,,after ,,life ,,in ,,roman ,,paganism ,,yale ,,university ,,mrs4 ,,hepsa ,,ely ,,silliman ,,memorial ,,lectures ,,silliman ,,memorial ,,lectures ,,published ,,by ,,yale ,,university ,,press ,,electricity ,,and ,,matter4 ,by ,,joseph ,,john ,,thomson1 ,d4,,sc41 ,,ll4,d41 ,,ph4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,fellow of ,trinity ,college and ,cavendish ,professor of ,experimental ,physics1 ,cambridge ,university4 7,fourth printing47 ,,the ,,integrative ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,nervous ,,system4 ,by ,,charles ,s4 ,,sherrington1 ,d4,,sc41 ,m4,d41 ,,hon4 ,,ll4,d4 ,,tor41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,holt ,professor of ,physiology1 ,university of ,liverpool4 7,sixth printing47 ,,radioactive ,,transformations4 ,by ,,ernest ,,rutherford1 ,d4,,sc41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,macdonald ,professor of ,physics1 ,mc,gill ,university4 7,second printing47 ,,experimental ,,and ,,theoretical ,,applications ,,of ,,thermodynamics ,,to ,,chemistry4 ,by ,,dr4 ,,walter ,,nernst1 ,professor and ,director of the ,institute of ,physical ,chemistry in the ,university of ,berlin4 ,,problems ,,of ,,genetics4 ,by ,,william ,,bateson1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,director of the ,john ,innes ,horticultural ,institution1 ,merton ,park1 ,surrey1 ,england4 7,second printing47 ,,stellar ,,motions4 ,with ,special ,reference to ,motions ,determined by ,means of the ,spectrograph4 ,by ,,william ,,wallace ,,campbell1 ,,sc4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,director of the ,lick ,observatory1 ,university of ,california4 7,second printing47 ,,theories ,,of ,,solutions4 ,by ,,svante ,,arrhenius1 ,,ph4,d41 ,,sc4,d41 ,m4,d41 ,director of the ,physico-,chemical ,department of the ,nobel ,institute1 ,stockholm1 ,sweden4 7,third printing47 ,,irritability4 ,a ,physiological ,analysis of the ,general ,effect of ,stimuli in ,living ,substances4 ,by ,,max ,,verworn1 ,m4,d41 ,,ph4,d41 ,professor at ,bonn ,physiological ,institute4 7,second printing47 ,,problems ,,of ,,american ,,geology4 ,by ,,william ,,north ,,rice1 ,,frank ,d4 ,,adams1 ,,arthur ,p4 ,,coleman1 ,,charles ,d4 ,,walcott1 ,,waldemar ,,lindgren1 ,,frederick ,,leslie ,,ransome1 ,,and ,,william ,d4 ,,matthew4 7,second printing47 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,volcanism4 ,by ,,joseph ,,paxson ,,iddings1 ,,ph4,b41 ,,sc4,d4 7,second printing47 ,,organism ,,and ,,environment ,,as ,,illustrated ,,by ,,the ,,physiology ,,of ,,breathing4 ,by ,,john ,,scott ,,haldane1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,fellow of ,new ,college1 ,oxford ,university4 7,second printing47 ,a ,,century ,,of ,,science ,,in ,,america4 ,with ,special ,reference to the ,american ,journal of ,science #ahah-aiah4 ,by ,,edward ,,salisbury ,,dana1 ,,charles ,,schuchert1 ,,herbert ,e4 ,,gregory1 ,,joseph ,,barrell1 ,,george ,,otis ,,smith1 ,,richard ,,swann ,,lull1 ,,louis ,v4 ,,pirsson1 ,,william ,e4 ,,ford1 ,r4 ,b4 ,,sosman1 ,,horace ,l4 ,,wells1 ,,harry ,w4 ,,foote1 ,,leigh ,,page1 ,,wesley ,r4 ,,coe1 ,,and ,,george ,l4 ,,goodale4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,modern ,,medicine4 ,by ,,sir ,,william ,,osler1 ,,bart41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 7,second printing47 ,,respiration4 ,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,haldane1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,fellow of ,new ,college1 ,oxford1 ,honorary ,professor1 ,birmingham ,university4 ,,after ,,life ,,in ,,roman ,,paganism4 ,by ,,franz ,,cumont4 ,,after ,,life ,,in ,,roman ,,paganism ,,lectures ,,delivered ,,at ,,yale ,,university ,,on ,,the ,,silliman ,,foundation ,,by ,,franz ,,cumont ,illustration ,,new ,,haven ,,yale ,,university ,,press ,,london ,,humphrey ,,milford ,,oxford ,,university ,,press ,,mdccccxxii ,,copyright1 #aibb1 ,,by ,,yale ,,university ,,press ,,to ,,my ,,friend ,,george ,,lincoln ,,hendrickson #ahhh-aibb ,,the ,,silliman ,,foundation ,in the year #ahhc a legacy of eighty thousand dollars was left to the ,president and ,fellows of ,yale ,college in the city of ,new ,haven1 to be held in trust1 as a gift from her children1 in memory of their beloved and honored mother1 ,mrs4 ,hepsa ,ely ,silliman4 ,on this foundation ,yale ,college was requested and directed to establish an annual course of lectures designed to illustrate the presence and providence1 the wisdom and goodness of ,god1 as manifested in the natural and moral world4 ,these were to be designated as the ,mrs4 ,hepsa ,ely ,silliman ,memorial ,lectures4 ,it was the belief of the testator that any orderly presentation of the facts of nature or history contributed to the end of this foundation more effectively than any attempt to emphasize the elements of doctrine or of creed2 and he therefore provided that lectures on dogmatic or polemical theology should be excluded from the scope of this foundation1 and that the subjects should be selected1 rather1 from the domains of natural science and history1 giving special prominence to astronomy1 chemistry1 geology1 and anatomy4 ,it was further directed that each annual course should be made the basis of a volume to form part of a series constituting a memorial to ,mrs4 ,silliman4 ,the memorial fund came into the possession of the ,corporation of ,yale ,university in the year #aija2 and the present volume constitutes the sixteenth of the series of memorial lectures4 ,,preface ,at the invitation of the ,president of ,yale ,university and of ,professor ,russell ,h4 ,chittenden1 chairman of the committee in charge of the ,silliman ,foundation1 the lectures which are here presented to a wider public were delivered in ,new ,haven during the month of ,march of the year #aiba4 ,it was the wish of the committee that ,i should speak upon some subject from the history of religion4 ,i chose therefore as my theme a matter which had occupied my attention for many years1 viz41 the ideas current in ,roman paganism concerning the lot of the soul after death4 ,the argument has been treated more than once by distinguished scholars and notably--to mention only an ,english book--by ,mrs4 ,arthur ,strong in her recent work 8,apotheosis and ,after ,life10 a study characterised by penetrating interpretation1 especially of archaeological monuments4 ,but we do not yet possess for the ,roman imperial epoch a counterpart to ,rohde's classical volume1 8,psyche10 for the earlier ,greek period1 that is1 a work in which the whole evolution of ,roman belief and speculation regarding a future life is set forth4 ,these lectures cannot claim to fill this gap4 ,they may however be looked upon as a sketch of the desired investigation1 in which1 though without the detailed citation of supporting evidence1 an attempt at least has been made to trace the broad outlines of the subject in all its magnitude4 ,the lectures are printed in the form in which they were delivered4 ,the necessity of making each one intelligible to an audience which was not always the same1 has made inevitable some repetitions4 ,cross references have been added1 where the same topics are treated in different connections4 ,however1 in a book intended primarily for the general reader1 the scholarly apparatus has been reduced to a minimum and as a rule indicates only the source of passages quoted in the text4 ,my acknowledgment is due to ,miss ,helen ,douglas ,irvine1 who with skill and intelligent understanding of the subject translated into ,english the ,french text of these lectures4 ,i wish also to express my gratitude to my friends1 ,professor ,george ,lincoln ,hendrickson1 who took upon himself the tedious task of reading the manuscript and the proofs of this book and to whom ,i am indebted for many valuable suggestions both in matter and in form1 and ,professor ,grant ,showerman1 who obligingly consented to revise the last chapters before they were printed4 ,rome1 ,september1 #aibb4 ,,contents ,,preface4 ,p4 xi4 ,,historical ,,introduction4 ,general view of the subject1 #a--,the ancient beliefs3 after life in the tomb1 #c--;in the nether world1 #d--,philosophical criticism1 #e--;,academic and ,peripatetic schools1 #f--;,epicureans1 #g--,stoics1 #ab--,scepticism at the end of the ,republic1 #af--;,earthly immortality1 #ai--,rebirth of ,pythagorism1 #bj--;,its teaching1 #bd--,posidonius1 #bg--;,cicero1 #ca--;,diffusion of the mysteries1 #cc--;,hermetic writings and ,chaldean oracles1 #ch--,plutarch1 #ci--,the second and third centuries1 #ci--,neo-,platonism1 #dj--;,conclusion1 #dc4 ,i4 ,,after ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,tomb4 ,survival of primitive beliefs1 #dd--;,after life of the body1 #de--,the tomb 8eternal house10 #dh--;,food for the dead1 #ej--,sacrifices1 #ea--;,funeral meals1 #eb--;,gardens1 #ef--;,connection of the dead with the living1 #eg--,the aerial souls1 #ei--;,beneficent1 #fj--or ,malevolent1 #fc--,souls of the unburied1 #fd--;,become ghosts1 #fg4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,nether ,,world4 ,belief in the nether world1 #gj--;,after life prolongation of earthly life1 #gb--;,greek doctrines introduced into ,italy1 #gc--,philosophical criticism1 #gf--;,hades transported to this life1 #gh--;,distinction of 8soul0 and shade1 #gi--;,hades is the lower hemisphere1 #gi--;,hades in the air1 #ha--,scepticism1 #hc--,persistence of old tradition in literature and art1 #hd--;,ancient beliefs maintained in the people1 #hf--,neo-,platonists1 #hg--,persian dualism1 #hi4 ,,iii4 ,,celestial ,,immortality4 ,widespread beliefs that souls rise to the stars1 #ia--,unknown in ancient ,greece1 #id--,pythagorism1 #ie--,lunar immortality1 #if--,solar immortality1 #ajj--;,combination of both1 #ajb--,stellar immortality1 #ajc--;,combined with the other doctrines3 three stages1 #ajf--,passage through the planetary spheres1 #ajg--,souls rise above the stars1 #ajh4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,winning ,,of ,,immortality4 ,ancient conception of immortality1 #aaj--;,eminent men gods on earth1 #aaa--;,immortality of the few1 #aad--,mysteries claim to procure 8deification10 #aaf--,lustrations1 #aah--,unctions1 #aai--,ritual banquets1 #abj--,the gnosis1 #aba--;,identification with a particular god1 #abb--;,illumination by the astral divinities1 #abc--,philosophy also leads to union with ,god1 #abd4 ,v4 ,,untimely ,,death4 ,children not admitted to the ,elysian ,fields1 #abh--,those who die violent deaths1 #abi--;,influence of astrology1 #aca--,pythagorism1 #acb--,magic1 #acd--,philosophical reaction1 #acf--;,children initiated1 #ach--,their souls rise to heaven1 #aci--;,different categories of biothanati1 #ada--,soldiers slain in battle1 #adb--,suicides1 #adc--;,executed criminals1 #ade--,persistence of ancient beliefs1 #adf4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,journey ,,to ,,the ,,beyond4 ,journey to the nether world1 #adh--,the ,pythagorean ,y1 #aej--,the two roads1 #aeb--;,how the dead reach heaven1 #aec--,on foot1 by means of a ladder1 #aec--;,in a boat1 #aed--,on horseback1 #aee--;,in a chariot1 #aef--;,as a bird1 #aeg--;,carried by an eagle1 #aeh--,solar attraction1 #afj--,physical theory1 #afa--,the air peopled with demons1 #afb--,the gates of the planetary spheres1 #afb--;,guide of the souls1 #afc--,physical character of the dead1 #afd--,the shade and the soul1 #afg--;,distinction of soul and reason1 #afh--,neo-,platonic 8vehicle10 #afi4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,sufferings ,,of ,,hell ,,and ,,metempsychosis4 ,origin in ,homer1 #agj--,orphic theology1 #aga--,resemblance to penal law1 #agb--;,apocryphal gospel of ,peter1 #agc--,oriental influence1 #agd--;,fire of hell1 #age--,metempsychosis1 its animistic basis1 #agg--,origin in ,greece1 #agg--,souls passing continuously through different kinds of beings1 #agi--,reincarnation a punishment1 #ahj--8,palingenesis0 or uncontinuous reincarnation1 #ahb--,transmigration from man to man1 #ahc--,purification of the soul in the air1 #ahd--;by water and fire1 #ahe--,purgatory in the atmosphere1 #ahf--,the purified spirit remains in heaven1 #ahg4 ,,viii4 ,,the ,,felicity ,,of ,,the ,,blessed4 ,rest in the tomb1 #aij--;in the nether world1 #aic--;in the light of heaven1 #aic--,persistence of these ideas among the ,christians1 #aif--,repast of the dead1 #aii--,repast in the nether world1 #bja--,the funeral banquet and the sacred meal of the mysteries1 #bjc--;,banquet in heaven1 #bje--,persistence in ,christianity1 #bjf--,the sight of the god1 #bjg--;,in the astral cults1 #bjh--;,communion of man with the stars1 #bji--;,immortality a contemplation of the astral gods1 #baj--;,astral mysticism1 #baa--;,ecstasy of the ,neo-,platonists1 #bab--,last conception of eternal bliss1 #bac4 ,,index4 ,p4 #bae4 ,,historical ,,introduction ,the idea of death has perhaps never been more present to humanity than during the years through which we have just passed4 ,it has been the daily companion of millions of men engaged in a murderous conflict2 it has haunted the even larger number who have trembled for the lives of their nearest and dearest2 it is still constantly in the thoughts of the many who nurse regret for those they loved4 ,and doubtless also1 the faith or the hope has never more imposed itself1 even on the unbelieving1 that these countless multitudes1 filled with moral force and generous passion1 who have entered eternity1 have not wholly perished1 that the ardour which animated them was not extinguished when their limbs grew cold1 that the spirit which impelled them to self-sacrifice was not dissipated with the atoms which formed their bodies4 ,these feelings were known to the ancients also1 who gave to this very conviction the form suggested by their religion4 ,pericles#a in his funeral eulogy of the warriors who fell at the siege of ,samos declared that they who die for their country become like the immortal gods1 and that1 invisible like them1 they still scatter their benefits on us4 ,the ideas on immortality held in antiquity are often thus at once far from and near to our own--near because they correspond to aspirations which are not antique or modern1 but human1 far because the ,olympians now have fallen into the deep gulf where lie dethroned deities4 ,these ideas become more and more like the conceptions familiar to us as gradually their time grows later1 and those generally admitted at the end of paganism are analogous to the doctrines accepted throughout the ,middle ,ages4 ,i flatter myself1 therefore1 that when ,i speak to you of the beliefs in a future life held in ,roman times ,i have chosen a subject which is not very remote from us nor such as has no relation to our present thought or is capable of interesting only the learned4 ,we can here trace only the outlines of this vast subject4 ,i am aware that it is always imprudent to hazard moral generalisations3 they are always wrong somewhere4 ,above all1 it is perilous to attempt to determine with a few words the infinite variety of individual creeds1 for nothing escapes historical observation more easily than the intimate convictions of men1 which they often hide even from those near them4 ,in periods of scepticism pious souls cling to old beliefs2 the conservative crowd remains faithful to ancestral traditions4 ,when religion is resuming its empire1 rationalistic minds resist the contagion of faith4 ,it is especially difficult to ascertain up to what point ideas adopted by intellectual circles succeeded in penetrating the deep masses of the people4 ,the epitaphs which have been preserved give us too scanty and too sparse evidence in this particular4 ,besides1 in paganism a dogma does not necessarily exclude its opposite dogma3 the two sometimes persist side by side in one mind as different possibilities1 each of which is authorised by a respectable tradition4 ,you will therefore make the necessary reservations to such of my statements as are too absolute4 ,i shall be able to point out here only the great spiritual currents which successively brought to ,rome new ideas as to the ,beyond1 and to sketch the evolution undergone by the doctrines as to the lot and the abode of souls4 ,you will not expect me to be precise as to the number of the partisans of each of these doctrines in the various periods4 ,at least we can distinguish the principal phases of the religious movement which caused imperial society to pass from incredulity to certain forms of belief in immortality1 forms at first somewhat crude but afterwards loftier1 and we can see where this movement led4 ,the change was a capital one and transformed for the ancients the whole conception of life4 ,the axis about which morality revolved had to be shifted when ethics no longer sought1 as in earlier ,greek philosophy1 to realise the sovereign good on this earth but looked for it after death4 ,thenceforth the activity of man aimed less at tangible realities1 ensuring well-being to the family or the city or the state1 and more at attaining to the fulfilment of ideal hopes in a supernatural world4 ,our sojourn here below was conceived as a preparation for another existence1 as a transitory trial which was to result in infinite felicity or suffering4 ,thus the table of ethical values was turned upside down4 8,all our actions and all our thoughts10 says ,pascal1 8must follow so different a course if there are eternal possessions for which we may hope than if there are not1 that it is impossible to take any directed and well-judged step except by regulating it in view of this point which ought to be our ultimate goal40#b ,we will attempt first to sketch in a general introduction the historical transformation which belief in the future life underwent between the ,republican period and the fall of paganism4 ,then1 in three lectures1 we will examine more closely the various conceptions of the abode of the dead held under the ,roman ,empire1 study in three others the conditions or the means which enable men to attain to immortality and in the last two set forth the lot of souls in the ,beyond4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the cinerary vases of the prehistoric period are often modelled in the shape of huts3 throughout1 funeral sculpture follows the tradition that the tomb should reproduce the dwelling1 and until the end of antiquity it was designated1 in the ,west as in the ,east1 as the 8eternal house0 of him who rested in it4 ,thus a conception of the tomb which goes back to the remotest ages and persists through the centuries regards it as 8the last dwelling0 of those who have left us2 and this expression has not yet gone out of use4 ,it was believed that a dead man continued to live1 in the narrow space granted him1 a life which was groping1 obscure1 precarious1 yet like that he led on earth4 ,subject to the same needs1 obliged to eat and to drink1 he expected those who had been nearest to him to appease his hunger and thirst4 ,the utensils he had used1 the things he had cared for1 were often deposited beside him so that he might pursue the occupations and enjoy the amusements which he had forsaken in the world4 ,if he were satisfied he would stay quietly in the furnished house provided for him and would not seek to avenge himself on those whose neglect had caused him suffering4 ,funeral rites were originally inspired rather by fear than by love4 ,they were precautions taken against the spirit of the dead rather than pious care bestowed in their interest4#c ,for the dead were powerful2 their action was still felt2 they were not immured in the tomb or confined beneath the ground4 ,men saw them reappear in dreams1 wearing their former aspect4 ,they were descried during shadowy vigils2 their voices were heard and their movements noted4 ,imagination conceived them such as they had once been2 recollection of them filled the memory and to think of such apparitions as idle or unreal seemed impossible4 ,the dead subsisted1 then1 as nebulous1 impalpable beings1 perceived by the senses only exceptionally4 ,here the belief that their remains had not quite lost all feeling mingled with the equally primitive and universal belief that the soul is a breath1 exhaled with the last sigh4 ,the vaporous shade1 sometimes a dangerous but sometimes a succouring power1 wandered by night in the atmosphere and haunted the places which the living man had been used to frequent4 ,except for some sceptical reasoners1 all antiquity admitted the reality of these phantoms4 ,century-old beliefs1 maintained by traditional rites1 thus persisted1 more or less definitely1 in the popular mind1 even after new forms of the future life were imagined4 ,many vestiges of these beliefs have survived until today4 ,the first transformation undergone by the primitive conception was to entertain the opinion that the dead who are deposited in the ground gather together in a great cavity inside the bowels of the earth4#d ,this belief in the nether world is found among most of the peoples of the ,mediterranean basin3 the ,sheol of the ,hebrews differs little from the ,homeric ,hades and the ,italic ,inferi4 ,it has been conjectured that the substitution of incineration for inhumation contributed to spreading this new manner of conceiving life beyond the tomb3 the shade could not remain attached to a handful of ashes enclosed in a puny urn4 ,it went1 then1 to join its fellows who had gone down into the dark dwelling where reigned the gods of a subterranean kingdom4 ,but as ghosts could leave their graves in order to trouble or to help men1 so the swarms of the infernal spirits rose to the upper world through the natural openings of the earth1 or through ditches dug for the purpose of maintaining communication with them and conciliating them with offerings4 ,the ,romans do not seem to have imagined survival in the infernal regions very differently from the survival of the vague monotonous shades in their tombs4 ,their ,manes or ,lemures had no marked personality or clearly characterised individual features4 ,the ,inferi were not1 as in ,greece1 a stage for the enactment of a tragic drama2 their inhabitants had no original life1 and in the lot dealt to them no idea of retribution can be discerned4 ,in this matter it was the ,hellenes who imposed their conceptions of ,hades on the ,italic peoples and gave them those half mythical and half theological beliefs which ,orphism had introduced in their own religion4 ,hellenic influence was felt directly through the colonies of ,greater ,greece1 indirectly through the ,etruscans1 whose funeral sculpture shows us that they had adopted all the familiar figures of the ,greek ,hades--,charon1 ,cerberus1 the ,furies1 ,hermes ,psychopompos and the others4#e ,from the time when ,latin literature had its beginnings and the ,latin theatre was born1 we find writers taking pleasure in reproducing the ,hellenic fables of ,tartarus and the ,elysian ,fields2 and ,plautus#f can already make one of his characters say that he has seen 8many paintings representing the pains of ,acheron40 ,this infernal mythology became an inexhaustible theme which gave matter to poetry and art until the end of antiquity and beyond it4 ,we shall see1 in later lectures1 how the religious traditions of the ,greeks were subjected to various transformations and interpretations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but ,greece did not introduce poetic beliefs only into ,rome3 she also caused her philosophy to be adopted there from the second century onwards1 and this philosophy tended to be destructive both of those beliefs and of the old native faith in the ,manes and in the ,orcus4 ,polybius1#g when speaking appreciatively of the religion of the ,romans1 praises them for having inculcated in the people a faith in numerous superstitious practices and tragic fictions4 ,he considers this to be an excellent way of keeping them to their duty by the fear of infernal punishment4 ,hence we gather that if the historian thought it well for the people to believe in these inventions1 then1 in his opinion1 enlightened persons1 like his friends the ,scipios1 could see in them nothing but the stratagems of a prudent policy4 ,but the scepticism of a narrow circle of aristocrats could not be confined to it for long when ,greek ideas were more widely propagated4 ,greek philosophy made an early attack on the ideas held as to a future life4 ,even ,democritus1 the forerunner of ,epicurus1 spoke of 8some people who ignore the dissolution of our mortal nature and1 aware of the perversity of their life1 pass their time in unrest and in fear and forge for themselves deceitful fables as to the time when follows their end40#h ,it is true that in the fourth century ,plato's idealism had supplied1 if not a strict proof of immortality1 yet reasons for it sufficient to procure its acceptance by such as desired to be convinced4 ,but in the ,alexandrian age1 which was the surpassingly scientific period of ,greek thought1 there was a tendency to remove all metaphysical and mythical conceptions of the soul's destiny from the field of contemplation4 ,this was the period in which the ,academy1 ,plato's own school1 unfaithful to its founder's doctrines1 was led by men who1 like ,carneades1 raised scepticism to a system and stated that man can reach no certainty4 ,we know that when ,carneades was sent to ,rome as ambassador in #aef ,b4 ,c4 he made a great impression by maintaining that justice is a matter of convention1 and that he was consequently banished by the senate as a danger to the state4 ,but we need only read ,cicero's works to learn what a lasting influence his powerfully destructive dialectics had4 ,the dogmatism of other sects was at this time hardly at all more favourable to the traditional beliefs in another life4 ,aristotle had thought that human reason alone persisted1 and that the emotional and nutritive soul was destroyed with the body1 but he left no personality to this pure intelligence1 deprived of all sensibility4 ,he definitely denied that the 8blessed0 could be happy4 ,with him begins a long period during which ,greek philosophy nearly ceased to speculate on destiny beyond the grave4 ,it was repugnant to ,peripatetic philosophy to concern itself with the existence of a soul which could be neither conceived nor defined by reason4 ,some of ,aristotle's immediate disciples1 like ,aristoxenus and ,dicaearchus1 or ,straton of ,lampsacus1 the pupil of ,theophrastus1 agreed in denying immortality altogether2 and later1 in the time of the ,severi1 ,alexander of ,aphrodisias1 the great commentator of ,the ,stagirite1 undertook to prove that the entire soul1 that is the higher and the lower soul1 had need of the body in order to be active and perished with it1 and that such was the veritable thought of the master4 ,but profoundly as ,peripateticism affected ,greek thought1 directly and indirectly1 in practically discarding the future life1 this was not the philosophy which dominated minds towards the end of the ,roman ,republic4 ,other schools then had a much wider influence and made this influence felt much more deeply on eschatological beliefs4 ,these schools were ,epicureanism and ,stoicism4 ,epicurus took up again the doctrine of ,democritus1 and taught that the soul1 which was composed of atoms1 was disintegrated at the moment of death1 when it was no longer held together by its fleshly wrapping1 and that its transitory unity was then destroyed for ever4 ,the vital breath1 after being expelled1 was1 he said1 buffeted by the winds and dissolved in the air like mist or smoke1 even before the body was decomposed4 ,this was so ancient a conception that ,homer had made use of a like comparison1 and the idea that the violence of the wind can act on souls as a destructive force was familiar to ,athenian children in ,plato's time4#i ,but if the soul thus resolves itself1 after death1 into its elementary principles1 how can phantoms come to frighten us in the watches of the night or beloved beings visit us in our dreams8 ,these simulacra 77 are for ,epicurus no more than emanations of particles of an extreme tenuity1 constantly issuing from bodies and keeping for some time their form and appearance4 ,they act on our senses as do colour and scent and awake in us the image of a vanished being4 ,thus we are vowed to annihilation1 but this lot is not one to be dreaded4 ,death1 which is held to be the most horrible of ills1 is in reality nothing of the sort1 since the destruction of our organism abolishes all its sensibility4 ,the time when we no longer exist is no more painful for us than that when we had not yet our being4 ,as ,plato deduced the persistence of the soul after death from its supposed previous existence1 so ,epicurus drew an opposite conclusion from our ignorance of our earlier life2 and1 according to him1 the conviction that we perish wholly can alone ensure our tranquillity of spirit by delivering us from the fear of eternal torment4 ,there is no one of the master's doctrines on which his disciples insist with more complacent assurance4 ,they praise him for having freed men from the terrors of the ,beyond2 they thank him for having taught them not to fear death2 his philosophy appears to them as a liberator of souls4 ,lucretius in his third book1 of which eighteenth-century philosophers delighted to celebrate the merits1 claims1 with a sort of exaltation1 to drive from men's hearts 8that dread of ,acheron which troubles human life to its inmost depths40#aj ,the sage sees all the cruel fictions1 with which fable had peopled the kingdom of terrors1 scattered abroad1 and1 when he has rid himself of the dismay which haunts the common man1 which casts a mournful veil over things and leaves no joy unmixed1 he finds a blessed calm1 the perfect quietude or 8ataraxia40 ,this doctrine1 which ,lucretius preached with the enthusiasm of a neophyte won to the true faith1 had a profound reaction in ,rome4 ,its adepts in ,cicero's circle were numerous1 including ,cassius1 the murderer of ,caesar4 ,sallust goes so far as to make ,caesar himself affirm1 in full senate1 that death1 the rest from torment1 dispels the ills which afflict mankind1 that beyond it there is neither joy nor sorrow4#aa ,men of science1 in particular1 were attracted by these theories4 ,in a celebrated passage ,pliny the ,naturalist1 after categorically declaring that neither the soul nor the body has any more sensation after death than before the day of birth1 ends with a vehement apostrophe3 8,unhappy one1 what folly is thine who in death renewest life6 ,where will creatures ever find rest if souls in heaven1 if shades in the infernal regions1 still have feeling8 ,through this complacent credulity we lose death1 the greatest boon which belongs to our nature1 and the sufferings of our last hour are doubled by the fear of what will follow after4 ,if it be indeed sweet to live1 for whom can it be so to have lived8 ,how much easier and more certain is the belief which each man can draw from his own experience1 when he pictures his future tranquillity on the pattern of that which preceded his birth60#ab ,even ,seneca in one of his tragedies1 an early work1 makes the chorus of ,trojan women declaim a long profession of faith which is the purest ,epicureanism4#ac ,the invasion of the ,roman world by the ,oriental mysteries and superstitions in the second century caused the unbelievers to exalt ,epicurus yet higher4 ,the satirist ,lucian1 using almost the same expressions as ,lucretius1 proclaims the truly sacred and divine character of him who alone knew the good with the true1 and who transmitted it to his disciples1 to whom he gave moral liberty4#ad ,believers everywhere looked upon him as a terrible blasphemer4 ,the prophet ,alexander of ,abonotichos enjoined all who would obtain divine graces to drive away with stones 8atheists1 ,epicureans and ,christians10 and exclude them from his mysteries4#ae ,he ordered by an oracle that the writings of him whom he called 8the blind old man0 should be burnt4 ,when mysticism and ,platonism triumphed in the ,roman world1 ,epicureanism ceased to exist4 ,it had disappeared in the middle of the fourth century1 yet ,julian the ,apostate thought it advisable to include the writings of ,epicurus among the books which were forbidden to the priests of his revived paganism4#af ,thus during several centuries this philosophy had won a multitude of followers4 ,the inscriptions bear eloquent witness to this fact4 ,the most remarkable of them is a long text which was set out on the wall of a portico in the little town of ,oenoanda in ,lycia4 ,a worthy citizen1 ,diogenes by name1 who seems to have lived under the ,antonines1 was a convinced partisan of the doctrine of ,epicurus2 and feeling his end draw near1 he wished to engrave an exposition thereof on marble for the present and future edification of his countrymen and of strangers4 ,he does not fail to evince his contempt for death1 at which1 he says1 he has learnt to mock4 8,i do not let myself be frightened by the ,tityi and the ,tantali whom some represent in ,hades2 horror does not seize me when ,i think of the putrefaction of my body 444 when the links which bind our organism are loosened1 nothing further touches us40#ag ,these are ideas which we find reproduced everywhere1 in various forms1 for ,epicureanism did not only win convinced partisans in the most cultivated circles1 but also spread in the lowest strata of the population1 as is proved by epitaphs expressing unbelief in an after life4 ,some do not go beyond a short profession of faith1 8,we are mortal2 we are not immortal40#ah ,one maxim is repeated so often that it is sometimes expressed only by initials1 8,i was not2 ,i was2 ,i am not2 ,i do not care40#ai ,so man goes back to nothingness whence he went forth4 ,it has been remarked that this epigraphic formula was engraved especially on the tombs of slaves1 who had slight reason for attachment to life4 ,gladiators also adopted the sentence3 these wretched men1 who were to prove their indifference to death in the arena1 were taught that it marked the destruction of feeling and the term of their suffering4 ,the same thought is sometimes expressed less brutally1 almost touchingly4 ,thus a comedian1 who has spouted many verses and tramped many roads1 voices in his epitaph the conviction that life is a loan1 like a part in a play3 8,my mouth no longer gives out any sound2 the noise of applause no longer reaches me2 ,i paid my debt to nature and have departed4 ,all this is but dust40#bj ,another actor1 who recited ,homer's verses in the festivals1 tells us that he 8laughs at illusions and slumbers softly10 returning to the ,epicurean comparison of death with an unconscious sleep which has no awakening4#ba ,some wordier unbelievers felt the need of enlarging on their negations4#bb 8,there is no boat of ,hades1 no ferryman ,charon1 no ,aeacus as doorkeeper1 no dog ,cerberus4 ,all we1 whom death sends down to the earth1 become bones and ashes and no more4444 ,offer not perfumes and garlands to my stele3 it is but a stone2 burn no fire3 the expenditure is vain4 ,if thou have a gift1 give it me while ,i live4 ,if thou givest to my ashes to drink1 thou wilt make mud3 and the dead will not drink4444 ,when thou scatterest earth on my remains1 say that ,i have again become as ,i was when ,i was not40 ,this last thought occurs frequently4 ,thus on a ,roman tomb we read3 8,we are and we were nothing4 ,see1 reader1 how swiftly we mortals go back from nothingness to nothingness40#bc ,sometimes these dead adopt a joking tone which is almost macabre4 ,thus a freedman1 merry to the grave1 boasts of the amenities of his new state3 8,what remains of man1 my bones1 rests sweetly here4 ,i no longer have the fear of sudden starvation2 ,i am exempt from attacks of gout2 my body is no longer pledged for my rent2 and ,i enjoy free and perpetual hospitality40#bd ,often a grosser ,epicureanism recommends that we make profit of our earthly passage since the fatal term deprives us for ever of the pleasures which are the sovereign good4 8,es bibe lude veni0--8,eat1 drink1 play1 come hither0--is advice which is several times repeated4#be ,not uncommonly1 variations occur1 inspired by the famous epitaph which was on the alleged tomb of ,sardanapalus and is resumed in the admonition3 8,indulge in voluptuousness1 for only this pleasure wilt thou carry away with thee02 or as it is expressed in the ,epistle to the ,corinthians1 8,let us eat and drink1 for tomorrow we die40#bf ,so we read on a stone found near ,beneventum3 8,what ,i have eaten and what ,i have drunk2 that is all that belongs to me40#bg ,a well-known distich states that 8,baths1 wine1 and love impair our bodies1 but baths1 wine1 and love make life02#bh and a veteran of the army had advice based on his own example engraved on his tomb1 8,while ,i lived1 ,i drank willingly2 drink1 ye who live40#bi ,the exhortation to enjoy a life soon to be interrupted by death is a traditional theme which has lent itself to many developments in ancient and modern poetry4 ,it is the formula which resumes the wisdom of the popular ,epicureanism4 ,some silver goblets1 found in ,boscoreale near ,pompeii1#cj show us philosophers and poets among skeletons1 and inscriptions urging them to rejoice while they live1 since no man is certain of the morrow4 ,epicurus appears in person1 his hand stretching towards a cake on a table2 and between his legs is a little pig lifting his feet and snout to the cake to take his share of it4 ,above the cake are the ,greek words1 1 8,the supreme end is pleasure40 ,horace1 when he advises us to live from day to day without poisoning the passing hour with hopes or fears for the future1 speaks of himself1 jestingly1 as a fat 8hog of ,epicurus' herd40#ca ,it was thus that the vulgar interpreted the precepts of him who had in reality preached moderation and renunciation as the means of reaching true happiness4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if ,epicureanism chose its ground as the passionate adversary of religious beliefs1 the other great system which shared its dominance of minds in ,rome1 ,stoicism1 sought1 on the contrary1 to reconcile these beliefs with its theories4 ,but the allegorical interpretations which ,stoicism suggested1 led1 indirectly1 to nearly the same result as a complete negation1 for when it changed the meaning of the ancient myths it really destroyed the traditions which it sought to preserve4 ,this is true in particular of its ideas as to the future life4 ,it will be remembered that man is for the ,stoics a microcosm1 who reproduces in his person the constitution of the universe4 ,the entire mass of the world is conceived by them as animated by a divine ,fire1 a first principle which evokes the succession of natural phenomena4 ,an uninterrupted chain of causes1 ordered by this supreme reason1 necessarily determines the course of events and irresistibly governs the existence of the great ,all4 ,this cosmic life is conceived as formed of an infinite series of exactly similar cycles3 the four elements are periodically reabsorbed into the purest of their number1 which is the ,fire of intelligence1 and then1 after the general conflagration1 are once more dissociated4 ,in the same way our organism lives1 moves and thinks because it is animated by a detached particle of this fiery principle which penetrates everything4 ,as this principle reaches to the limits of the universe1 so our soul occupies the whole body in which it lodges4 ,the pantheism of the ,porch conceives as material both ,god and the reason which rules us1 the reason which is1 in the emphatic words of ,epictetus1#cb 8a fragment of ,god40 ,it is defined as a hot breath 7 1 anima inflammata72 it is like the purest part of the air which maintains life by respiration1 or the ardent ether which feeds the stars4 ,this individual soul maintains and preserves man1 as the soul of the world1 by connecting its various parts1 saves it from disintegration4 ,but on both sides this action is only temporary2 souls cannot escape the fatal lot imposed on the whole of which they are but a tiny portion4 ,at the end of each cosmic period the universal conflagration 77 will cause them to return to the divine home whence all of them came forth4#cc ,but if the new cycle1 making its new beginning1 is to reproduce exactly that which preceded it1 a 8palingenesis0 will one day give to the same souls1 endowed with the same qualities1 the same existence in the same bodies formed of the same elements4 ,this is the maximum limit of the immortality which the materialistic pantheism of the ,stoic philosophy could concede4 ,nor did all the doctors agree in granting it4 ,the variations of the school on a point which seems to us of capital importance are most remarkable4 ,while ,cleanthes did indeed admit that all souls thus subsisted after their brief passage on earth for thousands of years and until the final ekpyrosis1 for ,chrysippus only the souls of the sages had part in this restricted immortality4 ,in order to win it they must temper their strength by resisting the passions4 ,the weak1 who had let themselves be conquered in the struggle of this life1 fell in the ,beyond also4#cd ,at the most they obtained a short period of after life4 ,the brevity or the absence of this other existence was the chastisement of their weakness4 ,thus1 almost the same moral consequences and incitements to good could be drawn from a conditional and diminished immortality1 as from the general eternity of pains and rewards which other thinkers taught4 ,but the ,stoics were not unanimous in adopting these doctrines4 ,we do not clearly perceive how far they agreed in admitting that the soul1 deprived of corporeal organs1 was endowed with feeling and1 in particular1 kept an individual conscience connected with that possessed on earth4 ,it is certain that a definitely negative tendency showed itself in ,rome among the sectaries of ,zeno4 ,panaetius1 the friend of the ,scipios1 and one of the writers who did most to win the ,romans over to the ideas of the ,porch1 here dissociated himself from his masters and absolutely denied personal survival4#ce ,this attitude was subsequently that of many ,roman ,stoics of those who represented the school's tradition most purely4 ,the master of the poet ,persius1 ,cornutus1 of whom a short work remains to us1 declared that the soul died with the body1 immediately4#cf ,similarly1 at a later date1 ,epictetus and ,marcus ,aurelius1 although they sometimes seem to admit the possibility of survival1 certainly incline rather to believe that souls are disintegrated and return to the elemental mass whence they were formed4 ,even ,seneca1 who is more swayed by other tendencies and whose wavering thought does not always remain consistent nor perspicuous1 is not convinced of the truth of immortality4 ,it is no more to him than a beautiful hope4 ,how is it that ,stoicism thus hesitated at a point on which the whole conception of human life seems to us to depend8 ,it was that eschatological theories had in reality only a secondary value in this system1 of which the essential part was not affected by their variability4 ,true ,stoicism placed the realisation of its ideal in this world4 ,for it the aim of our existence here below was not preparation for death but the conquest of perfect virtue1 which freed him who had attained to it from the passions and thus conferred on him independence and felicity4 ,man could1 of himself1 reach a complete beatitude which was not impaired by the limits placed to his duration4 ,the sage1 a blissful being1 was a god on earth3 heaven could give him nothing more4 ,therefore for these philosophers the answer to the question1 8,what becomes of us after death80 did not depend on moral considerations as it generally does for us4 ,for them it rather followed on physical theories4 ,if these theories allow of different solutions of the problem of immortality1 they agree on one point--the impossibility that the soul1 if it is to last longer than we1 should go down into the depths of the earth2 for the soul was1 as we have said1 conceived as an ardent breath2 that is to say1 as formed of the two elements1 air and fire1 which have the property of rising to the heights4 ,its very nature prevented its descent3 8it is impossible to conceive that it is borne downwards40#cg ,thus all the vulgar notions as to ,hades were in contradiction with ,stoic psychology1 a point to which we will return in treating of the nether world4#ch ,these philosophers do indeed speak of ,hades but1 faithful to their habits1 while they use traditional terms they give them a new meaning4 8,the descent into ,hades0 is for them simply the departing from life1 the transference of the soul to new surroundings4 ,thus ,epictetus1 who uses this expression 7 71 clearly states in another passage1 8,there is no ,hades1 no ,acheron1 no ,cocytus1 no ,pyriphlegethon1 but all is filled with gods and demons40#ci ,these gods and demons were1 however1 no more than personifications of the forces of nature4#dj ,the true ,stoic doctrine is1 then1 that souls1 when they leave the corpse1 subsist in the atmosphere and especially in its highest part which touches the circle of the moon4#da ,but after a longer or less interval of time they1 like the flesh and the bones1 are decomposed and dissolve into the elements which formed them4 ,this thought1 like ,epicurean nihilism1 often appears in epitaphs1 and shows how ,stoic ideas had spread among the people4 ,thus on a tombstone found in ,moesia we read first the mournful statement that there is neither love nor friendship among the dead and that the corpse lies like a stone sunk into the ground4 ,then the dead man adds3#db 8,i was once composed of earth1 water and airy breath 771 but ,i perished1 and here ,i rest1 having rendered all to the ,all4 ,such is each man's lot4 ,what of it8 ,there1 whence my body came1 did it return1 when it was dissolved40 ,sometimes there is more insistence on the notion that this cosmic breath1 in which ours is gathered up1 is the godhead who fills and rules the world4 ,so in this epitaph3 8,the holy spirit which thou didst bear has escaped from thy body4 ,that body remains here and is like the earth2 the spirit pursues the revolving heavens2 the spirit moves all2 the spirit is nought else than ,god40#dc ,elsewhere we find the following brief formula1 which sums up the same idea3 8,the ashes have my body2 the sacred air has borne away my soul40#dd ,very characteristic is an inscription inspired by verses of a ,greek poet1 on the tomb of a ,roman woman3 8,here ,i lie dead and ,i am ashes2 these ashes are earth4 ,if the earth be a goddess1 ,i too am a goddess and am not dead40#de ,these verses express the same great thought in various forms3 death is disappearance into the depths of divine nature4 ,it is not for the preservation of an ephemeral personality that we must hope4 ,our soul1 a fleeting energy detached from the ,all1 must enter again into the ,all as must our body3 both are absorbed by ,god1 8,when that which drew from out the boundless deep ,turns again home40#df ,the fiery breath of our intelligence is gathered1 as are the matter and the humours of our organism1 into the inexhaustible reservoir which produced them1 as one day the earth and the heavens will be gathered thither also4 ,all must be engulfed in one whole1 must lose itself in one forgetfulness4 ,when man has reached the term of his fate1 he faints into the one power which forms and leads the universe1 just as the tired stars will be extinguished in it1 when their days shall be accomplished4 ,resistance to the supreme law is vain and painful2 rebellion against the irresistible order of things is impious4 ,the great virtue taught by ,stoicism is that of submission to the fatality which guides the world1 of joyous acceptance of the inevitable4 ,philosophic literature and the epitaphs present to us1 repeatedly and in a thousand forms1 the idea that we cannot strive against omnipotent necessity1 that the rule of this rigid master must be borne without tears or recriminations4 ,the wise man1 who destroys within himself desire of any happenings1 enjoys even during this existence divine calm in the midst of tribulations1 but those whom the vicissitudes of life drive or attract1 who let illusions seduce or grieve them1 will at last obtain remission of their troubles when they reach the tranquil haven of death4 ,this thought is expressed by a distich which often recurs on tombs1 in ,greek and in ,latin4 8,i have fled1 escaped4 ,farewell1 ,hope and ,fortune4 ,i have nothing more to do with you4 ,make others your sport40#dg ,stoic determinism found support in the astrology which originated in ,babylonia and was transplanted to ,egypt1 and which spread in the ,graeco-,latin world from the second century ,b4 ,c4 onwards1 propagating its mechanical and fatalistic conception of the universe4 ,according to this pseudo-science1 all physical phenomena depended absolutely1 like the character and acts of men1 on the revolutions of the celestial bodies4 ,thus all the forces of nature and the very energy of intelligence acted in accordance with an inflexible necessity4 ,hence worship had no object and prayer no effect4 ,in this way the sidereal divination1 which had grown up in the temples of the ,east1 ended in ,greece1 among certain of its adepts1 in a negation of the very basis of religion4#dh ,it is noteworthy that in the writings left to us there is hardly an allusion to the immortality of the soul4 ,when they speak of what comes after death there is question only of funerals and posthumous glory4 ,we never find in them a promise to the unfortunate1 weighed down by misadventure and infirmities1 of consolation or compensation in the ,beyond4 ,the systematic astrology of the ,greeks limits its horizon to this world1 although traces of the belief in ,hades subsist in its vocabulary and its predictions and although this same astral divination inspired in the mysteries certain eschatological theories1 as we shall see later4#di 99 99 99 99 99 ,the rationalistic and scientific period of ,hellenic thought which began1 as we have said1 with ,aristotle1 filled the ,hellenistic period and continued until the century of ,augustus4 ,towards the end of the ,roman ,republic faith in the future life was reduced to a minimum and the scepticism or indifference of the ,alexandrians was carried into ,italy4 ,the mocking verses of an epigram of ,callimachus1 a man of learning as well as a poet1 is well known4#ej 8,charidas1 what is there down below8 ,deep darkness4 ,but what of the journeys upwards8 ,all lies4 ,and ,pluto8 ,a fable4 ,then we are lost40 ,catullus was to say as much1 less lightly1 with a deeper feeling4 8,suns can set and rise again1 but we1 when our brief light is extinguished1 must sleep for an eternal night40#ea ,the religions belief in retribution in the ,beyond was shaken1 as all the others were1 not only in literary and philosophic circles but among a large section of the population4 ,the old tales of the ,elysian ,fields and ,tartarus no longer found credence1 as convincing testimony will show us4#eb ,those who sought to preserve them could do so only by using a daring symbol which altered their character4 ,but the idea of conscious survival after death was itself no longer looked upon as sure4 ,many who did not go so far as to deny it brutally were firmly agnostic4 ,when we turn over the pages of the thick volumes of the ,corpus inscriptionum1 we are struck by the small number of the epitaphs which express the hope of immortality4 ,the impression received is quite the contrary of that given by going through our own graveyards or surveying the collections of ,christian epitaphs of antiquity4 ,on by far the larger number of the tombs the survival of the soul was neither affirmed nor denied2 it was not mentioned otherwise than by the banal formula ,dis ,manibus--so bereft of meaning that even some ,christians made use of it4 ,or else the authors of funereal inscriptions1 like the contemporary writers1 used careful phrases which showed their mental hesitations3 8,if the ,manes still perceive anything4444 ,if any feeling subsist after death4444 ,if there be reward for the righteous beneath the ground40#ec ,such doubting propositions are most frequent4 ,the same indecision made people return to an alternative presented by ,plato in the ,apology1#ed before his ideas had evolved1 and repeat that death is 8an end or a passage10--mors aut finis aut transitus1--and no choice is made between the two possibilities3 the question is left open4 ,the future life was generally regarded as a consoling metaphysical conception1 a mere hypothesis supported by some thinkers1 a religious hope but not an article of faith4 ,the lofty conclusion which ends ,agricola's eulogy will be remembered4 8,if10 says ,tacitus1 8there be an abode of the spirits of virtuous men1 if1 as sages have taught1 great souls be not extinguished with the body1 rest in peace40 ,but side by side with the supposition thus hazarded1 the historian expresses the assurance that ,agricola will receive another reward for his merits4 ,all that his contemporaries have loved and admired in his character will cause the fame of his deeds to live in men's memory through the eternity of ages4 ,we here see how the perplexity in which men struggled1 when they thought of psychic survival1 gave earthly immortality a greater value in the eyes of the ancients4 ,it was for many of them the essential point because it alone was certain4 ,not to fall into the abyss of forgetfulness seemed a sufficient reward for virtue4 8,death is to be feared by those for whom everything is extinguished with their life1 not by those whose renown cannot perish40#ee ,that the commemoration of our merits may not cease when the short time of our passage here below has ended1 but may be prolonged for as long as the sequence of future generations lasts--this is the deep desire which stimulates virtue and excites to effort4 ,cicero1 when celebrating in the ,pro ,archia#ef the benefits wrought by the love of glory1--from which he was by no means exempt himself1--remarks shrewdly that even philosophers1 who claim to show its vanity1 are careful to place their names at the beginning of their books1 thus showing the worth they attach to that which they exhort others to despise4 ,even more than today1 the hope of a durable renown1 the anxiety that their fellows should be busy about them even after their departure1 the preoccupation lest their life should not be favourably judged by public opinion1 haunted many men1 secretly or avowedly dominated their thought and directed their actions4 ,even those who had played only a modest part in the world and had made themselves known only to a narrow circle1 sought to render their memory unforgettable by building strong tombs for themselves along the great roads4 ,epitaphs often begin with the formula ,memoriae aeternae1 8,to the eternal memory10 which we have inherited1 although the idea it represents no longer has for most of us any but a very relative value4 ,in antiquity it was first connected with the old belief in a communion of sentiments and an exchange of services between the deceased and their descendants who celebrated the funeral cult4 ,when the firm belief in the power of the shades to feel and act ceased to exist1 offerings were made with another intention3 survivors liked to think that he who had gone had not entirely perished as long as his remembrance subsisted in the hearts of those who had cherished him and the minds of those who had learnt his praises4 ,in some way1 he rose from the grave in the image made of him by the successors of those who had known him4 ,epicurus himself stipulated in his will that the day of his birth should be commemorated every month1#eg and under the ,roman ,empire his disciples were still piously celebrating this recurring feast4 ,thus this deep instinct of preservation1 which impels human beings to desire survival1 showed itself even in him who contributed most of all to destroy faith in immortality4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is always with difficulty that men resign themselves to dying wholly4 ,even when reason admits1 nay when it desires1 annihilation1 the subconscious self protests against it2 our personality is impelled by its very essence to crave the persistence of its self4 ,besides1 the feelings of survivors rebel against the pain of an unending separation1 the definite loss of all affections4 ,in the troubled times which marked the end of the ,roman ,republic1 at a moment when changing fortune periodically turned all the conditions of existence upside down1 there grew up a stronger aspiration to a better future1 a search1 to use the words of the ancients1 for a sure haven1 in which man1 tossed by the storms of life1 might find quiet4 ,thus in the first century ,b4 ,c4 the birth was seen1 or rather the rebirth1 of a mystic movement which claimed to give by direct communication with ,god the certainties which reason could not supply4 ,the chief preoccupation of philosophers began to be those capital questions as to the origin and end of man which the schools of the earlier period had neglected as unanswerable4 ,it was above all the ,neo-,pythagoreans who gave up pure rationalism1 and thus brought ,roman thought to admit new forms of immortality4 ,when the scientific school of the old ,pythagorism came to an end in ,italy in the fourth century1 the sect perpetuated itself obscurely in mysterious conventicles1 a sort of freemasonry of which the influence in the ,hellenistic period is difficult to measure or circumscribe4 ,it again took on new power in ,alexandria under the ,ptolemies4 ,in this metropolis1 in which all the currents of ,europe and ,asia were mingled1 ,pythagorism admitted at this time many ideas foreign to the teaching of the old master of ,samos4 ,this teaching seems not to have set forth a rigid1 logically constructed theology1 and the points of contact with the beliefs of the ,east1 which its ideas supplied1 favoured an accommodating syncretism4 ,pythagoras was said to have had ,plato as a disciple1 and ,plato was venerated almost as much as the teacher he followed4 ,the powerful structure of ,stoic pantheism did not fail to exercise an ascendancy over the theorists of the school4 ,this school had been1 from its origin1 in touch with the ,orphic mysteries and those of ,dionysos and it remained so1 but it was also subject to the more remote influence of ,babylonian and ,egyptian religions1 and particularly of those ,chaldean doctrines which the ,greeks had learnt to know after ,alexander's conquest4 ,this vast eclecticism1 open to all novelties1 did not bring about a break with the past4 ,theology succeeded in effecting a reconciliation with all1 even the rudest and most absurd traditions of fable1 by an ingenious system of moral allegories4 8,divine0 ,homer thus became a master of piety and wisdom1 and mythology a collection of edifying stories4 ,demonology made it possible to justify all the traditional practices of the cult1 as well as magic and divination3 everything which seemed incompatible with the new idea of the divinity was ascribed to lower powers4 ,thus the ,pythagoreans could take up the position not of adversaries or reformers but of interpreters of the ancestral religion4 ,they claimed that they remained faithful to the wisdom of the sages who1 at the dawn of civilisation1 had received a divine revelation1 which had been transmitted first to ,pythagoras and then to ,plato4 ,they felt so sure that they were expressing the thought of these masters1 whose authority made law1 that they did not hesitate to subscribe the venerated names1 by a pious fraud1 to their own writings4 ,nowhere did apocryphal literature have a more luxuriant efflorescence than in these circles4 ,when the sect was introduced into ,rome it sought1 according to its wont1 to connect itself with old local traditions1 and without much difficulty it succeeded4 ,the national pride of the conquerors of ,greece could1 with some complacency1 regard it as ,italic4 ,pythagoras passed for the teacher of ,king ,numa1 the religious legislator of the city4 ,ennius had expressed this philosopher's doctrine in his poems1 and altogether1 from the time of the ancient republic onwards1 the half mythical moralist of ,greater ,greece enjoyed singular consideration in ,rome4#eh ,but the first to give new life to the ,pythagorean school1 which had died in ,italy centuries before1 was1 according to ,cicero1 his friend1 the senator ,nigidius ,figulus1 a curious representative of the scientific religiosity which characterised the sect4 ,this ,roman magistrate1 a man of singular erudition1 was bitten with all the occult sciences4 ,a grammarian1 a naturalist and a theologian1 he was also an astrologer and magician and1 on occasion1 a wonder-worker4 ,he did not confine himself to theory but gathered about him a club of the initiate1 of whom we cannot say whether they were most attracted by scientific curiosity1 by austere morals or by mystic practices4 ,vatinius1 the relative and friend of ,caesar1 and1 probably1 the spiritualist ,appius ,claudius ,pulcher were the most prominent of this circle of converts4 ,it is significant that at much the same time the historian ,castor of ,rhodes claimed to interpret ,roman usages by ,pythagorism1#ei and the stories establishing a connection between the ,roman state and the reformers of ,greater ,greece were multiplied4 ,in the ,augustan age a worldly poet like ,ovid#fj thought it permissible to introduce into his ,metamorphoses1 where no digression of the sort was to be looked for1 a long speech of ,pythagoras explaining vegetarianism and transmigration4 ,a little later ,antonius ,diogenes1 the romancer1 found in the same philosophy inspiration for his fantastic pictures of the lot of souls4#fa ,all this goes to show how powerfully seductive the new sect proved to be as soon as it was revived in ,rome4 ,but it did not lack enemies4 ,public malignity did not spare these mysterious theosophists who met in subterranean crypts4 ,they were blamed for neglecting the national cult1 which had ensured the greatness of the city1 in order to indulge in condemned practices or even to commit abominable crimes4 ,it was a more serious matter that their secret gatherings also excited the suspicion of the authorities1 and that the partakers were prosecuted as persons who dealt in magic1 which was punishable by law4 ,the little ,pythagorean church seems not to have been able to maintain itself in the capital for long4 ,in ,seneca's time it was dead4#fb ,but ,pythagorism continued to find adepts in the empire and soon returned to ,rome4 ,under ,domitian1 ,apollonius of ,tyana made the ,east resound with his preaching and miracles1 and although thrown into prison by this emperor he was in favour with his successors4 ,under the ,antonines1 the false prophet ,alexander of ,abonotichos1 unmasked by ,lucian1 claimed to be a new incarnation of the sage of ,samos1 whose wisdom he pretended to reveal in his mysteries4 ,the literary tradition of the sect maintained itself until the third century1 when it was absorbed by ,neo-,platonism4 ,in a period of syncretism1 the originality of this philosophy resided less in its doctrine than in its observances1 and when its conventicles were dissolved1 it easily merged itself in the school which professed to continue it4 ,during its long life ,pythagorism had indeed had a powerful influence1 not only on the system of ,plato and ,plotinus1 but also on the ,oriental cults which spread under the empire4 ,it had supplied the first type of the learned mysteries in which knowledge 77 is at once the condition and the end of sanctification4#fc ,possibly it even penetrated into ,gaul at an early date1 by way of ,marseilles1 and was thus known to the ,druids4 ,it would certainly be a mistake to look upon ,pythagorism as a pure philosophy1 like ,epicureanism and ,stoicism4 ,its sectaries formed a church rather than a school1 a religious order1 not an academy of sciences4 ,from a recent discovery in ,rome1 if my interpretation of the monument is right1#fd we have learnt that the ,pythagoreans met in underground basilicas1 constructed on the model of ,plato's cavern1 in which1 according to the great idealist1 the chained men see only the shades of the higher realities4#fe ,a foundation sacrifice1 that of a dog and a young pig1 was made before this basilica was constructed4 ,its stucco decoration is borrowed almost entirely from ,greek mythology or the ceremonies of the mysteries4 ,secret rites and varied purifications had to be accomplished in it2 hymns accompanied by sacred music were sung2 and from a chair within the apse the doctors gave esoteric teaching to the faithful4 ,they taught them the symbols in which the truths of faith and the precepts of conduct1 formerly revealed by ,pythagoras and the other sages1 were handed down in enigmatic form4 ,these remote disciples interpreted all the myths of the past1 and especially the ,homeric poems1 by psychological or eschatological allegories4 ,they laid down1 as definite commandments1 a rule of strict observance which included all the acts of daily life4 ,at dawn1 after he had offered a sacrifice to the rising ,sun1 the pious man must decide on the way in which his day was to be employed4 ,every evening he must make a threefold examination of conscience1 and1 if he had been guilty of any sin of omission or commission1 must make an act of contrition4 ,he was obliged to follow a purely vegetarian diet and to practise many abstinences1 to make repeated prayers1 to meditate lengthily4 ,this austere and circumstantial system of morals would ensure happiness and wisdom on earth and salvation in the ,beyond4 ,all the ,neo-,pythagoreans agree in stating that the human soul is related to ,god and therefore immortal4 ,many1 like the ,stoics1 look upon it as a parcel of the ether1 an effluvium of burning and luminous fluid which fills the celestial spaces and shines in the divine stars4 ,others1 who are nearer to ,plato1 believe it to be immaterial and define it as a number in movement4 ,always1 generation is regarded as a fall and a danger for the soul4 ,enclosed in the body as in a tomb1 it runs the risk of corruption1 even of perishing4 ,earthly existence is a hard voyage on the stormy waters of matter1 which are perpetually rolling and surging4 ,thus a fundamental pessimism looked upon life here below as a trial and a chastisement2 a radical dualism placed the body in opposition to the divine essence residing in it4 ,the constant care of the sage was to keep his soul from pollution by its contact with the flesh4 ,he abstained from meat and other foods which might corrupt it2 a series of tabus protected it against all contagion4 ,ritual purifications restored to it its purity 77 which was continually threatened4 ,the unwearying exercise of virtue1 the scrupulous practice of piety preserved its original nature4 ,music1 which caused it to vibrate in harmony with the universe1 and science1 which lifted it towards divine things1 prepared its ascension to heaven4 ,meditation was a silent prayer1 which placed reason in communication with the powers on high4 ,seized by love for the eternal beauties1 it rose in its transports even in this life to ,god1 identified itself with ,him and so rendered itself worthy of a blessed immortality4#ff ,when the death determined by destiny occurred1 the soul escaped from the body in which it was captive but kept its bodily form and appearance1 and this simulacrum 77 appeared to men in dreams and after evocations4 ,according to some ,pythagoreans1 this subtle form was distinct from the soul 771 which ascended immediately to the higher spheres4 ,others believed that1 like a light garment1 it wrapped the soul1 which was for some time constrained to dwell here below4#fg ,after this shade had remained beside the body or somewhere near the tomb for a certain number of days1 it rose in the atmosphere in which contended winds1 water and fire1 and was purified by the elements4 ,this zone1 the lowest circle of the world1 was what fable had called hell 7,inferi71 and it was of this passage from one circle to that next it that poets spoke when they told of the ,styx and ,charon's boat4#fh ,when the soul had been purified it was borne1 uplifted by the winds1 to the sphere of the moon4 ,here lay the boundary of life and death1 the limit which divided the residence of the immortals1 where all was harmony and purity1 from the corrupt and troubled empire of generation4 ,thus the luminary of the night was the first dwelling of the ,blessed1 and there lay the ,elysian ,fields of the poets1 ,proserpina's kingdom where rest the shades4 ,and the ,fortunate ,islands1 of which the ancients sung1 were no other than the sun and the moon1 celestial lands bathed by the waters of the ether4#fi ,the shade remained in the moon or was dissolved there1 and pure reason rose to the sun whence it came forth1 or even reached the summit of the heavens where reigned the ,most ,high4 ,a helpful escort1 called by mythology ,hermes the ,soul-,guide1 or psychopompos1 led the elect to these ,olympian peaks4 ,there they regained their true country1 and as birth had been to them a death1 so their death was their rebirth4 ,they enjoyed the contemplation of the luminous gods4 ,they were rapt by the ravishing tune of the harmony of the spheres1 that divine melody of which earthly music is but a feeble echo4#gj ,some souls were kept on the banks of the ,styx and could not cross it3 in other words1 they were constrained to remain on the earth4 ,the dead who had not had religious burial must linger beside their neglected bodies for a hundred years1 the normal span of a human life1 before they were admitted to the place of purgation1 where they would sojourn for ten times that period4#ga ,in the same way those who had died young or whose days had been cut short by violence would not enter the purgatory before the due term of their life4#gb ,but especially the souls of the criminal and the impious were thus condemned to wander1 restless and in pain1 through the lower air1 which they filled with their multitude4 ,it was these demoniac spirits who returned as dismal phantoms to frighten the living1 who were evoked by wizards and who revealed the future in oracles4 ,demonology accounted for all the aberrations of magic and divination4 ,these spirits rose to the aerial purgatory after they had for long years tormented and been tormented1 but they could not reach the moon1 which repelled them2 they were condemned to reincarnation in new bodies1 either of men or of beasts1 and were once again delivered to the fury of the passions4 ,these passions are the ,erinyes1 of whom poets sung1 that in ,tartarus they burnt criminals with their torches and scourged them with their whips4 ,for there was no subterranean hell3 ,hades was in the air or on our earth1 and the infernal sufferings described by mythology were the various tortures inflicted on the souls condemned to transmigration4#gc ,this religious philosophy1 which1 by a symbolism transforming the meaning of the traditional beliefs1 reconciled these with men's intelligence1 did more than any other to revive faith in immortality4 ,many enlightened men1 like ,cicero and ,cato1 had sought consolation for the misfortunes of this world and a hope for the ,beyond in reading ,plato1 but ,plato's proof of immortality could convince only those already convinced4#gd ,pythagorism1 on the other hand1 offered to restless souls a certainty founded on a revelation made to ancient sages1 and it satisfied at once the ,roman love for order and rule1 and the human love for the marvellous and the mysterious4 ,the evidence of the effect of this philosophy is still recognisable1 although it often has not been recognised1 in the compositions decorating many sepulchral monuments and in the wording of several epitaphs4 ,a tombstone found at ,philadelphia in ,lydia is particularly curious4#ge ,it bears a representation of the ,y symbol1 that is1 of the diverging roads between which man must choose when he leaves childhood behind him4 ,on the one side earthly travail leads the virtuous man to eternal rest2 on the other softness and debauchery bring the vicious man to a gulf into which he falls4 ,a metrical epitaph1 found at ,pisaurum 7,pesaro71 hints covertly at the ideas of the school4 ,this commemorates a child who1 in spite of his youth1 had learnt the dogmas of ,pythagoras and read 8the pious verses of ,homer0 as well as the philosophers1 and had studied in ,euclid the sacred science of numbers4 ,his soul1 runs the inscription1#gf 8goes forward through the gloomy stars of deep ,tartarus towards the waters of ,acheron10 a sentence which can be understood only on the supposition that ,tartarus and ,acheron had for the author a figurative meaning and lay in the depths not of the earth but of the sky4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the belief in a celestial immortality which was thus propagated by the half philosophical1 half religious sect of the ,pythagoreans was to find a powerful interpreter in a thinker who had a predominant influence over his contemporaries and the succeeding generation--in ,posidonius4 ,we know little of his life4 ,born at ,apamea in ,syria1 about the year #ace1 he early left his native country1 of which he seems to have kept a poor opinion1 and as a young student in ,athens he attended the lectures of the older ,stoic ,panaetius4 ,the universal curiosity which was to make him a scholar of encyclopaedic knowledge soon impelled him to take long journeys1 in which he even reached the shores of the ,atlantic and studied the tides of the ocean4 ,upon his return he opened a school in the free city of ,rhodes and there numbered ,cicero among his hearers4 ,when he died at the age of eighty-four the prestige he enjoyed both in the ,roman world and among the ,greeks was immense4 ,he owed his intellectual ascendancy as much to the marvellous variety of the knowledge which he displayed1 as philosopher1 astronomer1 historian1 geographer and naturalist1 as to his copious1 harmonious and highly coloured style4 ,a theologian rather than a logician1 a scholar rather than a critic1 he did not construct an original metaphysical system comparable to those of the great founders of schools4 ,but ,posidonius was the most prominent representative of that syncretism which1 as we have seen1 showed itself in the ,pythagoreans before his day and which reigned in the world about him1 because men were weary of the sterile discussions of opposing thinkers4 ,he gave the support of his authority and his eloquence to the eclecticism which reconciled the principles of the ancient ,greek schools4 ,moreover1 his ,syrian origin led him to combine these doctrines with the religious ideas of the ,east1 which had with astrology given the ,hellenes a new conception of man and of the gods4#gg ,it is exactly here that ,posidonius is important from the point of view of our subject3 his tendencies represent a direct reaction against the scepticism of his master ,panaetius1 who denied both the survival of the soul#gh and the possibility of divination4 ,posidonius introduced into ,stoicism momentous ideas derived at once from ,pythagorism and from ,eastern cults1 and sought to establish them firmly by connecting them with a system of the world1 which his vast intelligence had sought to understand in all its aspects4 ,his faith in immortality is strictly related to his cosmography and receives support from his physics4 ,it was this system of the world which was1 thanks to ,ptolemy's authority1 to perpetuate itself on the whole until the time of ,copernicus4 ,we will here give a broad outline of its essential features1 because the eschatological doctrines were to remain for centuries connected with it4 ,the terrestrial globe was held to be suspended1 motionless1 in the centre of the universe1 surrounded by an atmosphere formed of the three other elements and reaching to the moon4 ,that part of the atmosphere which was near the earth was thickened and darkened by heavy vapours rising from the soil and the waters4 ,above1 there moved a purer and lighter air which1 as it neared the sky1 was warmed by contact with the higher fires4 ,still higher were ranged the concentric spheres of the seven planets1 wrapped in ether1 a subtle and ardent fluid--first the moon1 which still received and gave back the exhalations of the earth1#gi then ,mercury and ,venus1 the two companions of the sun in his daily course4 ,the fourth place1 that is1 the middle point of the superimposed heavens1 was occupied by the luminary of the day1--here ,posidonius forsakes ,plato and follows the ,chaldeans1--the burning heart of the world1 the intelligent light which is the source of our minds4#hj ,above the sun moved the three higher planets--,mars1 ,jupiter and ,saturn4 ,and these seven wandering stars were surrounded by the sphere of the fixed stars1 which were animated by constant and uniform movement4 ,that sphere marked the world's boundary3 beyond it there was only void or the ether4 ,the universe1 as this philosophy imagined it1 had therefore well-defined limits3 when men raised their eyes to the constellations of the firmament1 they thought they perceived its end4 ,the depths of the sky were not then unfathomable2 he who sank his gaze in them was not seized with giddiness at the abysses nor bewildered by inconceivable magnitudes1 and was not tempted to cry with ,pascal3#ha 8,the eternal silence of these boundless spaces affrights me40 ,nor was the universe then a multiplicity of heavenly bodies moving to an unknown goal and perpetually transformed1 transitory manifestations of an energy developed for undiscoverable ends4 ,the conception formed of the world was static1 not dynamic4 ,it was a machine of which the wheels turned according to immutable laws1 an organism of which all the parts were united by reciprocal sympathy as they acted and reacted on each other4 ,this organism was alive1 penetrated throughout by the same essence as the soul which maintains our life and thought4 ,this soul was an igneous breath of which the moral corruption was conceived quite materially4 ,when it gave itself up to the desires of the senses1 to corporeal passions1 its substance thickened and was troubled1 and the mud of this pollution adhered to it like a crust4 ,when the soul left the body at the time of death1 it became a spirit like the multitude of demons who peopled the atmosphere4 ,but its lot varied in accordance with its condition4 ,if it were laden with matter1 its weight condemned it to float in the densest air1 the damp-charged gas which immediately surrounded the earth1 and its very composition then caused it to reincarnate itself in new bodies4#hb ,but if it had remained free from all alloy its lightness caused it to pass immediately through this heavier layer of air and bore it to the higher spaces4 ,it stopped in this ascension when1 within the ether which was about the moon1 it found itself in surroundings like its own substance4 ,some elect beings1 the divine spirits of the sages1 kept such purity that they rose through the ether as far as the highest astral spheres4 ,in this system the doctrine of immortality is seen to be closely knit up with cosmography4 ,if ,posidonius has largely borrowed these ideas from the platonising ,pythagorism of his period1 he forsook this philosophy on an essential point4 ,as a ,stoic he did not admit the transcendency of ,god4 ,for him1 ,god was immanent in the universe2 the seat of the directing reason of the world 77 was the sphere of the fixed stars1 which embraced all other spheres and determined their revolutions4 ,there too1 at the summit of the world but not outside it1 the spirits of the blessed gathered2 from these high peaks they delighted to observe earthly happenings2 and when a pious soul tried to rise to them1 these succouring heroes1 like our saints1 could lend their aid and protection4 ,this philosophy did not draw its power of persuasion only from its logical consistency1 which satisfied reason1 but it also made a strong appeal to feeling4 ,posidonius caused a broad stream of mystical ideas1 undoubtedly derived from the beliefs developed by the astral religions of the ,east1 to flow into the arid bed of a ,stoicism which had become scholastic4 ,for him1 reason was not enclosed in the body1 even when it sojourned here below2 it escaped from it to pass with marvellous swiftness from the depths of the sea to the ends of the earth and the top of the heavens2 it flew through all nature1 learning to know physical laws and to admire the divine order ever more and more4 ,above all it could never weary of the sight of the glowing constellations and their harmonious movements4 ,it felt with emotion1 as it gave itself up to contemplating them1 its kinship with the celestial fires2 it entered into communion with the higher gods4 ,in enthusiastic terms1 echoed by his imitators1 ,posidonius described the ecstasy which seized him who left the earth1 who felt himself transported to the midst of the sacred chorus of the stars and who followed their rhythmic evolutions4 ,in these transports1 the soul did not only win to infinite power1 but also received from heaven the revelation of the nature and cause of the celestial revolutions4 ,thus even in this life it had a foretaste of the beatitude which would belong to it after death when reason1 rid of the weak organs of the senses1 would directly perceive all the splendours of the divine world and would know its mysteries completely4#hc ,this theology attributed to man a power such as to satisfy his proudest feelings4 ,it did not regard him as a tiny animalcule who had appeared on a small planet lost in immensity1 nor did it1 when he scrutinised the heavens1 crush him with a sense of his own pettiness as compared with bodies whose greatness surpassed the limits of his imagination4 ,it made man king of creation1 placed him in the centre of a still limited world of which the proportions were not so vast that he could not travel all over his domain4 ,if he could tear himself from the domination of his body1 he became capable of communicating with the visible gods who were almost within his reach and whom he might hope to equal after his passage here below4 ,he knew himself to be united to them by an identity of nature which alone explained how he understood them4 8,quis caelum possit1 nisi caeli munere1 nosse ,et reperire deum1 nisi qui pars ipse ,dei est80#hd 8,who could know heaven save by heavenly grace1 or find ,god if he were not himself a part of ,god80--words of the ,roman poet who echoes ,posidonius' teaching4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is easy to understand that such ideas were readily adopted at a time when human minds1 tired of inconclusive disputes1 despaired of ever reaching truth by their own strength4 ,the astral mysticism eloquently preached by ,posidonius was to influence all the later ,stoicism4 ,seneca in particular1 in the numerous passages in which he speaks of the misery and baseness of life in the body and celebrates the felicity of the pure souls who live among the stars1 shows the imprint of the philosopher of ,apamea4 ,and this philosopher also exerted a far-reaching action beyond the narrow circle of the school4 ,the erudition of the antiquarian ,varro1 the poems of ,virgil and ,manilius and the biblical exegesis of ,philo the ,jew1 all drew on him for inspiration4 ,but the author in whom we can best discern his influence is his pupil ,cicero1 the abundance of whose writings allows us to follow the evolution of his thought1 which is characteristic of the whole society of his time4 ,it is beyond doubt that ,cicero was an agnostic for the greater part of his life4 ,his mind found satisfaction in the scepticism of the ,new ,academy1 or rather he adopted towards the future life the received attitude of the world in which he lived1 where the problem of the soul's origin and destiny was regarded as not only insoluble but also idle1 as unworthy to absorb the minds of men who should devote their energies to the service of the state4 ,the question of the cult to be rendered to the ,manes had been settled once for all by the ancient pontifical law4 ,old ,rome distrusted speculations as to the ,beyond because they dangerously diverted thought from actual realities4 ,but ,cicero1 by his study of the writings of his master ,posidonius and by his intercourse with the senator ,nigidius ,figulus1 a fervent adept of ,pythagorism1#he had been brought into contact with the stream of mystical ideas which was beginning to flow through the ,west4 ,gradually1 as he grew older and life brought him disappointments1 his thought was more attracted to religious ideas4#hf ,in #ed1 when he had given up political life1 he composed the ,republic1 an imitation of ,plato's work on the same subject4 ,as ,plato had introduced the myth of ,er the ,armenian at the end of his work1 so his ,roman imitator concludes with the puzzling picture of 8,scipio's ,dream10 where the destroyer of ,carthage receives the revelations of the conqueror of ,zama4 ,the hero1 from the height of the celestial spheres1 expounds that doctrine of astral immortality which was common to the ,pythagoreans and to ,posidonius4 ,it is given as yet only as a dream1 a vision the truth of which is in no way guaranteed4 ,but in #de ,b4 ,c4 ,cicero suffered a cruel loss in the death of his only daughter ,tullia4 ,his grief persuaded him that this beloved being still lived among the gods4 ,even while he accused himself of unreasonable weakness1 he ordered that not a tomb but a chapel 7fanum71 consecrating her apotheosis1 should be raised to this young woman4 ,the letters he wrote at this time to ,atticus1 from the shores of the ,pomptine ,marshes1 in the solitude of ,astura1 apprise us of his most intimate feelings4 ,he gave vent to his sorrow in writing a ,consolatio1 and in its preserved fragments we see him strangely impressed by the ,pythagorean doctrines3 he speaks of the soul1 exempt from all matter1 as celestial and divine and therefore eternal1 of the soul's life here below as a penalty inflicted on it because it is born to expiate anterior crimes 7scelerum luendorum causa74 ,cicero's sensitive spirit1 troubled by the perplexing problem of our destiny1 did not turn to the old discredited beliefs but to the new conceptions which a mystical philosophy had brought from the ,east4 ,hortensius and the ,tusculans1 written in this period of his life1 show us the empire which the ,neo-,stoicism of his master and the ,neo-,pythagorism of his fellow-senator then exercised over his mind1 saddened and disillusioned as he was1 and show us too how he sought consolation for the private and public ills which were overwhelming him in the luminous doctrine of a blissful survival4 ,this spiritual evolution is an image of the great change which was about to take place in the ,roman world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,stoic philosophy1 although its maxims had been popularised by education and literature1 was almost as incapable of exercising a wide influence on the deep masses of the people as the esoteric theosophy revealed in the aristocratic conventicles of the ,pythagoreans4 ,the urban 8plebs10 to which slavery and trade had given a strong admixture of ,eastern blood1 and the peasants of the rural districts1 where the gaps caused by depopulation were filled up by a foreign labour supply1 were beginning at the end of the ,republican period to hear new dogmas preached1 dogmas which were winning an ever increasing number of believers4 ,the ancient national cults of ,greece and ,rome aimed above all at ensuring civic order and earthly welfare1 and paid small regard to the spiritual perfection of individuals and their eternal future4 ,but now exotic cults claimed to reveal the secret of immortality to their adepts4#hg ,the ,oriental mysteries1 propagated in the ,west1 united in the promise of securing holiness in this life and felicity in the next1 while they imparted to their initiates the knowledge of certain rites and required submission to certain precepts4 ,instead of the fluctuating and disputable beliefs of philosophers as to destiny in the ,beyond1 these religions gave certainty founded on divine revelation and on the faith of countless generations attached to them4 ,the truth1 which the mysticism of the thinkers looked to find in direct communication with heaven1 was here warranted by a venerable tradition and by the daily manifestations of the gods adored4 ,the belief in life beyond the grave1 which had in ancient paganism been so vague and melancholy1 was transformed into confident hope in a definite beatitude4 ,participation in the occult ceremonies of the sect was an infallible means of finding salvation4 ,a society that was weary of doubt received these promises eagerly1 and the old beliefs of the ,east combined with an eclectic philosophy to give a new eschatology to the ,roman ,empire4 ,the salvation ensured by the mysteries was conceived as identification with the god venerated in them4 ,by virtue of this union the initiate was reborn1 like this god1 to new life after he had perished1 or1 like him1 escaped from the fatal law of death which weighs on humanity4 ,he was 8deified0 or 8immortalised10 after he had taken part1 as actor1 in a liturgical drama reproducing the myth of the god whose lot was thus assimilated to his own4 ,purifications1 lustrations and unctions1 participation in a sacred banquet1 revelations1 apparitions and ecstasies--a complicated series of ceremonies and instructions helped to bring about this metamorphosis of the faithful whom a higher power absorbed or penetrated with its energy4 ,we shall return to this sacramental operation which made pious souls equal to the divinity4#hh ,there is another point on which1 in the course of this historical introduction1 we must dwell a little longer1 namely1 the evolution undergone by the conception of the ,beyond taught in the different mysteries and the share of philosophy in the transformation4 ,for if in the various sects the liturgy was usually preserved with scrupulous fidelity1 its theological interpretation varied considerably as time passed4 ,in paganism much doctrinal liberty was always combined with respect for rites4 ,some of the mysteries often gave in their beginnings a rather coarse idea of the future life1 and the pleasures which might be enjoyed therein were very material4 ,the ancient ,greek conception1 going back to ,orphism1 was1 as we have seen1 that of a subterranean kingdom divided into two contrasted parts--,tartarus where the wicked1 plunged in a dark slough or subjected to other pains1 suffering the chastisement of their faults1 on the one side2 on the other1 the ,elysian ,fields1 those flowered1 luminous meadows1 gay with song and dance1 in which the blessed pursued their favourite occupations1 whether they were allowed to dwell there for ever1 or whether they awaited there the hour fixed for their rebirth on earth4#hi ,this eschatology1 which had become the common possession of the ,hellenes1 was certainly that of the mysteries of ,greece and in particular of the mysteries of ,eleusis4 ,but these mysteries were never more than local religions3 however numerous were the initiates attracted by their renown1 they were bound to the soil where they were born4 ,thus their influence was very limited in the ,roman period and cannot be compared with that of the universal cults which were propagated throughout the ,mediterranean world4 ,as for ,orphism1 which was never connected with any one temple1 it is doubtful whether it still constituted an actual sect1 and if it did1 it certainly spread over a very narrow field4 ,its influence was perpetuated chiefly because it was absorbed by ,pythagorism4 ,among the mysteries propagated in the ,west1 the most ancient were those of the ,thraco-,phrygian gods1 ,dionysos and ,sabazios1 who were indeed looked upon as identical4 ,we know that in #ahf ,b4 ,c4 a senatus consultum forbade the celebration of the ,bacchanalia in ,italy1 and in #aci some sectaries of ,jupiter ,sabazius1 who identified this god with the ,jahve-,sabaoth of the ,jews1 were expelled from ,rome by the praetor at the same time as the 8,chaldeans40 ,the cult practised by the votaries of ,bacchus or ,liber ,pater1 whose confraternities were maintained until the end of paganism1 differed profoundly from the ,dionysos worship of ancient ,greece3 a number of ,oriental elements had been introduced into it2 in particular1 the relations between ,dionysos and ,osiris1 which go back to a very remote period1 had become singularly close in ,egypt4 ,however1 many reliefs on tombstones and the celebrated paintings found in the catacombs of ,praetextatus prove that the cults of the ,thraco-,phrygian gods remained faithful to the old idea of a future life4 ,the shade went down into the bowels of the earth1 never again to leave them4 ,if judged worthy1 it took part in an eternal banquet1 of which the initiate received a foretaste on earth1 in the feasts of the mysteries4 ,sacred drunkenness1 a divine exaltation1 was the pledge of the joyous intoxication which the god of wine would grant in ,hades to the faithful who had united themselves to him4#ij ,in #bje1 towards the end of the second ,punic war1 the cult of ,cybele1 the ,great ,mother of the ,gods1 and of ,attis1 her associate1 was transported from ,pessinus in ,phrygia and officially adopted by the ,roman people4 ,the great feasts of this religion were celebrated in ,march about the equinox and commemorated the death and resurrection of ,attis1 the emblem of vegetation1 which1 after it has withered1 flowers again in the spring4 ,the faithful associated their own destiny with the lot of their god3 like him they would be reborn to a new life after they had died4 ,their doctrines on this point were certainly transformed as time passed1 for no ,oriental cult which spread in the ,west underwent more evolution1 since none was more fundamentally barbarous when it came from ,asia4 ,originally1 ,cybele was the goddess of the dead1 because ,mother ,earth receives them into her bosom4 ,every ,phrygian tomb is a sanctuary and its epitaph a dedication3 often the graves are consecrated to the goddess and bear her image or that of the lion1 her substitute4 ,often too the tombstone has the shape of a door1 the door of the subterranean world whither the dead descend4 ,the belief seems to have been held that the deceased were absorbed in the ,great ,mother who had given them birth1 and that they thus participated in her divinity4 ,she brought forth corn and grapes for men and thus sustained them day by day1 and the bread and wine1 taken in the meal which was the essential act of the initiation1 would ensure immortality to those who were of the mystery4 8,thou givest us the food of life with unfailing constancy10 says a prayer1 8and when our soul departs we will take refuge in thee4 ,thus all that thou givest1 always falls to thee again40#ia ,towards the end of the ,republic the mysteries of ,isis and ,serapis1 which had come from ,alexandria and had already spread through the south of ,italy1 established themselves in ,rome and maintained themselves there in spite of opposition from the senate4 ,under the ,empire1 the ,egyptian religion displayed all the pomp of its liturgy in magnificent temples and had a number of votaries in every province4 ,the cult of ,osiris1 of which that of ,serapis was a form1 was originally a cult of the fields1 like that of ,attis1 and the great feast which its adherents celebrated in autumn recalls the ,phrygian spring feasts4 ,the death of ,osiris1 whose body had been torn to pieces by ,seth1 was mourned2 and when ,isis had found the scattered fragments of the corpse1 joined them together and reanimated it1 noisy rejoicing followed the lamentation4 ,like the initiates of ,cybele and ,attis1 those of ,isis and ,serapis were associated with the passion and resurrection of their god4 ,and1 in the same way1 the oldest conception of immortality in these mysteries was that the departed went down into the infernal regions1 where a man became another ,serapis1 a woman another ,isis1 which is to say that they were assimilated to the gods who had granted them salvation4#ib ,this is why on numerous funeral reliefs the dead man1 who has become a hero and is shown lying on a couch1 bears on his head the bushel 7modius7 which is the attribute of ,serapis4 ,in consequence1 however1 of the identification of this god with ,dionysos1 the joys beyond the grave are also represented as a feast in the ,elysian ,fields at which the great master of banquets presides4#ic ,all these mysteries conceive immortality as a descent of the dead into ,hades4 ,for them1 the kingdom of the dead lies in the bosom of the earth4 ,those who have been initiated will there enjoy a felicity made up of purely material pleasures1 or they will be identified with the powers who reign over the nether world and will have part in their divine life4 ,it will be noticed how closely this last conception approached to that of ancient ,stoicism1 according to which the various parts of the human organism1 dissociated by death1 were to regain their integrity in the divine elements of the universe4 ,quite another doctrine was propagated by the ,syrian cults and the ,persian mysteries of ,mithras1 which spread in the ,west in the first century of our era4 ,these religions taught that the soul of the just man does not go below the ground but rises to the sky1 there to enjoy divine bliss in the midst of the stars in the eternal light4 ,only the wicked were condemned to roam the earth's surface1 or were dragged by the demons into the dusky depths in which the spirit of evil reigned4 ,opinions differed as to the region of heaven in which the souls of the elect dwelt4 ,the 8,chaldeans10 who looked upon the sun as the master and the intelligence of the universe1 made him the author of human reason1 which returned to him after it had left the body1 while for the priests of ,mithras the spirit rose1 by way of the planetary spheres1 to the summit of the heavens4 ,we will have to examine later the different forms of astral immortality4#id ,but you will already have noticed how nearly this immortality1 as formulated by the ,iranian and ,semitic sects1 approximated to the doctrine taught by ,pythagorism and adopted by ,neo-,stoicism4 ,this meeting of the two doctrines was not an effect of chance4 ,the idea that souls are related to the celestial fires1 whence they descend at birth and whither they reascend at death1 had probably been borrowed by the ancient ,pythagoreans from the astral religions of the ,east4 ,recent research seems to have established the fact of its ,chaldeo-,persian origin4 ,but the ,greek philosophers1 according to their wont1 defined and developed this idea in an original way4 ,in the ,hellenistic period1 when they adopted astrology1 they were subject for the second time to the ascendancy of the scientific religion of the 8,chaldeans02 and1 in their turn1 they reacted on the ,oriental cults when these spread in the ,graeco-,roman world4 ,we have sure evidence that the mysteries of ,mithras were1 in particular1 strongly affected by the influence of the ,pythagorean sect1 which was itself organised like a kind of mystery4 ,in a more general way1 philosophy introduced into the mysteries ethical ideas and1 instead of the purely ritualistic or rather magical means of salvation1 some moral requirements became necessary to earn immortality4 ,there is here a mass of actions and reactions of which the details escape us2 but we can form some idea of such a syncretism from the remains of the theological writings attributed to ,hermes ,trismegistus1 from the writings1 that is1 which are supposed to contain the revelations of the ,egyptian god ,thot4 ,this professedly ,egyptian wisdom includes a number of ideas and definitions which are characteristic of ,posidonius and ,neo-,pythagorism4 ,the ,greek and the ,egyptian elements are so closely associated in it that it is very difficult to separate the one from the other4 ,we find another example of the same mixture in the 8,chaldaic ,oracles10 which were probably composed about the year #bjj of our era and which became one of the sacred books of ,neo-,platonism4 ,unlike the ,hermetic writings1 this collection of verses does indeed seem to have belonged to a sect practising an actual cult3 its greater part is taken up with mythology1 and the fantastic mysticism of the ,east is more prominent here than in the ,hermetic lore1 but the mind of the compiler of these revelations was also penetrated by the ideas which the ,greek masters had widely circulated4 ,the tenet of astral immortality1 which philosophy shared with the cults emanating from ,syria and ,persia1 imposed itself on the ancient world4 ,it is curious to notice how it was introduced into the theology of the very mysteries to which it was at first foreign3 ,attis ended by becoming a solar god1 and thenceforward it was in the heights of heaven that ,cybele was united to the souls she had prevented from wandering in darkness and had saved from hell4 ,the priests of the ,alexandrian divinities were similarly to explain that the dead had not their dwelling in the interior of our globe1 but that the 8subterranean0 77 kingdom of ,serapis was situated beneath the earth1 that is1 in the lower hemisphere of heaven1 bounded by the line of the horizon4#ie ,according as the ,oriental religions were more largely propagated1 faith in a new eschatology spread gradually among the people2 and although memories and survivals of the old belief in the life of the dead in the grave and the shade's descent into the infernal depths may have lingered1 the doctrine which predominated henceforward was that of celestial immortality4 ,the distance separating the age of ,augustus from that of the ,flavians on this point can be measured by reading ,plutarch's moral works 7about #abj ,a4 ,d474 ,a constant preoccupation with religious matters1 and in particular a learned curiosity as to the cults of the ,east1 shows itself in this ,greek of ,chaeronea1 living in a country which1 in its pride in its own past1 had more than any other resisted the invasion of exoticism4 ,further1 the eclectic philosopher likes to insert in his dissertations myths in which1 after the fashion of ,plato1 he expounds the lot of souls in the ,beyond and their struggle to rise heavenwards4 ,an attempt has been made to prove--wrongly1 ,i think--that he is here inspired by ,posidonius4 ,these apocalyptic visions1 which claim to reveal truths previously ignored1 are not taken from that well-known writer2 they have a religious imprint which betrays sacerdotal influence1 and the philosophic ideas they contain are those which were part of the common wisdom of the ,pythagoreans and the mysteries4 ,there doubtless still were in the second century ,stoics1 like the ,emperor ,marcus ,aurelius1 for whom the future life was a mere hypothesis1 or at most a hope 7p4 #ad71 as well as sceptics1 like ,lucian of ,samosata1 whose irony mocked all beliefs4 ,but gradually their number diminished and the echo of their voices grew feebler4 ,faith in survival deepened as present life came to seem a burden harder and harder to bear4 ,the pessimistic idea that birth is a chastisement and that the true life is not that passed on earth1 imposed itself in proportion to the growth of public and private ills and to the aggravation of the empire's social and moral decline4 ,in the period of violence and devastation which occurred in the third century1 there was so much undeserved suffering1 there were so many unjust failures and unpunished crimes1 that men took refuge in the expectation of a better life in which all the iniquity of this world would be retrieved4 ,no earthly hope then brightened life4 ,the tyranny of a corrupt bureaucracy stifled every attempt at political progress4 ,science seemed exhausted and no longer discovered unknown truths2 art was struck with sterility of invention and reproduced heavily the creations of the past4 ,an increasing impoverishment and a general insecurity constantly discouraged the spirit of enterprise4 ,the idea spread that humanity was smitten by incurable decay1 that society was on the road to dissolution and the end of the world was impending4 ,all these causes of discouragement and pessimism must be remembered in order to understand the dominance of the old idea1 then so often repeated1 that a bitter necessity constrains the spirit of man to enclose itself in matter1 and that death is a liberation which delivers it from its carnal prison4 ,in the heavy atmosphere of a period of oppression and powerlessness1 the despondent souls of men aspired with ineffable ardour to the radiant spaces of heaven4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the mental evolution of ,roman society was complete when ,neo-,platonism took upon itself the office of directing minds4 ,the powerful mysticism of ,plotinus 7#bje-bfb ,a4 ,d47 opened up the path which ,greek philosophy was to follow until the world of antiquity reached its end4 ,we shall not undertake to notice in this place the discrepancies of the latest teachers who theorised about the destiny of souls4 ,in the course of these lectures we shall have occasion to quote some of the opinions of ,porphyry1 the chief disciple of ,plotinus1 and of his successor ,jamblichus1 who was1 like himself1 a ,syrian4 ,we will here do no more than indicate broadly what distinguished the theories of this school from those which had hitherto been dominant4 ,the system generally accepted1 by the mysteries as by philosophy1 was a pantheism according to which divine energy was immanent in the universe and had its home in the celestial spheres4 ,the souls1 conceived as material1 could in consequence rise to the stars but did not leave the world4 ,the ,neo-,pythagoreans themselves had not had a very firmly established doctrine on this point3 while some of them stated that reason was incorporeal1 others1 as we have seen 7p4 #bd71 admitted with the ,stoics that it was an igneous substance4 ,it is true that even in paganism the appearance can be discerned of the belief in a ,most ,high 77 or an unknown god 1 whom some people supposed to dwell above the starry heavens1 beyond the limits of the world1 and towards whom pious spirits could rise4 ,the revivers of ,platonic idealism asserted the transcendence of ,god and the spirituality of the soul more strongly and clearly4 ,a whole chapter of the ,enneades of ,plotinus is taken up with refuting those who held the soul to be material4#if ,as a principle of life and movement1 it is stated to be immortal by its very essence1 so that if it kept its purity perfect1 it would find after its passage here below eternal felicity in the intelligible world4 ,the ,neo-,platonists preserved the idea1 which had previously been admitted1 that this intellectual essence comes down to earth through the planetary spheres and the atmosphere1 and that as it sinks in the luminous ether and the damp air1 it becomes laden with particles of the elements through which it passes4 ,it surrounds itself with a garment or1 as it is sometimes called1 with a vehicle 77 which thickens as it gradually draws near us4#ig ,this subtle body1 the seat of the passions and of feeling1 is intermediary between the spiritual principle which has issued from ,god and the flesh in which it is to enclose itself1 and for certain philosophers it survives death and accompanies the soul to the ,beyond1 at least if the soul1 not being free from earthly admixture1 cannot wholly leave the world of sense1 and therefore rises only to the planetary circle or to that of the fixed stars4 ,when the soul has suffered even more from the taint to which its contact with matter1 the source of evil1 exposes it1 it is doomed to reincarnate itself in a new body and again to undergo the trial of this life4 ,when it has become incurably corrupt and burdened with evil1 it goes down into the depths of ,hades4 ,following ,plato1 ,plotinus and his successors have adopted the ,pythagorean doctrine of metempsychosis4 ,they have even developed it1 as we shall see1#ih together with the whole pessimistic and ascetic conception of life1 the conception which looks at birth as a pain and a fall1 a temporary subjection to a body from which emancipation must be sought4 ,it is only after this liberation that the soul can reach perfect wisdom2 it must no longer be troubled by the senses if it is to attain to the end of existence1 to union with ,god4 ,this union can be realised even during this life in moments of ecstasy1 in which the soul rises above thought and gives itself up entirely to love for the ineffable ,unity in which it is absorbed4 ,like many other mystics1 ,plotinus disdains the ceremonies of positive cults3 they were superfluous to the sage who could of himself enter into communion with the supreme ,being4 ,but even his disciple ,porphyry conceded a greater value to rites and initiations4 ,if they were powerless to lead the partakers of mysteries to the highest degree of perfection1 their effect yet was to render men worthy to live among the visible gods who people heaven4#ii ,but only philosophical wisdom could rise to the intelligible world and the ,unknowable4 ,the principle of a mystical relation between man and the divinity was to lead ,neo-,platonism to more and more reverence for religious traditions4 ,for it was held that in the past the revelation of truth had been granted by ,heaven not only to divine ,plato and the sages of ,greece1 but to all the founders of barbarous cults and authors of sacred writings4 ,they all communicated profound teaching1 which they sometimes hid beneath the veil of allegory4 ,inspired by the symbolism of the ,pythagoreans1 the last representatives of ,greek philosophy claimed to rediscover the whole of ,platonic metaphysics and the ,platonic doctrine of immortality in the myths and rites of paganism4 ,the speeches of ,julian the ,apostate on the ,sun-,king and the ,mother of the ,gods are characteristic examples of this bold exegesis1 destitute of all critical and even all common sense1 which was adopted by the last champions of the old beliefs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,these aberrations of ,neo-,platonic thought must not hide the school's historical importance from us1 any more than the excesses of the superstitious theurgy which invaded it4 ,when it revived ,plato's idealism1 it produced a lasting change in the eschatological ideas which prevailed in paganism1 and it deeply influenced even the ,christian doctrines of immortality held since the fourth century4 ,this will be better seen1 we hope1 in the course of these lectures4#ajj ,it may be said that the conception of the lot of souls which reigned at the end of antiquity persisted on the whole through the ,middle ,ages--the immaterial spirits of the just rising through the planetary spheres to the ,supreme ,being enthroned above the zone of the fixed stars2 the posthumous purification of those whom life has sullied in a purgatory intermediary between heaven and hell2 the descent of the wicked into the depths of the earth where they suffered eternal chastisement4 ,this threefold division of the universe and of souls was largely accepted at the time of the ,empire's decline by pagans and by ,christians1 and after long centuries it was again to find magnificent expression in ,dante's 8,divine ,comedy40 ,before it could be destroyed astronomy had to destroy the whole cosmography of ,posidonius and ,ptolemy on which it was based4 ,when the earth ceased to be the centre of the universe1 the one fixed point in the midst of the moving circles of the skies1 and became a tiny planet turning round another heavenly body1 which itself moved in the immensity of space1 among an infinity of similar stars1 the nave conception formed by the ancients of the journey of souls in a well-enclosed world could no longer be maintained4 ,the progress of science discredited the convenient solution bequeathed to scholasticism by antiquity1 and left us in the presence of a mystery of which the pagan mysteries never had even a suspicion4 ,i ,,after ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,tomb ,when ,cicero in his ,tusculans#aja first touches on the question of the immortality of the soul1 he begins by citing in its support the fact that belief in it has existed since earliest antiquity4 ,he states that unless the first ,romans were convinced that man was not reduced to nought1 when he left this life1 and that all feeling was not extinguished in death1 there could be no explanation of the rules of the old pontifical law as to funerals and burials1 rules the violation of which was regarded as an inexpiable crime4 ,this remark is that of a very judicious observer4 ,there subsist in the funeral rites of all peoples1 in the ceremony of mourning established by the religious law or by tradition1 customs which derive from archaic conceptions of life beyond the tomb and which are still followed although their original meaning is no longer understood4 ,modern learning has sometimes successfully sought to elucidate them1 borrowing light from the practices of savage peoples and from ,european folk-lore4 ,we will not enter the domain of these researches1 for since our special purpose here is to expound the ideas as to immortality held in later times1 we have to consider only the beliefs which were still alive in that period4 ,a false interpretation supplied by a philosopher may have more historical value for us than the true explanation of an institution which had lost its meaning4 ,but even among the ideas which were neither obliterated nor discredited1 conceptions which originated at very different dates have to be distinguished4 ,the doctrines of paganism1 like the soil of our planet1 are formed of superimposed strata4 ,when we dig into them we discover successive layers under the upper deposits of recent alluvia4 ,nothing was suddenly destroyed in ancient religions2 their transformations were never revolutionary4 ,faith in the past was not entirely abolished when new ways of believing were formed4 ,contradictory opinions could exist side by side for a long time without any shock being caused by their disagreement2 and it was only little by little and slowly that argument excluded one way of thinking to give place to the other1 while there were always hardy survivals left1 both in thought and in customs4 ,thus the beliefs as to the future life which were current under the ,roman ,empire present a singular mixture1 coarse ideas going back to the prehistoric period mingling with theories imported into ,italy at a late date4 ,we will today examine the oldest of all the ways of considering survival in the ,beyond3 life in the tomb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ethnology has proved that among all peoples the belief that the dead continue to live in the tomb has reigned1 and sometimes still reigns4 ,the primitive man1 disconcerted by death1 cannot persuade himself that the being who moved1 felt1 willed1 as he does1 can be suddenly deprived of all his faculties4 ,the most ancient and the crudest idea is that the corpse itself keeps some obscure sensitiveness which it cannot manifest4 ,it is imagined to be in a state like sleep4 ,the vital energy which animated the body is still attached to it and cannot exist without it4 ,this belief was so powerful in ,egypt that it inspired a whole section of the funeral ritual and called forth the infinite care that was taken to preserve mummies4 ,even in the ,west it survived vaguely1 and traces of it might still be discovered today4 ,lucretius combats this invincible illusion of men who1 even while they affirm that death extinguishes all feeling1 keep a secret uneasiness as to the suffering which their mortal remains may undergo and are frightened by the idea that their bodies may be eaten by worms or carnivorous animals4 ,they cannot separate themselves from this prone body1 which they believe is still their self4 ,why1 continues the poet1 would it be more painful to be the prey of wild beasts than to be burnt by the flame of the pyre1 to freeze lying on the icy slab of the grave or to be crushed by the weight of heaped-up earth8#ajb ,this very fear that the earth may weigh heavily on those who are deposited in the grave shows itself among many peoples who inter their dead1 and was expressed in ,rome by a formula so very usual that it was recalled in epitaphs by initials only3 8,s7it7 t7ibi7 t7erra7 l7evis710 8,may earth be light for thee40 ,until the ,empire ,stoic philosophers could be found who upheld that the soul endures only for the time for which the body is preserved4#ajc ,but experience proved that the corpse decomposed rapidly in the soil1 all that remained of it being a skeleton bereft of the organs of sensation4 ,when the custom of incineration1 followed in ,italy from the prehistoric period1 became practically general in ,rome1 the destruction of the body took place regularly before the eyes of those present4 ,thus men reached the belief that those near and dear to them1 whom they sometimes saw again in their dreams or seemed to feel beside them1 who were kept alive at least in memory1 differed from the beings of flesh and bones whom they had known4 ,from those material individuals subtle elements detached themselves1 filled with a mysterious force which subsisted when the human organism had crumbled to dust or been reduced to ashes4 ,it was this same principle which temporarily departed from persons who lost consciousness in a faint or a lethargy4 ,if this light essence did not leave a dying man at the moment of his death--whether or not it could escape from his body immediately was indeed uncertain--it was set free by the funeral fire1#ajd but it still inhabited the tomb in which his remains rested4 ,the idea that it was somehow attached to his remains had taken root in men's minds1 and even literature bears witness to the persistence of this deeply implanted popular belief4 ,propertius1#aje when cursing a woman1 desires that 8her ,manes may not be able to settle near her ashes40 ,and at ,liternum in ,campania1 where ,scipio ,africanus caused himself to be buried because1 as he said1 he did not wish to leave even his bones to his ungrateful country1 the grotto was shown where he rested and where1 so men believed1#ajf 8a serpent kept guard over his ,manes40 ,this primitive conception of the persistence of a latent life in the cold and rigid corpse or of its passage to a vaporous being like the body1 is connected with the belief that the dead retain all the needs and feelings which were previously theirs4 ,the funeral cult1 celebrated at the tomb1 is born of this belief4 ,it proceeds from fear as much as from piety1 for the dead are prone to resentment and quick in vengeance4 ,the unknown force which inhabits them1 the mysterious power which causes them to act1 inspired great awe4 ,if the natural course of their existence had been interrupted1 especially if they had died before their time1 they were suspected of being victims of some mischievous enchantment2 their sickness was looked upon as an invasion of maleficent spirits provoked by spells4 ,the wrath of those who had thus been torn from their homes and their wonted way of life was to be dreaded4 ,loud outbursts of grief followed by prolonged manifestations of mourning must prove to them1 in the first place1 that they were truly lamented and that no attempt had been made to get rid of them4 ,then1 in their new abode to which they were conveyed1 they must be ensured a bearable existence1 in order that they might remain therein quietly and not trouble their families nor punish1 by some intrusion1 those who neglected them4 ,solicitude for the beloved1 the desire to prevent their suffering1 the hope of obtaining their protection1 partly account for the origin and maintenance of these practices1 but they were above all inspired by the terror which spirits called forth1 as is proved by the fact that they were the same for all the departed without distinction1 for those who had been loved and those who had been hated4 ,the tomb is the house of the dead4 ,this is an idea common to the whole ancient world1 going back in ,italy beyond the foundation of ,rome4 ,the prehistoric cemeteries of the first iron age have yielded a number of cinerary urns exactly reproducing the various types of huts which sheltered the tribes who then peopled the peninsula4 ,the burial places of the ,etruscans are often on the plan of their dwellings1 and ,roman epitaphs leave no doubt as to the persistence of the conviction that the dead inhabit the tomb4 ,the diffusion of ,oriental cults revived archaic beliefs on this point as on many others4 ,the name 8eternal house0 7domus aeterna71 borrowed from the ,egyptians and the ,semites1 often occurs in funeral inscriptions of the imperial period4#ajg ,one text even specifies that this is 8the eternal house in which future life must be passed40#ajh ,the tomb is thus no mere passage through which the soul goes on its way to another region of the world2 it is a lasting residence4 8,this10 says an inscription1 8is our certain dwelling1 the one which we must inhabit40#aji ,in the ,aeneid1 a cenotaph is raised to ,polydorus1 whose body had been lost1 and his 8soul0 is installed there by a funeral ceremony1#aaj for the shade which has no sepulchre wanders1 as we shall see1 about the earth4 ,but when a fine monument is given to a dead man1 he is happy to be able to offer hospitality there to passers-by and invites them to stay on their way4 ,sometimes he is imagined as in a bedchamber1 where he sleeps an endless sleep1#aaa but this is not the primitive nor the dominant idea4 ,this idea1 on the contrary1 was that his rest was at least not unbroken1 since he had many requirements4 ,it was necessary not only to ensure him a roof but also to provide for his support1 for he had the same needs and tastes beneath the ground as he had upon it4 ,therefore the clothes which covered him1 the jewels which adorned him1 the earthen or bronze vessels which decked his table1 the lamps which afforded him light1 would be placed beside him4 ,if he were a warrior he would be given the arms he bore1 if a craftsman the tools he used2 a woman would have the articles necessary to her toilet1 a child the toys which amused him2 and the amulets1 by the help of which all that was maleficent would be kept away1 were not forgotten4 8,it is against common sense10 says ,trimalchio in ,petronius' romance1#aab 8to deck the house of the living and not to give the same care to the house which we must inhabit for a longer time40 ,in fact1 the larger number of the articles of furniture and household use preserved in our museums come from tombs1 which1 in the climate of ,egypt1 have sometimes been able to yield up to us1 intact1 some precious volume intended for a mummy's bedside book4 ,but the tombs have kept for us only a small part of the offerings made to those who were leaving this world1 for often their wardrobe and implements were delivered with them to the flame of the pyre in the belief that somehow they would find them again in the ,beyond4 ,lucian relates that a husband loved his wife so dearly that at her death he caused all the ornaments and the clothes which she liked to wear to be buried with her4 ,but seven days after her death1 as1 stretched on a couch1 he was silently reading ,plato's ,phaedo1 seeking therein solace for his grief1 his wife appeared1 seated herself beside him1 and reproached him for not having added to his offering one of her gilt slippers which had been left behind a chest4 ,the husband found it there1 and hastened to burn it in order that the poor woman might no longer remain half barefooted4#aac ,above all1 the dead must be offered food1 for the shade1 like the human body which it replaces1 needs nourishment for its subsistence4 ,its feeble and precarious life is quickened and prolonged only if it be constantly sustained4 ,the dead are hungry2 above all they are thirsty4 ,those whose humours have dried1 whose mouths have withered1 are tortured by the need to refresh their parched lips4 ,it therefore is not enough to place in the tombs the drinks and dishes1 the remains of which have often been found beside skeletons2 by periodic sacrifices the ,manes must be supplied with fresh food also4 ,if they are left without nourishment they languish1 weak as a fasting man1 almost unconscious1 and in the end they would actually die of starvation4 ,this is why the flesh of victims was1 in funeral sacrifices1 wholly destroyed by fire1 none of it being reserved for those present4 ,people always retained the conviction that the offerings burnt on the altar or the libations poured into the grave were consumed by him for whom they were intended4 ,often there is in the tombstone a circular cavity1 the bottom of which is pierced with holes2 the liquid poured into it went through the perforated slab and was led by a tube to the urn which held the calcinated bones4 ,it is comprehensible that an unbeliever protested against this practice in his epitaph4 8,by wetting my ashes with wine thou wilt make mud10 he says1 8and ,i shall not drink1 when ,i am dead40#aad ,but how many other texts there are which show the persistence of the ancient ideas6 8,passer-by10 says a ,roman inscription1 8the bones of a man pray thee not to soil the monument which covers them2 but if thou be benevolent pour wine into the cup1 drink and give me thereof40#aae ,if the dead ask for fresh water1 with which to quench their insatiable thirst1 they are above all eager for the warm blood of victims4 ,this sacrifice to the dead was at first often a human sacrifice of slaves or prisoners1 and barbarous immolations of this kind had not entirely disappeared even in the historic period4 ,when1 after the taking of ,perugia1 ,octavius1 on the ,ides of ,march 7that is1 on the anniversary of the slaying of ,julius ,caesar71 caused three hundred notables of the town to be slaughtered on ,caesar's altar1#aaf this collective murder1 inspired by political hatred1 perpetuated an old religious tradition4 ,fights of gladiators1 whose blood drenched the soil1 originally formed part of the funeral ceremonies by which the last duty was paid to the remains of an illustrious personage4 ,it is said that these sacrifices were intended to provide him who had gone to the other world with servants and companions1 as the offering of a horse gave him a steed1 or else that1 in case of violent death1 they were meant to appease the shade of a victim who claimed vengeance4 ,and doubtless these ideas1 which correspond to conceptions already evolved1 contributed to keeping this cruel custom in force4 ,but originally the object of this sacrifice1 as of the sacrifice of animals1 was essentially to ensure the duration of the undefinable something which still inhabited the tomb4 ,among all the peoples of antiquity the blood was looked upon as the seat of life2#aag the vapour which rose from the warm red liquid1 flowing from a wound1 was the soul escaping therewith from the body2 and therefore when blood was sprinkled on the soil which covered the remains of a relative or a friend1 a new vitality was given to his shade4 ,with the same motive women were wont to scratch their faces with their nails in sign of mourning4#aah ,this ancient conviction that fresh blood was indispensable to the dead1 was maintained in some countries with surprising tenacity4 ,in ,syria1 as late as the seventh century of our era1 ,christians insisted1 in spite of episcopal objurgations1 on immolating bulls and sheep on tombs1 and in ,armenia1 where these practices were sanctioned by the national clergy1 the faithful remained persuaded that the dead found no happiness in the other life unless the blood of victims had been made to flow for them on the days fixed by tradition4#aai ,other libations performed in the funeral rites of the ,greeks1 as of the ,romans1 were intended to produce the same effect1 the libations1 namely1 of wine1 milk and honey4 ,the use of wine has been explained as that of a substitute for blood1 as wine is red4 ,servius even interprets the purple flowers which ,aeneas threw on the tomb of his father ,anchises by the same association of ideas1 as an 8imitation of blood in which is the seat of life40#abj ,many proofs could be cited of the fact that wine has often taken the place of the liquid which flows in our veins1 but its use in connection with the dead can be explained also by its own virtue4 ,it is the marvellous liquid which gives divine drunkenness and which in the mysteries ensures immortality to such as are1 thanks to this sacred draught1 possessed by ,bacchus4#aba ,in the same way it vivifies the ,manes to whom it is poured out4 ,similarly melikraton1 a mixture of milk and honey1 is the food of the gods1 and when the dead absorb it1 they too become immortal4 ,such is the first meaning of these offerings1 one which was never quite forgotten4 ,their object is the infusion of new vigour into the enfeebled shades who slumber in the tomb4 ,this intention can also be discerned in the fact that the same offerings are used in magic1 which often preserved ideas abolished or superseded in religion4 ,in order to evoke the phantoms1 the necromancers dug a ditch and poured blood1 wine1 milk and honey into it4 ,these liquids had an exciting effect on the spirits of the dead1 arousing them from their torpor1 and the wizard took advantage of it to question them4 ,precautions lest the dead should ever suffer from lack of nourishment were multiplied4 ,in order that they might be fed on other days than those of sacrifices1 all over the ancient world it was customary to place food on their tombs--eggs1 bread1 beans1 lentils1 salt1 flour1 with wine4 ,hungry vagrants did not always respect their offerings but would help themselves to the proffered viands4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the institution which is most characterised by the persistence of the ancient ideas of life in the tomb is however that of the funeral banquets4 ,these family repasts1 which had previously been celebrated among the ,etruscans1 took place in ,rome on the grave immediately after the funeral 7silicernium7 and were repeated on the ninth day following 7cena novemdialis74 ,in ,greece and in the ,east the ceremony took place thrice1 on the third1 ninth and thirtieth or on the third1 seventh and fortieth day4 ,everywhere it was subsequently renewed every year on the anniversary of the death and on several other fixed dates1 as on that of the ,rosalia in ,may1 on which it was customary to decorate the tombs with roses4 ,memorial monuments of some importance are often found to include1 beside the burial chamber1 a dining-room 7triclinium7 and even a kitchen 7culina74 ,the importance attached to these meals is proved by several wills which have been preserved1 and which make considerable endowments to ensure their perpetuity4 ,for instance1 at ,ravenna a son bequeaths a sum of money to a college on condition that its members annually scatter roses on his father's grave and feast there on the ,ides of ,july4#abb ,when ,aurelius ,vitalio had built at ,praeneste a family tomb1 surmounted by a room with a terrace1 he wrote a letter in incorrect ,latin to the brothers of the society to which he belonged3 8,i ask you1 my companions1 to refresh yourselves here without quarrelling40#abc ,an ,african settled in ,rome similarly writes to his relatives and friends1 8,come here in good health for the feast1 and rejoice together40#abd ,and in ,gaul a will commands that the burial vault be furnished and receive a bed with coverings and cushions for the guests who have to meet on the memorial days4#abe ,these funeral repasts go back to a prehistoric antiquity4 ,they are found in ,india and in ,persia as well as among the ,european peoples4 ,they are doubtless as ancient as wedding and festal banquets4 ,among the ,egyptians and the ,etruscans it was even customary to place the representation of a perpetual feast on the walls of a tomb in order to secure to the dead person the relief it gave4 ,the shade of a guest might well be pleased with the likeness of dishes4 ,it was believed that at funeral feasts the ,manes of ancestors came to sit among the guests and enjoyed with them the abundance of the food and wines4 ,lucian tells of repasts of this kind1 which he witnessed in ,egypt1 at which the dried mummy was invited to eat and drink at the table of his kin4#abf ,in ,greece1 even in the ,roman period1 those present at the feast used to summon the dead to it by name4 ,an epitaph of ,narbonne jokingly expresses the vulgar idea as to the participation of the deceased in the banquet3 8,i drink and drink again1 in this monument10 says the dead man1 8the more eagerly because ,i am obliged to sleep and to dwell here40#abg ,nothing is further from our spiritual ideas as to the holiness of graveyards than the conviviality occasioned by the cult of the departed2 among the guests crowned with flowers1 the drinks went round 7circumpotatio7 and soon produced a noisy intoxication4 ,do not think this was an abuse due to a relaxation of morals and which came into being in later times4 ,the character of these funeral banquets was such from the beginning1 and such it has remained down to modern times in many countries4 ,you all know the practice of the ,irish 8wake0 which has been preserved even in the ,united ,states4 ,for it was long believed that the dead had their part in the merriness and inebriation of the companions at table and were thus consoled for the sadness of their lot4 8,thou callest10 says ,tertullian1#abh 8the dead careless 7securos7 when thou goest to the tombs with food and delicacies1 but thy real purpose is to make offerings to thyself1 and thou returnest home tipsy40 ,and indeed1 as we shall see1#abi these feasts were no longer of profit to the dead only but to the living also1 because there came to be a confusion between them and the ,bacchic communions in which wine was a drink of immortality4 ,no religious ceremony was more universally performed in the most diverse regions of the ,empire than this cult of the grave4 ,at every hour of every day families met in some tomb to celebrate there an anniversary by eating the funeral meal4 ,peoples remained strongly attached to practices the omission of which would have seemed to them dangerous as well as impious1 for the spirits of the dead were powerful and vindictive4 ,it is therefore not surprising that these practices persisted in the ,christian era in spite of the efforts of the clergy to suppress them4 ,st4 ,augustine reprimands those who1 like pagans1 8drink intemperately above the dead0--these are his words--8and who1 while serving meals to corpses1 bury themselves with these buried bodies1 making a religion of their greed and their drunkenness40#acj ,in the ,east1 however1 ecclesiastical authority tolerated a custom which it could not uproot1 contenting itself with forbidding the abuse of wine and recommending a moderation the absence of which might often be deplored4 ,ecclesiastical authority also insisted that a part of the feast should be given to the poor1 thus giving a charitable character to the old pagan practice4#aca ,therefore in many countries1 and especially in ,greece and in the ,balkans1 the habit has survived to this day1 not only of placing food on tombs1 but also of eating there on certain anniversaries1 with the idea that the dead in some mysterious way share and enjoy the meal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,rome1 in historical times1 the funeral repast might be taken not at the tomb but in the house4 ,among the feasts celebrated by the confraternities in honour of some dead benefactor1 on the dates fixed by his last will1 many were held in the meeting-place of the guild4 ,but the belief continued in the real presence of him whose 8spirit was honoured10#acb and whose statue or picture often adorned the banqueting hall4 ,from the earliest period1 the spirit of the dead was indeed not regarded as inseparable from his remains or as a recluse cloistered in the tomb4 ,he dwelt there but could issue thence1 although for long it was believed that he could not go far away but remained in the neighbourhood of the burial place4 ,he was brought back to it by the necessity of taking food1 which was no less indispensable to him than to men4 ,he returned1 therefore1 to it1 as a dweller returns to his home1 to repair his energies and to rest4 ,this idea that the soul wandered around its 8eternal house0 often caused pains to be taken to surround this house with a garden4 ,sometimes such a garden was planted with a practical object3 it was a vineyard1 an orchard or a rose-garden which supplied the wine1 fruit or flowers necessary for the offerings to the dead4#acc ,but elsewhere a mere pleasure-garden1 with shady groves1 bowers1 pavilions and sparkling fountains1 surrounded the burial place4 ,the care which the living took to fix1 by their will1 its extent and its planting is a measure of the intensity of their conviction that their shade would take pleasure in refreshing itself in this quiet haunt4 ,there1 about the tomb1 it would enjoy the delights which would afterwards be transported to the ,elysian ,fields1 as we shall see later4 ,the cult of the grave has not ceased in these days2 the ancient rites have not been discontinued4 ,tombstones are still surrounded with flowers2 they are decked with wreaths2 in ,italy lamps are kept burning over them4 ,but the reasons which established these customs have disappeared2 for us they are no more than a way of betokening our care for the beloved1 of piously showing our intimate feelings by outward signs and marking the duration of our regrets and our memories4 ,they are survivals which have lost all the concrete and real meaning which they had in the far-off days when men believed that a being like themselves sojourned in the place in which bones or ashes were deposited4 ,the dead were not then cut off from the society of the living2 the connection between them and their surroundings was not broken2 the continuity between the hour which preceded and that which followed their decease was not interrupted4 ,it has often been remarked that in this respect ancient ideas were profoundly different from ours4 ,those lost to sight did not then cease to partake of the life of their families2 they remained in communication with their friends and their kin1 who met together in their new dwelling1 and an effort was made to render their isolation less hard to bear by bringing them into touch with many people4 ,our dead rest in peaceful and remote graveyards where no noise or din may trouble the tranquil mood of afflicted visitors4 ,the ,romans placed their dead along the great roads1 near the gates of towns1 where there was press of passers-by and the rolling of chariot-wheels4 ,their wish was not1 when they buried them beside the most frequented highways1 to recall their destiny to mortals1 although philosophers have thus explained the custom4#acd ,on the contrary1 they wanted to cause those who were no more to forget their own destiny4 8,i see10 says an epitaph1#ace 8and ,i gaze upon all who go and come from and to the city40 8,lollius has been placed10 we read elsewhere1#acf 8by the side of the road in order that all passers-by may say to him1 #8,good day1 ,lollius4'0 ,the inscriptions in which the dead speak1 addressing those who stop before their monuments1 are innumerable4 ,they console such as continue to love them1 thank those who are still busy on their behalf and express wishes for their happiness1 or else they impart to their successors the wisdom acquired by experience of life4 ,often they take part with them in a dialogue1 answering their greetings and wishes3 8,may the earth be light on thee60--8,fare thou well in the upper world02#acg or else3 8,hail ,fabianus40--8,may the gods grant you their benefits1 my friends1 and may the gods be propitious to you1 travellers1 and to you who stop by ,fabianus6 ,go and come safe and sound6 ,may you who crown me with garlands or throw me flowers1 live for many years60#ach 99 99 99 99 99 ,thus throughout antiquity1 in spite of the evolution of ideas as to the future life1 the persuasion always remained invincible that the spirits of the dead moved about among men4 ,these disincarnate intelligences1 which were1 however1 provided with light and swift bodies1 did not let themselves be imprisoned in the tomb4 ,they fluttered unceasingly around living beings1 causing them to feel the effects of their presence4 ,there is here1 mingled with the primitive idea that a mysterious being1 like it in appearance1 has its place in the ground beside the buried corpse1 the other and equally ancient idea that the soul is a breath exhaled by the dead at the moment when they expire4 ,to breathe is the first act which marks the life of a newly born infant and to cease to breathe is the first sign which betokens the extinction of life4 ,primitive people therefore naturally thought that the principle which animated the body was a breath1 which entered it at birth and left it at death4 ,the very name which denotes the vivifying essence is in most languages witness to the general predominance of this conception4 in ,greek is connected with 1 8to blow02 the ,latin animus or anima corresponds to 1 8wind10 and in the ,semitic languages nefe and rua have a similar meaning4 ,at the moment in which man expired1 his soul escaped through his mouth and floated in the ambient air4 ,the ,pythagoreans1 when they taught that 8the air is full of souls10#aci were conforming to an old belief which is not ,greek only but universal4 ,when ,virgil#adj shows us ,dido's sister1 at the time of the queen's suicide1 receiving the last breath which floats on her dying lips1 he is lending a ,roman custom to the ,carthaginians1 the custom of the last kiss which1 according to a widely held belief1 could catch on its way the soul which was escaping into the atmosphere4 ,this soul was often imagined as a bird in flight and we will see elsewhere the conclusions drawn from this nave conception4#ada ,here we wish merely to indicate how the idea of the aerial soul was combined with that of the spirit inhabiting the tomb4 ,this shade or simulacrum of those who were no longer of this world1 but who still existed1 since they showed themselves to the living in their previous guise1 was a body like the wind--intangible1 invisible1 save when it thickened like clouds or smoke4 ,a multitude of these vaporous beings1 innumerable as past generations1 moved unceasingly on the earth's surface1 and1 above all1 roamed around the tombs1 where they were retained by their attachment to their bodies4 ,whether1 like the ,greeks1 men identified them with the 8demons10 or1 like the ,romans1 called them 8,manes gods10 8genii0 or 8lemures10 or by other names1 the unanimous opinion was that their power was superior to that of mankind and that they caused it to be felt by a constant intervention in the affairs of human society4 ,it was generally held that if the required cult were not rendered them1 they would punish this neglect with wrath1 but that they showed their benevolence to those who deserved it by zeal in serving them4#adb ,the dead were capable1 like the living1 of gratitude as well as of resentment4 ,the greater had been their power in this world1 the more considerable it remained in the other1 and the more advantage there was in securing their protection or even their co-operation4 ,servius reports the existence of the singular belief that souls had to swear to ,pluto never to help those they had left behind them on earth to escape from their destiny4#adc ,such was1 then1 the extent of their supposed power4 ,but all the dead were not1 like some of the heroes who had become the equals of the gods1 capable of performing prodigious deeds4 ,many1 gifted with less force1 were concerned with lesser interests2 they did no more than protect their family1 the domestic hearth and the neighbouring field1 and render small daily services4 8,farewell1 ,donata1 thou who wast pious and just10 says an epitaph1 8guard all thy kin40#add ,the idea that the ancestors become the tutelary spirits of their descendants who were faithful to their duty to them1 goes back to the remotest antiquity and probably lies at the foundation of the cult of the ,lares4#ade ,but the field of action of these genii was multiple1 since they were a multitude1 and their functions underwent a further development when they were considered to be the equivalents of the demons of the ,greeks4 8,the souls of the dead10 ,maximus of ,tyre#adf tells us1 8mingle with all kinds of men1 with every destiny1 thought and pursuit of man2 they support the good1 succour the oppressed and punish the criminal40 ,plotinus1 recalling the universal custom of paying cult to those who have gone1 adds3 8,many souls which belonged to men do not cease to do good to men when they have left the body4 ,they come to their aid especially in granting them revelations40#adg ,the wish is therefore entertained to see in dreams those who have left an empty place in the family dwelling or the marriage couch4 ,a woman whom a murder has separated from her young husband prays the most holy ,manes to be indulgent to him and to allow her to see him again during the hours of the night4#adh ,but it was not only in dreams that men hoped to descry again those who were lost to sight4 8,if tears are of any avail10 says another epitaph1 8show thyself by apparitions 7visis740#adi ,is it a question here also of nocturnal apparitions8 ,perhaps2 but the belief that the spirits of the dead returned to the earth and made themselves visible to people who were wide awake met with very little incredulity among the ancients4 ,it was not only the common man who accepted it2 most thinkers upheld this opinion4 ,lucian#aej shows us a meeting of philosophers in which no one doubts 8that there are demons and phantoms and that the souls of the dead do wander on earth and show themselves to whom they please40 ,a single fact will suffice to prove how general was this conviction4 ,the sober historian ,dio ,cassius#aea relates that in his time1 more precisely in the year #bbj ,a4 ,d41 a demon 7who was evidently a flesh and blood impostor7 appeared in the ,danubian countries in the form of ,alexander the ,great4 ,he was followed by four hundred ,bacchantes carrying the thyrsus and the nebris4 ,this troop went through all ,thracia without doing any harm to the inhabitants1 who hastened to give them shelter and food1 and not a single official dared oppose their passage4 ,arrived near ,chalcedon1 the pseudo-,alexander made a strange sacrifice one night1 burying a wooden horse1 and thereupon immediately disappeared4 ,like modern spiritualists1 the ancients saw in these apparitions an irrefutable proof of the after life4 8,thou who doubtest the existence of the ,manes10 we read on the tomb of two young girls1 8invoke us after making a vow and thou wilt understand40#aeb ,revelations were indeed to be expected of the wisdom of the disincarnate souls4 ,in spite1 therefore1 of the laws forbidding magic1 necromancy never ceased to be practised4 ,by a nocturnal sacrifice1 analogous to that offered on tombs 7p4 #eb7 and by the virtue of their incantations1 the wizards obliged the dead to appear before them and answer their questions4 ,the poets and romancers liked to introduce in their works descriptions of the atrocious ceremonies which were intended to give momentary life even to a corpse and cause it to pronounce oracles4 ,the dead in these scenes often appear as restive and even hostile beings who were forced to such actions by the power of witchcraft4 ,the dominant feeling among all peoples is indeed that the dead are unhappy and therefore malevolent4 ,they were believed to be excessively sensitive3 great care must be taken to do nothing to offend them4 ,if their rights were overlooked1 if they were forgotten1 they showed their wrath by sending illnesses and scourges to the guilty4 ,this unpleasant and sometimes cruel1 even ferocious character of the ,manes is very marked in ,rome1 perhaps in consequence of the influence of the ,etruscans or the beliefs concerning after life4 ,a legend had it that the ceremonies of the ,parentalia having on one occasion been omitted1 the plaintive ghosts scattered about the town and the fields and caused many deaths4#aec ,what we know of the rites performed at the ,lemuria and at funerals shows that they tended to protect the house against the spirits haunting it and to rid it of them4 8,the dead are welcome neither to the gods nor to men10 says an old ,latin inscription4#aed ,to the family ,lares who protected a household1 the larvae were opposed1 the wandering phantoms who spread terror and evil4 8,spare thy mother1 thy father and thy sister10 we read on a tomb1 8in order that after me they may celebrate the traditional rites for thee40#aee ,this hostile character attributed to inhabitants of the tombs explains the custom of placing in them leaden tablets on which curses were written calling down the most frightful ills on enemies4 ,a large number of these tabellae defixionum in ,greek and ,latin have been found and they prove the frequency of this practice1 which has perhaps an ,oriental origin4#aef ,but the devotio to the ,manes gods is an old ,roman ceremony1 which proceeds from the idea that they endeavour to tear the living from the earth and draw them to themselves4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is one class of the dead which is peculiarly noxious1 those namely who have not been buried4 ,the ideas connected with them are so characteristic of the oldest conception of immortality that these insepulti deserve to detain us for a few moments4 ,from the most ancient times the beliefs reigned among all the peoples of antiquity that the souls of those who are deprived of burial find no rest in the other life4 ,if they have no 8eternal house0 they are like homeless vagabonds4 ,but the fact that the dead had been buried did not suffice2 their burial must also have been performed according to the traditional rites4 ,perhaps the liturgical formulas were supposed to have power to keep the shade in the tomb1 as other incantations could summon it thence4 ,above all1 however1 it was believed1 as we have already stated1 that when the dead had not obtained the offerings to which they had the right1 they suffered and that their unquiet spirits fluttered near the corpse and wandered upon the surface of the earth and the waters1 taking vengeance on men for the ills men had inflicted on them4 ,the denial of interment was thought to be the source of infinite torment for the dead as for the living1 and to throw earth on abandoned corpses was a pious duty4 ,the pontiffs1 who believed the sight of a corpse made them unclean1 might not for all that leave it unburied if they happened to find one on their way4 ,to bury the dead has remained a work of mercy in the ,church1 and in ,rome a confraternity still exists which brings in from far away the dead found lying in the desert ,campagna4 ,the pain represented by lack of burial was the worst chastisement called down by imprecations on enemies on whom vengeance was desired4 ,among believers it gave rise to an anxiety comparable with that which the refusal of the last sacrament now causes to ,roman ,catholics4 ,in the ,greek cities1 as in ,rome1 the law often condemned to it those who had committed suicide or had been executed1 hoping thus to divert desperate and outrageous men from their fatal design by the apprehension of a wretched lot in the ,beyond4#aeg ,sometimes the law merely laid down that the guilty must not be interred in the soil of their country1 an almost equally terrible penalty1 since it cut them off from the family cult1 by which their descendants could give satisfaction to their ,manes4 ,when1 therefore1 through some accident1 a traveller or soldier died abroad or was shipwrecked at sea1 his body was1 when possible1 brought back to his country1 or1 if this could not be done1 a cenotaph was raised to him1 and his soul was summoned aloud to come and inhabit the dwelling prepared for it4 ,when cremation became general in ,rome1 the old pontifical law invented another subterfuge which allowed the ancient rites to be accomplished3 a finger was cut from the body before it was carried to the pyre1 and earth was thrown three times on this 8resected bone0 7os resectum74 ,against these ancient beliefs1 which were the source of so much anguish and so many superstitions1 the philosophers fought energetically4 ,first the ,cynics and then the ,epicureans and the ,stoics endeavoured to show their absurdity4 ,they are fond of quoting the answer of ,theodore the ,atheist to ,lysimachus who was threatening him with death without burial--8,what matters it whether ,i rot on the earth or under it80 ,since the corpse was unconscious and without any sensibility1 it was indeed of no consequence whether it were burnt or buried1 eaten by worms or by crows4 ,why should it be a misfortune to die abroad8 ,only the living had a country2 the whole earth was the dwelling of the dead4 ,if such cares troubled men they were the victims of the invincible illusion that the body retained capacity to feel even beyond the grave4 ,the very frequency with which these commonplaces of the school are repeated shows how tenacious were the prejudices which they attempted to eradicate4 ,here1 as in other connections1 the renewal of ,pythagorism supervened at the end of the ,republic to favour the persistence of the old beliefs4 ,a doctrine1 to which ,plato alludes1#aeh taught that souls which had not been appeased by funeral rites1 had to wander for a hundred years1 the normal term of a human life4 ,confined in the air near the earth1 they remained subject to the power of magicians4 ,especially if the wizards had been able to obtain possession of some portion of the corpse1 whence the soul could not entirely detach itself1 they gained influence over it and could constrain its obedience4 ,when this century of suffering had elapsed1 these souls were admitted to a place of purification1 where they sojourned ten times longer1 and when these thousand years had passed they returned to reincarnate themselves in new bodies4 ,we will see in another lecture#aei that the ,pythagoreans enunciated analogous theories as to the lot of children swept off before their time and of men who died a violent death4 ,virgil describing the descent of ,aeneas into the infernal regions recalls these ,pythagorean speculations when he shows us the miserable crowd of the unburied shades fluttering for a hundred years on the bank of the ,styx before they obtained from ,charon their passage to its other shore4#afj ,favoured by these new tendencies of philosophy1 the unreasoning apprehension inspired by omission of burial subsisted under the ,empire1 not only among the ignorant many1 but also in the most enlightened classes4 ,this fear explains why everyone took extreme care to have a tomb built for himself and to ensure1 if he could1 that funeral ceremonies were celebrated in it1 why many epitaphs threaten with judicial penalties and divine punishments the sacrilegious offenders who should violate the grave1 and why such a number of popular colleges were founded1 of which the principal object was to secure decent obsequies to their members4 ,the rules of the cultores of ,diana and ,antinos at ,lanuvium stipulate that when a slave dies and his master maliciously refuses to deliver his body for burial1 a 8funus imaginarium0 be made for him1 that is1 that the ceremony be celebrated over a figure representing the dead man and wearing his mask4#afa ,from this 8imaginary0 burial effects were expected as beneficent as those results are maleficent which a wizard anticipated when he fettered and pierced a waxen doll to work a charm4 ,from the stories of the gravest writers we perceive what lot was believed to threaten the unfortunate who were burnt or interred without the rites being observed4 ,after ,caligula's murder his corpse was hastily shovelled into the ground in a garden on the ,esquiline 7horti ,lamiani71 but then the keepers of this park were terrified by apparitions until the imperial victim's sisters caused his body to be exhumed1 and buried it in accordance with the sacred rules4#afb ,pliny the ,younger in one of his letters seriously relates a story which seems to have been often repeated1 for we find it1 little changed1 in ,lucian4#afc ,there was in ,athens a haunted house which remained empty1 no one daring to live in it because several of its tenants had died of fright4 ,in the silence of the night a noise was heard as of clanking iron2 then a horrible spectre moved forward in the shape of an emaciated old man1 bearded and hairy1 rattling the chains which were about his feet and legs4 ,a philosopher dared to take this house1 and he settled himself there one evening1 resolved to keep himself awake by working4 ,the ghost appeared to him1 came towards him with its usual clatter1 signed to him to follow and disappeared in the courtyard4 ,when daylight came1 a hole was dug in the place where the phantom had vanished1 and a skeleton in fetters was found4 ,the bones were taken up and burned according to the rites1 and thereafter nothing troubled the quiet of the house4 ,lucian1 in his version of this ghost story1 specifies the philosopher as a ,pythagorean and shows him repelling the apparition by the virtue of his spells4 ,the ,pythagoreans were indeed often necromancers1 convinced defenders of spiritualism1 in which1 as we have said 7p4 #fb71 they sought an immediate proof of the immortality of the soul1 and by their doctrines they contributed to keeping alive the superstitious fear attached to omission of burial4 ,but they were no more than theorists as to a belief which was widespread and which the invasion of ,oriental magic was to revive4 ,the curse-tablets often evoke1 together with other demons1 8those who are deprived of a sacred tomb0 7 74#afd ,they associate them with those who have died before their time or by a violent death4#afe ,heliodorus#aff the romancer1 a priest of ,emesa in ,syria1 who probably lived in the third century1 pictures for us a very characteristic scene3 a child has been killed2 a wizard takes its body1 places it between two fires1 and performs a complicated operation over it1 in order to restore it to life by his incantations and to obtain a prediction of the future4 8,thou forcest me to rise again and to speak10 the child complains1 8taking no thought for my funeral and thus preventing me from mingling with the other dead40 ,for the shades of the nether world rejected one who had been left unburied4#afg ,these ancient beliefs1 which the ,east shared with the ,west1 were1 more or less modified1 to survive the downfall of paganism4 ,if the ,christians of the first centuries no longer feared that they would go to join the shades who wandered on the bank of the ,styx1 they were still pursued by the superstitious dread that they would have no part in the resurrection of the flesh if their bodies did not rest in the grave4#afh ,nay1 the terrors of former ages still haunt the ,greeks of today4 ,the people remain persuaded that those who have not had a religious funeral return to wander on the earth1 and that1 changed to bloody vampires1 they punish men1 and in particular their kin1 for their neglect4#afi ,a nomocanon of the ,byzantine ,church orders that if the body of a ghost be found intact1 when disinterred1 its maleficent power thus being proved1 it be burnt and a funeral service with an offering of meats be afterwards celebrated for its soul4 ,this is exactly what was done in antiquity in order to appease the dead who had not been buried according to the rite1 rite conditi4 ,,ii ,,the ,,nether ,,world ,among most peoples the primitive idea of an after life in the grave was enlarged into the conception of a common existence of the dead in the depths of the earth4 ,the dead man does not stay confined in the narrow dwelling in which he rests2 he goes down into vast caverns which extend beneath the crust of the soil we tread4 ,these immense hollows are peopled by a multitude of shades who have left the tomb4 ,thus the tomb becomes the antechamber of the true dwelling of the spirits who have departed2 its door is the gate of ,hades itself4 ,through the tomb1 the great company of the beings who have been plunged in the darkness of the infernal regions remains in communication with those who still sojourn in our upper world4 ,the libations and offerings made by the survivors on the grave descend to this gloomy hypogeum and there feed and rejoice those for whom they are intended4 ,until the time of the ,roman ,empire1 nay1 to the end of antiquity1 the common man believed in this wonder4#agj ,to attempt to define the means by which it was brought about would be vain4 ,these were beliefs which went back so far and were so deeply rooted in the mind of the people that men accepted them without seeking to explain them4 ,in ,rome1 the idea that the spirits of the dead inhabit a common dwelling in the nether world existed from the time when the city had its beginnings4 ,it kept in religion a coarsely nave form which proves how archaic it was4 ,according to a rite borrowed by the ,romans from the ,etruscans1 a pit was dug in the centre of the city1 when the latter's foundations were laid1 in order to make the ,inferi communicate with the upper world4 ,first fruits and other gifts were thrown into the pit1 as well as a clod of the earth of the settlers' native country4 ,thus they restored their broken contact with the ,manes of their ancestors4 ,in all probability this hole was formed of a vertical pit ending in a chamber with an arched roof curved like the heaven--hence the name mundus given to it4 ,the key of the vault of this lower cellar was formed of a stone1 the lapis ,manalis1 which could be raised in order to let the spirits pass4 ,three times a year1 on the twenty-fourth of ,august1 the fifth of ,october and the eighth of ,november1 this ceremony took place3 the door of hell was opened and the dead had free access to the atmosphere4 ,these days were therefore sacred1 religiosi1 and all business was suspended on them4 ,recently the mundus of the ancient ,roma ,quadrata was believed to have been discovered during excavations of the ,palatine1 but the underground space in question is probably only a silo or a cistern4 ,other pits used for the cult of the dead existed elsewhere in the city4 ,it has recently been suggested that the altar of the god ,consus1 which was hidden in a ditch in the middle of the ,circus ,maximus and uncovered during the races1 was one of these mouths of hell and like that shown in representations of the funeral games of the ,etruscans4#aga ,but on certain days the souls of the dead rose to the earth's surface of themselves1 although nothing had been done to make their coming thither easier1 and they then had to be appeased by sacrifices4 ,this was what happened from the thirteenth to the twenty-first of ,february1 during the ,parentalia1 when the souls of ancestors were honoured1 and on the ninth1 the eleventh and the thirteenth of ,may1 the dates of the ,lemuria1 on which1 at midnight1 according to a prescribed ceremonial1 the father of the family nine times threw black beans to the ,lemures to keep them away from the house4 ,lemures and ,manes are used only in the plural3 these words stand for the vague conceptions formed of the shades of the dead who dwelt beneath the ground4 ,these were a nameless crowd1 hardly individualised1 not distinguishable from the fleeting phantoms who fluttered about the tombs4 ,the ,romans were a people of little imagination1 and their infernal mythology remained rudimentary until the time when they borrowed from the ,greeks the picturesque stories about the adventures of travellers to ,hades and the blessings and misfortunes which there awaited them4 ,originally no idea of retribution was attached to this descent of the dead into the infernal regions2 it was neither their merits nor their demerits which determined their condition4 ,on the contrary1 the inequalities of human society were perpetuated3 a nobleman kept a higher rank than that of his servants2 each man in some sort continued his occupations1 even preserved his tastes and his passions4 ,existence in the ,beyond was conceived as a mere prolongation of earthly life4 ,it is to this idea1 which was generally entertained1 that the old custom corresponds of placing in the grave the implements and other objects which a dead man was in the habit of using4 ,we have already touched on this point in speaking of life in the tomb 7p4 #di71 but the things deposited beside the corpse were not only those which could be used by the dweller of the 8eternal house40 ,if he were a powerful lord his chariot1 his horses and his arms would be buried with him2#agb a hunter would be supplied in the other world with his spears and his nets2#agc a craftsman with the tools of his trade2 a woman with the objects which enabled her to spin and to weave4 ,these funeral customs were more than a tradition1 followed without reference to the reasons inspiring it4 ,among the ,greeks1 as among the ,romans1 the idea survives persistently1 in poetic descriptions of the ,elysian ,fields1 that each man will there keep the character and retain the habits which distinguished him before his death4 ,virgil1 taking his inspiration from ,pindar1 shows us the blessed occupied by the contests of the palestra1 by song and poetry and by chariot races2 for1 he tells us1 the passion which the dead had in life for arms and for horses still pursues them when they have been buried in the earth4#agd ,ovid#age sketches with rapid touches an analogous picture4 8,the shades10 he says1 8wander bloodless1 bodiless1 boneless2 some gather in the forum1 others follow their trades1 imitating their former way of life40 ,and this is no fancy due to the poet's imagination4 ,an awkward epitaph of a young1 probably ,syrian1 slave#agf tells us that he is glad still to be able to discharge his service zealously in the retired place where dwells the god of the infernal abode4 ,in these instances we find1 in spite of the transformation undergone by eschatological ideas as a whole1 a survival of the old conception of the destiny of the dead4 ,we have not to seek far to discover how this transformation took place4 ,it was provoked by the desire to subject souls to different treatment according to their deserts1 and to distribute them in distinct compartments in which they would be rewarded or punished in accordance with their past works4 ,it was much prior to the ,roman period1 going back to the distant age at which ,orphic theology1 with its sanctions beyond the grave1 modified ,homeric tradition and popular religion in ,greece4 ,in the ,west the doctrine which imposed itself with the ,hellenic civilisation on peoples of foreign race was ready-made4 ,it spread through the south of ,italy by way of the colonies of ,greater ,greece in which ,pythagorism came to its full power4 ,it is in this country that some of the ,orphic tablets intended as guides to the dead in their journey through the infernal realm have been discovered in the tombs2#agg and the great amphorae of a later date1 bearing representations of scenes of ,hades1 which were also found in southern ,italy1 show the importance which continued to be attached there to the idea of the future life4 ,in ,campania1 ,lake ,avernus was even regarded as one of the entrances to the nether world1 through which ,ulysses and ,aeneas had descended4 ,the ,greek doctrines were also introduced among the ,etruscans and combined with the beliefs of this people as to an underworld in which the ,manes of the dead were threatened by horrible demons and protected by beneficent genii4 ,this ,greek influence and its alliance with the native traditions appear in ,etruria in a great number of funeral monuments on which we find represented many figures which1 according to mythology1 peopled the kingdom of ,pluto4 ,one of the most significant is the fine sarcophagus1 discovered a few years ago at ,torre ,san ,severo near ,bolsena1 which seems to date from the third century ,b4 ,c4#agh ,the two long sides hold corresponding reliefs1 the one showing ,achilles' sacrifice of the ,trojan prisoners on the grave of ,patroclus1 the other the sacrifice of ,polyxena1 last of ,priam's daughters1 on the tomb of ,achilles4 ,these scenes1 borrowed from the ,greek epic poetry1 are placed between two ,etruscan demons1 winged figures which bear serpents and are male on one side and female on the other4 ,the small sides are decorated by two scenes from the ,odyssey1 the myth of ,circe changing the companions of ,ulysses into animals--perhaps an allusion to metempsychosis--and ,tiresias' evocation of the shades of the dead1 the ,elysian ,fields being curiously indicated4 ,this instance--and many others might be cited--shows how closely the ,hellenic legends of ,hades had been intermingled with ,etruscan demonology4 ,this ,greek conception of the infernal regions1 which literature and art were to popularise and perpetuate even after credence had ceased to be given to it1 remains familiar to us4 ,taken altogether and in the large1 it is that of a kingdom imagined as an imitation of the cities of our world1 in which1 however1 there reigns such a rigorous justice as is on our poor earth no more than a dream of minds morally disposed4 ,this underground state1 of which the frontier is defended by an unbridged river1 the ,styx1 is governed by powerful rulers1 ,pluto and ,proserpina4 ,it has its judges1 ,minos1 ,aeacus and ,rhadamanthus2 its executioners1 the ,erinyes or ,furies2 and its prison1 ,tartarus1 surrounded by high walls4 ,this jail1 in which the guilty1 laden with chains1 suffer the torments enacted in ,greece by the penal laws or others more atrocious1#agi is distinctly contrasted with the abode of the good citizens who freely enjoy in delightful gardens all the pleasures which make the joy of human beings4 ,books treating of the 8,descent into ,hades10 of which a considerable number were in circulation1 and the poets' descriptions embroidered various patterns around this central design4 ,there was a whole mythological and theological efflorescence which peopled with more and more numerous figures the fantastic kingdom occupying the great cavern of the earth4 ,infinite variations were imagined on a traditional theme1 of which1 however1 even certain details were preserved from age to age with a surprising fidelity4 ,lucian in his satirical description of ,charon and his boat reproduces types fixed in the sixth century before our era1 for1 as has been observed1 his picture is in exact agreement with the recently discovered fragment of a black-figured vase4#ahj ,although in our sources infernal topography is occasionally somewhat confused1 certain essential features1 which we will here merely indicate1 can be recognised in it4 ,we will return to them one after the other1 and speak of them in greater detail1 in later lectures4 ,when the souls1 or rather the shades1 descend to the depths of the earth1 they reach first a provisional abode where they await a decision as to their lot1 an intermediate region through which all of them pass but in which some are kept for a considerable time4#aha ,they then cross the ,styx1 and a road which is also common to all of them leads them to the court which determines their lot4#ahb ,this judging of the dead is foreign to ,homeric poetry3 the idea of it was perhaps borrowed by ,greece from ,egypt1 but from ancient ,orphism onwards it was an essential element of infernal eschatology4 ,infallible judges1 from whom no fault is hid1 divide into two companies the multitude of the souls appearing before them4 ,the guilty are constrained to take the road to the left which leads to dark ,tartarus1 crossing its surrounding river of fire1 the ,pyriphlegethon4 ,there those who have committed inexpiable crimes are condemned to eternal chastisement4#ahc ,but the road to the right leads the pious souls to the ,elysian ,fields where1 among flowered meadows and wrapped in soft light1 they obtain the reward of their virtues1 whether1 having attained to perfection1 they are able to dwell for ever with the heroes1 or whether1 being less pure1 they are obliged to return later to the earth in order to reincarnate themselves in new bodies after they have drunk the water of ,lethe and lost the memory of their previous existence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the philosophical criticism of the ,greeks had early attacked these traditional beliefs1 but such negative attitude became more definite among the thinkers of the surpassingly rationalistic period which came after ,aristotle4#ahd ,the ,peripatetics1 who admitted at most the survival of reason1 rejected in consequence all the myths dealing with the descent of the shades into the kingdom of ,pluto4 ,the ,epicureans were even more radical1 for1 as we have seen 7p4 #g71 they condemned the soul to dissolution at the moment of death1 thus destroying the very foundation of the belief in ,hades4 ,their campaign against stories in which they saw only the lugubrious inventions of priests and poets1 was one of the capital points of their polemics against popular religion1 and they flattered themselves that by destroying faith in the pains of ,tartarus they freed mankind from vain terrors which obsessed its minds and poisoned its joys4 ,the ,stoics1 we know 7p4 #ac71 taught that the soul is a burning breath of the same nature as the ether and as the stars which shine in the sky4 ,as to whether this ardent fluid was lost after death in the universal fire1 or kept its individuality until the final conflagration of the world1 the doctrine of the ,porch varied4 ,but one thing was certain3 the fiery nature of the soul must prevent it from going down into the underground and impel it to rise to higher spheres4 ,if it were weighed down by its contact with the body and laden with matter1 it might float for some time in the dense air surrounding the earth but could never descend into its depths4#ahe ,the impossibility of admitting literally the truth of the stories as to the infernal realm was thus proved4 ,the same psychological doctrine as to the soul's kinship with the fire of the heavenly bodies was admitted in the ,alexandrian age by the sect which paid one and the same veneration to ,pythagoras and to ,plato and was thus more attached than any other to belief in immortality4 ,it gave in1 to some extent1 to contemporary rationalism and was brought to modify its ideas as to life beyond the grave4 ,ancient ,pythagorism1 the heir of ,orphism1 made much of the sufferings reserved for sinners in the infernal abysses4 ,a book attributed to ,periktione still shows the daughter who has despised her parents as condemned to suffer1 beneath the earth and in the company of the impious1 the eternal evil inflicted by 8,dike and the gods of down below40#ahf ,but in the first century before our era the pseudo-,timaeus of ,locri declares that such tales are fictions--salutary1 it is true--imagined by ,homer in order to divert from evil those to whom truth alone was not a sufficient guide4#ahg ,the only penalty which can overtake the sinning soul is1 according to these ,neo-,pythagoreans1 metempsychosis1 which forces it to reincarnate itself in a fleshly prison4#ahh ,this doctrine of transmigration claims to transport hell to earth and to explain1 as moral allegories1 all the fables which the poets had invented4#ahi ,the ,inferi are nothing else than the dwellings of our globe1 which is the lowest of the nine circles of the world4 ,the true ,hades is the wicked man's life in which he is tortured by his vices4 ,the rivers of hell--,cocytus1 ,acheron1 ,pyriphlegethon and ,styx--are anger1 remorse1 sadness and hate1 which cause man to suffer4 ,the ,furies are the passions1 scourging him with whips and burning him with torches2 and similarly an ingenious interpretation is given to each of the pains suffered by ,tantalus1 ,sisyphus1 the ,danades and the others4#aij ,this exegesis led finally to an absolute denial of the existence of hell1 but such radical scepticism was in too flagrant contradiction to the old beliefs to be willingly accepted by the minds which remained attached to them4 ,hence arose attempts to bring these beliefs into harmony with the psychology generally admitted4 ,a first theory1 to which we will have to return when speaking of the nature of the surviving souls1#aia seems to have been invented in ,alexandria and to have been inspired by ,egyptian religion4#aib ,the authors who first allude to it1 one ,greek and one ,roman1 are contemporaries who wrote about the year #bjj ,b4 ,c41 the critic ,aristarchus and the poet ,ennius1 but the transmission of the doctrine can be traced through literary traditions down to the end of antiquity4 ,it divides the human composite not into two but into three parts--the body1 the soul and the shade4 ,the body is destroyed beneath the earth2 the soul1 which is a particle of the divine ether1 rises after death towards its place of origin2 but a form 77 of subtle matter detaches itself from the corpse1 and it is this semblance 7simulacrum7 or shade 7umbra7 which goes down to the infernal regions4 ,the existence of these regions could thus be maintained1 but they were no longer held to receive the celestial principle which gave intelligence4 ,others allowed that it was impossible that the earth should contain subterranean caverns large enough to hold ,tartarus1 the ,elysian ,fields and the infinite multitude of the dead4 ,but they explained that the word subterranean 77 had been misunderstood1 that it denoted not the bowels of the earth but the lower half of the terrestrial globe1 the southern hemisphere1 which was unknown to the ancients1 or even the whole celestial hemisphere1 curved below this globe which hung motionless in the centre of the universe4#aic ,this hemisphere is always invisible1--so the ancients might say1--which is exactly the sense of the word ,hades 7 74 ,the ,axiochos1 an apocryphal work attributed to ,plato1 was first to reveal this doctrine1 claiming that it had been communicated to ,socrates by the ,mage ,gobryes4 ,it was in reality borrowed by the ,greeks of the ,alexandrian age from the astral theology of the ,semitic peoples4 ,according to this theology the world is divided into two halves by the line of the horizon2 the upper hemisphere is the domain of the living and the higher gods1 the lower that of the dead and the infernal gods4 ,descent to it and ascent from it are by way of two gates1 situated west and east1 where the sun appears and disappears4 ,the marshes of the ,acheron1 the river ,styx1 and ,charon and his boat are constellations which the souls cross when they have passed through the 8gate of ,hades40 ,the ancient ,greeks had placed the ,islands of the ,blessed1 whither the heroes were borne by the favour of the gods1 somewhere far away in the ocean4 ,these islands were now supposed to lie in the ,antipodes1 in the unknown half of the earth4 ,all the poets' stories of the fragrant and melodious gardens of this abode of delights were applied to these marvellous countries which no sailor had ever reached4#aid ,on the other hand1 ,tartarus was placed at the bottom of the celestial abysses1 near the lowest point of the lower hemisphere1 that is1 diametrically opposite to ,olympus1 the dwelling of the gods1 who were throned on the summit of the starry vault4 ,it was into this sombre gulf that the wicked were flung2 there yawned the bottomless pit in which the demons of the dusky world inflicted eternal torture on the guilty4 ,this theory claimed to bring the ancient ,hellenic beliefs into agreement with the cosmography of astronomers1 but this cosmography itself undermined the foundations of the system1 in so far as it refuted the hypothesis of a physical opposition between the two halves of the universe4 ,it was observed that a single sky revolved about our earth2 that the same atmosphere1 composed of the same elements1 enveloped it entirely2 that every part of it was1 in turn1 equally in the light and in the shade4 ,therefore physical phenomena must be identical over the whole surface of our globe2 the climate of the ,antipodes must be like that of our lands2 if the ,antipodes were peopled1 it was by races like those of men and the beasts4 ,their inhabitants therefore were not the dead but living beings4 ,the marvels of the ,fortunate ,isles did not exist and there was no reason for regarding the lower rather than the upper part of the heavens as the vast reservoir of souls4 ,the doctrine which placed the subterranean kingdom of ,pluto and ,proserpina on the other side of the earth and in the other celestial hemisphere1 made a poor resistance to this criticism of the ,alexandrian geographers4 ,if it did not entirely disappear1 if its transmission can be followed down to the end of antiquity and even to the ,middle ,ages1 it never was so widespread nor so active as another doctrine claiming to reconcile the beliefs of the past with accepted science4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this bold doctrine transported the whole subterranean world above the earth's surface4 ,we shall see1 in the next lecture1 on celestial immortality 7p4 #if71 that the ,pythagoreans conceived the idea of placing the ,elysian ,fields in the moon1 and that the ,fortunate ,isles were similarly explained by them as being the sun and the moon bathed by the fluid of the ether4 ,the ,inferi were thus the lower space1 that is1 the space extending between the sphere of the moon1 which was the limit of the world of the gods1 and our globe1 which was the centre of the cosmic system4 ,in the ,inferi the souls which had to suffer the chastisement of their faults were kept prisoners2 they could not win to the stars but wandered plaintively on the earth's surface and especially about their own tombs1 and then rose through the atmosphere in which1 little by little1 they were purified by the elements4 ,allegorical interpretations found a place for the infernal rivers in this new topography of the ,beyond3 ,acheron was explained as being the air1 the ,pyriphlegethon as the zone of hail and fire1 and the meanderings of the ,styx became the circles of the universe4 ,we shall have occasion to return to the passage of the soul through this aerial purgatory and its ascension to the ,elysian ,fields of the sky4#aie ,this cosmological interpretation of the tales referring to ,hades had a more powerful influence than the moral allegory which did too much violence to tradition in claiming to make our earthly life the mythological hell4 ,the doctrine that the ,inferi were in the atmosphere was adopted by ,stoicism at least from the time of ,posidonius and was therefore widely believed from the end of the ,roman ,republic onwards4 ,even the mysteries1 which first kept alive the belief in a subterranean kingdom of the infernal gods1 did not escape the influence of these new ideas and were brought to adapt their esoteric teaching to them4#aif ,the transformation of ancestral beliefs by this theology cannot today be better apprehended than from the sixth book of the ,aeneid4 ,virgil1 when he relates the descent of ,aeneas into the abode of the shades1 is inspired by the ,nekyia of the ,odyssey and other poetic tales4 ,he remains apparently faithful to mythological and literary tradition1 retaining the conventional decoration1 the unvarying geography of the infernal kingdom2 but he does not admit the literal truth of these beliefs of an earlier time2 he is aware of the figurative sense given by the philosophers to the old fables of ,hades4 ,at the risk of seeming to contradict himself1 he recalls this learned eschatology--the purification1 the ascension and the transmigration of souls--in connection with what might have been no more than the story of a marvellous journey to the country of the dead4 ,the unity of the conception and the composition is the less seriously compromised because it was believed that the ancient poets themselves had wished to indicate these truths in their verses under the veil of allegory4 ,the descent to the nether world has therefore a much loftier bearing in ,virgil than a mere embellishment4 ,it is the expression of a conviction or at least a hope1 not only a brilliant fiction based on an old poetic theme4 99 99 99 99 99 ,however1 the symbolical interpretations of the pagan theologians who respected tradition and the purely negative criticism of the sceptics led finally to a common result1 to the destruction1 namely1 of the ancient beliefs1 even when it was claimed that they were being saved4 ,whether the souls were held captive in the other hemisphere or in the atmosphere1 or whether they were condemned to reincarnation in a body1 ,hades was transformed either to the lower sky1 the air or the earth1 and the early conception of a subterranean world1 whither the dead who had been laid in the grave descended1 was abolished4 ,there are abundant texts to prove that from the end of the ,roman ,republic this belief had lost its grip on many minds4 ,cicero#aig claims that there was not an old woman left foolish enough to fear the deep dwellings of ,orcus and the gloomy regions peopled by the livid dead4 8,no one is childish enough10 ,seneca repeats1#aih 8to fear ,cerberus and the phantoms which appear in the form of skeletons40 8,that there are ,manes10 says ,juvenal1#aii 8a subterranean kingdom1 a ferryman armed with a pole1 and black frogs in the gulfs of the ,styx1 that so many thousands of men can cross the dark water in a single boat10 these are things in which everyone had ceased to believe except very young children4 ,pliny#bjj brings forward a paradoxical argument1 that1 had there been infernal regions1 the zeal of the miners who had dug deep galleries in the ground would have pierced their boundaries2 and even the devout ,plutarch1 when he comes to speak of the punishments reserved by mythology for the wicked1 sees in them only nurses' tales to frighten babies4#bja ,the multiplicity of this testimony and its precision allow no doubt that not only the educated classes but a large portion of the population rejected the fables as to the nether world4 ,these fables were in any case a foreign importation in the ,latin world4 ,moralists1 while they ceased to believe in them for themselves1 sometimes pretended to retain them in order to inspire the people with salutary fear1 but ,tartarus had lost much of its terror for those it should have kept from ill-doing4 ,is this to say that these ideas no longer found credence anywhere8 ,a faith which has long dominated minds disappears hardly and leaves persistent traces behind it in customs and feeling4 ,thus we find that1 more or less everywhere1 the practice was perpetuated of placing in the mouth of the corpse a piece of money which served1 it was said1 to pay ,charon for the crossing of the ,styx4#bjb ,excavators have found these coins in many ,roman tombs4 ,but they are doubtless evidence of no more than a traditional rite which men performed without attaching a definite meaning to it4 ,moreover1 the metrical epitaphs continue to speak of the ,elysian ,fields and of ,tartarus1 of ,styx and of ,acheron2 they complain of the cruelty of ,pluto who bears away mortals before their time1 or of the ,parcae or ,fates who cut the thread of their days2 they mention the avenging ,furies1 the sufferings of ,tantalus1 ,sisyphus and ,ixion4 ,but these are no more than ready-made formulas of poetical language1 literary reminiscences or traditional metaphors4 ,yet sometimes this infernal mythology is curiously developed4 ,thus a long inscription on a ,roman tomb describes a young man descending from the ether in order to announce to those near and dear to him that he has become a celestial hero and has not to go to ,pluto's kingdom4 8,i shall not wend mournfully to the floods of ,tartarus2 ,i shall not cross the waters of ,acheron as a shade1 nor shall ,i propel the dusky boat with my oar2 ,i shall not fear ,charon with his face of terror1 nor shall old ,minos pass sentence on me2 ,i shall not wander in the abode of gloom nor be held prisoner on the bank of the fatal waters40#bjc ,this epitaph dates from the century of ,augustus1 but did its author1 any more than the writers of that time1 believe in the reality of the beings with which he peoples ,hades8 ,he decorates his language with a literary ornament which ,christian poetry was later to inherit4 ,this poetry did not hesitate to employ these pagan commonplaces1 which had passed from hand to hand until they were so worn out that their first meaning had been effaced4 ,the ,renaissance and the age of modern classicism were again to use and to abuse them4 ,the sculpture of tombs continued in the same way often to reproduce the ancient models4 ,sarcophagi sometimes show us the dead man led by ,hermes1 guide of souls1 and coming into the presence of ,pluto and ,proserpina4#bjd ,we also see on funeral monuments ,charon in his boat1 the typical sufferings of ,tantalus1 whose eager lips cannot reach the flowing water1 ,ixion turning on his wheel1 ,sisyphus labouring under the weight of his rock and1 above all1 the ,danades eternally pouring water into a perforated vase4#bje ,but it is probable that these traditional figures were repeated without any very strong faith being held as to the real existence of the personages which they represented2 indeed it was proposed only to show them as symbols which had to be interpreted allegorically4 ,if we had no other evidence than funeral poetry and art of the persistence of the beliefs of the past1 the testimony would have to be accepted very cautiously4 ,but other more convincing proofs assure us that popular faith clung1 with characteristic tenacity1 to the ancient conception of the ,inferi4 ,without believing precisely in the strange tortures inflicted on the wicked heroes of mythology1 the man in the street was still vaguely persuaded that the souls went down from the tomb to some deep places where they received rewards and punishments4 ,suetonius#bjf relates that when the death of ,tiberius became known in ,rome the people 8prayed ,mother ,earth and the ,manes gods to give the dead man no other dwelling than that of the impious40 ,the ,oriental slaves brought the same convictions from their countries like many other old beliefs which had faded away in the ,west4 ,the romancer ,heliodorus1 a ,syrian priest1 shows us in his novel his heroine invoking 8the demons who on the earth and under the earth watch over and punish unrighteous men10#bjg her prayer being that1 after the iniquitous death which threatened her1 they might receive her4 ,the same conviction appears in the funeral inscriptions of the ,east4 ,thus an epitaph of ,elaiousa in ,cilicia#bjh adjures 8the heavenly god1 the ,sun1 the ,moon and the subterranean gods who receive us40 ,the common idea was that a dead man can be excluded from the dwelling of the shades and condemned to wander miserably on the earth4 ,in the same way the thought is often expressed in the magic papyri of ,egypt that the deceased were plunged into the dark gulfs underground and there became demons whom the wizard called up1 when he summoned them by his incantations4 ,even in ,greece1 where rationalistic criticism had penetrated far deeper among the people1 ,plutarch1 while he reports that few people were still really afraid of ,cerberus1 the lot of the ,danades and other bugbears of ,hades1 adds1 however1 that for fear of such pains recourse was had to purifications and initiations4#bji ,this belief in the existence of ,hades1 maintained in the lower strata of the population in spite of the inroads made on it and of its partial supersession by other doctrines1 was to acquire new strength from the rebirth of ,platonism1 which looked upon the writings of the 8divine0 master as inspired4 ,in several passages ,plato spoke with so much precision of the dwelling of the souls in the bowels of the earth that even the subtlety of his later interpreters found difficulty in giving another meaning to his text1 although the attempt was made by some of them4 ,therefore effort was directed to defending the doctrine of the infallible sage by refuting the objections raised against it by his adversaries4 ,the ,stoics had held1 as we have seen 7p4 #gg71 that the soul1 being a 8fiery breath10 had a natural tendency to rise in the air and could not sink into the ground4 ,but ,porphyry#baj objected that in lowering itself from heaven towards our world it had become impregnate with the atmospheric damp and thus had grown heavier1 and that if during its passage in the body it became laden with the clay of a sensual life1 if it wrapped itself in a material cloak1 its density came to be such that it was dragged down into the dusky abysses of the earth4 8,it is true10 says ,proclus1#baa 8that the soul by force of its nature aspires to rise to the place which is its natural abode1 but when passions have invaded it they weigh it down and the savage instincts which develop in it attract it to the place to which they properly belong1 that is1 the earth40 ,according to ,proclus1#bab who claims to interpret ,plato faithfully1 the soul after death is judged somewhere between the sky and our globe2 if it be declared worthy it enjoys a life of blessedness in the celestial spheres2 if1 on the other hand1 it deserve penalties1 it is sent to a place beneath the ground4 ,elsewhere1 defining his thought1#bac he affirms that the various parts of ,hades and the subterranean courts and the rivers of whose existence ,homer and ,plato appraise us1 should not be regarded as vain imaginations or fabulous marvels4 ,as the souls which go to heaven are distributed among several and different resting-places1 so we must believe that for souls still in need of chastisement and purification underground dwellings1 whither penetrate numerous effluvia of the super-terrestrial elements1 are thrown open4 ,it is these effluvia that are called 8rivers0 or 8currents40 ,here too various classes of demons hold empire1 some of them avengers1 some chastisers1 some purifiers and some executioners4 ,into this abode1 the farthest from that of the gods1 the sun's rays do not penetrate4 ,it is filled with all the disorder of matter4 ,therein is the prison1 guarded by demons who ensure justice1 of the guilty souls hidden beneath the earth4 ,it is not by their faithfulness to ,plato's doctrine1 which in truth they alter1 but by the mere logic of their system that the last ,greek philosophers are led to admit what their predecessors rejected4 ,sometimes1 more or less unconsciously1 they were under a religious influence4 ,the ,platonist ,celsus believed in the eternal pains of hell but invoked only the authority of 8mystagogues and theologians0 in support of this article of faith4#bad ,the opposition between the obscure retreats of the ,manes and the bright dwellings of ,olympus is old1 and naturally became prominent as the belief spread1 first that heroes1 and afterwards that all virtuous spirits1 rose to the eternal spaces4#bae ,but the religion which formulated the strictly consequent doctrine of an absolute antithesis between the luminous kingdom where the divinities and the beneficent genii were seated1 and the dark domain of the ,spirit of ,evil and his perverse demons1 was ,persian ,mazdeism4 ,the resplendent heights where the gods had their thrones were to be after death the abode of those who had served piously4 ,on the other hand1 those who had contributed to increase evil on the earth1 were to be flung into the murky abysses in which ,ahriman reigned4 ,iranian dualism imposed this eschatological conception on a section of ,alexandrian ,judaism2 it was admitted by many ,pythagoreans1 then by the gnostic sects and later by ,manicheism4 ,but above all it was widely propagated under the ,roman ,empire by the mysteries of ,mithras4 ,we find then put forth the doctrine that the demons are divided into two armies1 incessantly at war with each other1 one good and one evil4 ,the good army is subject to celestial powers and comes down to earth to give succour and support to the faithful4 ,the evil army obeys an anti-god 77 and issues from the bowels of the earth in order to scatter misery1 sin and death among men4#baf ,the souls of the dead become like one or the other of these two opposing classes of demons4 ,when they are virtuous and pure they rise to the luminous ether where dwell the divine spirits4 ,if1 on the contrary1 they are vicious and defiled they go down into the underground depths where the ,prince of ,darkness commands2 like the maleficent demons who people this hell they suffer and cause to suffer4 ,it was at this compromise that paganism stopped when it reached the term of its evolution4 ,oriental dualism imposed on it its final formula4 ,it no longer admitted1 like the ancients1 that all the dead must go down from the grave into immense hollows dug in the bowels of the earth1 and it no longer made the ,elysian ,fields and ,tartarus two contiguous domains of the kingdom of ,pluto4 ,nor did it transport them both1 side by side1 as the pagan theologians of the beginning of our era would have done1 to the atmosphere and the starry spheres4 ,it separated them radically1 cutting the abode of the souls into two halves1 of which it placed one in the luminous sky and the other in subterranean darkness4 ,this was also the conception which1 after some hesitation1 became generally accepted by the ,church1 and which for long centuries was to remain the common faith of all ,christendom4 ,,iii ,,celestial ,,immortality ,the astral religion which became predominant in the ,roman ,empire may be considered as an intermediary1 a connecting link1 between the old anthropomorphic paganism and the ,christian faith4 ,instead of moral--or1 if you prefer1 immoral--beings1 stronger than man but subject to all the passions of man1 it taught the adoration of the heavenly powers who act on nature1 and so led mankind to the worship of the ,power who is beyond the heavens4 ,this influence of the astral cults of the ,east can be clearly perceived in the evolution of the ideas as to future life1 and this above all constitutes the historical importance of the subject which ,i venture to treat in this lecture4 ,beliefs which are spread among many peoples of the world relate the immortality of the soul to the heavenly bodies4 ,it was for long navely imagined that a new sun was created every evening1 or at least every winter1 and a new moon born each month1 and traces of this primitive idea survived in the religion of antiquity and persist even in our modern speech4 ,but when it was realised that the same celestial luminaries reappeared and resumed their ardour after their fires had died and they had ceased to shine1 that the stars which were lit at sunset were those which had been extinguished at dawn1 their lot was related to that of man1 destined like them to be reborn1 after death1 to a new life4 ,various savage tribes thus associate the heavenly bodies1 and especially the moon1 with the resurrection of the dead4 ,the wan circle which sheds its vague light in the darkness of night causes phantoms to appear to haunt vigils and dreams1 and is therefore the power which presides over life beyond the tomb4 ,among the ,greeks of the most ancient period ,hecate was at one and the same time the goddess of the moon1 the summoner of ghosts and the queen of the infernal realm4 ,in the ,east astrological ideas mingled with this mythology4 ,it was taught that the moon's cold and damp rays corrupted the flesh of the dead and thus detached from it the soul which finally abandoned the corpse4 ,the ,syrians1 at the critical times in which the moonbeams exercised a more active influence on this separation1 offered sacrifices on tombs1 and the threefold commemoration of the dead on the third1 the seventh and the fortieth day in a part of the ,eastern ,church had its earliest origin in these offerings of the sidereal cults4#bag ,there was also a very widely held belief1 which has survived in ,european folk-lore1 that each man has his star in the sky4 ,this star is dazzling if his lot be brilliant1 pale if his state of life be humble4 ,it is lit at his birth and falls when he dies4 ,the fall of a shooting star therefore denotes a person's death4 ,this popular idea existed in antiquity4 ,pliny the ,naturalist reports it1 although he denies its truth1#bah and it was again combated in the fifth century by ,eusebius of ,alexandria4 8,were there then only two stars in the time of ,adam and ,eve10 asks the bishop1 8and only eight after the ,flood when ,noah and seven other persons alone were saved in the ,ark80#bai ,the formulas of epitaphs and the very usages of language show how current was the belief that each man was1 as we still say1 born under a good or an evil star4 ,astrosus was the ,latin equivalent of our unlucky4 ,this doctrine of a rudimentary astrology was incorporated in the general system of learned genethlialogy4 ,although this latter attributed a predominant influence to the planets and the signs of the zodiac1 it also taught1 in accordance with popular opinion1 that each of the most brilliant stars 7 7 ensures riches1 power and glory to the newly born child1 if it be in a favourable position at his birth4#bbj ,but side by side with this general conception of a relation between the life of the stars and that of men1 a much more precise idea is met with from the first4 ,the soul was1 as we shall see1#bba often conceived by the ancients as a bird preparing for flight4 ,where would it alight when it had passed through the air except on the heavenly bodies which were still imagined as quite near the earth8 ,the paintings on an ,egyptian tomb of a late period1 found at ,athribis1 show us the soul of the dead man fluttering with those others like him in the midst of the constellations4#bbb ,the belief was widely spread that the spirits of the dead went to inhabit the moon4 ,in the ,east this faith retained a very crude form which certainly went back to a most primitive paganism4 ,we find it in ,india as well as in ,manicheism1 which arose in ,mesopotamia in the third century1 but which admitted many ancient traditions into its doctrine4 8,all who leave the earth10 says an ,upanishad1 8go to the moon1 which is swollen by their breath during the first half of the month40 ,the ,manicheans similarly affirmed that when the moon was in the crescent its circumference was swelled by souls1 conceived as luminous1 which it drew up from the earth1 and that when it was waning it transferred these souls to the sun4 ,using an idea much earlier than his time1#bbc ,mani also stated that the boat of the moon1 which plied in the sky1 received a load of souls which every month it transferred to the sun's larger vessel4 ,the association established in ,syro-,punic religions between the moon and the idea of immortality is marked by the abundance in ,africa of funeral monuments bearing the symbol of the crescent1 either alone or associated with the circle of the sun and the star of ,venus4#bbd ,these astral symbols are identical with those already used by the ,babylonians4 ,but it is not only among the ,semitic peoples that we find the crescent on tombs1 either alone or accompanied by other figures3 it is of frequent occurrence1 notably in ,celtic countries4 ,possibly the ,druids placed in the moon the other world where men pursued an existence uninterrupted by death4 ,as for the sun1 the idea most commonly accepted was that the dead accompanied him on his course and went down with him in the west to an underground world4 ,there1 during the night1 this enfeebled heavenly body recovered his strength1 and there the dead too were revived4 ,the power of this faith in ancient ,egypt is known3 the souls embarked on the boat of ,ra1 and with him1 after they had accomplished the circle of the heavens1 went down through a crevice of the earth or beyond the ocean4 ,this was the first origin of the rle of 8psychopomp0 which we shall find attributed to the solar god4 ,finally many peoples believed that souls1 after plying through air and space1 inhabited the sky in the form of brilliant stars4 ,the multitude of the stars scintillating in the firmament was that of the innumerable spirits who had left the world4 ,they pressed in a dense crowd1 especially in the long luminous track of the ,milky ,way1 which was1 par excellence1 the dwelling of the dead4 ,other traditions saw in this band across the sky the highroad which the dead travelled to gain the summit of the world4#bbe ,a vestige of this ingenuous conception is retained in the very name1 8,milky ,way40 99 99 99 99 99 ,these ideas as to the lot of the soul after death1 which were spread among a number of different peoples1 may also have existed in primitive ,greece but we have no proof that they were current there4 ,as the ,hellenes granted to the stars only a restricted and secondary place in their anthropomorphic religion1 so in early times they had no belief1 or scarcely any1 in the ascent of souls to the starry sky4 ,this doctrine was entirely strange even to the earliest ,ionian thinkers4 ,recent research has made it more and more probable that these conceptions were introduced into ,greece from the ,east1 where astrolatry was predominant4#bbf ,pausanias#bbg claimed to know that the ,chaldeans and the ,magi of ,india were the first to assert that the human soul is immortal1 and that they convinced the ,hellenes1 and in particular ,plato1 of this doctrine4 ,such an affirmation1 in this form1 is certainly false1 but it contains an element of truth4 ,the tenet of astral immortality is ancient in the ,east3 it probably took form in ,babylon about the sixth century1 when ,persian ,mazdeism1 which believed that the righteous were lifted up to the luminous dwelling of the gods1 came into contact with the sidereal religion of the ,chaldeans4 ,it was propagated in ,greece especially by the ,pythagoreans1 for whom the soul had a celestial origin1 being1 as we have seen 7p4 #bd71 a fiery principle1 a particle of the ether which lights the divine fires of heaven4 ,this spark1 which descended at birth in the body1 which it heated and animated1 reascended after death to the upper regions1 whence it had come forth4 ,aristophanes in his ,peace#bbh greets the apparition of a new star1 that of the ,pythagorean poet1 ,ion of ,chios1 who had recently died1 asking ironically if it be not true that 8when someone dies he becomes like the stars in the air40 ,this is the most ancient precisely dated mention of stellar immortality 7#dba ,b4 ,c471 and it cannot be doubted that the doctrine was that of ,ion himself4 ,plato received it from the ,pythagoreans and makes very clear allusions to it4 ,the fundamental idea on which it rests1 the idea that the psychic essence is the same as the fire of the heavenly bodies1 is at the root of all oriental astrology1 which claims to explain by astral influence the formation of character4 ,this idea of a relationship 77 between the soul and the stars does not in ,greece belong to the old basic popular beliefs4 ,it was introduced thither by the philosophers1 who1 as we shall see1 drew from it very important theological conclusions4 ,according to them1 it was owing to this identity of nature that the soul was capable of knowing the gods and of aspiring to join them4#bbi ,this doctrine took on new power when astrology succeeded in imposing itself on the ,alexandrian world1 and it is significant that we find it clearly formulated by an adept of this pseudo-science1 the famous ,hipparchus1 in the second century before our era4 8,hipparchus10 says ,pliny1#bcj 8will never receive all the praise he deserves1 since no one has better established the relation between man and the stars1 or shown more clearly that our souls are particles of the heavenly fire40 ,pythagorism and ,stoicism1 and after them the ,syrian and ,persian mysteries1 were to popularise this conception throughout the ancient world4 ,in certain regions1 as in ,gaul1 it undoubtedly found pre-existing native beliefs with which it combined1 and in religion and among theologians it assumed multiple forms4 ,we shall try to distinguish its chief aspects1 dealing successively with lunar1 solar and stellar immortality4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,pythagoreans1 perhaps transforming a belief of the ,greek people as to ,selene's rle1 but more probably inspired by ,oriental speculations1 held that souls1 when they had been purified by air1 went to dwell in the moon4 ,to the question1 8,what are the ,isles of the ,blessed80 the orthodox doctrine of the sect answered1 8,the sun and the moon40#bca ,for them the heavenly bodies were moving islands washed by a luminous fluid1 which their swift motion caused to sound about them4 ,these thinkers1 who debated all the scientific hypotheses1 accepted the plurality of worlds4 ,the heavenly bodies were other earths surrounded by air and rolling in the boundless ether4 ,the moon in particular was designated as the 8ethereal0 or 8,olympic earth10 and in the moon lay the ,elysian ,fields1 the meadows of ,hades1 in which the shades of the heroes rested4 ,pythagoras himself1 promoted to the rank of an immortal spirit1 rejoiced there among the sages4 ,persephone1 assimilated to ,artemis1 reigned over this kingdom4 ,did not the moon1 like her1 transfer itself alternately above and below the earth8 ,the planets were this huntress's hounds which1 ever in chase1 were scouring the fields of space around her in every direction4 ,the authors of ,pythagorean apocalypses peopled the mountains and valleys of the moon with fantastic animals1 stronger than ours1 and with strange plants1 more vigorous than those of our globe4 ,the inhabitants of the moon1 fed on the vapours of the atmosphere1 were not liable to human needs4 ,in his 8,true ,histories10 ,lucian#bcb parodied these mad imaginings with comic exaggeration and ludicrous obscenity4 ,a curious fragment of ,castor of ,rhodes gives an instance of an unexpected application of these beliefs4#bcc ,this historian1 who lived at the end of the ,republic1 had the idea of interpreting ,roman customs by the ,pythagorean doctrines which ,nigidius ,figulus and his circle of theosophists had brought back into fashion 7p4 #bb74 ,in particular he explained by this method the ivory lunulae 7crescents7 which decorated the senators' shoes4 ,they recalled1 he says1 that noble souls inhabited the moon after death and trod on its soil4 ,the eclectic ,stoics of the same period1 and especially ,posidonius of ,apamea1 gave this lunar eschatology a place in their system1 and undertook to justify it by the physical doctrines of the ,porch4 ,according to them1 souls1 which are a burning breath1 rose through the air towards the fires of the sky1 in virtue of their lightness4#bcd ,when they reached the upper zone1 they found in the ether about the moon surroundings like their own essence and remained there in equilibrium4 ,conceived as material and as circular in form1 they were1 like the heavenly bodies1 nourished by the exhalations which arose from the soil and the waters4 ,these innumerable globes of a fire endowed with intelligence formed an animated chorus about the divine luminary of night4 ,the ,elysian ,fields did not1 in this theory1 lie in the moon itself1 which was no longer an earth inhabited by fantastic beings1 but in the pure air about the moon whither penetrated only souls no less pure4 ,this idea was to last until the end of paganism1 although other eschatological doctrines then met with more favour4 ,the emperor ,julian in the beginning of his satire on the ,caesars describes them as invited to a banquet held1 as was proper1 on a lower level than the feast of the gods1 who met at the summit of heaven4 8,it seemed fitting10 he says1#bce 8that the emperors should dine in the upper air just below the moon4 ,the lightness of the bodies with which they had been invested and also the revolutions of the moon sustained them40 ,the zone of the moon1 the lowest of the seven planetary spheres1 in which the serene ether touches our own foggy atmosphere1 is the frontier between the world of the gods and that of men1 the border between immortality and the generated1 the line of demarcation between the life of blessedness and the death which our earthly existence really is4 ,aristotle had already noted the distinction between the two halves of the universe1 the one active and the other passive1 the heavens formed of unalterable ether and subject neither to progress nor to corruption1 and our sublunary world composed of four elements1 our world in which all is born1 is transformed and dies4 ,neo-,pythagoreans and ,neo-,stoics liked1 in insisting on this opposition1 to show the contrast between the splendour and the darkness1 the serenity and the trouble1 the constancy and the mutability1 the truth and the error1 the happiness and the misery1 the peace and the war1 which reigned respectively in the dwelling of the gods and in the abode of men1 whither souls descending to earth penetrated so soon as they had crossed the circle of the moon4 ,in imitation of ,plato#bcf this sublunary world is shown as a dark cave in which the captive souls1 plunged in obscurity1 aspire to see again the light from on high4 ,the funeral monuments of the imperial period have retained numerous traces of these beliefs4 ,as we have already said 7p4 #id71 the crescent often appears on them1 either alone or together with other symbols4 ,other tombstones are still more expressive4 ,a ,roman relief1 preserved in ,copenhagen1 is particularly characteristic3 the bust of a little girl appears on it placed on a large crescent and surrounded by seven stars4#bcg ,on this an inscription recently found at ,didyma might serve as a commentary3 8,standing before this tomb1 look at young ,chor1 virgin daughter of ,diognetos4 ,hades has placed her in the seventh circle10#bch that is1 in the circle of the moon1 which is the lowest of the seven planets4 ,we see that philosophy and physics had united to transform the old belief in the ascent of souls to the moon4 ,the intervention of theories claiming to explain the systems of the world is still more marked in the other doctrines of astral immortality4 ,it was this blending which made them strong enough to impose themselves on the minds of men4 ,by their agreement with contemporary science1 they satisfied reason and faith at the same time4 ,but as all this theology really rested on a wrong cosmography1 its lot was bound up with that of a false conception of the universe1 and the two fell together4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the first of these doctrines appears to us the most reasonable because it is founded on the primordial rle of the sun in our world4 ,it was born in the ,east when the ,chaldean priests deprived the moon of the pre-eminence originally ascribed to it1 and recognised the unequalled importance of the sun in the cosmic system4#bci ,these astronomical theologians deduced from this recognition a theory which includes something like an anticipation of universal gravitation1 and which was to prove seductive both by its greatness and by its logic4 ,it spread through the ancient world in the second and first centuries ,b4 ,c4 ,there are some signs that the ,pythagoreans1 who were much addicted to the study of the heavenly bodies1 were the first to adopt it1 and with the propagation of ,oriental astrology it obtained a wide diffusion in the ,west4 ,the sun1 placed in the fourth rank or the middle of the planetary spheres1#bdj like a king surrounded by his guards1 was believed alternately to attract and repel the other celestial bodies by the force of his heat1 and to regulate their harmonious movements as the coryphaeus directed the evolutions of a chorus4 ,but since the stars were looked upon as the authors of all the physical and moral phenomena of the earth1 he who determined the complicated play of their revolutions was the arbiter of destinies1 the master of all nature4 ,placed at the centre of the great cosmic organism1 he animated it to its utmost limits1 and was often called the 8heart of the world0 whither its heat radiated4 ,but this well-ordered universe could not be directed by a blind force1 and therefore the sun was an 8intelligent light0 7 74 ,the pagan theologians looked upon him as the directive reason of the world 7mens mundi et temperatio74 ,the ,pythagoreans saw in him ,apollo ,musagetes1 the leader of the chorus of the ,muses1 who were placed in the nine circles of the world and whose accord produced the harmony of the spheres4 ,thus he became the creator of individual reason and director of the human microcosm4 ,the author of generation1 he presided over the birth of souls1 while bodies developed under the influence of the moon4 ,the radiant sun constantly sent down sparkles from his flaming circle to the beings he animated4 ,the vital principle which nourished men's material envelope and caused its growth was lunar1 but the sun produced reason4 ,inversely1 when death had dissolved the elements which formed the human composite1 when the soul had left the carnal prison which enclosed it1 the sun once more drew it to himself4 ,as his ardent heat caused vapours and clouds to rise from the earth and the seas1 so he brought back to himself the invisible essence which animated the body4 ,he exercised on the earth both a physical and a psychical attraction4 ,human reason reascended to its original source and returned to its divine home4 ,the rays of the god were the vehicles of souls when they rose aloft to the higher regions4#bda ,he was the anagogue 77 who withdrew spirits from matter which soiled them4 ,just as he sent the planets away from him and brought them back by a series of emissions and absorptions1 so he caused his burning effluvia to descend to the beings whom he called to life1 and so he gathered them after their death that they might rise to him once more4 ,thus a cycle of migrations caused souls to circulate between the sky and the earth1 as the stars alternately drew away from and returned to the radiant focus1 heart and spirit of the ,great ,all1 which called forth and directed their eternal revolutions4 ,it is easy to understand how this coherent and1 it may be said1 magnificent theology1 founded on the discoveries of ancient astronomy at its zenith1 imposed on ,roman paganism the cult of the invincible ,sun1 the master of all nature1 the creator and saviour of man4 ,a mass of literary evidence and a number of figured monuments prove how powerful became1 under the ,roman ,empire1 the belief that the sun was the god of the dead4 ,old mythological traditions combined with ,chaldean theology and were propagated with the ,eastern religions4 ,it was imagined that the deceased1 and in particular the emperors1 were borne to heaven on the chariot of ,helios1 or that the eagle1 the king of the birds and the servant of the sovereign sun1 carried off their souls to bear them to his master4 ,elsewhere it was the griffin of ,apollo or the solar phoenix who was the bearer of the dead or the symbol of immortality4 ,a funeral altar of ,rome even bears the characteristic inscription1 8,sol me rapuit10 8the ,sun has seized me up40#bdb ,you will probably ask how men succeeded in reconciling this solar immortality with the doctrine which made the moon the abode of the dead4 ,the ,greeks1 following the ,orientals1 had been able to make a lunar-solar calendar1 and they also constructed an eschatology in which the two great heavenly bodies both played part4 ,they were the two divinities whose help the priests promised to 8those who were about to die40#bdc ,this eschatology is founded on the astrological idea that the moon presides over physical life1 over the formation and decomposition of bodies1 but that the sun is the author of intellectual life and the master of reason4 ,the doctrine also includes the belief we have already explained elsewhere1#bdd that when souls leave the earth1 they are still surrounded by a subtle fluid which retains the appearance of the persons whom they formerly animated4 ,the pagan theologians thus admitted that the souls which came down to earth assumed in the sphere of the moon and in the atmosphere these aerial bodies which were regarded as the seat of the vital principle4 ,inversely1 when they rose again to heaven1 the function of the moon was to dissolve and to receive these light envelopes1 as on earth its damp rays provoked the corruption of the corpse4 ,the soul1 thus becoming pure reason 771 ascended to the sun1 the source of all intelligence4 ,according to others the formation of the soul's integument was begun and its reabsorption was completed in the planetary spheres1 and this is why the ,neo-,platonist ,jamblichus#bde placed the ,hades of mythology between the sun and the moon4 ,these theories are not the product of pure philosophical speculations1 but have their roots in the old astral religion of the ,semites4 ,the mysteries of ,mithras1 the ,chaldaic oracles1 and above all ,manicheism shared the belief in a lunar-solar immortality of which the source certainly goes back to the tenets of the 8,chaldean0 priests4 99 99 99 99 99 ,solar immortality is a learned doctrine1 the fruit of the astronomical theories which made the king-star the centre and the master of the universe4 ,it was such as to find acceptance with theologians and philosophers and to be spread by the ,oriental mysteries4 ,but it never succeeded in eliminating or overshadowing the old popular idea that the souls of the dead dwell in the midst of the glittering constellations4 ,a trace of the double conception is found in the ,stoic school4 ,for certain of the masters of this school the directing reason of the world1 the 771 has its principal seat in the sun1 for others in the sphere of the fixed stars4 ,in the same way the poets1 ,lucan addressing ,nero1 and ,statius addressing ,domitian1 hesitatingly ask if these emperors will ride in the flaming chariot of ,phoebus or if they will assume ,jupiter's sceptre in the highest heaven4#bdf ,the ,neo-,pythagoreans admitted that souls could rise to the ,most ,high 7 71 that is to say1 to the supreme ,god who was enthroned at the summit of the world4#bdg ,it was1 moreover1 very anciently held among the ,greeks that ,olympus was in the outer circle enveloping the world1 and until the end of antiquity we find the ,elysian ,fields were transported to the zone of the constellations and in particular to the ,milky ,way4 ,this is1 for instance1 the doctrine of ,cicero as shown in the dream of ,scipio4 ,so the old popular idea that the soul became a star1 which in ,greece was accepted by the ancient ,pythagoreans1 still subsisted4 ,according to mythology this was the happy lot reserved for heroes4 ,we have whole books which tell us how these heroes at the end of their career were transformed to brilliant stars in reward for their exploits4 8,catasterism0 draws a moral conclusion from ancient tales4 ,hercules1 ,castor and ,pollux1 ,perseus and ,andromeda and many others had deserved such metamorphosis4 ,it did not therefore seem bold to assign to the eminent men of the present the same destiny as to the great figures of the past1 and no one was shocked by the supposition that their divine spirits might be added to the number of the 8visible gods40 ,this was1 in particular1 a lot worthy of the princes who had deserved apotheosis4 ,at the death of ,caesar a comet appeared4 ,it was thought to be the dictator's soul which had been received among the ,immortals1 and ,ovid#bdh does not hesitate to show us ,venus descending1 invisible1 into the senate1 snatching this soul from the pierced body and bearing it aloft to the sky4 ,there ,venus feels the soul become inflamed and sees it escape from her breast to fly beyond the moon and turn into a trailing comet4 ,hadrian1 in his grief for the death of ,antinous1 let himself be persuaded that a star had just appeared which was the deified soul of his favourite4#bdi ,but as in ,greece 8heroification0 was finally awarded by the will of families to every one of their members whose loss they mourned1 so 8catasterism0 was in the end accorded to deceased persons of very moderate deserts4 8,nearly the whole heaven10 says ,cicero1 8is filled with mankind40#bej ,in an inscription of ,amorgos#bea a young man1 carried off by the ,fates at the age of twenty1 thus addresses his mother3 8,weep not2 for of what use is weeping8 ,rather venerate me1 for ,i am now a divine star which shows itself at sunset40 ,and at ,miletus#beb a child of eight years old1 whom ,hermes has led to ,olympus1 contemplates the ether and shines in the midst of the stars1 8rising every evening to the horn of the ,goat4 ,by the favour of the gods he protects the young boys who were his playfellows in the rude palaestrae40 ,epitaphs so precise in expression are exceptional4 ,on the other hand1 numerous epigraphic and literary texts declare that the soul of some dead person has risen to the stars to live there with the ,immortals1 but leave the position of this soul undetermined4 ,it is stated to have flown towards the vast sky1 to have been received by the ether1 to be living at the summit of the world and following the revolutions of the celestial armies4 ,but the place where the blessed thus come together1 that one of the upper spheres in which their meeting takes place1 is left uncertain4 ,their dwelling was known to be somewhere very high above us1 but men did not willingly venture to fix its exact situation4 ,the heathen theologians wished however to bring order and precision into this astral eschatology4 ,as they had combined the doctrines of lunar and solar immortality1 so they attempted to bring both into agreement with stellar immortality4 ,when ,lucian in the beginning of his 8,icaromenippus0 shows us his hero passing over three thousand stadia from the earth to the moon1 where he makes a first halt1 rising thence five hundred parasangs to the sun1 and then ascending from the sun to heaven1 ,jupiter's citadel1 through the space travelled in a full day by an eagle in rapid flight1 he is giving us a humorous parody of the journey which some men ascribed to souls4 ,this idea that the soul thus rises to ,paradise by three stages was widely entertained in the ,east1 and it was notably held by ,mazdeism4 ,a trace of this belief seems to linger in the passage of the ,second ,epistle to the ,corinthians in which ,saint ,paul tells that he has been lifted 8to the third heaven40#bec ,the ,platonists sometimes adopted the same conception and combined it with psychological ideas1 a development of those we recalled in connection with solar immortality 7p4 #ajc74 ,it was held that when the soul came down to earth it first received an ethereal garment of almost immaterial purity2 then1 imagination being added to reason1 a solar fluid surrounded it2 then a lunar integument made it subject to the passions2 and finally a carnal body was the cause of its ignorance of divine truths and of its blind foolishness4 ,it successively lost with these wrappings the inclinations or faculties which were bound with them1 when after death it went back again to the place of its origin4#bed ,the conception of the triple ascension of souls rested fundamentally on a rudimentary astronomy1 for it confused the five planets with the fixed stars1 discriminating from both only the sun and the moon4 ,but for long the system which divided the heavens into seven superimposed spheres1 enveloped by an eighth sphere which was the limit of the universe1 had imposed itself not only on the learned but also on the authors of pagan apocalypses4 ,the eschatological doctrine which triumphed at the end of paganism is in agreement with this theory1 generally admitted by the science of the period4 ,this doctrine is certainly of ,chaldeo-,persian origin1 and was spread in the first century especially by the mysteries of ,mithras4#bee ,then1 in the second century1 the ,pythagorean ,numenius introduced it into philosophic speculation4 ,man's soul was held to descend from the height of heaven to this sublunary world1 passing through the planetary spheres1 and thus at its birth it acquired the dispositions and the qualities peculiar to each of these stars4 ,after death it went back to its celestial home by the same path4 ,then as it traversed the zones of the sky1 it divested itself of the passions and faculties which it had acquired during its descent to earth1 as it were of garments4 ,to the moon it surrendered its vital and alimentary energy1 to ,mercury its cupidity1 to ,venus its amorous desires1 to the sun its intellectual capacities1 to ,mars its warlike ardour1 to ,jupiter its ambitious dreams1 to ,saturn its slothful tendencies4 ,it was naked1 disencumbered of all sensibility1 when it reached the eighth heaven1 there to enjoy1 as a sublime essence1 in the eternal light where lived the gods1 bliss without end4 ,in the mysteries of ,mithras a ladder composed of seven different metals served as a symbol of this passage of souls through the spheres1 astrology placing each of the planets in relation with one of these metals1 lead with ,saturn1 gold with the sun1 silver with the moon and so on4#bef ,but in opposition to this pantheism which1 while identifying ,god with the universe1 placed the chief home of divine energy in the celestial spheres and particularly in the highest of them1 the sectaries of ,plato transported the supreme ,power beyond the limits of the world and made of him a ,being no longer immanent1 but transcendent and distinct from all matter4 ,this conception became more and more predominant in pagan theology as ,stoicism lost influence in favour of ,neo-,platonism4 ,this ,god1 8ultramundane and incorporeal1 father and architect0 of creation1#beg had his seat1 it was thought1 in the infinite light which extended beyond the starry spheres4 ,religion called him sometimes the ,most ,high 771 sometimes ,jupiter1 but gave him at the same time the epithets 8,uppermost10 8,insuperable0 7summus1 exsuperantissimus74#beh ,it was this celestial ,father whom the elect souls aspired to join1 but only those who had attained to perfection succeeded in doing so1 as we shall see in our last lecture4 ,the others stayed1 in accordance with their degree of purity1 in a lower zone of the successive stages formed by the atmosphere1 by the planetary circles1 and by the heaven of the fixed stars1 which were the 8visible gods10 opposed to the spiritual world4#bei 99 99 99 99 99 ,this was the last conception of paganism and on the whole it was to impose itself on men for many centuries4 ,judaism had already made concessions to the astronomical theories of the 8,chaldeans10 and had borrowed from them the idea of seven stories of heavens1 an idea which we find developed in particular in the apocryphal ,book of ,enoch4 ,it also belonged to ,christianity almost from the beginning1 and the gnostics gave it a large place in their speculations4 ,but especially ,origen1 who borrowed it directly from the ,greek philosophers1 lent the authority of his name to the doctrines of astral eschatology4 ,according to him1 souls1 after they have sojourned in ,paradise1 which he imagined as a remote place of earth where they learn terrestrial truths1 rise to the zone of the air and there understand the nature of the beings who people this element4 ,but if they are free from all material weight1 they cross the atmosphere rapidly and reach 8the dwellings of the heavens10 that is1 the celestial spheres4 ,there they grasp the nature of the stars and the causes of their movements4 ,finally1 when they have made such progress that they have become pure intelligences1 they are admitted to contemplate the reasonable essences face to face and see invisible things1 enjoying their perfection4 ,although ,origen was condemned by the ,church1 his ideas were not abolished4 ,since the ,christian lore adopted the ancient conception of the world's structure1 as formulated by ,ptolemy1 it had necessarily to admit that souls traversed the planetary circles in order to reach that 8supermundane light0 in which they found perfect beatitude4 ,dante's ,paradise1 with its choirs of angels and its classes of the blessed1 distributed among the superimposed spheres of the heavens1 is a magnificent testimony to the strength of the tradition which antiquity bequeathed to the ,middle ,ages4 ,before this tradition could be destroyed1 ,galileo and ,copernicus had to ruin ,ptolemy's system and open up to the imagination the infinite spaces of a limitless universe4 ,,iv ,,the ,,winning ,,of ,,immortality ,a fundamental difference distinguishes the conception of immortality as it appears in the religion of the ,roman ,empire from our modern ideas4 ,immortality1 as we conceive of it1 follows on the very nature which we ascribe to the human soul4 ,it is affirmed by some1 denied by others1 in accordance with the character which each one attributes to the principle of conscious thought1 but whenever credence is given to it1 it is generally supposed to be absolute1 eternal1 universal4 ,for the ancients1 on the other hand1 immortality was no more than conditional3 it might not be perpetual and it might not belong to all men4 ,according to the ,platonists the soul1 an incorruptible essence1 a principle of life and movement1 survived necessarily2#bfj according to the ,epicureans1 being composed of atoms1 it was dissolved at the moment of death4#bfa ,but between these extreme opinions of the philosophers1 the religion of the people remained faithful to the old belief that the shade must be nourished with offerings and sacrifices1 that if it lacked sustenance it was condemned to waste away miserably4 ,this conception1 like not a few others which were fading away in the ,west1 was revived when the ,orientals imposed on the ,roman world their more primitive and sometimes very crude beliefs4 ,the normal destiny of the soul was therefore to survive the body for a certain time1 then in its turn to disappear4 ,a second death 7 7 completed the work of the first which gave the corpse over to corruption4 ,the spiritual essence which had abandoned the body was annihilated after it4 ,such was the inevitable necessity imposed on mankind4 ,immortality was a privilege of divinity4 ,the man who was exempted from the common lot of his kind was therefore the equal of the gods2 he had risen above his perishable condition to acquire the everlasting youth of the ,olympians1 the unlimited duration of the stars which travel the heavens1 the eternity of the ,supreme ,being4 ,if he became a god after his death it was sometimes because he had been one ever since his birth4 ,for men were not all born equal3 if each of them possessed the psyche which nourished and animated the body1 yet all men did not equally receive the divine effluence 77 which gave reason4 ,this reason1 which distinguished man from the beasts1 was akin to the fires of the stars2 it established between man and heaven a community of nature 77 which alone made it possible for him to acquire a knowledge of divinity1#bfb the 8gnosis0 of ,god and of the world which ,he animated4 ,this special grace also exempted him who obtained it from the passions and weaknesses to which the inclinations of the flesh exposed him4 ,it made him pious1 temperate and chaste3 he was holy 7sanctus74#bfc ,it communicated to him a lucidity and power lacking to the common run of mortals4 ,he penetrated the secrets of nature and commanded the elements2 he received revelations and was capable of prophetic divination4 ,inversely1 every exceptional quality was regarded as superhuman2 every extraordinary act seemed a miracle4 ,the most enlightened spoke merely of celestial inspiration4 8,nemo magnus vir sine quodam adflatu divino10 said ,cicero4#bfd ,the many saw in these privileged beings earthly incarnations of all the ,olympians4 ,from the moment of their appearance on the earth these men were really gods2 their soul kept its higher nature in all its purity2 it would indubitably return after death to its place of origin4 ,such are the leading ideas which explain the belief in the immortality of the heroes4 ,among those who escaped the common law of death because they were divine1 first of all1 were the kings4 ,in all times kings have been looked upon as of superior essence to the rest of mankind1 and the ancient ,east approximated them or made them equal to the heavenly powers4 ,the ,hellenistic realms1 in ,egypt1 ,syria1 ,asia ,minor1 raised the cult of the monarch to the rank of a state institution2 and the ,caesars inherited this homage1 which was rendered to them by their subjects even in their lifetime1 first in the ,east and then throughout the ,empire4 ,the powerful chief who delivered his state from the scourge of invasion and ensured it peace and welfare1 accomplished a work which seemed to be beyond the ability of man1 and he was adored as a present god 7 1 praesens numen71 a saviour 774 ,sometimes the god incarnate in him was specified2 and he was looked upon as a manifestation of ,zeus1 ,apollo1 or another4 ,very ancient but still active beliefs gave him the power to command nature as well as men4 ,if the fields were fertile1 if the flocks and herds had increased1 these were benefits received from the godlike sovereign4 ,no miracle was beyond his accomplishment4 ,he was the providence of his people1 having indeed the power of foreseeing and foretelling the future4 ,according to ,manilius1#bfe it was to kings1 whose lofty thoughts reached the heights of the sky1 that nature first revealed her mysteries4 ,the pagan theologians affirmed1 indeed1 that the souls of kings came from a higher place than those of other men1 and that these august personages borrowed more from heaven than the common crowd of mortals4#bff ,and thus1 death had no sooner carried them off from the earth than their souls once again rose to the stars1 who welcomed them as their equals 7sideribus recepti74 ,it was thought that an eagle or the chariot of the sun bore them away4#bfg ,it may seem strange that the senate should deliberate as to whether or not a deceased emperor deserved apotheosis1 and should refuse or accord him official canonisation4 ,but this act is in conformity with all the ideas we have described1 since the monarch's benefits and victories were the proof of his divine origin1 and since1 if he had committed crimes and caused misfortunes1 he was thus shown to be in no respect a god4 ,in the remote ages of ancient ,egypt1 the ,pharaohs were the first whom ,osiris consented to identify with himself1 or whom their father ,ra bore away in the solar boat1 but little by little the rites practised in order to ensure eternity to the sovereign were extended to the magnates surrounding him4 ,thus immortality was a kind of posthumous nobility bestowed on the great servants of the state1 or usurped by them1 long before the rest of the people obtained it4 ,in ,greece1 also1 kings were the first to be the objects of a cult as protecting heroes1 but after them other classes of eminent men received the same title and the same adoration1 in particular the founder of a city1 its lawmaker who had given it a constitution and the warrior who had victoriously defended it4 ,in the same way as fabulous demigods1 ,castor and ,pollux or ,hercules1 had in heaven become brilliant stars as a reward for their earthly deeds1 they also were public benefactors who by their works and their virtues had shown themselves worthy of the same 8catasterism40 ,these ideas passed to ,rome with the ,stoic philosophy4 ,after having given a list of those who had triumphed in the wars of the ,republic1 ,cicero lays down as a fact that not one of them could have attained so far without the help of ,god2#bfh and elsewhere he states more explicitly3#bfi 8,to all who have saved1 succoured or aggrandized their country1 a fixed place in which they shall enjoy everlasting bliss is assigned in heaven1 for it is from heaven that they who guide and guard cities have descended1 thither to reascend40 ,the ex-consul ,cicero claimed apotheosis for the great men of the state3 this was the republican transformation of the doctrine of the divinity of kings4 ,pagan theology was to give much wider extension to this doctrine4 ,in a curious passage ,hermes ,trismegistus#bgj explains that there are royal1 that is to say divine1 souls of different kinds1 for there is a royalty of the spirit1 a royalty of art1 a royalty of science1 and even a royalty of bodily strength4 ,all exceptional men were godly1 and it was not to be admitted that the sacred energy which animated them was extinguished with them4 ,pious priests1 like kings1 were judged1 or rather judged themselves1 to be worthy of immortality4 ,who could more justly deserve a share in the felicity of the gods than those who on the earth had lived in their company and known their designs8 ,he who had thus been in communication with the godhead and learnt his secrets was raised above the condition of humanity4 ,this sacred knowledge1 this gift of prophecy1 this 8gnosis10 which was inseparable from piety1 transformed him who had obtained it1 set him free even in life from the condemnation of fate2 and after death he went to the immortals whose confidant he had been here below4 ,the philosophers and theologians who treated of the nature of the ,divine ,being shared the blessed lot of the priests and soothsayers who interpreted ,his will4 ,their doctrine came to them by inspiration from on high1 or at least so they readily believed4 ,their intelligence1 which was lit by a divine ray1 penetrated the world's mysteries and subjected it to their will4 ,philosophus became a synonym for thaumaturge4 ,even in this life the superior mind of the philosophers allowed them to escape the necessities by which other men were oppressed1 and this reason returned after death to the source of all intelligence4 ,but all knowledge came from ,god4 ,it was ,he who gave light to the wise man1 absorbed in austere research1 and caused him to discover truth4 ,it was ,he too who inspired the poet1 who worked in him when enthusiasm carried him away2 ,he likewise who gave to the artist the faculty of apprehending and expressing beauty1 to the musician the power to recall by his chords the sublime harmony of the celestial spheres4 ,all who gave themselves up to works of the intellect had a part in the godhead4 ,they were purified by the high pursuit of spiritual joy and freed thereby from the passions of the body and the oppression of matter4 ,for this reason the ,muses are frequently represented on tombs2 beautiful sarcophagi are decorated with the figures of the nine sisters4 ,thanks to these goddesses1 mortals were delivered from earthly misery and led back towards the sacred light of the heavens4 ,thus the spirits of all men distinguished above their fellows were one day to find themselves gathered together in the dwelling-place of the heroes4 ,this conception made the future life a reward for eminent service rendered to the state or humanity4 ,its origin certainly went very far back3 it is found among primitive peoples1 in reference to the famous warriors of the tribes1 and it never ceased to be accepted in ancient ,greece4 ,but towards the end of the ,roman ,republic it was more generally admitted than ever before4 ,it was in harmony with the constitution of an aristocratic society in which it seemed that even posthumous honours should be reserved for the elect4 ,some modern thinkers and poets have shared the ancient feeling which inspired it4 ,carducci1 who disliked the critics of ,milan1 thought that they might well perish wholly1 but that the great spirits like ,dante1 whom he interpreted1--and doubtless also this interpreter himself1--were saved4#bga ,matthew ,arnold also in an admirable sonnet strongly defends the faith in a limited immortality4 ,let me recall to you the last verses3 8,and will not then the immortal armies scorn ,the world's poor routed leavings8 or will they ,who fail'd under the heat of this life's day ,support the fervours of the heavenly morn8 ,no6 ,the energy of life may be ,kept on after the grave1 but not begun1 ,and he who flagg'd not in earthly strife1 ,from strength to strength advancing--only he1 ,his soul well-knit and all his battles won1 ,mounts1 and that hardly1 to eternal life40 99 99 99 99 99 ,but this proud doctrine vowed to final destruction the mass of humble men1 the multitude of the miserable1 that is to say1 those who1 because they endured most in this world1 must most aspire to seek in another the happiness which was here denied them and the retribution which should repair the injustice of their earthly lot4 ,this doctrine of the immortality of the few made low station in life a misfortune which was prolonged beyond the grave4 ,to the immense company of the wretched1 who suffered without consolation1 the religions of the ,east brought a 8better hope10 the assurance that by certain secret rites the mystic1 whatever his rank1 whether senator or slave1 might obtain salvation4 ,the virtue of the liturgical ceremonies made him equal to the immortals 774 ,this was the secret of the rapid spread of these exotic cults in the ,latin world4 ,every day the stars disappear beneath the horizon to reappear in the east on the morrow2 every month a new moon succeeds the moon whose light has waned2 every year the sun is reborn to new strength after his fires have died away2 every winter vegetation withers to bloom again in the spring4 ,the gods of nature--,attis1 ,osiris1 ,adonis--also rose again after they had been slain2 the gods of the stars resumed their glowing ardour after darkness had overwhelmed them4 ,their essential quality was to be for ever 8living0 or 8unconquered0 7invicti74 ,their career was a perpetual triumph over death4 ,the struggle implied was1 under the influence of dualism1 recognised to be an unceasing battle between two powers disputing possession of the world4 ,thus the mystic who had become god1 who had part in the divine energy1 also acquired the power to conquer death4 ,oriental religions looked upon earthly existence as a fight from which the just man issued victorious4 ,immortality was a triumph won over the powers of evil1 of which the most implacable was death4 ,the souls of the elect were crowned like athletes and soldiers2 their wreath was the 8crown of life10 often represented on funeral monuments4#bgb ,the ,greeks sometimes1 and the ,etruscans frequently1 had personified death as a horrible monster who frightened those whom he approached4 ,but the idea of making death into the adversary of mankind1 from whose empire pious and strong souls might escape1 spread only with the reception of the ,oriental beliefs4 ,this mythological conception of salvation was combined in the mysteries with another1 which was more scientific1 that of fatalism1 which was the chief dogma imposed by astrology on the ,roman world4 ,death is for man the most inevitable and the hardest necessity4 ,fatum often denotes the unalterable term of life2 and this end1 which diviners could foresee but could not delay1 ought1 according to the law of our kind1 to overtake the soul as well as the body4 ,but the ,oriental cults never ceased to claim that the celestial powers who escaped the rule of ,destiny1 which extends only to the sublunary world1 were also able to withdraw thence their faithful followers4 ,as the emperor was not subject to ,fate because he was god1 so he who had been initiated and had acquired the same quality was1 as a funeral inscription expressed it1 8exempt from the lot of death40#bgc ,those who had taken part in the occult ceremonies of the sect and were instructed in its esoteric doctrines were alone able to prolong their existence beyond the term fixed by the stars at their birth4 ,by the virtue of these rites pious souls were withdrawn from this fate-ridden earth and were led1 enfranchised from their servitude1 to a divine world4 ,thus those who had acceded to a religious initiation obtained eternal life1 like the great men whose celestial origin had predestined them thereto4 ,by what rites was wrought this 8deification0 771 or rather this 8immortalisation0 778 ,the soul1 enclosed in the body1 was by its very contact with matter exposed to pollution1 8as pure and clear water poured into the bottom of a muddy well is troubled40#bgd ,the mysteries never conceived the soul as absolutely immaterial3 it was a subtle and light essence1 but one coarsened and weighed down by sin1 which thus altered its divine nature and caused its decomposition and loss4#bge ,in order therefore that immortality might be ensured to the soul1 it must be cleansed of its stains4 ,the pagan religions employed a whole set of ablutions and purifications for restoring his first integrity to the mystic4 ,he could wash in consecrated water in accordance with certain prescribed forms4 ,this was in reality a magic rite3 the cleanliness of the body wrought by sympathy a veritable disinfection of the inner spirit1 the water clearing off its taints or expelling the evil demons which caused pollution4 ,or else the initiate sprinkled himself with or drank the blood either of a slaughtered victim or of the priests themselves4 ,these rites arose from the belief that the fluid which flows in our veins is a vivifying principle1 able to communicate new existence4#bgf ,the man who had received baptism by blood in the taurobolium was reborn for eternity 7in aeternum renatus71#bgg and when1 foul and repulsive1 he left the sacred ditch1 he was adored as a god by those present4 ,elsewhere purifications by air and fire were found united to that by water1 so that the different elements all had part in the purgation4#bgh ,all these cathartic ceremonies had the effect of regenerating him who submitted to them1 delivering him from the domination of the body1 making him a pure spirit1 and rendering him fit to live an immaculate and incorruptible life4 ,a similar belief in a transference to the soul of bodily effects partially explains why unctions were still employed in the liturgy of the mysteries4 ,by rubbing himself with perfumed oil the wrestler in the palaestra and the bather after the perspiration of the sweating-room strengthened their limbs and rendered them supple4 ,ancient medical science deals at great length with the propitious action of numerous ointments1 and by their means magic worked not only sudden cures but also prodigious metamorphoses4 ,the aromatic unguents1 which had marvellous antiseptic qualities1 served to ensure the conservation of an embalmed corpse4 ,similarly1 in the cult of the mysteries1 unctions gave the soul an increase of spiritual force and made it capable of prolonging its existence for ever4 ,as rubbing with unctuous substances was a practice of the thermae1 so it was of the temples after the liturgical bath4 ,in the anointing of kings and the ordination of priests they communicated to man a divine character and higher faculties1 and this idea has been preserved down to modern times4 ,but1 above all1 as ointments preserved mortal remains from putrefaction1 so the consecrated oil and honey became a means by which the soul was rendered incorruptible and immortality was bestowed upon it4 ,the most efficacious means of communicating with the godhead which the mysteries offered was1 however1 that of participation in the ritual banquets4 ,these banquets are found in various forms in all these religious communities4 ,we have seen that among the votaries of ,dionysos his feasts1 in which the consecrated wine was drunk1 gave a foretaste of the joys reserved for the initiate in the ,elysian ,fields4#bgi ,drunkenness1 which frees from care1 which awakens unsuspected forces in man1 was looked upon as divine possession1 as the indwelling of a god in the heart of the ,bacchantes4 ,wine thus became par excellence the drink of immortality1 which flowed for the sacred guests in the meals of the secret conventicles4 ,the heady liquid not only gave vigour of body and wisdom of mind1 but also strength to fight the evil spirits and to triumph over death4 ,sometimes honey1 which was according to the ancients the food of the blessed1 was offered to the neophyte and made him the equal of the ,olympians4 ,elsewhere bread consecrated by appropriate formulae was held to produce the same effects4 ,but still another conception is discernible in the feasts of the mysteries and mingles with the first3 it is thought that the god himself is eaten when some sacred animal is consumed4 ,this idea goes back to the most primitive savagery1 as is seen in the rite of 8omophagy0 in which certain votaries of ,bacchus fiercely tore the raw flesh of a bull with their teeth and devoured it4 ,undoubtedly there was originally a belief that the strength of the sacrificed animal was thus acquired1 like the superstition of the native ,african hunters who eat a slain lion's heart in order to gain his courage4 ,similarly1 if a victim be regarded as divine1 to consume it is to participate in its divinity4 8,those10 says ,porphyry1#bhj 8who wish to receive into themselves the soul of prophetic animals absorb their principal vital organs1 such as the hearts of crows1 moles or hawks1 and thus they become able to speak oracles1 like a god40 ,similarly1 the ,syrians ate the fish of ,atargatis1 a forbidden food which was1 however1 provided for the initiate after a sacrifice2 and those who partook of these mystic repasts were not1 like the rest of men1 vowed to death1 but were saved by the goddess4#bha ,all means of attaining to godliness were not so crude as these4 ,an important part of the mysteries was the instruction which gave the sacred lore1 the 8gnosis40 ,this 8gnosis0 included the whole of religious learning1 that is to say1 it was the knowledge of rites as well as of theological and moral truths4 ,it taught above all the origin and the end of man1 but it covered all the works of ,god1 and1 inasmuch as it explained creation1 it formed a system of the world and a theory of nature4 ,in fact the world1 being wholly penetrated by a divine energy1 was itself a part of ,god4 ,the close alliance which exists between philosophy and the mysteries1 and which is revealed to us especially in the ,pythagorean and ,hermetic literature1#bhb is shown in the value thus given to science4 ,this science1 which in the ,east had always been sacerdotal1 was not looked upon as a conquest of reason but as the revelation of a god4 ,illumined by this god1 the initiate entered into communication with him1 and consequently himself became divine and was withdrawn from the power of ,fate4 8,they who possess the knowledge 77 have deification as their happy end10 said ,hermes ,trismegistus4#bhc ,the highest degree of this 8gnosis0 is the sight of the godhead himself1 or to use the ,greek word1 8epoptism40 ,by artifice or illusion apparitions were evoked and 8epiphanies0 produced4#bhd ,a whole system of fastings and macerations placed the mystic in a fit state to attain to ecstasy4 ,in the temple of ,isis the faithful devotee merged himself 8with inexpressible delight0#bhe in the silent adoration of the sacred images1 and when the rites had been accomplished and he felt himself transported beyond the confines of the world1 he contemplated the gods of heaven and hell face to face4 ,he who had had the vision of this ineffable beauty was himself transfigured for ever4 ,his soul1 filled with the divine splendour1 must when its earthly captivity had ended live eternally in contemplation of the radiant beings who had admitted it to their company4#bhf 99 99 99 99 99 ,the mysteries have thus a number of processes1 some material and some spiritual1 for producing the union with god which is the source of immortality4 ,this union is first conceived as effected with the particular god honoured by a sect4 ,as this god has died and has risen again1 so the mystic dies to be reborn1 and the liturgy even marks by its ceremonies the death of the former man and his return to a glorious life4 ,the fervent disciple to whom the god has united himself suffers a metamorphosis and takes on divine qualities4 ,in magic this process is sometimes very grossly indicated3 8,come into me1 ,hermes10 says a papyrus1#bhg 8as children do into women's wombs1 444 ,i know thee1 ,hermes1 and thou knowest me2 ,i am thou and thou art ,i40 ,the old ,egyptian doctrine of the identification with ,osiris1 which goes back to the age of the ,pharaohs1 was never given up in the ,alexandrian mysteries1 and the whole doctrine of immortality rested on it4 ,as on the earth the initiate who piously observed sacred precepts received in his bosom the godhead1 so after death the faithful became a ,serapis if a man1 an ,isis if a woman4 ,this beatification seems to have been conceived sometimes as an absorption into the heart of the divinity1 sometimes as a multiplication of the divinity1 who left to the deceased his own personality4 ,it was above all from ,egypt that apotheosis in the form of a particular divinity spread first in the ,hellenistic and then in the ,roman world4 ,as the ,pharaohs became ,osiris on the earth and after their death1 so among the ,ptolemies such names as ,isis-,arsino and others similar are found1 and the emperors were adored even in their lifetime as epiphanies of ,apollo1 ,zeus or ,helios4#bhh ,their subjects could obtain a lot as happy as that of the sovereigns4 ,the mystics of ,dionysos were early made divine1 in imitation of those of ,serapis1 and became as many emanations of ,bacchus2 and finally under the empire a cult was rendered to the dead under such titles as ,mars1 ,hercules1 ,venus1 ,diana and other ,olympians4 ,conceptions less in conflict with reason were taught by the astral cults of the ,semitic ,east4 ,the celestial powers here were higher1 more distant1 less anthropomorphic1 and it was not imagined that a man could assume their form4 ,here the action of the god on the mystic recalled that of the stars in nature3 it was regarded as an effluence1 fallen from the ether1 which penetrated the initiate1 as an energy which filled him1 as a luminous ray which lit his mind4 ,virtue from on high entered into the neophyte and transformed him into a being like the divinities of heaven4#bhi ,he was glorified 77 as a conqueror who had triumphed over demons and smitten down death2 he was illuminated 77 and penetrated by a supernatural light which disclosed to him all truth2 he was sanctified 77 and acquired unfailing virtue2 he was exalted 771 that is to say his soul rose in rapture to the stars4 ,glory1 splendour1 light1 purity1 knowledge3 all these ideas were confounded until they became almost synonymous and together denoted the transfiguration which was undergone by the soul called to rise to ethereal regions1 even on this earth and while it was still joined to the body4 ,but this divine action1 which tended to become purely spiritual1 was originally much more material4 ,a very coarse substratum to the theological ideas is still apparent in the texts which mention them4 ,magic1 which was addressed to the credulity of simple men1 did not conceal it at all4 ,here the ascension of the spirit appeared as a journey to heaven4 ,by appropriate formulae and processes the sorcerers pretended to secure immortality for their adepts1 making them fly1 body and soul1 through the higher spheres to reach the dwelling of the gods4#bij 99 99 99 99 99 ,in short1 the initiate of the mysteries believed that they found in them a warrant of immortality4 ,by the virtue of the rites their souls were united to their god2 thus they became themselves divine1 and were ensured an everlasting life4 ,inevitably1 every ,oriental religion affirmed that it held the only sacred tradition leading surely to eternal felicity4 ,outside the sect there was no certain salvation4 ,but philosophy always opposed these claims4 ,philosophy1 too1 thought itself able to lead through wisdom to happiness in this world and in the next1 and there was rivalry between it and the positive cults1 as soon as it took on a religious character and set up religious claims4 ,the ,neo-,pythagoreans who formed esoteric communities opposed their purifications and initiations to those of the mysteries4 ,but the eschatological doctrine1 of which ,posidonius was1 if not the author1 at least the powerful promoter1 and which was to be taken up again and transformed by the ,neo-,platonists1 exempted the wise man from any obligation to religious observances as ensuring his immortality4 ,he was no longer in need of sacraments and sacrifices1 but could by his own unaided force become a pure intelligence1 win the complete mastery of himself by reason1 and thereafter be certain of raising himself to the godhead4 ,at the most1 certain thinkers granted a 8propaedeutic0 or preparatory value to ritual observances1 and saw in them a means of predisposing the soul to ecstasy1 but the mystic philosophers1 of whom ,plotinus represents the purest type1 discarded for themselves all religious practices4 ,their proud doctrine places man alone face to face with ,god4#bia ,or else1 like ,porphyry1 they admit that sacred ceremonies can purify the spiritual or pneumatic soul but not its highest part1 the intellectual soul2 that they can raise it to the region of the stars but not bring it back to the ,supreme ,being4 ,the late pagan philosophy asserts constantly and forcibly that the wise man's reason is able by itself1 or rather through a celestial grace1 without the intervention of any liturgy1 to ensure its own return to its divine source4 8,as10 says ,porphyry1 8he who is the priest of a particular god knows how to consecrate his statues1 celebrate orgies1 perform initiations and lustrations1 so the true philosopher1 who is the priest of the universal ,god1 knows how to make ,his sacred images and to carry out ,his purifications and all the processes which will unite him to this ,god40#bib ,philosophers were therefore the priests of the world4 ,their functions were parallel to those of the actual priests but higher4 ,they tended more and more to form a sacerdotal order which was separated from the rest of human society by its customs and its way of life4 ,like the mysteries they taught that piety1 temperance and continence were the indispensable conditions of obtaining true knowledge4 ,this 8gnosis0 was no longer a traditional theology revealed in the shadow of the sanctuary1 but a scientific truth perceived by a grace-illumined reason4 ,the philosopher took no part in the ceremonies of a complicated ritual1 but his prayer was the silent supplication of his intelligence seeking to understand creation4 ,he did not become absorbed in the contemplation of idols but in the sight of the divine world and in particular of the starry heavens4 ,the end which this lonely cult strove to attain was analogous to that sought by others in the conventicles of the initiate--a divine revelation which would give to the perfect wise man superhuman power1 which would make him a prophet1 sometimes a wonder-worker2 and after death1 already a god on earth1 he went to live in the company of the gods on high4 ,the lifting of the reason to heaven1 source of all intelligence1 was thus the pledge of astral immortality1 as the liturgical banquet was of the celestial feast4 ,as physical drunkenness1 being divine possession1 was a prelude to the joy of the eternal repast1 so spiritual ecstasy was the sign of future deification4#bic ,the ancients found impassioned words to depict this communion of man with the starry heavens1 and to express the divine love which transported the soul into radiant space4#bid ,in the splendour of night the spirit was intoxicated with the glow shed on it by the fires above4 ,like the possessed and the ,corybantes in the delirium of their orgies1 it abandoned itself to ecstasy1 which set it free from its fleshly wrappings and lifted it up to the region of the everlasting stars4 ,borne on the wings of enthusiasm it sprang to the midst of this sacred chorus and followed its harmonious movements4 ,reason1 illumined by the divine fires which surrounded it1 understood the laws of nature and the secrets of destiny4 ,it then partook of the life of the light-flashing beings which from the earth it saw glittering in the radiance of the ether2 before the fated term of death it had part in their wisdom and received their revelations in a stream of light which dazzled even the eye of reason4 ,this sublime rapture was an ephemeral foretaste of the endless felicity reserved for the sage when1 after his death1 rising to the celestial spheres1 he penetrated all their mysteries4#bie ,v ,,untimely ,,death ,in the last lecture we endeavoured to show that in the ancient world immortality was at first conceived as being precarious and conditional1 and that only the heroes1 the exceptional men1 who were in truth gods on earth1 obtained apotheosis after their death4 ,we afterwards saw that the mysteries extended the promise of eternal salvation to all the initiate1 who by virtue of the rites were made equal to the gods1 and finally that the philosophers contested the necessity of sacred ceremonies and affirmed that human reason by its own unaided power could win union with ,god4 ,we will now consider in more detail what lot was reserved for a special class of the dead1 those whose life had been interrupted by an untimely end1 and how in their case philosophy modified the old traditional beliefs4 ,if we turn over collections of ancient inscriptions we find1 as when we go through our own cemeteries1 a number of epitaphs in which the grief caused by the early death of a friend or relative is expressed4 ,but in antiquity this sorrow was called forth not alone by regret for a loved being1 too soon lost to sight1 and by painful disappointment because of the irreparable ruin of the hopes to which his youth had given rise4 ,along with these human feelings1 which are of all time and all societies1 there were mingled in antiquity ideas which caused the loss of those who died before their time to seem more fearful and bitter4 ,virgil's celebrated lines1 in which he describes the descent of ,aeneas to ,hades1 will be remembered3#bif 8,continuo auditae voces1 vagitus et ingens1 ,infantumque animae flentes in limine primo1 ,quos dulcis vitae exsortes et ab ubere raptos ,abstulit atra dies et funere mersit acerbo40 8,ever were heard1 on the outermost threshold1 voices1 a great wailing1 the weeping souls of infants bereft of sweet life and torn from the breast1 whom the ill-omened day swept off and whelmed in bitter death40 ,in an eschatological myth of ,plutarch1#big the traveller beyond the grave also sees a deep abyss1 in which moan the plaintive voices of a multitude of children who had died at the moment of their birth and were unable to rise to heaven4 ,it has been shown that the ,latin poet and the ,greek philosopher are here interpreters of an old ,pythagorean belief1 to which ,plato alludes3#bih children who died young1 like persons who met with violent deaths1 the 1 found no rest in the other life1 but their souls wandered on the earth for the number of years for which their life would normally have lasted4 ,the souls of the shipwrecked who perished at sea roamed the surface of the waters and sailors believed that they were incarnated in the seagulls4#bii ,how did this belief in the miserable lot of innocent children arise8 ,its origin should probably be sought in that fear of death which haunts all primitive peoples1 and it developed owing to the frequency in antiquity of infanticide by abandoning or 8exposing0 newly born infants4 ,remorse provoked terror4 ,this conclusion is especially suggested because the fate of those who died prematurely was approximated to the lot of those who died violent deaths4 ,beings who had been prevented from completing the natural span of life were feared2 their shades were conceived as being unquiet and in pain1 because it was believed that they could return to disquiet and pain the living4 ,the idea was entertained that a spirit brutally separated from the body came to hold it in horror and did not consent to inhabit the tomb until a reconciliation had been disobtained by expiatory ceremonies4 ,being grievously disincarnated1 the soul became harmful4 ,souls1 said the ancients1 whom a cruel and untimely end has violently or unjustly torn from their bodies1 themselves tend to be violent and unjust in order that they may avenge the wrong they have suffered4#cjj ,it is no rare thing to find evidence in the inscriptions of a suspicion that a person cut off in the flower of his years has been the victim of some foul play2 the curse of ,heaven is called down on the head of his assumed murderer4 ,the ,sun1 who discovers hidden crimes1 is often invoked in ,roman epitaphs against this unknown offender3#cja 8,towards the ,most ,high god1 who watches over everything1 and ,helios and ,nemesis1 ,arsino1 dead before her time1 lifts up her hands2 if any one prepared poison for her or rejoices in her end1 pursue him10 says an inscription of ,alexandria4 ,but the victim was himself believed to be capable of vengeance4 ,it seemed incredible that one still full of strength and life should be entirely blotted out and that the energy which had animated him should also have disappeared suddenly1 and the reprisals of this mysterious power were apprehended4 ,this spirit pursued above all the murderer and1 more generally1 those who had given it cause for complaint4 ,it showed itself to them in the form of terrifying monsters which tormented them4 8,as soon as ,i shall have expired1 doomed to death by you10 says the child in ,horace whom the witches sacrificed1 8,i will haunt your nights like a ,fury1 ,i will tear your faces with my hooked nails1 as the ,manes gods can1 and weighing on your unquiet hearts ,i will take sleep from your affrighted eyes40#cjb ,suetonius#cjc relates that after the death of ,agrippina1 ,nero was1 on his own confession1 often troubled by the vision of her spectre and attempted to calm her spirit by a sacrifice and an evocation which he caused his magicians to make4 ,the same historian gravely recounts that the house in which ,caligula was murdered was every night haunted by dreadful apparitions until the time when it was destroyed by fire4#cjd ,a scholiast defines the lemures as 8the wandering shades of men who died before their normal time and are hence redoubtable40#cje ,even today popular belief in many countries attributes a maleficent power to the spirits of those who have died a violent death4 ,these disquieting superstitions acquired new force through the teachings of astrology1 which by incorporating them in its system gave them a doctrinal foundation4 ,astrology spread the belief1 which was and is common to all ancient and modern peoples of the ,east1 that each soul has a predetermined number of years to spend on earth4 ,the mathematici multiplied calculations and methods in order to be able to predict the instant of death predetermined by the horoscope4 8,this is the great work of astrology1 held by its adepts to be its most difficult and by its enemies to be its most dangerous and blameworthy operation40#cjf ,but by an internal contradiction this pseudo-science admitted that the natural end could be hastened by the intervention of a murderous star 773 ,saturn and ,mars can in certain positions call forth sudden death by accident1 killing1 execution4 ,a fragment attributed to ,aristotle asserts that a ,syrian mage predicted to ,socrates that he would meet such a fate4#cjg ,sometimes the maleficent planets tear a nursing child from its mother's breast before a single revolution of the sun has been accomplished4 ,all astrological treatises devote chapters to these 8unfed0 children 77 and also to the biothanati whose life has been interrupted by misfortunes of any kind4 ,petosiris was even concerned to discover--,ptolemy declared such preoccupation to be ridiculous#cjh--what the stars reserved until the end of their life for those who had gone through only a portion of it4 ,the texts which have been preserved--and often expurgated--by the ,byzantines give no more than a bare indication of astral influences on the lot of men4 ,in antiquity other more religious and more mystical works doubtless existed in which the inauspicious action of the murderous star1 still affecting after death the souls torn from their mortal wrappings1 was shown4 ,pythagorism1 which was closely connected with astrology1 took possession of these ideas and adapted them to its speculations4 ,according to this philosophy one and the same harmony presided over all physical phenomena and was1 like music1 subject to laws of number4 ,these laws therefore were at work during pregnancy1 and a complicated arithmetic was employed to show by a multiplication of days that a child might be born after seven or nine months with power to live1 but not after eight1 for such was the strange doctrine of the sect4 ,thus gestation became a melody in which abortion was a false note4 ,nature was said to be like an artist who sometimes breaks an instrument of which he overstretches the chords1 and sometimes leaves them too slack and can produce no tune4 ,now1 these harmonic laws necessarily determined not only the formation but also the end of man3 8,there is a fixed relation of determined numbers which unites souls to bodies10 says a philosopher1 8and while it subsists1 the body continues to be animate1 but so soon as it fails1 the hidden energy which maintained this union is dissolved1 and this is what we call destiny and the fatal time of life40#cji ,when the term fixed by nature is reached1 the soul departs without effort from the body in which it can no longer exercise its office4 ,but when the soul is violently ejected from the body and the link connecting them is broken by an external force1 it is troubled and is afflicted by an ill which will cause it pain in the ,beyond4 ,these ideas had sunk deep into the popular mind4 ,the distinction between an end in conformity with nature and one unexpectedly provoked by extraneous intervention is often expressed in literature as well as in inscriptions4 ,thus the epitaph of a young woman of twenty-eight1 who was believed to have been the victim of witchcraft1 states that 8her spirit was torn from her by violence rather than returned to nature10#caj which had lent it to her2 the ,manes or the celestial gods will be the avengers of this crime4 ,still more frequently an opposition is found between an early death and ,fatum4 ,the hour of death is determined at the moment of birth3 8,nascentes morimur2 finisque ab origine pendet40#caa 8,at the moment we are born1 we die2 and our end is fixed from our beginning40 ,he who reaches this term fixed for his life ends 8on his day0 7suo die72 otherwise he dies 8before his day0 7ante diem74#cab ,the vulgar belief was that the intervention of a human or divine will could oppose the fated course of things and abridge the normal duration of existence4 ,often the expression occurs of a belief that a demon or1 what is more remarkable1 an evil god has carried off innocent children or young men whose life has thus been shortened4#cac ,but pagan theology undertook the task of re-establishing the order of nature thus disturbed by fortuitous accidents and by individual and unregulated interferences4 ,the breaking of the laws of the universe was only apparent3 a soul might by mischance or by a malevolent act be suddenly severed from its body1 but1 remaining obedient to ,fate1 it had thereafter to linger on earth until its appointed time was accomplished4 ,its lot was supposed to be analogous to that of the unfortunate who had been deprived of burial 71 insepulti7 of whom we spoke in our first lecture4#cad ,it circled about the corpse1 which it could not abandon1 or fluttered here and there near the place of burial or on the spot where the body which it had occupied had been assailed4 ,excluded from the abode of the shades these wandering souls flitted near the earth or on the surface of the waters1 miserable and plaintive4 ,the fear of never being able to penetrate into the kingdom of blessed shades seems to have inspired the following prayer1 which occurs in a metrical epitaph of ,capri3#cae 8,you who dwell in the country of ,styx1 beneficent demons1 receive me too into ,hades1 me the unfortunate who was not borne away in accordance with the judgment of the ,fates1 but by a hasty and violent death provoked by unjust anger40 ,these brutally disincarnated souls became like the swift and harmful spirits with which the air was filled3 like them they belonged to the train of ,hecate1 the goddess of enchantment1 and like them were subject to the power of magicians4 ,at ,lesbos1 ,gello1 a young virgin carried off before her time1 became a phantom which killed children and caused premature deaths4#caf ,the leaden tablets1 which were slipped into tombs in order to injure an enemy1 and the magic papyri of ,egypt bear a large number of incantations in which these mischievous demons are invoked4 ,in the same way a series of conjurations1 dating from the third century and found in the island of ,cyprus1 appeal to the spirits of the dead thrown in the common ditch1 8who have met their death by violence1 or before their time1 or who have been deprived of burial40#cag ,in general the sacrifice of newly born children1 and the use of their vital organs and bones1 was1 and not without reason1 a most frequent charge against sorcerers4 ,formulas preserved on papyrus recommend as powerful means to work a charm 8a baby's heart1 the blood of a dead maiden1 and the carrion of a dog40#cah ,witches were believed to steal children in order to use the entrails in their occult operations1 a ritualistic murder analogous to that attributed by popular belief1 in some countries1 to the ,jews4 ,cicero1 ,horace in an epode1 ,petronius in his romance1#cai and other authors bear witness to the extent to which this opinion was entertained4 ,the epitaph of a young slave of ,livia1 wife of ,drusus1 relates his misfortune4 ,before he was four years old he was cut off by the cruel hand1 the 8black hand0 of a witch1 who practised her noxious art everywhere4 8,guard well your children1 ye parents10 adds the epitaph4#cbj ,likewise the murder of adults and the use made of objects which had belonged to executed or murdered persons is frequently mentioned4 ,the wonder-workers believed that by practising with the bodies of this class of the dead1 or with objects they had used1 they became masters of their wandering souls and made them serve their designs4 ,the nails of a crucified criminal1 the bloodsoaked linen of a gladiator1 were efficacious amulets4#cba ,faith is still kept nowadays in the rope which has hanged a man4#cbb ,the books which circulated under the name of ,hostanes the ,persian1 ,nectabis the ,egyptian and other illustrious wizards dealt with evocations of and 4#cbc ,thus a logical series of beliefs was pushed to its extreme consequence4 ,at the moment of birth ,fate fixed for each man the length of his career2 if this were interrupted1 the soul had to complete it in suffering1 near the earth1 and became a demon which lent its aid to diviners and sorcerers4 ,this doctrine1 supported by astrology and ,oriental magic1 imposed itself on many minds4 ,plato1 who had found it among the ,pythagoreans1 alludes to it1 and ,posidonius seems to have dealt with it more at length in his treatise 8,on ,divination0 7 71#cbd although we cannot tell in how far he supported it4 ,but it encountered the objections of other ,greek philosophers4 ,the reproach made to this theory was that it left out of account morality and merited retribution1 and brought together1 as subject to the same misfortune1 criminals condemned to capital punishment and children whose age had kept them from all sin4 ,feeling and reason at the same time protested against the cruel doctrine which vowed indifferently the innocent and the guilty to long torture4 ,when accident or illness caused the death of a beloved son1 could his parents make up their mind to believe that he would suffer undeserved chastisement8 ,a distinction had to be made between categories of persons1 and to this task the pagan theologians applied themselves4 ,let us follow them in their undertaking4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the are those who die 8out of season10 that is to say1 in the wide sense of the word1 those whose existence ends abnormally1 but more particularly those who die young1 who die prematurely4 ,they include the 1 those who have received no name1 who have not1 that is1 reached the ninth or tenth day of life1 the 1 non nutriti1 or babes who are still being fed at the breast or1 according to the astrologers1 are not yet a year old1 and the 1 the innupti1 who have died before the age of marriage and have therefore left no posterity to render them funeral rites4 ,none of these children and adolescents deserved1 in the opinion of the sages1 any chastisement4 ,the ,pythagoreans placed the age of reason1 at which man is capable of choosing between good and evil and may be made responsible for his faults1 as late as sixteen1 that is1 the age of puberty4 ,until that age the 8naked0 soul1 without virtue as without vice1 was exempt from all merit and demerit which would later attach to it4 ,we know the unhappy lot to which1 according to these philosophers1 they were doomed4 ,but other theologians considered that these souls1 which had not been weighted by a long contact with matter1 should fly more easily to celestial heights4 ,unsullied by earthly pollution1 their purity allowed them to rise without difficulty to a better life in a happier abiding-place4#cbe ,it is hard to determine to what degree these moral ideas had penetrated the popular mind4 ,the reaction against a superstitious belief often led to pure negation4 ,those who held that death put an end to all sensibility1 were content to affirm that the child they wept had gone down into everlasting night1 and that nothing was left of him but dust and ashes4 ,certain epitaphs hope that1 if his ,manes still have some feeling1 his bones may rest quietly in the tomb4 ,but mother's love was not to be satisfied with this negative assurance or to resign itself to anxious doubting4 ,the people kept an unreasoning fear of the evils which awaited the 1 and of those which might be expected from them4 ,some also believed that an ancestral fault--such as was1 according to the ,orphic doctrine1 the murder of ,zagreus1 by the ,titans--made all humanity guilty from birth1 and that this hereditary sin had to be effaced by purifications4#cbf ,religion offered a remedy for the ill to which1 to speak with ,lucretius1 it had itself lent persuasion4 ,the custom of initiating children to the mysteries which was1 at least at ,eleusis1 originally connected with the family or gentile cult1 became a means of preserving them from the fatal lot which threatened them and of ensuring their happiness in the other life4 ,thus pueri and puellae are found admitted at the most tender age among the adepts of the secret cults1 both ,greek and ,oriental1 perhaps even consecrated from birth to the godhead4 ,they are imagined as partaking in the ,beyond of the joys which these cults promised to those whose salvation they ensured4 ,a child who has taken part in a ceremony of ,bacchus lives endowed with eternal youth in the ,elysian ,fields in the midst of ,satyrs4#cbg ,others continue the games proper to their years in another life1 or if they have reached the age of first love they still sport with young ,eros4 ,above all1 however1 the influence of the astral cults1 added to that of philosophy1 brought about an admission that innocent creatures ascended to the starry heavens4 ,an epitaph of ,thasos#cbh speaks of a virgin1 flower-bearer 77 probably of ,demeter and ,kora1 who was carried off at the age of thirteen by the inexorable ,fates1 but who1 8living among the stars1 by the will of the immortals1 has taken her place in the sacred abode of the blessed40 ,at ,amorgos1 a child of eight was1 we are assured1 led by ,hermes to ,olympus1 shone in the ether1 and would henceforth protect the young wrestlers who emulated him in the palaestra4 ,even the precise spot in which he twinkled was fixed1 the horn of the constellation of the ,goat--an appropriate place for this little fighter4#cbi ,curiously1 an epitaph of ,africa1 which repeats ,virgil's very expression 7p4 #abi71 states1 in contradiction to the poet1 that a baby1 8cut off on the threshold of life10 has not gone to the ,manes but to the stars of heaven1#ccj and a relief of ,copenhagen shows the bust of a little girl within a large crescent surrounded by seven stars1 thus indicating that she has risen towards the moon1 the abode of blessed souls4#cca ,examples of these premature apotheoses might be multiplied4 ,i shall merely show1 by a characteristic case1 how it was possible for old popular beliefs to be combined with the new astral doctrine4 ,the ancients attributed to the rustic nymphs the strange powers which the ,greek peasant today recognises in beings which he still designates as the ,nereids4#ccb ,sometimes these fantastical goddesses possess themselves of the spirit of men and change them into seers or maniacs 2 sometimes their fancy is caught by handsome youths whom they carry off and oblige to live with them4 ,but above all they love pretty children and steal them from their parents1 not to harm them but in order that they may take part in their own divine pastimes4 ,doubtless it was at first to mountain caverns1 near limpid springs1 in the depths of tufted woods1 that they bore him whom they made their little playfellow4 ,such were the archaic beliefs of the country folk4 ,but the mysteries of ,bacchus taught that an innocent child1 thus rapt from the earth1 mingled in the train of the ,naiads in the flowery meadows of the ,elysian ,fields2#ccc and when ,paradise was transferred to the sky it was in the 8immortal dwelling-place of the ether0 that the nymphs1 we are told1 placed a little girl whose charm had seduced them4#ccd ,transported thus to heaven1 these loved beings were transformed by the tenderness of their relatives into protectors of the family in which their memory survived1 or of the friends who shared regret for them4 ,whether they were called 8heroes0 in ,greek1 or as elsewhere 8gods10#cce they were always conceived as guardian powers who acknowledged by benefits the worship rendered them4 ,thus in the middle of the second century the familia of a proconsul of ,asia1 ,c4 ,julius ,quadratus1 honoured a child of eight years as a hero1 at the prayer of his father and mother2#ccf and at ,smyrna the parents of a dearly loved child of four1 raised to this baby as their tutelary god1 a tomb on which an epitaph described in detail all his illnesses4#ccg ,these sentimental illusions are eternal4 ,nothing is more frequently seen on tombstones in our own ,catholic cemeteries than such invocations as 8,dear angel in heaven1 pray for us10 or even a figure of a winged baby flying away among winged cherubs4 ,this faith is perhaps touching1 but its orthodoxy is doubtful4 ,for the doctors of the ,church1 except ,origen1 have1 ,i think1 never adopted the doctrine of ,philo the ,jew that human souls can be transformed into angelic spirits4 ,but in the oldest ,christian epitaphs the conviction is already expressed that1 since children are without sin1 they will be transported by angels to the dwelling of the saints and there intercede for their parents4 8,thou hast been received1 my daughter1 among the pious souls1 because thy life was pure from all fault1 for thy youth ever sought only innocent play10#cch says a metrical epitaph1 once under the portico of ,st4 ,peter's4 ,and another and older epitaph is as follows1 8,eusebius1 a child without sin because of his age1 admitted to the abode of the saints1 rests there in peace40#cci ,still others end with the words 8,pray for us10 8,pete pro nobis40 99 99 99 99 99 ,thus little by little in antiquity the conviction gained strength and became predominant that1 as ,menander said with another meaning1 whom the gods love die young4#cdj ,as to individuals whose days were cut short by a violent blow1 they were not uniformly in the same case4 ,the theorists here distinguished among different categories of the biothanati4#cda ,the classification seems to have originated with the astrologists who claimed to enumerate1 in accordance with the position of ,mars and ,saturn1 all the kinds of death reserved for victims of these murderous planets1 and to foretell whether these unfortunates were to be drowned1 burnt1 poisoned1 hanged1 beheaded1 crucified1 impaled1 crushed to death1 thrown to the beasts1 or given over to yet more atrocious tortures4 ,but the moralists here also made a point of separating the innocent from the guilty4 ,only the guilty were to suffer after death and only their souls were to become demons4 ,for1 side by side with those who had deserved capital punishment for their crimes1 or who administered death to themselves1 were others cut off by a fatal accident1 perhaps even killed while performing a sacred duty4 ,such was the case of soldiers slain in battle4 ,logic ordered the theologians to place them among the biothanati1 and so they are1 for instance1 in ,virgil's sixth book of the ,aeneid4#cdb ,but death on the field of honour could not be a source of infinite ills for them1 and it was generally admitted that1 on the contrary1 their courage opened for them the gates of heaven4 8,virtus recludens immeritis mori ,caelum10 as ,horace says4#cdc ,the ,greek theory of the divinity of the heroes here comes to temper the severity of an unreasonable and dangerous doctrine4 ,according to ,josephus1#cdd ,titus1 when haranguing his soldiers1 promised immortality to such as fell bravely1 and condemned the others to destruction4 8,who does not know10 he asked1 8that valiant souls1 delivered from the flesh by the sword in battle1 will inhabit the purest of ethereal elements1 and1 fixed in the midst of the stars1 will make themselves manifest to their descendants as good genii and benevolent heroes8 ,on the other hand1 souls which are extinguished when their body is sick1 vanish1 even if they are free from all stain and defilement1 into subterranean darkness and are buried in deep oblivion40 ,in the military monarchies of the ,hellenistic ,east1 as in the ,roman ,empire1 eternal life was certainly promised to those who had perished arms in hand1 faithful to their military duty4 ,we know that the same belief was transmitted to ,islam3 a ,mussulman who dies in battle 8in the way of ,allah0 is a martyr 7shahd7 to whom the joys of ,paradise are assured4 ,the ,jews1 who had been reluctant to admit such ideas before1 from the time of the ,maccabees onwards associated with warriors those who sacrificed themselves in order to be faithful to their persecuted religion1 and to these especially they promised a glorious immortality4 ,faith in this celestial reward was later to cause the ,christians1 who won the martyr's crown1 to face all sufferings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the treatment which the gods reserved for another class of biothanati was more uncertain4 ,in the ,greek cities1 as in ,rome1 moral reproof and posthumous penalties were anciently attached to suicide4 ,the old pontifical law refused ritualistic burial to persons who had hanged themselves2 and instead of funeral sacrifices it prescribed for these dead merely the hanging up of small images 7oscilla7 consecrated to their ,manes1#cde--probably a magical1 8sympathetic0 rite1 which was intended to purify their wandering souls by air1 as other souls were purified by water and fire4 ,the horrible appearance of men who died by strangulation had given rise to the belief that the breath of life had vainly sought to issue from their tightly closed throats4#cdf ,a rich inhabitant of ,sarsina in ,umbria granted land for a graveyard to his fellow citizens1 but excluded from the benefit of his gift those who had hired themselves as gladiators1 had died by the rope by their own hand1 or had followed an infamous calling4#cdg ,this association shows how loathsome this kind of death was4 ,funeral colleges founded under the ,empire introduced into their rules a clause stipulating that if anybody had for any motive whatsoever put himself to death1 he should lose his right to burial4#cdh ,this provision seems to have been inspired less by the fear that fraud would be practised on this society of mutual insurance against supreme abandonment1 than by the conviction that funeral honours cannot deflect the curse which weighs on the suicide and renders his company undesirable for other dead4 ,but there was against popular opinion and religion1 which attached an idea of infamy to self-murder1 a philosophical reaction which1 among the ,stoics1 led to an entirely contrary moral judgment4 ,the powerful sect of the ,porch caused the doctrine to prevail that suicide was in certain cases commendable4 ,it saw in this end the supreme guarantee of the wise man's freedom1 and praised those who by voluntary death had withdrawn from an intolerable life4 ,cato of ,utica1 who killed himself lest he should survive liberty1 was held to be the wise man's ideal1 and as worthy of apotheosis as ,hercules4 ,he himself1 who is shown to us by the historians as reading and rereading ,plato's ,phaedo before he pierced himself with his sword1#cdi certainly hoped for the immortality of heroic souls4 ,here1 as on other points1 the ,neo-,pythagoreans1 and the ,neo-,platonists after them1 brought the minds of men back to the old religious beliefs4 ,plotinus1 yielding to the opinion which still prevailed in his time1 still authorises suicide in certain cases1 but we know that his exhortations dissuaded his pupil ,porphyry from putting an end to his days1 when he was seized with a disgust for life4 ,this latter philosopher afterwards resolutely opposed the ,stoic doctrine4 ,although the soul1 said the ,pythagoreans and ,platonists1 is enclosed in the body as in a prison1 in order to suffer chastisement1 it is forbidden by ,god to escape therefrom by its own act4 ,if it do so escape1 it incurs from the masters of its fate infinitely harder penalties4 ,it must await the hour willed by these masters1 and then it can rejoice in the deliverance which it obtains at the term of old age4 ,if it itself break the link which joins it to the body1 far from ridding itself of servitude1 it remains chained to the corpse1 for necessarily it is subject to passion at the moment of death and thus contracts impure desires4 ,the only liberation worthy of the wise man is that of the soul which still dwells in the body but succeeds in freeing itself from all fleshly leanings and in thus rising1 by the force of reason1 from earth to heaven4#cej ,the prohibition of voluntary death anticipating the hour fixed by ,providence for each man1 was strengthened and enforced everywhere by the ,christian ,church4 ,with yet more cause did those who had been condemned to capital punishment seem to deserve posthumous torment and the pains reserved for the impious4 ,these maleficent spirits1 transformed to demons1 continued to work harm to the human race4 ,the odium which attached to the word biothanati ended by concentrating itself on these two classes--those who had committed suicide and those who had been executed4 ,the horror which both inspired was marked by the withholding of honourable burial4 ,even in pagan times1 sacred or civil law in many places denied funeral honours to children who died young1 and to suicides--in order1 says a text1#cea that those who had not feared death might fear something after death--and1 above all1 to criminals1 whose corpses were not deposited in a tomb but were thrown without any ceremony into a common ditch 774 ,in ,rome persons executed in prison were dragged with a hook through the streets to the ,tiber1 where they were flung into the water4 ,there was in the fact that they were deprived of funeral rites a second reason1 besides their guilt1 for their suffering in the ,beyond4#ceb ,families and friends of the condemned endeavoured therefore to spare them this fearful penalty1 and could obtain from the magistrates the surrender of their bodies to them4 ,but the authorities often refused this supreme consolation to ,christians who wished to pay this last duty to their martyred brothers4 ,by scattering abroad the ashes of martyrs the pagans hoped to prevent their graves from becoming the sites of cults4 ,the denial of a religious funeral was also from the earliest time onwards ordered by ,church discipline and sanctioned by the ,councils in the case of suicides1 and was similarly extended1 in virtue of the law in force1 to malefactors4 ,in the ,middle ,ages the corpses of criminals were still to be seen carried to a shameful charnel-place in ,byzantium4 ,for instance1 the chronologist ,theophanes#cec relates indignantly that in #gfd the iconoclastic ,emperor ,constantine ,copronymus caused the arrest of a hermit of ,bithynia1 who supported the cult of the images4 ,the emperor's guards tied a cord round the monk's foot and dragged him from the praetorium to the cemetery1 where1 after cutting him to pieces1 they flung his remains into the ditch of the biothanati4 ,curiously this word1 biothanati1 was derisively applied to the ,christians themselves1 either because they adored a crucified ,saviour1 or in mockery of the martyrs1 who believed that through death by execution they earned a glorious immortality4 ,the poet ,commodianus returns this insult by applying the term to the pagans1 whose way of life condemned them to everlasting flames4#ced ,the opprobrious word remained in use until the ,middle ,ages1 when it denoted all whose crimes deserved capital punishment1 so that the final meaning of biothanatus was gallows-bird1 gallows-food4#cee ,if the meaning of the word biothanati was thus restricted in the ,latin world1 the old ideas which it called forth have had a singular vitality in folk-lore1 especially among the ,greeks4 ,the ,greeks believe even today that such as perish by a sudden and violent death became vrykolakes4#cef ,their bodies can again be reanimated1 can leave the grave1 and can travel through space with extreme rapidity as vampires and become so maleficent that mere contact with them causes loss of life4 ,suicides and victims of unavenged murders are particularly fearful4 ,it was the custom as late as the eighteenth century to open the grave of a dead man suspected of being a vrykolakas1 and if his body had escaped corruption1 thus proving his supposed character1 it was cut into pieces or burnt in order to prevent it from doing further harm4 ,so lively did the belief remain that the biothanatus could not detach himself from his body1 and that his existence1 which had been too soon interrupted1 was prolonged in the tomb4 ,,vi ,,the ,,journey ,,to ,,the ,,beyond ,as soon as belief took shape in an underground kingdom where gathered the shades which were separated from the body and from the grave1 the idea also arose of a perilous journey which the soul must make in order to win to this distant abode4 ,such an idea is common to many peoples of the world4 ,in ,california1 the ,mojave ,indians are said to believe that the departed have to find their way through a complicated maze in search of the happy hunting grounds1 which only the good souls can reach1 while the wicked wander painfully and endlessly4 ,we know what minutely detailed rules are contained in the ,egyptian ,book of the ,dead1 rules to which the deceased had to conform in order that they might travel safely to the ,fields of the ,blessed4 ,the ,orphic tablets1 discovered in tombs in ,italy1#ceg have preserved fragments of another guide to the ,beyond4 ,for instance1 the tablet of ,petelia1 which goes back to the second or perhaps the third century ,b4 ,c41 begins thus3 8,thou shalt find to the left of the house of ,hades a well-spring1 and by the side thereof standing a white cypress4 ,to this well-spring approach not near4 ,but thou shalt find another by the lake of ,memory1 cold water flowing forth1 and there are ,guardians before it4 ,say #8,i am a child of ,earth and of ,starry ,heaven4 ,but my race is of ,heaven 7alone74 ,this ye know yourselves4 ,and so ,i am parched with thirst and ,i perish4 ,give me quickly the cold water flowing from the lake of ,memory4' ,and of themselves they will give thee to drink from the holy well-spring2 and thereafter among the other heroes thou shalt have lordship44440#ceh ,these instructions1 which accompanied the member of the sect to his grave1--he bore them about his neck like an amulet1--were supposed to enable him to keep from straying in his posthumous wanderings and help him to accomplish exactly all the acts necessary for his salvation4 ,they were a sort of liturgy of the other side of the grave which would ensure eternal happiness to the faithful4 8,courage 772 be valiant 772 no man is immortal on earth10 such is the exhortation frequently expressed in epitaphs4 ,it probably reproduces a ritualistic formula intended to sustain the shade which had to blaze its path in the ,beyond4 ,the ,etruscans also had libri ,acheruntici1 books of ,acheron which were attributed to the sage ,tages and which treated of the fate of the dead4 ,these made known1 in particular1 what were the rites by which souls could be transformed into gods 7di animales74 ,their very title betrays a ,greek teaching1 and there are reasons for believing that the teaching of the ,pythagoreans was not without influence on their composition4#cei ,it is hardly doubtful that they were concerned with the path which the ,manes of human beings must follow in order to go down into the infernal regions4 ,the ,etruscan stelae and cinerary urns often show this journey to ,hades3 sometimes the dead are placed1 like heroes1 in a war chariot2 sometimes in a cart protected by a canopy and exactly copied from the peasants' carts2 and often nothing would indicate that these travellers are but shades1 were not the significance of the scene defined by the presence of some deity of the nether world1 like ,charon4 ,the great sarcophagus of ,vulci in the ,boston ,museum bears a fine representation of this type1 where the character of the travellers is shown by a winged ,fury standing behind their carriage4 ,thus the idea that the dead have to tramp a long road descending into the depths of the earth before they reach their last abode1 was accepted in ,italy as in ,greece from a very ancient period4 ,how did men imagine this road8 ,their conception of it is connected with a whole group of ,pythagorean doctrines which go back to a remote age4 ,the old poetry of ,hesiod already speaks of two roads of life1 a short and easy road which is that of vice1 and the path of virtue1 which is at first steep and rugged but becomes less hard as soon as the top of the slope is reached4 ,everyone knows the use which the sophist ,prodicus makes of this ancient comparison in the famous myth of ,hercules at the crossroads4#cfj ,in it1 two women appear to the youthful hero1 and one seeks to draw him to the path of deceitful pleasures while the other succeeds in conducting him to the path of austere labours which leads to true happiness4 ,this same conception1 which is transmitted through the whole of antiquity1 inspired the ,pythagoreans with the symbol of the letter ,y1 formed of a vertical spike topped by two divergent branches4 ,the spike is the road common to all men until they have reached the age of reason and responsibility4 ,subsequently they must choose between the right and the left branches4 ,the former1 say these moralists1 is steep and rough and at first requires strenuous effort1 but when those who climb it have gained its summit they obtain a well-deserved rest4 ,the other road is at first level and pleasant1 but it leads to harsh rocks and ends in a precipice over which the wretched man who has followed it is hurled4 ,this symbol was popular in antiquity as well as in the ,middle ,ages1 a fact of which a curious proof1 additional to those in the texts1 has lately been found4 ,this is a relief1 accompanied by an inscription1 dating from the first century of our era1 which has been discovered at ,philadelphia in ,lydia4#cfa ,it decorated1 as the epitaph shows1 the tomb of a ,pythagorean1 and it is divided into compartments by mouldings in the form of the letter ,y4 ,below1 to the right1 a child is seen1 in the care of a woman who is designated as ,virtue 772 above1 a ploughman1 driving his plough1 stands for the hard and persevering labour of the good man1 who1 still higher1 lies on a couch before a table like the guest at a 8funeral banquet0 because he has obtained the reward of his toil4 ,on the left side there is also1 below1 a woman with a child1 but she stands for wantonness 772 above her a figure is indolently lying on a bed2 and still further above1 the same figure is seen falling into a gulf1 head downwards1 in chastisement of his vices4 ,these nave scenes decorated1 as we have said1 a burial place4 ,many other tombs are not so elaborate1 but express the same symbolism by opposing the hard labour of man1 represented on the lower part of the stele1 to the rest which this same man enjoys on the upper part of the stone1 that is1 in heaven4#cfb ,the symbol of the ,y was early applied to the future life by the ,pythagoreans1 who transferred the roads representing the courses of the moral and the immoral life to ,hades4 ,their stories of the descent to the nether world depicted the journey of the dead in the same way1 and it is still thus described in the sixth book of the ,aeneid4 ,the dead first follow a common road2 and those whose lot is still undetermined wait in this first abode1 just as on earth children are not yet separate at the uncertain age at which they have not yet made their decision for virtue or for vice4 ,at the crossroads of earthly existence the choice must be made2 at the crossroad of the infernal regions 77 the judges of souls are seated1#cfc and send to the right those who have by their merits made themselves worthy to enter the ,elysian ,fields1 while they drive to the left the wicked who are to be hurled into ,tartarus4 ,for in both worlds 8right0 is to the ,pythagorean1 as to the soothsayers1 synonymous with 8good10 and 8left0 synonymous with 8evil40 ,the original conception was necessarily transformed and explained symbolically when the abode of virtuous souls was transported to heaven4 ,the stories of the ancients were no longer taken in their literal sense1 but an allegorical meaning1 allowing them to be brought into harmony with the new beliefs1 was given to them4 ,henceforward one of the two roads leads to the higher regions1 the road1 namely1 of the ,blessed 7 7 or of the gods4 ,the other1 the path of men1 is that which after long windings brings back to earth the impure souls who accomplish the cycle of their migrations and must be reincarnated in new bodies4 ,a passage of ,cicero's ,tusculans1#cfd which is directly inspired by the ,phaedo of ,plato1 is instructive as to the transformation which ideas underwent4 8,there are10 it says1 8two roads and two courses for souls which issue from the body4 ,the souls which are sullied with human vice and have abandoned themselves to passions 444 follow a crooked path which leads them away from the dwelling of the gods2 but for the souls which have kept their innocence and purity and have1 while in human bodies1 imitated the life of the gods1 there is an easy return to the beings from whose abode they descended to the earth40 ,in the same way ,virgil1 as we have said elsewhere1#cfe is apparently faithful to the traditional topography of ,hades1 but does not regard it as really situated in the underground4 ,there were even attempts to fix precisely the itinerary which souls had to follow in the upper spheres4 ,seneca pleasantly ridicules these beliefs in his satire on the apotheosis of ,claudius1 affirming that emperors went to heaven by the ,appian ,way4 ,the ,milky ,way1 originally regarded as the path of the sun1 remained1 according to an opinion which persisted until the end of antiquity1 the road by which gods and heroes rose to the zenith4#cff ,it was said to cut the zodiac in the tropical signs of ,cancer and ,capricorn1 and it was there that those gates opened by which souls went down from heaven to earth and rose from earth to heaven4#cfg ,the former of these gates was called the ,gate of ,men1 the other the ,gate of ,gods4 ,we will return later 7p4 #afb7 to the theories which assign different dwellings in the starry spheres to pure spirits and tell of their passing through the celestial gates4 ,we would merely note that the allegory of the two roads1 of which one is the road of ,god and heaven and eternal life and the other that of ,satan1 hell and death1 is found in the most ancient ,christian literature1 and is justifiably likened by ,lactantius#cfh to the ,pythagorean ,y1 which is at the origin of all the later symbolism4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but when the idea of a journey to the underworld had been transformed into that of a journey to heaven1 how was the power of the dead to reach the upper spheres explained8 ,what force or what vehicle raised them thither8 ,originally they made use of all the means of locomotion4 ,they went on foot1 in a ship1 in a carriage1 on horseback1 and even had recourse to aviation4 ,among the ancient ,egyptians the firmament was conceived as being so close to the mountains of the earth that it was possible to get up to it with the aid of a ladder4 ,the early texts of the ,pyramids describe the gods helping the king to climb the last rungs of the ladder1 when he ascended to their high dwelling4 ,such ideas are found elsewhere1 among the ,chinese as well as in ,europe4 ,we are told that a priest-king of a people of ,thrace joined tall wooden ladders together in order that he might go to ,hera to complain of his unruly subjects4#cfi ,although the stars had been relegated to an infinite distance in space1 the ladder still survived in ,roman paganism as an amulet and as a symbol4 ,many people continued to place in tombs a small bronze ladder1 which recalled the nave beliefs of distant ages4 ,this means of attaining to the upper world has been given to the dead man in several graves of the ,rhine border4 ,in the mysteries of ,mithras a ladder of seven steps1 made of seven different metals1 still symbolised the passage of the soul across the planetary spheres4#cgj ,philo1 and after him ,origen1#cga interpreted ,jacob's ladder as the air through which the disincarnate souls ascended and descended2 and the patriarch's dream in the symbolism of the ,middle ,ages was still considered as a pledge of the ladder of salvation leading the elect to heaven4 ,a nave miniature of the illustrated manuscripts of ,st4 ,john ,climacus--one of them is preserved in the ,freer collection--shows monks climbing the heavenly ladder of virtues and welcomed at the top by ,christ or by an angel1 while winged demons try to pull them down and make them fall into the jaws of a dragon below1 which represents hell4#cgb ,on the other hand1 even in antiquity the emblem of the ladder had been adopted by magic1#cgc which retained it throughout the centuries1 and to this day little ladders are sold in ,naples as charms against the jettatura or evil eye4 ,in ,egypt the souls also travelled to the dwelling of the gods in the boat of ,ra1 the solar deity4 ,this idea does not seem to have passed into the mysteries of ,isis in the ,west but in the ,east it was retained by the ,manicheans4 ,the moon and the sun were the ships which plied through the heavenly spaces carrying the luminous spirits4#cgd ,for the ,greeks it was to the ,islands of the ,blest1 situated somewhere in the distant ocean1 that ships transported the dead4 ,this crossing of the sea1 peopled by monsters of the deep1 was one of the favourite subjects of the decorators of ,roman sarcophagi4 ,but under the ,empire the ,fortunate ,islands1 we know1#cge were often explained as being the moon and the sun1 washed by the ether1 and it was therefore to the moon that the bark of salvation had to bear souls across the stormy waters of matter4 ,the ,styx had become a celestial or aerial river2 ,charon1 with the help of the winds1 caused pious souls to pass not to the subterranean world but to the heavenly dwelling of heroes4#cgf ,the bark which should bear the ,blessed to the abode of delight1 where they would live together1 is often represented in funeral sculpture1#cgg and continued to be in ,christian art1 the symbol of a happy passage to the shores of ,paradise4 ,epitaphs sometimes cause the passer-by to wish the dead 810 8,a happy voyage60#cgh ,the ,etruscan tombs often show the dead man on horseback on the road of the underworld1 and in early ,greek tombs terra cotta shoes and horses have been discovered which were intended to make easier the long and dangerous journey to the country whence there is no return4 ,but in order that a rider may win to heaven his horse must be provided with strong wings4 ,primitively these wings were probably intended to indicate only the swiftness of this mythical steed4#cgi ,but in ,roman times they undoubtedly meant that it could fly up to the sky4 ,the great ,paris cameo1 said to represent the apotheosis of ,augustus1 shows a prince of his house1 ,germanicus or perhaps ,marcellus1 thus borne away by a winged courser4#chj ,there is a similar representation on a coin which commemorates the apotheosis of an empress1 probably ,faustina4 ,the same ,pegasus1 who probably has nothing in common with ,bellerophon's steed1 appears again on a fragment of a relief recently discovered in ,england at ,corstopitum 7,corbridge-on-,tyne74#cha ,he is carrying off a personage1 probably an emperor1 who wears the paludamentum or military cloak and has his head bound with a radiate crown1 on either side of whom are the ,dioscuri1 the symbols of the two celestial hemispheres4 ,the dead are mounted on ,pegasus because he was brought into relation with the ,sun1 who is the creator and saviour of souls4 ,for the same reason1 because he was the sacred animal of ,apollo1 the gryphon served this purpose4 ,thus in the medallion which decorates the stucco vault of a tomb on the ,latin ,way this winged monster carries on his strong back a veiled figure1 covered with a long garment1 who can be no other than the shade of the dead man wrapped in the shroud4#chb ,throughout antiquity1 however1 the departed travelled most frequently in a chariot1 which had in the ,roman period become the chariot of the ,sun-god4#chc ,the idea that the divine charioteer drives a team across the heavenly field existed in very early times in ,babylon and ,syria1 as well as in ,persia and in ,greece4 8,the horses of fire and the chariot of fire0 which carried up the prophet ,elijah in a whirlwind#chd are very probably the horses and the chariot of the ,sun4 ,in the same way when ,mithras' mission on earth was fulfilled1 he was conveyed in the chariot of ,helios to the celestial spheres over the ocean1 as we see on the reliefs found in his temples1 and the happy lot which the hero had won for himself he granted also to his followers4 ,the emperors in particular were commonly reputed to become companions of the ,sun-god after death1 as they had been under his protection in life1 and to drive with him up to the summit of the eternal vaults4 ,according to a papyrus recently found in ,egypt1#che ,phoebus1 when informing the people of the death of ,trajan and the accession of ,hadrian1 stated in set terms1 8,i have just risen with ,trajan on a car drawn by white horses1 and ,i come to you1 ,o people1 to announce that a new prince1 ,hadrian1 has made all things subject to him1 by his virtue and by the fortune of his divine father40 ,the writers and the figured monuments show us other deified rulers winning to heaven in a similar way4 ,at the very end of paganism an oracle1 addressing ,julian the ,apostate1 predicted that he would be 8conducted to ,olympus in a flaming chariot shaken by stormy whirlwinds1 and would reach the paternal palace of ethereal light40#chf ,it was not only princes who were privileged to be drawn by the swift team of the royal star4 ,the chariot appears on tombs of very humble persons to suggest their lot in after life4#chg ,yet more rapid was another method of mounting up to the stars4 ,among all the peoples of the eastern ,mediterranean basin the idea was anciently spread that the essence or the spirit which animates man escapes from the body in the shape of a bird1 especially a bird of prey1 for in order not to perish this soul must feed on blood1 the principle of life4 ,the gravestones and funeral vases of ,greece give us a large number of representations of the bird-soul4#chh ,in the ,roman period vestiges of this conception persisted4 ,in ,syria an eagle with spread wings occupies on tombs the place filled elsewhere by the portrait of the dead man4#chi ,magic had retained this ancient belief with not a few others1 for superstition picks up many ideas that have dropped out with the progress of religion4 ,sorcerers asserted that they could cause wings to grow from the backs of their dupes1 so as to enable them to soar up to heaven4 ,one of the marvels which miracle-mongers most frequently boasted of working was that of ascending into the air4 ,the phenomena of levitation are said to be produced at all periods4 ,when writers tell us that the pure soul 8flies away0 to the sky on swift wings1 the expression1 which since ,plato#cij has been often repeated1 and is still in use nowadays1 is no mere metaphor but rather a traditional expression1 first taken in its material sense and preserved in language1 ultimately acquiring a figurative meaning4 ,a late epigram composed on ,plato's burial place#cia says3 8,eagle1 why art thou perched above this tomb and why dost thou look at the gods' starry dwelling8--,i am the image of ,plato's soul who has flown away to ,olympus4 ,the earth of ,attica holds his earth-born body40 ,lucian in his ,icaromenippus ridiculed the claims of the philosophers1 showing ,menippus attaching wings to his shoulders in order that he might take his flight to the stars and thus learn the secrets of the world4 ,the original idea of the bird-soul was transformed into that of the soul lifted aloft by a bird4 ,it was in ,syria that this change took place4#cib ,a widely held belief in the ,roman period was that the soul was carried away by an eagle1 which in ,syria was the bird of the sun4 ,the sun being conceived as a winged disk which flew through the celestial spaces could easily be connected with an eagle4 ,the king of birds was the servant or the incarnation of the star-king1 to whom he bore his precious burden4 ,this is why an eagle1 preparing for flight and holding the crown of victory1 is a usual motif of sepulchral decoration at ,hierapolis and throughout northern ,syria4 ,the powerful bird of prey lifted not with his claws1 as he did ,ganymede1 but on his back1 mortals who rose to heaven4 ,this soul-bearing eagle passed to ,italy with the ceremonial of the apotheosis4 ,at the funeral rites of emperors at ,rome there was always fastened to the top of the pyre1 on which the corpse was to be consumed1 an eagle which was supposed to bear aloft the monarch's soul1 and art frequently represents the busts of the ,caesars resting on an eagle in the act of taking flight1 by way of suggesting their apotheosis4 ,the eagle1 which is the bird of the ,baals1 solar gods1 carries to his master those who have been his servants and representatives in the world below4 ,this kind of aviation was not peculiar to monarchs4 ,the eagle often has this meaning in funeral art4 ,i will instance a stele1 found in ,rome and preserved in the museum of ,copenhagen4#cic ,on this a young man1 draped in a toga1 is comfortably seated on an eagle1 which is rising to the sky2 to his right a winged child1 bearing a torch1 seems to point out the way to him4 ,it is ,phosphorus1 the morning star1 whom ,roman art often represented in this form1 before the chariot of the ,sun4 ,an altar recalls the cult of which the dead man will henceforth be the object on earth1 and a wreath on the pediment stands for the victory which he has won over death4 ,all these supposed methods of reaching heaven are most primitive3 they start from the supposition that a load has to be lifted up2 they hardly imply a separation of body and soul2 and they are antecedent to the distinctions which philosophers established between different parts of man's being4 ,they are religious survivals of very ancient conceptions which only vulgar minds still interpreted literally4 ,these mechanical means of raising oneself to the starry vault carry us back to an extremely low stage of beliefs4 ,hence theologians no longer accepted them save as symbols4 ,other doctrines of a more advanced character were developed and these constituted the true teaching of the great ,oriental mysteries1 just as they had secured the adhesion of thinking men4 ,they connected the ascent of the soul after death with physical and ethical theories and thus caused sidereal immortality to enter into the order of the universe4#cid ,the first of these theories was that of solar attraction4 ,we have already described the doctrine1 certainly of eastern origin1 that the sun by a series of emissions and absorptions projected souls onto the earth and drew them back to itself4#cie ,this unceasing action of the resplendent luminary of day was exercised through the force of its rays1#cif and very old ,greek ideas here mingled with the 8,chaldean0 theory4 ,the ,pythagoreans already believed that the glittering particles of dust which danced ceaselessly in a sunbeam 77 were souls descending from the ether borne on the wings of light4 ,the air1 they said1 was 8full of souls10 we might say 8of germs0 or 8microbes40#cig ,they added that this sunbeam1 passing through the air and through water down to the depths of the sea1 gave life to all things below4#cih ,this idea persisted under the ,roman ,empire in the theology of the mysteries4 ,souls descended upon the earth and reascended after death towards the sky1 thanks to the slanting rays of the sun which served as the means of transport4 ,the sun is the 1 8he who brings up from below40 ,on ,mithraic reliefs one of the seven rays which surround the head of ,sol ,invictus 7 7 is seen disproportionately prolonged towards the dying ,bull1 in order to awake the new life that is to spring from the death of the cosmogonic animal4 8,the ,sun10 says the ,emperor ,julian1 8by the invisible1 immaterial1 divine and pure essence which dwells in its rays1 attracts and raises the blessed souls40#cii ,in this theory it is to the power of the ,sun1 the great cosmic divinity1 that the ascension of the soul is due4 ,according to another doctrine the cause of this ascension is the physical nature of the soul4 ,this latter doctrine is set forth with great precision by ,cicero in the ,tusculan ,disputations1 and by ,sextus ,empiricus1 doubtless after ,posidonius4#djj ,the soul is a fiery breath1 that is to say1 its substance is the lightest of the four elements which compose our universe4 ,it necessarily therefore has a tendency to rise1 for it is warmer and more subtle than the gross and dense air which encircles the earth4 ,it will the more easily cleave this heavy atmosphere since nothing moves more rapidly than a spirit4 ,it must therefore in its continuous ascent pass through that zone of sky where gather the clouds and the rain and where blow the winds1#dja and which by reason of exhalations from the earth is moist and misty4 ,when finally it reaches the spaces filled by an air which is rarefied and warmed by the sun1 it finds elements similar to its own substance and1 ceasing to ascend1 is maintained in equilibrium4#djb ,henceforth it dwells in these regions which are its natural home1 continually vivified by the same principles as those that feed the everlasting fires of the stars4 ,we shall presently see how the ,platonists modified this ,stoic doctrine1 and substituted that of the 8vehicle0 77 of souls4 ,these theories made it easier than the first one had done to establish a firm connection between ethical beliefs concerning future destiny and physical theories about the constitution of the universe and the nature of man4 ,the soul is never conceived by these theologians as purely spiritual or immaterial1 but when it abandons itself to the passions it becomes gross2 its substance grows more corporeal2 and then it is too heavy to rise to the stars and gain the spheres of light4#djc ,its mere density will compel it to float in our mephitic atmosphere until it has been purified and consequently lightened4 ,thus the door is opened to all doctrines concerning punishment beyond the grave4 ,we shall show in another lecture#djd how the soul was to be purified by passing through the elements which moved in sublunary space--air1 water and fire4 ,but1 side by side with physical ideas1 mythological beliefs always retained their sway4 ,according to the common creed1 the air was peopled with troops of perverse and subtle demons4 ,they were1 it was thought1 the guilty souls whose faults condemned them to wander perpetually near the surface of the earth4 ,they took pleasure in inflicting a thousand tortures on their fellow souls1 when these1 by their impiety1 were left defenceless against them4 ,but succouring powers protected the good against these perverse spirits4 ,thus the atmosphere became the scene of an unceasing struggle between demons of every kind1 a struggle in which the salvation of the soul was at stake4 ,the dangers to which the soul was exposed did not always end when1 after having crossed the most dangerous zone of the air1 it reached the moon4#dje ,those who believed that souls must pass through the planetary spheres conceived these as pierced by a gate guarded by a commander 77 or1 as they were also called1 by toll gatherers 774 ,the mystics claimed to supply their initiates with the passwords which caused the incorruptible keepers to yield4 ,they taught prayers or incantations which rendered hostile powers propitious2 by 8seals0 and unctions they made their followers immune against the blows of such enemies4 ,these instructions1 which were previously given to the dead in order to facilitate their descent to the nether world 7p4 #adh71 now served to make the ascent to heaven easy4 ,in this matter the magicians emulated the priests1 even claiming to show to their clients the way leading to heaven during life4 ,the papyrus of ,paris1 wrongly called the 8,mithraic ,liturgy10#djf affords the most characteristic example of this superstitious literature4 ,but1 above all1 the secret cults claimed to supply the soul with a guide to lead it during its risky journey through the whirlwinds of air1 water and fire and the moving spheres of heaven4 ,plato in the ,phaedo had already spoken of this demon leader 77 of the dead1#djg and the same word is applied to the 8psychopompos10 whether demon1 angel or god1 not only by ,neo-,platonist philosophers but also in epitaphs4 ,thus the funeral inscription of a sailor1 who died at ,marseilles1#djh says3 8,among the dead there are two companies2 one moves upon the earth1 the other in the ether among the choruses of stars4 ,i belong to the latter1 for ,i have obtained a god for my guide40 ,this divine escort of souls frequently retains the name of ,hermes in conformity with the old mythology1 for ,hermes is the ,psychopompos who leads the shades to their subterranean abode and moreover summons them and brings them back1 in another migration1 to the earth4 ,an epigram belonging to the first century of our era apostrophises the deceased with these words3 8,hermes of the winged feet1 taking thee by the hand1 has conducted thee to ,olympus and made thee to shine among the stars40#dji ,but often the rle of escort devolved on the ,sun himself4 ,we have seen 7p4 #aeg7 that at the end of paganism the star-king is figured as carrying mortals in his flying chariot2 and the emperor ,julian1 at the end of his satire on the ,caesars1 represents himself as addressed by ,hermes1 who states that in causing him to know ,mithras he rendered propitious to him this leader-god 7 71 who will enable him to leave the earth with the hope of a better lot4 ,in these beliefs we see persisting to the end of paganism the old conception that heroes could be carried off to heaven1 body and soul4#daj ,it was never entirely given up by popular faith1 and appears notably in ideas as to the apotheosis of the emperors1 although learned theology rose in arms against it and affirmed that nothing terrestrial could be admitted into the ethereal spheres4 ,antinous and ,apollonius of ,tyana are thus said to have been borne away and to have continued without interruption the life they had begun on earth4#daa 99 99 99 99 99 ,we are thus brought to ask ourselves how1 at the very time when the conception of the journey of the dead was being transformed1 the idea entertained as to the physical character of the dead also underwent a change4 ,let us1 in conclusion1 seek briefly to trace the course of this evolution4 ,originally1 as we said at the beginning of these lectures1 two beliefs as to life beyond the grave existed together4 ,on the one hand1 the illusion was kept that the corpse which lay in the grave continued in some obscure way to live1 feel and nourish itself there4 ,side by side with this simple faith the idea was maintained that the soul is a breath1 emitted by the dying man1 which floats in the atmosphere and which reproduces1 when it makes itself visible in dreams and apparitions or in remembrance1 the outward appearance of the person from whom it issued4#dab ,these two conceptions of life beyond the grave are combined in the nature with which the inhabitants of the infernal regions are credited1 and give these fantastic beings a character full of contradictions4 ,cicero justly remarks that acts are attributed to them which would be conceivable only if they had bodies4 ,thus they are supposed to speak1 although they have neither tongue1 palate1 throats nor lungs4#dac ,the common belief was indeed that the shades fed1 even in their deep abode1 on the offerings made on their burial places2 and the pains which might be inflicted on them presupposed that they had retained the sensibility and needs of men2 while the pleasures accorded to them in the ,elysian ,fields were in part very material--to participate in a banquet was an essential part of them4#dad ,hence1 when the dead showed themselves1 they were sometimes given the appearance not of the living being but of the corpse3 it was the body1 as it was when buried1 which issued from the entrails of the earth4 ,ennius1 when he showed ,homer appearing to him in a dream1 said that the shades were 8of prodigious paleness10#dae and the idea is often expressed that ghosts are bloodless in colour4 ,not only are their faces wan3 their mouths are mute2 they are the taciti1 the silent ,manes4 ,much more1 it is sometimes in the form of skeletons that they return to terrify men4 ,the most usual way of figuring the soul in funeral sculpture is to show a person completely wrapped1 save for his face1 in a long garment1 the shroud in which his body was buried4#daf ,but on the other hand1 side by side with this more or less unconscious belief as to a survival of the body1 the soul continued to be regarded as a light breath4 ,the beings who peopled the infernal regions were imagined as almost immaterial forms4 ,they were called 8shades0 71 umbrae7 or 8images0 71 simulacra74 ,the former term implies1 besides the idea of a subtle essence1 the notion that the inhabitants of the dusky spaces underground were black1 and this is in fact the colour often given to them4 ,it is also the colour of the victims offered them and of the mourning garments worn in their honour4 ,these sombre phantoms1 which passed unnoticed in the darkness of night1 returned after the sunset to haunt the houses of men1 and this is why the ,inferi or beings of the nether world are above all appeased by nocturnal sacrifices4 ,the words 1 simulacrum1 imago1 especially express the complete resemblance of the dead to the living4 ,are not the beings who return to talk with us in dreams exactly like the persons we have known8 ,this tenuous image was compared to the reflection seen on limpid waters or on the polished surface of metal4#dag ,both alike reproduced the features and colour and imitated the movements of those whom they faithfully expressed4 ,this is why magicians often made use of mirrors in order to evoke the spirits of the departed4#dah ,as to the nature of these simulacra1 the ancients agree in declaring them to be material1 for how otherwise could they convey sensual impressions8 ,but their substance is of an extreme subtlety4 ,they are forms which are corporeal but empty1 flimsy1 impalpable1 often of such rarity that they remain invisible4 ,they are compared to the wind1 for the wind is the air in motion1 to a vapour1 to a smoke which escapes so soon as its restraint is attempted4 ,this shade1 formed of a light fluid1 has a form which is necessarily malleable and yielding4 ,the fact is thus explained that souls can take on various appearances and sometimes let themselves be seen as terrible monsters1 especially if they are the souls of criminals who have become maleficent spirits4#dai ,heroes1 on the contrary1 whose virtue has enabled them to be borne to heaven1 appear to be of more than natural stature when they descend from the ether2 they are surrounded by a radiant nimbus1 and their resplendent beauty strikes with admiration those who perceive them4 ,but here the ancients were faced with the question as to whether that part of the human composition which won to heaven was the same as that which descended to the infernal regions4 ,as to this puzzling question there arose in the ,alexandrian period a theory unknown to ancient ,greece1--we have already touched on this point#dbj--the theory that man is formed not of two elements but of three1 namely1 the soul 71 anima71 the shade 71 1 umbra1 simulacrum7 and the body 71 corpus74 ,this doctrine claimed to be justified by a passage in ,homer1 in fact an interpolation1 as to the apotheosis of ,hercules1 but it was manifestly borrowed from ,egyptian religion by the ,pythagoreans of ,alexandria4 ,for ,egyptian religion is 8polypsychic0 and distinguishes different kinds of souls4 ,so the ka or 8,double0 has been explained as a living and coloured projection of the individual whom it reproduced feature by feature1 which inhabited the tomb1 but could leave it and return to it as freely as a man to his house4 ,the ba1 on the other hand1 is thought to be a more refined matter which enclosed a portion of the celestial fire and which departed to another world4 ,certain ,alexandrian ,pythagoreans therefore admitted that when the soul was not entirely purified1 it remained joined to its idolon in the infernal regions1 which were for them situated in the atmosphere1 but they held that when it had entirely freed itself from matter it rose towards the ether1 and left only the idolon in the neighbourhood of the earth4#dba ,this theory was to be variously transformed1 but it is at the foundation of all the subsequent development of the doctrines as to the return of the soul to heaven4 ,the triple division most usually adopted is not the one ,i have just cited but the division into reason 7 or 71 soul 77 and body4 ,what becomes in this case of the image 778 ,the theologians assimilated it to the irrational soul or 1 as opposed to the higher understanding4 ,this image thus became the seat not only of vegetative and unconscious life--a theory which would be in conformity with the ,homeric sense of the word--but also of sensitive and emotional life4 ,this soul or shade at first remained united to the nous1 which it surrounded with its vaporous envelope4 ,even after it had left the earthly body1 reason was still imprisoned in an aerial body3 the two dwelt in the infernal regions1 that is1 in sublunary space1 until they had been purified by the elements4 ,they then1 as we have seen elsewhere1#dbb left the atmospheric ,hades in order to be admitted into the ,elysian ,fields1 that is to say1 into the moon4 ,there the thin veils in which reason was still wrapped were dissolved4 ,reason1 a sublime essence1 rose again towards the sun and the higher spheres4 ,so the shades of the old mythology had become a garment of which reason rid itself1 when it left this lower world to attain to its celestial home4 ,but the theologians disputed at length on the origin of this psychic integument4 ,when it was admitted that the passions and emotions were due to the action of the planets1 the 1 being conceived1 as we have said1 to be the seat of sensitive life1 had necessarily to be formed in the seven spheres1 through which the soul passed as it descended to earth1 and to be decomposed when it passed through them again in its ascension4#dbc ,this is the doctrine supported by the ,neo-,platonists4 ,they merely apply a new name to this cloak of reason1 that of vehicle 771 which is at first synonymous with as this word was last accepted4 ,plato in his myths had several times spoken of the chariot 77 in which souls ascended1 especially in the famous passage of the ,phaedrus1 where he depicted them as trying to follow the course of the gods towards the summit of heaven1#dbd and above all in the ,timaeus1 where he says that ,god1 having made men equal in number to the stars1 caused them to mount on these stars as on a chariot4#dbe ,this vehicle was1 according to the philosopher's late interpreters1 an ethereal envelope1 analogous to the 8astral body0 of modern theosophists1 which grew thicker and thicker by the accession of new elements1 as the soul was gradually lowered to the earth2#dbf and it was by the composition of these elements that the temperament of the newly born child was determined4 ,this luminous body was attracted after death by stars of the same nature as those whence it derived its origin1 and in particular by the sun1 and it thus acquired a force of ascension which once again bore divine reason to the highest point of the heavens4 ,we will not lay stress on the speculation of the last masters of the school1 such as ,jamblichus or ,proclus1 who imagined1 on the subject of this subtle matter1 yet more subtle distinctions and transformed the former conception of the 8vehicle40 ,it is enough that we have shown how the old belief in the shades who peopled ,hades was modified1 when it came to be thought that souls travelled in the air and among the constellations1 until at last the ,platonist theory of the psychic vehicle was reached4 ,,vii ,,the ,,sufferings ,,of ,,hell ,,and ,,metempsychosis ,how did belief in the sufferings of hell develop8 of what elements was it formed8 through what vicissitudes has it passed8--these are questions which it is difficult to answer precisely1 for the reason that the pains reserved for the impious in the ,beyond were in the ,greco-,latin world taught especially by mystic sects1 who placed them in contrast to the bliss granted to the initiate4 ,it is possible1 however1 to note the genesis and general evolution of the opinions on this point which reigned in the ,roman ,empire4 ,already in the ,odyssey three who are surpassingly guilty detach themselves from the grey crowd of the shades who lead an uncertain life in ,hades--,tityus1 ,tantalus and ,sisyphus4#dbg ,all three committed grave assaults on the gods1 who in revenge condemned them to eternal torture3 the gigantic body of ,tityus is unceasingly gnawed by vultures2 ,tantalus is plunged in a pond the water of which flees from his eager lips1 while above him is a tree of which the fruit escapes from his hand as he wishes to seize it2 ,sisyphus unendingly rolls to the top of a hill a rock which always tumbles back down the slope4 ,these souls1 in order that their suffering may be more cruelly felt1 have in ,hades a vitality beyond that of the common run of the dead1 who are pale1 flimsy1 half animate phantoms4#dbh ,to this ,homeric triad of sufferers especially chastised by the divinity1 further unhappy souls1 whom an inexpiable crime had vowed to everlasting pains1 were afterwards added3 ,ixion turning on the wheel to which he was fixed1 ,theseus and ,pirithous enchained1 the ,danades carrying water in a leaking vessel1 and others4 ,thus was formed a group of legendary personalities whose crimes and punishments came to be the traditional themes of every description and representation of ,tartarus in poetry and art until the downfall of paganism4 ,but these convicted souls were no longer conceived1 as they were by ,homer1 to be exceptional offenders on whom the gods avenged a personal insult4 ,they had come to be the prototypes of men who1 for like faults1 would be similarly chastised1 the terrible examples of the lot which divine wrath reserved for all who provoked it4 ,they were explained as the incarnations of the different passions and vices1 the representatives of the various classes of sinners on each of which a determined punishment was inflicted4 ,the first authors of this new conception seem to have been the ,orphic and ,pythagorean theologians4 ,homer names only one class of criminals whom the ,erinyes torture beneath the ground1 the perjurers4 ,but here again the motive of the punishment is a direct provocation of the gods2 by the formula of execration which ended their oath1 the perjurers had surrendered themselves to divine vengeance1 if they broke their faith2 and this is why a place apart among the sufferers of the underworld was always kept for them4 ,the ,orphics1 who were the first to separate in the underworld the region of ,tartarus from the ,elysian ,fields1 were also innovators as regarded the character of these contrasting dwelling-places4 ,notably1 there was among their books a ,descent into ,hades 7 71 which described its joys and pains4 ,if the blessed were admitted to the flowery meadows where they enjoyed the delight of a perpetual feast1 the profane1 those who had not been purified by the rites of the sect1 were plunged in darkness and mire1 which was either intended to recall the moral uncleanness of all who had not taken part in the cathartic ceremonies1 or else implied that these shades were figured like the penitents who1 seated in the mud of the road1 proclaimed their sins to passers-by4#dbi ,orphism conceived the suffering undergone beyond the tomb as an expiation4 ,the soul which had not been able on earth to keep itself from the pollution of matter and to escape from the passions1 thus found again the qualities which it had lost4 ,after a fixed term1 it returned to another life wherein it had another chance to render itself worthy of the lot of the ,blessed--we shall speak presently of this transmigration4 ,moreover1 the intercession of the living in favour of the dead1 the sacrifices offered up on their behalf1 could1 according to the ,orphics1 deliver them from their pains4 ,but the ,orphics taught also that side by side with those who thus purified themselves in infernal regions before returning to earth1 there were others1 more guilty1 who were vowed to eternal punishment4 ,the old ,homeric belief was thus taken up and developed4 ,the evil souls1 whose ways nothing could mend1 were immured for ever in the underground prison1 where they became the companions of the great criminals whom mythology plunged in ,tartarus4 ,this capital distinction between the two classes of the inhabitants of hell1 those condemned for a time and those condemned in perpetuity1 was transmitted down to ,virgil and appears distinctly in the ,aeneid4 ,infernal justice is a court of appeal from earthly justice4 ,like the ,city1#dcj ,hades has its tribunal1 but the judges who sit there are infallible2 it has its laws which are unremittingly applied to whoever has broken those of his country2 it has its executioners1 responsible for carrying out its sentences--the ,furies1 and later the demons4 ,similarly1 the pains of ,hades are always conceived as an imitation of those which were every day inflicted on criminals4 ,the guilty were bound in unbreakable chains1 as in the prisons2 the ,erinyes struck them with their whips1 as they were flogged at the order of the magistrates2 fierce monsters bit them1 as their bodies were thrown to the beasts or devoured by them in an infamous charnel-place4 ,the old custom of retaliation continued to be followed in the other world1 where the dead were treated as in life they had treated their victims4#dca ,elsewhere we can recognise an imitation of the torments inflicted on the accused1 who were subjected to torture to make them confess their fault4 ,penal law enacted a determined punishment for every kind of offence2 the law which ruled in ,hades had similarly to inflict particular pains for each kind of fault4 ,this logical deduction led to a new development of penalties beyond the grave4 ,as gradually the moralists and criminalists detailed and classified the breaches of divine and human law1 so the authors of apocalypses multiplied the categories of those who suffered in the nether world4 ,they imagined the most fearful tortures1 in order to frighten sinners and drive them to seek in some religious purification a means of escape from so terrible a lot4 ,in a myth which ,plutarch has introduced into his book on the belated vengeance of the gods1#dcb he shows us hypocrites1 who have hidden their wretchedness under the appearance of virtue1 obliged to reverse their entrails so that the inner side of them may be seen1 haters who devour each other1 and misers plunged into and plucked out from lakes of burning gold1 icy lead and jagged iron4 ,the text which describes these sufferings of the other world in greatest detail is the fragment of the apocryphal apocalypse of ,peter1 which was found in ,egypt some thirty years ago and dates at least from the second century of our era4 ,the vision of hell here opposed to that of heaven is like a first sketch for the tragic picture of the dwelling of the damned which ,dante was to draw in his ,inferno4 ,the fragment enumerates a long series of criminals who are punished by black-robed angels and receive the treatment appropriate to the nature of their faults4 ,blasphemers are hanged by the tongue2 the mouths of false witnesses are filled with fire2 the rich who have been merciless to the poor roll1 clothed in rags1 on sharp and burning pebbles4 ,other tortures are like the sports of macabre fancy3 thus adulterers are hanged by the feet1 their heads plunged in burning mud2 murderers are flung into a cave filled with serpents that bite them1 the shades of their victims watching their anguish4 ,a learned philologist#dcc has undertaken to prove that this repulsive picture of the dwelling of the damned had its origin in the ,orphic books4 ,if1 however1 he refers to ancient1 genuine ,orphism1 he is certainly mistaken4 ,the light fantasy of the ancient ,greeks never laid heavy stress on the horrors of ,tartarus2 their luminous genius took no pleasure in describing these dark atrocities4#dcd ,there is no evidence that they ever formulated1 point by point1 a penal code which applied in the kingdom of ,pluto4 ,the ,romans1 whose legal mind might have led them to do so1 were kept from such aberrations by their lack of imagination4 ,their infernal mythology remained rudimentary3 even ,virgil1 who is the interpreter of the ,hellenic tradition1 never alluded except in passing to the infinitely diverse forms of crimes and their punishments4#dce ,the ,etruscans peopled the infernal regions with awful monsters3 they gave ,charon and the ,erinyes a wild semblance which recalls the devils of the ,middle ,ages1 but we never find them drawing up an inventory of the breaches of the moral law in order that a punishment might be applied to each of these4 ,everything points to the conclusion that this infernal theology developed in the ,east4 ,the ,egyptians described at length in the 8,book of the ,dead0 the pains of those who despised the precepts of ,osiris1 and illustrated these sufferings with pictures4 ,the only pagan writing in which we find a classification of sinners and of their torments1 analogous to that contained in the revelation of the apocryphal gospel of ,peter1 is the ,mazdean 8,book of ,arta ,viraf10 which1 although of late date1 has antecedents which certainly go back very far4 ,the ,persian religion1 which more than any other brings the ,spirit of ,evil and his hordes of demons into relief1 was certainly not unconnected with the development of infernal eschatology1 even in the ,west1 as is indicated by the fact that these demons succeeded the ,furies as executors of the divine sentences4 ,it was under the influence of these exotic religions that the descriptions were propagated of refined tortures1 terrifying to the adepts of the conventicles in which they were revealed4 ,the mysteries which spread under the ,roman ,empire accentuated the contrast between the delights of heaven and the sufferings of hell4 ,these esoteric sects gave birth to the literature which was to be perpetuated through the ,middle ,ages1 and inspire numbers of visionaries1 poets and artists4 ,certain authors of treatises on demonology in antiquity must have revelled in inventing unheard-of atrocities1 as later the hagiographers took pleasure in describing the inconceivable torments inflicted on martyrs4 ,among all the forms of punishment that by fire predominates4 ,the idea that the ,erinyes burnt the damned with their torches is ancient1 and the ,pyriphlegethon is an igneous river surrounding ,tartarus4 ,certain authors went beyond this4 ,lucian in his 8,true ,histories0 describes the island of the impious as an immense brazier whence rise sulphurous and pitchy flames4 ,thus was born into the world in the ,greco-,roman period a doctrine which was to survive its fall and last to modern times4 ,the ancients certainly connected this infernal fire with the treatment inflicted on those condemned to be burnt alive2 but this exceptional punishment could not inspire an eschatological conception which included all the dead4 ,the opinion has been advanced that the choice of fire was due to the belief that this element purifies4#dcf ,fire would have been at first the means of destroying1 in the ,beyond as in this world1 the uncleanliness of souls1 before it became the instrument of their eternal torture4 ,but a scientific theory seems here to have influenced religious faith4 ,the physicians admitted the existence of an incandescent mass in the interior of the earth1 which produced volcanic eruptions and hot springs4 ,as ,tartarus was situated in the uttermost depths of the underworld1 it was conceived as a vast brazier in which the sulphur and bitumen vomited by the volcanoes were boiling for the punishment of sinners4#dcg ,but this adaptation of the pains of ,tartarus to contemporary physics could not save them from philosophical criticism4 ,while the pagan priests1 to the terror of credulous minds1 imagined more and more inhuman punishments for the guilty souls1 the reaction of reason against these cruel inventions necessarily gathered strength4 ,we have seen elsewhere how the polemics of philosophers forcibly attacked these life-poisoning beliefs and succeeded in a great measure in destroying them4#dch ,even those who did not deny the future life rejected these fables of hell4 ,there was an attempt to save the principle of posthumous retribution by replacing the doctrine of chastisement in ,hades by that of the metempsychosis4 ,we now will try1 while considering this theory of transmigration in its various aspects1 to show how such substitution was effected4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the mind of savages does not1 like our science1 distinguish between three kingdoms of nature4 ,it supposes the same energy to animate all the beings who surround us1 all of whom are taken to be like ourselves4 ,the primitives often attribute human or even divine intelligence to beasts2 and the belief is found throughout the two hemispheres that the spirits of the dead can incarnate themselves in animals and even lodge in plants4 ,men refrain from the slaughter or gathering of certain species1 from eating their flesh or fruit1 for fear of hurting a chief or relative who has gone to inhabit them4 ,this animistic basis is common to a number of different peoples and is at the foundation of the system of metempsychosis4 ,but that which makes the grandeur of this theory1 which won countless adepts throughout the centuries and the world1 is that it transformed this nave idea1 which had no moral bearing1 into a doctrine of retribution and liberation4 ,to come back to the earth1 to imprison itself in a body which soiled and tortured it1 became a punishment inflicted on the guilty soul4 ,the soul could not attain to supreme felicity until it had purified itself by long suffering and had gradually1 through a cycle of rebirths1 freed itself from carnal passions4 ,it is infinitely probable that this doctrine of reincarnation in the bodies of animals was in ,greece a foreign importation4 ,herodotus thought that it came from ,egypt1#dci but it does not seem to have existed in that country in ancient times in the form of a regular succession of transmigrations4 ,on the other hand1 ,greek metempsychosis shows a resemblance1 striking even in details1 to one of the fundamental conceptions of the religious thought of ,india1 that of samsra1 which was accepted as a dogma there long before the birth of ,buddhism4 ,the most probable opinion is that this idea made its way across the ,persian ,empire and thus reached the ,orphics and ,pythagoreans4 ,it is1 however1 not unlikely that1 like ,babylonian astrology1 ,hindu eschatology was propagated as far as ,egypt at a comparatively recent date1 that is1 about the sixth century ,b4 ,c41 and that the information given by the father of history may be at least partly correct1 ,egypt having served as an intermediary between ,india and ,greece4 ,we have not1 however1 to discuss here this problem of the origins of metempsychosis1 nor to follow the development of the doctrine in ancient ,greek philosophy4 ,in the period with which we are concerned1 it had already long been traditional in the ,pythagorean and ,platonic schools1 it was not only a philosophical theory but also a tenet admitted by several religions4 ,we can leave unanswered the questions of whether1 as the ancients affirm1 the ,druids believed in it1 being in this particular disciples of ,pythagoras1 and of whether the ,etruscans were persuaded to it by the teaching of the philosopher of ,croton4 ,it is1 however1 certain that transmigration was in the ,east an article of widely held belief4 ,we find it accepted by the mysteries of ,mithras and by ,manicheism1 and it survives to our own day in ,syria among the sects of the ,druses1#ddj the ,yezidis and the ,nosaris4#dda ,what was its form in the ,roman period1 and how was it brought into harmony with traditional or acquired ideas as to the future life8 ,the descent of the soul from heaven to earth is a fall2 the body is a grave in which this soul is buried1 a prison in which it is captive4 ,these old ,pythagorean doctrines were unceasingly renewed and repeated down to the end of antiquity4 ,but the ,orphic idea that this degradation was the chastisement for an original sin1 the consequence of a crime committed by the ,titans1 who were the authors of our race1 and that this hereditary taint of guilt had to be atoned for by their descendants1 was either entirely forgotten or else1 at the least1 hardly regarded4 ,the equally ancient conception that a bitter and cruel necessity constrained souls to incarnate themselves1 was1 on the contrary1 emphasised in consequence of the spread of astrological fatalism4 ,their alternate descent and ascent was conceived as governed by a cosmic law1 like the progress and regress of the planets4#ddb ,the cycle of eternal generation 7 7 which is eternal1 like the revolutions of the heavenly bodies1 causes mind to circulate through matter which it animates4 ,this transmigration could be conceived in various ways4 ,a first theory1 in which the influence of ,stoic pantheism can be recognised1 lays stress on the identity of individual souls with the universal soul1 of which they are particles4 ,one single divine principle awakens life in all nature4 ,it passes from being to being1 quickening their various forms1 and that which is said to be death is no more than a migration4 ,the number of the souls that people the earth is determined from the beginning2 they change their dwellings but not their essence4 ,hardly has the human soul left one body before it enters another4 ,this continuous travelling causes it to go through all the degrees of the animal hierarchy4 ,it will pass1 successively1 into a bird1 a quadruped1 a fish1 a reptile1 and then return to man4 ,this is why it is impious to devour the flesh of our 8lower brothers0 and why the sage must practise vegetarianism4 ,some thinkers1 however1 drawing logical conclusions from the admitted premises1 asserted that the life of the vegetable kingdom derived from the same migration as that of the animal kingdom and that the soul of man could enclose itself in plants4 ,it was to this teaching that ,seneca alluded when he gave the name of ,apocolocyntosis1 8,transformation to a ,pumpkin10 to his satire on the apotheosis of the emperor ,claudius4 ,this eschatological doctrine had in reality nothing in common with morality4 ,if an uninterrupted chain unites the existence of all species1 if life propagates itself fatally from man to the lower beings1 this necessity seems to exclude all hope of posthumous reward4 ,in order to bring the need of a retribution in after life into agreement with the belief in the fatal circle of migrations1 it was stated that the good entered the souls of peaceful and tame animals1 the wicked those of wild beasts4 ,this is why ,alexander of ,abonotichos predicted to a devotee that he would be in after life first a camel1 then a horse1 and end by being a great prophet like himself4#ddc ,hermes ,trismegistus even claimed to know that the just became eagles among birds1 lions among quadrupeds1 dragons among reptiles1 dolphins among fish4#ddd ,but the lot even of these privileged souls might not seem very enviable4 ,the moralists1 therefore1 relaxed the rigour of the system and exempted noble spirits from bestial degradation4 ,all souls were no longer condemned to dwell in the bodies of animals1 but only those whose low inclinations had assimilated them to brutes4 ,they inhabited the species which best conformed to their instincts4 ,thus debauchees became hogs in another life2 cowards and sluggards1 fish2 the light-minded and frivolous1 birds4#dde ,the pagan theologians ingeniously and laboriously interpreted the story of ,circe's changing the companions of ,ulysses into beasts as an allegory of metempsychosis4 ,circe became the circle of the reincarnations which were undergone by those who emptied the magic cup of pleasure1 and whence the wise ,ulysses escaped1 thanks to ,hermes1 that is1 to reason which instructed him4#ddf ,transmigration thus became less an inevitable law of nature than a punishment of the guilty4 ,but this punishment did not overtake only those who were reborn in animal shape4 ,all physical defects and moral taints1 which afflict man from his entry into the world1 were the consequence of his crimes in an earlier life4 ,the old ,pythagoreans combined the doctrine of the metempsychosis with that of the pains reserved for the wicked in a hell beneath the earth4 ,but we have seen how the belief in the tortures of ,hades was combated until it yielded and was discredited4#ddg ,metempsychosis dared to do without these incredible subterranean tortures and thereby acquired a new importance4 ,it supplied the means of maintaining the dogma of posthumous retribution without imposing a blind faith in the foolish fables of the poets3 souls were held to pass immediately from one body to another without leaving the earth1 rising or sinking in the scale of beings in accordance with their merits or demerits4 ,thus ,hades becomes our corporeal life in which we expiate the faults of a previous life4 ,the ,furies are the passions which strike us with their whips and burn us with their torches4#ddh ,the ingeniousness of the theologians found an explanation for each of the tortures described by the old mythology4 ,tantalus threatened by the rock is the man obsessed by the fear of heavenly wrath2 ,tityus1 whose entrails are devoured by vultures1 is the lover whose heart is gnawed by care2 ,sisyphus rolling his rock becomes the ambitious man who exhausts himself with vain efforts2 the ,danades carrying water in a leaking vessel1 which empties as it is filled1 are the insatiable souls who give themselves up to pleasure and never have enough of enjoyment4 ,even the old precepts of the ,pythagorean school were twisted from their ordinary meaning and became symbols of this eschatology4 ,a popular tabu1 admitted by the sect1 was formulated in the sentence1 8,if thou leave thy dwelling1 turn not round lest the ,erinyes pursue thee40 ,the first meaning of this prohibition1 which is known to the folk-lore of many places1 is that to turn round as one leaves one's house is to run the risk of being assailed by the spirits who haunt the threshold4 ,but the doctors of ,neo-,pythagorism did not thus understand the saying4 ,for them1 the dwelling was the body1 the ,erinyes the passions3 when souls left the body they must not return thither or the passions would attach themselves to them and make them their victims4#ddi 99 99 99 99 99 ,here1 however1 we touch on another form of metempsychosis4 ,the ancients make a distinction between the doctrine of reincarnation or 8reincorporation0 7translating exactly the ,greek word 71 and rebirth or palingenesis 774 ,this latter word is not here taken in the ,stoic sense of the eternal return of things1 a series of cosmic cycles in which the same phenomena are exactly reproduced4#dej ,it is used to designate a transmigration separated by intervals1 a process which is not continuous4 ,in the first kind of metempsychosis there is1 properly speaking1 no rebirth1 for the soul does not leave the earth1 but there unceasingly accomplishes its circular journey through the living world4 ,on the contrary1 according to the second theory1 it does not immediately resume possession of a body4 ,it remains disincarnate for a long period of years--for ,virgil as for ,plato the number is one thousand--and thus leads a double existence of which its passages to this world take up only the lesser part4 ,it is not even fatally constrained to redescend to the earth3 if it has kept itself free from all corporeal defilement1 it will soar to heaven and dwell there for ever4 ,but if1 during his sojourn on the earth1 man has given himself up to the pleasures of the senses1 his soul becomes attached to his body4 ,at first it cannot separate itself from the corpse1 around which it circles1 plaintively regretting the joys it has lost4 ,it desires again to enter the flesh which was the instrument of its voluptuousness2 it seeks a dwelling which will allow it to continue the sensual habits which have become its second nature4 ,and so1 when the time is accomplished1 it is seized with an irresistible love for the body in which it is to enclose itself again2 a fascination1 like a magic charm1 draws it to this object of its desires1 which is to cause its misery4 ,the fatality driving it to incarnation and suffering is not here an inevitable law of the universe but an inner necessity1 a destiny which it has made for itself4 ,the cosmic ,ananke has become psychic4 ,thus every vicious tendency contracted by the soul during its abode in this world has for this soul consequences which their long duration makes more momentous4 ,if virtue enables it to rise upward at each new birth and to acquire1 as the ages revolve1 an ever increasing perfection1 perversion of character produces effects which are calamitous not only in this life but also in several other lives through the centuries4 ,moral laws are no less infallible than physical laws4 ,right or wrong1 every act has to be paid for with harm or benefit in the long chain of incarnations4 ,by his acquired disposition1 man determines his future throughout a sequence of generations2 the evil he suffers is to be imputed not to the creator but to himself4 ,a bust of ,plato found at ,tivoli and now preserved in ,san ,francisco#dea has graven on it the following sentence of the ,master as to the lot of immortal souls3 8,the fault is the chooser's2 ,god is without fault0-- 1 4 ,the very fact of birth was a pain for the soul1 since it tore it from its celestial home and plunged it into a soiled and troubled world2 consequently it was not necessary for the soul's chastisement that it should descend into the body of animals4 ,indeed1 certain thinkers rejected this kind of metempsychosis3 a reasonable spirit could not1 they held1 dwell in a being deprived of reason4 ,transmigration occurred therefore exclusively from man to man and from beast to beast4 ,such was the opinion defended by ,porphyry and ,jamblichus1 who1 in order to dispose of the texts of ,plato which were contrary to this theory1 upheld that he spoke figuratively1 and that his 8asses10 his 8wolves0 and his 8lions0 signified persons who resembled these beasts in ignorance or ferocity4#deb ,it is seen that this metempsychosis was getting far away from that which had its origin in the primitive beliefs4 ,the 8cycle of generation0 was no longer conceived as a flux of life circulating throughout the variety of the animate beings peopling the earth1 but as the descent and the ascent of a psychic essence1 passing alternately from heaven to earth and from earth to heaven4 ,it is to these doctrines that ,virgil alludes when in the ,aeneid he shows us1 gathered in a remote place of the ,elysian ,fields1 the shades whom after a thousand years a god calls to come in a great troop to the river ,lethe1 there to drink the forgetfulness of the past1 whereby 8they begin again to wish to return to the body40#dec 99 99 99 99 99 ,but the poet also gives us precious hints as to the lot reserved for the soul in the interval between its incarnations4 ,for palingenesis1 unlike the doctrine of perpetual reincorporation1 left a place for chastisement in the infernal regions4 ,these were however situated1 as we have seen1 for the ,pythagoreans and ,posidonius1 whom ,virgil interpreted1 not on earth but in the air4 ,it was there that the soul had to purify itself from the stains acquired while it was in touch with the flesh4 ,this pollution1 we know1#ded was conceived in a very material form4 ,the texts speak of a thickening of the subtle substance of which the soul is formed1 of concretions encrusting it1 of indelible marks with which the vices stain it4 ,when the soul left the corpse1 of which it kept the form1 it first1 as we have seen1 floated in the ambient air4 ,when it was not weighed down by the matter with which it had become impregnated1 the breath of the atmosphere raised it gently and1 gradually warming it1 bore it to the heavens1 and this is why the ,winds are often represented on tombstones4#dee ,but these ,winds1 fierce divinities1 could also cause the soul to expiate its faults bitterly4 ,if it had lost its purity and lightness1 the whirlwinds drew it into their vortex1 the storms rolled and buffeted it1 thus violently tearing away the crust which had become attached to it4 ,the souls were thus freed from defilements contracted during life just as linen hung in the air is bleached and loses all odour4 ,their passage through the air did not complete their purification4 ,in the ,east the idea was old that above the firmament was found the great reservoir of the waters which fell to the ground as rain4 ,beyond1 a burning zone must extend1 where the heavenly bodies were lit1 and a river of fire1 identified with the ,pyriphlegethon of the ,greeks1 was imagined4 ,these old mythological ideas were brought into relation with ,stoic physics3 above the region of the winds stretched that of the clouds1 in which the rain1 the snow and the hail were formed1 and higher still there was the burning air1 in which the lightning flashed and which touched the starry spheres4 ,the souls must blaze a path through these obstacles4 ,after being tossed and blown about by the winds1 they were drenched by rain and plunged into the gulf of the upper waters4 ,they reached at last the fires of heaven1 of which the heat scorched them4 ,not till they had undergone this threefold trial1 in the course of which they had passed through countless years of expiation1 did they at length find peace in the serenity of the luminous ether4#def ,virgil1#deg in the passage already quoted1 alludes to this doctrine when1 in speaking of the souls1 he says3 8444 ,aliae panduntur inanes ,suspensae ad ventos1 aliis sub gurgite vasto ,infectum eluitur scelus1 aut exuritur igni40 8,some are exposed1 hung lightly to the winds2 as to others1 the crime infecting them is washed away in a deep gulf or burnt by fire40 ,in an eschatological myth1 which ,plutarch#deh borrows from ,demetrius of ,tarsus1 he shows us guilty souls who seek to reach the moon and who do not arrive thither1 but are hunted and buffeted as by swelling billows1 and others who have reached the goal1 but are rejected and plunged from on high into the abyss4 ,similarly1 ,hermes ,trismegistus depicts souls flung from the height of heaven into the depths of the atmosphere and delivered to the storms and whirlwinds of warring air1 water and fire4 ,their eternal punishment is to be tossed and carried in different directions by the cosmic waves which roll unceasingly between earth and heaven4#dei ,the passage of souls through the elements is represented symbolically on a funeral monument almost contemporary with the verses of ,virgil1 which was discovered near ,scarbantia in ,pannonia4#dfj ,above the portraits of the deceased1 there appear first in the spandrels of this cippus two busts of the winds facing each other4 ,higher up1 on the architrave1 are two ,tritons1 and on each side of a trident two dolphins1 which evidently represent the idea of the watery element4 ,finally1 at the top of the stone1 in the pediment1 we see two lions4 ,the lion1 for physical and astrological reasons1 was considered as the symbol of fire1 the igneous principle4 ,we have seen#dfa that for the doctrine which placed the limit of the dwelling of the gods and the elect in the zone of the moon1 another was substituted according to which the souls1 in order to regain the purity of their original nature1 had to traverse the spheres of the planets to reach the heaven of fixed stars4 ,the trials of purgatory had to be prolonged up to the entry into the dwelling of the blessed4 ,the idea was1 therefore1 conceived of attributing each of the planets to one of the elements4 ,the moon was the ethereal earth1 ,mercury the water1 ,venus the air1 the sun the fire3 and inversely1 ,mars was the fire1 ,jupiter the air1 ,saturn the water1 and the sphere of the stars the celestial earth1 in which lay the ,elysian ,fields4 ,thus the soul1 in order to be saved1 had to be reborn three times in virtue of a triple passage through the four elements4#dfb ,this last doctrine1 which is connected with astrological speculations1 seems to have had only a limited vogue and to have been of ephemeral duration4 ,on the other hand1 the idea of a purgatory situated in the atmosphere between our earth and the moon1 a place in which souls were purified not only by fire but also by air and water1 was long to survive the fall of paganism and to be propagated through the ,middle ,ages in the ,west as in the ,east4 ,for ,dante1 purgatory still occupied a fiery zone stretched between the terrestrial and the celestial circles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,was the soul which1 after a long expiation1 had reached the ,elysian ,fields and the sphere of the stars1 always to descend thence1 seized with a blind love for the body1 and to pass again through the trials of another earthly life8 ,no1 the ancient ,orphics already flattered themselves that by their cathartic rites they obtained for the soul an escape from the fatal cycle of generation and regaining of heaven for ever4 ,the ,pythagoreans inherited this doctrine1 which they kept until the ,roman period4 ,in spite of the contrary opinion of certain thinkers1 pagan philosophers and priests generally taught that after pilgrimages1 more or less long1 after a succession of deaths and rebirths1 the purified spirits returned to dwell for ever in their celestial country4 ,it was to this goal that the mysteries promised to lead their initiate2 this was the end which the sages flattered themselves that they attained by their virtue4 ,it will be understood that such a hope1 combined with the suppression of eternal damnation in ,hades1 led necessarily to the doctrine of the eventual salvation of all souls4 ,we know this system especially through ,origen1 but he merely reproduced a theory to which the evolution of pagan ideas had led4 ,we have seen that metempsychosis helped the philosophers to shake1 if not to ruin1 the belief in infernal punishment4 ,but this belief again had power towards the end of antiquity1 when the dualist sects which were the outcome of ,persian ,mazdeism were propagated and when ,plato became the supreme authority in philosophy4 ,we touched on this point1 in another lecture1#dfc when we showed how the idea of a demons' prison in the bosom of the earth triumphed4 ,thus1 when the ,roman world was in its decline1 men came back to the old threefold distinction of the ,orphics and the ,pythagoreans4 ,the very guilty1 who cannot be corrected1 are hurled into ,tartarus1 where they suffer for ever the punishment of their incurable wickedness4 ,souls less corrupt are subjected to purification1 either by passing through the elements or by undergoing successive reincarnations1 and thus they regain their original nature before they are readmitted to their first dwelling4 ,finally1 the most perfect souls1 those of the wise who have freed themselves from the domination of the body and have not let themselves be contaminated by matter1 and those of the pious faithful1 to whom religious lustrations have given back their purity or whom initiations to the mysteries have made equal to the gods1 at once rise again to the celestial spheres4 ,in the next lecture we shall speak of the rewards reserved for them in the dwelling of the blessed4 ,,viii ,,the ,,felicity ,,of ,,the ,,blessed ,we have seen how the evolution of religious faith caused the dwelling-place of the dead to move from the tomb to the nether world and from the nether world to the heavens4 ,when the abode of souls was changed1 all the ideas attached to the future life had to be transposed4 ,in this lecture we shall endeavour to make clear how the opinions which were held as to the felicity of the blessed were thus transformed4 ,we shall take up again matter which we have already touched upon in another connection and try to show the successive changes undergone by three manners of conceiving happiness in after life3 the repose of the dead1 the repast of the dead1 and the sight of ,god4 ,the most ancient and originally the simplest of these conceptions was that of the repose of the dead4 ,we know#dfd that the dead who had not been buried in accordance with the rites were believed to find no rest in the tomb4 ,a corpse had to be committed to the earth with traditional ceremonies in order that the spirit which animated it might have quiet4 ,if this spirit were not subsequently nourished by offerings and sacrifices1 it left its burial place and roamed the earth's surface like an animal driven by hunger4 ,the shades inhabiting the tombs could also be evoked by necromancers and such disturbance broke in upon their rest most unpleasantly4 ,these archaic ideas were so deeply implanted in the popular mind that other beliefs never expelled them1 but supervened and existed side by side with them without causing their disappearance4 ,on tombs of the imperial period formulas like the following are often read3 8,hic requiescit10 8,here rests10 8,quieti aeternae10 8,for eternal rest0--inscriptions which could be interpreted figuratively2 but other wishes can only be taken to have a material sense1 such as3 8,ossa quiescant10 8,may his bones rest10 and 8,molliter ossa cubent10 8,may the bones lie softly40 ,poetry has preserved a number of similar phrases4 ,tibullus expresses the following wish for a loved woman3 8,may thy slender form rest well beneath the soft earth40#dfe ,the rest which the exact accomplishment of the rites gave to the dead was not physical only but moral also4 ,the dead were securi--the word is properly applied to them--that is1 they were exempt from care4 ,doubtless the care from which they were delivered by the cult of the grave1 was first that of suffering from hunger and thirst1#dff but the 8eternal security0 7securitas aeterna7#dfg they enjoyed was also the absence of all the fears and anxieties which haunt humanity4 ,when philosophy claimed to free souls from the superstitions of the past1 it did not destroy the old conception of rest in the tomb but cleansed it from all material alloy4 ,if it be doubtful whether anything of man survives1 it is at least certain that death marks the abolition of the pains of this world and the end of its troubles4 ,mors laborum et miseriarum quies1 is ,cicero's definition4#dfh ,death restores us to that state of tranquillity in which we were before our birth4#dfi ,the 8eternal home0 which shelters the remains of man is the silent temple in which he no longer has anything to fear from nature or from his fellows4 ,the ,epicureans who made ataraxia their ideal of life1 the ,stoics who found theirs in impassivity 771 could see in the anaesthesia of death the supreme realisation of such absence of emotion and passion4 ,the corpse lies as softly on its last bed as a man plunged in a deep and quiet sleep4 ,the burial place is indeed often consecrated to ,somno aeterno4#dgj ,this idea is expressed in a thousand forms in literature and in epitaphs4 ,a poor grammarian of ,como1 who doubtless had had little reason to congratulate himself on life1 caused two lines of verse to be engraved on his tomb3#dga 8,i fled the miseries of sickness and the great ills of life2 ,i am now delivered from all its pains and enjoy a peaceful calm40 ,on an ,african grave there are the following words3 8,after bearing a heavy burden and after manifold toils1 he speaks no more1 content with the silent dwelling in which he rests40#dgb ,we read elsewhere1 8,life was a pain1 death prepared me rest40#dgc ,the sentiment expressed by these inscriptions and many more like them is no mere reflection of the teaching of philosophers who denied the future life3 it is profoundly human4 ,the melodious but melancholy apostrophe of ,leconte de ,lisle is well known3 8,et toi1 divine mort1 ou tout rentre et s'efface1 ,accueille tes enfants dans ton sein toil2 ,affranchis nous du temps1 du nombre et de l'espace ,et rends nous le repos que la vie a troubl40 8,o ,death divine1 at whose recall1 ,returneth all ,to fade in thy embrace1 ,gather thy children to thy bosom starred1 ,free us from time1 from number and from space1 ,and give us back the rest that life has marred40#dgd ,in the midst of all the tribulation of our tormented existence1 to how many minds1 even those which have the strongest religious conviction1 have not the immobility and insensibility of those who are no more sometimes seemed like a deliverance8 ,in antiquity also1 this aspiration towards the moment when man will obtain remission of all his travail does not necessarily imply the belief that there is no hope beyond the cold sleep of the grave4 ,this yearning mingles with faith in immortality and is transformed with it4 ,when it was believed that the dead went down into the depths of the earth where lay the infernal kingdom1 another meaning was given to their rest4 ,the funeral eulogy of a noble woman who towards the end of the ,republican period saved the life of her husband1 who had been proscribed1 ends with the nave words3 8,i pray that the gods thy ,manes may grant thee rest and thus protect thee40#dge ,the shades of the kinsmen of the dead must receive their souls in the subterranean world#dgf and thus ensure their welfare4 ,the road which must be travelled before the abode of the elect was reached was long and beset with dangers4 ,the ,book of the ,dead in ,egypt1 the ,orphic tablets in ,greece1 were guides to the ,beyond which taught the dead not to stray from the right path and to avoid the various dangers threatening them4#dgg ,many of them1 the impious who had to expiate their misdeeds and the unfortunate to whom funeral duties had not been rendered1 wandered wretchedly on the banks of the ,styx1 vainly longing to enter the 8peaceful abode0 of the ,elysian ,fields4#dgh ,there1 lying in the cool shade1 the blessed enjoyed a felicity exempt from all care4 ,serene quiet in a sweet idleness cheered by joyous relaxation and wise conversation--such was the ideal which some mysteries#dgi opposed to the weary agitations of earthly life and to the long sufferings of the sinful and vagabond soul4 ,for the adepts of these doctrines the secura quies applied to the repose of the nether world1 and this conception of beatitude beyond the grave is found to persist until the end of paganism4#dhj ,but we have seen that another doctrine triumphed in the ,roman period1 the doctrine that souls rise to the skies to live there eternally among the stars4 ,in this great metamorphosis of eschatological beliefs what became of the idea of the repose of the dead8 ,the question deserves to be more closely investigated1 for the transformation had lasting consequences of which the ultimate effects can be felt even today4 ,the ,pythagoreans were1 as we have seen1#dha the first to promulgate the doctrine of celestial immortality in ,greece and ,italy4 ,one of the allegories familiar to the teaching of the sect connected human destiny with the old myth of ,hercules at the crossroads4 ,the ,greek letter ,y1 of which the stem divides midway into two1 was in the school the symbol of this comparison--we have already alluded to it elsewhere4#dhb ,when man reaches the age of reason two paths are open to him4 ,one is smooth and easy but ends in an abyss3 this is the way of pleasure4 ,the other is at first rough and jagged--it is the hard road of virtue--but he who climbs to the summit of its slope can there rest deliciously from his weariness4 ,funeral reliefs represent this contrast navely3 at the bottom of the stele the dead man is often seen accomplishing the labours of his career2 at the top of the stone he is shown stretched at his ease on a couch4 ,the meaning of the allegory is immediately apparent3 the quieta sedes in which deserving souls are received1 has become the sky4 ,how was this idea developed8 ,homer#dhc had already described ,olympus as 8the immovable seat of the gods which is neither shaken by the winds1 nor wet by the rains1 nor touched by the snow1 but is bright with a cloudless light40 ,the ,epicureans applied these lines of the poet to the serene dwelling where nothing occurred to modify the perpetual peace enjoyed by the gods4#dhd ,and the founder of ,stoicism had already taught that the pious souls1 separated from the guilty1 inhabited 8tranquil and delectable0 regions4#dhe ,both called this dwelling of the gods or the elect by the same name--sedes quietae4 ,we must here remember the distinction1 established by the philosophers and often repeated1 between the sublunary circle and the celestial spheres4#dhf ,above1 the world of the eternal gods2 below1 the world of generation and corruption4 ,there the pure ether always kept the same serenity2 here the struggle of the elements called forth unceasing agitation and transformation4 ,on one side reigned peace and harmony1 on the other war and discord4 ,the zone of the moon was the boundary between the two contrasted parts of the world1 and 8the limit between life and death40#dhg ,it was when they had crossed it1 that the souls entered the quietae sedes of the ,blessed4 ,the very ancient idea of a fearful journey which the dead had to make in order to reach ,pluto's subterranean kingdom was transferred to the space lying between the earth and the moon1 for this was the region of the universe to which the name of nether world 7,inferi7#dhh was henceforth applied4 ,as we have seen in the previous lecture1#dhi when the soul1 escaping from the body1 was laden with material dross1 it was tossed about for many centuries before it could again win to the ether4 ,shaken by the winds1 swept to and fro by the opposing elements of air1 water and fire1 it had to endure a long torture before it was cleansed of the sin which weighed it down4 ,when at length it was freed of every fleshly taint1 it escaped from inward trouble also1 from the pains and the passions provoked by its union with the body4 8,then10 says ,seneca1 8it tends to return to the place whence it has been sent down2 there eternal quiet awaits it when it passes from the confused and gross to the clear and pure40#dij ,in the same way certain ,neo-,platonists taught that souls which had lived well1 rose to the celestial heights and rested there amid the stars4 ,even in this life the ecstasy1 which gave them anticipated enjoyment of the future bliss1 is described by them as a transport in which reason attains to absolute stability or equipoise1 escapes from all movement and rests in the ,supreme ,being4#dia ,peace in the celestial light3 such is the highest form which the repose of the dead assumed in paganism4#dib ,the various ideas which we have just analysed--those of the repose in the grave1 the repose in the infernal regions and the repose in heaven--followed parallel courses during the centuries and in part passed from antiquity to the ,middle ,ages4 ,but the distinction between them is not always clear4 ,even in paganism they were intermingled and in the course of time they were gradually confused4 ,in no class of beliefs is the force of tradition greater than in those which centre in death1 and the ,christian peoples clung tenaciously to articles of faith which ,jews and pagans had shared before them4 ,we have seen#dic that the masses did not easily give up their belief that the dead continued1 in or about the tomb1 a vegetating and uncertain life4 ,extreme importance was still attached to burial because the more or less unconscious conviction persisted that the soul's rest depended on that of the body4 ,the dread of ghosts was still the inspiration for some ceremonies performed over the remains of the dead4 ,nay1 a new apprehension was added to this1 namely1 the fear lest the dead whose bodies were torn from the tomb should have no part in the resurrection of the flesh4#did ,the formula1 8,hic requiescit10 8,here rests--10 was transferred from pagan to ,christian epigraphy1 and the rest men wished to the departed was first the rest of the corpse1 which was peacefully to await the ,day of ,judgment in its last dwelling4 ,these were doubtless vulgar prejudices rather than dogmas recognised by orthodoxy1 yet they did not remain without influence on the teaching of the doctors of the ,church4 ,for instance1 ,saint ,ambrose#die enlarges on the thought1 probably borrowed from some philosopher1 that death is good because in it the body1 source of our uneasiness1 our troubles and our vices1 rests1 calmed for ever1 while the virtuous soul rises to heaven4 ,after the travail of existence the dead rest as man rests on the ,sabbath day1 and this was1 it was explained1 the reason why the seventh day was the day of the commemoration of the departed4 ,the idea of rest in the infernal regions has left no deep traces on the ,christian faith1 for which the subterranean world became the abode of the wicked4 ,it was1 however1 somewhere in the bowels of the earth that the dwelling of the righteous who lived before the ,redemption was commonly placed1 sometimes also that of children who died unbaptised4 ,they found there according to the ,pelagians a 8place of repose and salvation0 outside the kingdom of heaven4#dif ,but in ,roman times the idea of peace in the celestial light was dominant among the ,jews and ,christians as among the pagans4 ,thus the ,book of ,enoch shows us the prophet carried off in a whirlwind to the heights whence he perceived 8the beds where the just rest0 amid the saints4#dig ,we can here point out exactly the most important of the literary intermediaries through whom this conception was transmitted from paganism to ,judaism and from ,judaism to ,christianity4 ,towards the end of the first century ,a4 ,d41 amid the desolation which followed on the destruction of the ,temple1 a pious ,jew1 somewhere in the ,east1 composed and ascribed to the venerable authorship of ,esdras an apocalypse which enjoyed singular popularity until the time of its rejection by the ,church as apocryphal4 ,the visionary who set it down combines a number of pagan reminiscences with biblical ideas4 ,he promises eternal felicity to the just1 and asks himself what will be the lot of souls between the time of their death and the end of the world4 ,will they be at rest or will they be tortured8 ,and the angel who inspires him answers that when the vital breath has left the body to go again to adore the glory of the ,most ,high1 the soul which has violated the divine law will not enter the celestial dwellings but will 8wander amidst torments1 for ever suffering and saddened on seven paths40 ,but the soul which has walked in the way of ,god 8will rest in seven orders of rewards40#dih ,the sixth of these is the order in which its face begins to shine like the sun and in which it becomes incorruptible1 like the stars2 the seventh is that in which it wins to the sight of ,god4 ,these are conceptions and even expressions which belong to astral immortality1 and the ,jewish author1 like the pagans before him1 everywhere contrasts the state of agitation filled with anguish reserved for the guilty with the blessed tranquillity which is the reward of a pious life4#dii ,the description of the celestial dwelling which ,saint ,ambrose borrowed from the pseudo-,esdras is singularly like that given by the philosophers of the earlier period3 a place in which there is no cloud1 no thunder1 no lightning1 no violence of winds1 neither darkness nor sunset1 neither summer nor winter to vary the seasons1 where no cold is met with1 nor hail1 nor rain4 ,but the ,christian doctor1 like the ,jewish visionary1 adds a new feature3 there will be no more sun nor moon nor stars2 the light of ,god will shine alone4#ejj ,the idea of repose in the eternal light was1 thanks to the apocalypse of the supposed ,esdras1 to become one of those most frequently expressed by epitaphs and ritual4 ,it was from this apocryphal work that the ,roman liturgy borrowed the form of a prayer introduced into the office of the dead at least as early as the seventh century and still sung in the funeral service--,requiem aeternam dona eis ,domine et lux perpetua luceat eis4 8,lord1 give them eternal rest and may perpetual light shine upon them40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the idea of the repast of the dead evolved1 like that of their repose1 as the conception of life beyond the tomb was gradually transformed1 and it finally assumed a far higher significance than that originally attributed to it4 ,according to a belief found everywhere1 the dead1 as we know1#eja needed nourishment if they were not to suffer from hunger4 ,hence the obligation to make libations and sacrifices on the tomb and to deposit food and drink there4 ,the neglect of these sacred duties entailed consequences fearful to him who failed to fulfil them1 just as their exact observance ensured him the good will of the spirits of the dead4 ,the custom of holding banquets which united the members of a family beside a grave at a funeral or on certain consecrated days1 was connected with this belief4 ,this custom was no mere rendering of an honour to one who had gone1 no unmixed manifestation of piety or affection4 ,the motive for these ceremonies was much more concrete4 ,as we have stated elsewhere1#ejb men were persuaded that the spirit of him who lay beneath the ground was present at the meal1 took its place beside its kin and rejoiced with them4 ,therefore its share was set aside for it1 and by consecrated formulas it was invited to drink and eat4 ,moreover the guests themselves ate copiously and drank deeply1 convinced that the noisy conviviality of the feast was a source of joy and refreshment to the shade in the gloom of its sepulchral existence4 ,sometimes the dinner took place in a room within the tomb1 specially set aside for such meetings1 sometimes in one of the gardens which men delighted to make around the 8eternal house0 of the dead#ejc and to which inscriptions sometimes give the name of 8paradise0 774#ejd ,these are customs and ideas which are found everywhere from the time when history had its origin1 practices and ideas to which under the ,roman ,empire the people still clung1 and which even partially survived the conversion of the masses to ,christianity1 although the ,church condemned them as pagan4 ,until the end of antiquity and even in the ,middle ,ages1 banquets1 at which wine flowed abundantly1 were still held on anniversaries by kinsfolk and friends near the remains of those they loved4#eje ,when1 however1 the conception of survival in the tomb was superseded or overshadowed by that of survival in the nether world1 the repast of the dead was also transferred thither4 ,henceforth it was in the ,elysian ,fields that pious souls could take their place at the table of the ,blessed4 ,the ,orphics were the first to introduce into ,greece this new idea1 which was1 however1 no more than the development of a pre-,hellenic belief1 and it spread through the mysteries of ,dionysos#ejf to every part of the ancient world3 the ritualistic repasts in which the initiate took part1 the drunkenness which exalted their whole being1 were for the adepts of this cult at once a foretaste and a warrant of the happiness reserved for them in that eternal feast of the subterranean world in which a sweet intoxication would rejoice their soul4 ,that forgetfulness of all cares which the divine liquor gave was connected with ,lethe1 the water of which1 according to mythology1 souls drank that they might lose all memory of their former life4 ,an immense number of reliefs1 scattered throughout the whole extent of the ,roman ,empire1 bear witness to the popularity of the belief in this form of immortality4 ,the dead man who has been made a hero and whose family comes to make sacrifices to him is stretched on a couch and lifts the rhyton which holds the heady drink of ,bacchus1 while before him1 on a little table1 dishes are placed4 ,these banquets took place1 as we have said1 in the ,elysian ,fields1 and the idea of the repast thus met and combined with the idea of rest4 ,the ,blessed were imagined as lying on a soft bed of flowered grass1 taking part in a perpetual feast1 to the accompaniment of music and songs4 ,lucian in his 8,true ,histories0#ejg describes1 with ironical exaggeration1 the joys of these guests who are stretched comfortably among the flowers of a fragrant meadow in the shade of leafy trees1 and who gather1 instead of fruit1 crystal goblets1 which fill with wine as soon as they are placed on the table4 ,in spite of the mockery of sceptics these beliefs still had some faithful partisans even at the end of paganism4 ,a picture discovered in the catacomb of ,praetextatus shows us a priest of the ,thraco-,phrygian god ,sabazios celebrating a mystic banquet with six of his fellows1 and another fresco represents the introduction of a veiled woman into the garden of delights1 where she has been judged worthy of being received at the table of virtuous souls4#ejh ,sometimes in the reliefs of the 8funeral banquet0 the dead are seen wearing on their head the bushel 7modius7 of ,serapis1 with whom1 after a virtuous life1 they have been identified4 ,this indicates a confusion1 to which much other testimony bears witness1 between the ,bacchic mysteries and the cult of the ,alexandrian god4#eji ,serapis is the great master of the feast 771#eaj the host who must in the nether world entertain those faithful to him4 ,thus the eschatological beliefs of the ,nile ,valley mingled with those of ,greece4 ,in the country of burning sun1 where a straying traveller runs the risk of dying of thirst on the arid stretches of sand1 the hope expressed above all others for him who accomplishes the great pilgrimage to the abode of the infernal divinities1 is that he may find wherewith to quench his consuming thirst4 8,may ,osiris give thee fresh water0 is a wish which the votaries of the ,egyptian god often inscribed on their tombs4 ,thus the repast in the other world was to be above all a refreshment 7refrigerium74 ,the word passed into ,christian language to denote both earthly 8agape0 or sacred meal and the bliss of the other world1 and even today the ,roman ,church prays for the spiritual 8refreshment0 of the dead4#eaa ,we touch here on a question which is not yet completely elucidated1 that of the relation established between the funeral banquet and the salvation of those who took part in it4 ,in ,rome from the end of the ,republic onwards this banquet1 amid the general decline of faith in immortality1 was increasingly detached from the tomb and became a guild or domestic ceremony4 ,the tendency was to reduce it to the repast of a family or confraternity1 to the perpetuation among men of the memory of him whose features were preserved by a statue or picture4 ,but the funeral cult acquired new meaning with the spread of ,oriental religions4 ,it did not cease to be useful to the dead who were its object1 to whose subsistence in the beyond and safe arrival in the ,elysian ,fields it was still thought to be necessary4 ,the offerings of the living sustained them on their dangerous and hard journey thither2 the food and drink restored them on the long road they had to travel before they reached the place of everlasting refreshment4 ,but the funeral repast was also salutary to those who offered it1 and not only because it ensured to them the good will of a spirit or demon capable of protecting them4 ,this banquet1 at which wine flowed profusely1 was like the 8orgies0 of the ,bacchic and ,oriental mysteries1 and the resemblance is partly explained by an identity of kind4 ,the ritual of the gods whose death and resurrection were commemorated--,bacchus1 ,osiris1 ,attis1 ,adonis--was probably a development of the funeral ritual1 and the banquet of initiation was thus related to the banquet at the grave4 ,on the one hand1 it was believed that by a mystic union with the god1 men could share his blessed lot after the transient trial of a death like his4#eab ,on the other hand1 it was with a dead man that a repast was taken1 but with one who also1 in some sort1 had become a god1 who had preceded the diners into the other world and awaited them there4 8,live happy and pour out wine to our ,manes10 says a ,latin epitaph of ,syria1 engraved beneath a scene of libation1 8recollecting that one day you will be with us40#eac ,according to an opinion which often found expression1 the shades themselves rejected whoever did not deserve to enter the abode of the ,blessed1 but willingly received the pious soul which had always fulfilled its duty towards them4#ead ,for admission to this club of posthumous diners a members vote was necessary4 ,thus the funeral banquet took on the character of a mystic banquet2 that is1 it came to be conceived as a prelibation of the banquet at which the elect feasted in the other world4 ,the wish which the guests made to each other--8,drink and live60--became an allusion1 no more to this earthly life1 but to that other existence in which they would participate in the felicity of him who had gone before them and who would help them to rejoin him therein4 ,the following advice1 repeated elsewhere in various forms1 is found on the tomb of a priest of ,sabazios3 8,drink1 eat1 jest and come to me 444 that is what you will carry away with you0 7hoc tecum feres74#eae ,this is not to be understood here as an ,epicurean invitation to enjoy life because all else is vain1#eaf but a veiled expression of faith in the efficacy for the salvation of the initiate attributed to the joyous banquets which gathered men about a tomb4 ,the connection between the beliefs of the mysteries and the hopes attached to the funeral cult became more intimate as immortality brought the spirits of the dead nearer the celestial divinities4 ,the idea that some few privileged mortals win admission to the banquet of the gods is very ancient4 ,an inscription of ,sendjerli in ,syria1 which goes back to the eighth century before our era1 orders sacrifices to be made in order that the soul of ,king ,panamu 8may eat and drink with the god ,hadad10#eag and ,greek mythology told that certain heroes1 such as ,heracles1 who had been carried off to heaven1 had there become the table companions of the gods4 ,horace states that ,augustus1 borne to the ethereal summits1 will there rest between ,hercules and ,pollux1 8drinking nectar with his rosy lips40#eah ,but we have seen elsewhere that apotheosis1 or deification1 which was at first the privilege of an aristocracy1 became the common lot of all pious souls1#eai and that the ,elysian ,fields were transferred from the depths of the infernal realm to the upper spheres of the world4 ,the repast of the ,blessed was thus transported to heaven4#ebj ,this removal to the region of the stars seems to have been first made in the astral religion of ,syria1 but it was commonly accepted in western paganism4 ,this is why in funeral reliefs of the ,roman period1 in which the dead are shown banqueting1 such representations are placed in the upper part of the stele1 above the scenes of earthly life which fill the lower portion of the stone4 ,the emperor ,julian is giving us a mocking picture of this repast of the heroes1 when in one of his satires he shows us the shades of the ,caesars at table immediately beneath the moon1 in the highest zone of the atmospheres--in accordance with the ideas of the ,stoics4#eba ,men readily fashioned the heroes who tasted the joys of ,olympus on the pattern of the celestial divinities--resplendent with light1 clothed in garments of dazzling whiteness1 their heads crowned with rays or surrounded by a luminous nimbus1 singing1 as in a ,greek symposium1 melodious hymns4 ,the philosophers of course gave a symbolical interpretation of the intoxication of the souls which took part in the feast1 explaining it as the ravishing of reason penetrated by divine intelligence4 ,we will return to their doctrines presently4 ,the ,jews of the ,alexandrian period shared the belief in the celestial banquet with the ,syrian paganism and transmitted it to the ,christians4 ,the ,paradise of the elect was often conceived as a shady garden where tables were set out at which immortal guests passed their time in endless joy4 ,thus1 not to mention better-known texts1 ,aphraates1 a ,syriac author of the first half of the fourth century1 depicts the felicity of the ,blessed1 clothed in light1 who are admitted to the divine table and are there fed with food which never fails4 8,there the air is pleasant and serene1 a brilliant light shines1 trees grow of which the fruit ripens perpetually1 of which the leaves never fall1 and beneath these shades1 which give out a sweet fragrance1 the souls eat this fruit and are never satiated40#ebb ,the representation of this feast of ,paradise recurs several times in the paintings of the catacombs1 but in them the wine is poured out by ,peace 7,eirene7 and ,charity 7,agape74 ,an allegorical explanation gave a spiritual meaning to the food and drink consumed by the elect4 ,but the old idea which was at the root of all the later development1 the idea of a material repast in which the dead participated1 did not disappear from popular faith when the conception that souls rose to the sky was adopted1 and in many countries it has not been obliterated even today4#ebc 99 99 99 99 99 ,even in the pagan period1 as we have said1 enlightened minds accepted the old descriptions of joyous feasts in fresh meadows only in a figurative sense4 ,a less coarse conception of immortality suffered them to be looked upon only as symbols or metaphors4 ,this conception of celestial beatitude originated not in the cult of the dead but in the cult of the gods4 ,it was at first as material as preceding conceptions1 but it became purified as the idea of psychic survival was spiritualised4 ,we have seen in another lecture#ebd that the 8sight of the god0 who was adored was the highest degree of initiation4 ,theurgy flattered itself that it could evoke divine apparitions at will4 ,these visions have been described to us by those who claimed to have been favoured with them4#ebe ,their character and their effects have moreover been analysed in detail in the treatise of ,jamblichus1 ,on the ,mysteries4 ,the impression most immediately produced by these epiphanies was a boundless admiration for their splendour4 ,the incomparable beauty with which the gods were radiant1 the supernatural light in which they were wrapped1 had such an effect on men that they could hardly bear the effulgence and nearly lost consciousness1 but their souls were flooded with unspeakable joy and purified for ever4 ,to this ineffable delight of a heart possessed of divine love there was added the highest revelation for the intelligence4#ebf ,must not the infallible 8gnosis0 be that which was the result of instruction received directly from the mouth of a celestial power which had come down to earth8 ,the devotees who had obtained the signal favour of this resplendent vision1 were thenceforth united to the deity who had manifested himself to them1 and were certain to share his immortal life4 ,the fugitive pleasure which they had felt on earth would become a bliss without end in the kingdom of the dead4 ,there they would see face to face the god who protected them and learn from him all that had remained hidden from them in this life4 ,these ideas1 half religious1 half magical1 are very ancient1 especially in ,egypt1 but they were transformed by astrolatry4 ,here the celestial powers had not to be summoned by prayer or invoked by incantations in order that they might come and converse with the faithful1 but were perpetually visible and offered themselves1 day and night1 to the veneration of humanity4 ,henceforth the knowledge of divine things was no longer to be communicated by the words which the initiate believed that he heard in the silence of the sanctuary4 ,it was revealed by a mysterious inspiration to him who had deserved it by a fervent observation of the heavens4#ebg ,thus by an illumination of the intelligence the astral powers unveiled their will and the secrets of their movements to their attentive servants4 ,here below this knowledge was always imperfect and fragmentary1 but it would be completed in another world1 when reason once more would rise aloft to the starry spaces whence it had descended4 ,this eschatological doctrine1 which made astronomy the source of virtue and of immortality1 could only be developed by a clergy devoted to the study of that science4 ,its first authors were doubtless the 8,chaldeans10 who transmitted it to ,greece with their theories as to the divisions of the sky and the heavenly bodies4 ,the most ancient writing in which this ,oriental influence asserts itself clearly is the ,epinomis1 probably a work of the astronomer ,philip of ,opus1 a disciple of ,plato4 ,let us listen to his own words3#ebh 8,when man perceives the harmony of the sky and the immovable order of its revolutions1 he is first filled with joy and struck with admiration4 ,then the passion is born in him to learn about them all that it is possible for his mortal nature to know1 for he is persuaded that he will thus lead the best and happiest existence and will go after his death to the places suited to virtue4 ,then being veritably and really initiate1 pure reason taking part in the only wisdom1 he will spend the rest of his time in contemplation of what is most beautiful among all visible things40 ,this passage shows clearly the manner in which astrolatry modified ancient ideas as to the sight of a god1 the reverential wonder felt in his presence by the faithful1 the truth communicated to them and the immortality which completed their initiation4 ,the doctrine of an intellectual reward for the ,blessed was to attract scholars who in this world gave themselves up to study4 ,spiritual activity1 which emancipates from material care and gives man nobility and virtue1 seemed to them to be the only occupation worthy of the elect4 ,if the theory that the ,blessed would after death find this activity in the midst of the divine stars1 is probably of 8,chaldean0 origin1 it was developed by the ,greek philosophers and in particular by ,posidonius4 ,it was also admitted into the ,roman mysteries1 which1 being penetrated by the spirit of ,oriental theologies1 claimed to supply their adepts with a complete explanation of the universe4 ,we have already alluded to this system in speaking of astral mysticism4#ebi ,nature herself has destined man to gaze upon the skies4 ,other animals are bent to the earth2 he proudly lifts his head to the stars4 ,his eye1 a tiny mirror in which immensity is reflected1 the soul's door1 open to the infinite1 follows the evolutions of the heavenly bodies from here below4 ,by their splendour they make men marvel and by their majesty compel them to veneration4 ,their complicated movements1 ruled by an immovable rhythm1 are inconceivable unless they are endowed with infallible reason4 ,the observation of the sky is not only an inexhaustible source of aesthetic emotion4 ,it also causes the soul1 a detached parcel of the fires of the ether1 to enter into communion with the gods which shine in the firmament4 ,possessed with the desire to know them1 this soul receives their revelations4 ,they instruct it as to their nature2 thanks to them1 it understands the phenomena produced in the cosmic organism4 ,thus scientific curiosity is also conceived as a yearning for ,god4 ,the love of truth leads to holiness more surely than initiations and priests4 ,of the numerous passages in which these ideas are expressed ,i will recall one which is well known but is not always well understood4#ecj ,virgil in his ,georgics tells us what he looks to receive from the sweet ,muses whom he serves1 being 8struck with a great love for them40 ,not1 as one would expect1 poetic inspiration but physical science4 ,the ,muses are to point out to him the paths of the stars in the sky1 to explain to him the reasons for eclipses1 tides and earthquakes and the variations in the length of the day4 8,happy is he10 the poet concludes1 8who can know the causes of things1 who treads underfoot all fear and inexorable fate and vain rumours as to greedy ,acheron40#eca ,there is1 in spite of a reminiscence of ,lucretius1 nothing ,epicurean in the idea here expressed4 ,the man who has won knowledge of ,nature1 which is divine1 escapes the common lot and does not fear death because a glorious immortality is reserved for him4 ,for these joys which the acquisition of wisdom gives here below1 partially and intermittently1 are in the other life bestowed with absolute fulness and prolonged for ever4 ,reason1 set free from corporeal organs1 attains to an infinite perceptive power and can satisfy the insatiable desire of knowledge which is innate within reason itself4 ,the ,blessed souls will thus be able at once to delight in the marvellous spectacle of the world and to obtain perfect understanding thereof4 ,they will not weary of following the rhythmic evolutions of the chorus of stars of which they form part1 of noting the causes and the rules which determine their movements4 ,from the height of their celestial observatory they will also perceive the phenomena of our globe and the actions of men4 ,nothing which happens in nature or in human society will be hidden from them4 ,this speculative life 7 7 is the only one on earth or in heaven which is worthy of the sage4 ,to observe the course of the stars throughout eternity may appear to us a desperately monotonous occupation1 a rather unenviable beatitude4 ,for the stars1 shorn of their divinity1 are for us no more than gaseous or solid bodies circulating in space1 and we analyse with the spectroscope their chemical composition4 ,but the ancients felt otherwise3 they describe with singular eloquence the 8cosmic emotion0 which seized them as they contemplated their southern skies--their soul was ravished1 borne on the wings of enthusiasm into the midst of the dazzling gods which from the earth had been descried throbbing in the radiance of the ether4 ,these mystic transports were compared by them to ,dionysiac intoxication2 an 8abstemious drunkenness0#ecb raised man to the stars and kindled in him an impassioned ardour for divine knowledge4 ,and as the exaltation produced by the vapours of wine gave to the mystics of ,bacchus a foretaste of the joyous inebriation promised to them in the ,elysian banquet1 so the ecstasy which uplifted him who contemplated the celestial gods caused him to feel the happiness of another life while he was yet here below4#ecc 8,i know10 says an epigram of ,ptolemy himself1#ecd 8,i know that ,i am mortal1 born for a day1 but when ,i follow the serried crowd of the stars in their circular course my feet touch the earth no longer3 ,i go to ,zeus himself and sate myself with ambrosia1 the food of the gods40 ,in the same way the intoxication produced by music1 the divine possession which purified man by detaching him from material cares1 caused him to taste for an instant the felicity which would fill his whole being when he should harken to the sweet harmony produced by the rotation of the spheres1 the celestial concert which the ears of mortals are incapable of hearing1 as their eyes cannot bear the brilliance of the sun4 ,men's instruments could cause the perception of only a weak echo of these delightful chords1 but they awoke in the soul a passionate desire for heaven1 where the unspeakable joy produced by the cosmic symphony would be felt4 ,the beatitude of the elect1 as conceived by astral immortality1 was a magnified projection to heaven of the joys which a religion of the erudite held to be most worthy of virtuous spirits4 ,when pagan theology transported the abode of the most favoured souls outside the boundaries of the universe to a world beyond the senses1#ece the happiness of these souls could no longer consist solely in the sight and the hearing of the motion of the spheres4 ,this entirely material conception of felicity in the ,beyond had to be spiritualised4 ,the ecstasy of ,plotinus does not stop short at the visible gods of the firmament2 in it the soul is transported beyond even the world of ideas and reaches1 in an upward rush of love1 the divine unity in which it merges1 ridding itself of all consciousness and all form4 ,this is the supreme goal which none can attain after death save him who has conquered perfect purity4 ,but the aristocratic intellectualism of this philosophy reserved this union with the first ,principle for an lite of sages4 ,paganism in its decline believed in a hierarchy of souls ascending to the divinity1 in a scale of merit corresponding to various degrees of rewards3 the majority lived among the stars and1 divine like them1 helped them to govern the earth--we already know their blessed lot2 others who were more perfect entered the intelligible cosmos#ecf and their happiness1 as it was imagined1 is but a more exalted counterpart of the joys attributed to the former class4 ,they were plunged in immovable contemplation of pure ,ideas2 forgetting earthly things1 they were wholly absorbed by this intense activity of thought which was to them an inexpressible joy4 ,moreover1 being set free from the bonds of their flesh and of their individuality1 they could embrace in a single glance all the separate intelligences which together formed the divine ,nous1 and thus had a simultaneous intuition of everything1 the direct comprehension of the ultimate reason of things4 ,beatific vision of the splendour of ,god1 immediate perception of all truth1 mystic love for an ineffable ,beauty--these were sublime speculations which were to be unendingly reproduced and developed after the fall of paganism4 ,unavailing efforts to represent a state inconceivable to any human imagination1 they expressed the ardent yearning of religious souls towards an ideal of perfection and felicity4 ,but this high religious spirituality had gradually broken away from somewhat coarse beliefs which had little by little been purified4 ,the rapture which transported ,plotinus to those summits where reason1 bewildered as in a swoon1 forsakes even thought in order to lose itself within a principle which is above all definition1 is directly connected with the ecstasy which in the temples of ,egypt came upon the devotee who1 like the philosopher1 conversed 8alone with the lone god10#ecg whom the priest had evoked1 and believed that in this vision he found a guarantee of eternal happiness4 ,,index ,ablutions1 #aah2 cf4 8,lustration0 ,absorption in ,god1 #cf s41 #db1 #abb ,acheron1 #e1 #h1 #ae1 #bg1 #gh1 #hj s41 #hd s41 #adi1 #baj ,achilles1 #gd ,adonis1 #aaf1 #bjc ,aeacus1 #aj1 #ge ,aeneid1 #dh1 #hb s41 #aea2 ,aeneas1 #gd1 #abh2 cf4 8,virgil0 ,africa1 #ic1 #abj1 #aci1 #aib ,age of reason1 #acg ,agricola1 #ah ,agrippina1 #aca ,ahriman1 #hi2 cf4 8,spirit of ,evil0 ,air full of souls1 #bf1 #ei1 #afj2 purifies1 #aai1 #adc1 #ahf2 cf4 ,winds2 ,aerial bodies1 #ajc1 #afh2 cf4 80 ,alexander of ,abonotichos1 #i1 #bc1 #ahj ,alexander of ,aphrodisias1 #f ,alexander the ,great1 #fb ,alexandria1 #ag1 #bj1 #gi1 #if2 cults1 #cf1 #ci2 cf4 8,isis10 8,serapis0 ,allegorical interpretations1 #ab1 #ba1 #bd1 #db1 #gh ss41 #hb1 #hf1 #aeb1 #ahj1 #aie1 #bjf ,amorgos1 #aje ,andromeda1 #ajd ,angels1 #adj ,anima1 #ei1 #afg2 cf4 8,soul0 ,ante diem 7death71 #acc ,antinous1 #aje1 #afd ,antipodes1 #hj s4 ,antonius ,diogenes1 #bb ,aphraates1 #bjf ,apocalypse of ,peter1 #agc ,apocolocyntosis1 #agi ,apollo1 #aab1 #abc1 #aef2 ,musagetes1 #aja ,apollonius of ,tyana1 #bc1 #afd ,apotheosis of heroes1 #cb1 #bje2 of emperors1 #ajb1 #aab s41 #aef1 #afd2 of ,claudius1 #agi2 of great men1 #aad s42 in mysteries1 #aah ss42 of children1 #ach ss4 ,appius ,claudius ,pulcher1 #bb ,apuleius1 #ajh1 n4 #da ,aristarchus1 #gi ,aristophanes1 #ie ,aristotle1 #f1 #ag1 #gg1 #ih1 #aca2 cf4 8,peripatetic0 ,armenia1 #eb ,arnold 7,matthew71 #aaf ,asia ,minor1 #aab2 cf4 8,cybele0 ,astral body1 #afi ,astrolatry1 #abc1 #bjg2 cf4 8,stars0 ,astrology1 #ag1 #bh1 #ib s41 #if1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #aag1 #ahg ,ataraxia1 #h1 #aia ,atargatis1 #aba ,athribis1 #ic ,atmosphere1 #be1 #ha1 #afb1 #afh2 cf4 8,hades0 ,attis1 #ce ss41 #ci1 #aaf1 #bjc ,augustus1 #aef ,avernus1 #gd ,axiochos1 #gi ,babylonia1 #id1 #aef2 cf4 8,chaldeans0 ,bacchus1 #eb1 #abj1 #ach s41 #bjb1 #baa2 ,bacchantes1 #fb2 cf4 8,dionysos0 ,banquet2 funeral1 #ec ss41 #bjj ss42 ritual1 #abj ss41 #bjc s42 eternal1 #ce1 #aea1 #bja ss42 of the gods1 #bjd ,biothanati1 #bf1 #abi ss41 #ada ss4 ,bird 7soul71 #ei1 #aeg s4 ,black hand1 #ace ,black souls1 #aff ,blood poured on tombs1 #ea2 seat of life1 #ea1 #aah2 in mysteries1 #aac1 #bja ss4 ,boats 7sun and moon71 #ib1 #aac1 #aed s42 carry souls1 #aee2 cf4 8,charon0 ,body carried to heaven1 #aei1 #afd2 cf4 #afe1 #afg2 soul attached to body1 #ahb s42 cf4 #dd ss42 cf4 8,corpse0 ,book of the ,dead1 #adh1 #age1 #aic2 of ,enoch1 #ajh1 #aih2 of ,arta ,viraf1 #age ,boscoreale 7goblets71 #aa ,bread1 #abj ,buddhism1 #agg ,burial necessary1 #fd ss41 #aig2 refused1 #fe1 #adc1 #ade s42 cf4 8,insepulti0 ,byzantines1 #acb1 #adf ,caesar 7,julius71 #h1 #ea1 #ajd ,calendar1 #ajb ,california1 #adh ,caligula1 #fg1 #aca ,callimachus1 #ag ,cameo of ,paris1 #aef ,cancer and ,capricorn1 #aec ,carducci1 #aae ,carneades1 #f ,castor and ,pollux1 #ajd1 #aac1 #bje2 cf4 8,dioscuri0 ,castor of ,rhodes1 #bb1 #ig ,catacombs1 #bjb1 #bjf ,catasterism1 #ajd1 #aac2 cf4 8,stars0 ,cato of ,utica1 #bf1 #add ,catullus1 #ag ,celsus1 #hh ,celts1 see 8,druids10 8,gaul0 ,cena novemdialis1 #ec ,cenotaph1 #fe2 cf4 #dh ,cerberus1 #aj1 #hc1 #hg ,chaldaic oracles1 #ch1 #ajc ,chaldeans1 #bh1 #ce1 #cg s41 #ie1 #ajj ss41 #ajg s41 #afj1 #bjh s42 cf4 8,babylonia0 ,chariot of the sun1 #ajb1 #aac1 #aef s4 ,charon1 #he1 #adi1 #agd2 ,charon's boat1 #aj1 #be1 #ff1 #ge1 #hj1 #aee ,children sacrificed1 #ace2 games in other life1 #ach s42 unbaptised1 #aih2 cf4 8,untimely death10 8,apotheosis0 ,christians1 pagan customs of1 #eb1 #ee s41 #aai1 #ade s41 #bjj2 beliefs1 #fh s41 #ij1 #ib1 #ajh1 #adj s41 #adc1 #aec1 #ahg1 #aif ss42 biothanati1 #adf ,chrysippus1 #ac ,church1 see 8,christians0 ,cicero1 #ai1 #bf s41 #ca ss41 #dd1 #hc1 #ajd s41 #aaa1 #aac1 #ace1 #aeb1 #afa1 #afe ,circe1 #gd1 #ahj ,circumpotatio1 #ee ,claudius1 #aeb1 #agi ,cleanthes1 #ac ,cocytus1 #gh ,colleges 7funeral71 #fg1 #adc ,comet1 #ajd2 cf4 8,star0 ,commodianus1 #adf ,como1 #aib ,conflagration of the world1 #ab ss4 ,consus1 #ga ,contemplation of stars1 #bji2 cf4 8,sight of ,god0 ,copernicus1 #bh1 #aji ,corinthians 7,epistle to71 #aa1 #ajf ,cornutus1 #ad ,corpse 7life of71 #de1 #afd2 cf4 8,body0 ,corstopitum1 #aef ,crescent 7symbol71 #ic1 #ig1 #ii ,crown of life1 #aag ,curse-tablets1 see 8,defixiones0 ,cybele1 #ce ss41 #ci ,cynics1 #fe ,cyprus1 #ace ,danades1 #he1 #hg1 #aga1 #aha ,dante1 #dc1 #aji1 #agd1 #ahg ,dead2 food of1 #ej2 partake of banquets1 #ed s42 communicate with living1 #eh s42 feared1 #dg2 malevolent1 #fc s42 tutelary spirits1 #fj s42 keep character of living1 #gc2 received by shades or not1 #fh1 #hf1 #aic2 physical character of1 #afe ss42 cf4 8,ghosts10 8,soul10 8,spirits0 ,death1 sleep1 #aj1 #de1 #aib2 not to be feared1 #g ss41 #ai2 second d41 #aaj2 untimely d41 #abh ss42 represented as a monster1 #aag ,defixiones1 #fc1 #fh1 #acd ,deification1 #cd1 #aaa s42 cf4 8,apotheosis0 ,demetrius of ,tarsus1 #ahf ,democritus1 #e1 #g ,demons1 #bf1 #bi1 #fj1 #fb1 #hj1 #hf s41 #hh s41 #acc1 #acf1 #ade1 #aed1 #afb1 #agb1 #age ,destiny1 see 8,fatalism0 ,devotio1 #fc ,di animales1 #adi ,dido1 #ei ,didyma1 #ii ,dio ,cassius1 #fb ,dionysos 7mysteries71 #ce1 #abj1 #abc1 #bja s41 #baa2 cf4 8,bacchus0 ,dioscuri1 #aef2 cf4 8,castor0 ,dolphins1 #ahj ,domitian1 #ajc ,druids1 #bc1 #id1 #agh ,druses1 #agh ,dualism1 #bd1 #hi1 #aag1 #ahh ,eagle carries souls1 #ajb1 #aac1 #aeg ss4 ,earth 7,mother71 #cf1 #hf2 cf4 8,cybele10 8,moon0 ,eclecticism1 #ba1 #bg ,ecstasy1 #db1 #aba1 #abf1 #aif ,egypt1 #dh s41 #ed1 #hf1 #aab1 #acd1 #aeg1 #agc1 #agg s42 ,egyptian religion1 #de1 #gf1 #gi1 #id1 #aac1 #abb s41 #adh1 #aec1 #afg1 #age1 #bjb1 #bjg1 #bac2 in ,rome1 #cf ss4 ,elements purify the soul1 #be1 #ha1 #aai1 #ahe ss41 #aif1 #bja ,eleusis1 #cd1 #ach2 cf4 8,mysteries0 ,elijah1 #aef ,elysian fields1 #cd1 #gc1 #gf1 #gi1 #hd1 #abj1 #ach s41 #aea1 #afe1 #aga ss41 #ahd1 #aic s42 in the moon1 #be1 #ha s41 #ig2 about the moon1 #ih2 among the stars1 #ajd1 #ahg2 represented1 #gd2 cf4 8,hades0 ,emperors1 divinity of1 #aab s42 cf4 8,apotheosis0 not subject to fate1 #aag2 cf4 8,kings0 ,ennius1 #ba1 #gi1 #afe ,enoch1 #ajh1 #aih ,epictetus1 #ab1 #ad ,epicurus1 #g ss41 #bj2 ,epicureans1 #fe1 #gg1 #aaj1 #aie1 #bjd1 #baj ,epinomis1 #bjh ,epiphanies of gods1 #aba1 #abc ,epoptism1 #aba2 cf4 8,sight of god0 ,erinyes1 #bf1 #ge1 #gh1 #agc ss41 #aha s42 cf4 8,furies0 ,eros1 #ach ,esdras1 #aih ,eternal house 7tomb71 #c1 #dh2 eternal rest1 #aif1 #aii2 eternal pains1 #gf1 #hh1 #agb2 eternal banquet1 see 8,banquet0 ,etruscans1 #e1 #ec s41 #fc1 #ga1 #gd s41 #aag1 #adi s41 #aee1 #agd1 #agh ,eusebius of ,alexandria1 #ib ,evil eye1 #aed ,evil1 ,spirit of1 see 8,spirit0 ,executed criminals1 #ade2 cf4 8,biothanati0 ,fatalism1 #aag1 #acc s41 #acf1 #agi1 #ahc ,fates1 #hd1 #acd1 #ach ,fatum1 #acc ,faustina1 #aef ,fire1 stoic1 #ab ss42 heavenly1 #bh1 #ahe2 cf4 8,stars20 of hell1 #age s42 purifies1 #aai1 #agf1 #ahe ss42 cf4 8,pyriphlegeton0 ,fish1 sacred1 #aba ,food of the dead1 #ej s41 #ef ,fortunate islands1 see 8,islands0 ,freer collection1 #aed ,funeral cult1 #dg ss42 funeral banquet1 see 8,banquet10 8,sculpture0 ,galileo1 #aji ,ganymede1 #aei ,garden of tombs1 #eg1 #bjj ,gates1 of ,hades1 #gj1 #hj2 of heaven1 #aec1 #afb s4 ,gaul1 #bc2 cf4 8,druids0 ,gello1 #acd ,genii1 #fj1 #adb ,germanicus1 #aef ,ghosts1 #d1 #g1 #fb s41 #fg s41 #hc1 #ia1 #acj s41 #acd1 #afe1 #aig ,gladiators1 #ea1 #acf ,gnosis 7sacred lore71 #bc1 #aaa1 #aad1 #aba ss41 #abe1 #bjg ss4 ,goat ,star1 #aje ,gobryes1 #gi ,god immanent1 #cj2 cf4 8,world20 transcendent1 #da2 identification with g41 #cd1 #ajg s42 cf4 8,soul20 sight of ,god1 #aba1 #bjg2 visible gods 7stars71 #ca1 #ajd1 #ajh2 cf4 8,epiphanies20 sage1 god on earth1 #ad1 #aaa s42 evil god1 #acc2 god eaten in mysteries1 #abj ,greek beliefs1 #e1 #fa1 #fi1 #gb ss41 #gi1 #hg1 #ie1 #ajb1 #aje1 #aac1 #aae1 #aag1 #adf s41 #aee1 #aeg1 #agd1 #agg2 mysteries1 #cd s42 cf4 8,dionysos10 8,eleusis20 funeral cult1 #ec s41 #ef ,guide of souls1 see 8,psychopomp0 ,hadad1 #bje ,hades1 ,greek1 #d s41 #gb1 #acd1 #adh1 #agj2 stoic1 #ad2 ,pythagorean1 #bf1 #gh1 #ha1 #aha2 ,neo-,platonic1 #da1 #hh2 mysteries1 #cg2 descent into ,h41 #adh ss41 #aga2 on earth1 #gh1 #aha s42 in the air1 #afh2 cf4 8,atmosphere20 between sun and moon1 #ajc2 cf4 8,gate10 8,inferi10 8,tartarus10 8,nether world0 ,hadrian1 #ajd1 #aeg ,hanged1 #adc2 rope amulet1 #acf ,harmony of spheres1 #be1 #aja1 #aae1 #bab ,heavens1 three1 #ajf2 eight1 #ajf s42 cf4 8,immortality10 8,planets0 ,hecate1 #ib1 #acd ,heliodorus of ,emesa1 #fh1 #hf ,helios1 #abc1 #acj2 cf4 8,sun0 ,hell dragon1 #aed2 cf4 8,hades0 ,hemispheres opposed1 #hj s4 ,hercules1 #ajd1 #aac1 #abc1 #add1 #afg1 #bje2 at crossroads1 #aej1 #aid ,hermes1 #ahj2 soul-guide1 #be1 #he1 #aje1 #ach1 #afc2 7,thot71 #abb ,hermes ,trismegistus1 #ch1 #aad1 #aba1 #ahj1 #ahf ,herodotus1 #agg ,heroes1 #aac ss41 #adj1 #adb1 #adi1 #afg1 #bjd s4 ,hesiod1 #aej ,hic requiescit1 #aia1 #aig ,hierapolis1 #aei ,hipparchus1 #if ,honey1 #eb1 #aai s4 ,horace1 #ab1 #acj1 #adb1 #bje ,horse carries souls1 #aee s4 ,hostanes1 #acf ,hypsistos 7,most ,high71 #da1 #ajd1 #ajh1 #acj ,icaromenippus1 #ajf ,imago1 #aff ,immortality1 earthly1 #ai s42 celestial1 #be ss41 #bi1 #cb1 #cg1 #ia ss41 #ach2 lunar1 #if ss42 cf4 8,moon20 solar1 #ajj ss42 cf4 8,sun20 stellar1 #ajc ss42 cf4 8,stars20 conception of i41 #aaj2 privilege of divinity1 #aaa2 i4 of the few1 see 8,heroes0 ,incineration1 #df ,india1 #ed1 #ic1 #ie1 #agg ,infants 7death of71 #abh ss4 ,inferi1 #d1 #be1 #ga1 #gh1 #ha1 #hf1 #aff1 #aie2 cf4 8,hades10 8,nether world0 ,innupti1 #acg ,insepulti1 #be1 #fd ss41 #ade2 rejected by shades1 #fh1 #hf1 #aic ,intoxication1 #abf1 #bje1 #baa s42 cf4 8,wine0 ,invicti 7stars71 #aag ,ion of ,chios1 #ie ,irish wake1 #ee ,isis1 #cf s41 #aba1 #abc1 #aed ,islands of the ,blessed1 #be1 #hj s41 #if1 #aee2 of impious1 #age ,ixion1 #hd s41 #aga ,jacob's ladder1 #aed ,jamblichus1 #dj1 #ajc1 #afi1 #ahd1 #bjg ,jews1 #ce1 #hi1 #ajh1 #ace1 #adb1 #aig ss41 #bjf2 cf4 8,philo0 ,john ,climacus1 #aed ,josephus1 #adb ,journey to ,hades1 #adh ss42 to heaven1 #aeb ss4 ,judaism1 see 8,jews0 ,judgment of the dead1 #gf1 #hh1 #aea1 #agb s4 ,julian the ,apostate1 #i1 #db1 #ih1 #aeg1 #afa1 #afd1 #bje ,julius ,caesar1 see 8,caesar0 ,jupiter1 #ajf2 summus exsuperantissimus1 #ajh2 star1 #ajg1 #ahg ,katoptromanteia1 #aff1 n4 #fb ,kings immortal1 #aab2 anointing of k41 #aai2 cf4 8,emperors0 ,kiss 7last71 #ei ,lactantius1 #aec ,ladder1 #aec ss4 ,larvae1 #fc ,lemures1 #d1 #fj1 #gb1 #aca2 ,lemuria1 #fc1 #ga ,lesbos1 #acd ,lethe1 #gf1 #ahd1 #bja ,libations on tombs1 #ej ss41 #bjd ,libri ,acheruntici1 #adi ,lion1 #ahg ,liternum1 #dg ,livia1 wife of ,drusus1 #ace ,lucan1 #ajc ,lucian of ,samosata1 #h1 #bc1 #ci1 #di1 #ed1 #fb1 #fg1 #ge1 #ig1 #ajf1 #age1 #bja ,lucretius1 #g1 #de s41 #ach1 #baj ,lunula1 #ig ,lustrations1 #aah ,lysimachus1 #fe ,maccabees1 #adb ,macrobius1 #acb s4 ,magi1 #gi1 #ie ,magic1 #bb1 #bf1 #eb1 #fg1 #aah1 #aai1 #abd1 #acj s41 #acc ss41 #adc1 #aed1 #aeh1 #afc1 #aff2 magic papyri1 #hf1 #acd ss42 cf4 8,necromancy0 ,manalis lapis1 #ga ,manes1 #d1 #ah1 #cb1 #dg1 #ed1 #fj ss41 #gb1 #hf1 #ic1 passim ,manicheans1 #ic1 #ajc1 #aed1 #agh ,manilius1 #ca1 #aab1 #acc ,marcellus1 #aef ,marcus ,aurelius1 #ad1 #ci ,mars1 #abc2 star1 #ajg1 #aca1 #ada1 #ahg ,marseilles1 #afc ,martyrs1 #adc1 #ade ,maximus of ,tyre1 #fa ,mazdeans1 #hi1 #ie1 #age1 #ahh2 cf4 8,persia0 ,meals1 see 8,banquets0 ,melikraton1 #eb ,memoriae aeternae1 #ai ,memory1 ,lake of1 #adh ,menander1 #ada ,mercury 7star71 #ajg1 #ahg2 cf4 8,hermes0 ,metempsychosis1 #bf1 #da s41 #gd1 #gh1 #hb s41 #agb1 #agg ss42 in beasts1 #agi s41 #ahc2 in plants1 #agi2 punishment1 #ahj ,miletus1 #aje ,milk1 #eb ,milky ,way1 #id1 #ajd1 #aeb s4 ,minos1 #ge1 #he ,mirrors in magic1 #aff ,mithras1 #cg s41 #hi1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #aed1 #aef1 #afd1 #agh2 cf4 #afc ,mojave ,indians1 #adh ,money 7in mouth of dead71 #hd ,monsters1 see 8,death01 8,souls0 ,monteleone 7chariot71 #aee1 n4 #bc ,moon1 #bh1 #bi1 #hf2 new moon1 #ia2 m4 and resurrection1 #ia s42 abode of souls1 #be s41 #ic s41 #if s41 #ahf1 #aie2 dissolves souls1 #afh2 limit of heaven1 #be1 #ih s42 ,olympic earth1 #ig2 cf4 #ahg2 rules physical life1 #ajb1 #ajg2 cf4 8,boat0 ,mother of gods1 #ce ss4 ,mourning1 #dg1 #ea ,muses1 #aja1 #aae1 #baj ,music1 #bd1 #acb2 cf4 8,harmony of spheres0 ,mussulman1 #adb ,mysteries1 ,greek1 #cd s41 #ach2 cf4 8,dionysos10 8,eleusis20 oriental1 #cc ss41 #if1 #aaf ss41 #ach1 #afj2 m4 and philosophy1 #ch1 #abd ss42 transformed1 #ch s41 #hb2 children initiated1 #ach ,mysticism1 astral1 #cj1 #abf1 #bjh ss42 ,neo-,platonic1 #db1 #abe ,naiads1 #aci ,necromancy1 #ec1 #fb1 #ff1 #fh1 #aij ,nectabis1 #acf ,nekyia1 #hb ,nemesis1 #acj ,neo-,platonists1 #dj1 #hg s41 #ajf1 #aaj1 #abd1 #add1 #afc1 #afi1 #aif ,neo-,pythagoreans1 see 8,pythagoreans0 ,nereids1 #aci ,nero1 #ajc1 #aca ,nether world1 #gj ss42 imitation of city1 #ge1 #agb s42 lower hemisphere1 #gi2 in the air1 #ha2 cf4 8,atmosphere20 scepticism about n4w41 #ah1 #hc s42 faith in n4w4 preserved1 #cf s42 cf4 8,hades10 8,inferi0 ,new ,york 7,museum71 #aee1 n4 #bc ,nigidius ,figulus1 #bb1 #cb1 #ig ,non nutriti1 #acg ,nosaris1 #agh ,nous1 #ajc1 #afh1 #bac ,numa1 #ba ,number 7,pythagorean71 #acb ,numenius1 #ajg ,nymphs1 #adj ,octavius1 #ea ,oenoanda1 #i ,oil1 #aai ,olympus1 #hj1 #hh1 #ajd s41 #aeg1 #afc1 #aie2 ,olympic earth1 #ig2 cf4 #ahg ,omophagy1 #abj ,orcus1 #hc2 cf4 8,hades0 ,oriental mysteries1 #cc ss42 cf4 8,mysteries20 ,or4 religions1 #aag1 #bjc1 #bji ,origen1 #ajh s41 #adj1 #aed1 #ahh ,orphism1 #e1 #ba1 #cd s41 #gc s41 #gg1 #ach1 #adh s41 #aga s41 #agd1 #agg ss41 #ahg s41 #aic1 #bja ,oscilla1 #adc ,osiris1 #ce1 #aac1 #aaf1 #abb s41 #bjb s42 cf4 8,serapis0 ,os resectum1 #fe2 ossa quiescant1 #aia ,ovid1 #bb1 #gc1 #ajd ,pains of hell1 #agj ss42 cf4 8,fire10 8,eternal0 ,paintings1 #ic2 cf4 catacombs1 #bjb1 #bjf ,palingenesis1 #ac1 #ahb ss4 ,panaetius1 #ac1 #bg s4 ,panamu 7king71 #bje ,pannonia1 #ahf ,papyri1 #aeg2 cf4 8,magic0 ,paradise1 #bjj1 #bje ,parcae1 #hd ,parentalia1 #fc1 #ga ,pascal1 #b1 #cj ,pausanias1 #ie ,pegasus1 #aef ,pericles1 #a ,periktione1 #gh ,peripatetic school1 #f1 #gg2 cf4 8,aristotle0 ,persia1 #ed1 #hi1 #ie s41 #ajg1 #aef1 #age1 #agg2 cf4 8,mazdeans10 8,mithras0 ,pessimism1 #bd1 #ci1 #da ,petelia tablet1 #adh ,peter1 apocalypse of1 #agc ,petosiris1 #acb ,petronius1 #di1 #ace ,phantoms1 see 8,ghosts0 ,pharaohs1 #aac1 #abc2 cf4 8,egypt0 ,philadelphia1 #aea ,philip of ,opus1 #bjh ,philo the ,jew1 #ca1 #adj1 #aed ,philosophy1 #e ss42 and mysteries1 #ch1 #aba2 philosophers immortal1 #aad1 #abd2 priests of the world1 #abe2 wonder-workers1 #aad2 cf4 8,epicureans10 8,neo-,platonists10 8,pythagoreans10 8,stoics0 ,phoebus1 #aeg2 cf4 8,sun0 ,phosphorus1 #aei ,phrygian cult1 #ce s42 cf4 8,sabazios0 ,pindar1 #gc ,pirithous1 #aga ,planets1 #bh1 #afh1 #agi1 #bji2 planetary spheres1 #ajc1 #ajf ss41 #aed1 #ahg ,plato1 #f1 #g1 #ah1 #bc1 #bf1 #bh1 #cb1 #ci1 #db1 #ff1 #gg1 #hg ss41 #ie1 #ii1 #ajg1 #abi1 #acf1 #aeh1 #afi1 #agh1 #ahb ss41 #ahh2 ,plato's cavern1 #bc1 #ii2 ,phaedo1 #di1 #gi1 #add1 #aeb1 #afc2 cf4 8,axiochos10 8,neo-,platonists0 ,plautus1 #e ,pliny the ,elder1 #h1 #hc1 #ib1 #if2 the ,younger1 #fg ,plotinus1 #bc1 #dj ss41 #fa1 #abe1 #add1 #bab s4 ,plutarch1 #ci1 #hc1 #hg1 #abi1 #agc1 #ahf ,pluto1 #ge1 #hd s42 cf4 8,hades0 ,pneuma1 see 80 ,polybius1 #e ,pontiffs1 #fe2 cf4 #dd ,porch1 see 8,stoics0 ,porphyry1 #dj1 #db1 #hg1 #abj1 #abe1 #add1 #ahd ,posidonius of ,apamea1 #bg ss41 #cb1 #ci1 #dc1 #hb1 #ih1 #abd1 #acf1 #afa1 #ahd ,praesens numen1 #aab ,praetextatus 7catacombs71 #bjb ,prayer 7silent71 #bd1 #abb1 #abf ,priests immortal1 #aad2 anointed1 #aai2 cf4 8,philosophers0 ,proclus1 #hg s41 #afi ,prodicus1 #aej ,propertius1 #dg ,proserpina1 #be1 #ge1 #ie1 #ig ,psyche1 #be1 #ei ,psychopomp1 #id1 #afc2 cf4 8,hermes10 8,sun0 ,ptolemies1 #abc2 cf4 8,alexandria0 ,ptolemy's system1 #bh1 #dc1 #aji2 astrology1 #acb2 epigram1 #baa ,punic cults1 #ic2 cf4 #ei2 cf4 8,africa0 ,purgatory1 #bf1 #hb1 #afa s41 #ahe ss4 ,purification of the soul1 #aah2 cf4 8,purgatory01 8,lustrations0 ,pyre1 #di1 #aei ,pyriphlegethon1 #ae1 #gf1 #gh1 #ha1 #age1 #ahe ,pythagoras1 #bj ss41 #ig ,pythagoreans1 #bj ss41 #bg1 #cb1 #ce1 #ch ss41 #ei1 #ff1 #fh1 #gd1 #gg s41 #ha1 #ie s41 #ii s41 #ajd1 #ajg1 #aba1 #abd1 #abi1 #acb ss41 #acf s41 #add1 #adi ss41 #afj1 #afg1 #aga1 #agg ss41 #aha1 #ahh1 #aid ,quies aeterna1 #aia ,quietae sedes1 #aie ,ra1 #id1 #aac1 #aed ,rays of the sun1 #afj2 cf4 8,sun0 ,reason rises to the sun1 #ajc1 #afh2 cf4 8,nous0 ,refrigerium1 #bjb ,reincarnation1 #bf1 #bi2 cf4 8,metempsychosis0 ,repast1 see 8,banquet0 ,repose of the dead1 #aij ss42 in the ,elysian ,fields1 #aic s42 in heaven1 #aie ss4 ,rest1 see 8,repose10 8,quies0 ,resurrection of the flesh1 #aig ,retaliation1 #agc ,retribution1 #gb1 #agb ss41 #agg ss42 cf4 8,judgment0 ,revelation1 #bjg2 cf4 8,gnosis0 ,rhadamanthus1 #ge ,rhine1 #aed ,right and left1 #aeb ,rites not needed1 #abe ss4 ,roads 7two71 #aej ss42 cf4 8,milky ,way0 ,rosalia1 #ec2 cf4 #eg ,royal souls1 #aad2 cf4 8,kings0 ,sabazios1 #ce1 #bjb1 #bjd ,sacrifices for the dead1 #ej ss4 ,sage1 god on earth1 #ad1 #aaa ss4 ,sallust1 #h ,salvation in mysteries1 #cd ss4 ,samos1 #a ,sanctus1 #aaa ,san ,francisco 7museum71 #ahc ,sarcophagi1 #gd1 #he1 #aae1 #adi1 #aee2 cf4 8,sculpture0 ,saturn1 #ajg1 #aca1 #ada1 #ahg ,satyrs1 #ach ,scarbantia1 #ahf ,scepticism1 #ag ss41 #bh1 #ca ,science deifies1 #bjh ss42 cf4 8,gnosis0 ,scipio's tomb1 #dg2 ,scipio's dream1 #cb1 #ajd ,sculpture 7funeral71 #he1 #hf1 #aag1 #adi1 #aea1 #aee ss41 #aei1 #afe1 #ahe s41 #aid1 #bja1 #bje2 cf4 8,paintings10 8,sarcophagi0 ,sea 7death at71 #abi ,seals1 #afc ,securi 7dead71 #ee1 #aia2 secura quies1 #aid ,selene1 #if s42 cf4 8,moon0 ,semites1 #dh1 #gi1 #ic s41 #ajc1 #abc2 cf4 8,syrians0 ,sendjerli1 #bjd ,seneca1 #h1 #ad1 #bb1 #ca1 #hc1 #aeb1 #agi1 #aif ,serapis1 #cf s41 #ci1 #abb s41 #bjb2 cf4 8,osiris0 ,servius1 #fj1 passim ,sextus ,empiricus1 #afa ,shade1 #afe ss42 and soul1 #gi2 shades receive or reject dead1 #fh1 #hf1 n4 #ci1 #acd1 #aic1 #bjd2 cf4 810 8,umbra0 ,shahd1 #adb ,sheol1 #d ,ship1 see 8,boat0 ,sideribus recepti1 #aac ,sight of god1 #aba1 #bjg2 cf4 8,gnosis0 ,silicernium1 #ec ,simulacrum1 #aff s42 cf4 80 ,sisiphus1 #gh1 #hd1 #agj1 #aha ,sit tibi terra levis1 #df ,sleep of death1 #aj1 #de1 #di1 #aib ,smyrna1 #adj ,socrates1 #aca ,solar attraction1 #afj2 cf4 8,rays10 8,sun0 ,soldiers slain in battle1 #adb ,somno aeterno1 #aib ,soul a breath1 #d1 #g1 #ei1 #afd2 burning breath1 #ac s41 #bd1 #bi1 #hg1 #ih1 #afa2 number1 #bd2 circular1 #ih2 a bird1 #ei1 #ic1 #aeg s42 not immaterial1 #aah1 #afb2 physical nature1 #afd ss42 principle of movement1 #aaj2 soul and shade1 #gi2 cf4 820 pollution1 #bi1 #aah1 #afb1 #ahe2 division1 #afh2 related to ,god1 #ab1 #aaa2 union with ,god1 #db1 #abb s42 becomes star1 #ib s42 journey1 #adh ss42 triple ascension1 #ajf2 passage through planets1 #ajg2 garments of s41 #ajf ss42 hierarchy of souls1 #ajh s41 #bac2 how represented1 #afe1 #afg2 cf4 8,ghost10 8,shade10 8,spirit10 8,stars0 ,spirit of ,evil1 #hi1 #age2 cf4 8,ahriman0 ,spirits of the dead1 #df s41 #ef s42 of murdered1 #acj2 cf4 8,soul0 ,stars and souls1 #ib s41 #id1 #ajc ss42 shooting s41 #ib2 invicti1 #aag2 cf4 8,comet0 ,statius1 #ajc ,stele1 see 8,sculpture0 ,stoics1 #ab ss41 #ba1 #cj s41 #cc1 #ci1 #df1 #fe1 #gg1 #hb1 #hg1 #if1 #ih s41 #ajc1 #aac1 #add1 #agi1 #ahb1 #aie ,styx1 #be1 #ge s41 #gh1 #hj s41 #hc s41 #acd1 #aee1 #aic ,sublunary world1 see 8,world0 ,suetonius1 #hf1 #acj ,suicide1 #adc ss4 ,sun-god1 #bd1 #hf1 #acj2 cf4 8,helios10 8,phoebus10 8,ra20 and emperors1 #aeg2 and eagle1 #aeh2 psychopomp1 #afd2 star1 #bh1 #ajj s42 new sun1 #ia2 heart of the world1 #ajj2 reason of the world1 #aja1 #ajg2 sun and souls1 #id1 #aef ss42 cf4 8,boat10 8,chariot0 ,suo die1 #acc ,syncretism1 see 8,eclecticism0 ,syria1 #bh1 #dj1 #eb1 #gc1 #hf1 #ib1 #aab1 #aca1 #aef ss41 #agf1 n4 #aa1 #bjd ss42 ,syrian cults1 #cg1 #ic1 #if1 #abj s4 ,taciti 7,manes71 #afe ,tacitus1 #ah ,tages1 #adi ,tantalus1 #i1 #gh1 #hd s41 #agj1 #aha ,tartarus1 #bf1 #bg1 #cd1 #ge s41 #gg1 #gi s41 #hd s41 #aga ss41 #age s41 #ahh2 cf4 8,hades0 ,taurobolium1 #aai ,tertullian1 #ee ,theodore the ,atheist1 #fe ,theophanes1 #adf ,theseus1 #aga ,tiberius1 #hf ,tibullus1 #aia ,timaeus of ,locri1 #gh ,tiresias1 #gd ,titans1 #agh ,titus1 #adb ,tityus1 #i1 #agj1 #aha ,tivoli1 #ahc ,tomb1 a dwelling1 #c1 #df ss41 #ef2 furniture1 #di s41 #gb2 garden1 #eg1 #bjj2 placed on roads1 #eh2 antechamber of nether world1 #gj2 tombstone1 see 8,sculpture10 8,sarcophagi0 ,torre ,san ,severo 7sarcophagus71 #gd ,trajan1 #aeg ,transmigration1 see 8,metempsychosis0 ,tritons1 #ahf ,ulysses1 #gd1 #ahj ,umbra1 #gi1 #aff s4 ,unburied1 #fd2 cf4 8,insepulti0 ,unctions1 #aai1 #afc ,untimely death1 #abh ss41 #acf ss4 ,varro1 #ca ,vatinius1 #bb ,vegetarianism1 #agi ,vehicle of souls1 #fa1 #afi ,venus--star1 #id1 #ajg2 goddess1 #ajd1 #abc1 #ahg ,violation of tombs1 #fg s4 ,virgil1 #ca1 #ei1 #ff1 #gc1 #hb s41 #abh s41 #aci1 #adb1 #aeb1 #agb1 #agd1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #baj ,warriors1 see 8,soldiers0 ,washing1 see 8,ablutions0 ,water1 heavenly1 #ahe2 libation of w41 #ea2 cf4 #bjb2 purification by w41 see 8,elements10 8,lustration0 ,winds1 #be1 #fj1 #aee1 #afa1 #aff1 #ahe ,wine1 #ce1 #eb1 #abj1 #bjc ss41 #baa ,wizards1 see 8,magic0 ,world--system of1 #bh1 #ii s41 #aba2 divine1 #ab1 #bi s41 #abf2 sublunary world1 #ii1 #ajg1 #aag1 #afh1 #aie2 cf4 8,moon0 ,y symbol1 #bf1 #aej s41 #aid ,yezidis1 #agh ,zagreus1 #ach ,zeno1 #aie ,zeus1 #aab1 #abc2 cf4 8,jupiter0 ,,greek ,,words 1 #acg 1 #abc 1 #bd 1 #da 1 7 ,hades71 #gi 1 #ahc 1 #aja1 #afj 1 #aca 1 #ahc 1 #ei 1 #ach 1 #hi 1 #acg 1 #aaf1 #aah 1 #aia 1 #aah2 cf4 8,apotheosis0 1 #fh 1 #aea 1 #afb 1 #aea 1 #h 1 #fd2 cf4 8,insepulti0 1 #acb1 #acg 1 #abi1 #acf s4 1 #abi1 #ada ss4 1 #baa 7 71 #bc1 #aba ss41 #abe1 #bjg ss4 1 #abc 1 #g1 #bd1 #gi1 #aff s4 1 #ac s4 1 #aab 1 #afj 1 #aee 1 #adi 1 #cj1 #ajc 1 #afc s4 1 #adi 1 #aga2 cf4 8,hades0 1 #agi 1 #ahb 1 #afh2 cf4 #ajc1 #bac 1 #aci 1 #afj 1 #aeb 1 #da1 #afa1 #afi 1 #ahb 1 #bjj 1 #aaa1 #afh 1 #ade 1 #aff s4 1 #if1 #aaa 1 #bjb 1 #afg 1 #aab 1 #afc 1 #aea 1 #bf1 #aej s41 #aid 1 #da2 cf4 8,hypsistos0 1 #abc 1 #abc 1 #be1 #ei1 #afg2 cf4 8,psyche0 ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america ----- ,footnote #a3 ,plut41 ,pericl41 #h4 ,footnote #b3 ,penses1 ,,iii1 #aid 7t4 ,,ii1 p4 #ajc1 ed4 ,brunschvigg74 ,footnote #c3 ,see ,lecture ,i1 8,life in the ,tomb40 ,footnote #d3 ,see ,lecture ,,ii1 8,the ,nether ,world40 ,footnote #e3 ,see ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #gc4 ,footnote #f3 ,plautus1 ,capt41 ,v1 #d1 #a4 ,footnote #g3 ,polyb41 ,,vi1 #ef1 #ab4 ,footnote #h3 ,diels1 ,fragm4 ,vorsokratiker#c1 ,,ii1 p4 #aba1 fr4 #big4 ,footnote #i3 ,homer1 ,il41 1 #ajj2 ,plato1 ,phaed41 #gg ,d2 cf4 ,rohde1 ,psyche1 ,,ii#d1 p4 #bfd1 n4 #b4 ,footnote #aj3 ,,iii1 #ch3 8,et metus ille foras praeceps ,acheruntis agendus ,funditus humanam qui vitam turbat ab imo40 ,footnote #aa3 ,sall41 ,cat41 #ea1 #bj4 ,footnote #ab3 ,pliny1 ,h4 ,n41 ,,vii1 #ee1 #aij4 ,footnote #ac3 ,seneca1 ,troades1 #chb ss4 ,footnote #ad3 ,lucian1 ,alex41 c4 #fa2 c4 #dg4 ,footnote #ae3 ,lucian1 ibid41 c4 #ch2 c4 #dd2 c4 #dg4 ,footnote #af3 ,julian1 ,epist41 #hi 7p4 #gdg1 #bc1 ed4 ,bidez-,cumont74 ,footnote #ag3 ,cousin1 ,bull4 corr4 hell41 ,,xvi1 #ahig2 cf4 ,usener1 ,rhein4 ,mus41 ,n4 ,f41 ,,xlvii1 p4 #dbh4 ,footnote #ah3 ,,cil1 ,,xi1 #hef ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigraphica1 #aia4 ,footnote #ai3 ,dessau1 ,inscript4 selectae1 #hafb ss42 cf4 ,recueil des inscriptions du ,pont1 #aaj3 8,non fui1 fui1 non sum1 non curo40 ,footnote #bj3 ,recueil1 #adc4 ,footnote #ba3 ,cf4 ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #aib4 ,footnote #bb3 ,kaibel1 ,epigr4 ,graeca1 #fdf4 ,footnote #bc3 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #adie ,,cil1 ,,vi1 #bfjjc3 8,nil sumus et fuimus4 ,mortales respice1 lector1 ,in nihil ab nihilo quam cito recidimus40 ,footnote #bd3 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #abdg ,,cil1 ,,vi1 #gaic3 8,quod superest homini requiescunt dulciter ossa1 ,nec sum sollicitus ne subito esuriam4 ,et podagram careo1 nec sum pensionibus arra ,et gratis aeterno perfruor hospitio40 ,footnote #be3 ,bcheler1 op4 cit41 #aejj4 ,footnote #bf3 ,i ,cor4 #ae4 #cb4 ,footnote #bg3 ,bcheler1 op4 cit41 #ahg3 8,quod comedi et ebibi tantum meum est40 ,cf4 ibid41 #bdd3 8,quod edi1 bibi1 mecum habeo1 quod reliqui1 perdidi40 ,footnote #bh3 ,bcheler1 op4 cit41 #adii2 ,dessau1 ,inscr4 sel41 #haeg3 8,balnea1 vina1 venus corrumpunt corpora nostra1 ,sed vitam faciunt balnea1 vina1 venus40 ,footnote #bi3 ,bcheler1 op4 cit41 #bdc3 8,dum vixi1 bibi libenter2 bibite vos qui vivitis40 ,footnote #cj3 ,hron de ,villefosse1 ,le trsor de ,boscoreale1 in ,monuments ,piot1 ,v1 ,paris1 #ahii4 ,footnote #ca3 ,epist41 ,i1 #d1 #af4 ,footnote #cb3 ,epict41 ,diss41 ,i1 #ad1 #f2 ,,ii1 #h1 #aa 7 74 ,footnote #cc3 ,cf41 e4g41 ,sen41 ,consol4 ,marc41 end4 ,footnote #cd3 ,see ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #aae s4 ,footnote #ce3 ,cic41 ,tusc41 ,i1 #gi4 ,footnote #cf3 ,stob41 ,ecl41 ,i1 #chd1 ,wachsmuth4 ,footnote #cg3 ,sextus ,empiricus1 ,adv4 ,math41 ,,ix1 #ga3 4 ,cf4 ,cic41 ,tusc41 ,i1 #af1 #cg2 #ag1 #dj4 ,footnote #ch3 ,cf4 ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #gg4 ,footnote #ci3 ,epictetus1 ,,iii1 #ac1 #ae2 cf4 ,,ii1 #f1 #ah4 ,footnote #dj3 ,bonhfer1 ,epictet4 und die ,stoa1 #ahij1 p4 #fe4 ,footnote #da3 ,cf4 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ih4 ,footnote #db3 ,arch4 ,epigr4 ,mitt4 aus ,oesterreich1 ,,vi1 #ahhb1 p4 #fj2 cf4 ,epictetus1 l4 c4 ,footnote #dc3 ,,cil1 ,,xiii1 #hcga1 at ,cologne4 ,footnote #dd3 ,,cil1 ,,iii1 #fchd3 8,corpus habent cineres1 animam sacer abstulit aer40 ,footnote #de3 ,dessau1 ,inscr4 sel41 #hafh2 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #aecb2 cf4 #igd3 8,mortua heic ego sum et sum cinis1 is cinis terrast1 ,sein est terra dea1 ego sum dea1 mortua non sum40 ,footnote #df3 ,tennyson1 ,crossing the ,bar4 ,footnote #dg3 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #adih3 8,evasi effugi2 ,spes et ,fortuna valete2 ,nil mihi vobiscum4 ,ludificate alios40 ,cf4 ,bcheler1 #dji1 #i2 #dcd2 ,anthol4 ,pal41 ,,ix1 #di2 #agb2 ,vettius ,valens1 ,v1 #i 7p4 #bai1 #bf1 ,kroll74 ,footnote #dh3 ,see my ,oriental religions1 p4 #ahj2 #bgf1 n4 #ea s4 ,footnote #di3 ,see ,lecture ,,iii1 pp4 #if1 #ajg2 ,,vii1 p4 #agf4 ,footnote #ej3 ,callim41 ,epigr41 #ae1 #c3 2-- -- ' 2 -- 2---- ,footnote #ea3 ,cat41 ,v1 #d3 8,soles occidere et redire possunt2 ,nobis quum semel occidit brevis lux1 ,nox est perpetua una dormienda40 ,footnote #eb3 ,cf4 ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #hc1 and ,,vii1 p4 #aha4 ,footnote #ec3 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #ahj1 #aadg1 #aaij1 #acci1 etc4 ,footnote #ed3 ,plato1 ,apol41 #dj;c-#da;c4 ,footnote #ee3 ,cic41 ,parad4 ,stoic41 ,,ii1 #ah3 8,mors est terribilis iis quorum cum vita omnia exstinguntur1 non iis quorum laus emori non potest40 ,footnote #ef3 ,cic41 ,pro ,archia1 #aa1 #bf2 cf4 ,tusc41 ,i1 #ae1 #cd4 ,footnote #eg3 ,diog4 ,laert41 ,x1 #af fragm4 #bag ,usener2 cf4 ,plin41 ,h4 ,n41 ,,xxxv1 #e4 ,footnote #eh3 ,furtwngler1 ,die antiken ,gemmen1 ,,iii1 #aijj1 #beg ss4 ,footnote #ei3 ,see ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ig4 ,footnote #fj3 ,ovid1 ,metam41 ,,xv1 #fj ss4 ,footnote #fa3 ,rohde1 ,der ,griech4 ,roman#b1 p4 #bgj s4 ,footnote #fb3 ,sen41 ,quaest4 nat41 ,,vii1 #cb1 #b4 ,footnote #fc3 ,see ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #aba4 ,footnote #fd3 ,revue archologique1 #aiah1 ,,viii1 p4 #eb ss4 ,footnote #fe3 ,plato1 ,republ41 ,,vii1 p4 #ead4 ,footnote #ff3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #bji ss4 ,footnote #fg3 ,see ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #afg2 cf4 ,,iii1 p4 #ajc4 ,footnote #fh3 ,see ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #ha4 ,footnote #fi3 ,see1 for all this1 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #if s42 cf4 ,,viii1 p4 #aie4 ,footnote #gj3 ,see ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #bab4 ,footnote #ga3 ,see ,lecture ,i1 p4 #ff4 ,footnote #gb3 ,see ,lecture ,v1 p4 #acc4 ,footnote #gc3 ,see ,lecture ,,iii1 pp4 #gc1 #ha2 ,,vii1 p4 #aha s4 ,footnote #gd3 ,cf4 ,cic41 ,tusc41 ,i1 #aa1 #bd4 ,footnote #ge3 ,see ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #aea4 ,footnote #gf3 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #dcd4 ,footnote #gg3 ,cf4 my ,astrology and ,religion1 #aiab1 p4 #hc ss4 ,footnote #gh3 ,see above1 p4 #ac4 ,footnote #gi3 ,see ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ih4 ,footnote #hj3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ajj ss4 ,footnote #ha3 ,pascal1 ,penses1 ,,iii1 #bjf 7t4 ,,ii1 p4 #abg1 ,brunschvigg73 8,le silence ternel de ces espaces infinis m'effraie40 ,footnote #hb3 ,see ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ih2 ,,vi1 p4 #afa s42 ,,vii1 p4 #ahd4 ,footnote #hc3 ,see ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #abg2 ,,viii1 p4 #baj4 ,footnote #hd3 ,manilius1 ,,ii1 #aae4 ,footnote #he3 ,see above1 p4 #bb4 ,footnote #hf3 ,lehrs1 ,populre ,aufstze aus dem ,altertum1 #ahge1 p4 #cdi ss42 ,fowler1 ,religious ,experience of the ,roman ,people1 p4 #chb ss4 ,footnote #hg3 ,cf4 my ,oriental religions in ,roman paganism1 ,chicago1 #aiaa1 p4 #ci ss4 ,footnote #hh3 ,see ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #aah ss4 ,footnote #hi3 ,see ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #gf2 ,,vii1 p4 #aga4 ,footnote #ij3 ,see ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #abj2 ,,viii1 p4 #bjd4 ,footnote #ia3 8,alimenta vitae tribuis perpetua fide1 ,et cum recesserit anima in te refugiemus1 ,ita1 quicquid tribuis1 in te cuncta recidunt40 7,anthol4 ,lat41 ed4 ,riese1 ,i1 p4 #bg47 ,footnote #ib3 ,see ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #abb4 ,footnote #ic3 ,see ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #bjb4 ,footnote #id3 ,see ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #if ss4 ,footnote #ie3 ,see ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #gi4 ,footnote #if3 ,enn41 ,,iv1 #g4 ,footnote #ig3 ,see ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ajf2 ,,vi1 p4 #afi4 ,footnote #ih3 ,see ,lecture ,,vii1 p4 #ahd ss4 ,footnote #ii3 ,see ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #ajh2 ,,viii1 p4 #bab4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,see ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #ij2 ,,iv1 p4 #aji2 ,,viii1 p4 #aif ss41 #bjf4 ,footnote #aja3 ,cic41 ,tusc41 ,i1 #ab1 #bg4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,lucretius1 ,,iii1 #hij ss4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,servius1 ,aen41 ,,iii1 #fh4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,servius1 ibid4 ,footnote #aje3 ,propertius1 ,,iv1 #e1 #c3 8,nec sedeant cineri ,manes40 ,cf4 ,lucan1 ,,ix1 #b4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,pliny1 ,h4 ,n41 ,,xvi1 #dd1 #bcd2 cf4 ,livy1 ,,xxxviii1 #ec4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,cf4 my ,oriental religions1 p4 #bdj4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,,cil1 ,i1 #aajh3 8,domum aeternam ubi aevum degerent40 ,footnote #aji3 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #aeee3 8,haec certa est domus1 haec est colenda nobis40 ,footnote #aaj3 ,virg41 ,aen41 ,,iii1 #fg3 8,animam sepulcro condimus40 ,cf4 ,pliny1 ,epist41 ,,iii1 #bg1 #ab3 8,rite conditis ,manibus40 ,footnote #aaa3 ,see above1 ,introd41 p4 #aj2 ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #aib4 ,footnote #aab3 ,petronius1 #ga3 8,valde enim falsum vivo quidem domos cultas esse1 non curari eam ubi diutius nobis habitandum est40 ,footnote #aac3 ,lucian1 ,philopseudes1 #bg2 cf4 ,dessau1 ,inscr4 sel41 #hcgi1 l4 #ej ss4 ,footnote #aad3 ,kaibel1 ,epigr4 ,graeca1 #fdf ,dessau1 ,inscr4 sel41 #haef2 cf4 ,lucian1 ,de luctu1 #ai4 ,footnote #aae3 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #hch ,dessau1 op4 cit41 #hbjd4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,sueton41 ,aug41 #ae4 ,footnote #aag3 ,cf4 p4 #eb1 n4 #bj1 and ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #aah4 ,footnote #aah3 ,servius1 ,aen41 ,,iii1 #fg4 ,footnote #aai3 ,cf4 ,comptes rendus ,acad4 des ,inscr41 #aiah1 p4 #bhd s4 ,footnote #abj3 ,servius1 ,aen41 ,v1 #gi3 8,ad sanguinis imitationem1 in quo est sedes animae40 ,cf4 ,,ii1 #ecb4 ,footnote #aba3 ,see above1 ,introd41 p4 #ce1 and ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #bjd4 ,footnote #abb3 ,,cil1 ,,xi1 #acb ,dessau1 #gbce4 ,footnote #abc3 ,,cil1 ,,xiv1 #ccbc ,dessau1 #hjij3 8,hoc peto aego a bobis unibersis sodalibus ut sene bile refrigeretis40 ,footnote #abd3 ,,cil1 ,,vi1 #bfeed ,dessau1 #haci4 ,footnote #abe3 ,dessau1 #hcgi4 ,footnote #abf3 ,lucian1 ,de luctu1 #cg4 ,footnote #abg3 ,dessau1 #haed ,,cil1 ,,xii1 #eajb ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #ghh3 8,eo cupidius perpoto in monumento meo1 ,quod dormiendum et permanendum heic est mihi40 ,footnote #abh3 ,de testim4 animae1 #d4 ,footnote #abi3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #bjc s4 ,footnote #acj3 ,augustine1 ,de mor4 eccles41 #cd3 8,qui luxuriosissime super mortuos bibant et epulas cadaveribus exhibentes super sepultos se ipsos sepeliant et voracitates ebrietatesque suas deputent religioni40 ,footnote #aca3 ,constitutiones ,apostol41 ,,viii1 #db4 ,footnote #acb3 ,dessau1 #hcge3 8,colant spiritum meum40 ,footnote #acc3 ,cf4 ,petronius1 #ga3 8,omne genus poma volo sint circa cineres meos et vinearum largiter02 ,dessau1 #hcdb ss42 below1 ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #bjj4 ,footnote #acd3 ,varro1 ,lingu4 ,lat41 ,,vi1 #di 7#de74 ,footnote #ace3 ,arch4 ,epigr4 ,mitt4 aus ,oesterreich1 ,x1 #ahhf1 p4 #fd4 ,footnote #acf3 ,dessau1 #fgdf4 ,footnote #acg3 ,ibid41 #hacj4 ,footnote #ach3 ,ibid41 #aifg2 cf4 #haci4 ,footnote #aci3 ,diog4 ,laert41 ,,viii1 #cb2 cf4 ,servius1 ,aen41 ,,iii1 #fc2 ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #afj4 ,footnote #adj3 ,virg41 ,aen41 ,,iv1 #fhe4 ,footnote #ada3 ,see ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #aeg4 ,footnote #adb3 ,cf4 ,porph41 ,de abstin41 ,,ii1 #cg4 ,footnote #adc3 ,servius1 ,georg41 ,i1 #bgg2 cf4 ,dessau1 #hjjf4 ,footnote #add3 ,,cil1 ,,viii1 #bhjc;a3 8,donata1 pia1 iusta1 vale1 serva tuos omnes40 ,footnote #ade3 ,margaret ,waites1 ,american journ4 of archaeol41 #aibj1 #bdb ss4 ,footnote #adf3 ,maxim4 ,tyr41 ,diss41 ,,ix 7,,xv71 #f4 ,footnote #adg3 ,plotinus1 ,enn41 ,,iv1 #g1 #bj4 ,footnote #adh3 ,dessau1 ,inscr4 sel41 #hjjf4 8,manus mala0 means probably a murder produced by witchcraft2 cf4 ibid41 #hebb2 ,lecture ,v1 p4 #ace4 ,footnote #adi3 ,,cil1 ,,ii1 #ddbg3 8,lacrimae si prosunt1 visis te ostende videri40 ,footnote #aej3 ,lucian1 ,philopseudes1 #bi4 ,footnote #aea3 ,dio ,cassius1 ,,lxxix1 #ah4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,dessau1 ,inscr4 sel41 #hbja;a3 8,tu qui legis et dubitas ,manes esse1 sponsione facta invoca nos et intelleges40 ,footnote #aec3 ,ovid1 ,fast41 ,,ii1 #edf4 ,footnote #aed3 ,,cil1 ,i1 #hah ,,vi1 #ajdjg;e ,dessau1 #hgdi3 8,mortuus nec ad deos nec ad homines acceptus est40 ,cf4 ,,cil1 ,x1 #hbdi4 ,footnote #aee3 ,,cil1 ,,vi1 #abjgb3 8,parce matrem tuam et patrem et sororem tuam ,marinam1 ut possint tibi facere post me sollemnia40 ,footnote #aef3 ,audollent1 ,defixionum tabellae1 #aijd4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,v1 pp4 #adc1 #ade4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,plato1 ,republ41 ,x1 #fae ,a ,b2 cf4 ,norden1 ,aeneis ,buch ,,vi1 p4 #aj4 ,footnote #aei3 ,see ,lecture ,v1 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #afj3 ,virg41 ,aen41 ,,vi1 #cbe ss3 8,inops inhumataque turba4444 ,centum errant annos volitantque haec litora circum40 ,footnote #afa3 ,dessau1 ,inscr4 sel41 #gbac ,,cil1 ,,xiv1 #baab1 ,,ii1 #d4 ,footnote #afb3 ,sueton41 ,calig41 #ei2 cf4 ,plautus1 ,mostell41 ,,iii1 #b4 ,footnote #afc3 ,pliny1 ,epist41 ,,vii1 #bg2 ,lucian1 ,philopseudes1 #ca4 ,footnote #afd3 ,audollent1 ,defixionum tabellae1 #bg1 l4 #ah2 cf4 #bb ss4 ,footnote #afe3 ,see ,lecture ,v1 p4 #ace4 ,footnote #aff3 ,heliodorus1 ,aeth41 ,,vi1 #ae4 ,footnote #afg3 ,see ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #aic4 ,footnote #afh3 ,leblant1 pigraphie chrtienne de la ,gaule1 #ahij1 #eb ss4 ,footnote #afi3 ,lawson1 ,modern ,greek folk-lore1 #aiaj1 p4 #djc4 ,footnote #agj3 ,lucian1 ,de luctu1 #i4 ,footnote #aga3 ,piganiol1 ,revue d'histoire et de litt4 religieuses1 ,,vi1 #aibj1 p4 #cce ss4 ,footnote #agb3 ,cf4 ,lucian1 ,de luctu1 #ad4 ,footnote #agc3 ,cf4 ,dessau1 #hcgi4 ,footnote #agd3 ,aen41 ,,vi1 #fec ss4 ,footnote #age3 ,ovid1 ,metam41 ,,iv1 #ddc ss4 ,footnote #agf3 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #aahf3 8,sed in secessum numinis infernae domus ,oficiosus tandem ministerio laetatur suo40 ,footnote #agg3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #adh4 ,footnote #agh3 ,monumenti ,antichi1 ,,xxiv1 #aiag1 pp4 #e-aaf4 ,footnote #agi3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,vii1 p4 #agb s4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,furtwngler1 ,archiv fr ,religionswissenschaft1 ,,viii1 #aije1 p4 #aia ss4 ,footnote #aha3 ,see ,lecture ,i1 p4 #ff4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,see ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #aea4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,vii1 p4 #agb ss4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,see ,introd41 p4 #f4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,see ,introd41 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,mullach1 ,fragm4 phil4 ,graec41 ,,ii1 p4 #cc4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,tim4 ,locr41 ,de anim4 mundi1 #ag1 p4 #ajd ,d2 cf4 ,schmekel1 ,mittlere ,stoa1 #ahib1 p4 #dce4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,cf4 ,lecture ,,vii1 p4 #agh ss4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,cf4 on this doctrine ,revue de philologie1 ,,xliv1 #aibj1 p4 #bcj ss4 ,footnote #aij3 ,cf4 ,lecture ,,vii1 p4 #aha4 ,footnote #aia3 ,see ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #afg4 ,footnote #aib3 ,cf4 ,rev4 philol41 l4 c41 p4 #bcg ss4 ,footnote #aic3 ,on this doctrine see ,comptes rendus ,acad4 ,inscriptions1 #aibj1 p4 #bgb ss4 ,footnote #aid3 ,cf4 ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #aee4 ,footnote #aie3 ,see ,lecture ,,vii1 p4 #ahe2 cf4 ,,vi1 p4 #afa s4 ,footnote #aif3 ,see ,introd41 p4 #ch s4 ,footnote #aig3 ,cic41 ,tusc41 ,i1 #ba1 #dh2 cf4 ,i1 #f1 #aj2 ,nat4 deor41 ,,ii1 #b1 #e4 ,footnote #aih3 ,sen41 ,epist41 #bd1 #ah4 ,footnote #aii3 ,juvenal1 ,sat41 ,,ii1 #adi ss4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,pliny1 ,h4 ,n41 ,,ii1 #fc1 #aeh4 ,footnote #bja3 ,plutarch1 ,non posse suaviter vivi sec4 ,epic41 #bg1 p4 #aaje4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,cf4 ,lucian1 ,de luctu1 #aj4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,bcheler1 #aaji1 v4 #ai-bd3 8,non ego ,tartareas penetrabo tristis ad undas1 ,non ,acheronteis transvehar umbra vadis1 ,non ego caeruleam remo pulsabo carinam1 ,nec te terribilem fronte timebo ,charon1 ,nec ,minos mihi iura dabit grandaevus et atris ,non errabo locis nec cohibebor aquis40 ,footnote #bjd3 ,see1 for instance1 ,jahresh4 ,instit4 ,wien1 ,,xvii1 #aiad1 p4 #acc ss42 or ,hermes1 ,,xxxvii1 #aijb1 p4 #aba ss4 ,footnote #bje3 ,cf4 ,jahn1 ,darstellungen der ,unterwelt auf ,sarkophagen1 in ,ber4 ,gesellschaft ,wiss4 ,leipsig1 #ahef1 p4 #bfg ss42 ,reinach1 ,rpertoire des reliefs1 ,,iii1 #cia2 ,berger1 ,revue archol41 #c;e serie1 ,,xxvi1 #ahie1 p4 #ga ss4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,sueton41 ,tiberius1 #ge1 #a3 8,terram matrem deosque ,manes orarent1 ne mortuo sedem ullam nisi inter impios darent40 ,footnote #bjg3 ,heliodorus1 ,aeth41 ,,viii1 #i1 p4 #bca1 #aj1 ,bekker4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,jahresh4 ,instit4 ,wien1 ,,xviii1 #aiae1 ,beiblatt41 p4 #de4 ,footnote #bji3 ,plutarch1 ,non posse suaviter vivi sec4 ,epic41 #bg1 p4 #aaje4 ,footnote #baj3 ,porph41 ,sent41 #bi 7p4 #ac1 ,mommert74 ,footnote #baa3 ,proclus1 ,in ,remp4 ,plat41 ,,ii1 p4 #abf1 #aj ss41 ,kroll4 ,footnote #bab3 ,proclus1 ibid41 ,,ii1 p4 #aca1 #bj ss4 ,footnote #bac3 ,proclus1 ,in ,remp4 ,plat41 ,i1 #aba1 #bc ss41 ,kroll4 ,footnote #bad3 ,orig41 ,contra ,celsum1 ,,viii1 #dh s4 ,footnote #bae3 ,see ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #aac ss4 ,footnote #baf3 ,porph41 ,de abstin41 #ch ss42 cf4 ,bousset1 ,archiv fr ,religionswiss41 ,,xviii1 #aiae1 p4 #acd ss41 and ,andres in ,realencycl41 ,supplementband1 ,,iii1 #cae4 ,footnote #bag3 ,cf4 ,comptes rendus ,acad4 ,inscriptions1 #aiah1 p4 #bgh ss4 ,footnote #bah3 ,pliny1 ,h4 ,n41 ,,ii1 #h1 #bh4 ,footnote #bai3 ,eusebius ,alex41 in ,patr4 ,graeca1 ,,lxxxvi1 #a1 p4 #dec4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,cat4 codd4 astrol4 ,graec1 ,v1 pars4 #a1 p4 #aif ss4 ,footnote #bba3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,flinders ,petrie1 ,athribis1 ,london1 #aijh 7#eb ,a4 ,d474 ,footnote #bbc3 ,cf4 below1 ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #aed4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,toutain1 ,revue des tudes anciennes1 ,,xiii1 #aiaa1 p4 #aff ss42 cf4 ibid41 p4 #cgi s4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,see below1 p4 #ajd1 and ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #aec4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,e4 ,pfeiffer1 ,studien zum antiken ,sternglauben1 #aiaf1 p4 #aac ss4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,pausanias1 ,,iv1 #cb1 #d4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,aristophanes1 ,peace1 #hcb ss4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #aaa2 cf4 ,introd41 p4 #bd4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,pliny1 ,h4 ,n41 ,,ii1 #bf1 #ie4 ,footnote #bca3 ,jamblich41 ,vit4 ,pyth41 ,,xviii1 #hb ,diels1 ,vorsokratiker1 ,i#c1 p4 #ceh1 #ah2 cf4 ,plut41 ,de genio ,socr41 #bb1 p4 #eij ,c2 ,hierocles1 ,in ,aur4 carm41 end4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,lucian1 ,verae hist41 ,i1 #aj ss4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,castor1 fragm4 #bd and #be1 ,mller4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,see ,introd41 p4 #bi1 and ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #afb4 ,footnote #bce3 ,julian1 ,caes41 p4 #cjg c4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,plato1 ,rep41 ,,vii1 p4 #ead4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,reproduced in my tudes syriennes1 #aiag1 p4 #hg2 cf4 below1 p4 #aci4 ,footnote #bch3 ,wiegand1 in ,abhandl4 ,akad4 ,berlin1 #aijh4 ,bericht1 ,,vi1 p4 #df3 1 4444 ,footnote #bci3 ,see ,la thologie solaire du paganisme romain in ,mm4 sav4 trangers ,acad4 ,inscr41 ,,xii1 #aiji1 p4 #ddi ss4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,cf4 ,introd41 p4 #bh4 ,footnote #bda3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #afj4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,,cil1 ,,vi1 #biied2 see below1 ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #aeg ss4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,commodian1 ,,viii1 #aj3 8,sacerdotes 444 numina qui dicunt aliquid morituro prodesse40 ,footnote #bdd3 ,see ,introd41 p4 #bd s42 cf4 below1 ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #afg4 ,footnote #bde3 ,lydus1 ,de mensib41 ,,iv1 #adi 7p4 #afg1 #be1 ,wnsch474 ,footnote #bdf3 ,lucan1 ,phars41 ,i1 #de2 ,statius1 ,theb41 ,i1 #bg2 cf4 my tudes syriennes1 #aiag1 p4 #ig s4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,diog4 ,laert41 ,,viii1 #ca4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,ovid1 ,metam41 ,,xv1 #hdj ss42 cf4 #gdi4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,cassius1 ,dio1 ,,lxix1 #aa1 #d4 ,footnote #bej3 ,cic41 ,tusc41 ,i1 #ab1 #bh3 8,totum prope caelum nonne humano generi completum est80 ,footnote #bea3 ,revue de philologie1 ,,xxxiii1 #aiji1 p4 #f ,,ig1 ,,xii1 #g1 #abc4 ,footnote #beb3 ,revue de phil41 ibid42 cf4 ,lecture ,v1 p4 #aci4 ,footnote #bec3 ,,ii ,cor4 #ab1 #b4 ,footnote #bed3 ,porph41 ,sent41 #bib 7p4 #ad1 ,mommert72 ,proclus1 ,in ,remp41 ,i1 p4 #aeb1 #ag1 ,kroll2 ,in ,tim41 ,,iii1 p4 #bcd1 #be1 ,diehl4 ,footnote #bee3 ,cf4 my ,mysteries of ,mithras1 ,chicago1 #aijc1 p4 #ade2 below1 ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #afi2 ,,vii1 p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #bef3 ,origen1 ,contra ,celsum1 ,,vi1 #ba2 cf4 ,monum4 mystres de ,mithra1 ,i1 p4 #aah4 ,footnote #beg3 ,apuleius1 ,de dogm4 ,plat41 ,i1 #aa4 ,footnote #beh3 ,archiv fr ,religionsw41 ,,ix1 #aijf1 p4 #cbc ss4 ,footnote #bei3 ,see1 e4g41 ,plotin41 ,,iii1 #d1 #f2 cf4 ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #bac4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,see above1 ,introd41 pp4 #f1 #da4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,ibid41 p4 #g4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #if4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,link1 ,de vocis 8,sanctus0 usu pagano1 ,knigsberg1 #aiaj4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,cic41 ,de natura deor41 ,,ii1 #ff1 #afg4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,manilius1 ,i1 #da2 cf4 ,boll1 ,aus der ,offenbarung ,iohannis1 #aiad1 p4 #acf ss4 ,footnote #bff3 ,pseudo-,ecphant4 ap ,stob41 ,anth41 ,,iv1 #g1 #fd 7,,iv1 p4 #bgb ss41 ,wachsmuth72 ,hermes ,trism4 ap4 ,stob41 ,ecl41 ,i1 #di1 #de 7,i1 p4 #djg1 ,w74 ,footnote #bfg3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #aef ss4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,cic41 ,nat4 deorum1 ,,ii1 #ff1 #afe4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,somn4 ,scipionis1 #c2 cf4 ,pro ,sestio1 #fh1 #adc4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,hermes ,trismeg4 ap4 ,stob41 ,ecl41 ,i1 #di1 #fi 7,i1 p4 #dff1 ,wachsmuth74 ,footnote #bga3 ,maurice ,muret1 ,les contemporains trangers1 ,paris1 ,i1 p4 #cj4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,see my tudes syriennes1 p4 #fc ss4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,,cil1 ,,vi1 #aggi ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #aaa1 #bc3 87,me7 sorte mortis eximens in templa ducis44440 ,footnote #bgd3 ,pseudo-,lysis ap4 ,jamblich41 ,vit4 ,pyth41 #ag1 #gg4 ,footnote #bge3 ,see ,introd41 p4 #bi2 ,lecture ,,vii1 p4 #ahd s4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,cf4 ,lecture ,i1 p4 #ea4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,,cil1 ,,vi1 #eaj ,dessau1 #daeb4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,servius1 ,aen41 ,,vi1 #gda4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,see ,introd41 p4 #ce2 cf4 ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #bjd4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,porph41 ,de abstin41 ,,ii1 #dh4 ,footnote #bha3 ,cf4 ,comptes rendus ,acad4 ,inscriptions1 #aiag1 p4 #bha ss4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,see above1 ,introd41 p4 #cg4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,hermes ,trismeg41 ,poimandres1 ,i1 #bf3 4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,viii1 #bjg4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,apuleius1 ,metam41 ,,xi1 #bd3 8,inexplicabili voluptate divini simulacri perfruebar40 ,footnote #bhf3 ,see ,oriental religions1 p4 #ajj1 and below1 ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #baj ss4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,papyr4 of ,london1 ,,cxxii1 #a ss42 cf4 ,reitzenstein1 ,poimandres1 p4 #bj4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,riewald1 ,de imperatorum ,romanorum cum certis dis aequatione1 ,halle1 #aiab4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,cf4 ,gillis ,wetter1 ,die 8,verherrlichung10 in ,beitrge zur ,relig4-,wissenschaft1 ,,ii1 #aiad4 ,footnote #bij3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #aeh4 ,footnote #bia3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #bab4 ,footnote #bib3 ,porph41 ,de ,abstin41 ,,ii1 #di4 ,footnote #bic3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,viii1 pp4 #bja1 #bjg1 #baa4 ,footnote #bid3 ,see my ,mysticisme astral dans l'antiquit in ,bulletins de l',acad4 de ,belgique1 #aiji1 p4 #bfd ss4 ,footnote #bie3 ,see ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #baj ss4 ,footnote #bif3 ,virg41 ,aen41 ,,vi1 #dbf ss4 ,footnote #big3 ,plut41 ,de genio ,socratis1 #bb1 p4 #eij ,f4 ,footnote #bih3 ,plato1 ,republ41 p4 #fae ,c2 cf4 ,norden1 ,aeneis ,buch ,,vi1 #aijc1 pp4 #aa1 #bg4 ,footnote #bii3 ,achill4 ,tat41 ,v1 #af4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,tertull41 ,de anima1 #eg4 ,footnote #cja3 ,dessau1 ,inscr4 sel41 #hdig ss42 cf4 ,recueil des inscriptions du ,pont1 #i1 #beh4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,horace1 ,epod41 #e1 #ib2 cf4 ,livy1 ,,iii1 #eh1 #aa4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,sueton41 ,nero1 #cd1 #d4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,sueton41 ,calig41 #ei4 ,footnote #cje3 ,porph41 ,epist41 ,,ii1 #b1 #bji3 8,nocturnas ,lemures3 umbras vagantes hominum ante diem mortuorum et ideo metuendas40 ,footnote #cjf3 ,bouch-,leclercq1 ,astrologie grecque1 p4 #djd4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,diog4 ,laert41 ,,ii1 #e1 #de2 cf4 ,lamprid41 ,heliog41 #cc1 #b3 8,praedictum eidem erat a sacerdotibus ,syris biothanatum se futurum40 ,footnote #cjh3 ,ptolem41 ,tetrabibl41 ,,iii1 #aj 7p4 #abg1 ed4 #aeec74 ,footnote #cji3 ,macrob41 ,somn4 ,scip41 ,i1 #ac1 #a1 probably after ,numenius 7,revue des tudes grecques1 ,,xxxii1 #aiba1 p4 #aai s474 ,footnote #caj3 ,,cil1 ,,viii1 #bgef ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #afjd4 ,footnote #caa3 ,manilius1 ,,iv1 #af4 ,footnote #cab3 ,cf4 ,schulze1 ,sitzungsb4 ,akad4 ,berlin1 #aiab1 p4 #fia ss4 ,footnote #cac3 ,demon3 ,kaibel1 ,epigr4 ,gr41 #eff1 #d2 #efi1 #c1 etc4--,evil god3 ,dessau1 #hdih2 cf4 #ijic3 8,cui 7sic7 dii nefandi parvulo contra votum genitorum vita privaverunt40 ,footnote #cad3 ,see ,lecture ,i1 p4 #ff ss4 ,footnote #cae3 ,kaibel1 ,epigr4 ,graeca1 #fbd4 ,footnote #caf3 ,rohde1 ,psyche1 ,,ii#d1 p4 #daa2 cf4 ,perdrizet1 ,negotium perambulans1 #aibb1 p4 #ai ss4 ,footnote #cag3 ,audollent1 ,defixionum tabellae1 #aijd1 p4 #dj1 nr1 #bb ss42 see above1 ,lecture ,i1 p4 #fh4 ,footnote #cah3 ,wessely1 ,griech4 ,zauberpap4 aus ,paris in ,denkschr4 ,akad4 ,wien1 ,,xxxvi1 #ahhh1 p4 #he1 l4 #begg ss41 p4 #hf1 l4 #bfde ss4 ,footnote #cai3 ,cic41 ,in ,vatin41 #f1 #ad2 ,horace1 ,ep41 #e2 ,petronius1 #fc1 #h4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #ihg3 8,eripuit me saga manus crudelis ubique1 ,cum manet in terris et nocet arte sua4 ,vos vestros natos concustodite1 parentes40 ,cf4 ,petronius1 l4 c41 and ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #fa1 n4 #dh4 ,footnote #cba3 ,alex4 ,trall41 ,i1 #ae1 pp4 #efe1 #efg1 ,puschman4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,cf4 ,pliny1 ,,xxviii1 #ab1 #di4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,tertull41 ,de anima1 #eg4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,norden1 ,aeneis ,buch ,,vi1 p4 #da4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,sen41 ,dial41 ,,vi1 #bc1 #a2 ,plut41 ,cons4 ad uxorem1 #aa2 cf4 ,dessau1 #hdha ss4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,vii1 p4 #agh4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #abcc4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,kaibel1 ,epigr4 ,graeca1 #cbd4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,haussoullier1 ,revue de philologie1 ,,xxiii1 #aiji1 p4 #f2 see above1 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #aje4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #efi3 8,vitaeque e limine raptus4444 ,non tamen ad ,manes sed caeli ad sidera pergis40 ,cf4 ibid41 #efi1 #faa4 ,footnote #cca3 ,see ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ii4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,rohde1 ,psyche1 ,,ii#d1 p4 #cgd1 n4 #b2 ,lawson1 ,modern ,greek folk-lore1 #aiaj p4 #adj ss42 cf4 ,dessau1 #hgdh4 ,footnote #ccc3 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #abcc2 cf4 ,statius1 ,silv41 ,,ii1 #f1 #ajj4 ,footnote #ccd3 ,kaibel1 ,epigr4 ,graeca1 #egj1 #ega2 cf4 ,,cil1 ,,vi1 #biaie ,dessau1 #hdhb3 8,ulpius ,firmus1 anima bona superis reddita1 raptus a ,nymphis40 ,footnote #cce3 ,cf4 ,anderson1 ,journ4 hell4 stud41 ,,xix1 #ahii1 p4 #abg1 nr1 #adb1 and below1 note #db4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,cagnat1 ,inscr4 ,gr4 ad res ,rom4 pertin41 ,,iv1 #acgg4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,kaibel1 ,epigr4 ,graeca1 #cad4 ,footnote #cch3 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #adci2 cf4 #adjj3 8,vos equidem nati caelestia regna videtis ,quos rapuit parvos praecipitata dies40 ,footnote #cci3 ,cabrol et ,leclercq1 ,reliquiae liturgicae vetustissimae1 ,i1 #aiab1 nr1 #biag2 cf4 #bigd2 #caec4 ,footnote #cdj3 ,menander's verse1 8 10 is indeed translated into ,latin in a ,roman epitaph 7,dessau1 #hdha74 ,footnote #cda3 ,in ,greek1 is a popular form for 4 ,in ,latin biaeothanatus is found only in ,tertull41 ,de ,anima1 #eg1 biothanatus everywhere else4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,aen41 ,,vi1 #dgg ss4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,horace1 ,od41 ,,iii1 #b1 #ba2 cf4 ,introd41 p4 #ac2 ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #aac4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,joseph41 ,bell4 ,iud41 ,,vi1 #e1 #dg4 ,footnote #cde3 ,servius1 ,aen41 ,,xii1 #fjc4 ,footnote #cdf3 ,pliny1 ,n4 ,h41 ,,ii1 #fc1 #aef4 ,footnote #cdg3 ,dessau1 ,inscr4 sel41 #ghdf3 8,extra auctorateis et quei sibei laqueo manu attulissent et quei quaestum spurcum professi essent40 ,footnote #cdh3 ,ibid41 #gbab1 ,,ii1 #e4 ,footnote #cdi3 ,plut41 ,cato1 #fh4 ,footnote #cej3 ,cf4 ,revue des tudes grecques1 ,,xxxii1 #aiba1 p4 #aac ss4 ,footnote #cea3 ,sen41 ,controv41 ,,viii1 #d1 end4 ,footnote #ceb3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,i1 p4 #fd ss4 ,footnote #cec3 ,theophanes1 ,chronicon1 p4 #dcg1 #c ss41 ,de ,boor4 ,footnote #ced3 ,commodianus1 ,i1 #ad1 #h4 ,footnote #cee3 ,du ,cange1 ,glossarium1 s4 v4 ,footnote #cef3 ,lawson1 ,modern ,greek folk-lore1 #aiaj1 p4 #djh ss4 ,footnote #ceg3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #gd4 ,footnote #ceh3 ,transl4 ,harrison1 ,prolegomena to the study of ,greek religion1 #aijc1 p4 #ffj4 ,footnote #cei3 ,thulin1 ,etruskische ,disciplin1 ,,iii1 #aiji1 p4 #eh ss4 ,footnote #cfj3 ,xenoph41 ,memorab41 ,,ii1 #a1 #ba2 cf4 ,hesiod1 ,op4 et dies1 #bhg ss4 ,footnote #cfa3 ,brinkmann1 ,rheinisches ,museum1 ,,lxvi1 #aiaa1 p4 #fbb ss4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #bje4 ,footnote #cfc3 ,see ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #gf4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,cic41 ,tusc41 ,i1 #cj1 #gb4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #hb4 ,footnote #cff3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #id4 ,footnote #cfg3 ,cf4 ,comptes rendus ,acad4 ,inscr41 #aibj1 p4 #bgg4 ,footnote #cfh3 ,lactantius1 ,inst41 ,,vi1 #c s4 ,footnote #cfi3 ,polyaen41 ,,vii1 #bb4 ,footnote #cgj3 ,see ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ajg2 ,monum4 mystres de ,mithra1 ,i1 p4 #aah s42 ,,ii1 p4 #ebe4 ,footnote #cga3 ,philo1 ,de somniis1 ,i1 #bb2 ,origen1 ,contra ,celsum1 ,,vi1 #ba4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,charles ,r4 ,morey1 ,east ,christian paintings in the ,freer collection1 ,new ,york1 #aiad1 p4 #ag ss4 ,footnote #cgc3 ,ladder among other magical emblems on terra cotta discs found at ,taranto2 cf4 ,revue archologique1 ,v1 #aiag1 p4 #ajb4 ,footnote #cgd3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ic4 ,footnote #cge3 ,ibid41 p4 #if4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,cf4 ,revue de philologie1 ,,xliv1 #aibj1 p4 #ge4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,cf4 ,joseph ,keil1 ,jahresh4 ,instituts ,wien1 ,,xvii1 #aiad1 pp4 #ach1 #adb1 n4 #ac2 ,bormann1 ,bericht des ,vereins ,carnuntum1 #aijh-aiaa1 p4 #ccj1 where ,itala felix applies not to the ship but to the dead woman4 ,footnote #cgh3 ,for instance1 ,dessau1 ,inscr4 sel41 #hjca4 ,footnote #cgi3 ,cf4 my tudes syriennes1 #aiag1 p4 #ii1 n4 #a4 ,so on the beautiful chariot of ,monteleone in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,new ,york 7sixth century ,b4 ,c474 ,footnote #chj3 ,cf4 my tudes syriennes1 p4 #ia s4 ,footnote #cha3 ,ibid41 p4 #ib1 fig4 #da4 ,footnote #chb3 ,ibid41 p4 #id1 fig4 #db2 cf4 below1 p4 #afe4 ,footnote #chc3 ,cf4 ibid41 p4 #ie s4 ,footnote #chd3 ,,ii ,reg41 #b1 #aa4 ,footnote #che3 ,kornemann1 ,klio1 ,,vii1 p4 #bgh2 cf4 tudes syriennes1 p4 #ih1 n4 #c4 ,footnote #chf3 ,eunap41 ,hist41 fr4 #bf 7,f4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,iv1 #be2 cf4 tudes syriennes1 p4 #ajd74 ,footnote #chg3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ajb4 ,footnote #chh3 ,weichert1 ,der ,seelenvogel in der alten ,literatur und ,kunst1 ,leipzig1 #aijb2 see above1 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ic4 ,footnote #chi3 tudes syriennes1 p4 #ch ss4 ,footnote #cij3 ,phaedr41 p4 #bdf ,c4 ,footnote #cia3 ,anth4 ,pal41 ,,vii1 #fb ,diog4 ,laert41 ,,iii1 #dd2 cf4 tudes syriennes1 p4 #hh3 2 1 1 2-- 4 ,footnote #cib3 ,cf4 tudes syriennes1 p4 #eg ss4 ,footnote #cic3 tudes syriennes1 #aiag1 p4 #hg1 fig4 #ci4 ,footnote #cid3 ,see ,introd41 p4 #bh4 ,footnote #cie3 ,see ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #cif3 tudes syriennes1 p4 #ajf s42 cf4 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #aja4 ,footnote #cig3 ,see ,lecture ,i1 p4 #ei4 ,footnote #cih3 ,diog4 ,laert41 ,,viii1 #a1 #bg4 ,footnote #cii3 ,jul41 ,or41 ,v1 p4 #agb ,c4 ,footnote #djj3 ,cic41 ,tusc41 ,i1 #db ss42 ,sextus ,empir41 ,adv4 ,math41 ,,ix1 #ga1 #d2 cf4 above1 ,introd41 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #dja3 ,winds and souls1 see below1 ,lecture ,,vii1 p4 #ahe4 ,footnote #djb3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,vii1 p4 #ahf2 cf4 ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #ha4 ,footnote #djc3 ,see ,introd41 p4 #bi2 cf4 ,lecture ,,vii1 p4 #ahe4 ,footnote #djd3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,vii1 p4 #ahe4 ,footnote #dje3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ic1 and p4 #if s4 ,footnote #djf3 ,dieterich1 ,eine ,mithrasliturgie#b1 #aiaj4 ,footnote #djg3 ,plato1 ,phaedo1 p4 #ajg ,d1 #ajh ,b4 ,footnote #djh3 ,kaibel1 ,epigr4 ,graeca1 #fej ,inscr4 ,sic4 ,ital41 #bdfa4 ,footnote #dji3 ,haussoullier1 ,revue de philologie1 ,,xxiii1 #aiji1 p4 #f2 cf4 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #aje4 ,footnote #daj3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #aab4 ,footnote #daa3 ,cf4 ,rohde1 ,psyche1 ,,ii#d1 p4 #cgf s4 ,footnote #dab3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,i1 p4 #de ss41 #ei ss4 ,footnote #dac3 ,cf4 ,cic41 ,tusc41 ,i1 #af1 #cg4 ,footnote #dad3 ,see below1 ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #aii ss4 ,footnote #dae3 ,lucretius1 ,i1 #abd3 8,simulacra modis pallentia miris40 ,footnote #daf3 ,see1 for instance1 above1 p4 #aef4 ,footnote #dag3 ,cf4 ,proclus1 ,in ,rempubl41 ,i1 p4 #bij1 #aj ss41 ,kroll4 ,footnote #dah3 ,on this katoptromanteia1 cf4 ,revue archologique1 ,v1 #aiag1 p4 #aje ss42 ,ganschinietz in ,realencycl41 s4 v4 ,footnote #dai3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,v1 p4 #acj4 ,footnote #dbj3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #gi4 ,footnote #dba3 ,cf4 ,revue de philologie1 ,,xliv1 #aibj1 p4 #bcg ss4 ,footnote #dbb3 ,see ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ajc4 ,footnote #dbc3 ,cf4 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ajg4 ,footnote #dbd3 ,plato1 ,phaedr41 #bdg ,b2 cf4 ,phaedo1 p4 #aac ,d4 ,footnote #dbe3 ,timaeus1 p4 #da ,d ,e4 ,footnote #dbf3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ajf s41 and ,introd41 p4 #da2 cf4 p4 #bd4 ,footnote #dbg3 ,odyssey1 ,,xi1 #egf s4 ,footnote #dbh3 ,cf4 ,rohde1 ,psyche1 ,i#d1 p4 #fa ss4 ,footnote #dbi3 ,cf4 ,plut41 ,de superst41 #g1 p4 #afh ,d4 ,footnote #dcj3 ,cf4 above1 ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #ge4 ,footnote #dca3 ,cf4 ,dieterich1 ,nekyia1 p4 #bjf ss4 ,footnote #dcb3 ,plut41 ,de sera num4 vind41 p4 #efg ,b4 ,footnote #dcc3 ,dieterich1 ,nekyia1 #ahic 7#b;d ed4 #aiac74 ,footnote #dcd3 ,even the devout ,plutarch rejects them as superstitious imaginations2 cf4 ,de superst41 #afg ,a4 ,footnote #dce3 ,aen41 ,,vi1 #fbe-fbh4 ,footnote #dcf3 ,dieterich1 op4 cit41 p4 #aig ss4 ,footnote #dcg3 ,punishment by fire is mentioned for the first time in ,philodemos1 1 ,,xix1 #af ss4 ,philodemos being a ,syrian1 it is not unlikely that this tenet is of ,oriental origin4 ,cf4 ,diels1 ,abhandl4 ,akad4 ,berlin1 #aiaf1 p4 #hj1 n4 #c4 ,footnote #dch3 ,see above1 ,introd41 pp4 #h1 #ag s41 and ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #hc4 ,footnote #dci3 ,herodotus1 ,,ii1 #abc4 ,footnote #ddj3 ,the ,druses have even preserved the ancient doctrine that the number of souls is always the same in the world4 ,cf4 ,silvestre de ,sacy1 ,religion des ,druses1 #ahch1 ,,ii1 p4 #dei4 ,footnote #dda3 ,dussaud1 ,les ,nosaris1 ,paris1 #aijj1 p4 #abj ss4 ,footnote #ddb3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #aja4 ,footnote #ddc3 ,cf4 ,lucian1 ,alex41 #dc4 ,footnote #ddd3 ,hermes ,trismeg4 ap4 ,stob41 ,ecl41 ,i1 #di1 p4 #cih1 #af ss41 ,wachsmuth4 ,footnote #dde3 ,tim4 ,locr41 p4 #ajd ,e4 ,footnote #ddf3 ,ps4-,plut41 ,vita ,homeri1 #abf2 ,porph4 ap4 ,stob41 ,ecl41 ,i1 #di1 #fj1 p4 #dde1 ,wachsmuth4 ,footnote #ddg3 ,see above1 p4 #agf4 ,footnote #ddh3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #gh4 ,footnote #ddi3 ,cf4 ,revue de philologie1 ,,xliv1 #aiba1 p4 #bcb ss4 ,footnote #dej3 ,above1 ,introd41 p4 #ac4 ,footnote #dea3 ,museum of the ,university of ,california2 ,kaibel1 ,inscr4 ,sicil4 et ,ital41 #ab1 #aaif4 ,the sentence is taken from ,republ41 ,x1 #fag ,c4 ,footnote #deb3 ,porph41 ,de regressu anim41 fr4 #aa1 ,bidez ,aug41 ,civ4 ,dei1 ,x1 #cj2 ,jamblich4 ap4 ,nemes41 ,de nat4 hom41 #b2 cf4 ,zeller1 ,philos4 ,gr41 ,v#d1 p4 #gac4 ,footnote #dec3 8,has omnes1 ubi mille rotam volvere per annos1 ,lethaeum ad fluvium deus evocat agmine magno1 ,scilicet immemores super ut convexa revisant1 ,rursus et incipiant in corpore velle reverti40 ,aen41 ,,vi1 #gdi-gec4 ,footnote #ded3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #afb1 and ,introd41 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #dee3 tudes syriennes1 p4 #gj4 ,footnote #def3 ,see ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #afa2 cf4 below1 ,lecture ,,viii1 p4 #aif4 ,footnote #deg3 ,virg41 ,aen41 ,,vi1 #gdj ss4 ,footnote #deh3 ,plut41 ,de facie lunae1 p4 #idc ,b4 ,footnote #dei3 ,ps4 ,apul41 ,asclep41 #bh4 ,footnote #dfj3 ,jahresh4 ,institut ,wien1 ,,xii1 #aiaj1 p4 #bac4 ,footnote #dfa3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ajg4 ,footnote #dfb3 ,macrob41 ,comm4 ,somn4 ,scip41 ,i1 #aa1 #h2 ,proclus1 ,in ,tim41 ,,ii1 #dh1 #ae ss41 ,diehl4 ,footnote #dfc3 ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #hg ss4 ,footnote #dfd3 ,see ,lecture ,i1 p4 #fd ss4 ,footnote #dfe3 ,tibullus1 ,,ii1 #f1 #cj3 8,sic bene sub tenera parva quiescat humo40 ,footnote #dff3 ,tertull41 ,de testimonio animae1 #d4 ,footnote #dfg3 ,securitati aeternae2 cf4 ,dessau1 ,inscr4 sel41 #hjbe ss41 #hadi4 ,footnote #dfh3 ,cic41 ,catil41 ,,iv1 #g2 cf4 ,tusc41 ,i1 #aa1 #be2 #di1 #aah4 ,footnote #dfi3 ,sen41 ,dial41 ,,vi1 #ai1 #e4 ,footnote #dgj3 ,dessau1 ,inscr4 sel41 #hjbd and note2 cf4 ,cic41 ,tusc41 ,i1 #da1 #ig2 and ,introd41 p4 #aj4 ,footnote #dga3 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #abgd3 8,morborum vitia et vitae mala maxima fugi4 ,nunc careo poenis1 pace fruor placida40 ,footnote #dgb3 ,bcheler1 ibid41 #egc3 8,qui post tantum onus1 multos crebrosque labores ,nunc silet et tacito contentus sede quiescit40 ,footnote #dgc3 ,bcheler1 ibid41 #ejg3 8,poena fuit vita1 requies mihi morte parata est40 ,footnote #dgd3 ,transl4 by ,j4 ,c4 ,anderson 7in my ,astrology and ,religion1 p4 #aga74 ,footnote #dge3 ,dessau1 ,inscr4 sel41 #hcic1 #gi3 8,te di ,manes tui ut quietam patiantur atque ita tueantur opto40 ,footnote #dgf3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,i1 p4 #fh2 ,,ii1 p4 #hf1 n4 #ci2 ,v1 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #dgg3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #adc4 ,footnote #dgh3 ,virg41 ,aen41 ,,vi1 #gje3 8,domos placidas40 ,footnote #dgi3 ,see ,introd41 p4 #cd ss4 ,footnote #dhj3 ,comptes rendus ,acad4 ,inscr41 #aiab1 p4 #aea ss42 cf4 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #eac4 ,footnote #dha3 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ie4 ,footnote #dhb3 ,lecture ,,vi1 p4 #aej4 ,footnote #dhc3 ,odyssey1 ,,vi1 #db ss4 ,footnote #dhd3 ,lucretius1 ,,iii1 #ah ss4 ,footnote #dhe3 ,zeno1 fr4 #adg 7von ,arnim1 ,fragm4 ,stoicorum1 ,i1 p4 #dj73 8,zeno docuit sedes piorum ab impiis esse discretas et illos quidem quietas ac delectabiles habitare regiones40 ,footnote #dhf3 ,see ,introd41 p4 #be2 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #if4 ,footnote #dhg3 ,macrob41 ,somn4 ,scip41 ,i1 #aa1 #f3 8,vitae mortisque confinium40 ,footnote #dhh3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,ii1 p4 #ha s4 ,footnote #dhi3 ,see ,lecture ,,vii1 p4 #ahe s4 ,footnote #dij3 ,sen41 ,consol4 ,marc41 #bd1 #e3 87,animus7 nititur illo unde demissus est2 ibi illum aeterna requies manet e confusis crassisque pura et liquida visentem40 ,footnote #dia3 ,plotin41 ,,ix1 #h1 #i1 p4 #gfh ,a2 ,,ix1 #h1 #aa1 p4 #ggj ,c4 ,footnote #dib3 ,cf4 ,aug41 ,serm41 ,,cclx 7,p4,l4 ,,xxxviii1 #aacb1 #ch73 8,dixerunt ,platonici 444 animas1 ire ad superna caelorum et requiescere ibi in stellis et luminibus istis conspicuis40 ,footnote #dic3 ,lecture ,i1 p4 #de ss4 ,footnote #did3 ,ibid41 p4 #fi4 ,footnote #die3 ,st4 ,ambrose1 ,de bono mortis1 #i2 cf4 ,kaibel1 ,inscr4 ,sic4 ,it41 #baag4 ,footnote #dif3 ,aug41 ,de anima1 ,,ii1 #ab4 ,footnote #dig3 ,book of ,enoch1 #ci4 ,footnote #dih3 ,,iv ,esdr41 ,,vii1 #ia3 8,requiescent per septem ordines02 cf4 ,,vii1 #ie 7p4 #aca ss41 ,violet74 ,footnote #dii3 ,,iv ,esdr41 ,,vii1 #cf1 #ch 7p4 #adf1 ,violet74 ,footnote #ejj3 ,ambrose1 ,de bono mortis1 #ab1 #ec 7,p4,l41 ,,xiv1 #aed72 cf4 ,,iv ,esdr41 ,,vii1 #ci4 ,footnote #eja3 ,see ,lecture ,i1 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #ejb3 ,see ,lecture ,i1 p4 #ed4 ,footnote #ejc3 ,ibid41 p4 #eg4 ,footnote #ejd3 ,calder1 ,journal of ,roman ,studies1 #aiab1 p4 #bed4 ,footnote #eje3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,i1 p4 #ee ss4 ,footnote #ejf3 ,see ,introd41 p4 #ce2 ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #abf4 ,footnote #ejg3 ,lucian1 ,verae hist41 ,,ii1 #ad4 ,footnote #ejh3 ,best reproduction1 ,wilpert1 ,pitture delle ,catacombe ,romane1 ,,ii1 #acb-acc4 ,footnote #eji3 ,see above1 ,introd41 pp4 #ce1 #cg4 ,footnote #eaj3 ,aelius ,arist41 ,,xlv 7,,viii71 #bg 7p4 #cfj1 ,keil74 ,footnote #eaa3 ,see my ,oriental ,religions1 ,chap4 ,,iv1 end4 ,footnote #eab3 ,see ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #abb2 ,introd41 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #eac3 ,,cil1 ,,iii1 #adafe4 ,footnote #ead3 ,see ,lecture ,i1 p4 #fh2 ,,ii1 p4 #hf2 ,v1 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #eae3 ,bcheler1 ,carm4 epigr41 #acag ,,cil1 ,,vi1 #adb2 cf4 ,plato1 ,phaedo1 p4 #ajg;,d4 ,footnote #eaf3 ,as it is elsewhere2 cf4 ,introd41 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #eag3 ,lagrange1 ,religions smitiques#b1 #aije1 p4 #dic4 ,footnote #eah3 ,horace1 ,od41 ,,iii1 #c1 #ab4 ,footnote #eai3 ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #aac s41 #aaf ss4 ,footnote #ebj3 ,see1 for instance1 ,kaibel1 ,epigr4 ,graeca1 #cab1 #ac4 ,footnote #eba3 ,julian1 ,caesares1 p4 #cjg ,c2 cf4 ,introd41 p4 #bi2 ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ih4 ,footnote #ebb3 ,patrologia ,orientalis1 ,i1 p4 #ajad4 ,footnote #ebc3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,i1 p4 #ee s4 ,footnote #ebd3 ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #aba4 ,footnote #ebe3 ,for instance1 by the physician ,thessalus 7under ,nero72 cf4 ,cat4 codd4 astrol41 ,,viii1 #c1 p4 #acg2 ,,viii1 #d1 p4 #beg4 ,footnote #ebf3 ,cf4 ,lecture ,,iv1 pp4 #aba1 #abe s4 ,footnote #ebg3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #abf4 ,footnote #ebh3 ,p4 #hif ,c2 cf4 p4 #iib ,b4 ,footnote #ebi3 ,see above1 ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #abf4 ,footnote #ecj3 ,the true interpretation has been given by ,bevan1 ,stoics and ,sceptics1 #aiac1 p4 #aab s4 ,footnote #eca3 ,georg41 ,,ii1 #dhi ss43 8,felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas1 ,atque metus omnis et inexorabile ,fatum ,subiecit pedibus1 strepitumque ,acherontis avari40 ,footnote #ecb3 1 ,philo41 probably after ,posidonius4 ,footnote #ecc3 ,cf4 ,lecture ,,iv1 p4 #abf4 ,footnote #ecd3 ,anthol4 ,palatina1 ,,ix1 #egg3 ' 1 ' ' 1 ' 4 ,footnote #ece3 ,see ,introd41 p4 #d4 ,footnote #ecf3 ,see ,lecture ,,iii1 p4 #ajh4 ,footnote #ecg3 4 ,the expression had been used by religion before being taken over by philosophy4 ,cf4 ,le culte gyptien et le mysticisme de ,plotin1 in ,monuments ,piot1 ,,xxv1 #aibb1 p4 #gh ss4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes #a4 ,p4 #acg1 changed to 4 #b4 ,p4 #acg1 changed to 4 #c4 ,p4 #bbe1 changed to 4 #d4 ,p4 #bbe1 changed to 4 #e4 #cia1 changed to 4 #f4 #ecd1 changed ' to '4 #g4 #ecd1 changed to 4 #h4 ,silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling4 #i4 ,archaic1 non-standard1 and uncertain spellings retained as printed4 #aj4 ,footnotes were re-indexed using numbers and collected together at the end of the last chapter4 #aa4 ,enclosed italics font in underscores4 #ab4 ,superscripts are denoted by a caret before a single superscript character1 e4g4 ,mr4