ,world of ,nero and ,st ,paul4 #aiaj4 ,tylor1 ,edward ,b4 ,primitive culture4 #dth ed41 #b vols41 #aijc4 7#bjcd a47 ,anthropology4 #ahha4 7#bjbd b47 berweg1 ,fr4 ,grundriss der ,geschichte der ,philosophie4 ,tenth ed4 by ,k4 ,prchter1 #aiji-4 7#hdhe ff47 ,translated from the #dth ,german edition by ,g4 ,s4 ,morris4 #b vols4 ,new ,york4 #ahgb-d4 ,usener1 ,h4 ,epicurea4 #ahhg4 7#hdfj ee #cf47 ,religionsgeschichtliche ,untersuchungen4 #c vols4 #ahhi-ii4 7#decb dd #b47 ,vachereau1 tienne4 ,histoire critique de l'cole d',alexandrie4 #c vols41 #ahdf-ea4 7#bbcf d #g-i47 de ,villoison1 ,j4 d',ansse4 ,de theologia physica ,stoicorum commentatio4 ,gttingen1 #ahdd4 7#ache g #d47 ,voigt1 ,m4 ,die ,lehre vom ius naturale1 aequum et bonum1 und ius gentium der ,rmer4 #d vols41 #ahef-gf4 7#ebjg d #e47 ,rmische ,rechtsgeschichte4 #c vols41 #ahib-aijb4 7#ebee dd #a47 ,vollers1 ,charles4 ,die ,weltreligionen in ihrem geschichtlichen ,zusammenhange4 ,vollman1 ,f4 ber das ,verhltniss der spteren ,stoa zur ,sklaverei im rmischen ,reiche4 ,regensburg1 #ahij4 ,wachsmuth1 ,curtius4 ,die ,ansichten der ,stoker ber ,mantik und ,dmonen1 #ahfj4 7#hdfa bb #dd 7#i747 ,de ,cratete ,mallota1 #ahfj4 7#aacab g #dj47 ,wadskin1 ,s4 ,e4 ,einfluss des ,stocismus auf die christliche ,lehrbildung4 ,theol4 ,stud4 und ,krit41 #ahhj4 7,,pp4 #aej47 ,wallace1 ,william4 ,epicureanism4 #ahhj4 7#ddba f #fd47 ,walter1 ,julius4 ,die ,lehre von der praktischen ,vernunft in der griechischen ,philosophie4 #ahgd4 7#hdfb cc #bb47 ,weissenfels1 ,c4 ,o4 ,de ,platonicae et ,stoicae doctrinae affinitate4 ,berlin1 #ahij4 ,wellmann1 ,eduard4 ,die pneumatische ,schule bis auf ,archigenes in ihrer ,entwicklung dargestellt4 #ahie4 ,see also ,fleckeisen's ,jahrb4 #ahgc1 pp4 #dgg sqq4 ,wendland1 ,paul4 ,die hellenisch-rmische ,kultur in ihren ,beziehungen zu ,judenthum und ,christenthum4 #aijg4 ,westcott1 ,b4 ,f4 ,see ,origenes4 ,westermarck1 ,edward4 ,the history of human marriage4 #crd ed4 #aija4 7#bbcf f #g47 ,the origin and development of the moral ideas4 #b vols41 #aijf-i4 7#jhdjg f #ba47 ,wetzstein1 ,o4 ,die ,wandlung der stoschen ,lehre unter ihren spteren ,vertretern4 ,neu-,strelitz1 #ahib-d4 ,weygoldt1 ,g4 ,p4 ,die ,philosophie der ,stoa nach ihrem ,wesen und ihren ,schicksalen dargestellt4 #ahhc4 7#hdfb b #h47 ,whittaker1 ,thomas4 ,apollonius of ,tyana and other essays4 #aijf4 7#jabcef l #fb47 ,winckler1 ,h4 ,a4 ,der ,stocismus eine ,wurzel des ,christenthums4 #ahgh4 ,windelband1 ,w4 ,geschichte der alten ,philosophie4 ,in the ,handbuch d4 klass4 ,alterthumswissenschaft4 #ahid4 ,translated by ,h4 ,e4 ,cushmann1 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 7#bbcf cc #h47 ,winter1 ,f4 ,j4 ,stoicorum pantheismus et principia doctrinae ethicae4 ,leipzig1 #ahgh4 ,zeller1 ,eduard4 ,die ,philosophie der ,griechen in ihrer geschichtlichen ,entwicklung4 #eth ed4 #ahib-4 7#hdhf h47 ,the ,stoics1 ,epicureans and ,sceptics4 ,translated from the ,german by ,o4 ,j4 ,reichel4 #ahib4 7#bbcd b #bb47 ,vortrge und ,abhandlungen1 #ahge4 7#abbej i #ac47 ,philosophische ,aufstze1 #ahhg4 7#hdfh f #cd47 ber eine ,berhrung des jngeren ,cynismus mit dem ,christenthum4 ,sitzungsb4 d4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 z4 ,berlin1 ix pp4 #abi-acb4 ,kleine ,schriften1 unter ,mitwirkung von ,h4 ,diels und ,k4 ,holl4 ,edited by ,dr ,otto ,leuze4 ,berlin1 #aiaj-4 7#abbeb g47 ,zimmermann1 ,d4 ,quae ratio philosophiae ,stoicae sit cum religione ,romana4 ,erlangen1 #aheh4 ,,general ,,index4 ,the numbers refer to the pages and notes4 ,abstract ideas1 #acf sqq4 ,academy1 #ee sqq42 influence on ,stoicism1 #fi1 #ic1 #id1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #aib1 #cjb4 ,essential difference between the two schools1 #aec4 accessio1 #bib1 #caf4 acervus1 #adg4 ,achilles1 #cci4 ,a,,oka1 #ae4 ,acquirements1 #cje4 ,,acte1 #cdg n4 #aaj4 ,action1 #ei4 ,active and passive1 #fi1 #aef1 #agb4 ,adam 7and ,eve71 #bgh1 #dbg4 ,,adam1 ,j41 #cj n4 #b1 #cj n4 #c1 #cb n4 #af1 #cd n4 #be1 #cg n4 #dc1 #df n4 #gf4 ,,addison1 ,j41 #agf n4 #i4 adfectus1 see #8,affections4' adsensio1 adsensus1 see #8,assent'2 adsensum sustinere1 see #8,suspense of judgment4' ,adultery condemned1 #bgf1 #cdg4 ,advantages1 #gb1 #bij1 #cai sqq42 rejected by ,aristo1 #hb4 aegritudo1 #cca2 aeg4 animi1 #cch4 ,aeneas1 #big1 #cia4 ,,aeschylus1 #ch4 ,aesculapius1 #bcc4 aestimatio1 #gb1 #bhi4 ,aether1 #ahj1 #ahc1 #ahf1 #dcf2 as first principle1 #gj n4 #fa2 as god1 #bai4 ,affection for children1 #cda4 ,affections1 #ccb sqq41 #ceb2 good affections1 #cbc2 in ,jesus1 #dab4 agitatio prima1 #cea4 ,agriculture1 #cfi1 #cgb4 ,,agrippinus1 ,,paconius1 #cii4 ,ahura ,mazd1 #h4 ,air1 #ahj sqq4 ,alcestis1 #adb4 ,,alexander1 #ac1 #fb1 #cci4 ,alexandria1 #bj1 #fd1 #hj1 #hc1 #aaj4 alienatio1 #bef1 #cbb4 ,allegorism1 #aab1 #aea1 #daa4 amarus1 #cce4 amor1 #cag4 ,analogy1 in logic1 #acd2 in grammar1 #ade4 ,,anaxagoras1 #dj1 #dd1 #aef4 ,,anaximander1 #cc4 ,,anaximenes1 #cc1 #aeh2 on elemental qualities1 #agc4 ,angels1 #h1 #aa1 #ba1 #ca2 guardian angels1 #bcc1 #bfd4 ,anger1 #ccc sqq4 anima1 #afh1 #bdb2 in ,st ,paul1 #dbj4 an4 inflammata1 #aha1 #bdc n4 #bc4 ,animals1 #ahf sqq42 their place in the universe1 #bje2 have no rights1 #bgd2 ,st ,paul's view1 #dag n4 #ee4 ,animism1 #bda4 animus1 #bdb4 annus1 magnus1 #aic4 ,anomaly1 #ade4 ,ant1 #ahg4 anticipatio1 #acf4 ,,antigonus ,,gonatas1 #ge1 #gi1 #caa4 ,,antiochus 7of ,ascalon71 #aji sqq41 #aeb4 ,,antipater 7of ,tarsus71 #if2 on the criterion1 #ada2 gives way to ,carneades1 #add2 on definition1 #adh2 definition of ,god1 #bbb2 of virtue1 #bhc2 on advantages1 #bib2 on marriage1 #cah4 ,,antipater 7of ,tyre71 #ajh1 #ahf1 #cag2 teacher of ,cato1 #chf4 ,,antiphon 7sophist71 #dj4 ,antipodes1 #age4 ,antiquarianism1 #cjf4 ,,antisthenes1 #dh sqq4 ,,antoninus1 ,m4 ,,pius1 #djb sqq4 ,apathy1 #cbd4 ,apocalypse1 #bd n4 #fd1 #dac n4 #bd4 ,aphrodite1 #bca4 ,apollo1 #bca4 ,,apollodorus 7of ,athens71 #ig4 ,,apollodorus 7of ,seleucia1 called ,ephillus71 #ig2 on the criterion1 #ada2 on pleasure1 #cae4 ,,apollonides1 #ajh4 ,,apollonius 7of ,tyre71 #ajh4 ,,apollophanes1 #hd4 appellatio1 #ade4 appetitio1 appetitus1 #bef1 #cad2 app4 recta1 #bef4 ,,aquilius1 ,c4 ,,gallus1 #che4 ,,aratus1 #hj2 view of the universe1 #ahb2 influence on ,virgil1 #chi2 on ,st4 ,paul1 #dji4 arbitrium liberum1 #baj4 ,,arcesilaus1 #fc2 converses with ,zeno1 #fi n4 #dh2 opposes ,zeno1 #gd2 opposes ,cleanthes1 #ij2 influence on ,chrysippus1 #ic4 ,,archedemus1 #ig2 on pleasure1 #cae4 ,,areius1 #aaj1 #cdc4 ,,aristarchus1 #adf n4 #ajd1 #agi4 ,,aristippus1 #ej4 ,,aristo1 #gi1 #hb sqq41 #abi2 inclines to ,cynism1 #hb2 opposes art1 #aec n4 #adh2 rejects precepts1 #ceg4 ,,aristocreon1 #ig4 ,,aristophanes1 #aj1 #age n4 #a4 ,,aristotle1 #eh sqq42 on active and passive principles1 #aef2 on substance and quality1 #afe2 on the categories1 #ei1 #afd1 #afi2 on the solar system1 #ahb2 on the microcosm1 #fa1 #bdj2 on slavery1 #bga1 #bgi2 on pleasure1 #caf2 on anger1 #ccc4 ,,arius1 see #8,areius4' ,,arnim1 ,h4 von1 #hf n4 #ei1 #aai n4 #abc4 ,,arnold1 ,,matthew1 #dce n4 #aeh4 ,,arria 7the elder71 #cic4 ,,arria 7the younger71 #cii4 ,,arrianus1 #aba4 ,art disparaged1 #aec4 ,,artemidorus1 #dja4 ,artemis1 #aab4 ,arts 7artes71 #adj1 #add1 #cje1 #cjf2 are passing conditions of soul1 #afh4 articulus1 #ade4 ,,arulenus ,,rusticus1 #dja4 ,asceticism1 #beh1 #cfb1 #dji4 ,assent 7adsensio1 adsensus71 in logic1 #fh1 #acb1 #bdi2 in morals1 #bef4 ,astrology or ,astronomy1 #f1 #aja1 #cjf4 ,atheism1 of ,socrates1 #df2 of the ,cynics1 #dh sqq42 of ,zeno1 #bag1 #bcd4 ,athene1 #bca4 ,,athenodorus ,,calvus1 #aji4 ,,athenodorus 7of ,soli71 #hd4 ,,athenodorus 7of ,tarsus71 7#a7 the elder1 #ih1 #ajg2 denies that sins are equal1 #cee2 teacher of ,cato1 #chf2 7#b7 the younger1 #aaj4 ,atoms1 #da1 #aei1 #ahi1 #dcf4 ,,attalus1 #aaa1 #cdg4 ,,augustus1 #aaj2 encourages flattery1 #cgj2 longs for leisure1 #cgg4 ,,aurelius1 ,m41 #abb sqq42 belief in providence1 #abc2 view of the future life1 #abe1 #bgj2 on sufficiency of virtue1 #bic2 devotion to paganism1 #abd1 #dje2 persecutes the ,christians1 #dje4 ,austerity1 #cef4 ,avesta1 #aa4 ,babylonians1 #c1 #e4 ,,bacon1 ,,francis1 #cce n4 #bg4 ,,balbus1 ,l4 ,,lucilius1 #che4 ,,balbus1 ,q4 ,,lucilius1 #aji1 #chf4 ,,barea ,,soranus1 #cii4 ,,basilides1 #ih4 ,baths1 #cgb4 #8,bear and forbear1' #abf1 #cej4 ,beard1 #bei1 #cfe4 ,beauty of the universe1 #bjd1 #bbf2 of body and soul1 #cab2 of women1 #cai2 of virtue1 #cbe4 ,st ,paul not appreciative1 #dag4 ,beneficence1 #cjg4 ,,bertholet1 ,d4 ,a41 #ba n4 #eg4 ,bigotry of ,cleanthes1 #ij2 of ,m4 ,aurelius1 #dje4 ,blessedness1 #fa4 ,,blossius1 ,c41 #chb4 ,body1 the ultimate existence1 #aeg2 definition1 #aeg2 not the same as matter1 #aeg2 moves and has life1 #aei2 moves through body1 #aei1 #afi2 how known1 #bdb n4 #ag2 is soul1 #beg2 in ,st ,paul1 #daf4 ,human body1 #beg2 is a temple1 #bei2 its humble parts1 #bed1 #bei1 #cac1 #dbf4 ,see also #8,flesh4' ,,bo,,thus 7of ,sidon71 #ie2 on the criterion1 #adc4 ,,boissier1 ,g41 #cig n4 #ie4 bonum1 #bha2 summum bonum or ultimum bonorum1 #bha1 #dbb4 ,,bowen1 ,lord 7translation by71 #bfe1 #bff4 ,boy-favourites1 #bhg1 #dbe4 ,brevity 7brevitas71 #adi4 ,,brutus1 ,m4 ,,junius1 #aaj1 #chh4 ,buddhism1 #ad sqq41 #ed1 #bie n4 #aei4 ,burial1 #ff1 #bgh4 ,,caesar1 ,c4 ,,julius1 his clemency1 #cgj4 ,,callipho1 #fd4 ,,callippus1 #hd4 ,cannibalism1 #bgh4 caritas1 #dbc4 ,,carneades1 #fc1 #if2 his visit to ,rome1 #ajj2 on the criterion1 #adb n4 #hf2 influence on ,antipater1 #if1 #add2 criticizes the conflagration1 #aib4 ,,cassius ,,longinus1 #cih4 ,castor1 #bcb1 #bcc4 ,categories of ,aristotle1 #ei2 of the ,stoics1 #afd sqq4 ,,cato1 ,m4 ,,porcius1 #ajh1 #aji1 #chf sqq42 his marriage relations1 #bgg1 #chg2 his death1 #caj1 #chh2 as #8wise man1' #big2 honoured by the #8old ,romans1' #cig4 ,cause 7causa71 in ,aristotle1 #fj1 #afb2 in ,stoicism1 #afb2 causa antecedens1 c4 principalis1 c4 proxima1 #bab2 first cause1 #bai4 ,caution 7cautio71 #cbc2 in court life1 #cga2 in ,jesus1 #dab4 ,celibacy1 advocated by ,epictetus1 #cfh2 by ,st ,paul1 #dbe4 ,ceres1 #bca4 ,chaldaism1 #e1 #f1 #agj1 #ahb1 #aii4 ,chance1 #aii sqq42 ,epicurean theory ridiculed1 #bbf4 ,chaos1 #dd1 #aid4 ,chastity1 #cdh4 ,children1 without speech1 #adf2 without reason1 #ach1 #bfj2 their training1 #cfj sqq4 ,christianity1 #bc sqq42 its ,stoic strain1 #djh sqq4 ,,chrysippus1 #ia sqq42 on the criterion1 #ada1 #adc2 on anomaly1 #ade2 on fallacies1 #adg2 on definition and rhetoric1 #adh2 defines the #8universe1' #agg2 on the conflagration1 #aib2 on possibility1 #bja2 on fate1 #bjb2 on particular providence1 #bje2 on evil1 #bjg2 on limitations of divine power1 #bjh2 no action without cause1 #bad n4 #ib2 on the #8higher ,being1' #bbd2 on the universe as a moral standard1 #bdj2 that soul is body1 #bdb2 wise souls only survive1 #bfg2 law the moral standard1 #bgc1 #bge2 on burial1 #bgh2 on slavery1 #bgi2 defines #8virtue' and #8nature1' #bhb2 on diseases of the soul1 #bhf2 calls advantages #8good1' #bij2 on wise men1 #bih2 distinguishes arts and acquirements1 #cje2 on justice1 #cjg2 on pleasure1 #cae1 #caf2 on reputation1 #cbj2 on political life1 #cch n4 #ec2 on drunkenness1 #cdf2 approves of the rod1 #cfa n4 #ci2 on the professions1 #cfi4 ,,cicero1 ,m4 ,t41 recounts death of ,cyrus1 #aj2 meets ,posidonius1 #ajd2 life1 #ajh2 criticism of ,stoic dialectic1 #aeb2 in exile1 #cgf4 ,academica1 #aji2 de ,amicitia1 #chb2 de ,divinatione1 #bbg2 de ,finibus1 #aji1 #bhc1 #cjc1 #chh2 de ,natura ,deorum1 #aje1 #aji1 #chf2 de ,officiis1 #aji1 #bhc1 #cjc1 #cac2 ,paradoxa1 #aea2 de ,republica1 #bhj1 #chc1 #chf2 de ,senectute1 #cgg2 ,tusculanae disputationes1 #bgh4 ,circe1 #ca4 ,city life1 #cga sqq4 ,,claudius 7princeps71 #aac1 #aai4 ,,cleanthes1 #hd sqq42 hymn to ,zeus1 #he2 on tone or tension1 #hi1 #afj2 on the tabula rasa1 #ace n4 #eb2 on rhetoric1 #adh sqq42 on solar system1 #agi2 on moon and stars1 #ahc2 on fate1 #bjb2 on the soul's future1 #bfg2 on woman1 #bgj n4 #agd2 declines ,athenian citizenship1 #bge2 on obedience to ,god1 #bhc2 as wise man1 #bif2 praise of virtue1 #bii2 on daily duties1 #cjb2 on pleasure1 #cae2 that pain is a good1 #cch4 ,clearness1 #acb4 ,,clemen1 ,c41 #dce n4 #aeg4 ,clemency1 #cdj4 ,,clemens1 #dcb4 ,,cleomenes ,,iii1 guided by ,sphaerus1 #hj1 #caa4 ,clothing1 #ff1 #cfb1 #cfe4 ,,coeranus1 #cii4 ,cohesion1 #ahi1 #bdc2 in the body1 #beg4 ,cold1 #aha4 collatio rationis1 #ace4 ,comets1 #ahc4 commoda1 #bij4 ,common sense 7sensus communis71 #cff4 ,commotions 7emotiones71 #cea1 #ceb2 in ,jesus1 #dab4 compositio1 #acd4 ,comprehension 7comprehensio71 #fh1 #hb1 #bdi2 how qualified1 #gd2 defended by ,chrysippus1 #ic2 as the criterion1 #ada4 conatus1 #cah n4 #aji4 concentus1 #bbe4 ,conceptions1 #ace sqq41 #agj4 conclusio1 #gc n4 #hj4 ,condensation1 #aeh1 #afg sqq4 ,conditional sentence1 #adg4 confatalia1 #bja4 ,conflagration 7conflagratio71 #ie sqq41 #aje1 #aij sqq42 denied by ,panaetius1 #ajc2 in ,christianity1 #dag4 ,conformity1 #de1 #bag1 #djd4 coniuncta1 #afg4 coniunctio naturae1 #bbg n4 #fg4 ,conjunction 7coniunctio71 #ade4 ,conscience1 #bbj1 #cbj2 in ,st ,paul1 #dae4 ,consent1 common1 #adc2 illustrated1 #bbc1 #cbe4 ,consistency1 #ga1 #bhb1 #bia4 ,consolations1 #dj1 #cdb sqq4 ,constancies 7constantiae71 #cbc2 in ,pauline writers1 #dab n4 #bj1 #dbc4 ,constellations1 #e4 constitutio1 #bfj n4 #aaf4 ,constitutional theory1 #df2 in ,aristotle1 #fb2 in ,panaetius1 #aja2 in the ,roman ,stoics1 #bhj4 continuatio naturae1 #bbg n4 #fg4 ,contrary twist1 #cce1 #cfd4 convenientia1 #ga4 ,conversion 7conversio71 #aci1 #cbg4 ,,cordus1 ,,cremutius1 #cib4 ,,cornelius1 ,,fidus1 #cda4 ,,cornutus1 #aab1 #bca1 #cie4 ,cosmology1 #aic sqq42 ,christian1 #dag4 ,cosmopolis1 #ff1 #aif1 #bgd1 #bhd2 levels race and sex1 #bga2 in the ,roman empire1 #chb2 in ,christianity1 #dbc4 ,,cotta1 #ajd4 ,country life1 #cgb4 ,courage1 in ,plato1 #eh2 in ,stoicism1 #bid1 #cjh2 defined1 #caa2 in women1 #cfb2 at death1 #cgh4 ,court life1 #cgj4 ,,crantor1 #cdb4 ,,crates1 #fe1 #cah4 ,,crates 7of ,mallos71 #ih2 teacher of ,panaetius1 #ajj2 advocates #8anomaly1' #adf4 ,,cratippus1 #fd4 ,creation1 #fj1 #aic2 ,pauline view1 #dbh2 compared with procreation1 #bed4 ,creator1 in ,plato1 #eg2 in ,aristotle1 #fj2 as the ,logos1 #afa2 in popular theology1 #aid4 ,,crinis1 #ih4 ,,crispinus1 #aaa4 ,criterion1 #ge1 #acj1 #aca1 #ada4 ,,critolaus1 #ajj4 ,cronos1 #aab1 #bca4 ,,crossley1 ,h41 #ag n4 #ea4 ,cruelty1 #ccf4 ,cupid1 #bca4 ,cynics1 #af1 #dh sqq42 their theory of morals1 #bhh2 freedom of speech1 #cbb4 ,cynism1 a short cut to virtue1 #ig1 #cfe4 ,cyrenaics1 #ej4 ,,cyrus1 #i sqq42 conquest of ,ionia1 #cd1 #cg2 described by ,xenophon1 #ej2 a #8wise man1' #bif4 ,daemons1 #bcb1 #bfd4 ,daily duties1 #cja sqq4 ,,damasippus1 #aaa4 ,,dardanus1 #ajg4 ,,darius conquers ,ionia1 #cg4 ,,davidson1 ,w4 ,l41 #bg n4 #ge1 #bfb n4 #acc4 ,death1 #bfa2 of children1 #cdc2 how to be met1 #ccc1 #cgh sqq4 ,decency1 #cab4 decorum #cab1 #cdh2 in speech1 #adi4 ,definition 7definitio71 #adh2 in ,sphaerus1 #hj4 ,deification1 #gi4 ,demeter1 #bca4 ,,demetrius 7,cynic philosopher71 #djj4 ,,demetrius 7bishop71 #dcd4 ,,democritus1 #da2 theory of atoms and void1 #aef4 ,departure1 reasonable1 #cji sqq4 ,,descartes1 #bdb n4 #ag4 ,determinism1 #bjj4 ,dialectic1 #abi sqq41 #adh2 rejected by the ,cynics1 #di4 di immortales1 #bbj4 ,diana1 #bca4 ,,dicaearchus1 #fd4 ,dido1 #cia4 ,,diels1 ,h41 #aaj n4 #ge4 difficilis1 #cce1 #cdd n4 #id4 dilatatio1 #bid n4 #adh4 ,,dill1 ,s41 #ii n4 #a1 #chj n4 #a1 #djj n4 #ajh1 #djd n4 #abf4 ,,dio 7of ,prusa71 #aah4 ,,diodorus 7,megarian71 #ea2 against free will1 #adh2 the #8master-argument1' #bja4 ,,diodorus 7,peripatetic71 #fd4 ,,diodotus1 #ajh4 ,,diogenes 7the ,cynic71 #af1 #dh sqq41 #bgd2 on labour1 #afj2 as #8wise man1' #bif4 ,,diogenes 7of ,seleucia71 #if2 visit to ,rome1 #ajj2 his style in speaking1 #aej2 on music1 #bcd2 on the divine immanence1 #bdj2 on constitutions1 #bhj2 definition of virtue1 #bhc1 #cjc2 on reputation1 #cbj4 ,,dionysius 7of ,cyrene71 #ajg4 ,,dionysius 7of ,heraclea71 #hd4 ,dionysus1 #aaj n4 #gf4 ,,dioscorides1 #if4 ,dis1 #bca4 ,disadvantages1 #cbb4 ,disappointment1 #cch4 ,discipline1 #aab2 of pain1 #cch4 ,discontent1 #cca4 ,diseases of the soul1 #ccb1 #cec4 ,disposition1 #afg4 ,divination1 suggested by ,socrates1 #dc1 #aih2 denied by ,panaetius1 #ajc2 accepted by ,posidonius1 #aje2 an argument for the existence of gods1 #bbg4 ,dog1 #ahg4 ,dogmatism1 #gd2 of ,st ,paul1 #dae4 ,,domitian expels the philosophers1 #abj4 ,drinking1 #cjd1 #cad1 #cag1 #cdf4 ,,driver1 ,s4 ,r41 #i4 ,druidism1 #bd4 ,,drusus1 #aaa4 ,dualism1 #cc n4 #bb4 ,of ,zarathustra1 #ch2 of ,anaxagoras1 #dj2 of ,socrates1 #dd2 of ,aristotle1 #fj2 of ,zeno1 #fi1 #agb2 of ,cleanthes1 #hh2 of the ,stoics1 #aeg2 of soul and body1 #aeg2 of force and matter1 #agb2 of active and passive1 #agb2 of good and bad men1 #ced4 ,duty1 #cja sqq41 #cbh2 towards the gods1 #bcg2 daily duties1 #aja1 #cja sqq4 ,,dyroff1 ,a41 #hc n4 #db4 ,earth revolves on its axis1 #agh2 round the sun1 #agi2 a gross element1 #bbe4 ,eating1 #cjd1 #cad1 #cag1 #cde4 ,eclecticism1 #ajf1 #djd4 ,,ecphantus1 #agh4 ,education1 #ceh2 of children1 #cfj2 of slaves1 #cgd4 ,,egnatius ,,celer1 #djj4 ,ego1 #abe1 #bdf4 ,eleatics1 #cd4 ,elements 7elementa71 #ab1 #aef1 #agc1 #agi1 #aif1 #bbe2 are divine1 #bai2 in ,empedocles1 #da2 their qualities1 #agc4 ,elephantine1 #i n4 #be4 ,emotions1 see #8,commotions4' ,,empedocles1 #da1 #agc4 enodatio1 #acg4 ,,epictetus1 #aai sqq42 on the soul's absorption1 #abe2 defines dialectic1 #acj2 on certainty1 #add2 rejects divination1 #bbh2 on hymns1 #bce2 on self-examination1 #bcf2 on obedience to ,god1 #bhd2 on the sufficiency of virtue1 #bic2 on the #8wise man1' #bih2 on the relationships1 #cjg2 on #8free departure1' #caa2 on family affection1 #cda2 consolations1 #cdc2 women to be avoided1 #cej2 on celibacy1 #cfh2 on court life1 #cgj2 in exile1 #dja4 ,epicureans1 #ed1 #ic4 ,,epicurus1 #gd2 his logic1 #acg2 theory of atoms1 #aei2 on the gods1 #bbe4 ,,eratosthenes1 #hc4 ,eristics1 #fi4 ,eros1 #bca4 essentia1 #aeh1 #afe4 ,ethics1 #bgc sqq4 ,etruscans1 their monotheism1 #aj1 #bba2 reject images1 #bcd4 ,,euclides 7of ,megara71 #ea4 ,,eudoxus1 #ahb4 ,,eudromus1 #ih4 ,,eumenes ,,ii1 #ih4 ,eupathy1 #cbd4 ,,euphrates1 #aah4 ,,euripides1 #ci4 eventa1 #afg4 ,evil1 #bjf sqq41 #bac sqq41 #ccj2 in ,st ,paul1 #dah4 excessus rationalis1 #cji4 ,exercise1 #cei4 ,exhalations1 #ahc1 #bfj1 #bfd4 ,exile1 #cgf4 exitus1 #cji4 experientia1 #acd4 ,,fabius 7,cunctator71 #ccd4 ,,fairweather1 ,w41 #ba n4 #eh1 #bc n4 #fb4 ,faith1 #dae4 ,fallacies1 #ea1 #adg4 ,fame1 #cbj4 ,,fannia1 #cic1 #djj4 ,,fannius1 ,c41 #chc4 ,fasting1 #cfd4 ,fate 7fatum71 in ,chaldaism1 #e2 in ,homer1 #cj2 in ,stoicism1 #aii sqq4 ,,favorinus1 #cfj n4 #bc4 ,fear1 #cca1 #ccc sqq4 ,fire1 sacred to the ,persians1 #ac2 in ,heraclitus1 #ce2 with ,zeno1 #gj2 with ,cleanthes1 #hi2 tends upwards1 #ahj2 elemental and primary1 #ahj2 is divine1 #bai2 is a refined element1 #bbe4 ,flesh1 #beh2 in ,st ,paul1 #daf sqq4 ,,fleury1 ,,am,d,e1 #dcc n4 #aea4 ,flood1 #bgh4 ,forcefulness1 in ,socrates1 #db2 in the ,cynics1 #di2 in ,crates1 #fe2 in ,epictetus1 #abj2 in ,stoic ethics1 #bdg2 identified with virtue1 #bhe2 of ,ulysses1 #bif2 of ,jesus1 #daa4 formido1 see #8,fear4' fortitudo1 see #8,courage4' ,fortune1 #aii1 #bji4 ,,fowler1 ,w4 ,,warde1 #chj n4 #a1 #che n4 #cc4 ,freedom1 #bha1 #cjd2 of the will1 #ag1 #baj4 ,fretfulness1 #ccg4 ,,friedl,,nder1 ,m41 #bc n4 #fc4 ,friendship1 #cff4 ,,furius1 ,l4 ,,philus1 #bhj1 #chb4 fusio universa1 #afi4 ,,galileo1 #agi4 ,,gallio1 #djf4 ,,gallus1 ,c4 ,,aquilius1 #che4 ,games1 #cfj1 #cfa4 ,,garnett1 ,r41 #dcd n4 #aef4 gaudium1 #cbd4 ,,gautama1 #ad sqq4 ,,geldner1 ,k41 #g n4 #ag1 #ab n4 #ca4 ,,gellius1 ,a41 #aag2 on ,seneca1 #aad4 ,generation1 see #8,procreation4' genius1 #bcb4 ,gentlemanliness1 #fa1 #cab4 ,geometry to be studied1 #cjf4 ,germans1 #bgb4 ,girls1 education of1 #cfb2 girl students are disputatious1 #cfg4 ,gladiator as ideal1 #abj1 #cfc4 ,,gladisch1 ,a41 #cg n4 #de1 #ch nn4 #de a and #de b4 gloria1 #cbj4 ,god1 #bah sqq42 in ,persism1 #h2 in ,stoicism1 #ag1 #bah sqq42 in ,judaism1 #ba2 in ,homer1 #cj2 in ,xenophanes1 #cd2 in ,cynism1 #dh2 with the ,megarians1 #ea2 in world-literature1 #bbi2 in ,jesus1 #daa2 in ,st ,paul1 #dai4 ,his fatherhood1 #cj1 #hj1 #bba1 #dji4 ,his immanence1 #aha1 #bdj1 #dah2 he dwells in heaven1 #daa4 ,his limitations1 #bjh1 #bab4 ,four proofs1 #ij1 #bbc sqq4 ,definitions1 #bbb4 ,gods1 in ,homer1 #cj2 in ,posidonius1 #ajd2 in ,cornutus1 #aab2 ,stoic interpretation1 #dj1 #bbi sqq42 classified1 #chd2 in ,virgil1 #cij4 ,rustic gods1 #bbi1 #dje4 ,golden age1 #aid4 ,,gomperz1 ,,th41 #e n4 #c1 #af n4 #dh1 #cj n4 #b1 #cb n4 #af1 #cc nn4 #ai to #ba1 #cd n4 #bd1 #ce n4 #bi1 #cg n4 #dd1 #ci nn4 #dg and #dh1 #db n4 #ei1 #df nn4 #gf and #gh1 #di n4 #he1 #eb n4 #ib1 #hc n4 #dc1 #bgg n4 #bi1 #bgh n4 #da1 #bie n4 #aei4 ,good1 in ,plato1 #eg2 defined by ,diogenes1 #if2 is bodily1 #aeh2 in ,stoicism1 #bha4 ,see also #8,virtue4' ,gospel to the ,hebrews1 #dcj n4 #adb4 ,g,,ttling1 ,c4 ,w41 #di n4 #he4 ,,gracchi1 #chb4 ,,graecinus1 ,,iulius1 #cic4 ,graces 7,gratiae71 #bca4 ,grammar1 #add sqq4 ,great year1 #aic4 ,greatheartedness1 #cjh1 #caa4 ,greed1 #cca1 #ccc sqq4 ,greediness1 #cde4 ,grief1 #cca1 #ccf4 ,,grote1 ,g41 #df n4 #gh4 ,,gruppe1 ,o41 #dcj n4 #adb4 ,gymnasia forbidden1 #bgf4 ,gymnastics1 #bei1 #cei4 ,gymnosophists1 #ac sqq4 ,habit 7habitus71 #afh1 #cec4 ,,hadrian1 #aba1 #djd4 ,,haeckel1 ,e41 #beb sqq4 ,,hatch1 ,e41 #bj n4 #ed4 ,health of soul1 #bdg1 #bhe1 #bhf2 of body1 #bfa1 #bhf4 ,hearing1 #bej4 ,heat1 #aha2 is rarefied body1 #aei4 ,heaven1 home of the gods1 #g1 #ba1 #bbb1 #daa1 #dai4 ,,heberden1 ,dr1 #dcc n4 #aea4 ,hebraists1 #dbh4 ,,hecato1 #aje2 on pleasure1 #cae2 on wealth1 #cba n4 #acj2 his love-charm1 #cff n4 #gb4 ,,heinze1 ,o41 #bc n4 #fa1 #afa n4 #cf4 ,heliocentric theory1 #cd1 #ij1 #agh sqq4 ,hell disbelieved1 #bbc1 #bfe4 ,hellenes1 #i1 #dh1 #hc2 not a superior race1 #bga1 #bgd4 ,,helvidius ,,priscus1 #cii4 ,,henderson1 ,b4 ,w41 #aag1 #cie n4 #he1 #cih n4 #if1 #cii n4 #ii4 ,hera1 see #8,juno4' ,,heraclides 7of ,pontus71 #agh4 ,,heraclides 7of ,tarsus71 #ih2 denied that sins are equal1 #cee4 ,,heraclitus1 #ce sqq42 followed by ,zeno1 #gj2 by ,cleanthes1 #hh2 on the universe1 #agg2 on the aether1 #ahc2 on the conflagration1 #aij1 #aia2 on the microcosm1 #bdj2 on exhalations1 #bfa2 as #8wise man1' #bif2 on length of life1 #cji n4 #ed4 ,hercules1 personifies activity1 #afj2 deified1 #bcc1 #bif2 as #8wise man1' #bie4 ,heredity1 #bea4 ,,herillus1 #ha4 ,,herodes ,,atticus1 #djc4 ,,herodotus1 #i4 ,,hesiod1 #ca1 #bcb1 #cfd1 #cgb4 ,,hicetas1 #agh4 ,,hicks1 ,r4 ,d41 #acc n4 #ci1 #aci n4 #gj1 #adc n4 #hi1 #aic n4 #acj4 ,,hierocles1 #ajh4 ,,hieronymus1 #fd4 ,hilarity1 #cca1 #cde sqq4 ,,hipparchia1 #fe1 #cah4 ,,hippias 7of ,elis71 #dj4 ,,hippocrates1 on primary qualities1 #agc4 ,,hirzel1 ,r41 #ha n4 #bf1 #hc n4 #db1 #hh n4 #fg1 #bfe n4 #ade1 #bff n4 #aej1 #cah n4 #aji4 ,h,,ffding1 ,h41 #bbg n4 #fc4 ,,homer1 #cj sqq4 ,,horace1 #aaa1 #chi4 ,,huet1 ,p4 ,d41 #dcc n4 #aea4 humanitas1 #cjj1 #cha4 ,humour1 #cdj1 #cdb4 ,hylozoists1 #cb1 #aef4 ,hymns1 of ,cleanthes1 #he sqq42 of the ,stoics1 #bcd1 #cei2 ,christian1 #dai4 id quod dicitur1 #adf4 id quod est1 #aeh1 #agj4 ,idea1 in ,plato1 #ef sqq42 in ,aristotle1 #ei2 not really existent1 #acf4 ignava ratio1 #bjj4 ignavia1 #ccb n4 #e4 ,images disallowed by the ,persians1 #h1 #i2 by the ,jews1 #ba2 by ,xenophanes1 #cd2 by ,antisthenes1 #dh2 by the ,tuscans1 #bcd2 by ,zeno1 #ff1 #bcd1 #bge4 ,immanence of the deity1 #aha1 #bdj1 #dah2 in ,st ,paul1 #dbj4 ,immortality1 #h1 #bfb sqq4 impetus1 #bef4 inaestimabile1 #bhi4 ,incest1 #bgg4 inclinatio1 #bhf4 incommoda1 #bij4 ,incontinence 7incontinentia71 #cdh sqq4 incorporalia1 #agj4 ,indians1 #c2 sympathy for animals1 #bgd n4 #aj2 disposal of the dead1 #bgh2 asceticism1 #cei4 indifferentia1 #dj1 #bhi1 #cae4 indoles bona1 #cbf n4 #afj4 ,induction1 #ef1 #acf4 ,inference1 #ace4 ,ingoldsby ,legends1 #dcd4 iniustitia1 #ccb n4 #e4 inopinata1 #aej4 insipientia1 #ccb n4 #e4 intellegentiae incohatae1 #ach n4 #fe4 intemperantia1 #ccb n4 #e4 intentio1 see #8,tone4' ,intention 7intentio71 #hg1 #bhf4 intolerantia1 #cdi4 ,intuitionism1 #di4 ira1 #ccc sqq4 iracundia1 #cce4 iuncta fato1 #bja4 ius gentium1 #che4 iustitia1 #bca4 ,jerusalem1 #i4 ,,jesus1 #daj sqq4 ,,jevons1 ,f4 ,b41 #bda n4 #ac1 #dbf n4 #aai4 ,,john 7saint71 #bd1 #dca4 ,joy1 #cbd4 ,judaism1 #bj sqq4 ,,julia ,,domna1 #djd4 ,,julius ,,graecinus1 #cic4 ,,junius ,,mauricus1 #dja4 ,juno1 #aab1 #bcj1 #bgh4 ,juppiter1 #aj1 #bba1 #bcj2 in ,virgil1 #cij4 ,see also #8,zeus4' ,jurists1 #chd sqq41 #djb sqq4 ,justice 7iustitia71 #eh1 #bid1 #cjg4 ,,justin 7,martyr71 #dba n4 #hj1 #dcb n4 #adi4 ,,juvenal1 #bce1 #djb4 ,,kanus ,,iulius1 #cic4 ,,keble1 ,j41 #ab n4 #cb4 ,kingdom of heaven1 #daa2 of the soul1 #bch sqq4 ,kingship1 #cfi sqq4 ,knowledge1 #abi1 #adj4 ,,laelius1 ,c41 #cha2 as #8wise man1' #big4 laetitia1 #caf1 #cca2 laet4 gestiens or nimia1 #caf n4 #aja4 ,language1 its origin1 #adf4 ,,lateranus ,,plautus1 #cii4 ,latinitas1 #adi4 ,law1 #ga1 #bgc1 #bgf2 in ,virgil1 #cij2 universal ,law is divine1 #cf1 #bbj1 #cbh2 first laws of nature1 #cjb sqq4 ,law as a profession1 #cjf4 ,roman law codified by ,scaevola1 #chd2 developed by the ,antonini1 #djb4 ,lawcourts condemned1 #bgf4 ,leisure1 #cgg4 ,,leucippus1 #da4 lex communis1 #bgc2 lex naturae1 #che4 #8,liar' fallacy1 #adg4 ,liber1 #bcc4 ,liberal arts1 #cjf4 ,liberality1 #cgc4 ,liberty 7libertas7 of the ,cynics1 #di2 an advantage1 #cbb2 sought by slaves1 #cge2 of the #8old ,romans1' #cig4 libido1 #bef1 #cca1 #ccc4 ,life an advantage1 #cji2 #8eternal' or #8spiritual1' #dad1 #dae1 #dbb1 #dcd4 ,,lightfoot1 ,j4 ,b41 #bd n4 #ff1 #bi n4 #a1 #ced n4 #adh1 #chj n4 #a1 #dji n4 #b1 #dbe n4 #aab4 ,,livia1 #aaa1 #cdc4 ,,locke1 on the tabula rasa1 #ace n4 #eb4 ,logic1 #abh sqq42 its use1 #cjf2 its danger1 #aae1 #abj1 #aea sqq41 #djc4 ,logos1 in ,persism1 #ab1 #ai2 in ,philo1 #bc2 in ,heraclitus1 #ce sqq42 in ,zeno1 #ag1 #gj2 in ,cleanthes1 #hh sqq42 in ,posidonius1 #aje4 ,as creator1 #afa2 as the active principle1 #agb2 as fate1 #bjb2 as ,providence1 #bjc2 is ,god1 #bai2 as bond of the state1 #bgc1 #bge2 in ,christianity1 #dag sqq41 #dca sqq4 ,,long1 ,g41 #bjf n4 #df4 ,love1 #cag sqq42 in the ,state1 #fg1 #bge2 in ,st ,paul1 #dbc4 ,,lucan1 #aab1 #cie sqq42 account of ,druidism1 #be2 pupil of ,cornutus1 #aab4 ,lucidity1 #adi4 ,,lucilius1 ,c4 7poet71 visited ,posidonius1 #ajd2 on style1 #aej2 his poems1 #chc4 ,,lucilius1 ,c4 7official71 #cig4 ,,lucullus1 ,l4 ,,licinius1 #aji4 ,,lucretius on fortune1 #aii n4 #c2 on procreation1 #bea4 luctus1 #cdd4 ,luna1 #bca4 ,luxury1 #cfb1 #cfd4 ,maccabees iv1 #bc4 ,macrocosm1 #fa1 #ij1 #bch1 #bdj4 ,magi1 #c1 #f1 #g4 magnitudo animi1 #cjh4 ,,mahaffy1 ,j4 ,p41 #ae n4 #df1 #af n4 #dg1 #bg1 #ed n4 #b1 #hj n4 #ae1 #hd n4 #dd1 #agd n4 #aac4 ,,maine1 ,sir ,h41 #bgg n4 #bi1 #djb n4 #abb4 ,man1 his position in the universe1 #ahf2 his erect figure1 #cia2 #8all men are equal1' #djc4 ,,marcia 7wife of ,cato71 #chg4 ,,marcia 7daughter of ,cremutius71 #cdb1 #cib4 ,marriage1 approved1 #bgf2 a social duty1 #bhd1 #cah2 discourse by ,antipater1 #cah2 by ,musonius1 #cfg4 ,stoic marriages1 #chc4 ,mars1 #bca4 ,,mary 7,virgin71 #bca n4 #hc2 as ,wisdom1 #dcj n4 #adb4 #8,master-argument1' #adh1 #bja sqq4 materia1 #dd1 #fj1 #aeg1 #agb4 ,materialism1 #da1 #aeg1 #bec2 limited by the ,stoics1 #bdb4 mathematici1 #f4 ,matter 7materia71 with ,socrates1 #dd2 in ,aristotle1 #fj2 ,stoic views1 #aeg1 #agc4 ,,maudsley1 ,h41 #cea n4 #aca4 ,,maunder1 ,sir ,e4 ,w41 #e n4 #e4 ,,mayor1 ,j4 ,e4 ,b41 #bie n4 #aei4 ,,mayor1 ,j4 ,b41 #ahb n4 #eh1 #bji n4 #fh1 #bbe n4 #ed1 #bdi n4 #fb4 ,megarians1 #ea4 ,memory1 #acd4 mentiens1 #adg4 metus1 #cca1 #ccc sqq4 ,microcosm in ,aristotle1 #fa2 in ,cleanthes1 #ij2 ,stoic view1 #bch1 #bdj4 ,,milton1 ,j41 #dbe n4 #aab4 ,mind-picture1 #fh1 #aca4 ,minerva1 #bca4 ,miracles do not happen1 #dcd4 ,misanthropy1 #cdd4 ,mithra-worship1 #ahd4 ,,mnesarchus1 #ajg4 ,modesty1 #cac1 #cbf4 ,,mommsen1 ,,th41 #bag n4 #a4 ,monarchy1 favoured by ,socrates1 #df2 by ,sphaerus1 #hj2 by the ,stoics1 #cif4 ,monism1 #cc n4 #bb2 in ,xenophanes1 #ce2 in the ,megarians1 #ea2 in ,zeno1 #gj2 in ,cleanthes1 #hh2 in the ,pythagoreans1 #ajd2 of the ,cynics1 #bbj n4 #bd2 of mind and matter1 #acd2 of soul and body1 #aeg2 of the existent1 #agj4 ,monotheism1 see #8,god4' ,,montesquieu1 #bg n4 #gd4 ,moon1 #ahb4 ,motherhood1 #bee1 #cge4 ,motion1 #aei1 #ahj4 motus levis1 #cea4 ,mourning1 #cdd1 #dbd n4 #ajj4 mundus1 see #8,universe4' ,,musonius1 #aaf sqq42 against relaxation1 #bhe2 on greediness1 #cde2 on marriage1 #cfg1 #cfh2 on kingship1 #cgj2 on pastoral life1 #cgb2 on old age1 #cgg2 discourages sedition1 #cii2 attacks ,egnatius1 #djj2 exempted from exile1 #dja4 ,mythology1 ,christian1 #dbh4 natura1 7#a7 growth1 #afh1 #bdb2 7#b7 category of existence1 #agi1 #bah4 ,see also #8,nature4' ,nature1 as standard of morals1 #ie1 #bdj1 #bhb2 common to all philosophies1 #che4 ,neatness1 #cbj1 #cfe4 ,necessity 7necessitas naturalis71 #bjj1 #bjh1 #bbd1 #cdd4 ,neptunus1 #bca4 ,,nero1 #aac1 #aag1 #cid sqq4 ,,nerva1 #djd4 ,,nestor 7philosopher71 #cib4 ,,nettleship1 ,h41 #che n4 #bh4 ,,newman1 ,j4 ,h41 #ab n4 #cc4 ,,nicanor1 #aaj n4 #gf4 ,nobility1 #cbj2 in ,euripides1 #ci4 nomen 7noun71 #ade4 ,nominalism of the ,cynics1 #di2 of ,zeno1 #fh2 of the ,stoics1 #acf4 ,notions 7notiones71 #ace2 not4 communes and insitae1 #ach4 ,obedience to ,god1 #bhc1 #cfc2 to parents1 #cfc2 to natural law1 #che4 ,object 7obiectum71 #aeg2 is existent1 #agb4 ,ocean1 its exhalations1 #ahc4 ,,octavia1 #cdc4 odium generis humani1 #cde4 ,odyssey moralized1 #ca4 offensio1 #cec4 officium1 #aja1 #cja sqq42 off4 perfectum1 #cbf4 ,old age1 #bfa1 #cji1 #cgg sqq4 ,old ,romans1 #cha sqq4 ,opinion 7opinio71 #fh1 #acc4 oratio pellucida1 #adi4 ,,origen1 #dbj n4 #gg1 #dcj n4 #acb1 #dcb2 excommunicated1 #dcd4 ,orphic fragments1 #cb4 ,,ovid1 #cia2 on the golden age1 #aie4 ,,paconius ,,agrippinus1 #cii4 ,,paetus1 ,,caecina1 #cic4 ,,paetus1 ,,thrasea1 #cid1 #cii4 ,pagan revival1 #dje4 ,pain1 to be met with ,courage1 #cjh2 is no evil1 #ccg1 #cfd4 ,pan1 #aab4 ,,panaetius1 #ajj sqq42 abandons the #8conflagration1' #ajc2 on advocacy1 #add2 on the planets1 #ahb2 questions divination1 #bbg2 and immortality1 #bfg2 on slavery1 #bgi2 on government1 #bhj2 definition of virtue1 #bhc2 on social duty1 #bhd2 on the #8sufficiency1' #bib2 on daily duties1 #cjc2 on anger1 #ccc n4 #i2 letter to ,q4 ,tubero1 #ccg4 ,,pantaenus1 #dcb4 ,pantheism1 in ,hesiod1 #cb2 of ,aratus1 #hj2 of ,cleanthes1 #ij2 limited by the ,stoics1 #ah1 #ahe1 #bai2 by ,st ,paul1 #dah4 ,paradox1 #aej4 ,paradoxes1 #aea2 #8body moves through body1' #aei1 #afi2 #8soul is body1' #fi1 #aeg1 #bda2 is an animal1 #bdc2 #8virtues are bodies1' #aeh2 #8if there are altars1 there are gods1' #bbg2 #8man is god1' #bdh2 #8no man sins willingly1' #de1 #di1 #beg2 #8virtue can be taught1' #bhe2 #8sin is ignorance1' #cca2 #8virtue is sufficient1' #bia2 #8is knowledge1' #dd1 #de1 #di1 #beg1 #bhe2 #8is the true nobility1' #cbj2 #8cannot be lost1' #bie2 #8wise man is a king1' #ff1 #aaa1 #bii1 #cch2 #8is a good general1' #gi2 #8never errs1' #ajb2 #8is a lover1' #cah1 #cdh2 #8needs nothing1' #bic2 #8is happy on the rack1' #bii2 #8is a god1' #bii2 #8he who is not wise is a fool1' #cee2 #8is a slave1' #dbd2 #8he who has one vice has all1' #ccb n4 #e1 #cee2 #8all sins are equal1' #ced2 #8affections must be extirpated1' #ccb1 #ced2 #8riches are not a good1' #cba2 #8pain is no evil1' #ajb1 #ccg2 #8is a good1' #cch2 #8death is no evil1' #cji1 #cdd2 #8is a boon1' #cji2 #8these three are one1' #dcc4 ,parts of philosophy1 #abh2 of speech1 #ade4 ,passion1 #ei4 ,pastoral life1 #cgb4 ,,paul 7saint71 #bd1 #dji sqq42 education1 #dad2 theory of #8body1' #daf2 of sin1 #dah2 of human nature1 #dai2 of immortality1 #dba2 of tabus1 #dbc2 breach with ,hebraists1 #dbh2 on birth of ,jesus1 #dcj4 ,,paulina1 #cfg4 ,peace1 see #8,tranquillity4' ,,pearson1 ,a4 ,c41 #gj n4 #fa1 #ge n4 #ij1 #he n4 #eh1 #hf n4 #ei1 #id n4 #ajb1 #acc n4 #cd1 #ada n4 #ha1 #afb n4 #ci1 #aid n4 #acb1 #aie n4 #aci1 #aif and #aig1 #bbb n4 #cb1 #bbg n4 #fc1 #bfd n4 #add1 #bib n4 #abg1 #cae n4 #ib1 #cbf n4 #afj1 #cdf n4 #ajd4 peccatum1 #ccj1 #dbe n4 #aaa4 ,,pedanius ,,secundus1 #cih4 ,penetration1 #aei1 #afi2 by the deity1 #aha1 #ahi2 by the soul1 #bei2 in marriage1 #cai4 ,perceptions1 #ace sqq4 ,pergamus1 #ii4 ,peripatetics1 #fc sqq42 on ,anger1 #ccc4 ,,persaeus1 #gi1 #caa4 ,persecution of ,christians1 #dje4 ,persephone1 #bca4 ,persism1 #f sqq42 influence on ,heraclitus1 #cg2 on the evil spirit1 #bcb2 on body and soul1 #bda2 on future rewards1 #bfd2 disposal of the dead1 #bgh2 men good and bad1 #ced2 influence on ,christianity1 #dce n4 #aeg4 ,see also #8,angels1' #8,zarathustra4' ,,persius1 #aab1 #cie4 ,person 7persona71 #bdf n4 #db1 #dcc n4 #aed4 perspicuitas1 #acb4 ,perturbation 7perturbatio71 #ccb1 #cea n4 #aca1 #ceb4 ,,peter 7saint71 #dbh2 his popularity1 #dbi4 ,phantasm1 #acb4 ,pharisees1 #ba n4 #ef1 #daa4 ,,philo1 #bc2 follows ,posidonius1 #aje4 ,,philonides1 #hj1 #caa4 ,philosophy1 its subject-matter1 #b2 derived from the ,east1 #c2 its parts1 #abh2 becomes ill-defined1 #ajf2 is unpopular1 #cef n4 #aei2 persecuted1 #cic2 established1 #djd2 absorbed in ,christianity1 #dac sqq4 ,,philus1 see #8,furius4' ,phrase1 #adf4 ,physicians respected1 #bhf1 #cfi4 ,physics1 #aee sqq42 value of the study1 #cjf4 ,picture 7of ,samos71 #bca n4 #hc4 ,,piso1 conspires against ,nero1 #aag4 ,pity1 #cdj4 ,place1 #ei4 ,planets1 #ahb4 ,plants1 #ahf1 #ahh4 ,,plato1 #bf1 #ee sqq42 theory of ideas still-born1 #ef2 view of the solar system1 #agi1 #ahb2 on the soul1 #bee2 on slavery1 #bgi2 commentary on the ,timaeus by ,posidonius1 #ajd1 #acd n4 #dj2 the ,phaedo1 #bde2 the ,republic1 #ff1 #bgd4 ,,plautus1 #bcj n4 #gi1 #bcb n4 #ie1 #bcf n4 #abe4 ,,plautus ,,lateranus1 #cii4 ,pleasure1 #cad sqq41 #cca4 ,pluto1 #bca4 ,,polemo1 #fc2 teacher of ,zeno1 #fi2 taught #8first lessons of nature1' #cjb4 ,politics1 of ,socrates1 #de2 of ,plato1 #eh2 of ,aristotle1 #fa2 of the ,stoics1 #bhj2 participation a duty1 #dc1 #bhd2 sometimes avoided1 #aaf1 #cch sqq42 as a profession1 #cfi4 ,,pollio1 #aag4 ,pollux1 #bcb1 #bcc4 ,,polybius1 #aja1 #bhj4 ,,polygnotus1 #ga4 ,polytheism1 #bah4 ,,pompeius1 ,s4 7uncle of ,magnus71 #chf4 ,,pompeius 7,magnus71 meets ,posidonius1 #ajd4 ,,pontius ,,pilatus1 #dje4 ,,porcia1 #chh4 ,,porter1 ,w4 ,h41 translation of ,hymn of ,cleanthes1 #he to #hg2 other translations1 #cie1 #cif4 ,,posidonius1 #ajd sqq42 on general consent1 #adc2 opposes heliocentric doctrine1 #agi2 view of the solar system1 #ahb2 adheres to the #8conflagration1' #aib2 on the #8golden age1' #aid1 #aie2 on fate1 #bjj2 religious sentiment1 #bag2 defends divination1 #bbg2 belief in daemons1 #bcb2 on hymns1 #bce2 on sight1 #bej2 on immortality1 #bfg2 lays stress on precepts1 #ceg n4 #c4 ,,posidonius 7of ,alexandria71 #hd4 ,possibility1 #bja4 ,poverty1 #cge4 praecipua1 praelata1 praeposita1 #bij4 praesumptio1 #acf4 ,prayer1 of ,socrates1 #de2 with the ,stoics1 #bac1 #bce sqq42 ,lord's prayer1 #bc1 #daa4 ,precepts1 #ceg2 must be few and easy1 #ceh4 ,preconception1 #acf2 of deity1 #bbd4 ,predication1 #adf2 is true or untrue1 #agb4 ,presumption1 #acf4 ,principate 7principale1 principatus71 #hi1 #ij n4 #ha1 #acj2 of the universe1 #ahf2 of animals and plants1 #ahh2 in man1 #bde sqq42 as #8spirit' in ,st ,paul1 #dbj4 principia 7#a7 in physics1 #agc2 7#b7 pr4 naturae1 in ethics1 #cjb4 ,probability1 #adc2 the guide of daily life1 #cjc n4 #ac4 ,see also #8,reasonableness4' ,probationer1 #ajb1 #bid4 ,see also #8,progress4' ,procreation1 #bea sqq42 in ,lucretius1 #bea2 in ,haeckel1 #beb2 these theories inadequate1 #bec2 its taint1 #dbg2 spiritual procreation1 #dbh4 ,,prodicus1 #ci2 #8choice of ,hercules1' #bii4 producta1 #bij4 ,professions1 #cac1 #cfi4 proficiens1 see #8,probationer1' #8,progress4' ,progress 7progressio71 #ajb1 #bid1 #cbe sqq42 in ,st ,paul1 #dbd4 proloquium1 pronuntiatum1 #adf n4 #aaa4 ,prometheus1 #aab4 promota1 #bij4 ,property justified1 #cjg4 proportio1 #acd4 ,proposition1 #adf4 proprietas1 #adi4 ,proserpina1 #bca4 ,proverbs1 #cfa4 ,providence1 taught by ,socrates1 #dd2 by ,panaetius1 #ajc2 by the ,stoics1 #bjc sqq42 particular providence1 #bje2 the human body its masterpiece1 #dd1 #bei2 belief of ,m4 ,aurelius1 #abc4 prudentia1 #cjf sqq4 ,,ptolemy ,,ii 7,philadelphus71 #af4 ,,ptolemy ,,iii 7,euergetes71 #hj1 #hc4 ,,ptolemy ,,iv 7,philopator71 #adc4 ,punishment1 #ccf4 ,purgatory1 #fg1 #bfe sqq4 ,,pythagoras1 #cc2 belief in the 1 #agj2 on self-examination1 #bcf4 ,pythagoreans1 on the monad1 #ajd2 heliocentric theory1 #agh2 the #8great year1' #aic4 ,quality 7qualitas71 #ei1 #afd to #aff2 in ,aristotle1 #ei2 of the elements1 #agc2 is body1 #aff4 ,quantity1 #ei4 ,quiddity 7quid71 #aga4 quinta essentia1 #fj4 ,,quintilian1 on ,seneca1 #aad2 on ,stoic oratory1 #adi n4 #acb4 quod est1 #agj4 ,rabbis1 #daj4 rabiosus1 #cce4 ,race-suicide1 #cge4 ,rarefaction1 #cc1 #aeh1 #afg sqq4 ratio1 #ace2 r4 probabilis1 #fc n4 #ag2 r4 vera1 #ga1 #bgc2 ratio atque oratio1 #cg1 #ahg1 #bge2 collatio rationis1 #ace2 r4 ignava1 #bjj2 r4 universa1 #bbd4 ,see also #8,logos' and #8,wisdom4' ,readiness1 #cbd4 ,realism of ,plato1 #eg4 #8,reaper1' #adh4 ,reason1 see #8,logos1' #8ratio1' #8,wisdom'4 ,reasonable departure1 #cji4 ,reasonableness1 #fc1 #ha1 #adc2 admitted by ,chrysippus1 #ic1 #cjc2 advocated by ,diogenes1 #if1 #cjc2 by ,panaetius1 #ajc2 in ethics1 #bhc1 #cbe4 recte factum1 #bid4 ,,reichel1 ,o4 ,j41 #bj n4 #ed4 ,,reid1 ,j4 ,s41 #fc n4 #ae1 #ajd n4 #cd1 #ajh n4 #fb1 #aji n4 #fh1 #aaj n4 #gb1 #acg n4 #fc1 #agh n4 #bf4 reiecta1 #bij4 ,relation1 #ei4 ,relationship1 duties of1 #ajf1 #afi1 #cjg2 in the ,paulists1 #dbd4 ,relative position1 #afh4 ,relaxation1 #bhe1 #cfa4 ,religion1 #baf sqq42 in ,st ,paul1 #dai4 ,see also #8,god1' #8,prayer1' #8,hymns4' remota1 #bij4 ,,renan1 ,e41 #djb1 #djc n4 #abc1 #djf nn4 #abi and #aca4 ,,rendall1 ,g4 ,h41 #ag n4 #ea1 #bj n4 #ed1 #hg n4 #fa1 #abc to #abg1 #agj n4 #he1 #bhh n4 #ajg1 #dje4 renovatio1 #aic4 ,republic of ,plato1 #eh1 #ff1 #bgd2 of ,zeno1 #ff1 #bgd sqq42 of ,jesus1 #daa4 repulsa1 #cch4 ,reputation1 #cbj4 res familiaris1 #cba1 #cfi4 res quodammodo se habens1 #afg4 ,resignation1 #abj1 #abf1 #cdc4 ,restlessness1 #cci1 #cec4 ,resurrection1 ,pauline view1 #daf1 #dbj sqq41 #dcj4 ,rewards1 future1 #bfc4 ,rhea1 #bca4 ,rhetoric1 #abi1 #adh1 #aej4 ,rhodes1 #ii4 ,,rhys ,,davids1 ,t4 ,w41 #bie n4 #aei4 ,rigveda1 #bcb1 #dbg4 ,roman law1 #bha1 #chd1 #djb4 ,romulus1 #bcc4 ,,rubellius ,,plautus1 #aag1 #cii4 ,ruffling1 #ccb1 #cea2 shown by tears1 #cia n4 #ga4 ,,rusticus1 ,q4 ,,iunius1 #aba sqq4 ,,rutilius1 ,p4 ,,rufus1 #big1 #chd1 #chf4 ,,saal1 ,n41 #hc n4 #db4 ,,sachau1 ,dr1 #i n4 #be4 sacramentum1 #cfd4 ,sacrifices1 condemned by ,zeno1 #ff2 by ,seneca1 #bcd2 by ,jesus1 #daa2 by the ,paulists1 #dai4 ,sanctity1 #cbd4 ,,sandys1 ,j4 ,e41 #ih n4 #acc1 #ade nn4 #aja and #ajc4 sapientia1 #cjf4 ,,scaevola the augur1 #chc4 ,,scaevola the pontifex1 #chc sqq4 ,,schmekel1 ,a41 #ajj n4 #e1 #aja n4 #ag1 #ajb n4 #bd1 #ajc nn4 #be1 #bg and #bi1 #ajd nn4 #cb and #cc1 #aje n4 #ci1 #ajg n4 #ee1 #adb n4 #hf1 #agi n4 #cc1 #ahb nn4 #ec and #ed1 #ahe n4 #gf1 #aib n4 #abc1 #aic n4 #abi1 #aie nn4 #acf and #acg1 #bde n4 #ch1 #beh n4 #ajc1 #bfg nn4 #aeb and #aef1 #bhj n4 #ej1 #bih n4 #agi1 #cdb n4 #gd1 #chc n4 #ah4 ,,schmidt1 ,r41 #ade n4 #ajc4 ,science 7scientia71 #fh1 #adj1 #cjf4 ,,scipio1 #bj1 #aja1 #bhj1 #big1 #cha4 ,,scott1 ,sir ,w41 #f4 ,,scylax1 #aja n4 #ah4 secta1 #ii n4 #b4 ,seed-powers1 #afa1 #aie1 #bea1 #bed2 in ,st ,paul1 #dba4 ,,seleucus 7of the ,tigris71 #if4 ,,seleucus 7the astronomer71 #agi4 ,self-examination1 #bcf1 #cfj4 semen1 #afa4 ,,seneca1 #aac sqq42 on wealth1 #aae1 #cbb sqq42 on #8tone1' #aae2 on general assent1 #adc2 on the causes1 #afb sqq42 admiration of the heavens1 #agf2 on the heliocentric theory1 #agh n4 #bh2 condemns sacrifice1 #bcd2 on self-examination1 #bcf2 on ,tartarus1 #bfe2 on immortality1 #bfh2 on woman1 #bgj2 on climate1 #bga2 on usury1 #bgf n4 #bc2 on obedience to ,god1 #bhd2 calls #8advantages' good1 #bij2 on #8sufficiency of virtue1' #bic2 on the #8wise man1' #bih2 on suicide1 #caa2 on anger1 #ccd2 on cruelty1 #ccf2 consolations1 #cdb2 on drunkenness1 #cdf2 to ,lucilius1 #ceh2 on neatness1 #cfe2 married life1 #cfg2 exile1 #cgf2 part in political life1 #aac1 #cid4 ,,senecio1 #dja4 ,sensation 7sensus71 #acj1 #bdi4 ,sensations are always true1 #aca4 ,sense1 common1 #acg n4 #ei4 ,senses 7sensus71 #acj2 their weakness1 #add4 ,sensibility1 #cdj4 ,sensitiveness1 #cda4 sententiae1 #cfa4 ,,septimius ,,severus1 #djd4 ,sermon of ,benares1 #ae2 on the mount1 #bd1 #dbi4 ,,servilia1 #cii4 ,sexual appetite1 #cjd1 #cad1 #cag1 #cdg2 revolting to ,st ,paul1 #dbe sqq4 ,shame1 #cbd4 ,shipwreck1 #cgi4 ,sight1 #acj1 #bdi4 ,sign 7signum71 #adg4 silva1 #aeh4 ,similitude1 #acd4 ,simple life1 #aaa1 #cfd4 ,sin1 #ccj sqq42 is ignorance1 #cca2 is sickness1 #ccb2 hateful to the ,stoics1 #ced2 to ,st ,paul1 #dah1 #dbc4 #8,sins are equal1' #ced2 are curable1 #cee4 ,sirens1 #ca4 ,,skeat1 ,w4 ,w41 #ii n4 #b4 ,slavery1 #bgi1 #cgd1 #cig sqq41 #djc sqq42 in ,euripides1 #ci4 ,sleep1 #acb n4 #bh1 #bfa4 ,smell1 #bej4 ,,smiley1 ,c4 ,n41 #aej n4 #acg4 ,,smith1 ,v4 ,a41 #af n4 #dg4 ,soberness1 #eh1 #bid1 #cab sqq42 made dominant by ,panaetius1 #ajc4 ,social duty1 #bhd4 ,society1 #cff4 ,,socrates1 #aj1 #da sqq41 #bgd1 #bge1 #caj4 ,softness1 #cfb4 ,soldier as ideal1 #cfc4 ,solecism1 #adi4 ,solitude1 #cff4 ,sophistry as a profession1 #cfi4 ,sophists1 #ci4 ,,sophocles1 #ci4 ,,soranus1 #cii4 ,,sotion1 #aac4 ,soul1 #afh2 is divine1 #cb2 in ,plato1 #eg2 in ,aristotle1 #fa2 is body1 #fi1 #aeg2 in man1 #bch sqq42 its parts1 #bdb1 #bde2 consists of hot air1 #bdc2 is fed by the body1 #bfj2 future absorption1 #bfi2 its health1 #bhe2 in ,st ,paul1 #dbj4 ,space1 #aeh4 ,speech1 #adf4 ,spes1 #bca4 ,,sphaerus1 #hj1 #adc1 #caa4 ,spirit1 favourite conception of ,cleanthes1 #hi2 its destiny1 #abe2 in sensation1 #acj2 in rarefaction1 #aeh2 equivalent to tone1 #afj2 the principle of life1 #aha2 its gradations1 #ahf1 #bdc2 in the sense-activities1 #bde1 #bej2 in ,st ,paul1 #dae sqq42 as mother of ,jesus1 #dcj4 ,spiritism1 #bda4 ,spirits1 see #8,angels4' ,stars1 are divine1 #ahd2 as divine spies1 #bcb4 ,,staseas1 #fd4 ,statements1 are true or false1 #adf1 #aga2 are not bodily1 #agj4 ,,steigm,,ller1 ,h41 #agh n4 #bg4 ,,stein1 ,l41 #ga n4 #fd1 #hh n4 #fg1 #acc n4 #ci1 #ace n4 #eb1 #afa n4 #cf1 #bdj n4 #b1 #bdc n4 #bc1 #bdd n4 #ca1 #bde n4 #ce1 #beh n4 #ajc1 #bfj n4 #aah1 #bfa n4 #abc1 #bfb n4 #acc1 #bgc n4 #a4 ,,stertinius1 #aaa4 ,,stilo1 ,l4 ,,aelius1 #che4 ,,stilpo1 #ea1 #fg4 ,,stobaeus1 #aaj1 #aag4 ,stoicism1 #ag sqq42 estimates of its value1 #bf sqq42 inclines to the ,academy1 #id1 #ajf1 #aeb2 to ,cynism1 #aba2 amongst the poor1 #chj2 its kindly temper1 #cdj n4 #ff2 established1 #djd2 its collapse1 #djf4 stomachosus1 #cce4 ,strain1 #afj4 ,see also #8,tone4' ,stuff1 #aeg4 ,style1 #adh2 of ,laelius1 #chb2 of ,rutilius1 #chd2 of ,cato1 #chf2 of ,brutus1 #chh4 ,subject 7subiectum71 #aeg4 sublatio animi1 #caf4 ,substance1 in ,aristotle1 #ei2 in ,stoicism1 #afd sqq4 ,substratum1 #aeh1 #aff4 ,sufficiency of virtue1 #di1 #aje1 #bia sqq42 taught by the ,cynics1 #di2 by ,hecato1 #ajf2 by ,posidonius1 #aje2 questioned by ,antipater1 #ig2 in ,st ,paul1 #dbe4 ,suicide1 #cji2 its dangers1 #caj4 ,,sulpicius1 ,s4 ,,rufus1 #cdb1 #che4 ,,summers1 ,w4 ,c41 #bdd n4 #ca4 summum bonum1 #bha4 ,sun1 #ahb2 his divinity1 #ij1 #ahd2 fed by ,ocean1 #ahd2 is principate1 #ahd4 ,suspense of judgment1 #abj1 #acc1 #add4 ,syllogism1 in ,aristotle1 #fj2 in ,zeno1 #gc2 in ,chrysippus1 #ib4 ,its varieties1 #adg4 tabula rasa1 #ace n4 #eb4 ,tabus1 #bhg1 #dbc1 #dbf4 ,,tannery1 ,p41 #agh n4 #bg4 ,tarsus1 #bd n4 #fe1 #ia1 #aaj1 #dad n4 #bh4 ,tartarus discredited1 #bbc1 #bfe1 #cgh4 ,taste1 #bej4 ,teaching profession1 #cfi4 ,temperament1 #bdd4 ,temperance1 see #8,soberness4' temperatura1 #bdd4 ,temples1 condemned by ,zeno1 #ff1 #bcd1 #bge2 by ,jesus1 #daa4 ,tension1 see #8,tone4' ,,teuffel1 ,w4 ,s41 #aaa nn4 #hj and #hb4 ,,thales1 #cc4 ,,theognis1 #cgc4 ,theology1 its four dogmas1 #bah4 ,,theon1 #aaa4 ,,theophilus1 #dcb n4 #aej4 ,,theophrastus1 #fd1 #agi2 on anger1 #ccc n4 #aa4 ,,thrasea ,,paetus1 #cid1 #cii4 ,,tiberius1 #f n4 #ab1 #cib4 ,time1 #ei1 #aei4 titillatio1 #caf4 ,,tolstoy1 ,,leo1 #aec n4 #adh4 ,tone 7intentio71 #hi1 #aae1 #afj1 #bdc1 #bfj1 #bhe2 of seeds1 #ahh2 in morals1 #bdg4 ,touch1 #bej2 #8inward touch1' #aci1 #bdb4 ,,trajan1 #djd4 ,tranquillity1 #bdg n4 #ed1 #cef4 transitio1 #acd4 translatio1 #acd4 ,transmigration1 #cd4 ,trinity1 #dcb2 alleged suggestion by ,seneca1 #dcc4 ,,tubero1 ,q41 #ccg1 #chb4 ,,tylor1 ,e4 ,b41 #bda n4 #ac4 ,tyrant1 #df1 #bhj1 #cjh2 may be slain1 #ccf4 ,,berweg1 ,,fr41 #cg n4 #de1 #ee n4 #c1 #fa n4 #aa4 ultimum bonorum1 #bha4 ,ulysses1 #ca1 #bif4 unitas1 #afh1 #ahi1 #bdc2 of the universe1 #bbf4 ,universe1 #agj1 #age sqq42 is rational and divine1 #ahd2 destined to perish1 #aij2 two meanings1 #aia2 its equilibrium1 #aif2 its beauty1 #bjd2 is possessed of will1 #bdj2 in ,st ,paul1 #dad4 ,uranus1 #bca n4 #hh4 ,usury condemned1 #bgf n4 #bc4 ,,varro1 ,m4 ,t41 #aji1 #ahe1 #aij n4 #ajg1 #aie1 #chh4 ,vegetarianism1 #cd4 ,venus1 #bca4 verbum1 #ade4 verecundia1 #cac1 #cbd1 #cbf4 ,,vespasian1 #aag1 #aah1 #djj4 ,vexation1 #cca4 ,vice1 #bac1 #ccb1 #cea1 #cec sqq42 in ,st ,paul1 #dbc4 ,,virgil1 debt to ,aratus1 #hj2 on fate1 #aii2 on fatherhood of ,god1 #bba2 on purgatory1 #bfe sqq42 on ,cato1 #chh2 on government of the universe1 #cij4 ,virgin birth1 #bca1 #dcj4 ,virtue 7virtus71 is knowledge1 #dd1 #de1 #fg1 #beg1 #bhe2 can be taught1 #dd1 #bhe2 in ,plato1 #eh2 defined by ,sphaerus and ,herillus1 #ha2 is one1 #bha2 is a body1 #aeh1 #afh2 is the end1 #bha2 is in the aim1 #bhf1 #bia2 is health of soul1 #bhe2 is sufficient1 #bia2 permits no addition1 #bib2 is one and many1 #bic1 #cje2 cannot be lost1 #bie2 its praise1 #bii2 its attraction1 #cbe2 how attained1 #cbf sqq4 ,virtues1 the four1 in ,aristo1 #hc2 in ,panaetius1 #ajc2 in ,stoicism1 #bid2 longer lists1 #cje n4 #cj2 in ,st ,paul1 #dbc2 are permanent dispositions1 #afh1 #cbc4 vis divina1 #bbj4 visum1 #fh1 #bdi4 vitium1 see #8,vice4' ,voice1 #bej4 ,void1 #aei1 #agj4 voluntas1 7#a7 #8will1' #bhf2 7#b7 #8readiness1' #cbd4 ,,voss1 ,,otto1 #agh n4 #bg4 ,vulcan1 #bca4 ,walking1 #hi1 #bej4 ,war is useful1 #bjg4 ,wealth1 #aae1 #cbj sqq4 ,,westcott1 ,b4 ,f41 #dbj n4 #gg4 ,,weymouth1 ,r4 ,f41 #daj sqq4 ,will1 #fh1 #bdf1 #bef2 its freedom1 #baj sqq4 ,,williams-,,jackson1 ,a4 ,v41 #g n4 #ae1 #h n4 #ah4 ,will-making1 #cgh4 ,,winckler1 ,h4 ,a41 #bd n4 #ff1 #bfb n4 #acc1 #bfi n4 #aff1 #djh n4 #a1 #dji n4 #b1 #dce n4 #aei4 ,wine-drinking1 #cdf4 ,wisdom in ,persism1 #ab2 in ,wisdom of ,solomon1 #bb2 in ,plato1 #eh2 as cardinal virtue1 #eh1 #bid2 as daily duty1 #cjf2 identified with the ,virgin ,mary1 #dcj2 included in the ,trinity1 #dcb4 ,wisdom of ,solomon1 #ba sqq4 ,wise men1 #aje1 #bie sqq41 #cbe2 in ,horace1 #chi2 men wise without knowing it1 #cbg4 ,women equal to men1 #bgj2 to wear the same clothes1 #bhh1 #cfe2 to be in common1 #ff1 #bgf2 to be fled from1 #cej2 need the four virtues1 #cfb2 to dress their hair1 #cfe2 in life of ,cato1 #chg2 in ,ovid1 #cib2 in ,st ,paul1 #dag2 the hair tabu1 #dbf4 ,see also #8,chastity1' #8,love1' and #8,marriage4' ,word1 see #8,logos4' ,,wordsworth1 ,w41 #cbh sqq4 ,world-order1 see #8,universe4' ,world-religions1 #d sqq4 ,worship1 #bcc2 a proof of deity1 #bbf4 ,worth1 #gb1 #bhi4 ,,xenocrates1 #fc1 #abh4 ,,xenophanes1 #cd4 ,,xenophon1 #aj1 #df1 #ej4 ,,xerxes1 #cci4 ,yama and ,yam1 #dbg4 ,youth1 #cfc sqq4 ,,zarathustra1 #g sqq42 followed by ,heraclitus1 #cg4 ,,zeller1 ,e41 #bf1 #ee n4 #d1 #hj n4 #ag1 #hh n4 #ff1 #if n4 #aad1 #abi n4 #i1 #ace n4 #ea1 #adf n4 #ajg1 #aea n4 #ada1 #afd n4 #dh1 #afg n4 #fd1 #ahe n4 #gh1 #aic n4 #abh1 #bbh n4 #gj1 #bef n4 #if1 #bfb n4 #acc1 #bgc n4 #a1 #bhh n4 #ajg4 ,,zeno1 #ag1 #fd sqq42 his ,republic1 #ff2 turns to ,stilpo1 #fg2 to ,polemo1 #fi2 to ,heraclitus1 #gj2 theory of virtue1 #gb2 use of syllogisms1 #gc2 on tone1 #afj2 on the active and the passive1 #agb2 on fate1 #bjj1 #bjb2 on the ,logos1 #bai n4 #c2 on piety1 #bbg1 #bcd2 on the macrocosm1 #bdj2 on future punishments1 #bfd n4 #adc2 on the ,cosmopolis1 #bgd sqq42 declines ,athenian citizenship1 #bge2 on marriage1 #bgf2 on advantages1 #bhi2 on sufficiency of virtue1 #bib2 on progress1 #bid n4 #aeb2 as wise man1 #bif2 on #8wise men1' #bih2 on daily duties1 #cjb2 on wisdom1 #cjf2 on pleasure1 #cae2 on drinking1 #cdf2 on dressing the hair1 #cfe4 ,,zeno 7of ,sidon3 ,epicurean71 #hd4 ,,zeno 7of ,sidon3 ,stoic71 #hd4 ,,zeno 7of ,tarsus71 #hd2 questions the conflagration1 #if4 ,,zenodotus1 #ig4 ,zeus1 in ,homer1 #cj2 in the ,orphic poems1 #cb2 in ,aeschylus1 #ch2 in ,socrates1 #de2 in ,aratus1 #hj2 in ,cleanthes1 #he2 as ,creator1 #aid2 as the one ,god1 #bba4 ,see also #8,juppiter4' ,,zoroaster1 see #8,zarathustra4' ,,greek ,,index4 1 #dbc4 1 #cbd4 1 #hc4 1 #ccb n4 #e4 1 #cj1 #cbd1 #cbf4 1 #cj4 1 #acj1 #bdi4 1 #acj1 #bdi4 1 #acj1 #aeg4 1 see #8,cause4' 7derivation71 #adf4 1 #chh n4 #ee4 1 #ccb n4 #e4 1 #aca n4 #ai4 1 #ccj4 1 #acc1 #dbe n4 #aa4 1 #cbg n4 #afh4 1 #ahc1 #bfj1 #bfd4 1 #bad4 1 #cbd n4 #aec4 1 #acd4 1 #cjh1 and see #8,courage4' 1 #dbd n4 #ajb4 1 #acc n4 #ch4 1 #gb1 #bhi2 1 #bhi n4 #aji4 1 #adf4 1 #ade4 1 #cbd n4 #aec2 cf4 #dh n4 #hj4 1 #bhi1 #cbc4 1 #cc1 #eg4 1 #aci4 1 #cae n4 #ib4 1 #gb1 #bij4 1 #bed n4 #hf4 1 #bjj4 1 see #8,virtue'2 4 1 #fc1 #ie4 1 #ade4 1 #cec4 1 #agc4 1 #cde4 1 #agj4 1 see #8,sufficiency4' 1 #bdd4 1 #bad4 7alienatio71 #bef4 1 #ccb n4 #e4 1 #bhf1 #cbd4 1 #ca4 1 #ccb n4 #e4 1 #eg4 1 #afh1 #cbc1 #cec4 1 #aie4 1 #adh n4 #abf4 1 #bdf4 1 #aag1 #aba1 #ceh4 1 #acc4 1 see #8,justice4' 1 #bca4 1 #fh1 #acc1 #cbj4 1 #bde n4 #cd1 #cje1 #dbc n4 #ih4 1 #bjb n4 #ag1 #baa n4 #ha4 1 #dbc n4 #ih4 1 #abe1 #bdf n4 #da4 1 #afb4 1 #bjj sqq4 1 #dg4 1 #cbb1 #cef4 1 #ie4 1 #cbb4 1 #adi4 1 #bca4 1 #acd4 1 #acd4 1 #acb4 1 #ace2 41 #ach2 41 #ach4 1 #adb n4 #he4 1 #aci1 #bdb4 1 #cji4 1 7i7 unitas1 #afg1 #agh1 #ahi1 #bdc1 #beg2 7ii7 habitus1 #afg1 #cec4 1 #ei4 1 #bji n4 #fh4 1 #dc4 1 #caf1 #cde4 1 7i7 #8attention1' #acc2 7ii7 #8reasonable effort1' #bef n4 #id1 #cah n4 #aji4 1 #caf4 1 #eg1 #ccc4 1 #bef1 #cca1 #ccc4 1 #cde4 1 #fh1 #adj1 #cjf4 1 #acc4 1 #cag4 1 #fa1 #cbg n4 #afh4 1 #bdg n4 #ed1 #bhf n4 #ig4 1 #cac n4 #he4 1 #id4 1 #cbc1 #dab4 1 #if n4 #aah1 #cbe4 1 #ha1 #ic n4 #ii4 1 #bca4 1 #cbc4 1 #gb n4 #ga1 #id4 1 #id1 #bhe4 1 #cbd n4 #aea4 1 #cbf n4 #afj4 ' 1 #bad4 1 see #8,juppiter1' #8,zeus4' 1 #hi1 #bdf2 4 1 #bdf4 1 #adg4 1 see #8,pleasure4' 1 see #8,juno4' 1 #acc4 1 #bbj4 1 #fc n4 #ae1 #adf1 #bgg1 #bhb4 1 #eg4 1 #eg1 #ei4 1 #afg1 #agg4 1 #dbe n4 #aaj4 1 #aif4 1 see #8,forcefulness4' 1 #fa4 1 #aja1 #cja sqq41 #dbd n4 #ajb2 4 1 #cbf4 1 #ccb n4 #f4 1 #ccb2 see also #8,vice4' 1 #fa4 1 #acj1 #aca1 #bgc n4 #e4 1 #bde n4 #ch4 1 #acc1 #bdi2 4 1 #acc4 1 #adi4 1 #ade4 1 #bid4 1 #afg4 1 #dba n4 #hj4 1 #aif1 #bgd4 1 #agj2 4 1 4 1 #fa1 #bdj4 1 7i7 mixtura1 #afi2 4 ' 1 #afi1 #ahi2 see also #8,penetration1' 7ii7 temperatura1 #bdd4 1 #ge1 #acj1 #aca1 #ada4 1 #adh1 #bja4 1 #adi4 1 #adf1 #agj2 4 1 #adf n4 #aab4 1 #adg4 1 #eg4 1 see #8,logos'2 1 #bjj2 4 1 #adf2 1 #ach1 #bbd2 1 #ga1 #adb1 #bgc2 4 1 #adf2 1 see #8,seed-powers4' 1 #cca4 1 #dg4 1 #dc1 #bbh n4 #gj4 1 #cc1 #aeh4 1 #cjh4 1 #ef4 1 #ade4 1 #cbg4 1 #acd4 1 #eh4 1 #he n4 #eh4 1 #ef4 1 #afi4 1 #acd nn4 #dc and #df4 1 #cj4 1 #ajd4 1 #bgc1 #cbh1 #che4 1 #cec n4 #adj4 1 #bdb1 #bdf4 1 #ce1 #aif4 1 #agj4 1 #acd4 1 #ga4 1 #ga n4 #gj4 1 #agj4 1 #ade4 1 see #8,anger4' 1 #bef1 #cef4 1 #bef1 #cad1 #cef4 1 #adh4 1 #aeh1 #afe2 41 #afe2 4 1 #agg4 1 #fa4 1 #ceb1 #dab2 1 #ccb n4 #d4 1 #bhg4 1 #aic4 1 #agj4 1 #aej4 1 #afi4 1 #bjg4 1 #cbb4 1 #aic4 1 #acf n4 #ee4 1 #dae4 1 see #8,spirit4' 1 1 #afd1 #aff2 41 41 #afg1 #agg4 1 #ff4 1 #cge4 1 7i7 pain1 7ii7 toil1 #cch n4 #dg4 1 #adi1 #cab1 #cdh4 1 #bhf n4 #ajb1 #cbf n4 #afa4 1 see #8,advantages4' 1 #bab4 1 #acc1 #cef4 1 #bab4 1 see #8,progress4' 1 #acf1 #cca4 1 #bjc4 1 #acc4 1 #ade4 1 #afd1 #afh4 1 #cec4 1 #cjb4 1 #ade4 1 #cc1 #aeh4 1 #afd1 #afg4 1 #ade4 1 #adh n4 #abf4 1 #adi4 1 #adf4 1 #adf4 1 #adg4 1 #bia4 1 #eh1 #cjf1 #dcj4 1 #adg4 1 see #8,wise men'2 1 #cbh n4 #agd4 1 #afa1 #dba n4 #hj4 1 #acd4 1 #ga4 1 #fj1 #agc1 #agi2 41 #fj4 1 #fh1 #acb1 #bdi4 1 #afi4 1 see #8,syllogism4' 1 #afg4 1 #bbe1 #bbg n4 #fg2 1 #bci4 1 #cdf4 1 #afg4 1 #bej4 1 #id4 1 #bji n4 #fh4 1 #ade4 1 #dae4 1 #acd4 1 #adg4 1 #adi4 1 #bfj n4 #aaf4 1 #adj4 1 7i7 #8variation1' #hc n4 #ci2 7ii7 see #8,relationship4' 1 see #8,body'2 1 #afi4 1 #ea1 #adg4 1 #eh1 #cab sqq4 1 #eh1 #bha1 #dbb4 1 #adj1 #cje4 1 #aga4 1 see #8,tone'2 4 1 #afa4 1 #aca n4 #ai4 1 #cc1 #fj1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afe1 #aff2 1 #aeh n4 #aj2 1 #afe4 1 #acb n4 #be1 #adb n4 #hd1 #aeg1 #aeh4 1 #eg4 1 #afd to #aff4 1 #acc n4 #cd4 1 #dbc n4 #ih4 1 #ha4 1 #fh1 #aca1 #ace1 #bab1 #bdi2 4 1 #fh1 #acc2 4 1 #bef n4 #ig4 1 #acb4 1 #hi4 1 see #8,fear4' 1 #cjf4 7i7 natura1 #8growth1' #afh1 #agg1 #ahh1 #bdb1 #beg2 7ii7 as a moral standard1 #fc n4 #ae1 #bge1 #cae2 1 #gb1 #bij1 #caj2 1 #ha1 #cjb4 7derivation71 #adf4 1 #dd1 #aid4 1 #cbd4 1 #fd4 1 #aag1 #cfa4 1 #cfi4 1 #ea1 #adg4 1 #bfj4 1 see #8,soul'2 1 #ahg n4 #ia1 #bdb2 1 #bdf2 derived from 1 #bfj4 ,,cambridge3 ,,printed ,,by ,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press4