,,turner',s ,,sketches ,,and ,,drawings ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pass ,,of ,,fa,,do1 ,,st4 ,,gothard ,,water ,,colour1 #ahdd4 ,,turner',s ,,sketches ,,and ,,drawings ,by ,a4 ,j4 ,,finberg ,,with #ajj ,,illustrations ,,second ,,edition ,,methuen ,,co4 ,,ltd #cf ,,essex ,,street ,w4,c4 ,,london ,first ,published 4 4 4 ,july #bast #aiaj ,second ,edition 4 4 4 #aiaa ,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain4 ,,contents ,,page ,,list ,,of ,,plates1 ix ,,introductory1 #a ,the nature of our subject-matter1 #a ,the raw material of art1 #b ,the character of our subject-matter1 as embryonic forms of artistic expression1 prescribes our method of study1 #b ,our difficulties of description and analysis1 #c ,the separation of ,art-criticism from ,aesthetic1 #c ,eight aspects of ,turner's genius1 #d ,,chapter ,i4 ,,seven ,,years' ,,apprenticeship--#aghg-agic1 #f ,turner's first drawings1 #f #8,st4 ,vincent's ,tower1' #f ,copies and imitations1 #h ,his debt to art1 #aj ,work with ,mr4 ,hardwick1 #aj ,oxford sketches1 #aa #8,radley ,hall1' #ab ,working from the ,antique1 #ad ,the ,bristol sketch-book1 #ad ,end of the apprenticeship1 #af ,,ii4 ,,the ,,topographical ,,draughtsman--#agic-agif1 #ag ,welsh tour of #agic1 #ag #8,st4 ,anselm's ,chapel1' #ah ,turner's topographical rivals1 #ah ,midland tour of #agid1 #bj ,limitations of topographical and antiquarian art1 #bb #8,interior of a ,cottage1' #bc ,light and ,shade as a means of expression1 #bd ,the sketch-books of #agie and their contents1 #be #8,high ,force of ,tees' or #8,fall of ,melincourt'8 #bg ,,iii4 ,,the ,,sublime--#agig-ahjb1 #bi ,change from pure outline to light and shade1 #bi #8,ewenny ,priory1' #cj ,contrast between #8,ewenny' 7#agig7 and #8,llandaff ,cathedral' 7#agif71 #cj ,transition from ,objectivity to ,subjectivity1 #ca ,growth of taste for the ,sublime1 #ca ,there are no sublime objects1 but only objects of sublime feeling1 #cb ,therefore no guidance but from ,art1 #cb ,the ,wilson tradition1 #cc ,the two currents in ,turner's work at this period-- 7a7 ,study of ,nature2 7b7 ,study of the ,wilson tradition1 #cc ,in the #agig sketches these two currents are kept distinct1 #cd ,the ,north of ,england tour 7#agig7 and its record1 #cd #8,studies for ,pictures3 ,copies of ,wilson1' #cf ,the two currents begin to coalesce1 #cg ,the origin of #8,jason1' #ch ,scotch tour 7#ahja71 #ch ,swiss tour 7#ahjb71 #ci ,,iv4 ,,the ,,sea ,,painter--#ahjb-ahji1 #da ,contrast between ,marine painting and the ,sublime1 #da ,turner's first sea-pieces1 #db ,the #8,bridgewater ,sea-piece1' #db #8,meeting of the ,thames and ,medway1' #df #8,our landing at ,calais--nearly swampt1' #dh #8,fishermen upon a ,lee ,shore1' #dh ,the ,dunbar and ,guisborough ,shore sketch-book1 #dh #8,the ,shipwreck1' #di ,the mouth of the ,thames1 #ea #8,sheerness' and the #8,death of ,nelson1' #ec ,v4 #8,,simple ,,nature'--#ahjh-ahac1 #ee ,the works of this period an important yet generally neglected aspect of ,turner's art1 #ee ,turner's classification of #8,pastoral' as distinguished from #8,elegant ,pastoral1' #ef ,the ,arcadian idyll of the mid-eighteenth century1 #eg ,the first #8,pastoral' subjects in #8,liber1' #eg ,the #8,windmill and ,lock1' #eg ,events connected with the development of ,turner's deeper and more solemn conception of the poetry of rural life1 #eh ,an attempt to define the mood of pictures like the #8,frosty ,morning1' #fd ,the work of art is nothing less than its full significance1 #fg ,distinction between mood and character1 #fh ,,vi4 ,,the #8,,liber ,,studiorum1' #gb ,object of this chapter1 #gb ,the first #8,liber' drawings were made at ,w4 ,f4 ,wells's cottage at ,knockholt1 ,kent1 #gc #8,bridge and ,cows1' #gc ,development of the so-called #8,flint ,castle1' #ge #8,basle1' #gh #8,little ,devil's ,bridge1 #hj #8,london from ,greenwich1' #hj #8,kirkstall ,crypt1' #ha ,etchings of the so-called #8,raglan ,castle' and #8,source of the ,arveron1' #hb ,suggestion for the better exhibition of the #8,liber ,studiorum' drawings1 #hc ,,vii4 ,,the ,,splendour ,,of ,,success1 ,,or #8,,what ,,you ,,will'--#ahac-ahcj1 #hd ,survey of the ground we have covered1 #hd ,the training of ,turner's sympathies by the ,poets1 #he ,the limits of artistic beauty1 #hf ,the predominantly sensuous bent of ,turner's genius1 #hf ,the parting of the ways1 #hg ,the influence of the ,academy and society1 #hh ,turner's first visit to ,italy1 #hi ,the ,naturalistic fallacy1 #ie ,turner's work for the engraver1 #ig ,,viii4 ,,mental ,,and ,,physical ,,decay1 ,,and ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,impressionism--#ahcj-ahde1 #aaf ,mental ,characteristics of the #ahae-ahcj period1 #aaf ,their influence on form and colour1 #aag ,colour enrichment a general characteristic of ,romantic art1 #aah ,what further development is required to give the transition to ,impressionism8 #aah ,turner's first ,impressionistic work1 #aai ,vagueness as a means of expression1 #aai ,two ways of painting one's impressions4 ,turner's earlier way contrasted with the modern ,impressionistic way1 #aai ,the change after #ahcj is it a change in terms of sight or of thought--visual or mental8 #abj ,the content of ,turner's later work1 #abj ,relation of ,turner's later work to ,impressionism defined1 #aba ,the historical development of ,turner's later manner1 #abf ,the ,petworth sketches1 #abf ,discovery of the artistic value of the ,indeterminate1 #abh #8,rivers of ,france1' #abi ,venetian sketches1 #aca ,swiss and ,rhine sketches1 #acd ,the end1 #ace ,,ix4 ,,conclusion1 #acf ,the distinction between ,art-criticism and ,aesthetic1 #acf ,the aim of this chapter1 #acg ,art and physical fact1 #acg ,the #8common-sense' conception of landscape art as evidence of fact1 #acg ,mr4 ,ruskin's treatment of the relation of ,art and ,nature1 #ach ,his confusion of ,nature and ,mind1 #adj ,art as a form of communication implies that the dualism of ,nature and ,mind is overcome1 #adc ,what does ,art represent8 #add ,an individualised psychical content present to the mind of the artist1 #ade ,classification of ,turner's sketches and studies from the point of view of their logical content1 #adf ,the assertions in a work of art do not directly qualify the ordinary real world1 but an imaginary world specially constructed for the artist's purpose1 #aej ,the ideal of complete definition1 #aea ,yet the content must determine the form1 #aea ,plea for a dynamic study of ,artistic form1 #aec ,,index1 #aee ,,list ,,of ,,plates ,all the ,drawings are in the ,national ,gallery1 unless otherwise specified4 7,the numbers1 etc41 in brackets refer to the position of the ,drawings in the ,official ,inventory47 ,the ,pass of ,fado1 ,st4 ,gothard144444,frontispiece ,water ,colour4 #ahdd4 7,,ccclxiv4 #bji47 ,,plate44444,,pages ,i4 ,st4 ,vincent's ,tower1 ,naples144444,between #f-g ,water-,colour4 ,about #aghg4 7,i4,e47 ,,ii4 ,central ,portion of an ,aquatint by ,paul ,sandby1 after ,fabris1 entitled #8,part of ,naples1 with the ,ruin'd ,tower of ,st4 ,vincent4' ,published #ast ,jan4 #aggh144444;,between #f-g ,,iii4 ,radley ,hall3 ,south ,front1 44444,facing #aa ,water-,colour4 ,about #aghi4 7,,iii4 ,d74 ,,iv4 ,view on the ,avon1 from ,cook's ,folly144444,facing #ad ,water-,colour and ,ink4 ,about #agia4 7,,vi4 #bd74 ,v4 ,lincoln ,cathedral144444,between #bj-ba ,water ,colour1 exhibited at ,royal ,academy1 #agie4 ,in ,print ,room1 ,british ,museum4 ,,vi4 ,lincoln ,cathedral1 from the ,south-west144444,between #bj-ba ,pencil4 #agid4 7,,xxi4 #j74 ,,vii4 ,pony and ,wheelbarrow144444,facing #bc ,pencil4 #agid4 7,,xxi4 #bg;a74 ,,viii4 ,melincourt ,fall1 ,vale of ,neath144444,facing #bf ,pencil1 part in ,water-,colour4 #agie4 7,,xxvi4 #h74 ,,ix4 ,interior of ,ripon ,cathedral3 ,north ,transept144444,facing #bh ,pencil4 #agig4 7,,xxxv4 #f74 ,x4 ,conway ,falls1 near ,bettws-y-,coed144444,facing #cj ,water-,colour4 ,about #agih4 7,,xxxviii4 #ga47 ,,xi4 ,conway ,castle144444,facing #cb ,pencil4 ,about #agih4 7,,xxxviii4 #ej;a74 ,,xii4 ,ruined ,castle on ,hill144444,facing #cd ,water-,colour4 ,about #agih4 7,l4 ,k474 ,,xiii4 ,study of ,fallen ,trees144444,facing #cf ,water-,colour4 ,about #agih4 7,,xlii4 #ah-ai47 ,,xiv4 ,caernarvon ,castle144444,facing #cg ,pencil4 #agii4 7,,xlvi4 #ea47 ,,xv4 ,cassiobury3 ,north-west ,view144444,facing #ch ,pencil4 ,about #ahjj4 7,,xlvii4 #da47 ,,xvi4 ,blair's ,hut on the ,montanvert and ,mer de ,glace4 ,sketch for the ,water-,colour in the ,farnley ,collection144444,facing #ci ,water-,colour4 #ahjb4 7,,lxxv4 #bb47 ,,xvii4 ,study for the #8,bridgewater ,sea-piece1'44444,facing #db ,pen and ink1 wash1 and white chalk on blue paper4 ,about #ahja4 7,,lxxxi4 #abb-abc47 ,,xviii4 ,study of a ,barge with ,sails ,set144444,facing #dc ,pen and ink1 wash1 and white chalk on blue paper4 ,about #ahjb4 7,,lxxxi4 #ach-aci47 ,,xix4 ,fishermen launching ,boat in a rough ,sea144444,facing #dd ,pen and ink and wash4 ,about #ahjb4 7,,lxviii4 #c47 ,,xx4 ,study for #8,sun rising through ,vapour1'44444,facing #de ,black and white chalk on blue paper4 ,about #ahjd4 7,,lxxxi4 #dj47 ,,xxi4 ,study for #8,the ,shipwreck1'44444,facing #dg ,pen and ink and wash4 ,about #ahje4 7,,lxxxvii4 #af47 ,,xxii4 ,men-of-,war's ,boats fetching ,provisions 7#a7144444;,facing #di ,pencil4 ,about #ahjh4 7,,xcix4 #ah47 ,,xxiii4 ,men-of-,war's ,boats fetching ,provisions 7#b7144444;,facing #ej ,pencil4 ,about #ahjh4 7,,xcix4 #bb47 ,,xxiv4 #8,the ,inscrutable1'44444,facing #eb ,pencil4 ,about #ahjh4 7,,ci4 #ah47 ,,xxv4 ,sketch for #8,hedging and ,ditching1'44444,between #ef-eg ,pencil4 ,about #ahjg4 7,c4 #dg47 ,,xxvi4 #8,hedging and ,ditching1'44444,between #ef-eg ,wash drawing in ,sepia for #8,liber ,studiorum4' ,about #ahjh4 7,,cxvii4 ,w47 ,,xxvii4 7a7 ,mill on the ,grand ,junction ,canal1 near ,hanwell1 ,facing #fa ,pencil4 ,about #ahji4 7,,cxiv4 #gb;a-#gc7444444;,facing #fa 44444,facing #fa 7b7 #8,windmill and ,lock1'44444,facing #fa ,engraving published in #8,liber ,studiorum1' #ast ,june1 #ahaa444444;,facing #fa 7,r4 #bg7444444;,facing #fa ,,xxviii4 ,whalley ,bridge and ,village144444,facing #fb ,pencil4 ,about #ahjh4 7,,ciii4 #h74 ,,xxix4 ,whalley ,bridge4 ,sketch for the ,picture exhibited at the ,royal ,academy4 #ahaa4 7,now in ,lady ,wantage's ,collection7144444,facing #fc ,pencil4 ,about #ahjh4 7,,ciii4 #f47 ,,xxx4 ,london1 from ,greenwich ,park144444,facing #fd ,pencil4 ,about #ahji4 7,,cxx4 ,h47 ,,xxxi4 ,petworth ,house1 from the ,lake144444,facing #fe ,pencil4 ,about #ahji4 7,,cix4 #d47 ,,xxxii4 ,petworth ,house1 from the ,park144444,facing #ff ,pencil4 ,about #ahji4 7,,cix4 #e47 ,,xxxiii4 ,cockermouth ,castle144444,facing #fg ,pencil4 ,about #ahji4 7,,cix4 #ae47 ,,xxxiv4 ,landscape near ,plymouth144444,facing #fh ,pencil4 ,about #ahab4 7,,cxxxi4 #if47 ,,xxxv4 7a7 ,sandycombe ,lodge and ,grounds144444,facing #fi ,pen and ,ink4 ,about #ahaa4 7,,cxiv4 #gc;a-#gd4744444;,facing #fi 7b7 ,plan of ,garden3 ,sandycombe ,lodge144444,facing #fi ,pen and ,ink4 ,about #ahab4 7,,cxxvii4 #ba;a4744444,facing #fi ,,xxxvi4 ,scene on the ,french ,coast144444,between #gd-ge ,sepia4 ,about #ahjf4 7,,cxvi4 ,c47 ,,xxxvii4 ,scene on the ,french ,coast4 ,generally known as #8,flint ,castle3 ,smugglers1'44444,between #gd-ge ,print of etching1 washed with ,sepia4 ,about #ahjg4 7,,cxvi4 ,d47 ,,xxxviii4 ,juvenile ,tricks144444,facing #gh ,sepia4 ,about #ahjh4 7,,cxvi4 ,z47 ,,xxxix4 ,berry ,pomeroy ,castle4 ,generally known as #8,raglan ,castle1'44444,facing #gi ,sepia4 ,about #ahac4 7,,cxviii4 ,e47 ,,xl4 ,the ,alcove1 ,isleworth4 ,generally known as #8,twickenham--,pope's ,villa1' etc4144444,facing #h,o ,sepia4 ,about #ahaf4 7,,cxviii4 ,i47 ,,xli4 ,sheep-,washing1 ,windsor144444,facing #ha ,sepia4 ,about #ahah4 7,,cxviii4 ,q47 ,,xlii4 ,view of a ,river1 from a ,terrace4 ,sometimes called #8,macon1'44444,facing #hb ,sepia4 ,about #ahah4 7,,cxviii4 ,y47 ,,xliii4 ,crowhurst1 ,sussex144444,facing #hc ,sepia4 ,about #ahah4 7,,cxviii4 ,r47 ,,xliv4 ,kirkby ,lonsdale ,bridge144444,facing #hd ,pencil4 ,about #ahaf4 7,,cxlviii4 #d;c-#e47 ,,xlv4 ,raby ,castle144444,facing #he ,pencil4 ,about #ahag4 7,,clvi4 #af;a-#ag47 ,,xlvi4 ,raby ,castle144444,facing #hf ,pencil4 ,about #ahag4 7,,clvi4 #ai;a-#bj47 ,,xlvii4 ,raby ,castle144444,facing #hg ,pencil4 ,about #ahag4 7,,clvi4 #ah;a-#ai47 ,,xlviii4 ,looking up the ,grand ,canal1 ,venice1 from near the ,accademia di ,belle ,arti144444,facing #ij ,pencil4 #ahai4 7,,clxxv4 #gj;a-#ga47 ,,xlix4 ,st4 ,mark's1 ,venice1 with part of the ,ducal ,palace144444,facing #ia ,pencil4 #ahai4 7,,clxxv4 #de47 ,l4 ,the ,piazzetta1 ,venice1 looking towards ,isola di ,s4 ,giorgio ,maggiore144444,facing #ib ,pencil4 #ahai4 7,,clxxv4 #df;a47 ,,li4 ,rome1 from ,monte ,mario144444,facing #ic ,pencil and ,water-,colour4 #ahai4 7,,clxxxix4 #cc47 ,,lii4 ,rome1 from the ,vatican144444,facing #id ,pen and ink and ,chinese white on grey4 #ahai4 7,,clxxxix4 #da47 ,,liii4 ,trajan's ,column1 in the ,forum of ,trajan144444,facing #ie ,pencil4 #ahai4 7,,clxxxviii4 #dh47 ,,liv4 ,study of ,plants1 ,weeds1 etc4144444,facing #if ,pencil4 ,about #ahbc4 7,,ccv4 #a;a47 ,,lv4 7a7 ,watchet1 ,somersetshire1 ,pencil4 ,about #ahaa4 7,,cxxiii4 #agj;a47 7b7 ,watchet1 ,somersetshire1 44444,facing #ajj ,engraving published in #8,the ,southern ,coast'1 #ast ,april1 #ahbj4 ,,lvi4 7a7 ,boscastle1 ,cornwall1 ,pencil4 ,about #ahaa4 7,,cxxiii4 #ahb47 7b7 ,boscastle1 ,cornwall1 ,facing #aja ,engraving published in #8,the ,southern ,coast1' #ajth ,march1 #ahbe4 ,,lvii4 ,hornby ,castle1 from ,tatham ,church144444,between #ajb-ajc ,pencil4 ,about #ahaf4 7,,cxlvii4 #da;a-#db47 ,,lviii4 ,hornby ,castle1 from ,tatham ,church144444,between #ajb-ajc ,engraving1 from the ,water-,colour in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 published in ,whitaker's #8,richmondshire1' ,june1 #ahbb4 ,,lix4 7a7 ,heysham1 with ,black ,combe1 ,coniston ,old ,man1 ,helvellyn1 etc41 in the distance1 ,pencil4 ,about #ahaf4 7,,cxlvii4 #dj;a-#da74 ,facing #ajd 7b7 ,heysham and ,cumberland ,mountains1 ,engraving published in ,whitaker's #8,richmondshire1' #bbnd ,august1 #ahbb4 ,,lx4 7a7 ,edinburgh1 from ,calton ,hill1 ,pencil4 #ahah4 7,,clxvii4 #ci;a47 7b7 ,edinburgh1 from the ,calton ,hill1 ,engraving published in ,scott's #8,provincial ,antiquities of ,scotland1' #ast ,november1 #ahbj4 ,between #ajf-ajg 7c7 ,edinburgh1 from ,calton ,hill1 ,pencil4 #ahah4 7,,clxvii4 #dj47 7d7 ,figures on ,calton ,hill1 ,pencil4 #ahah4 7,,clxvii4 #dj;a47 ,,lxi4 7a7 ,borthwick ,castle1 ,pencil4 #ahah4 7,,clxvii4 #gf47 7b7 ,borthwick ,castle1 ,facing #ajg ,engraving published in ,scott's #8,provincial ,antiquities of ,scotland1' #bnd ,april1 #ahai4 ,,lxii4 7a7 ,rochester1 ,pencil4 ,about #ahba4 7,,cxcix4 #ah47 ,between 7b7 ,rochester1 #ajh-aji ,pencil4 ,about #ahba4 7,,cxcix4 #ba47 ,,lxiii4 ,rochester on the ,river ,medway144444,between #ajh-aji ,water-,colour4 ,about #ahbb4 7,,ccviii4 ,w47 ,,lxiv4 ,bolton ,abbey144444,between #aaj-aaa ,pencil4 ,about #ahae4 7,,cxxxiv4 #ha-hb47 ,,lxv4 ,bolton ,abbey144444,between #aaj-aaa ,engraving published in #8,picturesque ,views in ,england and ,wales1' #ahbg4 ,,lxvi4 7a7 ,colchester1 ,pencil4 ,about #ahbd4 7,,ccix4 #f;a47 ,between 7b7 ,colchester1 #aaj-aaa ,pencil4 ,about #ahbd4 7,,ccix4 #g;a47 ,,lxvii4 ,colchester1 ,essex144444,between #aaj-aaa ,engraving1 published in #8,picturesque ,views in ,england and ,wales1' #ahbg4 ,,lxviii4 ,stamford1 ,lincolnshire144444,between #aab-aac ,pencil4 #agig4 7,,xxxiv4 #hf47 ,,lxix4 ,stamford1 ,lincolnshire144444,between #aab-aac ,engraving published in #8,picturesque ,views in ,england and ,wales1' #ahcj4 ,,lxx4 7a7 ,tynemouth ,priory1 ,pencil1 with part in ,water-,colour1 #agig4 7,,xxxiv4 #ce47 7b7 ,tynemouth1 ,northumberland1 ,facing #aac ,engraving1 published in #8,picturesque ,views in ,england and ,wales1' #ahca4 ,,lxxi4 ,bemerside ,tower144444,between #aah-aai ,pencil4 ,about #ahca4 7,,cclxvii4 #hb;a47 ,,lxxii4 ,bemerside ,tower144444,between #aaa-aah ,engraving published in ,scott's #8,poetical ,works' 7,cadell71 #ahcd4 ,,lxxiii4 ,men chatting round ,fireplace3 ,petworth ,house144444,facing #abb ,water-,colour4 ,about #ahcj4 7,,ccxliv4 #hb47 ,,lxxiv4 ,teasing the ,donkey3 ,petworth144444,facing #abc ,water-,colour4 ,about #ahcj4 7,,ccxliv4 #ig47 ,,lxxv4 ,honfleur144444,facing #abf ,water-,colour4 ,about #ahcj4 7,,cclix4 #ae47 ,,lxxvi4 ,country ,town on ,stream144444,facing #abg ,water-,colour4 ,about #ahcj4 7,,cclix4 #af47 ,,lxxvii4 ,sheep in the ,trench144444,facing #abh ,water-,colour4 ,about #ahcj4 7,,cclix4 #ag47 ,,lxxviii4 ,shipping on the ,riva degli ,schiavone144444,facing #abi ,water-,colour4 ,about #ahci4 7,,cccxvi4 #bj47 ,,lxxix4 ,the ,approach to ,venice3 ,sunset144444,facing #acb ,water-,colour4 ,about #ahci4 7,,cccxvi4 #af47 ,,lxxx4 ,riva degli ,schiavone1 from near the ,public ,gardens144444,facing #acc ,water-,colour4 ,about #ahci4 7,,cccxvi4 #ba47 ,,lxxxi4 ,freiburg3 ,the ,descent from the ,htel de ,ville144444,facing #acd ,water-,colour4 ,about #ahda4 7,,cccxxxv4 #ad47 ,,lxxxii4 ,ruined ,castle on ,rock144444,facing #ace ,water-,colour4 ,about #ahda4 7,,cccxxxix4 #e47 ,,lxxxiii4 ,village and ,castle on the ,rhine144444,facing #adj ,water-,colour4 ,about #ahdd4 7,,cccxlix4 #bb47 ,,lxxxiv4 ,the ,via ,mala144444,facing #ada ,water-,colour4 ,about #ahdd4 7,,ccclxiv4 #cfb47 ,,lxxxv4 ,on the ,rhine144444,facing #adh ,water-,colour4 #ahdd4 7,,cccxlix4 #bj47 ,,lxxxvi4 ,baden1 looking ,north144444,facing #adi ,water-,colour4 #ahdd4 7,,cccxlix4 #ad47 ,,lxxxvii4 ,lucerne3 ,evening144444,facing #aeb ,water-,colour4 #ahdd4 7,,cccxliv4 #cbd47 ,,turner',s ,,sketches ,,and ,,drawings ,,introductory ,the nature of our subject-matter--,the difference between sketches and finished works--,the character of our subject-matter1 as embryonic forms of artistic expression1 prescribes the method of study we must adopt--,our method is broadly chronological--,but to follow ,turner's work year by year in detail would carry us beyond the limits of our present undertaking--,i have1 therefore1 broken up ,turner's career into eight stages or phases of development4 ,the object of the following pages is to re-study the character of ,turner's art in the light of his sketch-books and drawings from nature4 ,during ,turner's lifetime his rooted objection to part with any of his sketches1 studies1 or notes often formed the subject of ill-natured comment4 ,yet we owe it to this peculiarity that the drawings and sketches included in the ,turner ,bequest at the ,national ,gallery comprise practically the whole of the great landscape painter's work done direct from nature4 ,the collection is1 therefore1 of very great psychological interest4 ,it shows clearly upon what basis of immediately presentative elements the airy splendour of ,turner's richly imaginative art was built3 and amongst the twenty odd thousand sheets of drawings in all stages of elaboration1 the embryonic forms of most of the painter's masterpieces can be easily traced4 ,a careful examination of the drawings shows that ,turner's objection to part with his sketches and notes was not the outcome of a blind and deeply ingrained passion for accumulation1 but that it was the necessary result of the painter's clearly defined conception of the radical difference between the raw material of the painter's art1 and its fully articulated products--the difference between mere sketches and studies and fugitive memoranda1 and the fully elaborated works of art to which such preliminaries are subservient1 but with which they should never be confused4 ,from ,turner's point of view the properly finished pictures were all that the public had a right to see or possess2 the notes and studies were meant only for his own eye4 ,even in his later years1 when he consented to exhibit what he expressly called a #8record' of a scene he had witnessed1 he grumbled when it was admired and treated as a picture1 although in this case the #8record' was not a hurried memorandum1 but a fully elaborated attempt #8to show what such a scene was like4'#a ,the method of our study must be determined by the general character of our subject-matter4 ,our main business is with fragmentary records1 hurried memoranda1 half-formed thoughts1 and tentative designs4 ,we must not and cannot treat these dependent and embryonic fragments as independent entities2 we cannot pick and choose amongst them1 or love or dislike them entirely for their own sakes1 as we can with complete works of art which contain within themselves the grounds of their own justification or insufficiency4 ,to grasp the significance of our sketches and studies we must study the goal towards which they are striving4 ,we must not be content to admire even the most beautiful of these sketches entirely for its own sake1 but must study them for the sake of their connection with the works which they were instrumental in producing4 ,these considerations have also weighed with me in the selection of the numerous illustrations with which the publishers have generously enriched this volume4 ,on the whole ,i have chosen the illustrations rather for the light they throw on ,turner's conception of art and methods of work than for their own individual attractiveness2 but the glamour of execution is so invariably present in all that came from ,turner's hand1 that few of these drawings will be found which do not possess a very powerful aesthetic appeal of their own4 ,in dealing with ,turner's work from the point of view ,i have indicated1 we are forced to touch upon problems which the prudent art critic is apt to avoid4 ,in studying the relation between the preliminary sketches and studies and the finished works into which they were developed1 we find ourselves plunged into the midst of some of the most baffling difficulties of psychology and aesthetic4 ,in attempting even to describe the relation between the more rudimentary and the more fully articulated processes of artistic expression1 we are forced1 whether we like it or not1 to face the problems of the relation between form and content1 between treatment and subject1 between portrayal and portrayed2 and we cannot go far without finding ourselves obliged to reconsider the common-sense ideas of ,truth1 ,nature1 and ,art4 ,we cannot avoid such problems if we would4 ,if ,i face them1 therefore1 instead of emulating the discretion of my elders1 it is1 ,i am sure1 from no ingrained love of abstractions1 but rather from an overpowering interest in all the concrete forms of pictorial art4 ,the separation of aesthetic from art-criticism which is so much favoured at present1 though it eases the labour of thought both to the art-critic and to his readers1 seems to me otherwise inexcusable and fraught with serious artistic and intellectual dangers4 ,art-criticism cut adrift from general principles cannot help degenerating into a blatant form of self-assertion or an immoral form of practical casuistry--a finding of good reasons for anything you have a mind to2 and aesthetic1 divorced from all living contact with the concrete phenomena of art1 is one of the dullest as well as the most useless of studies4 ,but this is not the place to set forth in detail or defend my conception of the function and methods of art-criticism4 ,i will merely say that ,i regard it as a form of rational investigation of the phenomena of pictorial art2 it has no immediate practical aim2 and it does not propose to prolong or intensify the enjoyment which works of art provide4 ,we find then that we cannot study ,turner's sketches in isolation from his finished works4 ,but to follow his completed work year by year in detail would obviously carry us beyond the limits of our present undertaking4 ,i have1 therefore1 broken up ,turner's career into eight facets or aspects4 ,in the first chapter ,i deal with his seven years' apprenticeship1 from #aghg to #agic1 using his sketches to throw light on his youthful aims and methods4 ,the second chapter1 covering the years #agic to #agig1 deals with the work of the topographical draughtsman4 ,i then study the gloomy and romantic side of ,turner's art1 when he was mainly under the influence of ,richard ,wilson and of the churchyard and charnel-house sentiment of ,edward ,young and ,joseph ,warton4 ,the fourth chapter is devoted to ,turner's early sea-pieces1 and the next to his work as a painter of what his contemporaries called #8,simple ,nature4' ,this phase of ,turner's art is difficult to describe in a few words4 ,one way would be to call it a phase of ,wordsworthian naturalism1 but it must be remembered that it was not an echo or a by-product of ,wordsworth's poetry1 but an independent and simultaneous embodiment in another form of art of sentiments common both to ,wordsworth and to ,turner4 ,pictures like ,turner's #8,frosty ,morning' and #8,windsor' were as new1 as unprecedented1 as ,wordsworth's most characteristic poems4 ,this side of ,turner's art shows him as the founder of a genuinely national school of homely realism1 as the head of the ,norwich school and the master of ,david ,cox1 ,de ,wint1 ,callcott1 and the rest4 ,the sixth chapter deals with the designs engraved in the ,liber ,studiorum1 and the sketches on which they were based4 ,the seventh is devoted mainly to the work engraved in the ,southern ,coast1 ,richmondshire1 ,scott's ,antiquities1 the ,rivers and ,ports1 and the ,england and ,wales series1 the work by which the artist is perhaps best known4 ,my eighth chapter treats of the period when signs of mental decay began to be apparent4 ,these years saw the production of what have been called the first ,impressionistic pictures4 ,then1 by way of bringing to a head some of the observations on the nature of artistic expression which our investigations have forced upon our notice1 ,i have added a final chapter dealing mainly with the relation between ,art and ,nature4 ,the subject-matter of this chapter is not so attractive as that of the others1 but ,i do not think it right to omit it4 ,this selection of the facets of ,turner's dazzling and complex genius is necessarily arbitrary and incomplete4 ,the aspects ,i have chosen to throw into relief can make no pretence to be exhaustive4 ,they must be taken as a poor but necessary device for the introduction of a kind of superficial order into our present task--as a concession to the weakness and limitations of the powers of the student1 rather than as a successful summary of the multifarious forms into which one of the most prolific and many-sided creative activities of modern art has poured itself4 ,and the threads of this living activity which ,i have sought to isolate1 never existed in isolation4 ,turner was not at one period of his life a romantic and at another a pseudo-classic or ,academic painter1 a sea-painter at one time1 and a painter of #8simple ,nature' at another4 ,turner was always a sea-painter and a topographer1 a romantic1 a pseudo-classic1 and an impressionist1 as well as a master of homely realism4 ,while he was painting #8,hannibal ,crossing the ,alps' he had the #8,view of ,high ,street1 ,oxford' on his easel2 the #8,abingdon' and the #8,apollo' were painted at the same time as were the #8,frosty ,morning' and the #8,dido and ,aeneas4' ,he could paint a huge dull empty canvas like #8,thomson's ,lyre' when his muse was putting forth its lustiest and most vigorous shoots2 he could give us #8,the ,fighting ,tmraire' when his powers seemed stifled amid the fumes of early ,victorian sentimentality4 ,his genius is hot and cold like ,love itself1 a fine and subtle spirit that eludes the snares of our plodding faculties4 ,but unless we desire merely to bedazzle and intoxicate our senses1 we cannot afford to dispense with the poor crutches upon which our pedestrian intellect must stumble4 ,,chapter ,i ,,seven ,,years' ,,apprenticeship--#aghg-agic ,turner's first drawings--#8,st4 ,vincent's ,tower'--,turner's copies and imitations--,his debt to ,art--,work with ,mr4 ,hardwick--,oxford sketches--#8,radley ,hall'--,drawings from the ,antique--,the ,bristol sketch-book--,end of the apprenticeship4 ,the legend runs that ,turner's first drawings were exhibited in his father's shop-window1 ticketed for sale at prices ranging from one to three shillings4 ,there is nothing improbable in this story1 though the drawings referred to by ,thornbury1#b as having been bought by a ,mr4 ,crowle under these conditions1 do not happen to have been made by ,turner4 ,i have not1 indeed1 been able to discover any drawing which can confidently be said to have been purchased from the barber's shop in ,maiden ,lane1 but there are some in the ,national ,gallery which show us exactly what kind of work ,turner was capable of producing at the time when he might have resorted to this rough and ready method of attracting patronage4 ,a typical drawing of this kind is the brightly-coloured view of ,st4 ,vincent's ,tower1 ,naples1 reproduced on ,plate ,i4 of the present volume4 ,it is oval in shape1 measuring about #h #aj inches1 and has evidently been cut out without mechanical assistance1 as the curves of the oval are somewhat erratic4 ,as the youthful artist had not visited ,italy at this period1 ,i thought it probable that this drawing was based upon the work of some other artist1 and ,i was fortunate enough to be able to trace it to ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i ,,st4 ,,vincent',s ,,tower1 ,,naples ,,water ,,colour4 ,,about #aghg ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii ,,central ,,portion ,,of ,,an ,,aquatint ,,by ,,paul ,,sandby1 ,,after ,,fabris ,,published #a ,,jan41 #aggh its source4 ,it is copied and adapted from an aquatint by ,paul ,sandby1 after ,fabris1 published on #ast ,january #aggh1 entitled #8,part of ,naples1 with the ,ruin'd ,tower of ,st4 ,vincent4' ,sandby's engraving is a large one 7about #ac #bj inches71 and comprises an extensive view of the harbour and bay of ,naples1 with the ,castel dell' ,uovo in the middle distance1 and ,st4 ,elmo crowning the buildings on the right4 ,turner has picked out as it were the pictorial plum of this mass of topographical information4 ,he has set the ruined tower boldly in the centre of his design1 and has used only just so much of the surrounding buildings and scenery as was necessary to make an appropriate background or setting for it4 ,he has reduced the ,castle of the ,egg to insignificance1 and closed up his distance with appropriate but imaginary mountains4 ,in the engraving a passing boat with figures divides our interest with the tower4 ,turner has suppressed it4 ,he has also reduced the size of the quay upon which the tower stands1 thus increasing the apparent height of the tower4 ,the few meagre weeds clinging to the battlements in the engraving have developed luxuriantly in ,turner's drawing1 thus adding considerably to its picturesqueness4 ,the foreground figures seem to have been adapted from those in the engraving4 ,it is probable that these slight differences between the engraving and the water-colour were made involuntarily1 for it is evident that ,turner did not have the engraving under his eyes while he was making the drawing4 ,he had probably seen the engraving in some shop-window1 and had made a hasty pencil sketch of the part that interested him4 ,that he was working from a somewhat perfunctory sketch and not direct from the original is proved by the fact that he has introduced three arches into the building on the quay immediately at the foot of the tower1 instead of the two in ,sandby's engraving4 ,but in the engraving there is a small rounded turret on the battlements of the quay which comes just in front of the place where ,turner has introduced his third arch4 ,it is clear that he mistook the indication of this turret in his rough sketch for a third arch in the building beyond4 ,it would1 of course1 be imprudent to suppose that ,turner chose to work in this way partly from memory1 with the deliberate intention of giving his imagination freer play2 he was probably forced to do so by the material exigencies of his position4 ,but certainly this way of working was admirably calculated to strengthen his memory and call into play his innate powers of arrangement and adaptation4 ,the colour scheme1 which is probably the artist's own invention1 is light and pleasing4 ,the golden rays of the setting 78 rising7 sun are painted with evident enjoyment4 ,the warm yellow light of the sun is transfused over the whole of the sky1 turning the distant clouds into crimson4 ,the keynote of the colour is thus orange yellow1 passing through pink to burnt sienna4 ,in spite of the lightness of the colour the drawing was worked over a black and white foundation1 light washes of ,indian ink having been used to establish the broad divisions of light and shade in the design4 ,these washes afterwards formed the ground-work of the greys and cooler colours1 being warmed in parts 7as in the tower7 with washes or touches of pink and burnt sienna1 or worked up into more positive hues by subsequent washes of blue and yellow4 ,the handling of the drawing--the sharp decided touches1 the neatness and dexterity of its washes1 and the rapid march of the whole work--shows what a hold the idea of a unified work of art had already obtained over ,turner's mind4 ,the clear1 determined workmanship shows that he must have been thinking of the whole from the beginning1 and not of the representation of a number of separate natural objects4 ,this childish effort seems to me of great interest as marking with extraordinary clearness the point of departure of ,turner's art4 ,from the beginning he sees things pictorially1 as elements in a conceptual whole1 not as isolated and independent objects4 ,his sense of design--both as the faculty of expression as well as of formal arrangement--is thus developed1 while the merely representative qualities of art are ignored or at least subordinated4 ,this early grasp of the idea of pictorial unity is obviously the result of ,turner's study of works of art1 and not of his study of nature4 ,since ,mr4 ,ruskin's labours it will not be possible for any student to overlook the enormous profit which ,turner derived in his subsequent work from his unwearied observation of the phenomena of nature2 it is well1 therefore1 to be careful not to overlook the prior debt which ,turner had contracted to art1 and the extraordinary advantage his early grasp of pictorial unity gave him in appropriating the multifarious variety of natural shapes and colours4 ,the other drawings of this period in the ,national ,gallery only serve to emphasise ,turner's indebtedness to art4 ,some of these are plain straightforward copies4 ,the most elaborate of these is the copy of #8,folly ,bridge and ,bacon's ,tower' which has long been exhibited in the ,turner ,water ,colour rooms 7,no4 #fac1 ,n4,g474 ,this is copied from an engraving by ,j4 ,basire published in the ,oxford ,almanack for the year #aghj4 ,the colouring1 however1 is original4 ,this copy is signed and dated1 #8,w4 ,turner1 #aghg4' ,among the other copies is a pencil outline of the ,old ,kitchen1 ,stanton ,harcourt1 from the engraving in ,grose's ,antiquities4 ,there is also a coloured drawing1 somewhat similar in size and shape to that of ,st4 ,vincent's ,tower1 of ,dacre ,castle1 ,cumberland4 ,i am unable to say from what engraving this is copied or adapted4#c ,it may have been a slightly earlier effort than the ,neapolitan subject1 as the ,indian ink underpainting is less skilfully done and the general effect is heavier and more monotonous4 ,these drawings1 made1 ,i believe1 between ,turner's twelfth and fourteenth years1 show the youthful artist in the act of acquiring the rudiments of that pictorial language which he was to use in after years with such mastery and ease4 ,we see him acquiring this language by intercourse with his fellows who use it1 not1 as is the modern way1 through the course of a random study of nature4 ,he is learning from tradition1 and the thought of the artistic community as expressed in the current pictorial language is gradually forming and moulding his ideas4 ,he is imitating those around him1 as a child imitates the words of its nurse and mother4 ,on the present occasion1 ,i need do no more than call attention in passing to the immense advantage ,turner enjoyed in being initiated thus early and in this easy and natural way into the sphere of art4 ,he was thus saved from those years of futile and heart-breaking experiment to which the modern system of nature study dooms all those students whose native powers are not entirely deadened by its influence4 ,the habit thus early forced upon him of regarding himself as an actual producer1 i4e4 as a maker of articles with a definite market value1 must also have been beneficial to him4 ,the existence of a class of real patrons1 whose tastes had to be consulted and whose pockets contained actually exchangeable coin of the realm1 must have placed some insistence upon the social aspect of art1 and have helped to prevent the boy from making the mistake which so many subsequent artists have made1 of considering their work merely as a means of self-expression1 instead of as a means of super-individual or universal communication4 ,another important result of these early employments was the facility and mastery in the use of his material which they gave him4 ,between the water-colours of different periods of ,turner's career there are the most astonishing contrasts of subject-matter and sentiment1 but in all of them one finds the same inimitable grace1 strength1 and dexterity of workmanship1 the same unequalled technical mastery over the medium2 and this purely executive address--this #8genius of mechanical excellence1' to use ,reynolds's expression--could have been attained only as the result of an early familiarity with this particular form of artistic expression4 ,about his fourteenth year 7#aghi7 ,turner was placed with an architect1 ,mr4 ,p4 ,hardwick4 ,it seems to me doubtful whether he was regularly apprenticed1 or was intended to take up the study of architecture from a practical point of view4 ,the evidence upon this point is extremely limited1 but what little there is points to his employment upon purely pictorial tasks1 such as the dressing out of projects or views of buildings with a plausible arrangement of light and shade and a pleasing setting of landscape background4 ,we know that ,mr4 ,hardwick built the ,new ,church at ,wanstead1#d and that ,turner made for his master a water-colour drawing both of the old church which was pulled down and the new one that took its place4 ,i have not been fortunate enough to trace the ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii ,,radley ,,hall3 ,,south ,,front ,,water ,,colour4 ,,about #aghi present owner of these drawings1 but the water-colour of the old church was exhibited at the ,old ,masters 7,r4,a47 in #ahhg4 ,there is1 however1 in the ,national ,gallery a pencil outline of the new church1 squared for enlargement1 which shows no signs of training in the practical work of the architect's profession4 ,the earliest of ,turner's sketch-books now in the ,national ,gallery was in use during the period of this connection with ,mr4 ,hardwick4 ,a pencil sketch of a church by the river1 easily recognisable as ,isleworth ,old ,church1 with barges moored beside the bank1 is probably the note from which the water-colour was made which ,mr4 ,hardwick's grandson lent to the ,old ,masters in #ahhg4 ,most of the other drawings1 however1 appear to have been made during a stay near ,oxford4 ,there are sketches of ,clifton ,nuneham 7then ,nuneham ,courtenay71 near ,abingdon2 of ,radley ,hall1 between ,abingdon and ,oxford2 of a distant view of ,oxford2 a sketch of a ruined tower which may represent ,pope's ,tower in the ruins of the ,harcourts' house at ,stanton ,harcourt1 and two drawings of ,sunningwell ,church1 a village about two miles from ,radley and three from ,abingdon4 ,as ,turner's uncle1 ,joseph ,mallord ,william ,marshall1 his mother's elder brother1 after whom he was named1 was then living at ,sunningwell1 it is probable that these drawings were the result of a summer holiday spent with his relative4 ,these drawings represent ,turner's first attempts to draw from nature4 ,they are characterised by an absence of blundering and a sense of pictorial logic and requirements which could only belong to a beginner whose eye and hand had already been disciplined in the production of works of art4 ,one cannot but feel that the mould into which the immediate experiences of the artist were to be cast had already been firmly set before his pencil was placed upon the paper1 nay1 before the particular sights in question were actually seen4 ,in other words1 the pictorial formula into which the material gathered from nature was to be worked up had been clearly determined before the artist set out to gather such material for himself4 ,turner's confidence in the unbounded felicity of immediate contact with nature was not commensurate with that of modern artistic theorists4 ,he does indeed entrust himself to the open fields1 but it is not until he has armed himself with a stout though flexible panoply of artistic convention4 ,but though the draughtsmanship is conventional1 ,i do not think it can fairly be called mannered4 ,the actual statements made are made with the utmost simplicity and directness4 ,in the drawings of ,sunningwell ,church 7on p4 #ab of the sketch-book71 of ,radley ,hall 7pp4 #i and #ad71 and of ,isleworth ,old ,church 7p4 #bb71 the general proportions and main facts of the buildings are noted with deliberate and methodical care4 ,the artist knows what facts he will want when he comes to make his finished water-colours1 and he takes those facts and calmly ignores all the particular effects of light and shade1 colour and accident which his experience of other artists' work had shown him would not be useful to him4 ,thus there is a strongly marked selective activity at work1 which gives what ,i think can be more correctly described as style than as manner4 ,yet ,i should not be surprised to find the term mannerism applied to the curiously monotonous calligraphic scribbles which stand for trees and clouds in these drawings4 ,that they are conventional and singularly indefinite ,i readily admit1 yet they are not deliberately learnt #8ways of doing trees' like those1 for instance1 which a student of ,j4 ,d4 ,harding's teaching might adopt4 ,they are as they are because their immediate function is clearly determined by their ultimate purpose4 ,in making his finished water-colour drawing at home the trees and clouds1 as well as the whole system of light and shade1 were merely the docile instruments of pictorial effectiveness4 ,the exact shape of each tree and cloud in his drawing1 and even their exact positions1 were determined as the work progressed by purely pictorial requirements4 ,a detailed statement of the exact shape of any particular tree or cloud in the actual scene from which the sketch was made would therefore have been not only of no use to the artist1 but a positive hindrance1 as it would have complicated the problem of formal arrangement before the artist1 even if it did not actively hinder its solution4 ,in these sketches from nature ,turner therefore takes his skies and foliage for granted as much as possible1 merely hinting at their general existence in a loose and tentative way4 ,but if the charge of mannerism cannot be fairly brought against the sketches made face to face with nature1 it is otherwise with the water-colours which were afterwards elaborated from them4 ,drawings like the view of #8,radley ,hall1' reproduced on ,plate ,,iii41 and the #8,view of the ,city of ,oxford' might almost be said to consist of little else than mannerisms4 ,the manner of doing trees and skies and of arranging the planes of the scene is taken over directly from ,paul ,sandby1 as are also the method of working in transparent washes and the gamut of colours used4 ,the #8,view of ,oxford' is indeed nothing but a feeble echo of some of ,sandby's fine drawings2 it tells us little of ,turner himself1 beyond an indication of a certain liking for scenes of this kind4 ,perhaps the most noteworthy point in the drawing is the demonstration it affords of the superior development of his sense of tone to his sense of form2 the buildings sway to and fro in the wind1 the foliage is childish and ridiculous1 but the difference between the broad expanses of ground and sky is clearly marked1 and the limpid sky gives an undeniable charm to it all4 ,there is perhaps a little more of himself in the view of #8,radley ,hall4' ,the way the tree-trunks seem to blow themselves out1 and toss themselves this way and that1 while their branches explode in the wildest and most fantastic contortions1--all this is given with such keen and frank enjoyment1 that it points to something more than a mere passive reproduction of a purely technical recipe4 ,the trees in those drawings of ,sandby which ,turner had studied do indeed behave in this way1 but ,turner identifies himself so closely with the inner meaning of these forms that they become his own legitimate property4 ,the sense of exuberant freedom in the trees is intensified by contrast with the rigid restraint of the building in the middle distance4 ,it is as though the boy's imagination was glad to get away from the realm of necessity and disport itself in aimless gambols through space1 free from the encumbrance of inert matter and of the laws of gravitation4 ,it is this habit of getting at the inner emotional content of the pictorial conventions he adopts1 that stamps ,turner's whole career of imitation and appropriation with its peculiar character1 making him invariably richer for all his borrowings1 and more original for all his imitations4 ,these two drawings were made in #aghi1 during the artist's fourteenth year4 ,about the beginning of #agij he joined the schools of the ,royal ,academy1 acting1 it is said1 upon the advice of ,mr4 ,hardwick4 ,during part of #agij and for the next two or three years he worked in what was then called the #8,plaister ,academy1' i4e4 from casts taken from the antique4 ,laborious chalk and stump drawings of the ,apollo and ,antinos of the ,belvedere1 the ,venus de' ,medici1 and the ,vatican ,meleager1 as well as of the more robust forms of the ,diskobolos and ,dying ,gaul1 are still in existence to demonstrate the diligence with which he pursued these uncongenial studies4 ,such work must have given his masters a singularly poor and misleading opinion of his talents4 ,in ,june1 #agib1 he was admitted to the ,life ,class1 while still continuing to attend the ,antique4 ,this academic training1 however1 must have been useful as an antidote1 or at least as a supplement1 to the topographical work to which all his spare time was devoted4 ,he seems to have spent his holidays in #agia partly with his uncle at ,sunningwell and partly with some friends of the family1 the ,narraways1 at ,bristol4 ,the sketch-book in use at this time is now in the ,national ,gallery4 ,the volume was never a handsome one1--it was probably stitched and bound by the artist himself--but its present appearance is deplorable2 the cardboard covers are broken1 the rough and ready backing is almost undone1 a number of the leaves have been cut or torn out1 and the remainder are in a generally dirty and dilapidated condition4 ,in spite of these disadvantages it gives us a valuable glimpse of ,turner's interests and acquirements at the age of sixteen4 ,our first impression is that his year's work drawing from the cast has produced hardly any perceptible effect4 ,the drawings of buildings are in some cases even more perfunctory than those in the #8,oxford' ,sketch-,book4 ,the sketch of ,bath ,abbey ,church 7on page #ad of the book71 for example1 is not a very creditable performance for an ambitious ,royal ,academy student4 ,its carelessness1 however1 may have been due to limited opportunities1 but we must remember that this hasty scrawl1 with the assistance of a few written notes and diagrams1 was sufficient to enable the artist to produce afterwards an elaborate water-colour of the subject4 ,a still more elaborately wrought and ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv ,,view ,,on ,,the ,,avon1 ,,from ,,cook',s ,,folly ,,water ,,colour ,,and ,,ink4 ,,about #agia carefully considered water-colour was the result of another sketch 7on the reverse of page #af7 in this book1 a view of #8,stoke1 near ,bristol1 the seat of ,sir ,h4 ,lippencote1' now in the possession of ,mrs4 ,thomas4 ,this pencil sketch is quite as perfunctory as that of ,bath ,abbey4 ,it is evident that nature #8put him out' or that the artist's youthful impatience induced him to hurry over the first stages of his work4 ,these sketches from nature were merely means to an end1 and so long as they contained sufficient hints to set his subsequent work going he was perfectly satisfied4 ,however1 in some of the drawings where the first sketch from nature has been worked over subsequently 7as in the water-colour of ,captain ,fowler's seat on ,durdham ,downs on pp4 #ag;a and #ah71 we can trace an increased delicacy of hand1 an added capacity for dealing with complex and irregular forms1 and greater knowledge of the natural forms of trees4 ,but it is evident that the wild and romantic scenery of the ,avon gorge made a deeper impression on the young artist's imagination than the spick and span seats of the gentry4 ,the ruins of ,malmesbury ,abbey are sketched from every available point of view1 and there are hurried and clumsy sketches of #8,the ,ruins of a ,chapel standing on an ,island in the ,severn1' #8,a ,view of the ,welsh ,coast from ,cook's ,folly1' and others of #8,blaze ,castle and the ,deney and ,welsh ,coast1'#e and the #8,old ,passage4' ,the drawing described as a #8,view from ,cook's ,folley 7sic71 looking up the ,river ,avon with ,wallis ,wall and the ,hot ,wells' 7reproduced on ,plate ,,iv471 shows clearly the bent of ,turner's mind towards the wildness and freedom of nature1 as well as his strong love of ships4 ,if it were our intention to follow ,turner's work year by year1 we should have to study in detail the drawings of ,oxford1 ,windsor1 ,hereford and ,worcester1 and especially the ,welsh and ,monmouthshire sketches which belong to the years #agib and #agic4 ,as it is1 it is sufficient for our purpose to notice that the work of these two years shows a gradual increase of power in making sketches from nature4 ,the young artist slowly gathers confidence in himself4 ,nature ceases to #8put him out1' to fluster him with her multitudinous details and ever-varying effects4 ,he begins to treat nature as a conquered enemy1 and there is just a suspicion of youthful impertinence in the cool and methodical way in which he gathers up the kind of facts he wants1 and ignores everything that does not come within the scope of his pictorial formulas4 ,but by this time it is evident that his period of apprenticeship is at an end1 and that we must turn our attention to the work of the brilliant young topographical draughtsman4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,topographical ,,draughtsman--#agic-agif ,welsh tour of #agic--#8,st4 ,anselm's ,chapel'--,turner's topographical rivals--,midland tour of #agid--,topographical and antiquarian draughtsmanship--,its main interest is not embodied in the work--,the marvellous petit-matre--,the #8,cottage ,interior'--,light and shade as a means of expression--,the sketch-books of #agie and their contents--#8,high ,force of ,tees' or #8,fall of ,melincourt'8 ,among the five drawings by which ,turner was represented in the exhibition of the ,royal ,academy in #agid1 one was a view of the ,devil's ,bridge1 ,cardiganshire4 ,this was doubtless one of the first results of the sketching tour in ,wales made in #agic4 ,we can readily believe that ,turner's imagination was powerfully impressed by the wild and gloomy scenery of the country and its romantic ruins1 but his efforts to embody his impressions were not at first very successful4 ,for the moment his powers as an architectural draughtsman were more in evidence than his powers of expressing grand and gloomy ideas4 ,the romantic turn of his mind had to be more fully developed before it could command public support1 and for the time being this phase of his art seemed swamped in the flood of topographical employment which the immediate success of his less ambitious drawings in the #agid exhibition brought him4 ,in a contemporary press notice1 preserved among the ,anderdon collection of catalogues in the ,print ,room of the ,british ,museum1 ,turner's drawings of #8,christchurch ,gate1 ,canterbury1' and the #8,porch of ,great ,malvern ,abbey1 ,worcestershire1' are said to be #8amongst the best in the present exhibition4 ,they are the productions1' the writer continues1 #8of a very young artist1 and give strong indications of first-rate ability2 the character of ,gothic architecture is most happily preserved1 and its profusion of minute parts massed with judgment and tinctured with truth and fidelity4 ,this young artist should beware of contemporary imitations4 ,his present effort evinces an eye for nature1 which should scorn to look to any other source4' ,the first of the drawings which called forth this praise is now in the ,fitzwilliam ,museum1 ,cambridge 7,ruskin ,bequest71 the other is probably the #8,malvern' now in the ,manchester ,whitworth ,institute 7,no4 #gc74 ,the critic's remark about the danger of #8contemporary imitations1' which ,i take to mean the danger of ,turner imitating the works of contemporary artists1 may probably account for his neglect to mention another drawing exhibited at the same time1 which strikes the present-day observer as a more accomplished and remarkable effort than either the #8,malvern' or #8,christchurch ,gate4' ,i allude to the drawing described in the ,r4,a4 catalogue as #8,st4 ,anselm's ,chapel with part of ,thomas ,becket's ,crown--,canterbury ,cathedral1' which ,i take to be the drawing now in the ,manchester ,whitworth ,institute 7,no4 #bgb74 ,this is a work of infinite patience and wary skill1 a remarkable combination of far-sighted knowledge of ultimate effects united with the utmost delicacy1 firmness1 and patience of execution4 ,these qualities do not seem to me so clearly marked either in the ,christchurch ,gate or ,malvern drawings1 but very likely to the contemporary observer1 especially to one avid of originality1 the drawing of #8,st4 ,anselm's ,chapel' may have appeared more ordinary or conventional4#f ,the success of these drawings established ,turner's position as one of the foremost architectural and topographical draughtsmen of the day4 ,but we must not make the mistake of supposing that ,turner's success was the result of an absence of serious rivals4 ,de ,loutherbourg1 ,dayes1 ,hearne1 ,wheatley1 ,sandby and ,rooker were by no means unworthy rivals4 ,nor must we jump to the conclusion that ,turner1 at the age of nineteen1 had outstripped such competitors in any but the purely topographical branches of their profession4 ,the best of the older men were artists of wide sympathies and ambitions1 who could not rest satisfied within the narrow limits of purely topographical work4 ,they looked upon such work as a kind of necessary drudgery1 useful from a pecuniary point of view1 but not calling for the whole-hearted exercise of all their talents and enthusiasm4 ,dayes1 to whom ,girtin was apprenticed1 and from whom ,turner had learnt a great deal1 seems to have detested topographical work1 in spite of the skill and delicate charm with which he treated it4 ,all his enthusiasm was reserved for figure subjects in the grand manner1 for which there was no market4 ,in this #agid exhibition he had four illustrations for ,dr4 ,aitken's ,environs of ,manchester1 which have the perfunctory look of work done against the grain1 and a #8,view of ,keswick ,lake1' which may possibly have been the slight and charming drawing of this subject now in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 too small and fragile a thing to attract much attention4 ,the versatile and brilliant ,de ,loutherbourg did not exhibit this year2 ,hearne also was absent4 ,rooker had five of his delicately-accomplished but rather prosaic drawings4 ,paul ,sandby had two views of ,rochester ,castle1 and #8,a ,view of ,vintners at ,boxley1 ,kent1 with ,mr4 ,whatman's ,turkey ,paper ,mills1' where the excellent paper upon which almost all ,turner's drawings were made was manufactured4 ,wheatley sent no landscapes this year1 and ,girtin1 ,turner's senior and rival1 had a single exhibit1 a #8,view of ,ely ,minster1' the first drawing he had had accepted by the ,academy4 ,the result of this state of things was that ,turner's architectural and topographical work was pitted against only the perfunctory or tired work of his older rivals4 ,for the moment all his indefatigable patience and amazing energy and skill were concentrated on this one point of attack1 with immediately decisive results4 ,turner had now achieved an honourable footing in his profession4 ,dr4 ,monro bought his #8,anselm's ,chapel' and gave him commissions for many other drawings4 ,booksellers found his name an attraction4 ,with publishers ready to buy his drawings1 though at prices that would merely excite the derision of a modern artist1 and with patrons like ,dr4 ,monro ready to encourage his more ambitious efforts1 his opportunities of travel were greatly enlarged4 ,turner spent the summer of #agid making a tour of the midland counties of ,england4 ,northampton1 ,birmingham1 ,lichfield1 ,shrewsbury1 ,wrexham1 ,chester1 ,matlock1 ,derby1 ,nottingham1 ,lincoln1 ,peterborough1 ,cambridge and ,waltham were among the places he visited4 ,the views published in the ,copper ,plate ,magazine during the next three years of ,nottingham1 ,bridgenorth1 ,matlock1 ,birmingham1 ,chester1 ,peterborough and ,flint were made from sketches taken on this journey1 as were also those of ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,flint1 and ,northampton1 published in the ,pocket ,magazine during #agie4 ,but these were the least important results of the tour4 ,the work into which ,turner threw all his enthusiasm and ambition was sent to the exhibition of the ,royal ,academy of #agie1 which contained no less than eight of his important and highly-finished drawings4 ,the best known of these are the #8,peterborough ,cathedral2 ,west ,entrance1' which was included in ,messrs4 ,agnews' #aijh annual exhibition of water-colours--it had suffered somewhat from the light and had been restored1 but was still an impressive work2 the #8,welsh ,bridge1 ,shrewsbury1' now ,no4 #bgf in the ,manchester ,whitworth ,institute1 a carefully wrought and exquisitely accomplished drawing2 and the #8,cathedral ,church at ,lincoln' 7,plate ,v47 now in the ,print ,room4 ,this elaborately finished drawing1 ,i am inclined to think1 played an important part in ,turner's development4 ,it is almost the only drawing ,i know from his hand which has a papery and unconvincing general effect1 which is monotonous and insensitive in its textures1 and hard and metallic in its details4 ,for once in a way ,turner seems to have deferred to the ideals of elaboration of the ordinary connoisseur1 who likes to see every detail in every part of a work pushed to its highest point of finish4 ,for these reasons the drawing must have been very generally admired when it was first exhibited1 but ,turner could not have been satisfied at all with his own work1 for he promptly abandoned the style4 ,this is the most #8mappy' of all ,turner's drawings1 and we know that for the rest of his life he had the greatest horror of this quality4 ,when we examine the pencil drawings made from nature on this tour we find them all severely governed by the ends they were intended to serve4 ,the sketches for the publishers' work ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v ,,lincoln ,,cathedral ,,water ,,colour ,,exhibited ,,at ,,royal ,,academy1 #agie 7,print ,room1 ,british ,museum7 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi ,,lincoln ,,cathedral1 ,,from ,,the ,,south-,,west ,,pencil4 #agid are generally made in a small note-book 7about #d #f inches in size74 ,they are invariably in pure outline1 without the slightest suggestion of light and shade--nothing but the scaffolding of the more important shapes upon which the final designs were to be elaborated4 ,on such a small scale the ease and grace of ,turner's touch are not much in evidence4 ,the sketches are severely business-like1 and done as quickly and with as little effort as possible4 ,there is more effort and feeling in the casual studies with which the leaves of this sketch-book are interspersed4 ,the accompanying sketch 7,plate ,,vii47 of a pony standing ready saddled gives a good idea of the mature wisdom of ,turner's style of sketching at this period1 its determination to grasp the larger truths of form and structure1 as well as the quickness1 readiness1 and versatility of his powers of perception4 ,the drawings for the more ambitious subjects are generally made on larger and separate pieces of paper about #h #aj inches in size4 ,on this scale the delicate play of the artist's wrist becomes appreciable4 ,the dominant impression left by a glance through these drawings is one of excessive orderliness and methodical neatness4 ,there is no hurry1 no scamped or perfunctory work1 still less are there any signs of dilatoriness or even slowness4 ,the artist's respect for relevant fact is equalled by his appreciation of the value of time4 ,his calm objective outlook1 his steady1 unwavering grasp of general principles enable him at every point to economise his labours1 to store up the record of the greatest possible amount of material facts 7i4e4 of facts material to his purpose7 with the utmost celerity1 clearness1 and the least possible expenditure of manual effort4 ,this is particularly noticeable in the treatment of the towers in the ,lincoln ,cathedral drawing 7,plate ,,vi471 where every advantage has been taken of the repetition of forms4 ,a possible1 though not a very satisfactory1 way of doing justice to the predominance of conceptual over purely visual elements in this work1 would be to say that the artist has here drawn with his head rather than his eye1 that he puts down not so much what he sees as what he understands4 ,i am tempted to linger for a moment over the placid and self-contained air of this phase of ,turner's work1 because we shall so soon get into an altogether different atmosphere1 and because we shall understand ,turner's after work all the better the more clearly we grasp the character of the work we are now examining4 ,the self-contained air to which ,i allude is connected in my mind with the character and limitations of topographical work4 ,now the essential character of topographical and purely antiquarian work is that it does not aim primarily at expressing the imaginative or emotional effects of the objects it represents4 ,it takes these imaginative or emotional interests for granted1 relying indeed on them for the ultimate justification of its work2 but the work1 as topographical and antiquarian1 aims directly only at an adequate representation of the particular scenes or buildings with which it is concerned4 ,there is1 as it were1 a tacit division of labour2 the artist being called upon to record accurately and vividly a certain scene or building1 merely as a scene or building1 while the spectator is expected to supply the requisite mental associations and emotional colouring4 ,the artist draws a castle1 we will say1 as a mere object of sight1 while the spectator is supposed to remember that the castle was built by such and such a king1 and that certain moving events took place in it or near it4 ,this division of labour simplifies the work of the topographical artist1 reducing his business to a clear-cut affair of definite visual facts4 ,hence the ,oriental stolidity of ,turner's topographical work1 its ,oriental patience1 neatness1 and precision4 ,in a drawing like the #8,lincoln ,cathedral' ,turner is as wholly immersed in the succession of particular material facts as a ,japanese or ,chinese artist4 ,as with the ,japanese and ,chinese artists the material facts are not there entirely for their own sakes2 in ,turner's case they imply an antiquarian interest1 as the ,eastern artists' work implies an added religious or poetical significance4 ,but the point to which ,i desire to draw attention is1 that this added significance is not embodied in the work itself4 ,it is something extraneous and fortuitous1 and the work itself falls apart into something dependent4 ,it is in fact an accessory1 a work of mere illustration1 not an independent work of art4 ,we shall have to return to this subject in our next chapter1 when we find ,turner wrenching himself free from the trammels of topography and antiquarianism to soar into the regions of ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii ,,pony ,,and ,,wheelbarrow ,,pencil4 #agid artistic freedom4 ,in the meantime we will turn our attention to the topographical drawings which ,turner sent to the exhibition of #agif4 ,of the eleven drawings by which ,turner was represented at the ,royal ,academy this year1 nine were apparently of a topographical character4 ,i have only been able to examine two of these recently--the #8,transept and ,choir of ,ely ,minster1' in the late ,mr4 ,r4 ,f4 ,holt's collection1 and the #8,llandaff ,cathedral1' in the ,national ,gallery 7,exhibited ,drawings ,no4 #gie74 ,if we may judge from the rather cold impression these two drawings make upon us1 it is probable that they owe their existence rather to the artist's professional diligence than to any overmastering impulse towards artistic expression4 ,but the work1 if not particularly enthusiastic1 is distinguished by its thoroughness and workman-like spirit4 ,every mechanical difficulty is fairly faced and mastered with imperturbable coolness1 patience1 and dexterity4 ,so palpably is the artist's attention fixed upon the executive side of his art1 especially in the #8,llandaff ,cathedral1' that a contemporary prophet might well have been excused if he had seen in it only the promise of the making of a marvellous petit-matre1 and had declared that its author could not be possessed of a spark of native genius4 ,perhaps if we could see either of the two other drawings which1 to judge from their titles1 were neither topographical nor antiquarian in subject1 we might find evidence which would induce us to modify this dominant impression of intellectual coldness and unruffled placidity4 ,in particular1 the title #8,fishermen at ,sea' seems to suggest possibilities of romantic expressiveness1 especially when we know that the subject was treated by the same hand that was to give us in a few years' time the #8,calais ,pier1' ,lord ,iveagh's #8,fishermen on a ,lee-,shore1' and the #8,shipwreck4' ,but this drawing has not been traced1 and the second drawing1 the #8,internal 7or interior7 of a ,cottage1' has apparently shared the same fate4 ,there is1 however1 a slight possibility that the latter subject may be correctly identified with the small drawing in the ,national ,gallery1 exhibited under the title of #8,cottage ,interior' 7#djf ,n4,g474 ,this drawing has been1 somewhat rashly1 supposed to represent the underground kitchen beneath the barber's shop in ,maiden ,lane4 ,there are absolutely no grounds for such an assumption1 and a moderately careful examination of the drawing shows that it does not represent an underground kitchen or room of any kind4 ,it is clearly a room on the ground-floor1 but the lower part of the window has been curtained off1 with the object of getting a picturesque arrangement of light and shade1 and this fact may have lent some plausibility to the suggestion that the light was falling through a grating above4 ,if ,i am right in identifying this drawing with the #agif exhibit the study was made at ,ely1 as the catalogue informs us4 ,but whether this drawing was exhibited at the ,academy or not1 it clearly belongs from internal evidence to the latter part of #agie or the beginning of #agif4 ,it therefore offers us an interesting connecting link in the development of ,turner's art1 showing the line of study which turned the youthful topographer into the romantic artist4 ,yet there is little of the romantic spirit on the face of this drawing4 ,a poor interior bathed in gloom1 with a narrow stream of light falling on an old woman sitting beside a copper and surrounded by an array of pots and pans4 ,but it is significant1 because it bears witness to the direction of ,turner's mind to the study of light and shade as a separate vehicle of expression4 ,in the topographical drawings proper1 light and shade is not used for its emotional effect1 but simply as a means of representation1 that is to say1 to bring out the shapes and details4 ,in the #8,interior' we see ,turner beginning to isolate the system of light and shade1 to study and grasp its possibilities as a separate factor of artistic expressiveness4 ,but if we turn to the sketch-books containing the record of ,turner's summer wanderings in #agie1 we find no lack of evidence of the essentially artistic cast of his mind1 and of his wide sympathies with nature4 ,his journeys this year were mainly confined to portions of the coast-line1 to the ,isle of ,wight1 and the south coast of ,wales from ,chepstow to ,pembroke ,bay4 ,it was not by any means the first time he had seen the sea1 but he was then able to study it more closely than before1 and under its wilder aspects and conditions4 ,the outward appearance of the two principal sketch-books used this year bears clear indication of bright professional prospects4 ,these handsome calf-bound volumes1 each with four brass clasps1 put forward solid claims to respect--claims which a young artist standing alone without a backing of influential patrons would shrink from advancing4 ,opening the book devoted to the ,isle of ,wight subjects1 we find the first page headed in ink with the words #8,order'd ,drawings1' and underneath a record of subjects and sizes of drawings to be made for ,sir ,richard ,colt ,hoare and ,mr4 ,charles ,landseer1 the engraver4 ,in the ,south ,wales book we find the record of further commissions from these two patrons1 and others from ,viscount ,maiden1 ,dr4 ,mathews1 ,mr4 ,laurie1 ,mr4 ,lambert1 ,mr4 ,mitchell and ,mr4 ,kershaw4 ,these indications suggest that the drawings in these volumes were not made entirely for the artist's own use and enjoyment4 ,they are certainly for use1 as their neat and careful array of details proves1 but they were also destined to bear the scrutiny of possible patrons1 and excite1 if possible1 a desire in their breasts to see them carried out in a more elaborate medium4 ,this may account for a certain smugness or primness in much of the work itself1 for its faint suggestion of youthful conceit and a priggish air of conscious rectitude4 ,the sketching tour opens at ,winchester1 and we can follow the artist to ,salisbury and ,southampton4 ,we then find him suddenly at ,newport1 in the ,isle of ,wight4 ,the remainder of the book is devoted to this island4 ,at ,newport ,turner was chiefly interested in ,carisbrook ,castle4 ,we can then trace his footsteps southward to ,ventnor and along the ,south-,west coast to the ,needles2 thence back to ,newport1 with a visit to ,brading1 where he made a delightful drawing1 partly finished in water-colour1 of ,bembridge ,mill4 ,the workmanship throughout is admirably deft1 graceful and accomplished4 ,it is not1 however1 till the artist gets to the open sea round the ,needles that his imagination seems stirred at all4 ,in the centre of the drawing on page #ci stands the blunt face of the chalk cliffs2 on the left1 the incoming waves play round a few broken stumps of rock4 ,between the cliffs and the spectator there is a small bay in which some fishermen's boats ride on the rising tide4 ,the waves play prettily with the boats1 but these are carefully tethered fore and aft1 thus showing that their owners have learnt to mistrust the gracefully advancing waters4 ,in the distance the cold dark volume of sea seems to justify these suspicions4 ,gradually a sense of the sternness of the eternal conflict between the sea and the dry land impresses itself on our minds4 ,the whole coast seems in the clutch of a ruthless and never-resting foe4 ,in some scenes the high cliffs seem to stand proudly and defiantly in the water2 here they are in full retreat1 the havoc of the foreground proving that the soft chalk is crumbling at the touch of its pitiless enemy4 ,and now we can see the usefulness of the discipline and training of topographical draughtsmanship4 ,confronted with a scene like this1 which powerfully stirs his emotions1 the artist is not forced to remain dumb2 he has an organ of expression ready to his hand4 ,the supple pencil-point hurries its suggestive outlines over the paper4 ,there is yet time to add some record of the more delicate passages of modelling1 and to suggest something of the colour of the water and cliffs4 ,the artist's brush is as docile as his pencil4 ,there is no experimental blotting and splashing2 every touch is expressive1 and the pressure of haste only adds greater certainty to the swift touches4 ,the artist has to stop before he has tinted half his paper1 but he has torn out the heart of his subject4 ,leaving the ,isle of ,wight1 ,turner made his way to ,south ,wales1 passing through ,wells4 ,the scenery of ,south ,wales is of a wilder description than that of the ,isle of ,wight1 and it must have touched his imagination profoundly4 ,but thanks to his ready science1 his hand never falters2 all the ruined castles and abbeys1 the water-mills and water-falls1 the details of the rocky coast-line1 the white-crested waves and tangled forests1 are bundled with celerity into neat little outlines and stored ready for future use4 ,among the subjects are the castles of ,kidwelly1 ,carew1 ,laugharne1 ,llanstephen and ,goodrich1 and they are drawn as they had never before been drawn or will be again4 ,one of the views of ,carew ,castle will serve the artist thirty years later when he comes to treat this subject for his #8,england and ,wales' series4 ,but to me the most significant drawing in ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii ,,melincourt ,,fall1 ,,vale ,,of ,,neath ,,pencil1 ,,part ,,ix ,,water ,,colour1 #agic the book is the waterfall on page #h4 ,the whole subject is drawn in with the pencil as usual1 and then just the most important part is finished in water-colour4 ,this piece of water-colour work is an admirable example of ,turner's sensitiveness to impressions1 his quickness and readiness1 and the adaptability of his methods4 ,the rocks and the crystalline facets of the water at the top of the fall are painted in with sharp staccato touches1 while the skilful dragging of the dry brush suggests the dissolving of the water into spray with extraordinary vivacity4 ,this drawing forms our eighth illustration1 though no reproduction can do justice to it4 ,mr4 ,ruskin admired the work warmly1 and it formed part of the selection he made for the ,oxford ,loan ,collection4 ,he named the drawing the #8,high ,force of ,tees1' but ,i believe this description to be incorrect4 ,in the sketch-book the leaf on which the drawing is made follows immediately a drawing of the water-mill at ,aberduls1 and a note made on the fly-leaf of the book1 written by ,turner for his own guidance on the tour1 mentions that the #8,rocks and ,water-fall' near ,aberduls were #8well worth attention4' ,the nearest waterfall to ,aberduls is the cascade formed by the river ,clydach1 known as the ,fall of ,melincourt4 ,i have therefore ventured to substitute this title for ,mr4 ,ruskin's #8,high ,force of ,tees4' ,an artist so sensitive to the subtlety and mystery of natural scenery1 as these sketch-books show ,turner to have been1 and one so unusually gifted to express these qualities1 could not long be confined within the prosaic limits of topographical and antiquarian work4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,sublime--#agig-ahjb ,change from pure form to light and shade--#8,millbank' and #8,ewenny ,priory'--,contrast between #8,ewenny' and #8,llandaff'--,the transition from objectivity to subjectivity--,the growth of taste for the ,sublime--,there are no sublime objects1 but only objects of sublime feeling--,no guidance but from art--,the ,wilson tradition--,the two elements in the sketches and studies of this period1 7#a7 ,the study of ,nature1 and 7#b7 ,the assimilation of the ,wilson tradition--,in the #agig sketches these two operations are kept distinct--,the ,north of ,england tour and its record--#8,studies for ,pictures3 ,copies of ,wilson'--,the two operations begin to coalesce in the #agih and #agii sketches--,the origin of #8,jason'--,the ,scotch 7#ahja7 and ,swiss 7#ahjb7 tours4 ,there is an evident connection between such a study of light and shade as the #8,interior of a ,cottage' 7#djf ,national ,gallery7 and at least two of the exhibits in the exhibition of #agig4 ,one of these1 the #8,moonlight1 a study at ,millbank1' was probably ,turner's first exhibited oil painting2 the other1 #8,transept of ,ewenny ,priory1 ,glamorganshire1' ,i am inclined to regard as the first drawing in which the budding genius of the young artist was authoritatively announced4 ,it is impossible to be sure whether the direction of ,turner's attention to the subtler problems of light and shade led him to turn to oil painting as a more suitable medium for the expression of such effects1 or whether his resolution to explore the resources of the more complex medium had the effect of directing his attention to the expressional qualities of light and shade4 ,the #8,millbank' bears on its face the evidence of ,dutch influence 7,van der ,neer1 ,van ,goyen1 etc47 as well as of inexperience of the technical requirements of the new medium4 ,this inexperience renders the work ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix ,,interior ,,of ,,ripon ,,cathedral3 ,,north ,,transept ,,pencil4 #agig insignificant with regard to the development of the artist's personality1 but the bent of his mind towards the mystery and expressiveness of darkness is notable4 ,in the water-colour of #8,ewenny ,priory'--now one of the chief treasures of the ,cardiff ,art ,gallery 7,pyke-,thompson ,bequest7--,turner's genius is less hampered by technical difficulties4 ,if this be indeed the drawing that was exhibited in #agigg it shows an amazingly rapid development in the artist's powers1 especially when we compare it with the #8,llandaff ,cathedral' 7#gij1 ,national ,gallery71 which was exhibited only twelve months earlier4 ,the #8,llandaff' is merely the work of a clever and skilful topographical draughtsman1 the #8,ewenny' is the work of a powerful imaginative artist4 ,the gloomy interior of the ,norman ruin is no longer an object to be measured1 dated1 classified and labelled4 ,it is no longer an #8interesting specimen' that we have set before us4 ,the artist has now broken with the ordinary1 every-day world of sense-experience1 and we plunge with him into the world of the imagination1 where objects are no longer separated from and held over against the self2 they now throb and tingle with our own emotional life4 ,this change of aim--we may speak of it for the sake of brevity as the change from objectivity to subjectivity--is accompanied by a change of method in the workmanship of the two drawings4 ,in the #8,llandaff' 7as in the #8,lincoln'7 the forms of all the objects are made out with the greatest possible clearness4 ,when the artist has told us as clearly and precisely as possible the exact shape of every object from his chosen point of view1 we feel that he has done all that he set out to do1 and all that we can reasonably demand from him4 ,then these objects are left standing side by side in relative independence of each other and of us2 they have no necessary connection one with the other1 like the parts of a piece of music1 or the points of an argument4 ,their only bond of union is the abstract one of space4 ,the whole effect is of something severed from direct experience2 the objects represented have an unreal air of permanence and immutability1 with something of the intellectual coldness and aloofness of a diagram or mathematical symbol4 ,in the #8,ewenny' drawing we are brought into contact with objects which have not yet been severed from the emotional colouring of immediate experience4 ,instead of a series of abstract spatial determinations1 appealing only to the abstract understanding1 we now have a presentation fraught with the infinite suggestiveness of living1 sensible experience4 ,each object represented is now no longer held over against the self as something alien1 something indifferent to and independent of humanity1 like the laws of the physical sciences2 each object has now become merely a moment in the affective life of an individual4 ,it therefore touches our own feelings1 challenges our hopes and fears1 appeals intimately to our sympathies with the contagion of the emotions of an actual companion4 ,we cannot remain indifferent to such an appeal if we would4 ,unless our nerves tingle as the eye plunges from the familiar objects of the foreground into the gloom beyond1 the picture has not begun to exist for us4 ,but immediately it touches our inner life into responsive activity the picture becomes transformed from so much indifferent paper and pigment into an aspect of our own affective life4 ,we have caught the contagion of the artist's emotional experience1 in which the objects of his representation were submerged4 ,i am far from wishing to suggest that the distinction between the two kinds of art which ,i have endeavoured to indicate is either very obvious or easy to grasp4 ,but it is1 ,i am convinced1 a very real and a very weighty distinction1 and as such is worthy of the most careful study4 ,but1 however carefully we study the matter1 and however profoundly convinced we may be that the distinction is firmly grounded in the essential nature of art itself1 yet we can never hope to describe it in the precise terms of the exact sciences4 ,we can never hope to understand the exact nature of the ties which bind the expressive symbols of ,romantic art to the echoes they awaken with mathematical certainty in the breast of each individual4 ,the problem of the relation between thought and feeling still agitates the rival schools of philosophy1 and this is not the place to discuss such matters4 ,what is immediately important ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x ,,conway ,,falls1 ,,near ,,bettwys-,y-,,coed ,,water ,,colour1 ,,about #agih for us is to see that ,turner's art has passed from one stage of growth to another1 and to realise for ourselves as best we can the nature of this progression4 ,to me it seems clear that the line of ,turner's personal development is following roughly the line upon which the artistic faculty of mankind has developed2 that the transition from topography to the stage we have now entered upon coincides in part with the movement from ,classic to ,romantic art1 from the art which is in bondage to the world of external reality1 to the art which moves and has its being in the inner world of our ideas and feelings4 ,the #8,llandaff' and #8,lincoln' belong to the classic 7or the pseudo-classic1 if you will7 art of the eighteenth century1 while the #8,ewenny' inaugurates the ,romantic art of the nineteenth century4 ,on its technical side the change is from form to tone1 from a system of predominantly unemotional space-determinations to a medium which is more immediately in contact with the inward feeling of all self-conscious beings4 ,in moving from the ,augustan point of view towards the ,romantic1 ,turner was but walking in an already well-beaten track4 ,during the last half-century the influence of ,milton had been growing1 the taste for the gloomy1 the mysterious and the picturesque had found expression in ,young's ,night ,thoughts1 in ,gray's ,elegy1 in ,walpole's ,castle of ,otranto1 and had found critical exponents in ,warton's ,history of ,english ,poetry1 and in ,burke's ,essay ,on the ,sublime and ,beautiful1 7#agef74 ,dr4 ,percy's ,reliques had found many readers and admirers1 and ,macpherson's ,ossian had stirred the enthusiasm of ,europe4 ,in painting ,richard ,wilson and ,de ,loutherbourg had struck the same note of gloomy grandeur4 ,now the essence of this kind of art--the ,sublime--is not merely to strike the spectator dumb with amazement or terror1 but also to make him feel that man's moral freedom is superior to the most terrible forces of ,nature4#h ,the mere representation of the fearful and terrible sights of inorganic nature is therefore not by itself enough to evoke a feeling of the sublime2 before he can do this the artist must also excite in the spectator the consciousness of his power to overcome or resist such objects4 ,it is therefore a purely subjective feeling that the artist has to represent1 though this feeling is directed towards or centred round a certain definite series of objects4 ,but these objects as coloured with the strength and resolution of the heroic mood--the mood of ,kant's animi strenui#i--;cannot properly be said to exist as natural objects4 ,the real subject of the artist's work is therefore1 strictly speaking1 the invisible and the intangible1 a mere mood of the soul1 an attitude of our own mind towards certain objects of thought4 ,of course we should all have been justified before the feat had been accomplished1 in declaring that it was impossible for pictorial art to paint the invisible1 but now that it has been accomplished we have no alternative but to recognise the fact4 ,common-sense says the thing is impossible1 and experience proves to us that common-sense is wrong4 ,the careful student of modern criticism will know how splendidly ,mr4 ,ruskin fought against experience in this matter and how he was worsted4 ,i am really sorry for common-sense4 ,to paint the invisible and intangible--it is a hard nut to crack4 ,but ,i protest we have no choice in the matter4 ,the thing is there before us4 ,it is a pity it is not quite so simple and easy as we should like it to be1 but it is best1 ,i think1 to face the difficulties honestly4 ,turner's problem1 then1 as a painter of the sublime1 was one in which the mere study of natural objects could not help him4 ,he might search out the most fearful sights in nature1 watch the loftiest waterfall of the mightiest river1 volcanoes in all their violence of destruction1 hurricanes1 lightning flashes and storms1 but these objects alone1 though they might stimulate his feeling of moral freedom1 could not show him how to express this faculty of moral resistance which #8gives us1' as ,kant says1 #8the courage to measure ourselves against the apparent almightiness of nature4'#aj ,there was no help for ,turner in this task but in the works of those artists who had succeeded in expressing such emotions1 and it was to ,wilson and ,de ,loutherbourg that ,turner went1 not to learn how to represent natural objects as such1 but to learn how to use such objects as the media of inward perceptions and ideas4 ,de ,loutherbourg's influence was mainly in the direction of rhodomontade and melodrama1 but ,wilson's1 though not ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xi ,,conway ,,castle ,,pencil4 ,,about #agih devoid of danger1 led ,turner safely into the enchanted regions of romance4 ,the three chief expressive--as distinguished from representative--factors in ,wilson's work are darkness of tone1 the scheme of colour1 and the quality of the paint4 ,i am inclined to think that the general darkness of ,wilson's pictures is the necessary result of the kind of subjects he treated4 ,the darkness is necessary to tune the mind of the spectator to gloomy and tragic thoughts1--to spread over his mind what ,johnson calls #8a general obscurity of sacred horror1 that oppresses distinction1 and disdains expression4' ,in his worst pictures this darkness of key readily passes into emptiness and blackness2 but in his best pictures this darkness ranges through a gamut of subdued and glowing colour1 which relieves the gloom and comforts us as it were in our distress4 ,the tone and colour are thus to some extent determined by the character of the objects represented2 the tone by their general emotional effect1 and the colour scheme as conditioned by the tone1 though controlled within rather wide limits by the natural colours of the objects represented4 ,but the third element1 the quality of the paint1 seems altogether independent of the objects represented4 ,it seems to reveal only the artist's attitude towards these objects4 ,it is as thoroughly subjective as the emotional vibration in the voice of an excited speaker4 ,under this term1 the quality of the paint1 ,i include all the immediate presentative elements of painting1 the thickness or thinness of the impasto1 the way the paint is put on1 the signs of the brushwork1 everything1 in short1 that tells us how the artist felt towards the objects he was representing4 ,the main object of ,turner's study during the period we are dealing with was the assimilation of the ,wilson tradition1 his study of the facts of ,nature1 simply as facts1 falling into the second place4 ,for a time the two lines of study are kept distinct4 ,on the one hand1 the work of neat and systematic note-taking face to face with nature is continued1 and on the other hand1 a number of studies aiming at the embodiment of the artist's subjective attitude make their appearance4 ,the final synthesis of the two factors1 the without and the within1 is of course only arrived at in the finished work of art1 but the contents of the sketch-books of this period fall easily apart1 according as they lean either in the direction of the particular facts or in the direction of the emotional synthesis4 ,the drawings made during the tour in the north of ,england1 which ,turner made in the summer of #agig1 belong almost entirely to the first kind4 ,in one sketch-book we find most of the more important ruined abbeys and castles of ,yorkshire1 ,durham1 and ,northumberland drawn with the most delightful ease1 accuracy1 and charm4 ,here we have ,kirkstall ,abbey drawn from every available point of view1 ,ripon ,cathedral1 studied both without and within1 ,barnard and ,richmond ,castles1 ,dunstanborough1 ,bamborough1 ,durham ,castle and ,cathedral1 ,warkworth1 ,lindisfarne and ,norham4 ,the drawing of the interior of ,ripon ,cathedral1 reproduced as ,plate ,,ix41 is merely an average example of the kind of work that ,turner now seemed to produce without the slightest effort4 ,the most complicated structure and detail now presented no difficulties to his well-trained eye and hand4 ,the ease with which he mastered all the material forms that met his eye may have left his mind at leisure to enjoy the moral atmosphere of the buildings1 may have left his imagination free to range backward over its past history2 but there is no trace of emotion or imagination in the graceful play of these clear-cut1 accurate1 and methodical outlines4 ,melrose ,abbey formed the highest point north in this journey4 ,leaving ,melrose1 ,turner struck across to ,cumberland1 no doubt passing through ,carlisle to ,keswick4 ,after the bustle and noise of much of the northward half of his journey1 the peace and quiet of the ,english lakes must have been noticeable4 ,in looking through the hundred or more pencil sketches made at ,keswick1 ,buttermere1 ,ullswater1 ,patterdale1 ,windermere1 ,coniston1 etc41 one is struck by the absence of the conventional note of ,romantic horror4 ,there is no trace of what used to be called the bold and appalling singularities of nature4#aa ,there is indeed a marked absence of human activity in these drawings4 ,we are alone with ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii ,,ruined ,,castle ,,on ,,hill ,,water ,,colour4 ,,about #agih nature1 but nature's aspect is generally peaceful and friendly4 ,the mountains are high1 but we enjoy climbing them and the fine views we get there4 ,their shapes above all interest us immensely4 ,they do not strike us at all as appalling singularities1 but as replete with an infinite grace and variety1 under which we feel a fundamental reasonableness1 an intuitive sense of intelligible design4 ,and then there are not only the bare shapes1 but their wonderful clothing of light and shade2 the play of the gleams of sunlight and the long shadows across the deep bosoms of the hills1 and the games the wreaths of mist and cloud play with the distant mountain-tops1 and the wild races of the mountain-torrents over their favourite tracks4 ,occasionally there is time for more than the regulation pencil outline4 ,then the brush and a few colours come out1 and a stretch of the distance wakes from its cold abstraction into life4 ,such sketches as #8,the ,head of ,derwentwater1 with ,lodore ,falls and the entrance to ,borrowdale1' the #8,hills of ,glaramara1' and #8,buttermere ,lake' 7,exhibited ,drawings1 ,no4 #fif71 were produced in this way4 ,in these we see beautiful effects of mist1 with the sun playing through them1 noted with subtle sympathy and accuracy1 but the general effect is not at all gloomy2 it is rather one of peace1 serenity1 and gladness4 ,this is the raw material out of which ,turner set to work in the autumn and winter of #agig to manufacture some important oil pictures full of gloom and wrath4 ,the young artist reminds me of ,johnson's acquaintance who had resolved to be a philosopher1 but found his native cheerfulness always breaking through4 ,turner's unaffected delight in ,nature certainly stood in the way of his aspiration towards the sublime4 ,but he was not a man to be easily thwarted4 ,we can trace in the pictures exhibited in #agih the conflict between the elements given in perception and the subjective requirements of the artist1 but by sheer diligence and strength of will he succeeded in moulding his cheerful perceptions into concepts full of gloom and horror4 ,the picture of #8,buttermere' 7,n4,g41 at present on loan to the ,albert ,memorial ,museum1 ,exeter7 is based on a pale and delicately-charming water-colour drawing 7#fif1 ,n4,g471 but little of the charm or delicacy of the original sketch survives in the oil painting1 which is ruthlessly swamped in more than ,wilsonian blackness4 ,he succeeded best where the record of his perceptions was slightest4 ,there are several sketches of ,norham ,castle1 but they are all in pencil and very slight4 ,for some reason or other the artist was evidently in a hurry4 ,perhaps partly because of this insufficient note-taking1 here was a favourable subject round which his imagination was free to play1 unhampered by any very clearly determined immediate perceptions4 ,the picture of ,norham ,castle1 exhibited at ,somerset ,house in #agih1 was ,turner's first distinct success in this kind of work1 and he repeated the subject several times4 ,a small green-covered pocket-book1 which still bears ,turner's label1 #8,studies for ,pictures3 ,copies of ,wilson1' gives us a glimpse of the processes by which the sights of nature were converted into works of art4 ,here we see the subjective impulses of the artist struggling into expression2 the artist's love of gorgeous colour and dramatic effect nourishing itself and forging a material form for its own support4 ,among the designs in this interesting little book are several marine and coast subjects1 a shipwreck1 an interior of a forge with men busy casting an anchor1 some river scenes1 a rainbow standing over a dark city1 several church interiors1 and some studies of turbulent skies4 ,it is difficult to distinguish ,turner's studies for his own pictures from his copies of ,wilson1 but one of the drawings is probably a copy of ,wilson's #8,morning1' and another1 of his #8,bridge of ,augustus at ,rimini4' ,i have not been able to see either of these original pictures1 so as to compare them with ,turner's copy1 but a comparison of the copy with the engraving by ,joseph ,farington1 published by ,boydell1 shows some important discrepancies in the arrangement of the light and shade4 ,the character of these discrepancies leads one to suppose that they were not made intentionally by ,turner1 but were the result of his attempt to reproduce the general effect of the picture from memory4 ,he may have made a slight pencil sketch of the picture in some gallery1 and washed in the general effect afterwards from memory4 ,this is1 of course1 only a supposition1 but it is somewhat strengthened by examination of a larger and more elaborate copy of ,wilson's #8,landscape with ,figures1' a picture now in the ,national ,gallery 7,no4 #abij74 ,that ,turner's water-colour is intended to be a copy is proved by the endorsement on its back--#8,study from ,wilson1' ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiii ,,study ,,of ,,fallen ,,trees ,,water ,,colour4 ,,about #agih ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiv ,,caernarvon ,,castle4 ,,pencil4 #agii but when we compare it with the original we find that the various discrepancies in the copy can only be accounted for by supposing that ,turner was working to a considerable extent from memory4 ,i admit the evidence is not conclusive1 but ,i do not think we shall be far wrong if we take it that ,turner did not at this time make any elaborate copies of ,wilson's pictures1 but that he studied them closely and enthusiastically1 and relied more upon his memory than his notes4 ,in the sketches made during the following years we find that these two separate operations show a tendency to coalesce4 ,turner has evidently taken a dislike to his earlier map-making style1 and tries hard to see nature like ,wilson4 ,his sketches from nature become slighter and more hurried4 ,in his efforts towards breadth he comes very near emptiness1 and in his attempts to get away from his neat bit-by-bit style of work he often comes near downright clumsiness and carelessness4 ,the summers of #agih and #agii were largely spent in ,north ,wales4 ,here he found exactly the material that chimed in with the mood of sternness and gloom he wished to express3 steep1 convulsive mountains1 wild valleys and broken passes1 the bare skeletonlike ribs of broken ships aground on lonely estuaries1 massive ruins of huge castles perched on inaccessible crags1 gnawed to the bone as it were by the wind and rain and remorseless ,time4 ,his mental grasp has clearly broadened4 ,he no longer sees buildings as isolated objects1 but they now fall into their places as incidents in the wide panorama of the country4 ,nothing is now drawn for itself2 the trees are emanations from the ground1 the dry land and the waters are kinsmen1 the stones in the foreground are parts of the distant mountains1 and the mountains huge elder brothers of the pebbles by the river-side4 ,the bubbling waters are but clouds made captive1 the clouds the freed souls of the brooks1 the trees the organ of their transformation2 and castles like ,conway1 standing with their roots plunged deep into their rocky foundations1 seem but rocks raised to a higher power4 ,the distinction between human art and physical nature is everywhere broken down4 ,the spirit of life in nature is identified with the volitions and passions of the artist's own soul3 he has become sensible #8to the moods of time and season1 to the moral power1 the affections and the spirit of the place4'#ab ,this state of mind is closely akin to the mood in which the myths of the ,old ,world had taken shape4 ,small wonder1 then1 if the broken and withered branches of a stricken tree writhing among vigorously shooting brushwood should suggest to ,turner's mobile fancy the idea of snakes and dragons4 ,the sketch here reproduced 7,plate ,,xiii47 strikes me as probably the origin of the picture of #8,jason' which was exhibited in #ahjb4 ,in #ahjj or #ahja ,turner made a tour through the ,highlands of ,scotland4 ,the immediate results were slightly disappointing1 but the experience gained undoubtedly contributed to the effectiveness of the work done during the first visit to ,switzerland1 made in #ahjb4 ,in the ,scotch sketches ,turner had hit upon a method of working that enabled him to cover a great deal of ground in a short space of time1 and which had the additional advantage of exercising his memory1 and of making his sketches from nature more like the first draughts of his finished pictures than like so many unfused notes or memoranda4 ,all the more promising scenes he met with were sketched slightly in chalk upon large sheets of paper prepared with a wash of light brown4 ,these sketches were seldom carried far before the actual scenes1 but as soon after as was convenient--possibly at the inn in the evening--these skeletons were filled up from the artist's retentive memory and ever-ready invention4 ,in this way he was able to fortify himself against the multiplicity of nature's irrelevant facts1 and to find a ready form of expression for the reaction of his own mind upon the sights of nature4 ,colour was very little used in the ,scotch sketches1 all the larger drawings--numbering1 ,i think1 between forty and fifty--being worked entirely in black and white4 ,but a considerable number of the ,swiss drawings are coloured1 though1 ,i believe1 none of them directly from nature4 ,turner's procedure in the case of these drawings appears to have been practically the same as with the ,scotch series1 but after the skeleton sketch from nature had been elaborated with pencil and white and black chalk1 colour was sometimes resorted to1 less as a record of facts ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xv ,,cassiobury3 ,,north ,,west ,,view ,,french4 ,,about #ahjj4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvi ,,blair',s ,,hut ,,on ,,the ,,montanvert ,,and ,,mer ,,de ,,glace ,,water ,,colour4 #ahjb of local colour1 than as an additional instrument of expression of the subjective mood4 ,among the drawings elaborated in this way are the sketches upon which several of the ,farnley drawings 7the large #8,mer de ,glace1 ,chamounix1' #8,falls of the ,reichenbach1' #8,pass of ,st4 ,gothard1' #8,blair's ,hut1 ,mer de ,glace1'#ac etc471 were based4 ,in some cases the finished works are less impressive than the first sketches1 which are almost overpowering in their concentrated vehemence and gloomy majesty4 ,but we must beware of regarding these as simple sketches from nature4 ,they are more strictly studies for pictures than sketches from nature1 and it is hardly too much to say that they owe more of their energetic emotional appeal to the ,wilson tradition1 which ,turner had by this time thoroughly assimilated1 than to the immediate inspiration of nature4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,sea-,,painter--#ahjb-ahji ,connection between marine painting and the sublime--,turner's first marine subjects--,the #8,bridgewater sea-piece'--#8,meeting of the ,thames and ,medway'--#8,our landing at ,calais' and #8,calais ,pier'--#8,fishermen upon a ,lee ,shore'--#8,guisborough ,shore' and #8,dunbar' sketch-books--#8,the ,shipwreck'--#8,at the ,mouth of the ,thames'--#8,the ,nore1' #8,sheerness1' etc4--#8,death of ,nelson4' ,we have studied in the preceding chapter the first phase of ,turner's genuinely creative work4 ,we have seen the artist tear himself free from the trammels of the prosaic understanding1 with its clear-cut distinctions between external nature and subjective thought and feeling1 and plunge whole-heartedly into the concrete world of the poetic imagination4 ,the accomplished draughtsman of the visible has developed into the perfervid poet of the invisible4 ,objective reality1 as such1 is shattered and trampled ruthlessly underfoot4 #8,woe6 woe6 ,thou hast destroy'd ,the beautiful world ,with violent blow ',tis shiver'd6 'tis shatter'd6 ,the fragments abroad by a demigod scatter'd6 ,now we sweep ,the wrecks into nothingness6 ,fondly we weep ,the beauty that's gone6 ,thou1 'mongst the sons of earth1 ,lofty and mighty one1 ,build it once more6 ,in thine own bosom the lost world restore6' ,the distinction between percipient and object is brushed aside1 and the external world becomes the medium and the means of manifestation of inward perceptions and ideas4 ,how far the external world can be built up again in the bosom of the self-conscious subject depends largely upon the opportunities and genius of the individual4 ,in pictures like the #8,kilgarran ,castle1' #8,norham ,castle1' and #8,the ,trossachs'--to take perhaps the three most successful works of the kind of art we have been studying--the mind only partially coalesces with its objects4 ,such art only deals with a limited range of subject-matter1 and it treats its objects rather as foils to the contemplative mind than as having significance and worth in themselves4 ,the terrors of inorganic nature are not represented for their own sake1 but are paraded to mark the triumph of the moral freedom that rises superior to them4 ,the artist is therefore forced to do violence to external nature1 to subdue it and degrade it into a symbol of what is antagonistic in his own conscious experience4 ,yet by sheer force of artistic treatment all this hostile and negative matter is brought within the realm of art1 and made into an object in which the self-scrutinising spirit of man finds itself mirrored4 ,but the sublime lies only on the threshold of beauty4 ,it succeeds1 in so far as it does attain its effect1 only by making extreme demands upon the acquired culture and reasoning powers of the spectator4 ,the sublime cannot be adequately represented by any sensuous object1 but the very inadequacy of these objects can stir up and evoke this feeling in the properly prepared spectator4 ,there are ampler possibilities of beauty in the realm of the sea painter4 ,at first sight it may seem that the change is merely a change from one region of inorganic nature to another1 from rocks1 torrents and glaciers1 to the stormy and impetuous sea4 ,but if we examine the substance of ,turner's marine pictures carefully1 we find that they contain elements which lend themselves more readily to a systematic unity in sensuous form4 ,in his mountainous pieces ,turner found room for very little immediate human interest4 ,man and his everyday occupations are banished from the steep and rocky places he chooses to represent1 as incompatible with the gloomy1 awe-struck feeling he wishes to evoke4 ,the only immediate link with the feelings and interests of those for whom he worked which these pictures contained1 was the shattered masonry of a castle built in the recesses of the past by men long since dead1 but whose purposes and fate still awoke echoes in the historical imagination of the present4 ,in his marine subjects ,turner entered more closely into relation with the substantive interests of his time4 ,during the ,napoleonic wars the sea had come to be recognised as the chief safeguard of the nation4 ,the dangers of the sea1 the courage and skill of her sailors1 were ,england's only bulwarks against the invincible legions of ,napoleon4 ,the gathering of the ,french armies of invasion along the shores of ,brittany1 the flotillas of gun-boats and flat-bottomed boats safely moored at ,boulogne and ,ambleteuse1 focussed the attention of the nation upon a point outside the limited and varying interests of the individual citizen1 and united them all in the same community of hopes and fears4 ,the existence and welfare of the nation were at stake1 the need of self-sacrifice was felt1 and the individual became animated with the common sentiments of the nation4 ,the stress of circumstance woke up what ,i may call the merely physical and material nation into a self-conscious spiritual unity1 thinking the same thoughts and throbbing with the same emotions4 ,at such a moment the poet's and the artist's task is made comparatively easy4 ,their individual experiences are charged with a universal import2 their art rises to the dignity of a public function4 ,they have only to be true to their own impulses to realise the absolute beauty of eternal life4 ,and it was happily at such a moment in the life of the ,english nation that ,turner wearied of his ruined castles and terrifying mountains--of the picturesque in general--and devoted himself to marine painting4 ,the list of ,turner's exhibited works shows that he was early drawn to the sea and sailors4 ,in #agif he exhibited a drawing called #8,fishermen at ,sea1' the next year another entitled #8,fishermen coming ,ashore at ,sunset1 previous to a ,gale1' and in #agii there were two oil pictures1 one of #8,the ,battle of the ,nile1' and the other of #8,fishermen ,becalmed previous to a ,storm--,twilight4' ,i have not1 unfortunately1 been able to see any of these works1 but some studies and drawings in the ,national ,gallery made about #agif show that ,turner began his career as a marine painter under ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvii ,,study ,,for ,,the 8,,bridgewater ,,sea ,,piece0 ,,pen ,,and ,,ink1 ,,wash1 ,,and ,,white ,,chalk ,,on ,,blue ,,paper4 ,,about #ahja ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xviii ,,study ,,of ,a ,,barge ,,with ,,sails ,,set ,,pen ,,and ,,ink1 ,,wash1 ,,and ,,white ,,chalk ,,on ,,blue ,,paper4 ,,about #ahjb the marked influence of ,rowlandson1 ,george ,morland and ,de ,loutherbourg4 ,there is one animated little drawing with brown ink outlines of sailors getting some obstreperous pigs on board a small coasting vessel in a strong gale of wind4 ,apparently the cart has been driven into the sea beside the vessel1 an impossible feat in such a sea2 the sea must also be too deep for the wheels of the cart to rest on the ground1 and if the wheels touch the bottom there is not enough water for the two boats4 ,but in spite of these minor defects the subject provides scope for a fine animated group of men in the cart struggling with the pigs1 who have determined to precipitate themselves into the water rather than go where they are wanted4 ,that ,turner was not altogether satisfied with his design is proved by the existence of two other versions of the same subject4 ,in one of these the motive of the cart in the sea has been abandoned4 ,the cart is now placed in the foreground on the beach1 and the rearing horses and struggling and shouting men are clearly inspired by ,rowlandson's and ,de ,loutherbourg's treatment of similar themes4 ,these drawings are in pencil outline only1 but there is also a rather elaborate water-colour of a shipwrecked sailor clinging to the rocks1 with huge glassy-coloured waves in the manner of ,de ,loutherbourg4 ,turner's unfamiliarity with the sea no doubt accounted to some extent for its attraction4 ,his imagination was here free to disport itself untrammelled by the bonds of experience1 and safe from the irksome yoke of the familiar4 ,when we come to study ,turner's first important sea-piece1 the fine picture in the ,bridgewater ,house collection of #8,dutch ,boats in a ,gale3 ,fishermen endeavouring to put their ,fish on ,board'--first exhibited in #ahja1 we can see how little art is bound to depend upon the individual artist's personal experience4 ,turner had painted landscapes before he knew the country1 and buildings before he had seen them1 so now he paints sea-pieces before he has been to sea4 ,there is no evidence to show that he had ventured out of sight of land before #ahjb1 and then it was only to cross the ,channel from ,dover to ,calais4 ,but before this he had exhibited not only the ,bridgewater picture to which ,i have referred1 but a large #8,battle of the ,nile' 7#agii71 ,lord ,iveagh's superb #8,fishermen upon a ,lee ,shore' 7#ahjb71 and the almost equally fine #8,ships bearing up for ,anchorage' 7#ahjb71 in the ,petworth gallery4 ,it is true that he had used to the uttermost the few opportunities which had fallen in his way of observing the sea from the shore1 and that he had some little experience of ships and sailors in rivers and on the coast4 7,see1 for example1 the series of sketches of boats' crews towing men-of-war in the ,river ,usk1 in the #8,cyfarthfa' ,sketch-,book of #agih47 ,what direct knowledge of this kind he possessed he naturally used1 but there can be no doubt that the main body of his knowledge as well as inspiration was derived not at first-hand1 but indirectly1 at first1 through the pictures of ,english painters like ,de ,loutherbourg1 and later1 through the pictures and drawings of the ,dutch sea-painters4 ,the point is worth the attention of those who treat the close connection between art and nature which happens to exist just at present as an inherent characteristic of pictorial art1 and make much of this supposed characteristic in opposition to the freedom of music4 ,when we cease to keep our attention riveted on the naturalistic art of the present1 we soon find indications that the essential forms of pictorial art are as much independent constructions of the creative mind as the forms of music4 ,in the group of studies for pictures of the sea which are related to the ,duke of ,bridgewater's picture1 we see ,turner playing with pictorial forms with as much freedom as a musician plays with his notes4 ,the horizontal line of the sea1 the heaving waves1 the masses of light and dark in the sky1 the stolid forms of the big ships1 the instability of the smaller boats1--these are notes which ,turner never seems wearied of evoking1 and weaving into ever fresh combinations4 ,the demands of mere representation count for almost nothing in these entrancing drawings4 ,the artist draws simply because he loves his artistic symbols1 loves weaving them into designs1 and because his gift of melodic invention is inexhaustible4 ,the group of drawings to which ,i refer seems to have been made originally in a small book1 solidly bound in calf4 ,on one of the covers ,turner has printed boldly in ink #8,studies ,p1' and #8,shipping1' which means1 doubtless1 ,studies for ,pictures of ,shipping4 ,the paper is blue with a coarse surface1 similar to ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xix ,,fishermen ,,launching ,a ,,boat ,,in ,a ,,rough ,,sea ,,pen ,,and ,,ink ,,and ,,wash4 ,,about #ahjb ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xx ,,study ,,for 8,,sun ,,rising ,,through ,,vapour0 ,,black ,,and ,,white ,,chalk ,,on ,,blue ,,paper4 ,,about #ahjd that commonly used by students in the ,french ateliers1 and known as ,michallet paper4 ,the designs were generally roughly pencilled in1 and were then carried further in pen and ink1 with bold washes of ,indian ink4 ,white chalk was also freely used4 ,the book was in use before #agii1 as it contains a number of studies for the painter's diploma picture of ,dolbadarn ,castle4 ,these studies are made in coloured chalks1 most of them still very effective1 although they have wasted a good deal of their force upon the pages that have been pressed down over them4 ,this is1 ,i believe1 one of the few occasions on which ,turner has been known to work in pastel4 ,doubtless many of the shipping designs were never carried out1 but among them there are studies for the large water-colour of ,carnarvon ,castle exhibited in #ahjj1 and for the two water-colours of ,pembroke ,castle1 one 7now belonging to ,mrs4 ,pitt ,miller71 exhibited in #ahja1 and the other 7the glorious one now belonging to ,mr4 ,ralph ,brocklebank71 exhibited in #ahjf4 ,but the actual studies for the #8,bridgewater ,sea-piece' were made in a much larger book1 a book which seems to have been devoted at first to the purpose of making life studies at the ,academy classes4 ,but it contains only about half a dozen drawings of this kind1 while about sixty pages are devoted to studies of pictures1 some historical1 like the #8,deluge1' etc41 but most of them sea-pieces4 ,the paper is coarse blue1 like the smaller book1 the size of the leaves being #ag #aj inches1 and most of the studies are continued over the two open pages4 ,throughout the book one recognises a certain sense of pride and exaltation in the mere size of the paper1 and in the unchecked freedom with which the artist's hand and imagination could disport themselves4 ,one of the earliest studies for the #8,bridgewater ,sea-piece' represents simply a straight line of sea with two ships on it in the distance1 one foreshortened1 the other in profile4 ,in the extreme distance is a line of white chalk suggesting a strip of sunlight on a distant coast4 ,the idea is so bald and empty and so unlike the final result that one would not connect the study with the picture did it not bear ,turner's inscription1 #8,duke's ,picture1' in the margin4 ,the next study shows that ,turner's mind is occupied with the idea of filling up the emptiness of the middle distance and foreground4 ,on the left we have two fishing-boats pitching to the right in shadow1 while the two frigates ride at anchor in the distance1 very much as in the first sketch4 ,the two groups are united simply by the cast shadow on the water thrown by the fishing-boats in the direction of the frigates 7,plate ,,xvii474 ,the next study shows the artist trying to find a more interesting way of uniting the two groups4 ,here the two motives are tied together as it were by a small rowing-boat with men in it half hidden in the trough of the waves4 ,the group of fishing-boats is also slightly altered1 their sails accentuating their common swaying motion4 ,in this drawing the various objects are no longer juxtaposed in a seemingly casual or arbitrary way4 ,a subtle bond of union has sprung up between them4 ,the rowing-boat rocks the reverse way to that of the large group of sailing vessels4 ,the two rocking motions reinforce and explain one another4 ,the movement of each gains in vividness1 and they both increase the intensity of our perception of the steadiness and weight of the boat riding at anchor out there on the right4 ,in this way the sea comes to life in its effects1 and the design is ready to be transferred to the canvas and for further elaboration4 ,this playing with our feelings of equilibrium and movement constitutes one of the prime factors of ,turner's enjoyment in his earlier sea-pieces4 ,he is taking possession of his new realm1 getting his sea-legs as it were4 ,we see this plainly in the beautiful little picture of #8,the ,meeting of the ,thames and ,medway' in the ,national ,gallery4 7,this is a small version of the larger picture now in ,america4 ,there is also another equally fine small version in the ,university ,galleries1 ,oxford47 ,the strong heaving wave on which the buoy dances in the foreground sets the main motive of the picture--the play of wind and waves--clearly forward4 ,the small boat with the four men in it is flung sideways and upward4 ,we feel it as the light plaything of the heavy waves4 ,in the middle distance there are two groups of heavier craft with sails set1 one group1 on the left1 coming straight towards us1 the other group scudding straight across the picture plane1 just about to disappear out of the frame on the right4 ,the dancing buoy and the light rowing-boat in the foreground make us feel at once the ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxi ,,study ,,for 8,,the ,,shipwreck0 ,,pen ,,and ,,ink ,,and ,,wash4 ,,about #ahje weight and bulk of these sailing hoys4 ,we feel them settling down in the mettlesome sea1 gripping it tight as a rider grips his horse with his knees1 while they fling out their sails to the wind4 ,they are like living1 panting1 quivering animals4 ,in the far distance rides a large frigate at anchor1 and the firm base line of the horizon might stand as a symbol of the self-possession1 strength of will1 and unity of the conscious self1 which delights in differences1 while never entirely losing itself in the multifarious maze of experience4 ,in our sketch-book there are some of the undeveloped germs of this picture4 ,in these sketches parts of the design have been firmly grasped1 but the whole movement has not yet come to light4 ,in the fine drawing running across pages #ij and #ia1 for example1 the action of the two scurrying hoys on the right1 together with the rocking boat in the foreground1 is clearly marked4 ,but there is nothing to counterbalance the swift rush of these boats4 ,if we look at this study with the remembrance of the final design in our minds we feel there is something missing4 ,we want the heavy waddling hoys on the left coming towards us1 with their hulls jammed deep in the waves2 we want something to give us a sense of solidity1 something1 as it were1 to hold on to1 to steady ourselves in the sway and rush4 ,all these trial sketches1 this laborious piecing together of the designs1 suggest that ,turner was not trying to realise something that he had actually seen4 ,no doubt this was the case1 yet we must not hastily conclude that he was simply making it all up out of his head1 as the common saying runs4 ,his smaller sketch-books show that he had constantly watched such scenes4 ,the object of his trial sketches was therefore to find an adequately expressive form which would do justice to the wealth of his experience4 ,he was not trying simply to make an abstractly beautiful composition4 ,his task was rather to knit together into conceptual unity his wide range of experience1 and then to body this forth in a carefully selected and articulated sequence of sensuous signs4 ,but some of the pages of the book in which the sketches referred to above occur1 prove that the well-known picture of #8,calais ,pier' is in the main an attempt to realise a scene that ,turner had actually witnessed4 ,on pages #eh and #ei there is a vigorous drawing in black and white chalk inscribed #8,our landing at ,calais--nearly swampt4' ,the packet boat had evidently had a rough crossing1 and now the passengers are being landed in boats with considerable difficulty4 ,in this sketch the boat seems to have stuck on the harbour bar1 and1 beyond1 the packet which the passengers have just left is lowering its mainsail4 ,another sketch shows the small boat flung finally on the shore with the passengers struggling among the surf4 ,the picture is no doubt an attempt to realise the scene which presented itself immediately on the arrival of the packet boat1 before the passengers began to land4 ,this was ,turner's general idea1 but the composition had to be invented and appropriate details found to sustain and reinforce the main idea4 ,this incident occurred in #ahjb1 and we have to go back to the previous year to find what seem to me the materials used in the construction of ,lord ,iveagh's superb #8,fishermen upon a ,lee-,shore in ,squally ,weather1' a picture that will be fresh in the public mind1 as it formed one of the chief attractions at the exhibition of ,english pictures at the ,franco-,british ,exhibition held in ,london last year 7#aijh74 ,two little pocket-books1 used during ,turner's journey to the ,scotch lakes1 are filled with drawings of the heavy billows of the ,north ,sea thundering on a lee shore4 ,the first book was used on the ,yorkshire coast1 the other on the wild coast between ,berwick and ,edinburgh4 ,the ,yorkshire book bears ,turner's label1 #8,guisborough ,shore1' on the back4 ,it consists of a small number of pages of coarse blue paper4 ,these pages are filled with magnificent impressions of waves dashing against rocks1 and of dark1 heavy fishing-boats silhouetted against the foaming white sea4 ,the #8,liber' design of the #8,coast of ,yorkshire near ,whitby' 7,r4 #bd7 was doubtless suggested on this occasion4 ,the other book1 the #8,dunbar' sketch-book as ,turner named it1 consists of leaves of stout ,whatman coated with washes of a murky pinkish brown4 ,the advantage of using white paper prepared in this way is1 that the artist can get his lights by simply using his knife to scratch away the preparation4 ,this book contains sketches of the ruins of ,roslin ,castle1 the ,bass ,rock1 ,tantallon and ,dunbar ,castles4 ,the wild and disconsolate scenes ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxii ,,men-,,of-,,war',s ,,boats ,,fetching ,,provisions 7#a7 ,,pencil ,,about #ahjh between ,st4 ,abb's ,head and ,dunbar seem to have deeply impressed ,turner's imagination4 ,as we turn over the leaves of this book we seem to hear #8the sombrous and heavy sound of the billows successively dashing against the rocky beach' that ,scott speaks of in his description of ,fast ,castle in the ,bride of ,lammermoor4 ,the artist seems too excited to draw in his old static fashion4 ,the stretches of sullen sea are sketched again and again1 the white crests of the incoming waves being dug out furiously with the knife4 ,but only the large masses of light and dark are indicated4 ,here we have a stretch of cold light in the sky with the dark sea and cliffs looming against it1 the whole vague and fragmentary1 but irresistibly impressive4 ,but perhaps the most eloquent pages in the book contain two glorious studies of storm-tossed waves4 ,we are looking out from the shore1 with the waves breaking at our feet4 ,even in his more elaborate work ,turner has never suggested the tremendous weight and power of the sea-waves so vividly as in these hurried and tiny sketches4 ,the furious work with the knife on both sides of the paper has reduced it almost to a rag2 but the rag is eloquent1 and such studies as these help us to understand how it was that ,turner could paint the sea so very much better than any artist either before his time or since4 #8,the ,shipwreck1' one of the most successful of ,turner's early sea-pieces1 was painted in #ahje4 ,the picture is doubtless a #8composition' in which ,turner has endeavoured to sum up his knowledge of the sea1 but1 as was usual with him1 it contains a nucleus of directly observed fact4 ,these two sides of his art1 tireless and the most searching observation1 and the subsequent artistic manipulation of what he had seen and felt1 are clearly displayed for us in two little ragged paper-covered note-books labelled by the artist #8,shipwreck' and #8,shipwreck #b4' ,the first contains the succinct record of an actual shipwreck1 the second the series of trial compositions which he made before the final design of the picture was fixed4 ,eight of the pages of the first book--it only contains sixteen pages in all--have long been exhibited among the ,turner water-colours in the ,national ,gallery4 ,they are framed together1 and numbered #ece4 ,they represent so many different views of a barque going to pieces on the shore4 ,there can be no doubt of the veracity of these bold1 masterly pen sketches2 as ,mr4 ,ruskin says of them1 #8,i believe even those who have not seen a shipwreck1 must recognise1 by the instinct of awe1 the truth of these records of a vessel's ruin' 7,ruskin on ,pictures1 p4 #bba74 ,in the margin of one of the drawings ,turner has scribbled #8,pepper 787 bargh ,vessel4 ,hemp4 ,o4 ,iron bundles like ,hoop4' ,the scenery vaguely suggests the coast of ,kent to me1--possibly ,gravesend4 ,these sketches are so impressive that one would have thought that ,turner would have been satisfied to take any one of them as a basis for a picture4 ,but his mind seemed unsatisfied until he had exalted actuality into something of epic grandeur4 ,the second little book shows how he set to work to make his pictures express a clearer intention and a wider mental outlook than any single incident could4 ,the first sketch shows us a large ship settling down at the bows1 with a single rowing-boat in the foreground4 ,we are far away from the shore4 ,the tragedy is intensified by taking place on the high seas1 but the presentment is evidently too bare and matter-of-fact for the artist4 ,in the next sketch the ship is turning over towards us1 though slightly to the right1 so that we see its decks plainly1 with the masts foreshortened towards us4 ,somewhat nearer to us is a welter of boats and figures1 with a fishing-boat with sails set on the right1 all placed low down in the trough of the sea4 ,on page #ac1 the vessel is turned half over towards us1 but to the left4 ,the fishing-boat in the foreground sailing into the picture also has its mast and sails sloping violently to the left4 ,this swing in the same direction of the two most prominent objects in the design strikes us as monotonous1 and doubtless for this reason excited ,turner's disapproval4 ,on page #af1 the vessel is brought nearer and made a more prominent object in the design4 ,it is now turned over away from us and slightly to the left4 ,the welter of boats and figures is placed beyond the vessel1 instead of in the foreground4 ,in another sketch the ship lies on its side helpless on the right of the design1 its masts and rigging in the water stretching right across the picture4 ,another of the sketches has been reproduced as ,plate ,,xxi4 ,this is1 perhaps1 a little more fully realised than some of the others4 ,it seems to have been drawn straight off in pen and ink1 then the stormy sky and waves were indicated with an impetuous wash of ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiii ,,men-,,of-,,war',s ,,boat ,,fetching ,,provisions 7#b7 ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahjh ,indian ink1 which was then thumbed1 dabbed1 and coaxed to give the requisite modelling4 ,the sweep of the waves1 their vicious choppy spurts and explosions of spray1 are given with a directness and simplicity of means that ,i believe would have excited the admiration of ,korin himself4 ,i need not continue to describe all the pages in detail4 ,the point of interest is that ,turner tried successively every possible movement in the sinking of a big ship and looked at them from every possible point of view4 ,then he finally decided that his second sketch was the most suggestive and striking1 so he took it up again1 and after considerable modification in the details1 developed it into the completed work4 ,between #ahje and #ahji ,turner must have spent a good deal of his time sailing up and down the lower reaches and the mouth of the ,thames4 ,the contents of several sketch-books prove this4 ,in one there is a view of the ,dutch coast with ,flushing in the distance1 evidently drawn from the sea4 ,but the subjects as a rule are nearer home4 ,in the book labelled #8,river and ,margate' the subjects range from the ,fishmarket at ,hastings to ,cobham and ,walton ,bridges4 ,these include sketches near ,london ,bridge1 at ,purfleet1 ,greenwich1 ,gravesend1 ,southend1 ,herne ,bay1 and ,margate4 ,but these are only treated as backgrounds to the ships and boats4 ,we have pages and pages of wherries and ,thames barges bundling along with all sails set past massive ships of the line at anchor1 all drawn as swiftly as they seem to move4 ,these are almost too slight for reproduction1 but the two animated scenes of men-of-war's boats victualling1 reproduced as ,plates ,,xxii4 and ,,xxiii41 give an excellent idea of the spirit in which ,turner worked on these occasions4 ,looking out to sea we see a number of ships of the line riding at anchor4 ,round the landing-stages in the foreground are the ships' boats taking in stores of bread1 hay and straw1 sheep and fish4 ,the day is fine1 but there is evidently a wind blowing2 the sea is choppy2 there is plenty of spray about1 and the pennants stand out taut from the masts of the big ships in the offing4 ,it is all drawn with a few hurried1 nervous pencil outlines1 nothing is described in detail1 yet the whole scene is brought as vividly before us as the most elaborate oil-painting could bring it4 ,another little book1 labelled #8,boats4 ,ice1' shows that ,turner was no mere fair weather sailor4 ,the sketches were evidently made during a severe winter4 ,the book starts off with several lurid sunsets4 ,on page #i we see some boatmen on their barges1 a church1 probably ,gravesend ,church1 in the distance4 ,the sun has disappeared behind a bank of clouds4 ,these have the word #8grey' scribbled over them4 ,over a few hurried lines of pencil radiating from a centre behind these clouds are the suggestive words #8,fire and ,blood4' ,on page #ab1 we have a stretch of river with a distant group of trees on the left looming through the fog4 ,the river is strewn with fragments of ice4 ,on the right a single boat is visible1 its tall mast and stays standing out boldly against the sky4 ,above1 the upper part of the sun's face is just appearing through the clouds4 ,this slight1 sensitive sketch is helped out for the artist--though for the imaginative spectator it hardly needs such help1 so eloquent is it--by scribbled notes of colour2 #8,boat 444 yellow1' the water in the foreground1 #8,greenish ,black in ,shadows4 ,ice white and grey4' ,on the next page we find two barges with brittle fragments of ice hanging round them4 ,on page #af1 there is a barge moored beside what seems to be a huge iceberg1 with two figures on it1 though it may only be a rocky shore distorted by snow and ice into its fantastic appearance4 ,but the sketch on the next page looks emphatically like an iceberg4 ,the following sketch is here reproduced 7,plate ,,xxiv471 so the reader may judge for himself what it is4 ,to me it looks like floating icebergs1 the foremost one containing a wrecked vessel embedded in its surface4 ,this page was cut out by ,mr4 ,ruskin and exhibited at ,oxford with the title1 #8,the ,inscrutable4' ,turner has summed up these experiences of his in a group of absolutely unrivalled sea-pieces4 ,pictures like ,mr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,fawkes's #8,pilot hailing a ,whitstable ,hoy1' ,mr4 ,g4 ,j4 ,gould's #8,the ,nore1' ,mr4 ,p4 ,a4 ,b4 ,widener's #8,meeting of the ,thames and ,medway1' and ,lady ,wantage's #8,sheerness1' seem to me beyond all question the most glorious pictures of the sea ever painted4 ,the finest ,dutch pictures of this kind1 with all their admirable qualities1 do not seem ever to get beyond a certain prosaic outlook4 ,this matter-of-fact effect is enhanced by--if it is not altogether due to ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiv #8,,the ,,inscrutable0 ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahjh it--the ruthless display the artists make of their special knowledge of the construction and rigging of their vessels4 ,i believe ,turner's knowledge of this kind was almost as exhaustive as theirs1 but whether as full or more limited1 he made a better use of what he did know4 ,his objects are never there simply for themselves4 ,they are always subordinated to a genuinely imaginative conception4 ,his pictures1 therefore1 are not the work of a man with a professional speciality4 ,they are real epics of the sea4 ,from their own imaginative point of view their workmanship is almost perfect4 ,their style is sonorous and weighty4 ,they are as solemn and majestic in conception as they are manly in feeling4 ,they have something of that #8beauty which1 as ,milton sings1 hath terror in it4' ,together #8they move in perfect phalanx to the ,dorian mood'--the noblest sequence of poems ever dedicated to the majesty of the sea4 ,when we compare such pictures as these with a subject like #8,the ,death of ,nelson1' in the ,national ,gallery1--a subject dealing directly with a particular historical incident--we cannot but feel that they owe something of their loftiness and grandeur to their exaltation above all merely limited feelings of patriotism4 ,i suppose a ,frenchman could hardly be expected to look at the #8,nelson' with quite the same feelings as an ,englishman2 or a ,dane to regard the #8,spithead2 ,boat's crew recovering an anchor'--which actually represents the return of the ,english fleet with the ,danish ships captured at ,copenhagen--in the way this event was hailed in ,england4 ,the feeling of patriotism is no doubt an admirable and useful one in real life2 but in so far as art is tied down to the service of a particular kind of patriotism1 it is limited to this definite end1 and is not entirely free in and for itself4 ,and art which is not entirely free from all finite ends cannot rise to the full height of its own destiny4 ,yet in the very greatest art there is no opposition to all that is essentially noble and heroic in patriotism4 ,a masterpiece like ,lady ,wantage's #8,sheerness1' for example1 is as full of all the essential virtues of patriotism as a picture like the #8,death of ,nelson4' ,the difference is only in the degrees of emphasis placed on certain aspects of the whole conception4 ,in the #8,sheerness' the interest is concentrated on the guardship at the ,nore1 and all that is implied in this aspect of a nation's discipline1 hardihood1 watchfulness1 and self-sacrifice4 ,and on this idea of military 7or naval7 service for the ,fatherland the possibility of actual struggle and1 if need be1 death at the hands of any national enemy is clearly involved4 ,the #8,death of ,nelson1' therefore1 only makes explicit a single moment held in solution in the other picture4 ,hence the question is not between the value of patriotic feeling and a shallow1 empty form of cosmopolitanism as artistic motives1 but merely under which aspect the virtues of patriotism are to be contemplated4 ,which aspect does fullest justice to the whole conception of personal devotion and sacrifice to the commonweal8 ,my own feeling is that the point of view which raises itself above the particular interests of one nation1 and treats the hardships and dangers of national defence as an inevitable condition of human life1 is more in accord with the freedom and universality of the highest art4 ,the question1 ,i repeat1 is only one of degree1 and these remarks will be entirely misunderstood if they are taken to imply that ,i should have wished that either the #8,nelson' or the #8,spithead' had not been painted4 ,in the #8,spithead1' as a matter of fact1 the connection with the particular historical incident which called it into existence has long dropped out of sight1 whilst the #8,nelson' has always caused a certain feeling of dissatisfaction even among the most ardent and exclusive of patriots4 ,this vague feeling is possibly at the root of the adverse technical criticisms to which it has been subjected by sailors and naval experts4 ,these criticisms are generally in themselves entirely wrongheaded and sometimes fatuous1 for the picture is certainly a grand and impressive one1 and by far the most adequate representation in pictorial art of an event of the greatest national importance4 ,but the intuitive sense of the nation has always thought more highly of such a picture as #8,the ,fighting ,tmraire tugged to her last ,berth1' than of the #8,death of ,nelson4' ,in #8,the ,fighting ,tmraire1' as in the earlier masterpieces to which ,i have referred1 there is no touch of chauvinism or vainglory1 yet it is generously and passionately patriotic3 but it is magnanimous patriotism1 which honours its foe and looks beyond and above the present momentary noise and strife4 ,,chapter ,v #8,,simple ,,nature'--#ahjh-ahac ,the works of this period an important yet generally neglected aspect of ,turner's art--,turner's classification of #8,pastoral' as opposed to #8,elegant ,pastoral'--,the ,arcadian idyll of the mid-eighteenth century--,the first #8,pastoral' subjects in #8,liber'--#8,windmill and ,lock'--,the capture of the ,danish ,fleet in #ahjg--,turner's visit to ,portsmouth--,his return journey--#8,hedging and ,ditching'--,an attempt to define the mood of pictures like #8,the ,frosty ,morning1' #8,windsor1' etc4--,distinction between mood and character4 ,the phase of ,turner's work which we are now to consider seems to me one to which the critics have hardly done justice4 ,the supreme beauty of two of the pictures of this group has certainly been recognised--,i allude to the #8,trout ,stream' and ,lady ,wantage's #8,walton ,bridges1' but these works have been treated mainly on their individual merits1 instead of in their connection with a clearly-marked and most significant aspect of the artist's genius4 ,chronologically1 this period ranges from about the year #ahjh to #ahac1 and it includes1 in addition to the two works just mentioned1 the #8,windsor1' #8,abingdon1' #8,kingston ,bank1' #8,frosty ,morning1' #8,union of the ,thames and ,isis' and #8,sandbank with ,gipsies1' all in the ,national ,gallery1 as well as ,sir ,frederick ,cook's #8,windmill and ,lock' and ,mr4 ,orrock's #8,walton ,bridges4' ,these works all strike me as characterised by a certain mood or standpoint which possesses the profoundest significance for modern art1--a mood1 moreover1 which has not yet1 to my knowledge1 been satisfactorily analysed1 and which ,turner could never afterwards recall in all its essential beauty1 though he frequently made the attempt4 ,i must confess that in spite of all my efforts ,i am quite unable to find a term that will adequately characterise this phase of ,turner's art4 ,turner's own classification of such subjects as those mentioned above is #8,pastoral1' as distinguished from the #8,elegant ,pastoral4' ,but this description is inadequate1 because it seems to refer simply to the objects contained in the works1 while it is exactly the mood or emotional standpoint from which the subject-matter is treated that seems to me all-important4 ,the contemporary term for this kind of work1 and one which ,turner sometimes used himself1 was #8,simple ,nature1' and this description1 though inadequate enough1 is perhaps as good as any other we might hit upon4 ,it indicated1 at least1 an antagonism to any artificial way of treating natural scenes1 and suggested a certain unsophisticated plainness and directness of approach1 and these qualities are certainly contained in the complex and subtle conception we are in search of4 ,it is1 then1 as a painter of #8,simple ,nature' that we have now to consider our subject4 ,in externals1 this phase of ,turner's art is occupied with scenes of ordinary rural life2 it deals with the country as the home and working-place of the peasantry4 ,this gives us the distinction between the #8,pastoral' and the #8,elegant ,pastoral' subjects in the #8,liber1' the elegant pastorals dealing with the country as the imaginative home and background of the stock figures of conventionally imaginative art4 ,the elegant pastoral subjects are generally peopled with nymphs1 classical shepherds and shepherdesses1 goddesses and peacocks1 while the pastoral subjects which are not elegant are peopled with real labouring men and women and unideal-looking children4 ,but the external subject-matter of a work of art tells us very little by itself4 ,the important point is the universal which binds these objects together or organises them into an individual conception4 ,we must think of our group of pictures as falling within the larger class of strictly pastoral subjects1 but characterised by a special method of treatment and conception4 ,one way of approaching this special conception will be to mark off a few of the pastoral subjects in the #8,liber' which do not fall within it4 ,and this is all the easier because ,turner's first pastoral subject in the #8,liber' is conventional and empty1 and he only gradually worked himself into a conception of the full possibilities of the category4 ,that is to say1 he first took up this form of art in a ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxv ,,sketch ,,for 8,,hedging ,,and ,,ditching0 ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahjg ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxvi 8,,hedging ,,and ,,ditching0 ,,wash ,,drawing ,,in ,,sepia ,,for 8,,liber ,,studiorum40 ,,about #ahjh casual and external way1 and then gradually took possession of it and mastered it4 ,the first three plates in the #8,liber' are classified as #8,pastoral1' #8,elegant ,pastoral1' and #8,marine4' ,when we compare the marine subject 7the so-called #8,flint ,castle1' which we now know to have been a scene on the ,french coast#ad7 with the two pastoral subjects1 we cannot but be struck with the disparity between the two classes of subjects4 ,the marine subject is vigorous and veracious1 the pastoral subjects unreal and conventionally poetical4 ,this point of view is in keeping with the conception of the elegant pastoral1 but #8,the ,bridge and ,cows' 7,r4 #b7--the pastoral subject--is as gentle and pretty as a picture in an idyll of ,gessner or ,thomson4 ,this1 indeed1 represents ,turner's point of departure as a painter of rural subjects--the standpoint of the sentimental1 affected1 and unconvincing ,arcadian idyll of the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,the #8,straw-yard1' the second pastoral subject in the #8,liber1' strikes me as a cross between a ,gainsborough and a ,teniers4 ,gainsborough's influence is noticeable in the landscape1 while the ungainly horses1 the awkward men and clumsy farm implements are in the spirit of ,dutch realism4 ,these hints of the plainness and toughness of the marine subjects suggest what ,turner will do when he feels equally at home in rural subjects1 but at present we have merely two incompatible points of view in arbitrary juxtaposition4 #8,pembury ,mill1' the third pastoral1 is rather more homogeneous in intention4 ,it is a scene of cheerful industry and plenty1 the noise of the millstone mingling with the cooing of pigeons1 and lush leaves growing beside the water-wheel4 ,it is a pretty subject1 while no conscious attempts have been made to prettify or blink the actual facts of the case4 ,the #8,farm-,yard with the ,cock' 7,r4 #ag7 still belongs to the eighteenth-century idyll4 ,it is a pleasing combination of ,gainsborough and ,morland1 or perhaps an echo of ,wheatley4 ,in the #8,juvenile ,tricks' 7,r4 #bb7ae ,turner's bent towards homely realism is clearly marked1 but we do not get definitively away from the eighteenth century till we come to the #8,windmill and ,lock' 7,r4 #bg74af ,here we are in an entirely different world from that of ,arcadian poetry4 ,we have now put away childish things1 and are face to face with the big real world in which man earns his bread with the sweat of his brow2 in which men and women labour and sin1 sorrow and repent4 ,it is indeed the real world1 the world of common perception and common experience1 yet transfigured with the solemn glow of the truest and profoundest poetry4 ,the engraving of the #8,windmill and ,lock' was published in ,june1 #ahaa1 but the picture and drawing were made some time before this date4 ,in the part of the #8,liber' published immediately before the one which contained this plate1 there was a plate of #8,hind ,head ,hill' 7,r4 #be71 which bears the date of #ast ,january1 #ahaa4 ,this subject was sketched in ,november #ahjg4 ,it is therefore probable that the two drawings were made soon afterwards1 let us say in #ahjh4 ,the period of the inception of #8,hind ,head ,hill1' then1 marks the commencement of the era of ,turner's deeper and more solemn conception of the poetry of rural life4 ,this subject itself1 though classified in the #8,liber' as #8mountainous1' belongs to all intents and purposes to the phase of art which we are now studying4 ,the bare hills dotted with sheep1 with the murderer's corpse creaking upon the distant gibbet1 are quite in harmony with the mood of ,wordsworth's ,lyrical ,ballads4 ,in the same sketch-book are also the first ideas of no less than three other #8,liber' subjects1 all conceived in the same mood of spiritual exaltation1 and all sketched during the same journey from ,portsmouth to ,london4 ,the events connected with this journey were of a nature calculated to throw ,turner's mind out of its ordinary habits and thoughts1 to carry him #8out of himself1' and to prepare him for seeing the familiar scenes of everyday life in a fresh light4 ,these events have therefore a special interest for us in this connection4 ,in ,may #ahjg the ,prince ,regent of ,portugal warned the ,prince of ,wales that ,napoleon was on the point of invading ,england with the ,portuguese and ,danish fleets1 and that the ,emperor of ,russia had bound himself by secret articles in the ,treaty of ,tilsit to support him in this measure4 ,the ministry were informed of the plot1 and ,canning lost no time in dealing with the situation4 ,an envoy was sent to the ,crown ,prince of ,denmark at ,kiel1 with the demand that the ,danish navy should be delivered over to ,england1 to be taken care of in ,british ports1 and restored at the end of the war4 ,the demand was1 of course1 indignantly refused4 ,but the situation was so serious that the ministry felt compelled to order the seizing of the ,danish fleet1 if it was not lent quietly4 ,denmark held the keys of the ,baltic4 ,napoleon's troops were ready to overrun it at a moment's notice1 and seize the fleet and all the naval stores1 all that he wanted1 in fact1 for his attack on ,england4 ,in securing the ,danish fleet1 the ,english then were simply taking it from ,napoleon1 and were merely acting for the purpose of self-preservation4 ,by the #ast of ,september the ,french had occupied ,stralsund4 ,copenhagen was immediately bombarded1 and on the #hth the ,british entered the city1 and the navy and arsenal were surrendered4 ,how this blow affected ,napoleon is shown from a passage in ,fouch's ,memoirs1 published in #ahbd4 #8,about that time it was1' says ,fouch1 #8that we learned the success of the attack upon ,copenhagen by the ,english1 which was the first derangement of the secret stipulations of ,tilsit1 by virtue of which the ,danish fleet was to be placed at the disposal of ,france4 ,since the death of ,paul ,i41 ,i never saw ,napoleon give himself up to such violent transports of passion4 ,that which astounded him most in that vigorous enterprise was the promptitude with which the ,english ministry took their resolution4' 7,quoted in ,miss ,martineau's ,history of ,england1 #ahjj-ahae1 p4 #bhc74 ,at the time the mind of the public was profoundly stirred by this event4 ,but the victors had almost brought the ,danish ships within sight of ,england before the news of the frustration of ,napoleon's plans was made public4 ,turner must have been as excited as any one1 for he set off immediately to ,portsmouth1 to see the victors sail into the harbour with their prizes and to celebrate the occasion in his own way4 ,when ,turner left ,london his sketch-books as a rule bear witness of the fact4 ,in the #8,spithead' sketch-book there is no record of the journey down from ,london4 ,the first thirty pages are taken up with sketches of the movements of vessels in ,portsmouth harbour1 on one of them being a sketch of a boat's crew recovering an anchor4 ,in the following ,may1 ,turner included in his one-man show at his studio in ,queen ,anne ,street ,west1 an unfinished picture #8of the ,danish ships which were seized at ,copenhagen1 entering ,portsmouth ,harbour' 7,review of ,publications of ,art1 ,no4 #b1 ,june #a1 #ahjh1 p4 #afg74 ,in the foreground a #8packet with soldiers on board' is mentioned1 and #8two boats toward the left hand corner of the picture1 one of which is heaving or letting go an anchor4' ,the whole description1 and these details in particular1 prove beyond a doubt that this was the picture which1 when finished1 was exhibited in the following year 7#ahji71 at the ,royal ,academy1 under the title of #8,spithead3 ,boat's ,crew recovering an ,anchor1' and which hangs now in the ,national ,gallery under this name4 ,the change of title was most probably due to prudential considerations1 as1 after the first revulsion of popular feeling1 the ministry had to endure considerable obloquy on account of this action1 ,napoleon's intention of invading the country as well as the existence of the secret articles of the ,treaty of ,tilsit being stoutly denied1 and the government being pledged not to reveal the source of the information on which they had acted4 ,our immediate interest in this event is with the effect produced on ,turner's mind by the scenes which he had witnessed in and around ,portsmouth4 ,the sight of the united ,english and ,danish fleets was one calculated to stir ,turner's imagination profoundly4 ,the artist's sensitive nature must also have been deeply affected by contact with the excited and jubilant populace1 and with the sailors and fighting men upon whose individual exertions the safety of the country depended4 ,such moments of national excitement tend inevitably to dwarf the petty and merely particular interests and prejudices of the individual4 ,the substantive interests of the community1 the universal forces that move men and hold them together1 then present themselves in all their stark reality and overwhelming importance to every heart and mind4 ,in such a mood1 with a mind humbled and humanised1 ,turner set out to return to ,london4 ,as we turn over the leaves of the #8,spithead' sketch-book we can see clearly that the sights of the common round of rural life which greeted the artist after he had left ,portsmouth behind1 had gained a new interest and significance for him1 by contrast with the stirring scenes he had just witnessed4 ,he is no sooner clear ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxvii ,,mill ,,on ,,the ,,grand ,,junction ,,canal1 ,,near ,,hanwell ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahji 8,,windmill ,,and ,,lock0 ,,engraving ,,published ,,in 8,,liber ,,studiorum10 #a ,,june1 #ahaa of the town than the groups of trees and the peaceful stretch of fields make their tranquillising influence felt4 ,several pages of sketches remind me forcibly of the scenery of #8,the ,frosty ,morning4' ,then we find groups of farm hands resting from their labour1 some carts and horses1 ploughing scenes1 a study of horses and pigs1 and then the hurried scribble reproduced in ,plate ,,xxv41 the germ from which the beautiful #8,hedging and ,ditching' design in the #8,liber' was developed4 ,then come several ,hind ,head sketches1 and before the hill is out of sight1 comes the original sketch of another #8,liber' subject1 the solemn and tender #8,water ,mill' 7,r4 #cg74 ,after this we stop to watch the blacksmith at work1 and peep into some cottages1 barns1 etc4 ,to eke out his hasty hieroglyphs ,turner frequently adds a few explanatory words4 ,on the margin of one sketch we read #8,woman frying4 ,boy looking4 ,children at ,tub1 a girl beating the barrel1 etc4'2 and on another #8,w4' 7short for woman7 #8cutting ,turnips4 ,interior of a ,barn4 ,cows eating at the ,entrance1 etc4' ,and before we get quite to the end of the book come four sketches of ,st4 ,catherine's ,hill1 near ,guildford1 one of which went to the making of another #8,liber' subject 7,r4 #cc74 ,the two sketches here reproduced1 of the #8,windmill and ,lock' and #8,hedging and ,ditching' subjects 7,plates ,,xxvii4 and ,,xxv471 illustrate admirably ,turner's attitude towards nature at this period4 ,such sketches are nothing more nor less than memoranda for the artist's own use4 ,taken by themselves they are all but meaningless4 ,even to the artist himself their significance1 as memoranda of real scenes1 must have been of the slightest4 ,the focus or real nucleus of their meaning is rather the subjective feelings which the scenes and their whole context evoked in the artist1 than the particular objects or scenes themselves4 ,this sentiment1 the total emotional impression1 is1 of course1 not expressed in the sketches themselves1 though now that the completed designs have told us what this is we can hardly help reading some of it into the sketches4 ,but to the artist himself these sketches were useful as preliminary statements1 as tentative objectifications of his meaning4 ,the work of #8carrying out' these sketches 7or #8working them out'7 was simply the process of the further specification of this meaning4 ,and to describe this work as an attempt to realise or reproduce the actual scenes in nature which ,turner had sketched1 is only in a very limited sense correct4 ,the point of interest is the complex of subjective feeling aroused on a particular occasion by a chance conjunction of objects and circumstances1 and in the final design the artist's aim is to find a particular conjunction of pictorial signs which shall permanently objectify this emotional complex4 ,hence the actual objects and the particular form of their conjunction in the real scene lose all the importance which they possess as real objects1 and become degraded1 or at least subordinated1 to a purpose which falls entirely outside their own existence4 ,they are now nothing but pawns or counters in the artist's game of pictorial expression1 and as such the artist has absolute power over them1 altering them1 and annihilating them1 as best suits his purpose4 ,the artist is also entirely within his rights when he introduces fresh elements from other and different scenes to enforce and make clear his meaning4 ,that ,turner used these privileges to the utmost in the case of both these subjects is evident when we compare the sketches with the finished designs4 ,these points seem to me worth insisting upon1 because the real nature of artistic idealisation is so little understood and so generally misrepresented1 and the opportunities of studying it genetically are of rare occurrence4 ,but the very fact that during the period of which we are now treating1 the stress in ,turner's work is nearly always upon the subjective sentiment1 and that the objective scenes and objects are relegated to a position of subordination detracts very largely from the immediate interest in the sketches from nature which ,turner made during this time4 ,taken by themselves these sketches are in the highest degree vague and incomplete4 ,they are valuable to us mainly for the purposes of comparison with the completed designs1 and as illustrations of ,turner's methods of work4 ,and for these purposes ,i think the two examples we have just studied are sufficient4 ,i have not1 therefore1 deemed it advisable to illustrate this chapter with any other sketches of the same class4 ,the three further illustrations ,i have chosen are of a different character4 ,when ,turner was called upon to treat subjects of a definite topographical character he was necessarily ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxviii ,,whalley ,,bridge ,,and ,,village ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahjh ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxix ,,whalley ,,bridge ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahjh restricted in the liberties he could take4 ,in such cases his field of selection was confined within the possible points of view from which his subject could be regarded4 ,in the two drawings of ,whalley ,bridge here reproduced 7,plates ,,xxviii4 and ,,xxix47 we see him searching for that aspect of the place which shall fit in or harmonise with the mood which was predominant in his own mind at this time4 ,it is only from the point of view of such a subjective emotional attitude that the first drawing 7,plate ,,xxviii47 could have been rejected in favour of the second 7,plate ,,xxix474 ,as a representation of the actual place1 the first drawing is much more adequate than the second4 ,but it is evidently just this topographical and objective adequacy which constituted the defect of this fine drawing from ,turner's point of view4 ,in the other drawing there is far less to occupy the attention4 ,here the interest is concentrated on a few simple forms4 ,the mind is1 therefore1 thrown back on itself1 and forced as it were to call up its own resources to amplify and fill out the painter's forms4 ,and this is the mood of poetic contemplation or meditation expressed in the beautiful picture of this subject which ,turner exhibited in #ahaa1 and which is now in ,lady ,wantage's collection4 ,the third drawing to which ,i referred is the study for the picture of #8,london from ,greenwich ,park1' now in the ,national ,gallery4 ,there is no trace of the emotional setting of the finished picture in the sketch 7,plate ,,xxx474 ,it is merely a record of the facts4 ,but the artist has already grasped in his own mind the significance of these facts with such clearness that the bare facts even in this memorandum have become eloquent4 ,the full scope of ,turner's work at this period1 then1 can only be gathered from his completed works4 ,and as ,i have said1 ,i do not think this aspect of ,turner's genius has so far had full justice done to it4 ,i will therefore make an attempt to indicate in a few words what ,i regard as the distinctive qualities of this group of works2 and to simplify my task ,i will centre my remarks round two pictures1 both in the ,national ,gallery1 and therefore easily accessible to every one1 viz41 #8,a ,frosty ,morning' and the #8,windsor1' which seem to me to typify the qualities and merits of the whole group4 ,after what has gone before ,i do not think ,i need say much to combat the opinion that these pictures are simply reproductions of actual scenes4 ,their relation to the actual sights of nature is exactly the same as that between the two #8,liber' designs we have just examined and the sketches upon which they were based4 ,in the designs1 and in these pictures1 there is indeed a wealth of subtle and penetrating observation of natural forms1 habits1 and colours1 but this material is never there simply for its own sake4 ,these colours and forms of natural beauty are the elements of which the artist's language is compounded1 the pictorial equivalent of the names of natural objects in the verse of a great poet4 ,to fix one's attention on these factors in the whole complex structure of such works as #8,a ,frosty ,morning' and #8,windsor1' and to say that these fragments of meaning are all that they contain1 seems to me as inexcusable as it would be to isolate the nouns in a poem1 and to insist that we must ignore that play of thought and feeling around this common basis in which the real value of even the simplest poem consists4 ,we can1 of course1 always stop short in our understanding of any statement1 and the temptation is very great to stop short at some superficial characteristic in such a highly complex individuality as a work of modern art4 ,in the case of the two pictures with which we are now concerned1 these characteristics happen to be not only superficial and obvious1 but they happen also to be easily nameable1 whereas the complete ideational and emotional structure of the whole work is very far from being easily named or described4 ,yet it is just this particular and special emotional and ideational whole which constitutes the very being of the work of art1 and which alone gives it value4 ,it is because modern art criticism has seized with such avidity upon the primitive sense-factor in pictorial language1 and has insisted with so much energy that the art cannot or ought not to attempt any kind of ideational articulation1 that it has failed to do justice to this phase of ,turner's art4 ,to call these pictures1 then1 imitations or reproductions of natural scenes is not altogether inaccurate4 ,they are this1 but at the same time they are so much more4 ,the forms and colours of nature are there1 but they are superseded and sublimated in exactly the way that the particular events described in ,dorothy ,wordsworth's journal are superseded and sublimated in the poems ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxx ,,london1 ,,from ,,greenwich ,,park ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahji ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxi ,,petworth ,,house1 ,,from ,,the ,,lake ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahji which her brother founded upon these events4 #8,the array of act and circumstance1 and visible form' becomes exactly what the poet's or artist's #8passion makes them4'#ag ,in other words1 the matter of sense intuition is taken up into the world of intelligence4 ,this matter1 which in the first place was something immediate or given1 now loses its natural and positive attributes1 loses its authority as fact1 but gains a wider scope and ampler authority by being taken up into the world of mind and used as a sign4 ,and here again an opportunity presents itself for shallow and wrongheaded criticism4 ,those who are under the dominion of the theory that art should only represent sensuous facts in their immediacy resent the transformation which the data of sense must undergo before they can take their place in the organised world of meaning4 ,to them1 therefore1 such pictures as these are defective2 the colouring is not sufficiently natural1 not bright enough1 nor are the contrasts sufficiently strong4 ,these pictures are not painted in #8the key of nature4' ,in a word1 they are old-fashioned1 because the artist has done something more in them than the theories of impressionism can consecrate4 ,we have then to avoid two mistaken ways of regarding these works4 ,we must not look upon them 7#a7 as attempts to reproduce the actual brilliancy and colour of natural lighting1 nor must we treat them 7#b7 as prosaic and literal imitations of actuality devoid of all the higher poetry of art4 ,that these works are open to--nay1 have almost invariably fallen victims to--these two opposite forms of depreciation1 is a striking proof of the success with which they have avoided those fatal extremes in which so much of the art of the present lies engulfed4 ,but it is not enough simply to avoid the dangers which modern theorising throws in the way of the interpreter4 ,a really concrete and fruitful criticism will not stop short till it has made the attempt to grasp1 however imperfectly1 by thought the full and special significance of each work4 ,and again1 when we have made it clear to ourselves that #8the array ,of act and circumstance1 and visible form1 ,is mainly to the pleasure of the mind ,what passion makes them1'-- when we have agreed that ,turner has used the sights of nature as a means to express the emotions or the mood which they aroused in him1--when all this is granted we are still merely at the threshold of the works themselves4 ,a mood1 an emotion1 a state of feeling1 these are all vague and general terms4 ,there is nothing necessarily admirable or beautiful in a mood or a state of feeling1 ,feeling and emotion may be pleasant or unpleasant1 harmonious or jarring1 depressing or invigorating4 ,and if the main value and beauty of these pictures resides in the particular and definite mood or state of feeling which they induce1 this mood must have distinguishable contents1 and it is the business of art criticism to do what it can to define these contents4 ,in ,wordsworth's #8,lines1 composed a few miles above ,tintern ,abbey1' he contrasts his present state of feeling towards nature with that of his youthful days4 ,in the days of his thoughtless youth1 he says1 the forms and colours of the landscape had haunted him like a passion4 ,he had loved them for themselves4 ,but now1 he says1 ,nature is no longer #8all in all' to him4 ,it has now gained a remoter charm supplied by thought1 an interest #8unborrowed from the eye4' ,he now hears #8the still1 sad music of humanity1 ,nor harsh nor grating1 though of ample power ,to chasten and subdue4' ,before the sights of nature he now feels the presence of elevated thoughts1 a sense of something #8more deeply interfused1' a sense of something discernible only with the inner eye2 a sense of the ,divine that animates both nature and humanity1 both what the eye sees and what the heart and mind create1--the spirit #8whose dwelling is the light of setting suns1' the spirit #8that impels ,all thinking things1 all objects of all thought1 ,and rolls through all things4' ,it is in this mood1 it seems to me1 that ,turner contemplates the scenes and incidents of rural life which he represents in these pictures1 and it is this mood which these pictures embody4 ,the #8,frosty ,morning' is therefore very much more than a representation of a country road1 with a little hedging and ditching going on ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxii ,,petworth ,,house1 ,,from ,,the ,,park ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahji ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxiii ,,cockermouth ,,castle ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahji on one side1 an ordinary stage-coach in the distance1 and a little sparkling hoar-frost on the ground4 ,the #8,windsor' is also much more than a representation of some drovers with their cattle in one of the meadows near ,windsor ,castle on a summer 7or spring7 morning4 ,not only are these bare facts represented1 but the mood in which we must contemplate them is also stated4 ,we have not read these pictures aright1 we have not really brought them into contact with our own life1 until we contemplate the bare external facts in the light of the mood which the artist has prescribed for them4 ,it is1 ,i know1 commonly taken for granted that pictorial art is impotent to achieve this kind of determination2 that the artist is at the mercy of any chance mood which the spectator may bring to his work2 that the artist can only represent objects and spatial relations1 and that he can lay no constraint on the spectator to think and feel about these objects in any particular way4 ,and no doubt a large proportion of modern art productions actually do no more than this1 and attempt no more4 ,but these are merely the failures of modern art4 ,all the great works of modern art--such as those of ,rembrandt and ,jean ,franois ,millet--not only represent objects and scenes1 but lay down the related thoughts and feelings which they are to inspire4 ,yet it is of course always possible for the spectator to stop short at the bare recognition of the pictorial signs1 in the same way that it is possible for the reader of a poem to recognise the meaning of a few prominent words and ignore the context in which they occur4#ah ,but the point which ,i cannot hesitate to press home--because ,i see clearly that the whole question of the value and place of art in modern civilisation depends upon it--is this1 that the work of art is nothing less than its full significance4 ,it is only in so far as we master or appropriate this wealth of inner significance that the work of art can be said to exist for us2 we must not only read the words of a poem1 but we must understand them1 and in the same way we must not merely look at such pictures as these of ,turner1 but we must translate the artist's signs into their appropriate ideas and feelings4 ,it is only when we succeed in getting clear of that shallow materialism which clings to the letter1 while it ignores the power behind it1 that the full scope of pictorial art can dawn upon us4 ,but when we once realise that the mood expressed in such pictures as the #8,frosty ,morning' and #8,windsor' is an essential part--nay1 is the very essence of the works themselves1 we shall begin to understand how nearly related great art is to religion2 how insensibly the one passes into the other4 ,in such pictures as these--and ,i do not hesitate to rank them among the truest and highest that ,christianity has yet produced--in pictures like these the ordinary scenes of rural life and labour are impressed with the quietness and beauty of the best part of the artist's own nature1 and fed with the lofty thoughts that only poets dare utter in words4 ,such pictures are indeed in the old monkish sense an act of worship4 ,the mood they call up and sustain is a blessed mood in which the mystery and the weight of this unintelligible world are lightened4 ,such pictures as these are literally an imitation or reminiscence of the great moments of life1 and possess life and food for future years4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i will conclude this chapter by answering some objections that ,i believe are likely to be made to the interpretation ,i have offered of this group of ,turner's works4 ,these objections would be based on arguments drawn from the commonly received idea of ,turner's personal character4 ,the mood expressed in this group of pictures is1 it might be urged1 the habitual mood or way of feeling of the perfectly good man2 it is only in the perfectly good and religious life that we find this reconciliation of inner ,freedom and external ,necessity1 and ,turner1 we have reason to suppose1 was not a perfectly good and religious man4 ,this objection ,i admit has force1 but ,i think it is fully met by pointing to the distinction between a mood1 a passing state of feeling1 and a permanent habit of mind or settled character4 ,it may not have been ,turner's happiness to mature this mood of reconciliation into the master light of his whole life1 yet the mood itself is one that few1 if any1 human hearts are entirely unfamiliar with4 ,it is a mood that sits about us all in our earlier days4 ,the feelings of love and reverence may well be one of the primary facts of human nature4 ,it may be that ,turner1 if we examine the whole of his life1 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxiv ,,landscape ,,near ,,plymouth ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahab ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxv ,,design ,,for ,,sandycombe ,,lodge ,,and ,,grounds ,,pen ,,and ,,ink4 ,,about #ahaa ,,plan ,,of ,,garden3 ,,sandycombe ,,lodge ,,pen ,,and ,,ink4 ,,about #ahab cannot be regarded as a perfectly good and religious man1 yet at this particular period of his life his works prove beyond all shadow of doubt that he was capable of feeling towards nature and man in the way that is habitual with the perfectly good man4 ,as an artist these works of his show that at this time he was able to raise himself in the point of feeling to the level of a good and complete man4 ,but this is a very different thing from the demand that the artist shall himself be at that time and for the remainder of his life the kind of man whose momentary state of feeling he represents4 ,the actual behaviour of the artist as an individual has only an indirect bearing on the question of the moral worth of his work4 ,what is important is1 that the content of the moral idea shall be present in the state of feeling expressed in his work4 ,he may not have laid firm hold of the good will2 he may not have made it a permanent part of his own life4 ,all that is necessary for his immediate purpose is that he shall have grasped it in idea1--a much easier task1 and one that constant reading of the poets is quite sufficient to accomplish4 ,that ,turner was always a great lover and reader of poetry is already well known4 ,after he broke away from strictly topographical work1 he seldom exhibited a picture without the accompaniment of some poetical quotation4 ,to judge from these quotations ,thomson's ,seasons was a favourite book with him1 and we also find ,milton1 ,ossian1 ,akenside1 ,dr4 ,langhorne1 and ,mallet laid under contribution4 ,but the clearest evidence of the place poetry occupied in his mind at this time is afforded by his sketch-books1 which contain on the whole even more poetry than drawings4 ,on almost every sheet we find transcriptions or reminiscences of verses that had caught his fancy1 or attempts of his own to express himself in metre4 ,these attempts1 it must be confessed1 are seldom far from failure1 for the artist's command of words was not instinctive1 like his power over pictorial signs4 ,yet the quantity of these attempts and the patient persistence with which he ground out indifferent verse1 prove that the art of poetry was one that held at least as high a place in his affections as his own art4 ,as ,turner's verses were on the whole so unsuccessful1 ,i will only offer the reader one example1 and that a short one4 ,it was written in one of his sketch-books about the year #ahji4 ,he had gone to ,purley on the ,thames1 near ,pangbourne1 to indulge himself with a few days' fishing--his sole form of recreation4 ,but the rain had kept him in all day1 and to while away the time he betook himself to poetry4 ,he begins by apostrophising the fair leaves of his sketch-book which #8,delusion' tempts him to violate with his pen4 ,the rain seems to have continued1 for on the next page he begins again3-- #8,alas1 another day is gone ,as useless as it was begun4 ,the crimson'd streak of early morn ,checks the sweet lark that o'er the corn ,fluttered her wings at twilight grey2 ,expectant eyed the moving ray1 ,twitter'd her song in saddening mood ,to calm her clamorous callow brood hush ,in hope of less inclement skies4 ,the hapless fisher---- ,no fly can tempt the finny brood ,when the wash'd bank gives up its mud4 ,beneath some tree he takes his stand ---- in doubtful shelter 99 99 99 99 99 ,anxious to fancy every streak a ray4 ,not so the cotter's children at the door1 ,rich in content1 tho' ,nature made them poor1 ,standing on threshold emulous to catch ,the pendant drop from off the dripping latch4 ,the daring boy--thus ,briton's early race ,to feel the heaviest drop upon his face ,foremost1 must feel the drops upon his face1 ,or heedless of the storm or his abode ,launches his paper boat across the road-- ,where the deep gullies which his father's cart ,made in their progress to the mart ,full to the brim1 deluged by the rain1 ,they prove to him a channel to the main4 ,guiding his vessel down the stream ,even the pangs of hunger vanish like a dream4' ,as poetry these lines have little to recommend them1 but they give us a glimpse of the man himself1 and they prove that he had something of the poet's comprehensive sympathies2 that he was #8a man pleased with his own passions and volitions1 and who rejoices more than other men in the spirit of life that is in him2 delighting to contemplate similar volitions and passions in the goings-on of the universe1 and habitually impelled to create them where he does not find them4' ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the #8,,liber ,,studiorum' ,the object of this chapter--,the first #8,liber' drawings were made at ,w4 ,f4 ,wells's cottage at ,knockholt1 ,kent--#8,bridge and ,cows'--,development of the so-called #8,flint ,castle'--,mrs4 ,wells--,view of #8,basle'--#8,little ,devil's ,bridge' and #8,london from ,greenwich'--#8,martello ,towers1 ,bexhill1' and #8,kirkstall ,crypt'--,scene at ,isleworth--,the etching of the #8,raglan ,castle' and #8,source of the ,arveron' plates--,suggestion for the better exhibition of the #8,liber' drawings4 ,the ,liber ,studiorum is an important aspect of ,turner's genius--so important that it seems to deserve a chapter to itself1 even in so summary an investigation as the present4 ,yet from the point of view of its subject-matter1 it is evident that the #8,liber' does not throw into relief any side of ,turner's art not amply illustrated in his paintings4 ,what light the sequence of #8,pastoral' subjects throws upon the gradual development of his conception of realistic art1 has already been touched upon in the previous chapter4 ,but there remains one point of view from which it seems to me the #8,liber' possesses a special interest for our present study4 ,in these designs we can study the formal elements of ,turner's art freed from the disturbing influence of colour4 ,each plate is primarily an arrangement in line and light and shade1 and the requirements of what ,i may call melodic invention are considered before those of mere representation2 that is to say1 the emphasis is always on the subjective and constructive side of art1 as opposed to its power of reproduction of the elements immediately given in ordinary perception4 ,especially important from this point of view are those subjects1 generally amongst the earlier plates1 in which considerable alterations were made during the course of execution4 ,an examination of a few of the cases in which there are important differences between the first preliminary drawing and the completed engraving is certainly well within the limits of our present inquiry2 and such comparisons are worth making for their own sake1 as they bring out very clearly certain characteristics of all pictorial art1 and especially of ,turner's1 which are not easily grasped when our observations are complicated by the presence of colour4 ,the first drawings executed for the work were made in ,october #ahjf1 when ,turner was on a visit to ,mr4 ,wells1 at ,knockholt1 in ,kent4 ,one of ,mr4 ,wells's daughters has told us that it was mainly on her father's advice that ,turner decided to undertake the work4 ,but he required #8much and long continued spurring' before he could be induced to make a beginning4 #8,at last1' we are told1 #8after he had been well goaded1 one morning1 half in a pet he said1 8,zounds1 ,gaffer1 there will be no peace with you till ,i begin--well1 give me a sheet of paper there1 rule the size for me1 tell me what ,i shall take40 ,the lady adds1 #8,i sat by ,turner laughing and playing whilst he made the drawings1' #8and before he left us the first five subjects which form the first number were completed and arranged for publication greatly to my dear ,father's delight4' 7,the letter is given in extenso in ,mr4 ,rawlinson's ,liber ,studiorum1 #bnd edition1 pp4 xii and xiii47 ,one of the subjects executed at ,knockholt was almost certainly the faded sepia drawing which hangs at present in the ,national ,gallery1 under the title of #8,bridge and ,cows' 7,no4 #ejd1 ,n4 ,g472 the engraving made from it was published 7without a title7 as the first #8,pastoral' subject in the first part of ,liber4 ,this drawing is slightly faded1 but the fading does not altogether account for its feeble and commonplace look4 ,the design itself is feeble1 the draughtsmanship petty1 and the character of the figures and trees weak and amiable4 ,these objects are not actually #8out of drawing'--that is to say1 incorrect from a physiological or botanical point of view1 but they are sadly lacking in intention4 ,they have a listless air1 and seem to take very little interest either in themselves or in each other4 ,they seem1 indeed1 to be mildly wondering why they are there at all4 ,in a word1 it is just the sort of drawing that an artist would make when external circumstances induced him to sit down to #8do something1' while no strongly-felt subject-matter within him was urgently demanding expression4 ,this drawing 7it is in reverse of the engraving7 was traced on to the copper1 and the etching was made from it by ,turner himself4 ,the etching is practically an accurate copy of the drawing3 the objects represented are the same in each1 and neither the actions nor positions of any of the figures have been altered4 ,yet in the etching there is a perceptible briskening-up of everything4 ,it all hangs together better than in the drawing4 ,in some way the whole now seems to have come to life in the artist's imagination4 ,in the drawing we can see him laboriously bringing the parts together3 in the etching he has infused the breath of life into them4 ,the change is due entirely to the execution4 ,the line which defines the contours of the chief objects has lost its listlessness4 ,it is now instinct with intention4 ,everywhere it hurries along1 building up the design as a whole while defining the parts4 ,the compulsion of the whole makes itself felt in every detail4 ,it is certainly difficult to put into words the difference between the two versions1 but ,i believe every one who will take the trouble to compare them carefully will be sure to feel it4 ,in the two works there is an actual difference in the quality of the artist's stream of consciousness1 and the difference makes itself felt in the workmanship1 though1 in all probability1 he himself was quite unaware of the difference in his frame of mind1 and regarded the etching as simply a mechanical process of transference from one medium to another4 ,yet from a psychological point of view1 the impulsion of his mind was in each case in a contrary direction4 ,in the drawing the scene as a whole was being laboriously invoked piecemeal1 a collection of objects was being formed into a sum total2 in the etching the subject as a whole is a real and living thing1 guiding the artist's hand and moulding all the details into kinship with itself4 ,the whole now feels that certain of its parts require adjustment1 i4e4 demand to be brought into more intimate cohesion with the general purpose4 ,the contrast between the rigidity of the dead branches of the willow on the right1 and the springiness of the living branches nearer the foreground1 calls out for clearer and ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxvi ,,scene ,,on ,,the ,,french ,,coast ,,sepia4 ,,about #ahjf ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxvii ,,scene ,,on ,,the ,,french ,,coast ,,generally ,,known ,,as 8,,flint ,,castle3 ,,smugglers0 ,,etching1 ,,washed ,,with ,,sepia4 ,,about #ahjg more emphatic statement4 ,the dance and sweep of the foliage1 the bending bridge1 the falling bank1 require steadying by a bolder assertion of the straight horizontal line of the distant hills4 ,the soft and rounded undulations of the tree-tops1 running right across the upper part of the drawing1 give a somewhat featureless though amiable character to it2 in the etching1 greater prominence is given to the harsher lines of the rigid white wall of the distant cottage and its sloping roof1 as well as to the supports and planks of the rustic bridge4 ,in this way1 without altering the position of a single part of the design1 or introducing any new matter1 the whole is transformed2 instead of a mere collection of parts1 related to each other by a kind of chance or indifferent contiguity1 we have now a definite whole1 fused through and through into conceptual and emotional unity4 ,the objects before our eyes have ceased to be merely indifferent and external facts2 they have now become elements or members of a richly coloured whole of thought and feeling4 ,the careful and rather timid-looking drawing described as #8,flint ,castle' 7,plate ,,xxxvi471 is certainly another of the designs made at the cheerful ,knockholt cottage4 ,on the margin of this drawing the artist has scribbled some verses1 which ,i suppose one of the merry party had discovered in a book or magazine1#ai and which they were all delighted with4 ,probably the discoverer was ,mrs4 ,wells1 for the young ladies were too young to care much for books1 and the only scrap of information we possess about their mother seems to suggest that she was something of a bluestocking1 and what is now sometimes called a #8fministe4' ,among the sketches in one of ,turner's pocket-books there is the following jotting3--#8,there is not a quality or endowment1 faculty or ability which is not in a superior degree possest by women4--,vide ,mrs4 ,wells1 ,knockholt1 ,oct4' ,the poem itself is not strictly germane to our present study1 but as there lingers about it a faint echo of those scenes of #8fun and merriment' which one of ,turner's young playmates recalled in after years1 ,i cannot deny myself the pleasure of transcribing it4 #8,a ,row of ,poplars in disgrace ,because they would not stop their pace ,or grew unnecessarily tall1 ,their ,master came and topped them all4 ,some neighbourly poplars stood hard by ,beheld their growth with jealous eye1 ,now saw--exulting--cried 8,how near is pride to earth allied40 8,friends10 said the poplars in disgrace1 8,you see the fault of making haste1 ,ambition's greatness caused our woe4 ,ambition shun1 mind how you grow1 ,for while you run you are bare below40' ,the drawing1 like the poem1 is not a remarkable one4 ,as a design it differs little from the average work of accomplished landscape draughtsmen like ,westall1 ,arnald1 ,daniell1 etc4 ,but from a comparative point of view it is of singular interest1 as the differences between this preliminary drawing and the published engraving are greater than those in any other ,liber subject4 ,it starts as a rather jejune and drawing-masterlike composition1 and comes out finally as one of the most vigorous and impressive marine designs in the whole series4 ,the etching was made by ,turner himself4 ,as the spacing and arrangement of the etching differ considerably from those of the drawing1 it is most likely that an intermediate study was made4 ,the changes1 however1 might very well have been made on the tracing-paper used to transfer the original design to the copper1 and this would naturally have been destroyed as soon as it had been used4 ,when the design had been drawn on the copper and bitten in1 a few proofs were taken of the etching1 and over one of these ,turner set to work again with washes of sepia to guide ,charles ,turner1 the engraver1 who was to mezzotint the plate4 ,this second design is now in the ,national ,gallery 7,no4 #ebb7 and has been reproduced here as ,plate ,,xxxvii4 ,of course we cannot hope to grasp the whole difference that has taken place in this second version of the design4 ,but here are two drawings made by the same hand1 within a short space of time of each other1 of the same size and the same subject1 yet one is obviously a work of genius1 and the other is as tame and lifeless as its companion is vivid1 energetic1 and full-blooded4 ,the comparison is worth making1 not1 indeed1 that there is the slightest hope that any of us may learn from it how to work such miracles1 but because it will help to impress upon us the importance of the form or #8style' of a work of art1 as opposed to the objects it represents1--the importance of #8mere technique'2 it will also give us some insight into the real nature of artistic expression1--will show us how far removed the whole process is from that pious and passive reproduction of what is #8given' in sense-perception which plays such a large and dangerous part in current practice4 ,let us see therefore what we can discover4 ,in the first place it is evident that in the second version of the subject the design has been what artists call #8pulled together4' ,the foreground boat on the left 7it is of course on the right in the plate7 has been made1 if not actually bigger1 yet more important as a mass1 by the addition of the sails of a second boat immediately behind it4 ,the apparent height of the boat has been increased by dropping the height of the man standing in the cart in the water beside it1 and by making the horses1 carts and men relatively smaller4 ,the castle in the distance has been shifted nearer to the boat1 the height of the two masts of the boat in the middle distance which abut on to the castle have been reduced1 so that the masts and sails of its neighbour on the right seem higher and bigger4 ,more has been made of the men1 boats1 etc41 at the foot of the low hills which appear on the right of the drawing1 and the foreground group of men and horses has been shoved nearer to the figure of the man just entering the water1 and1 to make the connection firmer1 the cask and grappling irons on the ground have been carefully added4 ,but it is useless merely cataloguing these changes1 if we cannot discover the reasons for them4 ,is all this shuffling and rearrangement for the sake of balance and visual harmony8 ,no doubt to some extent it is4 ,but notice in the remodelled design the effect of that firm straight line of the distant sea in the centre1 and the way the distant castle rises out of it4 ,that is the nerve of the whole design4 ,see how all the other lines and shapes fret the eye with their sharp and jagged forms1 and yet lead it inevitably back to that one untroubled space4 ,all this artfully calculated playing with lights and shadows1 this complicated conspiracy of lines and forms1 is assuredly something more than an aimless trifling with appearances4 ,in that untroubled stretch of water we cannot but feel the steady1 never-resting1 inexorable march of the real powers of nature4 ,it brings the whole mighty background of human life into the drawing2 and this real spiritual presence sets the daily toil and hardship of everyday life in a new light1 solemnising it1 dwarfing it1 yet not crushing it4 ,it is as though we had heard the rustle of the wings of eternity in the passing moment4 ,to do this1 to produce this effect unerringly and with logical certainty upon every normally constituted ,englishman who looks carefully at the drawing1 cannot exactly be the chance result of a diligent shuffling and reshuffling of mere shapes and shadows4 ,there is something of divinity in it4 ,the shapes and shadows have meaning1 and this timeless and spaceless meaning is the life-blood that animates and transfigures these bald signs and symbols4 ,if art deals only with appearances1 we must remember that appearance is also a form of reality1 and that form and content can be so closely interwoven that the distinctions of our meddling understanding may become idle and misleading4 ,it is only from some such point of view as this that we can hope to grasp the full importance of what clever people call #8mere technique4' ,let us turn now to the #8,basle' design4 ,although this engraving was published in the first part of ,liber1 ,i am inclined to doubt whether the preliminary drawing was made in the ,wells's cottage4 ,this design is based upon a sketch made at ,basle in #ahjb1 and it is hardly likely that ,turner would have had this sketch-book with him when he went to spend a few days with his friends in ,kent4 ,moreover1 the first sepia drawing is not with the others in the ,national ,gallery4 ,mr4 ,rawlinson believes that it passed into the hands of an ,american collector #8many years ago' 7,liber ,studiorum1 p4 #ai74 ,but we have ,turner's etching of the subject1 and if we compare this with the drawing made from nature1 which certainly formed the ground-work of the subject1 we see clearly what a great difference there really is between two processes which modern uncritical thought persistently confounds--between the process of #8drawing what you see' and #8copying nature faithfully1' and the process of artistic construction and invention4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxviii ,,juvenile ,,tricks ,,sepia4 ,,about #ahjh ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxix ,,berry ,,pomeroy ,,castle ,,generally ,,known ,,as ,,raglan 8,,castle0 ,,sepia4 ,,about #ahac ,generally1 with the really creative artists the two processes go on simultaneously or are fused into one1 but here for once we find them separated4 ,the pencil drawing was made as a simple record of facts2 the etching was made some five or six years later1 and it is curious to see what liberties ,turner felt it was necessary and justifiable to take with his original record1 before his notion of the requirements of a work of art could be satisfied4 ,in the drawing from nature the width of the river seems to dwarf the height of the buildings2 in the engraving ,turner seems to have felt that the height of the buildings ought to form the keynote of the whole design4 ,first1 therefore1 the two towers of the ,cathedral are carried well up above the house by the bridge1 the gable of this building being reduced in size1 so that it shall not compete in importance with the ,cathedral towers4 ,in the drawing1 the buildings recede gradually and gently from the bridge1 while in the etching1 they are pushed into square step-shaped masses1 thus emphasising the idea of weight and height4 ,these impressions are further strengthened by deliberately making the supports of the bridge smaller and more fragile than they were in the drawing2 in the engraving the straddling supports of the slender wooden bridge give it an air of weakness which makes the buildings at its side seem all the more firmly set by contrast4 ,these are only a few of the more obvious points of difference1 but if the comparison were pursued further1 we should find that every sweep of line and silhouette of the original material has been reconsidered and recast before it was allowed to form part of the new construction4 ,i will not pretend that ,i regard the result obtained in this case as one of the great achievements of the series1 but our observations are useful1 ,i think1 as showing the habitual thoroughness and earnestness which ,turner brought to all his work4 ,his attitude towards the matter in hand is always active and creative4 ,his alterations are not always for the better--indeed1 it is open to argument whether some of the changes made in this ,basle subject were quite advantageous1 but the fact remains that whatever he took up he threw himself heart and soul into1 that he felt bound to recreate it from within1 and that a mere cold and passive reproduction of the given would have seemed to him a cowardly shrinking from his artistic mission4 ,he feels that he is responsible for the effect the shapes and arrangement of his subject make upon the spectator's imagination1 and that to attempt to apologise for a tame and uninteresting subject by saying1 #8,it was so1'--#8,it is quite true1'--would have seemed to him an unworthy evasion of his work4 ,how incapable ,turner was of copying even one of his own drawings accurately is clearly shown by the etching of the #8,little ,devil's ,bridge' 7,r4 #ai74 ,when we compare this with the original drawing 7,no4 #dgf1 ,n4 ,g47 we find that almost every form in the design has been recast1 not always to its individual advantage from the point of view of realisation1 but with an invariable gain in the direction of greater general cohesion4 ,note1 for example1 how the straight tree trunk nearest the bridge in the drawing gets bent slightly to the left1 just to make you feel the toughness and obstinacy of the tree itself4 ,the fir-trees on the left1 too1 are more realistic in the drawing1 but they are more forcible and dramatic in the engraving4 ,as we have been able to reproduce ,turner's original pencil study from nature for the #8,london from ,greenwich' plate1 the reader will be able to make his own comparison with the published design4 ,the preliminary sepia drawing for the engraving 7,no4 #dic1 ,n4 ,g47 forms an intermediate step between the two1 a stage1 as it were1 in the process by which ,turner's mind took complete possession of the subject4 ,in the sepia drawing1 the artist has not yet fully realised the exact rle the main building has to play in the whole arrangement4 ,when we turn to the engraving we find that the whole character of the mass formed by the hospital has been changed4 ,in the drawing it forms a straggling mass1 somewhat like a chance medley of wharves and warehouses1 in the engraving this mass has been patted together into a solid and definite structure4 ,the distant parts of the building have been raised1 and they now tell as a rigid horizontal line4 ,the gain to the hospital in dignity and in individuality is extraordinary1 and its stiff straight lines are exactly what was wanted to throw emphasis on the subtlety and delicacy of the slow sweep of the distant river4 ,the drawing for the #8,martello ,towers1 ,bexhill1' plate is a very tame affair1 and the finished plate is only saved from comparative ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xl ,,the ,,alcove1 ,,isleworth ,,generally ,,known ,,as 8,,twickenham--,,pope',s ,,villa10 ,,etc4 ,,sepia4 ,,about #ahaf ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xli ,,sheep-,,washing1 ,,windsor ,,sepia4 ,,about #ahah failure by its fine sky4 ,yet it is worth comparing the two to trace out the subtle differences which spring up under ,turner's hand in the etching4 ,all the objects are forced into shapes that act more powerfully on the imagination1 everywhere the tendency of the line is towards emphasis and distinctness4 ,in the #8,kirkstall ,crypt' 7,r4 #ci71 the design is also recast in the etching4 ,the group of cows is altered1 the foreground pillar is made thinner1 the space between the two columns in the centre is widened out1 and the aperture in the wall above the cows on the left is made light1 instead of dark4 ,these changes are all for the better4 ,a careful study of these seemingly trivial alterations is valuable as an instance of the subtleties of design upon which all really fine art depends4 ,as these remarks indicate1 ,i am in agreement with the general opinion that the engravings represent ,turner's intentions more fully than his preliminary drawings4 ,but though this is generally the case1 there are exceptions1 and the most notable is1 ,i think1 that of the plate sometimes known as #8,twickenham--,pope's ,villa1' and sometimes as #8,garrick's ,temple and ,hampton ,court1' but which really represents a scene at ,isleworth4 ,in this case the drawing 7,plate ,,xl47 is much finer than the plate1 although ,turner etched the subject himself4 ,but somehow the spacing of the whole is much less felicitous in the engraving than in the drawing4 ,the rendering of the trees1 too1 is more conventional1 but this is a characteristic of nearly all the plates1 and is due to the difficulties of the medium1 it being impossible to get the same subtlety of tone and delicacy of form in etching and mezzotint that can be got with a pen and wash on paper4 ,this question of the comparative conventionality of the foliage in the engravings induces me to say a few words about one of the loveliest renderings of woodland scenery in the whole series--the so-called #8,raglan ,castle' 7,r4 #eh74bj ,this is one of the plates that ,turner mezzotinted himself1 yet because the etched lines are not so free and supple as those of the preliminary drawing 7,no4 #hfe1 ,n4,g471 it has been assumed that ,turner left the etching to be done by one of his engravers1 probably ,dawe4 ,this assumption is one that ,i cannot accept4 ,the lettering on the plate1 #8,drawn and ,engraved by ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner1 etc41' points to the conclusion that ,turner was responsible both for the etching and the mezzotinting4 ,and when we compare the etching with the drawing1 a number of slight but successful differences emerge1 which no engraver would either have attempted to make or could have made if he had desired to do so4 #8,the ,source of the ,arveron' 7,r4 #fj71 another of the plates #8drawn and engraved' by ,turner1 has also had its etching condemned and attributed to ,dawe4 ,if the plate is really so fine as all the critics of this kind insist1 it is curious that the etching can be so poor as they say and yet not affect the excellence of the whole4 ,this is inconsistent with the proper appreciation of the important role the etched lines play in all these mezzotints4 ,that ,turner regarded the etching as far more important than the scraping is shown by the simple fact that he undertook 7nominally at least7 to do it all himself1 but he had no hesitation in handing the scraping over to the engravers4 ,these general considerations are further strengthened when we compare the finished plate 7,i am speaking only of the etching in the published states1 and not of the rare #8first state' of the etching in the late ,mr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,taylor's collection7 with the preliminary study made for it1 now in the ,national ,gallery 7,no4 #hgi74 ,the size and proportions of the plate differ from those of the drawing1 so the etching could not have been traced from it1 while the etching nowhere follows the drawing with the accuracy one would expect if it were merely an engraver's copy4 ,there is no authority in this drawing for the shapes given to the crests of the distant mountains in the centre1 nor for the shapes of the upper portions of the nearer mountains on the left4 ,the lower parts of the design are also modified from the forms in the drawing in exactly the way ,turner habitually recast all the drawings he etched4 ,it is also hard to suppose that ,dawe or anybody but ,turner could have recast the vague shapes of the disappearing ridge of the glacier on the left in the masterly way this has been done in the etching1 or that anybody but ,turner could have invented1 on the strength of the loose indications in the drawing1 the masterly lines that give definition to the stretch of valley against which the ice of the glacier is relieved4 ,the shapes of the ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlii ,,view ,,of ,a ,,river1 ,,from ,a ,,terrace ,,sometimes ,,called 8,,macon0 ,,sepia4 ,,about #ahah ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xliii ,,crowhurst1 ,,sussex ,,sepia4 ,,about #ahah first two upright pines near the centre have also been recast by the mind and hand of the master1 not copied by another hand from the indications given in the drawing4 ,alterations have also been introduced in the character of the stems and their branches which a professional engraver would not dare to make in an ostensible copy2 the same remark applies also to the tops of the pines on the right4 ,for these reasons1 ,i think1 those critics are mistaken who deny that the workmanship of the whole plate is ,turner's4 ,and the mistake has arisen to a large extent1 ,i feel inclined to add1 through attaching too much importance to a priori notions of technical mastery4 ,as the late ,mr4 ,arthur ,strong very justly said1 we are inclined to start with an idea that masters are always masterly and classical1 and we often end by finding that they have left nothing behind them quite worthy of our preconceived ideas of what they ought to have done4 ,these are a few of the points suggested by a comparison of the preliminary designs for the ,liber plates with the finished engravings4 ,but to get any good out of it every student must take the trouble to make these comparisons for himself4 ,should my remarks succeed in inducing even a few adventurous spirits to make such an experiment1 ,i shall feel satisfied that ,i have done something towards spreading an intelligent interest in the marvellous process of artistic creation4 ,perhaps1 too1 some day in the future1 the authorities of the ,national ,gallery may see their way towards the display of these drawings so that such a process of intelligent study may be performed without the inconvenience which the present arrangement entails4 ,it is probably not necessary to have the whole series of drawings on exhibition at the same time1 but if those that are exhibited could be accompanied by the finished engravings1 and1 where possible1 by one or two proofs of the unfinished states1 ,i believe the gain to the public would be considerable4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,splendour ,,of ,,success1 ,,or #8,,what ,,you ,,will'--#ahac-ahcj ,a survey of the ground we have covered--,the training of ,turner's sympathies by the poets--,the limits of artistic beauty--and of a merely #8musical' education--,turner unlike ,wordsworth--the predominantly sensuous bent of his genius--,the parting of the ways--,the dependence of art upon society--,turner #8the fashion'--,the influence of the ,academy--,the ,italian visit in #ahai--,turner's ,italian sketches--,their beauty and uselessness--,the ,naturalistic fallacy--,turner's work for the engravers--,the ,southern ,coast series--#8,watchet' and #8,boscastle'--,whitaker's ,history of ,richmondshire--#8,hornby ,castle' and #8,heysham'--,scott's ,provincial ,antiquities--#8,edinburgh1 from the ,calton ,hill'--#8,rochester1' in the ,rivers of ,england series--,england and ,wales--#8,bolton ,abbey' and #8,colchester'--#8,stamford'--#8,tynemou th4' ,we have now followed the development of ,turner's mind from boyhood to youth and well into manhood4 ,we have watched the architectural and topographical draughtsman develop into an artist under the guidance of his admiration for ,wilson4 ,then the mind of the painter of the sublime1 of the picturesque in general1 struck its unseen roots deeper into the interests and sympathies of the people amongst whom he lived4 ,in the hour of national danger his heart beat high with courage and determination4 ,his pictures of the sea are like war songs2 they strike the ,dorian note1 they represent the tone of mind of a brave man who faces wounds and death and all contingencies with unflinching endurance4 ,then the mind of the laureate of a nation in arms takes a still wider sweep4 ,it embraces humanity and animate and inanimate nature in one glance1 and finds the soul of good in all things4 ,the ,dorian harmonies give place to the ,phrygian4 ,in all this ,turner's attitude seems entirely passive or receptive4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xliv ,,kirkby ,,lonsdale ,,bridge ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahaf ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlv ,,raby ,,castle ,,and ,,co4 ,,durham ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahag ,his amazingly rapid growth seems to be merely an effortless assimilation of the moral atmosphere of his time4 ,all that was fairest and of good repute in the common spiritual heritage of the people seems to have passed insensibly into his thoughts and feelings4 ,his art is a social or national phenomenon1 so impersonal 7or superpersonal7 that it is difficult to point to traces of the mere individual in his work4 ,the individual is lost in his universal function4 ,the man himself is nothing but the voice or thought of what ,hume has called #8a man in general4' ,yet his work is as far removed as any work can be from the vagueness and coldness of the abstract universal4 ,behind every touch of his hand and every thought or idea in his mind beats the pulse of a full-blooded and passionate personality4 ,only1 by some miracle1 this man happens to be free from the local prejudices and limitations that deflect the judgment and sympathies of most men from the one true standard4 ,this education of ,turner's sympathies and feelings was the work1 we have seen reasons for concluding1 of the poets and artists whom he loved and admired4 ,in the light and warmth of their ideal creations his own high instincts were quickened into life and activity4 ,under their influence he had entered into the common spiritual world1 and they had given the direction to his impulses and ideas regarding things human and divine4 ,but education must be a lifelong process1 and there comes a time in the growth of each individual when the need of something more clear-cut and permanent than his own impulses and desires1 however wholesome they may be1 declares itself4 ,as ,plato pointed out long ago1 to secure the happiest results of the best #8musical' education1 something more than a merely #8musical' education is needed4 ,we have now reached that period in ,turner's life when the lover of beautiful sights and thoughts and feelings must make a determined effort to unify these manifold beauties by an explicit principle1 to exchange opinion for knowledge1 if he is to preserve the advantages he has already won4 ,in life there is no standing still1 no resting upon our gains4 ,we must go forward to higher victories1 or find our arms tarnish and our gains dissipate themselves4 ,but it may well be doubted whether art is capable of reaching a higher point of beauty than that which ,turner had already reached4 ,forced to its extreme limits beauty insensibly passes into something which is at once more and less than beauty4 ,such pictures as the #8,frosty ,morning1' #8,windsor1' and #8,the ,trout ,stream' are1 perhaps1 the most beautiful that art is capable of producing4 ,and the example of ,wordsworth1 who did strive upward to #8an intelligence which has greatness and the vision of all time and of all being1' is not on all points reassuring4 ,his poetry1 simply as poetry1 did suffer from his philosophic studies4 ,there may be something in the very nature of the human soul which sets bounds to the creation or expression of beauty4 ,but ,turner was not like ,wordsworth4 ,he was for good and ill essentially and solely an artist4 ,the play of shapes and colours was probably dearer to him than food or raiment4 ,having by sheer good fortune carried his art to its highest attainable pitch of beauty before he had reached his fortieth year1 he was placed in an embarrassing position4 ,the dialectical movement of beauty would now carry him outside his art1 into regions where the individual man might reap rich gains1 but where the artist could reap only sorrow and disappointment4 ,the artist in ,turner was stronger than the man4 ,he loved the sensuous medium of art more than the spiritual beauty into which the current of traditional wisdom had carried him4 ,the remainder of his life is therefore dedicated to the passionate and audacious development of the material beauties of his art4 ,we have now to trace in his works the gradual encroachments of the purely sensuous side of his art4 ,for a time all seems well1 perhaps more than well1 for the gain in all the lower elements of his art is very striking4 ,during the next twenty years his works gain constantly in the sensuous attractiveness of colour and in the formal beauties of rhythm and design4 ,the loss of beauty is compensated by deep draughts of pleasantness4 ,yet amid the feverish intoxication of sensuous beauty a wild unrest and despair make themselves increasingly felt4 ,the man has sacrificed himself to his art1 and the starved human soul turns in bitterness from the ardently desired rewards of the most brilliantly triumphant artistic career that modern times have witnessed4 ,it is usual in treating mainly of ,turner's oil paintings to fix upon the year #ahae as the great turning-point in his career4 ,after ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlvi ,,raby ,,castle ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahjg ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlvii ,,raby ,,castle ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahag #ahae there is a marked change in the aims and character of ,turner's art1 and it is convenient to date this change from the year that saw the end of the ,napoleonic wars1 and inaugurated a new era in the social and political condition of this country4 ,from this date1 too1 the conditions of artistic production changed4 ,the rapid development of industrial concerns brought a new class of patrons upon the scene4 ,before #ahae1 ,turner's patrons had been mainly the landed aristocracy2 after #ahae1 his chief patrons were the successful merchants of the great towns4 ,from that time the men of commerce and the manufacturers ousted the aristocracy from the leading position which they had held in the councils of the country4 ,with the change of men a change took place in the ideals1 manners and taste of the country2 and ,turner1 with his extraordinary sensibility1 his ready powers of intuition and rapid assimilation1 seemed bound to reflect the change in his work4 ,yet if we look closer into ,turner's career1 we find that #ahae was rather the year that saw the brilliant public inauguration of the new era1 than the actual beginning of the change4 ,the #8,crossing the ,brook1' exhibited in #ahae1 is often regarded as the impressive close of ,turner's early manner1 yet this beautiful picture already bears the impress of that folie des grandeurs to which we owe most of the excesses of the new manner4 ,the #8,frosty ,morning' of #ahac is really the last work in which the inspiration rings true throughout1 in which the form and content are absolutely indissoluble4 #8,dido and neas1' the only picture exhibited in #ahad1 is a frigid pseudo-classical pomposity1 the due development of the strain of baser metal in ,turner's genius1 which had already betrayed itself in the #8,macon' of #ahjc1 the #8,narcissus and ,echo' of #ahjd1 and the #8,schaffhausen' of #ahjf4 ,in glancing rapidly over ,turner's career we have been able to ignore these works2 in the rush and splendour of his general development such pictures fall into insignificance1 as casual indications that a busy professional man's industry may outrun his inspiration4 ,after #ahac it is impossible to ignore this side of ,turner's production4 ,it was just this regrettable side of his work that appealed most strongly to the middle-class public for whom he had now to cater4 #8,dido ,building ,carthage' 7#ahae7 is a picture exactly to the taste of the admirers of the first instalment of ,childe ,harold1 ,the ,bride of ,abydos1 ,the ,corsair1 and ,lara4 ,it has the historical remoteness1 the vague and empty grandeur1 the mysterious dreaminess1 the warm1 voluptuous atmosphere and intoxicating lyrical movement of the contemporary phase of ,romantic poetry4 ,in #8,the ,decline of the ,carthaginian ,empire' 7#ahag71 #8,the ,field of ,waterloo' 7#ahah71 #8,richmond ,hill1 on the ,prince ,regent's ,birthday' 7#ahai7 and #8,rome from the ,vatican' 7#ahbj71 we recognise the contemporary and fellow-worker of ,byron1 ,moore1 ,southey1 ,chateaubriand and ,lamartine4 ,in #ahbb ,turner's only picture at the ,royal ,academy was entitled #8,what you ,will'6--an ominous but significant title4 ,it seems to put into words the ruling motive of this new phase of his art2 to show that ,turner is fully conscious that he is trimming his barque to catch the breath of popular applause4 #8,the ,bay of ,baiae' 7#ahbc71 the two #8,mortlakes' 7#ahbf-bg71 #8,dido directing the ,equipment of the ,fleet' 7#ahbh7 and #8,ulysses' 7#ahbi7 indicate clearly the predominant bent of the artist's mind towards the grosser pleasures of his art4 ,these works brought and kept ,turner prominently before the public eye4 ,they made him the pride and glory of the ,royal ,academy1 and put him on a level of celebrity with ,sir ,thomas ,lawrence4 ,they made him1 in short1 in ,sir ,walter ,scott's words1 #8the fashion1' yet it is these works that ,turner's admirers of the present day regard with only moderate enthusiasm4 ,compared with the work of the previous decade1 such pictures cannot but strike us as unworthy of the artist's genius4 ,yet we have a tendency nowadays1 ,i think1 to overrate the independence of the artist4 ,the modern artist1 in so far as he is dependent upon the support of the society in which he works1 is not an entirely free agent4 ,the society that applauded them and for whose pleasure they were produced must therefore accept perhaps the main responsibility for the middle-class ideals stamped upon these pictures4 ,in tracing the reaction of society upon art and art upon society1 it is an extremely difficult matter to decide which factor is the more powerful1 but ,i am inclined to think it is not art4 ,but however this may be1 it is certainly the duty of the individual to fortify himself as best he can against the contagion to which he is exposed4 ,and it must be confessed that ,turner was but ill-provided within himself with the means to resist the deadening influences of the atmosphere of bad taste into which he was now launched4 ,it is true that ,turner was not exactly what is called a #8society-man1' and he might therefore have more easily escaped the contagion of those drawing-room ideals to which men like ,tom ,moore succumbed4 ,but ,turner was a member of the ,royal ,academy4 ,it was the recognised organisation of his profession1 and he valued highly the honours it had to confer4 ,his lack of general education made him an easy victim to the pretensions of officialism2 like all uneducated people1 he had a ridiculous reverence for the trappings and mummery of the learned world1 for degrees1 diplomas1 titles4 ,he was inordinately proud of the right to write #8,r4,a41' #8,p4,p41' after his name1 and to alter these letters to ,p4,r4,a4 was the height of his ambition4 ,under these circumstances he could not but identify himself with the immediate practical aims of the ,royal ,academy4 ,now this ill-starred institution is so unwisely and so unfortunately constituted1 that its very existence1 and all its powers of activity as a professional benevolent society1 are made to depend almost entirely upon its popularity as an exhibition society4 ,the ,academy throve then as it thrives now1 in proportion as it succeeds in catering for the taste of the fashionable and moneyed public2 it could only lose ground if it made the slightest attempts to guide or educate the public sense of beauty4 ,in this way it had become in ,turner's time nothing more nor less than an organisation for stamping the ideals of the drawing-room upon ,english art4 ,in #ahai ,turner made his first visit to ,italy1 the material for the pseudo-classical pictures painted before this having been derived from other artists' pictures and engravings4 ,it is curious that he should have waited till his forty-fifth year before making this journey4 ,the ,continent1 it is true1 had to a great extent been closed to ,english travellers since the outbreak of the ,french ,revolution2 but in spite of political and other difficulties ,turner had managed to see a good deal of ,france1 ,belgium1 ,savoy and ,switzerland1 and he had been down the ,rhine4 ,if he had been equally keen to see ,italy he could certainly have gone there also1 especially as ,italy was more generally accessible to an ,englishman than any of the other countries he had visited4 ,this curious shrinking from ,italy may very likely have been due to the promptings of his own nature4 ,when we examine his art as a whole we clearly see that he found more delight in the wildness1 irregularity and caprice of ,switzerland and the ,rhine valleys than in the more regular scenery of ,italy4 ,even ,mr4 ,ruskin admits that ,turner got no good from ,italian scenery2 ,naples1 ,rome and ,florence only put him out and bewildered him2 ,venice is the only ,italian city that lent itself at all gracefully to his genius1 and ,venice is the most northern in character of all the ,italian cities4 ,but the requirements of his patrons and the peculiar ,academic misunderstanding of the principles of landscape art conspired to send ,turner to ,italy4 ,there the scenery is more beautiful in itself and richer in historical associations than elsewhere in ,europe1 therefore it is the duty of the ambitious landscape painter who happens to have had the misfortune to be born somewhere out of ,italy to stop painting the mere scenes of his own country as soon as possible1 and to set out at once for such spots as ,tivoli1 ,narni and ,lago ,maggiore1 the spots approved1 stamped and consecrated by generations of the prosperous travellers of all the chief countries of ,europe4 ,the theoretical error at the root of this dangerous prejudice is the confusion of the materially pretty1 agreeable1 and pleasant1 with artistic beauty1 which is something essentially different from any of these things4 ,but this confusion of the pleasant and the beautiful was a doctrine which the ,academy of ,turner's time was bent on inculcating by its teaching and exemplifying in its practice4 ,it happened that ,sir ,thomas ,lawrence1 one of the most brilliant exponents of the gospel of the pretty and pleasant1 was spending the summer of #ahai in ,rome4 ,in the intervals of his labours and relaxations with the great and beautiful of society1 he found time to notice the grandeur and beauties of the scenery around him4 ,during this time #8his letters to ,england were full of entreaties addressed to their common friends to urge upon ,turner the importance of visiting ,rome while 8his genius was in the flower40 8,it is injustice to his fame and his country10 he writes on another occasion1 8to let the finest period of his genius pass away 444 without visiting these scenes40'#ba ,whether these ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlviii ,,looking ,,up ,,the ,,grand ,,canal1 ,,venice1 ,,from ,,near ,,the ,,accademia ,,di ,,belle ,,arti ,,pencil4 #ahai ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlix ,,st4 ,,mark',s1 ,,venice1 ,,with ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,ducal ,,palace ,,pencil4 #ahai appeals had any special weight with ,turner we do not know1 but he set out for ,italy within a month or two of the writing of these letters4 ,he went from ,calais to ,paris1 followed the usual coach-route to ,turin1 explored the ,lakes of ,como1 ,lugano and ,maggiore1 and reached ,venice by way of ,milan1 ,brescia and ,desenzano4 ,he must have spent some time at ,venice to judge from the number of drawings made there1 then went to ,bologna1 ,cesena and ,rimini1 and continued along the coast of the ,adriatic to ,ancona4 ,at ,ancona he turned inland to ,loreto and1 following the high post road through ,recanati and ,macerata1 entered the ,via ,flaminia at ,foligno1 and passing through ,narni and ,orticoli entered ,rome by the ,porta del ,popolo1 probably sometime in ,october4 ,from ,rome he explored ,frascati1 ,tivoli and ,albano1 and made a tour to ,naples1 ,baiae1 ,pozzuoli1 ,pompeii1 ,amalfi1 ,sorrento and ,herculaneum4 ,he was back in ,rome by the #bnd ,december1 then visited ,florence1 and1 recrossing the ,alps on the #bdth ,january #ahbj1 returned through ,piedmont and ,france4 ,on the #abth ,february we find him dining at ,grosvenor ,place1 ,london1 with his friends the ,fawkeses4 ,to judge from the number of sketch-books filled on this journey ,turner must have had the pencil in his hands practically the whole time he was away4 ,before starting he had #8got up' the subject carefully from books and engravings1 and he knew exactly what buildings1 antiquities and views he ought to look for at each place he went to4 ,in this way he lost no time mooning about1 like a modern artist1 looking for unexpected beauties4 ,he just went straight from one guide-book point of interest to another1 sketched each methodically from every possible point of view and hurried on to the next4 ,the sketch-books he used were generally about #g by #d inches in size1 composed of ordinary white paper4 ,his favourite medium was a hard-pointed pencil4 ,his sketches are always made with a view to information1 never for effect4 ,in this way about a dozen books were filled1 each of about a hundred pages1 and most are drawn on on both sides of the pages4 ,our reproductions of the sketches of the ,grand ,canal1 the ,piazzetta at ,venice1 and ,trajan's ,column 7,plates ,,xlviii41 ,l41 and ,,liii47 may stand as examples of the main body of work done by ,turner during this visit4 ,in addition to these small sketch-books he also used some of larger size1 with the paper prepared with a wash of grey4 ,he used one of these books at ,tivoli1 and another at ,rome and ,naples4 ,the grey tint was of such a nature that it lifted quite easily when rubbed with bread or india-rubber4 ,in this way he was able to indicate the chiaroscuro of his sketches with ease and celerity4 ,the more elaborate drawings of ,rome were made in this way1 among them those exquisite views from ,monte ,mario1 which have long been among the most admired of the drawings exhibited in the ,turner ,water-,colour ,rooms at the ,national ,gallery4 ,where the subject was an interesting one he occasionally worked over it1 or over parts of it1 with water-colour1 as in the #8,view of ,rome from ,monte ,mario' 7,no4 #eib7 here reproduced 7,plate ,,li471 and #8,the ,colosseum' 7,no4 #eif7 among the exhibited drawings4 ,but the number of drawings in which ,turner had recourse to colour is extremely limited1 quite nineteen-twentieths of them being simply in pencil4 ,the drawings made during this visit are1 in ,mr4 ,ruskin's opinion1 the best ,turner ever made from nature4 #8,all the artist's powers1' he wrote1 #8were at this period in perfection2 none of his faults had developed themselves2 and his energies were taxed to the utmost to seize1 both in immediate admiration1 and for future service1 the loveliest features of some of the most historically interesting scenery in the world4'#bb ,and again1 #8,they are1 in all respects1 the most true and the most beautiful ever made by the painter4'#bc ,and assuredly it would be difficult to praise these superb drawings too highly or too enthusiastically2 for sheer grace of pencilling1 for skilful composition1 for loving1 unwearied rendering of architecture and natural scenery they are absolutely unrivalled4 ,but it is only as drawings1 as works that contain their end within themselves1 that they can be praised so highly4 ,they are probably the most beautiful topographical drawings that have ever been made1 but ,turner did not regard himself as a topographical draughtsman1 and from his point of view the results of this journey cannot have been completely satisfactory4 ,if he had valued himself at all on his capacity for making beautiful topographical ,illustration3 ,,plate ,l ,,the ,,piazzetta1 ,,venice1 ,,looking ,,towards ,,isola ,,di ,s4 ,,giorgio ,,maggiore ,,pencil4 #ahai ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,li ,,rome1 ,,from ,,monte ,,mario ,,pencil ,,and ,,water ,,colour4 #ahai drawings1 he would surely have taken some steps to bring these achievements to the notice of the public4#bd ,he did nothing of the kind4 ,we have seen that it was his settled habit to regard his sketches and drawings from nature as merely the preliminary stages of his pictures4 ,as ,mr4 ,ruskin has pointed out1 ,turner1 after his few years of apprenticeship1 never drew from nature without altering and arranging what he saw4 ,he never accepted the given momentary facts in a passive spirit4 ,it is on record that once he said to the companion of one of his sketching tours who had got into a muddle with the drawing he was making1 #8,what are you in search of8' ,and this active spirit had been one of the chief characteristics of all the drawing from nature he had done before his visit to ,italy3 he had always been in search of something1 he had always had a very clear and exact idea of what he wanted1 and he had almost invariably managed to grasp just what he wanted1 while encumbering himself with very little else4 ,this clearness of intention is absent from the ,italian drawings4 ,the scenery1 the buildings1 the people1 the shipping and the effects of light are all new to him1 and delightfully interesting4 ,the novelty of his surroundings carries him out of himself4 ,he becomes for a time a mere common tourist with a kind of accidental knack of making rapid and wonderfully beautiful pictorial memoranda4 ,it is as though the creative artist had said to his familiar daemon1 #8,we are now in fair ,italy4 ,sleep thou1 and take a well-earned rest4 ,the business of note-taking will go on automatically without thee2 and when we are once more back in dreary ,london thou shalt awake as a giant refreshed with slumber1 and shalt knead with renewed vigour the material that has been accumulated4' ,but the results achieved were not as satisfactory as ,turner might have expected4 ,the best that could be made of these wonderful sketches was two or three charming water-colours for ,mr4 ,fawkes1 a weak and empty #8,forum ,romanum' for ,mr4 ,soane's ,museum1 and a large #8,bay of ,baiae1' which1 as ,mr4 ,ruskin confesses1 #8is encumbered with material2 it contains ten times as much as is necessary to a good picture1 and yet is so crude in colour as to look unfinished4'#be ,it therefore depends very much upon what we are in search of1 what conclusions we shall come to about these ,italian drawings4 ,if we are evangelists with a mission to preach the ,gospel of ,naturalism1 we may accept them as the finest works of art ,turner ever produced1 in spite of the fact that he found them useless and worse than useless for his artistic purposes4 ,from such a point of view it would be ,turner's fault if these beautiful things threw him out and led him astray2 or1 as ,mr4 ,ruskin puts it1 #8the effect of ,italy upon his ,turner's mind is very puzzling 444 he seems never to have entered thoroughly into the spirit of ,italy1 and the materials he obtained there were afterwards but awkwardly introduced into his large compositions4'#bf ,but if the processes of artistic creation are worth studying1 we shall go on to ask ourselves how it is that the most elaborate1 painstaking and thoroughly delightful drawings ,turner ever made from nature were actually the least useful to him as a maker of pictures2 and how it is that exquisitely deliberate and dainty drawings like those in the ,roman and ,neapolitan sketch-books lead actually to the production of frigid1 hybrid1 pseudo-classical pictures1 while hurried and scarcely intelligible scribbles like those reproduced in ,plates ,,xxvii4 and ,,xxv4 had been the means of bringing into existence such noble and impressive pictures as the #8,windmill and ,lock1' and designs like the #8,hedging and ,ditching'8 ,the answer to these questions is not far to seek4 ,the state of mind necessary for the production of the two kinds of drawings is essentially different1 and the one1 which produces the exhaustive and accurate drawing1 is antagonistic to the state of mind in which a strongly imaginative work of art is conceived1 while the other1 which produces a less immediately satisfying record1 is actually the state of mind in which a passionately felt work of art comes to birth4 ,in the drawing which we admire so much the emotional element is in abeyance1 the cognitive or sense-perceptive is predominant2 in the other the emotional element is predominant4 ,but in the first case1 while the immediate result1 considered simply in itself1 is more delightful1 there has been ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lii ,,rome1 ,,from ,,the ,,vatican ,,pen ,,and ,,ink ,,and ,,chinese ,,white ,,on ,,grey4 #ahai ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,liii ,,trajan',s ,,column1 ,,in ,,the ,,forum ,,of ,,trajan ,,pencil4 #ahai no real quickening of the artist's spirit2 in the second case1 while the immediate result is deplorable for us1 it is eloquent and glorious for the artist himself as the first stirring of his newborn spiritual progeny4 ,the object of these remarks is not to attempt to convince us that these charming ,italian drawings are at all less charming than they seem2 it is rather to combat the false deductions which ,naturalism has succeeded in drawing from the fact that they are so genuinely delightful and so self-satisfying4 ,it is inevitable that an artist shall constantly be making studies from nature1 sharpening and exercising his powers of observation1 and storing his note-books and memory with facts of natural appearances4 ,but it does not follow that this business of observing and recording visual facts is the essential or even most important part of the artist's function4 ,naturalism assumes that it is4 ,it therefore treats the power to copy natural objects faithfully and without alteration as the exact equivalent of the power of pictorial expression4#bg ,and so far as the system of art education pursued in this country has any rational foundation1 it is based upon this doctrine of ,naturalism4 ,hence the only kind of training that is provided for ,english art students is training in this capacity of reproducing objects of sight accurately4 ,this has come to be the beginning and the end of modern art education1 with what results we have only to walk into any summer exhibition of the ,royal ,academy to see4 ,under these circumstances1 ,i think it is important that we should give its due weight to any evidence that tends to invalidate these generally received opinions4 ,of course the evidence of the practice and line of development of one artist1 even an artist as great as ,turner1 is not by itself sufficient to settle such a question2 but still1 ,i submit1 this evidence has a distinct bearing on the subject and should receive its due attention4 ,if the doctrine of ,naturalism possessed the universal validity it is assumed to possess1 the pictures based upon the truest and most elaborate drawings ,turner ever made from nature--and that too of the most beautiful and the most historically interesting scenery in the world--should have been the best he had so far produced4 ,they are admittedly among the worst4 ,if the training acquired by making such drawings is essential to the development of the artist's powers of pictorial expression1 how comes it that in ,turner's case this training came after the production of his most perfect pictures1--these ,italian drawings being made in #ahai1 the #8,sheerness1' #8,windsor1' #8,abingdon1' and #8,frosty ,morning' having been painted between #ahji and #ahac1 and he had never worked from nature like this before8 ,this is the evidence4 ,i can only beg the candid reader to give it the earnest consideration it seems to me to deserve4 ,turner's oil paintings produced between #ahae and #ahcj cannot but strike us as disappointing1 especially when we compare them with the output of the years immediately preceding this period4 ,it is only as a sea-painter that ,turner reminds us of his former mastery1 and with the exception of the #8,dort' 7#ahah7 #8,entrance of the ,meuse' 7#ahai71 the ,greenwich #8,battle of ,trafalgar' 7#ahbc7 and #8,now for the ,painter' 7#ahbg71 it would do ,turner's reputation little harm if all his oil pictures produced during these years were destroyed4 ,his real greatness is only shown in this period by the water-colours produced mainly for the engravers4 ,in the work done for the ,southern ,coast1 ,scott's ,provincial ,antiquities1 the ,rivers and ,ports of ,england1 and the ,england and ,wales series1 ,turner displayed all the genuine nobleness and sweetness of his nature4 ,i propose therefore to occupy the remainder of this chapter with a rapid survey of these undertakings1 singling out from each one or two representative designs for closer examination4 ,we have now seen what was the character of ,turner's pictures which gained him most applause and favour in ,academic circles and with the public of the ,academy4 ,it is no doubt regrettable that a man of his talents should have to waste his time--as it seems to us--in the manufacture of puerile and pretentious specimens of ,academic #8high art1' but we can easily make too much of the matter4 ,there is something altogether incommensurable about such a man2 he is like some great natural force1 copious1 abundant and unwearying4 ,he must have drawn and painted with as little effort as ordinary mortals exert when they play cards or write letters to their friends4 ,i have no doubt that ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,liv ,,study ,,of ,,plants1 ,,weeds1 ,,etc4 ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahbc the #8high art' concoctions bothered him much more than his better works1 for it was all ratiocinative1 conscious1 all spun out of the understanding without any deep-struck roots in the unconscious life of his affections4 ,but no doubt he felt prouder of the results1 simply because he was more conscious of the efforts4 ,we have no grounds for supposing that he did not enjoy the work1 and in return it certainly gave him comparative independence1 and encouraged him to produce4 ,printsellers and publishers were anxious to get the celebrated ,academician to work for them1 and the big middle-class public were eager to possess themselves of engravings from the great man's designs4 ,it was certainly a clear gain that the designer of the ,southern ,coast1 the ,richmondshire drawings1 ,scott's ,provincial ,antiquities1 the ,rivers and ,ports of ,england1 and the ,england and ,wales series could afford to keep publishers and editors at arm's length1 that he was so strong in public favour that his work was influenced by none but artistic considerations4 ,it hardly comes within the scope of the present essay to study the drawings in detail which form the originals of ,turner's engraved work1 important as these drawings are as examples of the artist's genius4 ,each drawing is a perfect work of art in itself1 the fact that an engraving was to be made from it counting practically as nothing with the artist4 ,if the subject did not lend itself quite satisfactorily to the engraver's requirements1 ,turner introduced various modifications into the engraver's proofs1 but he did not alter the drawings4 ,in this way the original drawings were kept as independent creations4 ,into them the artist was free to pour all that spontaneous native side of his talent which could find no outlet in his ambitious #8high art' productions4 ,as water-colours the originals of the engravings that were issued between #ahad and #ahcj are among the most remarkable and consummate achievements of the medium4 ,with hardly an exception they are worked entirely in transparent colour1 and for sheer range of invention1 variety of effect1 and loveliness of colour they have no equals4 ,but their place is among the artist's completed works1 and as our immediate business is with the sketches and studies1 we can only touch upon these exquisitely beautiful water-colours incidentally2 i4e4 only in so far as they help us to grasp the significance of the sketches and preliminary drawings which went to their production4 ,it is a curious sign how little conscious ,turner was of the nature and limitations of his own capacities1 that the plan of the ,southern ,coast series of engravings1 as it first took form in his mind1 included a long narrative poem from his own hand describing the history and local peculiarities of the places he proposed to illustrate4 ,it is hardly probable that an individual with less capacity for verbal expression ever sat down to write a long poem4 ,yet it is easy to see how it was that ,turner came to think himself competent to undertake such a task4 ,the stamp of his mind was genuinely poetic4 ,he had1 and knew that he had1 in a high measure #8the vision and the faculty divine4' ,the inspiration of his best works had been drawn from the poets1 from ,thomson1 ,akenside1 and ,milton4 ,his pictures1 so far as it is possible to distinguish content from form1 are real poems4 ,and the technical accomplishment of pictorial art had come to him so easily and naturally that it may well have seemed to flow inevitably from the innate strength of his emotions and the vivid hue of his imagination4 ,he probably thought that he had only to take a pen in his hand to find the accomplishment of verse following with the same ease and inevitability4 ,the verses ,turner did succeed in writing are pathetic failures2 the mind so intimately versed in the subtleties of visible melody and harmony was dead to the witchery of verbal sound4 ,it is true that his failure is not quite so abject as the extracts ,thornbury has printed from the attempted ,southern ,coast epic would lead one to expect1 but1 when all due allowance is made for ,thornbury's blunders of transcription1 the result is still quite hopeless4 ,but it is otherwise when we turn to the designs made from the same subject-matter1 and1 in spite of ,lessing and a host of modern theorists1 ,i must insist that in their heart and essence they are indeed poems4 ,the first number of the ,southern ,coast was published in ,january #ahad1 and the last number was not issued till ,may #ahbf1 but with only one or two exceptions the whole of the ,dorsetshire1 ,devon1 ,cornwall and ,somersetshire subjects 7and these form about three-quarters of the whole work7 were made from sketches taken during a single journey in the summer of #ahaa4 ,these sketches are the kind of notes that a poet would take2 from the point of view of the historian or topographer they are singularly incomplete4 ,occasionally we come across a tolerably elaborate drawing of a ruined castle or stretch of rocky coast1 but even these are summary and hurried in comparison with the ,italian drawings1 and ,turner seldom chose such sketches as the bases of his finished pictures4 ,he certainly found them useful as the means of making a methodical analysis of the pictorial constituents of what he saw1 and as storing his memory and giving matter and fulness to his own conceptions of natural phenomena4 ,but there their usefulness ended4 ,the actual embryo of the pictures he painted is generally a hurried scrawl about two square inches in size1 made with a blunt pencil4 ,among the ,southern ,coast sketch-books is a fat little volume bound in brown calf1 having a brass clasp and lettered on the back1 ,british ,itenary 7sic74 ,the title page runs as follows3--,the ,british ,itinerary or ,travellers ,pocket ,companion throughout ,great ,britain ,exhibiting the ,direct ,route to ,every ,borough and ,commercial ,town in the ,kingdom with the principal ,cross ,roads ,compiled from ,actual ,measurement and the best ,surveys and ,authorities ,by ,nathanl4 ,coltman2 ,surveyor4 ,employed by the ,post ,office in ,measuring the ,roads of ,great ,britain ,london4 ,printed and ,published1 by ,wm4 ,dickie1 ,no4 #abj ,strand2 and ,n4 ,coltman1 ,green ,walk2 ,black ,friars ,road4 ,price #cs4 ,sewed4' ,it contains two hundred and fifty leaves1 the printed matter only occupying about a third of the total number1 the remainder having been left blank for notes4 ,these are now filled with ,turner's notes of expenses incurred1 the draft of the poem he attempted to write1 and a number of minute sketches4 ,among these it is possible to recognise the originals of several of the ,southern ,coast designs1 including those of ,combe ,martin1 ,watchet1 ,boscastle and ,clovelly1 the #8,dartmouth' and #8,dartmouth ,castle' of the ,rivers of ,england series1 and the sketch upon which the superb #8,stonehenge at ,daybreak' 7,r4 #ha71 in the unpublished #8,liber1' was probably founded4 ,two of these sketches have been reproduced on ,plates ,,lv4 and ,,lvi41 together with the engravings of the completed designs4 ,that the finished drawings could have been made from such slender material can hardly appear less than astonishing to those familiar with the methods of artists of the present day2 but to the best of my belief1 ,turner had no other sketches or drawings of these places to assist him in his work1 and it can only add to our amazement when we notice that in all probability the finished drawings were made1 one nearly eight years1 and the other nearly fourteen years1 after the sketches were taken2 the #8,watchet' plate having been published in ,april #ahbj1 and the #8,boscastle' in ,march #ahbe4 ,when we examine carefully the sketch of ,watchet we find that it gives us very little more than the general idea of a small fishing village1 with a curved breakwater and a stretch of rocky coast running off into the distance4 ,this general idea must have been all that the artist retained of his experiences of the place1 i4e41 he cannot possibly have retained any bare unattached visual sensations of any of the particular objects comprised in the scene4 ,the details of the construction of the breakwater in the engraving may1 for all ,i know 7,i have never visited the place71 be exactly like those of the actual one which ,turner saw there1 but what little ,i know of his ordinary methods of work inclines me to doubt it4 ,it is probably true enough to the general facts of the case1 but all those little local accidents of form which the conscientious realist of to-day would linger over so lovingly are certainly ignored4 ,no doubt when ,turner was on the spot he looked at the breakwater1 as at everything1 with keen and vigilant eyes1 and his impression of the structure would have contributed to the building up in his mind of a definite and concrete idea of the laws and customs of breakwaters in general4 ,and when he set to work to elaborate his sketch it was doubtless this general idea which came into play1 and which turned those half-dozen rudely scratched lines in the sketch into a sharply defined mental picture1 as vivid to ,turner's imagination as a real scene1 and infinitely more useful for his immediate purpose1 for the task of selection and rejection was already done4 ,in this way the whole subject came to life2 the sketch1 a fixed point in present perception1 beckoning forth the stored essential riches of the artist's mind4 ,those three upright lines inside the breakwater turn into ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lv ,,watchet1 ,,somersetshire ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahaa ,illustration3 ,,watchet1 ,,somersetshire ,,engraving ,,published ,,in 8,,the ,,southern ,,coast10 #a ,,april1 #ahbj ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lvi ,,boscastle1 ,,cornwall ,,pencil1 ,,about #ahaa ,illustration3 ,,boscastle1 ,,cornwall ,,engraving ,,published ,,in 8,,the ,,southern ,,coast10 #aj ,,march1 #ahbd an array of fishing boats1 the sea ripples into the harbour and creeps up the shore1 the village straightens itself out and grows into a collection of habitable houses1 with gardens and parting walls1 the women come out of the houses to spread their washing on the grass to dry1 others gossip in the roadway1 the men have a little business loading or unloading one of the boats1 or else see to the nets1 or stroll idly along the jetty1 and a couple set off on important business along the road that leads over the hill and far away4 ,the whole process1 of course1 is absurdly easy and familiar4 ,even the least imaginative of us is capable of some kind of success in this line of imaginative interpretation4 ,the only point of difference between the least of us and the greatest in this kind of exercise is in the quality of the subjective filling-out with which we clothe our meagre data1 in the wealth of experience stored and refined by thought1 its coherence1 and above all1 its clear-cut precision and definition4 ,the power to force all the floating imagery thus called up to what ,i think ,blake called #8the seeing point'--to make the mental imagery as clear-cut and vivid as an actual object of sight1 and then to use it as the material for the construction of a picture1 these are exceptional capacities2 but we can hardly doubt that the psychological processes which connect sketch and imaginative amplification1 even in the mind of the most gifted artist1 are the same as those which connect sign and interpretation in the minds of all normally constituted individuals4 ,to an artist trained in modern methods of literal transcription1 it is curious to notice the liberties ,turner allows himself to take with his own sketch4 ,in it the main shapes of the mass of rock in the middle distance are pretty clearly marked1 but instead of carefully retaining these and amplifying them1 his busy mind sets to work and builds the whole structure up afresh4 ,in the end it comes out very different from the sketch1 but it is so well and truly put together1 it is so thoroughly steeped in the profound knowledge garnered in years of the sharpest observation and study1 that we accept it more gladly than an unintelligent transcript of any particular rock formation4 ,nay more1 even if we had forced ,turner himself to stay there on the spot1 and elaborate his representation with the scene in front of his eyes1 there would have been no gain to the drawing1 for the result could not possibly have been more thoroughly penetrated with the laws of human thought and observation4 ,we notice the same freedom in dealing with the #8,boscastle' sketch4 ,the general character only of the rocks on the right is there indicated1 but in the engraving the whole mass is recreated from the stores of the artist's knowledge4 ,in the sketch1 too1 there is no authority for the solid masonry on the rock to the left1 immediately below the gang of men assisting the vessel into harbour4 ,note also the alteration in the profile of this rock1 which slopes less abruptly in the sketch than in the engraving4 ,it is true that these two plates can hardly be ranked as among the finest of the ,southern ,coast subjects2 the #8,watchet' is1 ,i think1 rather a poor design1 and though the #8,boscastle' is finer1 it can hardly be classed with such consummate achievements as the #8,plymouth ,dock1 from ,mount ,edgecumbe1' #8,poole1' or #8,the ,land's ,end4' ,in these designs the subjective synthesis has a more distinctly emotional setting1 but there can be no doubt that the processes of imaginative construction are on exactly the same lines as those we have just indicated4 ,in every case the active motive force is something within the artist's own soul2 it is not given from without4 ,the next important publication with which ,turner was connected after the commencement of the ,southern ,coast1 was ,whitaker's ,history of ,richmondshire1 to which he furnished a series of twenty illustrations4 ,this set of drawings1 often spoken of as #8the ,yorkshire series1' has always been regarded with peculiar affection by all lovers of ,turner's water-colour work4 ,the originals are nearly all in private collections 7where ,i hope they will be carefully guarded from the light1 as the blues in them are of a fugitive nature71 but there are two permanently accessible to the public in the ,fitzwilliam ,museum1 ,cambridge--thanks to ,mr4 ,ruskin's generosity--and a third is in ,london1 in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,the ,cambridge drawings1 the #8,richmond1 ,yorks1' and the #8,mossdale ,fall1' are already somewhat faded1 especially the latter one1 but the ,london drawing1 of #8,hornby ,castle1' thanks to ,mr4 ,vaughan's wise ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lvii ,,hornby ,,castle1 ,,from ,,tatham ,,church ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahaf ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lviii ,,hornby ,,castle1 ,,from ,,tatham ,,church ,,engraving ,,published ,,in ,,whitaker',s 8,,richmondshire10 ,,june1 #ahbb stipulation that it shall always be protected by a curtain when not being looked at1 is still in fairly good condition4 ,the engravings from the whole series were published between the years #ahai and #ahbc1 but the sketches on which the drawings were based were all made during a tour in the summer of #ahaf4 ,so far as ,i know1 ,turner did not make a single colour sketch from nature during the whole of this tour4 ,all the sketches are in pencil and the water-colours were all painted in the studio entirely from these pencil memoranda4 ,the sketches are very similar to those made for the ,southern ,coast subjects1 but they contain evidence that the artist was in a softer and gentler frame of mind4 ,the conquering ,napoleonic insolence has passed into an attitude of human and affectionate solicitude4 ,the touch of the pencil point is everywhere light and graceful1 yet it is as swift as ever1 never lingering for a moment over details or particular facts4 ,this is especially noticeable in the treatment of foliage2 the pencil seeming always to caress the general idea of foliage1 while holding the particular shapes and even positions of trees and bushes as of only slight importance4 ,the work1 one cannot but feel1 is that of a happy and contented man1 at peace with himself and pleased with his surroundings4 ,when we remember the close proximity of ,farnley ,hall to these scenes1 and that ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,fawkes and their family actually accompanied the artist over part of the ground1 we can hardly be surprised at the sunniness of temper evinced by these sketches4 ,in nearly all the designs human figures and cattle play a prominent part4 ,this is noticeably the case with the two subjects ,i have chosen for illustration4 ,in the #8,hornby ,castle' the incident of the broken jug1 the weeping maiden1 the sympathetic bystanders1 the picturesque passer-by on his donkey1 the busy milk-maid1 and above all the cat1 triumphantly lapping up the spilt milk1 all this is at least as important an element in the picture as the ,castle and view itself4 ,in the #8,heysham' the reapers1 cattle1 milkmaid1 and passing waggon seem to form the keynote of the whole design4 ,yet there are no sketches or even the slightest indications of any of these things in the sketch-books4 ,they were evolved1 ,i firmly believe1 entirely by the artists' creative imagination as each scene came to life under his hands in the studio4 ,to some extent1 no doubt1 the decorative or mechanical requirements of the subject solicited their existence4 ,in the #8,heysham1' for example1 lines are wanted in the foreground to repeat with variations the horizontal undulations of the mountains in the distance and middle-distance2 the cast shadows do this1 and hence we have the presence of the cows and figures as pretexts for these shadows4 ,and then we may as well make these objects useful in themselves2 hence the turn of the foreground cow's neck placed just where it seems to complete the curve of the descending hills1 and the sharp silhouette of the head catches the eye while the cast shadow swings it away in a new and happy direction4 ,exactly why the eye should find such exquisite enjoyment in the plunge down from the hill's profile to the head of the calf1 rubbing her nose against the back of the seated white cow1 and then on to the foreground beast1 and then in springing off again at a sharp angle to the bottom of the large foreground stone in the corner just above the signature1--exactly why we take pleasure in this kind of visual melody1 ,i do not know1 but ,i know that the tracks laid for visible flights of this kind1 crossing each other and interweaving in all directions1 form a very large part of the enjoyment which ,turner's drawings provide4 ,the pencil sketch of ,heysham 7,plate ,,lix4 7a77 thus formed1 as it were1 the leading motive of the water-colour drawing1 or rather it provided a series of shapes which could not be varied beyond certain limits1 and these shapes formed the starting-point of the elaborate visual movement which ,turner proceeded to invent and weave round it4 ,i called just now this side of the work #8decorative or mechanical1' because ,i wished to distinguish it from a different but related aspect4 ,this unmeaning and abstract play of lines is like the rhyme1 assonance and rhythm of a poem2 a part1 but an unconscious1 and as it were dependent1 part1 of the whole effect4 ,no sane person would read a poem expressly for the jingle of the sounds1 unless for the purposes of analysis1 and in the same way1 no sane lover of pictures would look at this drawing of ,heysham merely for the visible play of the lines and masses4 ,neither can the artist or poet abandon themselves to the ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lix ,,heysham1 ,,with ,,black ,,combe1 ,,coniston ,,old ,,man1 ,,helvellyn1 ,,etc41 ,,in ,,distance ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahaf ,illustration3 ,,heysham ,,and ,,cumberland ,,mountains ,,engraving ,,published ,,in ,,whitaker',s 8,,richmondshire10 #bb ,,august1 #ahbb mere unmeaning play of sounds or lines in the process of composition4 ,these external requirements must be subordinated to the requirements of the meaning4 ,and so1 though ,i said just now that these mechanical requirements may have had some share in calling the figures and incidents represented into being1 we must be careful not to forget that that share is only of slight and subordinate importance4 ,what is important is the essential congruity of the figures and incidents with the landscape itself2 they must appear not as something arbitrarily added1 but as a mere development or further determination of the meaning already implicit in the landscape4 ,in the present case so intimate is what ,i may call the logical identity between the bare view1 as represented by the initial sketch1 and as a topographical fact1 and the whole living and moving scene as represented by the finished design1 that the development of the one from the other seems as inevitable as the march of the seasons or the processes of growth and decay to which we ourselves are subject4 ,from this point of view ,i think it is easy to see that such a result is attainable in no other way than that which ,turner has followed4 ,no actual scene could ever possess quite the same close-knit logical coherence1 the same absolute absence of irrelevance1 as we find in ,turner's finished drawing2 so that the most faithful and loving and skilful reproduction of the most carefully selected aspect of actuality would never give us the same kind of outer and inner unity that ,turner has achieved by his method of amplifying1 modifying1 and interpreting his slight pencil sketches4 ,only in this way can the active forces of interpretation or assimilation1 by which the artist as well as the meanest of us fills out the incoming suggestions of the given1 achieve adequate expression4 ,a psychologist might perhaps describe the difference between a faithful transcription of an actual scene and such an effort of the creative imagination as we have just been studying1 by saying that the one is a representation of the incoming or given ideas or sensations1 while ,turner's picture represents these same ideas or sensations after they have been thoroughly #8apperceived' by the masses of ideas stored in the artist's mind4 ,if we adopt such a description1 we must not forget to add that ,turner has used his knowledge of the mechanism of the pictorial language to set out his total idea for us in the clearest and pleasantest way4 ,as with the ,heysham sketch1 so with the ,hornby4#bh ,i need perhaps hardly call attention to the deliberate heightening of ,hornby ,castle1 and to the way the back of the nearer hill in front of it has been humped in the finished design4 ,this deliberate falsification 7as it must seem to the literalist7 is paralleled by the treatment of the foreground tree1 whose individuality is destroyed1 and whose place is taken by a mere alien grown in the fertile climate of the artist's imagination4 ,i have no doubt that if ,turner could have got the same effect without making these alterations he would not have made them4 ,but it is obvious that he could not4 ,from his point of view such alterations are merely grammatical devices by which he throws the required emphasis on qualities which hills and trees do undeniably possess1 but which were somewhat slurred over in nature's momentary presentment of the case4 ,and if we think about the matter calmly1 we see that we cannot expect any object to enter into new relations without undergoing some kind of modification2 ,i mean that we cannot expect physical facts to be taken up into the intelligible world and used as factors in the expression of ideas and emotions without requiring some kind of modification4 ,while ,turner was producing these exquisite drawings for ,whitaker's ,history of ,richmondshire1 he also executed a series of ten or eleven slightly smaller drawings to illustrate ,sir ,walter ,scott's ,provincial ,antiquities and ,picturesque ,scenery of ,scotland4 ,eight of these drawings were presented by the publishers to ,scott1 who had them framed from an oak felled on the ,abbotsford estate during ,turner's visit there in #ahah4 ,the effect of this frame on the drawings1 it must be confessed1 is atrocious4 ,it might be guaranteed to kill the effect of any water-colour drawings but the radiantly immortal ones for which it was made4 ,no doubt even these would look better out of it1 but such as it is it hung in the breakfast-room at ,abbotsford till after ,scott's death1 and as it then hung1 so it hangs now in ,mr4 ,thomas ,brocklebank's hospitable mansion at ,heswall1 ,chester4 ,when we draw the curtain1 which has kept ,turner's beautiful ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lx ,,dinburgh1 ,,from ,,calton ,,hill ,,pencil4 #ahah ,illustration3 ,,edinburgh ,,from ,,calton ,,hill ,,engraving ,,published ,,in ,,scott',s 8,,provincial ,,antiquities ,,of ,,scotland10 #a ,,november1 #ahbj ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lx ,,edinburgh ,,from ,,calton ,,hill ,,pencil4 #ahah ,illustration3 ,,figures ,,on ,,calton ,,hill ,,pencil4 #ahah ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxi ,,borthwick ,,castle ,,pencil4 #ahah ,illustration3 ,,borthwick ,,castle ,,engraving ,,published ,,in ,,scott',s 8,,provincial ,,antiquities ,,of ,,scotland10 #b ,,april1 #ahai work as fresh as when it was first executed1 and look at these drawings1 it is difficult to single out any one of them for special attention4 ,but after looking through the engravings made from them in ,scott's book1 the marvellous view of #8,edinburgh from the ,calton ,hill' leaves perhaps the most powerful impression on the imagination4 ,i have1 therefore1 selected the drawing made from nature upon which this design was based as the subject of one of our illustrations 7,plate ,,lx474 ,in this case we find that ,turner has followed his sketch with great care1 yet the whole material has been hammered this way and that by his powerful hand4 ,we can see that the artist felt impatient with nature's calm and unhurried chronicle of facts1 and was determined at all costs to make a more immediate and concentrated attack on the spectator's powers of perception4 ,instead of stretching out calmly and indifferently on both hands1 as in the sketch1 the city in the finished design seems to soar upwards from the depths beneath our feet4 ,the jail on our left has been squeezed together1 making the line from the porch to the central turret much more oblique than it was4 ,the perspective of nearly all the buildings has been modified1 yet the artist has taken great care to preserve the character of the silhouettes of the leading planes4 ,but it is in the invention of the play of light which animates the whole1 and throws into such strong relief all the telling points of the design1 that we find the clearest evidence of the artist's active intervention4 ,a curious instance of ,turner's habit of using his notes rather as hints to his imagination than as providing ready-made material waiting for immediate incorporation1 is afforded by the sketches of some figures made while he was standing on the ,calton ,hill4 ,on the back of one of the pages on which our view of ,edinburgh is drawn1 there is a rough sketch of the brow of the hill with groups of figures on it4 ,among these figures are three girls attending to the drying of the clothes they have washed4 ,one of these is standing shaking out a cloth in the wind4 ,but though ,turner has introduced this incident into the foreground of his picture1 the figure there is not a repetition of the graceful figure in the sketch4 ,in the picture the action has been changed1 and the figure presented in a different point of view4 ,it is designed altogether afresh4 ,in the same way none of the other figures is repeated in the finished drawing4 ,the figures in the drawing are indeed the same sort of people as in the sketch1 but each is designed specially for its place1 and with reference to the movement of the whole picture4 ,all this is eminently characteristic of the cast of ,turner's mind1 which seems to store scenes and incidents in complete independence of their momentary and particular appearance2 he is thus able to set these invisible essences in motion before his mind's eye1 and to wait till they arrange themselves to his complete satisfaction1 and he has then no difficulty in clothing them with the attributes of time and space4 ,we will turn now to a sketch of a different kind4 ,in the #8,edinburgh1' #8,heysham' and #8,hornby' sketches1 as in most of those we have examined1 we have seen ,turner making a note of what we may call the chief items of the topographical data1 leaving the problem of their arrangement1 modification and amplification for future solution4 ,in the two sketches of ,rochester 7,plates ,,lxii4 7a7 and 7b77 which ,i have had reproduced1 we see the artist's mind moving on a different track4 ,a few pages earlier in the sketch-book from which these two leaves are taken1 he has indeed made his usual record of the facts about the church1 bridge1 etc41 at ,rochester1 but apparently1 as time did not press1 he remained in his boat watching the scene and criticising1 as one who understood such things1 nature's own methods of design4 ,his sketches now become not topographical records but swift and eloquent designs for pictures4 ,the concrete particularity of the castle1 church1 bridge1 etc41 becomes abrogated or submerged4 ,these objects are now taken up into a new kind of systematic unity1 in which their relationship to the whole and to each other is of much more importance than their discrete individuality4 ,now1 the important point is just how the ,castle and the other topographical items drop into place with regard to the shipping on the river1--the kind of groups they all make1 the way the one item affects the other1 half hiding it or setting it off to advantage4 ,in the sketch on page #ah of the sketch-book 7,plate ,,lxii4 7a77 the exact position of the mast of the foreground vessel is the dominant factor1--the way it unites the lines described by the silhouette of the castle and the trees sloping down to the bridge1 bringing the ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxii ,,rochester ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahba ,illustration3 ,,rochester ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahba ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxiii ,,rochester4 ,,on ,,the ,,river ,,medway ,,water ,,colour4 ,,about #ahbb curves to a focus1 as it were1 and providing a rigid base for them to spring from again4 ,in the other sketch 7,plate ,,lxii4 7b77 ,turner is trying a different arrangement of the material1 or1 to put it more accurately1 nature is trying another effect1 and ,turner is watching and making notes of the experiment4 ,in this way1 before ,turner shut up his book he had made over a dozen skeleton designs1 which he had only to clothe in colour and light and shade to develop into beautiful pictures4 ,but when he got home and actually set to work to make the drawing of ,rochester for the ,rivers of ,england series1 he deliberately ignored every one of nature's pregnant suggestions1 and began to build up his own design in his own way4 ,perhaps he thought nature's designs wanted more space than he had at his command in a plate that was to be only a few inches square2 perhaps it was the sheer delight in the exercise of his creative powers that was the main motive force1 for though his sketch-books teem with designs caught in this way on the wing1 yet he never once1 so far as ,i can discover1 adopted one of them in his own pictures1 without so modifying and recasting it as to make it into a quite new and independent construction4 ,i am not at all sure of the exact date when the sketch of ,bolton ,abbey 7,plate ,,lxiv47 was made4 ,it is the sketch upon which the water-colour engraved in the ,england and ,wales series was based4 ,the engraving was published in #ahbg1 so the water-colour must have been made a year or two earlier1 but as the sketch occurs in a book which contains a number of the ,devonshire ,rivers subjects1 it probably belongs to about the time of ,turner's second visit to ,devonshire4 ,this visit took place in either #ahab or #ahac1 and the ,wharfedale sketches1 of which the #8,bolton' is one1 cannot have been later than #ahae4 ,so it is probable that at least ten years elapsed between the making of the sketch and the water-colour drawing in which the sketch was elaborated4 ,the drawing itself is one of the most universally admired of all the ,england and ,wales subjects4 ,mr4 ,ruskin alludes to it again and again in the various volumes of ,modern ,painters4 ,in the fourth volume 7chapter xvi47 he gives an admirable analysis of the imaginative conception1 and in volume three 7chapter ix47 he dwells with his usual eloquence on the knowledge displayed in the treatment of the foreground trees4 ,with the general tenor of these remarks ,i am in entire agreement1 and if the passages were not so long ,i should like to introduce them here1 but unless the reader is very careful1 ,i am inclined to think that ,mr4 ,ruskin's constant appeal to #8the facts' is likely to mislead him into the belief that all the details of the design1 and especially those of the foreground trees1 are elaborately studied and accurately reproduced from the actual scene4 ,turner's sketch proves that this was not the case4 ,each individual tree1 every curve in its trunk1 the texture of its bark1 the stains and hollows and flickering lights and shadows upon it1 and the intricate play of the trees' upper branches1 all these have been1 not painstakingly studied from nature1 but invented by the artist in his studio1 and each detail has been invented not entirely for its own sake1 but as a note1 a chord1 in the whole complex of visible harmony4 ,i do not think any more wonderful example could be given of the intense activity of creative genius than that which is furnished by a careful comparison of this drawing with the sketch upon which it was based4 ,we look at the sketch1 and all the subject seems there2 as a synopsis of the finished picture it seems tolerably complete4 ,yet in the drawing we find almost every detail has been altered4 ,notice the way the foreground trees have been pushed nearer to each other4 ,in the sketch one has to search for the abbey1 and then one's eyes begin to wander about aimlessly4 ,but in the drawing everything is brought into connection with everything else2 it is all welded together4 ,the abbey is the first thing one sees1 then the eye goes easily and inevitably to the second couple of foreground trees1 the seated angler and the distant river-bank4 ,in passing from one object to the other the eye feels something of the same kind of pleasure that the ear takes in the rhythm of verse1 so that one's gaze travels over the drawing not vagrantly and with effort1 but gladly1 and to the spectator all this visible melody and delight seem like the unconscious expression of the secret joy with which the artist's mind played round the scene1 an echo of the mysterious music of his happy memories4 ,the effect of the #8,bolton' drawing is that of a bright summer's ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxiv ,,bolton ,,abbey ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahae ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxv ,,bolton ,,abbey ,,engraving ,,published ,,in 8,,picturesque ,,views ,,in ,,england ,,and ,,wales10 #ahbg ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxvi ,,colchester ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahbd ,illustration3 ,,colchester ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahbd ,illustration3 ,,plate4 ,,lxvii ,,colchester1 ,,essex ,,engraving ,,published ,,in 8,,picturesque ,,views ,,in ,,england ,,and ,,wales10 #ahbg afternoon1 an effect that does not change very rapidly2 the slightness of ,turner's sketch was not1 therefore1 a necessary outcome of the transitory nature of his subject-matter4 ,had he been so minded he could easily have painted the whole subject out-of-doors4 ,but with the #8,colchester' drawing1 another of the ,england and ,wales subjects1 published about the same time as the #8,bolton1' the case was different4 ,there the effect is a momentary one4 ,it is evening1 the shades of twilight have gathered1 and the sun is on the point of disappearing4 ,there was only time for a few hasty memoranda2 but while the modern artist would almost invariably make his memoranda in colour1 ,turner is quite satisfied with his usual hurried pencil notes4 ,in the sketches here reproduced 7,plate ,,lxvi47 we have a kind of abstract of the whole scene4 ,there is the miller's house beside the river at the foot of the hill1 while the hill is crowned by a row of trees through which the abbey building and the roofs of the distant town can be seen4 ,the position of the sun and of its reflection in the river are marked4 ,the general idea of the whole is certainly there in the sketches1 but in a rudimentary or indeterminate condition4 ,note how deliberately vague and undefined the idea of the trees on the brow of the hill has been kept4 ,a distant abbey-building set in the delicate tracery of gracefully branching trees1 the whole framed in masses of feathery foliage1 that was the general idea of this part of the design1 and ,turner knew that he was familiar enough with the nature and ways of trees to be able to carry out this idea with all the requisite wealth of detail whenever he should set himself seriously to the task4 ,the exact shapes of the trees actually growing there on the hillside on the day and at the moment when he made this sketch were1 apart from their general idea1 a matter of indifference to him4 ,if he had cared very much about them he could easily have gone there the next morning and drawn them carefully2 they would hardly have altered much in the night4 ,but these shapes would have surely wanted revision1 alteration and suppression1 before they could have taken their places as a perfectly articulated limb in ,turner's living1 organic design4 ,the result could not have been more satisfactory than the one reached without this labour4 ,as with the row of trees1 so with the miller's house1 the cottages creeping up the hillside and the distant town4 ,the pencil hieroglyphs are enough to suggest the general idea of these objects1 their appropriate particularities will unroll themselves from the stored treasures of ,turner's mind so soon as he takes his pencil in hand again to carry forward his work2 not the actual details of the cottages1 etc41 existing down there in ,essex1 but the details appropriate to the picture as an expression of an emotional experience4 ,the drawings in the ,england and ,wales series produced in this way1 in which a definite particular experience of the artist is enshrined as it were in a wealth of appropriate and beautifully arranged shapes and colours1 are among the best of the series4 ,but the pressure of professional engagements did not always permit the artist to wait for this kind of inspiration4 ,on such occasions he appears to have fallen back on the material stored in his early sketch-books1 and his rhetorical mastery of the elements of design was taxed to the uttermost to provide it with suitable clothing and ornament4 ,an excellent example of this kind of work is provided by the drawing of ,stamford1 published in #ahcj4 ,this was founded on one of the sketches made during ,turner's first tour in the ,north of ,england1 in #agig4 ,this sketch 7,plate ,,lxviii47 is no doubt a fairly accurate record of the place1 its humdrum streets and houses1 with its three triumphant bursts of idealism in the shape of its three unimaginative church towers4 ,in taking up this sketch thirty years after it was made1 ,turner seems to have asked himself1 #8,what am ,i to do to make this dull affair into something universally interesting8' that is to say1 into something interesting and even amusing to those who care nothing for ,stamford merely for its own sake4 ,of course the first thing for him to do was obviously to seize upon the three towers and make the most of them1 setting them up against a gorgeous sky filled with rain and thunder and the darting rays of the thwarted sun1 which1 however1 must so far triumph in its contest as to flood the towers with its light and transfigure them with its splendour4 ,the street below remains dull and untractable1 but yet something may be made of it4 ,we can gain one point by insisting on the smallness and homeliness of the houses1 intensifying their ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxviii ,,stamford1 ,,lincolnshire ,,pencil4 #agig ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxix ,,stamford1 ,,lincolnshire ,,engraving ,,published ,,in 8,,picturesque ,,views ,,in ,,england ,,and ,,wales10 #ahcj ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxx ,,tynemouth ,,priory ,,pencil1 ,,with ,,part ,,in ,,water ,,colour4 #agig4 ,illustration3 ,,tynemouth1 ,,northumberland ,,engraving ,,published ,,in 8,,picturesque ,,views ,,in ,,england ,,and ,,wales10 #ahca unimaginative character into something approaching the grotesque4 ,better the actively ugly1 for that at least makes our dullest and largest church tower look almost beautiful by contrast1 than the passively commonplace4 ,and then1 lest our modest efforts remain of small avail1 we invent a couple of quaint old travellers hurrying across the road to their inn1 accompanied by the barks and gambols of a lively little white dog2 by good luck and our own skilful management they come just in front of our dull row of houses1 so that what with one thing and another we find our eyes and thoughts very pleasantly diverted4 ,as for the houses on the left we can shut off a great part of them by simply drawing up a lumbering stage-coach on that side of the road and heaping it with ample females in swelling draperies1 with burgeoning umbrellas and bounteous baggage4 ,and having got so far1 we can now see exactly what it is we want to make our foreground and distance more immediately effective4 ,in the sketch there is a hint that the road dips just a trifle down from the foreground to the church2 we increase this slight inequality till we get a dip of something like forty or fifty feet between us and the church1 a drop that gives uncommon height and dignity to our humble towers4 ,and now1 having got our street laid out to our liking1 we want to make the most of its possibilities1 so we set another stage-coach down at the foot of our little hill1 load it with passengers impatient to be out of their wet clothes1 and give it a couple of rearing1 prancing1 steaming horses to gallop it in hot haste up the declivity1 so that now1 as we look at the engraving1 we can almost hear the ring of the horses' hooves on the stones and feel the rush of wind made by the coach as it dashes past us2 all this merely by way of amplifying the artist's statement about his imaginary hill1 and to drive the idea of his well-invented fiction home into the consciousness of even the dullest of his audience4 ,the #8,tynemouth' design1 published in #ahca1 is on a higher plane of imaginative creation than the #8,stamford' subject1 yet it was built up in just the same way from a sketch made at the same time on another leaf of the same sketch-book4 ,the #8,stamford' design shows ,turner struggling valiantly against the absence of any very pressing inspiration1 and emerging with credit from the ordeal2 the #8,tynemouth' drawing1 on the other hand1 shows that his youthful and thirty-year old topographical sketch had served to set his imagination aflame with all the urgency of a recent personal experience4 ,the vision conjured up by what ,i can only call the potential or possible associations of a rocky coast had so much completeness1 so much innate driving force1 that ,turner had no need to resort to the purely external and arbitrary tricks of composition which had proved such valuable auxiliaries in the #8,stamford' drawing4 ,in the case of the #8,stamford' subject1 we might almost say that the pictorial equivalent of the rhyme and metre had suggested the sense2 in the case of the #8,tynemouth' drawing the idea itself is so vivid that it creates its own lilt and harmony4 ,in looking through a number of ,turner's drawings the hasty observer--especially should he be a professional student eager to pick up useful knowledge--is inclined to jump to the conclusion that the important thing about rocks and mountains is to be high1 and that when the height of the most prominent buildings1 especially if they happen to be in ruins1 has been increased three or fourfold1 all the duties of the imaginative designer have been attended to4 ,in the #8,tynemouth' drawing we see how free ,turner is from the constraint of any such ready-made and purely external rules of design4 ,he has here deliberately lowered the apparent height of his buildings and cliffs1 and1 if we examine the matter carefully1 we see that he has done this not at the dictates of a passing whim or fancy1 but because the heart of the matter--the so-called #8subject1' that vague1 intangible1 elusive something which seems to sit in the centre of the dynamical idea and pump blood and life into every outlying portion of the organism1 and tyrannises so beneficently over the structure and function of each part of the design--because this heart of the matter would clearly have it so4 ,in the sketch we have an item of brute fact waiting1 as it were1 pathetically to be taken up into the world of thought and feeling1 asking1 so to speak1 to be made significant and human4 ,the artist has granted the request in his finished design by making the physical facts the mere passive spectators of man's sorrow and suffering4 ,in the sketch1 the tall cliffs and ruined walls of the priory tower above the small fishing-boat struggling into port2 in the picture1 the tall masts of the wrecked schooner dwarf the priory and the cliffs and drive them into subordination4 ,the real centre of interest is the active1 restless power of the sea for ill4 ,the baneful little leaps of the waves that fill nearly all the lower part of the design tell their story of storm and wreck plainly enough4 ,the wrecked barques under the cliffs are in a sad plight1 but the pieces of floating mast and broken plank in the foreground tell of worse things4 ,on the shore we have the thrifty gatherers of flotsam and jetsam1 and a crowd of willing helpers4 ,on all this moving scene the wreck of the priory looks down not without sympathy2 it too1 it seems to say1 is a part of man's activity and ambition1 it suffers also from the taint of mortality and from the merciless power of the wind and rain4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,mental ,,and ,,physical ,,decay1 ,,and ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,impressionism--#ahcj-ahde ,mental characteristics of #ahae-ahcj period--,their influence on form--and colour--,colour enrichment a general characteristic of ,romantic ,art--,what further development is required to give us the transition to ,impressionism8--,the first of ,turner's so-called ,impressionistic works--,vagueness or indistinctness as a means of expression--,two ways of painting one's impressions--,turner's earlier way--contrasted with the modern ,impressionistic way--,the change1 after #ahcj1 is it a change in terms of sight or of thought--visual or mental8--,the content of ,turner's later work--,the relation of ,turner's later work to ,impressionism defined--,the gradual development of ,turner's later manner--,the ,petworth sketches 7#ahcj7--,the discovery of the artistic value of the indeterminate--,the ,vignettes-#8,rivers of ,france'--,venetian sketches 7#ahcd-ahdj7--,swiss and ,rhine sketches 7#ahda-ahdd7--,the end4 ,when we try to make clear to ourselves the inner characteristics of the period studied in the last chapter1 we notice at once a change from the gloom1 sternness and patient endurance of the earlier decade to a brighter and more cheerful frame of mind4 ,turner's predominant frame of mind is proud and happy4 ,he seems to rejoice in the splendour of the world and exult over the richness and variety of its material4 ,his attitude towards humanity is not so easily defined4 ,in the best of his oil paintings1 as in the #8,pas de ,calais' 7#8,now for the ,painter'71 and in his water colours1 there is an abundance of close and sympathetic observation of the labours and sorrow of mankind4 ,but in spite of the graces of a naturally kind heart ,turner's attitude towards these labours and sufferings is not entirely free from traces of hardness and selfishness4 ,his instinct for the picturesque side of this kind of subject-matter is so keen1 and his insistence on this picturesqueness is so constant and so emphatic1 that it is hard to resist the suspicion that his interest is rather professional than personal4 ,he does not seem to feel himself an actor and a fellow-sufferer4 ,he was on the other side of the fence2 he was the artist1 and labouring1 suffering mankind his material4 ,and so far as he himself was concerned he had every reason for exultation4 ,the nature that could endow a humbly born youth with such gifts as he possessed1 and the society that had rewarded these talents so generously1 might be said to have fairly earned the young painter's gratitude4 ,he gave it effusively1 with none of the ulterior reserves an educated ,greek would have felt in the presence of a great happiness or pre-eminent success4 ,let us now turn to the outward and visible results of this exultant and somewhat heartless and selfish enjoyment4 ,the movement of the design1 the quality of the tone and colour1 and the spirit of the handling of the pictures in which such a frame of mind is expressed1 could not possibly be the same as in ,turner's earlier pictures4 ,the sober and restrained colouring of pictures like the #8,windsor1' the #8,frosty ,morning' and #8,the ,nore1' is in perfect harmony with the patient strength and sternness of the emotional colouring of their inspiration4 ,the same mood could not be expressed in any other scheme of lighting and colour4 ,but to treat what1 for want of a better word1 ,i may call a pictorial metre1 as though it were equally admirable as a means of expression for all kinds and shades of emotion1 would argue an extraordinary dulness or sheer absence of artistic capacity2 and ,turner's shortcomings1 if he had any1 were moral rather than artistic4 ,given then the mood of exultant enjoyment of the physical amenities of the world1 a lighter and brighter colour scheme than that of ,turner's earlier pictures was bound to be forthcoming1 if that mood was to be fully expressed by pictorial art4 ,and as a matter of history ,turner was the first modern artist in the range of landscape art to give adequate expression to this sentiment of unrestrained enjoyment of the physical delights of nature1 though we see the same swelling sense of the pride of life finding a similar form of expression in the works of contemporary figure-painters like ,sir ,thomas ,lawrence1 ,shee and ,hayter in ,england1 and ,delacroix1 ,isabey1 and others in ,france4 ,in the present chapter ,i propose to deal with the closing phase of ,turner's art4 ,in the works of this period ,turner has been said to have initiated a new kind of art1 or at least to have invented or introduced certain important innovations in the region of colour and tone1 which have had the effect of developing new possibilities in the art of landscape-painting4 ,it is from this point of view1 and with reference to this aspect of ,turner's work1 that he has been hailed as the father of ,impressionism4 ,before discussing the value of the innovations ,turner introduced and their influence on subsequent developments of the art1 it is important to study the immediate causes which brought them into existence4 ,in other words1 we must study this new phase of ,turner's art in relation to its immediate antecedents2 in the first place1 to see how far it can be regarded as a necessary development of what had gone before1 and in the second place1 to discover exactly what is new in it4 ,the two most striking characteristics of ,turner's later work are the brightness and extended range of his colour schemes4 ,but this formal characteristic is clearly taken over bodily from the previous period1 and we have just seen that it was but the necessary outward expression of the spiritual content with which ,turner was then preoccupied4 ,in a picture like #8,ulysses deriding ,polyphemus' 7#ahbi71 for example1 we have a colour scheme as bright and as extended as that of any of the later works1 and yet it is emphatically a work of the ,romantic period4 ,it is all ablaze with the light and flame of human pride4 ,its gorgeous array of blues1 its burnished gold and glowing crimson and scarlet and white are but the triumphant expression of the mood of unrestrained sensuous enjoyment which formed the key-note of the work we have just been examining4 ,but if the lightening of the colour scheme was simply an inheritance from the ,romantic phase of art1 what are we to regard as the special contribution of the later manner8 ,a comparison of a few of ,turner's later works with the #8,ulysses' will show us at once4 ,the earliest example of ,turner's later and so-called ,impressionistic manner with which ,i am familiar is the #8,calais ,sands1 low water--,poissards collecting bait1' which was exhibited in #ahcj1 and is now in the ,bury ,art ,gallery4 ,its colour ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxi ,,bemerside ,,tower ,,pencil4 ,,about #ahca ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxii ,,bemerside ,,tower ,,engraving ,,published ,,in ,,scott',s 8,,poetical ,,works0 7,,cadell71 #ahcd scheme is actually more subdued than the #8,ulysses1' but the whole effect is more vaporous and the figures are less distinct4 ,so far as ,i am able to judge1 this is the chief differentia of ,turner's later manner1 and of all ,impressionistic work on its formal side4 ,as a second characteristic we may add the fact that it deals with a scene of contemporary life1 something that ,turner had actually seen with his eyes1 not something that he had read about and imagined1 as in the #8,ulysses4' ,if we examine #8,the ,evening ,star' and #8,at ,petworth' 7both at the ,tate ,gallery71 the #8,snowstorm' of #ahdb1 the late ,venetian pictures1 and the #8,rain1 ,storm1 ,speed' of #ahdd1 we find these works are all similarly distinguished by their general vagueness of definition and by the fact that they all represent scenes which had come within the range of the artist's own experience4 ,yet it is evident that these two characteristics are not of equal importance4 ,the vagueness of definition was a general characteristic of all ,turner's later work1 but a considerable number of these works were purely imaginary compositions1 as for example the #8,agrippina landing with the ,ashes of ,germanicus' 7#ahci71 #8,the ,exile and the rock limpet' 7#ahdb71 #8,the ,evening of the ,deluge' 7#ahdc71 #8,queen ,mab's ,cave' 7#ahdf71 and the various #8,whaler' pictures 7#ahde and #ahdf74 ,there is obviously1 then1 no necessary connection between ,turner's vagueness of execution 7his distinctively ,impressionist manner7 and his choice of subject of which he had been actually an eye-witness4 ,besides1 we must remember that ,turner did not wait till his later years before beginning to paint his own impressions4 ,he had been busy painting them ever since he had come to artistic maturity4 ,his #8,calais ,pier' 7#ahjc71 the #8,spithead' 7#ahji71 #8,petworth--,dewy ,morning' 7#ahaj71 #8,teignmouth' and #8,hulks on the ,tamar' 7#ahaa and #ahab71 and #8,frosty ,morning' 7#ahac71--to name only a few--were certainly works of this kind2 as were the #8,hedging and ,ditching' of the ,liber and the #8,colchester' of the ,england and ,wales series4 ,but there is no lack of determination in the execution of these works4 ,the difference between ,turner's later attempts to paint his impressions and his earlier must therefore be found in his attitude towards these impressions--the principle of selection1 of suppression and adjustment upon which he dealt with the data of sense-perception2 and this brings us to the consideration of the rationale of that vagueness of execution which we have agreed to regard as the chief characteristic of ,turner's later work4 ,an ingenious and at first somewhat plausible attempt has been made to explain the peculiarities of ,turner's later style1 on the ground that old age and failing health had brought about an actual organic change in the artist's powers of sight4 ,but it seems to me that ,dr4 ,liebreich's arguments#bi and conclusions are vitiated by his failure to discriminate between ,turner's manner of expression and the action of his eyesight4 ,these are two clearly distinct operations4 ,between the act of seeing and an artist's fully organised manner of expression1 a whole host of considerations--among them the limitations and capacities of the material--interpose themselves4 ,these considerations must all receive their due weight4 ,i know several very short-sighted artists whose pictures are remarkable for their elaborate and sharply defined details1 and there are others with strong and good eyesight1 whose pictures are confused and indistinct4 ,an artist puts into his pictures only what he chooses to put there4 ,and when we work out in detail the reasons why ,turner chose to make his drawings indistinct1 we find that such considerations are quite sufficient by themselves to account for his change of style1 without having recourse to any hypothetical alteration in his organs of sight4 ,the clue1 then1 to the nature of ,turner's later manner of expression is to be found in the character not of his optical sensations but of his thought1 or in other words1 upon the mode in which his intelligent self reacted upon the immediate data of sense-perception4 ,by the time he had reached the period with which we are now concerned1 he had lost much of his interest in the material world4 ,he cared no longer for the strength and weight1 the toughness and tang of material2 that delight in the solidity of real objects which gives such a manly gusto to his early sea-pieces1 is now altogether absent from his work4 ,he cares no longer for the company of men1 or for their avocations or joys and sorrows4 ,he is now a lonely old man1 with his thoughts mainly centred upon himself1 upon his artistic genius1 his artistic fame1 and the visions of future pictures by which his genius was to continue to manifest itself1 and by which his fame was to be increased or sustained4 ,we have then to think of ,turner as a solitary dreamer of dreams1 with a professional interest in the capacity of these dreams to startle a rather stupid public4 ,if we want to enter intimately into the spiritual and emotional content of his dreams we have only to turn to the contemporary works of the poets4 ,in pictures like #8,the ,fountain of ,indolence1' the #8,agrippina' and those ,i have mentioned above1 we see how deeply impressed his mind had become with the ideals of current ,romantic poetry2 the true ,byronic disgust with himself and vague emotions of the infinite1 the desire to #8steal ,from all ,i may be1 or have been before1 ,to mingle with the universe1 and feel ,what ,i can ne'er express4' ,there is no doubt that these obscure emotions and vague reveries can only be adequately expressed in one particular way4 ,they defy embodiment in clear-cut determinate forms4 ,they demand a style as indeterminate1 as vaguely suggestive1 as inarticulate as the loose-knit dreams which are calling for embodiment4 ,this1 then1 ,i take to be the proper explanation of the vagueness of ,turner's later manner3 ,it is not that he saw the world indistinctly1 but that his ideas were incapable of definition2 it is not that his eyes were newly opened to the vapours and mists of the physical world1 but that his own thoughts were confused and his emotions1 in spite of their strength1 were incoherent and inarticulate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we are now in a position to define the relation in which ,turner's later works stand to modern ,impressionism4 ,the exact connotation of this term is not by any means easy to grasp1 but so far as ,impressionism has distinctive aims ,i think we are justified in describing them as the attempt to eliminate all those elements in art which are due to the reaction of the intelligent self upon the immediate data of sense-perception4 ,the aim of ,impressionism is to get rid of what one eminent psychologist has called the notic fringe in a state of consciousness1 to abstract from memory and see objects as simple visual elements4 ,the ,impressionist wishes to see objects as though he was looking at them for the first time1 as though they had no meaning for him4 ,the theoretic justification of this procedure is that1 in stripping off the formative and organising action of intelligence we isolate the pure element of objective reality2 that pictures painted upon this principle give the real truth of nature and are free from all those errors and distortions which the action of thought is supposed to introduce into the irrefragably trustworthy elements of the given4 ,these assumptions are1 ,i need hardly add1 untenable1 but this is not the place to criticise them4 ,now if ,impressionism aims at getting rid of all the cognitive elements in concrete perception 7recognition1 classing1 naming1 etc47 as well as the later processes of interpretation and associative reflection1 and would express only the bare sensational element of impression1 it is clear that ,turner cannot be properly described as an ,impressionist4 ,turner's artistic aim was consistently lyrical1 i4e4 strongly subjective and emotional1 while the chief aim of ,impressionism is to eliminate all the merely subjective colouring from perception1 with the single purpose of isolating and reproducing what is regarded as the objective element4 ,so far1 then1 as ,impressionism has adopted ,turner's results1 it seems open to the charge of having done so without understanding their real nature or significance4 ,yet this result1 however helpful it may prove to the student of present-day art1 cannot be wholly satisfactory from another point of view4 ,from the point of view of ,turner's work our result is largely negative4 ,we have endeavoured to make it clear that to regard his later work as a new and triumphant attempt to represent what is called the #8truths of nature' is pure misunderstanding2 that ,turner's aim is not to represent either truths of atmosphere1 of lighting or of natural colour1 or any kind or class of physical fact2 that he is busied mainly with his own emotions and fancies1 and that he is concerned with the objective ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxiii ,,men ,,chatting ,,round ,,fireplace3 ,,petworth ,,house ,,water ,,colour4 ,,about #ahcj ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxiv ,,teasing ,,the ,,donkey3 ,,petworth ,,water ,,colour2 ,,on ,,blue4 ,,about #ahcj world only indirectly and only in so far as it furnishes or suggests the stuff out of which his pictorial symbols are woven4 ,but we have still to search for the secret power of attraction which these symbols do unquestionably possess4 ,why is it1 we must ask1 that these signs and symbols have such power to move men1 to delight and intoxicate some1 to soothe and cheer others8 ,the answers to these questions may be conveniently grouped under two heads4 ,in the first place we may consider what are the attractions which ,turner's work shares with the ,romantic poets whose works express the same kind of subject-matter1 and in the second place we may attempt to indicate what are the qualities which are more intimately connected with his own individuality4 ,in the first place then1 when we consider ,turner as a fellow-worker with ,byron1 ,shelley1 and ,lamartine1 we see that like them he appeals constantly and unerringly to that illusion of the romantic temperament which lends a mysterious charm to all that is indefinite and indefinable4 ,in a singularly acute analysis of this temperament ,mr4 ,george ,santayana has traced one of the chief causes of the delight which this kind of art and poetry awakens to what he calls #8the illusion of infinite perfection4' ,there is1 he says1 a loose and helpless state of mind to which we all of us approximate when in a state of fatigue4 ,in this state of mind we are not capable of concentrated and serious attention to one thing at a time1 so we are apt to #8flounder in the vague1 but at the same time we are full of yearnings1 of half-thoughts and semi-visions1 and the upward tendency and exaltation of our mood is emphatic and overpowering in proportion to our incapacity to think1 speak1 or imagine4 ,the sum of our incoherencies has1 however1 an imposing volume and even1 perhaps1 a vague1 general direction4 ,we feel ourselves laden with an infinite burden2 and what delights us most and seems to us to come nearest to the ideal1 is not what embodies any one possible form1 but that which1 by embodying none1 suggests many1 and stirs the mass of our inarticulate imagination with a pervasive thrill4444 ,that infinite perfection which cannot be realised1 because it is self-contradictory1 may be thus suggested1 and on account of this suggestion an indeterminate effect may be regarded as higher1 more significant1 and more beautiful than any determinate one4'#cj ,these remarks help us to understand the positive qualities of ,turner's indeterminate style2 its power of evoking a fallacious sense of profundity and significance1 just because of its indeterminateness1 its power of suggesting and stimulating emotion1 just because it is incoherent and variously interpretable4 ,yet when we have pressed these considerations to their extreme limit1 we have only drawn attention to certain qualities which ,turner's later work shares with that of many indifferent artists and poets1 and1 far from exhausting the real and permanent elements of value in that work1 they may be justly regarded as a searching and pitiless exposure of its weaknesses and defects4 ,but we are on firmer ground when we turn to the purely personal qualities in this work1 to the artist's delicacy of hand and fineness of sight4 ,it matters not what instrument ,turner is working with1 whether with the pencil1 the pen1 or the brush1 or whether he is working hurriedly or at leisure1 the movement of his hand is always graceful and delightful4 ,his powers of sight also seem to me to have been quite extraordinary2 ,i do not mean that he had merely the power of seeing distant objects distinctly1 not mere long-sightedness1 though he seems to have had this faculty in an abundant measure1 but a quite unusual power of discriminating between minute shades of light and colour4 ,as the born musician is distinguished from other men by his capacity for detecting differences of sound which to others seem the same1 so the evidence of ,turner's work--and all who have attempted to copy even the slightest of his sketches will1 ,i am sure1 bear me out in this--shows that he possessed an abnormal power of visual discrimination4 ,no doubt his early training and especially the influence of ,dayes had something to do with the development of this capacity1 but the capacity itself was largely innate4 ,in addition to these two natural gifts1 an abnormal delicacy of hand and eye1 ,turner had the priceless advantage of being passionately and unfalteringly in love with his art4 ,some of the greatest artists give me the impression of loving their art less for its own sake than for the sake of the content which it enables them to express1--,rembrandt and ,jean ,franois ,millet1 for example1 give me this impression1 and ,i do not think that their greatness is imperilled in the least by it--but ,turner seems to me to have loved his art1 especially in his later years1 entirely for its own sake4 ,this strong and deep affection threw a glamour over every detail of his work4 ,nothing was too high or too low for him4 ,he brought the same inexhaustible patience and alertness of attention to the working out of a complicated problem of perspective as to the finishing of his most ambitious pictures4 ,like ,wordsworth's #8happy warrior' in the midst of danger1 he had only to take a pencil into his hand to become #8attired with sudden brightness1 like a ,man inspired4' ,this concentration1 this master-bias1 throws a fervour and an inimitable charm over what it seems almost ironical to speak of as the mechanical execution of his works4 ,it is difficult to define the exact relationship of ,turner's love for his art1 with his passionate and unwearying study of natural phenomena4 ,my own impression is that his love of nature was at best to some extent subordinate to his love of art2 that he loved nature partly at least as a means to artistic expression1 and not altogether for itself4 ,but however this may be1 the extent of his knowledge of1 and intimate familiarity with1 nature's ways counts for much in the attractions of his pictures4 ,the evidence of his keen though intermittent study of natural phenomena is writ large in the collection of his sketch-books4 ,the very extent of his knowledge1 no doubt1 led at times to a certain overcrowding of his works1 but it forms the secret of his supple and ample style1 and the inexhaustible fecundity of his invention4 ,it is then to the magic of his style that ,turner's later works owe a great deal of their strange power of compelling attention and extorting a sometimes unwilling admiration4 ,he had in a quite pre-eminent degree what ,reynolds has called the genius of mechanical execution4 ,and this power is as remarkable in his earlier works as in his later4 ,but in his earlier works this power was used to give definite embodiment to a range of worthy and significant ideas and emotions1 and the sheer beauty of their content is apt to divert our attention from the consummate skill implied in this rarest and highest artistic achievement4 ,but in the later work the very weakness and poverty of the content has the effect of keeping our attention fixed upon the suggestiveness and visual beauty of the material elements of expression4 ,in the poetry of the ,french ,symbolists we see a somewhat similar effect consciously aimed at4 ,the poverty of thought is used as a foil to throw the greatest possible emphasis on the beauty of sounds and the faint suggestions of individual words4 ,in this way the attenuation of significance in ,turner's later works throws into startling prominence all the innate and intrinsic splendours of the painter's palette4 ,we shall have occasion to amplify and illustrate these observations as we trace the gradual development of ,turner's later manner1 the task to which we have now to address ourselves4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i have alluded above to what ,i regard as the first oil painting in which the change that took place in ,turner's artistic aims about the year #ahcj was clearly indicated4 ,this was the #8,calais ,sands1 low water1' exhibited at the ,royal ,academy in ,may1 #ahcj4 ,but before painting this picture ,turner had been experimenting in his new manner in a series of water-colour sketches4 ,these sketches were made at ,petworth1 where ,turner went to stay for a few weeks with ,lord ,egremont1 probably in #ahbi1 after his return from his second journey to ,italy4 ,the two oil paintings of ,petworth ,park1 still in the ,petworth collection1 as well as the brilliant unfinished sketch of #8,petworth ,park' in the ,national ,gallery 7,no4 #eei71 were probably painted in the house during this visit2 at any rate1 the sketches in water-colour upon which these canvases were based were made at this time4 ,but when ,turner was not busy at his easel or sketching in the park and neighbourhood1 he seems to have felt the time hang heavily on his hands1 so1 to save himself from the ennui of small-talk and idleness1 he began making colour sketches1 first of the various rooms1 then of the furniture and bric--brac1 and finally of the people staying in the house4 ,these sketches1 which number about a hundred1 indicate clearly a distinct change in ,turner's outlook upon nature4 ,up to this time he had invariably employed form as the basis of his work4 ,in these studies we see him turning his attention directly to colour as the chief element ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxv ,,honfleur ,,body ,,colour ,,on ,,blue4 ,,about #ahcj ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxvi ,,country ,,town ,,on ,,stream ,,body ,,colour ,,on ,,blue4 ,,about #ahcj of representation4 ,the difference is no doubt largely a matter of degree1 for both elements are indispensable4 ,yet we have only to compare1 say1 a drawing like that of #8,rochester1' in the ,rivers of ,england series1 with any one of the ,rivers of ,france subjects to see that the change of emphasis1 upon colour instead of form1 was fraught with important technical results4 ,from a psychological point of view the change is also significant4 ,it shows that ,turner was dissatisfied with the language of form1 which had served him so well all his life2 the vague unrest and conflicting emotions which now surged in his bosom demanded a less static1 a more fluent and elusive medium of expression4 ,let us examine one of these ,petworth subjects1 a sketch of people #8,waiting for ,dinner4' ,the scene takes place in a large drawing-room4 ,the fireplace comes in the centre of the design1 and before it a corpulent and dignified figure in evening dress stands facing us4 ,on either side there are groups of figures1 also in evening dress1 the white of the ladies' muslin frocks relieved with the yellow and black of an effulgent matron and the black suits and scarlet uniforms of the men4 ,examined in detail1 the drawing of the figures is childish1 but viewed at a proper distance1 so that the eye can range freely over it all without bringing any one point into sharp focus1 the effect is extraordinary4 ,it is like catching a glimpse of the actual scene4 ,the whole goes together1 the room is filled with atmosphere1 the sharp staccato touches sprinkled with such amazing cunning among the floating wreaths of colour give exactly that sense of relief which the eye experiences as it wanders over an actual scene1--the sense of angles and sharp points of resistance which artists speak of as the #8lost and found' of nature4 ,the very slightness of the execution of the drawing and the reckless carelessness of the handling add to the feeling of immediate contact with reality1 for the lack of definition is indissolubly associated in our minds with the experience of movement and change1 and the figures whose precise forms elude us seem only to be moving before our eyes4 ,yet this effect would certainly not be produced were it not for the wonderful accuracy and subtlety with which the relative values of the masses of tone have been observed1--the relation1 for instance1 between the exact shade of grey of the shirt-front of the noble lord with his back to the fire and the exact tint of the firelight itself seen through his legs1 or1 in short1 between every touch of colour and the whole which they constitute4 ,yet when we compare this drawing with any of the more elaborately worked ones1 we cannot but realise the enormous importance of slightness of definition as a means of expression4 ,in the #8,spinnet ,player1' for example1 we find the same skill in the observation and rendering of tones as in #8,waiting for ,dinner1' and the same extraordinary science of colour declension2 yet the effect it produces is one of static unreality4 ,in this drawing a lady dressed in blue is seated in the foreground at a spinnet2 on the left1 there is another lady in white on a couch1 and on the right1 in the middle distance1 a group of figures are seated round a table apparently playing cards1 while a figure in a light-coloured dress stands behind the chair of one of the players4 ,the objects on the wall of the room1 the near furniture and figures are all considerably more defined than any of the objects in #8,waiting for ,dinner1' but the definition of these parts sets up a standard which condemns the drawing as a whole4 ,we feel disappointed1 after getting so much definition1 that we do not get more4 ,the middle-distance figures are so well drawn1 or rather are so vivaciously observed and full of individuality1 that we cannot help complaining that the foreground lady's neck and shoulders are impossible1 and that the lady on the couch is so much like a wooden doll4 ,these observations suggest that each drawing sets up its own standard of definition4 ,the comparative failure of such a drawing could not but help to impress on ,turner the immense value for his purposes of a wise and consistent vagueness of statement4 ,in the vignettes made to illustrate the works of ,rogers1 ,scott1 ,byron and ,campbell we see the lesson of the ,petworth experiments driven home4 ,though these drawings were made expressly with the object of being engraved in black and white1 they are conceived entirely upon a colour basis1 while their lack of definition must have made quite unwarrantable demands upon the skill and resources of the engravers4 ,but it is evident that ,turner had now firmly grasped the fact that the glamour and ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxvii ,,sheep ,,in ,,the ,,trench ,,body ,,colour ,,on ,,blue4 ,,about #ahcj ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxviii ,,shipping ,,on ,,the ,,riva ,,degli ,,schiavoni4 ,,venice ,,water ,,colour4 ,,about #ahci intoxication of colour had become the dominant and essential factor in his art1 and that the vagueness of his ideas could only be adequately expressed by allusion and suggestion4 ,these vignettes and the engravings made from them vary widely in value4 ,one or two of them are worthy of the artist1 for example the #8,datur hora quieti1' #8,the ,alps at ,daybreak' and the #8,melrose1' but for the most part they owe the very great popular success they have enjoyed to the skill with which the artist has entered into the spirit of the second-and third-rate poetry he was called upon to illustrate1 and to the admirable way in which his suggestions were engraved4 ,the designs for the ,rivers of ,france are conceived in a somewhat similar strain of lyrical abandonment to the sensuous charm of colour4 ,translated into mere black and white they leave us but half convinced4 ,it is rather like a prose translation into a foreign language of the poetry of ,victor ,hugo1 ,swinburne or ,shelley4 ,to feel their full effect we must turn to the original water-colours1 with all their ravishing intoxication of colour4 ,it is as though our reason must needs be lulled asleep by the dominant flood of purely sensuous delight1 before we can feel about these drawings as the artist would have us feel4 ,we have seen1 in the case of the #8,stamford' design in the ,england and ,wales series1 that ,turner's interest in a place was specifically different from that of a resident or an historian4 ,he cares little or nothing for local facts1 merely as facts2 his main concern is to skim off from the surface of observation a few telling points1 a few heads of discourse as we might call them1 which serve as a point of departure to his own abundant pictorial improvisation4 ,the result may be more or less like the locality which furnishes the title of the drawing1 but it is never in any strict sense of the word an accurate representation of the place4 ,yet the gulf that yawns between local fact and ,turner's lyrical inspiration is never of quite the same character in the ,english drawings as in the ,french4 ,in both the gulf is wide1 but in the ,english subjects the artist's intimate knowledge of the general characteristics of the scenery gives such an air of plausibility to his improvisations that one might be tempted to explain his poetical licences as the result of an ardent striving after general and specific truth4#ca ,with the ,french drawings it is impossible to make such a mistake4 ,turner was not at all intimate with ,french scenery4 ,he got up the subject in a most perfunctory manner in a few short and hurried tours4 ,he merely paid a flying visit to the chief places mentioned in his guide-book and1 instead of studying what he saw with a moderate degree of attention1 was quite satisfied to look for mere hints of ,turnerian phantasies2 he did not want facts1 but suggestions for pictorial inventions4 ,so that in spite of his voluminous note-taking we find scarcely an accurate detail in the whole of the sixty engravings4 ,the twin towers of ,tancarville ,castle are certainly the result of a misunderstanding of the hurried sketch made on the spot1 and ,i have no doubt that the #8errors' and #8inaccuracies' so relentlessly ferreted out by ,mr4 ,hamerton1 in the representations of the ,castle of ,amboise1 the towers of ,notre ,dame and ,st4 ,jacques de la ,boucherie1 the old ,htel de ,ville and the ,pump1 were caused in the same way4 ,from the point of view of the topographer there can be no doubt that ,hamerton's statement#cb that the engravings of this series contain only #8a sort of muddled reminiscence' of the objects and places ,turner had seen is in the main correct4 ,the object of these remarks is far from that of suggesting that the presence of #8errors' and #8inaccuracies' of this kind interferes in any way with the purely artistic value of these drawings4 ,it is rather to emphasise the fact that it is only when we judge them from a totally irrelevant point of view1 that we can begin to talk of errors and inaccuracies4 ,rightly understood these so-called errors and inaccuracies are not only the justifiable licences of the artist1 but the absolutely inevitable and proper and solely right means of expression which the artist had at his disposal4 ,his aim is to produce a state of consciousness in which feeling looms large1 and thought-determination is reduced almost to the vanishing point4 ,one might say1 without exaggeration or unfairness1 that mental confusion formed an important part of his artistic aim4 ,he had then to represent the objects he depicted not as they appear to a cool1 level-headed1 and accurate observer1 but as they appear to a highly sensitive subject in a state of morbid excitement4 ,if we look at ,turner's ,french drawings from this point of view1 we cannot but admit that they are almost all highly successful4 ,they are stamped with the impress of the genuinely romantic fervour1 the lyrical movement of unbridled feeling4 ,in them the joy of artistic creation has become triumphant1 almost insolent4 ,they are deep draughts of artistic intoxication1 exultant with the rush of man's undying passion for pleasure1 and of the resistless energy that moulds the world of matter into forms more harmonious with our own distinctly human cravings and aspirations2 ,chateaux ,gaillards or #8,saucy ,castles' of the imagination one might almost call them4 ,it was characteristic of ,turner--,i might almost say it was a necessity of his position as a landscape painter--that he felt compelled to search far and wide for material out of which to spin his web of visible phantasy4 ,the need of novel shapes1 glowing colours1 striking and elaborate combinations was constantly felt4 ,the rivers ,meuse1 ,moselle and ,rhine were diligently and repeatedly explored4 ,the ,east--for his ,bible illustrations--he was content to take at second-hand1 through the medium of other men's sketches1 but he sailed down the ,danube1 as far as ,vienna 7or ,buda-,pesth perhaps871 ransacked ,germany1 ,italy1 ,switzerland1 ,france1 ,holland and ,belgium and part of ,austria4 ,but as the years moved on1 his mental grip of the real world became always looser4 ,his mind played only with the fugitive shades on the surface of appearances2 but not with the elasticity1 the free disinterestedness of youth and of the young-hearted4 ,the professional bias became ever more pronounced1 the point of view ever more abstract and one-sided4 ,one of his richest mines of pictorial imagery was ,venice2 not so much the actual city of the ,adriatic1 as the fragmentary ideas of an ideal ,venice as they floated in the imagination of the ordinary ,englishman1--the unconscious crystallisation of the desires of the average middle-class tourist for ,southern warmth1 freedom1 colour1 variety1 and bodily pleasure4 ,with all the uncanny certainty of genius he gathered up the threads of these incoherent and fugitive desires and fixed them in the forms of immortality4 ,let us look carefully at the two ,venetian sketches here reproduced4 ,in #8,shipping on the ,riva degli ,schiavone' 7,no4 #ee1 ,n4,g47 we see the ,campanile and ,ducal ,palace on the right1 a blaze of warm1 palpitating light4 ,in the centre there is a stretch of limpid green water1 with a tangle of boats on it leading the eye to the opalescent ,madonna della ,salute in the extreme distance4 ,there is a secondary group of shipping on the left1 among whose masts the tower of ,san ,giorgio ,maggiore can be seen4 ,no words can describe the intense blaze of light1 the brilliance of the colours and their perfect harmony4 ,the execution is breathlessly hurried and seemingly reckless1 yet always perfectly under control2 the artist's hand is so audaciously swift because the full value of his colours can only be got in this way4 ,human skill can go no further in this direction1 and no reproduction can do anything like justice to the wonderful original4 ,we find the same qualities in #8,the ,approach to ,venice3 ,sunset' 7#ea1 ,n4,g471 and #8,riva degli ,schiavone1 from near the ,public ,gardens' 7#ef1 ,n4,g474 ,in all these drawings ,turner seems to be playing with his material medium1 fondling and caressing his colours and the intrinsic beauties of water-colour4 ,yet it is not mere colour as colour that he gives us1 not the cheap and arbitrary and mechanical splendour of merely decorative art4 ,the colour is delicate and subtle1 full of surprises1 and as varied as nature herself2 it is controlled and marshalled by the authority of the tone scheme2 it is nature grasped by human intelligence1 and made obedient to its organising power4 ,and a large part of the attractiveness of these drawings is due to the ease and grace with which the reign of purpose and intelligence is maintained4 ,after all it is the marvellous technical skill which they display which is the essence of the charm of these works4 ,the subject-matter counts for less than the execution1 the objects portrayed are less eloquent than the sense of freedom1 mastery and real happiness evident in the artist's work4 ,he wanted nothing beyond this2 the work to him was not a symbol of something higher1--it did not point beyond itself4 ,it was at once means and end1 process and fulfilment1 work and reward1 the toil of life and its consummated bliss4 ,the intrinsic poverty of the subject-matter no doubt serves to ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxix ,,approach ,,to ,,venice3 ,,sunset ,,water ,,colour4 ,,about #ahci ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxx ,,riva ,,degli ,,schiavoni1 ,,from ,,near ,,the ,,public ,,gardens ,,water ,,colour4 ,,about #ahci intensify what ,i may call the material beauty of the workmanship4 ,yet we must beware of ranking this subject-matter too low4 ,it is not mere sensuous feeling1 it is not entirely devoid of the element of thought4 ,the conscious action of thought is probably entirely absent4 ,the scenes float before us in all the bareness of immediate sensation4 ,they give us nothing more than a moment of immediate experience caught1 as it were1 on the wing1 and pinned down all quivering with life4 ,but the momentary experience is that of a man whose visual sensations have been organised by a life-time of strenuous intellectual control4 ,the brain and the senses are but the organs of one function4 ,there is not a single definite thought present1 the artist has sunk himself in the flow of the merely animal life1 yet his naked sentience is conditioned through and through and characterised by the pervasive activity of the mind4 ,to transfix a fleeting moment of immediate living experience is a very different thing from the deliberate analysis of the process of perception and the wilful abstraction of one of its elements4 ,in other words1 this work of ,turner is essentially different in kind from the work of the modern ,impressionists4 ,the ,impressionist adopts the methods of science4 ,he operates on his perceptions1 and cuts away this element and that1 and in the end presents you with a dead and potted psychological abstraction1 a diagram of the #8pure' visual sensation1 which delights us with its ingenuity and neatness1 but which no one would take for a fragment of the living flow of thought and emotion which all concrete experience is4 ,impressionism is cold and heartless2 it is merely intellectual and ratiocinative1 and therefore essentially inartistic4 ,but the so-called impressionistic work of ,turner1 in spite of its other defects and shortcomings1 remains ever in the flood of concrete living experience4 ,it is never abstract2 it never loses its emotional contagion1 though its emotional suggestiveness is somewhat vague and indefinite4 ,its power of evoking emotion is very strongly pronounced1 but the emotions it calls up are sadly lacking in definition1 and seem to lie very much at the mercy of chance associations4 ,the cause of this vagueness and emptiness is no doubt closely connected with ,turner's triumphant grasp of the fleeting momentary experience4 ,his work is almost1 though not quite1 as empty and indeterminate as an isolated fragment of immediate sensation4 ,a single steady look by a cool observer would grasp more of the character of a given scene than we find in these sketches4 ,but the time occupied in a steady look at a scene is too long for ,turner2 though the look should last but half a minute the mind has time to grasp and organise the sensuous data4 ,turner's object is to catch these data of sense in their least organised condition4 ,to do this1 he must reduce the time of contact between the scene and his senses to its shortest possible extent4 ,some of the later ,impressionists have found that merely to open and shut the eyes gives their senses and intelligence too long an exposure2 they have therefore devised a mechanical instrument which they hold in front of their eyes1 and which operates very much like a shutter used for taking instantaneous photographs4 ,in this way they obtain a glimpse of a scene of shorter duration than the most rapid opening and shutting of the eyes can give4 ,we have no reason for suspecting that ,turner had recourse to any such mechanical aids1 but he achieved similar results4 ,he gives us the momentary bedazzlement of the sunlight1 and1 within this impression1 a confused and fragmentary perception of objects4 ,the objects seen are hardly recognisable1 their attributes are reduced to a minimum1 and the blur of living emotion which forms part of such rudimentary perception is reduced to its lowest terms4 ,the control such sketches exercise over the thoughts and feelings of the spectator is therefore small and possesses very little individuality4 ,but even ,venice soon palled upon ,turner's imagination4 ,he seemed desirous of getting away as far as possible from the disturbing influences of human association4 ,only among the lonely valleys and mountain tops of ,switzerland could his perturbed and wearied spirit find something like the peace he sought so feverishly4 ,even here he shrank from the common light of ordinary day4 ,he loved the solemn stillness of night1 and would wait to surprise the first rosy hues of dawn upon ,mount ,pilatus or the ,rigi4 ,his sympathies are all with the silent and primary things of nature4 ,it is as though he were seeking to strip himself of the attributes ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxxi ,,freiburg3 ,,the ,,descent ,,from ,,the ,,hotel ,,de ,,ville ,,water ,,colour4 ,,about #ahda ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxxii ,,ruined ,,castle ,,on ,,rock ,,water ,,colour4 ,,about #ahda of humanity1 to sink into the unconscious vegetative life of nature4 ,even when roused to activity his mind seems curiously dehumanised4 ,when he draws for us the towers and churches of a place like ,freiburg we seem to be looking at the work of a disembodied spirit4 ,the city is divested of all its human associations4 ,his eye seems now to classify and arrange what it sees in terms of space and motion1 much as we should imagine an eagle to look down upon the welter and turmoil of our lives4 ,i get the same impression from the #8,village and ,castle on the ,rhine' 7#hb1 ,n4,g471 and #8,the ,via ,mala' 7#gc1 ,n4,g474 ,in all this1 in this gradual impoverishment of mind and feeling1 it is difficult to discover anything more than the silent and inevitable ravages of old age4 ,but it is not their poverty of content that makes these later drawings of ,turner so remarkable4 ,it is the virile and glorious artistic skill which only flames the brighter amid the decay of all ,turner's other faculties4 ,the man was dead before the incomparable master of tone and colour was exhausted4 ,it is this curious combination of an unexhausted special aptitude with a moribund mentality that gives this later work of ,turner its uniqueness1 its lurid and uncanny fascination4 ,in the whole history of pictorial art we have never had before quite the same display of senile apathy gilded and transfigured by the dying shafts of an incommensurable natural capacity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,by the time ,turner was seventy years of age his bodily infirmities prevented him from visiting ,switzerland4 ,for a year or two we find him haunting the coast of ,normandy1 about ,dieppe1 ,eu and ,ambleteuse4 ,then he is unable to cross the ,channel4 ,for a short season he flits about ,sussex and ,kent--at ,folkestone1 ,margate1 ,deal1 and ,sandwich--and then there is silence4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,conclusion ,the distinction between ,art ,criticism and ,aesthetic--,the aim of this chapter--,art and physical fact--,the #8common-sense' conception of landscape art as evidence of fact--,the relation of ,art and ,nature--,mr4 ,ruskin's treatment of this subject--,he distinguishes 7a7 physical fact and 7b7 the artist's thoughts and feelings about these facts1 yet maintains that the representation of 7a7 is equivalent to the expression of 7b7--,his confusion of ,nature and ,mind exemplified in his remarks on the #8,pass of ,fado'--,art as the organ of ,beauty implies that the dualism of ,nature and ,mind is transcended--,nature is neither given nor immediate--,art therefore cannot copy nature--,what does art represent8--,an individualised psychical content present to the mind of the artist--,classification of ,turner's sketches and studies from the point of view of their logical content--,the difference between 7#a7 ,studies of particular objects1 7#b7 ,drawings from nature1 and 7#c7 ,works of art proper--,the logical reference of a work of art--,the assertions in a work of art do not directly qualify the ordinary world of reality1 but an imaginary world specially constructed for the artist's purpose--,the ideal of complete definition--,yet the content must determine the form--,plea for a dynamic or physiological study of artistic forms4 ,we have been engaged thus far upon a genuinely inductive investigation1 upon a voyage of discovery1 and not upon a dogmatic exposition of ultimate aesthetic principles4 ,our general aim has been to study the processes of artistic expression1 but to study them as we find them in definite concrete instances4 ,moreover1 the nature of our subject-matter rendered it necessary to keep faithful to the point of view of art criticism4 ,we were dealing with particular works of art1 and to leave them while we plunged into general questions of aesthetic would hardly have been polite4 ,but1 as ,i have ventured to observe before1 though art criticism and general aesthetic can be distinguished they cannot be rigidly separated4 ,aesthetic without close conversance with the concrete subject-matter of art criticism is necessarily loose and empty1 while art criticism without a firm grasp of the broad principles of beauty easily degenerates into casuistry or a useless and rather despicable form of self-assertion4 ,and however much we try to keep questions of principle apart from our estimation and study of particular works of art1 we are bound inevitably to fail4 ,we can begin as it were at either end of the scale1 we can busy ourselves with the one or with the many1 but before we have gone very far we are bound to realise that we are concerned with exactly the same problems4 ,the distinction of art criticism from aesthetic is merely one of convenience and degree4 ,in all that has gone before we have been concerned with the fundamental problems of aesthetic1 though we have not treated them directly4 ,in all that we have written a more or less definite and consistent answer to these problems has been implied4 ,in this final chapter1 therefore1 ,i propose to draw out as well as ,i can some of the more general results of our observations and analyses1 or rather to endeavour to state in a more general form the laws of artistic expression and action which we have discovered4 ,the ultimate aim of art criticism1 as ,i understand it1 is to grasp and render intelligible the whole region of artistic activity1 and ,i cannot but think that it will facilitate our grasp of the wider laws of artistic phenomena1 as well as help to consolidate or disprove the results of our detailed observations1 if ,i make an attempt to render explicit what has only been implied in our remarks upon particular concrete instances4 ,i will begin by calling attention to a fact that has been repeatedly forced upon our notice4 ,though our attention has been mainly fixed upon ,turner's studies and sketches from nature1 we have never come into direct contact with the plain physical reality which1 according to the invariable usage of common-sense1 it is the mission of art to represent4 ,common-sense tells us that the #8subject' of every landscape painting is a group of physical realities--the fields1 rivers1 mountains1 trees1 houses1 etc41 in such and such a place1 together with their invariable physical accompaniments1 the air and any particular effect of light and weather that the artist may choose to select4 ,our analysis has invariably shown us that the slightest sketch--much more then a fully organised work of art6--is something more than and something radically different from a mere representation of such physical constituents4 ,the physical objects are indeed portrayed1 but when we have recognised this touch of colour or that shape as the representation of this or that natural fact1 we have not exhausted the meaning of the artist's work4 ,this recognition is nothing more than what ,i may call the plain dictionary meaning of the words the artist has chosen to employ4 ,it is not till we have gone on to grasp the special significance of the order in which these elements have been grouped1 that we really begin to come into contact with the work of art itself4 ,as we cannot interpret the meaning of the simplest sentence unless we give due weight to its grammatical construction1 so with a picture we must take into consideration what ,i can only call the grammatical construction and distinctions proper to pictorial expression4 ,when we penetrate in this way to the real significance of any of ,turner's works we find we have been brought into contact with the artist's thoughts and emotions4 ,we start1 as it were1 with trees and rocks and physical details1 which1 as such1 are independent of man and indifferent if not actually hostile to human hopes and fears1 joys and sorrows2 and we end by finding that our so-called physical facts are but elements in a definitely organised whole of thought and feeling4 ,we seem to start with natural facts1 and they change under our hands into the symbols of mere ideas and emotions4 ,our whole conception of the scope and possibilities of art turns upon the view we take of the artist's means of expression4 ,are we to regard pictorial art as a medium for imaging and recording the visible facts of the physical world1 or as symbols of states of consciousness8 ,and if we take the latter view1 what is the exact relation of these symbols to the visible world1 to the world of common perception8 ,so far as ,i know1 only one ,english art critic has attempted anything like an adequate discussion of these questions4 ,it will help us1 ,i think1 if we glance for a moment at ,mr4 ,ruskin's treatment of these subjects4 ,in the first volume of ,modern ,painters we are told that the two great ends of landscape painting are 7#a7 to induce in the spectator's mind the faithful conception of any natural object whatsoever1 and 7#b7 to inform him of the thoughts and feelings with which these' 7i4e4 the natural objects7 #8were regarded by the artist himself 7,modern ,painters1 ,part ,,ii41 ,sec4 #a1 ,ch4 i4 p4 #dd74 ,in attaining the first end1 ,mr4 ,ruskin adds1 #8the painter only places the spectator where he stands himself2 he sets him before the landscape and leaves him4444 ,but he the spectator has nothing of thought given to him1 no new ideas1 no unknown feelings1 forced on his attention or his heart4' #8,but in attaining the second end1 the artist not only places the spectator1 but--makes him a sharer in his own strong feelings and quick thoughts2--and leaves him 444 ennobled and instructed1 under the sense of having not only beheld a new scene1 but of having held communion with a new mind1 and having been endowed for a time with the keen perception and the impetuous emotions of a nobler and more penetrating intelligence4' ,it may seem at first sight that ,mr4 ,ruskin is simply distinguishing two kinds of landscape painting1 such as the simply topographical from the more imaginative kind4 ,and he does say that #8it is possible to reach what ,i have stated to be the first end of art1 the representation of facts1 without reaching the second1 the representation of thoughts4' ,but the point he is chiefly concerned to emphasise is the complete dependence of the second of these aims upon the representation of facts4 ,an artist can give us physical facts1 he says1 without expressing his thoughts and feelings1 but no artist can express thoughts and feelings without the accurate representation of facts4 ,this is the point1 he says1 that he wishes at present #8especially to insist upon1' and this dependence of thought upon fact1 or #8truth' as he generally prefers to call it1 forms1 as ,i understand it1 the theoretical basis upon which a large part of ,mr4 ,ruskin's art teaching rests4 ,all great art1 he admits1 gives us #8the thoughts and feelings of the artist1' but we have no standard by which we can test the value of mere thoughts and feelings2 but as there is a #8constant relation' between an artist's thoughts and feelings and his #8faithfulness in representing nature1' we have only to examine #8the botanical or geological details' in a landscape to #8form a right estimate as to the respective powers and attainments' of the artist4 ,it is from this point of view that he calls #8the representation of facts' #8the foundation of all art1' and in the preface to ,the ,elements of ,drawing1 the power #8to copy' natural objects #8faithfully1 and without alteration1' is treated as equivalent to the power #8of pictorial expression of thought4' ,now there is a point of view from which these statements could be defended1 and ,i will endeavour a little later to indicate that point of view1 but as ,mr4 ,ruskin expresses and applies these ideas1 ,i think they lead to confusion4 ,much of the welter of confusion into which the reader of ,modern ,painters finds himself plunged seems to me caused by the author's persistent refusal to discriminate between physical reality and mind1 between external nature and ideas4 ,the mountains1 trees1 and clouds become human thoughts and feelings1 not in a metaphysical sense1 but as a matter of ordinary observation1 and the artist is bidden to go out into the fields and draw1 with the patience and precision of a geologist or land-surveyor1 the visible shapes and hues of these materialised emotions and ideas4 ,yet ,mr4 ,ruskin is far too fearless and candid a thinker to attempt deliberately to falsify his evidence4 ,he admits1 when the point presents itself to him1 that ,turner #8never draws accurately on the spot'2 and in the wonderful analysis of ,turner's #8,pass of ,fado1' in the fourth volume of ,modern ,painters1 we are clearly shown that the artist's representation contains hardly a single accurate and faithful statement of the physical features of the place4 ,yet we are assured that in some inexplicable way the picture is truer to the facts of the place than the place itself4 ,the artist1 we are told1 made #8a few pencil scratches on a bit of thin paper' during a momentary stoppage of the diligence in the pass4 ,afterwards he put a few blots of colour to these pencil scratches1 possibly #8at ,bellinzona the same evening' but #8certainly not upon the spot4' ,in the course of a few months he showed this sketch to ,mr4 ,ruskin1 who commissioned the artist to make a finished water-colour from it4 7,the sketch is reproduced as the frontispiece of the present volume1 so the curious reader may compare it at his leisure with the reproduction of the completed drawing and ,mr4 ,ruskin's topographical drawing made on the spot in ,modern ,painters47 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxxiii ,,village ,,and ,,castle ,,on ,,the ,,rhine ,,water ,,colour4 ,,about #ahdd ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxxiv ,,the ,,via ,,mala ,,water ,,colour4 ,,about #ahdd ,the first sketch is certainly sufficiently inaccurate as a representation of the physical facts of the scene1 but in the finished drawing ,turner permitted himself further liberties4 ,in it #8the whole place is altered in scale4' ,the rocks on the left which should be four or five hundred feet high are made to look #8about a thousand feet4' #8,next1 he raises1 in a still greater degree1 all the mountains beyond1 putting three or four ranges instead of one4' ,in this way all the parts of the scene are modified1 important features are eliminated at will1 and facts that the artist had seen elsewhere are freely introduced4 ,this is what we find ,mr4 ,ruskin means when he talks about receiving #8a true impression from the place itself1 and the accurate and faithful representation of physical facts' 7,modern ,painters1 vol iv4 p4 #ba47 ,now ,i am far from denying that ,turner's procedure was thoroughly justified1 but from the ordinary standpoint of common-sense it does stand in need of justification1 and it seems to me that it is not a proper way to justify it by passionately declaring that the imaginative vision of the artist does indeed give us #8the real facts of the world's outside aspect1' or a faithful and unaltered copy of a portion of physical reality4 ,indeed ,i feel very strongly that this playing fast and loose with ,nature and ,mind 7with physical fact and mental interpretation7 is no gain to the cause ,mr4 ,ruskin has at heart4 ,in spite of all his passionate eloquence and transparent earnestness and good faith1 the ordinary reader continues to regard nature as the hypostatised world of the physical sciences and as that part of the world which falls outside of mind4 ,and when we regard nature in this way as a mechanical and external system1 and declare that it is #8,god's work1' we can go on1 as ,mr4 ,ruskin does1 to attack #8idealisation1' and heap contumely on such painters as ,claude and ,poussin1 for daring to modify ,god's works and for casting the shadow of their puny selves on the works of their ,creator 7,modern ,painters1 vol4 i4 ,preface to second ed4 p4 xxvi474 ,but if we do this we must at least go on to admit that ,turner and all the other great artists sinned in exactly the same way4 ,there is only one way1 ,i am convinced1 of working our way to a firmer and more consistent point of view1 and that is to get above this nave dualism of human and physical nature4 ,i may even say that before we can understand the nucleus of truth in ,mr4 ,ruskin's own work1 we must get above the unreflective realism in which the theoretical parts of his writings are steeped4 ,again and again1 in passages of the noblest wisdom and insight1 he transcends the limitations of his own thought and language1 but always to sink back into the confusion inevitable to all adherents of the psychological philosophy when they come to deal with mental and moral questions4 ,the influence of ,locke and ,hume upon the form of ,mr4 ,ruskin's theories is obvious and avowed4 ,he believes that #8fact1' #8nature1' and #8truth' are only given in sense-perception1 and that therefore sensation gives us the truest and fullest knowledge of reality2 his distrust of ideas is due to the belief that they distort and obscure the revelations of this unerring mirror of reality4 ,but these assumptions do justice neither to the real independence of the physical world1 nor to the claims of the mind to discover and possess absolutely reliable knowledge4 ,and when we are dealing with such a concrete reality as pictorial art we cannot afford to do less than the fullest justice to both nature and mind4 ,we cannot1 like the practical man or the students of the physical sciences1 rule out the unseen world of human feeling as irrelevant to our immediate purposes1 any more than we can neglect the concrete course of phenomena1 like the student of the a priori forms of knowledge4 ,in art we have to do with nature and mind in active co-operation4 ,we are therefore bound to treat them as two factors in a common process4 ,we cannot have two aims in art1 and we cannot separate 7a7 physical objects from 7b7 an artist's thoughts and feelings2 if we make the attempt we are inevitably driven1 as we have seen ,mr4 ,ruskin driven1 to maintain that 7a7 is 7b71 and 7b7 7a71 and then the point of our distinction seems lost4 ,in art criticism the problem is not to separate mind from nature1 but to unite them--to bring out the permanent and universal relation which binds them together4 ,and the only way to do this is to treat them both as elements or members in the formed world of the self-conscious subject4 ,it is not the special business of art criticism to show that the conception of nature as what is #8given' in sense-perception1 and as #8,god's work' as distinguished from the action of human intelligence1 is contradictory and untenable4 ,the work is already done4 ,the theory of the perceptive judgment1 upon which all modern philosophies1 realist as well as idealist1 are based1 is too firmly established to render necessary any further discussion of ,locke's and ,hume's imperfect analysis of perception4 ,all that art criticism has to do is to realise that its own point of view is essentially identical with the point of view of logic and metaphysic1 and to adopt and use any of the established truths of these sciences which are relevant to its purposes4 ,in insisting that the philosophical point of view is the only possible platform from which the facts which art criticism deals with can be adequately correlated1 ,i am aware that ,i am advancing a somewhat novel proposition4 ,it is also one which ,i do not think it advisable to defend in detail on the present occasion4 ,the present volume is the outcome of an attempt to apply this point of view4 ,so far as all that has gone before is in harmony with my intentions1 it is an exemplification of the practical usefulness of such a working hypothesis1 but the subject seems to me to call for full and free discussion1 and ,i hope on a suitable occasion to revert to it4 ,at present ,i hope it will be sufficient if ,i say that art criticism1 if it is to be regarded as a form of knowledge1 can have only one consistent aim1 and that is intellectual satisfaction4 ,and the subject-matter of art criticism is essentially a form of communication1 and therefore is concerned only with certain aspects of the formed world of human experience4 ,and in dealing with any aspects of the #8world of discourse' with a view to the satisfaction of our intellectual requirements of coherency and consistency of thought1 the terms and ideas used in our non-systematised everyday thought and language are certainly inadequate1 and those in use in all the special sciences1 though valid enough when confined within the limits prescribed by their initial assumptions1 are no less unsatisfactory for our purpose4 ,for the artist to regard nature as anything but an existing reality independent of individual experience and given ready-made in immediate perception must1 no doubt1 be exceedingly difficult4 ,both the original bent of his mind and the whole course of his professional training and practice have tended to consolidate his spatial intuitions into something apparently primary and instinctive4 ,but an artist1 as an artist1 is not called upon to undertake the business of art criticism4 ,the difficulty1 however1 remains nearly as great for the art critic1 for he also is necessarily one whose visual faculties have received early and special development4 ,when even an art critic looks at the familiar objects with which he is surrounded and notices their sharply defined forms and colours1 he finds it hard to believe that the very distinctness of these perceptions is the result of a long process of education which his own faculties have undergone4 ,the clearness seems so unmistakably to belong to the objects4 ,yet however difficult the step1 it must be taken4 ,we are bound to admit that animals and infants cannot have the same ordered visual image of space definitely stretching away all round them which we are apt to regard as one of the primary and fixed constituents of the external world4 ,but if the spatial system into which objects of perception fall so easily has to be constructed in some way by each human being for himself1 it follows that pictorial art1 which as a means of expression and communication is based entirely upon that system1 cannot by any possibility present us with bare physical fact1 with a nucleus of solid1 ready-made reality--of #8,god's work1' in ,mr4 ,ruskin's sense of these terms4 ,so that when we talk of art as representing nature1 it is evident that we must be careful to distinguish exactly what we mean by such an expression4 ,if we take it to mean that art does or can or ought to give us a copy of the given actual world as it exists apart from what ,mr4 ,ruskin calls the meddling action of man's intelligence1 then it is obvious that we have fallen into a very serious error4 ,apart from the action of his intellect1 an artist could not possibly make the external world an object of his thought2 he could not1 therefore1 represent it on paper or canvas2 and even if we suppose these difficulties overcome1 and the copy of bare unadulterated reality fixed on the canvas1 nobody could possibly recognise it or know that it was there4 ,if this is so1 ,i think it is clear that art cannot portray or represent or imitate or copy nature1 at least in the sense in which nature is taken at the unreflective level of thought4 ,what art portrays must be some part of the ideal construction present to the mind of the artist4 ,perhaps the simplest way of putting this is to say that the artist can operate only with ideas1 and not with any directly given elements of reality2 with idea1 in short1 in the sense of #8meaning1' #8significance1' or #8logical content1' and not with idea as physical fact or immediate experience4 ,but as ideas in this sense--which we must be careful to remember includes emotion--are not gifted with the property of visibility1 it seems on the whole better not to say that a work of art imitates or portrays them4 ,strictly speaking1 a work of art is a symbol1 and a symbol is not a copy or imitation of the meaning it stands for4 ,the meaning of pictorial art is then always some connected circle of psychical states with their presentative and emotional contents4 ,these contents may refer to the common physical world of ordinary experience1 or they may refer to a dream-world that has no existence except as an element of human consciousness2 and this reference is determined in each case by the nature of the contents themselves4 ,in reducing nature in this way to an element within the consciousness of the artist and spectator1 ,i may seem to have destroyed at a blow all the pure unsullied beauty of the external world as it exists in apparent independence of human experience4 ,i have done nothing of the kind4 ,i have insisted that nature1 as an existent independent of individual experience1 is an unreal abstraction2 that the very fulness and reality and splendour of nature exist for each of us nowhere but in the world of our own consciousness1 and that within that world of consciousness nature does exist as a system of objects acting and reacting on one another1 and is therefore independent of the presence or absence of the consciousness which presents them4 ,such a conception of nature seems to me an inevitable corollary from the general conception of the purpose and mode of action of art forced upon us by our previous investigations4 ,from this point of view ,i will define a work of pictorial art as an arrangement of spatial symbols embodying an individualised psychical content present to the mind of the artist1 and intended to call up always the same ideas and emotions in the minds of others4 ,i will make no attempt to conceal my opinion that such a theory is valid of all pictorial art1 and ,i will add that ,i am also disposed to think that such a point of view is a peculiarly fruitful one from which the whole field of art criticism could be reconstituted4 ,and as criticism1 as at present understood and practised1 is declared on all hands--even by its most accomplished exponents--to be bankrupt1#cc ,i might urge that the revolutionary character of any general theory was a strong argument in its favour4 ,but the present occasion is not a suitable one for dwelling upon the general and far-reaching character of this theory4 ,here ,i am only justified in insisting upon its validity as a working hypothesis for the proper understanding of our immediate subject-matter4 ,only on such an hypothesis1 it seems to me1 can we give an intelligible explanation of the essential character of ,turner's studies and sketches and drawings from nature1 and of their connection with his completed works4 ,whether this assertion is justified at all1 and if so how far1 depends1 of course1 upon the whole of the foregoing study of ,turner's works1 but ,i will add a few cursory remarks1 partly of a recapitulatory nature1 but treating our subject-matter from the point of view of its logical content or meaning4 ,in these remarks ,i will try to deal with some of the difficulties that stand in the way of such a treatment4 ,we will deal first with ,turner's studies of separate objects1 such as those of an arm-chair 7,no4 #efc1 ,n4 ,g471 of fishes 7#cgc1 #cgd1 ,n4 ,g47 and birds 7#cge1 #dae1 ,n4 ,g47 among the exhibited drawings4#cd ,here the artist works directly from an external object1 and seems to be aiming not at the expression or representation of his own ideas1 but at the reproduction of the attributes or qualities given in sense perception and belonging to an independent reality4 ,the object was there before the artist began to draw it1 and the artist's drawing only reproduces the visible qualities 7form and colour7 of the object itself4 ,but the object is much more than its visible qualities1 and even its visible qualities are far from exhausted by the one aspect of them which is all that the artist can represent4 ,he therefore takes one aspect of an object and uses that as a sign or symbol of all the other possible aspects and sense qualities which we may suppose the object to possess4 ,so that even if we insist on regarding the image on the paper as a particular image1 it is clear that it must be used as a universal sign1 if it is to be understood4 ,the profile view of a face1 for instance1 means or implies not only the whole head1 but also the whole concrete individuality of the person to whom the profile belongs4 ,so far1 then1 as a particular visual image is used as a rallying point for calling up the whole range of ideas which constitute the thing as an object of thought1 so far have we to do with a logical idea1 with an element in our world of knowledge1 with what is strictly an universal or an identity4 ,a sharply defined sensuous image of a thing forms1 no doubt1 a more easily and generally recognisable vehicle of reference than a name1 but its function as a means of communication is the same4 ,and as in speaking and writing it is not a matter of indifference what words we use to designate the objects about which we are thinking1 so in pictorial communication1 the particular sensuous image employed has considerable importance in directing attention to certain constituents of the total idea called up4 ,in this way pictorial signs certainly have a general tendency to focus attention upon the corporeity of objects1 but it is1 ,i believe1 a grave error of principle not to acknowledge that all the properly associated elements of the subject referred to are more or less involved4 ,some elements are kept more in the background of consciousness than others1 but they are very far from being non-existent4 ,it is important1 certainly1 to think of pictorial signs as endlessly supple and fluid4 ,even the rigidity of the meanings of words has been absurdly overstated4 ,poetry is only possible because the powers of evocation possessed by words are much less limited and defined than certain theorists would have us believe4 ,but pictorial signs are more delicate agents than words4 ,they vary in ways that words cannot4 ,they are made de novo on every occasion of their use1 and therefore they can adapt themselves more adroitly to each new context4 ,and every shade of variation in the constitution of the sign has its influence in determining the constitution of the mental presentation which it calls up4 ,but even when we make all due allowance for the artist's power of emphasis and discrimination with regard to the elements which make up the total thought-content of his object1 we must confess that the range of expression centred round any single material object is limited4 ,a study of such an object points to the object it was made from--it assures us that this particular object was bodily present to the eyes of the artist when he made the study1 but it does not tell us in what ideal context we are to take the object4 ,a study as such is not a work of art1 or perhaps it would be better to say that it is a mere fragment of a possible work of art4 ,a study is simply a pictorial name1 and a name has meaning only in a sentence or by suggesting a sentence4#ce ,if we look at a study from the same point of view from which we regard a work of art1 we should go on to ask ourselves1 #8,well1 what of it1 what is the artist's purpose in painting or drawing this8' ,it would start us upon an objectless and endless intellectual exercise1 in which we should miss the purpose which every work of art implies4 ,this indeterminateness and incompleteness of meaning forms1 ,i believe1 the essential characteristic of a study1 as distinguished from a work of art4 ,one result1 then1 of our insistence upon the content of pictorial art is the re-emergence of an old traditional usage or term which recent theorising has done its best to discard4 ,apart from the question of content1 ,i believe there is nothing to distinguish a study or a sketch from a complete picture4 ,let us now turn from the elaborate studies of individual objects to the pure outline drawings of places and buildings which ,turner made at the beginning of his career4 ,the drawings of #8,ripon' and #8,lincoln ,cathedral' here reproduced may stand as typical of this class of work4 ,such drawings are defective in the same way as the studies4 ,their meaning is incomplete4 ,we do not know exactly how to take them4 ,they are very much on the footing of perceptive judgments1 that is to say1 they are not cut loose from the artist's personal focus of presentation4 ,this is what he saw at a certain moment2 but why did he draw it8 ,as a mere record of fact1 or as material which would or might be useful in a subsequent imaginative construction8 ,the drawings themselves do not answer these questions1 but their defects of meaning point beyond themselves4 ,such drawings are also defective in another way4 ,being ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxxv ,,on ,,the ,,rhine ,,water ,,colour4 #ahdd ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxxvi ,,baden1 ,,looking ,,north ,,water ,,colour4 #ahdd entirely in outline they make abstraction of the tone1 colour1 and light and shade4 ,if we are to take them as topographical illustrations they demand further visual determination1 if1 as having an imaginative purpose1 the emotional setting of the facts calls for specification4 ,so far1 then1 we have been dealing with operations preliminary or subservient to the genuine processes of artistic expression4 ,in studies and sketches made in the presence of the object or model the personal focus of presentation1 and therefore time reference1 remains clearly in evidence4 ,it is not1 ,i am inclined to think1 till the drawing or painting cuts itself loose from the demonstrative of immediate perception that we find ourselves on the threshold of free artistic expression4 ,such a sketch as that of the #8,hedging and ,ditching' subject 7,plate ,,xxv47 may serve as a connecting link between the two categories4 ,like the drawings of ,lincoln and ,ripon ,cathedrals1 it is probably only a record of a scene actually witnessed1 and as a record of the objects constituting such a scene and their relations to one another it is considerably less complete than they are4 ,but somehow ,i find it hard to take it simply as a record of fact1 perhaps simply because of its very incompleteness4 ,as a symbol of a determinate complex of feeling present to the mind of the artist1 it demands to be placed in a different category from those drawings which only aim at the accumulation of the raw material of artistic invention2 and this in spite of its defects and insufficiencies which make it1 it must be admitted1 quite unintelligible as such a symbol to everybody but the artist himself4 ,yet here1 it seems to me1 we have crossed the threshold which divides a study from a work of art proper4 ,the reference to reality is no longer direct4 ,the artist is no longer giving evidence about matters of fact4 ,he has cut himself free from the demonstrative of immediate perception and is groping his way towards a definitory judgment4#cf ,we have here an operative identity cut loose from its context1 though in a singularly inarticulate form4 ,but if so1 the sketch must be taken as an incipient work of art1 which possesses the capacity of growth or development4 ,in the sepia drawing of this subject1 reproduced in ,plate ,,xxvi41 we come to a later stage of this development4 ,here the whole subject has become defined1 not indeed to the point of realisation that would satisfy a modern artist1 but sufficiently to evoke and control the ideas and emotions present to the mind of the artist4 ,we can say if we like that such a drawing is or may be a more or less accurate realisation of an actual scene1 and though such an assertion would require qualification1 ,i do not think we could reject it altogether4 ,but if we said that it was nothing more than such a realisation we should certainly be wrong4 ,it is a great deal more4 ,the connection between any fact or series of facts and the emotional standpoint from which we regard them is at times a matter of chance4 ,but in ,turner's design the connection between subjective feeling and the objects upon which our attention is focussed is not left to the caprice of chance or to the accidents of individual initiative2 the connection is necessary1 and objective and universal4 ,indeed if we examine the matter carefully we find that the whole raison d'tre of the drawing turns upon its power of evoking and qualifying ideally a definite range of emotion4 ,the objects selected and the manner of their presentation are such that a normal mind1 so far as it understands the artist's symbols1 is bound to feel about the presented scene in exactly the way that the artist felt4 ,now1 so long as the scene which the artist evokes exists only for the sake of suggesting and limiting a certain range of emotion1 the relation of this scene to fact is entirely irrelevant4 ,the artist is not bearing witness to what he has seen1 he is defining a definite complex of thought and emotion2 and as an artist1 his work is complete when he has worked out this definition4 ,when he has done this his work is complete within itself1 and all direct reference to a particular time and place in the world of fact is wiped out4 ,what we have before us is a hypothetical connection of ideal and universal meanings4 ,we are now in the region of the hypothetical judgment4 ,the hypothetical form is adopted not because there is any uncertainty in the matter1 but because the artist wishes to concentrate attention on the attributes themselves1 and not on any particular embodiment of them4 ,the subject is taken1 not given1 and taken not for its own sake but for the sake of that which is to follow from it1--in this case1 the whole emotional complex which is to be called up4 ,we might1 if our space were not limited1 attempt to work this out more in detail4 ,we might exhibit others of ,turner's studies and designs as steps or stages in the process which aims at the complete analysis or definition of its content4 ,but the main conception will1 ,i hope1 have been made evident4 ,if the work of art as operative is nothing but a connection of content1 it can rely upon no other driving force than that of systematic rationality4 ,the assertions made in a work of art are made on the strength of rational grounds1 and not on the strength of testimony4 ,if the artist uses fact1 he does not use it as fact1 and the most outrageous fiction may be truer than fact within the four walls of his special construction4 ,in interpreting pictures1 as in following fiction1 we are engaged in an act of comprehensive abstraction2 the conjunction of objects or events is all within a judgment that we are dealing with abstractions used for a certain purpose4 ,colonel ,newcome and ,turner's trees and mountains are as much abstractions and as unreal as the abstractions of the physical sciences1 as matter1 force1 atoms1 etc41--as unreal1 but also quite as real1 and probably in the same way4 ,they are provisional conceptions employed for certain purposes4 ,and all the details and secondary judgments used in interpreting a picture must be recognised as transformed by the system to which they belong4#cg ,but each work of art though rational is nevertheless a unique individual1 and though all works of art as forms of communication must necessarily aspire to the ideal of complete definition1 yet it does not follow that some of the stages short of absolute determination may not very well possess considerable aesthetic interest of their own4 ,conversation among people who understand each other tends to become elliptical4 ,a hint of one's meaning is generally sufficient for a friend2 indeed1 when we are thoroughly assured of the good will of our auditor1 a hint often conveys our meaning better than a more laboured form of expression4 ,it is the same in pictorial art4 ,to those who understand the language and are on terms of intimacy with the artist's usual modes of expression and habitual range of thought and feeling1 a few hurried scribbles or washes are as delightfully suggestive and full of significance as a completed painting2 and at the same time1 from the very fact that we have gone more than half-way to meet the artist1 we enjoy the additional pleasure of intimate intercourse4 ,the sympathetic and imaginative and well-informed spectator is therefore apt to resent the suggestion that such delightfully eloquent sketches as the #8,pass of ,fado1' #8,lucerne1' #8,zurich1' and a hundred others equally eloquent and suggestive1 are in any way short of perfection4 ,and no doubt from the strictly aesthetic point of view they are right4 #8,the best of this kind are but shadows1 and the worst are no worse if imagination amend them4' ,but ,i think it is clear that considerable experience of the completed works of an artist is necessary before even the privileged spectators can feel perfect confidence in their own interpretation of the artist's slighter work4 ,when dealing1 for example1 with some of the sketches and studies for marine subjects1 as #8,fishermen launching a ,boat in a rough ,sea' 7,plate ,,xix471 or with the marine and pastoral subjects in the ,liber1 we can interpret them with perfect confidence because1 in pictures like #8,the ,guard ,ship at the ,nore1' #8,windsor1' and #8,frosty ,morning1' the artist has shown us exactly the kind of completion his sketches point to4 ,but with the latest sketches 7,fado1 ,lucerne1 etc471 we are on a different footing4 ,a few only of these sketches were carried farther1 and ,i believe ,i am right in saying that according to the consensus of educated opinion the subjects lost rather than gained by elaboration4 ,i believe this opinion to be correct1 and ,i would suggest that the explanation is not entirely to be found in the waning powers of the artist4 ,some mental and emotional contents are incapable of definite embodiment4 ,the vague yearning and enigmatical unrest which form the most prominent elements in these designs are probably of that kind4 ,contents of such a nature that they are only partially amenable to artistic treatment are therefore more adequately treated in the less explicit forms of art4 ,such cases as these impress on us the importance of not confusing that mechanical kind of realisation which is known in artistic circles as #8finishing' or #8high finishing' with the demands for ideal determination4 ,the ideal towards which all works of art ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxxvii ,,lucerne3 ,,evening ,,water ,,colour4 #ahdd aspire is that of making the connection universally valid between the sign and the state of consciousness which is its meaning1 i4e4 to exclude all kinds of accidental and not strictly necessary emotional effects4 ,but this demand is only a formal one4 ,where a certain ambiguity of interpretation forms a necessary factor in the meaning of the work1 the demand for definition is obviously limited4 ,the form1 on a final analysis1 must be determined by the content1 and not vice vers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in conclusion1 ,i will only say that ,i am well aware of the inadequacy of these remarks1 but that ,i cannot regard this as the proper place to amplify or develop them4 ,i have said enough1 ,i hope1 to draw attention to the point of view which the novel character of our subject-matter has forced upon us4 ,in dealing with the completed work of art1 as art criticism mainly does1 it is comparatively easy to rest satisfied with a mere analysis of external shape1 or a simple description of the machinery or anatomy of pictorial art2 to treat works of art1 in short1 as the dried specimens of the botanist's herbarium4 ,but when we come to study the rudimentary forms of artistic expression1--an artist's sketches and studies--we begin to discover the shortcomings of the merely statical or morphological point of view4 ,works of art1 we find1 are something more than the fossil remains or dead bodies of artistic activity4 ,they are factors in the living process by which the artist's thought and emotion are kindled afresh in the bosom of the spectator4 ,instead1 therefore1 of merely describing the anatomy of the dead specimen1 we have had to address ourselves to the much harder task of attempting to comprehend the living activity of art4 ,the old static or morphological point of view had to give place to a dynamic or physiological system of interpretation4 ,the emphasis was placed on function rather than on structure4 ,the new ideal of art criticism which has thus been forced upon me is a synthetic view of function and form1 the interpretation of function in relation to structure4 ,art criticism would thus become a science which treats of the mode of action of works of art and of the function of their parts4 ,it would be concerned entirely with the positive facts of art as an active method of communication1 and it would seek only for verifiable generalisations--for a classified and unified account of the phenomena of artistic activity4 ,the present volume1 with all its shortcomings and defects1 is1 ,i hope1 at least a feeble and hesitating step in this direction4 ,,index ,the names of ,turner's oil-paintings and water-colours are printed in italics4 ,oil-paintings in the ,national ,gallery have the gallery numbers immediately after the names1 thus 7,n4,g4 #ebc72 water-colours and drawings in the ,national ,gallery have their reference numbers in the official ,inventory of the ,turner ,bequest1 thus 7,t4,b4 ,,cclxxx4 #ahd74 ,where ,i have been able to do so ,i have added references to the books where reproductions of the painting's1 etc41 have been published4 ,these are placed at the end of the entries1 in square brackets1 thus ,turner ,gallery1 ,pl4 #d4 ,list of ,volumes referred to #8,the ,turner ,gallery4' ,with ,memoir1 etc41 by ,r4 ,n4 ,wornum4 ,london3 ,james ,s4 ,virtue1 ,referred to as ,turner ,gallery #8,turner and ,ruskin4' ,edited by ,fredk4 ,wedmore4 ,london3 ,george ,allen1 #aijj1 8 ,turner and ,ruskin #8,turner4' ,by ,sir ,walter ,armstrong4 ,london3 ,t4 ,agnew and ,sons1 #aijb1 8 ,armstrong #8,the ,genius of ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner1 ,r4,a4 ,edited by ,charles ,holme4 ,offices of #8,the ,studio1' #aijc1 8 ,genius #8,hidden ,treasures at the ,national ,gallery4' #8,pall ,mall' ,press4 ,holborn1 #aije1 8 ,hidden ,treasures #8,the ,life of ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner1 ,r4,a4' ,by ,p4 ,g4 ,hamerton4 ,london3 ,seeley and ,co41 ,ltd41 #ahie1 8 ,hamerton #8,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner1 ,r4,a4' ,by ,w4 ,l4 ,wyllie1 ,a4,r4,a4 ,london3 ,g4 ,bell ,sons1 #aije1 8 ,wyllie #8,the ,water-,colours of ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner4' ,offices of #8,the ,studio1' #aiji1 8 ,water-,colours of ,turner #8,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner1 ,r4,a4' ,by ,robert ,chignell4 ,london3 ,walter ,scott ,publishing ,co41 #aijb1 8 ,chignell #8,ruskin on ,pictures4' ,edited by ,e4 ,t4 ,cook1 ,london3 ,george ,allen1 #aijb1 8 ,ruskin on ,pictures #8,james ,orrock1 ,r4,i4 ,painter1 etc4' ,by ,byron ,webber4 ,london1 #aijc1 8 ,byron ,webber ,abbotsford1 #ajf4 ,aberduls1 ,mill at1 #bg4 ,abingdon1 #aa4 ,abingdon1 ,berkshire1 with a ,view of the ,thames3 ,morning 7,n4,g4 #dhe71 #e1 #ee1 #if4 ,turner ,gallery1 ,pl4 #ab2 ,ruskin on ,pictures1 p4 #bd2 ,chignell1 p4 #bd4 #8,aesthetic1 ,history of' 7,b4 ,bosanquet's71 #ca4 ,agnew1 ,messrs41 #bj4 ,agrippina landing with the ,ashes of ,germanicus4 ,ancient ,rome 7,n4,g4 #ebc71 #aai1 #aba4 ,genius1 #j-ag4 ,aitken1 ,dr41 #ai4 ,akenside1 ,m41 #fi1 #ih4 ,albert ,memorial ,museum1 ,exeter1 #ce4 ,alps at ,daybreak1 ,the 7,t4,b4 ,,cclxxx4 #ahd71 #abi4 ,ambleteuse1 #db1 #ace4 ,anchorage1 ,ships bearing up for 7,petworth ,house ,collection71 #dd4 ,anderdon ,catalogues 7,print ,room1 ,b4,m471 #ag4 ,anselm's ,chapel1 with part of ,thomas ,becket's ,crown1 ,st4 7,whitworth ,institute71 #ah1 #ai4 ,antinos1 ,the ,belvedere1 #ad4 ,antique ,class1 ,r4 ,a4 ,schools1 #ad4 ,apollo and ,python 7,n4,g4 #aba71 #e4 ,turner and ,ruskin1 vol4 i4 p4 #db4 ,apollo1 ,the ,belvedere1 #ad4 ,arm ,chair1 ,study of an 7,t4,b4 ,,xcv4 7a7 ,f471 #adf4 ,arnald1 ,g41 #gf4 ,art ,criticism and ,aesthetic1 separation of1 #c1 #acf4 ,arveron1 ,source of the 7,farnley ,hall ,collection71 #hb4 ,study for1 ,genius1 ,,mw-#aj4 ,avon1 ,r41 #ae4 ,baiae1 ,bay of1 with ,apollo and the ,sibyl 7,n4,g4 #eje71 #hh1 #ic4 ,genius1 #j-aa2 ,wyllie1 p4 #fh2 ,chignell1 p4 #fd4 ,bamborough ,castle1 #cd4 ,barnard ,castle1 #cd4 ,basire1 ,j41 #i4 ,basle 7,r4 #e71 #gh1 #gi4 ,bass ,rock1 the1 #dh4 ,bath ,abbey from the ,north-,east 7,t4,b4 ,,vii4 ,f471 #ad1 #ae4 ,bell1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,f41 #ij4 ,bellinzona1 #adj4 ,bembridge ,mill 7,t4,b4 ,,xxiv4 #di71 #be4 ,bernard1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,h41 #cb4 ,berry ,pomeroy ,castle 7,r4 #eh71 #ha4 ,berwick1 #dh4 ,birds1 ,studies of 7,t4,b4 ,,cclxiii4 #cdj and #cda71 #adf4 ,genius1 ,w-#g4 #8,birmingham1' #bj4 ,blair's ,hut1 ,mer de ,glace 7,farnley ,hall ,collection71 #ci4 ,turner and ,ruskin1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aih4 ,blaze ,castle 7,t4,b4 ,,vi4 #bj a71 #ae4 #8,bolton ,abbey1' #aji1 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,borrowdale1 #cd4 ,bosanquet1 ,dr4 ,b41 #8,essentials of ,logic1' #adh1 #adi4 ---- #8,history of ,aesthetic1' #ca4 ---- #8,knowledge and ,reality1' #aea4 ---- #8,logic1' #adi4 ,boscastle1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajb4 ,boulogne1 #db4 ,boydell1 ,john1 #cf4 ,brading1 ,isle of ,wight1 #be4 ,bridge and ,cows 7,r4 #b71 #eg1 #gc4 ,bridgenorth1 #bj4 ,bridgewater ,sea ,piece1 ,the1 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 #df4 ,turner ,gallery1 ,pl4 #b4 ,bristol1 #ad1 #ae4 #8,british ,itinerary1 ,the1' #ii4 ,brocklebank1 ,mr4 ,ralph1 #de4 ---- ,mr4 ,thomas1 #ajf4 ,burke1 ,edmund1 #ca4 ,bury ,art ,gallery1 #aah4 ,buttermere1 #cd4 ,buttermere ,lake 7,t4,b4 ,,xxxv4 #hd71 #ce4 ,buttermere ,lake1 with part of ,cromack-water1 ,cumberland2 a ,shower 7,n4,g4 #dfj71 #ce4 ,byronism1 #aba1 #abc4 ,byron1 ,lord1 #abh4 ,byron's #8,childe ,harold1' #hh4 ,caernarvon ,castle1 ,north ,wales 7,t4,b4 ,,lxx4 ,m71 #de4 ,calais1 #dc4 ,calais1 ,pas de4 ,see ,now for the ,painter4 ,calais ,pier1 with ,french ,poissards preparing for ,sea3 an ,english ,packet arriving 7,n4,g4 #dgb71 #bc1 #dg1 #aai4 ,hamerton1 p4 #ib2 ,turner ,gallery1 ,pl4 #c4 ,calais ,sands1 ,low ,water3 ,poissards collecting ,bait 7,bury ,art ,gallery71 #aah1 #abf4 ,illus4 ,cat4 ,bury ,art ,gallery1 p4 #gb4 ,callcott1 ,sir ,a4 ,w41 #d4 ,cambridge1 #bj4 ,campbell1 ,t41 #abh4 ,canning1 #eh4 ,canterbury ,cathedral1 ,st4 ,anselm's ,chapel1 with part of ,thomas ,becket's ,crown 7,whitworth ,inst471 #ah1 #ai4 ,cardiff ,art ,gallery1 #bi4 ,carew ,castle1 #bf4 ,carisbrook ,castle1 #be4 ,carlisle1 #cd4 ,carthaginian ,empire1 ,decline of the 7,n4,g4 #dii71 #hh4 ,turner ,gallery1 ,pl4 #ba4 #8,castle of ,otranto' 7,walpole's71 #ca4 ,chamounix1 ,mer de ,glace 7,farnley ,hall ,collection71 #ci4 ,genius1 ,,mw-#bd2 ,turner and ,ruskin1 vol4 ii4 #aif4 ,chateaubriand1 #hh4 ,chepstow1 #bd4 ,chester1 #bj4 ,chinese ,art1 #bb4 ,christchurch ,gate1 ,canterbury1 #ag4 ,clifton ,nuneham1 #aa4 ,clydach1 ,r41 #bg4 ,clovelly1 #ii4 ,cobham1 #ea4 ,colchester1 #aaa1 #aai4 ,coltman1 ,n41 #ii4 ,combe ,martin1 #ii4 ,coniston1 #cd4 ,content1 ,form and1 #c4 ,conway ,castle1 #cg4 ,cook's ,folly1 ,bristol1 #ae4 ,cook1 ,sir ,frederick1 #ee4 ,copper ,plate ,magazine1 #bj4 ,cottage1 ,interior of a 7,t4,b4 ,,xxix4 ,x471 #bc1 #bd1 #bh4 ,genius1 ,,mw-#e4 ,cox1 ,david1 #d4 ,crossing the ,brook 7,n4,g4 #dig71 #hg4 ,turner ,gallery1 ,pl4 #ah2 ,armstrong1 ,pl4 #eh2 ,genius1 #j-aj2 ,wyllie1 p4 #fj4 ,crowle1 ,mr41 #f4 ,cumberland1 #cd4 ,cyfarthfa ,sketch ,book 7,t4,b4 ,,xli471 #dd4 ,dacre ,castle1 ,cumberland 7,t4,b4 ,i4 ,d471 #i4 ,daniell1 ,thomas1 #gf4 ,danish ,ships seized at ,copenhagen entering ,portsmouth ,harbour4 ,see ,spithead2 ,boat's ,crew1 etc4 ,dartmouth1 #ii4 ,dartmouth ,castle1 #ii4 ,datur hora ,quieti1 #abi4 ,dawe1 ,h41 #ha1 #hb4 ,dayes1 ,e41 #ah1 #ai1 #abd4 ,deal1 #ace4 ,decline of the ,carthaginian ,empire 7,n4,g4 #dii71 #hh4 ,turner ,gallery1 ,pl4 #ba4 ,delacroix1 #aag4 ,de ,loutherbourg1 #ah1 #ai1 #ca1 #cb1 #dc4 ,deluge1 ,the 7,n4,g4 #dic71 #de4 ,derby1 #bj4 ,derwentwater1 #cd4 ,derwentwater1 ,the ,head of 7,t4,b4 ,,xxxv4 #hb71 #ce4 ,devil's ,bridge1 ,cardiganshire1 #ag4 ,devil's ,bridge1 ,the ,little 7,r4 #ai71 #hj4 #8,devonshire ,rivers1 ,the1' #aji4 ,dewick1 ,rev4 ,e4 ,s41 #bi4 ,de ,wint1 ,p41 #d4 ,dido and ,aeneas 7,n4,g4 #did71 #e1 #hg4 ,turner ,gallery1 ,pl4 #af4 ---- building ,carthage 7,n4,g4 #dih71 #hg4 ,genius1 #j-i2 ,wyllie1 p4 #fb2 ,turner ,gallery1 ,pl4 #ai4 ---- directing the ,equipment of the ,fleet 7,n4,g4 #ejf71 #hh4 ,hamerton1 p4 #baf4 ,diskobolos1 ,the1 #ad4 ,dolbadern ,castle 7,diploma ,gallery1 ,r4,a471 #de4 ,genius #j-a4 ,dort 7,farnley ,hall ,collection71 #if4 ,mag4 of ,art1 ,july1 #ahhg1 p4 #cjj4 ,dover1 #dc4 ,dunbar ,castle1 #dh4 ,dunbar ,sketch ,book 7,t4,b4 ,,liv471 #dh4 ,dunstanborough ,castle1 #cd4 ,durdham ,downs1 ,bristol1 #ae4 ,durham1 #cd4 ,durham ,castle1 #cd4 ,durham ,cathedral1 #cd4 ,dutch ,boats in a ,gale 7,the ,bridgewater ,sea-piece71 #dc4 ,turner ,gallery1 ,pl4 #b4 ,dying ,gaul1 the1 #ad4 ,edinburgh1 #dh4 ,edinburgh from the ,galton ,hill 7,t4,b4 ,,lx4 ,h471 #ajg1 #ajh4 ,egremont1 ,lord1 #abf4 #8,elegy1' ,gray's1 #ca4 ,ely ,minster1 ,transept and ,choir of1 #bc4 #8,ely ,minster1 ,view of' 7,girtin's71 #ai4 #8,england and ,wales' ,series1 #d1 #bf1 #if1 #ig1 #aji1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aai1 #abi4 #8,environs of ,manchester1' ,dr4 ,aitken's1 #ai4 ,evening of the ,deluge1 ,the 7,n4,g4 #eca71 #aai4 ,evening ,star1 ,the 7,n4,g4 #aiia71 #aai4 ,cassell's ,illustrated ,catalogue1 ,n4,g4 of ,b4 ,art41 p4 #cc4 ,ewenny ,priory1 ,transept of1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca4 ,exile and the ,rock ,limpet1 ,the 7,n4,g4 #ebi71 #aai4 ,cassell's ,cat41 p4 #acf4 ,fabris1 #g4 ,fado1 ,pass of 7,t4,b4 ,,ccclxiv4 #bji71 #adj1 #aeb4 ,see #8,mod4 ,painters1' #ast ed4 vol4 iv4 pl4 #bj2 ,turner and ,ruskin1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afh4 ,farington1 ,joseph1 #cf ,farm ,yard with the ,cock 7,r4 #ag71 #eg4 ,farnley ,hall ,collection1 ,the1 #ci1 #eb4 ,fast ,castle1 #di4 ,fawkes1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,h41 #eb4 ,fawkes1 ,walter1 #ia1 #ic1 #ajc4 ,fishermen at ,sea1 #bc1 #db4 ---- becalmed previous to a ,storm--,twilight1 #db4 ---- coming ,ashore at ,sunset1 #db4 ---- launching a ,boat1 etc4 7,,lxviii4 #c71 #aeb4 ---- upon a ,lee-shore 7,lord ,iveagh71 #bc1 #dc1 #dh4 ,armstrong1 p4 #ej4 ,fitzwilliam ,museum1 ,cambridge1 #ah1 #ajb4 ,flint1 #bj4 ,flint ,castle4 ,see ,french ,coast1 ,scene on the4 ,flushing1 #ea4 ,folkestone1 #ace4 ,folly ,bridge and ,bacon's ,tower 7,t4,b4 ,i4 ,a471 #i4 ,genius1 ,,mw-#a4 ,form and ,content1 #c4 ,forum ,romanum 7,n4,g4 #ejd71 #ic4 ,fouch's #8,memoirs1' #ei4 ,fowler1 ,captain1 #ae4 ,franco-,british ,exhibition1 ,the1 #dh4 ,freedom and ,necessity1 ,reconciliation of1 #fh4 ,french ,coast1 ,scene on the 7,r4 #d71 #eg1 #ge-gh4 ,frosty ,morning1 ,a 7,n4,g4 #dib71 #d1 #e1 #ee1 #fa1 #fc1 #fd1 #ff1 #fh1 #hf1 #hg1 #if1 #aag1 #aai1 #aeb4 ,hamerton1 p4 #adh2 ,wyllie1 p4 #ef2 ,armstrong1 p4 #aab4 ,gainsborough1 ,t41 #eg4 ,garrick's ,temple and ,hampton ,court 7,r4 #fc74 ,see ,isleworth1 ,scene at4 #8,genius of mechanical excellence1' #aj4 ,gessner1 #eg4 ,gilpin's #8,northern ,tour1' #i4 ,girtin1 ,thomas1 #ai4 ,glaramara1 ,hills of 7,t4,b4 ,,xxxv4 #hc71 #ce4 ,goodrich ,castle1 #bf4 ,gould1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,j41 #eb4 ,goyen1 ,van1 #bh4 ,gravesend1 #ej1 #ea4 ,gray's #8,elegy1' #ca4 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#ej4 ,liebreich1 ,dr41 #abj4 ,lessing1 #ih4 #8,liber ,studiorum1' #d1 #dh1 #ef1 #eg1 #eh1 #fa1 #fd1 #gb-hc1 #ii1 #aai4 ,lichfield1 #bj4 ,life ,class1 ,r4,a4 ,schools1 #ad4 ,lincoln1 #bj4 ,lincoln1 ,cathedral ,church at 7,print ,room1 ,b4,m471 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bi1 #ca1 #adh1 #adi4 ,genius1 ,,mw-#d4 ,lindisfarne1 #cd4 ,lippincott1 ,sir ,h41 #ae4 ,llandaff ,cathedral 7,t4,b4 ,,xxviii4 ,a71 #bc1 #bi1 #ca4 ,llanstephen ,castle1 #bf4 ,locke1 #adb1 #adc4 ,london from ,greenwich ,park 7,n4,g4 #dhc71 #fc1 #hj4 ,genius1 #j-ad4 ,loutherbourg1 ,de1 #ah1 #ai1 #ca1 #cb1 #dc4 ,lucerne 7,t4,b4 ,,ccclxiv4 #cbd71 #aeb4 ,lysons' #8,environs of ,london1' #aj4 ,macon 7,lord ,yarborough71 #hg4 ,macpherson1 ,james1 #ca4 ,maiden ,lane1 #f4 ,maiden1 ,viscount1 #be4 ,mallet1 ,david1 #fi4 ,malmesbury ,abbey1 #ae4 ,malvern ,abbey1 ,porch of ,great 7,man4 ,whitworth ,inst47 #ag1 #ah4 ,manchester1 ,whitworth ,institute1 #ah1 #bj4 ,margate1 #ea1 #ace4 ,marshall1 ,j4 ,m4 ,w41 #aa1 #ad4 ,martello ,towers1 ,bexhill 7,r4 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,oxford1 ,view of ,high ,street 7,wantage ,coll471 #e4 ,illus4 ,cat4 of ,wantage ,coll4 ,oxford1 ,view of the ,city of 7,t4,b4 ,,iii4 ,b71 #ac4 #8,pastoral' and #8,elegant ,pastoral1' #ef4 ,paterson's #8,road ,book1' #cd4 ,patterdale1 #cd4 ,pembroke ,bay1 #bd4 ,pembroke ,castle3 ,clearing up of a ,thunderstorm 7,r4 ,brocklebank71 #de4 ,turner and ,ruskin1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aeh2 ,armstrong1 p4 #ej4 ,pembroke ,castle3 ,thunderstorm approaching 7,mrs4 ,w4 ,pitt ,miller71 #de4 ,genius1 ,w-#a4 ,pembury ,mill 7,r4 #ab71 #eg4 ,percy's #8,reliques1' #ca4 ,peterborough1 #bj4 ---- ,cathedral3 ,west ,entrance1 #bj4 ,petworth1 ,interior at 7,n4,g4 #aihh71 #aai4 ---- ,dewy ,morning 7,petworth ,house ,coll471 #aai4 ---- ,house ,collection1 #dd1 #abf4 ---- ,park 7,petworth ,house ,coll471 #abf4 ,petworth ,park 7,n4,g4 #eei71 #abf4 ,wyllie1 p4 #dh4 ,pilot hailing a ,whitstable ,hoy 7,farnley ,coll471 #eb4 ,turner and ,ruskin1 vol4 i4 p4 #acb2 ,genius1 #j-g4 ,plato1 #he4 ,pleasant and ,beautiful1 ,the1 #ij4 ,plymouth ,dock1 from ,mount ,edgecumbe1 #ajb4 #8,pocket ,magazine1' #bj4 #8,poetry1 ,history of ,english' 7,warton71 #ca4 ,poetry1 ,turner's1 #fi1 #gj4 ,poole1 #ajb4 ,pope's ,tower1 ,stanton ,harcourt1 #aa4 ,portrayal and ,portrayed1 ,problem of1 #c4 #8,ports of ,england' ,series1 #d1 #if1 #ig4 ,portugal1 ,prince ,regent of1 #eh4 #8,prelude1 ,the' 7,wordsworth71 #fe4 ,print ,room1 ,british ,museum1 #f1 #ag1 #bj4 #8,provincial ,antiquities1' ,scott's1 #d1 #if1 #ig1 #ajf4 ,purfleet1 #ed4 ,purley1 nr4 ,pangbourne1 #gj4 ,pyke-,thompson ,bequest1 #bi4 ,queen ,mab's ,cave 7,n4,g4 #edh71 #aai4 ,radley ,hall1 near ,abingdon1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac4 ,raglan ,castle4 ,see ,berry ,pomeroy ,castle4 ,rain1 ,storm1 and ,speed1 7,n4,g4 #ech71 #aai4 ,turner and ,ruskin1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bgj2 ,genius1 #j-bc2 ,wyllie1 p4 #acb4 ,raleigh's 7,professor71 #8,wordsworth1' #fg4 ,rawlinson's #8,liber ,studiorum1' #gc1 #gh4 ,reichenbach1 ,falls of the 7,farnley ,hall ,collection71 #ci4 ,genius1 ,m4,w4--#ai4 #8,reliques1' ,percy's1 #ca4 ,rembrandt1 #fg1 #abe4 #8,review of ,publications of ,art1' #fj4 ,reynolds1 ,sir ,joshua1 #aj1 #abe4 ,richmond ,castle1 ,yorkshire1 #cd4 ,richmond ,hill on the ,prince ,regent's ,birthday 7,n4,g4 #ejb71 #hh4 #8,richmondshire1 ,the ,history of1' #d1 #ig1 #ajb1 #ajf4 ,richmond1 ,yorks1 #ajb4 #8,rimini1 ,bridge of ,augustus at' 7,wilson71 #cf4 ,ripon ,cathedral 7,t4,b4 ,,xxxv4 #f71 #cd1 #adh1 #adi4 #8,rivers of ,england' ,series1 #d1 #if1 #ig1 #ii1 #aji1 #abg4 #8,rivers of ,france' ,series1 #abg1 #abi4 #8,rochester ,castle' 7,sandby71 #ai4 ,rochester on the ,medway 7,t4,b4 ,,ccviii4 ,w471 #aji1 #abg4 ,rogers1 ,samuel1 #abh4 ,romantic ,art1 ,inauguration of1 #ca4 ,rome1 from ,monte ,mario 7,t4,b4 ,,clxxxix4 #cc71 #ib4 ,rome from the ,vatican 7,t4,b4 ,,clxxxix4 #da71 #hh4 ,rooker1 ,m4 ,a41 #ah1 #ai4 ,roslin ,castle1 #dh4 ,rowlandson1 ,t41 #dc4 ,royal ,academy ,schools1 #ad4 ,royal ,academy1 ,winter ,exhibition1 #aa4 ,ruskin ,bequest1 ,cambridge1 #ajb4 ,ruskin1 ,mr4 ,john1 #h1 #bg1 #di1 #ij1 #ib1 #ic1 #id1 #aaj1 #acj4 #8,ruskin on ,pictures1' #ej4 ,ruskin's #8,elements of ,drawing1' #ie1 #adj4 ---- #8,modern ,painters1' #aji1 #ach sq4 ,st4 ,abb's ,head1 #di4 ,st4 ,anselm's ,chapel1 etc4--#8,canterbury ,cathedral' 7,man4 ,whit4 ,inst471 #ah1 #ai4 ,st4 ,catherine's ,hill1 near ,guildford 7,r4 #cc71 #fa4 ,st4 ,gothard1 ,pass of 7,farnley ,hall ,collection71 #ci4 ,st4 ,vincent's ,tower1 ,naples 7,t4,b4 ,i4 ,e471 #f1 #i4 ,salisbury1 #be4 ,sandbank with ,gipsies 7,n4,g4 #dfg71 #ee4 ,sandby1 ,paul1 #g1 #ac1 #ah4 ,sandwich1 #ace4 ,santayana1 ,mr4 ,george1 #abc1 #abd4 ,schaffhausen1 ,fall of the ,rhine at 7,tabley ,house71 #hg4 ,scott1 ,sir ,walter1 #di1 #hh1 #ajf1 #abh4 ,scott's #8,provincial ,antiquities1' #d4 ,shee1 ,sir ,martin ,a41 #aag4 ,sheerness 7,wantage ,collection71 #eb1 #ec1 #ed1 #if1 #aag1 #aeb4 ,armstrong1 p4 #eb2 and ,illus4 ,cat41 ,wantage ,collection4 ,shelley1 ,p4 ,b41 #abc1 #abi4 ,ships bearing up for ,anchorage 7,petworth ,house ,collection71 #dd4 ,shipwreck1 ,studies of a 7,t4,b4 ,,lxxxviii4 #a-h71 #di4 ,wyllie1 pp4 #ai-bb4 ,shipwreck1 ,the 7,n4,g4 #dgf71 #bc1 #di1 #ej4 ,genius1 #j-c2 ,monkhouse1 p4 #ej2 ,wyllie1 p4 #cf4 ,shrewsbury1 #bj4 #8,simple ,nature1' #d1 #e4 ,snowstorm1 ,the 7,n4,g4 #ecj71 #aai4 ,wyllie1 p4 #abf2 ,turner and ,ruskin1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbj4 ,soane ,museum1 ,the1 #ic4 ,southampton1 #be4 ,southend1 #ea4 #8,southern ,coast1 ,the1' #d1 #if-ajb1 #ajc4 ,southey1 ,r41 #hh4 ,spinnet ,player1 ,the 7,t4,b4 ,,ccxliv4 #cg71 #abh4 ,spithead3 ,boat's ,crew recovering an ,anchor 7,n4,g4 #dha71 #ec1 #ed1 #fj1 #aai4 ,armstrong1 p4 #ff2 ,turner and ,ruskin1 vol4 i4 p4 #aed4 ,spithead ,sketch ,book 7,t4,b4 ,c471 #ei1 #fj4 ,stamford1 ,linc41 #aab1 #aac1 #aad1 #abi4 ,stanton ,harcourt1 #aa4 #8,stanton ,harcourt1 ,the ,old ,kitchen at1' #i4 ,stoke1 near ,bristol 7,mrs4 ,a4 ,thomas71 #ae4 ,stonehenge at ,daybreak 7,r4 #ha71 #ii4 ,straw ,yard1 ,the 7,r4 #g71 #eg4 ,strong1 ,the late ,mr4 ,arthur1 #hc4 ,subject and ,treatment1 #c4 #8,sublime and ,beautiful1 ,essay on the' 7,burke71 #ca4 ,sunningwell1 #ad4 ---- ,church1 #aa1 #ab4 ,symbolists1 ,the ,french1 #abf4 ,swinburne1 ,a4 ,c41 #abi4 ,tantallon ,castle1 #dh4 ,taylor1 ,the late ,mr4 ,j4 ,e41 #hb4 ,tees1 ,high ,force of1 #bg4 ,teignmouth1 #aai4 ,tmraire1 ,the ,fighting 7,n4,g4 #ebd71 #e1 #ed4 ,armstrong1 p4 #aaf2 ,genius1 #j-ai2 ,hamerton1 p4 #bhb2 ,wyllie1 p4 #aah4 ,teniers1 #eg4 ,thames and ,medway1 ,the ,meeting of the 7,n4,g4 #hac71 #df4 ,wyllie1 p4 #adb4 ---- ---- ---- 7,mr4 ,widener's71 #eb4 ,armstrong1 p4 #ed4 ,thomas1 ,mrs41 #ae4 ,thomson1 #eg1 #ih4 ,thomson's ,lyre 7,basildon ,house71 #e4 ,thornbury1 ,walter1 #f4 ,tilsit1 ,treaty of1 #eh4 ,tintern ,abbey 7,v4 and ,a4 ,museum71 #ah ,genius1 ,,mw-#c4 ,topographical ,art1 limitations of1 #bb4 ,trafalgar1 ,battle of1 7,greenwich ,hospital71 #if ,turner and ,ruskin1 vol4 i4 p4 #d2 #8,hidden ,treasures1' p4 #ia4 ,treatment and ,subject1 #c4 ,trossachs1 ,the1 #da4 ,trout ,stream1 ,the1 #ee1 #hf4 ,armstrong1 p4 #eh4 ,truth1 #c4 ,turner1 ,charles1 #gf4 ,twickenham--,pope's ,villa4 ,see ,isleworth1 ,scene at4 ,tynemouth1 #aac-aae4 ,ullswater1 #cd4 ,ulysses deriding ,polyphemus 7,n4,g4 #ejh71 #hh1 #aah1 #aai4 ,armstrong1 p4 #aad2 ,turner and ,ruskin1 vol4 i4 p4 #ed2 ,genius1 #j-ab2 ,hamerton1 p4 #bbd2 ,wyllie1 p4 #hj4 ,union of the ,thames and ,isis 7,n4,g4 #dhg71 #ee4 ,usk1 ,r41 #dd4 ,van der ,neer1 #bh4 ,van ,goyen1 #bh4 ,vatican ,meleager1 ,the1 #ad4 ,vaughan ,bequest1 #ajb4 ,venice1 ,riva degli ,schiavone1 from near the ,public ,gardens 7,t4,b4 ,,cccxvi4 #ba71 #acb4 ,venice1 ,shipping on the ,riva degli ,schiavone 7,t4,b4 ,,cccxvi4 #bj71 #acb4 ,venice1 ,the ,approach to 7,t4,b4 ,,cccxvi4 #af71 #acb4 ,ventnor1 #be4 ,venus de' ,medici1 #ad4 ,via ,mala1 ,the 7,t4,b4 ,,ccclxiv4 #cfb71 #ace4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 #ah1 #ai1 #ajb4 ,village and ,castle on the ,rhine 7,t4,b4 ,,ccclxix4 #bb71 #ace4 ,waiting for ,dinner 7,t4,b4 ,,cccxliv4 #ca71 #abg1 #abh4 ,wallis ,wall1 ,bristol1 #ae4 ,walpole1 ,horace1 #ca4 ,walton ,bridges1 #ea4 ,walton ,bridges 7,wantage ,collection71 #ee4 ,armstrong1 p4 #eh4 ---- ---- 7,mr4 ,j4 ,orrock71 #ee4 ,byron ,webber1 vol4 i4 #id4 ,wanstead1 ,new ,church at1 #aj4 ,wantage1 ,the ,lady1 #eb1 #ee1 #fc4 ,warkworth ,castle1 #cd4 ,warton1 ,joseph1 #d1 #ca4 ,watchet1 #ii1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ajb4 ,waterloo1 ,field of 7,n4,g4 #ejj71 #hh4 ,water ,mill1 ,the 7,r4 #cg71 #fa4 ,wells1 #bf4 ,wells1 ,mrs41 #ge4 ---- ,w4 ,f41 #gc4 ,welsh ,bridge1 ,shrewsbury 7,man4 ,whit4 ,inst471 #bj4 #8,welsh ,coast1 ,a ,view of the1 from ,cook's ,folly1' 7,t4,b4 ,,vi4 #i71 #ae4 ,westall1 ,william1 #gf4 ,whalers 7,n4,g4 #edf1 #edg71 #aai4 ,whalley ,bridge and ,abbey 7,wantage ,collection71 #fc4 ,illus4 ,cat4 ,wantage ,collection4 #8,whatman's ,turkey ,mills1' ,view of 7,sandby71 #ai4 ,what ,you ,will1 #hh4 ,wheatley1 ,f41 #ah1 #ai1 #eg4 ,wheeler1 ,mrs41 #ge4 ,whitstable ,hoy1 ,pilot hailing a 7,farnley ,hall ,collection71 #eb4 ,turner and ,ruskin1 vol4 i4 p4 #acb2 ,genius1 #j-g4 ,widener1 ,mr4 ,p4 ,a4 ,b41 #eb4 ,wight1 ,isle of1 #bd1 #be1 #bf4 ,wilson1 ,r41 #d1 #ca1 #cb1 #cc1 #cf1 #cg1 #ci1 #hd4 ,winchester1 #be4 ,windermere1 #cd4 ,windmill and ,lock 7,r4 #bg71 #eg1 #eh1 #fa1 #id4 ---- ---- 7,sir ,frederick ,cook71 #ee ,genius #j-h4 ,windsor1 #ae4 ,windsor 7,n4,g4 #dhf71 #d1 #ee1 #fc1 #fd1 #fg1 #fh1 #hf1 #if1 #aag1 #aeb4 ,wint1 ,de1 #d4 ,worcester1 #ae4 ,wordsworth1 #d1 #fe1 #hf1 #abe4 ---- ,dorothy1 #fd4 #8,wordsworth' 7,prof4 ,raleigh71 #fg4 ,wordsworthian ,naturalism1 #d4 ,wordsworth's #8,excursion1' #fg4 ,wordsworth's #8,lines1 composed a few miles above ,tintern ,abbey1' #ff4 ---- #8,lyrical ,ballads1' #eh4 ---- #8,prelude1' #fe4 ,wrexham1 #bj4 ,yorkshire1 #cd4 ,yorkshire1 ,coast of1 near ,whitby 7,r4 #bd71 #dh4 #8,yorkshire ,series1 ,the4' ,see #8,richmondshire1 ,history of4' ,young1 ,edward1 #d1 #ca4 ,zurich 7,t4,b4 ,,ccclxiv4 #bhi71 #aeb4 ,water-,colours of ,turner1 ,pl4 ,,xxvii4 ,printed by ,t4 and ,a4 ,,constable1 ,printers to ,his ,majesty at the ,edinburgh ,university ,press ,,footnotes3 #a ,see ,modern ,painters1 vol4 v4 p4 #cdb note4 #b ,the ,life of ,turner1 by ,walter ,thornbury1 #ahig edition1 p4 #bg4 ,the drawings referred to are now in the ,print ,room1 ,british ,museum4 #c ,since these lines were written ,i have been lucky enough to discover its source4 ,it is based on an engraving in ,gilpin's ,northern ,tour1 vol4 ii41 facing p4 #he4 ,turner has followed the engraving fairly carefully1 but has introduced two figures of his own in the foreground4 #d ,it was finished in #agij and consecrated on the #bdth ,june4 ,see ,lysons's ,environs of ,london1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bcg4 #e ,these titles are written on the backs of the drawings by the artist himself--an excellent practice which he very soon abandoned4 #f ,the fourth architectural subject in the exhibition is described as a view of the #8,inside of ,tintern ,abbey4' ,if this was the drawing now in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 as the evidence seems to indicate1 the critic's preferences seem even more incomprehensible4 ,on the whole this is1 ,i think1 a finer work even than the #8,st4 ,anselm's ,chapel4' #g ,for it appears that there is some doubt about the matter4 ,the ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dewick possesses another version of this subject1 similar in size and design1 but very inferior in workmanship4 ,the clumsiness and woodenness of the workmanship have been taken as evidence that the drawing was an earlier one than that at ,cardiff4 ,but it may also indicate that it is merely the work of an unskilful copyist4 #h ,cf4 ,bosanquet's ,history of sthetic1 p4 #bgg2 also ,kant's ,kritik of ,judgment1 sections #bh and #bi4 #i ,op4 cit4 7,dr4 ,bernard's translation71 p4 #ada4 #aj ,op4 cit4 p4 #abe4 #aa ,the conventional eighteenth-century attitude towards these scenes seems well expressed by a description in ,paterson's ,road ,book4 #8,to the south of the ,derwentwater1' the passage runs1 #8is the rocky chasm of ,borrowdale1 a tremendous pass1 at the entrance of which dark caverns yawn terrific as the wildness of a maniac1 etc41' page #dce4 #ab ,wordsworth1 ,prelude1 ,bk4 xii4 #aah-abj4 #ac ,see ,plate ,,xvi4 for the study for the ,farnley picture4 #ad ,see ,plate ,,xxxvii4 #ae ,plate ,,xxxviii4 #af ,plate ,,xxvii 7b74 #ag ,the ,prelude1 ,bk4 xiii4 l4 #bhg sq4 #ah ,see1 for example1 ,jeffrey's account of the ,sixth ,book of the ,excursion1 quoted in ,professor ,raleigh's ,wordsworth1 pp4 #h and #i4 #ai ,it is1 of course1 possible that the verses were composed by ,turner himself4 #bj ,plate ,,xxxix4 #ba ,bell1 ,article on #8,turner and his ,engravers1' in ,the ,genius of ,turner 7,studio ,extra71 pp4 #adb-adc4 #bb ,turner ,catalogue1 written in #ahha4 ,national ,gallery edition1 #ahii1 p4 #cg4 #bc ,ibid4 #bd ,it is also worth remarking that the value of these drawings from a topographical point of view1 i4e4 as giving information pure and simple1 is probably diminished by the fact that the material they contain is so skilfully selected and arranged4 #be ,modern ,painters1 vol4 i4 p4 #acb4 #bf ,ibid4 p4 #acj4 #bg ,elements of ,drawing1 ,preface1 p4 ,x4 #bh ,plate ,,lvii4 #bi #8,turner and ,mulready4--,on the ,effect of certain ,faults of ,vision1 etc4' ,by ,r4 ,liebreich4 ,macmillan's ,magazine1 ,april #ahgb4 #cj ,the ,sense of ,beauty1 by ,george ,santayana4 ,a4 ,c4 ,black1 #ahif1 p4 #adi4 #ca ,this1 ,i need hardly add1 is ,mr4 ,ruskin's explanation4 #cb ,hamerton's ,turner1 p4 #bdd4 #cc ,see1 for example1 ,professor ,c4 ,j4 ,holmes's ,notes on the ,science of ,picture-,making4 ,introduction4 #cd ,two of these studies are reproduced in ,the ,genius of ,turner4 #ce ,see ,dr4 ,bosanquet's ,essentials of ,logic1 p4 #ia sq4 #cf ,the transition is from the singular to the universal judgment4 ,see ,dr4 ,bosanquet's ,logic1 vol4 i4 chap4 v42 and ,essentials of ,logic1 p4 #fd sq4 #cg ,the best discussion of these points with which ,i am acquainted is contained in ,dr4 ,bosanquet's ,knowledge and ,reality1 pp4 #adj-aee4