,transcriber's ,notes ,obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,variations in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and punctuation remains unchanged4 ,italics are represented thus italic1 bold thus bold4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,pottery ,,other ,,books ,,by ,,mary ,,white monogram ,,how ,,to ,,do ,,beadwork ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,baskets ,,more ,,baskets ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,them ,illustration3 ,,newcomb ,,pottery ,,jug ,how to ,make ,pottery ,by ,,mary ,,white ,illustrated by the ,author ,illustration3 ,publisher's device ,,new ,,york ,,doubleday1 ,,page ,,company #aijd ,,copyright1 #aijd1 ,,by ,,doubleday1 ,,page ,,company ,,published1 ,,october1 #aijd ,acknowledgment is hereby made to the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology for permitting the use of the illustrations reproduced in ,chapter ,,xi4 ,to ,my ,husband ,,preface ,an art like pottery-making1 which is nearly as old as the human race1 is naturally approached with some degree of reverence4 ,one thinks of its old masters in various lands and ages--how they were content to spend a lifetime in the study and practice of it4 ,there is1 however1 another thought that comes to mind--that this art1 like every other1 had to have its beginning4 ,moreover1 every potter1 from the primitive man who first realised that clay which held water could be moulded into portable vessels for a like purpose1 to the artist potter of to-day1 has learned the first steps of the craft4 ,it was this thought that encouraged me to study the beginnings of pottery1 and that leads me to offer this book to those who would also start clay-working1 with no other qualification than the wish to learn how to make pottery4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,the ,clays and ,tools #c ,,ii4 ,hand-made ,pottery #ae ,,iii4 ,working on the ,wheel #bg ,,iv4 ,methods of ,decoration #da ,v4 ,the ,glaze and ,how to ,apply ,it #ee ,,vi4 ,pottery for ,beauty and ,use #fg ,,vii4 ,how to ,make a ,plaster ,mould #ia ,,viii4 ,the ,making of a ,tile #ajc ,,ix4 ,the ,kiln #aac ,x4 ,basket-,covered ,pottery #abe ,,xi4 ,indian ,pottery #adi ,,xii4 ,modern ,american ,pottery #afg ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,newcomb ,pottery ,jug ,frontispiece ,,facing ,,page ,building a ,piece of ,pottery3 #a4 ,making the ,first ,coil4 #b4 ,testing the ,outline4 #c4 ,continuing the ,piece #ah ,working on the ,wheel3 #a4 ,a pale-green bowl for flowers4 #b4 ,a cream-jug4 #c4 ,a flower-jar with two handles4 #d4 ,a nasturtium bowl #ch ,methods of ,decoration3 #a4 ,a large fruit-bowl4 #b and #c4 ,low dishes for candy4 #d4 ,a lamp-bowl #ch ,where ,use and ,beauty are ,combined #fh ,pottery for ,beauty and ,use3 #a4 ,rose-bowl4 #b4 ,a low ,dutch dish4 #c4 ,fruit-bowl #hj ,how to ,make a ,plaster ,mould3 #a4 ,a plaster mould4 #b4 ,a rose-bowl #hj ,pottery for ,beauty and ,use3 #a4 ,lamp-bowl4 #b4 ,candlestick4 #c4 ,wall-jar for water-plants4 #d4 ,a flower candlestick #hj ,the ,making of a ,tile #ajh ,basket-covered ,pottery #abf ,indian ,pottery #aef ,indian ,pottery #afb ,teco ,ware #agb ,some ,pieces of ,volkmar ,pottery #agf ,a ,piece of ,newcomb ,pottery #agh ,,list ,,of ,,figures ,,figures ,,page #a #aj #b #aj #c #aj #d #aj #e #aj #f #aa #g #aa #h #ab #i #ag #aj #bg #aa #bi #ab #cc #ac #cc #ad #cd #ae #ce #af #ce #ag #ci #ah #ci #ai #ci #bj #de #ba #df #bb #di #bc #di #bd #ej #be #gj #bf #gb #bg #gc #bh #gg #bi #gi #cj #hj #ca #hd #cb #hd #cc #id #cd #if #ce #ii #cf #ajd #cg #ajd #ch #ajf #ci #ajf #dj #ajg #da #ajg #db #aji #dc #aji #dd #aae #de #aaf #df #abj #dg #abg #dh #acc #di #ach #ej #ada #ea #adb #eb #add #ec #aej #ed #aej #ee #aea #ef #aea #eg #aeb #eh #aec #ei #aed #fj #aee #fa #aef #fb #aeg #fc #afj #fd #afa #fe #afb #ff #aga #fg #aga #fh #agi ,the ,clays and ,tools ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,pottery ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,clays ,,and ,,tools ,clay is what might be called the drift of the rocks of ages past4 ,most stone consists mainly of silica and alumina4 ,in some bygone age1 the potash and other alkalies1 under the action of heat1 fused these materials into rock4 ,potash is affected by the atmosphere1 so it gradually left the rock1 which decomposed1 and the many particles1 the fine refuse1 after various changes became clay4 ,perfectly pure clay1 or hydrated silicate of alumina1 is found where some granites and other felspar-bearing rocks have decomposed4 ,in the course of years1 the clays1 especially those on the surface1 gathered impurities4 ,black clay1 for example1 which is found at the top of the bed1 contains a large per cent4 of carbon1 formed by decayed leaves and twigs--like coal or peat4 ,strange to say1 this burns whiter than any other pottery clay4 ,it contains more potash than the other clays1 and fires at a lower heat4 ,the different proportions in which certain minerals are found in clays determine their plastic or non-plastic1 fusible or refractory character4 ,potters have not been able to agree as to the reason for the plasticity of clay4 ,some believe that the silica gives it plasticity2 others that it is due to the water inherent in the clay 7which is called the water of combination71 and give as their reason for the belief the fact that burned clay loses its plasticity1 never to get it again4 ,yet water alone does not make every clay plastic3 other ingredients are sometimes necessary4 ,the early potter used the clay just as it came from the ground1 but when he began to bake it in the fire he found that tempering materials were necessary4 ,sand was often added to make it easier to handle1 and coarse1 sharp pieces of shell or rock helped to prevent the clay from cracking1 by lessening the shrinkage4 ,later1 as the art advanced1 the value of certain materials in regulating the fusible and refractory qualities of the natural clay were recognised4 ,there is in clays the play of melting and non-melting substances4 ,flint and alumina are hard1 and uphold the clay in the fierce fire of the kiln2 potash and soda make it soft and fusible4 ,it is believed that the value of ground flint in pottery was not discovered until late in the seventeenth century4 ,the story is that a certain potter travelling on horseback was delayed on account of an inflammation of his horse's eyes4 ,an ostler1 wishing to help him out of his difficulty1 took a flint from the road1 and1 after putting it in the fire until it was red-hot1 threw it into cold water4 ,it broke into pieces1 pure white1 which were easily powdered and applied to the animal's eyes4 ,delighted as the potter was with the cure of his horse1 the discovery of a white1 infusible material for his pottery pleased him still more4 ,the combination of iron and lime in a clay forms a natural flux4 ,for example3 ,fire-clay1 which is quite refractory but which contains a small per cent4 of iron1 will1 by the addition of a proportion of whiting 7lime71 become more fusible4 ,iron and lime in larger quantities are found in the clay which is made into red ware--flower-pots1 red bricks1 and other common articles4 ,the large per cent4 of iron gives it its red colour4 ,it does not make as strong a ware as other clays4 ,this red ware1 which fires at the lowest heat1 we will classify as ,group ,i4 ,to ,group ,,ii4 belongs the yellow or ,rockingham ware4 ,this fires at a light-orange heat1 from #a1hjj to #b1jjj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,it is often finished with a dark-brown glaze4 ,mixing-bowls and other kitchen ware come under this group4 ,group ,,iii4 contains the buff or cream ware1 usually made of fire-clays4 ,this hardens at an intense heat1 from #b1bjj to #b1ejj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,in this group is the fine pottery4 ,art pottery comes under this head4 ,group ,,iv4 is the buff or cream ware1 fired at white heat and beyond4 ,this is the stoneware4 ,on account of the great heat at which it is fired1 it is possible to use only certain colours in the glazes4 ,they are limited to gray1 brown1 green and blue4 ,ox-blood has been obtained in this ware1 but it is uncertain4 ,claret-and vinegar-jugs and butter-crocks come in this group4 ,group ,v4 is the white or tableware1 and ,group ,,vi4 the translucent ware or porcelain1 made of kaolin1 the purest grade of clay4 ,felspar makes it meltable and translucent1 and1 to give it plasticity1 a small proportion of ball or fire-clay is added4 ,pottery clay differs from modelling clay in that it has more stiffening1 so to speak4 ,it is not so plastic1 but1 on the other hand1 it will stand the heat of the kiln1 which the other will not4 ,the addition of whiting or felspar to modelling clay will give the needed stiffness4 ,a pottery clay suitable for the work one can produce in one's kiln must be so arranged as to harden at the degree of heat at which the kiln fires4 ,practically1 we shall have little to do with any but the blue or ball clay and fire-clay4 ,these are the best for pottery which is to be beautiful as well as useful4 ,it is possible1 of course1 to use the flower-pot clay1 and1 perhaps1 if one can easily obtain this clay1 and is near enough to a pottery where the red ware is fired--so that one's pieces can conveniently be sent there--it might be wiser to use it than to buy finer clays that come from a great distance1 and then be obliged to send one's pottery to a far-away kiln for firing4 ,the flower-pot ware is not strong1 however1 and fine glazes cannot be used upon it1 so that1 if possible1 clay that will fire at a greater heat should be chosen4 ,a mixture of fire-clay and ball or blue clay will give good results1 and the pieces made with it may be sent to the nearest art pottery or to a kiln where stoneware is fired4 ,having once found a good clay1 potters rarely change4 ,in fact1 this feeling is so strong with some that it amounts almost to a superstition4 ,a potter who has obtained a clay that is satisfactory in a certain ,state will always send to the same ,state and bed for that clay1 no matter how far he may be from it1 nor how nearly the clay in his own ,state may come to the analysis of that which he has used4 ,the clay is1 of course1 brought from the clay beds in caked masses4 ,it should be kept out of doors1 for the wind and weather are good for it4 ,in preparing it1 the great lumps are pounded up fine and put through a sieve in which there are thirty to forty meshes to the inch4 ,it is now ready for soaking4 ,a common mistake is to pour water upon the clay in its rock state and then employ a boy or spend one's own time kneading it into condition4 ,the more simple and practical process is to sift it as already described1 and then add the powdered clay to the water4 ,in this way1 each particle is wet at once1 and in much less time the clay is ready for use4 ,if it proves that too much water has been provided1 pour off some after the clay is well mixed1 and1 if it is still too moist1 spread it upon plaster slabs in the air2 which will soon dry it sufficiently--the plaster itself absorbing much of the surplus moisture4 ,it is often possible1 at slight expense1 to obtain the clay already sieved and mixed from a pottery1 and this is1 of course1 an advantage4 ,keep your clay in a large earthern crock in which a little water has first been poured4 ,make deep holes with the thumb and pour water into them4 ,cover with a damp cloth and then with the earthen top4 ,when the clay dries out so much that it is difficult to mould1 let it dry thoroughly and pound it to a powder on a strong bench or table with an old flat-iron4 ,it may then be re-mixed1 as already described4 ,when ready to begin work1 take a good-sized lump of clay1 say about ten pounds2 pound and knead it upon a table4 ,then draw a strong wire through it at the middle1 dividing it in halves4 ,press the two outer surfaces together1 kneading out the air-holes1 which will be found on the inner surfaces4 ,this process repeated a number of times will finally expel all the air-bubbles and leave the clay in good condition for moulding4 ,clay that is to be used on the wheel will need to be much more thoroughly kneaded than that for hand-moulded or built pottery4 ,tools ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a to #d4 ,boxwood modelling tools ,boxwood modelling tools are useful for the hand-moulded pottery and for decoration4 ,one pointed tool1 like a sharpened pencil 7see ,fig4 #a71 and another double-ended one1 with points that are more flattened and rounded 7see ,fig4 #b71 will be enough to start with4 ,one should also have a double-ended steel tool with pointed knife-ends 7see ,fig4 #c71 for incising and other decorative work4 ,a steel tool with narrow1 flattened ends 7see ,fig4 #d7 is necessary for cutting away the background to leave the design in low relief4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g ,the tools for use with the potter's wheel are mostly of thin steel1 and may easily be cut from a sheet of steel which one can buy of a dealer in hardware4 ,there should be an oval shape1 two and a quarter by four inches1 and another of the same size and shape with the edges cut in saw-teeth 7see ,fig4 #e74 ,there should also be a tool with one straight side and the other curved 7see ,fig4 #f71 and a rectangular one about two by four inches4 ,a hoe-shaped tool of steel 7see ,fig4 #g7 is indispensable for working on the wheel1 as is a slender point of steel1 an inch and a quarter long1 set in a wooden handle 7see ,fig4 #h71 and a piece of stout wire4 ,a rubber polisher1 the size and shape of the oval tool of sheet steel1 will also be found useful4 ,these may be bought of dealers in potters' tools4 ,a sponge1 a ground-glass slab about a foot square1 a rolling-pin1 and sandpaper are also essential4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h ,round and square slabs of plaster of paris should be provided upon which to put the pieces of pottery while they are being formed4 ,these may be bought or cast in moulds1 according to the directions in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,hand-made ,pottery ,,chapter ,,ii ,,hand-,,made ,,pottery ,it is quite important that the potter should have a workshop--be it ever so small--which clay-dust and water will not harm4 ,a light1 dry cellar is a good place1 or an outbuilding1 if one lives in the country4 ,the sense of freedom which comes from working in this way is a help in accomplishing good results4 ,protected by a long-sleeved apron and in such a place1 one need not have a care for clothes or carpets4 ,a stout old table1 one or two chairs1 and possibly a shelf1 upon which to put the finished pottery--with these1 and the potter's wheel and bench 7see ,chapter ,,iii471 one will be well equipped4 ,this is taking for granted that one has been able to buy one's clay ready mixed4 ,otherwise there must be a tub for mixing the clay1 and a sieve 7see ,chapter ,i474 ,in addition to the clay and the tools already mentioned in ,chapter ,i41 a pitcher of water will be needed1 and a bowl for the 8slip10 or clay thinned with water to the consistency of very thick cream4 ,the potter is now ready for work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i ,small pieces of pottery1 such as dishes and candlesticks1 may be moulded with the hands from a single piece of clay 7see ,chapter ,,vi472 but1 for larger pieces1 the strong and simple ,indian process of building up with coils of clay is more satisfactory4 ,this may be done in a variety of ways4 ,either the piece is formed by coiling the strips of clay within a mould1 as described in ,chapters ,,vi4 and ,,vii41 or by building it up by eye1 assisted by a cardboard outline 7see plate71 or it may be formed entirely by eye1 like the rose-bowl with a moth design in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,the first method1 while it is the simplest1 is not the best to begin with1 for one relies too much upon the mould1 and unconsciously uses it too often1 instead of training one's eye to make a true and beautiful form4 ,the second method--testing the form with a pasteboard outline as the piece is built--will be the best to start with4 ,having decided upon the shape he wishes to make1 the potter draws it in outline 7natural size7 upon a piece of cardboard4 ,it will be wise to choose a form as nearly like a cylinder as possible2 for example1 a jar for flowers4 ,the outline sketch is divided by a vertical line ruled exactly through its centre4 ,another straight line1 parallel with the first1 is drawn three inches to the right of it4 ,the outline is then cut out 7see ,fig4 #i7 so as to make a guide for the contour of the jar4 ,a flat1 round piece of clay1 about five inches in diameter and half an inch thick1 is now moulded and placed in the centre of a plaster tile4 ,in the middle of this piece1 a circle1 two and three-quarters inches in diameter1 is drawn with a tool4 ,a lump of clay1 which has been well worked to get out all air-holes1 is rolled on the table with the palms of the hands 7near the base of the thumb7 lightly1 yet with sufficient push to make the clay revolve wholly each time4 ,if the roll flattens from too hard pressure1 pat it into circular form1 and continue to roll it until it is of even thickness--about an inch in diameter4 ,it is then flattened evenly1 one end is cut into a long point1 and the coil is started on edge1 narrow side up1 on the circle drawn upon the clay bottom1 which has previously had lines criss-crossed upon it back and forth with a steel tool1 to insure the first coil's clinging to it4 ,to make this even more certain1 a touch of slip is brushed lightly here and there over the edge of the circle4 ,while the thumb and middle finger1 on either side of the coil1 support it1 the forefinger presses it down firmly on to the bottom all the way around 7see plate74 ,it is so much easier to flare the walls of one's piece than to make them straight1 or bring them in1 that they should be kept as nearly vertical as possible1 especially in starting4 ,when the circuit has been made1 cut the end of the clay strip into a long1 flat point which will fit evenly in with the one at the beginning of the coil1 and press the edges together with the flat of the nail of finger or thumb4 ,this is also done where the edges of the coil come against the bottom1 outside and in4 ,quick1 firm1 yet short strokes of the nail up and down join the edges4 ,in putting on the second row1 no marking with the tool is necessary--only to brush it with slip4 ,after the second row is added1 the jar is put out in the air for half an hour or so1 until it has stiffened a little4 ,this is supposing that the potter is working at a time when the clay will not freeze4 ,when the weather is cold1 the piece must be left to stiffen indoors1 as pottery that has once frozen is useless4 ,the inside of the bottom and walls are then smoothed with great care1 for1 as it is to be a tall jar1 this must be done before the walls get too high4 ,two more rows of coiling are now added as before1 testing the shape by pressing the cardboard outline close against it all around the circumference4 ,after this1 the jar is again put out in the air for half an hour or so4 ,this method is continued until the jar is built up4 ,illustration3 ,,building ,a ,,piece ,,of ,,pottery #a4 ,making the ,first ,coil #b4 ,testing the ,outline #c4 ,continuing the ,piece ,should the walls become weak and insecure from working them too rapidly1 let them dry for a longer time1 several hours or over night1 before finishing4 ,test the shape constantly with the cardboard outline4 ,when the jar is as high as the drawing1 or even a quarter to half an inch higher1 let it dry over night4 ,it should then be smoothed with an oval steel tool1 which has a saw-toothed edge 7see ,fig4 #e71 to take the worst unevenness off4 ,the tool is bent to fit the shape of the jar and held at right angles with it1 smoothing it with short strokes in different directions4 ,this is done inside and out4 ,the hollows are also filled in4 ,to do this1 wet the spot first with slip and fill in with clay as nearly the consistency of that in the jar as possible4 ,the sides are then made perfectly even with the oval tool with smooth edges1 holding it as the saw-toothed tool was held4 ,when there are no hollows or ridges and the walls are about a quarter of an inch thick1 the surface of the jar is smoothed with a damp sponge and polished with the fingers and thumb inside and out1 taking care in handling it not to hold it by the edge1 but rest it in the hollowed hand4 ,should it have become very dry1 as it will in a comparatively short time in warm weather1 so that it is light-gray in colour1 it will be wise to smooth it with sandpaper instead of with the sponge1 as in this state even a little water may cause it to crack4 ,one cannot learn too soon1 or have too often impressed upon one's mind1 the risk of adding wet clay to a piece of pottery that is much drier4 ,the natural shrinkage which has already taken place in the dry clay will be repeated in the wet1 and1 as it shrinks1 it will crack the drier clay4 ,cracks in clay are of two kinds--those caused by shrinkage of the unbaked or green clay1 and those that come from cooling too rapidly in the biscuit or baked clay4 ,the former can usually be mended satisfactorily1 but for the latter there is no remedy2 the piece is spoiled4 ,to mend a crack in clay that is only partially dry1 put a little slip into the crack and then work in1 with a modelling tool1 clay of the consistency of the piece4 ,if1 after drying longer1 the piece cracks again--a long1 deep crack1 that goes through to the inside--there is no way to mend it except by cutting the clay out on either side for quite a space beyond the crack1 brushing both sides with slip1 and filling in with clay as nearly as possible the consistency of the piece4 ,this is pressed in in small bits1 little by little1 until the gap is filled4 ,if it should crack again in small1 short places1 fill them with dry1 powdered clay1 pressed in and moulded with a steel tool4 ,in case of the piece cracking when it is bone dry--that is1 after it has dried for several days and is pale-gray in colour--grind some pieces of baked clay to a fine powder1 add enough water to make a soft1 yellow paste1 and fill the cracks with it4 ,the edge of the jar is cut as even as possible with a tool1 and then made perfectly true by the following method3 ,a little water is poured on a ground-glass slab1 and the jar1 held bottom up1 is moved firmly but rapidly round and round on the wet surface1 and then quickly taken up 7by sliding it off at the edge of the slab7 before it clings to the glass4 ,the bottom must now be finished4 ,the jar is first placed bottom up on a slab or table1 then a circle is drawn with a pencil at about half an inch from the edge of the bottom4 ,this is outlined with the pointed steel tool1 and the bottom within the circle is evenly and carefully cut out with strokes of the oval1 smooth-edged tool1 so that the outside ring shall form a ridge not over one-sixteenth of an inch above the depressed interior of the circle4 ,the potter now cuts his initial or mark1 which is made in as simple lines as possible1 into the bottom with firm1 deep strokes4 ,if the jar is not very dry1 a wooden modelling tool may be used for this4 ,otherwise1 the pointed steel tool is chosen4 ,care should be taken not to cut under the edge in making these incised lines4 ,the edges should instead be bevelled1 so that1 when the glaze is put on1 it will flow more freely over them4 ,if possible1 this jar1 being large1 should be fired in the biscuit--that is1 before it is glazed1 and then again after it has been glazed2 unless one is obliged to send it a long distance to be fired1 so that more than one firing is impracticable1 in which case it must1 of course1 be glazed on the unbaked clay4 ,a pale green glaze 7see directions in ,chapter ,v47 will complete it4 ,in packing to send pieces to a far-off kiln by express1 use a wooden box1 and1 after lining it with newspaper1 wrap the pieces in soft paper1 and pack them carefully in sawdust4 ,working on the ,wheel ,,chapter ,,iii ,,working ,,on ,,the ,,wheel ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj ,from ,encyclopedia ,britannica ,that the primitive potter did not mould his pottery on a wheel we can be reasonably sure4 ,the ,egyptians1 however1 as early as #djjj ,b4 ,c41 used the simplest potter's wheel1 as is proved by fragments of pottery still in existence4 ,this wheel was a small1 round table revolving on a pivot 7see ,fig4 #aj74 ,the potter set it in motion with his hand1 and from time to time gave it a spin to keep it revolving4 ,the same wheel is used to this day in many parts of ,india4 ,an improvement on this simple contrivance was made in ,egypt under the ,ptolemies4 ,a larger circular table was fixed lower down on the same axis4 ,this the potter set and kept in motion with his foot1 leaving his hands free at all times to mould the clay1 while the wheel was kept at a regular speed4 ,what is technically known as 8throwing0 or moulding pottery on the wheel is a process that is not learned in a moment1 or even in a day4 ,it takes time and patience1 but it is certainly one of the most fascinating parts of the craft4 ,one would have lost half of the charm of pottery-making who had not felt the plastic clay1 on the potter's wheel1 rise and fall between his hands1 almost as if endowed with life6 ,the rapidity with which pieces can be formed on the wheel is an advantage over other processes1 while the regularity of shape1 refinement and perfection of finish give wheel-made pottery a beauty all its own4 ,until lately1 few women potters have worked on the wheel1 because the ordinary form of potter's wheel1 which was turned with one foot1 the potter standing on the other1 made the work too difficult and laborious for a woman to attempt4 ,now1 however1 a wheel copied from an old ,french model is in use which enables the potter to sit while at work4 ,this is the wheel shown in ,fig4 #aa4 ,it is obtainable from makers of potters' tools4 ,the cost of such a wheel1 with an iron top and shaft1 and wooden flywheel made of three thicknesses of boards1 is eighteen dollars1 but second-hand wheels can sometimes be bought for much less4 ,when the wheel is set up1 the shaft box 7a square box below the upper wheel7 is fastened to the edge of a strong table or shelf1 which has been placed in a good light4 ,a seat which slants forward1 not unlike a reading-desk in form1 is made of wood 7see ,fig4 #aa71 and set up near enough to the wheel for a person sitting on it to reach the wheel comfortably4 ,it is braced by a board on either side extending diagonally forward1 from the leg of the seat to the floor1 and by a board fastened on the right of the top of the seat and reaching to the table4 ,under the table a foot-rest1 roughly made of boards1 is needed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa ,at first1 it will be wise to learn how to set the wheel in motion4 ,suppose we practice this a few times before beginning to mould4 ,when one is seated on the inclined bench1 the left foot on the rest1 the right foot starting just below the body1 near the outer edge of the wheel1 swings the flywheel from right to left4 ,the point of the foot is used for this4 ,four or five vigorous turns are given1 and then the foot1 swinging nearer the iron shaft1 gives five or six more pushes to the flywheel1 and is placed on the foot-rest4 ,expert potters can turn with the foot while the hands are busy moulding1 but we who are beginners will do wisely to start the wheel revolving1 then1 keeping both feet on the rest1 give all our attention to the hand-work1 until the slower revolutions warn us that it is time to give the wheel another start4 ,one caution should be given1 and it may not be out of place here3 ,do not work too long a time at the wheel4 ,half or three-quarters of an hour's steady work at a time will be enough4 ,after that1 leave it for half an hour and you will not get physically or nervously tired2 besides1 the work will go much better4 ,have your tools and a bowl of thin slip within easy reach as you sit at the wheel4 ,in beginning your piece1 a lump of clay1 say about two pounds1 well worked1 is made into a ball4 ,wet the top of the wheel1 then rub it off so as to leave the wheel just moist enough for the clay to stick1 but not slippery1 so that it will slide4 ,the lump of clay1 held in both hands1 is then thrown firmly on to the centre of the wheel4 ,the bottom of the lump should be well down on the wheel1 and it is most important to have it exactly in the centre4 ,the hands are wet with slip1 which is also rubbed over the lump of clay with both hands so that it is thoroughly moist4 ,the wheel is now set in motion as already described1 and when it is well started1 and both feet are up on the rest1 the hands held one on either side of the clay starting close to the wheel1 move slowly up the sides of the lump1 drawing it up into a cone shape4 ,the elbows should be well braced against the sides of the body1 so as to hold the hands absolutely steady1 for they should never waver or swing with the wheel1 but hold true and firm4 ,if the mass is not exactly in the centre of the wheel1 or the cone shape is not even1 the hands are again wet with slip1 a few drops of which are shaken on to the clay4 ,the thumbs are laid together1 and the hands at the bases of the thumbs are pressed firmly down on the clay 7as the wheel turns71 pressing it again into mound shape4 ,the hands and clay are wet once more1 and the wheel started4 ,the clay is now pressed up again into the cone form1 taking great care to have the pressure even and slow4 ,the hands should move1 after each revolution1 not more than a quarter of an inch4 ,when a good cone shape is made exactly in the middle of the wheel1 the piece is 8centred40 ,in order to prove that the cone is absolutely in the centre1 set the wheel going1 brace the arms against the body1 and1 steadying the right hand with the left1 move the forefinger of the right closer and closer to the cone1 until it all but touches it4 ,if the figure hits in any one place1 that will prove that the cone is not centred1 and it must be pressed again into mound shape as already described1 but if it just clears it all the way round1 the potter proceeds to the next step4 ,the thumbs1 held close together above the clay1 are aimed at the exact centre of it1 and their ends pressed firmly but lightly in1 while the wheel revolves once or twice4 ,this is to mark the centre4 ,the next step is to hollow out the piece4 ,this is also done with the thumbs4 ,the hands and clay being wet with slip1 and the wheel started well1 the fingers inclose the outer walls of the piece1 while the thumbs are pressed into the centre of the clay firmly and decidedly down to within less than half an inch from the bottom4 ,this is something that the potter learns to know almost by instinct--how close he can come to the top of the wheel and yet leave a bottom thick enough to trim and finish4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,two handled conical jar ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac ,a form as nearly cylindrical as possible will be the simplest to begin with4 ,suppose one wishes to make a jar of the shape shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,the next step is to make the walls of equal thickness1 hollowing the bottom more4 ,to do this1 the elbows are braced against the sides1 and the fingers placed in the position shown in ,fig4 #ac4 ,this is one of the ways in which the hands are made to support each other and work in unison4 ,the different placings of the hands1 to accomplish various results1 are known as potter's grips4 ,in this one1 the right hand1 which remains outside the piece 7lying close against it71 supports the left by the thumb which rests against it1 the forefinger of the right hand having previously been coiled around its thumb 7see ,fig4 #ac74 ,the middle finger of the left hand lies against the wall of the piece inside4 ,the piece is thus supported outside and in by a hand4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad ,starting at the bottom1 as the wheel turns1 the hands1 held steady and firm1 rise slowly with each revolution of the wheel4 ,the right presses more than the left1 hollowing the bottom and walls of the piece4 ,slowly1 slowly1 the hands rise1 until the top is reached4 ,if the shape is not quite true1 the hands start in the same position at the bottom and again go up1 pressing hardest when pressure is needed1 and going lightly where it is not necessary to alter the shape4 ,another position of the hands 7see ,fig4 #ad7 may be used to press the clay into a narrower form4 ,this must be done with great deliberation and care1 however1 as too much pressure may make a crease in the clay wall which will spoil the piece4 ,when the walls are of even thickness 7not more than a quarter of an inch7 and the shape about what one wishes1 the top must be finished4 ,first the edge is cut even4 ,we will use for this the tool shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae ,holding the tool1 which has been wet with slip1 firmly in the right hand1 brace the left by resting the thumb near where the steel is inserted in the wood 7see ,fig4 #ae74 ,as the wheel turns1 lay the left forefinger1 wet with slip1 just inside the top of the piece1 and directly opposite 7at the point where one wishes to cut the top7 run the point of the tool through1 till it touches the finger1 and hold it steady and firm till one revolution of the wheel has been made4 ,the wheel is then stopped1 and the edge that was cut lifted off deftly and quickly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af ,to soften the edge1 hold the forefinger and middle finger of the right hand apart 7see ,fig4 #af74 ,wet their inner surfaces thoroughly with slip1 then1 as the wheel revolves1 hold them straight and firm 7while the left hand steadies the wrist of the right7 and press the rounded joining of the two fingers gently but firmly down on the top of the piece1 holding it there steadily till one or two whole revolutions of the wheel have been made4 ,if one wishes to have a more flaring top1 lay the forefinger of the right hand inside the edge with ever so slight an outward pressure1 while the wheel turns once4 ,before perfecting the bottom1 it may be as well to let the piece stiffen for half an hour4 ,the hoe-shaped tool is used for cutting away the extra clay under the bottom4 ,set the wheel in motion1 then take the tool1 well moistened with slip1 in the left hand4 ,hold it firmly with its long edge on the top of the wheel 7if it is to be a long and gradual slope into the bottom of the jar71 while the right hand steadies the top outer angle of the tool4 ,it is then run in under the bottom and there held till one or more revolutions have cut away the surplus clay4 ,should one wish to make a more abrupt line up from the bottom1 the process is reversed1 the right hand holds the tool1 the short side of which is laid on the wheel1 while the left hand holds the outside top angle1 to steady it4 ,after an hour or two1 when the piece has stiffened somewhat1 it may be smoothed1 and the form refined or improved1 if necessary1 with the smooth-edged oval tool of sheet steel4 ,when the wheel is in motion1 this tool1 moistened with water and bent to fit the curves of the piece1 is held in the right hand at right angles with the piece1 while the left hand supports the wrist of the right4 ,too abrupt angles may be softened and roughness removed with this tool4 ,start at the bottom with it1 and move it up gradually1 with each revolution of the wheel1 lightly1 except where the form needs much trimming4 ,the rubber polisher1 wet with water1 is now passed over the surface in the same way1 taking care that it is held at right angles with the piece and the hand that holds it is braced by the other4 ,a stout wire held close to the piece on either side is then drawn under it once or twice to prevent its clinging to the wheel4 ,the next day1 or as soon as the piece is stiff1 it is removed to a plaster tile4 ,in finishing the bottom1 the wheel is first scraped and wiped clean of all clay2 the piece is then placed on it bottom up and centred4 ,this is done by putting it as near the middle as possible by eye2 then when the wheel is going well1 hold the right forefinger or a wooden tool1 well braced1 close to the piece4 ,see if it touches at any point1 and if so1 move that side nearer the centre4 ,roll four short pieces of rather stiff clay4 ,with two of these make supports on the wheel about an inch high1 close to the piece on either side to hold it steady--not close enough to cling to it4 ,two more supports are placed half-way between the first two4 ,get the wheel going well1 and holding the hoe-shaped tool so that its middle angle will strike the bottom of the piece about half an inch from the edge1 aim it truly and hold it steadily till the wheel has made one or more revolutions1 which will mark a circle4 ,within this line depress the bottom slightly by cutting out a thin layer of clay4 ,this is done with the rectangular sheet steel tool held first near the line1 then with each revolution nearer the centre till it reaches it4 ,the potter next cuts his mark on the bottom with a wooden tool1 if the piece is not very dry1 otherwise it should be made with a pointed steel tool1 taking care to bevel the edges of the incised lines4 ,illustration3 ,,working ,,on ,,the ,,wheel ,on the left is a pale-green bowl for flowers2 beside it1 a cream-jug with a gray-green mat-glaze4 ,the flower-jar with two handles is also gray-green1 and the nasturtium bowl on the right has a dull blue mat-glaze4 ,illustration3 ,,methods ,,of ,,decoration ,the large fruit-bowl on the left has an incised design of orange leaves near the rim4 ,beside it is a low dish for candy1 with a built-up decoration of rings4 ,a design of maple leaves is incised on the other small dish1 and the lamp bowl at the right of the plate has a pierced decoration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai ,the jar is finished with a handle on each side4 ,roll out two strips of clay five and a half inches long2 flatten them1 and trim the edges4 ,now mark a place on each side of the top of the jar1 so that a line drawn from one to the other would exactly divide the top4 ,make two other marks in the same way at the bottom1 directly under those at the top4 ,these are for guides in attaching the handles4 ,starting at the top1 below one of the marks1 criss-cross lines with the steel tool for an inch down the side of the jar4 ,do this on the other side of the jar1 and then1 starting an inch above the mark on either side of the bottom1 cut criss-cross lines for an inch up the side of the jar4 ,now take one of the clay strips1 brush the upper criss-crossed lines on one side of the jar with slip1 and press the end of the strip upon it1 working the edges close against the side of the jar with the flat of the nail4 ,the other end of the strip is cut in a long point to fit the form of the jar1 and bent into the shape shown in the plate4 ,wet the criss-crossed lines below it with slip1 and attach this end in the same way as the first4 ,the other handle is put on in the same manner4 ,a mat-glaze of gray green 7see ,chapter ,v47 will complete the piece4 ,such forms as are shown in ,figs4 #ag and #ah can be made without any difficulty1 and they will be most attractive for short-stemmed flowers--violets1 sweet peas1 or nasturtiums4 ,a cream-jug 7see plate7 is comparatively simple4 ,the lip is formed with a deft touch of the finger after the piece is moulded1 and the handle added afterward4 ,a dull-green mat-glaze will make a charming finish for this piece4 ,the jar shown in ,fig4 #ai is more difficult to shape1 but it is an excellent one for flowers4 ,methods of ,decoration ,,chapter ,,iv ,,methods ,,of ,,decoration ,the more simple and strong pottery designs are1 the better4 ,those that are intricate1 no matter how beautiful1 are out of place on the big1 substantial forms2 while delicate traceries are lost under the glaze4 ,here1 as in basketry1 we can learn much from the work of primitive peoples4 ,in applying such designs1 simple methods1 too1 are best--incising1 building up the outline so that the design shall be raised above the background1 cutting away the background to leave the design in low relief1 and piercing4 ,these are good processes1 easy to learn1 and effective in result4 ,in starting1 suppose we decorate a wheel-made piece--a low dish for candy1 with a built-up design of rings4 ,dish for ,candy with ,ring ,design ,materials required3 ,a wheel-made dish or bowl1 ,ultramarine blue water-colour paint1 ,a small water-colour paint-brush with a fine point1 ,a saucer of ground1 baked clay1 mixed with water1 ,a pitcher of water4 ,the low bowl shown in the plate is not difficult to mould on the wheel4 ,after it has become bone dry--as it will in three or four days--it will be safe to decorate it in this way4 ,be careful1 in handling the piece1 not to grasp it by the edge1 which1 in all unbaked pottery1 but especially in that that is bone dry1 is the most fragile part4 ,it should be held in the hollow of the left hand1 while the right does the work4 ,have ready some ultramarine blue water-colour paint mixed with water in a cup1 a small paint-brush tapering to a fine point1 and a saucer in which is some baked or biscuit clay1 pale yellow in colour1 ground fine and mixed with water to the consistency of thick cream4 ,a jug of water nearby is also necessary1 to thin the clay mixture when it stiffens4 ,the design chosen is one large and two small rings1 alternating around the bowl near the top 7see ,fig4 #bj74 ,first measure the circumference of the top of the bowl4 ,divide it into fifths and mark the divisions with the paint-brush and blue paint4 ,starting a quarter of an inch below one of these marks1 draw a small ring1 about half an inch in diameter1 with the blue paint4 ,should you make a mistake1 the paint will erase easily after it is dry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj ,half an inch below the first ring another is drawn4 ,one of these groups of two small rings is made below each of the five marks around the top of the bowl4 ,then starting half an inch below the top of the bowl1 and midway between two groups1 draw a larger ring about an inch in diameter4 ,one of these rings is outlined in the same way in each of the five spaces4 ,when the design is perfected and the paint dry1 dilute a little of the baked clay in the saucer to the consistency of thin cream1 and with it and the brush1 thoroughly cleansed from blue paint1 trace the outlines of the decoration4 ,use a full brush1 and make the lines as uniform as possible in width and thickness4 ,there should be four or more coats of this material applied in order to build up the design sufficiently1 but only the first one is thin4 ,this is so that it shall cling to the clay underneath4 ,the next and subsequent coats are made with a thicker consistency of the creamy mixture1 which must1 however1 be thin enough to flow freely from the brush4 ,do not add a coat until the one underneath is thoroughly dry4 ,the piece is now ready for glazing4 ,a pale-green glaze may be used 7see ,chapter ,v474 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba ,incising is an absolutely simple process1 which gives a charming effect4 ,examples of this method of decoration are shown in the fruit-bowl with a garland of orange leaves just below the rim on the inside 7see plate and ,fig4 #be71 and the smaller bowl with a maple-seed design 7see plate and ,fig4 #ba74 ,incising also helps the pierced design on the rose-bowl described in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,to ,decorate a ,small ,bowl with ,incised ,design of ,maple ,seeds ,materials required3 ,a small wheel-made bowl1 ,a pointed steel tool1 ,a pointed boxwood tool1 ,a boxwood tool with curved point4 ,the bowl1 a low one1 is made on the wheel according to the directions in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,after it has dried for a day1 it may be decorated with an incised design4 ,suppose we choose for this a winged maple-seed1 the simple outlines of which any one can draw4 ,from tip to tip of the wings should measure at least an inch and three-quarters4 ,if the bowl is small1 not more than four and a half inches in diameter at the top1 six seeds should be made at equal distances around it4 ,first measure the circumference of the top of the bowl4 ,divide it into sixths1 and with a pencil mark off as many divisions on the edge of the bowl4 ,the design1 which is drawn so that the seed portion is down and the little wings turn up1 is first outlined in pencil near the top of the bowl4 ,begin by drawing the seed part1 which should be about an inch below a pencil-mark on the edge4 ,with a boxwood point deepen the line1 and then make the incision still deeper1 using the wooden tool with a curved point4 ,take care not to make a double line in deepening the first outline2 it should be a clean1 firm line1 with a bevelled edge4 ,avoid cutting under the edge1 as the glaze will not run smoothly over it4 ,if the piece is too dry to admit of incising with a wooden tool1 use a pointed steel tool at first and finish with a wooden one4 ,certain parts of the design should be accented by deepening the line--for example1 the rounded seed portion1 particularly where it joins the wings4 ,this bowl may be finished with a pale-green mat-glaze 7see ,chapter ,v47 or with a soft brown one4 ,a decoration that is left in low relief by cutting away the background is admirable for some pieces4 ,the moth design on the rose-bowl in ,chapter ,,vi4 is made in this way4 ,the design is first drawn on the piece in pencil4 ,next it is outlined with firm1 sure strokes1 using a pointed steel tool1 and taking great care not to cut under the edge of the outline1 but bevel it1 as in other processes4 ,go over the whole outline of the design again with a boxwood point1 making the lines deeper4 ,then start close to the edge of the outline with the steel tool1 which has a flat point1 and scrape away from it1 cutting as deep as the outline1 close to the design1 and sloping gradually up to nothing at about half an inch from it4 ,certain parts of the design may be emphasised by cutting the outline somewhat deeper at those points4 ,be sure to cut away enough clay about the design to leave it in decided relief1 for the glaze softens the edges1 and makes them too indefinite if they are not firm and clear in the beginning4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb ,pierced decorations are particularly good on pottery4 ,such simple designs as those in ,figs4 #bb1 #bc1 and #bd will be found the most satisfactory4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc ,in planning a pierced decoration for the top of a piece1 take care not to start it too close to the rim2 three-quarters of an inch or more should be left between the edge and the decoration1 otherwise the piercing will weaken the piece4 ,outline the design first in pencil1 then with firm1 clear strokes follow the line with the pointed steel tool4 ,the line is traced a second time still more deeply4 ,all the clay within the outlines is cut out as far as the incision has been made1 and then the sharp point of the tool is run through the wall close to the line4 ,while the clay is being cut away with the right hand1 the left supports the inner wall of the piece4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd ,when the whole design has been pierced1 moisten the finger with water and soften the edges of the decoration1 that the glaze may flow freely over it4 ,decorations in high relief are made as follows3 ,small lumps of clay1 as nearly as possible the consistency of the piece of pottery1 are applied to the portions which are to be decorated1 and which have previously been criss-crossed with a steel tool1 and wet with slip4 ,the design is then moulded with the hands and wooden modelling tools1 working the edges close on to the surface of the piece4 ,the ,glaze and ,how to ,apply ,it ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,glaze ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,apply ,,it ,clay that is simply baked1 without a glazed coating1 will not hold water perfectly4 ,one can imagine what a blow it must have been to the early potter when he found that this was the case4 ,some say that he used wax at first to close the pores of his pottery1 and later--perhaps by the overheating of a kiln--glazed pottery was discovered4 ,pottery that is soft will develop a semi-glazed surface when overfired1 and it is probable that some such accident suggested the use of the glaze4 ,the first glaze was doubtless a pure silicate of soda4 ,oxide of lead added to this made it more fusible1 but it was not as hard or durable4 ,what is known as biscuit is baked clay porous and without gloss--for example1 a flower-pot4 ,glossy pottery has a very thin layer of glaze upon it4 ,the ,samian ware of the ,greeks furnishes examples of this finish4 ,glazed pottery is covered with a perceptible coating of glass4 ,enamelled ware1 or pottery with a mat-glaze1 has a glazed coating made opaque with oxide of tin4 ,this finish is used on some of the most beautiful art pottery4 ,glazes may be coloured with certain metallic oxides without losing their transparency4 ,one is often confused by hearing the terms enamel and glaze carelessly used4 ,enamel should be used to describe a vitreous coating that is opaque1 and glaze a glossy1 transparent surface--both may be coloured4 ,the term mat-glaze is an exception to this rule4 ,this means an opaque glaze with a glossy finish4 ,the materials of which glazes are composed are about the same as those that enter into the composition of clays with a few additions4 ,there is in glazes1 as in clays1 the play of soft and hard materials1 or the flux and frit4 ,flint1 aluminum1 or china clay forms the frit or hard1 refractory portion2 potash1 soda1 lead or borax the melting part or flux4 ,the addition of clays gives durability4 ,in preparing the flux1 it is melted like glass and then crushed to powder4 ,the frit must first be melted1 then dropped from the crucible into water before it can be powdered4 ,the making of glazes is not often done by amateurs1 and unless one is planning to start pottery-making as a business1 and requires large quantities of glazes1 it is best to buy them from a reliable dealer4 ,they come in the form of powder--soft glaze1 hard glaze1 and stannifre1 which is a hard glaze with some oxide of tin added1 to make it opaque4 ,the soft glazes are used on ware which fires at a low heat1 and is therefore not durable4 ,a large proportion of hard glaze must be added to make the preparation applicable to a pottery which is fired at an intense heat1 while if one wishes a mat-glaze the stannifre is also used4 ,the colouring materials may be bought of the same dealer4 ,they are as follows3 ,antimony for yellow1 cobalt for blue1 copper for green1 chrome for green1 manganese for brown1 and iron for brown4 ,red oxide of iron colours a purplish red1 and carbonate of copper makes a gray green that is very beautiful4 ,a ground glass or stone slab1 on which to mix the glaze1 and a palette knife1 will be required2 also a small quantity of gum-arabic and of gum tragacanth1 a small teacup1 and a measuring-glass4 ,these1 with two or three soft paint-brushes of various sizes--one that is an inch wide1 one smaller1 and another larger--will be enough of an outfit to start with4 ,the gum-arabic should be dissolved in water to the consistency of honey4 ,it is used in the first coat of glaze to bind the glaze and prevent it from rubbing off4 ,quite a little of it may be prepared at a time and kept in a covered glass jar until needed4 ,the gum tragacanth is bought in small quantities--five cents' worth at a time4 ,cover this amount with one pint of water and let it stand over night4 ,in the morning1 strain it through a fine sieve and put it away in a glass jar till it is needed4 ,if possible1 very large pieces of pottery should be fired before they are glazed--in the biscuit1 as it is called4 ,small and medium-sized pieces may be glazed on the green clay--the term by which unbaked clay is known among potters4 ,the piece should have dried thoroughly for several days1 until it is light gray in colour1 and what is known as bone dry4 ,it is decorated1 if decoration is required1 and then glazed4 ,all vessels that are used to hold or measure glaze should first be dipped in water to prevent waste from the glaze clinging to them4 ,the hands should be washed thoroughly after working with glazes1 as some of the materials used are poisonous4 ,for the inside of most pieces a transparent glaze is used1 whether the outer glaze is to be transparent or opaque4 ,all of the odds and ends of transparent glaze1 no matter what the colour1 that are left after each glazing1 are poured into a large bowl or other vessel which is kept for the purpose4 ,the mixture of all colours in this combination of glazes makes a neutral tint which harmonizes most agreeably with the outer glaze1 whatever its colour4 ,it is applied as follows3 ,to ,glaze the ,inside of a ,piece of ,pottery ,take a small cupful of transparent glaze1 and1 holding the piece of pottery over the large vessel containing the liquid1 pour the cupful of glaze into it1 rolling it around the inside of the piece quickly but carefully1 so as to have it cover the entire inner surface4 ,then turn the piece deftly and suddenly bottom up1 so as to empty it into the large vessel without letting any of it drip over onto the outside of the piece4 ,should this happen1 by accident1 rub it quickly off with the fingers4 ,the ,outside ,glaze and ,how to ,apply ,it ,the most satisfactory finish for the outside of fine pottery is a mat or opaque glaze in any soft dull shade of green1 brown1 blue1 yellow1 or the red obtainable with red oxide of iron4 ,for an art pottery1 composed of fire-and blue-clay1 which requires a strong heat1 the following glaze is applicable3 ,gray-,green ,mat-,glaze ,mix #a tablespoonful of soft glaze1 tablespoonful of stannifre1 and tablespoonful of ,china clay1 together on a stone or glass slab with a palette knife1 adding teaspoonful of gum-arabic and enough water to make the consistency a little thicker than thick cream4 ,about teaspoonful of carbonate of copper added to this mixture 7and ground thoroughly into it with the palette knife7 will make a light gray-green4 ,for deeper shades increase the quantity slightly4 ,the tint appears much lighter than it will when fired2 indeed1 in the colouring of glazes1 as in painting on china1 the worker needs a great deal of faith1 for until the magic of the kiln brings out the colours one would never guess what they were to be4 ,in applying the glaze1 place your piece bottom up on a table1 or other flat surface4 ,dip a soft1 flat paint-brush into the bowl of glaze1 and beginning with the bottom1 paint it on in short strokes in every direction--what an artist would call cross-hatching--and overlapping slightly like the shingles on a house4 ,the bottom receives but one coat of glaze1 as it is liable to stick in firing and be uneven if it has more than one4 ,next start at the sides1 near the bottom 7as the piece stands upside down71 and paint down for an inch or two all around4 ,the piece is then set right side up1 providing1 of course1 that the bottom is dry1 which it will be undoubtedly1 and the rest of it is glazed4 ,from time to time stir up the glaze from the bottom1 that it may be thoroughly mixed4 ,the edge especially should be carefully covered1 and the outer glaze may even be brought over inside the piece a little4 ,before applying the second and third coats 7for the piece receives three7 two teaspoonfuls of gum tragacanth1 well mixed according to directions1 are added to the glaze4 ,in putting on the second coat1 the piece is again placed upside down on the table1 and beginning where the sides join the bottom1 the glaze is applied as before4 ,the sides and top edge only are glazed this time4 ,the third coat1 which is put on when the second is dry1 is begun at the top edge1 covering it well1 and is ended gradually and unevenly half way down the sides4 ,pale-green ,mat-,glaze ,to make a lighter shade of green1 with just a hint of yellow to soften it1 add to half the quantity of the glaze first mixed as much again of the uncoloured glaze and a slight sprinkling of yellow4 ,it will be seen from these directions how much the colouring of glazes is like the blending of pigments for a picture4 ,it is a delightful field for experiment1 and the element of chance is supplied by the kiln1 which often does unexpected and interesting things to one's colours and glazes--leaving here1 a touch of brown about the rim to relieve an expanse of green2 there1 a metallic tinge almost like lustre2 and again the biscuit peeps through the glaze1 giving a warmer tone to the edge of a decoration4 ,in mixing the glaze for a piece that has been fired in the biscuit1 make it a little thicker than that for use on the green clay--about the consistency of whipped cream4 ,it is applied somewhat differently1 too4 ,a potter would tell you to rag it on--that is1 put it on with firm1 short strokes1 using the ends of the hairs of the brush instead of the flat part4 ,let each coat dry well before the next is applied4 ,three or four coats will be necessary1 except for the bottom1 which receives but one4 ,after the first coat1 gum tragacanth is added1 as in glazing on green clay4 ,the fourth coat need not entirely cover the piece1 but the top should be carefully glazed4 ,if for any reason the pottery has to be re-fired1 it should be reglazed1 but two coats only will be necessary1 and the glaze need not be quite so heavy as that used on the biscuit4 ,do not be discouraged if your pieces need a second or even a third firing1 for often the most beautiful results are obtained by re-firing4 ,quality--that combination of richness1 and depth of colour and texture--rarely comes with the first firing4 ,pottery for ,beauty and ,use ,,chapter ,,vi ,,pottery ,,for ,,beauty ,,and ,,use ,when one thinks of the limitless possibilities of pottery in household decoration--the great dishes for flowers and fruit1 the lamp-bowls1 candlesticks1 and tiles--one may make1 one can hardly wait to begin4 ,now is the chance to work out a long-treasured idea for a match-bowl1 or a plant-jar to hang against the wall or window frame4 ,now one can show the superiority of one's conceptions over the stupid things in shops6 ,let us hasten to get out the clay and begin4 ,dark-,green ,fruit-,bowl ,materials required3 ,about #d pounds of clay1 ,a plaster mould for a bowl1 #aj or #aa inches in diameter at the top1 ,the oval tools of sheet steel1 ,the wooden modelling tools1 ,the pointed steel tool1 ,a flint bag1 ,a rolling-pin1 ,a bowl of slip1 ,a small sponge4 ,take a good lump of clay1 about four and a half pounds1 well worked and free from air-bubbles4 ,beat out a piece with the flat of the hand on a table until it is about three-quarters of an inch thick and more than large enough to cover the bottom of the plaster mould you have chosen4 ,it should be of even thickness1 and may be rolled with a rolling-pin to make it smooth4 ,be sure that the plaster mould is clean and free from scraps of clay4 ,then dust it with powdered flint tied up in a cotton cloth4 ,now fit the flat piece of clay carefully into the bottom of the bowl mould1 pressing it firmly1 but lightly1 against it4 ,cut the edge evenly around4 ,next a long rope of clay is rolled as described in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,it should be an inch in diameter1 and long enough to go around the bowl just above the bottom4 ,pat it flat and even1 and cut one end into a long point4 ,after cross-cutting the edge of the bottom piece 7to insure its holding firmly to the coil above71 brush it with slip and lay the coil along1 pressing it firmly on to the edge of the bottom piece4 ,work the edges of this piece and the coil together with firm1 short strokes of the flat part of the thumb or forefinger nail4 ,where the coil joins the other end it is cut into a long1 flat point that will fit exactly the point at the beginning1 completing the row4 ,illustration3 ,,where ,,use ,,and ,,beauty ,,are ,,combined ,for the next coil no cross-cutting with the tool is necessary1 but otherwise the process is the same in joining this and subsequent coils4 ,care should be taken to press the clay firmly against the walls of the mould1 as well as upon the coil below4 ,when the inside of the mould is covered1 if a deeper bowl is desired1 add one or two more coils above the edge1 taking care to have them slope in such a way as to continue the lines of the bowl4 ,it is then set away to harden4 ,the next day the clay will have dried and shrunk sufficiently to come easily away from the plaster4 ,the bowl is then placed bottom up on a table or flat slab1 and the hollows left between the coils on the outside are wet with slip and filled in evenly1 with clay of the consistency of that in the piece4 ,this will take time and care4 ,the bowl is then allowed to dry for an hour or two4 ,next it is carefully scraped and made even2 first with the oval steel tool with a saw edge1 held at right angles with the bowl and curved to fit the form3 this is to get the large bumps off4 ,it is then carefully evened off with the smooth-edged oval tool bent to fit the curves of the bowl4 ,the inside is made smooth and even in the same way1 brushing any deep hollows with slip and filling them in with clay4 ,this process should be carefully and conscientiously done1 so that the walls of the bowl1 as one feels them between finger and thumb1 are even and free from lumps4 ,they should not be more than a quarter of an inch thick4 ,a damp sponge is then passed over the bowl1 and the fingers and thumb smooth and polish it outside and in4 ,the edge is trimmed as evenly as possible by eye with a steel tool and then bevelled as follows3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be ,on a large slab of ground glass pour a little water1 which should be spread over the glass till it is thoroughly wet4 ,now1 holding the bowl bottom up1 firmly with both hands1 press its edge quickly and with a circular motion flat on the glass4 ,it must be done so rapidly and deftly that it will not stick1 but makes the edge even and true4 ,slip it off at the side of the slab instead of lifting it up from the centre4 ,the bottom is finished as described in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,if this is done in the morning1 the bowl will be ready for the decoration in the afternoon4 ,this is a band of orange leaves 7see ,fig4 #be71 deeply incised near the top of the bowl on the inside 7see ,chapter ,,iv474 ,more character will be given to the design if the line is broad and deep1 particularly at the points of the leaves1 which are thus emphasised4 ,this piece being so large1 should1 if possible1 be fired in the biscuit and then finished1 inside and out1 with a dark-green mat-glaze 7see ,chapter ,v471 and fired again4 ,candlestick1 ,thumb ,design ,materials required3 ,about #a pounds of clay1 ,the boxwood modelling tools1 ,the pointed steel tool1 ,a plaster slab1 ,a small sponge4 ,this sturdy little candlestick shows that it is hand moulded by the marks of the potter's thumb on base1 handle and candle cup4 ,the square base is moulded from a single large piece of clay4 ,this is patted flat and even with the thick part of the hand1 and then cut square and the sides turned up for about an inch1 making the base about five inches square and three-eighths of an inch thick4 ,it is then placed on a plaster slab1 and the corners are pressed in with a firmly held thumb4 ,the sides of the square base are moulded into a gradual inward curve1 and the corners are slightly depressed 7see plate74 ,a cup for the candle 7see ,fig4 #bf7 is made by rolling a piece of clay into cylindrical form1 about an inch and three-quarters in diameter and two inches and a quarter long4 ,at the top of this roll1 the finger makes a hollow for the candle4 ,it should be remembered that the clay shrinks both in drying and firing1 so this hole should be a trifle large and deep for the candle4 ,the sides of the cup1 at about an inch from the top1 are squared and pressed in so that the four corners will stand out like columns4 ,the hollowed sides between the corners show the mark of the thumb 7see ,fig4 #bf74 ,the centre of the base is now wet with thick slip and the candle cup pressed firmly on to it1 while the edges are moulded closely on to the base4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf ,a piece of clay is then rolled and flattened into a handle an inch in diameter and five inches long4 ,this is put on at one corner of the base1 and is not attached at any other point4 ,before moulding it on to the base1 touch the corner lightly with thick slip1 to insure its holding4 ,where the handle joins the base it is made thick and substantial by adding a little extra clay4 ,the print of the thumb is made where the handle joins the corner1 another is pressed on the top1 and another still on the end of the handle 7see plate and ,fig4 #bg74 ,to support the handle until it dries1 roll a ball of soft paper under it4 ,after the candlestick has stood for a few hours out-of-doors or indoors overnight1 it is carefully trimmed with one of the wooden tools or the sharp-pointed metal one1 taking care to leave sufficient thickness to give it a sturdy1 substantial character1 yet not enough to make it clumsy4 ,it is then rubbed over with a damp sponge and polished with the thumb and finger1 which will smooth away any lumps and give the piece a hand-moulded look4 ,should there be any very deep hollows to make it uneven1 they should be wet with slip very slightly and filled in with clay as nearly the consistency of that in the candlestick as possible4 ,when it is bone dry1 it will be ready for the glaze 7see ,chapter ,v474 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg ,bowl for a ,lamp ,materials required3 ,about #c pounds of clay1 ,a plaster mould for a bowl1 ,the wooden modelling tools1 ,the oval sheet steel tools1 ,the pointed steel tool1 ,a rolling-pin1 ,a flint bag1 ,a small sponge4 ,having chosen a good mould for your bowl1 brush it inside with ground flint tied in a cotton cloth1 so that the clay will not stick to it4 ,now beat out a piece of well-worked clay on a board1 with the flat of the hand1 until it is perhaps two inches more in diameter than the bottom of the mould1 and half an inch thick4 ,it should be rolled smooth with the rolling-pin4 ,lay it in the mould1 pressing it firmly against the bottom and sides4 ,it may not be out of place here to say that no tool but a wooden one should be used in working in moulds1 as metal tools are liable to injure the plaster4 ,the edge of the bottom piece is next cut even with a wooden modelling tool1 and a lump of clay is formed into a rude cube shape between the hands and then rolled out on a table or board with the flat of the hand till about three-quarters of an inch in diameter4 ,this roll of clay is flattened evenly for its whole length4 ,the top edge of the bottom piece is marked with criss-cross lines and wet with slip4 ,the roll of clay is then started on edge1 along the top of the bottom piece1 pressed firmly down upon it and against the sides of the mould4 ,it is joined to the bottom with firm1 even strokes of the thumb or forefinger nail4 ,when the circuit has been made1 the two ends1 each cut in a long1 flat point1 so that they will unite perfectly1 are joined4 ,another roll is now made1 the upper edge of the previous coil is wet with slip1 and the coil is attached in the same way1 being careful to start at a different place from where the previous coil was joined4 ,thus the whole bowl is built up4 ,where there are any decided hollows made by joining the coils1 they should be filled in with clay of the consistency of the piece1 and the bottom and sides smoothed with dampened finger or modelling tool4 ,if a moderately deep mould has been chosen1 after the sides are covered with layers of clay1 four or more coils may be added above the mould to make a deeper bowl1 continuing the sides in a graceful line4 ,to do this1 when the first coil above the mould has been attached1 the bowl is set away1 out of doors for fifteen or twenty minutes if it is in summer or indoors for a longer time if one is working in the winter4 ,whenever two coils have been built up1 the piece is set away to harden4 ,these coils1 being free from the mould1 can be joined on the outside as well as within4 ,they are brought gradually in 7see plate7 until there is a space five and a half inches in diameter at the top4 ,if a central-draught lamp is to be used in this bowl1 a pierced design will be practical1 as it does away with the necessity for a hole at the bottom of the bowl4 ,there is much to be done1 however1 before the piece is ready for the design4 ,when it has stood for four or five hours or overnight1 the bowl can be lifted from the mould1 the cracks on the outside where it was impossible to join the coils are wet with slip and filled in with clay of the consistency of the bowl1 using the finger or a wooden tool4 ,when the bowl is quite dry1 it is smoothed inside and out1 first with the oval tool with saw teeth1 and then with the smooth-edged one1 as described on page #ai4 ,the strokes with these tools should be short and firm1 in every direction4 ,the piece is then turned bottom up1 a circle is drawn half an inch in from the edge of the bottom1 and the clay within it scraped out1 so as to leave a flat surface slightly lower than the outer rim4 ,this is where the potter cuts his mark--a simple1 quickly made initial in lieu of a signature4 ,the top edge1 after it has been cut as true as possible by eye1 is made absolutely even by the method described on page #gj4 ,the whole piece is then rubbed with a damp sponge and smoothed and polished with the fingers4 ,it is now ready for the design 7see ,fig4 #bh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh ,the top edge of the bowl is marked off into fifths1 and at three-quarters of an inch from the top the design is drawn with pencil1 so that each time it is repeated the centre shall be directly below a mark on the edge4 ,it is first incised with a metal tool1 in firm1 sure lines4 ,again the outline is traced1 this time more deeply4 ,then the clay within the lines is cut out as deep as it has been incised1 and finally the sharp edge of the tool cuts through the wall1 close to the line4 ,the left hand should support the inner wall of the bowl during this process4 ,when the whole design has been made1 dip the finger in water and soften the edges of the cut portion4 ,the bowl is now ready for glazing4 ,if possible1 it will be better to fire such a large piece as this in the biscuit before glazing4 ,it will look well if glazed with gray blue or dark green 7see ,chapter ,v474 ,wall ,jar for ,plants or ,flowers ,materials required3 ,about #d pounds of well-mixed clay1 ,a plaster slab about #aj by #ab inches1 ,the oval tools of sheet steel1 ,the pointed steel tool1 ,a rolling-pin1 ,ultramarine blue water-colour paint1 ,a medium-sized paint-brush with fine point1 ,a saucerful of ground1 baked clay1 mixed with water4 ,an ,indian water-jar of basketry1 smeared with pinon gum1 pointed at the bottom so that it could be set upright in the ground or hung by leather thongs to a tree1 suggested the form of this jar4 ,one side is made flat1 so that it can hang against the wall of library or piazza holding some long trailing plant that grows in water1 ivy1 or wandering ,jew1 or wild flowers gathered on a walk through woods and lanes4 ,what more appropriate way to make it than the ,indian process described in ,chapter ,,ii48 ,we shall need about four and a half pounds of clay1 well mixed4 ,a large lump1 almost two pounds1 is flattened out on a table1 with the thick part of the hand and then made even with the rolling-pin4 ,the sheet of clay should be ten by twelve inches1 and not less than three-eighths of an inch thick4 ,upon it the jar form shown in ,fig4 #bi is outlined with a pencil1 making it as large as possible to allow for shrinkage4 ,it is then cut out with the pointed steel tool and transferred very carefully to a large plaster slab1 where it remains while the walls are being built upon it4 ,a coil of clay is rolled out1 as described in ,chapter ,,ii41 and beginning at the left side of the jar shape1 at the top1 it is attached to the edge 7which has previously been criss-crossed with a steel tool and wet with slip71 all the way around to the opposite side of the top4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi ,the jar is then put in the air until quite hard1 when the next coil is added in the same way4 ,the third coil is brought in a little toward the centre1 and subsequent coils come in still more1 so as to make the form that of a jar cut exactly in half4 ,after each coil is attached1 it should be left in the air to stiffen1 or the clay beneath will not support the coil in progress1 so great is the strain in forming such a shape4 ,each time a coil is added the wall below should be criss-crossed with the steel tool 7an extra precaution7 and wet with slip4 ,care should be taken not to make the walls too thick1 and to join the coils and finish the inside as it is made2 for1 when the jar is completed1 it is impossible to get the hand and tool in far enough to smooth and finish it well4 ,when the jar is made1 except for a diamond-shaped gap in the middle of the front wall1 the piece to fill it is cut and fitted in4 ,it will lie almost parallel with the back wall4 ,take care to make it full large for the opening1 and join it to the inner edges most carefully1 for here1 if anywhere1 is the jar liable to crack4 ,the top is now made even by eye1 using the pointed steel tool4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj ,illustration3 ,,pottery ,,for ,,beauty ,,and ,,use ,the pale-green rose-bowl with a moth design1 at the left1 has beside it a low ,dutch dish4 ,on the right is a fruit-bowl with a deep-green mat-glaze4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,plaster ,,mould ,at the left is a plaster mould1 and beside it a rose-bowl which was partially formed within it4 ,see chapter ,,vii4 ,illustration3 ,,pottery ,,for ,,beauty ,,and ,,use ,the lamp-bowl on the left has a gray-blue mat-glaze4 ,next to it is a candlestick1 with the marks of the potter's thumb on every part4 ,the wall-jar in the background is for plants that grow in water4 ,on the right is a flower candlestick in green and white4 ,when the jar is somewhat dry1 two handles 7see plate7 are formed of rolls of clay 7the consistency of that used in making the jar71 five and a half inches long by an inch wide and half an inch thick4 ,these are firmly attached to the back wall of the jar at the top 7see plate71 according to the method described on pages #ci and #dj4 ,the decoration 7see ,fig4 #cj7 is drawn on the rounded front wall of the jar with ultramarine water-colour1 and then built up with powdered burnt clay and water 7see directions in ,chapter ,,iv474 ,if possible1 this piece should be first fired in the biscuit4 ,a glaze of dark gray green 7see ,chapter ,v47 will finish it most attractively4 ,dutch ,dish for ,candy ,materials required3 ,about #a pounds of clay1 ,the wooden modelling tools1 ,the sharp-pointed steel tool1 ,a plaster tile1 ,a rolling-pin4 ,a quaint ,dutch dish1 brought from ,holland years ago1 was the model for this sturdy little piece of pottery4 ,it may be used for candy or to hold a vase of flowers1 or a potted plant1 protecting a polished table4 ,a lump of clay is rolled on a table with the hands and a rolling-pin to the thickness of half an inch4 ,upon this clay sheet a rectangle four and a quarter by four and a half inches is drawn with a pencil and cut out with the pointed steel tool4 ,it is then transferred to a plaster tile4 ,to the edge of this rectangle a coil of clay is attached according to the directions in ,chapter ,,ii41 and flared slightly outward1 taking care not to make the corners sharp1 but rounded and even4 ,after the first coil has stiffened1 and the sides have been made somewhat uniform and thin1 it is cut even by eye1 curving the edge up gradually toward the middle of the sides and depressing it slightly at the corners4 ,a second coil is now added1 but instead of attaching it to the top of the first one1 it is joined just below the top and inside the first coil4 ,when it has stiffened sufficiently in the air1 the dish is smoothed carefully inside and out with the hand and the wooden modelling tools1 making the walls even and thin and perfecting the shape4 ,the effect of legs is given by cutting under the sides1 beginning half an inch above the bottom4 ,if this is started three-quarters of an inch from the corners1 it will leave a sturdy1 short leg an inch and a half wide at each of the four corners of the dish4 ,a roll of clay about five and a half inches long1 an inch wide1 and three-eighths of an inch thick is made into a handle 7see plate71 which is attached at the middle of one of the sides of the dish4 ,at the two points where it is to be joined1 the side of the dish is criss-crossed with the steel tool and wet with slip4 ,the bottom is finished by drawing a square with a pencil1 half an inch in from the edge1 and depressing it within the square1 so as to leave a flat1 even surface4 ,the potter's mark is then made within this square4 ,a pale green mat-glaze 7see ,chapter ,v47 makes a charming finish for this piece4 ,rose-,bowl with ,moth ,design ,materials required3 ,about #e pounds of clay1 ,a rolling-pin1 ,the oval sheet-steel tools1 ,the pointed-steel tool1 ,the steel tool with a flat end1 ,a plaster tile4 ,this rose-bowl1 which is shown in the plate1 was built up without a pasteboard outline4 ,if one's eye is reasonably true this is not a difficult matter1 but otherwise the outline process 7see ,chapter ,,ii47 may be followed4 ,a piece of clay is first patted flat with the hand1 and then rolled out with the rolling-pin1 until it is six inches square and about five-eighths of an inch thick4 ,upon this clay sheet a circle is marked1 five inches in diameter1 cut out and placed on a plaster tile4 ,the edge is criss-crossed with a steel tool and wet with slip1 and the first coil is attached 7see ,chapter ,,ii474 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca ,two coils are built up1 and then they are pressed outward to form the beginning of the outline1 shown in ,fig #ca4 ,this outline was taken from the lower sweep of the wings of a lunar moth1 and the same moth forms the relief design upon it 7see ,fig4 #cb74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb ,the bowl is then put out-of-doors until the clay is sufficiently firm to support two more coils4 ,these are added2 flaring them to follow the outline1 and then the bowl is put away to harden--in the air1 if the temperature is not too cold1 otherwise indoors4 ,it is built up exactly as was the flower jar in ,chapter ,,ii41 except that there is no cardboard outline to test it2 the eye alone is the guide4 ,great care should be taken not to add the coils until those below are quite stiff1 for the decided flare makes it difficult to keep the sides firm and true in outline4 ,the circumference of the bowl1 at its widest part1 should be about thirty inches4 ,when it is finished1 the sides within and without are smoothed1 first with the saw-edged oval tool1 then with the smooth one4 ,the edge is cut as true as possible by eye1 and made perfectly level by pressing it quickly and lightly on the ground-glass slab1 wet with clear water1 as already described4 ,a damp sponge is then passed over the piece1 inside and out1 while the fingers rub and polish it dry4 ,the bottom is finished and the potter's mark made as described in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,when the bowl is thoroughly dry--say the following day--it is ready for the decoration4 ,divide the circumference of the top of the bowl into fifths1 with pencil marks1 lightly made4 ,then draw the design upon it1 so that the top of the upper wings shall be not less than an inch from the edge of the bowl4 ,make the moths as nearly life size as the bowl will allow4 ,three and a half inches across1 from tip to tip of the upper wings1 with spaces an inch and a half between them1 will look well1 if the bowl is large enough4 ,having drawn the design in pencil1 outline it firmly with the sharp steel tool1 taking care to bevel the edge of the design4 ,never cut under the edge1 as the glaze will not flow well over it4 ,go over the outline1 making it firm and deep1 with a wooden point4 ,now1 starting close to the edge of the moth1 with the flat-pointed steel tool scrape away from it1 so as to cut as deep as the outline1 close to the design1 and shave off to nothing at about half an inch from it4 ,this will give a low relief effect1 which is very attractive4 ,the antenn are incised 7see ,chapter ,,iv471 and the markings of the moth may be built up with ground1 baked clay1 so as to heighten the relief4 ,the bowl may be glazed a pale green with a slight yellow tinge 7see ,chapter ,v47 to suggest the colour of the moth4 ,it should1 however1 if possible be fired first in the biscuit4 ,flower ,candlestick ,materials required3 ,about #a pounds of clay1 ,the wooden modelling tools1 ,a plaster tile4 ,a candlestick in flower form may be made in green and white1 for a bedroom in a country house4 ,five leaves1 much the shape of poppy leaves1 radiate from the centre1 making a base from which the stem rises for three inches4 ,a round1 slightly flattened calyx1 topped by a five-petalled flower1 forms the cup for the candle4 ,a sixth leaf1 starting at the centre of the base1 curls over until its tip rests sideways against the stem1 serving the double purpose of a handle and a brace for the stem4 ,the base should be modelled first1 from a single piece of clay1 placed on a plaster tile4 ,care should be taken to have it sufficiently thick--at least half an inch in most places4 ,although the leaves should be indicated1 do not try to carry the leaf form way to the centre of the base4 ,let the irregular outline of the whole base1 with an occasional raised tip1 or edge of a leaf1 suggest rather than imitate leaves4 ,the leaf that forms the handle will1 of course1 be more carefully modelled4 ,now mould the stem1 about an inch in diameter and three inches long1 with the calyx on the end1 an inch and three-quarters in diameter1 and an inch high4 ,after criss-crossing the middle of the base with the pointed-steel tool1 wet it with slip and set the stem on the base1 working the edges firmly on to it with the flat of the nail and wooden modelling tools4 ,the leaf for the handle is brought over against the stem with a graceful turn1 and there fastened with a touch of slip and some clay added underneath4 ,be careful to have the whole candlestick substantial1 and not at all thin in construction1 or it will suggest metal work rather than pottery4 ,after the candlestick has stiffened for a few hours1 a five-petalled flower1 three and three-quarter inches in diameter1 is modelled and put on top of the calyx1 which has first been criss-crossed and wet with slip4 ,the cup for the candle is next hollowed out in the centre of the flower and calyx1 raising the edge of the flower centre slightly above the surrounding petals4 ,the candle cup should be a trifle larger than it will need to be when finished1 as it shrinks somewhat in drying and firing1 and the glaze1 too1 fills it up a little4 ,be sure1 also1 to have it deep enough to hold the candle4 ,the base1 stem1 and handle are finished with a gray green mat-glaze 7see ,chapter ,v471 while the petals are white--the uncoloured mat-glaze4 ,how to ,make a ,plaster ,mould ,,chapter ,,vii ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,plaster ,,mould ,in building pieces of pottery whose walls have a decided flare1 a plaster mould will be found most useful4 ,its sides support the coils of clay and enable the potter to form his piece much more rapidly and surely than he could by eye1 or even with the cardboard outline4 ,it should1 however1 be used with judgment1 rather as an aid in beginning a piece which is afterward finished by eye than as a mould in which pieces are duplicated4 ,turning out many pieces exactly alike savours of commercialism and does not develop the potter's individuality4 ,several bowl-shaped moulds1 varied in form and flare1 if used as suggested1 will be a great assistance to the potter4 ,they are made quite easily1 as follows3 ,a ,bowl-shaped ,mould of ,plaster ,materials required3 #f or #h pounds of clay1 well mixed1 ,a bowl1 or mould in bowl shape1 ,a dishpan full of plaster of paris1 ,a dishpan of water1 ,a bag of ground flint1 ,a piece of oilcloth #h inches wide by #a yards long1 #b clothes pins1 ,a stout cord or rope1 ,a wooden wedge1 ,a few drops of olive oil1 ,the wooden modelling tools1 ,the rectangular tool of sheet steel1 ,a large hoe-shaped tool1 ,a large kitchen spoon4 ,having chosen the bowl that you wish to copy1 dust it with a cotton cloth in which ground flint is tied1 and roll out a piece of clay two or more inches larger in diameter than the bottom of the bowl1 and about an inch thick4 ,press this carefully into the bottom1 making sure that it touches everywhere4 ,now roll out several other pieces of the same thickness1 large enough to reach from the upper edge of the bottom piece to the rim of the bowl1 and four or five inches wide4 ,the upper edge of the bottom piece having been cut even and wet with slip1 these pieces are pressed down firmly and joined to it with the nail stroke before mentioned4 ,great care is also taken to press these pieces against the sides of the bowl4 ,when the bowl is lined in this way with a coating of clay an inch or more in thickness at every point close against its walls1 the clay is smoothed evenly on top1 on a line with the rim of the bowl 7using the rectangular tool of sheet steel7 and set outside to harden4 ,when somewhat firm1 the bowl is filled in with clay until only a space the size of a man's hand is left in the middle4 ,it is then set away1 this time over night1 to harden4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc ,the next day the clay will have dried and shrunk sufficiently to enable the potter to slip it out of the mould4 ,any cracks or hollows that may be found on the outside are wet with slip and filled in with clay of the consistency of the piece4 ,after the clay is quite dry1 the form of the mould should be made perfectly true by hand 7using the oval sheet-steel tools7 or on the wheel4 ,if the latter method is chosen1 place the clay mould bottom side up on the wheel1 centre it 7according to the directions in ,chapter ,,iii71 and1 taking a large hoe-shaped tool1 hold it firmly1 bracing the hand still better with a stick laid across from a plaster mould1 or other convenient object1 on the table1 to one's lap4 ,having set the wheel in motion1 hold the dull point of the tool so that it just touches the wall of the mould1 near the wheel4 ,move the point up very slightly with each revolution of the wheel--this will trim and perfect the sides4 ,the bottom is made even in the same way4 ,now wash the wheel outside of the mould carefully and oil it with olive oil4 ,take a piece of heavy oilcloth1 about eight inches wide and long enough to reach around the wheel1 overlapping about a foot4 ,placing it with the right side in1 draw it tightly and fasten with clothes pins 7see ,fig4 #cc74 ,next tie a rope or stout cord around the oilcloth1 about on a level with the wheel1 and1 to make it more secure1 wedge it with a piece of wood4 ,roll strips of clay about the diameter of a lead pencil1 and stop the cracks where the oilcloth overlaps1 also between the oilcloth and the wheel1 very carefully1 so as not to touch the clay mould4 ,be careful1 from now on1 not to move the wheel until the mould is made4 ,now mix your plaster of paris1 as follows3 ,have an empty basin or dishpan1 large enough to hold the quantity necessary for the mould--you will learn to judge this pretty well by eye4 ,put in as much water as you will need1 and sift gradually into it1 by the handfuls1 the dry plaster1 pressing out all lumps2 in this way the water will reach every particle4 ,when there is a small island of plaster1 about an inch above the surface of the water1 there will be enough4 ,let the plaster get thoroughly saturated by the water1 as it will in a few minutes2 then mix with the hands or a large spoon until it is the consistency of thick cream4 ,pour it gradually around and over the clay mould1 not all in one place1 until it is about an inch and a half or two inches above the bottom of it4 ,let it set for an hour or more until it seems perfectly hard4 ,the oilcloth is then taken off1 and with the dull point of the hoe-shaped tool the bottom is trimmed true on the wheel1 in the same way as the wheel-made pottery is finished4 ,the sides should also be smoothed and made even with the straight-edged sheet-steel tool4 ,it then looks like a great frosted cake4 ,when the plaster is hard and set1 the mould is taken from the wheel and reversed1 so that the clay may be removed4 ,to do this1 dig out the inside of the clay mould with a large sheet-steel tool1 taking care not to come near the plaster1 which would be injured by the steel4 ,the shell of clay remaining can be easily lifted out with the fingers4 ,one who does not own a wheel can make a mould by setting the clay bowl1 bottom up1 in the centre of a small shallow bread or dish pan1 which must then be well oiled on its inner surface4 ,the plaster of paris is mixed and poured around and over the clay mould1 as already described4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd ,if one uses a great deal of clay1 plaster basins may be made for drying out the superfluous water from the clay after it has been mixed4 ,these are moulded in the form shown in ,fig4 #cd1 the straight-sided circular cavity in the centre being about three inches deep1 and the whole slab perhaps sixteen inches square4 ,the basin part1 like the bowl-shaped mould just described1 is first formed in solid clay1 and the mould is made in the same manner4 ,plaster slabs1 both round and square1 to hold the pieces of pottery while they are being made and dried1 may also be moulded4 ,rose-,bowl ,started in a ,mould ,materials required3 ,a bowl-shaped mould of plaster1 #c inches in diameter at the bottom and #i inches at the top1 ,about #c pounds of clay1 ,a bag of ground flint1 ,the wooden modelling tools1 ,the oval tools of sheet steel1 ,the sharp-pointed steel tool1 ,a bowl of slip1 ,a small sponge1 ,a rolling-pin4 ,a charming rose-bowl may be built up in the plaster mould described in this chapter4 ,about three and a half pounds of well-worked clay will be needed1 and the usual tools4 ,a small lump of clay is first patted out with the hands on a table or board1 then rolled smooth with a rolling-pin until it is three-eighths of an inch thick and about six inches across4 ,this is laid into the bottom of the mould1 which has previously been dusted with ground flint tied in a cotton cloth4 ,the clay is pressed lightly1 but carefully1 against the bottom and sides1 and then made even at its upper edge with a wooden tool4 ,strokes of the wooden modelling tool1 cutting this upper edge criss-cross1 and a touch of slip1 prepare it for the first roll of clay1 which is made and attached as described in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,these coils need not be as thick as those used in making the first pieces4 ,as the worker gains experience1 he can make the walls of his pieces much lighter than at first1 and still keep them strong4 ,subsequent coils are joined in the same way1 taking care to press each against the wall of the mould1 as well as upon the coil beneath4 ,when the sides of the bowl are covered1 a coil is attached above the edge of the mould4 ,this should be almost vertical1 instead of flaring1 and a second coil 7which is joined after the first has stiffened out-of-doors for twenty minutes7 is brought in slightly toward the centre4 ,the bowl is then left over night1 when it will be quite dry and have shrunk sufficiently to slip easily out of the mould4 ,it is turned bottom up on a table1 and the cracks between the coils are wet with slip and carefully filled in with clay of the consistency of the bowl4 ,after it has been set away to harden for a few hours1 it is made smooth and even with the oval tools of sheet steel as described in previous chapters4 ,in trimming the walls to an even thickness1 they may be made comparatively thin--a little less than a quarter of an inch4 ,next the bottom is finished and the potter's mark made4 ,the edge1 after it has been bevelled by eye1 is perfected on the ground-glass slab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce ,the piece is now ready for its decoration4 ,this is the design shown in ,fig4 #ce4 ,the circumference of the top of the bowl is divided into fifths1 and marks are made in pencil half an inch below the rim4 ,just below each of these marks the design is drawn1 placing it so that if a line were drawn straight down from the pencil mark1 one of the oval figures would be on each side of it4 ,the centre of the design is pierced1 as indicated in ,fig4 #ce1 by the method described in ,chapter ,,iv41 and a deep incised line surrounds it4 ,a pale green mat-glaze 7see ,chapter ,v47 completes the bowl4 ,the ,making of a ,tile ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,making ,,of ,a ,,tile ,the ancient ,egyptians were probably the first tile-makers4 ,some of their most remarkable pieces of enamel work are clay plaques or slabs1 made as early as #acjj ,b4 ,c4 ,figures of men and animals were drawn upon them1 modelled in low relief1 and coated with enamels1 brilliant and beautiful in colour4 ,in other tiles a kind of mosaic was made--a combination of fine clay and enamels1 which were mixed into soft pastes4 ,the design was modelled and fitted together in these coloured pastes1 which1 when they were fired1 the heat fixed and vitrified4 ,again these cunning craftsmen left in the clay incisions forming a design4 ,into these settings1 so to speak1 small pieces of glass or enamel were fitted1 and when fused into place by the heat of the kiln suggested jewels4 ,now-a-days our artist potters are designing and modelling tile for wall and floor decoration --whole mantels to match the colour scheme of a library or my lady's boudoir4 ,to the uninitiated1 the making of a tile seems almost too simple to learn--just a slab of clay1 cut square and baked4 ,simple enough it is1 to be sure1 yet it has difficulties enough to make it interesting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf ,suppose we mould a tile and learn by experience just what the difficulties are and how to surmount them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg ,the clay that is used in moulding tiles is the same as that of which the other pieces of pottery are made--i4 e41 a mixture of fire and ball or blue clay with the addition of a large amount of what is called by potters1 8grog40 ,this is fire clay which after baking becomes pale yellow in colour and quite hard4 ,it is pounded into pieces the size of a small pea1 and smaller1 and mixed thoroughly through the clay1 to act as a tempering agent4 ,mould in as much of the 8grog0 as the clay will hold4 ,too much will make it lose its plasticity and separate into small lumps1 but short of this the more 8grog0 the tile clay contains the better1 as1 being baked and shrunken1 it minimises the chances of cracking by shrinkage4 ,in making a tile1 the following materials will be required3 ,about #d pounds of tile clay1 ,a level board1 about #ae by #bj inches1 ,a frame made by screwing a strip of wood1 of an inch thick by #b inches wide and #ba inches long1 on each of the long edges of a board1 #ad inches wide by #ba inches long1 #c pieces of white cheese-cloth1 #ae by #ba inches1 ,a rolling-pin1 ,the rectangular sheet-steel tool1 ,a ,t square or a piece of sheet metal1 #h by #h inches1 ,a strong1 sharp knife1 ,a bowl of slip1 ,the boxwood modelling tools1 ,the pointed-steel tool1 ,the steel tool with flat point4 ,to begin with1 a large piece of tile clay is worked until all the air-holes are out of it1 as already described4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch ,a wooden board which is absolutely level1 having previously been covered with a piece of wet1 white cheese-cloth1 which is tacked securely upon it1 the clay is moulded into a square by hand and laid upon the board4 ,it is then pounded flat with the thick part of the hand into an irregular square cake1 and rolled with a rolling-pin1 wet with slip1 until it is a little less than half an inch thick4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci ,a wooden frame made of a board fourteen and a half inches wide by twenty-one inches long1 with a strip of wood the same length1 seven-eighths of an inch thick when planed1 and two inches wide1 screwed on to each of the long edges1 should have been provided beforehand4 ,a piece of wet cheese-cloth is spread upon this board1 and the clay square is carefully transferred to it1 fitting it carefully into the form by patting and pressing with the hand4 ,it should then be smoothed with the rectangular tool of sheet steel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da ,the tile must now be reinforced for the reason that the outer edge1 which dries and shrinks first1 would naturally crack when the inside finally dried and shrank1 and so spoil the tile4 ,when reinforced1 the edges1 being double thickness1 dry more slowly1 making the whole tile shrink evenly4 ,six pieces of clay are rolled into as many rope-like strips4 ,five of these strips are patted flat with the hand until they are about an inch and a half wide and not quite half an inch thick4 ,they are then laid along the outer edges of the tile1 which have first been lightly brushed with slip1 and across the middle 7see ,fig4 #cf71 pressing them firmly onto the tile and joining the edges carefully4 ,the sixth strip is cut into two short pieces1 which are laid in at the centre1 between the three strips crossing the tile 7see ,fig4 #cf71 and firmly attached by moulding them against the other strips and working the edges on to the tile upon which a touch of slip has been brushed4 ,a damp piece of cheese-cloth is laid on the tile and it is again rolled with the rolling-pin4 ,next it is made smooth with the sheet-steel tool1 and the four depressions are moulded evenly1 as shown in ,fig4 #cg4 ,it is then set away over night1 to get in proper condition to cut and finish4 ,the following day put a board on the bottom of the tile and reverse the frame so that the tile will slide off on to the board4 ,then with a ,t square or a piece of sheet metal eight by eight inches 7the size of the tile7 laid upon it1 cut around the edges with a sharp1 strong knife4 ,the tile is then set away to receive its decoration1 which should be made the day following4 ,care should always be taken to lay the tile only upon an absolutely level board or other flat surface in drying1 as otherwise it will warp and dry unevenly4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,making ,,of ,a ,,tile ,the face of the tile4 ,for detail of this design1 see ,fig4 #ch4 ,the back of a tile1 showing the potter's mark and the rough texture of the tile clay4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc ,having chosen a simple design--for example1 the one shown in ,fig4 #ch--;draw it upon the tile in pencil4 ,next go over the lines with the pointed tool of boxwood1 and with a curved pointed wooden tool incise the outline still deeper4 ,make a clean-cut1 firm outline1 broad and deep1 with a bevelled edge4 ,this is1 of course1 supposing that the tile has not become very dry1 in which case the tool used should be the pointed steel one1 finishing with the wooden tool4 ,the whole design should be deeply incised with firm1 sure strokes4 ,the pieces of 8grog0 which the tool will run against now and then will not injure the outline if the hand is firm4 ,should one by mistake cut away more of the design than was intended1 it can easily be repaired with a touch of slip and a small piece of clay1 the consistency of the tile1 worked in with the pointed steel tool4 ,the portions of the design which are indicated by dots in ,fig4 #ch are depressed with the flat-pointed steel tool1 according to the method for leaving the design in low relief1 described in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,before setting the tile away to dry for the last time1 the potter incises his mark on the back4 ,a dull yellow mat-glaze or a gray green one 7see ,chapter ,v47 will finish it attractively4 ,a tile such as this1 eight inches square1 is rather large for some purposes2 it is1 however1 most effective as a decoration1 and may do practical service in holding a flower-pot or vase of flowers--protecting a table or wooden mantel from moisture4 ,fireplace tiles are1 of course1 considerably smaller1 and those for use on a table are lighter as well4 ,they are made by the same process1 only using a smaller frame and rolling the clay thinner4 ,some designs for tiles are shown in ,figs4 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #db1 and #dc4 ,the ,kiln ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,kiln ,pottery1 until it is fired1 has little or no practical value4 ,one who owns a piece of ,gay ,head ware1 made in ,martha's ,vineyard1 and called by the name of the bluffs of whose clay it is made1 will appreciate this4 ,though charming in colour1 a terra-cotta background with swirling lines of pale yellow1 black and white1 it can only be put in one spot--on the highest shelf1 out of reach of children and others who like to 8look with their hands40 ,if it were baked1 the colour which is its chief charm would be lost1 and it is therefore so fragile that a rude touch will break or deface it4 ,in the early days of pottery-making1 when utility was everything1 pots for cooking and domestic purposes were baked either before the fire1 or covered with bark and other burning fuel1 which hardened the clay and made it strong enough for service4 ,we do not find traces of kilns1 however1 among the relics of those early potters4 ,probably the first people to use the kiln were the old ,egyptians4 ,one which is represented in their mural paintings was a high1 circular chamber made of brick4 ,the floor1 near the bottom1 was perforated1 and beneath it was the fuel1 which was put in through an opening on the side4 ,the kiln used by the early ,greek potters had a place for fuel on one side1 and an upper chamber for the pieces of pottery1 with a door through which it could be put in and withdrawn4 ,this differed from the ,egyptian kiln only in having a dome4 ,many of the kilns of the present day are shaped almost exactly like those used by the early ,greeks4 ,so important a part does the kiln play in perfecting a piece of pottery--putting the final touch upon it3 the touch that shall make or mar--that the potter realises he must plan1 before anything else1 either to own a good kiln or to know of one where his pieces can be sent to be fired4 ,unless one wishes to make pottery on a large scale1 as a business1 the expense and care of owning one's own kiln is unnecessary4 ,there are makers of art pottery near the principal cities who for a reasonable amount will fire one's pieces admirably1 and with much less risk than an amateur could possibly do them--that is1 providing one uses the same kind of clay as is employed by the owners of the kiln where one's pottery is to be fired4 ,if not1 this clay can usually be purchased at the pottery ready mixed at slight expense4 ,even though one may not care to assume the cost and responsibility of owning a kiln1 it may be of interest to know something of the construction of kilns and how they do their work4 ,,the ,,open-,,fire ,,kiln ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd ,a is the chamber for the pottery4 ,,bb the fire boxes4 ,,cc the firebacks4 ,,ddddd the passage and outlets through which the heat enters the kiln4 ,the open-fire kiln is preferred by many potters4 ,such kilns have been used for generations by potters in ,england2 and for ware that needs hard firing they have proved most reliable4 ,fig4 #dd shows the interior of one of these kilns1 and ,fig4 #de the ground plan4 ,from these diagrams one can get an idea of the principle on which such kilns are run4 ,this kiln is built mostly of fire-brick1 and should be under cover for more than one reason4 ,first1 there is no danger from frost if the kiln is inclosed by a wooden building1 and then it is more convenient for the potter to do his work where he is not exposed to the weather4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de ,,aaaa are the fire-boxes4 ,,bbbbbbbbbbbb the passages for the hot air4 ,,ccccc the outlets for the hot air4 ,the kiln is circular1 built on a foundation of brick or stone1 and strengthened with bands of wrought iron4 ,at all four sides of the central chamber1 where the pottery is placed1 are fire-boxes where the coal is fed on to a grate below the level of the floor of the chamber4 ,the hot air from the fire-boxes finds two outlets1 one through a direct escape1 close to the box1 the other through a passage and out at the centre of the floor4 ,within the central chamber are piled the saggers--great circular boxes or drums made of fire-clay--all of which1 if possible1 contain pottery1 but1 whether full or empty1 they must fill up the chamber1 as their clay holds and radiates heat which would otherwise be lost4 ,the office of the saggers is to protect the pieces of pottery from direct contact with the flame1 smoke1 and ashes of the fire4 ,the heat from the fire-boxes1 if it rushed directly into the kiln1 would fire the pieces near the bottom of the chamber too hard1 so slabs of fire-brick1 called firebacks1 are arranged so as to send the heat up 7see ,fig4 #dd74 ,it then1 passing up between the saggers 7which1 stacked one above the other1 form flues to improve the draught71 passes off at the top opening4 ,this aperture1 as will be seen in ,fig4 #dd1 has a slab supported by bricks above it to control the draught4 ,the heat escapes through the cone1 and thus through the chimney4 ,the cone is made of ordinary bricks1 and its office is to help the draught4 ,there is another kind of kiln much like this model1 except that it has a down draught4 ,the heated air1 as it escapes1 passes down through an opening in the floor1 along a horizontal passage1 up and out4 ,this keeps the heat in the kiln for a longer time1 but it also confines the gases1 which affect the colour of the ware so that it is not practicable for art pottery4 ,seen from the outside on a day when the kiln is being filled1 its aspect is quite different4 ,inside the great brick chamber1 workmen are stacking the saggers filled with pieces of pottery1 some of which1 not yet packed1 are standing on tables near at hand4 ,they look wan and pale1 faint grayish-green1 or leaden gray4 ,not until they have felt the fierce heat of the kiln will they glow with living green or will the beauty of their blues appear4 ,yellow that is almost orange seems to be only a deep cream colour before it is fired4 ,then there are pieces of green1 or unbaked clay1 to be fired in the biscuit--that is1 without the glaze4 ,these are put in another part of the kiln4 ,just a word about the saggers4 ,these huge1 rough boxes of burnt fire-clay1 whose office has already been spoken of1 are sometimes bottomless1 simply rings4 ,should a sagger be too low to contain a piece that is placed in it 7as is often the case71 one can build up the clay-box to the required height with the bottomless saggers4 ,between every two saggers rolls of clay are laid 7coiled around the edge7 to hold them together4 ,when the kiln is filled at last with its stacks of saggers1 the doorway is bricked up and the fire started4 ,the open-fire kiln requires the best part of three days to complete it4 ,the first day it is filled with pottery and the fire started4 ,in firing a kiln1 the heat should be raised very slowly4 ,all that night the fire is watched and fed1 as it must be kept at the requisite temperature1 for if it gets low1 or1 as the potters say1 8slips10 the glaze is spoiled and the pottery must all be reglazed and fired again4 ,the weather affects the kiln1 the draught not being so good on a damp or rainy day as on a fair one2 and the coal also must be specially chosen for the kiln4 ,it takes several tons to fire one kiln1 so that the success or failure of a firing is no light matter4 ,the second day much attention must be given to keeping the fire up1 and at about nightfall the guides are drawn as follows3 ,at equal distances around the kiln are four peep-holes--small1 round apertures on a level with the eye1 which are closed with a cylindrical tube having a transparent asbestos end4 ,in the glare of the kiln1 directly on a line with these peep-holes1 one can see a row of clay rings1 which were daubed with glaze before the fire was started4 ,having withdrawn the cylinder which closes the hole1 the potter runs in a long metal rod1 with a hook on the end1 catches a ring1 and draws it out4 ,he can tell from the appearance of this ring1 or guide1 how the kiln is firing and about when the pieces will be done4 ,usually they are finished that night1 but the kiln is not opened until it has cooled for many hours4 ,,the ,,muffle ,,kiln ,the muffle kiln is shown in ,fig4 #df4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df ,a is the muffle-box or chamber for the pottery4 ,b ,b ,b ,b ,b ,b ,b are the arches supporting the box and other parts of the kiln4 ,c ,c ,the doors where the fuel and pottery respectively are put in4 ,d ,d ,d ,the passages for the heated air4 ,e ,the ash-pan4 ,this fires at a low degree of heat1 compared with the open-fire kiln4 ,it is mostly used for under-glaze pottery and for glazing4 ,in this kiln the fire could not come in direct contact with the ware1 so that saggers are unnecessary2 instead1 there is a system of shelves upon which the pottery is placed4 ,the fuel1 which may be wood1 is fed through a door on one side of the lower part of the kiln1 with an ash-box below4 ,a brick arch supports the muffle-box or chamber where the pottery is placed4 ,on the opposite side from the furnace door is the opening through which the pieces are put into the kiln4 ,this is carefully bricked up before the fire is started4 ,the hot air passes through a passage extending around all sides and above the box1 and the outlet is over the door where the pottery goes in4 ,a slab extending nearly across this outlet controls the draught4 ,basket-,covered ,pottery ,,chapter ,x ,,basket-,,covered ,,pottery ,there has always been a close connection between pottery and basketry4 ,those who study ,indian handicrafts learn that pottery was evolved from basketry in the long ago4 ,neltje ,blanchan suggests that it may have happened in some such way as this3 8,perhaps a hunter returned home hungry one day 444 and his wife1 anxious to hasten dinner for her impatient lord1 coated her cooking-basket with clay that she might set it directly over the fire without danger of burning4 ,imagine the woman's surprise and joy to find1 on removing it from the embers after dinner1 that she had a basket plus an earthenware pot60 ,the two crafts have helped each other from that day to this4 ,the ,indian woman suspends her earthen cooking-jar with coils of wild grapevine1 which ever and anon she smears with wet clay when the flames come too near4 ,japanese craftsmen enmesh their pottery jars with wistaria stems to protect them from breakage1 or to suspend them against the wall1 where growing plants or trailing vines may fill them to overflowing4 ,even the little ginger jar one buys for a few cents in ,chinatown has its case and handle of pliant cane4 ,charming things may be made for the beautifying of one's own or another's house if one knows something of the two crafts4 ,a few of them are described in the following pages3 ,indian ,pottery ,bowl ,suspended with ,raffia ,materials required3 ,an ,indian pottery bowl in white and ,indian red1 #f inches in diameter at the top1 ,a bunch of ,indian red raffia1 ,a curtain ring1 ,a tapestry needle ,no4 #ah4 ,any one who has made raffia hats with the knots that our mothers used to call macram in the early eighties1 will see by a glance at the plate how the network of raffia which incloses this bowl is fashioned4 ,the bowl is the first consideration4 ,it may be bought at an ,indian store for about a dollar2 or1 if one prefers1 one can mould one's own bowl of flower-pot clay4 ,in that case1 however1 the white background which is so effective in the ,indian ware will be missed4 ,illustration3 ,,basket-,,covered ,,pottery ,the straight-sided hanging jar on the left was once the pillow of a ,chinese woman4 ,beside it is a green bowl of ,spanish pottery1 inclosed and suspended with green rattan4 ,the small jar below is a ,flemish piece1 with a covering of pale-green rattan4 ,above is an ,indian bowl1 with a knotted raffia covering4 ,the three-handled plant-bowl on the right has a gray-green mat-glaze4 ,it is suspended with raffia ropes4 ,to begin with3 ,thread a ,no4 #ah tapestry needle with a strand of ,indian red raffia4 ,twist the end three or four times around the middle and forefinger of the left hand1 and cover the small ring thus made with button-hole stitches4 ,the ring should be about an inch in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg ,finish off the end of the raffia by sewing several stitches through and through the ring4 ,pin this ring to a cushion on one's lap or to some firm1 soft object near at hand4 ,take two strands of raffia1 double them around the ring1 and with the four ends thus made tie a ,solomon's knot as follows3 ,hold the two upper strands straight and taut4 ,bend the under strand on the left across them to the right 7see ,fig4 #dg71 and bring the under strand on the right over the end of the left strand1 back of the middle strands1 and through the loop made by the left strand in starting4 ,another pair of strands is knotted on in the same way1 and another1 until there are thirteen groups around the ring4 ,beginning anywhere on the ring1 the strands on the right of a group are brought beside the two on the left of the group to the right of it1 and the middle pair of the four are held straight down1 while the strands on the right and left are knotted upon them as already described4 ,this knot should be about half an inch from those in the previous row4 ,make a double knot this time--that is1 repeat the process already described4 ,take the strand which was on the left after the first knot was tied1 bring it over the middle strands to the right1 and after bringing the strand on the right over the end of the left one and back of the middle strands1 pass it up through the loop made by the left strand in starting4 ,the two strands at the right of the right-hand group are next knotted in the same way with two on the left of the next group to the right1 and so it goes on around the net--making a double ,solomon's knot each time4 ,five rows more of this knotting are made1 each row being half an inch from the previous one1 except the fifth1 which is three-quarters of an inch from the fourth4 ,now bring all the strands from three groups together at an inch and three-quarters from the last row of knotting4 ,hold the middle one of the three groups taut1 and tie the strands to right and left upon it in a ,solomon's knot4 ,tie another knot close to the first one1 and another1 until there are seven--one below the other4 ,three more groups are brought together at an inch and three-quarters from the last row of knotting1 and tied in the same way4 ,then another three4 ,the fourth bunch will have four groups of strands in it 7as there were thirteen groups in all at starting74 ,two of these groups1 the middle ones1 are held taut1 and those to left and right are tied upon this double group as the others were4 ,then1 taking the long ends of one of these bunches1 tie them again in three ,solomon's knots at an inch and three-quarters from the seventh knot4 ,they are next brought straight down without knotting1 for two inches more1 when two knots are made4 ,for two and three-quarter inches more they are brought without knotting1 then tied and wound around a large ring--an old curtain ring about two inches in diameter will do4 ,when all four bunches have been knotted in the same way1 and the ends of all have been fastened securely to the curtain ring1 the ring is covered neatly with button-hole stitch in raffia1 and a raffia binding about half an inch wide is made just below the ring1 where the strands are fastened to it4 ,green ,pottery ,jar ,inclosed and ,suspended with ,brown ,rattan ,materials required3 ,the ,pottery ,jar3 ,about #b pounds of clay1 ,the wooden modelling tools1 ,the rectangular tool of sheet steel1 ,the pointed steel tool1 ,a bowl of slip1 ,a small sponge1 ,the ,basket ,covering3 ,about six lengths of ,no4 #d deep-brown rattan1 ,a piece of fine but strong wire #bd inches long1 ,a pair of pliers1 ,a bunch of deep-brown raffia4 ,around the quaint and attractive hanging jar from which this one is copied is woven a tale as curious as its covering of knotted brown twigs4 ,it is this3 the rectangular green jar1 which looks like a pottery box1 was once the casket in which some ,chinese lady kept her pomades and perfumes4 ,when she slept1 her head1 which had been dressed most elaborately with the aforesaid pomades1 was laid upon this same pottery box for a pillow--another instance of the painfulness of pride in ,china6 ,how strange the little ,chinese lady would think it of us to use her earthen pillow as we do--for a hanging flower-jar6 ,who covered it with knotted wistaria twigs8 ,i should suspect it was some deft-fingered ,japanese--though the jar was bought in ,hawaii4 ,it will not be very difficult to copy4 ,first there is the box-like jar to be made4 ,a rectangular bottom is cut from a well-worked lump of clay after it has been patted flat with the hand and rolled with the rolling-pin4 ,it should be five by three and a half inches--which allows an inch on length and breadth for shrinkage4 ,upon this foundation coils of clay are built1 as described in previous chapters1 making them thinner1 however1 than usual--not over a quarter of an inch thick4 ,as the walls are built they should be finished carefully inside and out1 keeping them straight and true at the corners1 as well as on all sides4 ,when the jar is seven and a quarter inches high1 the top is made even by eye and perfected on the ground-glass slab1 as described in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,a rectangular piece of clay is then rolled and cut the size of the bottom2 an oval piece about two by three inches is cut out of the middle1 with the pointed steel tool1 and it is left on a plaster slab to stiffen for half an hour4 ,the upper edge of the jar is then criss-crossed with the pointed steel tool and wet with slip1 and this flat top is attached to it deftly and carefully4 ,after drying for several hours1 it may be finished with the sheet-steel tool1 the shape perfected1 and the surface dampened with a sponge and polished with the fingers4 ,when it has dried for several days it is coated with a glossy green glaze and fired4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh ,the covering of knotted rattan is made as follows3 ,six pliable lengths of ,no4 #d brown rattan are needed for this covering4 ,they must be carefully selected1 for as they are to be tied they should1 when wet1 be almost as pliable as cord4 ,it is not difficult to find them as soft as this1 especially after they have been dyed4 ,in starting1 a length of rattan which has been wet until soft is tied around the jar at about half an inch from the top4 ,the long end is twisted once around this foundation ring4 ,this may be done off of the jar if it is easier4 ,when the ring has been replaced on the jar1 two pieces of very pliable rattan about sixty inches long are doubled around the ring at the middle of the front of the jar and tied in a ,solomon's knot1 as already described 7see ,fig4 #dg74 ,the second part of the knot1 however1 is not tied as the raffia was in making the knotted covering for the ,indian bowl4 ,instead1 the end which is on the right after the first knot has been tied is brought over to the left1 above the middle strands1 and the one on the left1 coming down over its end1 goes back of the middle strands and up through the loop left in starting the right strand 7see ,fig4 #dh74 ,another pair of strands of the same length is tied in this way around the ring at the middle of the back of the jar1 and a pair at either end4 ,the strands at the right of the knot in the middle of the front are then brought beside those at the left of the group on the right end1 and these are knotted as just described1 at about an inch and three-quarters from the first row1 and at the corner of the jar4 ,the remaining strands of the group on the right end are knotted with those at the left of the group in the middle of the back1 and so on around the jar4 ,there will then be four knots1 all an inch and three-quarters from the first row1 and each at a corner of the jar4 ,three more rows of knotting are made in the same way1 and then the four ends remaining at the front and back after the fifth row of knots has been made are wet with warm water until very pliable and tied together under the jar4 ,those from the sides are tied in the same manner and at the same place4 ,all the ends are bound securely just below these knots with fine wire1 and over this an inch-wide band of raffia4 ,the ends are cut irregular lengths1 the longest not more than fourteen inches from the bottom of the jar4 ,a handle is then made as follows3 ,a piece of pliable brown rattan1 ,no4 #d1 about two yards long1 is wet until soft and passed around the knot nearest the top at one end of the jar4 ,the ends are brought together and twisted for their entire length4 ,at the opposite end of the jar they are brought around the knot nearest the top1 turned up1 and firmly bound to the handle with a piece of wire1 which may then be covered with a binding of raffia4 ,take care to make this wire binding secure1 for this is the place where the greatest strain comes4 ,it is in such places as this that the ,oriental craftsmen show their superiority4 ,their ends1 thus bound1 are bound to stay1 while ours sometimes slip4 ,jar of ,flemish ,pottery ,inclosed with ,pale-,green ,rattan ,materials required3 ,a jar of ,flemish pottery1 #d inches high1 #b inches in diameter at the bottom and #a inch at the top1 ,about six lengths of ,no4 #jj green rattan4 ,a little jar of quaint ,flemish pottery1 charming in form and colour1 is the foundation of this piece4 ,this ware1 which is just becoming known to us1 is interesting in many ways4 ,first of all1 for its own sake--the attractive shapes3 candlesticks1 bowls1 jugs1 jars1 and tiles all have the stamp of individuality1 rare in any ware that is within reach of the average purse4 ,the colours are beautiful--deep greens and blues1 soft browns and dull orange for the most part4 ,some of the pieces are made by ,belgian school children1 others in potteries started by a club of men in ,belgium1 followers of ,ruskin1 who have revived the craft1 employing only ,belgians to design and mould the ware4 ,the old methods are carefully followed--the pieces are wheel-made1 not formed in moulds4 ,much of the decoration is done by boys1 who make a charming picture1 clad in blouses and sabots1 their young faces all interested and absorbed in the work4 ,the open-meshed weave of pale-green rattan with which this jar is inclosed only slightly veils the colour of the glaze--deep-green at the base1 shading through blue to a soft mousy-brown at the top4 ,the covering is made as follows3 ,one end of a piece of green ,no4 #jj rattan twenty-seven inches long is tied into a ring two inches and a half in diameter4 ,around this foundation ring the long end of the rattan is twisted in and out1 until it has made the circuit twice--three times1 counting the foundation ring4 ,some very pliable lengths of ,no4 #jj green rattan are cut into twenty pieces thirty-two inches long4 ,they are wet until quite soft1 and then two of them are doubled around the ring and tied with a ,solomon's knot 7see ,fig4 #dg74 ,another pair is doubled and knotted upon the ring1 and another1 until ten groups have been attached at intervals around the circumference4 ,starting with any one of the groups1 the two strands on the right are brought beside the two on the left of the group to the right of it1 and knotted together as described on page #acb1 at three-quarters of an inch from the first row of knots4 ,the two remaining strands of the right-hand group are brought beside those on the left of the next group to the right1 where another knot is made1 and so on1 until the circuit is complete4 ,one more row of knots is made in the same way1 three-quarters of an inch from those in the previous row4 ,the whole network is then wet thoroughly and fitted over the lower part of the jar1 tying it if necessary1 to mould the rattan in to the form4 ,at about an inch and a half from the last row of knots1 a row of pairing is made with a very pliable piece of ,no4 #jj green rattan4 ,for the benefit of those who may not know this simple basket weave1 the following directions are given3 ,holding the jar with its partial covering of rattan right side up1 draw the ends of the strands remaining after the last row of knots was tied1 close up against the sides of the jar4 ,double the pliable piece of ,no4 #jj rattan around a pair of ends which formed the middle strands of one of the knots4 ,taking the upper half of the piece1 which seems to come from behind the two strands 7to the left of them71 bring it over them1 under the next pair and out in front4 ,hold down1 with the left hand1 the end you have just used1 while with the right bring the other end 7which was on the right of the first pair of strands7 over the next pair of strands on the right and under the next4 ,it is now held down in front1 while the process is repeated--always taking the end on the left to weave with4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di ,the doubled strands1 or spokes1 on which these stitches are woven1 should be drawn close together1 till not more than a sixteenth of an inch apart1 so that they will cling to the jar4 ,when the circuit of the jar has been made1 another row is woven4 ,at the end of this second row both of the weaving strands are cut1 so that their ends will come back of the last pair of strands in the circuit4 ,for half an inch the strands are drawn up toward the top of the jar without weaving2 then1 one row more of the pairing is made1 and after thoroughly wetting the ends of the vertical strands the following border is woven3 ,bring each pair of strands over the next three on the right under the succeeding two and outside of the jar4 ,the entire circuit of the border is made in this way1 only leaving the first part of it loose and open1 so that the last strands can be woven in easily4 ,when finished1 the border is again wet1 and its edge made even and true1 on a line with the top of the jar or slightly above it4 ,the ends of the strands are then cut close to the jar1 so as to allow each to lie back of the last strand it went under4 ,if the covering stands out from the jar--does not cling as it ought1 it should be thoroughly wet and bound around with string or raffia1 and firmly tied1 until it is dry4 ,fig4 #di shows the completed covering4 ,green ,pottery ,bowl with ,covering and ,handles of ,green ,rattan ,materials required3 ,a green pottery bowl #e inches in diameter at the upper edge and #c at the bottom1 #cj pieces of pale-green ,no4 #jj rattan #dh inches long1 #b lengths of pale-green ,no4 #jj rattan4 ,this green bowl1 inclosed with a knotted covering of pale-green rattan1 may be used as a hanging flower-pot or for cut flowers4 ,the original was a piece of deep-green ,spanish pottery1 but if one can make the bowl1 so much the better--as long as the dimensions are those given above4 ,in starting1 fifteen pieces of ,no4 #jj green rattan which have been wet until quite soft and pliable are laid side by side in a group which is doubled at its centre1 and the ends tied securely together1 about two inches from where it was doubled4 ,one group of ends1 containing fifteen pieces1 is made flat and even1 and then separated into three groups of five pieces each and braided in a three-stranded plait ten and a half inches long4 ,it is then tied securely4 ,the other group is separated and braided in the same way1 keeping the strands flat and the plaiting close and even4 ,fifteen more pieces of rattan of the same size and length 7which have been wet until pliable7 are now passed through the loop made by doubling the other pieces1 bent at the middle and tied as the others were1 two inches from the place where they were doubled4 ,the ends of these pieces are also braided in two plaits for ten and a half inches and then tied firmly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej ,holding the braids so that the ends of the strands turn up1 and starting at about two inches from where the braiding stops1 a pliable piece of ,no4 #jj rattan is doubled around the pair of ends on the left of one of the groups1 and is woven in pairing upon these ends and those succeeding them--keeping them about half an inch apart4 ,as there is an uneven number of ends in each group1 the fifteenth one is brought beside the first end in the next group1 and the pairing woven upon them 7see ,fig4 #ej74 ,thus it goes on1 until the circuit has been made1 when the bowl is fitted into the ring 7the braided handles1 of course1 turning up2 and the ring about an inch below the top of the bowl74 ,if the ring is too loose1 the stitches may be wet and drawn up a little2 if too tight1 they are wet and stretched4 ,two more rows are woven with the handles turning down2 then the work is reversed1 so that the unfinished ends shall turn down4 ,the ends are wet until soft and pliable1 and at three-quarters of an inch from the last row of pairing they are tied into a row of the knots described on page #acb4 ,a second row of knots is made at an inch from the first4 ,the case is then fitted over the bowl and wet if it is necessary in order to mould it in to fit the shape4 ,turn the bowl upside down1 and at half an inch from the last row of knotting double a pliable piece of ,no4 #jj rattan around a pair of ends anywhere on the circumference of the covering and weave one row of pairing1 drawing the ends of the strands in1 to fit the bottom of the bowl4 ,this will bring them about three-eighths of an inch apart4 ,another row of pairing is woven1 and then a base is made as follows3 ,after the ends have been wet until pliable1 start with any one of the pairs1 bringing it over the first pair on the right1 under the second1 over the third1 and under the fourth1 taking care to leave the base loose and open where it begins1 that the last strands may be easily woven in 7see ,fig4 #ea74 ,the next pair of ends on the right is woven in the same way over the first on its right1 under the second1 over the third1 and under the fourth4 ,so it goes on around the bowl until the time comes to weave in the last strands1 which will not be difficult if the caution in regard to leaving the beginning open and loose has been heeded4 ,when the base is finished1 wet it thoroughly1 and draw up the strands or let them out until the edge is even and on a line with the bottom of the bowl4 ,the ends of the strands are then cut so that the tip of each will lie behind the last strand it went under4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea ,three-,handled ,bowl for ,plants or ,flowers ,materials required3 ,about #c pounds of clay1 ,a plaster mould for a bowl1 ,the wooden modelling tools1 ,the oval tools of sheet steel1 ,the sharp-pointed steel tool1 ,a bunch of raffia4 ,this charming bowl for a growing plant or cut flowers may either be used as a centrepiece on a table1 or suspended by a heavy raffia braid in the recess of a window or on the porch4 ,the dull gray-green mat-glaze with which it is finished harmonises delightfully with the colours of growing things4 ,it is formed in a bowl-shaped plaster mould in the same way as the rose-bowl described in ,chapter ,,vii4 and the bowl for a lamp in ,chapter ,,vi41 but the bottom is made unusually thick 7three-quarters of an inch7 to allow for cutting away1 as the form is as nearly a hemisphere as possible1 only flattened slightly at the bottom4 ,when the bowl has been built up to within an inch1 perhaps1 of the top of the mould1 if it is not a deep one1 make the next coil free from the sides of the mould--almost vertical1 in fact4 ,the coil that succeeds it slopes in ever so slightly4 ,this will make the shape deep enough4 ,it is now necessary to let the bowl harden enough so that it can easily be slipped out of the mould4 ,the hollows between the coils1 after they have been wet with slip1 are filled in with clay of the consistency of the bowl4 ,the bowl is again set away to harden1 and then smoothed and finished1 as described in previous chapters1 aiming to trim it as nearly as possible to the form of a half-sphere4 ,after the edge has been cut as nearly true as possible by eye1 it is made absolutely even by the process described in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb ,three handles are cut from a flat piece of clay about three inches wide by sixteen long and half an inch thick1 in the shape shown in ,fig4 #eb1 and attached as follows3 ,the circumference of the top of the bowl is divided into thirds and marked with a tool or pencil4 ,it is then an easy matter to place the handles so that the centre of each shall be just above one of the marks on the top edge4 ,at the points where the handles are to be attached1 the top of the bowl is criss-crossed with the pointed steel tool and wet with slip4 ,the handles are then placed in position1 and their edges worked closely against the top and sides of the bowl with the flat of the nail4 ,they should be curved in a little to follow the lines of the bowl 7see ,plate74 ,after the inside has been glazed with the glossy mixture mentioned in ,chapter ,v41 a mat-glaze of gray green will complete the bowl4 ,the three raffia ropes by which the bowl is suspended are made as follows3 ,thirty strands of natural-coloured raffia are doubled around one of the handles1 and the ends are braided in a three-stranded plait for twelve inches1 where they are tied4 ,two other braids are made on the other handles in the same way1 and when they are twelve inches long the strands from all three braids are united in a thick loop4 ,indian ,pottery ,,chapter ,,xi ,,indian ,,pottery ,in no other country can primitive pottery be so conveniently studied as in ours4 ,within our borders1 he who digs may read the history of clay-working from the earliest days4 ,those who are denied this study at first hand will find in museums plenty of material--quaint bowls and jars1 some of them smoke-stained and cracked1 but all wonderfully well preserved when one thinks of their age4 ,from the rudest pots1 made by inferior tribes1 we can trace the progress of the craft gradually advancing until1 in the pottery found in or near ,mexico1 we see what may be considered the masterpieces of ,american ceramic art4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the pottery of the ,pueblo tribes ranks first1 and1 close to that1 the charming wares of the ,mississippi ,valley and ,gulf ,coast4 ,there are many tribes which are still practising the craft1 some following the old methods1 while others1 influenced by the white man1 are making ware of little interest to the student of primitive pottery4 ,the ,indians of the ,pueblo country are using almost the same processes as those of ancient days4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed ,the pottery of different sections of the country varies in material1 form1 colour1 and decoration4 ,that the ware of a certain tribe was crude and imperfect does not necessarily indicate that the people who made it were inferior in culture1 but that the natural conditions were not favourable to pottery-making4 ,a tribe living near clay-beds would as naturally make good pottery as one around whose homes materials for basket-making grew in abundance would excel in that craft4 ,perhaps1 on the whole1 the pottery of the ,south is more advanced than that of the ,northern tribes1 probably because of the difference in climate4 ,while the people of the ,north were wandering hunters for the most part1 those of the ,south were more prosperous and stay-at-home1 and would be likely to have more wants than the ,northern tribes1 with leisure to gratify them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg ,as to the uses to which the ,indians put their pottery2 most of the pieces show with simple straightforwardness what purposes they served4 ,in only a few cases is there any doubt--notably some spool-shaped articles of clay1 found in the ,ohio ,valley4 ,at first1 pottery was chiefly used for the storing1 cooking1 and carrying of water and food2 taking the place1 in some degree1 of vessels of wicker1 horn1 and stone4 ,this has always remained its most important function4 ,earthen vessels were employed in religious and other ceremonies1 and earthen tools were often made1 while there are1 besides the myriads of pipes1 a host of small clay vessels and figures which were evidently toys or used in games 7,see ,figs4 #ec and #ed74 ,it is interesting to note the difference between our cooking-pots and those of this primitive people4 ,theirs have almost invariably a round or cone-shaped base 7,see ,fig4 #ee71 which ,prof4 ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes explains was natural1 as1 among barbarous nations1 hard1 level floors were the exception1 while those of sand and soft earth were the rule4 ,under those conditions1 the rounded base would be much the best4 ,in putting the pot over the fire1 the fuel or other supports kept it in position4 ,often cooking-vessels were made with short1 strong handles 7,see ,fig4 #ef7 or a flaring rim1 so that they could be conveniently swung over the fire with vines or cords4 ,in certain parts of the country where the ,indians made salt by evaporating the water from saline springs1 large vat-shaped vessels of clay are found which were evidently moulded for the purpose4 ,they are peculiar because of their size and the great thickness of the walls1 while almost invariably they have1 on the outer surface1 markings which seem to have been impressed with a woven fabric4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh ,other ,indians made maple sugar1 using earthen vessels to collect and boil the sap4 ,numbers of the early writers tell of the use of clay vessels for drums1 and earthen whistles and rattles are common to-day 7see ,figs4 #eg and #eh74 ,a curious-shaped implement1 somewhat like a toadstool1 was evidently a modelling tool--to support the walls of a partially stiffened piece of pottery from within1 while the outer surface was finished with other tools4 ,in the lower ,mississippi ,valley clays were employed in plastering the walls of cave dwellings1 as well as for the floors4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei ,as burial urns1 pottery bowls and vases were often made use of4 ,not so often1 however1 for holding the ashes of the dead as for the skull and other bones1 which were crowded into a single jar1 or bowl1 such as was common in the household4 ,this was covered with a smaller vessel 7see ,fig4 #ei74 ,sometimes several of these bowls surrounded and covered the bones4 ,occasionally1 an earthen casket seems to have been made especially for the purpose4 ,there have been found1 beside these burial vessels in the ,indian graves1 smaller receptacles for food1 and even rude toys4 ,the latter were usually animal forms--figurines1 images of fish1 turtles1 and birds4 ,it is surmised that these were offerings made with the expectation of their being of service to the dead in a future life4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj ,unlike the ,egyptians1 the ,indians made little use of clay in moulding beads and other personal ornaments4 ,they evidently did not find it gay enough in colour1 not knowing the secret of the brilliant enamels with which the early ,egyptian potters coated their clays4 ,pipes1 while they were often made of stone and other substances1 were in some parts of the country moulded from clay1 and ranged in form from a simple tube to curious and grotesque shapes4 ,those made by the ,iroquois were particularly elaborate--a head of an animal or bird formed the bowl1 or a snake coiled about it 7see ,fig4 #fj74 ,one would have thought that1 in making their clay pots1 which were primarily planned to serve useful purposes1 and were1 moreover1 somewhat perishable1 no attention would have been given to decoration2 yet this is far from being the case4 ,bowls1 cups1 and cauldrons1 water-jars and bottles 7see ,figs4 #fa and #fb7 were often elaborately incised with beautiful and intricate designs4 ,the forms1 too1 were simple and good4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,pottery ,the black pitcher on the right is of ,santa ,clara ware4 ,beside it is a water-cooler or tenaja made by a ,zui4 ,the clay used at first was such as could be found almost anywhere near the surface1 and consequently was full of impurities4 ,later1 however1 clean clays were much sought after1 and no pains were spared to grind and work them into good condition4 ,this was done with the feet or hands1 or both4 ,as the craft advanced1 potters began to temper their clay with other ingredients1 according to the use to which the vessel was to be put4 ,for instance1 the clay for toys and the smaller vessels needed no tempering4 ,pipes were made of such clay1 or of one tempered with a finely ground substance1 while cooking-pots and cauldrons1 which were subjected to constant heat1 were made of clay containing a large amount of coarser tempering ingredients4 ,some of the tempering agents were rock1 sand1 pulverised shell1 bits of baked pottery1 cinders1 ashes of bark1 and even raw vegetal materials4 ,the heat at which the pieces were fired was rarely strong enough to change any of the mineral substances in the clay4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb ,in shaping the pieces1 the fingers did the work unaided1 except where a basket or gourd was used as a mould1 or where such simple tools as could be fashioned of clay1 stone1 or shell were employed4 ,a piece of a gourd was sometimes held against the inner wall to support it while the outer surface was being scraped and smoothed with these rude tools4 ,the bottom of the piece was formed either from a small lump of clay patted and moulded into proper shape by the fingers1 or with the end of a clay strip which was coiled around on itself4 ,in whichever way the bottom was begun1 the walls were made of coils of clay4 ,the ancient ,cliff ,dwellers1 or ,pueblos1 used this method very skilfully4 ,their strips of clay were cut and coiled with great exactness1 and the edges overlapping on the outside made spiral markings4 ,there are no evidences of anything like the potter's wheel1 the nearest approach being the basket-mould1 which was probably turned with one hand as the coil of clay was applied with the other4 ,the markings of cords and weaving which are often seen on the outer surfaces of ,indian pots and vases were probably made by pliable fabrics1 which were used to support the piece as it was formed4 ,woven textures were also wrapped over the hand1 or a tool1 to impress the wet clay1 and cords wound about paddles or other tools made similar impressions4 ,in some cases1 the outer surface was rubbed smooth with the fingers and thumb1 or with a stone2 in others1 the coil structure is plainly seen4 ,after the body of the piece was finished1 the rim was perfected1 and the handles1 legs1 or other parts in relief were applied4 ,these were made separately1 and were attached by pressure and rubbing4 ,in decoration1 the potters of each tribe had different ideas1 as well as tools and devices for working them out4 ,the fingers and nails were used to produce certain effects1 and tools of various kinds were made for special purposes--pointed ones for incising1 gouge-like tools to scrape away the clay1 and all kinds of stamps for impressed designs4 ,some of the stamps were in paddle form 7such as we use for making butter-balls71 others were thin disks with indented edges1 which were rolled over the soft clay surface4 ,incised designs were perhaps the most usual1 though colour was often employed in decorating the ware4 ,especially was this the case in the ,pueblo country and in ,arkansas4 ,the colours were white1 brown1 red1 and black1 and they were mostly powdered clay1 sometimes mixed with ochres4 ,the surface of the piece first received a wash of fine paste1 and afterward the colours1 ground fine and mixed with water1 were applied with the finger or a piece of reed-grass4 ,the designs were generally made by the women4 ,circles and curved designs were most used1 probably because they could be made with such freedom1 in contrast to the slow and painstaking process of weaving right-angled designs into baskets4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc ,the pottery was dried in the shade1 in the sun1 or before the fire1 and afterward baked more or less thoroughly4 ,some tribes--the ,catawbas1 for example--simply baked their ware before the fire1 while others covered the pieces with burning bark or other fuel1 surrounding them evenly with it inside and out4 ,the pieces were protected from contact with each other by broken pieces of pottery4 ,they were carefully kept from draughts during the firing and the first part of the cooling1 for fear of cracking4 ,among the ,cherokees1 a glossy black was given to the inner surface of the pottery by what was known as smother-firing4 ,when the process of baking1 just described1 was completed1 the vessel was turned bottom up1 over a small hole in the ground1 which had been filled with burning corncobs4 ,from time to time the fuel was renewed until in half an hour the inside of the piece had become glistening black4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd ,it is to be regretted that1 among the ,indians1 this art1 like that of basketry1 is passing4 ,the coming of civilisation has brought iron and tin cooking-vessels and ordinary tableware to take the place of the bowls1 platters1 and cups1 the jars and bottles of clay1 so full of individual charm4 ,not only to the collector and the student of ethnology is ,indian pottery of value2 the potter of to-day finds much that is helpful and suggestive in primitive processes1 as well as in the forms and decoration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe ,a study of the range of shapes and designs in ,indian pottery is a revelation to many who have thought of the ,indian as an ignorant savage4 ,aside from its beauty and decorative value1 the uses to which ,indian pottery can be put in our homes are many4 ,the great bowl shown in the plate suggests one delightful way of utilising this ware4 ,foliage plants of any size1 from a tiny cactus1 which seems to find a bowl with a rounded base the most comfortable of abiding places1 to a great spreading fern1 harmonise with the ,indian colours4 ,so will flowering plants1 except those which have red1 pink1 or purple blossoms2 and what a relief these plant-bowls are to the eye after some of the jardinires one sees6 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,pottery ,on the right is a piece of pottery in terra-cotta and black1 made by a ,pima ,indian4 ,beside it is a dish with a handle1 moulded by a ,zia ,indian of ,new ,mexico4 ,the bowl is also of ,zia ware4 ,on the left is a water-jug such as the ,maricopa ,indians make4 ,large bowls are useful1 too1 for holding fruit on the porch of a country house1 while smaller ones serve as nut-bowls4 ,low plaque-shaped pieces make excellent card-trays1 and the small bowls hold matches4 ,there are curious little pieces in the form of shoes made by the ,indians of ,new ,mexico4 ,these also are useful for matches or cigar ashes 7see ,fig4 #fc74 ,last and least1 though only in size1 is the toy pottery--money-banks in the form of well-fed pigs1 whistles1 and toy dishes1 cups1 jugs1 and plates--bewitching alike to little girls and big4 ,a few of them are shown in ,figs4 #fd and #fe4 ,they are ,indian red and creamy yellow in colour1 with designs of black1 and rarely are two of them alike4 ,fashions change in pottery as well as in other things1 and freakish forms which please us to-day may be ridiculed to-morrow2 but primitive wares have an enduring value4 ,pieces that were moulded for service1 by potters whose love for nature and its beauties must needs express itself even on the decoration of a cooking-pot1 will last long after the ware that is made only for money has gone back to the ground from whence it came4 ,modern ,american ,pottery ,,chapter ,,xii ,,modern ,,american ,,pottery ,one of the most encouraging signs of the advance in taste among ,american people is to be found in their appreciation of the pottery which is now being made in this country4 ,time was when majolica jardinires and ,austrian china1 with their high colours and glassy glazes1 were things to be desired4 ,happily1 they are going the way of plush-covered 8suites0 of furniture and crazy-quilts4 ,much of the simplicity of method and design in ,american pottery comes from the study of primitive processes1 shapes1 and decorations4 ,indian ware1 though of less value than some others to the student of ceramics1 on account of its softness of body and unglazed surface1 is nevertheless full of artistic feeling and suggestion to makers of pottery4 ,there are many evidences also of ,french and ,japanese influence4 ,in various parts of the country1 true art pottery is being made--each ware with its own individuality and more or less characteristic of the section of the country from whence it comes4 ,as yet but little tableware has been attempted at these potteries--the ,dedham being almost the only one where it is made4 ,modern pottery is either moulded by hand1 thrown on the potter's wheel1 or cast in moulds4 ,after it has been formed1 it is generally decorated1 either by the artist-potter himself or by some young man or woman who has learned design as applied to pottery4 ,the decoration is either painted with colours which have been mixed with clays1 like some of the ,rookwood ware1 or incised1 modelled in relief1 or built up1 as the ,volkmar pottery4 ,after it is quite dry1 the pot is fired in the great kiln1 this time without glazing1 or in the biscuit4 ,it is then glazed1 and fired for the second time4 ,the philosophical potter--and every potter needs philosophy--will not despair if1 in the second firing1 the piece is not satisfactory4 ,he glazes it again1 with every care1 in time for the next firing1 and is often rewarded by having this ugly duckling of one kiln turn out the swan of the next4 ,among the pioneers of art pottery in this country was ,mrs4 ,maria ,longworth ,storer1 a ,cincinnati woman1 who in #ahhj opened a pottery called by the name of her father's place1 ,rookwood4 ,mrs4 ,storer had1 in addition to an artistic temperament1 the patience and determination1 as well as the financial resources1 necessary to such an undertaking4 ,the first kiln of the new pottery was drawn on ,thanksgiving ,day4 ,by #ahhi1 the pottery had become self-supporting4 ,rookwood has always been a distinctively ,american pottery4 ,from the first1 native clays were used1 and their possibilities were discovered with the firing of each new kiln4 ,clays that fire at a comparatively low heat were used at first1 and this necessitated employing the soft glazes4 ,later1 the yellow1 or ,rockingham1 ware formed the body of the pieces1 and now a creamy-white body is used1 which produces a strong and beautiful pottery4 ,this is finished with a mat-glaze4 ,at first1 the tint of the native clay inclined the colour scheme to warm browns1 yellows1 and reds4 ,this ware was decorated with flower or figure designs under a brilliant glaze4 ,it is known as ,standard ,rookwood4 ,the ,tiger ,eye and ,goldstone are other wares with glaze effects not unlike the ,standard ,rookwood4 ,both of these have dark grounds with an occasional luminous gleam of gold--one of the interesting accidents of the kiln4 ,other varieties of ,rookwood1 in the order of their development1 were ,sea ,green1 in which an opalescent green effect is sometimes relieved with a touch of yellow or red1 and ,iris1 which has the creamy-white body already referred to4 ,this enables the potter to produce gray tones in his glazes4 ,in ,rookwood1 which is coated with the flowing glaze1 there is a quality not unlike some of the old ,chinese wares4 ,it has a richness of texture luminous and beautiful4 ,the decorations are painted in relief1 so simply that the glaze flows charmingly over them4 ,there is also a variety of the ,rookwood pottery with a mat-glaze4 ,in this1 the process is entirely different from that used in making the other kinds of ,rookwood4 ,the glaze is of the greatest importance1 the forms are simple1 sometimes almost rugged1 and the decorations are subordinate4 ,there are even pieces entirely undecorated1 which depend upon their beauty of colour and texture alone4 ,decorations adapted from ,indian designs are often modelled in relief or incised4 ,occasionally1 metals are applied4 ,mantels1 wall-panels1 drinking-fountains1 and architectural reliefs are also made of the ,rookwood faience4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff ,many are the potters' marks that have been used at ,rookwood4 ,before #ahhf there were eight in all4 ,at that time1 the mark shown in ,fig4 #ff was adopted4 ,this was used1 with the addition of a flame mark for every succeeding year1 until #aijj1 when the mark was like ,fig4 #fg4 ,since that date1 a ,roman numeral has been added below the mark1 according to the year the piece was made4 ,for example1 the pieces of the present year have the ,roman number ,,iv4 below the mark used in #aijj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg ,a comparatively near neighbour of ,rookwood is the ,gates pottery1 near ,chicago1 where ,teco ware is made4 ,the potter's love for his work1 and the potter's zeal to produce something more perfect and beautiful than he had ever done before1 led ,william ,d4 ,gates1 who had long made terra cotta for architectural purposes1 to experiment with clays and glazes until finally ,teco ware was evolved4 ,it is a hard1 durable pottery built on simple lines4 ,western artists and architects of note have contributed designs and forms for this ware1 and1 for the most part1 the pieces are beautiful and restful to the eye4 ,the few incised or moulded decorations are not made prominent1 but are suggested rather than sharply defined4 ,over all is a mat-glaze of soft1 wax-like texture in green--the green that makes one think of weathered bronze4 ,set in a picturesque valley1 surrounded by flowers1 and near a little lake1 the ,gates potteries are so situated as to inspire the artist potters who mould the forms and decorate the ware4 ,it has been the aim of the makers of ,teco pottery to produce a ware that shall be satisfying and beautiful1 and yet of comparatively slight cost4 ,illustration3 ,,teco ,,ware ,it is a far journey from these potteries to the three ,new ,england cities where are the ,grueby1 ,dedham1 and ,merrimac potteries4 ,grueby ware1 which was first made in ,boston in #ahih1 is remarkable for the glaze1 which was discovered by ,mr4 ,william ,h4 ,grueby4 ,although1 for many years1 dull-finished pottery has been produced by sand-blasting ware with a glossy finish1 or by taking a piece of glazed pottery and treating it with acid1 to make it dull1 the ,grueby potteries were the first in the history of ceramics to make a dull-finished pottery in their kilns4 ,the surface thus obtained has a deep1 velvety look1 unlike any other finish made--such as that which was possessed by old ,corean pottery4 ,the ware was first exhibited in ,paris1 in #aijj1 where it made quite a sensation1 and the ,french ,government awarded the ,grueby ,potteries a gold medal for enamels and glazes1 as well as a silver medal for design1 and gave ,mr4 ,grueby personally a gold medal for the work he had accomplished in dull-finished enamels4 ,the forms are simple and good1 and the decorations1 which are incised or modelled in relief1 are planned so that the glaze shall flow well over them4 ,common plant forms1 such as the mullein leaf1 blades of grass1 plantain1 and the enfolding leaves of the lily1 are the motives for these designs4 ,there is a delicacy--one might almost say a reserve--in their treatment that is rare and very interesting4 ,the pottery is hard1 and the glaze such as is applicable to a ware which fires at a great heat4 ,the colours of ,grueby pottery are beautiful and rich1 ranging from an old ivory tint to golden yellows1 russet browns1 and velvety blues and a variety of green shades4 ,the texture of the glaze is soft1 like the bloom of a melon1 and it has an unusual network of markings4 ,no moulds are used in making this pottery2 it is all thrown on the wheel1 and1 as in the old wares1 no two pieces are exactly alike4 ,besides its beauty and artistic value1 the fact that the ,grueby pottery is made in forms that are useful makes it doubly desirable4 ,among lamp-jars1 particularly1 there is the greatest variety4 ,these are made both for oil and electricity4 ,in the ,grueby-,tiffany lamp1 two charming products of applied arts are combined--the jar being ,grueby ware1 and the leaded or blown-glass shade of ,tiffany design and workmanship4 ,the ,dedham pottery is remarkable for many reasons1 chief among them being the fact that it is1 as already stated1 almost the only place in this country where art tableware is made4 ,some of this ware1 which is popularly known as the ,bunny china1 has lifelike little rabbits on the border1 other pieces have designs of ducks1 and others still have borders of fruit4 ,the wonderful ,oriental glazes that are used on pieces of ,dedham ware were re-discovered by ,mr4 ,hugh ,c4 ,robertson4 ,the best-known glaze of this pottery1 however1 is the gray crackle-ware with designs of blue4 ,at the ,merrimac pottery1 in ,newburyport1 an excellent ware is made4 ,a few of the pieces are moulded1 but the majority are thrown on the potter's wheel4 ,little decoration is used1 the charm of the ware being its form and colour4 ,among the most remarkable of the artist potters of this country is ,mr4 ,charles ,volkmar1 of the ,volkmar ,kilns1 in ,metuchen1 ,new ,jersey4 ,an artist to his finger-tips1 he has a potter's thumb which is the envy of all those who were less evidently born to the craft4 ,mr4 ,volkmar studied not only art1 but his craft as well1 in ,paris1 wearing the blouse of a workman in the potteries1 where he learned so admirably how to work in clay that there are few in this country who approach him4 ,the ware made by ,mr4 ,volkmar and his son1 ,mr4 ,leon ,volkmar1 is remarkable for the simple beauty of its forms and for the quality of its glazes4 ,the body of the ware is pale yellow1 and it is exceedingly hard and durable4 ,years ago1 ,mr4 ,volkmar made a fine blue-and-white ware1 which was decorated with historical scenes4 ,his pieces now are for the most part finished with a mat-glaze1 although some have a glossy transparent surface4 ,all are beautiful in colour4 ,here is where the artist shows preeminently4 ,the deep1 rich texture of the mat-glaze softens1 but does not hide1 the simple incised or built-up designs4 ,the pierced designs of ,volkmar pottery are decorative and strong4 ,this ware is as practical to use as it is charming to look at4 ,the flower-jars are in tones that harmonise delightfully with the blossoms that fill them1 and the jugs have flowing and graceful lines1 and yet are substantial and of generous proportions4 ,the plate shows a few pieces of this ware4 ,the piece on the left is a pale yellowish-brown1 with a glossy finish2 this is suitable for a lamp-bowl or for flowers4 ,beside it is a sturdy little mug1 with a deep green mat-glaze4 ,the next jar is finished with a dull blue transparent glaze1 and the taller vase-shaped piece on the right has a mat-glaze of pale gray-green4 ,not far from the ,volkmar ,kilns1 at ,woodbridge1 ,new ,jersey1 is the ,poillon pottery1 where garden ware is made4 ,great tree- and plant-tubs1 sun-dial stands1 well-curbs1 and window-ledge boxes are a few of the things that come from this pottery4 ,the forms of these pieces are substantial and good4 ,some excellent indoor pottery is also moulded--candlesticks1 toilet sets1 jugs1 and flower-bowls--a host of useful and attractive shapes1 coated with a flowing glaze4 ,the ware is finished in a variety of colours1 yellow being one of the most successful4 ,the ,poillon potteries have designed special earthenware for country clubs--lamps1 toilet sets1 ashtrays1 match-bowls2 all uniform in colour and design1 and each specially adapted in form to the use for which it is intended4 ,illustration3 ,,some ,,pieces ,,of ,,volkmar ,,pottery ,the work of the ,brush ,guild of ,new ,york is more like ,indian pottery than any other of the ,american wares4 ,the pieces all have a hand-moulded look1 and the few designs are quite primitive in their simplicity4 ,the glossy-black finish suggests ,indian smother-firing4 ,it is not unlike the black pottery which the ,santa ,clara ,indians make1 and the great generous pieces are also suggestive of this ware4 ,unlike any ,indian pottery1 however1 the bowls and jars of the ,brush ,guild will hold water perfectly4 ,from the far ,south comes an exceedingly interesting ware3 this is the ,newcomb pottery1 made by the students of ,newcomb ,college1 ,new ,orleans4 ,it may be seen at exhibitions of arts and crafts guilds here in the ,north4 ,the ware originated in the art department of ,newcomb ,college4 ,here1 for years1 teachers of drawing and painting had been educated1 but it began to be manifest that1 with the lack of other fields for art workers1 this department could not be widely useful4 ,the establishment of a pottery was the practical solution of this difficulty4 ,many young women have found1 in the making of this pottery1 an artistic vocation from which they reap profit and reputation4 ,the aim of the originators from the first has been to make a ware that would be individual--one that should have a charm all its own4 ,this has been accomplished by taking as motives for the designs the unusual and beautiful ,southern flowers1 plants1 and trees1 as well as the animal life of that part of the country4 ,a charming pitcher has a design of snow-drops1 painted in cream-white slip on a yellow-gray background4 ,another piece has a decoration of fishes1 and on still another1 a high1 slender flower-jar1 stalks of the sugar-cane form the design4 ,the methods of decoration are incising1 painting1 and modelling1 used together or singly1 according to the requirements of the design4 ,great freedom is allowed in the choice of colour as well as in the decoration1 each worker feeling the responsibility attached to a signed piece of pottery4 ,some of the ware is undecorated save for the unexpected touches of the kiln1 which give charming and unusual effects4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,piece ,,of ,,newcomb ,,pottery ,the mark shown in ,fig4 #fh distinguishes the ,newcomb pottery1 and only those pieces receive it which are approved by the art department4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh ,individual work of merit is being produced every year in this country1 and it will not be long before the solitary potter of to-day1 moulding his pieces and testing his glazes in some little workshop1 like a brown chrysalis1 will perfect his ware2 so that the tiny workshop will expand into a great building1 and another beautiful ware will be added to modern ,american pottery4