,,how ,,to ,,speak ,,and ,,write ,,correctly ,by ,,joseph ,,devlin1 ,m4,a4 ,edited by ,,theodore ,,waters ,,the ,,christian ,,herald ,,bible ,,house ,,new ,,york ,copyright1 #aiaj1 by ,,the ,,christian ,,herald ,,new ,,york ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,requirements ,,of ,,speech ,vocabulary4 ,parts of speech4 ,requisites4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,essentials ,,of ,,english ,,grammar ,divisions of grammar4 ,definitions4 ,etymology4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,sentence ,different kinds4 ,arrangement of words4 ,paragraph4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,figurative ,,language ,figures of speech4 ,definitions and examples4 ,use of figures4 ,,chapter ,v ,,punctuation ,principal points4 ,illustrations4 ,capital letters4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,letter ,,writing ,principles of letter writing4 ,forms4 ,notes4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,errors ,mistakes4 ,slips of authors4 ,examples and corrections4 ,errors of redundancy4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,pitfalls ,,to ,,avoid ,common stumbling blocks4 ,peculiar constructions4 ,misused forms4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,style ,diction4 ,purity4 ,propriety4 ,precision4 ,,chapter ,x ,,suggestions ,how to write4 ,what to write4 ,correct speaking and speakers4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,slang ,origin4 ,american slang4 ,foreign slang4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,writing ,,for ,,newspapers ,qualification4 ,appropriate subjects4 ,directions4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,choice ,,of ,,words ,small words4 ,their importance4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon element4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,english ,,language ,beginning4 ,different ,sources4 ,the present4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,masters ,,and ,,masterpieces ,,of ,,literature ,great authors4 ,classification4 ,the world's best books4 ,,introduction ,in the preparation of this little work the writer has kept one end in view1 viz43 ,to make it serviceable for those for whom it is intended1 that is1 for those who have neither the time nor the opportunity1 the learning nor the inclination1 to peruse elaborate and abstruse treatises on ,rhetoric1 ,grammar1 and ,composition4 ,to them such works are as gold enclosed in chests of steel and locked beyond power of opening4 ,this book has no pretension about it whatever1--it is neither a ,manual of ,rhetoric1 expatiating on the dogmas of style1 nor a ,grammar full of arbitrary rules and exceptions4 ,it is merely an effort to help ordinary1 everyday people to express themselves in ordinary1 everyday language1 in a proper manner4 ,some broad rules are laid down1 the observance of which will enable the reader to keep within the pale of propriety in oral and written language4 ,many idiomatic words and expressions1 peculiar to the language1 have been given1 besides which a number of the common mistakes and pitfalls have been placed before the reader so that he may know and avoid them4 ,the writer has to acknowledge his indebtedness to no one in particular1 but to all in general who have ever written on the subject4 ,the little book goes forth--a finger-post on the road of language pointing in the right direction4 ,it is hoped that they who go according to its index will arrive at the goal of correct speaking and writing4 ,,chapter ,i ,,requirements ,,of ,,speech ,vocabulary--,parts of ,speech--,requisites ,it is very easy to learn how to speak and write correctly1 as for all purposes of ordinary conversation and communication1 only about #b1jjj different words are required4 ,the mastery of just twenty hundred words1 the knowing where to place them1 will make us not masters of the ,english language1 but masters of correct speaking and writing4 ,small number1 you will say1 compared with what is in the dictionary6 ,but nobody ever uses all the words in the dictionary or could use them did he live to be the age of ,methuselah1 and there is no necessity for using them4 ,there are upwards of #bjj1jjj words in the recent editions of the large dictionaries1 but the one-hundredth part of this number will suffice for all your wants4 ,of course you may think not1 and you may not be content to call things by their common names2 you may be ambitious to show superiority over others and display your learning or1 rather1 your pedantry and lack of learning4 ,for instance1 you may not want to call a spade a spade4 ,you may prefer to call it a spatulous device for abrading the surface of the soil4 ,better1 however1 to stick to the old familiar1 simple name that your grandfather called it4 ,it has stood the test of time1 and old friends are always good friends4 ,to use a big word or a foreign word when a small one and a familiar one will answer the same purpose1 is a sign of ignorance4 ,great scholars and writers and polite speakers use simple words4 ,to go back to the number necessary for all purposes of conversation correspondence and writing1 #b1jjj1 we find that a great many people who pass in society as being polished1 refined and educated use less1 for they know less4 ,the greatest scholar alive hasn't more than four thousand different words at his command1 and he never has occasion to use half the number4 ,in the works of ,shakespeare1 the most wonderful genius the world has ever known1 there is the enormous number of #ae1jjj different words1 but almost #aj1jjj of them are obsolete or meaningless today4 ,every person of intelligence should be able to use his mother tongue correctly4 ,it only requires a little pains1 a little care1 a little study to enable one to do so1 and the recompense is great4 ,consider the contrast between the well-bred1 polite man who knows how to choose and use his words correctly and the underbred1 vulgar boor1 whose language grates upon the ear and jars the sensitiveness of the finer feelings4 ,the blunders of the latter1 his infringement of all the canons of grammar1 his absurdities and monstrosities of language1 make his very presence a pain1 and one is glad to escape from his company4 ,the proper grammatical formation of the ,english language1 so that one may acquit himself as a correct conversationalist in the best society or be able to write and express his thoughts and ideas upon paper in the right manner1 may be acquired in a few lessons4 ,it is the purpose of this book1 as briefly and concisely as possible1 to direct the reader along a straight course1 pointing out the mistakes he must avoid and giving him such assistance as will enable him to reach the goal of a correct knowledge of the ,english language4 ,it is not a ,grammar in any sense1 but a guide1 a silent signal-post pointing the way in the right direction4 ,,the ,,english ,,language ,,in ,a ,,nutshell ,all the words in the ,english language are divided into nine great classes4 ,these classes are called the ,parts of ,speech4 ,they are ,article1 ,noun1 ,adjective1 ,pronoun1 ,verb1 ,adverb1 ,preposition1 ,conjunction and ,interjection4 ,of these1 the ,noun is the most important1 as all the others are more or less dependent upon it4 ,a ,noun signifies the name of any person1 place or thing1 in fact1 anything of which we can have either thought or idea4 ,there are two kinds of ,nouns1 ,proper and ,common4 ,common ,nouns are names which belong in common to a race or class1 as man1 city4 ,proper ,nouns distinguish individual members of a race or class as ,john1 ,philadelphia4 ,in the former case man is a name which belongs in common to the whole race of mankind1 and city is also a name which is common to all large centres of population1 but ,john signifies a particular individual of the race1 while ,philadelphia denotes a particular one from among the cities of the world4 ,nouns are varied by ,person1 ,number1 ,gender1 and ,case4 ,person is that relation existing between the speaker1 those addressed and the subject under consideration1 whether by discourse or correspondence4 ,the ,persons are ,first1 ,second and ,third and they represent respectively the speaker1 the person addressed and the person or thing mentioned or under consideration4 ,number is the distinction of one from more than one4 ,there are two numbers1 singular and plural2 the singular denotes one1 the plural two or more4 ,the plural is generally formed from the singular by the addition of s or es4 ,gender has the same relation to nouns that sex has to individuals1 but while there are only two sexes1 there are four genders1 viz41 masculine1 feminine1 neuter and common4 ,the masculine gender denotes all those of the male kind1 the feminine gender all those of the female kind1 the neuter gender denotes inanimate things or whatever is without life1 and common gender is applied to animate beings1 the sex of which for the time being is indeterminable1 such as fish1 mouse1 bird1 etc4 ,sometimes things which are without life as we conceive it and which1 properly speaking1 belong to the neuter gender1 are1 by a figure of speech called ,personification1 changed into either the masculine or feminine gender1 as1 for instance1 we say of the sun1 ,he is rising2 of the moon1 ,she is setting4 ,case is the relation one noun bears to another or to a verb or to a preposition4 ,there are three cases1 the ,nominative1 the ,possessive and the ,objective4 ,the nominative is the subject of which we are speaking or the agent which directs the action of the verb2 the possessive case denotes possession1 while the objective indicates the person or thing which is affected by the action of the verb4 ,an ,article is a word placed before a noun to show whether the latter is used in a particular or general sense4 ,there are but two articles1 a or an and the4 ,an ,adjective is a word which qualifies a noun1 that is1 which shows some distinguishing mark or characteristic belonging to the noun4 ,,definitions ,a ,pronoun is a word used for or instead of a noun to keep us from repeating the same noun too often4 ,pronouns1 like nouns1 have case1 number1 gender and person4 ,there are three kinds of pronouns1 personal1 relative and adjective4 ,a verb is a word which signifies action or the doing of something4 ,a verb is inflected by tense and mood and by number and person1 though the latter two belong strictly to the subject of the verb4 ,an adverb is a word which modifies a verb1 an adjective and sometimes another adverb4 ,a preposition serves to connect words and to show the relation between the objects which the words express4 ,a conjunction is a word which joins words1 phrases1 clauses and sentences together4 ,an interjection is a word which expresses surprise or some sudden emotion of the mind4 ,,three ,,essentials ,the three essentials of the ,english language are3 ,purity1 ,perspicuity and ,precision4 ,by ,purity is signified the use of good ,english4 ,it precludes the use of all slang words1 vulgar phrases1 obsolete terms1 foreign idioms1 ambiguous expressions or any ungrammatical language whatsoever4 ,neither does it sanction the use of any newly coined word until such word is adopted by the best writers and speakers4 ,perspicuity demands the clearest expression of thought conveyed in unequivocal language1 so that there may be no misunderstanding whatever of the thought or idea the speaker or writer wishes to convey4 ,all ambiguous words1 words of double meaning and words that might possibly be construed in a sense different from that intended1 are strictly forbidden4 ,perspicuity requires a style at once clear and comprehensive and entirely free from pomp and pedantry and affectation or any straining after effect4 ,precision requires concise and exact expression1 free from redundancy and tautology1 a style terse and clear and simple enough to enable the hearer or reader to comprehend immediately the meaning of the speaker or writer4 ,it forbids1 on the one hand1 all long and involved sentences1 and1 on the other1 those that are too short and abrupt4 ,its object is to strike the golden mean in such a way as to rivet the attention of the hearer or reader on the words uttered or written4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,essentials ,,of ,,english ,,grammar ,divisions of ,grammar--,definitions--,etymology4 ,in order to speak and write the ,english language correctly1 it is imperative that the fundamental principles of the ,grammar be mastered1 for no matter how much we may read of the best authors1 no matter how much we may associate with and imitate the best speakers1 if we do not know the underlying principles of the correct formation of sentences and the relation of words to one another1 we will be to a great extent like the parrot1 that merely repeats what it hears without understanding the import of what is said4 ,of course the parrot1 being a creature without reason1 cannot comprehend2 it can simply repeat what is said to it1 and as it utters phrases and sentences of profanity with as much facility as those of virtue1 so by like analogy1 when we do not understand the grammar of the language1 we may be making egregious blunders while thinking we are speaking with the utmost accuracy4 ,,divisions ,,of ,,grammar ,there are four great divisions of ,grammar1 viz43 ,orthography1 ,etymology1 ,syntax1 and ,prosody4 ,orthography treats of letters and the mode of combining them into words4 ,etymology treats of the various classes of words and the changes they undergo4 ,syntax treats of the connection and arrangement of words in sentences4 ,prosody treats of the manner of speaking and reading and the different kinds of verse4 ,the three first mentioned concern us most4 ,,letters ,a letter is a mark or character used to represent an articulate sound4 ,letters are divided into vowels and consonants4 ,a vowel is a letter which makes a distinct sound by itself4 ,consonants cannot be sounded without the aid of vowels4 ,the vowels are a1 e1 i1 o1 u1 and sometimes w and y when they do not begin a word or syllable4 ,,syllables ,,and ,,words ,a syllable is a distinct sound produced by a single effort of ,transcriber's note3 #a-b words illegible shall1 pig1 dog4 ,in every syllable there must be at least one vowel4 ,a word consists of one syllable or a combination of syllables4 ,many rules are given for the dividing of words into syllables1 but the best is to follow as closely as possible the divisions made by the organs of speech in properly pronouncing them4 ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,speech ,,article ,an ,article is a word placed before a noun to show whether the noun is used in a particular or general sense4 ,there are two articles1 a or an and the4 ,a or an is called the indefinite article because it does not point put any particular person or thing but indicates the noun in its widest sense2 thus1 a man means any man whatsoever of the species or race4 ,the is called the definite article because it points out some particular person or thing2 thus1 the man means some particular individual4 ,,noun ,a noun is the name of any person1 place or thing as ,john1 ,london1 book4 ,nouns are proper and common4 ,proper nouns are names applied to particular persons or places4 ,common nouns are names applied to a whole kind or species4 ,nouns are inflected by number1 gender and case4 ,number is that inflection of the noun by which we indicate whether it represents one or more than one4 ,gender is that inflection by which we signify whether the noun is the name of a male1 a female1 of an inanimate object or something which has no distinction of sex4 ,case is that inflection of the noun which denotes the state of the person1 place or thing represented1 as the subject of an affirmation or question1 the owner or possessor of something mentioned1 or the object of an action or of a relation4 ,thus in the example1 ,john tore the leaves of ,sarah's book1 the distinction between book which represents only one object and leaves which represent two or more objects of the same kind is called ,number2 the distinction of sex between ,john1 a male1 and ,sarah1 a female1 and book and leaves1 things which are inanimate and neither male nor female1 is called ,gender2 and the distinction of state between ,john1 the person who tore the book1 and the subject of the affirmation1 ,mary1 the owner of the book1 leaves the objects torn1 and book the object related to leaves1 as the whole of which they were a part1 is called ,case4 ,,adjective ,an adjective is a word which qualifies a noun1 that is1 shows or points out some distinguishing mark or feature of the noun2 as1 ,a black dog4 ,adjectives have three forms called degrees of comparison1 the positive1 the comparative and the superlative4 ,the positive is the simple form of the adjective without expressing increase or diminution of the original quality3 nice4 ,the comparative is that form of the adjective which expresses increase or diminution of the quality3 nicer4 ,the superlative is that form which expresses the greatest increase or diminution of the quality3 nicest4 or ,an adjective is in the positive form when it does not express comparison2 as1 ,a rich man4 ,an adjective is in the comparative form when it expresses comparison between two or between one and a number taken collectively1 as1 ,john is richer than ,james2 he is richer than all the men in ,boston4 ,an adjective is in the superlative form when it expresses a comparison between one and a number of individuals taken separately2 as1 ,john is the richest man in ,boston4 ,adjectives expressive of properties or circumstances which cannot be increased have only the positive form2 as1 ,a circular road2 the chief end2 an extreme measure4 ,adjectives are compared in two ways1 either by adding er to the positive to form the comparative and est to the positive to form the superlative1 or by prefixing more to the positive for the comparative and most to the positive for the superlative2 as1 handsome1 handsomer1 handsomest or handsome1 more handsome1 most handsome4 ,adjectives of two or more syllables are generally compared by prefixing more and most4 ,many adjectives are irregular in comparison2 as1 ,bad1 worse1 worst2 ,good1 better1 best4 ,,pronoun ,a pronoun is a word used in place of a noun2 as1 ,john gave his pen to ,james and he lent it to ,jane to write her copy with it4 ,without the pronouns we would have to write this sentence1--,john gave ,john's pen to ,james and ,james lent the pen to ,jane to write ,jane's copy with the pen4 ,there are three kinds of pronouns--,personal1 ,relative and ,adjective ,pronouns4 ,personal ,pronouns are so called because they are used instead of the names of persons1 places and things4 ,the ,personal ,pronouns are ,i1 ,thou1 ,he1 ,she1 and ,it1 with their plurals1 ,we1 ,ye or ,you and ,they4 ,i is the pronoun of the first person because it represents the person speaking4 ,thou is the pronoun of the second person because it represents the person spoken to4 ,he1 ,she1 ,it are the pronouns of the third person because they represent the persons or things of whom we are speaking4 ,like nouns1 the ,personal ,pronouns have number1 gender and case4 ,the gender of the first and second person is obvious1 as they represent the person or persons speaking and those who are addressed4 ,the personal pronouns are thus declined3 ,first ,person4 ,m4 or ,f4 ,sing4 ,plural4 ,n4 ,i ,we ,p4 ,mine ,ours ,o4 ,me ,us ,second ,person4 ,m4 or ,f4 ,sing4 ,plural4 ,n4 ,thou ,you ,p4 ,thine ,yours ,o4 ,thee ,you ,third ,person4 ,m4 ,sing4 ,plural4 ,n4 ,he ,they ,p4 ,his ,theirs ,o4 ,him ,them ,third ,person4 ,f4 ,sing4 ,plural4 ,n4 ,she ,they ,p4 ,hers ,theirs ,o4 ,her ,them ,third ,person4 ,neuter4 ,sing4 ,plural4 ,n4 ,it ,they ,p4 ,its ,theirs ,o4 ,it ,them ,n4 ,b4--,in colloquial language and ordinary writing ,thou1 ,thine and ,thee are seldom used1 except by the ,society of ,friends4 ,the ,plural form ,you is used for both the nominative and objective singular in the second person and ,yours is generally used in the possessive in place of ,thine4 ,the ,relative ,pronouns are so called because they relate to some word or phrase going before2 as1 ,the boy who told the truth2 ,he has done well1 which gives me great pleasure4 ,here who and which are not only used in place of other words1 but who refers immediately to boy1 and which to the circumstance of his having done well4 ,the word or clause to which a relative pronoun refers is called the ,antecedent4 ,the ,relative ,pronouns are who1 which1 that and what4 ,who is applied to persons only2 as1 ,the man who was here4 ,which is applied to the lower animals and things without life2 as1 ,the horse which ,i sold4 ,the hat which ,i bought4 ,that is applied to both persons and things2 as1 ,the friend that helps4 ,the bird that sings4 ,the knife that cuts4 ,what is a compound relative1 including both the antecedent and the relative and is equivalent to that which2 as1 ,i did what he desired1 i4 e4 ,i did that which he desired4 ,relative pronouns have the singular and plural alike4 ,who is either masculine or feminine2 which and that are masculine1 feminine or neuter2 what as a relative pronoun is always neuter4 ,that and what are not inflected4 ,who and which are thus declined3 ,sing4 and ,plural ,sing4 and ,plural ,n4 ,who ,n4 ,which ,p4 ,whose ,p4 ,whose ,o4 ,whom ,o4 ,which ,who1 which and what when used to ask questions are called ,interrogative ,pronouns4 ,adjective ,pronouns partake of the nature of adjectives and pronouns and are subdivided as follows3 ,demonstrative ,adjective ,pronouns which directly point out the person or object4 ,they are this1 that with their plurals these1 those1 and yon1 same and selfsame4 ,distributive ,adjective ,pronouns used distributively4 ,they are each1 every1 either1 neither4 ,indefinite ,adjective ,pronouns used more or less indefinitely4 ,they are any1 all1 few1 some1 several1 one1 other1 another1 none4 ,possessive ,adjective ,pronouns denoting possession4 ,they are my1 thy1 his1 her1 its1 our1 your1 their4 ,n4 ,b4--7,the possessive adjective pronouns differ from the possessive case of the personal pronouns in that the latter can stand alone while the former cannot4 ,who owns that book8 ,it is mine4 ,you cannot say it is my1--the word book must be repeated47 ,,the ,,verb ,a verb is a word which implies action or the doing of something1 or it may be defined as a word which affirms1 commands or asks a question4 ,thus1 the words ,john the table1 contain no assertion1 but when the word strikes is introduced1 something is affirmed1 hence the word strikes is a verb and gives completeness and meaning to the group4 ,the simple form of the verb without inflection is called the root of the verb2 e4 g4 love is the root of the verb1--,to ,love4 ,verbs are regular or irregular1 transitive or intransitive4 ,a verb is said to be regular when it forms the past tense by adding ed to the present or d if the verb ends in e4 ,when its past tense does not end in ed it is said to be irregular4 ,a transitive verb is one the action of which passes over to or affects some object2 as ,i struck the table4 ,here the action of striking affected the object table1 hence struck is a transitive verb4 ,an intransitive verb is one in which the action remains with the subject2 as ,i walk1 ,i sit1 ,i run4 ,many intransitive verbs1 however1 can be used transitively2 thus1 ,i walk the horse2 walk is here transitive4 ,verbs are inflected by number1 person1 tense and mood4 ,number and person as applied to the verb really belong to the subject2 they are used with the verb to denote whether the assertion is made regarding one or more than one and whether it is made in reference to the person speaking1 the person spoken to or the person or thing spoken about4 ,,tense ,in their tenses verbs follow the divisions of time4 ,they have present tense1 past tense and future tense with their variations to express the exact time of action as to an event happening1 having happened or yet to happen4 ,,mood ,there are four simple moods1--the ,infinitive1 the ,indicative1 the ,imperative and the ,subjunctive4 ,the ,mood of a verb denotes the mode or manner in which it is used4 ,thus if it is used in its widest sense without reference to person or number1 time or place1 it is in the ,infinitive ,mood2 as ,to run4 ,here we are not told who does the running1 when it is done1 where it is done or anything about it4 ,when a verb is used to indicate or declare or ask a simple question or make any direct statement1 it is in the ,indicative ,mood4 ,the boy loves his book4 ,here a direct statement is made concerning the boy4 ,have you a pin8 ,here a simple question is asked which calls for an answer4 ,when the verb is used to express a command or entreaty it is in the ,imperative ,mood as1 ,go away4 ,give me a penny4 ,when the verb is used to express doubt1 supposition or uncertainty or when some future action depends upon a contingency1 it is in the subjunctive mood2 as1 ,if ,i come1 he shall remain4 ,many grammarians include a fifth mood called the potential to express power1 possibility1 liberty1 necessity1 will or duty4 ,it is formed by means of the auxiliaries may1 can1 ought and must1 but in all cases it can be resolved into the indicative or subjunctive4 ,thus1 in ,i may write if ,i choose1 may write is by some classified as in the potential mood1 but in reality the phrase ,i may write is an indicative one while the second clause1 if ,i choose1 is the expression of a condition upon which1 not my liberty to write1 depends1 but my actual writing4 ,verbs have two participles1 the present or imperfect1 sometimes called the active ending in ing and the past or perfect1 often called the passive1 ending in ed or d4 ,the infinitive expresses the sense of the verb in a substantive form1 the participles in an adjective form2 as ,to rise early is healthful4 ,an early rising man4 ,the newly risen sun4 ,the participle in ing is frequently used as a substantive and consequently is equivalent to an infinitive2 thus1 ,to rise early is healthful and ,rising early is healthful are the same4 ,the principal parts of a verb are the ,present ,indicative1 ,past ,indicative and ,past ,participle2 as3 ,love ,loved ,loved ,sometimes one or more of these parts are wanting1 and then the verb is said to be defective4 ,present ,past ,passive ,participle ,can ,could 7,wanting7 ,may ,might ,shall ,should ,will ,would ,ought ,ought ,verbs may also be divided into principal and auxiliary4 ,a principal verb is that without which a sentence or clause can contain no assertion or affirmation4 ,an auxiliary is a verb joined to the root or participles of a principal verb to express time and manner with greater precision than can be done by the tenses and moods in their simple form4 ,thus1 the sentence1 ,i am writing an exercise2 when ,i shall have finished it ,i shall read it to the class4 has no meaning without the principal verbs writing1 finished read2 but the meaning is rendered more definite1 especially with regard to time1 by the auxiliary verbs am1 have1 shall4 ,there are nine auxiliary or helping verbs1 viz41 ,be1 have1 do1 shall1 will1 may1 can1 ought1 and must4 ,they are called helping verbs1 because it is by their aid the compound tenses are formed4 ,,to ,,be ,the verb ,to ,be is the most important of the auxiliary verbs4 ,it has eleven parts1 viz41 am1 art1 is1 are1 was1 wast1 were1 wert2 be1 being and been4 ,,voice ,the active voice is that form of the verb which shows the ,subject not being acted upon but acting2 as1 ,the cat catches mice4 ,charity covers a multitude of sins4 ,the passive voice3 ,when the action signified by a transitive verb is thrown back upon the agent1 that is to say1 when the subject of the verb denotes the recipient of the action1 the verb is said to be in the passive voice4 ,john was loved by his neighbors4 ,here ,john the subject is also the object affected by the loving1 the action of the verb is thrown back on him1 hence the compound verb was loved is said to be in the passive voice4 ,the passive voice is formed by putting the perfect participle of any transitive verb with any of the eleven parts of the verb ,to ,be4 ,,conjugation ,the conjugation of a verb is its orderly arrangement in voices1 moods1 tenses1 persons and numbers4 ,here is the complete conjugation of the verb ,love--,active ,voice4 ,,principal ,,parts ,present ,past ,past ,participle ,love ,loved ,loved ,infinitive ,mood ,to ,love ,indicative ,mood ,,present ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,i love ,we love #bnd person ,you love ,you love #crd person ,he loves ,they love ,,past ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,i loved ,we loved #bnd person ,you loved ,you loved #crd person ,he loved ,they loved ,,future ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,i shall love ,they will love #bnd person ,you will love ,you will love #crd person ,he will love ,we shall love ,transcriber's note3 #ast person plural and #crd person plural reversed in original ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,i have loved ,we have loved #bnd person ,you have loved ,you have loved #crd person ,he has loved ,they have loved ,,past ,,perfect ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,i had loved ,we had loved #bnd person ,you had loved ,you had loved #crd person ,he had loved ,they had loved ,,future ,,perfect ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,i shall have loved ,we shall have loved #bnd person ,you will have loved ,you will have loved #crd person ,he will have loved ,they will have loved ,imperative ,mood 7,,present ,,tense ,,only7 ,sing4 ,plural #bnd person ,love 7you7 ,love 7you7 ,subjunctive ,mood ,,present ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,if ,i love ,if we love #bnd person ,if you love ,if you love #crd person ,if he love ,if they love ,,past ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,if ,i loved ,if we loved #bnd person ,if you loved ,if you loved #crd person ,if he loved ,if they loved ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,if ,i have loved ,if we have loved #bnd person ,if you have loved ,if you have loved #crd person ,if he has loved ,if they have loved ,,past ,,perfect ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,if ,i had loved ,if we had loved #bnd person ,if you had loved ,if you had loved #crd person ,if he had loved ,if they had loved ,,infinitives ,present ,perfect ,to love ,to have loved ,,participles ,present ,past ,perfect ,loving ,loved ,having loved ,,conjugation ,,of ,to ,love ,passive ,voice ,indicative ,mood ,,present ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,i am loved ,we are loved #bnd person ,you are loved ,you are loved #crd person ,he is loved ,they are loved ,,past ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,i was loved ,we were loved #bnd person ,you were loved ,you were loved #crd person ,he was loved ,they were loved ,,future ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,i shall be loved ,we shall be loved #bnd person ,you will be loved ,you will be loved #crd person ,he will be loved ,they will be loved ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,i have been loved ,we have been loved #bnd person ,you have been loved ,you have been loved #crd person ,he has been loved ,they have been loved ,,past ,,perfect ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,i had been loved ,we had been loved #bnd person ,you had been loved ,you had been loved #crd person ,he had been loved ,they had been loved ,,future ,,perfect ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,i shall have been loved ,we shall have been loved #bnd person ,you will have been loved ,you will have been loved #crd person ,he will have been loved ,they will have been loved ,imperative ,mood 7,,present ,,tense ,,only7 ,sing4 ,plural #bnd person ,be 7you7 loved ,be 7you7 loved ,subjunctive ,mood ,,present ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,if ,i be loved ,if we be loved #bnd person ,if you be loved ,if you be loved #crd person ,if he be loved ,if they be loved ,,past ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,if ,i were loved ,if they were loved #bnd person ,if you were loved ,if you were loved #crd person ,if he were loved ,if we were loved ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,if ,i have been loved ,if we have been loved #bnd person ,if you have been loved ,if you have been loved #crd person ,if he has been loved ,if they have been loved ,,past ,,perfect ,,tense ,sing4 ,plural #ast person ,if ,i had been loved ,if we had been loved #bnd person ,if you had been loved ,if you had been loved #crd person ,if he had been loved ,if they had been loved ,,infinitives ,present ,perfect ,to be loved ,to have been loved ,,participles ,present ,past ,perfect ,being loved ,been loved ,having been loved 7,n4 ,b4--,note that the plural form of the personal pronoun1 you1 is used in the second person singular throughout4 ,the old form thou1 except in the conjugation of the verb ,to ,be1 may be said to be obsolete4 ,in the third person singular he is representative of the three personal pronouns of the third person1 ,he1 ,she and ,it47 ,,adverb ,an adverb is a word which modifies a verb1 an adjective or another adverb4 ,thus1 in the example--,he writes well1 the adverb shows the manner in which the writing is performed2 in the examples--,he is remarkably diligent and ,he works very faithfully1 the adverbs modify the adjective diligent and the other adverb faithfully by expressing the degree of diligence and faithfulness4 ,adverbs are chiefly used to express in one word what would otherwise require two or more words2 thus1 ,there signifies in that place2 whence1 from what place2 usefully1 in a useful manner4 ,adverbs1 like adjectives1 are sometimes varied in their terminations to express comparison and different degrees of quality4 ,some adverbs form the comparative and superlative by adding er and est2 as1 soon1 sooner1 soonest4 ,adverbs which end in ly are compared by prefixing more and most2 as1 nobly1 more nobly1 most nobly4 ,a few adverbs are irregular in the formation of the comparative and superlative2 as1 well1 better1 best4 ,,preposition ,a preposition connects words1 clauses1 and sentences together and shows the relation between them4 ,my hand is on the table shows relation between hand and table4 ,prepositions are so called because they are generally placed before the words whose connection or relation with other words they point out4 ,,conjunction ,a conjunction joins words1 clauses and sentences2 as ,john and ,james4 ,my father and mother have come1 but ,i have not seen them4 ,the conjunctions in most general use are and1 also2 either1 or2 neither1 nor2 though1 yet2 but1 however2 for1 that2 because1 since2 therefore1 wherefore1 then2 if1 unless1 lest4 ,,interjection ,an interjection is a word used to express some sudden emotion of the mind4 ,thus in the examples1--,ah6 there he comes2 alas6 what shall ,i do8 ah1 expresses surprise1 and alas1 distress4 ,nouns1 adjectives1 verbs and adverbs become interjections when they are uttered as exclamations1 as1 nonsense6 strange6 hail6 away6 etc4 ,we have now enumerated the parts of speech and as briefly as possible stated the functions of each4 ,as they all belong to the same family they are related to one another but some are in closer affinity than others4 ,to point out the exact relationship and the dependency of one word on another is called parsing and in order that every etymological connection may be distinctly understood a brief resume of the foregoing essentials is here given3 ,the signification of the noun is limited to one1 but to any one of the kind1 by the indefinite article1 and to some particular one1 or some particular number1 by the definite article4 ,nouns1 in one form1 represent one of a kind1 and in another1 any number more than one2 they are the names of males1 or females1 or of objects which are neither male nor female2 and they represent the subject of an affirmation1 a command or a question1--the owner or possessor of a thing1--or the object of an action1 or of a relation expressed by a preposition4 ,adjectives express the qualities which distinguish one person or thing from another2 in one form they express quality without comparison2 in another1 they express comparison between two1 or between one and a number taken collectively1--and in a third they express comparison between one and a number of others taken separately4 ,pronouns are used in place of nouns2 one class of them is used merely as the substitutes of names2 the pronouns of another class have a peculiar reference to some preceding words in the sentence1 of which they are the substitutes1--and those of a third class refer adjectively to the persons or things they represent4 ,some pronouns are used for both the name and the substitute2 and several are frequently employed in asking questions4 ,affirmations and commands are expressed by the verb2 and different inflections of the verb express number1 person1 time and manner4 ,with regard to time1 an affirmation may be present or past or future2 with regard to manner1 an affirmation may be positive or conditional1 it being doubtful whether the condition is fulfilled or not1 or it being implied that it is not fulfilled2--the verb may express command or entreaty2 or the sense of the verb may be expressed without affirming or commanding4 ,the verb also expresses that an action or state is or was going on1 by a form which is also used sometimes as a noun1 and sometimes to qualify nouns4 ,affirmations are modified by adverbs1 some of which can be inflected to express different degrees of modification4 ,words are joined together by conjunctions2 and the various relations which one thing bears to another are expressed by 'prepositions4 ,sudden emotions of the mind1 and exclamations are expressed by interjections4 ,some words according to meaning belong sometimes to one part of speech1 sometimes to another4 ,thus1 in ,after a storm comes a calm1 calm is a noun2 in ,it is a calm evening1 calm is an adjective2 and in ,calm your fears1 calm is a verb4 ,the following sentence containing all the parts of speech is parsed etymologically3 ,i now see the old man coming1 but1 alas1 he has walked with much difficulty4 ,i1 a personal pronoun1 first person singular1 masculine or feminine gender1 nominative case1 subject of the verb see4 now1 an adverb of time modifying the verb see4 see1 an irregular1 transitive verb1 indicative mood1 present tense1 first person singular to agree with its nominative or subject ,i4 the1 the definite article particularizing the noun man4 old1 an adjective1 positive degree1 qualifying the noun man4 man1 a common noun1 #crd person singular1 masculine gender1 objective case governed by the transitive verb see4 coming1 the present or imperfect participle of the verb to come referring to the noun man4 but1 a conjunction4 alas1 an interjection1 expressing pity or sorrow4 he1 a personal pronoun1 #crd person singular1 masculine gender1 nominative case1 subject of verb has walked4 has walked1 a regular1 intransitive verb1 indicative mood1 perfect tense1 #crd person singular to agree with its nominative or subject he4 with1 a preposition1 governing the noun difficulty4 much1 an adjective1 positive degree1 qualifying the noun difficulty4 difficulty1 a common noun1 #crd person singular1 neuter gender1 objective case governed by the preposition with4 ,n4,b4--,much is generally an adverb4 ,as an adjective it is thus compared3 ,positive ,comparative ,superlative much more most ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,sentence ,different ,kinds--,arrangement of ,words--,paragraph ,a sentence is an assemblage of words so arranged as to convey a determinate sense or meaning1 in other words1 to express a complete thought or idea4 ,no matter how short1 it must contain one finite verb and a subject or agent to direct the action of the verb4 ,birds fly2 ,fish swim2 ,men walk2--are sentences4 ,a sentence always contains two parts1 something spoken about and something said about it4 ,the word or words indicating what is spoken about form what is called the subject and the word or words indicating what is said about it form what is called the predicate4 ,in the sentences given1 birds1 fish and men are the subjects1 while fly1 swim and walk are the predicates4 ,there are three kinds of sentences1 simple1 compound and complex4 ,the simple sentence expresses a single thought and consists of one subject and one predicate1 as1 ,man is mortal4 ,a compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences of equal importance the parts of which are either expressed or understood1 as1 ,the men work in the fields and the women work in the household1 or ,the men work in the fields and the women in the household or ,the men and women work in the fields and in the household4 ,a complex sentence consists of two or more simple sentences so combined that one depends on the other to complete its meaning2 as2 ,when he returns1 ,i shall go on my vacation4 ,here the words1 when he returns are dependent on the rest of the sentence for their meaning4 ,a clause is a separate part of a complex sentence1 as when he returns in the last example4 ,a phrase consists of two or more words without a finite verb4 ,without a finite verb we cannot affirm anything or convey an idea1 therefore we can have no sentence4 ,infinitives and participles which are the infinite parts of the verb cannot be predicates4 ,i looking up the street is not a sentence1 for it is not a complete action expressed4 ,when we hear such an expression as ,a dog running along the street1 we wait for something more to be added1 something more affirmed about the dog1 whether he bit or barked or fell dead or was run over4 ,thus in every sentence there must be a finite verb to limit the subject4 ,when the verb is transitive1 that is1 when the action cannot happen without affecting something1 the thing affected is called the object4 ,thus in ,cain killed ,abel the action of the killing affected ,abel4 ,in ,the cat has caught a mouse1 mouse is the object of the catching4 ,,arrangement ,,of ,,words ,,in ,a ,,sentence ,of course in simple sentences the natural order of arrangement is subject--verb--object4 ,in many cases no other form is possible4 ,thus in the sentence ,the cat has caught a mouse1 we cannot reverse it and say ,the mouse has caught a cat without destroying the meaning1 and in any other form of arrangement1 such as ,a mouse1 the cat has caught1 we feel that while it is intelligible1 it is a poor way of expressing the fact and one which jars upon us more or less4 ,in longer sentences1 however1 when there are more words than what are barely necessary for subject1 verb and object1 we have greater freedom of arrangement and can so place the words as to give the best effect4 ,the proper placing of words depends upon perspicuity and precision4 ,these two combined give style to the structure4 ,most people are familiar with ,gray's line in the immortal ,elegy--,the ploughman homeward plods his weary way4 ,this line can be paraphrased to read #ah different ways4 ,here are a few variations3 ,homeward the ploughman plods his weary way4 ,the ploughman plods his weary way homeward4 ,plods homeward the ploughman his weary way4 ,his weary way the ploughman homeward plods4 ,homeward his weary way plods the ploughman4 ,plods the ploughman his weary way homeward4 ,his weary way the ploughman plods homeward4 ,his weary way homeward the ploughman plods4 ,the ploughman plods homeward his weary way4 ,the ploughman his weary way plods homeward4 and so on4 ,it is doubtful if any of the other forms are superior to the one used by the poet4 ,of course his arrangement was made to comply with the rhythm and rhyme of the verse4 ,most of the variations depend upon the emphasis we wish to place upon the different words4 ,in arranging the words in an ordinary sentence we should not lose sight of the fact that the beginning and end are the important places for catching the attention of the reader4 ,words in these places have greater emphasis than elsewhere4 ,in ,gray's line the general meaning conveyed is that a weary ploughman is plodding his way homeward1 but according to the arrangement a very slight difference is effected in the idea4 ,some of the variations make us think more of the ploughman1 others more of the plodding1 and still others more of the weariness4 ,as the beginning and end of a sentence are the most important places1 it naturally follows that small or insignificant words should be kept from these positions4 ,of the two places the end one is the more important1 therefore1 it really calls for the most important word in the sentence4 ,never commence a sentence with ,and1 ,but1 ,since1 ,because1 and other similar weak words and never end it with prepositions1 small1 weak adverbs or pronouns4 ,the parts of a sentence which are most closely connected with one another in meaning should be closely connected in order also4 ,by ignoring this principle many sentences are made1 if not nonsensical1 really ridiculous and ludicrous4 ,for instance3 ,ten dollars reward is offered for information of any person injuring this property by order of the owner4 ,this monument was erected to the memory of ,john ,jones1 who was shot by his affectionate brother4 ,in the construction of all sentences the grammatical rules must be inviolably observed4 ,the laws of concord1 that is1 the agreement of certain words1 must be obeyed4 7#a7 ,the verb agrees with its subject in person and number4 ,i have1 ,thou hast1 7the pronoun thou is here used to illustrate the verb form1 though it is almost obsolete71 ,he has1 show the variation of the verb to agree with the subject4 ,a singular subject calls for a singular verb1 a plural subject demands a verb in the plural2 as1 ,the boy writes1 ,the boys write4 ,the agreement of a verb and its subject is often destroyed by confusing 7#a7 collective and common nouns2 7#b7 foreign and ,english nouns2 7#c7 compound and simple subjects2 7#d7 real and apparent subjects4 7#a7 ,a collective noun is a number of individuals or things regarded as a whole2 as1 class regiment4 ,when the individuals or things are prominently brought forward1 use a plural verb2 as ,the class were distinguished for ability4 ,when the idea of the whole as a unit is under consideration employ a singular verb2 as ,the regiment was in camp4 7#b7 ,it is sometimes hard for the ordinary individual to distinguish the plural from the singular in foreign nouns1 therefore1 he should be careful in the selection of the verb4 ,he should look up the word and be guided accordingly4 ,he was an alumnus of ,harvard4 ,they were alumni of ,harvard4 7#c7 ,when a sentence with one verb has two or more subjects denoting different things1 connected by and1 the verb should be plural2 as1 ,snow and rain are disagreeable4 ,when the subjects denote the same thing and are connected by or the verb should be singular2 as1 ,the man or the woman is to blame4 7#d7 ,when the same verb has more than one subject of different persons or numbers1 it agrees with the most prominent in thought2 as1 ,he1 and not you1 is wrong4 ,whether he or ,i am to be blamed4 7#b7 ,never use the past participle for the past tense nor vice versa4 ,this mistake is a very common one4 ,at every turn we hear ,he done it for ,he did it4 ,the jar was broke instead of broken4 ,he would have went for ,he would have gone1 etc4 7#c7 ,the use of the verbs shall and will is a rock upon which even the best speakers come to wreck4 ,they are interchanged recklessly4 ,their significance changes according as they are used with the first1 second or third person4 ,with the first person shall is used in direct statement to express a simple future action2 as1 ,i shall go to the city to-morrow4 ,with the second and third persons shall is used to express a determination2 as1 ,you shall go to the city to-morrow1 ,he shall go to the city to-morrow4 ,with the first person will is used in direct statement to express determination1 as1 ,i will go to the city to-morrow4 ,with the second and third persons will is used to express simple future action2 as1 ,you will go to the city to-morrow1 ,he will go to the city to-morrow4 ,a very old rule regarding the uses of shall and will is thus expressed in rhyme3 ,in the first person simply shall foretells1 ,in will a threat or else a promise dwells4 ,shall in the second and third does threat1 ,will simply then foretells the future feat4 7#d7 ,take special care to distinguish between the nominative and objective case4 ,the pronouns are the only words which retain the ancient distinctive case ending for the objective4 ,remember that the objective case follows transitive verbs and prepositions4 ,don't say ,the boy who ,i sent to see you1 but ,the boy whom ,i sent to see you4 ,whom is here the object of the transitive verb sent4 ,don't say ,she bowed to him and ,i but ,she bowed to him and me since me is the objective case following the preposition to understood4 ,between you and ,i is a very common expression4 ,it should be ,between you and me since between is a preposition calling for the objective case4 7#e7 ,be careful in the use of the relative pronouns who1 which and that4 ,who refers only to persons2 which only to things2 as1 ,the boy who was drowned1 ,the umbrella which ,i lost4 ,the relative that may refer to both persons and things2 as1 ,the man that ,i saw4 ,the hat that ,i bought4 7#f7 ,don't use the superlative degree of the adjective for the comparative2 as ,he is the richest of the two for ,he is the richer of the two4 ,other mistakes often made in this connection are 7#a7 ,using the double comparative and superlative2 as1 ,these apples are much more preferable4 ,the most universal motive to business is gain4 7#b7 ,comparing objects which belong to dissimilar classes2 as ,there is no nicer life than a teacher4 7#c7 ,including objects in class to which they do not belong2 as1 ,the fairest of her daughters1 ,eve4 7#d7 ,excluding an object from a class to which it does belong2 as1 ,caesar was braver than any ancient warrior4 7#g7 ,don't use an adjective for an adverb or an adverb for an adjective4 ,don't say1 ,he acted nice towards me but ,he acted nicely toward me1 and instead of saying ,she looked beautifully say ,she looked beautiful4 7#h7 ,place the adverb as near as possible to the word it modifies4 ,instead of saying1 ,he walked to the door quickly1 say ,he walked quickly to the door4 7#i7 ,not alone be careful to distinguish between the nominative and objective cases of the pronouns1 but try to avoid ambiguity in their use4 ,the amusing effect of disregarding the reference of pronouns is well illustrated by ,burton in the following story of ,billy ,williams1 a comic actor who thus narrates his experience in riding a horse owned by ,hamblin1 the manager3 ,so down ,i goes to the stable with ,tom ,flynn1 and told the man to put the saddle on him4 ,on ,tom ,flynn8 ,no1 on the horse4 ,so after talking with ,tom ,flynn awhile ,i mounted him4 ,what6 mounted ,tom ,flynn8 ,no1 the horse2 and then ,i shook hands with him and rode off4 ,shook hands with the horse1 ,billy8 ,no1 with ,tom ,flynn2 and then ,i rode off up the ,bowery1 and who should ,i meet but ,tom ,hamblin2 so ,i got off and told the boy to hold him by the head4 ,what6 hold ,hamblin by the head8 ,no1 the horse2 and then we went and had a drink together4 ,what6 you and the horse8 ,no1 me and ,hamblin2 and after that ,i mounted him again and went out of town4 ,what6 mounted ,hamblin again8 ,no1 the horse2 and when ,i got to ,burnham1 who should be there but ,tom ,flynn1--he'd taken another horse and rode out ahead of me2 so ,i told the hostler to tie him up4 ,tie ,tom ,flynn up8 ,no1 the horse2 and we had a drink there4 ,what6 you and the horse8 ,no1 me and ,tom ,flynn4 ,finding his auditors by this time in a horse laugh1 ,billy wound up with3 ,now1 look here1--every time ,i say horse1 you say ,hamblin1 and every time ,i say ,hamblin you say horse3 ,i'll be hanged if ,i tell you any more about it4 ,,sentence ,,classification ,there are two great classes of sentences according to the general principles upon which they are founded4 ,these are termed the loose and the periodic4 ,in the loose sentence the main idea is put first1 and then follow several facts in connection with it4 ,defoe is an author particularly noted for this kind of sentence4 ,he starts out with a leading declaration to which he adds several attendant connections4 ,for instance in the opening of the story of ,robinson ,crusoe we read3 ,i was born in the year #afcb in the city of ,york1 of a good family1 though not of that country1 my father being a foreigner of ,bremen1 who settled first at ,hull2 he got a good estate by merchandise1 and leaving off his trade lived afterward at ,york1 from whence he had married my mother1 whose relations were named ,robinson1 a very good family in the country and from ,i was called ,robinson ,kreutznaer2 but by the usual corruption of words in ,england1 we are now called1 nay1 we call ourselves1 and write our name ,crusoe1 and so my companions always called me4 ,in the periodic sentence the main idea comes last and is preceded by a series of relative introductions4 ,this kind of sentence is often introduced by such words as that1 if1 since1 because4 ,the following is an example3 ,that through his own folly and lack of circumspection he should have been reduced to such circumstances as to be forced to become a beggar on the streets1 soliciting alms from those who had formerly been the recipients of his bounty1 was a sore humiliation4 ,on account of its name many are liable to think the loose sentence an undesirable form in good composition1 but this should not be taken for granted4 ,in many cases it is preferable to the periodic form4 ,as a general rule in speaking1 as opposed to writing1 the loose form is to be preferred1 inasmuch as when the periodic is employed in discourse the listeners are apt to forget the introductory clauses before the final issue is reached4 ,both kinds are freely used in composition1 but in speaking1 the loose1 which makes the direct statement at the beginning1 should predominate4 ,as to the length of sentences much depends on the nature of the composition4 ,however the general rule may be laid down that short sentences are preferable to long ones4 ,the tendency of the best writers of the present day is towards short1 snappy1 pithy sentences which rivet the attention of the reader4 ,they adopt as their motto multum in parvo 7much in little7 and endeavor to pack a great deal in small space4 ,of course the extreme of brevity is to be avoided4 ,sentences can be too short1 too jerky1 too brittle to withstand the test of criticism4 ,the long sentence has its place and a very important one4 ,it is indispensable in argument and often is very necessary to description and also in introducing general principles which require elaboration4 ,in employing the long sentence the inexperienced writer should not strain after the heavy1 ponderous type4 ,johnson and ,carlyle used such a type1 but remember1 an ordinary mortal cannot wield the sledge hammer of a giant4 ,johnson and ,carlyle were intellectual giants and few can hope to stand on the same literary pedestal4 ,the tyro in composition should never seek after the heavy style4 ,the best of all authors in the ,english language for style is ,addison4 ,macaulay says3 ,if you wish a style learned1 but not pedantic1 elegant but not ostentatious1 simple yet refined1 you must give your days and nights to the volumes of ,joseph ,addison4 ,the simplicity1 apart from the beauty of ,addison's writings causes us to reiterate the literary command--,never use a big word when a little one will convey the same or a similar meaning4 ,macaulay himself is an elegant stylist to imitate4 ,he is like a clear brook kissed by the noon-day sun in the shining bed of which you can see and count the beautiful white pebbles4 ,goldsmith is another writer whose simplicity of style charms4 ,the beginner should study these writers1 make their works his vade mecum1 they have stood the test of time and there has been no improvement upon them yet1 nor is there likely to be1 for their writing is as perfect as it is possible to be in the ,english language4 ,apart from their grammatical construction there can be no fixed rules for the formation of sentences4 ,the best plan is to follow the best authors and these masters of language will guide you safely along the way4 ,,the ,,paragraph ,the paragraph may be defined as a group of sentences that are closely related in thought and which serve one common purpose4 ,not only do they preserve the sequence of the different parts into which a composition is divided1 but they give a certain spice to the matter like raisins in a plum pudding4 ,a solid page of printed matter is distasteful to the reader2 it taxes the eye and tends towards the weariness of monotony1 but when it is broken up into sections it loses much of its heaviness and the consequent lightness gives it charm1 as it were1 to capture the reader4 ,paragraphs are like stepping-stones on the bed of a shallow river1 which enable the foot passenger to skip with ease from one to the other until he gets across2 but if the stones are placed too far apart in attempting to span the distance one is liable to miss the mark and fall in the water and flounder about until he is again able to get a foothold4 ',tis the same with written language1 the reader by means of paragraphs can easily pass from one portion of connected thought to another and keep up his interest in the subject until he gets to the end4 ,throughout the paragraph there must be some connection in regard to the matter under consideration1--a sentence dependency4 ,for instance1 in the same paragraph we must not speak of a house on fire and a runaway horse unless there is some connection between the two4 ,we must not write consecutively3 ,the fire raged with fierce intensity1 consuming the greater part of the large building in a short time4 ,the horse took fright and wildly dashed down the street scattering pedestrians in all directions4 ,these two sentences have no connection and therefore should occupy separate and distinct places4 ,but when we say--,the fire raged with fierce intensity consuming the greater part of the large building in a short time and the horse taking fright at the flames dashed wildly down the street scattering pedestrians in all directions1--there is a natural sequence1 viz41 the horse taking fright as a consequence of the flames and hence the two expressions are combined in one paragraph4 ,as in the case of words in sentences1 the most important places in a paragraph are the beginning and the end4 ,accordingly the first sentence and the last should by virtue of their structure and nervous force1 compel the reader's attention4 ,it is usually advisable to make the first sentence short2 the last sentence may be long or short1 but in either case should be forcible4 ,the object of the first sentence is to state a point clearly2 the last sentence should enforce it4 ,it is a custom of good writers to make the conclusion of the paragraph a restatement or counterpart or application of the opening4 ,in most cases a paragraph may be regarded as the elaboration of the principal sentence4 ,the leading thought or idea can be taken as a nucleus and around it constructed the different parts of the paragraph4 ,anyone can make a context for every simple sentence by asking himself questions in reference to the sentence4 ,thus--,the foreman gave the order-- suggests at once several questions2 ,what was the order8 to whom did he give it8 why did he give it8 what was the result8 etc4 ,these questions when answered will depend upon the leading one and be an elaboration of it into a complete paragraph4 ,if we examine any good paragraph we shall find it made up of a number of items1 each of which helps to illustrate1 confirm or enforce the general thought or purpose of the paragraph4 ,also the transition from each item to the next is easy1 natural and obvious2 the items seem to come of themselves4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we detect in a paragraph one or more items which have no direct bearing1 or if we are unable to proceed readily from item to item1 especially if we are obliged to rearrange the items before we can perceive their full significance1 then we are justified in pronouncing the paragraph construction faulty4 ,no specific rules can be given as to the construction of paragraphs4 ,the best advice is1--,study closely the paragraph structure of the best writers1 for it is only through imitation1 conscious or unconscious of the best models1 that one can master the art4 ,the best paragraphist in the ,english language for the essay is ,macaulay1 the best model to follow for the oratorical style is ,edmund ,burke and for description and narration probably the greatest master of paragraph is the ,american ,goldsmith1 ,washington ,irving4 ,a paragraph is indicated in print by what is known as the indentation of the line1 that is1 by commencing it a space from the left margin4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,figurative ,,language ,figures of ,speech--,definitions and ,examples--,use of ,figures ,in ,figurative ,language we employ words in such a way that they differ somewhat from their ordinary signification in commonplace speech and convey our meaning in a more vivid and impressive manner than when we use them in their every-day sense4 ,figures make speech more effective1 they beautify and emphasize it and give to it a relish and piquancy as salt does to food2 besides they add energy and force to expression so that it irresistibly compels attention and interest4 ,there are four kinds of figures1 viz43 7#a7 ,figures of ,orthography which change the spelling of a word2 7#b7 ,figures of ,etymology which change the form of words2 7#c7 ,figures of ,syntax which change the construction of sentences2 7#d7 ,figures of ,rhetoric or the art of speaking and writing effectively which change the mode of thought4 ,we shall only consider the last mentioned here as they are the most important1 really giving to language the construction and style which make it a fitting medium for the intercommunication of ideas4 ,figures of ,rhetoric have been variously classified1 some authorities extending the list to a useless length4 ,the fact is that any form of expression which conveys thought may be classified as a ,figure4 ,the principal figures as well as the most important and those oftenest used are1 ,simile1 ,metaphor1 ,personification1 ,allegory1 ,synechdoche1 ,metonymy1 ,exclamation1 ,hyperbole1 ,apostrophe1 ,vision1 ,antithesis1 ,climax1 ,epigram1 ,interrogation and ,irony4 ,the first four are founded on resemblance1 the second six on contiguity and the third five1 on contrast4 ,a ,simile 7from the ,latin similis1 like71 is the likening of one thing to another1 a statement of the resemblance of objects1 acts1 or relations2 as ,in his awful anger he was like the storm-driven waves dashing against the rock4 ,a simile makes the principal object plainer and impresses it more forcibly on the mind4 ,his memory is like wax to receive impressions and like marble to retain them4 ,this brings out the leading idea as to the man's memory in a very forceful manner4 ,contrast it with the simple statement--,his memory is good4 ,sometimes ,simile is prostituted to a low and degrading use2 as ,his face was like a danger signal in a fog storm4 ,her hair was like a furze-bush in bloom4 ,he was to his lady love as a poodle to its mistress4 ,such burlesque is never permissible4 ,mere likeness1 it should be remembered1 does not constitute a simile4 ,for instance there is no simile when one city is compared to another4 ,in order that there may be a rhetorical simile1 the objects compared must be of different classes4 ,avoid the old trite similes such as comparing a hero to a lion4 ,such were played out long ago4 ,and don't hunt for farfetched similes4 ,don't say--,her head was glowing as the glorious god of day when he sets in a flambeau of splendor behind the purple-tinted hills of the ,west4 ,it is much better to do without such a simile and simply say--,she had fiery red hair4 ,a ,metaphor 7from the ,greek metapherein1 to carry over or transfer71 is a word used to imply a resemblance but instead of likening one object to another as in the simile we directly substitute the action or operation of one for another4 ,if1 of a religious man we say1--,he is as a great pillar upholding the church1 the expression is a simile1 but if we say--,he is a great pillar upholding the church it is a metaphor4 ,the metaphor is a bolder and more lively figure than the simile4 ,it is more like a picture and hence1 the graphic use of metaphor is called word-painting4 ,it enables us to give to the most abstract ideas form1 color and life4 ,our language is full of metaphors1 and we very often use them quite unconsciously4 ,for instance1 when we speak of the bed of a river1 the shoulder of a hill1 the foot of a mountain1 the hands of a clock1 the key of a situation1 we are using metaphors4 ,don't use mixed metaphors1 that is1 different metaphors in relation to the same subject3 ,since it was launched our project has met with much opposition1 but while its flight has not reached the heights ambitioned1 we are yet sanguine we shall drive it to success4 ,here our project begins as a ship1 then becomes a bird and finally winds up as a horse4 ,personification 7from the ,latin persona1 person1 and facere1 to make7 is the treating of an inanimate object as if it were animate and is probably the most beautiful and effective of all the figures4 ,the mountains sing together1 the hills rejoice and clap their hands4 ,earth felt the wound2 and ,nature from her seat1 ,sighing1 through all her works1 gave signs of woe4 ,personification depends much on a vivid imagination and is adapted especially to poetical composition4 ,it has two distinguishable forms3 7#a7 when personality is ascribed to the inanimate as in the foregoing examples1 and 7#b7 when some quality of life is attributed to the inanimate2 as1 a raging storm2 an angry sea2 a whistling wind1 etc4 ,an ,allegory 7from the ,greek allos1 other1 and agoreuein1 to speak71 is a form of expression in which the words are symbolical of something4 ,it is very closely allied to the metaphor1 in fact is a continued metaphor4 ,allegory1 metaphor and simile have three points in common1--they are all founded on resemblance4 ,ireland is like a thorn in the side of ,england2 this is simile4 ,ireland is a thorn in the side of ,england2 this is metaphor4 ,once a great giant sprang up out of the sea and lived on an island all by himself4 ,on looking around he discovered a little girl on another small island near by4 ,he thought the little girl could be useful to him in many ways so he determined to make her subservient to his will4 ,he commanded her1 but she refused to obey1 then he resorted to very harsh measures with the little girl1 but she still remained obstinate and obdurate4 ,he continued to oppress her until finally she rebelled and became as a thorn in his side to prick him for his evil attitude towards her2 this is an allegory in which the giant plainly represents ,england and the little girl1 ,ireland2 the implication is manifest though no mention is made of either country4 ,strange to say the most perfect allegory in the ,english language was written by an almost illiterate and ignorant man1 and written too1 in a dungeon cell4 ,in the ,pilgrim's ,progress1 ,bunyan1 the itinerant tinker1 has given us by far the best allegory ever penned4 ,another good one is ,the ,faerie ,queen by ,edmund ,spenser4 ,synecdoche 7from the ,greek1 sun with1 and ekdexesthai1 to receive71 is a figure of speech which expresses either more or less than it literally denotes4 ,by it we give to an object a name which literally expresses something more or something less than we intend4 ,thus3 we speak of the world when we mean only a very limited number of the people who compose the world3 as1 ,the world treated him badly4 ,here we use the whole for a part4 ,but the most common form of this figure is that in which a part is used for the whole2 as1 ,i have twenty head of cattle1 ,one of his hands was assassinated1 meaning one of his men4 ,twenty sail came into the harbor1 meaning twenty ships4 ,this is a fine marble1 meaning a marble statue4 ,metonymy 7from the ,greek meta1 change1 and onyma1 a name7 is the designation of an object by one of its accompaniments1 in other words1 it is a figure by which the name of one object is put for another when the two are so related that the mention of one readily suggests the other4 ,thus when we say of a drunkard--,he loves the bottle we do not mean that he loves the glass receptacle1 but the liquor that it is supposed to contain4 ,metonymy1 generally speaking1 has1 three subdivisions3 7#a7 when an effect is put for cause or vice versa3 as ,gray hairs should be respected1 meaning old age4 ,he writes a fine hand1 that is1 handwriting4 7#b7 when the sign is put for the thing signified2 as1 ,the pen is mightier than the sword1 meaning literary power is superior to military force4 7#c7 ,when the container is put for the thing contained2 as ,the ,house was called to order1 meaning the members in the ,house4 ,exclamation 7from the ,latin ex1 out1 and clamare1 to cry71 is a figure by which the speaker instead of stating a fact1 simply utters an expression of surprise or emotion4 ,for instance when he hears some harrowing tale of woe or misfortune instead of saying1--,it is a sad story he exclaims ,what a sad story6 ,exclamation may be defined as the vocal expression of feeling1 though it is also applied to written forms which are intended to express emotion4 ,thus in describing a towering mountain we can write ,heavens1 what a piece of ,nature's handiwork6 how majestic6 how sublime6 how awe-inspiring in its colossal impressiveness6 ,this figure rather belongs to poetry and animated oratory than to the cold prose of every-day conversation and writing4 ,hyperbole 7from the ,greek hyper1 beyond1 and ballein1 to throw71 is an exaggerated form of statement and simply consists in representing things to be either greater or less1 better or worse than they really are4 ,its object is to make the thought more effective by overstating it4 ,here are some examples3--,he was so tall his head touched the clouds4 ,he was as thin as a poker4 ,he was so light that a breath might have blown him away4 ,most people are liable to overwork this figure4 ,we are all more or less given to exaggeration and some of us do not stop there1 but proceed onward to falsehood and downright lying4 ,there should be a limit to hyperbole1 and in ordinary speech and writing it should be well qualified and kept within reasonable bounds4 ,an ,apostrophe 7from the ,greek apo1 from1 and strephein1 to turn71 is a direct address to the absent as present1 to the inanimate as living1 or to the abstract as personal4 ,thus3 ,o1 illustrious ,washington6 ,father of our ,country6 ,could you visit us now6 ,my ,country tis of thee-- ,sweet land of liberty1 ,of thee ,i sing4 ,o6 ,grave1 where is thy ,victory1 ,o6 ,death where is thy sting6 ,this figure is very closely allied to ,personification4 ,vision 7from the ,latin videre1 to see7 consists in treating the past1 the future1 or the remote as if present in time or place4 ,it is appropriate to animated description1 as it produces the effect of an ideal presence4 ,the old warrior looks down from the canvas and tells us to be men worthy of our sires4 ,this figure is much exemplified in the ,bible4 ,the book of ,revelation is a vision of the future4 ,the author who uses the figure most is ,carlyle4 ,an ,antithesis 7from the ,greek anti1 against1 and tithenai1 to set7 is founded on contrast2 it consists in putting two unlike things in such a position that each will appear more striking by the contrast4 ,ring out the old1 ring in the new1 ,ring out the false1 ring in the true4 ,let us be friends in peace1 but enemies in war4 ,here is a fine antithesis in the description of a steam engine--,it can engrave a seal and crush masses of obdurate metal before it2 draw out1 without breaking1 a thread as fine as a gossamer2 and lift up a ship of war like a bauble in the air2 it can embroider muslin and forge anchors2 cut steel into ribands1 and impel loaded vessels against the fury of winds and waves4 ,climax 7from the ,greek1 klimax1 a ladder71 is an arrangement of thoughts and ideas in a series1 each part of which gets stronger and more impressive until the last one1 which emphasizes the force of all the preceding ones4 ,he risked truth1 he risked honor1 he risked fame1 he risked all that men hold dear1--yea1 he risked life itself1 and for what8--for a creature who was not worthy to tie his shoe-latchets when he was his better self4 ,epigram 7from the ,greek epi1 upon1 and graphein1 to write71 originally meant an inscription on a monument1 hence it came to signify any pointed expression4 ,it now means a statement or any brief saying in prose or poetry in which there is an apparent contradiction2 as1 ,conspicuous for his absence4 ,beauty when unadorned is most adorned4 ,he was too foolish to commit folly4 ,he was so wealthy that he could not spare the money4 ,interrogation 7from the ,latin interrogatio1 a question71 is a figure of speech in which an assertion is made by asking a question2 as1 ,does ,god not show justice to all8 ,is he not doing right in his course8 ,what can a man do under the circumstances8 ,irony 7from the ,greek eironcia1 dissimulation7 is a form of expression in which the opposite is substituted for what is intended1 with the end in view1 that the falsity or absurdity may be apparent2 as1 ,benedict ,arnold was an honorable man4 ,a ,judas ,iscariot never betrays a friend4 ,you can always depend upon the word of a liar4 ,irony is cousin germain to ridicule1 derision1 mockery1 satire and sarcasm4 ,ridicule implies laughter mingled with contempt2 derision is ridicule from a personal feeling of hostility2 mockery is insulting derision2 satire is witty mockery2 sarcasm is bitter satire and irony is disguised satire4 ,there are many other figures of speech which give piquancy to language and play upon words in such a way as to convey a meaning different from their ordinary signification in common every-day speech and writing4 ,the golden rule for all is to keep them in harmony with the character and purpose of speech and composition4 ,,chapter ,v ,,punctuation ,principal ,points--,illustrations--,capital ,letters4 ,lindley ,murray and ,goold ,brown laid down cast-iron rules for punctuation1 but most of them have been broken long since and thrown into the junk-heap of disuse4 ,they were too rigid1 too strict1 went so much into minutiae1 that they were more or less impractical to apply to ordinary composition4 ,the manner of language1 of style and of expression has considerably changed since then1 the old abstruse complex sentence with its hidden meanings has been relegated to the shade1 there is little of prolixity or long-drawn-out phrases1 ambiguity of expression is avoided and the aim is toward terseness1 brevity and clearness4 ,therefore1 punctuation has been greatly simplified1 to such an extent indeed1 that it is now as much a matter of good taste and judgment as adherence to any fixed set of rules4 ,nevertheless there are laws governing it which cannot be abrogated1 their principles must be rigidly and inviolably observed4 ,the chief end of punctuation is to mark the grammatical connection and the dependence of the parts of a composition1 but not the actual pauses made in speaking4 ,very often the points used to denote the delivery of a passage differ from those used when the passage is written4 ,nevertheless1 several of the punctuation marks serve to bring out the rhetorical force of expression4 ,the principal marks of punctuation are3 #a4 ,the ,comma 1 #b4 ,the ,semicolon 2 #c4 ,the ,colon 3 #d4 ,the ,period 4 #e4 ,the ,interrogation 8 #f4 ,the ,exclamation 6 #g4 ,the ,dash -- #h4 ,the ,parenthesis 77 #i4 ,the ,quotation ,there are several other points or marks to indicate various relations1 but properly speaking such come under the heading of ,printer's ,marks1 some of which are treated elsewhere4 ,of the above1 the first four may be styled the grammatical points1 and the remaining five1 the rhetorical points4 ,the ,comma3 ,the office of the ,comma is to show the slightest separation which calls for punctuation at all4 ,it should be omitted whenever possible4 ,it is used to mark the least divisions of a sentence4 7#a7 ,a series of words or phrases has its parts separated by commas3-- ,lying1 trickery1 chicanery1 perjury1 were natural to him4 ,the brave1 daring1 faithful soldier died facing the foe4 ,if the series is in pairs1 commas separate the pairs3 ,rich and poor1 learned and unlearned1 black and white1 ,christian and ,jew1 ,mohammedan and ,buddhist must pass through the same gate4 7#b7 ,a comma is used before a short quotation3 ,it was ,patrick ,henry who said1 ',give me liberty or give me death4' 7#c7 ,when the subject of the sentence is a clause or a long phrase1 a comma is used after such subject3 ,that he has no reverence for the ,god ,i love1 proves his insincerity4 ,simulated piety1 with a black coat and a sanctimonious look1 does not proclaim a ,christian4 7#d7 ,an expression used parenthetically should be inclosed by commas3 ,the old man1 as a general rule1 takes a morning walk4 7#e7 ,words in apposition are set off by commas3 ,mc,kinley1 the ,president1 was assassinated4 7#f7 ,relative clauses1 if not restrictive1 require commas3 ,the book1 which is the simplest1 is often the most profound4 7#g7 ,in continued sentences each should be followed by a comma3 ,electricity lights our dwellings and streets1 pulls cars1 trains1 drives the engines of our mills and factories4 7#h7 ,when a verb is omitted a comma takes its place3 ,lincoln was a great statesman2 ,grant1 a great soldier4 7#i7 ,the subject of address is followed by a comma3 ,john1 you are a good man4 7#aj7 ,in numeration1 commas are used to express periods of three figures3 ,mountains #be1jjj feet high2 #a1jjj1jjj dollars4 ,the ,semicolon marks a slighter connection than the comma4 ,it is generally confined to separating the parts of compound sentences4 ,it is much used in contrasts3 7#a7 ,gladstone was great as a statesman2 he was sublime as a man4 7#b7 ,the ,semicolon is used between the parts of all compound sentences in which the grammatical subject of the second part is different from that of the first3 ,the power of ,england relies upon the wisdom of her statesmen2 the power of ,america upon the strength of her army and navy4 7#d7 ,the ,semicolon is used before words and abbreviations which introduce particulars or specifications following after1 such as1 namely1 as1 e4g41 vid41 i4e41 etc43 ,he had three defects2 namely1 carelessness1 lack of concentration and obstinacy in his ideas4 ,an island is a portion of land entirely surrounded by water2 as ,cuba4 ,the names of cities should always commence with a capital letter2 e4g41 ,new ,york1 ,paris4 ,the boy was proficient in one branch2 viz41 ,mathematics4 ,no man is perfect2 i4e41 free from all blemish4 ,the ,colon except in conventional uses is practically obsolete4 7#a7 ,it is generally put at the end of a sentence introducing a long quotation3 ,the cheers having subsided1 ,mr4 ,bryan spoke as follows3 7#b7 ,it is placed before an explanation or illustration of the subject under consideration3 ,this is the meaning of the term3 7#c7 ,a direct quotation formally introduced is generally preceded by a colon3 ,the great orator made this funny remark3 7#d7 ,the colon is often used in the title of books when the secondary or subtitle is in apposition to the leading one and when the conjunction or is omitted3 ,acoustics3 the ,science of ,sound4 7#e7 ,it is used after the salutation in the beginning of letters3 ,sir3 ,my dear ,sir3 ,gentlemen3 ,dear ,mr4 ,jones3 etc4 ,in this connection a dash very often follows the colon4 7#f7 ,it is sometimes used to introduce details of a group of things already referred to in the mass3 ,the boy's excuses for being late were3 firstly1 he did not know the time1 secondly1 he was sent on an errand1 thirdly1 he tripped on a rock and fell by the wayside4 ,the ,period is the simplest punctuation mark4 ,it is simply used to mark the end of a complete sentence that is neither interrogative nor exclamatory4 7#a7 ,after every sentence conveying a complete meaning3 ,birds fly4 ,plants grow4 ,man is mortal4 7#b7 ,in abbreviations3 after every abbreviated word3 ,rt4 ,rev4 ,t4 ,c4 ,alexander1 ,d4,d41 ,l4,l4,d4 7#c7 ,a period is used on the title pages of books after the name of the book1 after the author's name1 after the publisher's imprint3 ,american ,trails4 ,by ,theodore ,roosevelt4 ,new ,york4 ,scribner ,company4 ,the ,mark of ,interrogation is used to ask or suggest a question4 7#a7 ,every question admitting of an answer1 even when it is not expected1 should be followed by the mark of interrogation3 ,who has not heard of ,napoleon8 7#b7 ,when several questions have a common dependence they should be followed by one mark of interrogation at the end of the series3 ,where now are the playthings and friends of my boyhood2 the laughing boys2 the winsome girls2 the fond neighbors whom ,i loved8 7#c7 ,the mark is often used parenthetically to suggest doubt3 ,in #ahic 787 ,gladstone became converted to ,home ,rule for ,ireland4 ,the ,exclamation point should be sparingly used1 particularly in prose4 ,its chief use is to denote emotion of some kind4 7#a7 ,it is generally employed with interjections or clauses used as interjections3 ,alas6 ,i am forsaken4 ,what a lovely landscape6 7#b7 ,expressions of strong emotion call for the exclamation3 ,charge1 ,chester1 charge6 ,on1 ,stanley1 on6 7#c7 ,when the emotion is very strong double exclamation points may be used3 ,assist him66 ,i would rather assist ,satan66 ,the ,dash is generally confined to cases where there is a sudden break from the general run of the passage4 ,of all the punctuation marks it is the most misused4 7#a7 ,it is employed to denote sudden change in the construction or sentiment3 ,the ,heroes of the ,civil ,war1--how we cherish them4 ,he was a fine fellow--in his own opinion4 7#b7 ,when a word or expression is repeated for oratorical effect1 a dash is used to introduce the repetition3 ,shakespeare was the greatest of all poets--,shakespeare1 the intellectual ocean whose waves washed the continents of all thought4 7#c7 ,the ,dash is used to indicate a conclusion without expressing it3 ,he is an excellent man but-- 7#d7 ,it is used to indicate what is not expected or what is not the natural outcome of what has gone before3 ,he delved deep into the bowels of the earth and found instead of the hidden treasure--a button4 7#e7 ,it is used to denote the omission of letters or figures3 ,j--n ,j--s for ,john ,jones2 #aijh-i for #aijh and #aiji2 ,matthew ,,vii3#e-h for ,matthew ,,vii3#e1 #f1 #g1 and #h4 7#f7 ,when an ellipsis of the words1 namely1 that is1 to wit1 etc41 takes place1 the dash is used to supply them3 ,he excelled in three branches-- arithmetic1 algebra1 and geometry4 7#g7 ,a dash is used to denote the omission of part of a word when it is undesirable to write the full word3 ,he is somewhat of a r----l 7rascal74 ,this is especially the case in profane words4 7#h7 ,between a citation and the authority for it there is generally a dash3 ,all the world's a stage4--,shakespeare4 7#i7 ,when questions and answers are put in the same paragraph they should be separated by dashes3 ,are you a good boy8 ,yes1 ,sir4--,do you love study8 ,i do4 ,marks of ,parenthesis are used to separate expressions inserted in the body of a sentence1 which are illustrative of the meaning1 but have no essential connection with the sentence1 and could be done without4 ,they should be used as little as possible for they show that something is being brought into a sentence that does not belong to it4 7#a7 ,when the unity of a sentence is broken the words causing the break should be enclosed in parenthesis3 ,we cannot believe a liar 7and ,jones is one71 even when he speaks the truth4 7#b7 ,in reports of speeches marks of parenthesis are used to denote interpolations of approval or disapproval by the audience3 ,the masses must not submit to the tyranny of the classes 7hear1 hear71 we must show the trust magnates 7groans71 that they cannot ride rough-shod over our dearest rights 7cheers72 ,if the gentleman from ,ohio 7,mr4 ,brown71 will not be our spokesman1 we must select another4 7,a voice1--,get ,robinson74 ,when a parenthesis is inserted in the sentence where no comma is required1 no point should be used before either parenthesis4 ,when inserted at a place requiring a comma1 if the parenthetical matter relates to the whole sentence1 a comma should be used before each parenthesis2 if it relates to a single word1 or short clause1 no stop should come before it1 but a comma should be put after the closing parenthesis4 ,the ,quotation marks are used to show that the words enclosed by them are borrowed4 7#a7 ,a direct quotation should be enclosed within the quotation marks3 ,abraham ,lincoln said1--,i shall make this land too hot for the feet of slaves4 7#b7 ,when a quotation is embraced within another1 the contained quotation has only single marks3 ,franklin said1 ,most men come to believe 'honesty is the best policy4' 7#c7 ,when a quotation consists of several paragraphs the quotation marks should precede each paragraph4 7#d7 ,titles of books1 pictures and newspapers when formally given are quoted4 7#e7 ,often the names of ships are quoted though there is no occasion for it4 ,the ,apostrophe should come under the comma rather than under the quotation marks or double comma4 ,the word is ,greek and signifies a turning away from4 ,the letter elided or turned away is generally an e4 ,in poetry and familiar dialogue the apostrophe marks the elision of a syllable1 as ,i've for ,i have2 ,thou'rt for thou art2 you'll for you will1 etc4 ,sometimes it is necessary to abbreviate a word by leaving out several letters4 ,in such case the apostrophe takes the place of the omitted letters as cont'd for continued4 ,the apostrophe is used to denote the elision of the century in dates1 where the century is understood or to save the repetition of a series of figures1 as ,the ,spirit of '#gf2 ,i served in the army during the years #ahie1 '#if1 '#ig1 '#ih and '#ii4 ,the principal use of the apostrophe is to denote the possessive case4 ,all nouns in the singular number whether proper names or not1 and all nouns in the plural ending with any other letter than s1 form the possessive by the addition of the apostrophe and the letter s4 ,the only exceptions to this rule are1 that1 by poetical license the additional s may be elided in poetry for sake of the metre1 and in the scriptural phrases ,for goodness' sake4 ,for conscience' sake1 ,for ,jesus' sake1 etc4 ,custom has done away with the s and these phrases are now idioms of the language4 ,all plural nouns ending in s form the possessive by the addition of the apostrophe only as boys'1 horses'4 ,the possessive case of the personal pronouns never take the apostrophe1 as ours1 yours1 hers1 theirs4 ,,capital ,,letters ,capital letters are used to give emphasis to or call attention to certain words to distinguish them from the context4 ,in manuscripts they may be written small or large and are indicated by lines drawn underneath1 two lines for ,,small ,,capitals and three lines for ,,capitals4 ,some authors1 notably ,carlyle1 make such use of ,capitals that it degenerates into an abuse4 ,they should only be used in their proper places as given in the table below4 7#a7 ,the first word of every sentence1 in fact the first word in writing of any kind should begin with a capital2 as1 ,time flies4 ,my dear friend4 7#b7 ,every direct quotation should begin with a capital2 ,dewey said1-- ',fire1 when you're ready1 ,gridley6' 7#c7 ,every direct question commences with a capital2 ,let me ask you2 ',how old are you8' 7#d7 ,every line of poetry begins with a capital2 ,breathes there a man with soul so dead8 7#e7 ,every numbered clause calls for a capital3 ,the witness asserts3 7#a7 ,that he saw the man attacked2 7#b7 ,that he saw him fall2 7#c7 ,that he saw his assailant flee4 7#f7 ,the headings of essays and chapters should be wholly in capitals2 as1 ,,chapter ,,viii--,,rules ,,for ,,use ,,of ,,capitals4 7#g7 ,in the titles of books1 nouns1 pronouns1 adjectives and adverbs should begin with a capital2 as1 ,johnson's ,lives of the ,poets4 7#h7 ,in the ,roman notation numbers are denoted by capitals2 as1 ,i ,,ii ,,iii ,v ,x ,l ,c ,d ,m--#a1 #b1 #c1 #e1 #aj1 #ej1 #ajj1 #ejj1 #ajjj4 7#i7 ,proper names begin with a capital2 as1 ,jones1 ,johnson1 ,caesar1 ,mark ,antony1 ,england1 ,pacific1 ,christmas4 ,such words as river1 sea1 mountain1 etc41 when used generally are common1 not proper nouns1 and require no capital4 ,but when such are used with an adjective or adjunct to specify a particular object they become proper names1 and therefore require a capital2 as1 ,mississippi ,river1 ,north ,sea1 ,alleghany ,mountains1 etc4 ,in like manner the cardinal points north1 south1 east and west1 when they are used to distinguish regions of a country are capitals2 as1 ,the ,north fought against the ,south4 ,when a proper name is compounded with another word1 the part which is not a proper name begins with a capital if it precedes1 but with a small letter if it follows1 the hyphen2 as ,post-homeric1 ,sunday-school4 7#aj7 ,words derived from proper names require a ,capital2 as1 ,american1 ,irish1 ,christian1 ,americanize1 ,christianize4 ,in this connection the names of political parties1 religious sects and schools of thought begin with capitals2 as1 ,republican1 ,democrat1 ,whig1 ,catholic1 ,presbyterian1 ,rationalists1 ,free ,thinkers4 7#aa7 ,the titles of honorable1 state and political offices begin with a capital2 as1 ,president1 ,chairman1 ,governor1 ,alderman4 7#ab7 ,the abbreviations of learned titles and college degrees call for capitals2 as1 ,,ll4,d41 ,m4,a41 ,b4,s41 etc4 ,also the seats of learning conferring such degrees as1 ,harvard ,university1 ,manhattan ,college1 etc4 7#ac7 ,when such relative words as father1 mother1 brother1 sister1 uncle1 aunt1 etc41 precede a proper name1 they are written and printed with capitals2 as1 ,father ,abraham1 ,mother ,eddy1 ,brother ,john1 ,sister ,jane1 ,uncle ,jacob1 ,aunt ,eliza4 ,father1 when used to denote the early ,christian writer1 is begun with a capital2 ,augustine was one of the learned ,fathers of the ,church4 7#ad7 ,the names applied to the ,supreme ,being begin with capitals3 ,god1 ,lord1 ,creator1 ,providence1 ,almighty1 ,the ,deity1 ,heavenly ,father1 ,holy ,one4 ,in this respect the names applied to the ,saviour also require capitals3 ,jesus ,christ1 ,son of ,god1 ,man of ,galilee1 ,the ,crucified1 ,the ,anointed ,one4 ,also the designations of ,biblical characters as ,lily of ,israel1 ,rose of ,sharon1 ,comfortress of the ,afflicted1 ,help of ,christians1 ,prince of the ,apostles1 ,star of the ,sea1 etc4 ,pronouns referring to ,god and ,christ take capitals2 as1 ,his work1 ,the work of ,him1 etc4 7#ae7 ,expressions used to designate the ,bible or any particular division of it begin with a capital2 as1 ,holy ,writ1 ,the ,sacred ,book1 ,holy ,book1 ,god's ,word1 ,old ,testament1 ,new ,testament1 ,gospel of ,st4 ,matthew1 ,seven ,penitential ,psalms4 7#af7 ,expressions based upon the ,bible or in reference to ,biblical characters begin with a capital3 ,water of ,life1 ,hope of ,men1 ,help of ,christians1 ,scourge of ,nations4 7#ag7 ,the names applied to the ,evil ,one require capitals3 ,beelzebub1 ,prince of ,darkness1 ,satan1 ,king of ,hell1 ,devil1 ,incarnate ,fiend1 ,tempter of ,men1 ,father of ,lies1 ,hater of ,good4 7#ah7 ,words of very special importance1 especially those which stand out as the names of leading events in history1 have capitals2 as1 ,the ,revolution1 ,the ,civil ,war1 ,the ,middle ,ages1 ,the ,age of ,iron1 etc4 7#ai7 ,terms which refer to great events in the history of the race require capitals2 ,the ,flood1 ,magna ,charta1 ,declaration of ,independence4 7#bj7 ,the names of the days of the week and the months of the year and the seasons are commenced with capitals3 ,monday1 ,march1 ,autumn4 7#ba7 ,the ,pronoun ,i and the interjection ,o always require the use of capitals4 ,in fact all the interjections when uttered as exclamations commence with capitals3 ,alas6 he is gone4 ,ah6 ,i pitied him4 7#bb7 ,all noms-de-guerre1 assumed names1 as well as names given for distinction1 call for capitals1 as1 ,the ,wizard of the ,north1 ,paul ,pry1 ,the ,northern ,gael1 ,sandy ,sanderson1 ,poor ,robin1 etc4 7#bc7 ,in personification1 that is1 when inanimate things are represented as endowed with life and action1 the noun or object personified begins with a capital2 as1 ,the starry ,night shook the dews from her wings4 ,mild-eyed ,day appeared1 ,the ,oak said to the ,beech--',i am stronger than you4' ,,chapter ,,vi ,,letter ,,writing ,principles of ,letter-,writing--,forms--,notes ,many people seem to regard letter-writing as a very simple and easily acquired branch1 but on the contrary it is one of the most difficult forms of composition and requires much patience and labor to master its details4 ,in fact there are very few perfect letter-writers in the language4 ,it constitutes the direct form of speech and may be called conversation at a distance4 ,its forms are so varied by every conceivable topic written at all times by all kinds of persons in all kinds of moods and tempers and addressed to all kinds of persons of varying degrees in society and of different pursuits in life1 that no fixed rules can be laid down to regulate its length1 style or subject matter4 ,only general suggestions can be made in regard to scope and purpose1 and the forms of indicting set forth which custom and precedent have sanctioned4 ,the principles of letter-writing should be understood by everybody who has any knowledge of written language1 for almost everybody at some time or other has necessity to address some friend or acquaintance at a distance1 whereas comparatively few are called upon to direct their efforts towards any other kind of composition4 ,formerly the illiterate countryman1 when he had occasion to communicate with friends or relations1 called in the peripatetic schoolmaster as his amanuensis1 but this had one draw-back1--secrets had to be poured into an ear other than that for which they were intended1 and often the confidence was betrayed4 ,now1 that education is abroad in the land1 there is seldom any occasion for any person to call upon the service of another to compose and write a personal letter4 ,very few now-a-days are so grossly illiterate as not to be able to read and write4 ,no matter how crude his effort may be it is better for any one to write his own letters than trust to another4 ,even if he should commence1--deer fren1 i lift up my pen to let ye no that i hove been sik for the past #c weeks1 hopping this will findye the same1 his spelling and construction can be excused in view of the fact that his intention is good1 and that he is doing his best to serve his own turn without depending upon others4 ,the nature1 substance and tone of any letter depend upon the occasion that calls it forth1 upon the person writing it and upon the person for whom it is intended4 ,whether it should be easy or formal in style1 plain or ornate1 light or serious1 gay or grave1 sentimental or matter-of-fact depend upon these three circumstances4 ,in letter writing the first and most important requisites are to be natural and simple2 there should be no straining after effect1 but simply a spontaneous out-pouring of thoughts and ideas as they naturally occur to the writer4 ,we are repelled by a person who is stiff and labored in his conversation and in the same way the stiff and labored letter bores the reader4 ,whereas if it is light and in a conversational vein it immediately engages his attention4 ,the letter which is written with the greatest facility is the best kind of letter because it naturally expresses what is in the writer1 he has not to search for his words1 they flow in a perfect unison with the ideas he desires to communicate4 ,when you write to your friend ,john ,browne to tell him how you spent ,sunday you have not to look around for the words1 or study set phrases with a view to please or impress ,browne1 you just tell him the same as if he were present before you1 how you spent the day1 where you were1 with whom you associated and the chief incidents that occurred during the time4 ,thus1 you write natural and it is such writing that is adapted to epistolary correspondence4 ,there are different kinds of letters1 each calling for a different style of address and composition1 nevertheless the natural key should be maintained in all1 that is to say1 the writer should never attempt to convey an impression that he is other than what he is4 ,it would be silly as well as vain for the common street laborer of a limited education to try to put on literary airs and emulate a college professor2 he may have as good a brain1 but it is not as well developed by education1 and he lacks the polish which society confers4 ,when writing a letter the street laborer should bear in mind that only the letter of a street-laborer is expected from him1 no matter to whom his communication may be addressed and that neither the grammar nor the diction of a ,chesterfield or ,gladstone is looked for in his language4 ,still the writer should keep in mind the person to whom he is writing4 ,if it is to an ,archbishop or some other great dignitary of ,church or state it certainly should be couched in terms different from those he uses to ,john ,browne1 his intimate friend4 ,just as he cannot say ,dear ,john to an ,archbishop1 no more can he address him in the familiar words he uses to his friend of everyday acquaintance and companionship4 ,yet there is no great learning required to write to an ,archbishop1 no more than to an ordinary individual4 ,all the laborer needs to know is the form of address and how to properly utilize his limited vocabulary to the best advantage4 ,here is the form for such a letter3 #ag ,second ,avenue1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,january #ast1 #aiaj4 ,most ,rev4 ,p4 ,a4 ,jordan1 ,archbishop of ,new ,york4 ,most ,rev4 and dear ,sir3-- ,while sweeping the crossing at ,fifth ,avenue and #ejth street on last ,wednesday morning1 ,i found the enclosed ,fifty ,dollar ,bill1 which ,i am sending to you in the hope that it may be restored to the rightful owner4 ,i beg you will acknowledge receipt and should the owner be found ,i trust you will notify me1 so that ,i may claim some reward for my honesty4 ,i am1 ,most ,rev4 and dear ,sir1 ,very respectfully yours1 ,thomas ,jones4 ,observe the brevity of the letter4 ,jones makes no suggestions to the ,archbishop how to find the owner1 for he knows the course the ,archbishop will adopt1 of having the finding of the bill announced from the ,church pulpits4 ,could ,jones himself find the owner there would be no occasion to apply to the ,archbishop4 ,this letter1 it is true1 is different from that which he would send to ,browne4 ,nevertheless it is simple without being familiar1 is just a plain statement1 and is as much to the point for its purpose as if it were garnished with rhetoric and words of learned length and thundering sound4 ,letters may be divided into those of friendship1 acquaintanceship1 those of business relations1 those written in an official capacity by public servants1 those designed to teach1 and those which give accounts of the daily happenings on the stage of life1 in other words1 news letters4 ,letters of friendship are the most common and their style and form depend upon the degree of relationship and intimacy existing between the writers and those addressed4 ,between relatives and intimate friends the beginning and end may be in the most familiar form of conversation1 either affectionate or playful4 ,they should1 however1 never overstep the boundaries of decency and propriety1 for it is well to remember that1 unlike conversation1 which only is heard by the ears for which it is intended1 written words may come under eyes other than those for whom they were designed4 ,therefore1 it is well never to write anything which the world may not read without detriment to your character or your instincts4 ,you can be joyful1 playful1 jocose1 give vent to your feelings1 but never stoop to low language and1 above all1 to language savoring in the slightest degree of moral impropriety4 ,business letters are of the utmost importance on account of the interests involved4 ,the business character of a man or of a firm is often judged by the correspondence4 ,on many occasions letters instead of developing trade and business interests and gaining clientele1 predispose people unfavorably towards those whom they are designed to benefit4 ,ambiguous1 slip-shod language is a detriment to success4 ,business letters should be clear1 concise1 to the point and1 above all1 honest1 giving no wrong impressions or holding out any inducements that cannot be fulfilled4 ,in business letters1 just as in business conduct1 honesty is always the best policy4 ,official letters are mostly always formal4 ,they should possess clearness1 brevity and dignity of tone to impress the receivers with the proper respect for the national laws and institutions4 ,letters designed to teach or didactic letters are in a class all by themselves4 ,they are simply literature in the form of letters and are employed by some of the best writers to give their thoughts and ideas a greater emphasis4 ,the most conspicuous example of this kind of composition is the book on ,etiquette by ,lord ,chesterfield1 which took the form of a series of letters to his son4 ,news letters are accounts of world happenings and descriptions of ceremonies and events sent into the newspapers4 ,some of the best authors of our time are newspaper men who write in an easy flowing style which is most readable1 full of humor and fancy and which carries one along with breathless interest from beginning to end4 ,the principal parts of a letter are 7#a7 the heading or introduction2 7#b7 the body or substance of the letter2 7#c7 the subscription or closing expression and signature2 7#d7 the address or direction on the envelope4 ,for the body of a letter no forms or rules can be laid down as it altogether depends on the nature of the letter and the relationship between the writer and the person addressed4 ,there are certain rules which govern the other three features and which custom has sanctioned4 ,every one should be acquainted with these rules4 ,,the ,,heading ,the ,heading has three parts1 viz41 the name of the place1 the date of writing and the designation of the person or persons addressed2 thus3 #gc ,new ,street1 ,newark1 ,n4 ,j41 ,february #ast1 #aiaj4 ,messr4 ,ginn and ,co41 ,new ,york ,gentlemen3 ,the name of the place should never be omitted2 in cities1 street and number should always be given1 and except when the city is large and very conspicuous1 so that there can be no question as to its identity with another of the same or similar name1 the abbreviation of the ,state should be appended1 as in the above1 ,newark1 ,n4 ,j4 ,there is another ,newark in the ,state of ,ohio4 ,owing to failure to comply with this rule many letters go astray4 ,the date should be on every letter1 especially business letters4 ,the date should never be put at the bottom in a business letter1 but in friendly letters this may be done4 ,the designation of the person or persons addressed differs according to the relations of the correspondents4 ,letters of friendship may begin in many ways according to the degrees of friendship or intimacy4 ,thus3 ,my dear ,wife3 ,my dear ,husband3 ,my dear ,friend3 ,my darling ,mother3 ,my dearest ,love3 ,dear ,aunt3 ,dear ,uncle3 ,dear ,george3 etc4 ,to mark a lesser degree of intimacy such formal designations as the following may be employed3 ,dear ,sir3 ,my dear ,sir3 ,dear ,mr4 ,smith3 ,dear ,madam3 etc4 ,for clergymen who have the degree of ,doctor of ,divinity1 the designation is as follows3 ,rev4 ,alban ,johnson1 ,d4 ,d4 ,my dear ,sir3 or ,rev4 and dear ,sir3 or more familiarly ,dear ,dr4 ,johnson3 ,bishops of the ,roman and ,anglican ,communions are addressed as ,right ,reverend4 ,the ,rt4 ,rev41 the ,bishop of ,long ,island4 or ,the ,rt4 ,rev4 ,frederick ,burgess1 ,bishop of ,long ,island4 ,rt4 ,rev4 and dear ,sir3 ,archbishops of the ,roman ,church are addressed as ,most ,reverend and ,cardinals as ,eminence4 ,thus3 ,the ,most ,rev4 ,archbishop ,katzer4 ,most ,rev4 and dear ,sir3 ,his ,eminence1 ,james ,cardinal ,gibbons1 ,archbishop of ,baltimore4 ,may it please your ,eminence3 ,the title of the ,governor of a ,state or territory and of the ,president of the ,united ,states is ,excellency4 ,however1 ,honorable is more commonly applied to ,governors3-- ,his ,excellency1 ,william ,howard ,taft1 ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,sir3-- ,his ,excellency1 ,charles ,evans ,hughes1 ,governor of the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,sir3-- ,honorable ,franklin ,fort1 ,governor of ,new ,jersey4 ,sir3-- ,the general salutation for ,officers of the ,army and ,navy is ,sir4 ,the rank and station should be indicated in full at the head of the letter1 thus3 ,general ,joseph ,thompson1 ,commanding the ,seventh ,infantry4 ,sir3 ,rear ,admiral ,robert ,atkinson1 ,commanding the ,atlantic ,squadron4 ,sir3 ,the title of officers of the ,civil ,government is ,honorable and they are addressed as ,sir4 ,hon4 ,nelson ,duncan1 ,senator from ,ohio4 ,sir3 ,hon4 ,norman ,wingfield1 ,secretary of the ,treasury4 ,sir3 ,hon4 ,rupert ,gresham1 ,mayor of ,new ,york4 ,sir3 ,presidents and ,professors of ,colleges and ,universities are generally addressed as ,sir or ,dear ,sir4 ,professor ,ferguson ,jenks1 ,president of 4444444444 ,university4 ,sir3 or ,dear ,sir3 ,presidents of ,societies and ,associations are treated as business men and addressed as ,sir or ,dear ,sir4 ,mr4 ,joseph ,banks1 ,president of the ,night ,owls4 ,dear ,sir3 or ,sir3 ,doctors of ,medicine are addressed as ,sir3 ,my dear ,sir3 ,dear ,sir3 and more familiarly ,my dear ,dr3 or ,dear ,dr3 as ,ryerson ,pitkin1 ,m4 ,d4 ,sir3 ,dear ,sir3 ,my dear ,dr3 ,ordinary people with no degrees or titles are addressed as ,mr4 and ,mrs4 and are designed ,dear ,sir3 ,dear ,madam3 and an unmarried woman of any age is addressed on the envelope as ,miss ,so-and-so1 but always designed in the letter as ,dear ,madam3 ,the plural of ,mr4 as in addressing a firm is ,messrs1 and the corresponding salutation is ,dear ,sirs3 or ,gentlemen3 ,in ,england ,esq4 is used for ,mr4 as a mark of slight superiority and in this country it is sometimes used1 but it is practically obsolete4 ,custom is against it and ,american sentiment as well4 ,if it is used it should be only applied to lawyers and justices of the peace4 ,,subscription ,the ,subscription or ending of a letter consists of the term of respect or affection and the signature4 ,the term depends upon the relation of the person addressed4 ,letters of friendship can close with such expressions as3 ,yours lovingly1 ,yours affectionately1 ,devotedly yours1 ,ever yours1 etc4 as between husbands and wives or between lovers4 ,such gushing terminations as ,your ,own ,darling1 ,your own ,dovey and other pet and silly endings should be avoided1 as they denote shallowness4 ,love can be strongly expressed without dipping into the nonsensical and the farcical4 ,formal expressions of ,subscription are3 ,yours ,sincerely1 ,yours truly1 ,respectfully yours1 and the like1 and these may be varied to denote the exact bearing or attitude the writer wishes to assume to the person addressed3 as1 ,very sincerely yours1 ,very respectfully yours1 ,with deep respect yours1 ,yours very truly1 etc4 ,such elaborate endings as ,in the meantime with the highest respect1 ,i am yours to command1 ,i have the honor to be1 ,sir1 ,your humble ,servant1 ,with great expression of esteem1 ,i am ,sincerely yours1 ,believe me1 my dear ,sir1 ,ever faithfully yours1 are condemned as savoring too much of affectation4 ,it is better to finish formal letters without any such qualifying remarks4 ,if you are writing to ,mr4 ,ryan to tell him that you have a house for sale1 after describing the house and stating the terms simply sign yourself ,your obedient ,servant ,yours very truly1 ,yours with respect1 ,james ,wilson4 ,don't say you have the honor to be anything or ask him to believe anything1 all you want to tell him is that you have a house for sale and that you are sincere1 or hold him in respect as a prospective customer4 ,don't abbreviate the signature as3 ,y'rs ,resp'fly and always make your sex obvious4 ,write plainly ,yours truly1 ,john ,field and not ,j4 ,field1 so that the person to whom you send it may not take you for ,jane ,field4 ,it is always best to write the first name in full4 ,married women should prefix ,mrs4 to their names1 as ,very sincerely yours1 ,mrs4 ,theodore ,watson4 ,if you are sending a letter acknowledging a compliment or some kindness done you may say1 ,yours gratefully1 or ,yours very gratefully1 in proportion to the act of kindness received4 ,it is not customary to sign letters of degrees or titles after your name1 except you are a lord1 earl or duke and only known by the title1 but as we have no such titles in ,america it is unnecessary to bring this matter into consideration4 ,don't sign yourself1 ,sincerely yours1 ,obadiah ,jackson1 ,m4,a4 or ,l4,l4 ,d4 ,if you're an ,m4 ,a4 or an ,l4,l4 ,d4 people generally know it without your sounding your own trumpet4 ,many people1 and especially clergymen1 are fond of flaunting after their names degrees they have received honoris causa1 that is1 degrees as a mark of honor1 without examination4 ,such degrees should be kept in the background4 ,many a deadhead has these degrees which he could never have earned by brain work4 ,married women whose husbands are alive may sign the husband's name with the prefix ,mrs3 thus1 ,yours sincerely1 ,mrs4 ,william ,southey4 but when the husband is dead the signature should be-- ,yours sincerely1 ,mrs4 ,sarah ,southey4 ,so when we receive a letter from a woman we are enabled to tell whether she has a husband living or is a widow4 ,a woman separated from her husband but not a divorcee should not sign his name4 ,,address ,the address of a letter consists of the name1 the title and the residence4 ,mr4 ,hugh ,black1 #aab ,southgate ,street1 ,altoona1 ,pa4 ,intimate friends have often familiar names for each other1 such as pet names1 nicknames1 etc41 which they use in the freedom of conversation1 but such names should never1 under any circumstances1 appear on the envelope4 ,the subscription on the envelope should be always written with propriety and correctness and as if penned by an entire stranger4 ,the only difficulty in the envelope inscription is the title4 ,every man is entitled to ,mr4 and every lady to ,mrs4 and every unmarried lady to ,miss4 ,even a boy is entitled to ,master4 ,when more than one is addressed the title is ,messrs4 ,mesdames is sometimes written of women4 ,if the person addressed has a title it is courteous to use it1 but titles never must be duplicated4 ,thus1 we can write ,robert ,stitt1 ,m4 ,d41 but never ,dr4 ,robert ,stitt1 ,m4 ,d1 or ,mr4 ,robert ,stitt1 ,m4 ,d4 ,in writing to a medical doctor it is well to indicate his profession by the letters ,m4 ,d4 so as to differentiate him from a ,d4 ,d4 ,it is better to write ,robert ,stitt1 ,m4 ,d41 than ,dr4 ,robert ,stitt4 ,in the case of clergymen the prefix ,rev4 is retained even when they have other titles2 as ,rev4 ,tracy ,tooke1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,when a person has more titles than one it is customary to only give him the leading one4 ,thus instead of writing ,rev4 ,samuel ,mac,comb1 ,b4 ,a41 ,m4 ,a41 ,b4 ,sc41 ,ph4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,d4 ,d4 the form employed is ,rev4 ,samuel ,mac,comb1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,,ll4 ,d4 is appended in preference to ,d4 ,d4 because in most cases the ,rev4 implies a ,d4 ,d4 while comparatively few with the prefix ,rev4 are entitled to ,,ll4 ,d4 ,in the case of ,honorables such as ,governors1 ,judges1 ,members of ,congress1 and others of the ,civil ,government the prefix ,hon4 does away with ,mr4 and ,esq4 ,thus we write ,hon4 ,josiah ,snifkins1 not ,hon4 ,mr4 ,josiah ,snifkins or ,hon4 ,josiah ,snifkins1 ,esq4 ,though this prefix ,hon4 is also often applied to ,governors they should be addressed as ,excellency4 ,for instance3 ,his ,excellency1 ,charles ,e4 ,hughes1 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 ,in writing to the ,president the superscription on the envelope should be ,to the ,president1 ,executive ,mansion1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,professional men such as doctors and lawyers as well as those having legitimately earned ,college ,degrees may be addressed on the envelopes by their titles1 as ,jonathan ,janeway1 ,m4 ,d4 ,hubert ,houston1 ,b4 ,l4 ,matthew ,marks1 ,m4 ,a41 etc4 ,the residence of the person addressed should be plainly written out in full4 ,the street and numbers should be given and the city or town written very legibly4 ,if the abbreviation of the ,state is liable to be confounded or confused with that of another then the full name of the ,state should be written4 ,in writing the residence on the envelope1 instead of putting it all in one line as is done at the head of a letter1 each item of the residence forms a separate line4 ,thus1 ,liberty1 ,sullivan ,county1 ,new ,york4 #bae ,minna ,st41 ,san ,francisco1 ,california4 ,there should be left a space for the postage stamp in the upper right hand corner4 ,the name and title should occupy a line that is about central between the top of the envelope and the bottom4 ,the name should neither be too much to right or left but located in the centre1 the beginning and end at equal distances from either end4 ,in writing to large business concerns which are well known or to public or city officials it is sometimes customary to leave out number and street4 ,thus1 ,messrs4 ,seigel1 ,cooper ,co41 ,new ,york ,city1 ,hon4 ,william ,j4 ,gaynor1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,,notes ,notes may be regarded as letters in miniature confined chiefly to invitations1 acceptances1 regrets and introductions1 and modern etiquette tends towards informality in their composition4 ,card etiquette1 in fact1 has taken the place of ceremonious correspondence and informal notes are now the rule4 ,invitations to dinner and receptions are now mostly written on cards4 ,regrets are sent back on visiting cards with just the one word ,regrets plainly written thereon4 ,often on cards and notes of invitation we find the letters ,r4 ,s4 ,v4 ,p4 at the bottom4 ,these letters stand for the ,french repondez s'il vous plait1 which means ,reply1 if you please1 but there is no necessity to put this on an invitation card as every well-bred person knows that a reply is expected4 ,in writing notes to young ladies of the same family it should be noted that the eldest daughter of the house is entitled to the designation ,miss without any ,christian name1 only the surname appended4 ,thus if there are three daughters in the ,thompson family ,martha1 the eldest1 ,susan and ,jemina1 ,martha is addressed as ,miss ,thompson and the other two as ,miss ,susan ,thompson and ,miss ,jemina ,thompson respectively4 ,don't write the word addressed on the envelope of a note4 ,don't seal a note delivered by a friend4 ,don't write a note on a postal card4 ,here are a few common forms3-- ,,formal ,,invitations ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,henry ,wagstaff request the honor of ,mr4 ,mc,adoo's presence on ,friday evening1 ,june #aeth1 at #h o'clock to meet the ,governor of the ,fort4 #ai ,woodbine ,terrace ,june #hth1 #aiaj4 ,this is an invitation to a formal reception calling for evening dress4 ,here is ,mr4 ,mc,adoo's reply in the third person3-- ,mr4 ,mc,adoo presents his compliments to ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,henry ,wagstaff and accepts with great pleasure their invitation to meet the ,governor of the ,fort on the evening of ,june fifteenth4 #bae ,beacon ,street1 ,june #ajth1 #aiaj4 ,here is how ,mr4 ,mc,adoo might decline the invitation3-- ,mr4 ,mc,adoo regrets that owing to a prior engagement he must forego the honor of paying his respects to ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,wagstaff and the ,governor of the ,fort on the evening of ,june fifteenth4 #bae ,beacon ,st41 ,june #ajth1 #aiaj4 ,here is a note addressed1 say to ,mr4 ,jeremiah ,reynolds4 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,oldham at home on ,wednesday evening ,october ninth from seven to eleven4 #ba ,ashland ,avenue1 ,october #eth4 ,mr4 ,reynolds makes reply3-- ,mr4 ,reynolds accepts with high appreciation the honor of ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,oldham's invitation for ,wednesday evening ,october ninth4 ,windsor ,hotel ,october #gth or ,mr4 ,reynolds regrets that his duties render it impossible for him to accept ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,oldham's kind invitation for the evening of ,october ninth4 ,windsor ,hotel1 ,october #gth1 ,sometimes less informal invitations are sent on small specially designed note paper in which the first person takes the place of the third4 ,thus #cfj ,pine ,st41 ,dec4 #aath1 #aiaj4 ,dear ,mr4 ,saintsbury3 ,mr4 ,johnson and ,i should be much pleased to have you dine with us and a few friends next ,thursday1 the fifteenth1 at half past seven4 ,yours sincerely1 ,emma ,burnside4 ,mr4 ,saintsbury's reply3 #eg ,carlyle ,strand ,dec4 #acth1 #aiaj4 ,dear ,mrs4 ,burnside3 ,let me accept very appreciatively your invitation to dine with ,mr4 ,burnside and you on next ,thursday1 the fifteenth1 at half past seven4 ,yours sincerely1 ,henry ,saintsbury4 ,mrs4 ,alexander ,burnside4 ,,notes ,,of ,,introduction ,notes of introduction should be very circumspect as the writers are in reality vouching for those whom they introduce4 ,here is a specimen of such a note4 #fjc ,lexington ,ave41 ,new ,york ,city1 ,june #aeth1 #aiaj4 ,rev4 ,cyrus ,c4 ,wiley1 ,d4 ,d41 ,newark1 ,n4 ,j4 ,my dear ,dr4 ,wiley3 ,i take the liberty of presenting to you my friend1 ,stacy ,redfern1 ,m4 ,d41 a young practitioner1 who is anxious to locate in ,newark4 ,i have known him many years and can vouch for his integrity and professional standing4 ,any courtesy and kindness which you may show him will be very much appreciated by me4 ,very sincerely yours1 ,franklin ,jewett4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,errors ,mistakes--,slips of ,authors--,examples and ,corrections--,errors of ,redundancy4 ,in the following examples the word or words in parentheses are uncalled for and should be omitted3 #a4 ,fill the glass 7full74 #b4 ,they appeared to be talking 7together7 on private affairs4 #c4 ,i saw the boy and his sister 7both7 in the garden4 #d4 ,he went into the country last week and returned 7back7 yesterday4 #e4 ,the subject 7matter7 of his discourse was excellent4 #f4 ,you need not wonder that the 7subject7 matter of his discourse was excellent2 it was taken from the ,bible4 #g4 ,they followed 7after7 him1 but could not overtake him4 #h4 ,the same sentiments may be found throughout 7the whole of7 the book4 #i4 ,i was very ill every day 7of my life7 last week4 #aj4 ,that was the 7sum and7 substance of his discourse4 #aa4 ,he took wine and water and mixed them 7both7 together4 #ab4 ,he descended 7down7 the steps to the cellar4 #ac4 ,he fell 7down7 from the top of the house4 #ad4 ,i hope you will return 7again7 soon4 #ae4 ,the things he took away he restored 7again74 #af4 ,the thief who stole my watch was compelled to restore it 7back again74 #ag4 ,it is equally 7the same7 to me whether ,i have it today or tomorrow4 #ah4 ,she said1 7says she7 the report is false2 and he replied1 7says he7 if it be not correct ,i have been misinformed4 #ai4 ,i took my place in the cars 7for7 to go to ,new ,york4 #bj4 ,they need not 7to7 call upon him4 #ba4 ,nothing 7else7 but that would satisfy him4 #bb4 ,whenever ,i ride in the cars ,i 7always7 find it prejudicial to my health4 #bc4 ,he was the first 7of all7 at the meeting4 #bd4 ,he was the tallest of 7all7 the brothers4 #be4 ,you are the tallest of 7all7 your family4 #bf4 ,whenever ,i pass the house he is 7always7 at the door4 #bg4 ,the rain has penetrated 7through7 the roof4 #bh4 ,besides my uncle and aunt there was 7also7 my grandfather at the church4 #bi4 ,it should 7ever7 be your constant endeavor to please your family4 #cj4 ,if it is true as you have heard 7then7 his situation is indeed pitiful4 #ca4 ,either this 7here7 man or that 7there7 woman has 7got7 it4 #cb4 ,where is the fire 7at78 #cc4 ,did you sleep in church8 ,not that ,i know 7of74 #cd4 ,i never before 7in my life7 met 7with7 such a stupid man4 #ce4 7,for7 why did he postpone it8 #cf4 ,because 7why7 he could not attend4 #cg4 ,what age is he8 7,why7 ,i don't know4 #ch4 ,he called on me 7for7 to ask my opinion4 #ci4 ,i don't know where ,i am 7at74 #dj4 ,i looked in 7at7 the window4 #da4 ,i passed 7by7 the house4 #db4 ,he 7always7 came every ,sunday4 #dc4 ,moreover1 7also7 we wish to say he was in error4 #dd4 ,it is not long 7ago7 since he was here4 #de4 ,two men went into the wood 7in order7 to cut 7down7 trees4 ,further examples of redundancy might be multiplied4 ,it is very common in newspaper writing where not alone single words but entire phrases are sometimes brought in1 which are unnecessary to the sense or explanation of what is written4 ,,grammatical ,,errors ,,of ,,standard ,,authors ,even the best speakers and writers are sometimes caught napping4 ,many of our standard authors to whom we have been accustomed to look up as infallible have sinned more or less against the fundamental principles of grammar by breaking the rules regarding one or more of the nine parts of speech4 ,in fact some of them have recklessly trespassed against all nine1 and still they sit on their pedestals of fame for the admiration of the crowd4 ,macaulay mistreated the article4 ,he wrote1--,that a historian should not record trifles is perfectly true4 ,he should have used an4 ,dickens also used the article incorrectly4 ,he refers to ,robinson ,crusoe as an universally popular book1 instead of a universally popular book4 ,the relation between nouns and pronouns has always been a stumbling block to speakers and writers4 ,hallam in his ,literature of ,europe writes1 ,no one as yet had exhibited the structure of the human kidneys1 ,vesalius having only examined them in dogs4 ,this means that ,vesalius examined human kidneys in dogs4 ,the sentence should have been1 ,no one had as yet exhibited the kidneys in human beings1 ,vesalius having examined such organs in dogs only4 ,sir ,arthur ,helps in writing of ,dickens1 states--,i knew a brother author of his who received such criticisms from him 7,dickens7 very lately and profited by it4 ,instead of it the word should be them to agree with criticisms4 ,here are a few other pronominal errors from leading authors3 ,sir ,thomas ,moore in general so writes it1 although not many others so late as him4 ,should be he4--,trench's ,english ,past and ,present4 ,what should we gain by it but that we should speedily become as poor as them4 ,should be they4--,alison's ,essay on ,macaulay4 ,if the king gives us leave you or ,i may as lawfully preach1 as them that do4 ,should be they or those1 the latter having persons understood4--,hobbes's ,history of ,civil ,wars4 ,the drift of all his sermons was1 to prepare the ,jews for the reception of a prophet1 mightier than him1 and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear4 ,should be than he4--,atterbury's ,sermons4 ,phalaris1 who was so much older than her4 ,should be she4--,bentley's ,dissertation on ,phalaris4 ,king ,charles1 and more than him1 the duke and the ,popish faction were at liberty to form new schemes4 ,should be than he4--,bolingbroke's ,dissertations on ,parties4 ,we contributed a third more than the ,dutch1 who were obliged to the same proportion more than us4 ,should be than we4--,swift's ,conduct of the ,allies4 ,in all the above examples the objective cases of the pronouns have been used while the construction calls for nominative cases4 ,let thou and ,i the battle try--,anon4 ,here let is the governing verb and requires an objective case after it2 therefore instead of thou and ,i1 the words should be you 7sing47 and me4 ,forever in this humble cell1 ,let thee and ,i1 my fair one1 dwell --,prior4 ,here thee and ,i should be the objectives you and me4 ,the use of the relative pronoun trips the greatest number of authors4 ,even in the ,bible we find the relative wrongly translated3 ,whom do men say that ,i am8--,st4 ,matthew4 ,whom think ye that ,i am8--,acts of the ,apostles4 ,who should be written in both cases because the word is not in the objective governed by say or think1 but in the nominative dependent on the verb am4 ,who should ,i meet at the coffee house t'other night1 but my old friend8--,steele4 ,it is another pattern of this answerer's fair dealing1 to give us hints that the author is dead1 and yet lay the suspicion upon somebody1 ,i know not who1 in the country4--,swift's ,tale of a ,tub4 ,my son is going to be married to ,i don't know who4--,goldsmith's ,good-natured ,man4 ,the nominative who in the above examples should be the objective whom4 ,the plural nominative ye of the pronoun thou is very often used for the objective you1 as in the following3 ,his wrath which will one day destroy ye both4--,milton4 ,the more shame for ye2 holy men ,i thought ye4--,shakespeare4 ,i feel the gales that from ye blow4--,gray4 ,tyrants dread ye1 lest your just decree ,transfer the power and set the people free4--,prior4 ,many of the great writers have played havoc with the adjective in the indiscriminate use of the degrees of comparison4 ,of two forms of the same word1 use the fittest4--,morell4 ,the author here in trying to give good advice sets a bad example4 ,he should have used the comparative degree1 ,fitter4 ,adjectives which have a comparative or superlative signification do not admit the addition of the words more1 most1 or the terminations1 er1 est1 hence the following examples break this rule3 ,money is the most universal incitement of human misery4--,gibbon's ,decline and ,fall4 ,the chiefest of which was known by the name of ,archon among the ,grecians4--,dryden's ,life of ,plutarch4 ,the chiefest and largest are removed to certain magazines they call libraries4--,swift's ,battle of the ,books4 ,the two chiefest properties of air1 its gravity and elastic force1 have been discovered by mechanical experiments4--,arbuthno4 ,from these various causes1 which in greater or lesser degree1 affected every individual in the colony1 the indignation of the people became general4--,robertson's ,history of ,america4 ,the extremest parts of the earth were meditating a submission4 --,atterbury's ,sermons4 ,the last are indeed more preferable because they are founded on some new knowledge or improvement in the mind of man4--,addison1 ,spectator4 ,this was in reality the easiest manner of the two4--,shaftesbury's ,advice to an ,author4 ,in every well formed mind this second desire seems to be the strongest of the two4--,smith's ,theory of ,moral ,sentiments4 ,in these examples the superlative is wrongly used for the comparative4 ,when only two objects are compared the comparative form must be used4 ,of impossibility there are no degrees of comparison1 yet we find the following3 ,as it was impossible they should know the words1 thoughts and secret actions of all men1 so it was more impossible they should pass judgment on them according to these things4--,whitby's ,necessity of the ,christian ,religion4 ,a great number of authors employ adjectives for adverbs4 ,thus we find3 ,i shall endeavor to live hereafter suitable to a man in my station4 --,addison4 ,i can never think so very mean of him4--,bentley's ,dissertation on ,phalaris4 ,his expectations run high and the fund to supply them is extreme scanty4--,lancaster's ,essay on ,delicacy4 ,the commonest error in the use of the verb is the disregard of the concord between the verb and its subject4 ,this occurs most frequently when the subject and the verb are widely separated1 especially if some other noun of a different number immediately precedes the verb4 ,false concords occur very often after either1 or1 neither1 nor1 and much1 more1 many1 everyone1 each4 ,here are a few authors' slips3-- ,the terms in which the sale of a patent were communicated to the public4--,junius's ,letters4 ,the richness of her arms and apparel were conspicuous4--,gibbon's ,decline and ,fall4 ,everyone of this grotesque family were the creatures of national genius4--,d',israeli4 ,he knows not what spleen1 languor or listlessness are4--,blair's ,sermons4 ,each of these words imply1 some pursuit or object relinquished4 --,ibid4 ,magnus1 with four thousand of his supposed accomplices were put to death4--,gibbon4 ,no nation gives greater encouragements to learning than we do2 yet at the same time none are so injudicious in the application4 --,goldsmith4 ,there's two or three of us have seen strange sights4--,shakespeare4 ,the past participle should not be used for the past tense1 yet the learned ,byron overlooked this fact4 ,he thus writes in the ,lament of ,tasso3-- ,and with my years my soul begun to pant ,with feelings of strange tumult and soft pain4 ,here is another example from ,savage's ,wanderer in which there is double sinning3 ,from liberty each nobler science sprung1 ,a ,bacon brighten'd and a ,spenser sung4 ,other breaches in regard to the participles occur in the following3-- ,every book ought to be read with the same spirit and in the same manner as it is writ--,fielding's ,tom ,jones4 ,the ,court of ,augustus had not wore off the manners of the republic --,hume's ,essays4 ,moses tells us that the fountains of the earth were broke open or clove asunder4--,burnet4 ,a free constitution when it has been shook by the iniquity of former administrations4--,bolingbroke4 ,in this respect the seeds of future divisions were sowed abundantly4 --,ibid4 ,in the following example the present participle is used for the infinitive mood3 ,it is easy distinguishing the rude fragment of a rock from the splinter of a statue4--,gilfillan's ,literary ,portraits4 ,distinguishing here should be replaced by to distinguish4 ,the rules regarding shall and will are violated in the following3 ,if we look within the rough and awkward outside1 we will be richly rewarded by its perusal4--,gilfillan's ,literary ,portraits4 ,if ,i should declare them and speak of them1 they should be more than ,i am able to express4--,prayer ,book ,revision of ,psalms ,,xi4 ,if ,i would declare them and speak of them1 they are more than can be numbered4--,ibid4 ,without having attended to this1 we will be at a loss1 in understanding several passages in the classics4--,blair's ,lectures4 ,we know to what cause our past reverses have been owing and we will have ourselves to blame1 if they are again incurred4--,alison's ,history of ,europe4 ,adverbial mistakes often occur in the best writers4 ,the adverb rather is a word very frequently misplaced4 ,archbishop ,trench in his ,english ,past and ,present writes1 ,it rather modified the structure of our sentences than the elements of our vocabulary4 ,this should have been written1--,it modified the structure of our sentences rather than the elements of our vocabulary4 ,so far as his mode of teaching goes he is rather a disciple of ,socrates than of ,st4 ,paul or ,wesley4 ,thus writes ,leslie ,stephens of ,dr4 ,johnson4 ,he should have written1-- ,so far as his mode of teaching goes he is a disciple of ,socrates rather than of ,st4 ,paul or ,wesley4 ,the preposition is a part of speech which is often wrongly used by some of the best writers4 ,certain nouns1 adjectives and verbs require particular prepositions after them1 for instance1 the word different always takes the preposition from after it2 prevail takes upon2 averse takes to2 accord takes with1 and so on4 ,in the following examples the prepositions in parentheses are the ones that should have been used3 ,he found the greatest difficulty of 7in7 writing4--,hume's ,history of ,england4 ,if policy can prevail upon 7over7 force4--,addison4 ,he made the discovery and communicated to 7with7 his friends4 --,swift's ,tale of a ,tub4 ,every office of command should be intrusted to persons on 7in7 whom the parliament shall confide4--,macaulay4 ,several of the most celebrated writers infringe the canons of style by placing prepositions at the end of sentences4 ,for instance ,carlyle1 in referring to the ,study of ,burns1 writes3--,our own contributions to it1 we are aware1 can be but scanty and feeble2 but we offer them with good will1 and trust they may meet with acceptance from those they are intended for4 --for whom they are intended1 he should have written4 ,most writers have some one vein which they peculiarly and obviously excel in4--,william ,minto4 ,this sentence should read1--,most writers have some one vein in which they peculiarly and obviously excel4 ,many authors use redundant words which repeat the same thought and idea4 ,this is called tautology4 ,notwithstanding which 7however7 poor ,polly embraced them all around4 --,dickens4 ,i judged that they would 7mutually7 find each other4--,crockett4 4444as having created a 7joint7 partnership between the two ,powers in the ,morocco question4--,the ,times4 ,the only sensible position 7there seems to be7 is to frankly acknowledge our ignorance of what lies beyond4--,daily ,telegraph4 ,lord ,rosebery has not budged from his position--splendid1 no doubt1--of 7lonely7 isolation4--,the ,times4 ,miss ,fox was 7often7 in the habit of assuring ,mrs4 ,chick4--,dickens4 ,the deck 7it7 was their field of fame4--,campbell4 ,he had come up one morning1 as was now 7frequently7 his wont1 --,trollope4 ,the counsellors of the ,sultan 7continue to7 remain sceptical --,the ,times4 ,seriously1 7and apart from jesting71 this is no light matter4--,bagehot4 ,to go back to your own country with 7the consciousness that you go back with7 the sense of duty well done4--,lord ,halsbury4 ,the ,peresviet lost both her fighting-tops and 7in appearance7 looked the most damaged of all the ships--,the ,times4 ,counsel admitted that1 that was a fair suggestion to make1 but he submitted that it was borne out by the 7surrounding7 circumstances4 --,ibid4 ,another unnecessary use of words and phrases is that which is termed circumlocution1 a going around the bush when there is no occasion for it1--save to fill space4 ,it may be likened to a person walking the distance of two sides of a triangle to reach the objective point4 ,for instance in the quotation3 ,pope professed to have learned his poetry from ,dryden1 whom1 whenever an opportunity was presented1 he praised through the whole period of his existence with unvaried liberality2 and perhaps his character may receive some illustration1 of a comparison he instituted between him and the man whose pupil he was much of the verbiage may be eliminated and the sentence thus condensed3 ,pope professed himself the pupil of ,dryden1 whom he lost no opportunity of praising2 and his character may be illustrated by a comparison with his master4 ,his life was brought to a close in #aiaj at an age not far from the one fixed by the sacred writer as the term of human existence4 ,this in brevity can be put1 ,his life was brought to a close at the age of seventy2 or1 better yet1 ,he died at the age of seventy4 ,the day was intensely cold1 so cold in fact that the thermometer crept down to the zero mark1 can be expressed3 ,the day was so cold the thermometer registered zero4 ,many authors resort to circumlocution for the purpose of padding1 that is1 filling space1 or when they strike a snag in writing upon subjects of which they know little or nothing4 ,the young writer should steer clear of it and learn to express his thoughts and ideas as briefly as possible commensurate with lucidity of expression4 ,volumes of errors in fact1 in grammar1 diction and general style1 could be selected from the works of the great writers1 a fact which eloquently testifies that no one is infallible and that the very best is liable to err at times4 ,however1 most of the erring in the case of these writers arises from carelessness or hurry1 not from a lack of knowledge4 ,as a general rule it is in writing that the scholar is liable to slip2 in oral speech he seldom makes a blunder4 ,in fact1 there are many people who are perfect masters of speech1--who never make a blunder in conversation1 yet who are ignorant of the very principles of grammar and would not know how to write a sentence correctly on paper4 ,such persons have been accustomed from infancy to hear the language spoken correctly and so the use of the proper words and forms becomes a second nature to them4 ,a child can learn what is right as easy as what is wrong and whatever impressions are made on the mind when it is plastic will remain there4 ,even a parrot can be taught the proper use of language4 ,repeat to a parrot4--,two and two make four and it never will say two and two makes four4 ,in writing1 however1 it is different4 ,without a knowledge of the fundamentals of grammar we may be able to speak correctly from association with good speakers1 but without such a knowledge we cannot hope to write the language correctly4 ,to write even a common letter we must know the principles of construction1 the relationship of one word to another4 ,therefore1 it is necessary for everybody to understand at least the essentials of the grammar of his own language4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,pitfalls ,,to ,,avoid ,common ,stumbling ,blocks--,peculiar ,constructions--,misused ,forms4 ,,attraction ,very often the verb is separated from its real nominative or subject by several intervening words and in such cases one is liable to make the verb agree with the subject nearest to it4 ,here are a few examples showing that the leading writers now and then take a tumble into this pitfall3 7#a7 ,the partition which the two ministers made of the powers of government were singularly happy4--,macaulay4 7,should be was to agree with its subject1 partition47 7#b7 ,one at least of the qualities which fit it for training ordinary men unfit it for training an extraordinary man4--,bagehot4 7,should be unfits to agree with subject one47 7#c7 ,the ,tibetans have engaged to exclude from their country those dangerous influences whose appearance were the chief cause of our action4--,the ,times4 7,should be was to agree with appearance47 7#d7 ,an immense amount of confusion and indifference prevail in these days4--,telegraph4 7,should be prevails to agree with amount47 ,,ellipsis ,errors in ellipsis occur chiefly with prepositions4 ,his objection and condoning of the boy's course1 seemed to say the least1 paradoxical4 7,the preposition to should come after objection47 ,many men of brilliant parts are crushed by force of circumstances and their genius forever lost to the world4 7,some maintain that the missing verb after genius is are1 but such is ungrammatical4 ,in such cases the right verb should be always expressed3 as--their genius is forever lost to the world47 ,,the ,,split ,,infinitive ,even the best speakers and writers are in the habit of placing a modifying word or words between the to and the remaining part of the infinitive4 ,it is possible that such will come to be looked upon in time as the proper form but at present the splitting of the infinitive is decidedly wrong4 ,he was scarcely able to even talk ,she commenced to rapidly walk around the room4 ,to have really loved is better than not to have at all loved4 ,in these constructions it is much better not to split the infinitive4 ,in every-day speech the best speakers sin against this observance4 ,in ,new ,york ,city there is a certain magistrate1 a member of the #djj1 who prides himself on his diction in language4 ,he tells this story3 ,a prisoner1 a faded1 battered specimen of mankind1 on whose haggard face1 deeply lined with the marks of dissipation1 there still lingered faint reminders of better days long past1 stood dejected before the judge4 ,where are you from8 asked the magistrate4 ,from ,boston1 answered the accused4 ,indeed1 said the judge1 indeed1 yours is a sad case1 and yet you don't seem to thoroughly realise how low you have sunk4 ,the man stared as if struck4 ,your honor does me an injustice1 he said bitterly4 ,the disgrace of arrest for drunkenness1 the mortification of being thrust into a noisome dungeon1 the publicity and humiliation of trial in a crowded and dingy courtroom ,i can bear1 but to be sentenced by a ,police ,magistrate who splits his infinitives--that is indeed the last blow4 ,,one ,the indefinite adjective pronoun one when put in place of a personal substantive is liable to raise confusion4 ,when a sentence or expression is begun with the impersonal one the word must be used throughout in all references to the subject4 ,thus1 ,one must mind one's own business if one wishes to succeed may seem prolix and awkward1 nevertheless it is the proper form4 ,you must not say--,one must mind his business if he wishes to succeed1 for the subject is impersonal and therefore cannot exclusively take the masculine pronoun4 ,with any one it is different4 ,you may say--,if any one sins he should acknowledge it2 let him not try to hide it by another sin4 ,,only ,this is a word that is a pitfall to the most of us whether learned or unlearned4 ,probably it is the most indiscriminately used word in the language4 ,from the different positions it is made to occupy in a sentence it can relatively change the meaning4 ,for instance in the sentence--,i only struck him that time1 the meaning to be inferred is1 that the only thing ,i did to him was to strike him1 not kick or otherwise abuse him4 ,but if the only is shifted1 so as to make the sentence read-,i struck him only that time the meaning conveyed is1 that only on that occasion and at no other time did ,i strike him4 ,if another shift is made to-,i struck only him that time1 the meaning is again altered so that it signifies he was the only person ,i struck4 ,in speaking we can by emphasis impress our meaning on our hearers1 but in writing we have nothing to depend upon but the position of the word in the sentence4 ,the best rule in regard to only is to place it immediately before the word or phrase it modifies or limits4 ,,alone is another word which creates ambiguity and alters meaning4 ,if we substitute it for only in the preceding example the meaning of the sentence will depend upon the arrangement4 ,thus ,i alone struck him at that time signifies that ,i and no other struck him4 ,when the sentence reads ,i struck him alone at that time it must be interpreted that he was the only person that received a blow4 ,again if it is made to read ,i struck him at that time alone the sense conveyed is that that was the only occasion on which ,i struck him4 ,the rule which governs the correct use of only is also applicable to alone4 ,,other ,,and ,,another ,these are words which often give to expressions a meaning far from that intended4 ,thus1 ,i have nothing to do with that other rascal across the street1 certainly means that ,i am a rascal myself4 ,i sent the despatch to my friend1 but another villain intercepted it1 clearly signifies that my friend is a villain4 ,a good plan is to omit these words when they can be readily done without1 as in the above examples1 but when it is necessary to use them make your meaning clear4 ,you can do this by making each sentence or phrase in which they occur independent of contextual aid4 ,,and ,,with ,,the ,,relative ,never use and with the relative in this manner3 ,that is the dog ,i meant and which ,i know is of pure breed4 ,this is an error quite common4 ,the use of and is permissible when there is a parallel relative in the preceding sentence or clause4 ,thus3 ,there is the dog which ,i meant and which ,i know is of pure breed is quite correct4 ,,loose ,,participles ,a participle or participial phrase is naturally referred to the nearest nominative4 ,if only one nominative is expressed it claims all the participles that are not by the construction of the sentence otherwise fixed4 ,john1 working in the field all day and getting thirsty1 drank from the running stream4 ,here the participles working and getting clearly refer to ,john4 ,but in the sentence1--,swept along by the mob ,i could not save him1 the participle as it were is lying around loose and may be taken to refer to either the person speaking or to the person spoken about4 ,it may mean that ,i was swept along by the mob or the individual whom ,i tried to save was swept along4 ,going into the store the roof fell can be taken that it was the roof which was going into the store when it fell4 ,of course the meaning intended is that some person or persons were going into the store just as the roof fell4 ,in all sentence construction with participles there should be such clearness as to preclude all possibility of ambiguity4 ,the participle should be so placed that there can be no doubt as to the noun to which it refers4 ,often it is advisable to supply such words as will make the meaning obvious4 ,,broken ,,construction ,sometimes the beginning of a sentence presents quite a different grammatical construction from its end4 ,this arises from the fact probably1 that the beginning is lost sight of before the end is reached4 ,this occurs frequently in long sentences4 ,thus3 ,honesty1 integrity and square-dealing will bring anybody much better through life than the absence of either4 ,here the construction is broken at than4 ,the use of either1 only used in referring to one of two1 shows that the fact is forgotten that three qualities and not two are under consideration4 ,any one of the three meanings might be intended in the sentence1 viz41 absence of any one quality1 absence of any two of the qualities or absence of the whole three qualities4 ,either denotes one or the other of two and should never be applied to any one of more than two4 ,when we fall into the error of constructing such sentences as above1 we should take them apart and reconstruct them in a different grammatical form4 ,thus1--,honesty1 integrity and square-dealing will bring a man much better through life than a lack of these qualities which are almost essential to success4 ,,double ,,negative ,it must be remembered that two negatives in the ,english language destroy each other and are equivalent to an affirmative4 ,thus ,i don't know nothing about it is intended to convey1 that ,i am ignorant of the matter under consideration1 but it defeats its own purpose1 inasmuch as the use of nothing implies that ,i know something about it4 ,the sentence should read--,i don't know anything about it4 ,often we hear such expressions as ,he was not asked to give no opinion1 expressing the very opposite of what is intended4 ,this sentence implies that he was asked to give his opinion4 ,the double negative1 therefore1 should be carefully avoided1 for it is insidious and is liable to slip in and the writer remain unconscious of its presence until the eye of the critic detects it4 ,,first ,,personal ,,pronoun ,the use of the first personal pronoun should be avoided as much as possible in composition4 ,don't introduce it by way of apology and never use such expressions as ,in my opinion1 ,as far as ,i can see1 ,it appears to me1 ,i believe1 etc4 ,in what you write1 the whole composition is expressive of your views1 since you are the author1 therefore1 there is no necessity for you to accentuate or emphasize yourself at certain portions of it4 ,moreover1 the big ,i's savor of egotism6 ,steer clear of them as far as you can4 ,the only place where the first person is permissible is in passages where you are stating a view that is not generally held and which is likely to meet with opposition4 ,,sequence ,,of ,,tenses ,when two verbs depend on each other their tenses must have a definite relation to each other4 ,i shall have much pleasure in accepting your kind invitation is wrong1 unless you really mean that just now you decline though by-and-by you intend to accept2 or unless you mean that you do accept now1 though you have no pleasure in doing so1 but look forward to be more pleased by-and-by4 ,in fact the sequence of the compound tenses puzzle experienced writers4 ,the best plan is to go back in thought to the time in question and use the tense you would then naturally use4 ,now in the sentence ,i should have liked to have gone to see the circus the way to find out the proper sequence is to ask yourself the question--what is it ,i should have liked to do8 and the plain answer is to go to see the circus4 ,i cannot answer--,to have gone to see the circus for that would imply that at a certain moment ,i would have liked to be in the position of having gone to the circus4 ,but ,i do not mean this2 ,i mean that at the moment at which ,i am speaking ,i wish ,i had gone to see the circus4 ,the verbal phrase ,i should have liked carries me back to the time when there was a chance of seeing the circus and once back at the time1 the going to the circus is a thing of the present4 ,this whole explanation resolves itself into the simple question1--what should ,i have liked at that time1 and the answer is to go to see the circus1 therefore this is the proper sequence1 and the expression should be ,i should have liked to go to see the circus4 ,if we wish to speak of something relating to a time prior to that indicated in the past tense we must use the perfect tense of the infinitive2 as1 ,he appeared to have seen better days4 ,we should say ,i expected to meet him1 not ,i expected to have met him4 ,we intended to visit you1 not to have visited you4 ,i hoped they would arrive1 not ,i hoped they would have arrived4 ,i thought ,i should catch the bird1 not ,i thought ,i should have caught the bird4 ,i had intended to go to the meeting1 not ,i had intended to have gone to the meeting4 ,,between--,,among ,these prepositions are often carelessly interchanged4 ,between has reference to two objects only1 among to more than two4 ,the money was equally divided between them is right when there are only two1 but if there are more than two it should be the money was equally divided among them4 ,,less--,,fewer ,less refers is quantity1 fewer to number4 ,no man has less virtues should be ,no man has fewer virtues4 ,the farmer had some oats and a fewer quantity of wheat should be the farmer had some oats and a less quantity of wheat4 ,,further--,,farther ,further is commonly used to denote quantity1 farther to denote distance4 ,i have walked farther than you1 ,i need no further supply are correct4 ,,each ,,other--,,one ,,another ,each other refers to two1 one another to more than two4 ,jones and ,smith quarreled2 they struck each other is correct4 ,jones1 ,smith and ,brown quarreled2 they struck one another is also correct4 ,don't say1 ,the two boys teach one another nor ,the three girls love each other4 ,,each1 ,,every1 ,,either1 ,,neither ,these words are continually misapplied4 ,each can be applied to two or any higher number of objects to signify every one of the number independently4 ,every requires more than two to be spoken of and denotes all the persons or things taken separately4 ,either denotes one or the other of two1 and should not be used to include both4 ,neither is the negative of either1 denoting not the other1 and not the one1 and relating to two persons or things considered separately4 ,the following examples illustrate the correct usage of these words3 ,each man of the crew received a reward4 ,every man in the regiment displayed bravery4 ,we can walk on either side of the street4 ,neither of the two is to blame4 ,,neither-,,nor ,when two singular subjects are connected by neither1 nor use a singular verb2 as1 ,neither ,john nor ,james was there1 not were there4 ,,none ,custom ,has sanctioned the use of this word both with a singular and plural2 as--,none is so blind as he who will not see and ,none are so blind as they who will not see4 ,however1 as it is a contraction of no one it is better to use the singular verb4 ,,rise-,,raise ,these verbs are very often confounded4 ,rise is to move or pass upward in any manner2 as to rise from bed2 to increase in value1 to improve in position or rank1 as stocks rise2 politicians rise2 they have risen to honor4 ,raise is to lift up1 to exalt1 to enhance1 as ,i raise the table2 ,he raised his servant2 ,the baker raised the price of bread4 ,,lay-,,lie ,the transitive verb lay1 and lay1 the past tense of the neuter verb lie1 are often confounded1 though quite different in meaning4 ,the neuter verb to lie1 meaning to lie down or rest1 cannot take the objective after it except with a preposition4 ,we can say ,he lies on the ground1 but we cannot say ,he lies the ground1 since the verb is neuter and intransitive and1 as such1 cannot have a direct object4 ,with lay it is different4 ,lay is a transitive verb1 therefore it takes a direct object after it2 as ,i lay a wager1 ,i laid the carpet1 etc4 ,of a carpet or any inanimate subject we should say1 ,it lies on the floor1 ,a knife lies on the table1 not lays4 ,but of a person we say--,he lays the knife on the table1 not ,he lies----4 ,lay being the past tense of the neuter to lie 7down7 we should say1 ,he lay on the bed1 and lain being its past participle we must also say ,he has lain on the bed4 ,we can say ,i lay myself down4 ,he laid himself down and such expressions4 ,it is imperative to remember in using these verbs that to lay means to do something1 and to lie means to be in a state of rest4 ,,says ,i--,i ,,said ,says ,i is a vulgarism2 don't use it4 ,i said is correct form4 ,,in--,,into ,be careful to distinguish the meaning of these two little prepositions and don't interchange them4 ,don't say ,he went in the room nor ,my brother is into the navy4 ,in denotes the place where a person or thing1 whether at rest or in motion1 is present2 and into denotes entrance4 ,he went into the room2 ,my brother is in the navy are correct4 ,,eat--,,ate ,don't confound the two4 ,eat is present1 ate is past4 ,i eat the bread means that ,i am continuing the eating2 ,i ate the bread means that the act of eating is past4 ,eaten is the perfect participle1 but often eat is used instead1 and as it has the same pronunciation 7et7 of ate1 care should be taken to distinguish the past tense1 ,i ate from the perfect ,i have eaten 7eat74 ,,sequence ,,of ,,person ,remember that the first person takes precedence of the second and the second takes precedence of the third4 ,when ,cardinal ,wolsey said ,ego et ,rex 7,i and the ,king71 he showed he was a good grammarian1 but a bad courtier4 ,,am ,,come--,,have ,,come ,i am come points to my being here1 while ,i have come intimates that ,i have just arrived4 ,when the subject is not a person1 the verb to be should be used in preference to the verb to have2 as1 ,the box is come instead of ,the box has come4 ,,past ,,tense--,,past ,,participle ,the interchange of these two parts of the irregular or so-called strong verbs is1 perhaps1 the breach oftenest committed by careless speakers and writers4 ,to avoid mistakes it is requisite to know the principal parts of these verbs1 and this knowledge is very easy of acquirement1 as there are not more than a couple of hundred of such verbs1 and of this number but a small part is in daily use4 ,here are some of the most common blunders3 ,i seen for ,i saw2 ,i done it for ,i did it2 ,i drunk for ,i drank2 ,i begun for ,i began2 ,i rung for ,i rang2 ,i run for ,i ran2 ,i sung for ,i sang2 ,i have chose for ,i have chosen2 ,i have drove for ,i have driven2 ,i have wore for ,i have worn2 ,i have trod for ,i have trodden2 ,i have shook for ,i have shaken2 ,i have fell for ,i have fallen2 ,i have drank for ,i have drunk2 ,i have began for ,i have begun2 ,i have rang for ,i have rung2 ,i have rose for ,i have risen2 ,i have spoke for ,i have spoken2 ,i have broke for ,i have broken4 ,it has froze for ,it has frozen4 ,it has blowed for ,it has blown4 ,it has flowed 7of a bird7 for ,it has flown4 ,n4 ,b4--,the past tense and past participle of ,to ,hang is hanged or hung4 ,when you are talking about a man meeting death on the gallows1 say ,he was hanged2 when you are talking about the carcass of an animal say1 ,it was hung1 as ,the beef was hung dry4 ,also say your coat was hung on a hook4 ,,prepositions ,,and ,,the ,,objective ,,case ,don't forget that prepositions always take the objective case4 ,don't say ,between you and ,i2 say ,between you and me ,two prepositions should not govern one objective unless there is an immediate connection between them4 ,he was refused admission to and forcibly ejected from the school should be ,he was refused admission to the school and forcibly ejected from it4 ,,summon--,,summons ,don't say ,i shall summons him1 but ,i shall summon him4 ,summon is a verb1 summons1 a noun4 ,it is correct to say ,i shall get a summons for him1 not a summon4 ,,undeniable--,,unexceptionable ,my brother has an undeniable character is wrong if ,i wish to convey the idea that he has a good character4 ,the expression should be in that case ,my brother has an unexceptionable character4 ,an undeniable character is a character that cannot be denied1 whether bad or good4 ,an unexceptionable character is one to which no one can take exception4 ,,the ,,pronouns ,very many mistakes occur in the use of the pronouns4 ,let you and ,i go should be ,let you and me go4 ,let them and we go should be ,let them and us go4 ,the verb let is transitive and therefore takes the objective case4 ,give me them flowers should be ,give me those flowers2 ,i mean them three should be ,i mean those three4 ,them is the objective case of the personal pronoun and cannot be used adjectively like the demonstrative adjective pronoun4 ,i am as strong as him should be ,i am as strong as he2 ,i am younger than her should be ,i am younger than she2 ,he can write better than me should be ,he can write better than ,i1 for in these examples the objective cases him1 her and me are used wrongfully for the nominatives4 ,after each of the misapplied pronouns a verb is understood of which each pronoun is the subject4 ,thus1 ,i am as strong as he 7is74 ,i am younger than she 7is74 ,he can write better than ,i 7can74 ,don't say ,it is me2 say ,it is ,i ,the verb ,to ,be of which is is a part takes the same case after it that it has before it4 ,this holds good in all situations as well as with pronouns4 ,the verb ,to ,be also requires the pronouns joined to it to be in the same case as a pronoun asking a question2 ,the nominative ,i requires the nominative who and the objectives me1 him1 her1 its1 you1 them1 require the objective whom4 ,whom do you think ,i am8 should be ,who do you think ,i am8 and ,who do they suppose me to be8 should be ,whom do they suppose me to be8 ,the objective form of the ,relative should be always used1 in connection with a preposition4 ,who do you take me for8 should be ,whom do1 etc4 ,who did you give the apple to8 should be ,whom did you give the apple to1 but as pointed out elsewhere the preposition should never end a sentence1 therefore1 it is better to say1 ,to whom did you give the apple8 ,after transitive verbs always use the objective cases of the pronouns4 ,for ,he and they we have seen1 say ,him and them we have seen4 ,,that ,,for ,,so ,the hurt it was that painful it made him cry1 say so painful4 ,,these--,,those ,don't say1 ,these kind2 those sort4 ,kind and sort are each singular and require the singular pronouns this and that4 ,in connection with these demonstrative adjective pronouns remember that this and these refer to what is near at hand1 that and those to what is more distant2 as1 this book 7near me71 that book 7over there71 these boys 7near71 those boys 7at a distance74 ,,this ,,much--,,thus ,,much ,this much is certain should be ,thus much or so much is certain4 ,,flee--,,fly ,these are two separate verbs and must not be interchanged4 ,the principal parts of flee are flee1 fled1 fled2 those of fly are fly1 flew1 flown4 ,to flee is generally used in the meaning of getting out of danger4 ,to fly means to soar as a bird4 ,to say of a man ,he has flown from the place is wrong2 it should be ,he has fled from the place4 ,we can say with propriety that ,a bird has flown from the place4 ,,through--,,throughout ,don't say ,he is well known through the land1 but ,he is well known throughout the land4 ,,vocation ,,and ,,avocation ,don't mistake these two words so nearly alike4 ,vocation is the employment1 business or profession one follows for a living2 avocation is some pursuit or occupation which diverts the person from such employment1 business or profession4 ,thus ,his vocation was the law1 his avocation1 farming4 ,,was--,,were ,in the subjunctive mood the plural form were should be used with a singular subject2 as1 ,if ,i were1 not was4 ,remember the plural form of the personal pronoun you always takes were1 though it may denote but one4 ,thus1 ,you were1 never you was4 ,if ,i was him is a very common expression4 ,note the two mistakes in it1--that of the verb implying a condition1 and that of the objective case of the pronoun4 ,it should read ,if ,i were he4 ,this is another illustration of the rule regarding the verb ,to ,be1 taking the same case after it as before it2 were is part of the verb ,to ,be1 therefore as the nominative 7,i7 goes before it1 the nominative 7he7 should come after it4 ,a ,,or ,,an ,a becomes an before a vowel or before h mute for the sake of euphony or agreeable sound to the ear4 ,an apple1 an orange1 an heir1 an honor1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,style ,diction--,purity--,propriety--,precisio n4 ,it is the object of every writer to put his thoughts into as effective form as possible so as to make a good impression on the reader4 ,a person may have noble thoughts and ideas but be unable to express them in such a way as to appeal to others1 consequently he cannot exert the full force of his intellectuality nor leave the imprint of his character upon his time1 whereas many a man but indifferently gifted may wield such a facile pen as to attract attention and win for himself an envious place among his contemporaries4 ,in everyday life one sees illustrations of men of excellent mentality being cast aside and ones of mediocre or in some cases1 little1 if any1 ability chosen to fill important places4 ,the former are unable to impress their personality2 they have great thoughts1 great ideas1 but these thoughts and ideas are locked up in their brains and are like prisoners behind the bars struggling to get free4 ,the key of language which would open the door is wanting1 hence they have to remain locked up4 ,many a man has to pass through the world unheard of and of little benefit to it or himself1 simply because he cannot bring out what is in him and make it subservient to his will4 ,it is the duty of every one to develop his best1 not only for the benefit of himself but for the good of his fellow men4 ,it is not at all necessary to have great learning or acquirements1 the laborer is as useful in his own place as the philosopher in his2 nor is it necessary to have many talents4 ,one talent rightly used is much better than ten wrongly used4 ,often a man can do more with one than his contemporary can do with ten1 often a man can make one dollar go farther than twenty in the hands of his neighbor1 often the poor man lives more comfortably than the millionaire4 ,all depends upon the individual himself4 ,if he make right use of what the ,creator has given him and live according to the laws of ,god and nature he is fulfilling his allotted place in the universal scheme of creation1 in other words1 when he does his best1 he is living up to the standard of a useful manhood4 ,now in order to do his best a man of ordinary intelligence and education should be able to express himself correctly both in speaking and writing1 that is1 he should be able to convey his thoughts in an intelligent manner which the simplest can understand4 ,the manner in which a speaker or writer conveys his thoughts is known as his ,style4 ,in other words ,style may be defined as the peculiar manner in which a man expresses his conceptions through the medium of language4 ,it depends upon the choice of words and their arrangement to convey a meaning4 ,scarcely any two writers have exactly the same style1 that is to say1 express their ideas after the same peculiar form1 just as no two mortals are fashioned by nature in the same mould1 so that one is an exact counterpart of the other4 ,just as men differ in the accent and tones of their voices1 so do they differ in the construction of their language4 ,two reporters sent out on the same mission1 say to report a fire1 will verbally differ in their accounts though materially both descriptions will be the same as far as the leading facts are concerned4 ,one will express himself in a style different from the other4 ,if you are asked to describe the dancing of a red-haired lady at the last charity ball you can either say--,the ruby ,circe1 with the ,titian locks glowing like the oriflamme which surrounds the golden god of day as he sinks to rest amid the crimson glory of the burnished ,west1 gave a divine exhibition of the ,terpsichorean art which thrilled the souls of the multitude or1 you can simply say--,the red-haired lady danced very well and pleased the audience4 ,the former is a specimen of the ultra florid or bombastic style which may be said to depend upon the pomposity of verbosity for its effect1 the latter is a specimen of simple natural ,style4 ,needless to say it is to be preferred4 ,the other should be avoided4 ,it stamps the writer as a person of shallowness1 ignorance and inexperience4 ,it has been eliminated from the newspapers4 ,even the most flatulent of yellow sheets no longer tolerate it in their columns4 ,affectation and pedantry in style are now universally condemned4 ,it is the duty of every speaker and writer to labor after a pleasing style4 ,it gains him an entrance where he would otherwise be debarred4 ,often the interest of a subject depends as much on the way it is presented as on the subject itself4 ,one writer will make it attractive1 another repulsive4 ,for instance take a passage in history4 ,treated by one historian it is like a desiccated mummy1 dry1 dull1 disgusting1 while under the spell of another it is1 as it were1 galvanized into a virile living thing which not only pleases but captivates the reader4 ,,diction ,the first requisite of style is choice of words1 and this comes under the head of ,diction1 the property of style which has reference to the words and phrases used in speaking and writing4 ,the secret of literary skill from any standpoint consists in putting the right word in the right place4 ,in order to do this it is imperative to know the meaning of the words we use1 their exact literal meaning4 ,many synonymous words are seemingly interchangeable and appear as if the same meaning were applicable to three or four of them at the same time1 but when all such words are reduced to a final analysis it is clearly seen that there is a marked difference in their meaning4 ,for instance grief and sorrow seem to be identical1 but they are not4 ,grief is active1 sorrow is more or less passive2 grief is caused by troubles and misfortunes which come to us from the outside1 while sorrow is often the consequence of our own acts4 ,grief is frequently loud and violent1 sorrow is always quiet and retiring4 ,grief shouts1 ,sorrow remains calm4 ,if you are not sure of the exact meaning of a word look it up immediately in the dictionary4 ,sometimes some of our great scholars are puzzled over simple words in regard to meaning1 spelling or pronunciation4 ,whenever you meet a strange word note it down until you discover its meaning and use4 ,read the best books you can get1 books written by men and women who are acknowledged masters of language1 and study how they use their words1 where they place them in the sentences1 and the meanings they convey to the readers4 ,mix in good society4 ,listen attentively to good talkers and try to imitate their manner of expression4 ,if a word is used you do not understand1 don't be ashamed to ask its meaning4 ,true1 a small vocabulary will carry you through1 but it is an advantage to have a large one4 ,when you live alone a little pot serves just as well as a large one to cook your victuals and it is handy and convenient1 but when your friends or neighbors come to dine with you1 you will need a much larger pot and it is better to have it in store1 so that you will not be put to shame for your scantiness of furnishings4 ,get as many words as you possibly can--if you don't need them now1 pack them away in the garrets of your brain so that you can call upon them if you require them4 ,keep a note book1 jot down the words you don't understand or clearly understand and consult the dictionary when you get time4 ,,purity ,purity of style consists in using words which are reputable1 national and present1 which means that the words are in current use by the best authorities1 that they are used throughout the nation and not confined to one particular part1 and that they are words in constant use at the present time4 ,there are two guiding principles in the choice of words1--good use and good taste4 ,good use tells us whether a word is right or wrong2 good taste1 whether it is adapted to our purpose or not4 ,a word that is obsolete or too new to have gained a place in the language1 or that is a provincialism1 should not be used4 ,here are the ,ten ,commandments of ,english style3 7#a7 ,do not use foreign words4 7#b7 ,do not use a long word when a short one will serve your purpose4 ,fire is much better than conflagration4 7#c7 ,do not use technical words1 or those understood only by specialists in their respective lines1 except when you are writing especially for such people4 7#d7 ,do not use slang4 7#e7 ,do not use provincialisms1 as ,i guess for ,i think2 ,i reckon for ,i know1 etc4 7#f7 ,do not in writing prose1 use poetical or antiquated words3 as lore1 e'er1 morn1 yea1 nay1 verily1 peradventure4 7#g7 ,do not use trite and hackneyed words and expressions2 as1 on the job1 up and in2 down and out4 7#h7 ,do not use newspaper words which have not established a place in the language as to bugle2 to suicide1 etc4 7#i7 ,do not use ungrammatical words and forms2 as1 ,i ain't2 he don't4 7#aj7 ,do not use ambiguous words or phrases2 as--,he showed me all about the house4 ,trite words1 similes and metaphors which have become hackneyed and worn out should be allowed to rest in the oblivion of past usage4 ,such expressions and phrases as ,sweet sixteen the ,almighty dollar1 ,uncle ,sam1 ,on the fence1 ,the ,glorious ,fourth1 ,young ,america1 ,the lords of creation1 ,the rising generation1 ,the weaker sex1 ,the weaker vessel1 ,sweetness long drawn out and chief cook and bottle washer1 should be put on the shelf as they are utterly worn out from too much usage4 ,some of the old similes which have outlived their usefulness and should be pensioned off1 are ,sweet as sugar1 ,bold as a lion1 ,strong as an ox1 ,quick as a flash1 ,cold as ice1 ,stiff as a poker1 ,white as snow1 ,busy as a bee1 ,pale as a ghost1 ,rich as ,croesus1 ,cross as a bear and a great many more far too numerous to mention4 ,be as original as possible in the use of expression4 ,don't follow in the old rut but try and strike out for yourself4 ,this does not mean that you should try to set the style1 or do anything outlandish or out of the way1 or be an innovator on the prevailing custom4 ,in order to be original there is no necessity for you to introduce something novel or establish a precedent4 ,the probability is you are not fit to do either1 by education or talent4 ,while following the style of those who are acknowledged leaders you can be original in your language4 ,try and clothe an idea different from what it has been clothed and better4 ,if you are speaking or writing of dancing don't talk or write about tripping the light fantastic toe4 ,it is over two hundred years since ,milton expressed it that way in ,l',allegro4 ,you're not a ,milton and besides over a million have stolen it from ,milton until it is now no longer worth stealing4 ,don't resurrect obsolete words such as whilom1 yclept1 wis1 etc41 and be careful in regard to obsolescent words1 that is1 words that are at the present time gradually passing from use such as quoth1 trow1 betwixt1 amongst1 froward1 etc4 ,and beware of new words4 ,be original in the construction and arrangement of your language1 but don't try to originate words4 ,leave that to the ,masters of language1 and don't be the first to try such words1 wait until the chemists of speech have tested them and passed upon their merits4 ,quintilian said--,prefer the oldest of the new and the newest of the old4 ,pope put this in rhyme and it still holds good3 ,in words1 as fashions1 the same rule will hold1 ,alike fantastic1 if too new or old3 ,be not the first by whom the new are tried1 ,nor yet the last to lay the old aside4 ,,propriety ,propriety of style consists in using words in their proper sense and as in the case of purity1 good usage is the principal test4 ,many words have acquired in actual use a meaning very different from what they once possessed4 ,prevent formerly meant to go before1 and that meaning is implied in its ,latin derivation4 ,now it means to put a stop to1 to hinder4 ,to attain propriety of style it is necessary to avoid confounding words derived from the same root2 as respectfully and respectively2 it is necessary to use words in their accepted sense or the sense which everyday use sanctions4 ,,simplicity ,simplicity of style has reference to the choice of simple words and their unaffected presentation4 ,simple words should always be used in preference to compound1 and complicated ones when they express the same or almost the same meaning4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon element in our language comprises the simple words which express the relations of everyday life1 strong1 terse1 vigorous1 the language of the fireside1 street1 market and farm4 ,it is this style which characterizes the ,bible and many of the great ,english classics such as the ,pilgrim's ,progress1 ,robinson ,crusoe1 and ,gulliver's ,travels4 ,,clearness ,clearness of style should be one of the leading considerations with the beginner in composition4 ,he must avoid all obscurity and ambiguous phrases4 ,if he write a sentence or phrase and see that a meaning might be inferred from it otherwise than intended1 he should re-write it in such a way that there can be no possible doubt4 ,words1 phrases or clauses that are closely related should be placed as near to each other as possible that their mutual relation may clearly appear1 and no word should be omitted that is necessary to the complete expression of thought4 ,,unity ,unity is that property of style which keeps all parts of a sentence in connection with the principal thought and logically subordinate to it4 ,a sentence may be constructed as to suggest the idea of oneness to the mind1 or it may be so loosely put together as to produce a confused and indefinite impression4 ,ideas that have but little connection should be expressed in separate sentences1 and not crowded into one4 ,keep long parentheses out of the middle of your sentences and when you have apparently brought your sentences to a close don't try to continue the thought or idea by adding supplementary clauses4 ,,strength ,strength is that property of style which gives animation1 energy and vivacity to language and sustains the interest of the reader4 ,it is as necessary to language as good food is to the body4 ,without it the words are weak and feeble and create little or no impression on the mind4 ,in order to have strength the language must be concise1 that is1 much expressed in little compass1 you must hit the nail fairly on the head and drive it in straight4 ,go critically over what you write and strike out every word1 phrase and clause the omission of which impairs neither the clearness nor force of the sentence and so avoid redundancy1 tautology and circumlocution4 ,give the most important words the most prominent places1 which1 as has been pointed out elsewhere1 are the beginning and end of the sentence4 ,,harmony ,harmony is that property of style which gives a smoothness to the sentence1 so that when the words are sounded their connection becomes pleasing to the ear4 ,it adapts sound to sense4 ,most people construct their sentences without giving thought to the way they will sound and as a consequence we have many jarring and discordant combinations such as ,thou strengthenedst thy position and actedst arbitrarily and derogatorily to my interests4 ,harsh1 disagreeable verbs are liable to occur with the ,quaker form ,thou of the personal pronoun4 ,this form is now nearly obsolete1 the plural you being almost universally used4 ,to obtain harmony in the sentence long words that are hard to pronounce and combinations of letters of one kind should be avoided4 ,,expressive ,,of ,,writer ,style is expressive of the writer1 as to who he is and what he is4 ,as a matter of structure in composition it is the indication of what a man can do2 as a matter of quality it is an indication of what he is4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,style ,style has been classified in different ways1 but it admits of so many designations that it is very hard to enumerate a table4 ,in fact there are as many styles as there are writers1 for no two authors write exactly after the same form4 ,however1 we may classify the styles of the various authors in broad divisions as 7#a7 dry1 7#b7 plain1 7#c7 neat1 7#d7 elegant1 7#e7 florid1 7#f7 bombastic4 ,the dry style excludes all ornament and makes no effort to appeal to any sense of beauty4 ,its object is simply to express the thoughts in a correct manner4 ,this style is exemplified by ,berkeley4 ,the plain style does not seek ornamentation either1 but aims to make clear and concise statements without any elaboration or embellishment4 ,locke and ,whately illustrate the plain style4 ,the neat style only aspires after ornament sparingly4 ,its object is to have correct figures1 pure diction and clear and harmonious sentences4 ,goldsmith and ,gray are the acknowledged leaders in this kind of style4 ,the elegant style uses every ornament that can beautify and avoids every excess which would degrade4 ,macaulay and ,addison have been enthroned as the kings of this style4 ,to them all writers bend the knee in homage4 ,the florid style goes to excess in superfluous and superficial ornamentation and strains after a highly colored imagery4 ,the poems of ,ossian typify this style4 ,the bombastic is characterized by such an excess of words1 figures and ornaments as to be ridiculous and disgusting4 ,it is like a circus clown dressed up in gold tinsel ,dickens gives a fine example of it in ,sergeant ,buzfuz' speech in the ,pickwick ,papers4 ,among other varieties of style may be mentioned the colloquial1 the laconic1 the concise1 the diffuse1 the abrupt the flowing1 the quaint1 the epigrammatic1 the flowery1 the feeble1 the nervous1 the vehement1 and the affected4 ,the manner of these is sufficiently indicated by the adjective used to describe them4 ,in fact style is as various as character and expresses the individuality of the writer1 or in other words1 as the ,french writer ,buffon very aptly remarks1 the style is the man himself4 ,,chapter ,x ,,suggestions ,how to ,write--,what to ,write--,correct ,speaking and ,speakers ,rules of grammar and rhetoric are good in their own place2 their laws must be observed in order to express thoughts and ideas in the right way so that they shall convey a determinate sense and meaning in a pleasing and acceptable manner4 ,hard and fast rules1 however1 can never make a writer or author4 ,that is the business of old ,mother ,nature and nothing can take her place4 ,if nature has not endowed a man with faculties to put his ideas into proper composition he cannot do so4 ,he may have no ideas worthy the recording4 ,if a person has not a thought to express1 it cannot be expressed4 ,something cannot be manufactured out of nothing4 ,the author must have thoughts and ideas before he can express them on paper4 ,these come to him by nature and environment and are developed and strengthened by study4 ,there is an old ,latin quotation in regard to the poet which says ,poeta nascitur non fit the translation of which is--the poet is born1 not made4 ,to a great degree the same applies to the author4 ,some men are great scholars as far as book learning is concerned1 yet they cannot express themselves in passable composition4 ,their knowledge is like gold locked up in a chest where it is of no value to themselves or the rest of the world4 ,the best way to learn to write is to sit down and write1 just as the best way how to learn to ride a bicycle is to mount the wheel and pedal away4 ,write first about common things1 subjects that are familiar to you4 ,try for instance an essay on a cat4 ,say something original about her4 ,don't say she is very playful when young but becomes grave as she grows old4 ,that has been said more than fifty thousand times before4 ,tell what you have seen the family cat doing1 how she caught a mouse in the garret and what she did after catching it4 ,familiar themes are always the best for the beginner4 ,don't attempt to describe a scene in ,australia if you have never been there and know nothing of the country4 ,never hunt for subjects1 there are thousands around you4 ,describe what you saw yesterday-- a fire1 a runaway horse1 a dog-fight on the street and be original in your description4 ,imitate the best writers in their style1 but not in their exact words4 ,get out of the beaten path1 make a pathway of your own4 ,know what you write about1 write about what you know2 this is a golden rule to which you must adhere4 ,to know you must study4 ,the world is an open book in which all who run may read4 ,nature is one great volume the pages of which are open to the peasant as well as to the peer4 ,study ,nature's moods and tenses1 for they are vastly more important than those of the grammar4 ,book learning is most desirable1 but1 after all1 it is only theory and not practice4 ,the grandest allegory in the ,english1 in fact1 in any language1 was written by an ignorant1 so-called ignorant1 tinker named ,john ,bunyan4 ,shakespeare was not a scholar in the sense we regard the term to-day1 yet no man ever lived or probably ever will live that equalled or will equal him in the expression of thought4 ,he simply read the book of nature and interpreted it from the standpoint of his own magnificent genius4 ,don't imagine that a college education is necessary to success as a writer4 ,far from it4 ,some of our college men are dead-heads1 drones1 parasites on the body social1 not alone useless to the world but to themselves4 ,a person may be so ornamental that he is valueless from any other standpoint4 ,as a general rule ornamental things serve but little purpose4 ,a man may know so much of everything that he knows little of anything4 ,this may sound paradoxical1 but1 nevertheless1 experience proves its truth4 ,if you are poor that is not a detriment but an advantage4 ,poverty is an incentive to endeavor1 not a drawback4 ,better to be born with a good1 working brain in your head than with a gold spoon in your mouth4 ,if the world had been depending on the so-called pets of fortune it would have deteriorated long ago4 ,from the pits of poverty1 from the arenas of suffering1 from the hovels of neglect1 from the backwood cabins of obscurity1 from the lanes and by-ways of oppression1 from the dingy garrets and basements of unending toil and drudgery have come men and women who have made history1 made the world brighter1 better1 higher1 holier for their existence in it1 made of it a place good to live in and worthy to die in1--men and women who have hallowed it by their footsteps and sanctified it with their presence and in many cases consecrated it with their blood4 ,poverty is a blessing1 not an evil1 a benison from the ,father's hand if accepted in the right spirit4 ,instead of retarding1 it has elevated literature in all ages4 ,homer was a blind beggarman singing his snatches of song for the dole of charity2 grand old ,socrates1 oracle of wisdom1 many a day went without his dinner because he had not the wherewithal to get it1 while teaching the youth of ,athens4 ,the divine ,dante was nothing better than a beggar1 houseless1 homeless1 friendless1 wandering through ,italy while he composed his immortal cantos4 ,milton1 who in his blindness looked where angels fear to tread1 was steeped in poverty while writing his sublime conception1 ,paradise ,lost4 ,shakespeare was glad to hold and water the horses of patrons outside the ,white ,horse ,theatre for a few pennies in order to buy bread4 ,burns burst forth in never-dying song while guiding the ploughshare4 ,poor ,heinrich ,heine1 neglected and in poverty1 from his mattress grave of suffering in ,paris added literary laurels to the wreath of his ,german ,fatherland4 ,in ,america ,elihu ,burritt1 while attending the anvil1 made himself a master of a score of languages and became the literary lion of his age and country4 ,in other fields of endeavor poverty has been the spur to action4 ,napoleon was born in obscurity1 the son of a hand-to-mouth scrivener in the backward island of ,corsica4 ,abraham ,lincoln1 the boast and pride of ,america1 the man who made this land too hot for the feet of slaves1 came from a log cabin in the ,ohio backwoods4 ,so did ,james ,a4 ,garfield4 ,ulysses ,grant came from a tanyard to become the world's greatest general4 ,thomas ,a4 ,edison commenced as a newsboy on a railway train4 ,the examples of these men are incentives to action4 ,poverty thrust them forward instead of keeping them back4 ,therefore1 if you are poor make your circumstances a means to an end4 ,have ambition1 keep a goal in sight and bend every energy to reach that goal4 ,a story is told of ,thomas ,carlyle the day he attained the highest honor the literary world could confer upon him when he was elected ,lord ,rector of ,edinburgh ,university4 ,after his installation speech1 in going through the halls1 he met a student seemingly deep in study4 ,in his own peculiar1 abrupt1 crusty way the ,sage of ,chelsea interrogated the young man3 ,for what profession are you studying8 ,i don't know1 returned the youth4 ,you don't know1 thundered ,carlyle1 young man1 you are a fool4 ,then he went on to qualify his vehement remark1 ,my boy when ,i was your age1 ,i was stooped in grinding1 gripping poverty in the little village of ,ecclefechan1 in the wilds of ,transcriber's note3 ,part of word illegible-frieshire1 where in all the place only the minister and myself could read the ,bible1 yet poor and obscure as ,i was1 in my mind's eye ,i saw a chair awaiting for me in the ,temple of ,fame and day and night and night and day ,i studied until ,i sat in that chair to-day as ,lord ,rector of ,edinburgh ,university4 ,another ,scotchman1 ,robert ,buchanan1 the famous novelist1 set out for ,london from ,glasgow with but half-a-crown in his pocket4 ,here goes1 said he1 for a grave in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,he was not much of a scholar1 but his ambition carried him on and he became one of the great literary lions of the world's metropolis4 ,henry ,m4 ,stanley was a poorhouse waif whose real name was ,john ,rowlands4 ,he was brought up in a ,welsh workhouse1 but he had ambition1 so he rose to be a great explorer1 a great writer1 became a member of ,parliament and was knighted by the ,british ,sovereign4 ,have ambition to succeed and you will succeed4 ,cut the word failure out of your lexicon4 ,don't acknowledge it4 ,remember ,in life's earnest battle they only prevail ,who daily march onward and never say fail4 ,let every obstacle you encounter be but a stepping stone in the path of onward progress to the goal of success4 ,if untoward circumstances surround you1 resolve to overcome them4 ,bunyan wrote the ,pilgrim's ,progress in ,bedford jail on scraps of wrapping paper while he was half starved on a diet of bread and water4 ,that unfortunate ,american genius1 ,edgar ,allan ,poe1 wrote ,the ,raven1 the most wonderful conception as well as the most highly artistic poem in all ,english literature1 in a little cottage in the ,fordham section of ,new ,york while he was in the direst straits of want4 ,throughout all his short and wonderfully brilliant career1 poor ,poe never had a dollar he could call his own4 ,such1 however1 was both his fault and his misfortune and he is a bad exemplar4 ,don't think that the knowledge of a library of books is essential to success as a writer4 ,often a multiplicity of books is confusing4 ,master a few good books and master them well and you will have all that is necessary4 ,a great authority has said3 ,beware of the man of one book1 which means that a man of one book is a master of the craft4 ,it is claimed that a thorough knowledge of the ,bible alone will make any person a master of literature4 ,certain it is that the ,bible and ,shakespeare constitute an epitome of the essentials of knowledge4 ,shakespeare gathered the fruitage of all who went before him1 he has sown the seeds for all who shall ever come after him4 ,he was the great intellectual ocean whose waves touch the continents of all thought4 ,books are cheap now-a-days1 the greatest works1 thanks to the printing press1 are within the reach of all1 and the more you read1 the better1 provided they are worth reading4 ,sometimes a man takes poison into his system unconscious of the fact that it is poison1 as in the case of certain foods1 and it is very hard to throw off its effects4 ,therefore1 be careful in your choice of reading matter4 ,if you cannot afford a full library1 and as has been said1 such is not necessary1 select a few of the great works of the master minds1 assimilate and digest them1 so that they will be of advantage to your literary system4 ,elsewhere in this volume is given a list of some of the world's masterpieces from which you can make a selection4 ,your brain is a storehouse1 don't put useless furniture into it to crowd it to the exclusion of what is useful4 ,lay up only the valuable and serviceable kind which you can call into requisition at any moment4 ,as it is necessary to study the best authors in order to be a writer1 so it is necessary to study the best speakers in order to talk with correctness and in good style4 ,to talk rightly you must imitate the masters of oral speech4 ,listen to the best conversationalists and how they express themselves4 ,go to hear the leading lectures1 speeches and sermons4 ,no need to imitate the gestures of elocution1 it is nature1 not art1 that makes the elocutionist and the orator4 ,it is not how a speaker expresses himself but the language which he uses and the manner of its use which should interest you4 ,have you heard the present day masters of speech8 ,there have been past time masters but their tongues are stilled in the dust of the grave1 and you can only read their eloquence now4 ,you can1 however1 listen to the charm of the living4 ,to many of us voices still speak from the grave1 voices to which we have listened when fired with the divine essence of speech4 ,perhaps you have hung with rapture on the words of ,beecher and ,talmage4 ,both thrilled the souls of men and won countless thousands over to a living gospel4 ,both were masters of words1 they scattered the flowers of rhetoric on the shrine of eloquence and hurled veritable bouquets at their audiences which were eagerly seized by the latter and treasured in the storehouse of memory4 ,both were scholars and philosophers1 yet they were far surpassed by ,spurgeon1 a plain man of the people with little or no claim to education in the modern sense of the word4 ,spurgeon by his speech attracted thousands to his ,tabernacle4 ,the ,protestant and ,catholic1 ,turk1 ,jew and ,mohammedan rushed to hear him and listened1 entranced1 to his language4 ,such another was ,dwight ,l4 ,moody1 the greatest ,evangelist the world has ever known4 ,moody was not a man of learning2 he commenced life as a shoe salesman in ,chicago1 yet no man ever lived who drew such audiences and so fascinated them with the spell of his speech4 ,oh1 that was personal magnetism1 you will say1 but it was nothing of the kind4 ,it was the burning words that fell from the lips of these men1 and the way1 the manner1 the force with which they used those words that counted and attracted the crowds to listen unto them4 ,personal magnetism or personal appearance entered not as factors into their success4 ,indeed as far as physique were concerned1 some of them were handicapped4 ,spurgeon was a short1 podgy1 fat little man1 ,moody was like a country farmer1 ,talmage in his big cloak was one of the most slovenly of men and only ,beecher was passable in the way of refinement and gentlemanly bearing4 ,physical appearance1 as so many think1 is not the sesame to the interest of an audience4 ,daniel ,o',connell1 the ,irish tribune1 was a homely1 ugly1 awkward1 ungainly man1 yet his words attracted millions to his side and gained for him the hostile ear of the ,british ,parliament1 he was a master of verbiage and knew just what to say to captivate his audiences4 ,it is words and their placing that count on almost all occasions4 ,no matter how refined in other respects the person may be1 if he use words wrongly and express himself in language not in accordance with a proper construction1 he will repel you1 whereas the man who places his words correctly and employs language in harmony with the laws of good speech1 let him be ever so humble1 will attract and have an influence over you4 ,the good speaker1 the correct speaker1 is always able to command attention and doors are thrown open to him which remain closed to others not equipped with a like facility of expression4 ,the man who can talk well and to the point need never fear to go idle4 ,he is required in nearly every walk of life and field of human endeavor1 the world wants him at every turn4 ,employers are constantly on the lookout for good talkers1 those who are able to attract the public and convince others by the force of their language4 ,a man may be able1 educated1 refined1 of unblemished character1 nevertheless if he lack the power to express himself1 put forth his views in good and appropriate speech he has to take a back seat1 while some one with much less ability gets the opportunity to come to the front because he can clothe his ideas in ready words and talk effectively4 ,you may again say that nature1 not art1 makes a man a fluent speaker2 to a great degree this is true1 but it is art that makes him a correct speaker1 and correctness leads to fluency4 ,it is possible for everyone to become a correct speaker if he will but persevere and take a little pains and care4 ,at the risk of repetition good advice may be here emphasized3 ,listen to the best speakers and note carefully the words which impress you most4 ,keep a notebook and jot down words1 phrases1 sentences that are in any way striking or out of the ordinary run4 ,if you do not understand the exact meaning of a word you have heard1 look it up in the dictionary4 ,there are many words1 called synonyms1 which have almost a like signification1 nevertheless1 when examined they express different shades of meaning and in some cases1 instead of being close related1 are widely divergent4 ,beware of such words1 find their exact meaning and learn to use them in their right places4 ,be open to criticism1 don't resent it but rather invite it and look upon those as friends who point out your defects in order that you may remedy them4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,slang ,origin--,american ,slang--,foreign ,slang ,slang is more or less common in nearly all ranks of society and in every walk of life at the present day4 ,slang words and expressions have crept into our everyday language1 and so insiduously1 that they have not been detected by the great majority of speakers1 and so have become part and parcel of their vocabulary on an equal footing with the legitimate words of speech4 ,they are called upon to do similar service as the ordinary words used in everyday conversation--to express thoughts and desires and convey meaning from one to another4 ,in fact1 in some cases1 slang has become so useful that it has far outstripped classic speech and made for itself such a position in the vernacular that it would be very hard in some cases to get along without it4 ,slang words have usurped the place of regular words of language in very many instances and reign supreme in their own strength and influence4 ,cant and slang are often confused in the popular mind1 yet they are not synonymous1 though very closely allied1 and proceeding from a common ,gypsy origin4 ,cant is the language of a certain class--the peculiar phraseology or dialect of a certain craft1 trade or profession1 and is not readily understood save by the initiated of such craft1 trade or profession4 ,it may be correct1 according to the rules of grammar1 but it is not universal2 it is confined to certain parts and localities and is only intelligible to those for whom it is intended4 ,in short1 it is an esoteric language which only the initiated can understand4 ,the jargon1 or patter1 of thieves is cant and it is only understood by thieves who have been let into its significance2 the initiated language of professional gamblers is cant1 and is only intelligible to gamblers4 ,on the other hand1 slang1 as it is nowadays1 belongs to no particular class but is scattered all over and gets entre into every kind of society and is understood by all where it passes current in everyday expression4 ,of course1 the nature of the slang1 to a great extent1 depends upon the locality1 as it chiefly is concerned with colloquialisms or words and phrases common to a particular section4 ,for instance1 the slang of ,london is slightly different from that of ,new ,york1 and some words in the one city may be unintelligible in the other1 though well understood in that in which they are current4 ,nevertheless1 slang may be said to be universally understood4 ,to kick the bucket1 to cross the ,jordan1 to hop the twig are just as expressive of the departing from life in the backwoods of ,america or the wilds of ,australia as they are in ,london or ,dublin4 ,slang simply consists of words and phrases which pass current but are not refined1 nor elegant enough1 to be admitted into polite speech or literature whenever they are recognized as such4 ,but1 as has been said1 a great many use slang without their knowing it as slang and incorporate it into their everyday speech and conversation4 ,some authors purposely use slang to give emphasis and spice in familiar and humorous writing1 but they should not be imitated by the tyro4 ,a master1 such as ,dickens1 is forgivable1 but in the novice it is unpardonable4 ,there are several kinds of slang attached to different professions and classes of society4 ,for instance1 there is college slang1 political slang1 sporting slang1 etc4 ,it is the nature of slang to circulate freely among all classes1 yet there are several kinds of this current form of language corresponding to the several classes of society4 ,the two great divisions of slang are the vulgar of the uneducated and coarse-minded1 and the high-toned slang of the so-called upper classes--the educated and the wealthy4 ,the hoyden of the gutter does not use the same slang as my lady in her boudoir1 but both use it1 and so expressive is it that the one might readily understand the other if brought in contact4 ,therefore1 there are what may be styled an ignorant slang and an educated slang--the one common to the purlieus and the alleys1 the other to the parlor and the drawing-room4 ,in all cases the object of slang is to express an idea in a more vigorous1 piquant and terse manner than standard usage ordinarily admits4 ,a school girl1 when she wants to praise a baby1 exclaims3 ,oh1 isn't he awfully cute6 ,to say that he is very nice would be too weak a way to express her admiration4 ,when a handsome girl appears on the street an enthusiastic masculine admirer1 to express his appreciation of her beauty1 tells you3 ,she is a peach1 a bird1 a cuckoo1 any of which accentuates his estimation of the young lady and is much more emphatic than saying3 ,she is a beautiful girl1 a handsome maiden1 or lovely young woman4 ,when a politician defeats his rival he will tell you it was a cinch1 he had a walk-over1 to impress you how easy it was to gain the victory4 ,some slang expressions are of the nature of metaphors and are highly figurative4 ,such are to pass in your checks1 to hold up1 to pull the wool over your eyes1 to talk through your hat1 to fire out1 to go back on1 to make yourself solid with1 to have a jag on1 to be loaded1 to freeze on to1 to bark up the wrong tree1 don't monkey with the buzz-saw1 and in the soup4 ,most slang had a bad origin4 ,the greater part originated in the cant of thieves' ,latin1 but it broke away from this cant of malefactors in time and gradually evolved itself from its unsavory past until it developed into a current form of expressive speech4 ,some slang1 however1 can trace its origin back to very respectable sources4 ,stolen fruits are sweet may be traced to the ,bible in sentiment4 ,proverbs1 ix3#ag has it3 ,stolen waters are sweet4 ,what are you giving me1 supposed to be a thorough ,americanism1 is based upon ,genesis1 xxxviii3#af4 ,the common slang1 a bad man1 in referring to ,western desperadoes1 in almost the identical sense now used1 is found in ,spenser's ,faerie ,queen1 ,massinger's play ,a ,new ,way to ,pay ,old ,debts1 and in ,shakespeare's ,king ,henry ,,viii4 ,the expression to blow on1 meaning to inform1 is in ,shakespeare's ,as ,you ,like it4 ,it's all ,greek to me is traceable to the play of ,julius ,caesar4 ,all cry and no wool is in ,butler's ,hudibras4 ,pious frauds1 meaning hypocrites1 is from the same source4 ,too thin1 referring to an excuse1 is from ,smollett's ,peregrine ,pickle4 ,shakespeare also used it4 ,america has had a large share in contributing to modern slang4 ,the heathen ,chinee1 and ,ways that are dark1 and tricks that are vain1 are from ,bret ,harte's ,truthful ,james4 ,not for ,joe1 arose during the ,civil ,war when one soldier refused to give a drink to another4 ,not if ,i know myself had its origin in ,chicago4 ,what's the matter with----8 ,he's all right1 had its beginning in ,chicago also and first was ,what's the matter with ,hannah4 referring to a lazy domestic servant4 ,there's millions in it1 and ,by a large majority come from ,mark ,twain's ,gilded ,age4 ,pull down your vest1 jim-jams1 got 'em bad1 that's what's the matter1 go hire a hall1 take in your sign1 dry up1 hump yourself1 it's the man around the corner1 putting up a job1 put a head on him1 no back talk1 bottom dollar1 went off on his ear1 chalk it down1 staving him off1 making it warm1 dropping him gently1 dead gone1 busted1 counter jumper1 put up or shut up1 bang up1 smart ,aleck1 too much jaw1 chin-music1 top heavy1 barefooted on the top of the head1 a little too fresh1 champion liar1 chief cook and bottle washer1 bag and baggage1 as fine as silk1 name your poison1 died with his boots on1 old hoss1 hunkey dorey1 hold your horses1 galoot and many others in use at present are all ,americanisms in slang4 ,california especially has been most fecund in this class of figurative language4 ,to this ,state we owe go off and die1 don't you forget it1 rough deal1 square deal1 flush times1 pool your issues1 go bury yourself1 go drown yourself1 give your tongue a vacation1 a bad egg1 go climb a tree1 plug hats1 ,dolly ,vardens1 well fixed1 down to bed rock1 hard pan1 pay dirt1 petered out1 it won't wash1 slug of whiskey1 it pans out well1 and ,i should smile4 ,small potatoes1 and few in the hill1 soft snap1 all fired1 gol durn it1 an up-hill job1 slick1 short cut1 guess not1 correct thing are ,bostonisms4 ,the terms innocent1 acknowledge the corn1 bark up the wrong tree1 great snakes1 ,i reckon1 playing 'possum1 dead shot1 had their origin in the ,southern ,states4 ,doggone it1 that beats the ,dutch1 you bet1 you bet your boots1 sprang from ,new ,york4 ,step down and out originated in the ,beecher trial1 just as brain-storm originated in the ,thaw trial4 ,among the slang phrases that have come directly to us from ,england may be mentioned throw up the sponge1 draw it mild1 give us a rest1 dead beat1 on the shelf1 up the spout1 stunning1 gift of the gab1 etc4 ,the newspapers are responsible for a large part of the slang4 ,reporters1 staff writers1 and even editors1 put words and phrases into the mouths of individuals which they never utter4 ,new ,york is supposed to be the headquarters of slang1 particularly that portion of it known as the ,bowery4 ,all transgressions and corruptions of language are supposed to originate in that unclassic section1 while the truth is that the laws of polite ,english are as much violated on ,fifth ,avenue4 ,of course1 the foreign element mincing their pidgin ,english have given the ,bowery an unenviable reputation1 but there are just as good speakers of the vernacular on the ,bowery as elsewhere in the greater city4 ,yet every inexperienced newspaper reporter thinks that it is incumbent on him to hold the ,bowery up to ridicule and laughter1 so he sits down1 and out of his circumscribed brain1 mutilates the ,english tongue 7he can rarely coin a word71 and blames the mutilation on the ,bowery4 ',tis the same with newspapers and authors1 too1 detracting the ,irish race4 ,men and women who have never seen the green hills of ,ireland1 paint ,irish characters as boors and blunderers and make them say ludicrous things and use such language as is never heard within the four walls of ,ireland4 ',tis very well known that ,ireland is the most learned country on the face of the earth--is1 and has been4 ,the schoolmaster has been abroad there for hundreds1 almost thousands1 of years1 and nowhere else in the world to-day is the king's ,english spoken so purely as in the cities and towns of the little ,western ,isle4 ,current events1 happenings of everyday life1 often give rise to slang words1 and these1 after a time1 come into such general use that they take their places in everyday speech like ordinary words and1 as has been said1 their users forget that they once were slang4 ,for instance1 the days of the ,land ,league in ,ireland originated the word boycott1 which was the name of a very unpopular landlord1 ,captain ,boycott4 ,the people refused to work for him1 and his crops rotted on the ground4 ,from this time any one who came into disfavor and whom his neighbors refused to assist in any way was said to be boycotted4 ,therefore to boycott means to punish by abandoning or depriving a person of the assistance of others4 ,at first it was a notoriously slang word1 but now it is standard in the ,english dictionaries4 ,politics add to our slang words and phrases4 ,from this source we get dark horse1 the gray mare is the better horse1 barrel of money1 buncombe1 gerrymander1 scalawag1 henchman1 logrolling1 pulling the wires1 taking the stump1 machine1 slate1 etc4 ,the money market furnishes us with corner1 bull1 bear1 lamb1 slump1 and several others4 ,the custom of the times and the requirements of current expression require the best of us to use slang words and phrases on occasions4 ,often we do not know they are slang1 just as a child often uses profane words without consciousness of their being so4 ,we should avoid the use of slang as much as possible1 even when it serves to convey our ideas in a forceful manner4 ,and when it has not gained a firm foothold in current speech it should be used not at all4 ,remember that most all slang is of vulgar origin and bears upon its face the bend sinister of vulgarity4 ,of the slang that is of good birth1 pass it by if you can1 for it is like a broken-down gentleman1 of little good to any one4 ,imitate the great masters as much as you will in classical literature1 but when it comes to their slang1 draw the line4 ,dean ,swift1 the great ,irish satirist1 coined the word phiz for face4 ,don't imitate him4 ,if you are speaking or writing of the beauty of a lady's face don't call it her phiz4 ,the ,dean1 as an intellectual giant1 had a license to do so--you haven't4 ,shakespeare used the word flush to indicate plenty of money4 ,well1 just remember there was only one ,shakespeare1 and he was the only one that had a right to use that word in that sense4 ,you'll never be a ,shakespeare1 there will never be such another--,nature exhausted herself in producing him4 ,bulwer used the word stretch for hang1 as to stretch his neck4 ,don't follow his example in such use of the word4 ,above all1 avoid the low1 coarse1 vulgar slang1 which is made to pass for wit among the riff-raff of the street4 ,if you are speaking or writing of a person having died last night don't say or write3 ,he hopped the twig1 or he kicked the bucket4 ,if you are compelled to listen to a person discoursing on a subject of which he knows little or nothing1 don't say ,he is talking through his hat4 ,if you are telling of having shaken hands with ,mr4 ,roosevelt don't say ,he tipped me his flipper4 ,if you are speaking of a wealthy man don't say ,he has plenty of spondulix1 or the long green4 ,all such slang is low1 coarse and vulgar and is to be frowned upon on any and every occasion4 ,if you use slang use the refined kind and use it like a gentleman1 that it will not hurt or give offense to any one4 ,cardinal ,newman defined a gentleman as he who never inflicts pain4 ,be a gentleman in your slang-- never inflict pain4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,writing ,,for ,,newspapers ,qualification--,appropriate ,subjects--,directions ,the newspaper nowadays goes into every home in the land2 what was formerly regarded as a luxury is now looked upon as a necessity4 ,no matter how poor the individual1 he is not too poor to afford a penny to learn1 not alone what is taking place around him in his own immediate vicinity1 but also what is happening in every quarter of the globe4 ,the laborer on the street can be as well posted on the news of the day as the banker in his office4 ,through the newspaper he can feel the pulse of the country and find whether its vitality is increasing or diminishing2 he can read the signs of the times and scan the political horizon for what concerns his own interests4 ,the doings of foreign countries are spread before him and he can see at a glance the occurrences in the remotest corners of earth4 ,if a fire occurred in ,london last night he can read about it at his breakfast table in ,new ,york this morning1 and probably get a better account than the ,londoners themselves4 ,if a duel takes place in ,paris he can read all about it even before the contestants have left the field4 ,there are upwards of #c1jjj daily newspapers in the ,united ,states1 more than #b1jjj of which are published in towns containing less than #ajj1jjj inhabitants4 ,in fact1 many places of less than #aj1jjj population can boast the publishing of a daily newspaper4 ,there are more than #ae1jjj weeklies published4 ,some of the so-called country papers wield quite an influence in their localities1 and even outside1 and are money-making agencies for their owners and those connected with them1 both by way of circulation and advertisements4 ,it is surprising the number of people in this country who make a living in the newspaper field4 ,apart from the regular toilers there are thousands of men and women who make newspaper work a side issue1 who add tidy sums of pin money to their incomes by occasional contributions to the daily1 weekly and monthly press4 ,most of these people are only persons of ordinary1 everyday ability1 having just enough education to express themselves intelligently in writing4 ,it is a mistake to imagine1 as so many do1 that an extended education is necessary for newspaper work4 ,not at all6 ,on the contrary1 in some cases1 a high-class education is a hindrance1 not a help in this direction4 ,the general newspaper does not want learned disquisitions nor philosophical theses2 as its name implies1 it wants news1 current news1 interesting news1 something to appeal to its readers1 to arouse them and rivet their attention4 ,in this respect very often a boy can write a better article than a college professor4 ,the professor would be apt to use words beyond the capacity of most of the readers1 while the boy1 not knowing such words1 would probably simply tell what he saw1 how great the damage was1 who were killed or injured1 etc41 and use language which all would understand4 ,of course1 there are some brilliant scholars1 deeply-read men and women in the newspaper realm1 but1 on the whole1 those who have made the greatest names commenced ignorant enough and most of them graduated by way of the country paper4 ,some of the leading writers of ,england and ,america at the present time started their literary careers by contributing to the rural press4 ,they perfected and polished themselves as they went along until they were able to make names for themselves in universal literature4 ,if you want to contribute to newspapers or enter the newspaper field as a means of livelihood1 don't let lack of a college or university education stand in your way4 ,as has been said elsewhere in this book1 some of the greatest masters of ,english literature were men who had but little advantage in the way of book learning4 ,shakespeare1 ,bunyan1 ,burns1 and scores of others1 who have left their names indelibly inscribed on the tablets of fame1 had little to boast of in the way of book education1 but they had what is popularly known as horse sense and a good working knowledge of the world2 in other words1 they understood human nature1 and were natural themselves4 ,shakespeare understood mankind because he was himself a man2 hence he has portrayed the feelings1 the emotions1 the passions with a master's touch1 delineating the king in his palace as true to nature as he has done the peasant in his hut4 ,the monitor within his own breast gave him warning as to what was right and what was wrong1 just as the daemon ever by the side of old ,socrates whispered in his ear the course to pursue under any and all circumstances4 ,burns guiding the plough conceived thoughts and clothed them in a language which has never1 nor probably never will be1 surpassed by all the learning which art can confer4 ,these men were natural1 and it was the perfection of this naturality that wreathed their brows with the never-fading laurels of undying fame4 ,if you would essay to write for the newspaper you must be natural and express yourself in your accustomed way without putting on airs or frills2 you must not ape ornaments and indulge in bombast or rhodomontade which stamp a writer as not only superficial but silly4 ,there is no room for such in the everyday newspaper4 ,it wants facts stated in plain1 unvarnished1 unadorned language4 ,true1 you should read the best authors and1 as far as possible1 imitate their style1 but don't try to literally copy them4 ,be yourself on every occasion--no one else4 ,not like ,homer would ,i write1 ,not like ,dante if ,i might1 ,not like ,shakespeare at his best1 ,not like ,goethe or the rest1 ,like myself1 however small1 ,like myself1 or not at all4 ,put yourself in place of the reader and write what will interest yourself and in such a way that your language will appeal to your own ideas of the fitness of things4 ,you belong to the great commonplace majority1 therefore don't forget that in writing for the newspapers you are writing for that majority and not for the learned and aesthetic minority4 ,remember you are writing for the man on the street and in the street car1 you want to interest him1 to compel him to read what you have to say4 ,he does not want a display of learning2 he wants news about something which concerns himself1 and you must tell it to him in a plain1 simple manner just as you would do if you were face to face with him4 ,what can you write about8 ,why about anything that will constitute current news1 some leading event of the day1 anything that will appeal to the readers of the paper to which you wish to submit it4 ,no matter in what locality you may live1 however backward it may be1 you can always find something of genuine human interest to others4 ,if there is no news happening1 write of something that appeals to yourself4 ,we are all constituted alike1 and the chances are that what will interest you will interest others4 ,descriptions of adventure are generally acceptable4 ,tell of a fox hunt1 or a badger hunt1 or a bear chase4 ,if there is any important manufacturing plant in your neighborhood describe it and1 if possible1 get photographs1 for photography plays a very important part in the news items of to-day4 ,if a great man lives near you1 one whose name is on the tip of every tongue1 go and get an interview with him1 obtain his views on the public questions of the day1 describe his home life and his surroundings and how he spends his time4 ,try and strike something germane to the moment1 something that stands out prominently in the limelight of the passing show4 ,if a noted personage1 some famous man or woman1 is visiting the country1 it is a good time to write up the place from which he or she comes and the record he or she has made there4 ,for instance1 it was opportune to write of ,sulu and the little ,pacific archipelago during the ,sultan's trip through the country4 ,if an attempt is made to blow up an ,american battleship1 say1 in the harbor of ,appia1 in ,samoa1 it affords a chance to write about ,samoa and ,robert ,louis ,stephenson4 ,when ,manuel was hurled from the throne of ,portugal it was a ripe time to write of ,portugal and ,portuguese affairs4 ,if any great occurrence is taking place in a foreign country such as the crowning of a king or the dethronement of a monarch1 it is a good time to write up the history of the country and describe the events leading up to the main issue4 ,when a particularly savage outbreak occurs amongst wild tribes in the dependencies1 such as a rising of the ,manobos in the ,philippines1 it is opportune to write of such tribes and their surroundings1 and the causes leading up to the revolt4 ,be constantly on the lookout for something that will suit the passing hour1 read the daily papers and probably in some obscure corner you may find something that will serve you as a foundation for a good article-- something1 at least1 that will give you a clue4 ,be circumspect in your selection of a paper to which to submit your copy4 ,know the tone and general import of the paper1 its social leanings and political affiliations1 also its religious sentiments1 and1 in fact1 all the particulars you can regarding it4 ,it would be injudicious for you to send an article on a prize fight to a religious paper or1 vice versa1 an account of a church meeting to the editor of a sporting sheet4 ,if you get your copy back don't be disappointed nor yet disheartened4 ,perseverance counts more in the newspaper field than anywhere else1 and only perseverance wins in the long run4 ,you must become resilient2 if you are pressed down1 spring up again4 ,no matter how many rebuffs you may receive1 be not discouraged but call fresh energy to your assistance and make another stand4 ,if the right stuff is in you it is sure to be discovered2 your light will not remain long hidden under a bushel in the newspaper domain4 ,if you can deliver the goods editors will soon be begging you instead of your begging them4 ,those men are constantly on the lookout for persons who can make good4 ,once you get into print the battle is won1 for it will be an incentive to you to persevere and improve yourself at every turn4 ,go over everything you write1 cut and slash and prune until you get it into as perfect form as possible4 ,eliminate every superfluous word and be careful to strike out all ambiguous expressions and references4 ,if you are writing for a weekly paper remember it differs from a daily one4 ,weeklies want what will not alone interest the man on the street1 but the woman at the fireside2 they want out-of-the-way facts1 curious scraps of lore1 personal notes of famous or eccentric people1 reminiscences of exciting experiences1 interesting gleanings in life's numberless by-ways1 in short1 anything that will entertain1 amuse1 instruct the home circle4 ,there is always something occurring in your immediate surroundings1 some curious event or thrilling episode that will furnish you with data for an article4 ,you must know the nature of the weekly to which you submit your copy the same as you must know the daily4 ,for instance1 the ,christian ,herald1 while avowedly a religious weekly1 treats such secular matter as makes the paper appeal to all4 ,on its religious side it is non-sectarian1 covering the broad field of ,christianity throughout the world2 on its secular side it deals with human events in such an impartial way that every one1 no matter to what class they may belong or to what creed they may subscribe1 can take a living1 personal interest4 ,the monthlies offer another attractive field for the literary aspirant4 ,here1 again1 don't think you must be an university professor to write for a monthly magazine4 ,many1 indeed most1 of the foremost magazine contributors are men and women who have never passed through a college except by going in at the front door and emerging from the back one4 ,however1 for the most part1 they are individuals of wide experience who know the practical side of life as distinguished from the theoretical4 ,the ordinary monthly magazine treats of the leading questions and issues which are engaging the attention of the world for the moment1 great inventions1 great discoveries1 whatever is engrossing the popular mind for the time being1 such as flying machines1 battleships1 sky-scrapers1 the opening of mines1 the development of new lands1 the political issues1 views of party leaders1 character sketches of distinguished personages1 etc4 ,however1 before trying your skill for a monthly magazine it would be well for you to have a good apprenticeship in writing for the daily press4 ,above all things1 remember that perseverance is the key that opens the door of success4 ,persevere6 ,if you are turned down don't get disheartened2 on the contrary1 let the rebuff act as a stimulant to further effort4 ,many of the most successful writers of our time have been turned down again and again4 ,for days and months1 and even years1 some of them have hawked their wares from one literary door to another until they found a purchaser4 ,you may be a great writer in embryo1 but you will never develop into a fetus1 not to speak of full maturity1 unless you bring out what is in you4 ,give yourself a chance to grow and seize upon everything that will enlarge the scope of your horizon4 ,keep your eyes wide open and there is not a moment of the day in which you will not see something to interest you and in which you may be able to interest others4 ,learn1 too1 how to read ,nature's book4 ,there's a lesson in everything--in the stones1 the grass1 the trees1 the babbling brooks and the singing birds4 ,interpret the lesson for yourself1 then teach it to others4 ,always be in earnest in your writing2 go about it in a determined kind of way1 don't be faint-hearted or backward1 be brave1 be brave1 and evermore be brave4 ,on the wide1 tented field in the battle of life1 ,with an army of millions before you2 ,like a hero of old gird your soul for the strife ,and let not the foeman tramp o'er you2 ,act1 act like a soldier and proudly rush on ,the most valiant in ,bravery's van1 ,with keen1 flashing sword cut your way to the front ,and show to the world you're a ,man4 ,if you are of the masculine gender be a man in all things in the highest and best acceptation of the word4 ,that is the noblest title you can boast1 higher far than that of earl or duke1 emperor or king4 ,in the same way womanhood is the grandest crown the feminine head can wear4 ,when the world frowns on you and everything seems to go wrong1 possess your soul in patience and hope for the dawn of a brighter day4 ,it will come4 ,the sun is always shining behind the darkest clouds4 ,when you get your manuscripts back again and again1 don't despair1 nor think the editor cruel and unkind4 ,he1 too1 has troubles of his own4 ,keep up your spirits until you have made the final test and put your talents to a last analysis1 then if you find you cannot get into print be sure that newspaper writing or literary work is not your forte1 and turn to something else4 ,if nothing better presents itself1 try shoemaking or digging ditches4 ,remember honest labor1 no matter how humble1 is ever dignified4 ,if you are a woman throw aside the pen1 sit down and darn your brother's1 your father's1 or your husband's socks1 or put on a calico apron1 take soap and water and scrub the floor4 ,no matter who you are do something useful4 ,that old sophistry about the world owing you a living has been exploded long ago4 ,the world does not owe you a living1 but you owe it servitude1 and if you do not pay the debt you are not serving the purpose of an all-wise ,providence and filling the place for which you were created4 ,it is for you to serve the world1 to make it better1 brighter1 higher1 holier1 grander1 nobler1 richer1 for your having lived in it4 ,this you can do in no matter what position fortune has cast you1 whether it be that of street laborer or president4 ,fight the good fight and gain the victory4 ,above all1 to thine own self be true1 ,and 'twill follow as the night the day1 ,thou canst not then be false to any man4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,choice ,,of ,,words ,small ,words--,their ,importance--,the ,anglo-,saxon ,element ,in another place in this book advice has been given to never use a long word when a short one will serve the same purpose4 ,this advice is to be emphasized4 ,words of learned length and thundering sound should be avoided on all possible occasions4 ,they proclaim shallowness of intellect and vanity of mind4 ,the great purists1 the masters of diction1 the exemplars of style1 used short1 simple words that all could understand2 words about which there could be no ambiguity as to meaning4 ,it must be remembered that by our words we teach others2 therefore1 a very great responsibility rests upon us in regard to the use of a right language4 ,we must take care that we think and speak in a way so clear that there may be no misapprehension or danger of conveying wrong impressions by vague and misty ideas enunciated in terms which are liable to be misunderstood by those whom we address4 ,words give a body or form to our ideas1 without which they are apt to be so foggy that we do not see where they are weak or false4 ,we must make the endeavor to employ such words as will put the idea we have in our own mind into the mind of another4 ,this is the greatest art in the world--to clothe our ideas in words clear and comprehensive to the intelligence of others4 ,it is the art which the teacher1 the minister1 the lawyer1 the orator1 the business man1 must master if they would command success in their various fields of endeavor4 ,it is very hard to convey an idea to1 and impress it on1 another when he has but a faint conception of the language in which the idea is expressed2 but it is impossible to convey it at all when the words in which it is clothed are unintelligible to the listener4 ,if we address an audience of ordinary men and women in the ,english language1 but use such words as they cannot comprehend1 we might as well speak to them in ,coptic or ,chinese1 for they will derive no benefit from our address1 inasmuch as the ideas we wish to convey are expressed in words which communicate no intelligent meaning to their minds4 ,long words1 learned words1 words directly derived from other languages are only understood by those who have had the advantages of an extended education4 ,all have not had such advantages4 ,the great majority in this grand and glorious country of ours have to hustle for a living from an early age4 ,though education is free1 and compulsory also1 very many never get further than the ,three ,r's4 ,these are the men with whom we have to deal most in the arena of life1 the men with the horny palms and the iron muscles1 the men who build our houses1 construct our railroads1 drive our street cars and trains1 till our fields1 harvest our crops--in a word1 the men who form the foundation of all society1 the men on whom the world depends to make its wheels go round4 ,the language of the colleges and universities is not for them and they can get along very well without it2 they have no need for it at all in their respective callings4 ,the plain1 simple words of everyday life1 to which the common people have been used around their own firesides from childhood1 are the words we must use in our dealings with them4 ,such words are understood by them and understood by the learned as well2 why then not use them universally and all the time8 ,why make a one-sided affair of language by using words which only one class of the people1 the so-called learned class1 can understand8 ,would it not be better to use1 on all occasions1 language which the both classes can understand8 ,if we take the trouble to investigate we shall find that the men who exerted the greatest sway over the masses and the multitude as orators1 lawyers1 preachers and in other public capacities1 were men who used very simple language4 ,daniel ,webster was among the greatest orators this country has produced4 ,he touched the hearts of senates and assemblages1 of men and women with the burning eloquence of his words4 ,he never used a long word when he could convey the same1 or nearly the same1 meaning with a short one4 ,when he made a speech he always told those who put it in form for the press to strike out every long word4 ,study his speeches1 go over all he ever said or wrote1 and you will find that his language was always made up of short1 clear1 strong terms1 although at times1 for the sake of sound and oratorical effect1 he was compelled to use a rather long word1 but it was always against his inclination to do so1 and where was the man who could paint1 with words1 as ,webster painted6 ,he could picture things in a way so clear that those who heard him felt that they had seen that of which he spoke4 ,abraham ,lincoln was another who stirred the souls of men1 yet he was not an orator1 not a scholar2 he did not write ,m4,a4 or ,ph4,d4 after his name1 or any other college degree1 for he had none4 ,he graduated from the ,university of ,hard ,knocks1 and he never forgot this severe ,alma ,mater when he became ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,he was just as plain1 ,i just as humble1 as in the days when he split rails or plied a boat on the ,sangamon4 ,he did not use big words1 but he used the words of the people1 and in such a way as to make them beautiful4 ,his ,gettysburg address is an ,english classic1 one of the great masterpieces of the language4 ,from the mere fact that a word is short it does not follow that it is always clear1 but it is true that nearly all clear words are short1 and that most of the long words1 especially those which we get from other languages1 are misunderstood to a great extent by the ordinary rank and file of the people4 ,indeed1 it is to be doubted if some of the scholars using them1 fully understand their import on occasions4 ,a great many such words admit of several interpretations4 ,a word has to be in use a great deal before people get thoroughly familiar with its meaning4 ,long words1 not alone obscure thought and make the ideas hazy1 but at times they tend to mix up things in such a way that positively harmful results follow from their use4 ,for instance1 crime can be so covered with the folds of long words as to give it a different appearance4 ,even the hideousness of sin can be cloaked with such words until its outlines look like a thing of beauty4 ,when a bank cashier makes off with a hundred thousand dollars we politely term his crime defalcation instead of plain theft1 and instead of calling himself a thief we grandiosely allude to him as a defaulter4 ,when we see a wealthy man staggering along a fashionable thoroughfare under the influence of alcohol1 waving his arms in the air and shouting boisterously1 we smile and say1 poor gentleman1 he is somewhat exhilarated2 or at worst we say1 he is slightly inebriated2 but when we see a poor man who has fallen from grace by putting an enemy into his mouth to steal away his brain we express our indignation in the simple language of the words3 ,look at the wretch2 he is dead drunk4 ,when we find a person in downright lying we cover the falsehood with the finely-spun cloak of the word prevarication4 ,shakespeare says1 a rose by any other name would smell as sweet1 and by a similar sequence1 a lie1 no matter by what name you may call it1 is always a lie and should be condemned2 then why not simply call it a lie8 ,mean what you say and say what you mean2 call a spade a spade1 it is the best term you can apply to the implement4 ,when you try to use short words and shun long ones in a little while you will find that you can do so with ease4 ,a farmer was showing a horse to a city-bred gentleman4 ,the animal was led into a paddock in which an old sow-pig was rooting4 ,what a fine quadruped6 exclaimed the city man4 ,which of the two do you mean1 the pig or the horse8 queried the farmer1 for1 in my opinion1 both of them are fine quadrupeds4 ,of course the visitor meant the horse1 so it would have been much better had he called the animal by its simple2 ordinary name--1 there would have been no room for ambiguity in his remark4 ,he profited1 however1 by the incident1 and never called a horse a quadruped again4 ,most of the small words1 the simple words1 the beautiful words which express so much within small bounds belong to the pure ,anglo-,saxon element of our language4 ,this element has given names to the heavenly bodies1 the sun1 moon and stars2 to three out of the four elements1 earth1 fire and water2 three out of the four seasons1 spring1 summer and winter4 ,its simple words are applied to all the natural divisions of time1 except one1 as day1 night1 morning1 evening1 twilight1 noon1 mid-day1 midnight1 sunrise and sunset4 ,the names of light1 heat1 cold1 frost1 rain1 snow1 hail1 sleet1 thunder1 lightning1 as well as almost all those objects which form the component parts of the beautiful1 as expressed in external scenery1 such as sea and land1 hill and dale1 wood and stream1 etc41 are ,anglo-,saxon4 ,to this same language we are indebted for those words which express the earliest and dearest connections1 and the strongest and most powerful feelings of ,nature1 and which1 as a consequence1 are interwoven with the fondest and most hallowed associations4 ,of such words are father1 mother1 husband1 wife1 brother1 sister1 son1 daughter1 child1 home1 kindred1 friend1 hearth1 roof and fireside4 ,the chief emotions of which we are susceptible are expressed in the same language--love1 hope1 fear1 sorrow1 shame1 and also the outward signs by which these emotions are indicated1 as tear1 smile1 laugh1 blush1 weep1 sigh1 groan4 ,nearly all our national proverbs are ,anglo-,saxon4 ,almost all the terms and phrases by which we most energetically express anger1 contempt and indignation are of the same origin4 ,what are known as the ,smart ,set and so-called polite society1 are relegating a great many of our old ,anglo-,saxon words into the shade1 faithful friends who served their ancestors well4 ,these self-appointed arbiters of diction regard some of the ,anglo-,saxon words as too coarse1 too plebeian for their aesthetic tastes and refined ears1 so they are eliminating them from their vocabulary and replacing them with mongrels of foreign birth and hybrids of unknown origin4 ,for the ordinary people1 however1 the man in the street or in the field1 the woman in the kitchen or in the factory1 they are still tried and true and1 like old friends1 should be cherished and preferred to all strangers1 no matter from what source the latter may spring4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,english ,,language ,beginning--,different ,sources--,the ,present ,the ,english language is the tongue now current in ,england and her colonies throughout the world and also throughout the greater part of the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,it sprang from the ,german tongue spoken by the ,teutons1 who came over to ,britain after the conquest of that country by the ,romans4 ,these ,teutons comprised ,angles1 ,saxons1 ,jutes and several other tribes from the northern part of ,germany4 ,they spoke different dialects1 but these became blended in the new country1 and the composite tongue came to be known as the ,anglo-,saxon which has been the main basis for the language as at present constituted and is still the prevailing element4 ,therefore those who are trying to do away with some of the purely ,anglo-,saxon words1 on the ground that they are not refined enough to express their aesthetic ideas1 are undermining main props which are necessary for the support of some important parts in the edifice of the language4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon element supplies the essential parts of speech1 the article1 pronoun of all kinds1 the preposition1 the auxiliary verbs1 the conjunctions1 and the little particles which bind words into sentences and form the joints1 sinews and ligaments of the language4 ,it furnishes the most indispensable words of the vocabulary4 7,see ,chap4 ,,xiii47 ,nowhere is the beauty of ,anglo-,saxon better illustrated than in the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,fifty-four words are pure ,saxon and the remaining ones could easily be replaced by ,saxon words4 ,the gospel of ,st4 ,john is another illustration of the almost exclusive use of ,anglo-,saxon words4 ,shakespeare1 at his best1 is ,anglo-,saxon4 ,here is a quotation from the ,merchant of ,venice1 and of the fifty-five words fifty-two are ,anglo-,saxon1 the remaining three ,french3 ,all that glitters is not gold-- ,often have you heard that told2 ,many a man his life hath sold1 ,but my outside to behold4 ,guilded tombs do worms infold4 ,had you been as wise as bold1 ,young in limbs1 in judgment old1 ,your answer had not been inscrolled-- ,fare you well1 your suit is cold4 ,the lines put into the mouth of ,hamlet's father in fierce intenseness1 second only to ,dante's inscription on the gate of hell1 have one hundred and eight ,anglo-,saxon and but fifteen ,latin words4 ,the second constituent element of present ,english is ,latin which comprises those words derived directly from the old ,roman and those which came indirectly through the ,french4 ,the former were introduced by the ,roman ,christians1 who came to ,england at the close of the sixth century under ,augustine1 and relate chiefly to ecclesiastical affairs1 such as saint from sanctus1 religion from religio1 chalice from calix1 mass from missa1 etc4 ,some of them had origin in ,greek1 as priest from presbyter1 which in turn was a direct derivative from the ,greek presbuteros1 also deacon from the ,greek diakonos4 ,the largest class of ,latin words are those which came through the ,norman-,french1 or ,romance4 ,the ,normans had adopted1 with the ,christian religion1 the language1 laws and arts of the ,romanized ,gauls and ,romanized ,franks1 and after a residence of more than a century in ,france they successfully invaded ,england in #ajff under ,william the ,conqueror and a new era began4 ,the ,french ,latinisms can be distinguished by the spelling4 ,thus ,saviour comes from the ,latin ,salvator through the ,french ,sauveur2 judgment from the ,latin judiclum through the ,french jugement2 people1 from the ,latin populus1 through the ,french peuple1 etc4 ,for a long time the ,saxon and ,norman tongues refused to coalesce and were like two distinct currents flowing in different directions4 ,norman was spoken by the lords and barons in their feudal castles1 in parliament and in the courts of justice4 ,saxon by the people in their rural homes1 fields and workshops4 ,for more than three hundred years the streams flowed apart1 but finally they blended1 taking in the ,celtic and ,danish elements1 and as a result came the present ,english language with its simple system of grammatical inflection and its rich vocabulary4 ,the father of ,english prose is generally regarded as ,wycliffe1 who translated the ,bible in #achj1 while the paternal laurels in the secular poetical field are twined around the brows of ,chaucer4 ,besides the ,germanic and ,romanic1 which constitute the greater part of the ,english language1 many other tongues have furnished their quota4 ,of these the ,celtic is perhaps the oldest4 ,the ,britons at ,caesar's invasion1 were a part of the ,celtic family4 ,the ,celtic idiom is still spoken in two dialects1 the ,welsh in ,wales1 and the ,gaelic in ,ireland and the ,highlands of ,scotland4 ,the ,celtic words in ,english1 are comparatively few2 cart1 dock1 wire1 rail1 rug1 cradle1 babe1 grown1 griddle1 lad1 lass1 are some in most common use4 ,the ,danish element dates from the piratical invasions of the ninth and tenth centuries4 ,it includes anger1 awe1 baffle1 bang1 bark1 bawl1 blunder1 boulder1 box1 club1 crash1 dairy1 dazzle1 fellow1 gable1 gain1 ill1 jam1 kidnap1 kill1 kidney1 kneel1 limber1 litter1 log1 lull1 lump1 mast1 mistake1 nag1 nasty1 niggard1 horse1 plough1 rug1 rump1 sale1 scald1 shriek1 skin1 skull1 sledge1 sleigh1 tackle1 tangle1 tipple1 trust1 viking1 window1 wing1 etc4 ,from the ,hebrew we have a large number of proper names from ,adam and ,eve down to ,john and ,mary and such words as ,messiah1 rabbi1 hallelujah1 cherub1 seraph1 hosanna1 manna1 satan1 ,sabbath1 etc4 ,many technical terms and names of branches of learning come from the ,greek4 ,in fact1 nearly all the terms of learning and art1 from the alphabet to the highest peaks of metaphysics and theology1 come directly from the ,greek-- philosophy1 logic1 anthropology1 psychology1 aesthetics1 grammar1 rhetoric1 history1 philology1 mathematics1 arithmetic1 astronomy1 anatomy1 geography1 stenography1 physiology1 architecture1 and hundreds more in similar domains2 the subdivisions and ramifications of theology as exegesis1 hermeneutics1 apologetics1 polemics1 dogmatics1 ethics1 homiletics1 etc41 are all ,greek4 ,the ,dutch have given us some modern sea terms1 as sloop1 schooner1 yacht and also a number of others as boom1 bush1 boor1 brandy1 duck1 reef1 skate1 wagon4 ,the ,dutch of ,manhattan island gave us boss1 the name for employer or overseer1 also cold slaa 7cut cabbage and vinegar71 and a number of geographical terms4 ,many of our most pleasing euphonic words1 especially in the realm of music1 have been given to us directly from the ,italian4 ,of these are piano1 violin1 orchestra1 canto1 allegro1 piazza1 gazette1 umbrella1 gondola1 bandit1 etc4 ,spanish has furnished us with alligator1 alpaca1 bigot1 cannibal1 cargo1 filibuster1 freebooter1 guano1 hurricane1 mosquito1 negro1 stampede1 potato1 tobacco1 tomato1 tariff1 etc4 ,from ,arabic we have several mathematical1 astronomical1 medical and chemical terms as alcohol1 alcove1 alembic1 algebra1 alkali1 almanac1 assassin1 azure1 cipher1 elixir1 harem1 hegira1 sofa1 talisman1 zenith and zero4 ,bazaar1 dervish1 lilac1 pagoda1 caravan1 scarlet1 shawl1 tartar1 tiara and peach have come to us from the ,persian4 ,turban1 tulip1 divan and firman are ,turkish4 ,drosky1 knout1 rouble1 steppe1 ukase are ,russian4 ,the ,indians have helped us considerably and the words they have given us are extremely euphonic as exemplified in the names of many of our rivers and ,states1 as ,mississippi1 ,missouri1 ,minnehaha1 ,susquehanna1 ,monongahela1 ,niagara1 ,ohio1 ,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1 ,iowa1 ,nebraska1 ,dakota1 etc4 ,in addition to these proper names we have from the ,indians wigwam1 squaw1 hammock1 tomahawk1 canoe1 mocassin1 hominy1 etc4 ,there are many hybrid words in ,english1 that is1 words1 springing from two or more different languages4 ,in fact1 ,english has drawn from all sources1 and it is daily adding to its already large family1 and not alone is it adding to itself1 but it is spreading all over the world and promises to take in the entire human family beneath its folds ere long4 ,it is the opinion of many that ,english1 in a short time1 will become the universal language4 ,it is now being taught as a branch of the higher education in the best colleges and universities of ,europe and in all commercial cities in every land throughout the world4 ,in ,asia it follows the ,british sway and the highways of commerce through the vast empire of ,east ,india with its two hundred and fifty millions of heathen and ,mohammedan inhabitants4 ,it is largely used in the seaports of ,japan and ,china1 and the number of natives of these countries who are learning it is increasing every day4 ,it is firmly established in ,south ,africa1 ,liberia1 ,sierra ,leone1 and in many of the islands of the ,indian and ,south ,seas4 ,it is the language of ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 ,tasmania1 and ,christian missionaries are introducing it into all the islands of ,polynesia4 ,it may be said to be the living commercial language of the ,north ,american continent1 from ,baffin's ,bay to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 and it is spoken largely in many of the republics of ,south ,america4 ,it is not limited by parallels of latitude1 or meridians of longitude4 ,the two great ,english-speaking countries1 ,england and the ,united ,states1 are disseminating it north1 south1 east and west over the entire world4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,masters ,,and ,,masterpieces ,,of ,,literature ,great ,authors--,classification--,the ,world's ,best ,books4 ,the ,bible is the world's greatest book4 ,apart from its character as a work of divine revelation1 it is the most perfect literature extant4 ,leaving out the ,bible the three greatest works are those of ,homer1 ,dante and ,shakespeare4 ,these are closely followed by the works of ,virgil and ,milton4 ,,indispensable ,,books ,homer1 ,dante1 ,cervantes1 ,shakespeare and ,goethe4 7,the best translation of ,homer for the ordinary reader is by ,chapman4 ,norton's translation of ,dante and ,taylor's translation of ,goethe's ,faust are recommended47 ,a ,,good ,,library ,besides the works mentioned everyone should endeavor to have the following3 ,plutarch's ,lives1 ,meditations of ,marcus ,aurelius1 ,chaucer1 ,imitation of ,christ 7,thomas a ,kempis71 ,holy ,living and ,holy ,dying 7,jeremy ,taylor71 ,pilgrim's ,progress1 ,macaulay's ,essays1 ,bacon's ,essays1 ,addison's ,essays1 ,essays of ,elia 7,charles ,lamb71 ,les ,miserables 7,hugo71 ,heroes and ,hero ,worship 7,carlyle71 ,palgrave's ,golden ,treasury1 ,wordsworth1 ,vicar of ,wakefield1 ,adam ,bede 7,george ,eliot71 ,vanity ,fair 7,thackeray71 ,ivanhoe 7,scott71 ,on the ,heights 7,auerbach71 ,eugenie ,grandet 7,balzac71 ,scarlet ,letter 7,hawthorne71 ,emerson's ,essays1 ,boswell's ,life of ,johnson1 ,history of the ,english ,people 7,green71 ,outlines of ,universal ,history1 ,origin of ,species1 ,montaigne's ,essays1 ,longfellow1 ,tennyson1 ,browning1 ,whittier1 ,ruskin1 ,herbert ,spencer4 ,a good encyclopoedia is very desirable and a reliable dictionary indispensable4 ,,masterpieces ,,of ,,american ,,literature ,scarlet ,letter1 ,parkman's ,histories1 ,motley's ,dutch ,republic1 ,grant's ,memoirs1 ,franklin's ,autobiography1 ,webster's ,speeches1 ,lowell's ,bigelow ,papers1 also his ,critical ,essays1 ,thoreau's ,walden1 ,leaves of ,grass 7,whitman71 ,leather-stocking ,tales 7,cooper71 ,autocrat of the ,breakfast ,table1 ,ben ,hur and ,uncle ,tom's ,cabin4 ,,ten ,,greatest ,,american ,,poets ,bryant1 ,poe1 ,whittier1 ,longfellow1 ,lowell1 ,emerson1 ,whitman1 ,lanier1 ,aldrich and ,stoddard4 ,,ten ,,greatest ,,english ,,poets ,chaucer1 ,spenser1 ,shakespeare1 ,milton1 ,burns1 ,wordsworth1 ,keats1 ,shelley1 ,tennyson1 ,browning4 ,,ten ,,greatest ,,english ,,essayists ,bacon1 ,addison1 ,steele1 ,macaulay1 ,lamb1 ,jeffrey1 ,de ,quincey1 ,carlyle1 ,thackeray and ,matthew ,arnold4 ,,best ,,plays ,,of ,,shakespeare ,in order of merit are3 ,hamlet1 ,king ,lear1 ,othello1 ,antony and ,cleopatra1 ,macbeth1 ,merchant of ,venice1 ,henry ,,iv1 ,as ,you ,like ,it1 ,winter's ,tale1 ,romeo and ,juliet1 ,midsummer ,night's ,dream1 ,twelfth ,night1 ,tempest4 ,,only ,,the ,,good ,if you are not able to procure a library of the great masterpieces1 get at least a few4 ,read them carefully1 intelligently and with a view to enlarging your own literary horizon4 ,remember a good book cannot be read too often1 one of a deteriorating influence should not be read at all4 ,in literature1 as in all things else1 the good alone should prevail4