,transcriber's ,note ,text emphasis denoted by ,italics and ,bold4 ,whole and fractional parts as #abc-d_/e4 ,illustration ,,joseph ,,dinkel4 ,,del4 ,,et ,,lith4 ,,printed ,,by ,m4 ,n4 ,,hanhar ,,the ,,perfect ,,series ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,right ,,foot ,,of ,,the ,,moa1 ,,or ,,extinct ,,colossal ,,ostrich-,,like ,,bird ,,of ,,new ,,zealand ,,found ,,imbedded ,,in ,,an ,,erect ,,position1 ,,with ,,the ,,corresponding ,,foot ,a ,,yard ,,in ,,advance1 ,,in ,a ,,turrary ,,deposit1 ,,at ,,waikouaiti ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,island1 ,,by ,,walter ,,mantell ,,esq,,re ,,of ,,wellington4 ,,figures #a;a #b;a #c;a ,,the ,,plantar ,,or ,,under ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,first1 ,,second ,,third ,,toes4 ,,the ,,figures ,,are #a_/c ,,natural ,,size ,,linear4 ,,the ,,original ,,bird ,,was ,,about #aj ,,feet ,,high4 ,a ,,pictorial ,,atlas ,,of ,,fossil ,,remains1 ,,consisting ,,of ,,coloured ,,illustrations ,,selected ,,from ,,parkinson',s ,,organic ,,remains ,,of ,a ,,former ,,world2 ,,and ,,artis',s ,,antediluvian ,,phytology4 ,,with ,,descriptions ,,by ,,gideon ,,algernon ,,mantell1 ,,esq4 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,k4,s4 ,,vice-,,president ,,of ,,the ,,geological ,,society1 ,,fellow ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,college ,,of ,,surgeons ,,of ,,england1 ,,etc4 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,geology1 ,,etc4 ,,etc4 ,illustration ,all things in nature are engaged in writing their own history4 ,the planet and the pebble are attended by their shadows--the rolling rock leaves its farrows on the mountain side--the river its channel in the soil--the animal its bones in the stratum--the fern and the leaf inscribe their modest epitaphs on the coal--the falling drop sculptures its story on the sand1 or on the stone--not a footstep on the snow or on the ground but traces in characters more or less enduring the record of its progress4--,emerson4 ,with ,seventy-four plates1 ,,containing ,,nearly ,,nine ,,hundred ,,figures4 ,,london3 ,h4 ,g4 ,,bohn1 ,,york ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden4 #ahej4 ,,london3 ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,printer1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill4 ,,to ,,the ,,very ,,reverend ,,william ,,buckland1 ,d4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,dean of ,westminster1 c4 c4 c4 ,,this ,,work ,,is ,,inscribed ,,as ,,an ,,expression ,,of ,,the ,,high ,,respect ,,and ,,affectionate ,,regard ,,of ,,one ,,who ,,has ,,for ,,more ,,than ,,thirty ,,years ,,enjoyed ,,the ,,honour ,,and ,,privilege ,,of ,,his ,,correspondence ,,and ,,friendship4 ,chester ,square1 ,pimlico1 ,january #ahej4 ,,preface4 ,in the hope of promoting the diffusion of a taste for the cultivation of a peculiarly interesting and attractive branch of ,natural ,history1 ,i have been induced1 in compliance with the suggestion of the eminent publisher of this volume1 to arrange in a connected series the ,plates of the late ,mr4 ,parkinson's ,organic ,remains of a ,former ,world1 and of ,mr4 ,artis's ,antediluvian ,phytology1 with descriptions of the specimens represented4 ,as ,i have been enabled1 with the valuable assistance of my friend1 ,john ,morris1 ,esq4 ,f4,g4,s41 the author of ,a ,catalogue of ,british ,fossils1 to append1 in almost every instance1 the generic and specific names adopted by the most recent authorities1 the volume will1 ,i trust1 not only prove interesting to the general reader1 as a beautiful ,pictorial ,atlas of some of the most remarkable relics of the animals and plants of a ,former ,world1 but also constitute a valuable book of reference in the library of the ,geologist and ,palontologist1 since it contains the names and localities of no inconsiderable number of species and genera4 ,for the guidance of the unscientific reader who may desire further information on any of the subjects treated of in the following pages1 references are given to a few general works on ,geology and ,fossil ,remains4 ,chester ,square1 ,pimlico1 ,august #ahej4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,page ,preface v ,description of the ,frontispiece x ,introduction #ac ,descriptions of the ,plates4 ,,fossil ,,remains ,,of ,,the ,,vegetable ,,kingdom4 7,plates ,i4 to ,,xxxiii4 inclusive47 ,plate ,i4--,various specimens of ,fossil ,wood1 and fragments of ,plants #ai ,,ii4--,chiefly examples of silicified ,wood #ba ,,iii4--,stigmaria1 ,calamites1 and ,wood #bc ,,iv4--,fronds of various ,fossil ,ferns #be ,v4--,different species of ,ferns and other ,plants #bg ,,vi4--,principally ,fossil ,fruits from the ,london clay of the ,isle of ,sheppey #bi ,,vii4--,specimens of the ,fruit of a species of ,nipas1 or ,molucca ,palm2 from the ,isle of ,sheppey #ca ,,viii4--,figures of different portions of beautiful silicified ,stems of ,plants allied to the ,arborescent ,ferns2 from ,chemnitz #cc ,,ix4--,fossil ,seed-vessels or ,cones 7,lepidostrobus7 of the ,lepidodendron #ce ,x4--,an aquatic ,plant 7,hydatica7 in ,coal shale #cg ,,xi4--,a fine specimen of another species of ,hydatica #ci ,,xii4--,a delicate aquatic ,plant 7,myriophyllites7 in ,coal shale #da ,,xiii4--,portion of the ,stem of the ,calamites ramosus #dc ,,xiv4--,fragment of ,stems of another species of ,calamite 7,calamites dubius7 #de ,,xv4--,stem of a ,calamite very much resembling the ,bamboo 7,calamites pseudo-bambusia7 #dg ,,xvi4--,another species of ,calamite 7,calamites approximatus7 #di ,,xvii4--,stem of another kind of ,calamite 7,calamites decoratus7 #ea ,,xviii4--,fossil ,stems allied to the ,pandanus or ,yucca 7,sternbergia transversa7 #ec ,,xix4--,stem of a species of ,sigillaria 7,sigillaria fibrosa7 #ee ,,xx4--,stem of another kind of ,sigillaria #eg ,,xxi4--,fossil ,roots of ,sigillaria 7,stigmaria ficoides7 #ei ,,xxii4--,another species of ,stigmaria 7,stigmaria verrucosa7 #fa ,,xxiii4--,fragment of a ,stigmaria with large tubercles #fc ,,xxiv4--,part of a ,stem of a tree allied to ,sigillaria 7,aspidiaria cristata7 #fe ,,xxv4--,stem of a ,plant allied to the ,arborescent ,ferns 7,megaphyton7 #fg ,,xxvi4--,stem of a species of ,lepidodendron #fi ,,xxvii4--,fossil ,plant allied to the ,lepidodendron #ga ,,xxviii4--,a beautiful fossil ,fern resembling ,osmunda regalis 7,neuropteris auriculata7 #gc ,,xxix4--,an elegant trifoliate ,fern in ,coal shale 7,neuropteris trifoliata7 #ge ,,xxx4--,an exquisite specimen of fossil ,fern 7,pecopteris ,miltoni7 #gg ,,xxxi4--,another elegant ,fern in ,coal shale 7,pecopteris plumosa7 #gi ,,xxxii4--,a very beautiful plumose ,fern in ,coal shale 7,alethopteris decurrens7 #ha ,,xxxiii4--,a fossil ,fruit or ,seed-vessel in ,coal shale 7,carpolithes marginatus7 #hc ,,fossil ,,remains ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,kingdom4 7,plates ,,xxxiv4 to ,,lxxiv3 inclusive47 ,,xxxiv4--,a beautiful mass of ,coral 7,syringopora geniculata7 on ,carboniferous limestone #hg ,,xxxv4--,several kinds of fossil ,corals 7,syringopora ramulosa1 ,catenipora escharoides1 c47 #hi ,,xxxvi4--,corals from different formations 7,fungia1 ,cyathophyllum7 #ia ,,xxxvii4--,various fossil ,corals 7,astrea1 ,lithostrotion1 ,caryophyllia annularis7 #ic ,,xxxviii4--,corals and ,coral marbles 7,cyathophyllum1 ,astrea1 ,lithodendron7 #ie ,,xxxix4--,fossil ,corals1 and ,sponges or ,amorphozoa 7,siphonia1 ,favosites1 ,explanaria7 #ig ,,xl4--,various fossil ,zoophytes 7,clionites1 ,millepora7 #ii ,,xli4--,a beautiful specimen of a cyathiform fossil ,zoophyte 7,chenendopora ,parkinsoni7 #aja ,,xlii4--,several kinds of ,zoophytes in ,flint 7,choanites1 ,siphonia1 ,jerea7 #ajc ,,xliii4--,various ,corals and other ,zoophytes 7,fungia polymorpha1 ,jerea pyriformis1 ,ventriculite7 #aje ,,xliv4--,silicified ,sponges and other ,zoophytes 7,scyphia1 ,cnemidium1 ,chenendopora7 #ajg ,,xlv4--,several kinds of calcareous and silicified ,corals and other ,zoophytes #aji ,,xlvi4--,a recent ,pentacrinus 7,p4 caput medus71 and a beautiful ,fossil species #aaa ,,xlvii4--,numerous specimens of portions of ,stems1 separate ,ossicles1 and ,receptacles1 of various kinds of ,encrinites and ,pentacrinites #aac ,,xlviii4--,the ,lily ,encrinite 7,encrinites monileformis7 #aae ,,xlix4--,remains of several kinds of ,encrinites and ,encrinital marbles #aag ,l4--,chiefly specimens of the ,pear ,encrinite of ,bradford1 in ,wiltshire 7,apiocrinus ,parkinsoni7 #aai ,,li4--,several kinds of ,crinoidea 7,actinocrinites1 ,pentacrinites7 #aba ,,lii4--,specimens of ,pentacrinites from ,lyme ,regis #abc ,,liii4--,fossil ,star-fishes 7,goniaster1 ,ophiura1 ,cidaris7 #abe ,,liv4--,various kinds of ,echinites or fossil ,sea-urchins 7,clypeaster1 ,ananchytes1 ,discoidea1 ,conulus7 #abg ,,lv4--,several varieties of fossil ,echini 7,cidaris1 ,nucleolites1 ,micraster1 ,spatangus7 #abi ,,lvi4--,echinites and echinital ,spines #aca ,,lvii4--,fossil univalve ,shells 7,euomphalus1 c47 and ,cololites #acc ,,lviii4--,fossil ,shells of various kinds of ,cephalopoda 7,nautilus1 ,orthoceras1 ,lituties1 c47 #ace ,,lix4--,belemnites1 ,orthoceratites1 and ,hippurites1 c4 #acg ,,lx4--,belemnites and ,ammonites #aci ,,lxi4--,hamites of several species2 ,scaphites1 ,nummulites1 c4 #ada ,,lxii4--,fossil ,foraminifera of several genera #adc ,,lxiii4--,several species of ,trigonia #ade ,,lxiv4--,fossil bivalve ,shells 7,cuculla1 ,crassatella1 ,lima1 ,cardium1 c471 and the anomalous bodies termed ,trigonellites #adg ,,lxv4--,fossil ,shells of the genera ,panopa1 ,teredina1 c4 #adi ,,lxvi4--,fossil ,shells of the genera ,ostrea1 ,perna1 ,gryphea1 c4 #aea ,,lxvii4--,chiefly ,shells of brachiopodous ,mollusca1 7,terebratula1 ,spirifer1 ,productus1 c47 #aec ,,lxviii4--,fossil ,crabs from ,sheppey2 ,trilobites1 ,insects1 c4 #aee ,,lxix4--,remains of ,turtles from ,sheppey1 and ,vertebr of ,crocodilian ,reptiles from ,havre1 and of the ,mosasaurus #aeg ,,lxx4--,the ,jaws of the fossil ,reptile of ,maestricht 7,mosasaurus72 and ,teeth of various kinds of ,sharks and ,rays 7,carcharias1 ,miliobatis1 ,pthychodus1 c47 #aei ,,lxxi4--,skull and ,antlers of the fossil ,elk of ,ireland1 and ,teeth of the ,mammoth #afa ,,lxxii4--,fossil teeth of ,hippopotamus1 ,rhinoceros1 ,dinotherium1 ,palotherium1 and ,anoplotherium2 and ungueal bone of ,megalonyx #afc ,,lxxiii4--,skeleton of the ,megatherium1 and ,teeth of the fossil ,bears of the ,caverns #afe ,,lxxiv4--,molar ,teeth of ,mastodon giganteus1 from ,big-bone ,lick1 ,kentucky #afg ,frontispiece4--,foot of the ,moa of ,new ,zealand4 ,,supplementary ,,notes4 #a4 ,fossil ,bears of the ,caverns #aff #b4 ,the ,belemnite ib4 #c4 ,fossil ,remains of ,birds--,moa of ,new ,zealand #agb #d4 ,botanical ,arrangement of ,fossil ,vegetables #age #e4 ,cephalopoda--,nautilus1 ,ammonite1 c4 #ahj #f4 ,carboniferous ,formations #aha #g4 ,coal #ahb #h4 ,corals ib4 #i4 ,cuvier's ,principles of ,palontology #ahc #aj4 ,fossil ,edentata1 ,megatherium1 c4 #ahd #aa4 ,flint3 ,animal ,remains in ,siliceous ,nodules #ahe #ab4 ,foraminifera #ahf #ac4 ,the ,gigantic extinct ,irish ,elk3 ,cervus megaloceros #ahi #ad4 ,fossil ,infusoria ib4 #ae4 ,the ,mosasaurus1 or ,fossil ,animal of ,maestricht #aia #af4 ,fossil ,reptiles #aib #ag4 --------------- of the ,wealden3 the ,iguanodon #aic1 #bjb #ah4 ------------------------------ the ,pelorosaurus #aig #ai4 ,silicification and ,siliceous ,petrifactions ib4 #bj4 ,stigmari and ,sigillari #aih ,,works ,,referred ,,to ,,in ,,the ,,descriptions4 ,michelin1 ,iconographie ,zoophytologie1 ,paris1 #dto4 ,gppert1 ,h4 ,r4 ,die ,fossilen1 ,farrnkrauter1--forming vol4 xvii4 of the ,nova ,acta ,academi ,c4 ,l4 ,c4 ,natur ,curiosorum4 #ahcf1 #dto4 ,presl1 ,c4 ,b41 ,sternberg1 ,dr4 ,g4 ,flora der ,vorwelt1 ,part ,,vii4 and ,,viii4 edited by ,presl4 ,goldfuss1 ,dr4 ,a41 ,petrefacta ,germani1 folio1 ,dusseldorf1 #ahda-dd4 ,fossil ,flora of ,great ,britain1 by ,dr4 ,lindley and ,mr4 ,button4 ,dr4 ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,essay on ,geology and ,mineralogy1 #b vols1 with numerous ,plates4 ,the ,wonders of ,geology1 #c vols1 sixth edition1 #ahdi4 ,the ,medals of ,creation1 #b vols4 #ahdd4 ,geological ,excursions round the ,isle of ,wight and along the adjacent ,coast of ,dorsetshire1 #a vol4 numerous ,plates4 ,thoughts on ,animalcules1 #a vol4 numerous coloured ,plates1 second edition1 #ahej4 ,thoughts on a ,pebble1 with #cj ,illustrations1 eighth edition1 #ahej4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,charles1 ,travels in4 ,america1 #ahde1 and #ahdi4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,frontispiece4 ,,the ,,moa ,,of ,,new ,,zealand4 ,the ,frontispiece represents the entire series of bones composing the right foot of the ,moa 7,dinornis robustus71 found imbedded in an erect position1 with the corresponding foot a yard in advance1 in a turbary deposit1 at ,waikouaiti1 in the ,middle ,island of ,new ,zealand1 in #ahdi4 ,the figures are one-third less in linear dimensions than the originals4 ,figures #a;a1 #b;a1 #c;a1 show the palmar1 or under surface of the respective toes1 and exhibit the trochlear or articulating extremities of the phalangeal bones4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ancient swamp or morass in which these matchless specimens were imbedded1 is situated on the shore1 in a little creek or bay near ,island ,point1 at the mouth of the river ,waikouaiti1 and is covered by the sea except at the lowest tides4 ,many remains of the largest species of ,moa have from time to time been obtained from this deposit2 the bones sent to ,england by ,dr4 ,mackellar1 ,mr4 ,percy ,earle1 and others1 figured and described in the ,zoological ,transactions by ,professor ,owen1 were from this locality4 ,the specimens figured were obtained by ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell1 in #ahdi1 when visiting ,waikouaiti1 as ,government ,commissioner for the settlement of ,native claims4 ,on the recession of the tide1 the upper 7or proximal7 ends of the metatarsals were just visible above the surface3 these were carefully dug up1 and all the bones of the respective toes numbered1 one by one1 as they were extracted from the soil4 ,in this state they were sent to me1 and have subsequently been articulated under my direction1 in their natural order of arrangement4#a ,footnote #a3 ,by the well-known eminent anatomical artist1 ,mr4 ,flower1 of #bb1 ,lambeth ,terrace1 ,lambeth ,road4 ,the condition and position of the bones1 and the nature of the deposit1--evidently an ancient morass1 in which the ,new ,zealand flax 7phormium tenax7 once grew luxuriantly1--remind us of the very similar circumstances in which the extinct gigantic ,elks in ,ireland1 and the ,mastodons in ,america1 have occasionally been found engulfed in peat bogs and morasses2 and1 as my son emphatically observes1 it is impossible to arrive at any other conclusion than that the ,moa to which these feet belonged1 had sunk down in the swamp1 and perished on the spot4 ,vertebr and other parts of a skeleton of a bird of the same proportions1 were dug up near the feet4 ,as the specimens under examination are the first examples in which the entire series of the phalangeal and ungueal bones have been found in natural connexion with the metatarsals1 ,i subjoin the admeasurements of the several parts1 to render the peculiar construction of the feet in one species of the lost race of the colossal birds of ,new ,zealand1 more obvious to those who may feel interested in the subject4 ,,tarso-,,metatarsal ,,bones4 ,inches4 ,lines4 ,length of the shaft from the distal end of the middle trochlea to the proximal extremity #ag #j ,circumference of the proximal end #aa #i ,transverse diameter1 or width1 of ditto #d #f ,antero-posterior diameter of ditto #c #f ,circumference of the middle of the shaft #f #c ,antero-posterior diameter of ditto #a #h ,transverse diameter of ditto #c #f ,width of the distal1 or trochlear1 end #f #c ,circumference of the trochlear end #ae #f ,antero-posterior diameter of the middle trochlea #c #i ,,phalangeal ,,bones4 ,inner ,toe4 ,middle ,toe4 ,outer ,toe4 7,fig4 #a47 7,fig4 #b47 7,fig4 #c47 ,inches4 ,lines4 ,inches4 ,lines4 ,inches4 ,lines4 ,first1 or proximal phalanx ,length #d #i -- #d #c -- #c #b ,circumference of proximal end #f #f -- #f #i -- #e #i ,second phalangeal bone4 ,length #a #i -- #b #f -- #a #i ,circumference of proximal end #c #j -- #e #c -- #d #i ,third phalangeal bone ,ungueal4 ,length #c #j -- #a #i -- #a #j ,circumference of proximal end #d #j -- #d #f -- #d #f ,third phalangeal bone ,ungueal4 ,length #c #j -- #j #aa ,circumference of proximal end #d #b -- #d #j ,fifth ungueal bone ,length #b #f ,circumference of proximal end #c #i ,the total length of the toes is as follows3--inner digit1 #i inch42 middle1 #aa inch42 outer1 #i-a_/c inch4 ,the transverse diameter of the expanse of the foot1 from the distal extremity of the inner toe 7fig4 #a;a71 to that of the outer one 7fig4 #c;a71 is #ae inches4 ,the length from the posterior part of the trochlear extremity of the metatarsal to the distal end of the ungueal of the middle toe 7fig4 #b;a71 is #ac inches4 ,if to the actual dimensions of the bones be added the proportional thickness of the cartilaginous integuments1 nails1 c41 the length of the foot of the living bird may be estimated at about #af inches1 and the breadth at #ag or #ah inches4 ,from the great width and solidity of the metatarsals1 and the form and corresponding size and strength of the phalangeals and ungueals1 the ornithologist will perceive that the feet of the ,moa must have constituted powerful instruments for scratching1 digging1 and uprooting the sub-terrestrial vegetable substances1 which ,professor ,owen1 with great probability1 infers1 formed the chief sustenance of the extinct colossal birds of ,new ,zealand4 ,according to the relative proportions of the bones composing the hinder extremities of the gigantic species of ,moa1 the corresponding tibia1 or leg-bone1 of the feet above described1 would be two feet nine inches in length1 and the femur1 or thigh bone1 nine and a half inches2 the total height of the bird was probably about ten feet4 ,tibi1 femora1 and other bones of much larger proportions1 7apparently of ,dinornis giganteus and ,d4 ingens17 were obtained from the same locality2 some of these indicate birds of eleven or twelve feet in height2 dimensions exceeding by one-third those of the largest known existing species of ,struthionid--the ,ostrich4#b ,footnote #b3 ,even from this imperfect description 7and further anatomical details would be irrelevant in the present work71 the ornithologist cannot fail to observe the peculiar characters exhibited by these extremities of the remarkable family of birds1 of which the diminutive ,apteryx appears to be the only living representative4 ,but the ,apteryx differs most essentially in the structure of the cranium and mandibles1 from the extinct types to which ,professor ,owen has given the names of ,dinornis1 ,palapteryx1 ,aptornis1 c4 ,with regard to the construction of the feet it may be further remarked1 that the length of the inner and outer toes is nearly equal1 as in the ,cassowary2 but the middle toe1 which in the ,cassowary is one-third longer than the other digits1 in the ,moa scarcely exceeds in length by one-fifth1 the inner and outer toes4 ,the ungueal segments are very large1 being equal to one-third the length of the toes4 ,the phalangeals are relatively much shorter than in the ,cassowary and ,ostrich1 and wider than in the former1 and more arched than in either of these living struthious birds4 ,in the metatarsal the presence of the three elements whose fusion constitutes the bone1 is strongly marked2 there does not appear to be any certain indications of a posterior or hind toe1 though ,professor ,owen imagines he has detected feeble traces of a fourth digit3 in that case the bird to which my specimens belonged1 would be termed ,palapteryx4 ,the crania found by ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell at ,waingongoro1 and figured and described by ,professor ,owen in the ,zoological ,transactions 7,vol4 ,,iii41 ,plates #eb1 #ec1 #ed1 #ee71 as ,dinornis and ,palapteryx1 must have belonged to birds of comparatively small stature4 ,the skull with the adze-like upper mandible1 and the enormously-developed basi-occipitals and basi-sphenoids 7,dinornis1 of ,professor ,owen1 ,plate #ec71 was found associated with many vertebr of the neck and back1 and bones of the leg1 of the same bird2 and these my son states indicated a height of from six to seven feet4 ,the skull and the rest of the skeleton were found imbedded in sand1 and lying in their natural relative position2 unfortunately1 all these precious remains1 except the cranium1 were destroyed by a sudden rush of the natives to seize upon the exhumed relics6 ,it therefore yet remains to discover the cranial type that characterized the colossal forms at present known only by other parts of the skeleton4 ,referring the reader to the additional account of the fossil birds of ,new ,zealand given in a subsequent part of this volume 7see ,supplementary ,notes1 p4 #agc71 ,i will conclude this notice with a few general remarks4 ,from the numerous facts relating to the fossil remains of birds from our ,antipodean colony1 that have now been brought under the consideration of the naturalists and geologists of this country1 we may safely conclude1 that at a period geologically recent1 but of immense antiquity in relation to the human inhabitants of those ,islands1 ,new ,zealand was densely peopled by tribes of colossal struthious bipeds1 of species and genera that have long since become extinct4 ,i believe that ages ere the advent of the ,maori tribes1 the ,moa and its kindred were the chief inhabitants of the country1 and that from the period when those ,islands were taken possession of by man1 the race gradually diminished1 and the colossal types were finally annihilated by human agency4 ,that some of the largest species were contemporary with the ,maories1 there can now be no reasonable doubt4 ,apart from native traditions1 and songs and tales in which allusions are made to the gigantic magnitude and flowing plumage of the ,moa1 the collocation of calcined and half roasted bones of the ,dinornis1 of dogs1 and of the human species1 in the ancient fire-heaps of the aborigines1 and the unequivocal marks of the celt or axe of jade on some of the tibi1--the chips or cuts having evidently been made on the bones when recent1--afford incontrovertible proof that the last of the ,moas1 like the last of the ,dodos1 was annihilated by human agency4 ,from the remarkable size and strength of the thighs1 legs1 and feet of the ,moas1 it is clear that the hinder limbs must have constituted powerful locomotive organs2 and when we consider the vast swarms of the largest species which existed at some remote period1 it seems highly probable that this family of colossal birds1--a family unknown in any other part of the world1--was not originally confined within the narrow geographical limits of modern ,new ,zealand1 but ranged over a vast continent now submerged1 and of which ,phillip and ,norfolk ,islands1 and ,chatham and ,auckland ,islands1 and those of ,new ,zealand1 are the culminating points4 ,but whatever may be the result of future discoveries as to the relative age of the bone-deposits1 or the existence or extinction of any of the colossal species of ,moa1 or the former extension of the race over countries now submerged1 one astounding fact must ever remain unassailable--the vast preponderance of the class ,aves or ,birds1 that prevailed1 and which still prevails1 in the fauna of ,new ,zealand1 to the almost entire exclusion of mammalia and reptiles4 ,any palontologist who saw only the collections sent over by my son1 must have been astonished at their extent and variety4 ,i may venture to affirm that such an assemblage of the fossil bones of birds was never before seen in ,europe3 nearly fifteen hundred specimens1 collected from various parts of the country1 with scarcely any intermixture of the remains of any other class2--it is a phenomenon as startling as the exclusively reptilian character of the fauna of the ,wealden epoch4 ,but the fauna of ,new ,zealand1 even at the present time1 presents a character as ornithic and as anomalous as its ancient one2 for while there are upwards of fifty or sixty genera of birds1 there is but one indigenous mammalian quadruped known to naturalists--a species of rat6 ,in this respect1 therefore1 as well as in its flora1 in which ferns and other cellulos of peculiar types prevail to an extent unknown elsewhere1 the country offers a striking example of that now acknowledged fact in natural history--a centre or focus of creation of certain organic types4 ,and this law1 with whose operation during the palozoic and secondary ages modern geological researches have made us familiar1 appears to have continued in unabated energy to the present moment4 ,from what has been advanced1 it is manifest that the present geographical distribution of special groups of terrestrial animals and plants1 displays as many anomalies in the relative predominance of the different classes and orders over certain areas1 without relation to climatorial or other obvious physical conditions1 as can be traced in the natural records of the earlier ages of the world4 ,the conclusion therefore forces itself upon the mind1 that throughout the vast periods of time to which our retrospective knowledge extends1 the geological changes of the earth's surface1 and the appearance and obliteration of species and genera1 have been governed by the same physical and organic laws2 and that notwithstanding the variable conditions of the land and the water1 indicated by the sedimentary formations1 there was at no period a greater discrepancy in the assemblages of certain types of the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 than exists at present4 ,of the nature of that law by which the extinction of a race of highly organized beings is determined1 and whose effects through innumerable ages palontology has in part revealed1 we are as utterly ignorant as of that which governs the first appearance of the minutest living animalcule which the powers of the microscope enable us to descry2 both are veiled in inscrutable mystery1 the results only are within the scope of our finite comprehension4#c ,footnote #c3 ,see the concluding part of ,lecture ,,viii4 #df1 ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hij4 ,,introduction4 ,the publication of ,mr4 ,parkinson's ,organic ,remains of a former ,world1 at the commencement of the present century1 must be regarded as a memorable event in the history of ,british ,palontology3 it was the first attempt to give a familiar and scientific account of the fossil relics of animals and plants1 accompanied by figures of the specimens described4 ,the three volumes#d of which the work consisted1 appeared at considerable intervals2 the last was published in #ahaa4 ,although nearly forty years have since elapsed1 and hundreds of geological works1 of all kinds and degrees of merit1 have subsequently been issued1 ,mr4 ,parkinson's ,plates1 owing to their fidelity and beauty1 are still in such request1 as to induce the proprietor1 ,mr4 ,bohn1 now that the work is out of print1 to publish them1 with the descriptions and modern names of the fossils represented4 ,footnote #d3 ,three volumes1 in #dto42 price #ajl4 #ajs4 ,i have added a few explanatory remarks1 and in the ,supplementary ,notes1 have given extended notices of some of the most interesting subjects1 with the view of rendering the volume more intelligible and acceptable to the general reader4 ,in looking through the original work of ,mr4 ,parkinson1 the instructed observer will not fail to perceive the immense progress which the study of fossil animals and plants has made since the period of its first appearance in #ahaa4 ,at that time1 the terms ,geology and ,palontology were unknown2 all the sedimentary strata have since been accurately defined and arranged1 and names assigned to the respective systems or formations2 while the so-called ,diluvial ,epoch1 which ,mr4 ,parkinson1 and even ,baron ,cuvier1 considered as established by incontrovertible physical evidence1 has been expunged from the chronology of geology4 ,in ,mr4 ,parkinson's volumes1 no allusion will be found to that most remarkable era in the earth's history which modern researches have brought to light--the ,age of ,reptiles2 the terms ,ichthyosauri1 ,plesiosauri1 ,iguanodon1 ,megalosaurus--now familiar as household words--are not inscribed on their pages2 all those marvellous beings of past ages have been discovered during the last forty years2 in short1 the remark of an eminent critic is as true as it is beautiful3--,geology is a philosophy which never rests2 its law is progress2 a point which yesterday was invisible is its goal to-day1 and will be its starting-post to-morrow4 ,i gladly avail myself of this opportunity to make a passing allusion to the excellent and accomplished author1 ,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,i had the pleasure and privilege of his acquaintance in my youth1 immediately after the publication of the third volume of his valuable work4 ,mr4 ,parkinson was rather below the middle stature1 with an energetic1 intelligent1 and pleasing expression of countenance1 and of mild and courteous manners2 readily imparting information1 either on his favourite science1 or on professional subjects2 for he was at that time actively engaged in medical practice in ,hoxton ,square1 and was the author of several valuable medical treatises4 ,he kindly showed and explained to me the principal objects in his cabinets1 and pointed out every source of information on fossil remains2 a department of natural knowledge at that time but little cultivated in ,england1 but which peculiar circumstances had contributed to render the engrossing object of my young and ardent mind4 ,in after years ,mr4 ,parkinson warmly encouraged my attempts to elucidate the nature of the strata and organic remains of my native county1 ,sussex1 a district which was then supposed to be destitute of geological interest2 and he revised my drawings1 and favoured me with his remarks on many subjects treated of in my first work--,the ,fossils of the ,south ,downs4#e ,footnote #e3 ,published in #ahbb4 ,in #ahbb1 ,mr4 ,parkinson published ,an ,introduction to the ,study of ,fossil ,organic ,remains1 especially of those found in the ,british ,strata2 intended to aid the ,student in his ,inquiries respecting the ,nature of ,fossils1 and their ,connexion with the ,formation of the ,earth2 #a vol4 #hvo4 with ten plates1 principally of the genera of fossil shells4 ,he also contributed a few papers to the early volumes of the ,geological ,society of ,london1 of which he was one of the original members4 ,after ,mr4 ,parkinson's death1 his beautiful and choice collection was sold by auction1 and its contents widely dispersed4 ,the fine series of silicified zoophytes was purchased by ,mr4 ,featherstonhaugh1 and taken to ,america2 and some years afterwards was destroyed by a fire which consumed the museum in which it was placed4 ,as illustrative of the pleasing style of ,mr4 ,parkinson's work1 ,i subjoin an abstract of the chapter1 ,on the ,pleasure and ,advantages of a ,knowledge of ,fossil ,remains4 ,the epistolary style was adopted2 and the first letter is supposed to be penned by a friend desirous of learning the nature of certain fossils he had observed on his journey to ,oxford3-- ,i have lived long enough to witness many sad disappointments to the fond dreams of happiness indulged by persons who1 only intent on the acquisition of riches1 had neglected to cultivate any intellectual or ennobling pursuit2 so that on retiring from active life1 they were unable to enjoy the leisure so dearly earned by years of anxiety and care1 and either relapsed into a state of miserable ennui1 or gave themselves up to the excitement of frivolous or vicious indulgences4 ,aware of the necessity of devoting the few leisure hours1 which the duties of my calling left at my disposal1 to some rational and amusing occupation1 ,i have always cultivated1 more or less assiduously1 some branch of art or science1 and thence acquired an enthusiastic admiration for the beauties of nature1 and an insatiable curiosity to pry into the mysteries of the natural world4 ,with this state of mind1 ,i have at length resolved to avail myself of the means my little fortune affords me to indulge those feelings1 and have1 ,i trust1 quitted the busy scenes of the world for ever4 ,in pursuance of a plan long entertained of visiting the most interesting parts of our island1 ,i left ,london last week1 accompanied by my daughter1 and our old friend1 ,frank ,wilton1 whose lively disposition and agreeable manners render him1 as you well know1 an excellent companion4 ,but he has made himself most acceptable to us on another account2--his resolute scepticism with respect to the more rational1 and his submissive credulity as to the popular and traditional explanations of such natural phenomena as are beyond his comprehension1 are frequently productive of remarks so quaint and humorous1 as to contribute in no small degree to our enjoyment4 ,ere our first day's journey was completed1 ,i discovered how insufficient was the knowledge ,i possessed to enable me to form even a conjecture1 as to the nature of the very first objects which particularly arrested our attention4 ,we were within a few miles of ,oxford1 when ,wilton1 looking out of the carriage window1 exclaimed1 ',bless me6 never before did ,i see roads mended with such materials6' ,this1 of course1 drew my attention to what had so strongly excited his wonder2 and ,i must confess that my astonishment was but little less than his own2 for ,i beheld a labourer with a large hammer breaking to pieces a nearly circular ornamented stone1 half as large as the fore-wheel of our carriage1 and resembling in form a coiled-up serpent1 or snake4 ,we instantly stopped the chaise1 and inquired of the man the name of the stone1 and where it came from4 ',this1 ,sir1' he replied1 'is a snake-stone1 and comes from yonder quarry1 where there are thousands of them4' ,upon hearing this1 we all alighted1 and with surprise examined some of the unbroken stones1 which1 though evidently bearing the form of an unknown animal1 were composed of solid rock4 ,as we sauntered along1 the carriage following us1 we came to a neat building on the road-side1 which a sign in the hedge opposite denoted to be a house of public entertainment4 ,hoping to gain more satisfactory information respecting the objects that had so much excited our curiosity1 we entered this literally hedge ale-house1 and on being shown into a neat room1 the casement of which1 surrounded by roses and honeysuckles in full bloom1 opened into a garden redolent with fragrance and beauty1 from the wild profusion of its flowers and shrubs1 we determined to rest awhile1 and partake of such refreshment as the cottage might afford4 ,while these were preparing1 ,frank ,wilton1 whose restless curiosity leaves nothing unobserved1 was examining the contents of the old oaken mantel-shelf1 and suddenly cried out1 ',well6 if the object of travelling is to behold novelties and wonders1 surely this county will afford that gratification in the highest degree2 for among the curious things on this mantel-piece1 there is not one of which ,i have ever seen its like before4' ,the articles now passed under my examination1 and with no better success2 for ,i had never observed anything similar1 nor could ,i form a rational conjecture respecting their nature4 ,while thus engaged1 our landlady made her appearance1 and from her we learnt that this was her collection of curiosities1 gathered from the neighbouring country2 and she readily imparted to us all she knew of the subject4 ,taking up one of the stones1 which resembled those we had seen on the road1--',this1' she said1 'is a petrified snake1 with which this neighbourhood abounds4 ,these were once fairies that inhabited these parts1 and1 for their crimes1 were turned first into snakes1 and then into stones4 ,here'--showing a stone of a conical form--'is one of the fairies' night-caps1#f now also become stone4' ',do1 madam1' addressing ,emma1 'pray observe this pattern2 is it possible lace-work like this should ever have been worked by human hands8 ,this--and this--are pieces of bones of giants1 who lived here after the fairies were destroyed4' ,these bones1 she informed us1 were frequently dug up in several parts of the county1 as well as innumerable thunderbolts1#g some of which she also showed us1 affirming that they were the very thunderbolts by which the giants were in their turn annihilated4 ,footnote #f3 ,a ,cidaris1 or turban-echinite2 see ,plate ,,liii4 ,footnote #g3 ,belemnites1 popularly termed thunderbolts1 ,plate ,,lix4 ,we all listened attentively to this discourse1 and on my smiling1 when she withdrew1 at the romantic account we had received1 ,wilton strenuously defended our good landlady's narration1 and declared1 he thought it was not without a fair share of probability4 ,on the return of our hostess1 ,i did not venture to express any doubt of the truth of her story1 but merely requested to know if she was aware of there being anywhere a more extensive collection of similar curiosities4 ',to be sure4 ,sir1' she replied1 'our ,university has a museum full of them2 and if you be going through ,oxford1 it will be well worth your while to see it4' ,after taking refreshment1 we left our kind and communicative hostess1 but not with an intention of immediately visiting the ,museum of the ,university4 ,on the contrary1 ,i felt that1 without some previous knowledge of the objects to be examined1 our curiosity would be only excited1 not gratified2 and ,i resolved to defer our visit to ,oxford1 until we had obtained the information necessary to insure us both pleasure and profit in the investigation of the relics of interest it contained4 ,thus1 my dear friend1 at the very outset of my long anticipated holidays1 ,i have experienced considerable disappointment1 and ,i confidently appeal to you to afford me the information ,i require2 for ,i know that you have successfully cultivated the science which teaches the nature of these figured stones1 or petrifactions1 and possess a valuable collection of these most extraordinary objects4 ,you now1 therefore1 have it in your power to add greatly to the delight and instruction ,i am anticipating from my travels1 by giving me an insight into the origin and nature of the petrified remains which1 ,i am told1 are every where to be met with in the districts we are about to visit4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of ,mr4 ,artis's ,work1 ,i need only mention that it was intended1 as its title expresses1 to illustrate ,the ,fossil ,remains of ,plants peculiar to the ,coal ,formations of ,great ,britain2 selected for their novelty and interest from upwards of a ,thousand ,specimens in the possession of the ,author2 by ,edmund ,tyrell ,artis1 ,esq4 ,f4,s4,a4 ,f4,g4,s4 ,it was published by ,nichols ,son1 #ahch4 ,the plates are well executed1 and faithfully portray the original specimens4 99 99 99 99 99 ,gallery of ,organic ,remains in the ,british ,museum4 ,the collection of fossils in our national museum is now so varied and extensive1 and so admirably arranged by its eminent ,curator1 ,charles ,knig1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s41 and his able assistants1 ,mr4 ,waterhouse and ,mr4 ,woodward1 that the intelligent reader whose interest may be awakened by the beautiful and curious objects figured and described in this volume1 cannot fail to be highly gratified by inspecting leisurely the various organic remains from all parts of the world1 that are there displayed4 ,i gladly avail myself of this opportunity gratefully to acknowledge the liberality and kindness ,i have at all times experienced from the ,officers of the several departments of ,natural ,history in the ,british ,museum1 in promoting my scientific researches1 by affording me every facility to examine the vast stores of ,information placed under their guardianship4 ,illustration ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,plates4 ,,part ,i4 ,,fossil ,,flora4 ,plates ,i4 to ,,xxxiii4 inclusive4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,i ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,plates4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,plate ,i4 7,plates ,i4 to ,,ix4 inclusive are from ,parkinson's ,organic ,remains47 ,fossil ,woods and ,leaves4 ,fig4 #a4 ,fossil coniferous wood1 from a bed of clay at ,blackwall4 ,this wood is simply bituminized1 and has undergone no other mineral transmutation2 it is in the usual condition of wood in peat-bogs4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a piece of bituminous wood1 containing ,mellite1 or ,honey-stone 7honigstein of ,werner71 the yellow crystallized substance in the middle of the specimen4 ,it is a fossil resin1 allied to amber3 from ,thuringia4 ,fig4 #c4 ,carbonized coniferous wood1 from the so-called ,bovey ,coal formation of ,devonshire4 ,fig1 #d4 ,a piece of calcareous wood1 showing very distinctly the ligneous structure on the surface4 ,fig4 #e4 ,lignite1 or carbonized wood1 in clay2 the cracks or fissures in the wood are filled up with white calcareous spar4 ,specimens of this kind are common in many argillaceous strata1 as well as in limestone4 ,fig4 #f4 ,a fragment of shale1 covered with the imprints of the leaf-stalks that have been shed4 ,it is a species of ,lepidodendron4 ,see description of ,plate ,,xxvi4 ,fig4 #g4 ,this fossil vegetable is part of the stem of a tree2 and possibly of a species of ,sigillaria4 ,fig4 #h4 ,portion of a nodule of ironstone1 enclosing some pinnules or leaflets of a beautiful fern 7,neuropteris73 from ,coalbrook ,dale1 ,shropshire4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ii4 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,petrified ,woods4 ,fig4 #a4 ,silicified bituminized wood2 probably from ,new ,holland4 ,fig4 #b4 ,silicified root of a coniferous tree1 7,rhizolithes1 of the early collectors17 resembling in structure that of the larch4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #c4 ,a similar example of silicified bituminous wood1 or root4 ,fig4 #d4 ,fossil coniferous wood1 a longitudinal section4 ,fig4 #e4 ,another section of the same fossil wood4 ,fig4 #f4 ,petrified larch-tree1 from ,mount ,krappe in ,hungary4 ,fig4 #g4 ,silicified bituminous wood4 ,fig4 #h4 ,jasperized wood1 resembling in structure that of the hazel4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #i4 ,silicified coniferous wood2 apparently a dried and withered mass1 before it underwent petrifaction4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,silicified wood1 having a cavity lined with mammillated chalcedony2 appearing as if the silex had percolated through the substance of the mass1 and had slowly oozed into the hollow4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,silicified bituminous wood4 ,in this specimen the siliceous matter occurs in yellow semi-pellucid globules2 the colour is supposed to have been derived from the bitumen4 ,the silicified woods delineated above1 belong to the division which ,mr4 ,parkinson denominated opaline2 he conceived their peculiar characters to have resulted from an infiltration of fluid silex into the ligneous tissue1 which1 having previously undergone bituminization1 was in a permeable state2 hence originated the conchoidal fracture and peculiar resinous lustre which these specimens exhibit4 ,the specimen1 fig4 #g1 ,mr4 ,parkinson describes as corroborating the opinion that the ligneous tissues were converted into a bituminous substance1 and subsequently impregnated with siliceous matter4 ,in that fossil there is a knot of wood which differs not the least in appearance from that in a recent piece1 but it is perfectly impregnated with opaline silex4 ,is it possible that the change this knot has suffered could have been effected by an abstraction of the greater part or of the whole of its constituent molecules1 and a substitution of particles of a different nature8 ,its hardness and closeness of texture oppose an insuperable bar to the supposition3 whilst the mysteriousness of the change is entirely dispelled by admitting of the softening operation of bituminization1 and consequent admission of silex in a fluid state4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iii4 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,petrified ,stems and ,leaves4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a portion of the trunk of the fossil vegetable called ,stigmaria ficoides 7of ,m4 ,alex4 ,brongniart72 it is the root of a tree common in the coal deposits2 see ,supplementary ,notes1 ,art4 ,stigmaria1 p4 #aih1 for a description of the nature and mode of occurrence of these fossils4 ,fig4 #b4 ,impressions of dicotyledonous leaves in travertine2 a modern calcareous deposit2 from ,campania4#h ,footnote #h3 ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 i4 p4 #aic4 ,fig4 #c4 ,part of the stem of a reed-like plant 7,calamites dubius1 ,brongniart72 from the coal deposits of ,yorkshire4 ,see description of ,calamites4 ,fig4 #d4 ,appears to be a fragment of the stem of a species of ,lepidodendron4 ,fig4 #e4 ,fragment of the leaf of a ,cycadeous plant1 from the oolite of ,stonesfield4 7,zamia pectinata47 ,fig4 #f4 ,portion of an ironstone nodule1 split asunder1 showing part of the terminal branch of a ,lepidodendron1 from ,coalbrook ,dale4 ,see description of ,lepidodendron4 ,fig4 #g4 ,a pebble that appears to have been partly enveloped in a leaf while in a soft state1 which has produced the markings on its surface4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #h4 ,ligniform pitchstone2 fossil wood having a resinous transparency2 supposed by ,mr4 ,parkinson to have originated from an intermixture of silex and bitumen2 the internal part is opalized4 ,fig4 #i4 ,fragment of calcareous coniferous wood from the ,lias of ,charmouth1 ,dorsetshire3 the vegetable structure is well preserved4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iv4 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,fossil ,fern ,leaves4 ,figs4 #a1 #b4 ,an ironstone nodule1 split asunder1 showing an inclosed fern-leaf 7,alethopteris lonchitidis1 of ,sternberg72 from the coal-beds of ,newcastle4 ,figs4 #c1 #d4 ,the corresponding parts of another nodule1 containing a fern-leaf of a different kind 7,neuropteris74 ,fig4 #e4 ,a very beautiful fossil fern 7,cheilanthes microlobus1 of ,gppert2 ,sphenopteris1 of ,brongniart72 from the coal formation4 ,fig4 #f4 ,a slab of coal-shale with fronds of ferns 7,alethopteris ,serlii1 of ,gppert72 from ,dunkerton4 ,fig4 #g4 ,a beautiful fern 7,pecopteris7 in coal-shale2 from ,newcastle4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,v4 ,,plate ,v4 ,fossil ,ferns and ,stems4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a beautiful delicate plant1 belonging to a family of which numerous species occur in the coal deposits2 named1 from the stellular form of the foliage1 ,asterophyllites4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a fern in coal-shale1 from ,yorkshire4 7,sphenopteris trifoliata1 of ,artis47 ,fig4 #c4 ,another species of star-leaf plant 7,annularia brevifolia71 from the coal of ,silesia4 ,fig4 #d4 ,a dicotyledonous leaf in sandstone1 in a beautiful state of preservation2 from the tertiary strata of ningen4 ,fig4 #e4 ,a frond of a remarkable species of extinct fern 7,cyclopteris orbicularis1 of ,brongniart72 from the coal of ,shropshire4 ,fig4 #f4 ,an elegant fern 7,pecopteris71 from coal shale2 ,newcastle4 ,fig4 #g4 ,a delicate plant 7,sphenophyllum erosum1 vel dentatum1 of ,sternberg71 with wedge-shaped pinnules1 from the coal formation4 ,fig4 #h4 ,portion of a stem1 flattened by compression1 of a species of ,sigillaria 7,sigillaria tesselata1 of ,brongniart74 ,from the coal of ,yorkshire4 ,fig4 #i4 ,fern 7,pecopteris oreopteridis1 of ,brongniart72 from the coal of ,south ,wales4 ,figs4 #aj1 #aa4 ,two specimens of ,asterophyllites in ironstone nodules1 from ,coalbrook ,dale4 ,the white appearance is occasioned by a deposition of hydrate of alumina4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vi4 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,fossil ,fruits from ,sheppey4 ,the greater number of the specimens here figured1 are from the ,london clay of the ,isle of ,sheppey4#i ,footnote #i3 ,for an account of the circumstances under which fossil fruits1 c4 occur in that celebrated locality1 see ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 ii4 ,these fossils are strongly impregnated with pyrites 7sulphuret of iron71 and are liable to decompose after exposure to the air for a few weeks or months1 even when placed in closed cabinets3 when first found they are remarkably beautiful4 ,an excellent work on the fossil fruits of the ,isle of ,sheppey1 was commenced by ,j4 ,s4 ,bowerbank1 ,esq4 ,f4,k4,s4 of ,highbury ,grove2 but which1 it is much to be regretted1 was discontinued after only three numbers were published4 ,fig4 #a4 ,portion of a branch of a tree1 completely mineralized by pyrites2 it is the pyritous fossil wood of ,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,figs4 #b1 #c4 ,vegetable substances1 too imperfect to determine4 ,figs4 #d1 #h1 #i1 #ac4 ,the berries of an extinct genus of plants1 7named ,wetherellia1 by ,mr4 ,bowerbank1 in honour of ,mr4 ,wetherell of ,highgate17 which1 from their appearance when split asunder1 are called by the local collectors1 coffee berries4 ,the natural affinities of these fossils are not determined4 ,figs4 #e1 #f1 #g4 ,the fruit or seed-vessel of a palm allied to the recent ,nipa1 a native of the ,molucca ,islands2 the fossil is therefore named ,nipadites4#aj ,see the next ,plate4 ,footnote #aj3 ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 i4 p1 #ahj4 ,figs4 #aj1 #ab4 ,fossil fruits of plants belonging to the ,cucumber tribe 7hence named ,cucumites1 by ,mr4 ,bowerbank74#aa ,footnote #aa3 ,plate xiii4 of ,mr4 ,bowerbank's work on the ,fossil ,fruits of the ,london ,clay1 contains numerous figures of ,cucumites4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a transverse section of ,fig4 #af4 ,figs4 #ad1 #ah1 #bd1 #bf1 are varieties of ,cucumites4 ,fig4 #af4 ,calcareous wood from ,oxfordshire4 ,fig4 #ai4 ,wood mineralized by copper 7,cupreous fossil-wood of ,parkinson71 from ,souxson1 in ,siberia4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,fossil fruit resembling the seed-vessels of plants of the genus ,cupania 7,amomocarpum1 of ,brongniart2 ,cupanoides1 of ,bowerbank72 ,m4 ,brongniart considers the original to have been related to the ,cardamoms 7,amomum74 ,fig4 #ba4 ,probably a species of ,cupanoides4 ,figs4 #bj1 #bb4 ,pericarp of a fruit2 its affinities unknown4 ,fig4 #bc4 ,a piece of pyritous wood4 ,fig4 #be4 ,a rolled specimen of ,nipadites4 ,figs4 #bd1 #bf4 ,two fruits of plants of the ,cucumber family 7,cucumites74 ,figs4 #bg1 #bi4 ,specimens of the stems of a species of extinct ,club-moss 7,lycopodites squamatus72 fossils of this kind are abundant in the pyritous clay of ,sheppey4 ,fig4 #bh4 ,a fragment of silicified wood1 rounded by attrition2 from the gravel-pits at ,hackney4 99 99 99 99 99 ,figs4 #ae1 #ag4 ,i have purposely reserved the description of these fossils for this place1 because notwithstanding their close resemblance to the aments or cones of a pine or larch1 which led the earlier collectors to regard them as fruits1 they do not belong to the vegetable but to the animal kingdom1 being the hardened excrementitious contents 7,coprolites7 of the intestines of the fishes1 with whose remains they are associated in the chalk4#ab ,the specimens figured are from ,cherry ,hinton1 in ,cambridgeshire2 similar fossils occur in the ,chalk and ,chalk-marl of ,sussex1 ,kent1 c4 ,footnote #ab3 ,see ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 i4 p4 #dcb2 and ,dr4 ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,essays1 vol4 ii4 pl4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vii4 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,fossil ,fruits of ,palms4 ,figs4 #a-e4 ,splendid specimens of one of the most remarkable of the fossil fruits that occur in the ,london clay of the ,isle of ,sheppey4 ,the nut in its pericarp or husk is shown in fig4 #a1 the separate pericarp in fig4 #b1 and the nut itself in fig4 #c4 ,figs4 #d and #e1 represent another beautiful fossil of the same species4 ,these fossil fruits1 which ,mr4 ,parkinson considered as belonging to a species of ,cocos1 or ,cocoa1 and ,m4 ,brongniart referred to the ,pandanus or ,screw-pine1 ,mr4 ,bowerbank has demonstrated to be closely related to the recent ,nipa1 or ,malucca ,palm2 a low shrub-like monocotyledonous plant1 that inhabits marshy tracts near the mouths of great rivers1 particularly where the waters are brackish4 ,mr4 ,bowerbank has figured and described eleven species4 ,the species represented in this plate is distinguished as ,nipadites ,parkinsonis3 ,m4 ,brongniart had previously named it ,pandanocarpum ,parkinsonis4#ac ,footnote #ac3 ,see an account of an ,excursion to the ,isle of ,sheppey1 ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hig4 ,the following is ,mr4 ,bowerbank's description of these fossils3-- ,the fruits of which the group ,i propose to name ,nipadites is composed1 are known among the women and children by whom they are usually collected1 by the name of 'petrified figs4' ,the epicarp and endocarp are thin and membranous2 the sarcocarp is thick and pulpy1 composed of cellular tissue1 through which run numerous bundles of vessels4 ,the cells are about the #h_/ajjth part of an inch in diameter4 ,nearly in the centre of the pericarp is situated a large seed1 which1 when broken1 is found to be more or less hollow4 ,it is frequently not more than half a line in thickness2 but in perfect specimens it presents the appearance of a closely granulated structure1 in which small apertures containing carbonaceous matter occasionally occur4 ,the seed in ,nipadites ,parkinsonis1 consists of regular layers of cells radiating from a spot situated near the middle of the seed1 and apparently enclosing a central embryo4 ,if the habits of the plants which produced these fossil fruits were similar to those of the recent ,nipa1 it will account for their amazing abundance in the ,london ,clay of the ,isle of ,sheppey2 which formation1 from the great variety of fossilized stems and branches1 mixed up with asteria1 mollusca1 and conchifera of numerous marine and fresh-water genera1 is strikingly characterized as having been the delta of an immense river1 which probably flowed from near the ,equator towards the spot where these interesting remains are now deposited4#ad ,footnote #ad3 ,history of the ,fossil ,fruits and ,seeds of the ,london ,clay4 ,van ,voorst1 ,london1 #ahdj4 ,figs4 #f1 #g1 #h4 ,specimens of a seed-vessel1 or nut1 of an unknown plant1 often found in the strata of the coal measures4 ,it is called ,trigonocarpum olivforme1 from its general shape4 ,from ,leicestershire2 it probably belongs to a plant of the ,palm family4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,viii4 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,petrified ,stems and ,woods4 ,figs4 #a-g1 represent different sections and parts of some remarkably beautiful and interesting silicified stems of an extinct tribe of plants1 related to the arborescent ferns1 and which are found in considerable abundance at ,chemnitz1 near ,hillersdorf1 in ,saxony4 ,the name of ,psaronius is given to the genus by ,m4 ,cotta4 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #e1 #g1 are ,p4 helmintholithes2 figs4 #c1 #f1 ,p4 asterolithes2 figs4 #e1 #f1 #g1 are enlarged figures of the transverse sections of some of the vessels forming the vascular tissue4 ,from the stellular figure produced by transverse sections of the vessels1 this fossil wood has received the name of ,staarenstein1 or ,starry-stone4 ,in the time of ,mr4 ,parkinson1 the tubes now known to be the vessels of the vascular tissue1 were supposed to have been produced by some boring or parasitical animals4 ,fig4 #d4 ,transverse section of a stem of calcareous wood from the ,bath oolite4 ,figs4 #h1 #i4 ,calcareous fossil wood2 the cylindrical cavities have been formed by the depredations of the ligniverous boring mollusk1 the ,teredo1 and are now filled with translucent calcareous spar4 ,this kind of fossil was called ,lapis syringoides by the early collectors4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,silicified wood2 the perforations are supposed to have been occasioned by the depredations of boring mollusca3 the cavities are filled with a white pellucid chalcedony4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ix4 ,,plate ,,ix4 ,fossil ,stems and ,seed-vessels4 ,fig4 #a4 ,the strobilus or cone of an extinct family of plants whose remains are very abundant in the coal strata1 and which have largely contributed to the formation of the mineral fuel now become so indispensable to the necessities and luxuries of man4 ,there are several kinds1 and although there can be no doubt that they are the seed-vessels of the ,lepidodendra with which they are associated1 yet but few species are identified with their parent trees4 ,the specimen figured is the ,lepidostrobus ornatus of ,lindley and ,hutton4 ,from the coal measures of ,coalbrook ,dale4 ,fig4 #b4 ,one of the so-called ,petrified ,melons of ,mount ,carmel4 ,figs4 #c #d4 ,an unknown fossil body2 possibly a coral4 ,fig4 #e4 ,a vertical section of one of the ,petrified ,melons from ,mount ,carmel4 ,the fossil thus named by ,mr4 ,parkinson appears to be merely a siliceous nodule1 having a cavity lined with quartz crystals4 ,there is1 however1 a legend rife among the barefooted friars of ,mount ,carmel1 that has conferred a celebrity on these stones2 it runs1 that on this spot was a garden well stocked with melons1 and that the prophet ,elias1 who founded the monastery1 once asking the gardener for one of his melons1 he with churlish humour answered1 they were not melons but stones3 on which they were immediately changed into stones1 and so remain to this day4 ,figs4 #f #g4 ,unknown vegetable fossils1 highly metallic2 fig4 #f appears to be a fragment of a cone4 ,figs4 #h #i1 are nodules of pyrites1 accidentally assuming the form of fungi2 they are not fossils1 but simply masses of inorganic mineral matter4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,portion of the flattened stem of an extinct plant1 from the coal measures of ,yorkshire1 whose affinities are uncertain2 supposed to resemble the ,yew-tree4 ,it appears to be similar to the fossil named ,knorria taxina by ,messrs4 ,lindley and ,hutton in the ,british ,fossil ,flora4 ,in that beautiful work1--the continuation of which is much to be desired1--the genus ,knorria comprises those fossil stems in which the projecting scars of the petioles are densely arranged in a spiral manner4#ae ,footnote #ae3 ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 i4 p4 #afa4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,x4 ,,plate ,x4 7,plates ,x4 to ,,xxxiv4 inclusive1 are from ,artis's work on the ,fossil ,remains of ,plants1 from the coal formations of ,great ,britain47 ,columnar ,hydatica4 ,under the name ,hydatica1 ,mr4 ,artis has described two species of fossil plants1 from the coal-mine near ,wentworth1 ,yorkshire4 ,the originals appear to have been aquatic plants1 having a horizontal or creeping stem1 sending up slender branches1 which floated by their leaves on the surface of the water4 ,the generic characters are1 ,stem1 arborescent1 jointed1 branched2 leaves1 long1 linear4 ,in the arrangements of ,schlotheim and ,brongniart1 who consider only the construction of the leaves1 these plants would belong to the genus ,poacites4 ,the species figured is named ,hydatica columnaris1 or ,columnar ,hydatica4 ,the stem is branched all the way up1 and ends in a club-like head2 the branches are numerous1 simple1 alternate1 and covered with parallel hair-like leaves4 ,fig4 #a4 ,the plant of the natural size1 imbedded in coal-shale2 fig4 #b1 a branch magnified1 showing2 the two linear series in which the leaves are arranged4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xi4 ,,plate ,,xi4 ,prostrate ,hydatica4 ,a splendid specimen of another species of ,hydatica1 spread out on the surface of the coal-shale1 as if expanded on the bosom of the lake in which it grew3 the length of the original1 a part of which only is figured in the plate1 was eight feet1 five inches4 ,this species is named by ,mr4 ,artis1 ,hydatica prostrata4 ,the stem is jointed1 and slightly striated2 the joints are formed with irregular sutures1 whence arise tufts of linear leaves resembling those of our common grasses4 ,fragments of this fossil plant are abundant in the roofs of several of the chambers whence the coal has been extracted1 in ,elsecar ,colliery1 ,yorkshire4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xii4 ,,plate ,,xii4 ,slender ,myriophyllite4 ,the fossil here figured seems to approximate very closely to the ,hydatica2 but ,mr4 ,artis describes the plant under the generic name of ,myriophyllites2--,m4 gracilis4 ,the stem is herbaceous and slender1 terminating in a point2 it is thickly covered with hair-like leaves4 ,it was found imbedded horizontally1 in detached masses1 separated from the great mass of vegetable matter which covers the coal1 by an intervening layer of shale4 ,it is rarely met with in the same bed with other vegetables1 but generally in solitary and thin strata1 taking a horizontal position2 so that by riving the shale which contains these plants1 numbers of them are disclosed on the same surface4 ,in its general aspect this fossil vegetable resembles the trailing roots of some aquatic plants4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xiii4 ,,plate ,,xiii4 ,branched ,calamite4 ,long and large jointed stems1 generally more or less flattened by compression1 and bearing some resemblance to a cane or bamboo1 are very abundant in the coal formations4 ,some of them attain many feet in length1 and are of a corresponding magnitude in circumference4 ,the original plants are supposed to have been related to the ,equisetace1 or ,mare's-tail1 and not to the ,bambusi1 and other arborescent grasses4 ,the stem is jointed1 and longitudinally striated1 having annular impressions at the articulations4 ,the present species 7,calamites ramosus7 has the stem arborescent and branched2 the branches are cylindrical1 striated1 and inserted at the articulations of the trunk2 the articulations of the branches are surrounded by a striated disk4 ,the stem has been found nine feet in length1 and occurs both horizontally and vertically1 in sandstone1 in ,leabrook ,quarry1 near ,wentworth4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xiv4 ,,plate ,,xiv4 ,doubtful ,calamite4 ,these fossil stems are from the same sandstone quarry as the ,calamite delineated in the previous plate4 ,they differ in some respects from the usual type of the genus1 hence the specific name 7,calamites dubius74 ,the stri are narrow1 and have a fine groove running down the middle2 the fifth or sixth articulation is surrounded by a double line of large globular indentations1 one row belonging to each of the connected joints2 these imprints have apparently been left by a zone of some organs which surrounded the articulations1 and by its pressure left the indented frill1 shown in the upper extremity of fig4 #b4 ,these stems are generally found compressed1 and from two to three feet in length4 ,their termination is unknown4 ,this species is figured by ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart in ,hist4 ,veg4 ,foss4 tab4 #ah1 figs4 #a-c4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xv4 ,,plate ,,xv4 ,pseudo-,bamboo ,calamite4 7,calamites pseudo bambusia1 of ,sternberg4 ---- ,suckovii1 of ,brongniart1 ,hist4 ,foss4 ,veg4 tab4 #ad47 ,this fossil was found in the clay which fills the fissures of a very fine grit1 called by the workmen ',delf1' that forms a stratum from twenty to twenty-five feet thick1 in the quarry at ,leabrook1 near ,wentworth1 in ,yorkshire4 ,immediately under this stratum there is a thin bed of very good coal2 and at a considerable depth below this bed1 there is a second layer of coal1 eight feet thick1 which is covered in particular places with immense masses of fossil plants4 ,the species here figured very closely resembles the ,bamboos4 ,the stem is arborescent1 and marked with parallel linear strife1 which are intercepted at the sutures2 it is simple and cylindrical1 and contracted at the articulations2 it occurs five feet or more in length4 ,fig4 #a1 represents part of the middle of a stem4 ,fig4 #b1 shows the gradual upward diminution of the stem1 and its pointed termination4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xvi4 ,,plate ,,xvi4 ,short-jointed ,calamite4 7,calamites approximatus1 ,sternberg4 ---- ----1 ,brongniart1 ,hist4 ,veg4 ,foss4 tab4 #bd47 ,this species of ,calamite is characterized by the shortness and number of the joints2 these are intercepted by distinct articulations1 and have small compressed tubercles1 forming a studded row round the trunk4 ,the articulations are about one-fifth the diameter of the stem apart4 ,the tubercular studs1 or warts1 are probably the cicatrices of fallen leaves2 they rise directly from the articulations1 and not from the lower termination of the stri1 as in the species figured in the next plate4 ,the specimen was found imbedded horizontally in soft sandstone1 at the bottom of the rock in ,hober ,quarry1 near ,wentworth4 ,fig4 #a1 represents a portion of the upper part of the trunk1 of the natural size1 terminating at the top in a sharp compressed point4 ,fig4 #b4 ,an outline on a reduced scale1 to show the proportionate size of the stem4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xvii4 ,,plate ,,xvii4 ,ornamented ,calamite4 7,calamites decoratus1 ,artis4 ---- ----1 of ,brongniart1 ,hist4 ,veg4 ,foss4 tab4 #ad1 figs4 #a-e47 ,in this species of ,calamite the joints are short1 and decrease in length towards the summit1 where they terminate in an enlarged rounded head4 ,the stri are ornamented with tubercles at the bottom1 close to the articulation4 ,the stri are broader1 and the tubercles larger1 towards the summit4 ,the stem is sometimes found two feet long1 and from two to four inches in diameter4 ,the situation of the tubercles at the lower extremity of the stri1 is a striking feature of this species2 and the termination of the summit of the stem is remarkable for its obtuseness4 ,the specimen is from ,leabrook ,quarry1 ,yorkshire4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xviii4 ,,plate ,,xviii4 ,transverse ,sternbergia4 7,sternbergia transversa1 of ,artis4 ,artesia ----1 of ,presl4 ,additions to ,sternberg's ,flora der ,vorwelt47 ,the stems known by the name of ,sternbergia1 7from ,count ,sternberg1 the author of the ,fossil ,flora17 appear to be related to the ,yucca1 or to the ,pandanus or ,screw-pine4 ,mr4 ,artis observes1 that they bear considerable analogy to the stems of the ,stapeli of our gardens2 but still1 the external form1 which ,is the only character visible1 does not furnish sufficient ground for their being positively referred to that genus4 ,the stem is marked longitudinally with double keels or ridges1 which terminate at different heights spirally round the stem1 and have small tubercles at their terminations4 ,there are likewise slight annular depressions1 mostly distinct1 but in some places two or more unite4 ,the stem is straight1 simple1 and cylindrical1 and is compressed towards the summit4 ,it is sometimes found six feet in length1 and from one to four inches in diameter4 ,it is generally coated with a carbonized bark4 ,fig4 #a1 shows a portion of the stem of the natural size4 ,fig4 #b4 ,the upper extremity1 in which the tubercular terminations of the double keels or ridges are seen at ,a1 ,b4 ,found associated with ,calamites in the clay-bind of ,leabrook ,quarry4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xix4 ,,plate ,,xix4 ,fibrous ,sigillaria4 7,rhytidolepis fibrosa1 of ,artis47 ,stems more or less flattened1 with the external surface longitudinally furrowed1 and uniformly ornamented with rows of deeply imprinted symmetrical figures1 disposed with much regularity1 are among the most abundant vegetable remains in the coal formation4 ,these are named ,sigillari1 from the ,latin word sigillum1 signifying a seal1 in allusion to the extreme regularity of the imprints on the surface4 ,when found in an upright position1 at right angles to the plane of the stratum1 the original cylindrical form of the tree is commonly preserved2 and many examples are now known of groups of erect ,sigillari1 with their roots extending into the surrounding clay or sandy loam2 the roots proving to be the fossil bodies called ,stigmari1 which were formerly supposed to be a distinct family of aquatic plants4#af ,the first discovery of this highly interesting and unexpected fact was made by ,mr4 ,binney4#ag ,footnote #af3 ,dr4 ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,essay1 vol4 i4 p4 #dgf4 ,footnote #ag3 ,see ,supplementary ,notes1 p4 #aih4 ,the specimen figured was found in an erect position in the sandstone of a quarry at ,rowmarsh1 near ,rotherham in ,yorkshire4 ,the stem is simple1 the furrows small and wavy1 impressed with dots on the ridges4 ,the cicatrices are ovate1 subpentagonal1 with the lower angles rounded1 having a single gland near the lower extremity4 ,the stem is three feet long1 and four inches in diameter4 ,the transverse section1 as seen in fig4 #a1 shows traces of a double concentric ring1 as if produced by internal structure4 ,fig4 #b1 displays the equality of the stem throughout its entire length1 and its abrupt termination4 ,in fig4 #c1 is seen the cicatrix with its single gland1 for the attachment of the petiole or leaf-stalk4 ,fig4 #d1 indicates the undulating line of the top of the ridge4 ,the originals of these fossils are supposed by ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart to have constituted a peculiar family of coniferous plants1 now extinct1 which probably belonged to the great division of gymnospermous dicotyledons4 ,in their external forms they somewhat resembled the ,cacte or ,euphorbi1 but were more nearly related by their internal organization to the ,zami or ,cycade4 ,the leaves and fruits of these trees are unknown1 for no satisfactory connexion has been established between the stems1 and the foliage and seed vessels with which they are sometimes collocated4#ah ,footnote #ah3 ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 i4 p4 #ach4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xx4 ,,plate ,,xx4 ,sigillaria4 7,euphorbites vulgaris1 of ,artis47 ,this species is characterized by the remarkable fish-like form of the cicatrices left by the base of the leaf-stalks1 and by the rapid tapering of the upper part of the stem1 as shown in the reduced figure #a1 which represents a specimen nine feet long1 five feet in circumference at the base1 and only twenty-one inches in circumference at the upper end4 ,the ridges1 which at the superior extremity are simple and narrow1 and parted only by a single line1 become at the lower part of the stem wide and flat1 and are separated by a groove of equal breadth1 as seen in fig4 #c1 which is taken from ,b1 fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #b1 represents a portion towards the upper end1 at ,a1 fig4 #a2 and exhibits the different appearance of the bark1 and the under surface1 when the cortical investment is removed2 the imprints in each case differing very much in appearance4 ,the specimen from which the drawing was taken1 was from a sandstone quarry near ,altofts1 in ,yorkshire4 ,in one of the abandoned chambers of the upper ,elsecar coal-mine1 seven trunks of this tree were suspended freely from the roof1 the largest of which was eight feet in circumference4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxi4 ,,plate ,,xxi4 ,ficoid ,stigmaria4 7,stigmaria ficoides1 of ,m4 ,brongniart1 ,hist4 ,veg4 ,foss4 tab4 #ag1 figs4 #e1 #f4 ,ficoidites furcatus1 of ,mr4 ,artis47 ,the fossil trunks or stems called ,stigmari1 or ,variol1 7from the pits or areol with which they are studded17 occur as abundantly in the coal formation as the ,sigillari1 of which tribe of plants unequivocal proof has at length been obtained that they are the roots4 ,these bodies are more or less regularly cylindrical1 and vary in length from a few inches to fifteen or twenty feet1 the largest being several inches in diameter4 ,their surface is covered with numerous oval or circular depressions1 in the middle of each of which there is a rounded papilla1 or tubercle4 ,these variol are disposed round the stem in quincunx order4 ,when these roots are broken across1 a small cylindrical core or pith is exposed1 which extends in a longitudinal direction throughout the stem1 like a medullary column4 ,this central axis1 which is often separable from the surrounding mass1 is composed of bundles of vascular tissue disposed in a radiated manner1 and separated from each other by medullary rays4 ,this internal organization presents the same correspondence with that of the stems of ,sigillari1 as does the structure of the roots of a dicotyledonous tree with that of its branches and stems4 ,the ,stigmari are almost invariably present in the bed called the ,under ,clay1 which underlies the coal1 and when observed in this situation1 long tapering sub-cylindrical fibres are found attached to the tubercles2 and these processes or rootlets are often several feet in length4 ,their form and mode of attachment are shown at ,c1 ,d2 the rootlets terminate in bifurcations1 as seen at ,a1 ,b4 ,the specimen here figured is part of a root nearly six feet long1 and three inches in diameter2 some of the rootlets were two feet long4 ,it is imbedded in shale2 from ,elsecar colliery4#ai ,footnote #ai3 ,a ,stigmaria with rootlets1 many feet in length1 is placed over the doorway in the room devoted to fossil vegetables in the ,gallery of ,organic ,remains in the ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,,plate ,,xxii4 ,warty ,stigmaria4 7,stigmaria ficoides1 ,brongniart4 ,phytolithus verrucosus1 ,martin's ,petrificata ,derbiensia1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,ficoidites verrucosus1 of ,artis47 ,in this species of ,stigmaria the tubercles vary considerably in size1 and give a verrucose1 or warty1 aspect to the surface4 ,the specimen figured on a small scale1 fig4 #b1 and a portion of the natural size1 fig4 #a1 was between five and six feet in length1 and four inches in diameter4 ,a groove visible on the external surface indicates the inner axis1 which by compression has been pressed from its natural central position2 see fig4 #b1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d3 figs4 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 show in the corresponding transverse sections the position of this body4 ,the mode of attachment of the rootlets to the tubercle on the main root1 is represented fig4 #e4 ,fig4 #c1 exhibits the characters of the two kinds of variol1 or tubercles4 ,when ,dr4 ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,essay was published1 the true nature of these fossil remains was unknown4 ,it was supposed by ,messrs4 ,lindley and ,hutton1 that the original was an aquatic plant1 having a short dome-shaped trunk1 from which radiated numerous long horizontal branches2 and that when the plant was perfect1 and the branches floating on the water1 its appearance resembled that of an ,asterias4#bj ,this dome-shaped trunk is now known to be merely the base of the stem of the tree4 ,see ,supplementary ,notes1 art4 ,stigmaria4 ,footnote #bj3 ,dr4 ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,essay1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ie4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxiii4 ,,plate ,,xxiii4 ,great ,stigmaria4 7,stigmaria ficoides1 of ,brongniart4 ,ficoidites major1 of ,artis47 ,the fossil here represented is a fragment of a ,stigmaria having larger tubercles than the species previously described4 ,the tubercles are oval at the base1 somewhat compressed1 longitudinally farrowed at the top1 with a pit in the furrow4 ,this root is from five to six inches in diameter2 the axis is seen near the compressed side1 in the transverse section at the bottom of the figure4 ,from a sandstone quarry1 near ,rotherham1 ,yorkshire4 ,the specimen figured by ,mr4 ,parkinson1 ante1 ,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #a1 appears to be the fragment of a ,stigmaria of this kind in ironstone3 the internal axis is seen in the transverse section pressed from its natural position to near the outer surface4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxiv4 ,,plate ,,xxiv4 ,crested ,aspidiaria4 7,aspidiaria cristata1 of ,presl4 ,sigillaria appendiculata1 ,brongniart4 ,aphyllum cristatum1 ,artis47 ,the fossil here represented is part of the stem of a tree nearly forty feet long1 and two feet in diameter1 found imbedded in sandstone at ,banktop1 ,yorkshire4 ,the cicatrices of the petioles are obovate1 and have a central oblong crest or ridge2 the interstices form deep angular furrows4 ,the stems with this type of sculpturing1 are supposed to belong to a group of extinct vegetables1 which held an intermediate place between the ,sigillari1 previously described1 and the ,lepidodendra2 together with the latter1 and certain true ,conifer and arborescent ferns1 these trees appear to have constituted the principal forests of the ,carboniferous epoch4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,,plate ,,xxv4 ,frondose ,megaphyton4 7,megaphyton distans1 of ,lindley and ,hutton's ,fossil ,flora of ,great ,britain47 ,very large stems not channelled1 with regular cicatrices of great size1 arranged longitudinally1 occur in the sandstone and grits of the ,carboniferous formation1 and are supposed to belong to a tribe of extinct plants1 more nearly allied to the arborescent ferns of our tropical climes1 than to any other existing trees4 ,the specimen figured is part of a stem ten feet in length1 from a quarry near ,rowmarsh in ,yorkshire4 ,this stem has a coarse fibrous surface1 furrowed longitudinally2 the cicatrices left by the shedding of the leaves are of a horseshoe shape with the points directed upwards4 ,this group of stems has been separated by writers on fossil botany into several genera1 as ,bothrodendron1 ,ulodendron1 c4#ba ,in some of these the scars are five inches in diameter4 ,footnote #ba3 ,see ,dr4 ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,essay1 plate #ef4 ,there are many fine examples of these fossils in the ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxvi4 ,,plate ,,xxvi4 ,lepidodendron1 or ,scaly-tree4 7,aphyllum asperum1 ,rough ,aphyllum1 of ,artis47 ,the ,lepidodendra 7,scaly-trees7 are a tribe of plants whose remains abound in the ,coal formation1 and rival in number and magnitude the ,calamites and ,sigillari previously described4 ,the name is derived from the imbricated or scaly appearance of the surface1 occasioned by the little angular scars left by the separation of the leaves4 ,some of these trees have been found almost entire1 from their roots to the topmost branches4 ,one specimen1 forty feet high1 and thirteen feet in diameter at the base1 and divided towards the summit into fifteen or twenty branches1 was discovered in the ,jarrow coal-mine1 near ,newcastle4#bb ,footnote #bb3 ,wonders of ,geology1 sixth edition1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gbb4 ,the foliage of these trees consists of simple linear leaves1 spirally arranged around the stem1 and which appear to have been shed from the base of the tree with age4 ,the markings produced by the attachment of the leaves are never obliterated1 and the twigs and branches are generally found covered with foliage4 ,the originals are supposed by ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongniart1 notwithstanding their gigantic size1 to have been closely related to the ,lycopodia1 or ,club-mosses4#bc ,footnote #bc3 ,medals of ,creation1 p4 #add4 ,associated with the stems of ,lepidodendra1 and oftentimes imbedded in masses of their foliage1 and in some instances attached to the extremities of the branches1 are numerous oblong or cylindrical scaly cones1 garnished with leaves3 an imperfect specimen is figured in ,plate ,,ix4 fig4 #a1 and the vertical section of another in ,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #f4 ,these cones have received the name of ,lepidostrobi 7,scaly-cones71 and are the seed-vessels or fruits of the ,lepidodendra4#bd ,footnote #bd3 ,see ,medals of ,creation1 p4 #adg1 and lign4 #ca1 p4 #adi4 ,these fossils often form the nuclei of the ironstone nodules from ,coalbrook ,dale1 and are invested with a pure white hydrate of alumina2 the leaflets1 or more properly bracte1 are often replaced by galena1 or sulphuret of lead1 giving rise to specimens of great beauty and interest1 as examples of the electro-chemical changes which these fruits of the carboniferous forests have undergone4 ,the fossils figured in this ,plate1 are portions of a stem eleven feet in length1 from near ,hoyland1 ,yorkshire4 ,fig4 #a1 is from the upper part1 and shows the carbonized scales attached2 fig4 #b1 represents part of the lower end1 in which the scales are decorticated1 from the adhesion of the bark to the surrounding shale4 ,a4 ,shows the cicatrix1 with its transverse gland that connects the scale1 in the upper part of the trunk4 ,b4 ,exposes the interstice between the scales in the lower portion of the stem4 ,c4 ,a section of the hollow cicatrix4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,,plate ,,xxvii4 ,lychnophorite4 7,lychnophorites superus1 of ,artis47 ,the fossil figured under the above name by ,mr4 ,artis1 is part of a large branch of a tree1 the surface of which is covered with the cicatrices of leaf-stalks1 as in the ,lepidodendron4 ,the form of the cicatrix and point of attachment is shown at ,b2 figure ,a1 is the restored outline of a leaf4 ,dr4 ,martins refers the fossil plants of this type to a recent shrubby genus of syngenesious plants1 which cover the plains of ,brazil1 and which he names ,lychnophora1 whence he formed this fossil genus1 by changing the termination to ites1 according to the common usage4--,artis4 ,the specimen represented is in sandstone1 from ,swinton ,common1 near ,rotherham1 ,yorkshire4 ,this tree seems to be closely allied to the ,lepidodendra4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxviii4 ,,plate ,,xxviii4 ,eared ,neuropterite4 7,neuropteris auriculata1 ,brongniart4 ,hist4 ,veg4 ,foss4 tab4 #ff4 ,filicites ,osmunda1 of ,artis47 ,the general aspect of this beautiful filicite very much resembles that of our well-known flowering fern1 the elegant ,osmunda regalis2 the auriculated or one-eared base of the lanceolated leaflets forms1 however1 a distinguishing character4 ,it belongs to the genus ,neuropteris 7nerved-leaf fern7 of ,m4 ,brongniart1 which comprises many species of delicately-veined ferns3 the veins in this fossil plant are very fine1 arched1 and rise obliquely from the base of the leaflet4 ,the leaflets are often found detached1 and in many instances1 though completely carbonized1 are so firm1 and so slightly attached to the shale1 that they may be separated by a pair of forceps3 when removed1 their impression remains on the stone1 as is shown in the light-coloured part of the figure #b2 the form and distribution of the rib1 and nervures or veins1 are seen in fig4 #c4 ,from ,elsecar colliery4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxix4 ,,plate ,,xxix4 ,trifoliate ,sphenopterite4 7,sphenopteris trifoliata1 ,brongniart1 ,hist4 ,veg4 ,foss4 tab4 #ec1 fig4 #c4 ,filicites trifoliatus1 of ,artis4 ,cheilanthites2 from its supposed analogy to the recent genus ,cheilanthes4 ,gppert4 ,trans4 ,academy of ,bonn47 ,this is a rare species of fern from the coal shale of ,yorkshire1 ,elsecar ,colliery4 ,it has the leaf or frond tripinnate2 the pinn1 lobes1 or wings1 alternate with an odd one2 the leaflets are ternate1 with roundish1 convex lobes4 ,this plant has been referred to the tropical ferns1 and is nearly allied to the genera ,davallia1 or ,cheilanthes2 but from the almost general absence of the organs of fructification in fossil ferns1 it is impossible to refer them with any certainty to living genera4 ,it belongs to the ,sphenopteres1 or wedge-shaped-leaf ferns1 of ,m4 ,brongniart4 ,a1 shows the cast or matrix of the under side of the leaf2 ,b1 the upper side in relief4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxx4 ,,plate ,,xxx4 ,milton ,filicite4 7,pecopteris ,miltoni1 ,brongniart1 ,hist4 ,veg4 ,foss4 tab4 #aad1 ,filicites ,miltoni1 ,artis47 ,this exquisite specimen exhibits part of two leaves attached to the stem1 the under surface of the fronds1 on which the fructification is beautifully displayed1 being exposed4 ,the frond is tripinnate1 the stipes large and strong1 the leaflets linear with the tip rounded4 ,the fructification is arranged in lines near the margin2 but slight traces of the venation of the leaflets are distinguishable4 ,from ,milton1 in ,yorkshire4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxi4 ,,plate ,,xxxi4 ,plumose ,pecopterite4 7,pecopteris plumosa1 ,brongniart1 ,hist4 ,veg4 ,foss4 tab4 #aba4 ,filicites plumosus1 ,artis47 ,this elegant fern is characterized by the plumose or wavy character of the stipes or stems of the fronds1 which are tripinnate2 the leaflets are lanceolate and sessile1--that is1 are closely attached by their base1 without a stalk4 ,the fructification is seen disposed near the margins of the leaflets on the left hand upper part of the specimen4 ,from the same locality as the last4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxii4 ,,plate ,,xxxii4 ,decurrent ,filicite4 7,alethopteris decurrens1 of ,gppert4 ,pecopteris heterophylla1 ,lindley and ,hutton1 tab4 #ch4 ,filicites decurrens1 of ,artis47 ,the drawing represents but a small portion of the specimen1 which indicated a plant of gigantic size4 ,the leaf or frond of this fern is very large1 tripinnate or quadripinnate2 the stipes is broad and undulated2 the leaflets are sessile1 linear-lanceolate2 the ribs pinnate1 the secondary ribs perpendicular to the main rib2 the first leaflet on the superior side of the pinnule adheres by its side to the rachis4--,artis4 ,this fern1 which closely resembles some recent species1 7,pteris aurita17 occurs in great abundance in the shale at ,alverthorpe near ,wakefield4 ,notwithstanding the profusion with which the foliage of many kinds of ferns is distributed throughout the coal formation1 the undoubted stems of tree-ferns are so rare1 that it may admit of question whether some of the leaves which from the analogy of their structure to recent forms have been referred to the ferns1 may not have belonged to the stems of unknown trees with which they are associated in the strata2 for as1 in the animal kingdom1 distinct types of living organisms are often found blended in the extinct races1 so in the vegetable1 it is possible1 that foliage and stems1 of apparently discordant types1 may have belonged to the same extinct species or genus of trees4 ,this problem can only be solved by diligent and continued research in the richest localities of coal-plants4 ,m4 ,brongniart remarks that every bed of coal is the product of a special vegetation1 often different from that which preceded1 and that which followed it4 ,each bed thus resulting from a distinct vegetation1 is characterized by the predominance of certain impressions of plants1 and the experienced miners distinguish in many cases the beds they are working1 by their practical knowledge of the plants that prevail4 ,the same beds of coal1 and the deposits which cover it1 ought therefore to contain the different parts of the plants that were living at the period of its formation2 and by carefully studying the association of these different fossils1 forming thus little special floras1 generally of but few species1 we may hope to acquire data by which we may advance the means of reconstructing the anomalous vegetable forms of the ancient world4 ,m4 ,brongniart strongly urges attention to this circumstance in the examination of the coal strata1 with the view of determining the identity of the scattered leaves1 stems1 and fruits1 in any particular stratum4 ,by such a procedure1 much addition would be made to our knowledge of the entire structures of many of the fossil plants of which we now only know the fragments4 ,thus we may hope to ascertain the foliage of the ,sigillari1 the roots of which1 by a similar method1 have but recently been determined to be the fossils called ,stigmari4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxiii4 ,,plate ,,xxxiii4 ,carpolithe1 or ,fossil ,seed-vessel4 7,carpolithus marginatus1 of ,artis47 ,the carbonized husks or shells of nuts1 and other carpolithes1 or seed-vessels1 are not unfrequently met with in the coal and coal-shale4 ,in the slab of shale figured1 there are three specimens of an oval nut1 ,b1 ,c1 which is striated longitudinally4 ,these are associated with other vegetable remains1 among which part of a ,lepidostrobus1 the supposed cone or strobilus of a species of ,lepidodendron 7see description of ,plate ,,ix471 is conspicuous at a4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,fossil ,,fauna4 ,plates ,,xxxiv4 to ,,lxxiv4 inclusive4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxiv4 ,,plate ,,xxxiv4 7,plates ,,xxxiv4 to ,,lxxiv4 inclusive1 are from ,parkinson's ,organic ,remains47 ,fossil ,tubipore1 from ,derbyshire4 7,syringopora geniculata1 of ,phillips1 from the ,mountain ,limestone1 ,derbyshire47 ,the specimen figured is a mass of limestone1 on the surface of which is spread out in high relief a delicate tubiporite1 or fossil coral1 allied to the ,tubipora1 or ,organ-pipe coral1 so generally preserved in cabinets of natural curiosities1 from the beauty and elegance of its crimson tubes4 ,the fossil1 however1 though somewhat resembling the recent coral in its general form1 belongs to an extinct genus4 ,this ,syringopora appears to have been very abundant in the sea in which the strata of mountain or carboniferous limestone were deposited1 for it forms entire beds of great extent4 ,a beautifully figured marble results from this coral1 when the interstices of its tubes have been filled up with compact calcareous matter4 ,a small polished slab is represented in fig4 #b4 ,at ,matlock1 vases1 and other ornamental articles1 are made of it2 and the sections of the coral tubes impart considerable variety of figures4#be ,footnote #be3 ,articles of this kind may be obtained of ,mr4 ,tennant1 #adi1 ,strand4 ,some slabs of this fossil coral are of a dull red hue1 which there is every reason to conclude is due to the colour of the original2 and not only are traces of the natural tints of the living zoophyte preserved1 but even the animal membrane of the coral2 and this may be exposed by immersing a fragment of the marble in dilute muriatic 7hydrochloric7 acid4 ,mr4 ,parkinson thus describes the result of his first experiment3-- ,a fragment of the marble 7,plate ,,xxxiv4 fig4 #b7 was exposed to the action of muriatic acid in a very dilute state4 ,as the calcareous earth was dissolved1 and the carbonic acid escaped1 ,i was delighted to observe the membranaceous substance appear1 depending from the stone in light1 flocculent1 elastic flakes4 ,many of these retained a deep red colour1 and appeared in a beautiful and distinct manner1 although not absolutely retaining the form of the tubipore4 ,a faithful representation of this appearance is given in fig4 #c4 ,this experiment of ,mr4 ,parkinson was highly important1 as proving the previously almost incredible fact1 that animal membrane1 when hermetically sealed1 as it were1 in the solid stone1 was as indestructible as the rock itself4 ,it suggested1 too1 the probability that vestiges of other animal tissues might be traced in organic remains1 and encouraged subsequent observers to seek for evidence of the soft parts of animal bodies entombed in the strata4 ,it was the first step in the right direction1 and led to the detection of many highly interesting phenomena4 ,in ,dr4 ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,essay will be found figures and descriptions of the eyes of crustacea3 of the wings1 elytra or wing-covers1 and the integuments of the body of insects2 of the skin of reptiles2 and1 in the ,wonders of ,geology1 and ,medals of ,creation1 of the membranes of the air-bladder1 and of the capsule of the eye of fishes2 of the soft parts of the animalcules called foraminifera1 c4 ,the bodies of mollusca1 or shell-fish1 converted into a dark brown mass 7mollushite71 occur in such abundance in some deposits1 as to yield a rich manure from the quantity of phosphate of lime4 ,the excrementitious substances termed by ,dr4 ,buckland ,coprolites1 are also used for agricultural purposes4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxv4 ,,plate ,,xxxv4 ,the subjects here figured are ,fossil ,corals4 ,fig4 #a4 7,syringopora ramulosa47 ,a fragment of another species of the coral previously described2 from the mountain limestone4 ,fig4 #b1 represents four connected tubes of the recent organ-pipe coral 7,sarcinula musica7 of ,new ,holland1 to show the structure of this type of ,zoophytes4 ,coloured figures of the live polypes of this coral are given in ,wonders of ,geology1 sixth edition1 vol4 ii4 plate vi4 ,fig4 #c4 ,a polished slab of marble1 the white markings in which are produced by sections of the tubes of the same species of coral as that represented in fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #d4 7,catenipora escharoides47 ,the fossil here delineated is well known to collectors by the name of chain-coral derived from the elegant cateniform markings produced by transverse sections of the parallel tubes1 which being of an oval form1 and in close apposition1 give rise to chain-like figures1 as shown in figs4 #e and #f4 ,from ,dudley4 ,this fossil coral abounds in that division of the ,silurian formation termed the ,wenlock or ,dudley limestones1 wherever these deposits occur4 ,the most exquisite specimens are obtained from the ,falls of the ,ohio1 at ,louisville1 in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,a coral reef of the ,silurian epoch here exists in the bed of the mighty stream of fresh water1 almost as perfect as when growing in its native sea6 ,the river dashes over the entire mass in the season of high water2 but in those periods when the stream is low1 the ridge of coral is exposed1 and its surface then presents the most extraordinary display of ,silurian corals1 of numerous species and genera1 standing in relief on the more compact masses of the rock4 ,the substance of the corals1 being siliceous1 resists the action of the cataract1 while the softer calcareous matter which filled up the interstices of the tubes1 lamell1 c4 of the zoophytes1 is washed away atom by atom2 and natural dissections are formed1 which art would in vain attempt to imitate4 ,dr4 ,yandell1 of the ,medical ,college1 ,louisville1 and ,dr4 ,clapp1 of ,new ,albany1 have splendid collections from the ,falls1 which every geologist and intelligent traveller who visits ,kentucky should not fail to examine3 the masses of ,astre1 ,madrepores1 c4 are so fresh in their aspect1 as not to be readily distinguished from the recent specimens of the same genera which are placed beside them4#bf ,footnote #bf3 ,see ,sir ,charles ,lyell's ,travels in the ,united ,states2 and ,drs4 ,yandell and ,shumard's ,contributions to the ,geology of ,kentucky4 ,louisville1 #ahdg4 ,fig4 #e1 is a transverse section of a mass of chain-coral from ,dudley4 ,fig4 #f4 ,the same1 as seen by transmitted light4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxvi4 ,,plate ,,xxxvi4 ,various ,fossil ,corals from different ,formations4 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c4 7,cyathophyllum turbinatum1 of ,goldfuss47 ,these three turbinated or top-shaped corals are referable to a genus of which many species are exceedingly abundant in the ,wenlock or ,dudley limestone of the ,silurian ,system4 ,they belong to the ,anthozoa1 or flower-like corals4 ,the living animal1 of which the coral is but the durable earthy fabric or skeleton1 bore a close analogy to the sea-anemone1 or animal flower 7,actinia71 of our coasts4 ,each of these specimens belonged but to a single animal3 the ,cyathophylla are not1 like the tubipores previously described1 an aggregation of numerous individual polypes4#bg ,footnote #bg3 ,for a popular account of the nature of ,corals and the animals which form them1 see ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 ii4 ,lect4 vi4 p4 #ehi4 ,fig4 #d4 ,a small coral 7,fungia7 from ,dudley4 ,fig4 #e4 ,on this block of mountain limestone there are the remains of two different kinds of corals4 ,the upper cylindrical part is a fragment of ,cyathophyllum1 to the lower part of which is attached a species of another genus 7,michelinia74 ,fig4 #f1 is a small coral 7,fungia numismalis1 of ,goldfuss71 common in the ,oolite4 ,fig4 #g4 ,a piece of encrinital limestone1 from ,derbyshire1 having a conical cast--that is1 the stone has been moulded in the interior or cavity--of a turbinated coral 7,turbinolia74 ,fig4 #h4 ,a longitudinal section1 showing the transverse cells and lamell of the same kind of coral 7,cyathophyllum7 as figs4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,fig4 #i4 ,a species of ,turbinolia 7,turbinolia complanata1 of ,goldfuss74 ,fig4 #aj4 ,a small turbinated coral 7,turbinolia mitrata1 of ,hesinger71 from the ,silurian strata of ,gothland4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a ,turbinolia from the ,silurian deposits of ,sweden4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,a remarkable coral 7,petraia1 of ,munster71 from the ,devonian strata4 ,figs4 #ac #ad1 are sections of ,cyathophylla1 like figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 to exhibit the internal structure4 ,figs4 #ae #af4 ,two elegant simple corals 7,caryophyllia centralis1 of ,mantell71 from the chalk of ,kent4 ,the form and disposition of the lamell of the cavity1 as seen at the upper part of the specimens1 are shown at a and b4 ,fig4 #ag4 ,a transverse and polished section of a species of ,cyathophyllum1 from the ,devonian strata1 at ,blackenberg on the ,rhine4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxvii4 ,,plate ,,xxxvii4 ,various ,fossil ,compound ,corals4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a beautiful specimen of ,star-coral 7,astrea ananas1 of ,goldfuss71 from the ,silurian strata of ,sweden4 ,at a1 is shown the mode in which1 as in proliferous flowers1 new polypes bud from the centre of the parent disk4 ,at b1 is represented the growth in the recent ,madrepora stellaris of ,linnus4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #b4 ,an elegant ,cyathophyllum 7,c4 dianthus1 of ,goldfuss71 from the ,silurian formation of ,sweden4 ,at c1 7the lower part of the plate17 is shown its probable mode of increase4 ,figs4 #c #f4 ,a columnar compound coral 7,lithostrotion striatum1 of ,lhwyd71 from the mountain limestone of ,derbyshire2 fig4 #c1 is a transverse section of fig4 #f1 showing the basaltiform arrangement of the columns4 ,fig4 #d4 ,a fossil madrepore1 from ,lincolnshire4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #e4 ,a very elegant and abundant coral 7,caryophyllia annularis1 of ,parkinson71 in the bed termed ,coral ,rag1 of the oolite of ,wiltshire1 ,berkshire1 c4 ,large conglomerated masses of this branched species form a considerable proportion of the fossil coral-reef which traverses some parts of the oolite3 and when this bed is worked for road materials1 blocks of this coral1 more or less changed into calcareous spar1 may be seen lying on the way-side4 ,near ,faringdon1 in ,berkshire1 a quarry in the ,coral-rag has yielded many beautiful examples4 ,fig4 #g4 ,called ,spider-stone1 by ,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,it is a species of ,astrea3 d1 is an enlarged view of one of the polype-cells4 ,fig4 #h4 ,a beautiful fossil coral1 from ,transylvania 7apparently a species of ,lithostrotion874 ,fig4 #i4 ,the specimen figured is from the mountain limestone of the ,mendip ,hills4 7,it is the ,michelinia tenuisepta1 of ,phillips2 ,manon favosum1 of ,goldfuss87 ,it is described by ,mr4 ,parkinson as bearing somewhat of a honeycomb appearance4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxviii4 ,,plate ,,xxxviii4 ,fossil ,corals1 and ,coral ,marbles4 ,fig4 #a1 is a polished slab of the carboniferous limestone1 well known as the ,kilkenny marble1 and much used for chimney-pieces4 ,the figures exposed on the surface are produced by sections of enclosed corals 7some species of ,cyathophyllum71 which are transmuted into white calcareous spar4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a coral of the same kind 7,cyathophyllum turbinatum71 from the mountain limestone of ,derbyshire4 ,fig4 #c4 ,a polished slice of ,derbyshire marble1 the markings on which are derived from sections of enclosed branches of corals 7,syringopora71 resembling that figured in ,pl4 ,,xxxiv4 ,fig4 #d4 ,an elegant compound coral1 called ,spider-stone by collectors 7,astrea arachnoides1 of ,dr4 ,fleming72 from ,wiltshire3 the geological habitat uncertain2 probably the ,oolite4 ,fig4 #e4 ,this specimen appears to be a cluster of corals belonging to the genus ,cyathophyllum4 ,fig4 #f4 ,a magnified sketch of one of the cells of fig4 #d4 ,fig4 #g4 ,a polished transverse section of a coral2 the precise relation of this species is not certain4 ,fig4 #h4 ,this is a very abundant coral in some of the beds of mountain limestone1 7,lithodendron fasciculatum1 of ,phillips47 ,the specimen figured is from ,clifton1 near ,bristol4 ,the marble cups1 and other ornaments1 manufactured from the rocks near that place1 often exhibit sections of this species4 ,fig4 #i4 ,a mass of coral from ,ingleborough1 7,cyathophyllum fungites47 ,fig4 #aj4 ,a polished slice of a beautiful marble richly marked by the sections of the enclosed corals 7,astrea undulata1 of ,dr4 ,fleming72 from ,switzerland3 probably from the ,oolitic or ,jurassic formation4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,vertical section of a fossil coral1 showing the transverse arrangement of the internal cells4 ,figs4 #ab #ac4 ,these specimens are polished sections of a very beautiful compound coral 7,astrea ,tisburiensis1 of ,miss ,benett71 which occurs in a silicified state in the ,portland beds that are quarried at ,tisbury1 in ,wiltshire4 ,masses of chert 7a kind of coarse silex or flint71 wholly made up of this coral1 are often met with1 and when sliced and polished are extremely beautiful and interesting2 the originally calcareous fabric of the zoophytes being perfectly transmuted into silex1 and the interstices filled up with a similar substance1 but of a different colour4#bh ,footnote #bh3 ,specimens of the ,tisbury ,astrea1 and of most if not all of the coralline marbles figured and described1 may be obtained of ,professor ,tennant2 and also vases1 c4 of the various marbles of ,derbyshire4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxix4 ,,plate ,,xxxix4 ,various ,fossil ,corals and ,sponges1 or ,amorphozoa4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a coral from the ,dudley limestone4 7,favosites87 ,fig4 #b1 is a vertical section of figs4 #d and #e1 to show the internal arrangement of the cells4 ,fig4 #c4 ,the under surface of a very common species 7,favosites ,gothlandica1 of ,goldfuss72 from the ,wenlock limestone of ,dudley4 ,a magnified view of part of the surface1 to show the honeycomb structure1 is given in fig4 #g4 ,fig4 #d1 the under1 and fig4 #e1 the upper surface1 of a small coral 7,cyclolites 87 from the ,oolite4 ,fig4 #f4 ,a silicified branched sponge1 7,spongites lobatus1 of ,dr4 ,fleming17 from the chalk of ,berkshire4 ,fig4 #i1 is a beautiful silicified1 lobate1 spongoid body1 7,siphonia17 probably from the greensand4 ,siliceous cruciform spicula obtained from this fossil are represented in fig4 #h4 ,zoophytes of this kind1 like many of the sponges1 have their tissues strengthened by1 and largely composed of spicula1 which vary in form and size in the different species and genera4 ,many sponges and ,siphoni in flint1 and in the chert of the greensand1 consist almost entirely of spicula1 which may be easily detected by a slightly magnifying power4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,another common ,dudley ,coral4 7,porites pyriformis1 of ,mr4 ,lonsdale47 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a beautiful coral 7,explanaria flexuosa1 of ,dr4 ,fleming71 from the ,coral ,rag of ,steeple ,ashton1 ,wilts4 ,the outline indicates the mode of increase1 according to ,mr4 ,parkinson1 of this form of zoophyte4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,this is a portion of a delicate ramose sponge 7,spongites ramosus1 of ,mantell71 whose remains are abundant in the chalk-flints1 and have given rise to the irregularly branched siliceous nodules4 ,a specimen nine inches long1 with seven branches1 is figured in ,fossils of the ,south ,downs1 ,pl4 ,,xv4 fig4 #aa4 ,siliceous spicula are thickly interspersed throughout the mass4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xl4 ,,plate ,,xl4 ,fossil ,corals1 c4 ,fig4 #a4 ,the shells of ,oysters1 and other mollusca1 are subjected to the ravages of a parasitical sponge1 7,cliona1 of ,dr4 ,grant17 which is beset with minute siliceous spines or spicula1 and inhabits hollows formed in the substance of the shell4 ,shells thus honeycombed1 as it were1 may often be found on the sea-shore with the excavated parts filled up by sponge4 ,i have shells collected by my eldest son on the shores of ,new ,zealand1 that are hollowed out in a similar manner1 and occupied by sponge4 ,whether these cavities are produced by mechanical means1 or are the result of the decay and absorption of the shell induced by the growth of the parasite1 are questions still undetermined4 ,there are several kinds of shells found fossil1 which were infested with a similar parasitical sponge2 and when the cavities thus produced have been filled up by flint1 and the shell has subsequently decomposed1 or been worn away1 the surface of the flint is studded with the casts of the cells1 in the form of small irregular globular bodies1 connected by filaments or strings of flint4 ,the fossil1 fig4 #a1 is a fossil of this kind1 described by ,mr4 ,parkinson as being covered with minute round bodies1 the nature of which is unknown2 fig4 #ab1 is an enlarged view of five of these globular casts connected by filaments4 ,the origin of these fossils was first pointed out by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,conybeare4#bi ,the fibrous shells of a fossil genus of bivalves named ,inoceramus1 of which several species abound in the ,chalk1 appear to have been particularly subjected to depredations of this kind4 ,hence among partially water-worn flints1 specimens of the siliceous casts are common2 figs4 #h1 and #aj1 are examples from the ,hackney gravel-pits4 ,footnote #bi3 ,see ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 i4 p4 #cif1 fig4 #id4 ,mr4 ,morris has named these fossils1 ,clionites2 fig4 #a1 is ,c4 ,parkinsoni4 ,figs4 #b1 #d1 #g1 are portions of a recent species of jointed zoophyte 7,isis71 from a modern concretionary deposit on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 ,sicily4 ,fig4 #c4 ,a branched fossil coral 7,millepora ramosa1 of ,dr4 ,fleming71 imbedded in compact oolitic limestone from ,wiltshire4 ,a portion of the surface magnified is represented in fig4 #aa4 ,fig4 #e1 appears to be a fungiform ,spongite2 its locality is not mentioned4 ,fig4 #f4 ,portion of a fossil coral 7,ceriopora71 from ,switzerland4 ,figs4 #h1 #aj4 ,these pebbles have the surface covered with casts of ,clionites 7,clionites ,conybeari1 of ,mr4 ,morris4#cj7 ,footnote #cj3 ,mr4 ,morris thus defines the generic character of these fossil bodies3--,reticular masses of a more or less compressed globular1 elliptical1 or polygonal form2 rugose and sometimes papillose2 connected by minute tubuli or fibrill4 ,dendritical1 dichotomous1 or irregularly aggregated4 ,clionites ,conybeari is characterized by ,cells irregular1 somewhat polygonal1 with one or more papill2 surface finely tuberculated1 connecting threads numerous4 ,note from ,mr4 ,morris1 ,april1 #ahej4 ,the fossils1 however1 do not appear to be the silicified sponge 7,cliona7 by which the ravages in the shell have been effected2 they are merely casts of the cavities produced4 ,fig4 #i4 ,fragments of the radicle processes of attachment of some ,apiocrinite or ,lily-shaped animal in chalk2 see description of ,plate ,,li4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,a section of a siliceous nodule2 probably the cellular appearance is inorganic3 fig4 #ac1 is a magnified section of the cells4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xli4 ,,plate ,,xli4 ,a ,silicified cup-shaped ,sponge1 from ,touraine4 7,chenendopora ,parkinsoni1 of ,michelin4 ,spongites ,townsendi1 of ,mantell47 ,this beautiful plate of a petrified zoophyte allied to the ,spongia1 formed the frontispiece to ,mr4 ,parkinson's second volume4 ,the fossil delineated is from ,touraine in ,france1 and is one of the most perfect examples of this kind hitherto observed4 ,it belongs to a group of cup-shaped ,amorphozoa1 7as these organisms are now named by naturalists1 from the great irregularity of shape which they assume17 termed ,chenendopora4 ,the original organic substance is transmuted into silex1 and the interstices are filled up with carbonate of lime4 ,the same species occurs in the greensand in the ,vale of ,pewsey in ,wiltshire1 and1 ,i believe1 also in the white-chalk2 for many cyathiform flints from the ,south ,downs appear to have the same internal structure4 ,in the so-called gravel-pits1 near ,faringdon1 in ,berkshire1--which are quarries of a loosely-aggregated grit of the greensand1 almost wholly made up of the relics of shells1 corals1 amorphozoa1 c4--numerous sponges of this genus are met with4 ,one beautiful species 7,chenendopora fungiformis7 has acquired1 from its cup-like form1 the local name of petrified salt-cellar4#ca ,footnote #ca3 ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fcg2 and ,medals of ,creation1 ,excursion to ,faringdon1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ibc4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlii4 ,,plate ,,xlii4 ,the ,fossils represented in this ,plate are chiefly ,zoophytes in ,flint4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a flint from the gravel-pits at ,hackney4 ,its form is derived from the enclosed zoophyte1 part of whose structure is exposed in the upper portion of the figure4 ,this fossil zoophyte 7,choanites ,knigi1 of ,mantell7 is very abundant in some of the chalk strata1 and many of the most beautifully marked pebbles cut and polished for brooches by the lapidaries of ,brighton1 ,bognor1 and the ,isle of ,wight1 are the silicified soft parts of this animal4 ,the original was of a subglobular form1 and probably of a soft fleshy consistence2 it had a deep central cavity1 whence numerous tubes diverged1 and ramified throughout the mass2 it was fixed at the base by radicle or root-like processes4#cb ,footnote #cb3 ,see ,medals of ,creation1 p4 #bfd4 ,thoughts on a ,pebble1 7eighth edition17 contains coloured figures and a full description of these fossils4 ,fig4 #b4 ,this is another characteristic and abundant fossil zoophyte of the chalk and flint4 ,the specimen figured is a water-worn pebble1 and therefore gives but obscure indications of the form and structure of the original4 ,the fungiform flints--called in ,sussex petrified mushrooms--belong to the same genus 7,ventriculites1 of ,mantell73 and highly interesting specimens occur in which some part of the zoophyte is invested with flint1 and the other part expanded in the chalk4 ,the original was probably a polyparium--that is1 the skeleton or support of an aggregation of coral-polypes--of a funnel shape1 the polype-shells being situated on the inner surface3 the base was attached by root-like fibres4#cc ,the polype-cells are cylindrical and regular1 and clusters of beautiful casts of them often occur on flints4 ,footnote #cc3 ,consult ,medals of ,creation1 pp4 #bgj-bgi3 and ,wonders of ,geology1 sixth edition1 p4 #fch4 ,fig4 #c4 ,this specimen is described by ,mr4 ,parkinson as a pear-shaped alcyonite from ,switzerland4 ,it is probably one of those fossil zoophytes allied to the sponges 7called ,siphonia71 in which the upper part is of a bulbous or pear-like form1 and is supported by a stem with root-like processes at the base4 ,the bulb has a central cavity studded with irregular pores1 that communicates with the parallel longitudinal tubes of which the stem is composed3 a structure admitting of that ready ingress and egress of the sea-water1 which this class of organisms requires4 ,there are numerous species in the greensand of the chalk formation4#cd ,footnote #cd3 ,medals of ,creation1 p4 #beh1 ,lign4 #ef4 ,fig4 #d4 ,a variety of ,siphonia 7,jerea excavata1 of ,michelin71 from the greensand of ,wiltshire4 ,fig4 #e4 ,a silicified ,siphonia from ,saumur4 ,fig4 #f4 ,a ,ventriculite from a gravel-pit2 the markings are produced by the exposed and partially abraded outer integument1 which in perfect examples consists of a regular net-work of sub-cylindrical fibres4 ,fig4 #g1 is a transverse section of a ,siphonia 7,siphonia pyriformis of ,goldfuss74 ,fig4 #h4 ,a nearly perfect specimen of a similar fossil4 ,in fig4 #g1 are shown sections of tubes passing from the periphery to the centre2 in fig4 #h1 the central aperture of the cavity of the bulb1 and part of the stem1 are displayed4 ,figs4 #i1 #aj1 are imperfect specimens of ,choanites3 fig4 #aj1 is a vertical section showing the central cavity and the connected tubes4 ,fig4 #aa1 is another example of ,siphonia pyriformis4 ,fig4 #ab1 a vertical1 and fig4 #ac1 a transverse section1 of the same species of ,siphonia4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,a small turbinated calcareous spongite from ,switzerland4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,the appearance of the animal membrane exposed by immersion of the fossil 7fig4 #ad71 in diluted hydrochloric acid4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xliii4 ,,plate ,,xliii4 ,fossil ,corals1 and other ,zoophytes4 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 are representations of different aspects of a simple coral 7,fungia polymorpha1 of ,goldfuss72 the locality is uncertain4 ,fig4 #a1 the base2 fig4 #b1 a magnified representation of part of the same2 fig4 #c1 magnified view of part of the lamellated surface of fig4 #d4 ,fig4 #e4 ,the nature of this fossil is not obvious2 it may be a rolled ,siphonia4 ,fig4 #f1 is a fine specimen of a ,siphonia 7,jerea pyriformis1 of ,lamouroux74 ,at both extremities the apertures of the numerous tubuli are seen4 ,figs4 #g1 #h1 #i1 are varieties of the same species of fossil sponge 7,scyphia articulata1 of ,goldfuss71 from ,switzerland4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,a spongite of a very peculiar form4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a spongite investing a fossil shell 7,nerita71 from ,faringdon4 ,fig4 #ab1 is an imperfect specimen of a ,ventriculite 7,ventriculites alcyonoides1 of ,mantell71 from the chalk of ,wiltshire4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,a calcareous spongite which has been immersed in dilute hydrochloric acid to show its structure4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,a pebble deriving its shape from a zoophyte apparently related to the ,ventriculites 7,spongites labyrinthicus1 of ,mantell74 ,the aperture at the base has arisen from the decomposition of the process of attachment4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,a pebble enclosing part of the base of a ,ventriculite2 the circular spots on the large end are sections of the ramifications of the stirps or base of the zoophyte2 for this figure and the following are drawn in an inverted position4 ,fig4 #af1 is a similar fossil1 split vertically1 and showing the enclosed stem of the ,ventriculite4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xliv4 ,,plate ,,xliv4 ,fossil ,zoophytes4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a spongite 7,scyphia costata1 of ,goldfuss71 from ,switzerland4 ,the fossil spongeous bodies named ,scyphia1 are characterized by the mass or body being either cylindrical1 simple or branched2 fistulous1 and terminating in a rounded pit2 entirely composed of a firm reticulated tissue4#ce ,like the other bodies comprised in the group of ,amorphozoa1 the form in this genus is exceedingly diversified1 and as the structure is often but obscurely shown1 the determination of these fossils is oftentimes impossible4 ,it is however convenient1 in the present state of our knowledge1 to distinguish the principal kinds by names which may be modified or abandoned1 when the structure and natural affinities of the original organisms are more accurately determined4 ,footnote #ce3 ,medals of ,creation1 p4 #bcg4 ,fig4 #b4 ,another species of ,scyphia from ,switzerland2 a small portion of the surface magnified is seen at a4 ,fig4 #c4 ,the peculiar form and tissue of another genus of ,amorphozoa 7,cnemidium rimulosum1 of ,goldfuss71 are shown in this beautiful specimen4 ,fig4 #d1 is a section of a chalk flint1 from ,wycombe ,heath2 the purple body1 partially invested by a white border1 is evidently a mass of the soft parts of some zoophyte1 which served as a nucleus to the siliceous nodule4 ,a purple or pink hue often prevails in the sections of zoophytes immersed in flint1 and doubtless depends on the original colour of the living animal4 ,fig4 #e4 ,a very fine spongite 7,chenendopora fungiformis1 of ,michelin71 from ,france4 ,fig4 #f4 ,this is evidently a fossil zoophyte1 but the structure exposed is not sufficiently characteristic to determine the genus4 ,fig4 #g4 ,a beautiful fungiform ,scyphia4 ,fig4 #h4 ,this elegant specimen1 which ,mr4 ,parkinson highly valued1 is evidently a ,choanite imbedded in flint4 ,the body retains a pink colour1 and is surrounded by a white band1 which is probably the remains of the cortical or external tissue of the original zoophyte4 ,i have seen many transverse sections in which the central mass was either of a pink or purple colour1 and encircled by a white zone1 in the squared flints of the walls of churches and other ancient edifices in ,sussex4#cf ,footnote #cf3 ,polished specimens of the pebbles of the ,isle of ,wight1 exhibiting sections of the ,choanites1 ,ventriculites1 c41 may be obtained of ,mr4 ,fowlestone1 ,lapidary1 #d1 ,victoria ,arcade1 ,ryde2 who also has generally on sale a good series of the fossils of the ,island4 ,the minute organisms that occur in flints1 many of which are highly interesting objects when seen by transmitted light under a good microscope1 can be procured of ,mr4 ,topping1 that well-known preparer of microscopic objects1 ,new ,winchester ,street1 ,pentonville ,hill2 and fossil infusorial earths1 c4 in great perfection of ,mr4 ,poulton1 ,microscopic ,artist1 ,reading1 ,berks4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlv4 ,,plate ,,xlv4 ,fossil ,corals and other ,zoophytes4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a fossil body1 from near ,bath1 the surface of which is covered by stelliform markings1 which seem to have been formed by a coralloid4--,parkinson4 ,this fossil is supposed by ,mr4 ,morris to be the cast of one of those mollusca which form and inhabit hollows in stone1 coral1 c4 7hence termed ,lithodomi74 ,in the present instance1 the mollusk had bored into a mass of coral1 the imprints of the stellular polype-cells of which remain on the surface of the cast4 ,it closely resembles fig4 #c1 ,plate ,,xxxvi4 of ,faujas ,st4 ,fond1 ,hist4 ,mont4 ,st4 ,pierre1 which is described as a coral2 it is the ,astrea geometrica1 of ,goldfuss4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a fossil coral from ,maestricht4 ,at b1 is shown an enlarged view of one of the stars4 ,fig4 #c4 ,a siliceous fossil from ,essex4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 7,ventriculites racemosus1 of ,mr4 ,toulmin ,smith47 ,i must confess myself unable to determine the nature of this specimen4 ,figs4 #d1 #f4 ,corals from the cretaceous strata of ,st4 ,peter's ,mountain1 ,maestricht 7,gorgonia bacillaris 8 of ,goldfuss74 ,at a1 is shown one of the cells in fig4 #f1 magnified4 ,fig4 #e4 ,a pebble1 split asunder1 exposing the remains of a spongite1 which formed the nucleus of the flint4#cg ,footnote #cg3 ,for an account of the formation of flint1 see ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 i4 p4 #cjj4 7#fth ,edition47 ,fig4 #g4 ,another spongite in a pebble2 from ,sewardstone1 ,essex4 ,fig4 #h4 ,a water-worn1 silicified1 or rather chalcedonic ,ventriculite1 from ,france4 ,fig4 #i4 ,a very beautiful transverse section of the stem of a ,ventriculite in a flint2 the colour of the original being retained4 ,this was another precious gem in the estimation of the amiable author of ,the ,organic ,remains of a ,former ,world4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,a portion of a ,choanite in flint2 from gravel1 ,islington4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a perfect specimen of a small simple coral 7,fungia71 from ,maestricht4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,a spongite in a pebble2 similar to fig4 #e4 ,such specimens are very common in the shingle along the sea-shore at ,brighton1 ,dover1 c4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,a fossil coral in limestone1 from ,maestricht4 ,it is too imperfectly defined to determine the species or genus2 an enlarged sketch of the structure is given at c4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlvi4 ,,plate ,,xlvi4 ,pentacrinus4 ,fig4 #a4 ,specimen of a recent ,pentacrinus ,caput ,medus1 from the ,caribbean ,sea4 ,the ,lily-shaped animals 7,crinoidea71 so named from a fancied resemblance of some species when in a state of repose to a closed lily1 may be compared to a ,feather-star 7,comatula7 fixed to a jointed column1 with its mouth upwards2 the base of the stem being attached to the rock by root-like processes4 ,the only known living genus inhabits the seas of the ,west ,indies1 and the specimen figured represents the body 7or upper part of the animal71 with a considerable portion of the stem remaining attached4 ,the ,crinoidea are divided into two groups2 ,encrinites1 having the ossicula 7little bones7 of the stem rounded1 and ,pentacrinites1 in which the ossicula of the column are pentagonal1 or angular4 ,the ,crinoidea are characterized by having a fixed base1 a column or stem composed of numerous separate articulated pieces of a solid calcareous substance1 supporting on its summit a vase1 or receptacle1 formed by a series of closely adjusted plates1 which contain the body1 or viscera4 ,the upper part of the receptacle is covered by a plated integument1 on one side of which an aperture or mouth is placed4 ,from the upper margin proceed five articulated tentacula or arms1 which subdivide into branches that in some species are very numerous and of extreme tenuity4 ,on the inside1 the arms are beset with articulated cirri or feelers4 ,the joints composing the column are perforated by a central opening2 there are also side-arms1 that radiate from the column in groups of five at different points4 ,when the animal is alive1 the skeleton is covered by a soft integument1 as in the star-fishes1 and the arms spread out and expand1 forming a net1 by which living prey is captured and conveyed to the mouth by the tentacula1 in the same manner as in the fresh-water polype or ,hydra4 ,the fossil remains of ,crinoidea consist of the ossicula of the column1 arms1 and tentacula2 of the plates of the vase1 or receptacle2 and of the peduncle1 or base of attachment4 ,this family of ,radiaria1 though now of such excessive rarity1 swarmed in the seas that deposited the ancient secondary strata2 whole mountain chains and extensive tracts of country are composed of strata almost entirely made up of their fossil remains4#ch ,the number and species of genera is very great4 ,footnote #ch3 ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fde4 ,medals of ,creation1 p4 #cab4 ,fig4 #b1 is a remarkably beautiful specimen of the receptacle of a ,pentacrinite from ,gloucestershire1 showing the arms introverted1 as if the animal had suddenly perished while in the act of closing over its prey2 the stem is wanting4 ,fig4 #c4 ,a spongite 7,chenendopora subplana1 of ,michelin7 from the greensand of the ,vale of ,pewsey1 in ,wiltshire4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlvii4 ,,plate ,,xlvii4 ,fossil ,remains of ,crinoidea4 ,in this beautiful plate ,mr4 ,parkinson has figured a great variety of ossicula and portions of stems belonging to many species and genera of ,crinoidea2 the markings or sculpturing on the articulating surfaces of the columnar ossicula are represented with great accuracy4 ,it is not within the plan of this work to give detailed descriptions of these numerous detached parts2 a few of the most interesting objects only will be particularized4 ,the specimens figured in the upper part of the plate1 figs4 #a to #bh1 are cylindrical ossicula1 and portions of stems of ,encrinites3 those in the lower division are for the most part pentagonal1 and therefore belong to ,pentacrinites4 ,fig4 #bd4 ,the ,tortoise ,encrinite1 of ,mr4 ,parkinson1 7,marsupites ,milleri1 of ,mantell17 from the chalk of ,kent4 ,the specimen figured is the receptacle or body of a very remarkable crinoideal animal which forms the link that unites the ,lily-shaped animals with the ,star-fishes2 like the former1 the receptacle is composed of articulated plates1 closed at the top by a tessellated plate-work with a buccal aperture1 and surrounded by five flexible arms2 but the original animal1 like the ,star-fishes1 was destitute of a stem1 and could float through the water at pleasure4 ,its true structure was first pointed out by me in #ahbb2ci the name ,marsupite was suggested by the purse-like form4 ,in the figure1 the base of the receptacle is uppermost4 ,fig4 #cj1 is a single plate of a ,marsupite attached to a piece of chalk4 ,footnote #ci3 ,see ,fossils of the ,south ,downs4 ,figs4 #ca1 #ce1 #ch1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg4 ,these are portions of a small species of ,encrinite 7,apiocrinus ellipticus7 peculiar to the white chalk1 in some localities of which the detached ossicula and peduncles are abundant4 ,at ,northfleet1 near ,gravesend1 these fossils are often met with4 ,figs4 #ge1 and #gf1 are portions of the receptacle with part of the column2 figs4 #ca1 #ch1 and #ci1 are parts of the processes of attachment4 ,i have never seen any specimen with the arms4#dj ,footnote #dj3 ,medals of ,creation1 p4 #cba4 ,fig4 #cd4 ,this is part of the receptacle and stem of another small chalk ,encrinite 7,bourgeticrinus1 of ,d',orbigny7 from ,kent2 it is remarkable for the very slight increase in bulk of the receptacle1 and the peculiar form of the plates of which it is composed4 ,figs4 #cf #cg4 ,two views of the receptacle of a very remarkable crinoidean animal 7,pentremites florealis1 of ,say71 from the cherty carboniferous limestone of ,kentucky4 ,this zoophyte1 though resembling the ,crinoidea in having a plated receptacle supported by an articulated stem1 has a remarkable affinity to the ,sea-urchins 7,echinid7 in the porous bands and pentagonal aperture1 and in being destitute of arms or tentacula4 ,some of the ,kentucky limestone beds swarm with the remains of these zoophytes4#da ,footnote #da3 ,medals of ,creation1 p4 #cbg4 ,fig4 #dg4 ,two ossicula of the ,lily ,encrinite immersed in diluted muriatic acid1 by which the animal membrane was exposed1 and is seen hanging in floccul from the bottom of the fossil1--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,figs4 #eg1 #fd1 #ff4 ,part of the stem1 and the articulating surfaces of two ossicles of a very elegant pentacrinite 7,pentacrinus scalaris1 of ,goldfuss71 from the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis4 ,figs4 #ec1 #ef1 #ei1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #fe1 #fg4 ,portions of stems1 and the various modifications of the ossicula of another ,lias ,pentacrinite 7,pentacrinus basaltiformis1 of ,goldfuss74 ,fig4 #gi4 ,this elegant little crinoidean receptacle was named the ,clove ,encrinite1 by ,mr4 ,parkinson1 from its form2 7,eugeniacrinus caryophyllatus1 of ,goldfuss74 ,it is from the ,oolite of ,mount ,randen1 in ,switzerland4#db ,footnote #db3 ,ibid4 p4 #cbg4 ,figs4 #hj1 #ha1 #hb1 #hc4 ,appear to be fossil corals of the genus ,ceriopora4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlviii4 ,,plate ,,xlviii4 ,the ,lily ,encrinite 7,encrinites monileformis74 ,this exquisite species of the extinct ,crinoideans which swarmed in the seas of the secondary ages of ,geology1 is equally interesting and attractive to the amateur collector and the scientific observer4 ,the specimen figured is a charming example of the ,stone ,lily partly expanded1 attached to a block of limestone studded with encrinal ossicula4 ,mr4 ,parkinson informed me that it was formerly in the collection of ,mr4 ,jacob ,forster1 and cost him twenty guineas2 from five to ten guineas is now the usual price for a specimen in a good state of preservation1 with any part of the column attached4 ,this ,encrinite is not known to occur in ,england4 ,the specimens seen in collections are for the most part from ,lower ,saxony3 this species has only been found in the limestone strata called ,muschelkalk one of the subdivisions of the ,trias1 or ,new ,red ,sandstone formation1 of ,germany4#dc ,the most celebrated locality of these fossils is in ,brunswick1 near the village of ,erkerode1 about two miles from the town bearing the same name4 ,the bed in which they are found is a soft argillaceous cream-coloured limestone1 about one foot and a half in thickness2 and the stone is composed chiefly of trochites1 or detached ossicula of the stems1 and a few fragile shells and corals4 ,footnote #dc3 ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 i4 p4 #cbb4 ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ecd1 #edi4 ,an elaborate account of the structure of the skeleton of the ,lily ,encrinite is given by ,mr4 ,miller1 in his valuable work1 ,the ,natural ,history of the ,lily-shaped ,animals1 7#a vol4 #dto4 #ahba47 ,mr4 ,parkinson had previously carefully investigated the different parts which enter into the composition of the receptacle and column1 and had given them names analogous to those employed to designate the bones of the skeleton in vertebrated animals4 ,this nomenclature has very properly been abandoned2 but ,i subjoin ,mr4 ,parkinson's description of the figures1 to record his ingenuity and skill in dissecting organic remains3-- ,fig4 #a1 ,the ,lily ,encrinite1 with part of its vertebral column attached4 ,in this specimen is seen the extensive capacity for motion yielded by the peculiar form of the vertebra2 in the superior part of the column2 and by the fortunate removal of a portion of the fingers1 a fair view is given of the natural arrangement of the tentacula4 ,fig4 #b4 ,the pentagonal base1 composed of the ossa innominata1 and forming with the scapul and clavicles1 the pelvis1 in which were contained the organs of digestion1 c4 ,fig4 #c4 ,the ,lily ,encrinite1 detached from its vertebral column4 a1 the centre of its base1 formed by five cuneiform ossicula1 or ossa innominata4 a1 one of the ossa innominata detached4 b1 the ribs1 or articuli trapezoides2 forming1 with the preceding bones1 the pentagonal base4 b1 one of the ribs detached1 showing its internal surface4 c1 the clavicles4 c #a1 the interior surface4 c #b1 the superior surface4 d1 the scapul4 d #a1 the inferior surface4 d #b1 the superior surface4 e1 the arms4 f1 the two first bones of the arms united4 g1 h1 i1 k1 l1 m1 the bones of the fingers gradually diminishing4 ,fig4 #d4 ,part of the supposed base1 or organ of attachment1 of the ,lily ,encrinite4 ,fig4 #e4 ,the supposed base1 or organ of attachment1 of the ',cap ,encrinite4' ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlix4 ,,plate ,,xlix4 ,remains of ,encrinites4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a polished slab of limestone formed of portions of the stems of encrinites2 the white figures are produced by sections of the calcareous spar into which the ossicula are transmuted4 ,the dark spots are the cavities of the entrochites1 filled with mineral matter of a different colour4 ,fig4 #b1 is the pentagonal base of the receptacle of the ,derbyshire ,encrinite4 ,fig4 #c4 ,a mass of ,derbyshire encrinal marble1 with numerous portions of stems lying in relief4 ,the ,derbyshire encrinal marble is so extensively employed in the manufacture of tables1 chimney-pieces1 vases1 c41 that it must be familiar to every reader2 and yet probably but few are aware of its origin1 or of the nature of the fossil remains of which it is composed1 and that give rise to the elegant figures in which its beauty consists4 ,on ,middleton ,moor1 near ,matlock1 extensive quarries of this marble are worked1 and good specimens of the ossicula and stems may be easily obtained4#dd ,footnote #dd3 ,see ,medals of ,creation for ,a ,geological ,excursion from ,matlock to ,middleton ,moor1 returning by ,stonnis1 p4 #ifh4 ,fig4 #d4 ,part of the stem of a large ,encrinite1 7,cyathocrinus rugosus1 of ,miller17 from the ,wenlock limestone1 ,dudley4 ,fig4 #e4 ,a fine specimen of the lower part of the stem1 and the root-like processes of attachment of the base1 of the same species as fig4 #d3 from ,dudley4 ,fig4 #f1 is called the ,screw or ,pulley-stone of ,derbyshire4 ,these curious fossils are found in the chert 7a kind of flint7 which occurs in veins and layers in some of the limestone strata3 they are siliceous casts of the interior cavities of the stems1 and small branches of ossicula1 of ,encrinites4 ,plate ,,xl ,,vii4 fig4 #aj1 is a detached specimen of this kind4 ,fig4 #g1 is described by ,mr4 ,parkinson as a piece of marble from ,shropshire1 in which is discovered a part of the pentagonal base of the ,turban or ,shropshire ,encrinite4 ,fig4 #h1 is part of the column of the same species4 ,these specimens belong to the ,rose ,encrinite 7,rhodocrinus verus1 of ,miller74 ,fig4 #i4 ,the receptacle of a very remarkable form of ,encrinite1 called by ,mr4 ,parkinson the ,cap ,encrinite of ,derbyshire4 ,i can find no notice of this beautiful and unique specimen in the work of ,miller or of subsequent authors2 neither am ,i aware of any data by which a relation can be established between this receptacle and the ossicula and stems1 so abundant in the carboniferous limestone of ,derbyshire4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,l4 ,,plate ,l4 ,encrinites and ,pentacrinites4 ,the ,pear ,encrinite of ,bradford2 ,mr4 ,parkinson4 7,apiocrinus rotundus1 of ,miller4 ---- ,parkinsoni1 of ,bronn47 ,the most generally known of the ,british ,crinoidea1 from its size1 and abundance in one particular locality1 is the ,pear ,encrinite of ,bradford in ,wiltshire1 some of the quarries of the oolite on the heights above that picturesquely-situated town1 yielding not only immense quantities of detached plates and ossicula1 but also numerous examples of the receptacle1 and occasionally the entire skeleton from the peduncle of the base to the extremities of the arms4 ,the lamented ,mr4 ,channing ,pearce1 and his father 7now of ,percy ,place1 ,grosvenor1 ,bath71 when resident at ,bradford1 paid such unremitting attention to the collection of these fossils1 that perfect specimens were obtained1 exhibiting the entire structure of the originals2 of these some fine examples are preserved in the ,british ,museum4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell mentions a very interesting fact relating to the occurrence of these ,crinoidea in the strata4 ,he states that the upper surface of a bed of limestone at ,bradford is incrusted with a continuous pavement formed by the stony roots of the ,apiocrinites2 and upon this is a layer of clay in which are the stems and bodies 7receptacles7 of innumerable examples2 some erect1 others lying prostrate2 while throughout the clay are scattered detached arms1 stems1 and receptacles4 ,this submarine forest of ,crinoideans must therefore have flourished in the clear sea-water till invaded by a current loaded with mud1 which overwhelmed the living zoophytes1 and entombed them in the argillaceous deposit in which their remains are now imbedded4#de ,footnote #de3 ,see ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fec4 ,the receptacle of this ,apiocrinite is pyriform and very smooth1 the plates are large and thin1 with radiating articulated surfaces2 the stem is short1 smooth1 and strong1 the arms are simple1 and like those of the ,marsupite2 the peduncle spreads out into an expanded base1 which is firmly attached to the rock2 sections of this part are generally of a purple colour4 ,fig4 #a4 ,part of the column of the ,bradford ,encrinite4 #b4 ,part of the receptacle2 a minute incrusting coral 7,bryozoa7 is attached to the lower part1 giving the stem a rough appearance4 ,figs4 #c1 #d4 ,surface of detached plates of the receptacle4 ,fig4 #e4 ,portion of the column partly covered with a cortical covering of a purple colour possibly the original investing membrane4 ,fig4 #f4 ,a receptacle1 in which a few of the ossicula of the arms remain attached to the margin4 ,fig4 #g4 ,another receptacle1 in which the plates called by ,mr4 ,parkinson clavicles and scapul1 are retained in their natural positions4 ,fig4 #h4 ,a receptacle1 in which the principal plates are well defined3 these are named by ,mr4 ,parkinson as follow3 a1 clavicle2 b1 scapula2 c1 ossicula of the arms2 d1 the last series of the same4 ,the ossicles forming the elongated tentacula1 ,mr4 ,p4 termed bones of the fingers4 ,fig4 #i4 ,portion of an encrinital stem with digitated processes3 the nature of this fossil is unknown to me4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,three united ossicula of a ,pentacrinite with depressions for side-arms3 from the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a distorted pentacrinal ossicle2 said to be from ,africa4 ,figs4 #ab1 #ad1 are vertical polished sections of the peduncle1 or base of the stem1 of the ,bradford ,encrinite4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,vertical section of the peduncle of a ,pentacrinite from ,soissons4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,a polished slab of pentacrinal marble from ,charmouth1 ,dorsetshire4 ,fig4 #af4 ,variously contorted pentacrinal stems with numerous side-arms1 from ,charmouth4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,li4 ,,plate ,,li4 ,fossil ,crinoidea1 or ,lily-shaped ,animals4 ,fig4 #a4 ,part of the receptacle of the ,nave ,encrinite of ,mr4 ,parkinson 7,actinocrinus1 of ,miller74 ,mountain limestone4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a portion of the receptacle of a ,rose ,encrinite 7,rhodocrinus71 viewed from the base4 ,fig4 #c4 ,the ,nave ,encrinite 7,actinocrinus triacontadactylus1 or thirty-fingered1 of ,miller71 from the mountain limestone4 ,this is a good example of the structure of the receptacle in this group of ,crinoideans1 which is distinguished by the arms passing off at right angles from the periphery of the receptacle1 like the spokes of a wheel2 whence the name1 ,nave ,encrinite4 ,the upper part is covered by closely adapted plates1 and the buccal aperture or mouth is situated at the side4 ,the stem of this group is thickly beset with side-arms4 7,fig4 #g is a very small detached one47 ,the arms are numerous 7amounting to thirty in the species figured71 and of great length2 these subdivide into jointed filaments of extreme minuteness4 ,slabs of limestone are often entirely covered with them1 and many layers are wholly made up of their aggregated remains4 ,the plates of the receptacle are generally highly ornamented3 in one species the sculpturing so closely resembles that of the ,marsupites ornatus of the chalk1 that it was with difficulty ,i convinced ,mr4 ,parkinson that the latter did not possess a stem1 and therefore was not an ,actinocrinite4#df ,footnote #df3 ,see ,medals of ,creation1 p4 #cbe2 ,wonders of ,geology1 p4 #ffd2 ,miller's ,crinoidea1 p4 #id4 ,figs4 #d1 #e4 ,portions of receptacles of ,actinocrinites4 ,figs4 #f1 #h4 ,fragments of stems of a ,pentacrinite 7,pentacrinus scalaris1 of ,goldfuss72 from ,gloucestershire4 ,fig4 #i4 ,a ,pentacrinite expanded on a slab of ,lias-shale4 ,gloucestershire4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,stem1 receptacle1 and arms of a ,crinoidean 7probably a ,cyathocrinite72 it is drawn in an inverted position4 ,the figure is stated by ,mr4 ,parkinson to be copied from a plate by ,dr4 ,capeller4 ,neither the locality1 nor the stratum from which it was obtained1 is mentioned4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,part of the stem of a ,pentacrinite 7,p4 basaltiformis1 of ,miller72 from the ,lias4 ,gloucestershire4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,the receptacle of a ,crinoidean 7,platycrinus lvis1 of ,miller72 from the mountain limestone1 ,ireland4 ,fig4 #ac1 ossicles of the arms2 and fig4 #ad1 joints of the stems1 slightly magnified4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,the superior part of the ,briaran pentacrinite4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 7,pentacrinus ,briareus1 of ,miller47 ,the specimen is a slab of ,lias1 almost wholly made up of crinoideal remains4 ,in relief on the surface are the stems and dislocated ossicles of the receptacle2 the latter are thus enumerated by ,mr4 ,parkinson2--a1 scapula2 b1 clavicle2 c1 first bone of the arm2 d1 second arm-bone2 e1 commencement of the two series of bones forming the fingers4 ,fig4 #af1 is another slab of pentacrinal ,lias limestone1 with portions of a stem and numerous side-arms3 these are generally electrotyped1 as it were1 with a brilliant pyrites1 giving a rich metallic lustre to the animal remains4 ,in the ,british ,museum there are many splendid specimens of this highly interesting family of ,radiaria4 ,i would especially direct the intelligent visitor's attention to a slab of stone1 many feet in height and breadth1 on which a group of ,pentacrinites is displayed1 as palpable and perfect as if the animals were sporting in their native element4 ,this matchless specimen is from ,germany4 ,fig4 #ag4 ,one of the small auxiliary lateral tentacles of a ,pentacrinite4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lii4 ,,plate ,,lii4 ,pentacrinites4 ,fig4 #a4 ,this specimen displays the usual appearance of the mode in which the arms of ,pentacrinites are spread out in relief on the pyritous lias limestone of ,charmouth4 ,fig4 #b4 ,the arms1 from the upper part of the receptacle to their third or fourth subdivision of the ,briaran ,pentacrinite4 ,charmouth4 ,fig4 #c4 ,a small specimen1 showing the ramifications and delicacy of the extremities of the arms or tentacula4 ,fig4 #d4 ,a fossil body1 supposed to be a species of oval encrinite4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,this fossil is certainly a coral1 probably some species of ,turbinolia1 from the ,devonian formation4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,liii4 ,,plate ,,liii4 ,fossil ,star-,fishes and ,echini4 ,the radiated animals popularly called ,star-fishes1 from their stellular figure1 are so abundant along our sea shores1 that the nature of the common five-rayed species 7,asterias1 or ,uraster rubens7#dg must be familiar to most of my readers4 ,this species belongs to the group in which the rays are elongated1 and far exceed in length the diameter of the disk2 in another subdivision 7the ,goniaster1 or ,cushion-star71 the body is angular1 and the lobes or rays are short1 and do not exceed in length the diameter of the body4 ,in another group 7the ,comatula1 or ,feather-star71 the rays are fringed with long jointed tentacula1 which divide and subdivide like those of the ,crinoidea2 and these star-fishes may1 in fact1 be regarded as free ,lily-shaped animals4#dh ,there is another tribe in which the arms are elongated into slender rays1 without grooves or tentacula2 these are called the ,serpent ,star-fishes 7,ophiura74 ,species of all these groups occur in a fossil state4#di ,footnote #dg3 ,see ,professor ,forbes's delightful ,history of the ,british ,star-,fishes4 ,footnote #dh3 ,in the young state the ,comatul have a jointed stem1 and are attached to other bodies2 being in this stage true ,crinoideans4 ,footnote #di3 ,medals of ,creation1 p4 #ccb4 ,fig4 #a4 ,part of a fossil lunated star from the chalk of ,kent4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 7,goniaster semilunata1 of ,parkinson2 ,goniaster ,parkinsoni1 of ,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes74 ,remains of ,star-fishes are by no means rare in the chalk strata of ,kent2 in those of ,sussex they are far less common4 ,when the ,fossils of the ,south ,downs was published1 in #ahbb1 a few fragments only had been discovered4 ,of late years1 some beautiful examples have been obtained from the chalk-pits near ,arundel and ,worthing1 by ,mr4 ,dixon1 ,mr4 ,coombe1 ,mrs4 ,smith1 of ,tunbridge ,wells1 and other collectors4 ,the cabinet of the ,marquess of ,northampton is very rich in this class of fossils4 ,several unique examples of new species have been obtained from the chalk near ,maidstone4 ,fig4 #b4 ,an echinite1 from ,france4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,the locality of this fossil is uncertain2 no similar specimen is known either to ,mr4 ,morris1 or the other eminent palontologists ,i have consulted2 and the original cannot be discovered4 ,i have reason to believe it was purchased1 after ,mr4 ,parkinson's death1 together with the greater number of the fossils already described1 by an ,american gentleman1 and taken to the ,united ,states4 ,fig4 #c4 ,part of a stellite or fossil star-fish1 resembling ,pentagonaster regularis4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,this well-known chalk species 7,goniaster ,mantelli1 of ,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes71 occurs frequently in an imperfect state in the quarries near ,gravesend4 ,the collection of the ,marquess of ,northampton contains a perfect and exquisite specimen attached to a flint1 from that locality4 ,fig4 #d4 ,a beautiful example of the ,turban ,echinite 7,cidaris ,parkinsoni1 of ,dr4 ,fleming71 from ,wiltshire4 ,the ,cidaris1 or ,turban ,echinite1 belongs to the family of radiated animals1 of which the recent ,sea-urchin 7,echinus sphra7 is a well-known example4 ,the globular shell or envelope of these animals is composed of numerous calcareous polygonal plates1 arranged in regular and elegant patterns1 like the lines of the meridian on a globe4 ,these plates are externally covered with papill of various sizes1 to which spines of corresponding magnitude are articulated4 ,in some of the ,cidares the principal tubercles are very large1 and their spines several inches in length4 ,the number and variety of the animals of this family that occur in a fossil state are so great1 that a work expressly devoted to the subject would be required to thoroughly investigate the characters and relations of the known species4 ,an elementary knowledge of this class of fossil remains may be obtained by reference to ,medals of ,creation1 chap4 xi4 p4 #bdj4 ,fig4 #e4 ,part of the case of a ,cidaris attached to a flint by its outer surface1 surrounded by upwards of twenty spines2 the interior of the shell1 of a light pink colour1 is exposed4 ,this exquisite fossil is now in the cabinet of the ,marquess of ,northampton4 ,it was purchased by ,mr4 ,parkinson for the sum of twenty guineas2 but this was in the palmy days of the study of organic remains1 before the terms ,geology and ,palontology were invented1 and when a choice relic of a former world was cheap at any price1 in the opinion of the enthusiastic collector4 ,fig4 #f4 ,a ,turban ,echinite 7,cidaris 7,hemicidaris1 of ,agassiz7 crenularis1 of ,lamarck73 from the ,coral ,rag of ,wiltshire4 ,fig4 #g4 ,a siliceous cast--that is1 a flint that has been moulded in the interior of the shell1 and received the impress of the internal structure--of ,cidaris corollaris1 of ,parkinson2 7,cyphosoma correlare1 of ,agassiz73 from ,sussex4 ,fig4 #h4 ,cidaris with spines1 from the ,oolite of ,stonesfield4 ,fig4 #i4 ,a specimen of one of the ,cidares with large tubercles 7,cidaris coronatus1 of ,goldfuss72 from the ,coral ,rag1 ,oxfordshire4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,an elegant chalk echinus 7,cidaris ,knigi1 of ,mantell2#ej ,cyphosoma ,milleri1 of ,agassiz2 ,c4 granulosus1 of ,goldfuss73 from ,kent4 ,footnote #ej3 ,fossils of the ,south ,downs1 p4 #ahi4 7#ahbb47 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a fine species from the chalk at ,gravesend 7,cidaris vesiculosus1 of ,goldfuss74 ,fig4 #ab4 ,a peculiar type of ,cidaris 7,salenia scutigera1 of ,goldfuss71 from the freestone or upper greensand of ,warminster1 ,wilts4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,another species of the same genus 7,salenia stellulata1 of ,agassiz72 from ,warminster4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,an enlarged view of part of the structure around the vertex of fig4 #ac4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,a species of ,feather-star 7,comatula pectinata1 of ,goldfuss72 from ,solenhofen4 ,figs4 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj4 ,minute ,stellit 7that is1 fossil ,star-fish72 from ,verona4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,these are probably the bodies or disks of ,ophiur deprived of their arms4 ,fig4 #af4 ,the nature of the specimen figured is unknown to me4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,liv4 ,,plate ,,liv4 ,various ,species of ,fossil ,sea-,urchins4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a large1 discoidal echinite1 of the type called ,clypeus or ,shield-echinus1 7,clypeus sinuatus1 of ,leske17 from the ,coral ,rag of ,oxfordshire4 ,this species abounds in the beds of this division of the ,oolite in ,berkshire1 ,wiltshire1 ,gloustershire1 c4 ,fig4 #b4 ,echinanthites orbicularis 7,pygurus7 of ,leske4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #c4 ,an imperfect flint cast of an echinus 7,discoidea71 from the ,south ,downs4 ,fig4 #d4 ,the ,helmet ,echinite1 7,ananchytes ovatus1 of ,lamarck17 from the ,chalk of ,kent4 ,this is a characteristic species of the white chalk1 and abounds in the strata of the ,north and ,south ,downs4 ,at ,northfleet1 near ,gravesend1 the quarry-men find beautiful specimens4 ,fig4 #e4 ,an oval echinite 7,nucleolites17 from ,verona4 ,fig4 #f4 ,a portion of a very flat echinite1 in which the rays or ambulacra are in a floriform arrangement1 7,echinodiscus bisperforatus1 of ,parkinson2 ,lobophora biperforata1 of ,desor17 from ,tertiary ,strata1 ,verona4 ,fig4 #g4 ,a small discoidal echinite 7,discoidea subuculus1 of ,leske17 from the upper greensand of ,warminster4 ,fig4 #h4 ,the floriform radiated part of the shell of an echinite 7,clypeaster71 from the tertiary strata of ,malta4 ,fig4 #i4 ,a cast in flint of part of the interior of the case or shell of an echinite4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,an elegant conical echinite 7,conulus albogalerus1 of ,leske2 ,galerites1 of ,agassiz71 common in the chalk of ,kent and ,sussex4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,view of the base of fig4 #aj1 showing the situation of the two apertures of the shell4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lv4 ,,plate ,,lv4 ,fossil ,sea-,urchins1 or ,echinites4 ,fig4 #a4 ,the shell of a ,turban ,echinite 7,cidaris saxatilis1 of ,parkinson71 broken in two1 and each piece imbedded in the same fragment of flint4 ,from ,kent4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a round ,buckler ,echinite 7,echinodiscus 7,clypeaster7 subrotundus1 of ,parkinson71 from ,italy4 ,fig4 #c4 ,the upper surface of an ,echinite 7,spatangites 7,disaster1 of ,agassiz7 ovalis1 of ,parkinson72 from ,scarborough4 ,fig4 #d4 ,view of the upper1 and fig4 #e1 of the lower surface of an ,echinite1 7,spatangus 7,hemipneaster1 of ,agassiz7 radiatus1 of ,parkinson17 from the cretaceous strata of ,st4 ,peter's ,mountain1 ,maestricht4 ,fig4 #f4 ,a small ,echinite 7,echinites 7,nucleolites1 of ,leske7 pyriformis1 of ,parkinson71 from the cretaceous strata of ,maestricht4 ,fig4 #g4 ,a small ,echinite of a different genus 7,echinites 7,cassidulus1 of ,lamarck17 ,lapis cancri1 of ,parkinson71 from ,maestricht4 ,fig4 #h4 ,an ,echinite 7,spatangites 7,nucleolites7 brissoides ovalis1 of ,parkinson74 ,locality unknown4 ,fig4 #i4 ,a beautiful specimen of a large heart-shaped ,echinite of a recent species 7,spatangus purpureus71 from a modern tertiary deposit1 ,malta4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,an ,echinite 7,echinodiscus 7,clypeaster7 laganum1 of ,parkinson71 from a tertiary deposit1 ,verona4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,this ,is a very abundant ,spatangus or heart-shaped echinite1 7,spatangus cor marinum1 of ,parkinson2 ,cor testudinarium1 of ,goldfuss2 ,micraster cor anguinum1 of ,agassiz17 in the chalk of ,kent1 and some parts of ,sussex4 ,siliceous casts1 forming cordiform flints1 with deep imprints of the pentapetalous rays on the vertex1 are common among the stones of the ploughed fields of the ,downs4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,a ,spatangite1 7,spatangus 7,micraster1 of ,agassiz7 lacunosus1 of ,parkinson71 from tertiary strata1 ,malta1 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lvi4 ,,plate ,,lvi4 ,echinites and ,echinital ,spines4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a fragment of the shell of a ,turban ,echinite1 with three clavated or club-shaped spines attached1 on chalk1 from ,kent 7,cidaris claviger1 of ,knig74 ,the inner surface of the fragment of shell is exposed4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a crushed shell of an elegant species of ,turban ,echinite 7,cidaris sceptrifera1 of ,mantell71 on a block of chalk2 with two displaced spines near it4 ,the sceptre-like form of the spines suggested the specific name4 ,the chalk has been carefully cut away so as to display the shell and spines as much as possible without detaching them4 ,from ,sussex2 common in the chalk near ,gravesend4 ,fig4 #c4 ,part of the shell1 with two spines of another species 7,cidaris vesiculosus1 of ,goldfuss71 from ,kent4 ,fig4 #d4 ,a fossil echinital spine resembling a belemnite4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,i am unable to determine either the species or locality of this fossil3 it is indeed doubtful whether it is a spine of an echinus4 ,figs4 #e to #ai1 represent various kinds of echinital spines of ,turban ,echinites or ,cidarites4 ,fig4 #e4 ,a fossil spine named ',bacolo di ,santo ,paulo1' by ,scilla4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,from ,verona4 ,figs4 #f1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 are1 ,i believe1 referable to various species of ,cidaris that occur in the ,oolite or ,jurassic deposits4 ,figs4 #i and #aa4 ,species of ,cidaris glandiferus1 of ,goldfuss4 ,fig4 #ae1 is a well known form1 which occurs in thousands in the ,oolite ,limestone1 the ,coral ,rag1 of ,caen1 and other localities in ,wiltshire2 it belongs to a beautiful ,cidarite 7,cidaris ,blumenbachii#ea71 which is occasionally found with similar spines attached4 ,footnote #ea3 ,see ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ejj1 figs4 #c and #f4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,a flat serrated spine from ,verona4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,it belongs to the ,cidaris ,schmidelii1 of ,goldfuss4 ,fig4 #g4 ,the interior of the upper part or vertex of a large ,echinus1 from the tertiary strata of ,malta4 ,the greater portion of the shell is broken away1 but a small fragment showing the outer surface remains on the upper left hand of the specimen4 ,the five large petalous ambulacra are beautifully seen4 ,perfect examples of this echinite 7,echinanthus ,clypeaster altus1 of ,parkinson71 are not uncommon4 ,fig4 #ai4 ,a spine of ,cidaris sceptrifera1 from the chalk of ,kent4 ,fig4 #bj4 ,an elegant ,turban ,echinite1 7,hemicidaris crenularis1 of ,lamarck17 common in the ,coral ,rag of ,wiltshire4 ,groups of this beautiful echinoderm1 with numerous spines attached1 are found at ,caen4 ,i have seen on one slab of limestone1 upwards of twenty individuals with the spines radiating round the shell1 as if the animals were alive on a mud bank in shallow water4 ,fig4 #ba4 ,a fragment of the shell with two spines 7,cidaris claviger71 attached to a flint2 from ,kent4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lvii4 ,,plate ,,lvii4 ,fossil ,shells4 ,figs4 #a1 #c4 ,upper and under view of a discoidal spiral univalve shell 7,euomphalus pentangulatus1 of ,sowerby71 from the mountain limestone of ,derbyshire4 ,the extinct genus ,euomphalus1 a name suggestive of the deeply excavated disk1 comprises many species which occur in the ,silurian1 ,devonian1 and ,carboniferous formations4 ,the shell has chambers1 or rather obsolete cavities sealed up by a shelly partition1 in the abandoned part of the spire4#eb ,footnote #eb3 ,medals of ,creation1 pp4 #dbe-dbg4 ,fig4 #b4 ,an elegant univalve shell1 completely silicified or transmuted into flint 7,natica canrena1 of ,parkinson1 ,natica ,gentii1 of ,sowerby71 from the upper greensand of ,blackdown4 ,figs4 #d1 #f4 ,two views of the same specimen2 a univalve 7,nerita conoidea1 of ,lamarck71 in which the apex or upper part is destroyed1 and the interior of the shell is filled with yellowish brown chalcedony2 in fig4 #d1 a cast of the spire is seen1 and in fig4 #f1 the mouth of the shell1 with the chalcedony partially filling up the interior4 ,from tertiary strata near ,paris4 ,fig4 #e4 ,a beautiful fossil univalve shell1 from the ,red ,crag of ,suffolk1 known to collectors as the ,essex reversed whelk1 from the spire being coiled in the opposite direction to the common mode2 the mouth is consequently situated to the left of the observer2 the same species occurs with the spire in the usual direction4 ,this shell is the ,murex 7,fusus7 contrarius1 of ,parkinson4 ,figs4 #g1 #h4 ,under and upper view of another species of ,euomphalus 7,e4 rugosus1 of ,sowerby71 from the ,wenlock limestone1 ,dudley4 ,fig4 #i4 ,an enlarged view of fig4 #aj4 ,a shell of the genus ,sigaretus4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,mr4 ,morris thinks it is merely an operculum of a small univalve4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a chambered cephalopodous shell 7,lituites lituus1 of ,hisinger71 from ,silurian strata1 ,sweden4 ,figs4 #ab1 #ac4 ,these curious contorted bodies are named ,vermiculit by ,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,they occur in the cream-coloured limestone of ,pappenheim and ,solenhofen4 ,they are termed ,lumbricaria colon by ,goldfuss2 and ,cololites by ,m4 ,agassiz2 the last-named eminent naturalist has demonstrated that they are the fossilized intestines of fishes4#ec ,footnote #ec3 ,see ,dr4 ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,essay1 vol4 ii4 plate #ae4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lviii4 ,,plate ,,lviii4 ,fossil ,shells4 ,fig4 #a4 ,part of a hexahedral ,serpulite4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a silicified mass of delicate filiform serpul1 from the upper greensand of ,devonshire 7,serpula filiformis1 of ,sowerby74 ,fig4 #c4 ,portion of a species of ,siliquaria1 from tertiary strata1 ,france4 ,it is the shell of an ,annelide related to ,dentalium4 ,fig4 #e4 ,a spiral ,serpulite 7it resembles the ,serpula conica72 probably from the cretaceous beds of the ,isle of ,rugen4 ,fig4 #f1 is a piece of polished sandstone1 from the upper greensand of ,wiltshire1 the markings on which are produced by sections of a species of ,serpula 7,vermetus concavus1 of ,sowerby74--,mr4 ,morris4 ,fig4 #g4 ,a species of ,vermetus2 from ,bayonne8 ,figs4 #h1 #i4 ,a species of ,vermetus which abounds in the coarse arenaceous limestone of ,bognor ,rocks1 in ,sussex 7,vermetus ,bognoriensis1 of ,sowerby74 ,fig4 #aj4 ,a section of the shell of a ,nautilus1 to show that the siphuncle sometimes suffered distension4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a species of ,serpula 7,serpula ampullacea1 of ,sowerby71 from the chalk of ,kent4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,a fragment of the back or dorsal part of the shell of a fossil ,nautilus 7,nautilus centralis1 of ,sowerby71 from the ,london clay1 ,brentford4 ,the outer shell is broken away1 and the siphuncle1 traversing five of the septa of the chambers1 is exposed4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,the outline of the back of a ,nautilus4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,an ,orthoceratite 7,orthoceras annulatum1 of ,sowerby2 ,o4 undulatum1 of ,kissinger71 from the ,wenlock ,limestone1 ,dudley4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,a fragment of a fossil ,nautilus 7,nautilus ,parkinsoni1 of ,mr4 ,edwards71 from the ,london clay of ,harwich4 ,it shows the situation of the siphuncle and the form of the septa1 as indicated by the sinuous transverse lines4 ,fig4 #af4 ,a polished section of a ,nautilus 7,n4 truncatus1 of ,sowerby71 from the ,inferior ,oolite of ,yeovil1 ,somersetshire4 ,the chambers are filled up with crystalline limestone1 with the exception of the six outermost cells1 in which are left hollows that are lined with calcareous spar4 ,fig4 #ag4 ,polished section of an ,orthoceratite1 from the ,silurian strata of ,oland1 ,sweden4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,the discoidal part of a ,lituite from the same locality as fig4 #ag4 ,fig4 #ai4 ,a polished slab of grey marble1 from the ,devonian formation of the ,rhine4 ,the figures are sections of ,orthoceratites1 a2 and ,lituites1 b4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lix4 ,,plate ,,lix4 ,fossil ,cephalopoda1 c4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a fossil shell named ,hippurite 7,hippurites bioculatus1 of ,d',orbigny71 from the south of ,france4 ,this shell belongs to a family termed ,rudistes1 whose characters are somewhat problematical1--some naturalists referring them to the bivalves1 and others to the univalves4 ,the ,hippurite is generally of an elongated conical form1 and has internally two obtuse longitudinal ridges2 the base is sometimes partitioned by transverse septa4 ,fig4 #e1 is a longitudinal section of a specimen in which septa are displayed4 ,the aperture is closed by a moveable operculum1 or upper valve1 as in the specimen fig4 #a4 ,the substance of the shell is cellular and very thick1 and when fractured1 resembles that of the lamelliferous corals4 ,some kinds attain a large size1 and are called petrified horns by the inhabitants of the districts in the ,pyrenees where they abound4 ,though ,hippurites are abundant in the chalk of the south of ,france1 and in ,spain and ,portugal1 none have been found in ,england4 ,the ,spherulite1 a nearly allied genus1 which has no internal longitudinal ridges1 occurs in the chalk of ,sussex3 it was first discovered near ,lewes4 7,spherulites ,mortoni1 of ,mantell47#ed ,footnote #ed3 ,medals of ,creation1 p4 #dbh4 ,fig4 #b4 ,the siphuncle of a very large ,orthoceratite 7related to the genus ,ormoceras1 ,mr4 ,morris71 from the ,rhine4 ,figs4 #c #d1 show the direction in which the siphuncle in ,orthoceratites intersects the septa4 ,fig4 #f4 ,siphuncle of an orthoceratite 7related to ,orthoceras duplex1 of ,kissinger71 from the ,silurian strata1 ,sweden4 ,fig4 #g4 ,an ,orthoceratite 7,o4 pyriforme1 of ,sowerby71 from the ,silurian strata1 ,dudley4 ,figs4 #h-ae4 ,various kinds of ,belemnites4 ,in the ,supplementary ,notes ,i have1 under the head1 ,belemnites1 explained somewhat fully the nature of those fossils which1 by the name of thunderbolts1 have for so many centuries excited the interest and perplexed the ingenuity of collectors of fossil remains4 ,referring the reader to that note1 ,i shall therefore in this place merely give such specific names of the specimens figured by ,mr4 ,parkinson as ,i have been able to determine4 ,fig4 #h4 ,a ,belemnite of large size1 ,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,this specimen is part of the phragmocone from near the lower apical portion1 partially invested with the fibrous rostrum or guard4 ,it is the species named ,belemnites giganteus by ,m4 ,d',orbigny2 from the ,oxford clay of ,wiltshire4 ,fig4 #i4 ,the guard of a ,belemnite1 eroded by some ,annelide4 ,fig4 #aj1 is a vertical section of a fragment of a ,belemnite1 showing the alveolus or cavity for the reception of the apex of the phragmocone in the upper part4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,the distal or apical part of the rostrum or guard of a ,belemnite4 ,the annexed outline of a transverse section exhibits the radiated structure4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,the distal part of the guard of a chalk ,belemnite 7,belemnitella mucronata72 from ,norwich4 ,siliceous casts of the phragmocone of ,belemnitella are occasionally met with in the flints of the ,south ,downs4 ,this phragmocone has a longitudinal flat band or ridge1 extending down the dorsal aspect3 the chambers are very numerous2 the slit or fissure in the ventral aspect of the guard1 is occupied by a thin expansion of the phragmocone4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,a ,belemnite from the great oolite of ,stonesfield 7,belemnites fusiformis1 of ,parkinson74 ,the upper part shows the alveolus for the reception of the apex of the phragmocone4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,a fragment of a guard split vertically1 the flat surface showing a section of the alveolus filled with spar4 ,this specimen belongs to the ,belemnites cylindriformis1 of ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,a ,belemnite 7,belemnites coniformis1 of ,parkinson71 having part of the guard broken off1 to show the alveolus or hollow in which the apical part of the phragmocone is received4 ,the removed portion has the cast of the alveolus attached to it4 ,fig4 #af1 of which fig4 #ag1 is an enlarged view1 is a species of chambered foraminiferous shell1 called ,nodosaria 7,n4 raphanistrum1 of ,lamarck72 from ,sienna4 ,see description of ,plate ,,lxii4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lx4 ,,plate ,,lx4 ,ammonites4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a ,belemnite 7,belemnitella mucronata7 attached to a flint4 ,kent4 ,fig4 #b4 ,cast of part of a straight-chambered shell 7,baculites ,fraujasii1 of ,lamarck71 in which the septa1 or partitions1 are deeply and regularly sinuated4 ,in fossils of this kind1 the cast of each chamber is distinct from the others2 but the series is held together by the flexuosities of the septa4 ,from ,maestricht4 ,fig4 #c4 ,a limestone cast of the chamber of an ,ammonite3 from ,bath4 ,the elongated channel in the middle indicates the position of the siphuncle4 ,fig4 #d4 ,fragment of an ,ammonite1 showing cavities of two chambers1 and the canal of the siphuncle1 partly lined with calcareous spar4 ,fig4 #e4 ,polished sections of an ,ammonite 7,ammonites ,walcotii7 from the ,lias1 ,whitby4 ,the chambers are filled with semi-transparent spar4 ,the siphunculus is seen running along the dorsal1 or outer margins of the volutions4 ,the dark appearances observable in several parts of the siphuncle result from the carbonization of the animal membrane with which the tube was lined in the living state4 ,fig4 #f4 ,an ,oval ,ammonite4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,this is evidently the cast of a discoidal shell pressed into an elliptical form4 ,in the ,chalk-marl1 casts of ,ammonites1 ,nautilites1 c4 are very commonly more or less distorted by compression4 ,the marl appears to have remained in a plastic state after the decomposition of the shell in which it was moulded1 and to have admitted of being squeezed into close contact with the surrounding matrix2 when the stratum became consolidated the cast retained its accidental shape1 and adhering but slightly to the investing marl1 was separable by a properly directed blow4 ,this explains the otherwise unintelligible fact of a cast being closely invested by the rock1 and all traces of the shell in which it was formed absent4 ,when both the cast and the matrix became solid and uncompressible before the shell was decomposed1 then loose casts were formed2 as is common in the ,portland stone1 c4 ,the fossil figured appears to be an indifferent example of a common chalk-marl species 7,ammonites ,mantelli1 of ,sowerby74 ,fig4 #g4 ,a beautiful cast of an ,ammonite1 in which the foliaceous septa transmuted into pyrites 7sulphuret of iron1 or marcasite71 are exquisitely shown4 ,fig4 #h4 ,a very fine specimen of an ,ammonite 7,ammonites latus1 of ,sowerby71 from the ,galt2 a subdivision of the ,lower chalk1 in which ,ammonites1 with their pearly shells beautifully preserved1 are abundant4 ,from ,folkstone1 in ,kent2 a celebrated locality for these and other fossils of the same cretaceous deposits4 ,fig4 #i4 ,sections of a pyritous cast of an ,ammonite1 showing the sinuous edges of the septa4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lxi4 ,,plate ,,lxi4 ,fossil ,cephalopoda1 c4 ,fig4 #a4 ,part of the cast of a species of ,hamite 7,hamites intermedius1 of ,sowerby71 from the ,gait of ,folkstone4 ,the name ,hamites was employed by ,mr4 ,parkinson to designate a genus of chambered shells1 in which the direction of the spire1 instead of being straight1 as in ,baculites1 or discoidal1 as in ,ammonites1 was bent like a hook beyond the inner reflected part4 ,all the specimens here figured are but fragments4#ee ,footnote #ee3 ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ejj4 ,figs4 #b1 #e4 ,portions of ,hamites intermedius1 of ,sowerby4 ,fig4 #c4 ,hamites plicatilis1 of ,sowerby4 ,fig4 #d4 ,a fragment of ,hamites rotundus1 of ,sowerby4 ,figs4 #f1 #g4 ,two views of a species of an extinct genus1 the shells of which1 though not chambered1 are supposed to have been inhabited by ,cephalopoda1 like the recent ,argonaut4 ,the specimen 7,bellerophon costatus1 of ,sowerby7 is from the ,mountain limestone of ,derbyshire4#ef ,footnote #ef3 ,ibid p4 #dgg4 ,figs4 #h1 #i4 ,an ,ammonite with a contracted aperture1 and three deep constrictions across the disk4 ,from the ,inferior oolite of ,normandy4 ,figs4 #aj1 #aa4 ,two specimens of ,scaphites1 or ,boat-like ,ammonite1 of ,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,a remarkable cretaceous genus of extinct cephalopoda4 ,the specimens figured are from the ,lower chalk of ,sussex 7,scaphites costatus1 of ,mantell2 ,s4 equalis1 of ,sowerby74 ,fig4 #ab4 ,cast of a spiral chambered shell1 called ,turrilite1 of which many species occur in the lower cretaceous strata 7,turrilites costatus1 of ,langius74 ,the quarries of lower chalk at ,st4 ,catharine's ,mount1 near ,rouen1 in ,normandy1 have long been celebrated for the number and perfection of specimens of this elegant type of cephalopodous shells4 ,the first known ,english examples of this genus1 as well as of ,scaphites1 were discovered by me in the chalk marl1 at ,hamsey1 near ,lewes1 in ,sussex1 in #ahaj4 ,several very fine specimens of a large species 7,turrilites tuberculatus71 some of which are more than two feet in length1 have been obtained from the same strata4 ,the tubercles on the casts of this species are the bases of strong spines4 ,the siphunculus1 in the state of a pyritous cast1 is preserved in some examples4 ,figs4 #ac to #bg4 ,these figures all refer to a very curious group of fossils1 termed ,nummulites1 from the supposed resemblance of some of the flat disks to a piece of money4 ,the complexity of their internal structure1 and the supposed resemblance of their organization to that of the true ,cephalopoda1 led to many erroneous opinions as to the nature of the originals4 ,that eminent physiologist1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,carpenter1 has recently investigated the intimate structure of the whole group1 and the results are given in a beautiful and masterly memoir in the ,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society of ,london4#eg ,dr4 ,carpenter has clearly shown that these fossils belong to the ,foraminifera1 and not1 as some eminent naturalists have supposed1 to the ,bryozoa1 or ,moss-corals4 ,as the family to which they belong comprises a numerous assemblage of minute organic remains1 many of which are delineated in the next plate 7,plate ,,lxii471 the reader is referred to the ,supplementary ,notes1 for a general description of the ,foraminifera1 in which is given a restored figure of the supposed living animal of the ,nummulite1 from ,dr4 ,carpenter's memoir4 ,footnote #eg3 ,no4 #ba1 for ,february #ahej4 ,on the ,microscopic ,structure of ,nummulina1 ,orbitolites and ,orbitoides4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,the usual appearance of the common species of ,nummulite 7,nummulina lvigata74 ,from ,egypt4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,a specimen rubbed down1 and exposing the internal cellular structure4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,an example in which the outer investment is partly removed4 ,fig4 #af4 ,a vertical section of the same4 ,fig4 #ag4 ,this fossil1 of which fig4 #ah1 is a vertical section 7,nummulites obtusa1 of ,sowerby71 appears to belong to a different genus2 probably ,orbitolites1 or ,marginopora4 ,tertiary strata4 ,fig4 #ai4 ,a vertical section of a ,nummulite1 showing a cavity in the centre1 probably from decomposition4 ,fig4 #bj4 ,a section of another species of ,nummulite 7,n4 dispansa 8 of ,sowerby72#eh ,tertiary strata1 ,india4 ,footnote #eh3 ,see ,sowerby's ,mineral ,conchology1 vol4 i42 and ,mantell's ,fossils of the ,south ,downs4 ,figs4 #ba to #bf1 are various sections of a fossil ,nummulite1 of which fig4 #cg1 represents the flat surface 7,nummulites complanata1 of ,parkinson4 ,this fossil belongs to the genus ,discospira of ,mr4 ,morris74#ei ,footnote #ei3 ,discospira1 ,nov4 ,gen4 ,disciform1 volutions distrial1 not embracing the previous ones1 cells numerous4 ,mr4 ,morris1 #ahej4 ,fig4 #bh4 ,a species of ,foraminifera 7,fasciolites1 of ,parkinson2 ,alveolina elliptica1 of ,d',orbigny74 ,fig4 #bi4 ,a transverse section4 ,figs4 #cj1 #ca4 ,enlarged views of the same fossil4 ,fig4 #ca4 ,a longitudinal section4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lxii4 ,,plate ,,lxii4 ,fossil ,foraminifera4 ,with the exception of figs4 #bc1 #bd1 #bi1 #ca and #cb1 all the specimens delineated in this ,plate belong to the ,foraminifera4 ,the figures represent magnified views2 the natural size is indicated in some instances by a minute outline4 ,under the article ,foraminifera1 in the ,supplementary ,notes1 a general account is given of the structure and economy of the living animalcules4 ,a list of names is subjoined4 ,figs4 #a1 #b4 ,rotalia trochiliformis1 of ,lamarck4 ,tertiary4 ,fig4 #c4 ,rotalia ,beccarii1 of ,linnus4 ,tertiary4 ,fig4 #d4 ,cristellaria rotulata1 ,lamarck4 ,chalk4 ,figs4 #e1 #f1 #g4 ,lituola nautiloidea1 ,lamarck4 ,chalk4 ,fig4 #h4 ,spirolina depressa1 ,lamarck4 ,this and the specimens to fig4 #ba inclusive1 are tertiary fossils4 ,fig4 #i4 ,spirolina cylindracea1 ,lamarck4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,orthocerina clavulus4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,biloculina ringens1 ,lamarck4 ,figs4 #ab1 #ac4 ,quinqueloculina cor anguinum1 ,lamarck4 ,figs4 #ad1 #ae1 #af4 ,quinqueloculina4 ,figs4 #ag1 #ah1 #ai4 ,triloculina trigonula1 ,lamarck4 ,fig4 #bj4 ,quinqueloculina opposita1 ,lamarck4 ,fig4 #ba4 ,peneroloplis opercularis4 ,fig4 #bb4 ,adelosina1 of ,d',orbigny2 a recent species4 ,figs4 #bc1 #bd4 ,gyrogonites4 ,the fossils here figured on a magnified scale as microscopic shells of the same family as those above described1 received the name of ,gyrogonites1 or twisted stones4 ,they prove to be the seed-vessels of a species of the common fresh-water plant1 the ,chara4 ,the fruit of this genus consists of minute nuclei1 with an external calcareous covering1 composed of five spirally twisted plates1 which unite at the summit4 ,these fossils occur by myriads in many of the fresh-water secondary and tertiary limestones1 as well as in the calcareous deposits now in progress of formation in our lakes4 ,in the lacustrine limestones of the ,isle of ,wight 7at ,binstead1 ,white ,cliff1 c471 beautiful specimens may be obtained4#fj ,professor ,e4 ,forbes has discovered ,gyrogonites in the ,wealden strata of the ,isle of ,purbeck1 associated with shells of the genera ,planorbis1 ,physa1 ,paluolina1 c4 ,footnote #fj3 ,see ,geological ,excursions round the ,isle of ,wight4 #b;d ,edit4 #ahej1 p4 #ajh4 ,fig4 #be4 ,polystomella crispa1 of ,linnus4 ,from the tertiary strata of the ,apennines4 ,fig4 #bf4 ,cristellaria 8 ,figs4 #bg1 #bh4 ,rotalia ,beccarii4 ,apennines4 ,fig4 #cj4 ,cristellaria galea1 of ,lamarck4 ,apennines4 ,fig4 #bi4 ,cast of a species of ,area2 a bivalve shell1 from tertiary strata1 ,bordeaux4 ,fig4 #ca4 ,a curious pteropodous shell 7,vaginella depressa71 from tertiary strata1 ,basterot4 ,fig4 #cb4 ,this appears to be an imperfect specimen of a bivalve having a fibrous structure1 like ,pinna4 ,it is probably a fragment of an ,inoceramus4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lxiii4 ,,plate ,,lxiii4 ,trigoni4 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 represent the structure of the hinge in both valves of a genus of bivalves of which numerous fossil species are met with in the secondary strata1 and two or three species still exist in the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the genus is named ,trigonia1 from the form of the hinge1 and the specific names below are those given by ,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #c4 ,trigonia clavellata1 of ,parkinson1 from the ,kimmeridge clay1 ,hartwell1 ,bucks4 ,fig4 #d4 ,trigonia costata1 ,oxford clay1 ,wilts4 ,fig4 #e4 ,trigonia excentrica2 upper greensand1 ,blackdown4 ,like most of the shells from this locality1 the ,trigoni are transmuted into silex4 ,fig4 #f4 ,trigonia ddalea1 ,blackdown4 ,fig4 #g4 ---- spinosa1 ,blackdown4 ,fig4 #h4 ,enlarged view of the spines of the above4 ,fig4 #i4 ,trigonia alformis1 ,blackdown4 ,fig4 #aj4 ---- rudis1 ,blackdown4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a bivalve shell of the genus ,productus 7,p4 antiquatus1 of ,sowerby871 from the ,mountain limestone4 ,see description of fig4 #i1 ,plate ,,lxvii4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,cast of a species of ,trigonia 7,t4 clavellata71 from the ,portland rock4 ,many beds of this oolitic limestone are almost entirely made up of casts of ,trigoni1 and chiefly of this species4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,trigonia sinuata1 from ,blackdown4 ,figs4 #ad to #ah4 ,different views of a species of ,harpax4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 7,plicatula spinosa74 ,from the ,lias1 ,gloucestershire4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,the inner surface of the flat valve4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,inner surface of the convex valve4 ,fig4 #af4 ,magnified hinge teeth of the flat1 and fig4 #ag1 of the convex valve4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,magnified view of the adpressed spines on the external surface of the shell4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lxiv4 ,,plate ,,lxiv4 ,fossil ,shells4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a perfect specimen of one valve1 showing the character of the hinge of ,cuculla decussata1 of ,parkinson4 ,london clay4 ,herne ,bay4 ,fig4 #b4 ,interior view of ,crassatella tumida1 of ,lamarck4 ,eocene strata1 ,paris4 ,fig4 #c4 ,cardium ,hillanum1 of ,sowerby4 ,a beautiful silicified bivalve from ,blackdown4 ,fig4 #d4 ,nucula ovum1 of ,sowerby4 ,a common bivalve1 in the ,lias1 ,yorkshire4 ,fig4 #e4 ,inner view of ,cyrena deperdita1 of ,parkinson4 ,plastic clay1 ,woolwich4 ,fig4 #f4 ,lima gigantea1 of ,sowerby1 from ,lyme ,regis4 ,this is a young and small specimen of a large bivalve that occurs in great perfection in the ,lias4 ,fig4 #g4 ,cardinia ,listeri1 of ,sowerby4 ,from the ,lias1 ,gloucestershire4 ,fig4 #h4 ,cast of a bivalve2 genus uncertain4 ,figs4 #i to #ab4 ,these fossils are the ,trigonellites of ,mr4 ,parkinson2 and have since been referred to a genus named ,aptychus4 ,their true relations are very problematical4 ,though found in pairs1 there is no hinge or natural connexion4 ,some naturalists suppose they may belong to the internal organization of ,ammonites1 because certain kinds have been found collocated with particular species of that genus of ,cepholopoda4 ,at present ,i do not think there is any satisfactory evidence as to their real nature4 ,species occur in the ,kimmeridge clay1 and other subdivisions of the ,oolite formation4 ,figs4 #i1 #ab4 ,trigonellites lata1 of ,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,figs4 #aj1 #aa4 ---- lamellosa4 ,figs4 #ac1 #ad4 ,corbida revoluta1 of ,sowerby4 ,london clay1 ,highgate4 ,fig4 #af4 ,an imperfect specimen of ,lysianassa 7,mya7 literata1 from the fullers' earth of the ,oolite1 ,wiltshire4 ,figs4 #ae1 #ag4 ,cardita senilis1 of ,sowerby4 ,from the ,red crag of ,suffolk4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lxv4 ,,plate ,,lxv4 ,fossil ,shells4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a single valve1 viewed interiorly1 of a fine shell 7,panopa ,aldrovandi1 of ,faujas ,st4 ,fond7 from the ,pleistocene or ,newer ,tertiary strata1 that form a chain of low hills near ,palermo1 in ,sicily4 ,the shells in these deposits comprise almost all the genera and species that now inhabit the ,mediterranean4 ,they occur in the most beautiful state1 deprived only of their colour2 and groups are often met with of extreme elegance4 ,the cabinet of the ,marquess of ,northampton contains an extensive and unrivalled series of these fossils1 collected during his ,lordship's residence at ,palermo4 ,figs4 #b1 #d4 ,a boring bivalve 7,fistulana or ,lithodomus7 from the ,oolite1 ,bath4 ,figs4 #c1 #e4 ,valves of a small ,oyster from the ,crag of ,essex4 ,fig4 #f4 ,a group of ,lithodomi in limestone from the ,oolite1 ,bradford1 ,wilts4 ,fig4 #g4 ,a detached specimen from the same1 showing the enclosed bivalve4 ,figs4 #h1 #aj4 ,fine but imperfect specimens of a species of ,teredo 7,teredina personata1 of ,lamarck71 from the ,plastic clay of ,epernay1 ,france4 ,fig4 #i4 ,a snail-shell 7,helix arbustorum7 found associated1 and evidently contemporaneous1 with bones of ,mammoth1 and extinct species of ,deer1 and other mammalia4 ,from ,brentford1 in a bed of light calcareous earth1 twenty feet below the surface4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a concamerated ,teredo4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,i am unable to ascertain the nature of this fossil4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,a species of ,fistulana1 from ,france4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,external surface of ,chama squamosa of ,brander4 ,london clay1 ,hordwell4 ,figs4 #ad1 #ae1 are the anchylosed caudal vertebr of the tails of fishes4 ,from the ,london clay1 ,isle of ,sheppey4 ,fig4 #af4 ,a small oyster with a spathose structure4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,this shell is probably the flat valve of a species of ,dianchora1 of ,sowerby2 from the ,chalk4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lxvi4 ,,plate ,,lxvi4 ,fossil ,bivalve ,shells4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a fossil ,oyster 7,ostrea ,marshii1 of ,sowerby71 from the ,cornbrash of the ,oolite1 ,wiltshire4 ,fig4 #b4 ,the fossil ,cockscomb ,oyster1 7,ostrea carinata1 of ,lamarck17 from the ,lower chalk1 ,havre1 ,france4 ,fig4 #c4 ,the elegant fossil shell here figured is a peculiar and most abundant species in the ,lias formation2 specimens are not uncommon1 in which every part of the shell is as perfect as if just thrown up on the sea-shore4 ,it belongs to the genus ,gryphites 7,gryphea incurva1 of ,sowerby17 the shells of which are nearly related to the oysters1 but are distinguished by the deep concave under-valve1 and its curved beak1 and the almost flat upper shell4 ,the testaceous substance is of a finer laminated structure than in the ,ostrea1 and the hinge-ligament is inserted in an elongated curved groove4#fa ,footnote #fa3 ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 i4 p4 #chg4 ,fig4 #d4 ,ostrea vel frons folium4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,this species appears to be the ,ostrea gregarea 787 of ,sowerby1 which occurs in the chlorite marl or firestone of the ,lower chalk in ,sussex and ,kent4 ,fig4 #e4 ,the fossil is the cast of an oyster-like bivalve1 called ,perna1 7,perna quadrata1 of ,sowerby17 which is easily recognisable1 even in casts1 by the line of distinct teeth which compose the hinge4 ,this species is abundant in the ,portland limestone1 particularly in the quarries around ,swindon1 in ,wiltshire2 but from the close adhesion of the outer surface of the shell to the surrounding stone1 they can seldom be extracted1 the casts only being readily obtainable4 ,in the ,kimmeridge clay1 which lies above the ,portland rock1 the shells may be met with in great perfection4 ,the best locality is near ,hartwell1 in ,buckinghamshire1 where the clay is extensively dug for the brick manufactures4 ,figs4 #f1 #g4 ,two views of a small shell of the genus ,crenatula1 from ,bedfordshire4 ,fig4 #h4 ,portion of a very large species of ,perna 7,perna maxillata1 of ,sowerby71 from tertiary strata4 ,piedmont4 ,the figure shows the inner surface of the shell with part of the broad crenulated hinge4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lxvii4 ,,plate ,,lxvii4 ,fossil ,shells of ,brachiopoda1 c4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a species of ,radiolites 7,r4 agariciformis1 of ,m4 ,d',orbigny71 from the ,cretaceous strata of ,france4 ,this genus is only known in a fossil state2 it belongs to the same group of shells 7order1 ,rudistes7 as the ,spherulites and ,hippurites3 the lower valve is conical1 and much larger than the upper1 which is slightly convex2 it is deeply channelled longitudinally4 ,fig4 #b4 ,smooth valve of a species of ,corbula 7,corbula gallica1 of ,lamarck72 abundant in some of the ,eocene deposits of the ,paris basin4 ,fig4 #c4 ,a single valve2 the inner surface is shown in the figure1 of a remarkable genus of shells 7,crania personata1 of ,lamarck71 frequently occurring attached to ,echinites and other bodies of the white chalk4 ,fig4 #d4 ,a species of ,terebratula 7,t4 diphya1 of ,lamarck74 ,the shells of this genus belong to that division of mollusks termed ,brachiopoda 7arm-feet71 from their having internally two spiral fleshy arms developed from the sides of the alimentary orifice4 ,these organs are supported by shelly processes1 curiously modified in different genera1 which often occur in a fossil state4 ,although the fossil ,terebratul are very numerous1 the recent species are but few1 and are inhabitants of the seas off ,australia4 ,they form two natural groups2 in the one the shells are smooth1 but perforated all over with minute openings or foramina2 and these are often filled with a dark substance1 which is the carbonized soft parts3 in the other division the shells are plicated or furrowed1 and are not foraminiferous4#fb ,the ,spirifers1 another group of ,brachiopoda1 have a pair of internal spiral appendages4 ,footnote #fb3 ,on the structure of shells the reader should consult the admirable papers of ,dr4 ,carpenter1 in the ,british ,association ,reports4 ,fig4 #e4 ,terebratula coarctata1 of ,parkinson4 ,bradford clay1 ,wilts4 ,figs4 #f1 #g1 show the internal structure of recent ,terebratul from ,new ,holland4 ,the complicated shelly apophyses which supported the arms are quite perfect4 ,fig4 #h4 ,terebratula triquetra1 of ,parkinson 7,t4 diphya1 of ,lamarck72 another example of the species1 fig4 #d4 ,figs4 #i1 #aj4 ,different parts of the same specimen of a brachiopodous bivalve belonging to the genus ,productus1 so named from the lengthened or produced form of the convex valve4 ,this is generally filled with limestone1 which conceals the internal structure2 but1 with a slight blow1 the shell divides1 when the edge of the small valve rests against the inside of the produced cylindrical part of the larger one2 generally about half an inch from the top of the shell3 one side of the valve1 before hidden1 fig4 #i a1 is then exposed1 as shown in fig4 #aj4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #i4 a1 the beak of the upper valve2 c1 a cavity in the superior part of the shell4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,the under part of the shell2 b1 a depression receiving the beak of the upper valve1 a4 ,fig4 #aj994 ,the inner surface of another upper valve1 having a longitudinal fissure4 ,the species figured is the ,productus ,martini of ,mr4 ,sowerby4 ,from the mountain limestone of ,derbyshire2 in which deposit numerous examples occur4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a large species of ,spirifer 7,spirifer striatus1 of ,sowerby71 from the mountain limestone of ,derbyshire4 ,in this species the upper valve is broken away1 and one of the large spiral apophyses is seen lying imbedded in the limestone with which the cavity of the shell is filled4 ,fig4 #ac1 is a beautiful example of part of one of the spiral appendages of the same species4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,a patch of square scales of a fish from ,dorsetshire4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,these evidently belong to a ,lepidoid fish 7,dapedius71 whose remains are common in the ,lias2#fc perfect specimens are often obtained4 ,the ,british ,museum contains some beautiful examples of this fossil fish4 ,footnote #fc3 ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ebi4 ,figs4 #ad1 #ae4 ,a curious fossil bivalve1 from the ,devonian strata of the ,eifel4 ,the flat valve is shown in fig4 #ad2 and the deep conical valve in fig4 #ae2 a1 tooth in the posterior margin2 b1 a part of the surface magnified1 to show its cellular structure4 ,the species is ,calceola sandalina1 of ,lamarck4 ,fig4 #af4 ,a species of ,spirifer2 a1 medial convexity of the upper valve2 b1 the triangular foramen at the beak4 ,fig4 #ag4 ,spirifer 7,s4 cuspidatus1 of ,mr4 ,martin71 from the ,mountain limestone of ,derbyshire4 ,fig4 #ah1 represents a common appearance in certain chalk flints4 ,although ,i have examined hundreds1 and some in which the form was more definite than in the specimen figured1 ,i am not able to offer any probable suggestion as to their origin1 should they be organic bodies1 of which there is much doubt4 ,fig4 #ai4 ,coronulites diadema4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,probably a species of ,balanus1 from a tertiary deposit4 ,fig4 #bj4 ,cast of one of the shells of a bivalve 7,pentamerus71 from the ,wenlock limestone of ,dudley4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lxviii4 ,,plate ,,lxviii4 ,fossil ,crustacea4 ,figs4 #a1 #c4 ,fossil ,crabs1 from ,sheppey4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,the ,london clay of this celebrated locality contains an abundance of the fossil remains of ,crustacea2 and the visitor may purchase of the local collectors fossil crabs and lobsters1 as readily as the recent species from the neighbouring sea4 ,good specimens are however rare1 and command high prices4 ,the specimens figured are two common species4 ,fig4 #a4 ,cancer ,leachii1 of ,,mm4 ,desmarest and ,brongniart4 ,fig4 #c4 ,inachus ,lamarckii4 ,these fossils show the usual mode in which the crustace occur in the hardened clay of ,sheppey4 ,the thorax is bent over the abdomen1 and the pair of large chelate claws drawn towards each other4 ,fig4 #b4 ,fossil ,insects from the lithographic stone of ,pappenheim4 a1 an insect with a bifurcated caudal extremity2 b1 the sting which has passed out of its sheath2 c1 the termination in a single point4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #d4 ,a fossil ,shrimp1 from ,anspach4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #e4 ,impression of an unknown fossil4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #f4 ,the claw of a ,crab1 from ,maestricht1 c4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,claws of this kind are frequent in the soft sandy limestone of ,st4 ,peter's ,mountain1 but no other vestiges of the ,crabs to which they belonged have been met with4 ,the cause of this has been ascertained3 the claws belong to a species of ,hermit ,crab 7,pagurus ,faujasii1 of ,desmarest71 which like the living species had the body covered by a delicate membrane1 the claws only possessing a durable crustaceous shell4#fd ,footnote #fd3 ,wonders of ,geology1 p4 #cch4 ,fig4 #g4 ,an extended trilobite1 from ,dudley4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,among the organic remains of the inhabitants of the seas1 in whose abysses were formed the ,silurian1 ,devonian1 and other ancient sedimentary strata1 an extinct family of crustaceans1 comprising numerous genera1 are among the most characteristic and remarkable4 ,the name ,trilobite1 first given by ,mr4 ,parkinson1 expresses the most obvious character of the longitudinally trilobed1 convex1 segmented1 carapace of the body1 of the most common forms2 but so great is the number of species1 and so dissimilar the groups1 now known1 that the nomenclature of this class of fossils is greatly extended4 ,in ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,murchison's splendid work on the ,silurian ,system1 the genera and species of the formations therein comprised are beautifully illustrated4 ,the specimen figured is an expanded specimen of the species commonly known as the ,dudley ,locust or ,insect1 7,calymene ,blumenbachii71 from the ,wenlock limestone1 ,dudley4 ,fig4 #h4 ,a coiled-up specimen2 in this view are seen both ends of the crustaceous covering of the animal3 a1 the eye enlarged4 ,fig4 #i1 is part of the head of the same species4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,a fossil ,crab from the ,east ,indies4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,beautiful specimens of this species of ,crab 7,gonoplax ,latreilli1 of ,mr4 ,edwards7 have been obtained from the tertiary strata of ,india4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,another form of ,trilobite 7,ogygia ,buchii1 7,asaphus17 of the ,silurian ,system71 from the ,llandeilo flagstones4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,remains of some large unknown insect4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,this figure is not sufficiently defined to admit of interpretation4 ,fig4 #ac41 ,part of a trilobite with tuberculated head1 7,calymene variolare17 from the ,wenlock limestone1 of ,dudley4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,posterior part of a trilobite with a caudal style or process1 7,asaphus caudatus17 from the ,wenlock shale1 ,dudley4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,a nodule of ironstone from ,coalbrook ,dale1 in which is imbedded a small crustacean allied to the recent ,king ,crab or ,limulus2 a genus abundant in the seas of ,india and ,america4#fe 7,limulus trilobitoides1 of ,dr4 ,buckland4 ,bellinurus bellulus1 of ,mr4 ,knig47 ,footnote #fe3 ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 i4 p4 #eej4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lxix4 ,,plate ,,lxix4 ,fossil ,fishes and ,reptiles4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a fossil body resembling part of a ,tortoise1 from ,gloucestershire4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,this specimen is probably one of the mandibles of a remarkable extinct genus 7,ceratodus7 of fishes1 whose dental organs1 like those of the recent ,chimra1 consisted of consolidated plates instead of separate teeth2 each side of the jaw was formed by one of these mandibular processes2 the upper margin is deeply undulated4 ,the bone-bed of the ,lias at ,aust ,cliff near ,westbury1 ,somersetshire1 is rich in these remains4 ,fig4 #b4 ,the plastron1 or inferior aspect of the carapace of a fossil ,turtle 7,chelonia breviceps71 from the ,london ,clay of the ,isle of ,sheppey4 a1 fragment of the entosternal plate2 b1 b1 hyosternal plates2 c1 c1 hyposternals2 d1 xiphisternals4#ff ,footnote #ff3 ,see ,parkinson1 p4 #bfi4 ,fig4 #c4 ,the cranium of the same species of ,turtle1 from the ,isle of ,sheppey4 ,equally rich in the remains of ,chelonian reptiles1 as in those of ,fishes1 ,crustaceans1 ,serpents1 and ,mollusks1 the little ,island at the mouth of the ,medway has yielded to the indefatigable researches of ,mr4 ,bowerbank the most extensive series of fossil ,turtles hitherto discovered in ,england4 ,the various genera and species will be figured and described in a work now in progress by ,professors ,bell and ,owen1 under the auspices of the ,palontographical ,society4 ,fig4 #d4 ,a ,serpula 7,s4 antiquata 871 from the chalk1 ,sussex4 ,fig4 #e4 ,a dorsal vertebra of a fossil crocodilian reptile 7,steneosaurus71 from the ,oxford ,clay of ,honfleur4 a1 b1 costal depressions4 ,fig4 #f4 ,a dorsal convexo-concave vertebra of a crocodilian or gavial-like reptile 7,streptospondylus71 from the same locality4 ,this figure shows the remarkable character whence the name of this genus3 the convexity of the body of the vertebra 7a7 being situated anteriorly as in mammalia1 the reverse of the position of the bones forming the vertebral column in the existing ,crocodilians and ,lacertians4 b1 the posterior concavity2 c1 a deep depression beneath the neural arch4 ,fig4 #g4 ,sketch of the lower jaw of an extinct gavial-like reptile 7,steneosaurus73 the vertebra1 fig4 #e1 probably belongs to the same species4 ,from ,honfleur4 ,this figure1 and figs1 #e1 #f1 and #h1 are copied from ,cuvier1 ,annales du ,musum ,fig4 #h4 ,a caudal vertebra of the ,fossil ,animal of ,maestricht 7,mosasaurus72 a1 the chevron bone or inferior spinous process 7hmapophysis71 anchylosed to the middle of the body of the vertebra4 ,fig4 #i4 ,fossil scale of a ganoid fish 7probably ,lepidotus71 from ,kent4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,fossil tooth of a fish of the ,shark family 7,notidanus microdon1 of ,agassiz17 from the chalk of ,kent4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,recent tooth of one of the ,dog-fish1 7,mr4 ,parkinson17 for comparison with fig4 #aj4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,tooth of an extinct group of squaloid fishes 7,ptychodus decurrens1 of ,agassiz17 from the chalk of ,kent4#fg ,footnote #fg3 ,see ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fag4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,a ctenoid 7or comb-like7 scale of a fish1 7probably of a species of ,beryx17 from the chalk of ,kent4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lxx4 ,,plate ,,lxx4 ,fossil ,reptiles and ,fishes4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a reduced figure of the celebrated specimen of the jaws1 c4 of the ,fossil ,animal of ,maestricht1 7,mosasaurus ,hoffmani17 from the cretaceous strata of ,st4 ,peter's ,mountain4 ,see ,supplementary ,notes1 art4 ,mosasaurus4 a1 b4 ,the left side of the lower jaw1 nearly whole1 and seen on its outer side4 c1 d4 ,right side of the lower jaw1 viewed on the inner side1 the posterior part of which1 a little concealed by the palate bones1 is continued to e4 f1 g4 ,the right side of the upper jaw1 seen on its inner side1 and with the palate bone4 ,this part is nearly in its natural position in relation to the corresponding ramus of the lower jaw4 h1 i4 ,a fragment of the left side of the upper jaw1 displaced and fallen across the lower jaw4 k1 l1 m2 k'1 l'1 m'1 o'4 ,the two palate bones displaced and thrown one over the other1 and also over the right side of the lower jaw4 ,in the original specimen a portion of bone is placed from m to p1 and another at q1 which are omitted to render the figure more intelligible4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,figs4 #b to #ah1 are fossil teeth of various kinds of fishes1 principally of the ,shark and ,ray families4 ,fig4 #b4 ,tooth of a shark 7,lamna71 from ,malta4 ,fig4 #c4 ,tooth of a shark 7,galeus pristodontus71 chalk marl1 ,kent4 ,fig4 #d4 ,tooth of a ,saurian1 the upper and lower end imperfect3 probably of a species of ,steneosaurus1 from ,bath4 ,figs4 #e1 #h4 ,teeth of a shark 7,otodus17 ,london ,clay1 ,isle of ,sheppey4 ,fig4 #f4 ,tooth of a fish1 7,spherodus17 from the ,oolite1 ,gloucestershire4 ,fig4 #g4 ,part of the fossil jaw with three rows of teeth of a fish1 7of the ,pycnoid#fh family17 from the ,oolite1 ,gloucestershire4 ,footnote #fh3 ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fda4 ,fig4 #i4 ,tooth of a species of ,lamna1 from ,sheppey4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,tooth of a species of ,hybodus1#fi ,stonesfield4 ,footnote #fi3 ,ibid4 p4 #fba4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a very large tooth of a ,shark1 7,carcharias megalodon17 from the tertiary deposits of ,malta4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,fragment of a bone1 with two teeth1 probably of a species of ,pycnodus4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,the mandible and tooth of a recent fish 7,diodon71 to compare with the fossils figs4 #af1 and #ag4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,fossil palate of a fish1 from ,sheppey4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,this evidently belonged to a species of ,ray2 possibly to the ,eagle rays 7,miliobatis74 ,fig4 #ae4 ,tooth of a fish allied to the ,cestracionts1 or ,port ,jackson ,shark1 7probably of the genus ,acrodus1#gj7 from ,bath2 commonly called ,leech palates by the quarry-men4 ,footnote #gj3 ,medals of ,creation1 p4 #fad4 ,figs4 #af1 #ag4 ,fossil palates of fishes of the ,ray kind1 from ,sheppey4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,these appear to belong to the ,miliobates 7,m4 micropleuris1 of ,agassiz74 ,beautiful examples of these fossils have been obtained from the ,bracklesham clay1 on the coast of the ,west of ,sussex4 ,the late ,frederic ,dixon1 ,esq4 of ,worthing1 whose untimely death is so much to be deplored1 had a matchless suite of specimens from that locality4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,a fine specimen of a fossil tooth of a fish of an extinct genus1 of which many species occur in the chalk 7,ptychodus polygurus1 of ,agassiz74 ,the teeth of various species of this genus of ,sharks abound in the chalk of almost every part of ,england4#ga ,footnote #ga3 ,ibid4 p4 #faf2 and plate vi4 fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lxxi4 ,,plate ,,lxxi4 ,fossil ,remains of ,mammalia4 ,fig4 #a4 a fossil tooth1 probably of some animal of the whale kind4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,i am not able to determine the nature of this specimen4 ,fig4 #b4 ,the antlers and skull of the ,fossil ,elk1 of ,ireland1 7,megaceros ,hibernicus47 ,the original was nearly eleven feet across1 from the point of one antler to another4 ,a perfect skeleton of this extinct gigantic deer is exhibited in the ,gallery of ,organic ,remains in the ,british ,museum4 ,for an account of this animal see ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 i4 p4 #acb2 and ,supplementary ,notes1 p4 #ahi4 ,the following measurements of the specimen figured are given by ,mr4 ,parkinson2 ,feet4 ,inches4 a to b #aj #aj c to d #e #b e to f #c #g g to h #b #f i to k #a #aj d to l #a #b ,diameter of the horn at m #j #b ,circumference1 #j #h at the root #b #aa ,length of the cranium from n to o #b #j ,width p to q #a #j ,a similar pair1 found ten feet under ground in the county of ,clare1 was presented to ,charles the ,second1 and placed in the guard-room of ,hampton ,court ,palace4 ,fig4 #c4 ,fragment of the fossil horn of some species of ,cervus or ,deer1 from ,etampes1 in ,france4 ,fig4 #d4 ,two teeth of a ruminant1 7a species of ,bos or ,ox17 in breccia1 from ,gibraltar4#gb ,footnote #gb3 ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 i4 p4 #ahf4 ,the remaining figures4 ,figs4 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 represent the worn surfaces of molars or grinding teeth of the extinct species of ,elephants termed ,mammoths1 7,elephas primigenius1 of ,m4 ,bojanus47 ,fig4 #i1 shows the structure of part of the tooth4 ,these were regarded by ,mr4 ,parkinson as referable to two or more species of ,mammoth2 but ,professor ,owen1 after an examination of the vast number of specimens that modern researches have brought to light1 and which are deposited in the public and private collections of ,great ,britain1 concludes that the specimens here figured belong to but one species4 ,the differences observable in the surface of the crowns1 are due to abrasion1 and to the latitude of variety to which the highly complex molars of this extinct ,elephant were subject4#gc ,footnote #gc3 ,british ,association1 ,report for #ahdc4 ,fossil ,mammalia1 p4 #bac4 ,for an account of the ,mastodon and ,mammoth1 see ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 i4 pp4 #aea-afa4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lxxii4 ,,plate ,,lxxii4 ,fossil ,teeth of ,mammalia4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a right lower molar tooth of an extinct species of ,hippopotamus 7,h4 major1 of ,cuvier71 from ,france4 ,fig4 #b4 ,upper molar of an extinct species of ,rhinoceros 7,r4 leptorhinus1 of ,cuvier71 from the bone-cave near ,torquay1 ,devonshire4 ,fig4 #c4 ,the crown of a molar tooth of the gigantic ,tapir of ,baron ,cuvier2 the ,dinotherium of ,m4 ,kaup4#gd ,footnote #gd3 ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 i4 p4 #agd4 ,fig4 #d1 the outer1 and fig4 #e1 the inner1 surface of the fourth molar of ,palotherium medium1 of ,m4 ,cuvier4--,mr4 ,parkinson4 ,from the eocene tertiary deposits of ,paris4 ,fig4 #f1 the outer1 and fig4 #g1 the inner1 aspect of an upper molar of the same animal4 ,figs4 #h1 #i4 ,lower molars of ,amplotherium commune1 of ,m4 ,cuvier4#ge ,footnote #ge3 ,ibid1 p1 #bef4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,an ungueal or bone of the claw1 of a gigantic animal of the ,sloth tribe 7,megalonyx ,jeffersoni72 the figure is half the linear diameter of the original4#gf ,footnote #gf3 ,ibid4 p4 #afi4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,vertical section of a tooth of the same4 ,these remains of a colossal animal of that remarkable group of mammalia--the ,edentata--are from ,big-bone ,cave1 in ,kentucky4 ,the ,megalonyx resembled the ,megatherium in its general characters but was one-third smaller4 ,see ,supplementary ,notes1 p4 #ahd4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lxxiii4 ,,plate ,,lxxiii4 ,megatherium and ,fossil ,bears4 ,fig4 #a1 is a sketch1 on a very small scale1 of the skeleton of a colossal extinct animal of the ,sloth tribe1 discovered in the alluvial deposits of the ,pampas1 and preserved in the museum at ,madrid4 ,a plaster model of a skeleton1 restored from the remains of various individuals1 dispersed in different collections1 is just completed1 and exhibited to the public in the ,gallery of ,organic ,remains of the ,british ,museum4#gg ,this extinct animal is named the ,megatherium 7gigantic wild animal7 ,cuvieri4 ,it was seven feet high1 and nine long1 and therefore larger than the largest rhinoceros4 ,it possessed no incisor teeth2 and the grinders1 which are seven inches long1 are of a prismatic form1 and like those of the sloths1 are composed of dentine and cement4 ,they are so formed that the crown always presents two cutting1 wedge-shaped1 salient angles2 they are therefore admirably adapted for cutting and bruising vegetable substances4 ,the entire fore-foot is about a yard in length1 and armed with strong claws4 ,the ,megatherium held an intermediate place between the sloths1 armadillos1 and ant-eaters4 ,the celebrated specimens of different parts of the skeleton of this colossal creature1 preserved in the ,hunterian ,museum of the ,college of ,surgeons of ,england1 were collected and presented by ,sir ,woodbine ,parish4 ,footnote #gg3 ,see ,wonders of ,geology1 pp4 #afd-afg4 ,fig4 #b4 ,the hindmost grinder of the upper jaw of the ,fossil ,bear 7,ursus spelus7 of the ,caverns1 from ,gaylenreuth4#gh ,footnote #gh3 ,ibid4 vol4 i4 p4 #agf4 ,fig4 #c4 ,the middle upper grinder4 ,fig4 #d4 ,the foremost upper grinder4 ,fig4 #e4 ,the hindmost grinder of the lower jaw4 ,fig4 #f4 ,the penultimate grinder of the lower jaw4 ,fig4 #g4 ,the antepenultimate lower grinder4 ,fig4 #h4 ,the foremost lower grinder4 ,fig4 #i4 ,the canine tooth of the ,fossil ,bear4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lxxiv4 ,,plate ,,lxxiv4 ,tooth of the ,mastodon4 ,a molar tooth of the ,mastodon giganteus1 from ,big-bone ,lick1 ,kentucky2 of the natural size4 ,from the great number of bones and teeth of animals of the extinct elephantine genus1 to which the name of ,mastodon was given by ,cuvier 7from the structure of the crowns of the teeth71 that have of late years been brought to ,england1 and are dispersed in our public and private collections1 the intelligent reader must be familiar with the forms1 characters1 and gigantic proportions1 of that stupendous tribe of animals which once ranged through the primeval forests not only of ,america1 but also of some parts of ,europe4 ,from a perfect skeleton lately set up in the ,british ,museum 7in the same room with that of the ,megatherium71 a correct idea may be obtained of this peculiar type of mammalian structure4 ,from this specimen it appears that the great ,mastodon of the ,ohio was not unlike the elephant ,in its general outline1 though somewhat longer and thicker4 ,it had a trunk or proboscis1 tusks which curved upward1 and four molar teeth in each jaw1 but no incisors4 ,but another remarkable peculiarity1 and which entirely separates the ,mastodon from the ,elephant1 is that the young animal had a pair of tusks1 placed horizontally in the lower jaw1 and of these tusks one only became developed1 and that in the adult male3 both were early shed in the female4 ,in the midst of a collection of ,mastodon bones imbedded in mud1 a mass of small branches1 grass1 and leaves1 in a half bruised state1 and a species of reed common in ,virginia1 were discovered2 the whole appeared to have been enveloped in a sac1 probably the stomach of the animal4 ,in another instance traces of the proboscis were observed4 ,the tusks are composed of ivory1 and vary somewhat in the direction and degree of their curvature4 ,the bones of this colossal quadruped are found remarkably fresh and well preserved1 and are generally impregnated with iron4 ,no living instance of this creature is on record1 and there can be no doubt that its race has long since been extinct4 ,big-bone ,lick1 where so many remains of the ,mastodon and other extinct quadrupeds have been dug up1 is distant from ,cincinnati about twenty-three miles in a south-west direction4 ,this celebrated bog is situated in a nearly level plain1 in a valley bounded by gentle slopes1 which lead up to flat table-lands composed of blue argillaceous 7,silurian7 limestone1 and marl4 ,the general course of the meandering stream which flows through the plain1 is from east to west4 ,there are two springs on the southern or left bank1 rising from marshes1 and two on the opposite bank2 the most western of which1 called the ,gum ,lick1 is at the point where a small tributary joins the principal stream4 ,the quaking bogs on this side are now more than fifteen acres in extent2 but all the marshes were formerly larger1 before the surrounding forest was partially cleared away4 ,within the memory of persons now living1 the wild bisons or buffaloes crowded to these springs2 but they have retreated many years1 and are now as unknown to the inhabitants as the ,mastodon itself4 ,the bog in the spots where the salt springs rise is so soft1 that a pole may be forced down into it many yards perpendicularly4 ,the greater numbers both of the entire skeletons and the separate bones have been taken up from black mud1 about twelve feet below the level of the ,creek4 ,it is supposed that the bones of the mastodons found here could not have belonged to less than one hundred individuals3 those of the fossil ,elephant 7,elephas primigenius7 to twenty2 besides which a few bones of the ,megalonyx1 and of a species of stag1 horse1 and bison1 are stated to have been collected4 ,the greatest depth of the black mud has not been ascertained2 it is composed chiefly of clay1 with a mixture of calcareous matter and sand1 and contains #e parts in #ajj of sulphate of lime1 with some animal matter4 ,layers of gravel occur in the midst of it at various depths4 ,it contains remains of seeds1 and of several species and genera of fresh-water and terrestrial shells4 ,it is impossible to view this plain without at once concluding that it has remained unchanged in all its principal features1 from the period when the extinct quadrupeds inhabited the banks of the ,ohio and its tributaries4 ,there are two buffalo paths or trails still extant in the woods1 and both lead directly to springs3 the one which strikes off in a northerly direction from the ,gum ,lick1 may be traced eastward through the forest for several miles4 ,it is three or four yards wide1 and only partially overgrown with grass1 and sixty years ago was as bare1 hard1 and well trodden1 as a high road4 ,it is well known that during great droughts in the ,pampas of ,south ,america1 the horses1 deer1 and cattle1 throng to the rivers in such numbers1 that the foremost of the crowd are pushed into the stream by the pressure of others behind1 and are sometimes carried away by thousands1 and drowned4 ,in their eagerness to drink the saline waters and lick the salt1 the heavy mastodons and elephants seem in like manner to have pressed upon each other1 and sunk in the soft quagmires of ,kentucky4#gi ,footnote #gi3 ,extracted from ,sir ,charles ,lyell's ,travels in ,north ,america1 vol4 ii4 chap4 xvii4 #ahde4 ,,supplementary ,,notes4 ,i4 ,fossil ,bears of the ,caverns4 7,plate ,,lxxiii47 ,for many centuries certain caves in ,germany have been celebrated for their osseous treasures1 particularly those in ,franconia4 ,the most remarkable of these caverns is that of ,gaylenreuth1 which lies to the north-west of the village of that name1 on the left bank of the river ,wiesent1 on the confines of ,bayreuth4#hj ,the entrance to this cave is in the face of a perpendicular rock1 and leads to a series of chambers from fifteen to twenty feet high1 and several hundred feet in extent1 terminating in a deep chasm4 ,the cave is quite dark2 and the icicles and pillars of stalactite1 reflected by the light of the torches1 which it is necessary to use1 present a highly picturesque effect4 ,the floor is literally paved with bones and fossil teeth1 and the pillars and corbels of stalactite also contain similar remains4 ,the bones are generally scattered and broken1 but not rolled2 they are lighter and less solid than recent bones1 and are often incrusted with stalactites4 ,three-fourths of the bones belong to two species of bears 7,ursus71 the remainder to hynas1 tigers1 wolves1 foxes1 gluttons1 weasels1 and other small carnivora4 ,those belonging to bears are referable to two extinct species3 the largest has the skull more prominent on the front than any living species2 it is named ,ursus spelus1 or cavern bear2 the other has a flat forehead1 and is the ,ursus priscus of ,cuvier4 ,the ,hyena was allied to the spotted hyena of the ,cape1 but differed in the form of the teeth and skull4 ,bones of the ,elephant and ,rhinoceros are said to have been discovered1 together with those of existing animals1 and fragments of sepulchral urns of high antiquity4#ha ,footnote #hj3 ,see ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hfi1 for an interesting account of the present state of these caverns1 by my friend4 ,major ,willoughby ,montague4 ,footnote #ha3 ,dr4 ,buckland's ,reliquia ,diluviana contains a full account of the most remarkable ossiferous caverns and their contents4 ,similar ossiferous caves occur in ,england2 of these1 the most remarkable now accessible are ,kent's ,hole1 near ,torquay1 and ,banwell ,cave1 in the ,mendip ,hills1 near the village of ,banwell4 ,the latter may be easily visited1 as the ,exeter railway passes within three miles of the village1 and there is a station1 with vehicles to convey passengers to ,banwell4 ,,ii4 ,the ,belemnite4 7,plates ,,lix4 and ,,lx47 ,among the innumerable relics which abound in the secondary deposits1 there are perhaps no fossil bodies that have excited so much curiosity1 or given rise to so many fanciful conjectures as to their nature and origin1 as the long1 cylindrical1 fusiform1 crystalline stones1 called ,belemnites by naturalists1 and thunderbolts by common observers4 ,mr4 ,parkinson gives an amusing account 7vol4 iii4 p4 #abb7 of the discordant opinions entertained at various times respecting the nature of these bodies4 ,it would be irrelevant to dwell on the history of the successive attempts that have been made to elucidate the origin and structure of the ,belemnite4 ,it will suffice to describe concisely the present state of our knowledge as to the organization of the original4 ,mr4 ,miller1 in #ahbc1hb showed that the ,belemnite was the rostrum or osselet of an animal allied to the ,sepia1 or ,cuttle-fish1 and gave a restored outline of the supposed form of the original1 with the ,belemnite in its presumed natural situation4 ,dr4 ,buckland and ,m4 ,agassiz imagined that they had traced a natural connexion between certain species of ,belemnites that abound in the ,lias1 and the ink bag and other soft parts of the ,sepi or ,calamaries found associated with them2 and they suggested the name of ,belemno-sepia for the supposed animal of the ,belemnite1#hc ,footnote #hb3 ,geological ,transactions1 ,new ,series1 vol4 ii42 and ,dr4 ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,essay4 ,footnote #hc3 ,bridgewater ,essay1 p4 #cgd4 ,in #ahdb1 the late ,mr4 ,channing ,pearce described1 under the name of ,belemnoteuthis antiquus1 a naked 7destitute of a shell17 cephalopod1 which occurs in immense numbers in certain beds of the ,oxford clay1 especially at ,christian ,malford1 in ,wiltshire4 ,this animal has at the lower apical part a conical osselet of a horny substance1 and fibrous structure1 enclosing a chambered siphunculated shell1 which becomes gradually thinner at the upper part1 and forms a cup-like receptacle1 in which is placed the ink-bag4 ,the soft body of an elongated oval form1 with a pair of lateral palleal fins1 two large sessile eyes1 and with eight uncinated arms and a pair of long tentacula1 are preserved in a more or less distinct and perfect state in several specimens that have lately been discovered4 ,mr4 ,channing ,pearce1 ,mr4 ,cunnington1 and other collectors of these interesting remains1 were convinced that this cephalopod was entirely distinct from the animal to which the ,belemnite belonged4 ,in #ahdd1 ,professor ,owen laid before the ,royal ,society ,a description of certain ,belemnites preserved with a great proportion of their soft parts in the ,oxford clay1 at ,christian ,malford1 ,wilts4#hd ,in this memoir 7for which one of the royal medals of the ,society was awarded7 the author describes as the soft parts of the ,belemnite the remains of the animal which ,mr4 ,channing ,pearce had two years previously shown to belong to a different genus 7,belemnoteuthis74 ,belying on the correctness of ,professor ,owen's views1 ,i gave an abstract of this memoir in my ,medals of ,creation1 and stated that belemnites had been discovered with the osselet1 receptacle1 and ink-bag1 in their natural position1 and with remains of the mantle1 body1 fins1 eyes1 and the tentacula1 with their horny rings and hooks4#he ,footnote #hd3 ,philos4 ,trans4 ,part ,i4 #ahdd4 p4 #fe4 ,footnote #he3 ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dfg4 ,the discovery by my son 7,mr4 ,reginald ,neville ,mantell7 of some remarkably perfect specimens of belemnites in the ,oxford clay1 exposed in the railway works on which he was engaged1 near ,trowbridge1 in ,wilts1 led me to examine the structure of the ,belemnoteuthis with more attention than ,i had hitherto done1 as well as the evidence adduced by ,professor ,owen in proof that the fossil osselet1 the ,belemnite1 belonged to the same genus of cephalopoda4 ,i found that no specimen had been obtained in which the phragmocone1 or terminal chambered part of the ,belemnoteuthis 7of ,pearce71 was situated in the alveolus of a ,belemnite2 but ,professor ,owen having assumed that the osselet of the former must have originally been protected by a rostrum1 or guard1 described the soft parts as belonging to the animal of the ,belemnite1 conceiving that the phragmocone of the ,belemnoteuthis was that of a ,belemnite that had slipped out of the guard4 ,in a communication to the ,royal ,society1 in #ahdh1 ,i demonstrated how utterly at variance with the facts were these conclusions1 and pointed out the essential distinctive characters that separated the two extinct genera1 so far as the specimens then discovered would warrant4#hf ,other illustrative examples of the ,belemnite have since been obtained2 and in a supplementary paper read before the ,royal ,society1 ,february #adth1 of the present year 7#ahej71 ,i have stated what appears to me to be the extent of our present knowledge of the organization of the ,belemnite4 ,i subjoin an abstract of that paper1 which embodies the result of an examination of many hundred specimens of ,belemnites and ,belemnoteuthites4 ,the annexed outline1 or diagram1 shows the known structures of the ,belemnite2 of the soft parts of the animal1 a few imperfect carbonaceous traces1 apparently of the mantle1 around and between the shelly processes of the upper part of the phragmocone1 are the only vestiges ,i have been able to detect4 ,the most perfect ,belemnite hitherto discovered consists of1 ,footnote #hf3 ,philos4 ,trans4 #ahdh1 p4 #aga4 ,illustration #a4 ,an external ,capsule 7e7 which invested the osselet or sepiostaire1 and extending upwards1 constituted the external sheath of the receptacle4 #b4 ,the ,osselet1 characterized by its fibrous radiated structure1 terminating distally in a solid rostrum or guard 7i71 having an alveolus1 or conical hollow 7g71 to receive the apical portion of the chambered phragmocone1 and expanding proximally into a thin cup1 which became confluent with the capsule1 and formed the receptacle 7b1 b17 for the viscera4 #c4 ,the ,phragmocone 7d71 or chambered1 siphunculated 7c71 internal shell2 the apex of which occupied the alveolus 7g7 of the guard1 and the upper part constituted a capacious chamber1 from the basilar margin of which proceeded two long1 flat1 testaceous1 processes 7a1 a174 ,these structures comprise all that are at present known of the animal to which the fossil commonly called ,belemnite1 belonged4 ,of the ,belemnoteuthis1 the cephalopod which ,professor ,owen considers to be a ,belemnite1 many examples of the body with eight uncinated arms and a pair of long tentacula1 and with an ink-bag1 and palleal fins1 have been discovered4 ,the osselet of this animal1 like that of the ,belemnite1 has a fibro-radiated structure1 investing a conical chambered shell2 but this organ1 for reasons fully detailed in the memoir1 could never have been contained within the alveolus of a ,belemnite4 ,no certain evidence has been obtained of the occurrence of an ink-bag in natural connexion with a ,belemnite4 ,diagram of the known ,structures of the ,belemnites ,puzosianus1 from ,trowbridge4 a1 a1 dorsal processes4 b1 b1 the receptacle4 c1 c1 the siphuncle4 d1 d1 the phragmocone4 e1 the capsule4 f1 the inferior end of the phragmocone4 g1 the alveolus of the guard4 h1 vertical section of the guard4 i1 the guard1 or rostrum of the osselet4 k1 sulcus1 or furrow1 on the ventral aspect of this species of ,belemnite4 l1 capsule1 or periostricum4 m1 the dorsal line4 n1 transverse section1 showing the fibrous radiated structure of the guard4 ,in the annexed outline the several parts are represented in their natural relative positions4 ,the capsule1 or most external investment1 7e7 is seen only in section1 being removed to expose the rostrum or guard 7the fossil body generally known as the ,belemnite74 ,the upper three-fourths of the rostrum are also taken away1 to show the phragmocone which it originally enveloped4 ,the straight transverse lines denote the chambers of the phragmocone2 the latter is seen extending downwards till it terminates in a point or apex2 that part of the cavity in the guard is called the alveolus4 ,the siphuncle1 or tube which extends through the entire series of chambers1 and is situated on the ventral margin1 is indicated at c1 c4 ,the dorsal processes 7a1 a7 are seen on their inner aspect at the upper part2 the diverging lines 7m7 between them indicate the impressions of the soft parts1 of which some traces remain4 ,,iii4 ,fossil ,remains of ,birds4--,the ,moa1 or ,dinornis of ,new ,zealand4 ,the bones of birds are of extreme rarity in a fossil state4 ,throughout the immense series of the palozoic and secondary formations--the accumulated sedimentary deposits of innumerable ages--no unquestionable indications of the existence of this class of highly organized beings have been brought to light4 ,in the ,triassic1 or ,new ,red argillaceous sandstones of the valley of the ,connecticut ,river1 in ,north ,america1 some very remarkable phenomena have1 however1 been discovered1 and which in the opinions of many eminent observers render it highly probable1 that at the period when these strata were deposited1 numerous birds1 some of colossal magnitude1 abounded on the then dry land4 ,when slabs of these sandstones are split asunder1 or exposed1 so as to exhibit the sedimentary surface which separates one layer from another1 the foot-prints of many species of bipeds are perceived deeply impressed on the stone1 and disposed in such manner as to prove that they are the tracks of animals that walked over the surface of the deposit when it was in a soft or plastic state4 ,the close analogy of these imprints to those of birds' feet1 not only in their general resemblance1 but also in the disposition of the tracks1 and in the relation of the distance of the stride1 and the depth and shallowness of the impressions1 to the size of the respective feet1 tends to corroborate the inference first enunciated by ,professor ,hitchcock1 and subsequently confirmed by other geologists1 that these mysterious markings on the rock1 are natural records of the existence of various tribes of birds during the ,triassic period2#hg but unfortunately the only certain evidence of the correctness of this opinion--remains of the skeletons--is wanting2 not a vestige of a vertebrated animal of a higher class than fishes and reptiles has been discovered4#hh ,footnote #hg3 ,travels in ,north ,america1 vol4 ii4 pl4 #g4 ,footnote #hh3 ,see ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eef4 ,ornithichnites1 or ,fossil ,footprints of ,birds2 ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 i4 p4 #hjh4 ,in the vast fluviatile formation--the ,wealden--of the south-east of ,england1 which abounds in the remains of terrestrial plants and reptiles1 many fragments of bones of such tenuity as to indicate that they belonged to animals capable of flight1 have from time to time been collected since my first discovery and announcement1 in #ahbb1 of supposed birds' bones in the strata of ,tilgate ,forest4 ,some of these relics were declared by ,baron ,cuvier1 and subsequently by ,professor ,owen1 to be unquestionably those of birds2 probably some species of waders4 ,but recent observations have rendered it doubtful whether all the specimens of this class from the ,wealden1 like those from ,stonesfield1 are not to be regarded as referable to flying reptiles 7,pterodactyles74#hi ,footnote #hi3 ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 i4 p4 #dch1 #ddj4 ,i still think it probable1 however1 that bones of birds will be detected among the ,wealden fossils4 ,in the chalk of ,kent several bones of a very large flying animal have been obtained from a quarry at ,burham1 near ,maidstone2 some of these are figured and described in ,professor ,owen's beautiful work on ,british ,fossil ,mammals and ,birds1 as those of a bird allied to the ,albatross2 but the occurrence in the same quarry of jaws with teeth1 and other undoubted remains of a gigantic ,pterodactyle1#ij and the absence in the specimens figured of osteological characters exclusively ornithic1 seem to support the conclusion that these also must be ascribed to flying reptiles4 ,footnote #ij3 ,these fossils are in the splendid museum of ,j4 ,s4 ,bowerbank1 ,esq4 of ,highbury ,grove1 ,islington4 ,in the most ancient tertiary strata unquestionable vestiges of birds occur2 in the ,sub-,himalaya eocene deposits1 they are associated with bones of the extinct elephantine mammalia of ,india2 in those of the ,paris basin with the remains of the ,palotheria1 c4 ,in the miocene and pliocene formations1 the bones and even egg-shells of several species and genera have been detected4 ,the remains of birds1 however1 even in comparatively recent deposits1 were of such rare occurrence as to be ranked by the collector of fossils among the most precious of his acquisitions2 but a few years ago1 a most extraordinary discovery in our ,antipodean colony4 ,new ,zealand1 astonished and delighted the palontologist1 by placing before him hundreds of bones of numerous extinct genera of birds1 some of which far exceed in magnitude those of the most gigantic living species1 the ,ostrich4 ,in various localities of the maritime districts of ,new ,zealand1 there had been observed in the beds of rivers and streams1 fossil bones of birds of colossal magnitude1 belonging to many species and several genera1 associated with similar relics of smaller species4 ,these bones had attracted the attention of the natives long ere the country was visited by ,europeans2 and traditions are rife among the ,new ,zealanders that this race formerly existed in great numbers1 and served as food to their remote ancestors4 ,they also believe that some of the largest species have been seen alive within the memory of man2 and even affirm that individuals still exist in the unfrequented and inaccessible parts of the interior of the country4 ,they call the bird ,moa1 and state that its head and tail were adorned with magnificent plumes of feathers1 which were worn by their ancient chiefs as ornaments of distinction4 ,nine years since1 a fragment of a thigh-bone of a bird larger than that of the ,ostrich was brought to ,england by ,mr4 ,rule1 and submitted to the examination of ,professor ,owen1 who pronounced it to belong to a gigantic bird of the ,struthious 7,ostrich7 order4 ,a few years afterwards several collections of vertebr1 bones of the extremities1 c4 were transmitted to ,england by ,messrs4 ,williams1 ,wakefield1 ,earle1 c41 which corroborated that opinion1 and proved that there formerly existed in the islands of ,new ,zealand1 colossal birds of a type distinct from any known in other parts of the world4 ,in #ahdf and #ahdg1 my eldest son1 ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell1 who has resided in ,new ,zealand several years1 made an extensive and highly interesting collection of these fossil remains1 which arrived in ,england in #ahdh4 ,this series contains skulls1 with the mandibles or beaks1 bones of other parts of the skeleton1 and portions of the egg-shells1 of several extinct species and genera of birds2 presenting remarkable deviations from the previously known types to which they are most nearly allied4 ,this valuable accession to our knowledge of the osteology of this extinct race of ,ostrich-like birds--some individuals of which must have attained a height of from ten to twelve feet--has yielded important results as to the form1 structure1 and economy1 of these colossal bipeds1 and the prevailing characters of the terrestrial fauna of ,new ,zealand in very remote periods4 ,the collection1 consisting of above #gjj specimens1 is now in the ,british ,museum3 it was obtained chiefly from a bed of menaccanite or titaniferous iron-sand1 that had evidently been washed down by torrents from the volcanic region of ,mount ,egmont2 that snow-capped ridge which forms so striking a feature in the physical geography of the ,north ,island1 and is the source of the fresh-water streams that discharge themselves into the ocean along the western shore4 ,the tract of sand from which my son dug up these relics1 is on the coast near the embouchure of a small river called ,waingongoro1 between ,wanganui and ,waimate4 ,that stream evidently once flowed into the sea far from its present course1 for lines of cliffs extend inland from the now dry sand-spit1 and bear marks of the erosive action of currents4#ia ,a few months since1 ,i received from my son another most interesting collection of fossil bones 7comprising above #ejj specimens71 chiefly obtained from the eastern shores of the ,middle ,island of ,new ,zealand1 when engaged as ,government ,commissioner for the settlement of native claims4 ,these were dug up from a morass of small extent1 lying in a little creek or bay at ,waikouaiti1 some twenty miles north of ,otago4 ,this swamp1 which is only visible at low water1 is composed of vegetable fibres 7apparently of the ,phormium tenax71 sand1 and animal matter4 ,the bones are of a deep brown colour1 and almost as fresh as if recently taken from a tar-pit4 ,among the specimens are crania and mandibles1 and bones of enormous size4 ,the most remarkable are the entire series of phalangeals1 and the two tarso-metatarsals1 7#bf in number17 of the right and left foot of the same individual bird 7,dinornis robustus71 which were found standing erect1 one a yard in advance of the other2 as if the bird had sunk into the mire1 and unable to extricate itself1 had perished on the spot4 ,these bones were carefully exhumed and numbered seriatim1 and are the only instances of the bones of the foot and metatarsus found in natural connexion2 they are1 consequently1 the first certain examples known of the structure of the feet of the colossal birds of ,new ,zealand4 ,the foot of the ,moa1 to which these bones belonged1 must have been #af inches long1 and #ah inches wide2 and the height of the bird about ten feet4 7,see the ,frontispiece47 ,footnote #ia3 ,i must refer for details to the ,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 ,no4 ,,xv4 ,august #ahdh4 ,it would extend this article far beyond the limits assigned to this work1 were ,i to attempt even a cursory account of all the facts and inferences connected with these discoveries4 ,the anatomical and physiological characters of many species and genera will be found in the admirable ,memoirs on the ,dinornis1 ,palapteryx1 ,notornis1 c4 by ,prof4 ,owen1 in the ,transactions of the ,zoological ,society4#ib ,footnote #ib3 ,i regret to state that the egg-shells1 and many highly interesting bones1 belonging to unknown genera of birds1 from ,rangatapu or ,waingongoro1 in my son's first collection1 remain undescribed4 ,my notes and observations on the geological position of the ossiferous deposits of the ,north ,island of ,new ,zealand1 derived from the sketches and letters of ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell1 are published in the ,geological ,journal2 those on his collection of fossils from the ,middle ,island will appear in the same publication in the course of the present year 7#ahej74 ,from the facts at present known as to the position of the ossiferous deposits of ,new ,zealand1 there is reason to conclude that they bear the same relation to the present state of the country1 as the alluvial loam and clay containing the bones of mammoths1 ,irish ,elks1 c4 to that of ,great ,britain4 ,i think we may safely infer that at a period geologically recent1 but historically very remote1 those islands were densely peopled by tribes of ostrich-like birds of species and genera which have long since become extinct2 that many species existed contemporary with the ,maories or native human inhabitants1 and that the last of the family were exterminated1 like the ,irish ,elk1 and the ,dodo1 by man4 ,if1 as the natives affirm1 some of the race still exist in the unfrequented parts of the country1 they are probably diminutive species1 like the ,apteryx or ,kivi-,kivi1 which is the only living representative known to naturalists1 of this once numerous tribe of colossal ,struthionid4 ,the only fossil osseous remains from ,new ,zealand not referable to birds are bones of two species of ,seals1 and one femur and a few other bones of a ,dog4 ,associated with the relics of the ,dinornis and other extinct genera1 and unquestionably coeval with them1 are crania1 mandibles1 and other bones1 of the living species of ,apteryx1 ,albatross1 ,penguin1 ,notornis1 ,nestor1 ,water-hen1 c4 ,the fragments of egg-shells of ,dinornis1 from ,rangatapu1 belong to three distinct types1 each of very large size2 my son1 to convey an idea of the magnitude of one egg1 of which he dug up a large portion1 says1 a gentleman's hat would make a capital egg-cup for it4 ,the markings on the surface of the shells bear a greater resemblance to those on the eggs of the ,rhea and ,cassowary than of the ,ostrich4 ,a remarkable fact mentioned by my son throws some light as to the comparatively recent extirpation of the ,moa4 ,in one spot the natives pointed out some little mounds covered with herbage1 as consisting of heaps of ashes and bones1 the refuse of the fires and feasts left by their remote ancestors4 ,upon digging into them1 a quantity of burnt bones was discovered3 these belonged to ,man1 ,moa1 and ,dog1 and were promiscuously intermingled4 ,these calcined bones present no traces whatever either of the earthy powder or manaccanite sand which the cells and pores of the fossil bones invariably contain4 ,if1 as the natives affirm1 these are the rejectamenta of the feasts of the aborigines1 the practice of cannibalism by the ,new ,zealanders must have been of very ancient date1 and could not have originated1 as ,professor ,owen supposed1 from the want of animal food in consequence of the extirpation of the colossal birds4 7,see ante1 p4 xi47 ,,iv4 ,botanical arrangement of ,fossil ,vegetables4--,mr4 ,artis1 in the ,introduction of his work1 offers some judicious observations as to the proper method in which the study of ,fossil ,botany should be pursued4 ,he remarks1 that from the imperfect state in which fossil vegetables are generally found1 the ordinary characters by which recent plants are referred to their congeners1 can scarcely ever be detected in them4 ,the sexual organs on which the systems of ,linnus and ,jussieu are founded1 and even the integuments of those organs while in the state of flowering1 have uniformly perished4 ,the external parts of the seed or fruit exist1 indeed1 in a fossil state1 but they are almost always insulated from the other organs4 ,if leaves are found1 it is almost certain that scarcely any portion of the stem will be attached to them2 if the external parts of a trunk1 then very rarely any vestiges of the branches and foliage4 ,and when traces of the internal structure can be discovered1 it is seldom that the external character of the stem remains4 ,in consequence of this deficiency of the essential characters on which the determinations of the botanist are founded1 there exists a necessity for examining more minutely and accurately than has yet been done1 the internal structure of recent plants2 their habits of growth1 the cicatrices or scars left on the stem by the leaves that are spontaneously shed1 the different appearances which their fruits exhibit in their various stages of development--all these points must be minutely studied before we can obtain any certainty as to the identity of fossil and living species of plants4 ,it is not by publishing detached and unconnected delineations and descriptions of fossil plants1 as they occasionally occur1 that the knowledge of them can be considerably promoted4 ,a systematic arrangement must be formed2 and the first step to this is the accurate determination of the species4 ,hoc opus1 hic labor est4 ,it will be seen1 he observes1 in the course of this work1 how easy it would be to imagine parts of the same specimen to be different species1 when they happen to be broken and dispersed4 ,i can confidently assert1 that in at least a thousand different specimens which ,i have had in my possession1 not more than a hundred distinct species can be recognised4 ,furthermore1 still fewer indeed can be referred to any living species2 for it is not the fern-like leaf of a plant1 the palm-like cicatrix1 or the cane-like joint of a stem1 that will suffice to identify them with those tribes of the vegetable kingdom4 ,the whole anatomy of the plant must be studied4 ,the subject has1 indeed1 been begun by ,professor ,martins1 in his comparison of certain fossil stems of plants with those of the living plants growing in the ,brazils1 but the study is as yet too new to afford certain results4 ,accordingly1 several of that professor's opinions are at variance with those of ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongniart1 who has also compared the recent and fossil vegetables together on this plan4 ,but by following up the comparison1 which has been so successfully adopted by ,baron ,cuvier1 in the study of fossil animals1#ic similar results may be expected1 and a knowledge of the extinct plants be at length attained4 ,footnote #ic3 ,recherches sur les ,ossemens ,fossiles4 ,mr4 ,artis then gives an abstract of the systems of ,baron ,schlotheim1 ,count ,sternberg1 ,professor ,martins1 and ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongniart1 which ,i am ,induced to subjoin as a useful record of the state of fossil botany twelve years ago3-- ,the ,baron ,schlotheim1 who published in #ahjd the first part of a ,flora der ,vorwelt1 followed up his researches of this kind by a catalogue of his cabinet1 under the title of ',die ,petrefactenkunde auf ihrem jetzigen ,standpunkte erlutert1' published in #ahbj1 to which two ,appendices have since been added in #ahbb and #ahbc4 ,the arrangement made by the ,baron1 so far as regards the vegetable part of his cabinet1 is as follows4 ,his specimens are first divided into five ,sections1 or ,orders3-- #a4 ,dendrolithes1 containing the remains of trees1 which are subdivided into three sub-sections4 ,a4 ,lithoxylites1 of which no characters are given1 but from the specimens mentioned by him1 he evidently arranges in this place the wood-stone and wood-opal of the mineralogists4 ,b4 ,lithanthracites1 in which are placed the bituminized stems1 and other parts of trees4 ,c4 ,bibliolithes4--,fossil leaves1 mostly of the later formations4 #b4 ,botanolithes4--,comprising those kinds of fossil plants which cannot be considered either as trees or shrubs1 nor as belonging to the plants of the old coal formation4 ,all the specimens belonging to the preceding sections are merely enumerated1 and not distinguished by generic and trivial names1 as is the case with the following4 ,phytotypolithes4--,fossil plants of the stone-coal formation4 ,these are divided systematically into genera and species4 ,the genera are as follow3-- a4 ,palmacites1 containing fifteen species4 b4 ,casuarinites1 five4 c4 ,calamites1 ten4 d4 ,filicites1 twenty-three4 e4 ,lycopodiolithes1 five4 f4 ,poacites1 four4 ,in the whole sixty-two species4 #d4 ,carpolithes4--,of which he enumerates fifteen species as present in his collection4 ,this division is considered as a genus1 as is also the next4 #e4 ,anthotypolithes4--,the cabinet contains only one species1 namely the ,anthotypolithes ranunculiformis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in #ahbj1 ,gaspard ,count ,sternberg published in ,german1 the first number of a work which has been translated by the ,comte de ,bray1 under the title of ,essai d'un ,expos ,geognostico-,botanique de la ,flore du ,monde ,primitif4 ,of this translation a second and third part appeared in #ahbc and #ahbd4 ,in these successive numbers the ,count has communicated the state of his knowledge as it grew up under his hands1 in consequence of his own labours and those of his friend1 ,baron ,schlotheim4 ,the genera1 as they are successively developed in the work1 are the following3-- #a4 ,lepidodendron4--,stem scaly2 the scales leaf-bearing1 surrounding the stem spirally4 ,in a subsequent number1 what are here called scales1 are denominated scale-like cicatrices4 ,this genus is subdivided in the first number into two sub-genera1 but this division is not noticed in the additional species quoted in the succeeding numbers4 ,lepidot4--,scales convex4 ,alveolari4--,scales sub-concave4 #b4 ,variolari4--,stem shield-bearing1 or warty2 shields leaf-bearing1 surrounding the stem spirally4 #c4 ,calamit4--,stem striated1 intercepted with sutures at the articulations4 #d4 ,syringodendron4--,stem arborescent1 in the form of pipes agglutinated together1 with naked glandules surrounding the stem spirally4 ,in the second number the following genera are given3-- #e4 ,rhytidolepis4--,stem arborescent1 streaked longitudinally with elevated wrinkles2 shields surrounding the stem spirally4 #f4 ,flabellaria4--,leaves part stalked1 divided and expanded like a fan4 #g4 ,schlotheimia4--,stem jointed1 contracted at the articulation1 verticillate4 #h4 ,annularia4--,leaves disposed in a whirl1 inserted in a proper ring4 #i4 ,nggerathia4--,stem as thick as a goose-quill2 leaves alternate1 approximate1 reverse-ovate1 half embracing the stem1 pectinato-toothed at the top1 the remainder of the edge uncut4 #aj4 ,osmunda4 ,this and the following have no generic characters #aa4 ,asplenium4 assigned to them1 the recent genera being referred to4 #ab4 ,rotularia4--,leaves verticillate1 expanded in the form of a small wheel4 ,the third number contains the following additional genera3-- #ac4 ,lepidolepis4--,scale-like cicatrices truncated at their top4 #ad4 ,thuites1 of which he gives no characters1 but refers to his figures4 #ae4 ,antholites4 #af4 ,carpolites4 #ag4 ,conites4--,fossil strobili4 #ah4 ,sphenopteris4 #ai4 ,polypodiolithus4 #bj4 ,myriophyllites4 #ba4 ,phyllites4 #bb4 ,algacites1 which the ,french translator1 on obtaining the opinion of ,professor ,agardh1 has changed into ,sargassum2 that celebrated algologist having considered it as identically the same as that genus of recent alg4 ,the genera thus successively established1 may be arranged in the following order3-- ,a4 ,fossil plants of unknown origin1 in which the stem is large1 and forms the only1 or at least the most prominent character2 including1 #a4 ,lepidodendron2 #b4 ,variolaria2 #c4 ,calamites2 #d4 ,syringodendron2 #e4 ,rhytidolepis2 #ac4 ,lepidolepis4 ,b4 ,fossil plants1 of unknown origin1 in which the leaves form the prominent character2 including1 #f4 ,flabellaria2 #g4 ,schlotheimia2 #h4 ,annularia2 #i4 ,nggerathia2 #ab4 ,rotularia4 ,c4 ,fossil parts of unknown plants2 including1 #ae1 ,antholites2 #af4 ,carpolites2 #ag4 ,conites4 ,d4 ,fossil plants1 or parts of plants referable to living types2 including1 #aj4 ,osmunda2 #aa4 ,asplenium2 #ad4 ,thuites2 #ah4 ,sphenopteris2 #ai4 ,polypodiolites2 #bj4 ,myriophyllites2 #bb4 ,algacites4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,november #ahba1 ,professor ,martins read to the ,botanical ,society of ,ratisbon1 a paper which was afterwards published in its ,memoirs for #ahbb4 ,this paper was entitled1 ,de ,plantis nonnullis ,antediluvianis ope specierum inter tropicos viventium illustrandis2 in it several of the species mentioned by ,baron ,schlotheim and ,count ,sternberg are referred to the orders and genera of recent plants2 and the following genera are proposed3-- #a4 ,filicites1 analogous to the ,arborescent ferns4 #b4 ,palmacites1 analogous to the ,palm4 #c4 ,bambusites1 analogous to ,bambusia1 and other arborescent grasses2 these are the ,calamites of other authors4 #d4 ,yuccites1 analogous to the ,cuciphor1 ,dracen1 ,pandani1 ,yucc1 and ,vellori1 of botanical writers4 #e4 ,cactites1 analogous to the ,cacti4 #f4 ,euphorbites1 analogous to the ,cereiform species of ,euphorbia4 #g4 ,lychnophorites1 analogous to ,lychnophora1 a genus of plants found by ,martius in ,brazil1 which belongs to the order of the ,composit1 and is allied to the ,vernoni of ,linnus and the ,pollalest of ,humboldt4 99 99 99 99 99 ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongniart has given the following classification of fossil plants1 in his ,essay ,sur la ,classification et la ,distribution de ,vgtaux ,fossiles inserted in the ,mmoires du ,musum d',histoire ,naturelle2 and also printed separately in quarto1 ,paris1 #ahbb3-- ,,stems4 ,class ,i4--,stems whose internal organization is recognisable4 #a4 ,exogenites4--,wood formed of regular concentric layers4 #b4 ,endogenites4--,wood composed of insulated bundles of vessels1 which are more numerous towards the circumference than at the centre4 ,class ,,ii4--,stems whose internal organization is no longer distinct1 but which are characterised by their external form4 #c4 ,culmites4--,stem jointed1 smooth2 a single impression at each articulation4#id #d4 ,calamites4--,stem jointed1 regularly striated2 impressions rounded1 small1 numerous1 forming a ring round each articulation1 or sometimes wanting4#ie #e4 ,syringodendron4--,stem channelled1 not jointed2 impressions dot-like or linear1 arranged in quincunx4#if #f4 ,sigillaria4--,stem channelled1 not jointed2 impressions in the form of disks1 arranged in quincunx4 #g4 ,clathraria4--,stem neither channelled1 nor jointed2 impressions in the form of rounded disks1 disposed in quincunx4#ig #h4 ,sagenaria4--,stem without joints1 or furrows1 covered with conical rhomboidal tubercles disposed in quincunx1 having at their upper extremity an impression in the form of a disk4#ih #i4 ,stigmaria4--,stem without joints1 or furrows2 impressions rounded1 distant1 disposed in quincunx4#ii ,footnote #id3 ,these stems appear to ,m4 ,brongniart to belong to the arborescent grasses1 to ,calamus or its allied genera4 ,footnote #ie3 ,m4 de ,candolle suggested to ,m4 ,brongniart that these stems belong to some plants of the natural order of ,equisetace4 ,footnote #if3 ,m4 ,brongniart considers these remains to belong to genera which are entirely extinct4 ,footnote #ig3 ,m4 ,brongniart shows in his paper the great agreement between these two genera1 and the stems of ferns1 in every respect excepting magnitude1 and considers them as evidently owing their origin to plants of that natural order rather than to the palms4 ,footnote #ih3 ,the stems of this genus are referable1 in the opinion of ,m4 ,brongniart1 to those of plants belonging to the family of ,lycopodiace1 notwithstanding the great difference of size between them and those of the recent plants of that natural order4 ,footnote #ii3 ,these stems1 ,m4 ,brongniart supposes1 belong rather to plants of the natural order of ,aroide1 than to the ,euphorbiace1 or to the ,palms to which they have been ascribed by other authors4 ,,foliage4 #aj4 ,lycopodites4--,leaves linear1 or setaceous1 without ribs1 or traversed by a single rib1 inserted all round the stem1 or in a double row4 ,this genus is subdivided into four sections1 as follow3-- a4 ,leaves narrow1 lanceolate1 inserted in a regular manner all round a stem having the characters of ,sagenaria4 b4 ,leaves setaceous1 inserted in a double row only2 stem not reticulated4 ,these he considers as the proper ,lycopodites4 c4 ,leaves broad1 without any apparent ribs1 inserted irregularly all round the stem4 ,these differ much from the rest of the genus4 d4 ,leaves blunt1 short1 closely applied to the stem4 ,class ,,iii4--#aa4 ,filicites4--,frond disposed on a flat surface1 symmetrical2 secondary rib simple1 forked1 or rarely anastomosing4 ,these are divided ,into five sub-genera3-- a4 ,glossopteris4--,frond simple1 not jagged1 traversed by a single mid-rib1 without distinct secondary ribs4 b4 ,sphenopteris4--,pinnules wedge-shaped1 rounded or lobed at the extremity2 ribs palmate or radiating from the base of the pinnule4 c4 ,neuropteris4--,pinnules rounded1 not lobed1 nor adhering to the rachis by their base2 ribs scarcely visible beyond the base1 in general very distinct1 and two-forked4 d4 ,pecopteris4--,frond pinnatifid2 pinnules adherent by their base to the rachis1 traversed by a mid-rib2 secondary ribs pinnate4 e4 ,odontopteris4--,pinnules adhering to the rachis by the whole of their base2 mid-rib none2 secondary ribs running out perpendicularly from the rachis4 #ab4 ,sphnophyllites4--,leaves verticillate1 wedge-shaped1 truncate2 ribs radiating1 two-forked4#ajj #ac4 ,asterophyllites4--,leaves verticillate1 with a single rib4#aja #ad4 ,fucoides4--,frond not symmetrical1 often disposed on a flat surface2 ribs none1 or badly defined4 #ae4 ,phyllites4--,leaves with ribs well defined1 repeatedly divided1 or anastomosing4#ajb #af4 ,poacites4--,leaves linear2 ribs parallel4 #ag4 ,palmacites4--,leaves fan-shape4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,m4 ,brongniart considers these to belong to some extinct genus of plants1 allied to1 although perfectly distinct from1 the recent genus ,marsilea4 ,footnote #aja3 ,these the author thinks are the remains of an extinct genus of plants4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,the character of the ribs here given belongs exclusively to leaves of plants of the dicotyledonous tribe2 as those of the next genus ,poacites equally restricts them to the other great tribe of monocotyledonous plants4 ,class ,,iv4 ,organs of fructification4 ,order ,i4 ,carpolithes4--,fruits or seeds4 ,order ,,ii4 ,antholithes4--,flowers4#ajc ,footnote #ajc3 ,these orders are too little known to be divided at present into genera4 ,the numerous additions and modifications1 which subsequent experience and discoveries have led ,m4 ,brongniart to introduce into his classification1 will be found in an article recently published 7#ahdi7 in the ,dictionnaire ,universel d',histoire ,naturelle1 under the title of ,tableau des ,genres de ,vgtaux ,fossiles1 considrs sous le point de vue de leur classification botanique et de leur distribution gologique4 ,v4 ,fossil ,cephalopoda1 ,nautilus1 ,ammonite1 c4--,the fossil remains of the molluscous animals1 named ,cephalopoda1 from their organs of prehension being arranged around the head or upper part of the body1 are the most ancient1 numerous1 and interesting1 of this class of animated nature in the mineral kingdom4 ,these relics are among the most varied and striking of the extinct beings that occur in the sedimentary strata1 from the most ancient secondary formations1 to the most recent tertiary4 ,the living species are but a feeble representation of the countless myriads which must have swarmed in the ancient seas4 ,the animal of the ,cephalopods is composed of a body1 which is either enclosed in a shell1 as in the ,nautilus1 or contains a calcareous osselet or support1 as in the ,sepia or ,cuttle-fish2 it has a distinct head1 and eyes as perfect as in the vertebrated animals1 with complicated organs of hearing1 and a powerful masticating apparatus1 surrounded by arms or tentacula4 ,below the head there is a tube which acts as a locomotive instrument1 to propel the animal backwards1 by the forcible ejection of the water that has served the purpose of respiration1 and which can be ejected with considerable force by the contraction of the body4 ,their fossil remains consist of the external shell and the internal osselet2 and in the naked tribes1 of the soft parts of the body1 the ink-bag1 c41 as noticed in the account of the ,belemnite and ,belemnoteuthis4 ,the shell varies exceedingly in the different genera4 ,in the group characterised by smooth septa1 and a medial or submedial siphuncle1 as the ,nautilus1 the earliest or most ancient type is straight1 as in the ,orthoceras 7,plate ,,lviii4 fig4 #ad7 of the palozoic formations2 the intermediate forms present various modifications of the spiral1 and terminate in the completely discoidal shell of the living genus2 while the other group1 that with sinuous or foliated septa and a dorsal siphuncle1 commences in a discoidal type--the ,ammonite1 which gradually passes through the various modifications of ,crioceras1 ,scaphites 7,plate ,,lxi4 fig4 #aj71 ,hamites 7,plate ,,lxi4 fig4 #c71 ,turrilites 7,plate ,,lxi4 fig4 #ab71 c42 and finally becomes extinct in the straight ,baculites 7,plate ,,lx4 fig4 #b74 ,in argillaceous strata1 as the ,kimmeridge and ,oxford clay1 ,london clay1 c41 the shells of ,cephalopoda are oftentimes beautifully preserved2 the chambers are frequently filled with the solid matrix1 but in many instances these cavities are lined either with brilliant pyrites or spar4 ,stony or sparry casts of the cells or chambers1 the shell having perished1 are another common state in which vestiges of these animals occur4 ,sometimes the cast of each chamber is isolated1 so as to present a series from the innermost to the outermost cell4 ,sections of those casts1 in which the chambers are filled up with spar1 constitute specimens of great beauty and interest4 ,the so-called snake-stones are1 of course1 mere casts of ,ammonites2#ajd those of ,whitby1 from the lias limestone1 are well known to every collector2 the casts of a very large species are common in the oolite1 especially at ,swindon1 in ,wiltshire1 and in the neighbourhood of ,bath4 ,,vi4 ,the ,carboniferous ,deposits1 or ,coal ,measures4--,the various deposits of ,coal have manifestly been formed under different local circumstances4 ,some have been peat-bogs1 to which repeated additions have been made by successive subsidences of the land2 others have been deposited at the bottom of lakes and rivers1 and these are associated with remains of fresh-water shells and ,crustacea2 others have accumulated in the abyss of the ocean1 having been formed by the drifting and engulfing of immense rafts of trees and other vegetable matter1 like those of the ,mississippi2 others in inland seas1 the successive layers of vegetables having been supplied by periodical land-floods4 ,there can be no doubt that coal has been1 and may be1 produced under all these conditions2 and at different periods1 and in various localities1 all these causes may have been in operation4 ,but the great series of ancient coal-formations present a remarkable uniformity of character1 not only throughout ,europe1 but also in ,america and other parts of the world4 ,a coal-field 7as a group of strata of this kind is commonly termed71 is generally composed of a series of layers of coal1 clay1 shale1 and sand1 of variable thicknesses1 based on grit or limestone1 abounding in marine shells and corals2 and the most remarkable phenomenon is the constant presence beneath every bed of coal1 of a thick stratum of earthy clay1 and of a layer of shale or slaty clay above it4 ,one of the series of triple deposits of which a coal-field consists1 presents therefore the following characters3-- #a4 ,under-clay2 the lowermost stratum4 ,this is a tough argillaceous earth or clay1 which on drying becomes of a grey colour1 and very friable2 it is occasionally black1 from an intermixture of carbonaceous matter4 ,this bed almost invariably contains an abundance of ,stigmari 7see ,plates ,,xxii4 ,,xxiii471 of considerable length1 with their rootlets attached1 and which extend in every direction through the clay 7as shown in the figures #a1 #b1 #f1 pp4 #aii1 #bja74 ,these roots commonly lie parallel with the planes of the stratum1 and nearer to the top than to the bottom4 #b4 ,coal4--,a carbonized mass1 in which the external forms of the plants and trees composing it are obliterated1 but the internal structure1 in many instances1 remains4 ,large trunks1 and stems1 and leaves1 are rarely found in it4 #c4 ,the ,roof1 or upper bed4--,this consists of slaty clay1 abounding in leaves1 trunks and branches1 fruit1 c42 it includes layers and nodules of ironstone1 inclosing leaves1 insects1 ,crustacea1 c4 ,in some localities beds of fresh-water shells1 in others of marine shells1 are intercalated with the shale2 finely laminated clay1 micaceous sand1 grit1 and pebbles of limestone1 sandstone1 c4 are also often interstratified4 ,the principal illustrative specimens of the leaves1 fruit1 c4 7as those in ,plate ,,xxx4 to ,plate ,,xxxiv47 are found in this bed4 ,thus an uninterrupted series of strata1 in which triple deposits of this kind are repeated1 7often thirty or forty times1 and through a thickness of several thousand feet17 constitutes the predominant character of the ancient coal formations wherever they have been explored4 ,the difficulties attending a satisfactory solution of this problem1 are fully stated in the last edition of my ,wonders of ,geology 7,vol4 ii4 ,lecture vii471 and to that work ,i must refer the reader for a more extended consideration of this highly interesting subject4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,see ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 ii4 chap4 i42 and ,thoughts on a ,pebble1 pp4 #bj1 #fi4 ,,vii4 ,coal4--,the numerous fossil plants from the carboniferous strata that are figured in this work1 render it necessary to put the general reader in possession of a concise view of the nature and mode of formation of those ancient accumulations of vegetable matter1 which now constitute the beds of mineral fuel termed coal4 ,although at the present time no one at all conversant with geology doubts the vegetable origin of ,coal1 the period is not distant when many eminent philosophers were sceptical on this point2 and the truth in this1 as in most other questions ,in natural philosophy1 was established with difficulty4 ,the experiments and observations of the late ,dr4 ,macculloch mainly contributed to solve the problem as to the vegetable origin of this substance2 and that eminent geologist successfully traced the transition of vegetable matter from peat-wood1 brown coal1 lignite1 and jet1 to coal1 anthracite1 graphite1 and plumbago4 ,nor must the important labours of ,mr4 ,parkinson in this field of research be forgotten4 ,the first volume of the ,organic ,remains of a former ,world1 which treats of vegetable fossils1 contains much original and valuable information on the transmutation of vegetable matter1 by bituminous fermentation1 into the various mineral substances in which its original nature and structure are altogether changed and obliterated2 and that work may still be consulted with advantage by the student4 ,but though the vegetable origin of all coal will not admit of question1 yet evidence of the original structure of the plants or trees whence it was derived is not always attainable4 ,the most perfect coal seems to have undergone a complete liquefaction1 and if any portions of the vegetable tissue remain1 they appear as if imbedded in a pure bituminous mass4 ,the slaty coal generally preserves traces of cellular or vascular tissue1 and the spiral vessels and dotted cells of coniferous trees may often be detected by the microscope4 ,in many instances the cells are filled with an amber-coloured resinous substance2 in others the organization is so well preserved1 that on the surface of a block of coal cracked by heat1 the vascular tissue1 and the dotted glands1 may be observed4 ,some beds of coal appear to be wholly composed of minute leaves or disintegrated foliage2 for if a mass recently extracted from the mine be split asunder1 the exposed surfaces are found covered with delicate lamin of carbonized leaves and fibres matted together2 and flake after flake may be peeled off through a thickness of many inches1 and the same structure be apparent4 ,rarely are any large trunks or branches observable in the beds of coal2 but the general appearance of the carboniferous mass is that of an immense deposit of delicate foliage shed and accumulated in a forest1 and consolidated by great pressure while undergoing that peculiar process by which vegetable matter is converted into carbon4 ,the essential conditions for the transmutation of vegetable substances into coal1 appear to be the imbedding of large quantities of recent vegetables beneath deposits which shall exclude the air1 and prevent the escape of the gaseous elements when released by decomposition from their organic combination2 hence1 according as these conditions have been more or less perfectly fulfilled1 coal1 jet1 lignite1 brown-coal1 peat-wood1 c4 will be the result4 ,,viii4 ,fossil ,corals4--,the real nature even of recent ,corals is in general so imperfectly understood by the intelligent reader who has not paid especial attention to the department of natural history which treats of the class of animated nature termed ,zoophytes1 that in describing the ,fossil ,corals ,in my ,wonders of ,geology1 ,i felt it necessary to devote one ,lecture to the consideration of ,corals and ,crinoidea1 in order to afford a popular exposition of the structure and economy of these highly ,interesting tribes of animal existence4#aje ,footnote #aje3 ,see ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 ii4 ,lect4 vi4 p4 #ehh4 ,a very prevalent error regarding their nature ,is1 that the beautiful stony substances generally called corals1 are fabricated by the animalcules which inhabit the cells when living1 in the same manner as is the honeycomb of the bee and wasp4 ,this opinion is utterly erroneous3 the coral is secreted by the integuments or membranes with which when recent it was invested and permeated2 in like manner as are the bones of the skeleton in the higher orders of animals by the tissues designed for that especial purpose1 and wholly without the cognisance or control of the creature of which they constitute the internal support4 ,a general idea of the nature of the compound coral-zoophytes may be obtained by the examination of the common ,flustra or ,sea-mat4 ,this form of polyparia1 when taken out of the water1 appears to the naked eye like a patch of fine varnished net-work1 adhering to a piece of sea-weed or stone2 when viewed with a magnifying lens of moderate power1 the surface is found beset with pores regularly disposed3 and if the ,flustra be examined while immersed in sea-water1 its surface is seen to be invested by a gelatinous substance1 and every pore is the aperture of a cell1 whence issues a tube fringed at the extremity with long tentacula or feelers4 ,these expand1 then suddenly contract1 withdraw into the cell1 and again issue forth3 the whole surface of the ,flustra being studded with the hydra-like animalcules2 each enjoying a distinct existence1 the entire group being united by one common integument or calcareous frame-work4 ,when the ,flustra is exposed to the air1 the polypes soon perish1 the animal matter rapidly decomposes1 and the calcareous lace-like skeleton alone remains4 ,in the larger and more compact corals the phenomena are similar1 differing only in degree4 ,in a fossil state1 the durable remains of the corals consist for the most part of the calcareous frame-work 7or polyparium1 as it is termed71 which often possesses a crystalline structure2 and in some instances is completely transmuted into silex1 as in specimens from ,antigua1 the ,falls of the ,ohio1 and from ,tisbury in ,wiltshire4 7,see ,plate ,,xxxviii4 figs4 #ab1 #ac47 ,i must refer to the ,wonders of ,geology for a more extended notice of fossil corals1 and other zoophytes1 and will only add that the calcareous and siliceous spines or spicula1 not only of sponges1 but also of ,gorgoni1 and other corals1 are often met with in a fossil state4#ajf ,footnote #ajf3 ,see ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 ii4 ,lect4 vi4 p4 #fcd4 ,,ix4 ,cuvier's ,discoveries4 ,the ,fossil ,quadrupeds of ,montmartre4 7,plate ,,lxxii47--,the ,palotheria1 ,anoplotheria1 and other genera of extinct quadrupeds related to the ,tapir1 whose remains were first noticed in the gypseous limestone of ,montmartre1 near ,paris1 and which have since been found in many other localities of the same strata1 are familiar to every one1 from the just celebrity attached to the labours of the illustrious ,cuvier1 who restored as it were these lost denizens of an earlier world1 in their native character and forms1 and distinguished them by names long since become classical in the sciences which treat of the ancient history of the earth and its inhabitants4 ,the gypsum quarries spread over the flanks of ,montmartre were many years since known to contain fossil bones of extinct quadrupeds1 and some of these had been figured and described in #agfh by ,guettard1 and afterwards by ,pralon1 ,lamanon1 and ,parumot3 but it was not till the attention of ,m4 ,cuvier was directed to the subject by some specimens put into his hands by ,m4 ,vuarin1 that the interest and importance of these fossils were understood4 ,the curiosity of ,baron ,cuvier was so much excited by an inspection of a large collection of these bones1 soon after he had been successfully engaged in the investigation of the remains of fossil ,elephants and ,mastodons1 that he immediately began to obtain specimens from the quarries1 and by liberally rewarding the workmen1 and by unremitting personal research1 he soon accumulated an immense quantity of bones of all sorts1 belonging to numerous individuals4 ,he now perceived that a new world was open to his view3 and to use his own expressive language1 he found himself in an ancient charnel-house1 surrounded by a confused multitude of mangled skeletons of a great variety of unknown beings4 ,to arrange each fragment in its proper place1 and restore order to these heterogeneous materials1 seemed at first a hopeless task3 but a knowledge of the immutable laws by which the organization of animal existence is governed1 soon enabled him to assign to each bone1 and even fragment1 its proper place in the skeleton2 and the forms of beings hitherto unseen by mortal eye appeared before him4 ,i cannot1 he exclaims1 express my delight in finding how the application of one principle was instantly followed by the most triumphant results4 ,the essential character of a tooth and its relation to the skull being determined1 all the other elements of the fabric immediately fell into their proper places2 and the vertebra1 ribs1 bones of the legs1 thigh1 and feet1 seemed to arrange themselves even without my bidding1 and in the very manner ,i had predicted4 ,the principles of the correlation of structure which his profound researches in comparative anatomy had enabled him to establish1 conducted to these important results1 and laid the foundation of that science which has since received the name of ,palontology4#ajg ,the mode of induction adopted by this illustrious philosopher1 has been the mighty instrument by which subsequent labourers in this department of science have so largely contributed to our knowledge of the ancient condition of the earth1 and of the structure and economy of the tribes of beings which have successively dwelt upon it4 ,the examination of the fossil teeth 7in ,plate ,,lxxii4 figs4 #d-i7 showed that the animals were herbivorous2 and the crown of the tooth being composed of two or three simple crescents1 as in certain pachydermata1 proved that they differed from the ruminants1 which have double crescents1 and each four bands of enamel4 ,the two principal genera first established were the ,palotherium and ,anoplotherium4 ,the first approximates to the ,tapirs in the number and disposition of the teeth2 the second is remarkable in having no projecting canines1 and in all the teeth forming a continued series1 as in the human race4 ,remains of both these genera have been found in the eocene tertiary strata of the ,isle of ,wight1#ajh and on the coast of ,hampshire4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,a concise exposition of the ,cuvierian inductive philosophy will be found in ,wonders of ,geology1 pp4 #acg-adg4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,see my ,geological ,excursions round the ,isle of ,wight4 ,for an account of the fossil animals of ,paris1 refer to ,wonders of ,geology1 p4 #bed4 ,x4 ,fossil ,edentata4 ,megatherium1 and ,megalonyx4 7,plates ,,lxxii4 and ,,lxxiii47--,the remains of these and other allied forms of the extinct gigantic ,edentata1 which once inhabited ,south ,america1 occur in immense quantities throughout the ,pampas--those vast plains which present a sea of waving grass for #ijj miles4 ,these plains consist of alluvial loam and sand1 containing fresh-water and marine shells of existing species2 they were evidently once1 like ,lewes ,levels1 a gulf or arm of the sea4 ,since the publication of ,mr4 ,parkinson's work1 vast numbers of bones have been exhumed1 and many most interesting specimens sent to ,england by ,sir ,woodbine ,parish1 and ,charles ,darwin1 ,esq41 in whose charming ,journal of ,researches into the ,natural ,history and ,geology of the ,countries visited during the ,voyage of ,h4,m4,s4 ,beagle round the ,world1 will be found many highly graphic notices of the discovery of these remains4#aji ,mr4 ,darwin1 under the head of ,bahia ,blanca1#aaj describes the remains of no less than nine great quadrupeds found imbedded within the space of #bjj square yards4 ,they consisted of three heads and other bones of the ,megatherium1 of enormous dimensions2 and bones of the ,megalonyx4 ,of the ,scelidotherium1 an allied animal1 ,mr4 ,darwin obtained an almost perfect skeleton2 it must have been as large as a rhinoceros2 in the structure of the head1 it approaches nearest the ,cape ant-eater1 in other respects it is related to the armadilloes4 ,remains of a different species of ,mylodon1 of another gigantic edental quadruped1 and of a large animal with an osseous dermal coat in compartments1 very like that of the ,armadillo4 ,of this last1 which has been named ,glyptodon1 there is a very fine specimen in the ,hunterian ,museum4 ,teeth and bones of an extinct species of horse1 and of an unknown pachyderm1 a huge beast with a long neck like the camel4 ,lastly the ,toxodon 7so named from the remarkable curvature of the teeth72 this is perhaps one of the strangest animals ever discovered4 ,in size it equals the elephant or megatherium1 but the structure of its teeth shows it to have been intimately related to the gnawers--the order which at the present day includes the smallest quadrupeds4 ,in many details it approaches to the pachydermata2 judging from the position of its eyes1 it was probably aquatic1 like the ,dugong and ,manatee1 to which it is also allied4 ,footnote #aji3 ,published by ,mr4 ,murray1 in one vol4 #ahde4 ,the anatomical description of the fossil ,edentata brought home by ,mr4 ,darwin1 by ,professor ,owen1 will be found in the ,zoology of the ,voyage of the ,beagle4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,mr4 ,darwin's ,journal1 chap4 v4 p4 #ha4 ,the beds containing the above fossil remains1 consist of stratified gravel and reddish mud1 and stand only from fifteen to twenty feet above the level of high water2 hence the elevation of the land has been small since the great quadrupeds wandered over the surrounding plains2 and the external features of the country must then have been very nearly the same as now4 ,in another place1 ,mr4 ,darwin observes1--,the number of the remains of these large quadrupeds imbedded in the grand estuary deposit which forms the ,pampas and covers the granitic rocks of ,banda ,oriental1 must be extraordinarily great4 ,i believe1 a straight line drawn in any direction through the ,pampas1 would cut through some skeleton or bones4 ,besides those which ,i found during my short excursions1 ,i heard of many others2 and the origin of such names as1 'the stream of the animal1' 'the hill of the giant1' is obvious4 ,at other times1 ,i heard of the marvellous property of certain rivers1 which had the power of changing small bones into large2 or as some maintained1 the bones themselves grew4 ,as far as ,i am aware1 not one of these animals perished1 as was formerly supposed1 in the marshes or muddy river-beds of the present land1 but their bones have been exposed by the streams intersecting the subaqueous deposit1 in which they were originally imbedded4 ,we may conclude that the whole area of the ,pampas is one wide sepulchre of these extinct gigantic quadrupeds4#aaa ,footnote #aaa3 ,mr4 ,darwin's ,journal1 p4 #ace4 ,the reader interested in these extraordinary fossil remains should visit the ,british ,museum1 and the ,hunterian ,museum of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons in ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields4 ,,xi4 ,flint4--,animal ,remains in siliceous nodules4--,so many beautiful specimens of siliceous petrifactions--that is1 animal and vegetable remains transmuted into silex or flint--are figured in the subjoined plates1 that it may be useful to offer a few remarks on this subject4#aab ,in many instances the organic remains in chalk-flints are simply incrusted by the silex2 such is the state of numerous sponges which are as it were invested by the flint1 and have all their pores and tubes filled up by the same material1 the original tissue appearing as a brown calcareous substance4 ,in other examples1 the sponge has been enveloped in a mass of liquid flint1 and has subsequently perished and decomposed2 in this manner have been formed those hollow nodules1 which on being broken present a cavity containing only a little white powder1 or some fragments of silicified sponge2 in many instances the cavity is lined with quartz crystals1 or mammillated chalcedony4 ,frequently but part of the zoophyte is permeated by the silex1 and the other portion is in the state of a friable calcareous earth imbedded in the chalk4 ,sponges and other zoophytes often form the nuclei of the flint nodules2 the original substance of the organic body being in general silicified1 and the most delicate internal structure preserved4 ,shells1 corals1 and the minute cases of foraminifera1 are often immersed as it were in pure flint1 appearing as if preserved in a semi-transparent medium4 ,footnote #aab3 ,see ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 i4 pp4 #gd-aje1 for a general view of the process of petrifaction4 ,but there are innumerable flint nodules in which no traces of spongeous tissue are apparent1 and veins1 dikes1 and sheets of tabular flint1 that are in a great measure free from organic remains2 containing only such as may be supposed to have become imbedded in a stream of fluid silex that flowed over a sea-bottom4 ,wood perforated by lithodomi and silicified1 is occasionally met with2 and fuci or alg are sometimes found1 appearing as if floating in the liquid flint4 ,for the most part1 the minute shells in the chalk and flint are filled with amorphous mineral matter2 but in many examples1 7as ,i have ascertained by direct experiment17 the soft parts of foraminifera remain in the shell4 ,,xii4 ,foraminifera4--,plate ,,lxii4 contains figures of several species belonging to various genera of those minute fossil shells1 the discoidal involute forms of which were once considered to belong to the ,cephalopoda1 and to be related to the ,nautilus1 ,spirula1 c41 but which are now grouped in one family1 under the name of ,foraminifera2 a term derived from the foramina or perforations with which their shells are traversed1 and which have relation to the peculiar organization of the animals4 ,since microscopic observations have become so general1 thanks to the genius and enthusiasm of ,ehrenberg1 these fossil bodies have acquired a degree of interest and importance1 unsurpassed by more obvious organic remains4 ,whole mountain chains and extensive tracts of country are now known to be almost entirely composed of the aggregated shells of a few genera of these microzoa4#aac ,in other deposits their remains are associated with those of ,infusoria1#aad 7both animal and vegetable17 still more infinitesimal4 ,as much error prevails among collectors as to the real nature of the fossil foraminifera1 ,i am induced to annex the following remarks4#aae ,footnote #aac3 ,a convenient term to express animal organisms that can only be distinctly examined by the aid of the microscope3 strata in a great measure composed of such fossil remains may be distinguished as microzoic deposits4 ,footnote #aad3 ,this term was first employed to denote the various minute forms of animal organization that appear in vegetable infusions2 as ,rotifers1 ,monads1 ,vorticella1 c4 ,but with these1 numerous vegetable forms generally appear1 as ,gaillonella1 ,bacellaria1 ,navicula1 c43 these were formerly also regarded as animals1 and were consequently comprised under the same general appellation4 ,footnote #aae3 ,the best scientific account of these animals will be found in ,m4 ,d',orbigny's work on the ,foraminifres ,fossiles du ,bassin ,tertiaire de ,vienne1 7,autriche74 ,paris1 #ahdf4 #a vol4 #dto1 with plates4 ,the foraminifera are marine animals of low organization1 and1 with but few exceptions1 extremely minute3 in an ounce of sea-sand between three and four millions have been distinctly enumerated4 ,when living1 they are not aggregated1 but always individually distinct2 they are composed of a body 7or vital mass7 of a gelatinous consistence1 which is either entire1 and round1 or divided into segments1 placed either on a simple or alternate line1 or coiled spirally1 or involuted round an axis4 ,this body is covered with an envelope or shell1 which is generally testaceous1 rarely cartilaginous1 and is modelled on the segments1 and follows all the modifications of form and contour of the body4 ,from the extremity of the last segment1 there issue1 sometimes from one1 sometimes from several openings of the shell1 or through numerous pores or foramina1 very elongated1 slender1 contractile1 colourless filaments1 more or less divided and ramified1 serving for prehension1 and capable of entirely investing the shell4 ,the body varies in colour1 but is always identical in individuals of the same species1--it is yellow1 fawn-coloured1 red1 violet1 blue1 c4 ,its consistence is variable2 it is composed of minute globules1 the aggregation of which determines the general tint4 ,it is sometimes entire1 round1 and without segments1 as in ,gromia1 ,orbulina1 c41 which represent1 at all ages1 the embryonic state of all the other genera4 ,they increase1 without doubt1 by the entire circumference4 ,when the body is divided by lobes or segments1 the primary lobe1 as in the permanent condition of the ,gromia1 is at first round or oval1 according to the genus2 once formed it never enlarges1 but is enveloped externally by testaceous matter2 it may be compared to a ball on which is applied a second larger one1 then a third still larger1 and so on during the life of the animal4 ,the annexed figure of the animal of ,nummulina 7as given by ,,mm4 ,joly and ,leymerie7 will serve to convey a general idea of the living ,foraminifera4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,animal ,,of ,,the ,,nummulina4 ,the segments1 as the body increases1 are agglomerated in six different ways1 and these modifications are the basis of ,m4 ,d',orbigny's classification4 ,the discoidal forms1 as the ,rotalia1 ,rosalina1 ,cristellaria1 c4 are involuted like the nautilus1 and divided by septa or partitions1 the different lobes of the body occupying contemporaneously every chamber1 and being connected by a tube or canal that extends through the entire series4 ,in the spiral forms1 the ,textilaria1 c4 the same structure is apparent4 ,these two groups are the most abundant in the cretaceous strata2 many beds of the white chalk consist almost wholly of the aggregated shells of the ,rosalin1 ,rotali1 and ,textilari4#aaf ,whatever the form of the body1 the filaments always consist of a colourless matter as transparent as glass2 they elongate from the base to six times the diameter of the shell4 ,they often divide and subdivide1 so as to appear branched4 ,though alike in form in the different genera1 they vary much in their position4 ,in some they form a bundle which issues from a single opening1 and is withdrawn into the same by contraction2 in others the filaments project only through each of the pores in the shell which covers the last segment2 in others they issue from both the large aperture and the foramina4 ,in fine1 these filaments or pseudopodia fulfil in the foraminifera the functions of the numerous tentacula in the ,asteriad1 or ,star-fishes1 serving as instruments of locomotion and attachment4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,see ,wonders of ,geology1 p4 #bii ,neither organs of nutriment nor of reproduction have been detected4 ,in the genera having one large aperture from which the filaments issue and retract1 we can conceive nutriment to be absorbed by that opening2 but this cannot be the case in the species which have the last cell closed up2 in these the filaments issuing through the foramina are probably also organs of nutrition4 ,m4 ,d',orbigny considers the ,foraminifera as constituting a distinct class in zoology2 less complicated than the ,echinoderms and the ,polypiaria in their internal organization1 they have by their filaments the mode of locomotion of the first1 and by their free1 individual existence--not aggregated and immovably fixed--they are more advanced in the scale of being than the latter4 ,to me they appear to be merely hydra-form polypes of the most simple structure1 protected by shells2#aag those composed of different segments1 ,i conceive to be a single aggregated individual1 and not a successive series of beings4 ,footnote #aag3 ,an admirable paper on the ,polystomella crispa1 by ,mr4 ,williamson1 of ,manchester1 7,trans4 ,micros4 ,society of ,london1 vol4 ii47 should be consulted on this question4 ,the white chalk is well known to be largely composed of a few kinds of foraminifera1 but the occurrence of the soft bodies of these animalcules in a fossil state was first discovered by me1 in #ahde1 in chalk-flints1 and was announced in a paper1 read before the ,geological ,society1 entitled1 ,notes of a ,microscopical ,examination of ,chalk and ,flint4#aah ,this statement was regarded by some eminent palontologists as so startling and unsatisfactory1 that ,i resumed the investigation1 and communicated the result to the ,royal ,society1 in a memoir ,on the ,fossil ,remains of the ,soft ,parts of ,foraminifera discovered in the ,chalk and ,flint of the ,south-,east of ,england2#aai and with the kind assistance of that able chemist and microscopist1 ,mr4 ,henry ,deane1 of ,clapham ,common1 ,i obtained1 by immersing chalk in dilute hydrochloric acid1 and mounting the residue in ,canada balsam1 several specimens of the entire integuments of the bodies of ,rotali1 as distinct as if recent6 ,this fact is now admitted2 and the experiment has been successfully repeated in ,india1 by ,mr4 ,carter1 on the limestones of that country2#abj and in ,america1 by ,dr4 ,bailey1 c4#aba ,in some limestone recently collected by my eldest son1 ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell1 in the ,middle ,island of ,new ,zealand1 and which1 like our cretaceous strata1 is almost entirely made up of foraminifera1 ,i have detected the soft parts of the bodies of ,rotali in the cells of the fossil shells1 as distinctly as in the chalk of ,england2 and two of the species appear to be identical with ,european forms4 ,footnote #aah3 ,these ,notes were withdrawn1 and published in the ,annals of ,natural ,history for ,august1 #ahde4 ,footnote #aai3 ,published in ,philos4 ,trans4 ,part iv4 for #ahdf4 ,footnote #abj3 ,on the existence of ,beds of ,foraminifera1 recent and fossil1 on the ,south-,east of ,arabia1 by ,h4 ,j4 ,carter1 ,esq4 ,assistant ,surgeon1 ,bombay4 ,proceedings of the ,bombay ,asiatic ,society1 #ahdh4 ,footnote #aba3 ,a remarkable foraminiferous deposit of chalk detritus occurs at ,charing1 in ,kent1 and was first examined and described by ,william ,harris1 ,esq42 it contains immense numbers of many kinds of foraminifera1 and of the cases or shells of entomostraca1 of the genus ,cytherina1 with spicules of sponges1 c4--,see ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 #a4 p4 #cbd4 ,m4 ,d',orbigny gives the following summary of the distribution of the known fossil species of ,foraminifera3-- ,there are #bbh species in the ,tertiary deposits of ,vienna alone1 of which twenty-seven species are known living in the ,adriatic and the ,mediterranean4 ,foraminifera are unknown in the ,silurian and ,devonian formations4 ,one species only is known in the ,carboniferous system of ,russia1 the ,fusulina cylindrica4 ,jurassic or ,oolitic formation ,genera #e ,species #bj ,cretaceous #cd #bhj ,tertiary #ef #dej ,living in the present seas #fh #a1jjj ,of these last1 #ege species inhabit tropical seas1 #cej the seas of temperate1 and #ge the seas of cold climates4 ,,xiii4 ,fossil ,elk of ,ireland1 or ,cervus megaloceros4 7,plate ,,lxxi47--,the shell-marls of ,ireland contain in abundance the bones of an animal1 which like the ,dodo1 was once contemporary with the human species1 but has long been extinct3 the last individuals of the race were1 in all probability1 exterminated by the early ,celtic tribes4 ,the remains of this noble creature generally occur in the deposits of marl that underlie the peat-bogs1 which are apparently1 like those of ,scotland1 the sites of ancient lakes or bays4 ,in ,curragh immense quantities of these bones lie within a small area2 the skeletons appear to be entire1 and are found with the skull elevated1 and the antlers thrown back on the shoulders1 as if a small herd of these ,elks had sought refuge in the marshes1 and had been engulfed in the morass1 in the same manner as the ,mastodons of ,america4 7,see description of ,plate ,,lxxiv41 ante1 p4 #afg47 ,this creature far exceeded in magnitude any living species of elk or deer4 ,the skeleton is upwards often feet in height to the top of the skull1 and the antlers are from ten to fourteen feet from one extremity to the other4 ,the fine perfect skeletons in the ,british ,museum1 ,college of ,surgeons1 and in the ,museum at ,edinburgh1 render a particular description unnecessary4 ,the bones are generally well preserved1 of a dark brown colour1 with patches of blue phosphate of iron4 ,in some instances they are in so fresh a condition1 that the hollows of the long bones contain marrow having the appearance of fresh suet4 ,remains of this majestic animal have been found collocated with ancient sepulchral urns1 stone implements1 and rude canoes1 in such manner1 as to leave no doubt that this now extinct deer was coeval with the early human inhabitants of these ,islands4 ,its bones and antlers have been found at ,walton1 in ,essex1 associated with the remains of the ,mammoth1 or fossil elephant4#abb ,footnote #abb3 ,wonders of ,geology1 p4 #acd4 ,,xiv4 ,fossil ,infusoria--,infusorial ,earths4--,in the note on ,foraminifera some account is given of various rocks composed of the fossil remains of those minute animals2 but the durable relics of the yet more infinitesimal organisms designated by the terms ,infusoria1 or ,infusorial animalcules1 form deposits of equal interest and importance4 ,strata of great extent and thickness are wholly1 or in great part1 made up of innumerable layers1 consisting of the aggregated siliceous cases or shields of ,infusoria3 and similar structures are found to be the chief constituents of the white earthy deposits of lakes1 rivers1 and basins of brackish water1 in every part of the world4 ,slowly1 imperceptibly1 but incessantly1 are the vital energies of the feeblest and minutest animal and vegetable existences separating from the element in which they live1 the most enduring of mineral substances1 silex--fabricating it into structures of the most exquisite forms and sculpturing1 and thus adding to the accumulations of countless ages1 which make up the sedimentary strata of the crust of the globe4 ,in the ,medals of ,creation#abc will be found a summary of what was then known as to the formation and composition of many tertiary deposits which the indefatigable ,ehrenberg1 ,dr4 ,bailey1 and other eminent observers1 had carefully investigated and described4 ,the five years that have since elapsed have been fruitful in results of the most important and interesting character2 from every quarter of the world1 from the loftiest mountain peaks1 and from the deepest recesses of the ocean which the plummet can reach1 from the ashes of volcanoes and from the snow of the glaciers1 the durable remains of ,infusoria have been obtained4 ,that excellent scientific periodical1 ,silliman's ,american ,journal1 contains numerous interesting communications on this subject from the eminent chemical professor of the ,military ,college at ,west ,point1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,bailey2 and the labours of ,mr4 ,bowerbank1 ,williamson1 and other active members of the ,microscopical ,society of ,london1 have yielded much interesting information on the infusorial deposits of our own country4 ,footnote #abc3 ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 i4 p4 #baa4 ,the present note will be restricted to remarks on the nature of the organisms which enter so largely into the composition of certain tertiary deposits2 since the opinion once entertained of the animal nature of many infusoria1 now regarded as true vegetables1 materially affects the geological conclusions respecting the persistence of certain species of organisms through long periods of time1 during which the mollusca1 zoophytes1 c4 underwent repeated mutations both in the species and genera4 ,thus1 for example1 the polierschiefer1 or polishing-slate of ,bilin1 and the berghmehl of ,tuscany1 are described by ,ehrenberg as masses of the siliceous shells of animalcules of such extreme minuteness1 that a cubic inch of the stone contains upwards of forty millions2 the infusorial earth of ,richmond1 in ,virginia1 in like manner1 is stated to be made up of the siliceous skeletons of animalcules of infinitesimal minuteness4 ,but later investigations have 7,i conceive7 satisfactorily established1 that the greater part of these fossil organisms belongs to the vegetable and not to the animal kingdom4#abd ,the whole of the figures in ,plate ,,iv4 of the ,medals of ,creation1 described as living ,infusoria1 on the authority of ,ehrenberg1 are undoubted vegetables1 belonging to the great botanical groups called ,diatomace 7from the angular segments into which they separate by partial division71 and ,desmidiace4#abe ,the entire family of ,bacillaria belongs to this group4 ,these simplest forms of vegetable structures abound in every lake or stream of fresh and brackish water1 in every pool1 or bay1 and throughout the ocean1 from the equator to the poles2 they secrete siliceous envelopes1 which present an endless variety of form and structure1 and after the death and decomposition of the perishable tissues of the plants1 remain as perfectly transparent colourless shields of pure silica2 such are the ,gaillonell1 ,euastra1 ,closteria1 ,navicul1 ,synhedr1 ,podospheni1 ,xanthidia1 c41 which constitute so large a proportion of the infusorial earths described by ,ehrenberg and other authors4#abf ,footnote #abd3 ,in my little work on ,recent ,infusoria1 entitled ,thoughts on ,animalcules1 or a ,glimpse of the ,invisible ,world revealed by the ,microscope1 ,i have expressed my conviction of the vegetable nature of these organisms1 as a reason for omitting figures and descriptions of any of the species in a work on living fresh-water animalcules4 ,footnote #abe3 ,the name ,diatomace is restricted by ,m4 ,brbisson to those species which have a siliceous envelope1 or cuticle2 and that of ,desmidi to those which are not siliceous1 but reducible by heat to carbon4 ,footnote #abf3 ,the reader interested in this subject should consult the beautiful work of ,mr4 ,hassall on the ,desmidiace1 published by ,messrs4 ,reeve ,benham4 ,the extent of this infinitesimal flora throughout regions where no other forms of vegetation are known1 is strikingly demonstrated by the observations of the eminent botanist and traveller4 ,dr4 ,hooker1 in his account of the ,antarctic regions4 ,everywhere1 he states1 the waters and the ice alike abound in these microscopic vegetables4 ,though too small to be visible to the unassisted eye1 their aggregated masses stained the iceberg and pack-ice wherever they were washed by the sea1 and imparted a pale ochreous colour to the ice4 ,from the south of the belt of ice which encircles the globe1 to the highest latitudes reached by man1 this vegetation is everywhere conspicuous1 from the contrast between its colour and that of the white snow and ice in which it is imbedded4 ,in the eightieth degree of south latitude all the surface ice carried along by currents1 and the sides of every berg1 and the base of the great ,victoria barrier itself--a perpendicular wall of ice1 from one to two hundred feet above the sea-level--were tinged brown from this cause1 as if the waters were charged with oxide of iron4 ,the majority of these plants consist of simple vegetable cells1 enclosed in indestructible silex 7as other ,alg are in carbonate of lime72 and it is obvious that the death of such multitudes must form sedimentary deposits of immense extent4 ,the universal existence of such an invisible vegetation as that of the ,antarctic ocean1 is u truly wonderful fact1 and the more so1 from its being unaccompanied by plants of a high order4 ,this ocean swarms with mollusca1 and entomostracous crustaceans1 small whales1 and porpoises2 and the sea with penguins and seals1 and the air with birds3 the animal kingdom is everywhere present1 the larger creatures preying on the smaller1 and these again on those more minute2 all living nature seems to be carnivorous4 ,this microscopic vegetation is the sole nutrition of the herbivorous animals2 and it may likewise serve to purify the atmosphere1 and thus execute in the antarctic latitudes the office of the trees and grasses of the temperate regions1 and the broad foliage of the palms of the tropics4#abg ,footnote #abg3 ,from ,dr4 ,hooker's account of the botany of the ,south ,polar regions in ,sir ,j4 ,ross's ,voyages of ,discovery4 ,dr4 ,hooker also observes1 that the siliceous cases of the same kind of ,diatomace now living in the waters of the ,south ,polar ,ocean1 have contributed in past ages to the formation of ,european strata2 for the tripoli and the phonolite stones of the ,rhine contain the siliceous shields of identical species4 ,such are the comments of one of our most eminent botanists on the phenomena under review4 ,the reader will probably ask1--,what1 then1 are the essential characters which separate the animal from the vegetable kingdom8 ,to this question it is impossible to give a satisfactory reply3 perhaps the only distinction that will be generally admitted by zoologists and botanists is the following3--animals require organic substances for their support2 vegetables derive their sustenance from inorganic matter4 ,the facts thus cursorily reviewed throw much doubt on many of ,m4 ,ehrenberg's statements as to the identity of species of animalcules now living1 with those whose remains occur in the eocene1 and in the secondary strata4 ,the so-called ,xanthidia of the chalk1 are certainly altogether distinct from the recent diatom to which the name was first applied2 the chalk organisms are probably the gemmules of sponges or other zoophytes4#abh ,footnote #abh3 ,it would be convenient to distinguish these fossils by another name1 and thus avoid the perpetuation of the error2 ,i would propose that of ,spiniferites1 in allusion to the numerous spines with which all the species are beset4 ,infusorial earths may therefore be composed either of microscopic vegetable or animal remains1 or of both4 ,the brackish and fresh-water deposits ,i have examined are siliceous and almost wholly diatomaceous3 the marine calcareous strata composed of microscopic organisms1 consist chiefly of various kinds of foraminifera1 a large proportion belonging to the polythalamia1 or chambered shells4 ,i am not certain as to the animal or vegetable nature of some of the beautiful siliceous disks 7,coscinodisci1 ,arachnoidisci1 ,actinocyclus1 c47 so abundant in the ,richmond1 ,barbadoes1 and ,bermuda infusorial earths1 and which occur in so splendid a state in the ,guano deposits of ,ichaboe4 ,with the corrections which the above remarks will enable the reader to make1 ,i would refer to the account of ,fossil ,infusoria in the ,medals of ,creation1 and ,wonders of ,geology4 #abi ,footnote #abi3 ,see also ,thoughts on ,animalcules4 ,,xv4 ,the ,mosasaurus1 or ,fossil ,reptile of ,maestricht4 7,plate ,,lxx47 ,the occasional discovery of bones and teeth of an unknown animal in the limestone of ,st4 ,peter's ,mountain1 near ,maestricht1 and the innumerable shells1 corals1 teeth of fishes1 claws of crabs1 echini1 and other organic remains1 had long since attracted the attention of naturalists1 and rendered these quarries celebrated throughout ,europe4 ,in #aggj1 ,m4 ,hoffman1 the surgeon of the ,fort1 who had for some years been assiduously collecting the fossils of this locality1 had the good fortune to discover a specimen which has conferred an enduring celebrity on his name4 ,some workmen1 on blasting the rock in one of the caverns of the interior of the mountain1 perceived to their astonishment the jaws of a large animal attached to the roof of the chasm4 ,the discovery was immediately made known to ,m4 ,hoffman1 who repaired to the spot1 and for weeks presided over the arduous task of separating the mass of stone containing these remains from the surrounding rock4 ,his labours were rewarded by the successful extrication of the specimen1 which he conveyed in triumph to his house4 ,this extraordinary discovery soon became the subject of general conversation1 and upon reaching the ears of the ,canon of the cathedral which stands on the mountain1 excited in that functionary a determination to claim the fossil1 in right of being lord of the manor2 and he unfortunately succeeded1 after a long and harassing lawsuit1 in obtaining this precious relic4 ,it remained for years in his possession1 and ,hoffman died without regaining his treasure1 or receiving any compensation4 ,at length the ,french revolution broke out1 and the armies of the republic advanced to the gates of ,maestricht4 ,the town was bombarded2 but at the suggestion of the committee of savans who accompanied the ,french troops to select their share of plunder1 the artillery was not suffered to bombard that part of the city in which the celebrated fossil was known to be preserved4 ,in the mean time1 the ,canon of ,st4 ,peter's1 shrewdly suspecting the reason why such peculiar favour was shown to his residence1 removed the specimen1 and concealed it in a vault2 but when the city was taken1 the ,french authorities compelled him to give up his ill-gotten prize1 which was immediately transmitted to the ,jardin des ,plantes1 at ,paris1 where it still forms one of the most striking objects in that magnificent collection4#acj ,footnote #acj3 ,faujus ,st4 ,fond1 in whose beautiful work on the fossils of ,st4 ,peter's ,mountain the above account is given1 remarks with much sang froid1 ,la justice1 quoique tardive1 arrive enfin avec le tems6 ,the reader will probably think that although the ,canon was justly despoiled of his ill-gotten treasure1 the ,french savans were a very equivocal personification of ,justice6 ,the beautiful model of this most interesting fossil in the ,british ,museum1 was presented to me by ,baron ,cuvier4 ,it is four and a half feet long1 and two and a half wide2 it consists of the jaws1 with teeth1 palatal bones1 and the tympanic bone1 or os quadratum1 a bone possessed by reptiles1 as well as birds1 and in which the auditory cells are contained4 ,there are likewise some fine portions of jaws1 with teeth1 in the ,british ,museum1 presented by ,camper4 ,the original animal was probably a terrestrial reptile1 holding an intermediate place between the ,monitors and ,iguanas4 ,it was about twenty-five feet long4 ,i discovered1 many years since 7#ahbj71 some vertebr in the chalk near ,lewes1 which closely resemble the corresponding bones of the ,mosasaurus1 and in all probability belong to another species4 ,in the cretaceous strata of ,new ,jersey1 ,dr4 ,harlan found and described1 and my friend4 ,dr4 ,morton1 of ,philadelphia1 sent me1 in #ahcd1 teeth which cannot be distinguished from those of ,maestricht4 ,vertebr1 and other bones1 have since been obtained from the same deposits by ,professor ,rogers1 and described by ,professor ,owen in the ,geological ,journal4 ,,xvi4 ,fossil ,reptiles4 ,although when ,mr4 ,parkinson's work was published many fossil bones and teeth of reptiles had been discovered in various parts of ,england1 yet the abundance and variety1 and the extraordinary modification of form and structure of this class of vertebrated animals1 which prevailed throughout the secondary geological formations1 were not for a moment suspected4 ,the few examples of the remains of fossil reptiles described by ,mr4 ,parkinson1 serve to mark the degree of knowledge which then existed respecting a department of palontology that rapidly acquired an importance and interest unsurpassed by any other branch of fossil osteology4 ,the announcement of the founder of palontology1#aca that there was a period when the lakes and rivers of our planet were peopled by reptiles1 and cold-blooded oviparous quadrupeds of appalling magnitude were the principal inhabitants of the dry land2 when the seas swarmed with saurians1 exclusively adapted for a marine existence1 and the regions of the atmosphere were traversed by winged lizards instead of birds2 was an enunciation so novel and startling1 as to require all the prestige of the name of ,cuvier1 to obtain for it any degree of attention and credence1 even with those who were sufficiently enlightened to admit1 that a universal deluge would not account for the physical mutations which the surface of the earth and its inhabitants had1 in the lapse of innumerable ages1 undergone4 ,footnote #aca3 ,in the ,ossemens ,fossiles2 tom4 v4 ,reptiles ,fossiles4 ,subsequent discoveries have established the truth of this proposition to an extent beyond what even its promulgator could have surmised2 and the ,age of ,reptiles is now admitted into the category of established facts4 ,during the incalculable ages which the formation of the various systems of secondary strata must have comprised1 we find no evidence in the fossils hitherto observed1 of the existence of birds and mammalia1 as the characteristic types of the faunas of the dry land4 ,on the contrary1 throughout the immense accumulations of the spoils of the ancient islands and continents1 amidst innumerable relics of reptiles of various orders and genera1 a few jaws and bones of two or three kinds of extremely small marsupials1 and the bones of a species of wader1 are the sole indications of the presence of the two grand classes of ,aves and ,mammalia1 which now constitute the chief features of the terrestrial zoology of almost all countries4 ,the earliest indications of air-breathing vertebrata in the ancient secondary formations are those of small saurian reptiles in the carboniferous strata2 a few vestiges occur in the succeeding group1 the ,permian4 ,in the next epoch1 the ,triassic1 colossal ,batrachians 7,labyrinthodonts7 appear2 and on some of the strata of this formation are the footmarks of numerous bipeds1 presumed to be those of birds2 but at present the evidence of the bones of the animals that made those imprints is required to establish the hypothesis4 ,in the succeeding eras1 the ,lias1 ,oolite1 ,wealden1 and ,cretaceous1 swarms of reptiles of numerous genera and species everywhere prevail2 reptiles fitted to fly through the air1 to roam over the land1 to inhabit the lakes1 rivers1 and seas2 and yet not one identical with any existing forms6 ,these beings gradually decline in numbers and species as we approach the close of the secondary periods1 and are immediately succeeded in the eocene epoch1 by as great a preponderance of warm-blooded vertebrata--birds and mammalia--as exists at the present time2 and an equal decadence in the class of reptiles4 ,with the ,cretaceous ,formation the ,age of ,reptiles may be said to terminate4 ,,xvii4--,fossil ,reptiles of the ,wealden4 ,the ,iguanodon4 ,the fluviatile deposits 7termed ,wealden71 which in the south-east of ,england1 and in the north of ,germany1 are intercalated between the oolitic and cretaceous formations1 abound in the bones of terrestrial1 fresh-water1 and marine reptiles1 comprising some of the most colossal land-saurians which have hitherto been brought to light4 ,these remains belong to various genera of ,chelonians1 ,saurians1 and ,crocodilians2 and with these are associated those of flying lizards 7,pterodactyles71 ,plesiosauri1 gigantic whale-like reptiles 7,cetiosauri71 and of other oviparous quadrupeds of unknown species and genera4 ,the occurrence of fossils of this nature in the strata forming the districts denominated the ,wealds of ,sussex and ,kent1 was first brought under the notice of geologists in #ahbb1 in my work on the ,fossils of the ,south ,downs1 in which the remains of several unknown reptiles were described2 and among them the teeth and bones of that extraordinary herbivorous lizard1 the ,iguanodon1 on which ,i am induced to offer a few observations in this place2 the recent discovery of some previously undetermined parts of the skeleton1 having materially elucidated the structure and economy of the original4#acb ,footnote #acb3 ,the following is the description of the specimens first discovered1 given in the ,fossils of the ,south ,downs2 or1 ,illustrations of the ,geology of ,sussex1 #a vol4 #dto4 #ahbb3 ,incisors and molar teeth evidently belonging to the same species of animal3 they differ from any previously known2 the masticating surface is perfectly smooth and rather depressed in the centre2 these teeth consist of the crown only1 and are quite solid4 ,an incisor tooth #a4c inch long ,is slightly bowed and smooth on its inner surface2 but it has externally a ridge which extends longitudinally down the front4 ,its sides are angular and the edges finely crenated4 ,from the resemblance of these teeth in their general form to those of the ,iguana1 a common land lizard in the ,west ,indies1 ,i subsequently proposed the name of ,iguanodon 7implying an animal having teeth like the ,iguana7 for the fossil reptile4 ,the teeth of an ,iguana four or five feet long are not larger than those of a mouse2 the ,iguanodon's teeth are as large as the incisors of the rhinoceros4 ,the ,iguana's teeth1 when used1 are chipped off at the points1 no existing reptile being capable of performing mastication2 the teeth of the ,iguanodon1 on the contrary1 are ground down like the worn molars of herbivorous mammalia1 as ,i pointed out in my first memoir in the ,philos4 ,trans4 #ahbe4 ,since the first announcement of the discovery of the remains of the ,iguanodon1 vast quantities of bones belonging to a great number of individuals of all ages have been collected2 but until a few years since1 not a vestige of the jaws had been observed1 notwithstanding the most diligent research4 ,in the early part of the year #ahdh1 ,i was surprised and highly gratified by receiving from ,capt4 ,lambart ,brickenden 7at that time a personal stranger to me71 who then resided at ,warminglid1 near ,cuckfield1 in ,sussex1 the greater part of the right side 7or ramus7 of the lower jaw1 with several successional teeth in their natural position1 of an adult ,iguanodon4#acc ,see p4 #bjb4 ,footnote #acc3 ,this beautiful and most instructive specimen is now in my possession2 it is figured of the natural size in ,philos4 ,trans4 ,part ii4 for #ahdh1 ,plate ,,xvi41 as well as the portion of upper jaw in the ,british ,museum1 ,plate ,,xix4 ,the character of the upper and lower teeth of the ,iguanodon are well represented in ,plate ,,xviii4 of the same memoir4 ,a specimen very similar to that discovered by ,capt4 ,brickenden1 but of a young individual1 was found soon afterwards in a quarry near ,horsham2 but ,i was not allowed the privilege of figuring or describing it6 ,in the course of last summer ,i obtained a very instructive fragment of the middle part of the right ramus of the lower jaw of a much larger ,iguanodon1 found by ,mr4 ,fowlestone1 with some enormous bones of the extremities1 in the ,wealden strata of the ,isle of ,wight4 ,a portion of the upper jaw 7without teeth7 was discovered some years since in ,tilgate ,forest1 and is deposited1 with the whole of the collection ,i formed at ,brighton1 in the gallery of organic remains of the ,british ,museum4 ,these three specimens are the only parts of the jaws of the ,iguanodon1 with the exception of a fragment of the angular bone1 that ,i have had the opportunity of examining4 ,the other portions of the skeleton hitherto discovered are the following3 the tympanic bone2#acd cervical1 dorsal1 lumbar1 and caudal vertebr1 and chevron bones2 ribs2 the iliac bones1 and sacrum composed of six anchylosed vertebr2#ace the coracoid1 scapula and clavicles2 humerus1 radius8 metacarpals2 femur1 tibia and fibula1 metatarsals and ungueals4 ,the cranium1 carpals1 and tarsals1 have not been discovered4 ,footnote #acd3 ,this may or may not belong to the ,iguanodon3 no tympanic bone has been found in such connexion with other parts of the skeleton as to afford certain proof that this maxillary element is referable to the ,iguanodon4 ,footnote #ace3 ,in the ,megalosaurus1 the sacrum consists of five anchylosed vertebr4 ,with the exception of the assemblage of bones promiscuously grouped together in a block of ,kentish rag 7of the greensand formation71 found in a quarry near ,maidstone1 by ,mr4 ,bensted1#acf a few connected caudal vertebr1 and two or three instances in which a femur1 tibia1 and fibula and some metatarsals1 were found in contiguity1 all the bones were isolated4 ,they have been obtained from the quarries in ,st4 ,leonard's and ,tilgate ,forests1 near ,loxwood1 ,rusper1 ,horsham1 ,cuckfield1 and ,battel2 and from the cliffs at ,hastings1 and in ,sandown1 and ,brixton1 and ,brook ,bays1 on the southern shore of the ,isle of ,wight4 ,footnote #acf3 ,this most instructive specimen is in a glass-case on the floor near the window1 in the middle room of the ,gallery of ,organic ,remains in the ,british ,museum4 ,all the ,wealden reptilian remains of a large size1 collected by me when residing in ,sussex1 are in the upright glass cases in the same apartment4 ,so anomalous is the osteology of the ,iguanodon compared with that of existing saurians1 that from my discovery of the first vestige of this reptile--a fragment of a tooth--thirty years ago1 to the recent important acquisition of the jaws1 ,i have had to contend with the opposition of eminent naturalists1 who have refused assent to the physiological inferences suggested by the specimens which were from time to time brought to light1 because the modifications of structure in a colossal herbivorous reptile1 essentially differed from the hypothetical archetype skeleton of the class to which it belonged4 ,when the first discovered teeth were shown to ,baron ,cuvier1 he pronounced them to be the incisors of a ,rhinoceros2 the metatarsals1 those of a ,hippopotamus2 the fragment of a femur1 with a medullary canal1 that of some large mammalian4 ,but the candour and liberality of the founder of ,palontology were worthy of his transcendent genius2 upon receiving further evidence1 he immediately acknowledged the error1 and expressed his conviction that the teeth and bones belonged to an herbivorous reptile more extraordinary than any that had previously been brought under his notice4#acg ,footnote #acg3 ,see ,cuvier's ,ossemens ,fossiles1 tom4 v4 part4 ii4 ,it is much to be wished that those who aspire to emulate this great man in scientific fame1 would also endeavour to imitate him in the yet nobler attributes of his character4 ,it is stated by ,professor ,owen1 in ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,reports on ,fossil ,reptiles1 that the bones of the ,iguanodon were interpreted by me with the aid of ,cuvier and ,clift4 ,this is a mistake4 ,baron ,cuvier died before ,i had obtained any considerable portion of the skeleton2 and neither ,mr4 ,clift nor ,mr4 ,owen at that time could afford me any assistance in determining the nature of the isolated bones ,i occasionally brought to the ,hunterian ,museum for comparison4 ,any aid ,i ever received in my investigations is most fully acknowledged in my works4 ,even the lower jaw1 which presents characters so peculiar as to admit1 as ,i conceive1 of but one interpretation--that enunciated in my memoir on the teeth and jaws of the ,iguanodon1#ach--;has been adduced as affording a signal instance of the incorrectness of my physiological deductions4 ,and why8 ,because in the entire class of living reptiles there is not a single species that has cheeks and flexible lips1 which1 according to my view of the subject1 the ,iguanodon must have possessed4 ,but ,i do not hesitate to affirm that the structure and arrangement of the teeth1 and the mammalian character of the bones of the extremities1 are in perfect accordance with my exposition of the probable structure and functions of the maxillary organs of the original4 ,the naturalists who advance these objections1 forget that among the existing mammalia there is one genus1 the ,ornithorhynchus1 or ,duck-billed ,platypus1 that exhibits as striking a deviation from the typical maxillary structure of its class1 as does the ,iguanodon4 ,if before the discovery of ,new ,holland the jaw-bones of the ,ornithorhynchus had been found in a fossil state in the strata of ,tilgate ,forest1 and ,i had ventured to infer that the original1 though a true mammalian1 and giving suck to its young1 had the extremities of the jaws covered with flat horny beaks1 like those of a duck1 instead of with the fleshy lips and integuments which are the peculiar attributes of its class1 what censures would not my temerity have called forth6 ,we cannot too often be reminded of the profound remark of ,william ,penn3 ,experience1 which is continually contradicting theory1 is the only test of truth4 ,footnote #ach3 ,see ,philosophical ,transactions1 ,part ,,ii4 #ahdh4 ,the following are the physiological inferences relating to the structure and habits of the ,iguanodon1 which ,dr4 ,melville and myself conceive our investigations have established3 the discovery of the cranium1 and of perfect examples of the upper and lower jaws with both successional and mature molars in their natural position1 may modify1 but1 we believe1 will in no material respect invalidate these conclusions4 ,in instituting a comparison between the maxillary organs of the ,iguanodon1 and those of the existing herbivorous lizards1 we are at once struck with their remarkable deviation from all known types in the class of reptiles4 ,in the ,amblyrhynchi 7of the ,galapagos ,islands71 the most exclusively vegetable feeders of the ,saurian order1 the alveolar process beset with teeth is continued round the front of the mouth3 the junction of the two rami of the lower jaw at the symphysis presenting no edentulous interval whatever1 the lips not being more produced than in other reptiles2 but this creature only bruises its food2 it cannot grind or masticate it4 ,in fact1 the edentulous1 expanded1 scoop-shaped1 procumbent symphysis of the lower jaw of the ,iguanodon1 has no parallel among either recent or fossil reptiles2 and we seek in vain for organs at all analogous1 except among the herbivorous mammalia4 ,the nearest approach is to be found in certain ,edentata2 as for example in the ,cholpus didactylus1 or ,two-toed ,sloth1 in which the anterior part of the lower jaw is destitute of teeth1 and much prolonged4 ,the correspondence is still closer in the extinct gigantic ,mylodons1 in which the symphysis resembles the blade of a turf-spade1 and has no traces of incisor sockets2 and were not this part of the jaw elevated vertically in front1 and the two sides confluent1 it would present the very counterpart of that of the ,iguanodon4 ,the great number and size of the vascular foramina distributed along the outer side of the dentary bone in the ,wealden reptile1 and the magnitude of the anterior outlets which gave exit to the vessels and nerves that supplied the front of the mouth1 indicate the great development of the integuments and soft parts with which the lower jaw was invested4 ,the sharp ridge bordering the deep groove of the symphysis1 in which there are also several foramina1 evidently gave attachment to the muscles and integuments of the under lip2 and there are strong reasons for supposing that the latter was greatly produced1 and capable of being protruded and retracted so as to constitute1 in conjunction with a long extensile tongue1 a suitable instrument for seizing and cropping leaves and branches1 which1 from the construction of the teeth1 we may infer was the food of the ,iguanodon4 ,thus we find the mechanism of the maxillary organs of the ,wealden herbivorous saurian1 as demonstrated by recent discoveries1 in perfect harmony with the remarkable dental characters which rendered the first known teeth so enigmatical4 ,in the ,iguanodon we have a solution of the problem1 how the integrity of the type of organization peculiar to the class of cold-blooded vertebrata was maintained1 and yet adapted by simple modifications to fulfil the conditions required by the economy of a gigantic terrestrial reptile1 destined to obtain support exclusively from vegetable substances2 in like manner as the extinct colossal sloth-like ,edentata of ,south ,america4 ,in fine1 we have in the ,iguanodon the type of the terrestrial herbivora1 which in that remote epoch of the earth's physical history--the ,age of ,reptiles--occupied the same relative station in the terrestrial fauna1 and fulfilled the same general purposes in the economy of nature1 as the ,mylodons1 ,mastodons1 and ,mammoths1 of the tertiary periods1 and the large pachyderms of modern times4 ,although some important data are still required to complete our knowledge of the structure of the ,iguanodon1 we are warranted in concluding that this colossal herbivorous reptile was as bulky as the elephant1 and as massive in its proportions3 for1 living exclusively on vegetable substances1 the abdominal region must have been largely developed4 ,its limbs must have been of proportionate size to support and move so enormous a carcass4 ,the hinder extremities probably presented the unwieldly contour of those of the ,hippopotamus1 and were based on strong short feet1 protected by broad horny ungueal phalanges1 or nails4 ,the fore-legs appear to have been less bulky1 and adapted for seizing and pulling down plants and branches3 the teeth and jaws demonstrate the nature of its food2 and the fossil remains of coniferous trees1 arborescent1 ferns1 and cycadeous plants1 with which its relics are commonly associated1 indicate the character of the flora adapted for its sustenance4#aci ,footnote #aci3 ,philosophical ,transactions1 for #ahdh1 pp4 #aif-aih4 ,,xviii4 ,the ,pelorosaurus4--,the humerus of a terrestrial reptile of enormous magnitude1 has lately been discovered by ,mr4 ,peter ,fuller of ,lewes1 in the quarry near ,cuckfield1 from which many remains of the ,iguanodon and ,hylosaurus were obtained in my early researches4 ,this bone more nearly resembles the humerus of the ,crocodiles1 than that of the ,lizards4 ,it ,is four and a half feet in length1 and of corresponding proportions2 it has a large medullary canal4 ,as to the size of the animal to which it belonged1 while disclaiming the idea that any certain conclusion can be drawn from a single bone1 ,i may mention1 with the view of conveying some general notion1 that in a ,gangetic crocodile eighteen feet long1 the humerus is one foot3 according to this scale the fossil animal would be eighty-one feet in length4 ,i have proposed the name of ,pelorosaurus 7from --pelr--monster71 or ,colossal-saurian1 for this new genus of reptiles which ,inhabited the country of the ,iguanodon4#adj ,footnote #adj3 ,a memoir on this fossil was read before the ,royal ,society1 ,feb4 #adth1 #ahej2 an abstract has been published in the ,proceedings of the ,society4 ,it is entitled1 ,on the ,pelorosaurus2 an undescribed gigantic terrestrial reptile1 whose remains are associated with those of the ,iguanodon and other saurians in the strata of ,tilgate ,forest4 ,it will appear in the ,phil4 ,trans4 ,part #aa4 #ahej4 ,,xix4 ,silicification1 or petrifaction by flint4--,the various forms in which silex occurs have depended on its state of fluidity4 ,in quartz crystals the solution was complete2 in agate and chalcedony it was in a gelatinous state1 assuming a spheroidal or orbicular disposition according to the motion given to its particles4 ,its condition appears also to have been modified by the influence of organic matter4 ,in some polished slices of siliceous nodules1 the transition from flint to agate1 chalcedony1 and crystallized quartz1 is beautifully shown4 ,the curious fact that the shells of ,echinites ,in chalk are almost invariably filled with flint1 while their crustaceous shells are changed into calc-spar1 is probably in many instances to be attributed to the animal matter having undergone silicification2 for the most organized parts are those which appear to have been most susceptible of this transmutation4 ,in some specimens the oyster is changed into flint1 while the shell ,is converted into crystallized carbonate of lime4 ,in a trigonia from ,tisbury1 formerly ,in the cabinet of the late ,miss ,benett1 of ,norton ,house1 near ,warminster1 the body of the mollusk was completely metamorphosed into pure chalcedony1 the branchi or gills being as clearly defined as when the animal was recent4 ,in specimens of wood from ,australia 7presented to the ,british ,museum by ,sir ,thomas ,mitchell71 which are completely permeated by silex1 there are on the external surface some spots of chalcedony1 that have apparently originated from the exudation of the liquid silex from the interior in viscid globules filled with air1 which burst1 and then collapsed1 and became solidified in their present form4 ,in silicified wood1 the permeation of the vegetable tissues by the mineral matter appears to have been effected by solutions of silex of a high temperature4 ,in some examples mineralization has been effected simply by replacement3 the original substance has been removed1 atom by atom1 and the silex substituted in its place4 ,one of the most eminent naturalists and mineralogists of the ,united ,states1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,dana1#ada suggests that the reason why silica is so common a material in the constitution of fossil wood and shells1 as well as in pseudo-morphic crystals1#adb consists in the ready solution of silex in water at a high temperature 7a fact affirmed by ,bergman#adc7 under great pressure1 whenever an alkali is present1 as is seen at the present time in many volcanic regions1 and its ready deposition again when the water cools4 ,a mere heated aqueous solution of silica1 under a high pressure1 is sufficient to explain the phenomenon of the silicification of organic structures4 ,mr4 ,dana states that a crystal of calc-spar in such a fluid1 being exposed to solution from the action of the heated water alone1 the silica deposits itself gradually on a reduction of temperature1 and takes the place of the lime1 atom by atom1 as soon as set free4 ,every silicified fossil is an example of this pseudo-morphism2 but there seems to be no union of the silica with the lime1 for silicate of lime is of rare occurrence4#add ,footnote #ada3 ,american ,journal of ,science1 for ,january1 #ahde4 ,footnote #adb3 ,pseudo-morphic crystals are crystals moulded in the cavities left by other crystals1 which they have replaced4 ,see ,dr4 ,blum on pseudo-morphous minerals2 and ,mr4 ,jefferey's experiments on the solution of silica in heated vapour2 ,wonders of ,geology1 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #adc3 ,bergman first determined the solubility of silex in simple water1 aided by heat1 and demonstrated its existence in the ,geysers1 and other boiling springs of ,iceland4 ,parkinson1 ,org4 ,rem41 vol4 i4 p4 #cbd4 ,footnote #add3 ,see my ,notes on a microscopical examination of chalk and flint1 ,annals of ,natural ,history1 ,august #ahde4 ,,xx4 ,stigmaria1 ,sigillaria1 c4--,the most remarkable peculiarity of the flora of the carboniferous period is the immense numerical preponderance of the vascular or higher tribes of cryptogamic plants1 which amount to two-thirds of the species described4 ,with these are associated a few ,palms1 ,conifer1 ,cycade1 and dicotyledonous plants1 allied to the ,cacte and ,euphorbiace4 ,the number and magnitude of the vegetables bearing an analogy to the ,ductulos1 but differing from existing species and genera1 constitute therefore the most important botanical feature of the carboniferous flora4 ,thus we have plants allied to the ,equisetum1 or mare's-tail 7,calamites71 eighteen inches in circumference1 and from thirty to forty feet high2 ,zamia-like conifer 7,sigillari7 fifty feet high2 and arborescent club-mosses 7,lepidodendra7 attaining an altitude of sixty or seventy feet4 ,of this ancient flora1 the fossil plants whose stems have been named ,sigillaria 7see ,plate ,,xxi471 and their roots ,stigmaria1 are especially remarkable in consequence of the peculiar circumstances under which upright examples of these trees are occasionally met with4 ,referring for details to ,wonders of ,geology1 ,lecture ,,vii41 ,i purpose describing in this place the facts recently brought to light1 which prove that certain species of ,stigmaria are the roots of ,sigillari2 while others in all probability belong to ,lepidodendra3--an opinion maintained more than thirty years ago by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,steinhauer4#ade ,to the late ,mr4 ,binney we are indebted for the first confirmation of the inference of my friend1 ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongniart1 7derived from an examination of the structure of those bodies17 that the ,stigmari are the veritable roots of ,sigillari4 ,at ,st4 ,helen's1 near ,liverpool1 ,mr4 ,binney discovered1 in #ahdd1 an upright trunk of a ,sigillaria1 nine feet high1 to which were attached ten roots1 several feet long1 that extended into the under clay in their natural position2#adf and these roots were unquestionable ,stigmari1 the tubercles with their attached rootlets being clearly displayed4 ,in the floor of the ,victoria ,mine at ,dunkinfold1 near ,manchester1 at the depth of #a1ajj feet from the surface1 ,mr4 ,binney also discovered a magnificent specimen of ,sigillaria1 which exhibited on its stem the respective characters of three supposed species1 and had stigmaria-roots extending twenty feet4 ,footnote #ade3 ,transactions of the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 ,new ,series1 vol4 i4 ,footnote #adf3 ,see ,medals of ,creation1 vol4 i4 p4 #adc4 ,in the ,sydney coal-field at ,cape ,breton1 ,mr4 ,richard ,brown has observed several upright stems of ,sigillari and ,lepidodendra1 with stigmaria-roots attached2 and the same fact has been noticed in the ,picton coal1 in ,nova ,scotia4 ,the following figures and notes from ,mr4 ,brown's description of these interesting phenomena1 will place the subject before the reader in a clear point of view4#adg ,footnote #adg3 ,description of an upright ,lepidodendron with ,stigmaria-roots in the roof of the ,sydney ,main ,coal1 in the ,island of ,cape ,breton4 ,by ,richard ,brown1 ,esq4--,geological ,journal1 ,no4 #ac1 for ,june1 #ahdg1 p4 #df4 ,the main bed of coal is six feet in thickness1 and is overlaid1 as usual1 by a roof of shale abounding in foliage and fragments of branches4 ,as the coal is dug out1 large masses of the shale fall in1 and occasionally hollow spaces1 called by the workmen pot-holes1 are left in the roof2 the fallen masses being the roots and truncated stems of ,sigillari and other trees1 which separate at the parting formed by the coaly bark covering the roots1 when the supporting coal is removed4 ,the following sketch represents one of the specimens of the base of a stem of a ,lepidodendron1 with the roots 7stigmari7 attached4 ,this figure 7#a7 shows the position of the tree above the bed of main coal1 with the inclination and length of two of the principal roots1 so far as they could be distinctly traced2 and the following sketch 7#b7 represents the trunk1 with its branching roots1 constructed from careful measurements of the dimensions and position of each root1 drawn on the spot4 ,the stem at the part marked ,a1 was encrusted with a coaly bark1 covered by the usual cicatrices of the ,lepidodendra1 and the roots at ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 with a similar carbonaceous investment1 impressed with the characteristic pits or areol of ,stigmari4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,,stem ,,of ,,lepidodendron ,,with ,,roots4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,in the ,instance of the upright stems of ,sigillari in the same coal-field1 the roots were also unequivocally ,stigmari4 ,fig4 #c1 represents one of these erect stems1 sixteen ,inches high and twelve inches in diameter at the top1 which dropped from the roof of the bed after the coal had been removed4 ,part of the coaly bark remains at c4 ,the decorticated part of the trunk is covered with minute scales as far as the point h1 a few inches below the first ramification of the roots4 ,the carbonaceous crust investing the roots was thick at the upper part1 but gradually became thin1 and at a1 and b1 was a mere friable pellicle1 that fell off upon the slightest touch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,,stem ,,of ,,sigillaria ,,alternans1 #a_/ab natural size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,the exact position of the tree in relation to the underlying coal is shown in the above section4 ,fig4 #d4 ,immediately over the coal there is a bed of hard shale1 six inches in depth1 in which no fossils are found2 this is overlaid by a softer shale abounding in coal-plants2 all the upright stems were rooted in the six-inch shale4 ,upon clearing the base of this tree1 a complete set of conical tap-roots was discovered1 arranged as in the annexed sketch4 ,fig4 #e4 ,there are four large tap-roots in each quarter of the stump1 and five inches below these another set of smaller tap-roots2 the total number amounting to eighteen4 ,the horizontal roots are seen to branch off in a regular manner1 the base being divided into four nearly equal parts by deep channels1 extending from the centre to the points i1 k1 l1 m4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,the under surface of ,fig4 #c1 showing the conical tap-roots of the tree1 #a_/ab natural size4 ,mr4 ,brown remarks1 that these short thick tap-roots were evidently adapted only to a soft wet soil1 such as we may conceive was the nature of the first layer of mud deposited upon a bed of peat which had settled down slightly below the level of the water4 ,he supposes1 from the presence of a layer of shale without fossil plants immediately over the coal1 that the prostrate stems and leaves which occur in such large quantities in the next superincumbent bed1 fell from trees growing on the spot1 and were entombed in layers of mud held in suspension in the water1 which at short intervals inundated the low marshy ground on which they grew2 for had the plants been drifted from a distance1 he conceives they would also occur in the first layer of shale1 as well as in those higher up4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,,stem ,,of ,a ,,sigillaria ,,broken ,,off ,,close ,,to ,,the ,,roots1 #a_/ab natural size4 ,having thus shown that the ,sigillaria alternans was provided with roots adapted for a soft muddy soil1 ,mr4 ,brown next describes the specimen represented in ,fig4 #f1 which is the stem of the same species of tree broken off near the roots2 the hollow cylinder of bark 7a7 having been bent down and doubled over by the pressure of the surrounding mud1 so as effectually to close up the aperture1 leaving only a few irregular cicatrices1 of three or four inches in length1 converging at the apex2 the structure1 arrangement1 and number of the tap-roots1 as well as the horizontal ramifications1 are similar to those in ,fig4 #e4 ,this fossil clearly explains the nature of the dome-shaped plant figured in the ,fossil ,flora of ,great ,britain4#adh ,footnote #adh3 ,the figures #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 and the descriptions1 are from the paper of ,richard ,brown1 ,esq41 published in the ,journal of the ,geological ,society of ,london1 for ,march1 #ahdi1 entitled1 ,description of erect ,sigillari1 with conical tap-roots1 found in the roof of the ,sydney ,main ,coal1 in the ,island of ,cape ,breton4 ,the roots of the preceding fossils repeatedly ramify as their distance from the stem increases1 and ultimately terminate in broad flattened points4 ,the whole of the spreading roots of these trees 7the ,sigillari7 cover only an area of thirty square feet each2 whilst those of the ,lepidodendron 7,fig4 #a71 whose stem is only two or three inches larger in diameter1 covered a space of two hundred square feet4 ,since it is well known1 from numerous examples1 that the ,lepidodendra were lofty trees1 with spreading branches1 which therefore required wide bases for support1 may we not conclude that ,sigillari of the species described were1 on the contrary1 trees of low stature1 without heavy branches8 ,i cannot quit this subject without again adverting to the remarkable phenomenon mentioned ,in a previous note1 namely1 that in the bed of pulverulent earth--the under-clay--on which the coal invariably reposes1 the roots 7or ,stigmari7 of large trees are generally the only organic remains met with4 ,the constant occurrence of these fossils in the under-clay1 and their rarity in the coal and shale1 was long ago pointed out by ,mr4 ,martin1 ,dr4 ,macculloch1 and other geologists2 but the importance of the fact was not appreciated till ,mr4 ,logan drew attention to it4 ,in the ,welsh coal-field1 through a depth of #a1bjj feet1 there are sixty beds of coal1 each of which lies on a stratum of clay abounding in ,stigmari4 ,in the ,appalachian coal formation of the ,united ,states1 the same phenomena occur4 ,thus it appears that the under-clay is the natural soil in which the roots 7,stigmari7 of the ,sigillari and ,lepidodendra grew2 the coal above it is composed of the carbonized stems and foliage of those trees2 and the roof or coal-shale is formed by the leaves and branches of a forest overwhelmed and buried beneath the transported detritus of distant rocks4 ,these phenomena may be explained by supposing that a plain1 densely clothed with a luxuriant intertropical vegetation1 was either inundated by an irruption of the sea1 or overwhelmed by a flood1 from the sudden breaking up of the barrier of an inland lake2 or by the subsidence of the country on which the forests grew4 ,but when we find an uninterrupted series1 in which triple deposits of this character are repeated through many thousand feet1 the solution of the problem is beset with difficulties1 which the hypothesis of repeated periodical subsidences1 however ingenious1 does not1 in my opinion1 remove4#adi ,footnote #adi3 ,see ,wonders of ,geology1 pp4 #ffi1 #gah1 #gca4 ,jaw of the ,iguanodon4--,additional note to p4 #aid4--,since the preceding pages were struck off1 ,i have1 through the kindness and liberality of ,samuel ,h4 ,beckles1 ,esq41 of ,hastings1 obtained two portions of jaws from the ,wealden of the ,sussex ,coast4 ,one of these is a fragment of the left side of the lower jaw1 with six well-defined dental sockets2 the other specimen exhibits the position of the mature molars and the successional teeth in the upper jaw2 and confirms the accuracy of the views of ,dr4 ,melville and myself as to the ruminant character of the arrangement of the dental organs in the upper and lower jaws of the ,iguanodon1 as described in my memoir on the structure of the jaws and teeth2 ,philos4 ,trans4 #ahdh1 p4 #ahc4 ,when this specimen is completely developed1 it will probably exhibit distinctly the relative position of the germs and mature teeth1 and the form of the inner alveolar parapet4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,acrodus1 tooth of1 #afj4 ,actinocrinus1 #aba4 ---- triacontadactylus1 #aba4 ,adelosina1 #adc4 ,age of reptiles1 #aic4 ,alethopteris decurrens1 #ha4 ---- lonchitidis1 #be4 ---- ,serlii1 #be4 ,alg1 fossil1 #aia4 ,alveolina elliptica1 #adb4 ,ammonites1 #aci4 ---- latus1 #aci4 ---- ,mantelli1 #aci4 ---- ovalis1 #aci4 ---- ,walcotii1 #aci4 ,ananchytes ovatus1 #abg4 ,annularia brevifolia1 #bg4 ,anoplotherium commune1 teeth of1 #afc4 ,antarctic ocean1 diatomace of1 #aia4 ,aphyllum asperum1 #fi4 ---- cristatum1 #fe4 ,apiocrinus ellipticus1 #aac4 ---- ,parkinsoni1 #aai4 ---- rotundus1 #aai4 ,aptychus1 #adg4 ,area1 fossil1 #add4 ,artis1 ,mr41 on fossil botany1 #age4 ---- work of1 #af4 ,asaphus caudatus1 #aef4 ,aspidiaria cristata1 #fe4 ,asterias1 fossil1 #abe4 ,asterophyllites1 #bg4 ,astrea ananas1 #ic4 ---- arachnoides1 #ie4 ---- geometrica1 #aji4 ---- ,tisburiensis1 #ie4 ---- undulata1 #ie4 ,b4 ,baculites ,fraujasii1 #aci4 ,bahia ,blanca1 fossils of1 #ahd4 ,bears1 fossil teeth of1 #afe4 ---- fossil1 #afi4 ,beckles1 ,s4 ,h41 ,esq41 fossils by1 #bjb4 ,belemnitella mucronata1 #ach1 #aci4 ,belemnite1 description of1 #afi4 ,belemnites1 #acg1 #ach1 #aci4 ---- coniformis1 #ach4 ---- cylindriformis1 #ach4 ---- fusiformis1 #ach4 ---- giganteus1 #acg4 ---- ,puzosianus1 #aga4 ,belemnoteuthis antiquus1 #agj4 ,bellerophon costatus1 #ada4 ,bellinurus bellulus1 #aef4 ,benett1 ,miss1 the late1 fossils by1 #aig1 #ie4 ,bergman1 on ,silica1 #aih4 ,big-bone ,lick1 account of1 #afg4 ,biloculina ringens1 #adc4 ,binney1 ,mr41 on ,stigmari1 #aih4 ,birds1 fossil remains of4 ,new ,zealand1 x1 #agb4 ,botanical arrangement of fossil plants1 #age4 ,bourgeticrinus1 #aac4 ,bovey coal1 #ai4 ,bowerbank1 ,j4 ,s41 ,esq41 on fossil fruits of ,sheppey1 #bi1 #ca4 ,brachiopoda1 fossil1 #aec4 ,bradford encrinite1 #aai4 ,brickenden1 ,capt4 ,lambart1 discovery of jaw of ,iguanodon1 #aid4 ,brongniart1 ,m41 fossil botany of1 #agh4 ---- on fossil fruits of ,sheppey1 #ca4 ,brown1 ,mr4 ,richard1 on upright ,sigillari1 #aih4 ,buckland1 ,dr41 on ,belemno-sepia1 #agj4 ---- on ,stigmari1 #ee4 ,c4 ,calamites approximatus1 #di4 ---- decoratus1 #ea4 ---- dubius1 #bc1 #de4 ---- ramosus1 #dc4 ---- ,suckovii1 #dg4 ,calceola sandalina1 #aed4 ,calymene ,blumenbachii1 #aef4 ---- variolare1 #aef4 ,cancer ,leachii1 #aee4 ,cannibalism of ,new ,zealanders1 #age4 ,cap ,encrinite1 #aaf1 #aag4 ,cape ,breton1 coal-field of #aii4 ,carboniferous deposits1 #aha4 ,carcharias megalodon1 #afj4 ,cardinia ,listeri1 #adg4 ,cardita senilis1 #adg4 ,cardium ,hillanum1 #adg4 ,carpenter1 ,dr41 on foraminifera1 #adb4 ,carpolithus marginatus1 #hc4 ,caryophyllia annularis1 #ia4 ---- centralis1 #ia4 ,catenipora escharoides1 #hi4 ,caves1 ossiferous1 #afi4 ,cephalopoda1 fossil1 #ada1 #ahj4 ,ceratodus1 #aeg4 ,ceriopora1 #ii1 #aad4 ,chain-coral1 #hi4 ,chama squamosa1 #adi4 ,chara1 fossil seeds of1 #adc4 ,cheilanthes microlobus1 #be4 ,cheilanthites1 #ge1 #gi4 ,chelonia breviceps1 #aeg4 ,chenendopora fungiformis1 #ajg4 ---- ,parkinsoni1 #aja4 ---- subplana4 #aaa4 ,choanites ,knigi1 #ajc1 #ajg4 ,cidaris ,blumenbachii1 #aca4 ---- claviger1 #aca4 ---- corollaris1 #abf4 ---- coronatus1 #abf4 ---- crenularis1 #abf4 ---- fossil1 #abf4 ---- glandiferus1 #aca4 ---- granulosus1 #abf4 ---- ,knigi1 #abf4 ---- ,parkinsoni1 #abe4 ---- saxatilis1 #abi4 ---- sceptrifera1 #aca4 ---- ,schmidelii1 #aca4 ---- vesiculosus1 #abf1 #aca4 ,clapp1 ,dr41 fossil corals by1 #hi4 ,cliona1 of ,new ,zealand1 #ii4 ,clionites1 #ii4 ,clypeaster1 #abg4 ---- altus1 #aca4 ,clypeus sinuatus1 #abg4 ,cnemidium rimulosum1 #ajg4 ,coal1 #ahb4 ,coal measures1 #aha4 ,cololites1 #acc4 ,comatula1 fossil1 #abe4 ---- pectinata1 #abf4 ,conulus albogalerus1 #abg4 ,coprolites of fishes1 #cj4 ,coral marble1 #ie4 ,corals1 fossil1 #ahb4 ---- fossil1 from the ,ohio1 #hi4 ,corbula gallica1 #aec4 ---- revoluta1 #adg4 ,coronulites diadema1 #aed4 ,crabs1 fossil1 #aee4 ,crania personata1 #aec4 ,crassatella tumida1 #adg4 ,crenatula1 fossil1 #aea4 ,crinoidea1 #aaa4 ,cristellaria galea1 #add4 ---- rotulata1 #adc4 ,crustacea1 fossil1 #aee4 ,cuculla decussata1 #adg ,cucumites1 #bi1 #cj4 ,cupanoides1 #cj4 ,cuvier1 ,baron1 discoveries of1 #ahc4 ,cyathocrinite1 #aba4 ,cyathocrinus rugosus1 #aag4 ,cyathophyllum dianthus1 #ic4 ---- fungites1 #ie4 ---- turbinatum1 #ia1 #ie4 ,cyclopteris orbicularis1 #bg4 ,cyphosoma correlare1 #abf4 ---- ,milleri1 #abf4 ,cyrena deperdita1 #adg4 ,d4 ,dana1 ,j4 ,d41 ,esq41 on silicification1 #aig4 ,dapedius1 scales of1 #aed4 ,darwin1 ,mr41 ,journal of1 #ahd4 ---- on fossil ,edentata1 #ahe4 ,deane1 ,mr4 ,henry1 on ,rotali1 #ahh4 ,derbyshire ,cap ,encrinite1 #aag4 ,desmidiace1 #aij4 ,dianchora1 #adi4 ,diatomace1 #aij4 ,dinornis of ,new ,zealand1 x1 #agb4 ,dinotherium1 tooth of1 #afc4 ,disaster ovalis1 #abi4 ,discoidea1 #abg4 ---- subuculus1 #abg4 ,discospira1 #adb4 ,d',orbigny1 ,m41 on foraminifera1 #ahf4 ,dudley fossil locust1 #aef4 ,e4 ,echinanthites orbicularis1 #abg4 ,echinanthus altus1 #aca4 ,echini1 fossil1 #abg1 #abi1 #aca4 ,echinital spines1 fossil1 #aca4 ,echinodiscus bisperforatus1 #abg4 ---- laganum1 #abi4 ---- subrotundus1 #abi4 ,echinites lapis cancri1 #abi4 ---- pyriformis1 #abi4 ,edentata1 fossil1 #ahd4 ,eggs of ,dinornis1 #agd4 ,elephas primigenius1 teeth of1 #afa4 ,elk fossil1 of ,ireland1 #afa1 #ahi4 ,encrinital limestone1 #ia4 ---- marble1 #aag4 ,encrinites1 #aag4 ---- monileformis1 #aae4 ,essex reversed ,whelk1 #acc4 ,eugeniacrinus caryophyllatus1 #aad4 ,euomphalus pentangulatus1 #acc4 ---- rugosus1 #acc4 ,euphorbites vulgaris1 #eg4 ,explanaria flexuosa1 #ig4 ,f4 ,faringdon1 fossil zoophytes of1 #ic4 ,fasciolites1 #adb4 ,favosites ,gothlandica1 #ig4 ,feet of ,moa1 x1 #agd4 ,ferns1 fossil1 #be1 #bg4 ,ficoidites furcatus1 #ei4 ---- major1 #fc4 ---- verrucosus1 #fa4 ,filicites decurrens1 #ha4 ---- ,miltoni1 #gg4 ---- ,osmunda1 #gc4 ---- plumosus1 #gi4 ---- trifoliatus1 #ge4 ,fishes1 fossil1 #aeg1 #aei4 ,fistulana1 fossil1 #adi4 ,flint1 fossils in1 #ahe4 ,flustra1 structure of1 #ahc4 ,foraminifera1 account of1 #ahf4 ---- fossil1 #adb1 #adc1 #ahh4 ---- ---- of ,india1 #ahh4 ---- ---- of ,new ,zealand1 #ahh4 ,forbes1 ,prof ,e41 fossils by1 #adc4 ,fossil plants1 arrangement of1 #age4 ,fowlestone1 ,mr41 fossils by1 #ajg1 #aid4 ,frontispiece1 description of1 x4 ,fruits1 fossil1 of ,isle of ,sheppey1 #bi1 #ca4 ,fuller1 ,mr4 ,peter1 fossils by1 #aig4 ,fungia1 fossil1 #ia4 ---- numismalis1 #ia4 ---- polymorpha1 #aje4 ,fusus contrarius1 #acc4 ,g4 ,galerites1 #abg4 ,galeus pristodontus1 #aei4 ,gloucestershire ,pentacrinite1 #aaa4 ,goniaster ,mantelli1 #abe4 ---- ,parkinsoni1 #abe4 ---- semilunata1 #abe4 ,gonoplax ,latreilli1 #aef4 ,gorgonia bacillaris1 #aji4 ,gryphea incurva1 #aea4 ,guard or rostrum of ,belemnite1 #aga4 ,gyrogonites1 #adc4 ,h4 ,hamites intermedius1 #ada4 ---- plicatilis1 #ada4 ---- rotundus1 #ada4 ,hamsey1 near ,lewes1 fossils from1 #ada4 ,harris1 ,w41 ,esq41 on ,charing deposits1 #ahh4 ,helix arbustorum1 #adi4 ,hemicidaris crenularis1 #abf1 #aca4 ,hermit crab1 fossil1 #aee4 ,hippopotamus1 fossil teeth of1 #afc4 ,hippurites bioculatus1 #acg4 ,hoffman1 ,m41 discovery of ,mosasaurus1 #aib4 ,honey-stone1 #ai4 ,hooker1 ,dr41 on ,diatomace1 #aia4 ,hybodus1 tooth of1 #aei4 ,hydatica columnaris1 #cg4 ---- prostrata1 #ci4 ,i4 ,iguanodon1 #aic1 #bjb4 ---- discovery of1 #aic4 ,inachus ,lamarckii1 #aee4 ,infusorial earths1 #ahi4 ,insects1 fossil1 #aee4 ,ireland1 fossil ,elk of1 #ahi4 ,ironstone nodules1 #be4 ,j4 ,jaw of ,iguanodon1 #aid1 #bjb4 ,jerea excavata1 #ajd4 ---- pyriformis1 #aje4 ,k4 ,kentucky crinoidea1 #aad4 ,kilkenny marble1 #ie4 ,knorria taxina1 #ce4 ,l4 ,lamna1 tooth of1 #aei4 ,lapis syringoides1 #cc4 ,leaves1 dicotyledonous1 in travertine1 #bc4 ,lepidotus1 #aeg4 ,lepidodendron1 #ai1 #bc1 #fi4 ---- upright1 #aii4 ---- with stigmari1 #aii4 ,lepidostrobi1 #fi4 ,lepidostrobus ornatus1 #ce4 ,lignite1 #ai4 ,lily encrinite1 #aae4 ,lima gigantea1 #adg4 ,limulus trilobitoides1 #aef4 ,lithodendron fasciculatum1 #ie4 ,lithodomi1 fossil1 #adi4 ,lithostrotion striatum1 #ic4 ,lituites lituus1 #acc4 ,lituola nautiloidea1 #adc4 ,lobophora biperforata1 #abg4 ,lumbricaria colon1 #acc4 ,lychnophorites superus1 #ga4 ,lycopodites squamatus1 #cj4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,charles1 on ,apiocrinites1 #aai4 ---- on ,big-bone ,lick1 #afg4 ,lysianassa literata1 #adg4 ,m4 ,maestricht1 fossil reptile of1 #aia4 ,mammalia1 fossil teeth of1 #afa4 ,manon favosum1 #ic4 ,mantell1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,n41 fossils by1 #agj4 ---- ,walter1 ,esq41 on fossil birds of ,new ,zealand1 x1 #agc4 ,marsupites ,milleri1 #aac4 ,martius1 ,m41 fossil flora of1 #agh4 ,mastodon1 tooth of1 #afg4 ,megaceros ,hibernicus1 antlers of1 #afa4 ,megalonyx1 tooth and claw of1 #afc4 ---- ,jeffersoni1 #afc4 ,megaphyton distans1 #fg4 ,megatherium ,cuvieri1 #afe4 ,mellite1 #ai4 ,melville1 ,professor1 on the ,iguanodon1 #aie4 ,michelinia1 #ia4 ---- tenuisepta1 #ic4 ,micraster cor anguinum1 #abi4 ---- lacunosus1 #abi4 ,miliobatis1 fossil1 #afj4 ,millepora ramosa1 #ii4 ,miller1 ,mr41 on ,belemnite1 #agj4 ---- on ,crinoidea1 #aae4 ,moa1 or ,dinornis1 of ,new ,zealand1 x1 #agb4 ,morris1 ,mr41 on ,clionites1 #ajj4 ---- on ,discospira1 #adb4 ,mosasaurus1 #aeg1 #aei1 #aia4 ,murchison1 ,sir ,r4 ,i41 ,silurian ,system1 #aee4 ,mya literata1 #adg4 ,myriophyllites gracilis1 #da4 ,n4 ,natica ,gentii1 #acc4 ,nautilus centralis1 #ace4 ---- ,parkinsoni1 #ace4 ---- truncatus1 #ace4 ,nerita conoidea1 #acc4 ,neuropteris1 #ai1 #be4 ---- auriculata1 #gc4 ,new ,zealand1 fossil birds of1 x1 #agb4 ,nipa1 fruits of1 fossil1 #bi4 ,nipadites1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca4 ---- ,parkinsoni1 #ca4 ,nodosaria raphanistrum1 #ach4 ,nodules with leaves1 #be4 ,notidanus microdon1 #aeg4 ,nucleolites1 #abg4 ---- pyriformis1 #abi4 ,nucula ovum1 #adg4 ,nummulina1 animal of1 #ahg4 ---- ,dr4 ,carpenter on1 #ad4 ---- lvigata1 #adb4 ,nummulites1 #ada4 ---- complanata1 #adb4 ---- dispansa1 #adb4 ---- obtusa1 #adb4 ,o4 ,ogygia ,buchii1 #aef4 ,ohio1 ,falls of the1 #hi4 ,ophiura1 #abe4 ,ophiur1 fossil1 #abf4 ,orbitolites1 #adb4 ,ormoceras1 #acg4 ,ornithorhynchus1 #aie4 ,orthoceras annulatum1 #ace4 ---- duplex1 #acg4 ---- pyriforme1 #acg4 ---- undulatum1 #ace4 ,orthocerina clavulus1 #adc4 ,osselet of ,belemnite1 #aga4 ,ostrea ,marshii1 #aea4 ---- carinata1 #aea4 ---- gregarea1 #aea4 ,otodus1 tooth of1 #aei4 ,owen1 ,professor1 on ,belemnites1 #agj4 ---- ---- on ,dinornis1 x1 #agc4 ---- ---- ,elephants' teeth1 #afa4 ,ox1 fossil teeth of1 #afa4 ,p4 ,pagurus ,faujasii1 #aee4 ,palotherium medium1 teeth of1 #afc4 ,pampas1 #ahe4 ,pandanocarpum ,parkinsonis1 #ca4 ,panopa ,aldrovandi1 #adi4 ,parish1 ,sir ,woodbine1 fossils by1 #afe4 ,parkinson1 ,mr41 notice of1 #ac4 ,pear encrinite1 #aai4 ,pearce1 ,channing1 ,esq41 fossils by1 #aai4 ---- on ,belemnites1 #agj4 ,pecopteris1 #be1 #bg4 ---- heterophylla1 #ha4 ---- ,miltoni1 #gg4 ---- oreopteridis1 #bg4 ---- plumosa1 #gi4 ,pelorosaurus1 #aig4 ,peneroloplis opercularis1 #adc4 ,pentacrinites1 #abj1 #aba1 #abc4 ,pentacrinus1 #aaa4 ---- basaltiformis1 #aad1 #aba4 ---- ,briareus1 #abb1 #abc4 ---- scalaris1 #aad1 #aba4 ,pentagonaster regularis1 #abe4 ,pentamerus1 #aed4 ,pentremites florealis1 #aad4 ,perna quadrata1 #aea4 ---- maxillata1 #aea4 ,petraia1 #ia4 ,petrifaction by flint1 #aig4 ,petrified figs1 #ca4 ---- melons1 #ce4 ,phragmocone of ,belemnite1 #aga4 ,platycrinus lvis1 #abb4 ,plicatula spinosa1 #ade4 ,polystomella crispa1 #add4 ,porites pyriformis1 #ig4 ,productus1 #ade4 ---- antiquatus1 #ade4 ---- ,martini1 #aed4 ,psaronius1 #cc4 ,ptychodus decurrens1 #aeg4 ---- polygurus1 #afj4 ,pulley-stone1 #aag4 ,q4 ,quadrupeds1 fossil1 of ,montmartre1 #ahc4 ,quinqueloculina ringens1 #adc4 ---- opposita1 #adc4 ,r4 ,radiolites agariciformis1 #aec4 ,rangatapu1 #agd4 ,reptiles1 fossil1 #aeg1 #aei1 #aib4 ---- ---- of the ,wealden1 #aic4 ,rhinoceros leptorhinus1 #afc4 ,rhizolithes1 #ba4 ,rhodocrinus verus1 #aag4 ,rhytidolepis fibrosa1 #ee4 ,rotalia ,beccarii1 #adc1 #add4 ---- trochiliformis1 #adc4 ,s4 ,salenia scutigera1 #abf4 ---- stellulata1 #abf4 ,scaphites costatus1 #ada4 ,scelidotherium1 #ahe4 ,schlotheim1 ,baron1 fossil botany1 #agf4 ,scyphia articulata1 #aje4 ---- costata1 #ajg4 ,seed-vessels1 fossil1 #ca1 #ce4 ,serpula antiquata1 #aeg4 ---- conica1 #ace4 ---- filiformis1 #ace4 ,serpulite1 #ace4 ,shark's teeth1 fossil1 #aei4 ,shells1 fossil1 #acc1 #ace1 #acg1 #aci1 #ada1 #ade1 #adg1 #adi1 #aea1 #aec4 ,shrimp1 fossil1 #aee4 ,shropshire ,encrinite1 #aag4 ,shumard1 ,dr41 on ,geology of ,kentucky1 #hi4 ,sigaretus1 fossil1 #acc4 ,sigillaria1 #eg4 ---- alternans1 #bjj4 ---- appendiculata1 #fe4 ---- fibrosa1 #ee4 ---- tesselata1 #bg4 ---- upright1 #bjj4 ---- with stigmari1 #aii4 ,siliceous nodules1 fossils in1 #ahe4 ,silicification1 #aig4 ,siliquaria1 fossil1 #ace4 ,siphonia1 #ig1 #ajc4 ---- pyriformis1 #ajd4 ,spatangites ovalis1 #abi4 ,spatangus cor marinum1 #abi4 ---- lacunosus1 #abi4 ---- purpureus1 #abi4 ---- radiatus1 #abi4 ,sphenophyllum erosum1 #bg4 ,sphenopteris1 #be4 ---- trifoliata1 #bg1 #ge4 ,spherodus1 tooth of1 #aei4 ,spherulites1 #acg4 ,spicules of fossil sponges1 #ig4 ,spines of ,echinites1 #aca4 ,spiniferites1 #aia4 ,spirifer cuspidatus1 #aed4 ---- striatus1 #aed4 ,spirolina depressa1 #adc4 ---- cylindracea1 #adc4 ,spongites labyrinthicus1 #aje4 ---- lobatus1 #ig4 ---- ramosus1 #ig4 ,staarenstein1 #cc4 ,star-fishes1 fossil1 #abe4 ,starry-stone1 #cc4 ,steinhauer1 ,rev4 ,j41 on ,stigmari1 #aih4 ,stems1 fossil1 #cc1 #ce4 ,steneosaurus1 #aeg1 #aei4 ,sternberg1 ,count1 fossil flora of1 #agf4 ,sternbergia transversa1 #ec4 ,stigmaria1 #aih4 ---- ficoides1 #bc1 #ei1 #fa1 #fc4 ---- in under-clay1 #aha4 ---- with lepidodendron1 #aii4 ,stigmari1 with sigillari1 #bjj4 ,streptospondylus1 #aeg4 ,syringopora geniculata1 #hg4 ---- ramulosa1 #hi4 ,t4 ,teeth1 fossil1 of ,anoplotherium1 #afc4 ---- ---- ,bears1 #afe4 ---- ---- ,dinotherium1 #afc4 ---- ---- ,elephants1 #afa4 ---- ---- ,hippopotamus1 #afc4 ---- ---- ,mastodon1 #afg4 ---- ---- ,megalonyx1 #afc4 ---- ---- ,ox1 #afa4 ---- ---- ,palotherium1 #afc4 ---- ---- ,rhinoceros1 #afc4 ---- of ,sharks1 fossil1 #aei4 ,terebratula coarctata1 #aec4 ---- diphya1 #aec4 ---- triquetra1 #aec4 ,teredina personata1 #adi4 ,teredo1 fossil1 #cc1 #adi4 ,tisbury1 fossil corals of1 #ie4 ,tortoise encrinite1 #aac4 ,toxodon1 #ahe4 ,trigonellites1 #adg4 ---- lamellosa1 #adg4 ---- lata1 #adg4 ,trigonia alformis1 #ade4 ---- clavellata1 #ade4 ---- costata1 #ade4 ---- ddalea1 #ade4 ---- excentrica1 #ade4 ---- rudis1 #ade4 ---- sinuata1 #ade4 ---- soft parts silicified1 #aig4 ---- spinosa1 #ade4 ,trigonocarpum olivforme1 #ca4 ,trilobites1 #aee4 ,triloculina trigonula1 #adc4 ,tubipore1 fossil1 #hg4 ,turban encrinite1 #aag4 ,turbinolia complanata1 #ia4 ---- mitrata1 #ia4 ,turrilites costatus1 #ada4 ---- tuberculatus1 #ada4 ,turtles1 fossil1 #aeg4 ,u4 ,under-clay1 #aha4 ,ursus spelus1 teeth of1 #afe1 #afi4 ---- priscus1 #afi4 ,v4 ,vaginella depressa1 #add4 ,ventriculites1 #ajc1 #aje1 #aji4 ---- alcyonoides1 #aje4 ---- racemosus1 #aji4 ,vermetus ampullacea1 #ace4 ---- ,bognoriensis1 #ace4 ---- concavus1 #ace4 ,victoria barrier1 #aia4 ,w4 ,waikouaiti1 #agd4 ---- fossils from1 x1 #agd4 ,waingongoro1 #agc4 ,wenlock limestone corals1 #hi4 ,wetherellia1 #bi4 ,williamson1 ,mr41 on ,polystomella1 #ahh4 ,wood1 fossil coniferous1 #ai1 #bc4 ---- calcareous1 #ai1 #bi4 ---- cupreous1 #bi4 ---- jasperized1 #ba4 ---- pyritous1 #bi4 ---- silicified1 #ba4 ,x4 ,xanthidia1 #aia4 ,y4 ,yandell1 ,dr41 fossil corals by1 #hi4 ,z4 ,zamia pectinata1 #bc4 ,k4 ,,clay1 ,,printer1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,note ,minor typos were corrected4 ,illustrations were relocated so as to avoid splitting paragraphs4 ,some tables were rejoined and page splits moved above or below them4