,transcriber's ,notes    ,obvious       
typographical errors have been silently 
corrected4 ,variations  in hyphenation  
and accents have been standardised but  
all other  spelling and punctuation     
remains unchanged4    ,the structure of 
some tables has been modified to improve
 legibility  within page width4         
,footnotes are located at the end of the
 book4    ,italics are represented thus 
italic1 and bold thus bold4             
,arabia3 ,the ,cradle of ,islam         
,illustration3 ,a ,,typical ,,arab ,,of 
,,yemen                                 
,arabia3 ,the ,cradle                   
of ,islam                     ,studies  
in the ,geography1 ,people and          
,politics of the ,peninsula with an     
account of ,islam and ,mission-work4    
,,rev4 ,s4 ,m4 ,,zwemer1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4   
,,introduction ,,by                     
,,rev4 ,,james ,s4 ,,dennis1 ,d4,d4     
,,edinburgh ,,and ,,london              
,oliphant ,anderson and ,ferrier        
#aijj                                   

,printed by                             
,,the ,,caxton ,,press                  
#aga-agc ,macdougal ,st4                
,new ,york1 ,u4,s4,a4                   
,,dedicated                             
,,to                     ,the 8,student 
,volunteers0 of ,america                
,,in ,,memory ,,of       ,,the ,,two    
,,american ,,volunteers ,,who ,,laid    
,,down ,,their ,,lives ,,for ,,arabia   
,,peter ,j4 ,,zwemer                    
,,and                                   
,,george ,e4 ,,stone           ,and     
,jesus said unto him3 ,this day is      
salvation come to this house1           
forasmuch as he also is a son of        
,abraham4 ,for the ,son of ,man is come 
to seek and to save that which was      
lost4--,,luke xix4 #i1 #aj4             
,introductory ,note      ,the author of 
this instructive volume is in the direct
 line of  missionary pioneers to the    
,moslem world4 ,he follows ,raymond     
,lull1 ,henry  ,martyn1 ,ion            
,keith-,falconer1 and ,bishop ,french1  

and1 with his friend  and comrade the   
,rev4 ,james ,cantine1 now stands in the
 shining line of  succession at the     
close of a decade of patient and brave  
service at  that lonely outpost on the  
shores of the ,persian ,gulf4 ,others   
have  followed in their footsteps1 until
 the ,arabian ,mission1 the adopted     
child of the ,reformed ,church in       
,america1 is at present a compact and   
resolute group of men and women at the  
gates of ,arabia1 waiting on  ,god's    
will1 and intent first of all upon      
fulfilling in the spirit of  obedience  
to the ,master the duty assigned them4  
,these ten years of quiet1 unflinching  
service have been full of prayer1       
observation1 study1 and wistful survey  
of the great task1 while at the  same   
time every opportunity has been improved
 to gain a foothold1 to  plant a        
standard1 to overcome a prejudice1 to   
sow a seed1 and to win a  soul4 ,the    
fruits of this intelligent and          
conscientious effort to grasp  the      

situation and plan the campaign are     
given to us in this valuable  study of  
8,arabia1 the ,cradle of ,islam40 ,it is
 a missionary contribution  to our      
knowledge of the world4 ,the author is  
entirely familiar with  the literature  
of his subject4 ,english1 ,german1      
,french1 and ,dutch  authorities are at 
his command4 ,the less accessible       
,arabic authors are  easily within his  
reach1 and he brings from those         
mysterious gardens of  spices into his  
clear1 straightforward narrative1 the   
local coloring  and fragrance1 as well  
as the indisputable witness of original 
medieval  sources4 ,the ethnological1   
geographical1 archaeological1           
commercial1  and political information  
of the descriptive chapters brings to   
our  hands a valuable and readable      
summary of facts1 in a form which is    
highly useful1 and will be sure to      
quicken an intelligent interest in  one 
of the great religious and international
 problems of our times4    ,his study of

 ,islam is from the missionary          
standpoint1 but this does  not          
necessarily mean that it is unfair1 or  
unhistorical1 or lacking in  scholarly  
acumen4 ,purely scientific and academic 
study of an ethnic  religion is one     
method of approaching it4 ,it can thus  
be classified1  labelled1 and put upon  
the shelf in the historical museum of   
the  world's religions1 and the result  
has a value which none will dispute4    
,this1 however1 is not the only1 or     
indeed the most serviceable1 way of     
examining1 estimating and passing a     
final judgment upon a religious  system4
 ,such study must be comparative1 it    
must have some standard of  value2 it   
must not discard acknowledged tests of  
excellence2 it must  make use of certain
 measurements of capacity and power2 it 
must be  pursued in the light of        
practical ethics1 and be in harmony with
 the  great fundamental laws of         
religious experience and spiritual      
progress  which have controlled thus far

 the regenerative processes of human    
development4    ,the missionary in      
forming his final judgment inevitably   
compares the  religion he studies with  
the religion he teaches4 ,he need not do
 this  in any unkind1 or bitter1 or     
abusive spirit4 ,on the contrary1 he    
may do it with a supreme desire to      
uncover delusion1 and make clear  the   
truth as it has been given to him by the
 ,great ,teacher4 ,he may  make a       
generous and sympathetic allowance for  
the influence of local  environment1 he 
may trace in an historic spirit the     
natural evolution  of a religious       
system1 he may give all due credit to   
every worthy  element and every pleasing
 characteristic therein1 he may regard  
its  symbols with respect1 and also with
 all charity and consideration the      
leaders and guides whom the people      
reverence2 yet his own judgment  may    
still be inflexible1 his own allegiance 
unfaltering1 and he may  feel it to be  
his duty to put into plain1 direct1 and 

vigorous prose  his irreversible verdict
 that ,christianity being true1 ,islam  
is not1  ,buddhism is not1 ,hinduism is 
not4    ,there he stands2 he is not     
afraid of the issue4 ,his ,master is the
 one  supreme and infallible judge1 who 
can pronounce an unerring verdict       
concerning the truth of any religion4   
,he has ventured to bear witness  to the
 truth which his ,master has taught him4
 ,let no one lightly  question the value
 of the contribution he makes to the    
comparative  study of religion4    ,the 
spirit in which our author has written  
of ,islam is marked by  fairness1       
sobriety1 and discrimination1 and yet   
there is no mistaking  the verdict of   
one who speaks with an authority which  
is based upon  exceptional opportunities
 of observation1 close study of literary
  sources and moral results1 and        
undoubted honesty of purpose4    ,it may
 not be out of place to note the hearty1
 outspoken satisfaction  with which the 
author regards the extension of ,british

 authority  over the long sweep of the  
,arabian coast line4 ,his admiration and
  delight can only be fully understood  
by one who has been a resident  in the  
,east1 and has felt the blight of       
,moslem rule1 and its utter             
hopelessness as an instrument of        
progress4    ,let this book have its    
hour of quiet opportunity1 and it will  
broaden  our vision1 enlarge our        
knowledge1 and deepen our interest in   
themes  which will never lose their hold
 upon the attention of thoughtful men4  
,,james ,s4 ,,dennis4                   
,preface      ,there are indications    
that ,arabia will not always remain in  
its long  patriarchal sleep and that    
there is a future in store for the      
,arab4  ,politics1 civilization and     
missions have all begun to touch the hem
 of  the peninsula and it seems that    
soon there will be one more land--or  at
 least portions of it--to add to 8the   
white man's burden40 ,history  is making
 in the ,persian ,gulf1 and ,yemen will 

not forever remain1  a tempting         
prize1--untouched4 ,the spiritual burden
 of ,arabia is the  ,mohammedan religion
 and it is in its cradle we can best see
 the fruits  of ,islam4 ,we have sought 
to trace the spiritual as well as the   
physical  geography of ,arabia by       
showing how ,islam grew out of the      
earlier  ,judaism1 ,sabeanism and       
,christianity4    ,the purpose of this  
book is especially to call attention to 
,arabia  and the need of missionary work
 for the ,arabs4 ,there is no dearth of 
literature on ,arabia1 the ,arabs and   
,islam1 but most of the books on        
,arabia are antiquated or inaccessible  
to the ordinary reader2 some  of the    
best are out of print4 ,the only modern 
work in ,english1 which  gives a general
 idea of the whole peninsula is ,bayard 
,taylor's somewhat  juvenile 8,travels  
in ,arabia40 ,in ,german there is the   
scholarly  compilation of ,albrecht     
,zehm1 8,arabie und die ,araber1 seit   
hundert  jahren10 which is generally    

accurate1 but is rather dull reading and
  has neither illustrations nor maps4   
,from the missionary standpoint  there  
are no books on ,arabia save the        
biographies of ,keith-,falconer1        
,bishop ,french and ,kamil              
,abdul-,messiah4    ,this fact together 
with the friends of the author urged    
their united  plea for a book on this   
8,neglected ,peninsula10 its people1    
religion  and missions4 ,we have written
 from a missionary viewpoint1 so that   
the book has certain features which are 
intended specially for those  who are   
interested in the missionary enterprise4
 ,but that enterprise  has now so large 
a place in modern thought that no       
student of secular  history can afford  
to remain in ignorance of its movements4
    ,some of the chapters are           
necessarily based largely on the books  
by  other travellers1 but if any object 
to quotation marks1 we would remind     
them that ,emerson's writings are said  
to contain three thousand three  hundred

 and ninety three quotations from eight 
hundred and sixty-eight  individuals6   
,the material for the book was collected
 during nine years  of residence in     
,arabia4 ,it was for the most part put  
into its present  form at ,bahrein      
during the summer of #ahii1 in the midst
 of many outside  duties and            
distractions4    ,i wish especially to  
acknowledge my indebtedness to ,w4 ,a4  
,buchanan1  ,esq41 of ,london1 who gave 
the initiative for the preparation of   
this  volume and to my friend ,mr4 ,d4  
,l4 ,pierson who has generously         
undertaken  the entire oversight of its 
publication4    ,the system for the     
spelling of ,arabic names in the text   
follows in  general that of the ,royal  
,geographical ,society4 ,this system    
consists1  in brief1 in three rules3    
7#a7 words made familiar by long usage  
remain  unchanged2 7#b7 vowels are      
pronounced as in ,italian and consonants
 as in  ,english2 7#c7 no redundant     
letters are written and all those       

written are  pronounced4    ,we send    
these chapters on their errand1 and hope
 that especially the  later ones may    
reach the hearts of the ,student        
,volunteers for foreign  missions to    
whom they are dedicated2 we pray also   
that the number  of those who love the  
,arabs and labor for their enlightenment
 and  redemption may increase4          
,s4 ,m4 ,,zwemer4      ,bahrein1        
,arabia4                                
,table of ,contents                     
,,page    ,i      ,,the ,,neglected     
,,peninsula                             
#ag      ,arabia the centre of ,moslem  
world--,its boundaries--,the            
coast--,physical                        
characteristics--,climate--,water-supply
--,geology--,the                        
,wadys--,mountains--,deserts4      ,,ii 
,,the ,,geographical ,,divisions ,,of   
,,arabia                                
#be        ,natural                     
divisions--,provinces--,political       
geography--,important    flora and      

fauna--,population4      ,,iii          
,,the ,,holy ,,land ,,of                
,,arabia--,,mecca                       
#cj        ,its                         
boundaries--,sacredness--,european      
travellers--,jiddah--,its               
bombardment--,the                       
pilgrimage--,mecca--,its                
location--,water-supply--,governor--,the
    ,kaaba--,the ,black                 
,stone--,zemzem--,duty of               
pilgrimage--,the pilgrims--,the    day  
of sacrifice--,the                      
certificate--,character of              
,meccans--,temporary                    
marriages--,superstitions--,mishkash--,s
chools    of ,mecca--,course of study4  
,,iv      ,,the ,,holy ,,land ,,of      
,,arabia--,,medina                      
#de        ,taif--,heathen idols--,the  
road to ,medina--,sanctity of           
,medina--,the    prophet's mosque--,was 
,mohammed buried there8--,the    five   
tombs--,prayer for ,fatima--,living on  
the pilgrims--,character    of          

people--,yanbo--,importance of ,mecca to
 ,islam4      ,v      ,,aden ,,and ,,an 
,,inland ,,journey                      
#ec        ,the gateways to ,arabia     
,felix--,aden--,its ancient             
history--,fortifications--,tanks--,divis
ions--,population--,journey             
inland--,wahat--,the vegetation of      
,yemen--,a ,turkish custom-house--,the  
storm in the wady--,taiz--,the story of 
the books4      ,,vi      ,,yemen3 ,,the
 ,,switzerland ,,of ,,arabia            
#fb        ,the ,jews of ,yemen--,from  
,taiz to ,ibb and ,yerim--,beauty    of 
scenery--,climate--,ali's               
footprint--,damar--,sana--,commerce     
and manufactures--,roda--,from ,sana to 
the coast--,the    terraces of          
,yemen--,suk-el                         
,khamis--,menakha--,bajil--,hodeidah4   
,,vii      ,,the ,,unexplored ,,regions 
,,of ,,hadramaut                        
#gb        ,von ,wrede's                
travels--,halvy--,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,bent's 
journeys--,makalla--,incense-trade--,the

 castles and    palaces--,shibam--,shehr
 and its ruler--,hadramaut    and the   
,indian archipelago4      ,,viii        
,,muscat ,,and ,,the ,,coastlands ,,of  
,,oman                                  
#gh                                     
,boundaries--,population--,government--,
muscat--,heat--,the    forts--,the      
town--,the gardens--,trade--,the coast  
of ,oman--,the    pirate-coast--,the    
,batina--,sib1 ,barka1 ,sohar--,from    
,muscat to ,ras-el-,had--,sur--,carter's
 exploration--,the ,mahrah    and       
,gharah tribes--,frankincense4      ,,ix
      ,,the ,,land ,,of ,,the ,,camel   
#hh        8,the mother of the          
camel0--,importance of the camel to     
,arabia--,tradition as to               
creation--,species--,the dromedary--,an 
illustration of design--,products of the
 camel--,characteristics--,the          
interior of ,oman--,chief               
authorities--,fertility--,caravan-routes
--,peter    ,zwemer's journey--,jebel   
,achdar4      ,x      ,,the ,,pearl     

,,islands ,,of ,,the ,,gulf             
#ig        ,ancient history of          
,bahrein--,origin of                    
name--,population--,menamah--,the       
fresh-water springs--,the               
pearl-fisheries--,superstitions    about
 pearls--,value and export--,method of  
diving--,boats--,apparatus--,dangers    
to the divers--,mother-of-pearl--,other 
manufactures--,ruins at ,ali--,the      
climate--,political    history--,english
 protection4        ,,xi      ,,the     
,,eastern ,,threshold ,,of ,,arabia     
#aaj        ,the province of            
,hassa--,katar--,the ,route             
inland--,ojeir--,journey    to          
,hofhoof--,the two curses of            
agriculture--,the    capital of         
,hassa--,plan of the town--,its         
manufactures--,curious    coinage--,the 
government of ,hassa--,katif--,its      
unhealthfulness4      ,,xii      ,,the  
,,river-,,country ,,and ,,the           
,,date-,,palm                           
#aai        ,the cradle of the          

race--,boundaries of ,mesopotamia--,the 
,tigris-,euphrates--,meadow lands--,the 
palms--,their                           
beauty--,fruitfulness--,usefulness--,var
ieties of dates--,value--,other         
products--,population--,provinces and   
districts--,the government4      ,,xiii 
,,the ,,cities ,,and ,,villages ,,of    
,,turkish-,,arabia                      
#abh        ,kuweit--,fao--,aboo        
,hassib--,busrah--,the river            
navigation--,a                          
journey--,kurna--,ezra's                
tomb--,amara--,the tomb of the          
barber--,the arch of                    
,ctesiphon--,bagdad1 past and           
present--,population--,trade--,kelleks4 
,,xiv      ,a ,,journey ,,down ,,the    
,,euphrates                             
#acf        ,journey to ,hillah---,the  
route--,kerbela--,down the              
,euphrates--,diwaniyeh--,the            
soldier-guard--,amphibious              
,arabs--,samawa--,ya    ,ali1 ,ya       
,hassan6--,nasariya--,ur--,the end of   

our    journey--,the future of          
,mesopotamia4      ,,xv      ,,the      
,,interior--,,known ,,and ,,unknown     
#adc        ,what it includes--,its four
 divisions--7#a7 8,the empty            
quarter0--,ignorance of this part of    
,arabia--7#b7 ,nejran--,the             
,dauasir-valley and other               
wadys--,halvy's travels--,aflaj--,the   
,roman    expedition to ,nejran--7#c7   
,nejd--,its proper limits--,the         
zephyrs of                              
,nejd--,soil--,vegetation--,animals--,th
e ostrich--,the    horse--,the chief    
authorities on this part of             
,arabia--,the    population of          
,nejd--,the character of                
government--,intercourse    with        
,mesopotamia--,chief                    
cities--,hail--,riad--7#d7    ,jebel    
,shammar--,the                          
,bedouin-tribes--,division--,character  
and customs--,robbery--,universal       
poverty4        ,,xvi      8,,the ,,time
 ,,of ,,ignorance0                      

#aeh        ,why so-called--,the golden 
age of literature--,the influence of    
,christianity and ,judaism--,tribal     
constitution of                         
society--,commerce--,incense--,foreign  
invasions--,political commotion--,the   
condition of women--,female             
infanticide--,the veil--,rights    of   
women--,marriage choice--,polygamy and  
,polyandry--,two    kinds of            
marriage--,did ,islam elevate           
woman8--,writing    in 8the days of     
ignorance0--,poetry--,mohammed's        
opinion of poets--,the                  
religions--,sabeanism--,the ,pantheon   
at                                      
,mecca--,jinn--,totemism--,tattooing--,n
ames of idols--,allah--,decay    of     
idolatry--,the ,hanifs4      ,,xvii     
,,islam ,,in ,,its ,,cradle--,,the      
,,moslem',s ,,god                       
#afi        ,different                  
views--,carlyle--,hugh                  
,broughton--,borrowed elements    of    
,islam--,the ,god of ,islam--,palgrave's

 portrait--,attributes    of ,god--,what
 ,god is not--,analysis of              
,islam--,borrowed    elements of ,islam4
      ,,xviii      ,,the ,,prophet ,,and
 ,,his ,,book                           
#agi        ,the prophet of             
,islam--,birth of ,mohammed--,his       
environment--,factors    that helped to 
make the man--,political1 religious and 
family factor--,khadijah--,mohammed's   
appearance1 mind and    character--,his 
transgression of law--,his              
sensuality--,his                        
murders--,expeditions--,mohammed1 as he 
became through    tradition--,his       
glories1 favor and power as an          
intercessor--,how    ,moslems regard the
 ,koran--,its character according to    
,dr4 ,post1 ,goethe and ,nldeke--,its   
names--,contents--,origin--,recension--,
its    beauties--,its defects--,its     
omissions4      ,,xix      ,,the        
,,wahabi ,,rulers ,,and ,,reformers     
#aia        ,the story of past          
century--,the ,wahabis--,character of   

teaching--,the    preacher and the      
sword--,taking of ,mecca and            
,medina--,kerbela--,mohammed            
,ali--,the ,hejaz                       
campaign--,ghalye--,turkish             
cruelty--,english                       
expedition--,peace--,the    ,wahabi     
dynasty--,abdullah bin ,rashid--,rise of
 ,nejd kingdom--,character    of        
rule--,hail conquers ,riad4      ,,xx   
,,the ,,rulers ,,of ,,oman              
#bjb        ,oman rulers--,seyid        
,said--,feysul bin ,turki--,the rebels  
take    ,muscat--,arab                  
warfare--,european diplomacy4      ,,xxi
      ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,turks  
,,in ,,arabia                           
#bjf        ,hejaz--,the ,sherifs of    
,mecca--,othman ,pasha--,threats to     
assassinate him--,turkish troops in     
,asir--,losses--,the conquest    of     
,yemen--,turkish rule--,rebellions--,the
 rebellion of    #ahib--;,bagdad1       
,busrah and ,hassa--,taxes--,the ,turks 
and    ,bedouins--,the army--,character 

of rule4      ,,xxii      ,,british     
,,influence ,,in ,,arabia               
#bah        ,british                    
possessions--,aden--,socotra--,perim--,k
uria ,muria    islands--,bahrein--,her  
naval supremacy--,in the ,gulf--,german 
testimony--,survey of coasts--,telegraph
 and                                    
posts--,slave-trade--,commerce--,british
 ,india ,s4 ,n4 ,co4--,gulf trade--,the 
rupee--,trade of ,aden--,overland       
railway--,treaties with    tribes--,the 
,trucial ,league--,england in           
,oman--,aden--,makalla--,method    of   
8protection0--,british consuls and      
agents4      ,,xxiii      ,,present     
,,politics ,,in ,,arabia                
#bcc        ,hejaz--,future of          
,yemen--,france in ,oman--,russia in the
 ,gulf--,the    ,tigris-,euphrates      
,valley--,the greater kingdom--,god's   
providence in history4      ,,xxiv      
,,the ,,arabic ,,language               
#bch        ,wide extent--,its          
character--,renan's opinion--,the       

,semitic    family--,their original     
home--,the two theories--,table of the  
group--,the influence of the ,koran on  
the ,arabic language--,koran    ,arabic 
not pure--,origin of                    
alphabet--,cufic--,caligraphy    as an  
art--,difficulty and beauty of ,arabic  
speech--,its                            
purity--,literature--,difficulty of     
pronunciation--,of its grammar--,keith  
,falconer's testimony4      ,,xxv       
,,the ,,literature ,,of ,,the ,,arabs   
#bea        ,division of its            
literature--,the seven poems--,the      
,koran--,al    ,hariri--,its beauty and 
variety--,arabic poetry in              
general--,influence    of ,arabic and   
other languages--,english influence     
on the ,arabic--,the ,arabic ,bible and 
a ,christian literature4      ,,xxvi    
,,the ,,arab                            
#beh        ,origin of tribes--,two     
theories--,yemenite and ,madite--,the   
caravan routes--,bedouins and           
townsmen--,clark's                      

classification--,genealogies--,tribal   
names--,character of ,arabs--,influence 
of neighbors--,their physique--,their   
aristocracy--,intolerance--,speech--,oat
hs--,robbery--,privilege of             
sanctuary--,generosity--,blood-revenge--
,childhood--,fireside talk--,marriage   
among ,bedouins--,position of           
women--,four                            
witnesses--,doughty--,burckhardt--,lady 
,ann ,blunt--,hurgronje--,woman         
despised--,the kinds of dwelling--,tents
    and houses--,dress--,the staple     
foods--,coffee1 tobacco and locusts4    
,,xxvii      ,,arabian ,,arts ,,and     
,,sciences                              
#bgd        ,music of the ,arabs--,war  
chants--,instruments of                 
music--,songs--,kaseedahs    in         
,yemen--,mecca chants--,science of      
,athar and    ,wasm--,tracking          
camels--,tribal marks--,medical         
knowledge    of the                     
,arabs--,diseases--,remedies--,a        
prescription--,the    ,koran's          

panacea--,a ,mecca ,m4                  
,d4--,amulets--,superstitions4          
,,xxviii      ,,the ,,star-,,worshippers
 ,,of ,,mesopotamia                     
#bhe        ,where they live--,their    
peculiar religion--,their               
language--,literature--,a               
prayer-meeting of the ,star             
,worshippers--,strange                  
ceremonies--,the dogmas--,gnostic       
ideas--,priesthood--,baptisms--,babyloni
an    origin4      ,,xxix      ,,early  
,,christianity ,,in ,,arabia            
#cjj        ,pentecost--,paul's         
journey--,the ,arabs and the            
,romans--,christian    tribes of the    
,north--,mavia--,naaman's               
edict--,christianity    in              
,yemen--,character of ,oriental         
,christianity--,the                     
,collyridians--,theophilus--,nejran     
converts--,martyrs--,abraha1    king of 
,yemen--,marching to ,mecca--,the       
defeat--,end    of early                
,christianity--,the record of the rocks4

      ,,xxx      ,,the ,,dawn ,,of      
,,modern ,,arabian ,,missions           
#cad        ,raymond ,lull--,henry      
,martyn--,why the ,moslem world was     
neglected--,claudius ,buchanan's        
sermon--,the ,syrian missions--,doctor  
,van ,dyck--,his ,bible                 
translation--,henry    ,martyn1 the     
pioneer--,his ,arabian assistant--,visit
 to ,muscat--,his    ,arabic            
version--,anthony ,n4 ,groves--,dr4     
,john ,wilson of    ,bombay--,the ,bible
 ,society--,opening of                  
doors--,major-,general    ,haig's       
journeys--,arabia open--,dr4 and ,mrs4  
,harpur and    the ,c4 ,m4 ,s4--,a call 
to prayer--,bagdad occupied--,the       
present    work--,missionary journeys to
 the ,jews--,william ,lethaby    at     
,kerak--,the ,north ,africa mission     
among the nomads--,samuel    ,van       
,tassel--,the ,christian ,missionary    
,alliance--,mackay's    appeal from     
,uganda--,the response4      ,,xxxi     
,,ion ,,keith ,,falconer ,,and ,,the    

,,aden ,,mission                        
#cca        ,keith ,falconer's          
character--,education--,at              
,cambridge--,mission    work--,his      
8eccentricity0--,leipzig and            
,assiut--,how he    came to go to       
,arabia--,his first visit--,plans for   
the interior--,his    second voyage to  
,aden--,dwelling--,illness--,death--,the
    influence of his life--,the mission 
at ,sheikh ,othman4      ,,xxxii        
,,bishop ,,french ,,the ,,veteran       
,,missionary ,,to ,,muscat              
#cdd        8,the most distinguished of 
all ,c4 ,m4 ,s4 missionaries0--,responds
    to ,mackay's appeal--,his           
character--,his letters from            
,muscat--,his plans for the             
interior--,death--,the grave4           
,,xxxiii      ,,the ,,american ,,arabian
 ,,mission                              
#cec        ,its origin--,the student   
band--,the first plan--,laid before the 
church--,organization--,the ,missionary 
,hymn--,james                           

,cantine--,syria--,cairo--,aden--,kamil-
-,journeys of exploration    to the     
,gulf and ,sana--,busrah--,dr4 ,c4 ,e4  
,riggs--,death of    ,kamil--,opposition
 from government--,home                 
administration--,bahrein                
occupied--,lines of                     
work--,muscat--,journey through         
,yemen--,the mission transferred to the 
,reformed ,church--,troubles    at      
,muscat and ,busrah--,dr4               
,worrall--,journeys in                  
,oman--,scripture-sales--,first-fruits--
,reinforcements4      ,,xxxiv      ,,in 
,,memoriam                              
#cfg        ,peter ,john                
,zwemer--,george ,e4 ,stone4      ,,xxxv
      ,,problems ,,of ,,the ,,arabian   
,,field                                 
#cgd        ,the general problem of     
missions to ,moslems--,the ,arabian     
problem--,what part of ,arabia is       
accessible--,turkish ,arabia--,its      
accessibility--,limitations--,the       
accessibility of independent            

,arabia--,climate--,moslem              
fanaticism--,english                    
influence--,illiteracy--,the            
,bedouins--,the present missionary      
force--,its utter inadequacy--,methods  
of work--,medical                       
missions--,schools--,work for           
women--,colportage--,preaching--,controv
ersy--,what    should be its            
character--,the attitude    of the      
,moslem mind--,fate of                  
converts--,thoughtless and    thoughtful
 ,moslems--,the ,bible as dynamite--,the
 right men    for the work4      ,,xxxvi
      ,,the ,,outlook ,,for ,,missions  
,,to ,,moslems                          
#cia        ,two views of work for      
,moslems--,christian fatalism--,results 
in    ,moslem                           
lands--,india--,persia--,constantinople-
-,sumatra and    ,java--,other signs of 
progress--,the significance of          
persecution--,character    of           
converts--,promise of ,god for victory  
over    ,islam--,christ or              

,mohammed--,missionary promises of the  
,old ,testament--,the ,rock of ,jesus'  
,sonship--,special promises    for      
,arabia--,hagar and ,ishmael--,the      
prayer of ,abraham--,the    sign of the 
covenant with ,ishmael--,the third      
revelation    of ,god's love--,the sons 
of ,ishmael--,kedar and ,nebaioth--,the 
promises--,seba and ,sheba--,the        
spiritual boundaries of    ,arabia--,da 
,costa's poem--,faith like ,abraham--,o 
that ,ishmael    might live before thee4
      ,,appendix   ,i--,,chronological  
,,table                                 
#dji          0     ,,ii--,,tribes ,,of 
,,north ,,arabia                        
#dac          0    ,,iii--,,kaat ,,and  
,,coffee ,,culture ,,in ,,arabia        
#dad          0    ,,iv--,,an ,,arabian 
,,bibliography                          
#daf      ,,index                       
#dbg                                    
,list of ,illustrations                 
,,page      ,a ,,typical ,,arab ,,of    
,,yemen                                 

,frontispiece      ,,view ,,of ,,mecca  
,,and ,,the ,,sacred ,,mosque    ,,the  
,,reputed ,,tomb ,,of ,,eve ,,at        
,,jiddah                       ,facing  
#ag      ,,mohammedan ,,pilgrims ,,at   
,,mecca    ,,the ,,sacred ,,well ,,of   
,,zemzem ,,at ,,mecca                   
0       #cj      ,,pilgrims ,,around    
,,the ,,kaaba ,,in ,,the ,,sacred       
,,mosque    ,,at ,,mecca                
0       #cd      ,,the ,,mecca          
,,certificate--,a ,,passport ,,to       
,,heaven                  0       #dj   
,,christian ,,coins ,,used ,,as ,,an    
,,amulet ,,by ,,meccan ,,women          
#dc      ,a ,,woman ,,of ,,mecca    ,a  
,,meccan ,,woman ,,in ,,her ,,bridal    
,,costume                    ,facing    
#dd      ,,travelling ,,in ,,southern   
,,arabia    ,,the ,,keith ,,falconer    
,,memorial ,,church ,,in ,,aden         
0       #ef      ,,an ,,arabian         
,,compass                               
#ga      ,a ,,castle ,,in ,,hadramaut   
#gg      ,,the ,,harbor ,,and ,,castle  

,,at ,,muscat    ,,ready ,,for ,a       
,,camel ,,ride ,,in ,,the ,,desert      
,facing    #hj      ,a ,,branch ,,of    
,,the ,,incense ,,tree                  
#hg      ,,tenoof ,,from ,,the ,,east   
#ie      ,,the ,,village ,,of ,,menamah1
 ,,bahrein ,,islands    ,a ,,bahrein    
,,harbor ,,boat                         
facing   #ajj      ,a ,,date ,,orchard  
,,near ,,busrah    ,,dates ,,growing    
,,on ,a ,,date-,,palm                   
0      #abb      ,,the ,,tomb ,,of      
,,ezra ,,on ,,the ,,tigris ,,river      
,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,arch ,,of          
,,ctesiphon ,,near ,,bagdad             
0      #acb      ,a ,,public ,,khan ,,in
 ,,turkish-,,arabia    ,,arab ,,pilgrims
 ,,on ,,board ,a ,,river ,,steamer      
0      #adj      ,,four ,,flags ,,that  
,,rule ,,arabia                         
#bag      ,,cufic ,,characters          
#bdc      ,,modern ,,copybook ,,arabic  
,,ordinary ,,unvowelled ,,arabic        
,,writing                               
#bdd      ,,mogrebi ,,arabic ,,of       

,,north ,,arabia                        
#bde      ,,persian ,,style ,,of        
,,writing                               
#bdf      ,,title ,,page ,,of ,,an      
,,arabic ,,christian ,,paper            
#beg      ,,churning ,,butter ,,in ,a   
,,bedouin ,,camp                        
0      #bff      ,,tribal ,,marks ,,of  
,,the ,,arabs                           
#bgi      ,,manaitic ,,cursive ,,script 
#bhg      ,,passage ,,from ,,the        
,,sacred ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,mand,,ans  
#bii      ,,facsimile ,,copy ,,of ,,the 
,,arabian ,,missionary ,,hymn           
#ceh      ,,the ,,old ,,mission ,,house 
,,at ,,busrah    ,,the ,,kitchen ,,of   
,,the ,,old ,,mission ,,house1 ,,busrah 
,facing #cfj      ,,four ,,missionary   
,,martyrs ,,of ,,arabia                 
0    #cfh      ,,the ,,bible ,,shop ,,at
 ,,busrah    ,,interior ,,of ,a ,,native
 ,,shop                                 
0    #chd      ,,the ,,rescued ,,slave  
,,boys ,,at ,,muscat    ,,the ,,arabian 
,,mission ,,house ,,at ,,muscat         

0    #djj               99       99     
99       99       99      ,maps and     
,diagrams      ,,ptolemy',s ,,ancient   
,,map ,,of ,,arabia                     
,facing  #be      ,,ali ,,bey',s ,,plan 
,,of ,,the ,,prophet',s ,,mosque ,,at   
,,mecca               0     #cf         
,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,interior ,,of ,,the 
,,hujrah ,,at ,,medina                  
#di      ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,islands ,,of
 ,,bahrein                              
#ih      ,,neibuhr',s ,,map ,,of ,,the  
,,persian ,,gulf                        
,facing #aaj      ,,palgrave',s ,,plan  
,,of ,,hofhoof                          
#aac      ,,diagrams ,,of ,,missionary  
,,work ,,for ,,arabia                   
#chj1 #cha      ,,modern ,,map ,,of     
,,arabia                                
,end of ,book4    ,illustration3 ,,view 
,,of ,,mecca ,,and ,,the ,,sacred       
,,mosque    ,illustration3 ,,the        
,,reputed ,,tomb ,,of ,,eve ,,at        
,,jiddah                                
,i                            ,,the     

,,neglected ,,peninsula                 
8,intersected by sandy deserts and vast 
ranges of mountains it   presents on one
 side nothing but desolation in its most
 frightful   form1 while the other is   
adorned with all the beauties of the    
most   fertile regions4 ,such is its    
position that it enjoys at once all the 
advantages of hot and of temperate      
climates4 ,the peculiar productions   of
 regions the most distant from one      
another are produced here in   equal    
perfection4 ,what ,greek and ,latin     
authors mention concerning   ,arabia    
proves by its obscurity their ignorance 
of almost everything   respecting the   
,arabs4 ,prejudices relative to the     
inconveniences and   dangers of         
travelling in ,arabia have hitherto kept
 the moderns in   equal ignorance40--,m4
 ,niebuhr 7#agib74      ,what ,jerusalem
 and ,palestine are to ,christendom     
this1 and vastly more1  ,mecca and      
,arabia are to the ,mohammedan world4   
,not only is this land  the cradle of   

their religion and the birthplace of    
their prophet1  the shrine toward which1
 for centuries1 prayers and pilgrimage  
have gravitated2 but ,arabia is also1   
according to universal ,moslem          
tradition1 the original home of ,adam   
after the fall and the home of  all the 
older patriarchs4 ,the story runs that  
when the primal pair  fell from their   
estate of bliss in the heavenly         
paradise1 ,adam landed  on a mountain in
 ,ceylon and ,eve fell at ,jiddah1 on   
the western coast  of ,arabia4 ,after a 
hundred years of wandering they met near
 ,mecca1  and here ,allah constructed   
for them a tabernacle1 on the site of   
the  present ,kaaba4 ,he put in its     
foundation the famous stone once whiter 
than snow1 but since turned black by the
 sins of pilgrims6 ,in proof of  these  
statements travellers are shown the     
,black stone at ,mecca and the  tomb of 
,eve near ,jiddah4 ,another accepted    
tradition says that ,mecca  stands on a 
spot exactly beneath ,god's throne in   

heaven4    ,without reference to these  
wild traditions1 which are soberly set  
down  as facts by ,moslem historians1   
,arabia is a land of perpetual interest 
to the geographer1 and the historian4   
,since ,niebuhr's day many intrepid     
travellers have surveyed the coasts  and
 penetrated into the interior1 but his  
charge that we are ignorant  of the real
 character of the vast peninsula is     
still true as far as  it relates to the 
southern and southeastern districts4 ,no
 traveller  has yet crossed the northern
 boundary of ,hadramaut and explored the
  ,dahna desert1 also called the        
,roba-el-,khali1 or 8empty abode40 ,the 
vast  territory between the peninsula of
 ,katar and the mountains of ,oman is   
also practically a blank on the best    
maps4 ,indeed the only noteworthy  map  
of that portion of the peninsula is that
 of ,ptolemy reproduced by  ,sprenger in
 his 8,alte ,geographie ,arabiens40     
,arabia has well-defined boundaries     
everywhere except on the north4         

,eastward are the waters of the ,persian
 ,gulf1 the ,strait of ,ormuz and  the  
,gulf of ,oman4 ,the entire southern    
coast is washed by the ,indian  ,ocean  
which reaches to ,bab-el-,mandeb 8,the  
,gate-of-tears10 from which  point the  
,red ,sea and the ,gulf of ,akaba form  
the western boundary4 ,the  undefined   
northern desert1 in some places a sea of
 sand1 completes the  isolation which   
has led the ,arabs themselves to call   
the peninsula  their 8,island0          
7,jezirat-el-,arab74 ,in fact the       
northern boundary will  probably never  
be defined accurately4 ,the so-called   
8,syrian desert10  reaching to about the
 thirty-fifth parallel might better be  
regarded as  the ,arabian desert1 for in
 physical and ethnical features it bears
 much  greater resemblance to the       
southern peninsula than to the          
surrounding  regions of ,syria and      
,mesopotamia4 ,bagdad is properly an    
,arabian city  and to the ,arabs of the 
north is as much a part of the peninsula

 as is  ,aden to those of the southwest4
 ,the true1 though shifting1 northern   
boundary of ,arabia would be the limit  
of ,nomad encampments1 but for          
convenience and practical purposes a    
boundary line may be drawn from  the    
,mediterranean along the thirty-third   
parallel to ,busrah4    ,thus the shores
 of ,arabia stretch from ,suez to the   
,euphrates delta for  a total length of 
nearly #d1jjj miles4 ,this coast-line   
has comparatively  few islands or       
inlets1 except in the ,persian ,gulf4   
,the ,red ,sea coast  is fringed by     
extensive coral reefs1 dangerous to     
navigation1 but  from ,aden to ,muscat  
the coast is elevated and rocky1 and    
contains  several good harbors4 ,eastern
 ,arabia has a low1 flat coast-line made
  of coral-rock with here and there     
volcanic headlands4 ,farsan1 off the    
,tehamah coast1 famous as the centre for
 ,arab slave-dhows2 ,perim1 where       
,english batteries command the gate of  
the ,red ,sea2 the ,kuria-,muria  group 

in the ,indian ,ocean2 and the ,bahrein 
archipelago in the ,persian  ,gulf1 are 
the only important islands4 ,socotra1   
although occupied by an  ,arab          
population and historically ,arabian1 is
 by geographers generally  attached to  
,africa4 ,this island is however under  
the ,indian government1  and1 once      
,christian1 is now wholly ,mohammedan4  
,the greatest length of the peninsula is
 about #a1jjj miles1 its average        
breadth #fjj1 and its area somewhat over
 #a1jjj1jjj square miles4 ,it  is thus  
over four times the size of ,france or  
larger than the ,united  ,states east of
 the ,mississippi ,river4    ,arabia1   
until quite recently1 has generally been
 regarded as a vast  expanse of sandy   
desert4 ,recent explorations have proved
 this idea  quite incorrect1 and a large
 part of the region still considered    
desert is as yet unexplored4 ,palgrave1 
in his 8,central ,arabia0 gives  an     
excellent summary of the physical       
characteristics of the whole  peninsula 

as he saw it4 ,since his time ,hadramaut
 has been partially  explored and the   
result confirms his statements3 8,the   
general type of  ,arabia is that of a   
central table-land surrounded by a      
desert ring  sandy to the south1 west   
and east1 stony to the north4 ,this     
outlying  circle is in its turn girt by 
a line of mountains low and sterile for 
the most1 but attaining in ,yemen and   
,oman considerable height1 breadth  and 
fertility2 while beyond these a narrow  
rim of coast is bordered by  the sea4   
,the surface of the midmost table-land  
equals somewhat less  than one-half of  
the entire peninsula2 and its special   
demarkations  are much affected1 nay    
often absolutely fixed1 by the windings 
and  inrunnings of the ,nefud 7sandy    
desert74 ,if to these central highlands 
or ,nejd1 taking that word in its wider 
sense1 we add whatever spots  of        
fertility belong to the outer circles1  
we shall find that ,arabia  contains    
about two-thirds of cultivated or at    

least of cultivatable  land1 with a     
remaining third of irreclaimable desert1
 chiefly on the  south40    ,from this  
description it is evident that the least
 attractive part of  the country is the 
coast4 ,this may be the reason that     
,arabia has been  so harshly judged1 as 
to climate and soil and so much         
neglected by  those who only knew of it 
from the captains who had touched its   
coast  in the ,red ,sea and the ,persian
 ,gulf4 ,nothing is more surprising1    
than  to pass through the barren cinder 
gateway of ,aden up the mountain  passes
 into the marvellous fertility and      
delightful climate of ,yemen4  ,arabia  
like the ,arab1 has a rough1 frowning   
exterior but a warm1  hospitable heart4 
,from the table-land of ,nejd1 which has
 an average elevation of about  #c1jjj  
feet above the sea1 there is a gradual  
ascent southward to the  highlands of   
,yemen and ,oman where there are        
mountain peaks as high  as #h1jjj and   
#aj1jjj feet4 ,this diversity of surface

 causes an equal  diversity of climate4 
,the prevailing conditions are intense  
heat and  dryness1 and the world-zone of
 maximum heat in ,july embraces nearly  
the entire peninsula4 ,on the coast the 
heat is more trying because of  the     
moisture from the enormous evaporation  
of the land-locked basins4  ,during part
 of the summer there is scarcely any    
difference in the  register of the wet  
and dry-bulb thermometer4 ,in the months
 of ,june1  ,july and ,august1 #ahig1   
the averages of maximum temperature at  
,busrah  were #ajj1 #ajc-a_/b and #ajb  
,f42 and the minimum #hd1 #hf-a_/b and  
#hd ,f4 ,nejd has a salubrious climate1 
while in ,yemen and ,oman on the        
highlands the mercury even in ,july     
seldom rises above #he4 ,in ,july1      
#ahib1 ,i passed in one day's journey   
from a shade temperature of #aaj ,f4  on
 the coast at ,hodeidah to one of #ee at
 ,menakha on the mountains4 ,at  ,sanaa 
there is frost for three months in the  
year1 and ,jebel ,tobeyk in  northwest  

,arabia is covered with snow all winter4
 ,in fact1 all northern  ,arabia has a  
winter season with cold rains and       
occasional frosts4    ,the geology of   
the peninsula is of true ,arabian       
simplicity4 ,according  to ,doughty it  
consists of a foundation stock of       
plutonic 7igneous7  rock whereon lie    
sandstone1 and above that limestone4    
,going from  ,moab to ,sinai we cross   
the strata in the reverse order1 while  
in the  depression of the gulf of ,akaba
 the three strata are in regular order  
although again overtopped by the granite
 of the mountains4 ,fossils are  very   
rare1 but coral formation is common all 
along the coast4 ,volcanic  formations  
and lava 7called by the ,arabs1 harrat7 
crop out frequently1  as in the region  
of ,medina and ,khaibar4 ,in going by   
direct route from  the ,red ,sea        
7,jiddah7 to ,busrah1 we meet first     
granite and trap-rock1  overtopped in   
the ,harrat el-,kisshub by lavas1 and   
further on at ,wady  ,gerir and ,jebel  

,shear by basalts2 at the ,nefud el     
,kasim 7,boreyda7  sandstones begin     
until we reach the limestone region of  
,jebel ,toweyk4  ,thence all is gravel  
and sand to the ,euphrates4    ,arabia  
has no rivers and none of its mountain  
streams 7some of which  are perennial7  
reach the seacoast4 ,at least they do   
not arrive there  by the overland route1
 for it is a well-established fact that 
the  many fresh water springs found in  
the ,bahrein archipelago have their     
origin in the uplands of ,arabia4 ,at   
,muscat1 too1 water is always  flowing  
toward the sea in abundance at the depth
 of ten to thirty feet  below the       
wady-bed2 this supplies excellent       
well-water4 ,in fact the  entire region 
of ,hasa is full of underground         
watercourses and perennial  springs4    
,coast-streams are frequent in ,yemen   
during the rain-season and  often become
 suddenly full to overflowing dashing   
everything before  them4 ,they are      
called sayl1 and well illustrate        

,christ's parable of  the flood which   
demolished the house built upon the     
sand4    ,the great wadys of ,arabia are
 its characteristic feature1 celebrated 
since the days of ,job1 the ,arab4      
,these wadys1 often full to the brim  in
 winter and black by reason of frost but
 entirely dried up during  the heat of  
summer1 would never be suspected of     
giving nourishment to  even a blade of  
grass4 ,they are generally dry for nine 
and ten months  in the year1 during     
which time water is obtained from wells 
sunk in  the wady-bed4 ,wady ,sirhan    
runs in a southeasterly direction from  
the  ,hauran highlands to the ,jauf     
district on the edge of the great       
,nefud2  it is fed by the smaller ,wady 
er-,rajel4 ,wady ,dauasir which receives
  the ,nejran streams drains all of the 
,asir and southern ,hejaz highlands     
northward to ,bahr ,salumeh1 a small    
lake1 the only one known in the  whole  
peninsula4 ,the ,aftan is another       
important wady running from  the borders

 of ,nejd into the ,persian ,gulf4 ,this
 wady-bed is marked  on some maps as a  
river1 flowing into the ,persian ,gulf  
apparently by  two mouths4 ,it does not 
exist to-day4 ,the most important       
water-bed  in ,arabia is the celebrated 
,wady er-,ruma1 only partly explored1   
which flows from ,hejaz across the      
peninsula for nearly #hjj miles in  a   
northwesterly direction toward the      
,euphrates4 ,were there a more  abundant
 rainfall this wady would reach the     
,shat-el-,arab and give unity  to the   
now disjointed water-system of          
,mesopotamia and north ,arabia4#a  ,for 
obvious reasons the caravan routes of   
,arabia generally follow the  course of 
the wadys4    ,arabia is also a land of 
mountains and highlands4 ,the most      
clearly  developed system is the        
extensive range skirting the ,red ,sea  
at a  distance of from one to three     
days' journey from the coast4 ,south  of
 ,mecca there are peaks of over #h1jjj  
feet2 and beyond1 the range  broadens   

out to form the ,yemen highlands1 a     
corner of the peninsula  worthy of its  
old name 8,arabia ,felix40 ,the         
mountains along the south  coast are    
more irregular and disconnected until   
they broaden out a  second time between 
,ras el ,had and ,ras ,mussendum to form
 the highlands  of ,oman4 ,along the    
gulf coast there are no mountains except
 an  occasional volcanic hill like      
,jebel ,dokhan in ,bahrein and ,jebel   
,sanam  near ,zobeir4    ,the ,nejd is  
crossed by several ridges of which the  
best known is ,jebel  ,shammar running  
nearly east and west at an altitude of  
about #f1jjj  feet4 ,jebel ,menakib1    
,jebel ,aared1 ,jebel ,toweyk and ,jebel
 ,athal are  other ranges south of      
,jebel ,shammar and also running in a   
similar  direction toward the southwest 
and northeast4 ,the ,sinai peninsula is 
a  rocky limestone plateau intersected  
by rugged gorges and highest toward  the
 south in the region of ,sinai proper4  
,next to its wadys and mountains ,arabia

 is characterized chiefly by the        
so-called ,harrat or volcanic tracks    
already mentioned4 ,these black1        
gloomy1 barren regions occupy a much    
wider extent of north ,arabia  than is  
generally supposed4 ,the largest is     
,harrat ,khaibar1 north of  ,medina1 the
 old centre of the ,jews in the days of 
,mohammed4 ,it is over  #ajj miles in   
length and in some parts thirty miles   
wide4 ,a wilderness  of lava and        
lava-stones with many extinct crater    
heads1 craggy1 and  strewn with rough   
blocks of basalt and other igneous      
rocks4 ,in some  places the lava beds   
are #fjj feet deep4 ,signs of volcanic  
action are  still seen at ,khaibar1     
smoke issuing from crevices and steam   
from the  summit of ,jebel ,ethnan4 ,a  
volcanic eruption was seen at ,medina as
 late  as #abef ,a4,d4#b and the hot and
 sulphur springs of ,hasa and ,hadramaut
  seem to indicate present volcanic     
action4    ,the sandy-tracts of the     
so-called ,arabian deserts are termed by

 the  ,arabs themselves nefud 7drained1 
exhausted1 spent71 the name given  on   
most maps4 ,the general physical        
features of this 8desert0 are those  of 
a plain clothed with stunted1 aromatic  
shrubs of many varieties1  but their    
value as pasture is very unequal1 some  
being excellent for  camels and sheep1  
others absolutely worthless4 ,some      
nefuds abound in  grasses and flowering 
plants after the early rains1 and then  
the desert  8blossoms like the rose40   
,others are without rain and barren all 
year2  they are covered with long       
stretches of drift-sand1 carried about  
by  the wind and tossed in billows on   
the weather side of the rocks and       
bushes4#c ,palgrave asserts that some of
 the nefud sands are #fjj feet  deep4   
,they prevail in the vast unexplored    
region south of ,nejd and  north of     
,hadramaut including the so-called      
8,great ,arabian ,desert40  ,absolute   
sterility is the dominant feature here1 
whereas the northern  nefuds are the    

pasture lands for thousands of horses   
and sheep4    ,illustration3            
,,ptolemaeus ,,karte ,,von ,,arabia     
,,feli                                  
,,ii                     ,,the          
,,geographical ,,divisions ,,of ,,arabia
      ,the division of ,arabia into     
provinces has always been rather        
according  to physical geography than   
political boundaries4 ,the earliest     
division  of the peninsula1 and in some 
respects the most correct1 was that  of 
the ,greek and ,roman writers into      
,arabia ,deserta and ,arabia  ,felix4   
,the latter epithet was perhaps only a  
mistaken translation  of ,el-,yemen--the
 land on 8the right hand10 that is south
 of ,mecca1  for the ,orientals face    
east4 ,this is contrasted with ,syria   
which in  ,arabic is called 8,es-,sham0 
or the land 8to the left0 of ,mecca4    
,the  third division1 ,arabia ,petra1 or
 8,stony ,arabia10 first appears in     
,ptolemy and is applied to the ,sinai   
district4 ,he limits ,arabia ,deserta   

to the extreme northern desert and so   
his map of the entire peninsula  bears  
the title of ,arabia ,felix4 ,the great 
geographer anticipated all  modern maps 
of ,arabia by naming the regions        
according to the tribes  that inhabit   
them2 a much more intelligent method    
than the drawing of  artificial lines   
around natural features and dubbing them
 with a name  to suit the cartographer4 
,the ,arab geographers know nothing of  
this threefold division into  sandy1    
stony1 and happy-land4 ,they divide the 
,island-of-the-,arabs                   
7,jezirat-el-,arab7 into five           
provinces4#d ,the first is called       
,el-,yemen and includes ,hadramaut1     
,mehrah1 ,oman1 ,shehr1 and ,nejran4    
,the second ,el-,hejaz1 on the west     
coast1 so called because it is the      
barrier between ,tehama and ,nejd2 it   
nearly corresponds to our ,hejaz1       
excluding its southern portion4 ,the    
third is ,tehama1 along the  coast1     
between ,yemen and ,hejaz4 ,the fourth  

is ,nejd1 a term loosely  applied to all
 the interior table-lands4 ,the fifth is
 called ,yemama  or ',arudh because it  
extends all the 8wide0 way between      
,yemen 7,oman7  and ,nejd4 ,it is       
important to distinguish between this   
,arabian division  and that now nearly  
everywhere adopted on the maps of the   
occident2  much confusion has arisen    
when this distinction was not made4     
,the modern division of the peninsula   
into seven provinces3 ,hejaz1  ,yemen1  
,hadramaut1 ,oman1 ,hasa1 ,irak and     
,nejd1 is according to political        
geography and serves all practical      
purposes1 although it is not  strictly  
accurate4 ,hejaz1 the ,holyland of      
,arabia1 includes the sacred  cities of 
,mecca and ,medina4 ,yemen is bounded by
 the line of fertility  on the north and
 east so as to include the important    
region of ,asir4  ,hadramaut has no     
clearly defined boundaries and stretches
 northward  to the unknown region of the
 ,dahna4 ,oman is the peninsula between 

the  southern shore of the ,gulf and the
 ,indian ,ocean1 while ,hasa covers  the
 entire coast district north of         
,el-,katar peninsula 7on some maps      
called ,el-,bahrein74 ,irak-,arabi or   
,irak is the northern river-country     
politically corresponding to what is    
called 8,turkish-,arabia40    ,as to the
 present division of political power in 
,arabia1 it is  sufficient here to note 
that the ,sinai peninsula and #bjj miles
 of  coast south of the ,gulf of ,akaba 
is ,egyptian2 ,hejaz1 ,yemen and ,hasa  
are nominally ,turkish provinces1 but   
their political boundaries are  shifting
 and uncertain4 ,the present ,shereef of
 ,mecca at times dictates  to the       
,sublime ,porte while the ,bedouin      
tribes even in ,hejaz acknowledge       
neither ,sultan nor ,shereef and waylay 
the pilgrim caravans that come  to the  
holy cities unless they receive large   
blackmail4 ,in ,yemen the  ,arabs have  
never ceased to fret under the galling  
yoke of the ,turk  since it was put on  

their shoulders by the capture of ,sana 
in #ahgc4 ,the  insurrection in #ahib   
was nearly a revolution and again this  
year 7#ahii7  all ,yemen is in arms4 ,it
 is very suggestive that in the present 
revolt  some of the ,arabs made use of  
the ,english flag to secure sympathy4   
,in ,hasa1 the real sovereignty of      
,turkey only exists in three or four    
towns while all the ,bedouin and many of
 the villagers yield to the  ,dowla1    
neither tribute1 obedience nor love4    
,irak alone is actually  ,turkish and   
yields large revenue4 ,but even here    
,arab-uprisings are  frequent4          
,nominally1 however1 ,turkey holds the  
fairest province on the  south1 the     
religious centres on the west and the   
fertile northeast of                    
,arabia1--one-fifth of the total area of
 the peninsula4    ,the remainder of    
,arabia is independent of ,turkey4      
,petty rulers calling  themselves       
,sultans1 ,ameers or ,imams have for    
centuries divided the  land between     

them4 ,the ,sultanate of ,oman and the  
great ,nejd-kingdom  are the only       
important governments1 but the former   
lost its glory when  its seat of power  
and influence was transferred to        
,zanzibar4 ,nejd in  its widest sense is
 governed to-day by ,abd-el-,aziz bin   
,mitaab the  nephew of the late         
,mohammed bin ,rashid1 ,king ,richard of
 ,arabia1 who  gained his throne by the 
massacre of seventeen possible          
pretenders4  ,the territory of this     
potentate is bordered southward by ,riad
 and the  ,wahabi country4 ,northward   
his influence extends beyond the ,nefud1
 right  away to the ,oases of ,kaf and  
,ittery in the ,wady ,sirhan 7#ch ,e4   
,long41  #ca ,n4 ,lat47 east of the     
,dead ,sea4 ,the inhabitants of these   
oases  acknowledge ,abd-el-,aziz as     
their suzerain paying him a yearly      
tribute  of four pounds 7#bj4jj7 for    
each village4 ,the people of the        
intervening  district of ,jauf also     
acknowledge his rule which reaches      

westward to  ,teima4 ,he also commands  
the new pilgrim-route from the northeast
 which  formerly passed through ,riad   
but now touches ,hail1 the capital of   
,nejd4  ,the ,wahabi movement has       
collapsed and their political power is  
broken1  although their influence has   
extended to the furthest confines of    
,arabia4    ,the only foreign power     
dominant in ,arabia1 beside ,turkey1 is 
,england4  ,aden became a ,british      
possession in #ahch and since then      
,british  influence has extended until  
it now embraces a district #bjj miles   
long by forty broad and a population of 
#acj1jjj4 ,the ,island of ,perim  in the
 ,strait of ,bab-el-,mandeb1 the        
,kuria-,muria ,islands on the south     
coast1 and ,socotra are also ,english4  
,all the independent tribes on  the     
coast from ,aden to ,muscat and from    
,muscat to ,bahrein have made  exclusive
 treaties with ,great ,britain1 are     
subsidized by annual  payments or       
presents and are 8protected40 ,muscat   

and ,bahrein are in a  special sense    
protected states since ,england's       
settled policy is to  have sole dominion
 in the ,persian ,gulf4 ,she has        
agencies or consulates  everywhere2 the 
postal system of the ,persian ,gulf is  
,british2 the rupee  has driven the     
piastre out of the market and as        
ninety-eight per cent4  of the commerce 
is in ,english hands the ,persian ,gulf 
may yet become an  ,english lake4       
,arabia has no railroads1 but regular   
caravan routes take their place  in     
every direction4 ,turkish telegraph     
service exists between ,mecca and       
,jiddah in ,hejaz2 between ,sanaa1      
,hodeidah and ,taiz in ,yemen2 and along
  the ,tigris-,euphrates between ,bagdad
 and ,busrah connecting at ,fao 7at  the
 delta7 with the submarine cable to     
,bushire and ,india4    ,of the fauna   
and flora of ,arabia we will not here   
speak at length4  ,the most             
characteristic plants are the date-palm 
of which over #ajj  varieties are       

catalogued by the ,arab peasantry1 and  
which yields a  staple food4 ,coffee1   
aromatic and medicinal plants1 gums and 
balsams1  have for ages supplied the    
markets of the world4 ,yemen is         
characterized  by tropical luxuriance1  
and in ,nejd is the ghatha tree which   
grows to  a height of fifteen feet1 and 
yields the purest charcoal in the world4
    ,among the wild animals were        
formerly the lion and the panther1 but  
they are now exceedingly rare4 ,the     
wolf1 wild boar1 jackal1 gazelle1  fox1 
monkey1 wild cow 7or white antelope7    
ibex1 horned viper1 cobra1  bustard1    
buzzard and hawk are also found4 ,the   
ostrich still exists in  southwest      
,arabia but is not common ,the chief    
domestic animals are the  ass1 mule1    
sheep1 goats1 but above all and superior
 to all1 the camel  and the horse4      
,the exact population of a land where   
there is no census1 and where  women and
 girls are never counted is of course   
unknown4 ,the ,ottoman  government gives

 exaggerated estimates for its ,arabian 
provinces1 and  travellers have made    
various guesses4 ,some recent           
authorities1 omitting  ,irak1 put the   
total population of ,arabia as low as   
#e1jjj1jjj4 ,a4,h4  ,keane1             
,f4,r4,g4,s41 gives the following       
estimate3#e      ,turkish ,arabia       
,hejaz1 #c1ejj1jjj                      
,yemen1 #b1ejj1jjj    ,independent      
,arabia                                 
,oman1 #a1ejj1jjj                       
,shammar1 ,bahrein1 etc41 #c1ejj1jjj    
#aa1jjj1jjj      ,albrecht ,zehm in his 
book 8,arabien seit hundert ,jahren10   
arrives at  nearly the same result3     
,yemen and ,asir1                       
#b1beb1jjj    ,hadramaut1               
#a1eej1jjj    ,oman and ,muscat1        
#a1cej1jjj    ,bahrein ,katif1 ,nejd1   
#b1cej1jjj    ,hejaz1 ,anaeze1 ,kasim1  
and ,jebel ,shammar1                    
#c1bej1jjj                              
#aj1geb1jjj    ,but undoubtedly both of 
these estimates1 following ,turkish     

authorities1  are too high1 especially  
for ,hejaz and ,yemen4 ,a conservative  
estimate  would be #h1jjj1jjj for the   
entire peninsula in its widest extent4  
,the true number of inhabitants will    
remain unknown until further            
explorations disclose the real character
 of southeastern ,arabia1  and until    
northern ,hadramaut yields up its       
secrets4 ,in this1 as in  other         
respects1 the words of ,livingstone are 
true3 8,the end of the  geographical    
feat is the beginning of the missionary 
enterprise40                            
,,iii                         ,,the     
,,holy ,,land ,,of ,,arabia--,,mecca    
8,the ,eastern world moves slowly--eppur
 si muove4 ,half a generation   ago     
steamers were first started to ,jiddah3 
now we hear of a projected   railway    
from that port to ,mecca1 the           
shareholders being all ,moslems4   ,and 
the example of ,jerusalem encourages us 
to hope that long before   the end of   
the century a visit to ,mecca will not  

be more difficult   than a trip to      
,hebron40--,burton 7#ahee74     8,our   
train of camels drew slowly by them3 but
 when the smooth ,mecca   merchant heard
 that the stranger riding with the camel
 men was a   ,nasrany1 he cried #8,akhs6
 ,a ,nasrany in these parts6' and with  
the   horrid inurbanity of their jealous
 religion he added1 #8,ullah curse his  
father6' and stared on me with a face   
worthy of the ,koran40--,doughty        
7#ahhh7      ,it is a rule laid down in 
the ,koran and confirmed by many        
traditions  that the sacred territory   
enclosing the birthplace and the tomb of
 the  prophet shall not be polluted by  
the visits of infidels4 8,o believers6  
only those are unclean who join other   
gods with ,god6 ,let them not  therefore
 after this their year come near the    
,sacred ,mosque40 7,surah  ix4 #bg47    
,mohammed is reported to have said of   
,mecca1 8,what a splendid  city thou    
art1 if ,i had not been driven out of   
thee by my tribe ,i would  dwell in no  

other place but in thee4 ,it is not man 
but ,god who has made  ,mecca sacred4   
,my people will be always safe in this  
world and the next  as long as they     
respect ,mecca40 7,mishkat book ,,xl41  
ch4 xv47    ,the sacred boundaries of   
,mecca and ,medina not only shut out all
  unbelievers1 but they make special    
demands of 8purity and holiness0  7in   
the ,moslem sense7 on the part of the   
true believers4 ,according to  tradition
 it is not lawful to carry weapons or to
 fight within the  limits of the        
,haramein4 ,its    ,illustration3       
,,mohammedan ,,pilgrims ,,at ,,mecca    
,illustration3 ,,the ,,sacred ,,well    
,,of ,,zemzem ,,at ,,mecca    grass and 
thorns must not be cut nor must its game
 be molested4 ,some  doctors of law hold
 that these regulations do not apply to 
,medina1 but  others make the           
burial-place of the prophet equally     
sacred with the  place of his birth4    
,the boundaries of this sacred territory
 are rather  uncertain4 ,abd ul ,hak    

says that when1 at the time of the      
rebuilding  of the ,kaaba1 ,abraham1 the
 friend of ,god1 placed the black stone1
 its  east1 west1 north and south sides 
became luminous1 and wherever the  light
 extended1 became the boundaries of the 
sacred city6 ,these limits  are now     
marked by pillars of masonry1 except on 
the ,jiddah and ,jairanah  road where   
there is some dispute as to the exact   
boundary4    ,the sacred territory of   
,medina is ten or twelve miles in       
diameter1  from ,jebel ',air to ,saoor4 
,outside of these two centres all of the
  province of ,hejaz is legally         
accessible to infidels1 but the         
fanaticism  of centuries has practically
 made the whole region round ,mecca and 
,medina forbidden territory to any but  
,moslems4 ,in ,jiddah ,christians are   
tolerated because of necessity1 but were
 the ,mullahs of ,mecca to have  their  
way not a ,frankish merchant or consul  
would reside there for a  single day4   
,despite these regulations to shut out  

8infidels0 from witnessing  the annual  
pilgrimage and seeing the sacred shrines
 of the ,moslem  world1 more than a     
score of travellers have braved the     
dangers of the  transgression and       
escaped the pursuit of fanatics to tell 
the tale  of their adventures4#f ,others
 have lost their life in the attempt    
even in recent years4 ,doughty#g tells  
of a ,christian who was foully  murdered
 by ,turkish soldiers when found in the 
limits of ,medina in  the summer of     
#ahgh4 ,burton at one time barely       
escaped being murdered  because they    
suspected him of being an unbeliever4   
,jiddah1 the harbor of ,mecca1 is       
distant from the sacred city about      
sixty-five miles1 and is in consequence 
the chief port of debarkation  and      
embarkation for pilgrims4 ,it has a     
rather pretty and imposing  appearance  
from the sea1 the houses being white and
 three or four  stories high1 surrounded
 by a wall and flanked by a half dozen  
lazy  windmills of ,dutch pattern6 ,its 

streets are narrow1 however1 and        
indescribably dirty1 so that the        
illusion of an ,oriental picture is     
dispelled as soon as you set foot on    
shore4 ,the sanitary condition of  this 
port is the worst possible2 evil odors  
abound1 the water supply  is precarious 
and bad1 and a shower of rain is always 
followed by an  outbreak of fever4 ,the 
population is not over #bj1jjj of every 
,moslem  nation under heaven1 ,galilee  
of 8the believers40 ,its commercial     
importance1 which once was considerable1
 has altogether declined4 ,the  opening 
of the ,suez canal and the direct       
carrying of trade by ocean  steamers    
dealt the deathblow to the extensive    
coast-trade of both  ,jiddah and the    
other ,red ,sea ports4 ,the people of   
,jiddah1 like those  of ,mecca1 live by 
fleecing pilgrims1 and when the traffic 
is brisk  and pilgrims affluent they    
grow rich enough to go to ,mecca and set
  up a larger establishment of the same 
sort4 ,there are hotel-keepers1         

drummers1 guides1 money-changers1       
money-lenders1 slave-dealers and  even  
worse characters connected with the     
annual transfer of the  caravans of     
hajees 7pilgrims7 from the coast inland4
 ,the number  of pilgrims arriving at   
,jiddah by sea in #ahic was #ib1fbe4 ,in
 #ahhj  ,mr4 ,blunt collected some      
interesting statistics of the total     
numbers  attending the pilgrimage at    
,mecca1#h and his investigations prove  
that  the overland caravans are steadily
 becoming smaller4    ,before any       
pilgrims are allowed to enter ,jiddah   
harbor they are  compelled to undergo   
ten days' quarantine at ,kamaran1 an    
island on the  west coast of ,arabia2   
this is the first woe4 ,at ,jiddah they 
remain only  a few days and then having 
secured their ,mutawwaf or official     
guide  they proceed to ,mecca4 ,the road
 is barren and uninteresting in the     
extreme4 ,halfway to ,mecca is ,el ,had 
where the road divides2 one branch      
leads to ,taif1 the only fertile spot in

 this wilderness province1 and  the     
other proceeds to ,mecca1 the ancient   
name of which was ,bakkah4    ,were we  
to believe one half of what is said by  
,moslem writers in  praise of ,mecca it 
would prove the ,holy ,city to be a very
 paradise of  delights1 a centre of     
learning and the paragon of earthly     
habitations4  ,but the facts show it to 
be far otherwise4 ,the location of the  
city is  unfortunate4 ,it lies in a hot 
sandy valley absolutely without verdure 
and surrounded by rocky barren hills1   
destitute of trees or even  shrubs4 ,the
 valley is about #cjj feet wide and     
#d1jjj feet long1 and  slopes toward the
 south4 ,the ,kaaba or ,beit ,allah is  
located in the bed  of the valley and   
all the streets slope toward it1 so that
 it is almost  closed in on every side  
by houses and walls1 and stands as it   
were in  the pit of the theatre4 ,the   
houses are built of dark stone and are  
generally lofty in order to accommodate 
as many pilgrims as possible  in the    

limited space4 ,the streets are nearly  
all unpaved and in summer  the sand and 
dust are as disagreeable as is the black
 mud in the rainy  season4 ,strangely   
enough1 although the city itself and    
even the ,kaaba  have more than once    
suffered from destructive floods that   
have poured  down the narrow valley1    
,mecca is poorly provided with water4   
,there are  few cisterns to catch the   
rains and the well water is brackish4   
,the  famous well of ,zemzem has an     
abundance of water but it is not fit to 
drink4#i ,the best water is brought by  
an aqueduct from the vicinity  of       
,arafat six or seven miles distant and  
sold for a high price by a  water-trust 
which annually fills the coffers of the 
,shereef of    ,illustration3 ,,pilgrims
 ,,around ,,the ,,kaaba ,,in ,,the      
,,sacred ,,mosque ,,at  ,,mecca         
,mecca4 ,this official is the nominal   
and often the real governor of the      
city4 ,he is chosen from the ,sayyids or
 descendants of ,mohammed living  in    

,hejaz or secures the high office by    
force4 ,his tenure of office is  subject
 to the approval and authority of the   
,turkish ,sultan1 whose  garrisons      
occupy the fort near the town4    ,the  
,sacred ,mosque1 7,mesjid el ,haram7    
containing the ,kaaba or ,beit ,allah   
is the prayer-centre of the ,mohammedan 
world and the objective point  of       
thousands of pilgrims every year4       
,according to ,moslem writers it  was   
first constructed in heaven1 #b1jjj     
years before the creation of  the world4
 ,adam1 the first man1 built the ,kaaba 
on earth exactly under  the spot        
occupied by its perfect model in heaven4
 ,the #aj1jjj angels  appointed to guard
 this house of ,god seem to have been   
very remiss in  their duty for it has   
often suffered at the hands of men and  
from the  elements4 ,it was destroyed by
 the flood and rebuilt by ,ishmael and  
,abraham4 ,the legends connected with   
its construction and history fill  many 
pages of the ,moslem traditions and     

commentaries4 ,the name ,kaaba  means a 
cube2 but the building is not built true
 to line and is in  fact an unequal     
trapezium4#aj ,because of its location  
in a hollow and  its black-cloth        
covering these inequalities are not     
apparent to the eye4    ,the ,kaaba     
proper stands in an oblong space #bej   
paces long by #bjj broad4  ,this open   
space is surrounded by colonnades used  
for schools and as  the general         
rendezvous of pilgrims4 ,it is in turn  
surrounded by the  outer temple wall    
with its nineteen gates and six         
minarets4 ,the ,mosque  is of much more 
recent date than the ,kaaba which was   
well known as an  idolatrous ,arabian   
shrine long before the time of          
,mohammed4 ,the ,sacred  ,mosque and its
 ,kaaba contain the following treasures3
 the ,black-,stone1  the well of        
,zemzem1 the great pulpit1 the          
staircase1 and the  ,kubattein or two   
small mosques of ,saab and ,abbas4 ,the 
remainder of  the space is occupied by  

pavements and gravel arranged to        
accommodate  and distinguish the four   
orthodox sects in their devotions4      
,the ,black-,stone is undoubtedly the   
oldest treasure of ,mecca4              
,stone-worship was an ,arabian form of  
idolatry in very ancient times  and     
relics of it remain in many parts of the
 peninsula4 ,maximus ,tyrius  wrote in  
the second century1 8the ,arabians pay  
homage to ,i know not  what god which   
they represent by a quadrangular stone40
 ,the ,guebars or  ancient ,persians    
assert that the black stone was an      
emblem of ,saturn  and was left in the  
,kaaba by ,mahabad4 ,we have the ,moslem
 tradition that  it came down snow-white
 from heaven and was blackened by the   
touch of  sin--according to one         
tradition1 that of an impure woman1 and 
according  to another by the kisses of  
thousands of believers4 ,it is probably 
an aerolite and owes its reputation to  
its fall from the sky4 ,moslem          
historians do not deny that it was an   

object of worship before ,islam1  but   
they escape the moral difficulty and    
justify their prophet by idle  tales    
concerning the stone and its relation to
 all the patriarchs  beginning with     
,adam4    ,the stone is a fragment of   
what appears like black volcanic rock   
sprinkled with irregular reddish        
crystals worn smooth by the touch  of   
centuries4 ,it is held together by a    
broad band of metal1 said to  be silver1
 and is imbedded in the southeast corner
 of the ,kaaba five  feet from the      
ground4 ,it is not generally known that 
there is a second  sacred stone at the  
corner facing the south4 ,it is called  
,rakn el  ,yemeni or ,yemen pillar and  
is frequently kissed by pilgrims        
although  according to the correct      
ritual it should only be saluted by a   
touch of  the right hand4    ,the well  
of ,zemzem is located near the ,makam   
,hanbali1 the place of  prayer of this  
sect4 ,the building which encloses the  
well was erected  in ,a4 ,h4 #ajgb 7,a4 

,d4 #affa7 and its interior is of white 
marble4 ,mecca  perchance owes its      
origin as an old ,arabian centre to this
 medicinal  spring with its abundant    
supply of purgative waters for the      
nomads  to-day go long distances        
,illustration3 ,,ali ,,bey',s ,,plan    
,,of ,,the ,,prophet',s ,,mosque ,,at   
,,mecca    to visit sulphur and other   
springs in various parts of ,arabia4    
,the  well of ,zemzem is one of the     
great sources of income to the ,meccans4
  ,the water is carried about for sale  
on the streets and in the mosques  in   
curious pitchers made of unglazed       
earthenware4 ,they are slightly  porous 
so as to cool the water1 which is       
naturally always of a lukewarm          
temperature1 and are all marked with    
certain mystical characters in  black   
wax4 ,crowds assemble around the well   
during the pilgrimage and  many coppers 
fall to the share of the lucky ,meccans 
who have the  privilege of drawing the  
water for the faithful4    ,the         

pilgrimage to ,mecca should be performed
 in the twelfth lunar month  of the     
calendar called ,dhu el ,haj4 ,it is    
incumbent on every believer  except for 
lawful hindrance because of poverty or  
illness4 ,mohammed  made it the fifth   
pillar of religion and more than        
anything else it  has tended to unify   
the ,moslem world4 ,the ,koran teaching 
regarding the  duties of pilgrims at the
 ,sacred ,mosque1 is as follows3        
8,proclaim to  the peoples a            
,pilgrimage4 ,let them come to thee on  
foot and on every  fleet camel arriving 
by every deep defile40 7,surah xxii4    
#bh47 8,verily  ,as ,safa and ,al ,marwa
 are among the signs of ,god3 whoever   
then maketh a  pilgrimage to the temple 
or visiteth it shall not be to blame if 
he go  round about them both40 7ii4     
#aec47 8,let the pilgrimage be made in  
the  months already known and who so    
undertaketh the pilgrimage therein let  
him not know a woman1 nor transgress nor
 wrangle in the pilgrimage4444  ,it     

shall be no crime in you if ye seek an  
increase from your ,lord 7by  trade72   
and when ye pass swiftly on from ,arafat
 then remember ,god near  the holy      
,mosque4444 ,bear ,god in mind during   
the stated days2 but if any  haste away 
in two days it shall be no fault to him1
 and if any tarry it  shall be no fault 
in him40 7,surah ii4 passim47    ,from  
the ,koran alone no definite idea of the
 pilgrim's duties can be  gleaned2 but  
fortunately for all true believers the  
,prophet's perfect  example handed down 
by tradition leaves nothing in doubt and
 prescribes  every detail of conduct    
with ridiculous minuteness4 ,the        
orthodox way  is as follows3 arrived    
within a short distance of ,mecca the   
pilgrims1  male and female1 put off     
their ordinary clothing and assume the  
garb  of a hajee4 ,it consists of two   
pieces of white cloth one of which  is  
tied around the loins and the other     
thrown over the back2 sandals  may be   
worn but not shoes and the head must be 

left uncovered4 7,in  idolatrous days   
the ,arabs did not wear any clothing in 
making the  circuit of the ,kaaba74 ,on 
facing ,mecca the pilgrim pronounces the
  niyah or 8intention03        8,here ,i
 am1 ,o ,allah1 here ,i am2      ,no    
partner hast ,thou1 here ,i am2         
,verily praise and riches and the       
kingdom are to ,thee2      ,no partner  
hast ,thou1 here am ,i40    ,after      
certain legal ablutions the pilgrim     
enters the ,mosque by the  ,bab-el-salam
 and kisses the ,black-,stone making the
 circuit1 running1  around the ,kaaba   
seven times 7,in idolatrous days the    
,arabs did this  in imitation of the    
motions of the planets2 a remnant of    
their ,sabean  worship47 ,another       
special prayer is said and then the     
pilgrim proceeds  to ,makam ,ibrahim1   
where ,abraham is said to have stood    
when he rebuilt  the ,kaaba4 ,there the 
hajee goes through the regular          
genuflections and  prayers4 ,he drinks  
next from the holy well and once more   

kisses the  ,black-,stone4 ,then follows
 the running between ,mounts ,safa and  
,merwa4  ,proceeding outward from the   
,mosque by the gate of ,safa he ascends 
the  hill reciting the #aec;d verse of  
the ,surah of the ,cow4 8,verily ,safa  
and  ,merwa are the signs of ,god40     
,having arrived at the summit of the    
mount  he turns to the ,kaaba and three 
times recites the words3        8,there 
is no god but ,god6      ,god is great6 
,there is no god save ,god alone6       
,he hath performed ,his promise         
and hath aided ,his servant and         
put to flight the hosts of              
infidels by ,himself alone60    ,he then
 runs from the top of ,safa through the 
valley to the summit of  ,merwa seven   
times repeating the aforesaid prayers   
each time on both  hills4 ,this is the  
sixth day1 on the evening of which the  
pilgrim again  encompasses the ,kaaba4  
,on the next day there is a sermon from 
the grand  pulpit4 ,on the eighth day   
the pilgrim goes three miles distant to 

,mina1 where ,adam longed for his lost  
paradise 767 and there spends the       
night4 ,the next morning he leaves for  
,arafat1 another hill about eleven      
miles from ,mecca1 hears a second       
sermon1 returning before nightfall to   
,muzdalifa1 a place halfway between     
,mina and ,arafat4    ,the following day
 is the great day of the pilgrimage4 ,it
 is called the  day of ,sacrifice and is
 simultaneously celebrated all over the 
,moslem  world4#aa ,early in the morning
 the pilgrim proceeds to ,mina where    
there are three pillars called1 the     
8,great ,devil10 the 8,middle ,pillar0  
and the 8,first ,one40 ,at these dumb   
idols the 8monotheist0 flings seven     
pebbles and as he throws them says3 8,in
 the name of ,allah and ,allah  is      
mighty1 in hatred of the devil and his  
shame1 ,i do this40 ,he then  performs  
the sacrifice1 a sheep1 goat1 cow or    
camel according to the  means of the    
pilgrim4 ,the victim is placed facing   
the ,kaaba and a knife  plunged into the

 animal's throat with the cry1 ,allahu  
,akbar4 ,this  ceremony concludes the   
pilgrimage proper2 the hair and nails   
are then  cut and the ihram or pilgrims'
 garb is doffed for ordinary clothing4  
,three days more are sometimes counted  
as belonging to the pilgrimage1  the    
eleventh1 twelfth and thirteenth days1  
called ,eyyam-u-tashrik1 or  days of    
drying flesh1 because during them the   
flesh of the sacrifices  is cut into    
slices and dried in the sun to be eaten 
on the return  journey4    ,after the   
,meccan pilgrimage most ,moslems go to  
,medina to visit the  tomb of ,mohammed2
 the ,wahabees however consider this    
8infidelity0 and  honor of the creature 
more than of the ,creator4 ,other       
,moslems base  their conduct on the     
saying of the prophet himself1 ,man     
yuhajja wa  lam ye-zurni fakad jefani1  
8who goes on ,haj and does not visit me 
has insulted me60 ,the ,meccans call    
themselves 8neighbors of ,god0 and  the 
people of ,medina 8neighbors of the     

prophet40 ,for long ages a hot  rivalry 
has existed between the two cities1 a   
rivalry which1 beginning  in the taunt  
or jest1 often ends in bloodshed4       
,the pilgrim1 having completed all legal
 requirements1 is sure to visit  the    
proper authorities and secure a         
certificate to prove to his  countrymen 
that he is a real ,hajee and to         
substantiate his religious  boasting in 
days to come4 ,the certificate is also  
required when one  goes on pilgrimage   
for a deceased ,moslem or a wealthy     
,moslem who is  bedridden4 ,in such a   
case the substitute has all the         
pleasures 767  of the journey at the    
expense of his principal but the merit  
goes to  the man who pays the bills and 
who naturally craves the receipt4 ,the  
certificate is of various forms and     
contains crude pictures of the holy     
places and verses from ,koran4          
,needless to relate these certificates  
cost money1 as does everything  at      
,mecca save the air you breathe4 ,no    

honest ,moslem ever spoke with  praise  
of the citizens of ,mecca2 many are     
their proverbs to prove why  wickedness 
flourishes in the courts of ,allah4 ,and
 ,european travellers  agree that of all
 ,orientals the ,meccans take the palm  
for thoroughgoing  rascality4 ,ali ,bey 
dilates on the lewdness of the men and  
the looseness  of the women of ,mecca4  
,hurgronje unblushingly lifts the veil  
that hides  the corruption of the sacred
 temple service with its army of eunuch 
police1 and pictures the slave-market in
 full swing within a stone's  throw of  
the ,kaaba4 ,burton thus characterizes  
the men who live on their  religion and 
grow fat 7figuratively7 by unveiling its
 mysteries to  others3    ,illustration3
 ,,plate ,,iv4    ,illustration3 ,,plate
 ,,iii4    ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 
,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4    ,,the     
,,mecca ,,certificate1 which is given to
 pilgrims to the sacred city1  is looked
 upon by ,moslems as practically a      
passport to heaven4 ,it is  especially  

interesting because of the inside view  
which it gives of the  ,mohammedan      
religion4 ,at the top of each page are  
quotations from the  ,koran4    ,,plate 
,i4 has1 at the right-hand upper corner1
 the representation of  the ,mosque of  
,muzdalifa and tents of the ,pilgrims2  
to the left of  this1 the ,mosque of    
,nimr1 near ,mount ,arafat1 and below   
it1 the ,mahmals  of ,syria and ,egypt1 
i4e41 palanquins carried on camels1     
surmounted  by flags4 ,to the right is  
,mount ,arafat1 a sacred mountain about 
#ab  miles northeast of ,mecca1 which1  
in ,moslem tradition1 is said to be the 
place where ,adam and ,eve met after the
 fall4 ,the three pillars of ,min       
represented below1 are ancient pagan    
shrines1 at each of which every  pilgrim
 must hurl seven stones at the devil4   
,near this is pictured the  ,mesjed1 or 
,mosque of ,taif1 the altar of ,ishmael1
 the ,dome of ,abd-el  ,kader in        
,bagdad1 and at the extreme right the   
,dome of 8,our ,lord0  ,hassein al      

,kerbela1 where thousands of corpses of 
deceased ,persians are  brought yearly  
to be buried4 ,it is northwest of       
,bagdad1 and lies in  ,turkish          
territory4 ,there are also pictured the 
birthplaces of ,mohammed1  ,ali ,ibu    
,abi ,talib1 ,abu ,bekr1 and ,fatimeh1  
and the ,tomb of ,amina and  ,khadijah2 
also two bell-shaped hills1 ,jebel      
,thaur and ,jebel ,nur4    ,,plate ,,ii4
 pictures the quadrangular court of the 
,mecca ,haram1 within  which is the     
circular colonnade1 enclosing the ,kaaba
 or ,beit ,allah1  the ,house of ,god4  
,below the representation of the ,kaaba 
is depicted  the famous station of      
,abraham1 a stone #bj inches long by #ae
 inches  wide4 ,it is in the shape of a 
basin1 and is buried in the earth4 ,the 
name of ,abraham is connected with it   
from the tradition that he first  built 
the ,kaaba4 ,below this may be noticed  
the famous 8,beer ,zemzem10  or ,well of
 ,zemzem1 which is claimed to be the    
water which ,hager saw1  when ,ishmael  

was dying of thirst4 ,around the circle 
are the praying  places of the ,malikis1
 the ,hanafys1 the ,hanbalys and the    
,shafi-is1  the four great sects of     
,islam4 ,around the quadrangle are #bj  
gates1  such as ,bab-su-,nebi1 ,gate of 
the ,prophet1 ,gate of ,abraham1 of     
,peace1  of ,abbas1 of the ,mare1 the   
,mule1 ,safa1 of ,farewell1 of ,wisdom1 
etc41  etc41--besides various shrines4  
,,plate ,,iii4 shows representations of 
the ,holy ,places of ,el ,medina1  the  
tomb of ,mohammed4 ,the large dome in   
the upper left-hand corner is  the tomb 
of ,mohammed4 ,around the page are drawn
 the mosque of ,fatimeh1  mosque of the 
,strength of ,islam1 the mosques of     
,hamzeh1 ,abu ,bekr1 ,ali  and ,silman1 
the tomb of ,othman1 and various other  
shrines4    ,,plate ,,iv4 contains the  
,holy ,shrines of ,jerusalem4 ,the      
,haram-es-,sherif1  or the quadrangular 
area once occupied by the temple of     
,solomon1  occupies the centre of the   
page4 ,the ,mosque commonly known as the

  ,mosque of ,omar1 is here styled      
8,beit el ,mukdas0 or the ,holy ,house4 
,under the dome in the black circle is  
the 8,rock of ,god10 or the  8,suspended
 ,stone10 which the prophet kicked back 
when it tried to  follow him to heaven4 
,the two footprints of the prophet are  
pictured  below the rock4 ,below this   
are the ,scales of 8,mizan10 in which   
all  men's deeds are to be weighed at   
the last day1 together with the shears  
which cut off the life of men4 ,at the  
bottom is the great ,bridge of  ,sirat1 
of vast length1 the width of a hair1 and
 sharp as a razor1 over  which every    
mortal must walk barefooted4 ,at the    
right of it is the pit  of ,jehennam or 
hell1 and to the left ,jenneh or        
,paradise4 ,a hazardous  feat it is to  
make the journey1 since on it depends   
one's eternal  destiny4 ,around this    
area are pictured the tombs of ,david1  
,solomon1  ,moses and ,jacob1 and in the
 right-hand upper corner is seen ,jebel1
 ,toor  ,sina1 or ,mount ,sinai4        

8,the ,meccan is a covetous spendthrift4
 ,his wealth1 lightly won1 is  lightly  
prized4 ,pay1 pensions1 stipends1       
presents1 and the #8,ikram'  here1 as at
 ,medina1 supply the citizen with the   
means of idleness4  ,with him everything
 is on the most expensive scale1 his    
marriage1  his religious ceremonies1 and
 his household expenses4 ,his house is  
luxuriously furnished1 entertainments   
are frequent1 and the junketings  of the
 women make up a heavy bill at the end  
of the year4 ,it is a  common practice  
for the citizen to anticipate the       
pilgrimage season by  falling into the  
hands of the usurer4 ,the most          
unpleasant peculiarities  of the        
,meccans are their pride and coarseness 
of language4 ,they  look upon themselves
 as the cream of earth's sons1 and      
resent with  extreme asperity the least 
slighting word concerning the ,holy     
,city and  its denizens4 ,they plume    
themselves upon their holy descent1     
their  exclusion of infidels1 their     

strict fastings1 their learned men1 and 
their purity of language4 ,in fact1     
their pride shows itself at every       
moment2 but it is not the pride which   
makes a man too proud to do a  dirty    
action4 ,the ,meccans appeared to me    
distinguished1 even in this             
foul-mouthed ,east1 by the superior     
licentiousness of their language4       
,abuse was bad enough in the streets1   
but in the house it became              
intolerable40#ab    ,temporary marriages
 which are a mere cloak for open        
prostitution are  common in ,mecca and  
are indeed one of the chief means of    
livelihood to  the natives#ac4          
,concubinage and divorce are more       
universal than in any  other part of the
 ,moslem world2#ad sodomy is practiced  
in the ,sacred  ,mosque itself#ae and   
the suburbs of the city are the scene of
 nightly  carnivals of iniquity1        
especially after the pilgrims have left 
and the  natives are rich with the fresh
 spoils of the traffic4#af ,as might  be

 expected1 superstition grows rife in   
such a soil and under such              
circumstances4 ,all sorts of            
holy-places1 legends1 sacred rocks1     
trees  and houses abound4 ,every ,moslem
 saint who tarried in the city or died  
there has left something to be          
remembered and honored4    ,gross       
ignorance coupled with equal conceit    
seems to be the universal               
characteristic of the people of ,mecca4 
,modern science is laughed at  and      
everything turns1 on the ,ptolemaic     
system1 around the little world  of the 
,koran4 ,jinn are exorcised2 witches and
 the evil-eye are avoided  by amulets2  
in short all the superstitious practices
 of the ,moslem  world are cultivated in
 this centre of world-wide pilgrimage4  
,astrology  still usurps the place of   
astronomy and it is considered blasphemy
  to profess to know the hour of an     
eclipse or the day of the new moon      
before it is revealed from heaven4      
,alchemy is the science that attracts   

the ,meccan physician more than the     
marvels of surgery2 potions of          
holy-writ or talismans are still in use 
for sprains and dislocations4  ,their   
ignorance of geography and history      
beyond the confines of the              
pilgrim-world is pathetic4 ,one of the  
chief ,mullahs asked ,hurgronje  8how   
many days was the caravan journey from  
,moskop 7,russia7 to  ,andalusia        
7,spain780 ,a government printing-press 
has been opened at  ,mecca in recent    
years and an official gazette is        
published2 but even  ,turkish           
civilization and learning are considered
 far from orthodox for  their ways      
partake too much of those of the        
8infidels0 of the rest  of ,europe4     
,photography is a forbidden art and     
money with 8images0 of  queens and      
emperors is only used with the prayer   
istagfir allah1 8,i  ask pardon of      
,god40 ,on the other hand many old      
,european coins no longer  current are  
looked upon as being doubly valuable as 

amulets and charms4  ,one of these1 the 
,mishkash is supposed to have special   
virtues for  newly-married women4       
8,the irony of history10 as ,hurgronje  
remarks1 8was not satisfied that  at    
,medina the grave of ,mohammed who      
cursed saint-worship should become  a   
centre of pilgrimage1 but added the     
circumstance that at ,mecca1  ,moslem   
women1 who reject images and            
,christ-worship1 should prize as an     
amulet the image of ,jesus and an       
,evangelist40 ,of course1 the women     
themselves are in total ignorance of the
 inscription and character of  the coin4
    ,illustration3 ,a ,,christian ,,coin
 ,,used ,,as ,,an ,,amulet ,,by ,,meccan
 ,,women4#ag    ,there is a great       
abundance of schools at ,mecca but no   
education4  ,everything is on the old   
lines1 beginning and ending with the    
,koran1  that ,procrustean bed for the  
human intellect4 8,the letter killeth40 
,and it is the letter first1 foremost   
and always that is the topic  of study4 

,the youth learn to read the ,koran not 
to understand its  meaning1 but to drone
 it out professionally at funerals and  
feasts1 so  many chapters for so many   
shekels4 ,modern science or history are 
not  even mentioned1 much less taught1  
at even the high-schools of ,mecca4     
,grammar1 prosody1 caligraphy1 ,arabian 
history1 and the first elements  of     
arithmetic1 but chiefly the ,koran      
commentaries and traditions1            
traditions1 traditions1 form the        
curriculum of the ,mohammedan college4  
,those who desire a postgraduate course 
devote themselves to ,mysticism         
7,tassawaf7 or join an order of the     
,derwishes who all have their           
representative sheikhs at ,mecca4       
,the method of teaching in the schools  
of ,mecca1 which can be taken as  an    
example of the best that ,arabia        
affords1 is as follows4 ,the child  of  
intellectual promise is first taught his
 alphabet from a small  wooden board on 
which they are written by the teacher2  

slates are  unknown4 ,then he learns the
 ,abjad or numerical value of each      
letter--a  useless proceeding at present
 as the ,arabic notation1 originally    
from ,india1 is everywhere in use4      
,after this he learns to write down  the
 ninety-nine names of ,allah and to read
 the first chapter of the  ,koran2 then 
he attacks the last two chapters1       
because they are short4  ,the teacher   
next urges him through the book1 making 
the pupil read  at the top of his voice4
 ,the greatest strictness is observed as
 to  pronunciation and pauses but       
nothing whatever is said to explain the 
meaning of the words4 ,having thus      
finished the ,koran1 that is1  read it  
through once1 the pupil takes up the    
elements of grammar1  learning rules by 
rote both of sarf 7inflection7 and nahw 
7syntax74  ,then follow the liberal     
sciences1 al-mantik 7logic71 al-hisab   
7arithmetic71 al-jabr 7algebra71        
al-ma'ana wa'l beyan 7rhetoric  and     
versification71 al-fikh 7jurisprudence71

 al-akid 7scholastic  theology71        
at-tafsir 7exegetics71 ilm ul-usul      
7science of sources  of interpretation7 
and lastly1 the capstone of education1  
al-ahadith  7traditions74 ,instruction  
is given by lectures2 text-books are    
seldom  used2 lessons begin in the      
morning and continue for a few hours2 in
  the afternoon they are interrupted by 
prayer-time4 ,even at ,mecca the        
favorite place for teaching is in the   
,mosque-court where constant            
interruptions and distractions must make
 it pleasant for a lazy pupil4          
,illustration3 ,a ,,woman ,,of ,,mecca  
,illustration3 ,a ,,meccan ,,woman ,,in 
,,her ,,bridal ,,costume                
,,iv                        ,,the ,,holy
 ,,land ,,of ,,arabia--,,medina         
8,within the sanctuary or bounds of the 
city all sins are forbidden2   but the  
several schools advocate different      
degrees of strictness4 ,the   ,imam     
,malik1 for instance1 allows no latrin  
nearer to ,el ,medina than   ,jebel     

,ayr1 a distance of about three miles4  
,he also forbids slaying   wild animals1
 but at the same time he specifies no   
punishment for   the offence4 ,all      
authors strenuously forbid1 within the  
boundaries1   slaying man1 7except      
invaders1 infidels and the sacrilegious7
 drinking   spirits and leading an      
immoral life4 ,in regard to the dignity 
of the   sanctuary there is but one     
opinion2 a number of traditions testify 
to   its honor1 praise its people and   
threaten dreadful things to those who   
injure it or them40--,burton4           
,about seventy miles southeast of ,mecca
 is the small but pleasant town  of     
,taif1 to which the pashas condemned for
 the murder of ,abdul ,aziz  ,sultan    
were banished4 ,it is one of the most   
interesting and attractive  towns of all
 ,arabia1 being surrounded by gardens   
and vineyards from  which ,mecca has    
been supplied for ages4 ,the tropical   
rains last  from four to six weeks at   
,taif1 and good wells abound to water   

the  gardens when the rains cease1 so   
that the place is famous for its        
garden-produce4 ,in close proximity to  
the barren ,mecca district ,taif  is a  
paradise for the pilgrim and a health   
resort for the jaundiced1               
fever-emaciated ,meccan4 ,at ,taif      
,doughty saw three old stone idols of   
8the days of ignorance02 ,el ,uzza1 a   
block of granite some twenty feet  long2
 another called ,hubbal1 with a cleft in
 the middle1 8by our ,lord  ,aly's      
sword-stroke02 and ,el ,lat1 an         
unshapely crag of grey granite4  ,these 
were earlier stone-gods of the ,arab1   
and now lie forsaken in the  dirt1 while
 their brother-god1 the famous          
,black-,stone1 receives the  reverence  
of millions6    ,the road from ,mecca to
 ,el ,medina--8the city0--so called     
because the  prophet chose it as his    
home in time of persecution--leads      
nearly due  north4 ,it is an            
uninteresting1 and for the most part1 a 
forsaken  country that separates the    

rival cities4 ,burton writes that it    
reminded  him of the lines1             
8,full many a waste ,i've wandered o'er1
      ,clomb many a crag1 crossed1 many 
a shore1        ,but1 by my halidome    
,a scene so rude1 so wild as this1      
,yet so sublime in barrenness1          
,ne'er did my wandering footsteps press1
        ,where'er ,i chanced to roam40  
,there are two caravan-routes1 both of  
which are used by the pilgrims1  but the
 eastern road is used most              
frequently4#ah    ,the region between   
,mecca and ,medina is the home of the   
ancient poets of  ,arabia and is classic
 ground4 ,the seven ,moallakat or       
suspended poems  find their scene in    
this region4 ,lebid wrote3              
8,deserted is the village--waste the    
halting place and home1      ,at ,mina1 
o'er ,rijam and ,ghul wild beasts       
unheeded roam1      ,on ,rayyan hill the
 channel lines have left their naked    
trace1      ,time-worn as primal writ   
that dints the mountain face40    ,el   

,medina1 formerly called ,yathrib1 is   
now also called ,el ,munowera1  the     
8illuminated10 and devout ,moslems      
commonly claim to see1 on  approaching  
the city1 a luminous haze hanging over  
its mosques and  houses4 ,the legends   
and superstitions that cluster around   
the last  resting-place of the ,prophet 
are not less in number nor less credible
  than those that glorify the place of  
his birth1 although the town is  only   
about half the size and contains #af1jjj
 inhabitants4 ,it consists  of three    
principal divisions3 the town proper1   
the fort and the  suburbs4 ,it is       
surrounded by a wall forty feet high2   
the streets are  narrow and unpaved2 the
 houses are flat-roofed and             
double-stoned4    ,the current dispute1 
however1 for many centuries has been    
regarding  the relative sanctity and    
importance of the two cities1 ,mecca and
  ,medina4 ,a visit to ,medina is called
 ,ziyarat1 as that to ,mecca is  called 
,haj2 the latter is obligatory by order 

of the ,koran1 while  the former is     
meritorious on the authority of         
tradition4 ,the orthodox  further       
stipulate1 that circumambulation around 
the prophet's tomb at  ,medina is not   
allowed as around the ,kaaba at ,mecca  
nor should men wear  the ihram1 nor kiss
 the tomb4 ,on the other hand1 to spit  
upon it or  treat it with contempt1 as  
the ,wahabees did1 is held to be the act
 of  an infidel4 ,to quote again from   
,burton3 8,the general consensus of     
,islam  admits the superiority of the   
,beit ,allah at ,mecca to the whole     
world2  and declares ,medina to be more 
venerable than every part of ,mecca1 and
  consequently all the earth1 except    
only the ,beit ,allah4 ,this last is a  
juste milieu view by no means in favor  
with the inhabitants of either  place40 
,the one thing that gives ,medina claim 
to sanctity is the prophet's  tomb1 and 
yet there is some doubt as to whether he
 is really buried  in the mosque raised 
to his honor2 of course every ,moslem1  

learned  or ignorant1 believes it1 but  
there are many arguments against the    
supposition4#ai ,one of these arguments 
alone would have little value  against  
so old a tradition and practice1 but    
their cumulative force  cannot be       
denied1 and throws serious doubt on the 
question whether the  present mosque of 
the prophet contains any trace of his   
remains4 ,on the  other hand pious      
,moslems affirm that the prophet is not 
really dead1  but 8eats and drinks in   
the tomb until the day of resurrection10
 and is  as much alive as he ever was4  
,illustration3 ,,reported ,,arrangement 
,,of ,,the ,,interior ,,of ,,the        
,,hujrah4    ,the ,mesjid-el-,nebi or   
prophet's mosque at ,medina is about    
#dbj feet  long by #cdj broad4 ,it is   
built nearly north and south and has a  
large  interior courtyard1 surrounded by
 porticoes4 ,from the western side we   
enter the ,rauzah or prophet's garden4  
,on the north and west it is  not       
divided from the rest of the portico2 on

 the south side runs a  dwarf wall and  
on the east it is bounded by the        
lattice-work of the  ,hujrah4 ,this is  
an irregular square of about fifty feet 
separated  on all sides from the walls  
of the ,mosque by a broad passage4      
,inside  there are said to be three     
tombs carefully concealed inside the    
iron  railing by a heavy curtain        
arranged like a four-post bed4 ,the     
,hujrah  has four gates1 all kept locked
 except the fourth which admits only the
  officers in charge of the treasure1   
the eunuchs who sweep the floor1  light 
the lamps and carry away the presents   
thrown into the enclosure  by devotees4 
,it is commonly asserted that many early
 ,moslem saints  and warriors desired   
the remaining space for their grave1 but
 that by  ,mohammed's wish it is        
reserved for ',isa on his second coming 
and death4  ,the story of a coffin      
suspended by magnets has of course no   
foundation  in fact and may have arisen 
from the crude drawings of the tombs4   

,the ziyarah at the ,mosque consists in 
prayers and alms-giving with  silent    
contemplation on the sacred character of
 ,mohammed4 ,the following  sample      
8prayer0 offered at the shrine of       
,fatima1 gives some idea of  what is to 
,christian ears a blasphemous service3  
8,peace be upon thee1  ,o daughter of   
the apostle of ,allah6 ,thou mother of  
the excellent seed4  ,peace be upon thee
 thou ,lady amongst women4 ,peace be    
upon thee1 ,o ,fifth  of the people of  
the ,prophet's garment6 ,a pure one1 ,o 
virgin6 ,peace be  on thee1 ,o spouse of
 our ,lord1 ,ali el ,murtaza1 ,o mother 
of ,hasan and  ,hussein1 the two ,moons1
 the two ,lights1 the two ,pearls1 the  
two princes  of the youth of ,heaven1   
the ,coolness of the eyes of true       
believers6  etc41 etc40 ,the prayers    
offered at the prophet's grave are more 
fulsome  in their praise and of much    
greater length4 ,what would the         
camel-driver  of ,mecca say if he heard 
them8    ,as at ,mecca so at ,medina the

 townspeople1 one and all1 live on the  
pilgrims4 ,the keeper of the ,mosque is 
a ,turkish ,pasha with a large  salary  
and many perquisites2 there are         
treasurers and professors and  clerks   
and sheikhs of these eunuchs kept on    
salary4 ,sweepers and  porters1 all     
eunuchs1 and guides as at ,mecca who    
live by backsheesh or  extortion4       
,water-carriers here too peddle about   
the brackish fluid by  the cupful to    
thirsty pilgrims4 ,those who are not in 
the service of the  ,mosque usually keep
 boarding-houses1 or sell prayers which 
are to be  made once a year at the      
prophet's tomb1 for the absent pilgrim4 
,most of  the officials receive their   
salaries from ,constantinople and       
,cairo4    ,the population of ,medina is
 not less a mixed multitude than that of
  ,mecca2 here also the observation of  
,zehm holds true1 8every pilgrimage     
brings new fathers40 ,burton testifies1 
8,it is not to be believed that  in a   
town garrisoned by ,turkish troops1 full

 of travelled traders1  and which       
supports itself by plundering ,hajis the
 primitive virtues  of the ,arab could  
exist4 ,the ,meccans1 a dark people1 say
 of the  ,madani1 that their hearts are 
as black as their skins are white4 ,this
  is of course exaggerated2 but it is   
not too much to assert that  pride1     
pugnacity1 a peculiar point of honor1   
and a vindictiveness of  wonderful force
 and patience1 are the only             
characteristic traits of  ,arab         
character which the citizens of ,el     
,medina habitually display40            
,intoxicating liquors are made at       
,medina and sold1 although not openly4  
,there are two colleges with 8libraries0
 at ,medina and many  mosque-schools4   
,in ,burckhardt's day he charged the    
town with utter  ignorance and          
illiteracy1 but now they devote         
themselves apparently to  literature1 at
 least in a measure4    ,the climate of 
,medina is better than that of ,mecca   
and the winters are  cold and rigorous4 

,mohammed is reputed to have said1 8he  
who patiently  endures the cold of ,el  
,medina and the heat of ,mecca1 merits a
 reward in  paradise40    ,returning    
from the lesser pilgrimage to ,medina   
the traveller can  retrace his steps to 
,mecca1 and thence to ,jiddah1 or go to 
the  nearer port of ,yanbo 7,yembo7 and 
thence return home by steamer or        
sailing-vessel4 ,the distance by camels'
 route1 between ,medina and the  port is
 #acb miles1 six stages1 although a good
 dromedary can make it  in two days4 ,at
 ,yanbo the sultan's dominions in       
,arabia begin1 for  the coast northward 
pertains to ,egypt4 ,the town resembles 
,jiddah in  outward appearance1 has #djj
 or #ejj houses built of white coral    
rock1  dirty streets and a precarious   
water supply4 ,sadlier1 7#ahbj7 after   
his  journey across the peninsula1      
visited ,yanbo1 and describes it as 8a  
miserable ,arab seaport surrounded by a 
wall02 ,yanbo has1 however1 a  good     
harbor1 and was in earlier days1 a large

 and important place2 it  has been      
identified with ,iambia village on      
,ptolemy's map a harbor of  the old     
,nabateans4    ,thus ends our pilgrimage
 through the ,holy ,land of ,arabia4    
,let us in  conclusion ponder the words 
of ,stanley ,lane ,poole as to the place
 which  ,mecca and the pilgrimage holds 
in the ,mohammedan religion4 8,it is    
asked  how the destroyer of idols could 
have reconciled his conscience to the   
circuits of the ,kaaba and the          
veneration of the ,black-,stone covered 
with adoring kisses4 ,the rites of the  
pilgrimage cannot certainly be  defended
 against the charge of superstition2 but
 it is easy to see  why ,mohammed       
enjoined them4444 ,he well knew the     
consolidating effect  of forming a      
centre to which his followers should    
gather1 and hence  he reasserted the    
sanctity of the ,black-,stone that      
#8came down from  heaven'2 he ordained  
that everywhere throughout the world the
 ,moslem  should pray looking toward the

 ,kaaba1 and enjoined him to make the   
pilgrimage thither4 ,mecca is to the    
,moslem what ,jerusalem is to the  ,jew4
 ,it bears with it all the influence of 
centuries of associations4  ,it carries 
the ,moslem back to the cradle of his   
faith and the childhood  of his         
prophet4444 ,and1 most of all1 it bids  
him remember that all his  brother      
,moslems are worshipping toward the same
 sacred spot2 that he is  one of a great
 company of believers united by one     
faith1 filled with  the same hopes1     
reverencing the same thing1 worshipping 
the same ,god40                         
,v                          ,,aden ,,and
 ,,an ,,inland ,,journey     8,aden is a
 valley surrounded by the sea2 its      
climate is so bad that it   turns wine  
into vinegar in the space of ten days4  
,the water is derived   from cisterns   
and is also brought in by an aqueduct   
two farsongs long40                     
--,ibn-el-,mojawir4 7,a4,d4 #abjj7      
,arabia is unfortunate because1 like a  

chestnut-burr1 its exterior is  rough   
and uninviting4 ,in scenery and climate1
 ,yemen fares worst of all  the         
provinces4 ,the two gateways to ,arabia 
,felix are very infelix4  ,what could be
 more dreary and dull and depressing    
than the 8gloomy  hills of darkness0    
that form the background to ,aden as    
seen from the  harbor8 ,there is no     
verdure1 no vegetation visible2         
everywhere there  is the same appearance
 of a cinder heap4 ,and where can one   
find a more  filthy1 hot1 sweltering1   
odorous native town than ,hodeidah8 ,yet
 these  two places are the gateways to  
the most beautiful1 fertile1 populous   
and healthful region of all ,arabia4    
,yemen is best known of all the         
provinces1 and has been quite thoroughly
  explored by a score of intrepid       
travellers4#bj ,most people1 however1   
travelling in a ,p4 and ,o4 ,steamer1   
calling at ,aden for coal1 remain in    
total ignorance of the fair highlands   
just beyond the dark hills that  hide   

the horizon ,yemen extends from ,aden to
 ,asir on the north and  eastward into  
,hadramaut for an indefinite distance4  
,on the earlier maps  ,arabia ,felix    
stretched as far as ,oman--a great      
mountainous region with a  temperate    
climate4 ,an ,arabian author1 describing
 ,yemen as it was before  the time of   
,mohammed1 wrote3 8,its inhabitants are 
all hale and strong1  sickness is       
unknown1 nor are there poisonous plants 
or animals2 nor  fools1 nor blind       
people1 and the women are ever young2   
the climate is  like paradise and one   
wears the same garment summer and       
winter40    ,the massive rock promontory
 of volcanic basalt called ,aden1 has   
from  time immemorial been the gateway  
and the stronghold for all ,yemen4 ,it  
is generally agreed that ,ezekiel1 the  
prophet1 referred to ,aden when he      
wrote4 8,haran and ,canneh and ,eden1   
the merchants of ,sheba1 ,asshur and    
,chilmad1 were thy merchants40 ,the     
place was fortified and its wonderful   

rock cisterns were probably first       
constructed by the early ,himyarites4   
,a ,christian church was erected at     
,aden by the embassy of the ,emperor    
,constantius1 ,a4,d4 #cdb1 and ,aden was
 for a long time in the hands of  the   
,christian kings of ,yemen4 ,then it    
fell a prey to the ,abyssinians  and    
next to the ,persians1 about the time   
when ,mohammed was born4  ,albuquerque  
in #aeac with his ,portuguese warriors  
laid siege to ,aden for  four days1 but 
in spite of scaling-ladders and         
gunpowder could not take  the town4 ,the
 ,mameluke ,sultans of ,egypt also      
failed to capture this  fortress4 ,in   
#ahch the ,english took it by storm and 
have held the place  ever since4        
,aden is now a ,british settlement1 a   
commercial-centre1 a  coaling-station   
and a fortress2 the last most           
emphatically4 ,all the  latest          
improvements in engineering and         
artillery have been put to use  in      
fortifying the place4 ,the ride from    

,steamer-,point to 8the crater0  or from
 the telegraph-station to the           
8,crescent0 gives one some idea of  the 
vast amount of money and labor expended 
to shape this ,gibraltar  and make it   
impregnable from land and sea4 ,the     
isthmus is guarded by  massive lines of 
defence1 strengthened by a broad ditch  
cut out of the  solid rock2 bastions1   
casements and tunnels all serve one     
purpose2  batteries1 towers1 arsenals1  
magazines1 barracks2 mole-batteries     
toward the sea1 mines in the harbor1    
obstruction piers and subservient       
works2--everything tells of military    
strength1 and the town has always a     
warlike aspect in perfect accord with   
its forbidding physical geography4      
,the inhabited peninsula is an irregular
 oval about fifteen miles in            
circumference2 it is in reality a large 
extinct crater formed of lofty          
precipitous hills the highest peak of   
which1 ,shem ,shem1 has an altitude  of 
nearly #a1hjj feet4 ,the varieties of   

rock are numerous1 and vary  in color   
from light brown to dark green4 ,pumice 
and tufas are very  common1 the former  
is an article of export4 ,water is very 
scarce1 and  there is almost no rainfall
 during some years4 ,when there is a    
shower1  the nature of the soil and the 
immense watershed for so small an area  
cause heavy torrents to pour down the   
valleys4 ,these rare occasions are      
utilized to fill the huge tanks near    
,aden camp4 ,the tanks were built  as   
early as #fjj ,a4,d4 by the ,yemenites  
who built besides the celebrated  dam at
 ,marib1 and the many similar structures
 in various parts of  ,yemen4 ,water is 
also brought by an aqueduct from ,sheikh
 ,othman1 seven  miles distant1 but the 
majority of the population is supplied  
from  the government condensers4 ,in    
spite of the desert character of the    
soil and the aridity of the climate     
,aden is not entirely without  natural  
vegetation4 ,thomas ,anderson of the    
,bengal ,medical ,service  enumerates   

ninety-four species of plants found on  
the ,aden peninsula1  some of which are 
entirely unique4 ,most of the plants1   
however1 are  desert-dwellers with sharp
 thorns1 an aromatic odor1 and yield    
gums and  resins4    ,the ,aden         
settlement has four centres of          
population2 ,steamer-,point1 the        
,crescent1 the town of ,maala and the   
8,camp0 or ,aden proper4 ,a road1  the  
only road in fact1 extends from         
,steamer-,point on the west to ,aden    
proper on the east1 and no one can boast
 of having seen ,aden who has  not taken
 the ride in a geri from the            
landing-pier to the tanks4 ,the  ,aden  
horses are of all creatures most        
miserable for the geri-drivers  whip    
their horses much1 but feed them little4
 ,the ,crescent is a  semi-circular     
range of houses and shops crowded       
against the mountain  side2 with a      
,hotel de l',univers and a ,hotel de    
l',europe 7both equally  8,grand072     
cafs1 shops1 banks1 and offices4 ,the   

post office1 hospital1  churches and    
barracks are further west toward the    
telegraph-station4 ,a  drive of about   
two miles brings us to the native town  
of ,maala4 ,here  the road forks1 the   
lower one leading to the barrier-gate   
and ,sheikh  ,othman1 and the upper     
ascending the mountain through the gate 
of the  fortifications and by a sharp   
declivity leading down to the town of   
,aden4 ,it is not an ,oriental town in  
its administration1 but it has all  the 
motley character of ,port ,said on its  
streets4 ,europeans1 ,americans1        
,africans1 ,asiatics and mixed races are
 all represented in the crowd  of the   
market or the loungers in the streets4  
,the total population is  #cj1jjj1      
including ,chinese1 ,persians1 ,turks1  
,egyptians1 ,somalis1 ,hindus1          
,parsees1 ,jews and ,arabs from every   
part of the peninsula4 ,aden is a  great
 centre for native shipping1 and the    
dhows and buggalows that sail  every    
year from the ,persian ,gulf to ,yemen  

and ,jiddah alway call at ,aden  en     
route4 ,also from ,oman and ,hadramaut  
the modern ,sinbads run their  craft    
into ,aden to exchange produce or to lay
 in supplies for their  voyages to the  
coast of ,africa4    ,the distance from 
,aden to ,yemen's old capital1 ,sana is 
nearly #bjj  miles in a direct line1 but
 on my second journey thither1 in #ahid1
 ,i  was obliged to take a roundabout   
journey to ,taiz1 because of an ,arab   
uprising4 ,this and the mountainous     
character of the country made the       
distance over #bej miles4 ,this route   
passes through1 or near1 all the        
important towns of ,yemen south of      
,sana4    ,with my ,bedouin companion1  
,nasir1 ,i left ,sheikh ,othman early on
 the  second morning of ,july4 ,we      
reached a small    ,illustration3       
,,travelling ,,in ,,southern ,,arabia   
,illustration3 ,,the ,,keith ,,falconer 
,,memorial ,,church ,,in ,,aden         
village1 ,wahat1 at noon1 the           
thermometer registering #if in the      

shade4 ,after a short rest we mounted   
the camels at seven o'clock in  the     
evening for an all-night journey4 ,our  
course was through a barren  region1 and
 at daylight we entered ,wady ,mergia1  
with scanty vegetation1  resting at a   
village of the same name under a huge   
acacia tree4 ,the  next day we entered  
the mountains1 where rich vegetation    
showed a  cooler climate4 ,we passed    
several villages1 ,dar ,el ,kadim1      
,khoteibah1  ,suk-el-,juma and others4  
,as this was said to be a dangerous part
 of the  road all the caravan1 which we 
joined at ,wahat1 was on the lookout1   
with lighted rope-wicks for their       
flint-locks swinging from their         
shoulders and looking in the dark like  
so many fireflies4 ,at three  ,a4,m4 we 
had ascended to the head of the wady and
 rested for the day at  ,mabek4 ,all the
 houses here are of stone1 the booths of
 date-mats and  twigs being only found  
on the maritime plain of ,yemen4 ,during
 the night  there had been talk among   

the wild ,arabs of the village of       
holding  me as a hostage to obtain money
 from the ,english at ,aden6 ,but ,nasir
  quieted them with a threefold ,bedouin
 oath that ,i was not a government      
official nor an ,englishman1 but an     
,american traveller4    ,the day after  
leaving ,mabek brought us to the        
beginning of the happy  valleys of      
,yemen1 very different from the torrid  
coast4 ,a country where  the orange1    
lemon1 quince1 grape1 mango1 plum1      
apricot1 peach1 apple1  pomegranate1    
fig1 date1 plantain and mulberry1 each  
yield their fruit  in season2 where     
wheat1 barley1 maize1 millet and coffee 
are staple  products and where there is 
a glorious profusion of wild            
flowers--called  8grass0 by the unpoetic
 camel-drivers4 ,a land whose mountains 
lift up  their heads over #i1jjj feet1  
terraced from chilly top to warm valley 
with agricultural amphitheatres1        
irrigated by a thousand rills and       
rivulets1 some of them perennial1       

flowing along artificial channels  or   
leaping down the rocks in miniature     
falls4 ,a land where the oriole  hangs  
her nest on the dark acacia1 the wild   
doves hide in clefts of the  rock and   
the chameleon sports his colors by the  
wayside under the tall  flowering       
cactus4 ,such is ,yemen4 ,the vegetation
 of ,arabia ,felix begins  just before  
reaching ,mufallis1 on this route1 where
 a ,turkish castle  and custom-house    
proclaim the boundary of ,ottoman       
aggression4    ,beautiful was the air   
and scenery on our march4 ,arab peasants
 were at  work in the fields1 plowing#ba
 with oxen1 repairing the walls of the  
terraces and opening the watercourses4  
,the women were all unveiled  and had   
the picturesque costume universal in    
southern ,yemen2 their  narrow trousers 
were fastened at the waist and ankles1  
while over their  shoulders hung long   
mantle-like garments1 low in the neck1  
girded1 and  fringed at the bottom with 
embroidered cloth of green or red4 ,here

 they  wear a kind of light turban1 but 
on the ,hodeidah coast broad-brimmed    
straw hats cover the heads of the ,yemen
 belles as they urge their  donkeys to  
market4    ,at sunrise we were in sight 
of the highest peaks to the left of the 
wady-bed4 ,one of them is crowned by a  
walli or saint's tomb of ,saled  bin    
,taka4 ,these tombs are common in ,yemen
 and thousands of people  visit them    
annually to ask intercession1 each saint
 having a special  day in the ,moslem   
calendar4 ,at ,mocha the grave of the   
,arab sheikh  ,abu-el-,hassan ,shadeli1 
who first discovered the use of coffee1 
is  highly honored by distant pilgrims4 
,at eight o'clock on the morning of     
,july fourth we reached the burj  called
 ,mufallis and had our first experience 
of ,turkish rule in ,yemen4             
,unexpectedly we here stumbled upon a   
,turkish custom-house1 which ,i  had    
thought was located at ,taiz1 as the    
boundary of ,turkish ,yemen on  my maps 
did not extend further south4 ,an       

unmannerly negro1 calling  himself      
,mudeer of ,customs1 looked out of a    
port-hole and demanded my  ascent4      
,through dirt and up darkness ,i reached
 his little room and  stated my errand  
and purpose4 ,no kind words or offered  
backsheesh  would avail2 8all the       
baggage must be opened and all books    
were  forbidden entrance into ,yemen by 
a recent order10 so he affirmed4        
,first1 therefore1 ,i unscrewed the     
covers of the two boxes with an old     
bowie-knife4 ,the books1 after having   
been critically examined by eyes  that  
could not read1 were seized2 next my    
saddle-bags were searched1  and every   
book and map was also confiscated4 ,i   
was refused even a  receipt for the     
books taken1 and to every plea or       
question the only  reply was1 to go on  
to ,taiz and appeal to the ,governor4   
,despoiled of our goods1 we left the    
8custom-house0 at eleven ,a4,m41  taking
 an old man on a donkey armed with a    
spear1 as guide and defence1  because   

,nasir heard that there was disturbance 
in this quarter4 ,at two  o'clock we    
rested for half an hour under the shade 
of a huge rock in  the bed of the wady1 
and then warned by peals of thunder1 we 
hastened  on1 hoping to reach ,hirwa    
before dark4 ,in less than an hour1     
however1  the sky was black1 rain fell  
in torrents1 and we found it hopeless   
to attempt to urge the slow camels on   
through the wady4 ,there was no  shelter
 in sight1 so we crouched under a small 
tree halfway up the mud  bank4 ,the rain
 turned to hail--large stones that      
frightened the camels  so that they     
stampeded--and we became thoroughly     
chilled4    ,when the storm ceased1 our 
donkey man came with looks of horror to 
tell  us that his poor beast had fallen 
down the slope and was being swept  away
 by the torrent6 ,what had been a dry   
river bed half an hour before1  was now 
a rushing rapids4 ,we decided to climb  
up the terraces to a  house which we saw
 on the mountain side4 ,the camels had  

preceded us1  and after a vigorous climb
 over mud-fields and up the rocks we    
reached  the house and hospitality of   
,sheikh ,ali4 ,over the charcoal fire1  
after  drinking plenty of kishr1 7made  
from the shell of the coffee bean17  we 
had to listen to a long discussion      
concerning the lost donkey4  ,finally1  
matters were smoothed over by my        
offering to pay one-half the  price of  
the animal on condition that our guide  
should proceed with us  to ,hirwa4      
,the next day we were off early4        
,because of the steep ascents ,i was    
obliged to walk most of the way1 and ,i 
sprained my ankle severely4  ,it did not
 pain me until night1 when it was       
swollen and kept me  8on crutches0 for  
several days4 ,hirwa is a small ,arab   
village  with a weekly market1 and we   
found shelter in the usual coffee-shop  
characteristic of ,yemen4 ,the following
 day we reached ,sept ,ez zeilah1  where
 we found cleaner quarters than the     
night before4 ,at about  midnight a war 

party of ,bedouins came and frightened  
the peaceful  villagers with demands for
 food1 etc4 ,they had just returned from
  setting fire to a small castle1 and1  
numbering sixty hungry men1 were  not to
 be intimidated4 ,they were about to    
force their way into our  quarters when 
,nasir and the women promised to give   
them food4 ,within1  ,i kept quiet and  
listened to the noise of grinding and   
baking and  coffee-pounding4 ,without1  
some of the ,arabs seized a cow         
belonging to a  poor woman and butchered
 it for their feast4 ,at this there was 
a crying  of women and barking of dogs  
and swearing of oaths by the ,great     
,allah1  such as ,i hope never to hear  
again4 ,finally1 the ,arabs went away   
with  full stomachs1 and we slept a     
broken sleep for fear they might return4
  ,the next day we proceeded to ,taiz1  
and arrived at noon1 one week after     
leaving ,aden4    ,the ,mutasarrif      
,pasha1 or ,governor1 was satisfied with
 my passports1  and expressed his       

regrets that the books had been seized  
at ,mufallis1  but such was the law4 ,he
 would1 however1 allow me to send for   
them  for inspection4 ,what is written  
here in four lines was the work and     
patience of four weary days6 ,a soldier 
was sent to ,mufallis2 ,i was  obliged  
to entrust him with money to pay the    
custom dues2 to hire a  camel to carry  
the books2 finally to pay for two sticks
 of sealing  wax 7price in ,taiz one    
rupee7 with which to seal the books and 
maps  lest they be tampered with--all   
this at the order of the enlightened    
government of the ,sublime ,porte6 ,the 
first messenger never reached           
,mufallis2 on the road he was attacked  
by ,arabs1 stabbed in the neck1  robbed 
of his rifle1 and carried back to the   
military hospital at  ,taiz4 ,then there
 was more delay to find and send a      
second soldier  with the same camel and 
money and sealing wax1 but with a new   
rifle4  ,he returned with the books     
safely after five days6 ,no ,turk could 

set  a value on a book1 and so the law  
is that books are taxed by weight1      
boxes included4 ,the customs receipt was
 attached for 8#bjj kilograms  ,jewish  
books 7at twenty piastres a kilo71      
value1 #d1jjj piastres1  and custom dues
 amounting to #bhh piastres40 ,in the   
same document ,i  was spoken of as 8the 
,jew1 ,ishmail1 ,dhaif ,ullah10--a      
rather curious  combination of names4 ,i
 was called a 8,jew0 because of the case
 of  ,hebrew ,new ,testaments2 ,ishmail 
was the equivalent for ,samuel2 and     
,dhaif  ,ullah1 my ,arabic cognomen4    
,,vi                       ,,yemen3     
,,the ,,switzerland ,,of ,,arabia       
8,if the ,turks would clear out of      
,yemen1 a wonderful field for commerce  
would be thrown open1 for the ,turkish  
government is vile and all   cultivators
 are taxed to an iniquitous             
extent40--,ion ,keith ,falconer4        
,while waiting at ,taiz ,i had an       
opportunity to study ,yemen town life   
and the system of government1 as well as

 to learn a little about the            
cultivation of coffee and kaat1 the two 
chief products of this part of  ,yemen4 
,taiz has not often been visited by     
travellers from the occident1 and is  a 
most interesting place4 ,it is a large  
fortified village of perhaps  #e1jjj    
inhabitants1 the residence of a         
,mutasarrif whose authority  extends    
from the province of ,hodeidah to the   
,aden frontier including  ,mocha and    
,sheikh ,seyyid on the coast1 recently  
abandoned by ,france4 ,the  place has   
five gates1 one of which has been walled
 up1 and five large  mosques in         
,byzantine style4 ,the largest ,mosque  
is called ,el ,muzafer1  and has two    
large minarets and twelve beautiful     
domes4 ,taiz was once a  centre of      
learning and its libraries were         
celebrated all over ,arabia4            
,firozabadi1 the ,noah ,webster of the  
,arabic language1 taught in ,taiz and   
edited his 8,ocean0 dictionary there4   
,he died at the neighboring town of     

,zebid1 in #adad ,a4,d41 and his grave  
is honored by the learned of ,yemen4    
,the bazaar is not large1 but the four  
,european shops kept by ,greek          
merchants are well supplied with all    
ordinary articles of civilization4  ,one
 public bath1 in splendid condition1 and
 a military hospital show  ,ottoman     
occupation4 ,the fort holds perhaps     
#a1cjj soldiers and the  residence of   
the ,mutasarrif is in a beautiful and   
comfortable little  building outside of 
the town4 ,the mosques were once grand  
but are  now ruined and a home for bats2
 the famous libraries have disappeared  
and the subterannean vaults of the      
largest ,mosque formerly used as        
porticoes for pupils are now ,turkish   
horse-stables4 ,there is a post  office 
and telegraph2 the post goes once a week
 to ,hodeidah via ,zebid  and ,beit el  
,fakih1 and the telegraph in the same   
direction a little  more rapidly when   
the wires are in order4    ,taiz is girt
 around by ,jebel ,sobr1 the highest    

range of mountains in  southern ,yemen4 
,hisn ,aroos peak1 near the town1 has an
 elevation of  over #g1jjj feet4        
,according to ,niebuhr and ,defler1 on a
 clear day one  can look from the summit
 of this peak across the lowlands and   
the ,red  ,sea into ,africa4 ,i was     
unable to reach the summit as my ,arab  
guide  failed me and the days were misty
 and frequent rains fell4    ,taiz is   
the centre of kaat-culture for all      
,yemen1 and coffee comes here  on its   
way to ,hodeidah or ,aden4 ,amid all the
 wealth of vegetation and  fruitage     
every plant seems familiar to the       
tourist save kaat4 ,it is a  shrub whose
 very name is unknown outside of ,yemen1
 while there it is  known and used by   
every mother's son1 as well as by the   
mothers and  daughters themselves4      
,driving from ,aden to ,sheikh ,othman1 
one first  learns the name4 ,why are    
those red flags hoisted near the police 
stations1 at intervals on the road1 and 
why are they hauled down as  soon as    

those camels pass8 ,oh1 they are taking 
loads of kaat for the  ,aden market1 and
 the flags are to prevent cheating of   
the customs4  ,over #b1jjj camel loads  
come into ,aden every year1 and each    
load passes  through ,english territory 
by 8block-signal0 system1 for it is     
highly  taxed4 ,as to its use1 step into
 a kahwah in any part of ,yemen shortly 
before sunset1 and you will see ,arabs  
each with a bundle of green twigs  in   
his lap1 chewing at the leaves of kaat4 
,at ,taiz ,i first had an opportunity to
 meet the ,jews of the interior of      
,yemen4 ,altogether they number perhaps 
#fj1jjj in the whole province4  ,they   
live mostly in the large towns and very 
few are agriculturists4  ,they are a    
despised and down-trodden race1 but they
 say at ,sana1 that  their condition is 
not so bad under the ,turks as it was   
under the ,arab  rulers before #ahga4   
,the accounts of their origin are       
discrepant4 ,some  say they are         
descended from the ,jews of the         

,dispersion1 but others  hold that they 
were immigrants from the ,north over    
#ijj years ago4  ,they are more cleanly1
 more intelligent and more trustworthy  
than the  ,arabs2 and although they are 
out of all communication with the rest  
of  the world and in ignorance of their 
,european countrymen they are not       
ignorant of ,hebrew and rabbinic        
learning4 ,their synagogue near ,taiz is
  a low stone building1 twenty-five by  
fifteen feet4 ,for furniture it  has    
only a few curtains of embroidered      
texts1 a printed diagram of the  ancient
 candlestick1 with the names of the     
twelve tribes1 and a high  reading-desk4
 ,such are all the synagogues of ,yemen4
    ,at ,taiz the ,jews seemed to have  
grown content under long centuries of   
oppression and taxation4 ,many of the   
old ,moslem laws against infidels1  such
 as those forbidding them to ride1 to   
carry weapons or wear fine  clothes in  
public1 are still rigorously enforced by
 custom if not by  the government4 ,the 

,jew is universally despised1 yet he    
cannot be  spared1 for nearly all       
artisan work is in ,jewish hands4 ,the  
,moslem ,arab  has learned nothing from 
the ,jew outside of the ,koran2 but1    
alas6 the  ,jew has imbibed many foolish
 customs and superstitions foreign to   
his  creed from ,islam4    ,when the    
,hebrew ,scriptures reached ,taiz ,i was
 again disappointed1 for  the ,governor 
would not permit the boxes to be opened1
 but they were to  be sent sealed and   
under guard to ,sana4 ,i afterward      
learned that the  8guard0 was for me as 
well as the books1 and that the soldier 
carried a  letter with this accusation  
written3 8,this is a converted ,jew1 who
 is  corrupting the religion of ,islam1 
and sells books to ,moslems and ,jews40 
,i had no alternative but to proceed to 
,sana2 taking a ,damar ,arab as         
servant1 having dismissed the ,aden     
camels4    ,i left ,taiz on a mule ,july
 #bfth1 and arrived at ,seyanee the same
 day4  ,the following night we reached  

,ibb4 ,here ,i was forced to lodge      
outside  of the town1 as the guard had  
instructions not to let me 8see things40
  ,i endured this impatiently1 until ,i 
learned that our servant had been       
imprisoned on our arrival because he    
told me the names of the villages  on   
the route6 ,i then appealed to the      
,mayor1 and on virtue of my  passports  
demanded the right of going about the   
town and the release of  my servant4    
,after some delay1 both requests were   
granted4 ,the incident  is one of many  
to show the suspicion with which a      
stranger is regarded  by the authorities
 in ,yemen4 ,on ,saturday the soldier   
and ,i hastened on  to reach the large  
town of ,yerim before ,sunday1 and rest 
there1 waiting  for the baggage camel4  
,it was a long ride of twelve hours1 but
 through  a delightful country          
everywhere fertile and terraced with    
coffee  plantations and groves of kaat4 
,yerim1 with perhaps #cjj houses1 lies  
in a hollow of the ,sumara range of     

mountains4 ,it has a fortress and some  
houses of imposing appearance1  but the 
general aspect of the town is miserable4
 ,a neighboring marsh  breeds malaria1  
and the place is proverbially unhealthy 
in this  otherwise salubrious region4   
,niebuhr's botanist1 ,forskal1 died here
  on their journey in #agfc4 ,the road  
from ,ibb to ,yerim has perhaps the     
finest scenery of any part of ,yemen2   
never have ,i seen more picturesque     
mountains and valleys1 green with       
verdure and bright with blossoms4       
,scabiosa1 bluebells1 forget-me-nots1   
golden-rod1 four-o'clocks and  large    
oleander-trees--        8,all earth was 
full of heaven       ,and every bush    
afire with ,god40    ,the cacti-plants  
were in full bloom1 and measured twenty 
feet against  the mountain passes4 ,two 
thousand feet below one could hear the  
sound  of the water rushing along the   
wady-bed or disappearing under the      
bridges that span the valleys4 ,while   
high above1 the clouds were half        

concealing the summit of the 8,gazelle  
,neck0 7,unk el-,gazel74    ,sunday1    
,july #bith1 was a cold day at ,yerim2  
early in the morning the  temperature   
went down to #eb1 and at night two      
blankets were needed4  ,not until nine  
o'clock was it warm enough for the      
,yerim merchants to  open their shops4  
,a ,jewish family1 en route for ,taiz1  
were stopping with us at the            
caravansari1 and at night ,i spoke for  
over two hours with them and the  ,arabs
 about ,christ4 ,there was no           
interruption1 and ,i was impressed  to  
see the interest of a ,jew and ,arab    
alike in what ,i told them from  ,isaiah
 liii41 reading it in ,arabic by the dim
 candle light1 amidst all  the baggage  
and beasts of an ,oriental inn4 ,at the 
little village of  ,khader1 eight miles 
from ,waalan1 angry words arose from the
 8guard0  because ,i tried to speak to a
 ,jew4 ,when ,i spoke in protest they   
began  to strike the ,jew with the butt 
end of their rifles1#bb and when the    

poor fellow fled1 my best defence was   
silence4 ,on my return journey1 ,i      
inadvertently raised trouble again1 by  
mentioning that ,jesus ,christ and      
,moses were ,jews--which the ,arabs     
considered an insult to the prophets  of
 ,god4    ,on the road beyond ,yerim we 
passed a large boulder with an irregular
  impression on one side4 ,this is      
called ,ali's footprint1 and the ,arabs 
who pass always anoint it with oil4 ,the
 steep ascents and descents of  the     
journey were now behind us4 ,from ,yerim
 on to ,sana the plateau is  more level4
 ,wide fields of lentils1 barley and    
wheat take the place of  the groves of  
kaat and coffee2 camels were used for   
ploughing1 and with  their long necks   
and curious harness1 were an odd sight4 
,the next halt we made was at ,damar1   
#h1jjj feet above sea-level4 ,it is a   
large town1 with three minaret-mosques  
and a large bazaar2 the houses  are of  
native rock1 three and four-stories     
high1 remarkably clean and  well-built4 

,inside they are whitewashed1 and have  
the ,yemen translucent  slabs of gypsum 
for window-panes4 ,from ,damar the road 
leads northeast  over ,maaber and the   
,kariet en-,nekil pass to ,waalan2      
thence1 nearly due  north1 to ,sana4    
,from ,damar to ,waalan is thirty-five  
miles1 and thence  to the capital1      
eighteen miles more4 ,the roads near the
 city of ,sana  are kept in good repair1
 although there are no wheeled vehicles1
 for  the sake of the ,turkish          
artillery4    ,on ,thursday1 ,august    
#b;d1 we entered ,sana by the ,yemen    
gate4 ,three  years before ,i had       
entered the city from the other side1   
coming from  ,hodeidah2 then in the time
 of the ,arab rebellion and now myself a
  prisoner4 ,i was taken to the ,dowla  
and handed over to the care of a        
policeman until the ,wali heard my case4
 ,after finding an old ,greek  friend   
from ,aden1 who offered to go bail for  
me1 ,i was allowed liberty1  and for    
nineteen days was busy seeing the city  

and visiting the  ,jews4#bc    ,sana1   
anciently called ,uzal1 and since many  
centuries the chief city  of ,yemen1    
contains some #ej1jjj inhabitants and   
lies stretched out in a  wide1 level    
valley between ,jebel ,nokoom and the   
neighboring ranges4 ,it  is #g1fdh feet 
above sea-level4 ,the town is in the    
form of a triangle1  the eastern point  
consisting of a large fortress1         
dominating the town1  and built upon the
 lowest spur of ,nokoom4 ,the town is   
divided into  three walled quarters1 the
 whole being surrounded by one          
continuous  wall of stone and brick4    
,they are respectively the city proper1 
in which are the government buildings1  
the huge bazaars1 and the  residences of
 the ,arabs and ,turks2 the ,jews'      
quarter2 and ,bir-el-azib1  which lies  
between the two1 and contains gardens   
and villas belonging  to the richer     
,turks and ,arabs4 ,the city had once   
great wealth and  prosperity1 and to-day
 remains1 next to ,bagdad1 the most     

flourishing  city in all ,arabia4 ,the  
shops are well supplied with ,european  
goods1  and a large manufacture of silk1
 jewelry and arms is carried on4 ,the   
government quarter1 with its cafs1      
billiard-rooms1 large ,greek shops1     
carriages1 bootblacks1 and brass-band   
reminds one of ,cairo4 ,sana has        
forty-eight mosques1 thirty-nine        
synagogues1 twelve large public-baths1  
a military hospital with #bjj beds1 and 
is the centre of trade for all  northern
 ,yemen and northwestern ,hadramaut1 as 
well as for the distant  villages of    
,nejran and fertile ,wady ,dauasir4     
,arabs from every district  crowd the   
bazaars1 and long strings of camels     
leave every day for the  ,hodeidah      
coast4    ,on ,august #adth ,i took an  
early morning walk to ,rhoda1 a village 
about  eight miles north of ,sana1 and  
in the midst of beautiful gardens4 ,from
  ,roda the direct caravan route leads  
to ,nejran1 and from the outskirts  of  
the village1 looking north1 an inviting 

picture met the eye4 ,a  fertile plateau
 stretched out to the horizon1 and only 
two days'  journey would bring one into 
the free desert beyond ,turkish rule4   
,but  this time the way across the      
peninsula was closed by my bankruptcy2  
robbed at ,yerim in the coffee-shop1 and
 already in debt at ,sana1 it  would    
have been impossible to proceed1 except 
as a dishonest dervish4    ,on the #bast
 of ,august ,i left ,sana for ,hodeidah1
 receiving a loan of  twenty dollars    
from the ,ottoman government1 to be paid
 back at the  ,american consulate4 ,we  
followed the regular postal route1 the  
same  which ,i had travelled on my first
 journey4    ,the plateau or table-land 
between ,sana'a and ,bann is a pasture  
country4 ,the ,bedouins live in the     
stone-built villages and herd their     
immense flocks on the plain2 camels1    
cows and sheep were grazing by  the     
hundreds and thousands4 ,after ,bann    
begins the difficult descent  to the    
coast down breakneck mountain stairways 

rather than roadways1  over broken      
bridges1 and through natural arches4    
,fertile1 cultivated  mountain slopes   
were on every side1 reminding one of the
 valleys of  ,switzerland4 ,in one      
district near ,suk-el-,khamis the whole 
mountain-side  for a height of #f1jjj   
feet was terraced from top to bottom4   
,general  ,haig wrote of these terraces3
 8,one can hardly realize the enormous  
amount of labor1 toil and perseverance  
which these represent4 ,the  terraced   
walls are usually from five to eight    
feet in height1 but  toward the top of  
the mountain they are sometimes as much 
as fifteen  or eighteen feet4 ,they are 
built entirely of rough stone1 laid     
without  mortar4 ,i reckon on an average
 that each wall retains a terrace not   
more than twice its own height in width1
 and ,i do not think ,i saw a  single   
breach in one of them unrepaired40#bd   
,in ,yemen there are two rainy seasons1 
in spring and in autumn1 so that  there 
is generally an abundance of water in   

the numerous reservoirs  stored for     
irrigation4 ,yet1 despite the           
extraordinary fertility of the  soil and
 the surprising industry of the         
inhabitants1 the bulk of the  people are
 miserably poor1 ill-fed and rudely     
clothed1 because they  are crushed down 
by a heartless system of taxation4      
,every agricultural  product1 implement 
and process is under the heavy hand of  
an oppressive  administration and a     
military occupation that knows no law4  
,the  peasantry are robbed by the       
soldiers on their way to market1 by the 
custom-collector at the gate of each    
city1 and by the tax-gatherer  in       
addition4 ,on the way to ,sana my       
soldier-companion stopped a poor        
peasant who was urging on a little      
donkey loaded with two large baskets  of
 grapes2 he emptied the best of the     
grapes into his saddle-bags1  and then  
beat the man and cursed him because some
 of the grapes were  unripe6 ,no wonder 
we read of rebellions in ,yemen1 and no 

wonder that  intense hatred lives in    
every ,arab against the very name of    
,turk4    ,from ,suk-el-,khamis1 a dirty
 mountain village1#be with an elevation 
of over #i1ejj feet1 the road leads by  
,mefak and ,wady ,zaun to the           
peculiarly located village of ,menakha4 
,at an altitude of #g1fjj feet  above   
sea-level1 it is perched on a narrow    
ridge between two mountain  ranges4 ,on 
either side of the one street that forms
 the backbone of  the summit are        
precipices #b1jjj feet deep4 ,so narrow 
is the town that  there are places where
 one can stand and gaze down both sides 
of the  abyss at the same time4 ,to     
reach it from the west there is only one
  path zigzagging up the mountain-side1 
and from the east it can only  be       
approached by a narrow track cut in the 
face of the precipice and  winding up   
for an ascent of #b1ejj feet4 ,menakha  
is the centre of the  coffee trade2 it  
has a population of #aj1jjj or more1    
one-third of which  are ,jews4 ,there   

are four ,greek merchants1 the ,turks   
had #b1jjj troops  garrisoned in the    
town1 and the bazaars were equal to     
those of ,taiz4  ,its exact elevation is
 given by ,defler1 after eighteen       
observations1 as  #g1faf feet above     
sea-level4    ,from ,menakha to the     
coast is only two long days' journey2   
three by  camel4 ,the first stage is to 
,hejjeila1 at the foot of the high      
ranges1  thence to ,bajil1 a village of 
#b1jjj people1 and along the barren1 hot
  plain to ,hodeidah4 ,at ,bajil the    
people are nearly all shepherds1 and    
the main industry is dyeing cloth and   
weaving straw4 ,here one sees  the      
curious ,yemen straw hats worn by the   
women1 and here also the                
peasant-maidens wear no veils4 ,yet they
 are of purer heart and life  than the  
black-clouted and covered women of the  
,turkish towns4    ,hodeidah by the sea 
is very like ,jiddah in its general     
appearance4 ,the  streets are narrow1   
crooked and indescribably filthy4 ,the  

8,casino0 is  a sort of ,greek hotel for
 strangers1 and the finest house in the 
city  is that of ,sidi ,aaron1 near the 
sea1 with its fine front and marble     
courtyard4 ,the population is of a very 
mixed character2 east of the  city in a 
separate quarter live the ,akhdam       
,arabs1 whose origin is  uncertain1 but 
who are considered outcasts by all the  
other ,arabs4 ,they  are not allowed to 
carry arms and no ,arab tribe           
intermarries with them4    ,from        
,hodeidah there is a regular line of    
small steamers to ,aden1 and  the       
,egyptian ,red ,sea coasting steamers   
also call here fortnightly4 ,the  trade 
of ,hodeidah was once flourishing1 but  
here too ,turkish misrule  has brought  
deadness and dullness into business1 and
 taxation has  crushed industrial       
enterprise4    ,illustration3 ,,an      
,,arabian ,,compass4                    
,,vii                      ,,the        
,,unexplored ,,regions ,,of ,,hadramaut 
8,as when to them who sail      ,beyond 

the ,cape of ,hope1 and now are past    
,mozambic1 off at sea northeast winds   
blow      ,sabean odors from the spicy  
shore      ,of ,araby the               
blest40--,milton4      ,we must take at 
least a glimpse of the almost unknown   
region called  ,hadramaut4#bf ,this is a
 strip of territory stretching between  
the  great desert and the sea from ,aden
 eastward to ,oman4 ,our knowledge of   
the interior of this region was almost a
 perfect blank until some light  was    
thrown on it by the enterprising        
traveller ,a4 ,von ,wrede in #ahdc4     
,the coast is comparatively well known1 
at least as far as ,makalla and  ,shehr4
 ,the land rises from the coast in a    
series of terraces to ,jebel  ,hamra    
7#e1bhd feet71 which is connected on the
 northeast with ,jebel  ,dahura1 over   
#h1jjj feet high4    ,adolph ,von ,wrede
 sailed from ,aden to ,makalla and      
thence penetrated  inland as far as     
,wady ,doan the most fertile spot of all
 ,south ,arabia4  ,this wady flows      

northward through the land of the ,bni  
,yssa and the  district is bordered on  
the west by ,belad-el-,hasan and on the 
east by  ,belad-el-,hamum4 ,but how far 
this region extends northward and       
whether  the sandy desert of ,el ,ahkaf 
7quicksands7 really begins with the     
,wady  ,rakhia1 a branch of the ,doan   
are points on which ,von ,wrede throws  
no  light and which are still uncertain4
 ,in #ahgj the ,french ,jew1 ,joseph    
,halvy1 made a bold attempt to penetrate
 into ,hadramaut from ,yemen4  ,since   
then little was added to our knowledge  
of ,hadramaut until #ahic  when ,shibam1
 the residence of the most powerful     
,sultan of ,hadramaut  was visited by   
,theodore ,bent and his wife4 ,in #ahig 
they made a second  journey into the    
same region which cost ,mr4 ,bent his   
health and  afterward his life4 ,from   
the account of these journeys we quote a
 few  paragraphs which set forth clearly
 the interesting character of this      
almost unknown country4#bg              

8,immediately behind ,makalla rise grim 
arid mountains of a reddish hue1  and   
the town is plastered against this      
rich-tinged background4 ,by the  shore1 
like a lighthouse1 stands the white     
minaret of the ,mosque1 the  walls and  
pinnacles of which are covered with     
dense masses of seabirds  and pigeons2  
not far from this the huge palace where 
the ,sultan dwells  reminds one of a    
whitewashed mill with a lace-like       
parapet2 white1 red  and brown are the  
dominant colors of the town1 and in the 
harbor the  ,arab dhows with fantastic  
sterns rock to and fro in the unsteady  
sea1  forming altogether a picturesque  
and unusual scene4    8,nominally       
,makalla is ruled over by a ,sultan of  
the ,al ,kaiti family1  whose connection
 with ,india has made them very ,english
 in their  sympathies1 and his          
,majesty's general appearance1 with his 
velvet coat  and jewelled daggers1 is   
far more ,indian than ,arabian4 ,really 
the most  influential people in the town

 are the money-grubbing ,parsees from   
,bombay1 and it is essentially one of   
those commercial centres where          
,hindustani is spoken nearly as much as 
,arabian4 ,we were lodged in a          
so-called palace hard by the bazaar1    
which reeked with mysterious  smells and
 was alive with flies2 so we worked hard
 to get our  preparations made and to   
make our sojourn in this uncongenial    
burning  spot as short as possible4444  
8,leaving these villages behind us1 we  
climbed rapidly higher and  higher1     
until1 at an elevation of over #e1jjj   
feet1 we found ourselves  at last on a  
broad level plateau1 stretching as far  
as the eye could  reach in every        
direction1 and shutting off the         
,hadramaut from the  coast4 ,this is the
 #8mons excelsus' of ,pliny2 here we    
have the vast area  where once          
flourished the frankincense and the     
myrrh4 ,of the latter  shrub there is   
plenty left1 and it is still tapped for 
its odoriferous  sap2 but of the former 

we only saw one specimen on the plateau1
 for in  the lapse of ages the wealth of
 this country has steadily disappeared2 
further east1 however1 in the ,mahra    
country1 there is1 ,i understand1 a     
considerable quantity left4    8,near   
,hajarein are many traces of the olden  
days when the frankincense  trade       
flourished1 and when the town of ,doani1
 which name is still  retained in the   
,wady ,doan1 was a great emporium for   
this trade4 ,acres  and acres of ruins1 
dating from the centuries immediately   
before  our era1 lie stretched along the
 valley here1 just showing their  heads 
above the weight of superincumbent sand 
which has invaded  and overwhelmed the  
past glories of this district4 ,the     
ground lies  strewn with fragments of   
,himyaritic inscriptions1 pottery1 and  
other  indications of a rich harvest for
 the excavator1 but the hostility  of   
the ,nahad tribe prevented us from      
paying these ruins more than a  cursory 
visit1 and even to secure this we had to

 pay the ,sheikh of the  place nineteen 
dollars2 and his greeting was ominous as
 he angrily  muttered1 #8,salaam to all 
who believe ,mohammed is the true       
prophet4'    8,at ,assab they would not 
allow us to dip our vessels in their    
well1  nor take our repast under the    
shadow of their ,mosque3 even the women 
of this village ventured to insult us1  
peeping into our tent at night1  and    
tumbling over the guys in a manner most 
aggravating to the weary  occupants4    
8,our troubles on this score were       
happily terminated at ,haura1 where  a  
huge castle belonging to the ,al ,kaiti 
family dominates a humble  village      
surrounded by palm groves4 ,without     
photographs to bear out  my statement1  
,i should hardly dare to describe the   
magnificence of  these castles in the   
,hadramaut4 ,that at ,haura is seven    
stories high1  and covers fully an acre 
of ground beneath the beetling cliff1   
with  battlements1 towers1 and          
machicolations bearing a striking       

likeness to  ,holyrood4 ,but ,holyrood  
is built of stone1 and ,haura1 save for 
the first  story1 is built of sun-dried 
bricks2 and if ,haura stood where       
,holyrood  does1 or in any other country
 save dry1 arid ,arabia1 it would long  
ago  have melted away4444    8,one of   
the most striking features of these     
,arabian palaces is the  wood-carving4  
,the doors are exquisitely decorated    
with intricate  patterns1 and with a    
text out of the ,koran carved on the    
lintel2 the  locks and keys are all of  
wood1 and form a study for the carver's 
art1  as do the cupboards1 the niches1  
the supporting beams and the windows1   
which are adorned with fretwork instead 
of glass4 ,the dwelling-rooms  are      
above1 the ground floor being           
exclusively used for merchandise1 and   
the first floor for the domestics40     
,concerning the chief town of the       
interior of ,hadramaut ,mr4 ,bent writes
  as follows3    8,then he sent us to   
reside for five more days in his capital

 of  ,shibam1 which is twelve miles     
distant from ,al ,katan1 and is one of  
the principal towns in the ,hadramaut   
valley4 ,it is built on rising  ground  
in the centre of the narrowest point of 
the valley1 so that no  one can pass    
between it and the cliffs of the valley 
out of gunshot  of the walls4 ,this     
rising ground has doubtless been        
produced by many  generations of towns  
built of sun-dried bricks1 for it is the
 best  strategical point in the         
neighborhood4 ,early ,arab writers tell 
us that  the ,himyarite population of   
this district came here when they       
abandoned  their capital at ,sabota1 or 
,shabwa1 further up the valley1 early in
 our  era1 but we found evident traces  
of an earlier occupation than this--an  
inscription and a seal with the name    
#8,shibam' engraved on it1 which  cannot
 be later than the third century1 ,b4,c4
 ,and as a point for making  up the     
caravans which started from the         
frankincense-growing district1  ,shibam 

must always have been very important4   
8,the town of ,shibam offers a curious  
appearance as you approach2 above  its  
mud-brick walls with bastions and watch 
towers appear the tall  whitewashed     
houses of the wealthy1 which make it    
look like a large  round cake with sugar
 on it4 ,outside the walls several      
industries are  carried on1 the chief of
 which is the manufacture of indigo dye4
 ,the  small leaves are dried in the sun
 and powdered and then put into huge    
jars--which reminded us of the ,forty   
,thieves--filled with water4 ,next      
morning these are stirred with long     
poles1 producing a dark blue frothy     
mixture2 this is left to settle1 and    
then the indigo is taken from the       
bottom and spread out on cloths to      
drain2 the substance thus procured  is  
taken home and mixed with dates and     
saltpetre4 ,four pounds of this  indigo 
to a gallon of water makes the requisite
 and universally used  dye for garments1
 the better class of which are          

calendered by beating  them with wooden 
hammers on stones40    ,of the coast    
town of ,shehr and its ruler ,mr4 ,bent 
says3    8,shehr is a detestable place  
by the sea1 set in a wilderness of sand4
  ,once it was the chief commercial port
 of the ,hadramaut valley1 but  now     
,makalla has quite superseded it1 for   
,shehr is nothing but an open  roadstead
 and its buildings are now falling into 
ruins4 ,ghalib1 the  eldest son and heir
 of the chief of the ,al ,kaiti family1 
rules here as  the viceregent of his    
father1 who is in ,india as jemadar or  
general of  the ,arab troops1 chiefly   
all ,hadrami1 in the service of the     
,nizam of  ,hyderabad4 ,ghalib is quite 
an ,oriental dandy1 who lived a life of 
some  rapidity when in ,india1 so that  
his father thought it as well to send   
him to rule in ,shehr1 where the        
capabilities for mischief are not so    
many as at ,bombay4 ,he dresses very    
well in various damask silk coats  and  
faultless trousers2 his swords and      

daggers sparkle with jewels2 in  his    
hand he flourishes a golden-headed cane2
 and1 as the water is hard  at ,shehr1  
he sends his dirty linen in dhows to    
,bombay to be washed40    ,the ,arabs of
 ,hadramaut have been still more in     
contact with ,java  than with ,india4   
,large colonies of ,hadramis emigrated  
to the ,dutch  ,archipelago more than a 
century ago2 intermarriage between the  
,javanese  and the ,arabs is very       
common2 and the ,mohammedanism of the   
,dutch ,east  ,indies is entirely of the
 ,hadramaut type4 ,these interesting    
facts were  first bought to light by    
,van den ,berg1 a ,dutch scholar in his 
elaborate  work on this province of     
,arabia and the ,arab colonies in       
,java4#bh  ,his account of ,hadramaut is
 a compilation from the lips of the     
,arab  immigrants1 but the description  
of the manners and customs of the       
people and their religious peculiarities
 is from personal observation4          
,altogether1 in spite of minor          

geographical inaccuracies1 the book is  
the best single volume on ,southern     
,arabia and tells the story of ,islam   
in the ,dutch ,archipelago as it is     
to-day4 ,the ,arabs have always been a  
strong race at colonizing but it is well
 to note that the influence of          
,hadramaut on ,java and ,sumatra to-day 
is not less than that of ,oman on       
,zanzibar and ,east ,africa in the last 
century4 ,even ,hadramaut will not      
always remain undiscovered and          
unremembered4 ,the incense-country of   
antiquity has a future before it even as
 it has had a glorious past4            
,illustration3 ,a ,,castle ,,in         
,,hadramaut                             
,,viii                       ,,muscat   
,,and ,,the ,,coastlands ,,of ,,oman    
8,oman is separated from the rest of    
,arabia by a sandy desert4 ,it   is1 in 
fact1 as far as communication with the  
rest of the world is   concerned1 an    
island with the sea on one side and the 
desert on   the other4 ,hence its people

 are even more primitive1 simple and    
unchanged in their habits than the      
,arabs generally4 ,along the coast1     
however1 especially at ,muscat they are 
more in contact with the outer          
world40--,general ,haig4      ,in ,arab 
nomenclature ,oman applies only to a    
small district in the  vicinity of      
,muscat1 but the name is generally given
 to the entire  southeastern section of 
the ,arabian peninsula1 including       
everything  east of a line drawn from   
the ,kuria-,muria islands to the        
peninsula  of ,katar1 anciently called  
,bahrein4 ,thus defined it is the       
largest  province of ,arabia and in some
 respects the most interesting4         
,historically1 politically and          
geographically ,oman has always been    
isolated from the other provinces4      
,turkish rule never extended this far   
nor did the later caliphs long exercise 
their authority here4 ,the whole        
country has for centuries been under    
independent rulers called ,imams or     

,seyyids4 ,the population1 which is     
wholly ,arab and ,mohammedan1 7save in  
the coast towns7 was derived originally 
from two different stocks known  to the 
,arabs as ,kahtani and ,adnani or the   
,yemeni and ,muadi4 ,these names  have  
changed since the beginning of the      
eighteenth century to ,hinani  and      
,ghaffiri4 ,the ,yemen tribes came first
 and are most numerous4 ,the  two rival 
races have been in open and continuous  
feud and antagonism  and have kept the  
country in perpetual turmoil4 ,they even
 inhabit  separate quarters in some of  
the towns1 according to ,colonel ,miles4
 ,in  ,somail1 about fifty miles inland 
from ,muscat a broad road marks the     
division between the two clans4 ,these  
two parent stocks are subdivided  into  
some #bjj different tribes and these    
again into sub-tribes or  8houses40     
,each family-group has its own ,sheikh1 
a hereditary position  assumed by the   
eldest male in the family4    ,very few 
of the tribes of ,oman are nomadic2 the 

greater part live in  towns and villages
 along the wady-beds4 ,with the         
exception of fruits  of which there is a
 great variety and abundance1 dates are 
the sole  food product and the chief    
export of the province4 ,rice is        
imported  from ,india4 ,the total       
population of ,oman is estimated by     
,colonel  ,miles not to exceed          
#a1ejj1jjj4 ,there are numerous towns of
 #e1jjj to  #aj1jjj inhabitants2 ,muscat
 and ,mattra are the chief towns on the 
coast1 and are practically united as    
they are only two miles apart4  ,the    
climate of ,oman on the coast is        
excessively hot and moist during a      
large part of the year1 although the    
rainfall here is only six to ten  inches
 annually2 in the interior the heat is  
greatly tempered by the  elevation1 the 
rainfall is much greater and the climate
 as pleasant as  in the highlands of    
,yemen4    ,the ,omanese state was at   
its greatest height of power at the     
beginning  of the present century4 ,then

 the ,sultans of ,muscat exercised rule 
as  far as ,bahrein to the northwest1   
had possession of ,bunder ,abbas and    
,linga in ,persia1 and called ,socotra  
and ,zanzibar their own4 ,at this  time 
the ,oman ,arabs began their extensive  
journeys in ,africa and1 urged  by the  
enormous profits of the slave-trade1    
explored every corner of  the great     
interior of the ,dark ,continent4 ,at   
present the authority of  the ,sultan at
 ,muscat1 ,seyyid ,feysul bin ,turki1   
does not extend far  beyond the capital 
and its suburbs4    ,in the early years 
of the ,oman ,sultanate1 ,nizwa was the 
capital1  afterward ,rastak became the  
seat of government1 but since #aggi1    
,muscat has been at once the capital and
 the key1 the gateway and the  citadel  
of the whole country4 ,on approaching   
,muscat in a ,british ,india  steamer1  
the land is first sighted1 looming up in
 one mass of dark  mountain ranges2     
closer1 one portion of this mass        
directly over the  town of ,muscat is   

seen to be of a dark brown color1 crag  
on crag1  serrated and torn in a        
fantastic manner and giving the harbor a
 most  picturesque appearance4 ,the town
 itself shows white against the dark    
massive rocks1 on the summits of which  
are perched numerous castles and        
towers4 ,but1 though presenting a       
pleasing prospect from a distance1 a    
nearer view reveals the usual features  
of large ,oriental towns1--narrow1      
dirty streets1 unattractive buildings1  
and masses of crumbling walls  under the
 torrid heat of a burning sun and amid  
all the sweltering  surroundings of a   
damp climate4    ,the heat of ,muscat is
 proverbial4 ,john ,struys1 the         
,dutchman1 who  visited this town in    
#afgb1 wrote that it was 8so incredibly 
hot and  scorching that strangers are as
 if they were in boiling cauldrons or   
sweating tubs40 ,a ,persian1 named      
,abder-,razak1 being a ,persian1 was    
able  to surpass all others in          
exaggerated description and wrote of    

,muscat in  #addb1 8,the heat was so    
intense that it burned the marrow in the
 bones1  the sword in its scabbard      
melted like wax1 and the gems that      
adorned  the handle of the dagger were  
reduced to coal4 ,in the plains the     
chase  became a matter of perfect ease1 
for the desert was filled with roasted  
gazelles60 ,it is said that a black bulb
 thermometer has registered #ahi  ,f4 in
 the sun at ,muscat and #ajg even at    
night1 is not unusual during  the       
hottest part of the year4 ,the bare     
rocks form a parabolic mirror to  the   
sun's rays from the south and west2 add 
to this the facts that the  hills shut  
off the breezes and that ,muscat lies on
 the ,tropic of ,cancer  in the zone of 
greatest heat4 ,according to the witness
 of a resident1  8the climate of ,muscat
 is bad beyond all description4 ,for    
about three  months in the year1 from   
,december to ,march1 it is tolerably    
cool at  night but after the latter     
month the heat becomes intense and makes

  ,muscat rank but little after the     
,infernal ,regions4 ,there is a short   
break in the hot weather about the      
middle of ,july which generally lasts  a
 month40    ,illustration3 ,,the        
,,harbor ,,and ,,castle ,,at ,,muscat   
,illustration3 ,,ready ,,for ,a ,,camel 
,,ride ,,in ,,the ,,desert    ,the most 
conspicuous buildings of ,muscat are the
 two forts1 the relics  of the          
,portuguese dominion1 which stand out   
boldly on each side of  the town about  
#ajj feet above the sea4 ,they command  
not only the  sea-approach1 but the town
 itself and are only accessible by a    
fine  stairway cut out of the natural   
rock4 ,the guns that bristle from the   
forts are nearly all old and            
comparatively harmless4 ,several of them
  are of brass and bear the royal arms  
of ,spain2 one is dated #afjf4  ,in the 
fort to the right of the harbor1 one can
 still see the ruins  of a ,portuguese  
chapel4 ,when ,pelly visited it in #ahfe
 the following  inscription was legible4

      ,,ave ,,mar4 ,,grasa ,p4,,ea s    
,,tecum ,etc4444    ,its translation    
given by him reads3 8,hail ,mary full of
 grace1 the ,lord  is with thee4 ,don   
,phillip ,,iii41 ,king of ,spain1 ,don  
,juan de ,acuna of his  council of war  
and his captain-general of the artillery
 in the year  #afje1 in the eighth year 
of his reign in the crown of ,portugal1 
ordered  through ,don ,quarte ,menezes1 
his commissioner of ,india1 that this   
fortress should be built40    ,the      
,sultan has also a town residence in    
half decay like all the other           
stone-built but mud-cemented houses of  
the natives4 ,the only residences       
well-built and durable are those of the 
,british resident and the  ,american    
consul4 ,the former occupies the choice 
location1 in a rock  cleft1 where       
breezes blow from two directions4 ,the  
bazaar of ,muscat  has little to boast  
of2 one of the chief industries is the  
manufacture  of ,hilawi or ,muscat      
candy-paste1 which to the acquired taste

 is  delicious1 but to the stranger     
smells of rancid butter and tastes like 
sweet wagon-grease4    ,the town is cut 
off from the plain behind by a          
substantially built wall  which         
stretches from hill to hill4 ,this wall 
is pierced with two gates  which are    
always guarded and closed a couple of   
hours after sunset4  ,the moat outside  
the wall is dry4 ,beyond it are houses  
and hundreds of  mat huts principally   
inhabited by ,beluchis and ,negroes4    
,the ,american  mission house is also   
outside of the wall1 in this quarter4   
,about  a third of a mile beyond are the
 gardens of ,muscat and the wells1      
protected by a tower and guard4 8,the   
gardens0 are always visited at  sunset  
by the strollers for exercise1 but they 
are hardly large enough  8to supply a   
week's food for #ajj self-respecting    
locusts of normal  appetite40    ,the   
population of ,muscat is of very mixed  
character1 ,arabs1 ,beluchis1           
,banian-,traders1 ,negroes1 ,persians1  

and every other nation that  frequents  
this port of transit4 ,the ,arabic      
spoken in all ,oman is a  dialect quite 
different from that of ,nejd or ,yemen  
but the ,arabic of  ,muscat is full of  
pigeon-,english and pigeon-,hindustani4 
,the extensive  and long intercourse    
with ,zanzibar and ,east ,africa has    
also had its  influence on the speech   
and habits of the ,muscat ,arab trader4 
,the  present trade is still very       
considerable1 although less than a      
century  ago4 ,it is mostly with ,india1
 there being little direct trade with   
,england4 ,the chief exports are dates1 
fruit1 shark-fins1 fish1 and  salt2 the 
imports1 rice1 sugar1 piece-goods1      
coffee1 silk1 petroleum  and arms4 ,the 
largest export is of dates which nearly 
all go to the  ,american ,market4       
,besides the large number of steamers   
which call  at this port1 the native    
merchants own several old ,british      
sailing  vessels1 some of them noted    
clippers in their day1 which make one or

  two voyages a year and bring profit to
 their owners4 ,native boats also       
transport cargoes landed at ,muscat1 to 
the less frequented ports4 ,this  adds  
to the importance of ,muscat as an      
entrept for ,oman4 ,mattra  is the      
terminus of the caravan-routes from the 
interior and is in  communication with  
,muscat by a narrow mountain path and by
 sea4    ,the so-called ,pirate coast   
stretches along the northern boundary of
  ,oman on the ,persian ,gulf from ,el  
,katar to ,ras ,musendum and was1 even  
as early as ,ptolemy's day1 inhabited by
 wild1 lawless ,arabs4 ,on his  map of  
,arabia they are named ,ichthiophagoi1  
or fish-eaters4 ,niebuhr  wrote of this 
part of ,oman1 8,fishes are so plentiful
 upon the coast  and so easily caught1  
as to be used not only for feeding cows1
 asses1  and other domestic animals1 but
 even as manure for the fields40 ,sir   
,john ,malcolm1 in his quaint sketches  
of ,persia wrote forty years ago3  8,i  
asked who were the inhabitants of the   

barren shore of ,arabia that we  saw4   
,he answered with apparent alarm1 #8they
 are of the sect of ,wahabees  and are  
called ,jowasimee4 ,but ,god preserve us
 from them1 for they are  monsters4     
,their occupation is piracy1 and their  
delight murder1 and to  make it worse   
they give you the most pious reasons for
 every villainy  they commit4 ,they     
abide by the letter of the sacred       
volume1 rejecting  all commentaries and 
traditions4 ,if you are their captive   
and offer  all to save your life they   
say1 ,no6 ,it is written in the ,koran  
that it  is not lawful to plunder the   
living2 but we are not prohibited from  
stripping the dead--so saying they knock
 you on the head4'0    ,thanks to       
,english commerce and gunboats these    
fanatic ,wahabis have  become more tame1
 and most of them have long given up    
piracy and turned  to pearl-diving for a
 livelihood4 ,hindu traders have settled
 among  them1 foreign commerce reaches  
their bazaars1 and the black tent is    

making room for the three or four       
important towns of ,dabai1 ,sharka1 ,abu
  ,thubi and ,ras-el-,kheima1 with      
growing population and increasing       
wealth4    ,the cape of ,musendum and   
the land back of it1 called             
,ras-el-,jebel is  very mountainous1 but
 beyond ,ras-el-,kheima1 the coast is   
low and flat  all the way up the gulf4  
,the villages are all built near the    
entrance  of salt-water creeks or       
marshes1 which serve as harbors at      
high-tide4  ,for the most part the coast
 is unfertile1 but near ,sharka there   
are  palm-groves1 and further inland are
 oases4 ,the islands off this coast  are
 most of them uninhabited4    ,the      
,batina coast is the exception to all   
the maritime plains that  surround so   
large a part of the peninsula2 in       
western and eastern  ,arabia these low  
sandy plains are nearly barren of all   
vegetation1 but  here extensive date    
plantations and gardens extend almost to
 the very  ocean beach4 ,back of the    

rising plain are the lofty ranges of    
,jebel  ,akhdar4 ,this fertile coast    
begins at ,sib1 about twenty-five miles 
from  ,muscat1 and extends for #aej     
miles to the neighborhood of ,khor      
,kalba  with an average width of about  
twelve miles4 ,it has many towns and    
villages2 the principal ones are the    
following4 ,sib is a scattered town     
chiefly built of mat-huts with two small
 detached forts4 ,it has a very  small  
bazaar1 but extensive date-groves and   
gardens4 ,back of ,sib on the  way up   
the coast one sees the great bluff of   
,jebel ,akhdar1 #i1ijj feet  high1 and  
visible over #ajj miles out at sea4     
,barka has a lofty ,arab  fortress1 but 
for the rest mat-huts among             
date-plantations characterize  its      
general appearance4 ,large quantities of
 shell fish are collected  and sent     
inland2 the bazaar is good and some     
,banian traders are settled  here4      
,passing several islands the next town  
is ,suaik4 ,after it the  larger town of

 ,sohar1 with perhaps #d1jjj people4    
,this town is walled  with a high fort  
in the middle1 the residence of the     
,sheikh4 ,a high  conical peak1 of light
 color1 rises conspicuously about twelve
 miles  west of the town1 and with the  
surrounding date gardens and other trees
  makes a pretty picture1 altogether    
more green than one would expect on     
,arabian coasts4 ,beyond ,sohar the     
chief villages are1 in order1 ,shinas1  
,al ,fujaira1 ,dibba4 ,the two latter   
are already beyond the ,batina and are  
between the high cliffs and the deep    
sea4    ,going from southeast ,muscat   
down the coast toward ,ras-el-,had we   
first pass the little village of ,sudab 
and ,bunder ,jissa4 ,the latter  is of  
interest as the place the ,french were  
trying to acquire for a  coaling-station
 from the ,sultan of ,muscat last year4 
,it has a good  anchorage1 is only five 
miles from ,muscat1 and an island       
precipice1  #adj feet high1 guards the  
entrance4 ,after this1 ,karyat1 ,taiwa1 

,kalhat  and smaller villages passed1 we
 reach ,sur4 ,this large1 double town is
  situated on a khor or backwater1 with 
two forts to the westward4 ,the         
inhabitants1 numbering perhaps #h1jjj1  
consist of two clans of the ,bni  ,bu   
,ali and the ,bni ,janaba1 often at feud
 with each other4 ,the country  inland  
is partly cultivated and date groves    
abound4 ,sur has always been  a place of
 trade and enterprise and its buggalows 
visit ,india1 ,zanzibar  and the        
,persian ,gulf4 ,the people are all bold
 sailors since many  generations4 ,but  
,sur also has the unenviable reputation 
of being even  now the centre of illicit
 slave-trading4 ,beyond ,sur is the     
headland of  ,jebel ,saffan and         
,ras-el-,had1 the easternmost point of  
,arabia1 almost  reaching the sixtieth  
degree of longitude4    ,for a knowledge
 of the coast beyond ,ras-el-,had we are
 indebted to the  papers of ,assistant  
,surgeon ,h4,j4 ,carter in the journal  
of the ,bombay  branch of the ,royal    

,asiatic ,society4#bi ,the two great    
,arab tribes  that dwell on this coast  
are the ,mahrah and the ,gharah2 the    
former  really belong to ,hadramaut1 but
 the boundaries drawn on the maps are   
purely artificial and have no           
significance4 ,neither tribe is         
dependent  on the ,oman ,sultan or      
acknowledges any allegiance to him4 ,the
 ,mahrah  are descended from the ancient
 ,himyarites and occupy a coast-line of 
nearly #adj miles from ,saihut to ,ras  
,morbat2 their chief town is ,damkut    
7,dunkot7 on ,kamar bay4 ,in stature the
 ,mahrahs are smaller than most  ,arabs1
 and by no means handsome2 in their     
peculiar mode of ,bedouin  salutation   
they put their noses side by side and   
breathe softly6 ,they  subsist by       
fishing and are miserably poor2 their   
plains1 mountains  and valleys1 except  
close to ,damkut1 are sandy and barren4 
,religion  they have scarcely any1 and  
,carter says that they do not even know 
the  ,moslem prayers1 and are utterly   

ignorant of the teachings of ,mohammed4 
,their dialect is soft and sweet1 and   
they themselves compare it to  the      
language of the birds2 it is evidently a
 corrupted form of the  ancient         
,himyaric and therefore of great        
importance in the study of              
philology4#cj    ,the ,gharah tribe     
inhabit the coast between ,moseirah     
island and the  ,kuria-,muria islands4  
,their country is mountainous and       
cavernous and  consists of a white      
stratified limestone formation #d1jjj or
 #e1jjj feet  above the sea-level4 ,the 
upper part of the mountains are covered 
with  good pasturage and their slopes   
with a dense thicket of small trees     
among which frankincense and other gum  
trees are plentiful4 ,the whole  tribe  
are troglodytes1 8cave-dwellers10 since 
nature gives them  better dwellings than
 the best mud-hut1 and cooler than the  
largest  tent of ,kedar4 ,they are      
largely nomadic1 however1 and shift from
 cave  to cave in their wanderings4     

,their wardrobe is not an incumbrance as
  it consists of a single piece of      
coarse blue cotton wrapped around  the  
loins like a short kilt4 ,the women wear
 a loose frock of the same  texture and 
color with wide sleeves1 reaching a     
little below the knee  in front and     
trailing on the ground behind2 the veil 
is unknown4  ,children go about entirely
 naked4 ,both men and women tattoo their
  cheeks4 ,for weapons they have swords1
 spears1 daggers1 and matchlocks4       
,their food consists of milk1 flesh and 
honey with the wild fruits of  the      
mountains4    ,this entire region has   
been justly celebrated for honey since  
the days  of the ,greek geographers who 
enumerate honey and frankincense as its 
chief products4 ,the wild honey of      
,south ,arabia collected from the rocks 
and packed in large dry gourds1 is fit  
for an epicure4 ,on ,ptolemy's map  of  
,arabia the region inland from this     
coast is called ,libanotopheros  ,regio1
 the place of incense2 and by ,pliny is 

termed regio thurifera1  the region of  
frankincense4 ,from the earliest times  
this has been the  country that produces
 real frankincense in abundance4 ,once  
its export  was a source of wealth to   
the inhabitants1 for incense was used in
  the temples of ,egypt and ,india as   
well as by the ,jews1 and by all  the   
nations of antiquity4 ,so important was 
this commerce in the early  history of  
the world that ,sprenger devotes several
 pages in his ,ancient  ,geography of   
,arabia to describing the origin1       
extent1 and influence of  frankincense  
on civilization4 ,the ,arabs were then  
the general transport  agents between   
the east and the west1 i4e41 ,india and 
,egypt4 ,the  ,queen of ,sheba's empire 
grew rich in frankincense-trade2 she    
brought  to ,solomon 8spices in         
abundance10 nor was there 8any such     
spice0 or  brought in 8such abundance0  
as that which ,queen ,sheba gave to     
,solomon4  7,b4,c4 cir4 #iib47    ,the  
rise of ,islam1 the overthrow of the old

 ,himyarite kingdom1 the  discovery of  
the passage round the ,cape of ,good    
,hope1 all these  coperated to destroy  
the ancient importance and prosperity of
 ,southern  ,arabia4 ,at present1       
frankincense is still exported1 but not 
in large  quantities4 ,the gum is       
procured by making incisions in the bark
 of the  shrub in ,may and ,december4   
,on its first appearance it comes forth 
white  as milk1 but soon hardens and    
discolors4 ,it is then collected by men 
and boys1 employed to look after the    
trees by the different families  who own
 the land on which they grow4           
,illustration3 ,a ,,branch ,,of ,,the   
,,incense ,,tree4                       
,,ix                             ,,the  
,,land ,,of ,,the ,,camel     8,to see  
real live dromedaries my readers must1  
,i fear1 come to   ,arabia1 for these   
animals are not often to be met with    
elsewhere1   not even in ,syria2 and    
whoever wishes to contemplate the       
species   in all its beauty1 must       

prolong his journey to ,oman1 which is  
for   dromedaries1 what ,nejd is for    
horses1 ,cashmere for sheep1 and ,tibet 
for bulldogs40--,palgrave4      ,all    
,oman1 but especially the region just   
described1 is called among the  ,arabs  
,um-el-ibl1 8mother of the camel40      
,palgrave1 ,doughty and other  ,arabian 
travellers agree that the ,oman         
dromedary is the prince of all          
camel-breeds1 and ,doughty says they are
 so highly esteemed at ,mecca as  to    
fetch three times the price of other    
camels4    ,unless one knows something  
about the camel one can neither         
understand  the ,arab nor his language2 
without the camel1 life in a large part 
of  ,arabia would at present be         
impossible2 without the camel the       
,arabic  language would be vastly       
different4 ,according to ,hammer        
,purgstall1 the  ,arabic dictionaries   
give this animal #e1gdd different names2
 there is  not a page in the lexicon but
 has some reference to the camel4       

,the ,arabs highly value the camel1 but 
do not admire its form and shape4       
,there is an ,arab tradition1 cited in  
,burton's 8,gold ,mines of ,midian10  to
 the effect that when ,allah determined 
to create the horse1 ,he called  the    
,south ,wind and said1 8,i desire to    
draw from thee a new being1  condense   
thyself by parting with thy fluidity40  
,the ,creator then took  a handful of   
this element1 blew upon it the breath of
 life1 and the  noble quadruped         
appeared4 ,but the horse complained     
against his ,maker4  ,his neck was too  
short to reach the distant grass blades 
on the march2  his back had no hump to  
steady a saddle2 his hoofs were sharp   
and sank  deep into the sand2 and he    
added many similar grievances4          
,whereupon  ,allah created the camel to 
prove the foolishness of his complaint4 
,the  horse shuddered at the sight of   
what he wanted to become1 and this is   
the reason every horse starts when      
meeting its caricature for the first    

time4 ,the camel may not be beautiful1  
7although the ,arabic lexicon  shows    
that the words for 8pretty0 and 8camel0 
are related7 but he  is surpassingly    
useful4    ,this animal is found in     
,persia1 ,asia ,minor1 ,afghanistan1    
,beluchistan1  ,mongolia1 ,western      
,china1 ,northern ,india1 ,syria1       
,turkey1 ,north ,africa  and parts of   
,spain1 but nowhere so generally or so  
finely developed  as in ,arabia4 ,the   
two main species1 not to speak of       
varieties1 are  the ,southern1 ,arabian 
one-humped camel and the ,northern1     
,bactrian  two-humped camel4 ,each is   
specially adapted to its locality4 ,the 
,bactrian camel is long-haired1 tolerant
 of the intense cold of the  steppes and
 is said to eat snow when thirsty4 ,the 
,arabian species is  short-haired1      
intolerant of cold1 but able to endure  
thirst and extreme  heat4 ,it is        
incredible to ,arabs that any camel-kind
 should have a  double hump4 ,a camel   
differs from a dromedary in nothing save

 blood  and breed4 ,the camel is a      
pack-horse2 the dromedary a race-horse4 
,the  camel is thick-built1             
heavy-footed1 ungainly1 jolting2 the    
dromedary  has finer hair1 lighter step1
 is easy of pace and more enduring of   
thirst4 ,a caravan of camels is a       
freight-train2 a company of ,oman       
thelul-riders is a limited express4 ,the
 ordinary caravan travels  six hours a  
day and three miles an hour1 but a good 
dromedary can  run seventy miles a day  
on the stretch4 ,a tradesman from       
,aneyza told  ,doughty that he had      
ridden from ,el ,kasim to ,taif and     
back1 a distance  of over #gjj miles1 in
 fifteen days6 ,mehsan ,allayda once    
mounted his  dromedary after the ,friday
 midday prayer at ,el-,aly and prayed   
the next  ,friday in the great ,mosque  
at ,damascus about #ddj miles distant4  
,the  ,haj-road post-rider at ,ma'an can
 deliver a message at ,damascus1 it is  
said1 at the end of three days2 the     
distance is over #bjj miles4    ,the    

,arabs have a saying that 8the camel is 
the greatest of all  blessings given by 
,allah to mankind40 ,one is not         
surprised that the  meditative youth of 
,mecca who led the camels of ,khadiyah1 
to ,syria and  back by the desert way1  
should appeal to the unbelievers in     
,allah and  ,his prophet in the words1  
8,and do ye not look then at the camel  
how  she is created80 7,surah lxxxviii4 
#ag of the ,koran47    ,to describe the 
camel is to describe ,god's goodness to 
the  desert-dwellers4 ,everything about 
the animal shows evident design4 ,his   
long neck1 gives wide range of vision in
 desert marches and enables him  to     
reach far to the meagre desert shrubs on
 either side of his pathway4  ,the      
cartilaginous texture of his mouth1     
enables him to eat hard and  thorny     
plants--the pasture of the desert4 ,his 
ears are very small1 and  his nostrils  
large for breathing1 but are specially  
capable of closure  by valve-like folds 
against the fearful ,simoon4 ,his eyes  

are prominent1  but protected by a heavy
 overhanging upper-lid1 limiting vision 
upward  thus guarding from the direct   
rays of the noon sun4 ,his cushioned    
feet  are peculiarly adapted for ease of
 the rider and the animal alike4  ,five 
horny pads are given him to rest on when
 kneeling to receive a  burden or for   
repose on the hot sand4 ,his hump is not
 a fictional but a  real and            
acknowledged reserve store of nutriment 
as well as nature's  packsaddle for the 
commerce of ages4 ,his water reservoirs 
in connection  with the stomach1 enable 
him when in good condition to travel for
  five days without water4 ,again1 the  
camel alone of all ruminants has        
incisor-teeth in the upper jaw1 which1  
with the peculiar structure of  his     
other teeth1 make his bite1 the animal's
 first and main defence1  most          
formidable4 ,the skeleton of the camel  
is full of proofs of design4  ,notice1  
for example1 the arched backbone        
constructed in such a way  as to sustain

 the greatest weight in proportion to   
the span of the  supports2 a strong     
camel can bear #a1jjj pounds' weight1   
although the  usual load in ,oman is not
 more than #fjj pounds4    ,the camel is
 a domestic animal in the full sense of 
the word1  for the ,arabian domicile is 
indebted to the camel for nearly all it 
holds4 ,all that can be obtained from   
the animal is of value4 ,fuel1  milk1   
excellent hair for tents1 ropes1 shawls 
and coarser fabrics are  obtained from  
the living animal2 and flesh-food1      
leather1 bones and  other useful        
substances from the dead4 ,even the     
footprints of the camel  though soon    
obliterated1 are of special value in the
 desert4 ,a lighter  or smaller foot    
would leave no tracks1 but the camel's  
foot leaves  data for the ,bedouin      
science of ,athar--the art of navigation
 for the  ship of the desert4 ,camel    
tracks are gossip and science1 history  
and  philosophy to the ,arab caravan4 ,a
 camel-march is the standard measure  of

 distance in all ,arabia2 and the price 
of a milch-camel the standard  of value 
in the interior4 ,when they have little 
or no water the  miserable nomads rinse 
their hands in camel's water and the    
nomad women  wash their babes in it4    
,camel's-milk is the staple diet of     
thousands in  ,arabia even though it be 
bitter because of wormwood pasturage4   
,as to the character of the camel and   
its good or evil nature  authorities    
differ4 ,lady ,ann ,blunt considers the 
camel the most abused  and yet the most 
patient animal in existence4 ,palgrave1 
on the other  hand1 thus describes the  
stupidity and ugly temper of the beast3 
8,i  have1 while in ,england1 heard and 
read more than once of the docile       
camel4 ,if docile means stupid1 well and
 good2 in such a case the camel  is the 
very model of docility4 ,but if the     
epithet is intended to  designate an    
animal that takes an interest in its    
rider so far as a  beast can1 that obeys
 from a sort of submissive or half      

fellow-feeling  with its master1 like   
the horse and elephant1 then ,i say that
 the camel  is by no means docile1 very 
much the contrary4 ,he will never       
attempt  to throw you off his back1 such
 a trick being far beyond his limited   
comprehension2 but if you fall off1 he  
will never dream of stopping for  you2  
and if turned loose it is a thousand to 
one he will never find  his way back to 
his accustomed home or pasture4 ,one    
only symptom will  he give that he is   
aware of his rider1 and that is when the
 latter is  about to mount him1 for on  
such an occasion1 instead of addressing 
him  in the style of ,balaam's more     
intelligent beast1 #8,am not ,i thy     
camel  upon which thou hast ridden ever 
since ,i was thine unto this day8' he   
will bend back his long snaky neck      
toward his master1 open his enormous    
jaws to bite1 if he dared1 and roar out 
a tremendous sort of groan1 as  if to   
complain of some entirely new and       
unparalleled injustice about  to be done

 him4 ,in a word he is from first to    
last an undomesticated  and savage      
animal rendered serviceable by stupidity
 alone4 ,neither  attachment nor even   
habit can impress him2 never tame1      
though not  wide-awake enough to be     
exactly wild40 ,we can bear witness that
 the  camels we have ridden in ,hassa   
and ,yemen were altogether more kindly  
than the ugly creature of ,palgrave4    
,the chief authorities on the interior  
of ,oman were1 until recent date1       
,niebuhr1 ,wellsted 7#ahce71 ,whitelock 
7#ahch71 ,eloy 7#ahdc7 and ,palgrave1   
7#ahfc74 ,palgrave1 however1 only       
visited the coast and his account of    
the interior and its history is pure    
romance4 ,later travellers have  visited
 the chief cities of ,jebel ,achdar and 
corroborated the accuracy  of           
,lieutenant ,wellsted in his 8,travels  
in ,arabia40 ,unfortunately  ,wellsted's
 acquaintance even with colloquial      
,arabic was very limited  and he frankly
 avows that he encountered serious      

difficulties in  understanding the      
people4 8,wellsted's map10 says ,badger1
 8is the only  one of the province which
 we possess drawn up from personal      
observation  and 444 it affords little  
or no certain indication of the numerous
  towns and villages beyond the         
restricted routes of the travellers4 ,it
  is remarkable and by no means         
creditable to the ,british ,government  
in  ,india1 that1 notwithstanding our   
intimate political and commercial       
relations with ,oman1 for the last      
century1 we know actually less of  that 
country beyond the coast than we do of  
the ,lake districts of  ,africa40#ca    
,badger wrote in #ahfj1 but although    
,colonel ,miles and  others have visited
 the region of ,jebel ,achdar1 all the  
country beyond  is still largely terra  
incognita4 ,no one has ever made the    
journey  beyond the range of mountains  
or solved the mystery of ,western ,oman1
  which is still a blank on the best    
maps2 nor do we know anything of the    

land #ajj miles southwest of ,muscat1   
save by ,arab hearsay4    ,the highlands
 of ,oman may be divided into three     
districts2 ,ja'alan  from ,jebel ,saffan
 to ,jebel ,fatlah on the east4 ,oman   
proper on the  ,jebel ,achdar1 and      
,ez-,zahirah on the eastern slopes of   
,jebel ,okdat4  ,the most populous and  
fertile district is that of ,jebel      
,achdar which  is also the best known4  
,the fertility of the whole region is   
wonderful  and in striking contrast with
 the barren rocks of so large a part of 
the coast4 ,with a semi-tropical        
climate1 an elevation of #c1jjj to      
#e1jjj  feet and abundant springs the   
wadys and oases of ,oman have awakened  
the  delight and amazement of every     
traveller who has ventured to explore   
them4 ,water1 the one priceless treasure
 in all ,arabia1 here issues  in        
perennial streams from many rocky clefts
 and is most carefully  husbanded by the
 ingenuity of the people1 for wide      
irrigation1 by means  of canals or      

watercourses called faluj4 ,wellsted    
thus describes  these underground       
aqueducts3 8,they are as far as ,i know 
peculiar to  this country1 and are made 
at an expense of labor and skill more   
,chinese than ,arabian4 ,the greater    
part of the surface of the land being   
destitute of running streams on the     
surface1 the ,arabs have sought in      
elevated places for springs or fountains
 beneath it4 ,a channel from  this      
fountain-head is then1 with a very      
slight descent1 bored in the  direction 
in which it is to be conveyed1 leaving  
apertures at regular  distances to      
afford light and air to those who are   
occasionally sent  to keep it clean4 ,in
 this way the water is frequently       
conducted for  a distance of six or     
eight miles1 and an unlimited supply is 
thus  obtained4 ,these channels are     
about four feet broad and two feet deep 
and contain a clear1 rapid stream4 ,most
 of the large towns or oases  have four 
or five of these rivulets or falj       

7plural faluj7 running  into them4 ,the 
isolated spots to which water is thus   
conveyed1 possess  a soil so fertile    
that nearly every grain1 fruit or       
vegetable1 common  to ,india1 ,arab or  
,persia1 is produced almost             
spontaneously2 and the  tales of the    
oases will be no longer regarded as an  
exaggeration1 since  a single step      
conveys the traveller from the glare and
 sand of the  desert into a fertile     
tract1 watered by a hundred rills1      
teeming with  the most luxurious        
vegetation40    ,the chief caravan      
routes inland start from the coast1 at  
,sohar through  ,wady-el-,jazy1 at      
,suaik through ,wady ,thala1 at ,barka  
or ,sib through ,wady  ,mithaal and     
,wady ,zailah 7alternative routes7 at   
,matra1 by the same1 and  at ,sur       
through ,wady ,falj4 ,on the eastern    
side of the mountain range the  chief   
towns are ,rastak1 ,nakhl and ,someil4  
,on the farther side we have  ,tenoof1  
,behilah and ,nezwa1 all large towns    

well-watered4 8,between these  fertile  
oases one travels#cb sometimes an entire
 day through stony  wady1 or over       
volcanic rock1 climbing a difficult     
mountain pass1 or  crossing a wide      
sea-like desert1 without seeing a       
habitation or meeting  a fellow-creature
 except an occasional caravan4 ,their   
rifles are swung  over the shoulders of 
the riders1 and their wild song keeps   
time with  the slow tread of the        
camels4444    8,from ,nakhl it is a long
 day's journey to ,lihiga at the foot of
 ,jebel  ,achdar4 ,two other beautifully
 situated mountain villages1 ,owkan and 
,koia are in close proximity4 ,here1 as 
well as on the mountains1 dwells  a     
tribe of hardy mountaineers1 the ,bni   
,ryam4 ,in features and habits  this    
tribe is quite distinct from the other  
,oman tribes4 ,all over these  mountains
 the people lead a peaceful life1 and   
the absence of fire-arms  was noticeable
 in comparison with the valley tribes1  
where each man  carries his rifle1 often

 of the best ,english or ,german        
pattern4    8,from ,lihiga we began the 
ascent1 and after a half-a-day of most  
difficult climbing1 reached the top of  
the pass at noonday1 my  barometer      
registering #g1jej feet4 ,here on a     
level projecting rock1  which afforded a
 splendid extended view of the ,wady    
,mestel1 where  dwell the ,bni          
,ruweihah1 we had our lunch1 and were   
glad to slake our  thirst out of the    
goatskin the guide carried on his       
shoulder4 ,from  the top of the pass we 
descended to the level table-land at a  
height  of #f1bjj feet1 and at sunset   
reached the ideally beautiful village of
  ,sheraegah4 ,it is in a circular      
ravine several hundred feet in depth1   
and like a huge amphitheatre where grow 
in terraces1 apples1 peaches1           
pomegranates1 grapes and other temperate
 products in rich profusion4  ,ice and  
snow are frequently seen here during the
 winter1 and in summer  the temperature 
registers no higher than #hj;,f4 ,in    

,march we had a  temperature of #dj1 and
 enjoyed a huge fire in the guest-room  
where a  hundred ,arabs came to visit   
us1 and entertained us with the         
recitation  of ,arabic poetry4 ,such an 
opportunity was not to be neglected1 and
  they1 as an agricultural people1 were 
interested in the parable of the  ,sower
 and the explanation4444                
,illustration3 ,,tenoof ,,from ,,the    
,,east4    ,from a pencil sketch by     
,peter ,j4 ,zwemer4    8,we pressed on  
over the most difficult mountain roads  
to ,tenoof1 at  the foot of the         
mountains on the further side4 ,nizwa1  
the old capital  of ,oman1 is but three 
hours' journey from ,tenoof4 ,it has a  
large  circular fort about #bjj feet in 
diameter1 built of rough hewn stone  and
 cement4 ,we intended to return to      
,muscat along the valley road via       
,someil1 but the state of affairs at    
,nezwa made roads through hostile       
territory unsafe1 and we decided to     
recross the mountains1 enjoying  again  

their cool climate and the friendliness 
of the people4 ,by riding  long         
camel-stages and taking short rests1 we 
were able to reach ,muscat  from the top
 of the mountains in four days1 having  
been absent on the  journey twenty-one  
days40                                  
,x                         ,,the ,,pearl
 ,,islands ,,of ,,the ,,gulf     8#8,we 
are all from the highest to the lowest  
slaves of one   master--,pearl1' said   
,mohammed bin ,thanee to me one evening2
 nor was   the expression out of place4 
,all thought1 all conversation1 all     
employment1 turns on that one subject1  
everything else is mere   by-game1 and  
below even secondary                    
consideration40--,palgrave4      ,half  
way down the ,persian ,gulf1 off the    
east ,arabian coast1 between the        
peninsula of ,el ,katar and the ,turkish
 province of ,el ,hassa1 are the        
islands of ,bahrein4#cc ,this name was  
formerly applied to the entire          
triangular projection on the coast      

between the salt-sea of the gulf  and   
the fresh water flood of the ,euphrates2
 hence its name ,bahr-ein  8the two     
seas40 ,but since the days of           
,burckhardt's map the name is           
restricted to the archipelago4 ,the     
larger island is itself often called    
,bahrein1 while the next in size is     
named ,moharrek--8place of burning40    
,the ,arabs say that this was so named  
because the ,hindu traders used it  for 
cremating their dead4    ,illustration3 
,,map ,,of ,,the ,,islands ,,of         
,,bahrein4    ,the main island is about 
twenty-seven miles in length from north 
to  south1 and ten miles in breadth4    
,toward the centre there is a slightly  
elevated table-land1 mostly barren4     
,twelve miles from the northern end  is 
a clump of dark volcanic hills1 #djj    
feet high1 called ,jebel ,dokhan1       
8,mountain of ,smoke40 ,the northern    
half of the island is well watered  by  
abundant fresh-water springs1 always    
lukewarm in temperature4 ,this  part of 

the island is covered with beautiful    
gardens of date-palms1  pomegranate1 and
 other trees4 ,the coast is everywhere  
low1 and the  water shallow for a long  
distance4 ,there is no pier or jetty    
anywhere1  so that1 except at high      
water1 boats anchor nearly a quarter of 
a mile  from the shore4    ,the total   
population of the islands is estimated  
at nearly #fj1jjj1  all of them ,moslems
 with the exception of about #ajj       
,banian traders  from ,sindh1 ,india4   
,menamah1 the large town on the         
northeast point  of the island1 with    
perhaps #aj1jjj inhabitants1 is built   
along the  shore for about a mile2 the  
houses are mostly poor1 many being mere 
mat-huts4 ,this town is the market-place
 and commercial centre for the  whole   
group4 ,here is the post office and     
custom-house and here the  bulk of the  
trade is carried on for the whole       
island4 ,a short distance  from ,menamah
 is the old town of ,belad le ,kadim1   
with ruins of better  buildings and a   

fine mosque with two minarets4 ,the     
mosque is of very  early date1 for the  
older ,cufic character is on all its    
inscriptions1  covered over in some     
places by more recent carving and       
inscriptions in  later ,arabic4    ,the 
largest spring on the islands is called 
,el ,adhari1 8the virgins40  ,it issues 
from a reservoir thirty yards across1   
and at least thirty  feet deep1 flowing 
in a stream six or eight feet wide and  
two feet  deep4 ,this is remarkable for 
,arabia1 and gives some idea of the     
abundant supply of water4 ,under the    
sea1 near the island of ,moharrek1  are 
fresh-water springs always covered with 
a fathom of salt water4  ,the natives   
lower a hollow1 weighted bamboo through 
which the fresh  water gushes out a few 
inches above sea-level4 ,the source of  
these  fresh-water springs of ,bahrein  
must be on the mainland of ,arabia1 as  
all the opposite coast shows a similar  
phenomena4 ,apparently the ,river       
,aftan marked on old maps of the        

peninsula as emptying into the ,persian 
,gulf near ,bahrein was an underground  
river1 known to the older  geographers4 
,if ,egypt is the gift of the ,nile1    
,bahrein may well be called the gift  of
 the pearl-oyster4 ,nothing else gave   
the islands their ancient  history1 and 
nothing so much gives them their present
 importance4  ,the pearl-fisheries are  
the one great industry of ,bahrein4     
,they  are carried on every year from   
,june until ,october1 and even for a    
longer period1 if hot weather sets in   
earlier4 ,nearly all the island         
population are engaged in the work in   
some way1 and during the season  there  
is only one topic of conversation in the
 coffee-shops and the                   
evening-mejlis1--,,pearls4 ,the pearl   
has this distinction above all other    
precious stones1 that it requires no    
human hand to bring out its  beauties4  
,by modern scientists1 pearls are       
believed to be the result of  an        
abnormal secretion1 caused by the       

irritation of the mollusk's shell  by   
some foreign substance--in short1 a     
disease of the pearl-oyster4 ,but  it is
 not surprising that the ,arabs have    
many curious superstitions as  to the   
cause of pearl-formation4 ,their poets  
tell of how the monsoon  rains falling  
on the banks of ,ceylon and ,bahrein    
find chance lodgment  in the opened     
mouth of the pearl-oyster4 ,each drop   
distills a gem1  and the size of the    
raindrop determines the luck of the     
future diver4  ,heaven-born and cradled 
in the deep blue sea1 it is the purest  
of gems  and1 in their eyes1 the most   
precious4    ,illustration3 ,,the       
,,village ,,of ,,menamah1 ,,bahrein     
,,islands4    ,not only in its creation1
 but in its liberation from its         
prison-house  under ten fathoms of water
 the pearl costs pain and sacrifice4 ,so
 far  as this can be measured in pounds1
 shillings and pence1 this cost is  easy
 of computation4 ,the total value of    
pearls exported from ,bahrein  in #ahif 

was #cjc1ida sterling 7#a1ejj1jjj74 ,the
 number of boats from  ,bahrein engaged 
in the fisheries is about nine hundred  
and the cost  of bringing one boat's    
share to the surface is #d1haj rupees   
7about  #a1fjj74cd ,hundreds of craft   
also come to the oyster-banks from other
  ports on the gulf4 ,it is scarcely    
necessary to say that the pearl  divers 
do not receive the amount fairly due    
them for their toil4 ,they  are one and 
all victims of the 8truck-system0 in its
 worst form1 being  obliged to purchase 
all supplies1 etc41 from their masters4 
,they are  consequently so much in debt 
to him as often to make them practically
  his slaves4 ,the boats are generally  
owned by the merchants1 and the  crew   
are paid at a low rate for a whole      
year's work1 only receiving  a small    
extra allowance when they bring up      
pearls of special size or  brilliancy4  
,in the winter season these divers are  
out of work1 and  consequently incur    
large debts which are charged to the    

next season's  account4 ,by force of    
circumstances and age-long practice the 
islanders  are also much given to the   
vice of gambling on the market4 ,even   
the  poorest fisherman will lay his     
wager--and lose it4 ,it is not the      
thirty  thousand fishermen of the gulf  
with their more than five thousand boats
  who grow rich in the pearl-fishing    
business2 the real profit falls to      
those who remain on shore--the ,arab and
 ,hindu brokers of ,bombay who deal     
direct with ,berlin1 ,london and ,paris4
 ,a pearl often trebles in value by     
changing hands1 even before it reaches  
the ,bombay market4    ,illustration3 ,a
 ,,bahrein ,,harbor ,,boat    ,the      
divers follow the most primitive method 
in their work4 ,their boats  are such as
 their ancestors used before the        
,portuguese were expelled  from ,bahrein
 in #afbb4 ,even ,sinbad the sailor     
might recognize every rope  and the odd 
spoon-shaped oars4 ,these boats are of  
three kinds1 very  similar in general   

appearance1 but differing in size1      
called ,bakret1  ,shuaee and ,bateel4#ce
 ,all of the boats have good lines and  
are  well-built by the natives from     
,indian timber4 ,for the rest1 all is of
  ,bahrein manufacture except their     
pulley-blocks1 which come from ,bombay4 
,sailcloth is woven at ,menamah and     
ropes are twisted of date-fibre in  rude
 rope-walks which have no machinery     
worth mentioning4 ,even the  long1 soft 
iron nails that hold the boats together 
are hammered out on  the anvil one by   
one by ,bahrein blacksmiths4    ,each   
boat has a sort of figure-head1 called  
the kubait1 generally  covered with the 
skin of a sheep or goat which was       
sacrificed when the  boat was first     
launched4 ,this is one of the ,semitic  
traits which appear  in various forms   
all over ,arabia--blood-sacrifice--and  
which has ,islam  never uprooted4 ,all  
the fishermen prefer to go out in a boat
 which has  cut a covenant of blood with
 ,neptune4 ,the larger boats used in    

diving  hold from twenty to forty men1  
less than half of whom are divers1 while
  the others are rope-holders and       
oarsmen4 ,one man in each boat is called
  ,el ,mslly1 i4e41 the one-who-prays1  
because his sole daily duty  is to take 
charge of the rope of any one who stops 
to pray or eat4 ,he  has no regular     
work1 and when not otherwise engaged    
vicariously mends  ropes and sails or   
cooks the rice and fish over charcoal   
embers4 ,he is  therefore also called   
,el ,gills1 8the sitter10 very          
suggestive of his  sinecure office4     
,the divers wear no elaborate           
diving-suit1 but descend clothed only   
in their fitaam and khabaat4 ,the first 
is a true pince-nez or  clothespin-like 
clasp for their nostrils4 ,it is made of
 two thin  slices of horn fastened      
together with a rivet or cut out whole  
in a  quarter circle so as to fit the   
lower part of the nose and keep out  the
 water4 ,it has a perforated head       
through which a string passes and  which

 suspends it from the divers neck when  
not in use4 ,khabaat are  8finger-hats0 
made of leather and thrice the length of
 an ordinary  thimble4 ,they are worn to
 protect the fingers in gathering the   
pearl-shells from the sea-bottom2 at the
 height of the pearl season  large      
baskets full of all sizes of these      
finger-caps are exposed for  sale in the
 bazaar4 ,each diver uses two sets      
7twenty7 in a season4  ,a basket1 called
 dajeen1 and a stone-weight complete the
 diver's  outfit4 ,this stone1 on which 
the diver stands when he plunges down   
feet-first1 is fastened to a rope       
passing between his toes and is         
immediately raised2 another rope is     
attached to the diver and his  basket by
 which he gives the signal and is drawn 
up4 ,the best divers  remain below only 
two or three minutes at most1 and when  
they come up  are nine-tenths           
suffocated4 ,many of them are brought up
 unconscious  and often cannot be       
brought to life4 ,deafness1 and         

suppuration of  the ear1 due to         
carelessness or perforated ear-drums1   
caused by the  enormous pressure of the 
water at such depths1 are common among  
divers4  ,rheumatism and neuralgia are  
universal and the pearl-fishers are the 
great exception among the ,arabs in not 
possessing beautiful teeth4    ,sharks  
are plentiful and it is not a rare thing
 for them to attack  divers4 ,but the   
,bahrein divers are more fearful of a   
small species of  devil-fish which lays 
hold of any part of the body and draws  
blood  rapidly4 ,against this monster of
 the sea they guard themselves by       
wearing an 8overall0 of white cloth     
during the early part of the season     
when it frequents the banks4 ,their     
tales of horror regarding the           
devil-fish equal those of ,victor ,hugo 
in his 8,toilers of the ,sea40    ,the  
divers remain out in their boats as long
 as their supply of fresh  water lasts1 
often three weeks or even more4 ,sir    
,edwin ,arnold's lines  are thus not as 

correct as they are beautiful3          
8,dear as the wet diver to the eyes     
,of his pale wife who waits and weeps on
 shore      ,by sands of ,bahrein in the
 ,persian ,gulf2      ,plunging all day 
in the blue waves2 at night1            
,having made up his tale of precious    
pearls1      ,rejoins her in their hut  
upon the shore40    ,when the           
pearl-oysters are brought up they are   
left on deck over  night and the next   
morning are opened by means of a curved 
knife1 six  inches long1 called         
miflaket4 ,before the days of ,english  
commerce  the mother-of-pearl was thrown
 away as worthless4 ,now it has a good  
market-value and 7after being scraped   
free of the small parasites that  infest
 the outer shell7 is packed in wooden   
crates and exported in  large           
quantities4 ,the total value of this    
export in #ahig was #e1fid  7#bh1jjj74  
,the ,arabs have asked me in amazement  
what in the world the  8,franks0 do with
 empty sea-shells2 and some tell idle   

tales of how  they are ground up into   
pearl dust and pressed into artificial  
gems1 or  are used as a veneer to cover 
brick houses4    ,on shore the pearls   
are classified by the merchants1        
according to  weight1 size1 shape1 color
 and brilliancy4 ,there are             
button-pearls1  pendants1 roundish1     
oval1 flat1 and perfect pearls2 pearls1 
white1  yellow1 golden1 pink1 blue1     
azure1 green1 grey1 dull and black2     
seed-pearls the size of grains of sand  
and pearls as large as an ,arab's       
report1 emphasized with frequent        
wallahs1 can make them4 ,i have seen  a 
pendant pearl the size of a hazelnut    
worth a few thousand rupees  but there  
are ,arabs who will swear by the        
prophet's beard 7each hair  of which is 
sacred67 that they have brought up      
pearls as large as a  pigeon's egg4 ,the
 pearl brokers carry their wares about  
tied in bags of  turkey-red calico2 they
 weigh them in tiny brass scales and    
learn their  exact size by an ingenious 

device consisting of a nest of brass    
sieves1  called taoos1 six in number1   
with apertures slightly differing in    
size4 ,the pearls are put into the      
largest sieve first2 those that do  not 
fall through its pea-sized holes are    
called1 ,ras1 8chief02 such  are        
generally pearls of great price1        
although their value depends most  on   
weight and perfection of form4 ,the     
second size is called ,batu1  8belly10  
and the third ,dhail1 8tail40 ,color has
 only a fashion-value2  ,europe prefers 
white and the ,orient the golden-yellow2
 black pearls are  not highly esteemed  
by ,orientals4    ,before they are      
shipped the large pearls are cleaned in 
reeta a kind  of native soap-powder1 and
 the smaller ones in soft brown sugar2  
then  they are tied up in calico and    
sold in lots by weight1 each bundle     
being supposed to contain pearls of     
average equal value4 ,how it is         
possible to collect custom dues on      
pearls among a people whose  consciences

 rival their wide breast-pockets in     
concealing capacity1  surpasses         
comprehension4 ,but the thing is done1  
for the farmer of  the custom dues grows
 rich and the statistics of export are  
not pure  guess-work4    ,the ,bahrein  
islands also produce quantities of      
dates1 and there is  an export trade in 
a remarkably fine breed of asses1       
celebrated all  over the ,persian ,gulf4
 ,a good ,bahrein donkey is easy to ride
 and  almost as good a roadster as an   
average horse4 ,the only manufactures1  
beside sail-sheeting1 are coarse cloth  
for turbans1 and reed-mats of  very fine
 texture4 ,the chief imports are rice1  
timber and piece-goods  for which       
,bahrein is the depot for all eastern   
,arabia4 ,three sights  are shown to the
 stranger-tourist to the islands of     
,bahrein3 the  pearl-fisheries1 the     
fresh-water springs1 and the ancient    
ruins of an  early civilization at the  
village of ,ali4 ,these ruins are the   
8bayoot  el owalin0 the dwellings of the

 first inhabitants1 who are believed  to
 have been destroyed by ,allah because  
of their wickedness4 ,an hour's  ride   
through the date gardens and past the   
minarets brings us to the  village of   
,ali4 ,it can generally be seen from a  
good distance because  of the smoke     
which rises from the huge ovens where   
pottery is baked4  ,the potter turns his
 wheel to-day and fashions the native   
water-jars  with deft hand utterly      
ignorant and careless of the curious    
sepulchral  tumuli which cast their     
shade at his feet4 ,south and west of   
the  village the whole plain is studded 
with mounds1 at least three hundred  of 
them1 the largest being about forty feet
 in height4 ,only two or  three have    
ever been opened or explored4 ,theodore 
,bent in company with  his wife explored
 these in #ahhi1 with meagre results1   
but no further  investigations have been
 made though it is a field that may yet 
yield  large results4 ,m4 ,jules        
,oppert1 the ,french ,assyriologist1 and

 others  regard the island as an        
extremely old centre of civilization and
 it  is now well known that the first   
settlements from ancient ,babylonia     
were in the ,persian ,gulf which then   
extended as far north as ,mugheir1  near
 ,suk-es ,shiukh4 ,but those first      
settlers probably went to the  coasts of
 ,africa and to the kingdoms of         
,southern ,arabia1 in which  case       
,bahrein was on their line of travel4   
,it must always have been a  depot for  
shipping because of its abundant        
water-supply in a region  where         
fresh-water is generally scarce4 ,the   
mounds at ,ali probably date  from this 
very early period2 although no          
corroboration in the shape  of cylinders
 or bricks bearing inscriptions has yet 
been found1 the  character of the       
structures found in the mounds is       
undoubted proof of  their great         
antiquity4    ,the larger mound opened  
by ,bent1 now consists of two rock-built
  chambers of very large stones1 square 

masonry1 and no trace of an arch  or a  
pillar4 ,the lower chamber is           
twenty-eight feet in length1 five  feet 
in width1 and eight feet high2 it has   
four niches or recesses  about three    
feet deep1 two at the end of the passage
 and two near its  entrance4 ,the upper 
chamber is of the same length as the    
lower1 but its  width is six inches     
less1 and its height only four feet     
eight inches4  ,the lower passage is    
hand plastered as an impression of the  
mason's  hand on the side wall still    
proves4 ,if diggings were made below the
  mounds or other mounds were opened    
better results might follow1 and        
perhaps inscriptions or cylinders would 
be discovered4 ,a year or two  ago a jar
 containing a large number of gold coins
 was found near ,ali  by some native    
workmen2 these however were ,cufic and  
of a much later  period than the mounds4
 ,near ,yau and ,zillag1 on the other   
side of the  island there are also ruins
 and very deep wells cut through solid  

rock  with deep rope-marks on the       
curbing2 perhaps these also are of early
  date4 ,on the island of ,moharrek     
there is a place called ,ed ,dair1 8the 
monastery0 with ruins of what the ,arabs
 call a church2 whether this  is of     
,portuguese date like the castle or goes
 back to a much earlier  period before  
,mohammed1 we cannot tell4    ,the      
climate of ,bahrein is not as bad as it 
is often described by  casual visitors4 
,no part of the ,persian ,gulf can be   
called a health  resort1 but neither is 
the climate unhealthful at all seasons  
of the  year4 ,in ,march and ,april1    
,october1 ,november and ,december the   
weather  is delightful1 indoor          
temperatures seldom rising above #he    
,f41 or  falling below #fj ,f4 ,when    
north winds blow in ,january and        
,february it  is often cold enough for a
 fire2 these are the rainy months of the
 year  and least healthful1 especially  
to the natives in their badly-built     
mat-huts4 ,from ,may to ,september      

inclusive is the hot season1 although   
the nights remain cool and the heat is  
tempered by sea-breezes 7called1  ,el   
,barih71 until the middle of ,june4     
,heavy dews at night are  common and    
make the atmosphere murky and oppressive
 when there is no  sea-breeze4          
,land-breezes from the west and south   
continue irregularly  throughout the    
entire summer4 ,when they fail the      
thermometer leaps to  over one hundred  
and remains there day and night until   
the ripples  on the stagnant1 placid sea
 proclaim a respite from the torture of 
sweltering heat4 ,a record of           
temperature1 kept at ,menamah village in
  the summer of #ahic1 shows a minimum  
indoor temperature of #he and a  maximum
 of #ajg;,f41 in the shade4 ,the        
prevailing wind at ,bahrein1 and  in    
fact all over the ,gulf1 is the shemml  
or ,northwester changing  its direction 
slightly with the trend of the coast4   
,the air during a  shemml is generally  
very dry and the sky cloudless1 but in  

winter they  are sometimes at first     
accompanied by rain-squalls4 ,in winter 
they are  very severe and endanger the  
shipping4 ,the only other strong wind is
  called kaus2 it is a southeaster and  
blows irregularly from ,december  to    
,april4 ,it is generally accompanied by 
thick1 gloomy weather1 with  severe     
squalls and falling barometer4 ,the     
saying among sailors that  8there is    
always too much wind in the ,gulf or    
none at all10 is very  true of ,bahrein4
    ,this saying holds true also of the 
political history of the ,gulf4         
,bahrein1 because of its pearl-trade has
 ever been worth contending  for and it 
has been a bone of contention among the 
neighboring rulers  ever since the naval
 battle fought by the early inhabitants 
against  the ,romans4 ,after ,mohammed's
 day the ,carmathians overran the       
islands4  ,portuguese1 ,arabs from      
,oman1 ,persians1 ,turks and lastly the 
,english  have each in turn claimed rule
 or protection over the archipelago4 ,it

  is sufficient to note here that in    
#ahfg1 ',isa bin ,ali 7called ,esau in  
,curzon's 8,persia10 as if the name came
 from ,jacob's brother instead of  the  
,arab form of ,jesus67 was appointed    
ruling ,sheikh by the ,british  who     
deposed his father ,mohammed bin        
,khalifa for plotting piracy4    ,the   
present ,sheikh is a typical ,arab and  
spends most of his time in  hawking and 
the chase2 the religious rule1 which in 
a ,moslem land  means the judicial and  
executive department1 rests with the    
,kadi or  ,judge4 ,there is no          
legislature as the law was laid down    
once for all  in the ,koran and the     
traditions4 ,the administration of      
justice is  rare4 ,oppression1 blackmail
 and bribery are universal2 and1 except 
in  commerce and the slave-trade1       
,english protection has brought about no
  reforms on the island4 ,to be         
8protected0 means here strict neutrality
  as to the internal affairs and        
absolute dictation as to affairs with   

other governments4 ,to 8protect0 means  
to keep matters in status quo  until the
 hour is ripe for annexation4 ,sometimes
 the process from the  one to the other 
is so gradual as to resemble growth2 in 
such a case it  would be correct to     
speak of the growth of the ,british     
,empire4    ,contact with ,europeans and
 western civilization has1 however1 done
 much  for ,bahrein in the matter of    
disarming prejudice and awakening the   
sluggish mind of the ,arab to look      
beyond his own 8,island of the ,arabs40 
,even as early as #ahfg1 ,palgrave could
 write3 8,from the maritime and  in a   
manner central position of ,bahreyn my  
readers may of themselves  conjecture   
that the profound ignorance of ,nejd    
regarding ,europeans  and their various 
classifications is here exchanged for a 
partial  acquaintance with those topics2
 thus1 ,english and ,french1 disfigured 
into the local ,ingleez and ,francees   
are familiar words at ,menamah1  though 
,germans and ,italians1 whose vessels   

seldom or never visit these  seas1 have 
as yet no place in the ,bahreyn         
vocabulary2 while ,dutch and            
,portuguese seem to have fallen into    
total oblivion4 ,but ,russians or       
,moskop1 that is ,muscovites1 are alike 
known and feared1 thanks to  ,persian   
intercourse and the instinct of nations4
 ,beside the policy of  ,constantinople 
and ,teheran are freely and at times    
sensibly discussed  in these            
coffee-houses no less than the stormy   
diplomacy of ,nejd and  her dangerous   
encroachments40    ,to the ,bahrein     
,arabs ,bombay is the centre of the     
world of civilization1  and he who has  
seen that city is distinguished as      
knowing all about  the ways of          
foreigners4 ,so anxious are the boys for
 a trip on the  ,british ,india steamer 
to this ,eldorado of science and mystery
 that they  sometimes run from home and 
go as stowaways or beg their passage4   
,this  close contact with ,india has had
 its effect on the ,arabic spoken on    

the island which1 although not a        
dialect1 is full of ,hindustani words4  
,of late years there has been a         
considerable ,persian immigration into  
,bahrein from the coast between ,lingah 
and ,bushire1 and next to ,arabic1      
,persian is the language most in use4   
,,xi                        ,,the       
,,eastern ,,threshold ,,of ,,arabia     
,beyond ,bahrein the mainland stretches 
westward for eight hundred miles  across
 the province of ,hassa and lower ,nejd 
and ,hejaz to the ,red ,sea4  ,as       
,jiddah is the western port1 ,bahrein is
 the eastern port for all  ,arabia4 ,it 
is the gateway to the interior1 the     
threshold of which is  ,hassa4 ,draw a  
line from ,menamah to ,katif1 then on to
 ,hofhoof 7or ,el  ,hassa7 and thence   
back to ,menamah1 and the triangle      
formed will include  every important    
town or village of ,eastern ,arabia4    
,north of that  triangle on the coast is
 the inhospitable barren1 thinly        
populated1  country of the ,bni ,hajar2 

south of it is the peninsula of ,el     
,katar2  westward stretches the sandy   
desert for five days' marches to ,riad  
and  the old ,wahabi country4 ,the      
region thus bounded is really the whole 
of  ,hassa1 although on maps that name  
is given to the whole coast as far  as  
,busrah4 ,but neither the authority of  
the ,turkish government nor the         
significance of the word ,hassa 7low1   
moist ground7 can be said to  extend    
outside of the triangle4    ,the        
peninsula of ,el ,katar1 about #ajj     
miles long and fifty broad1 is          
unattractive in every way and barren    
enough to be called a desert4           
,palgrave's pen-picture cannot be       
improved upon3 8,to have an idea of     
,katar my readers must figure to        
themselves miles on miles of low barren 
hills1 bleak and sun-scorched1 with     
hardly a single tree to vary the  dry   
monotonous outline2 below these a muddy 
beach extends for a quarter  of a mile  
seaward in slimy quicksands1 bordered by

 a rim of sludge and  seaweed4 ,if we   
look landwards beyond the hills we see  
what by extreme  courtesy may be called 
pasture land1 dreary downs with twenty  
pebbles  for every blade of grass2 and  
over this melancholy ground scene1  but 
few and far between1 little clusters of 
wretched1 most wretched  earth cottages 
and palm-leaf huts1 narrow1 ugly and    
low2 these are the  villages1 or        
#8towns' 7for so the inhabitants style  
them7 of ,katar4 ,yet  poor and naked as
 is the land it has evidently something 
still poorer  and nakeder behind it1    
something in short even more devoid of  
resources  than the coast itself1 and   
the inhabitants of which seek here by   
violence what they cannot find at home4 
,for the villages of ,katar are  each   
and all carefully walled in1 while the  
downs beyond are lined with  towers and 
here and there a castle1 huge and square
 with its little  windows and narrow    
portals40    ,illustration3 ,,neibuhr',s
 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,persian ,,gulf4     

,the population of ,katar is not large2 
its principal town is ,bedaa'4  ,all the
 inhabitants live from the sea by       
pearl-diving and fishing1 and  in the   
season send out two hundred boats4 ,the 
whole peninsula with  its wild ,bedouin 
population is claimed by ,turkey and is 
the dread of  the miserable soldiers who
 are sent there to preserve peace and   
draw  precarious pay while they shake   
with malaria and grow homesick for      
,bagdad4 ,the ,arabs are always at feud 
with the government and it is very      
unsafe outside the walls after sunset4  
,the usual route from ,bahrein to the   
interior of ,hassa is to cross over  by 
boat to ,ojeir on the mainland1 and     
thence to travel by caravan  to         
,hofhoof4 ,in ,october1 #ahic1 ,i took  
this route1 returning from the  capital 
to ,katif and thence back to ,menamah4  
,embarking at sunset we  landed at      
,ojeir before dawn the next day and ,i  
found my way to a  ,turkish custom-house
 officer to whom ,i had a friendly      

letter from a  ,bahrein merchant4       
,ojeir1 although it has neither a bazaar
 nor any  settled population1 has a     
mud-fort1 a dwarf flagstaff and an      
imposing  custom-house4 ,the harbor     
although not deep is protected against  
north and south winds and is therefore a
 good landing-place for the  immense    
quantity of rice and piece-goods shipped
 from ,bahrein into  the interior4 ,a   
caravan of from two to three hundred    
camels leaves  ,ojeir every week4 ,for  
although the ,jebel ,shammar country is 
probably  supplied overland from ,busrah
 and ,bagdad1 the whole of ,southern    
,nejd  receives piece-goods1 coffee1    
rice1 sugar and ,birmingham wares by way
  of ,bahrein and ,ojeir4    ,the whole 
plain in and about the custom-house was 
piled with bales  and boxes and the air 
filled with the noise of loading seven  
hundred  camels4 ,i struck a bargain    
with ,salih1 a ,nejdi1 to travel in his 
party  and before noon-prayers we were  
off4 ,the country for many hours was    

bare desert1 here and there a           
picturesque ridge of sand1 and in one   
place a vein of greenish limestone4     
,when night came we all stretched  a    
blanket on the clean sand and slept in  
the open air2 those who  had neglected  
their water-skins on starting now       
satisfied thirst by  scooping a well    
with their hands three or four feet deep
 and found a  supply of water4 ,during  
the day the sun was hot and the breeze  
died  away2 but at night1 under the     
sparkling stars and with a north wind   
it seemed1 by contrast1 bitterly cold4  
,on the second day at noon we  sighted  
the palm-forests that surround ,hofhoof 
and give it1 ,palgrave  says1 8the      
general aspect of a white and yellow    
onyx chased in an  emerald rim0 ,as we  
did not reach the 8emerald rim0 until   
afternoon ,i  concluded to remain at    
,jifr1 one of the many suburb villages4 
,here  ,salih had friends1 and a        
delicious dinner of bread1 butter1 milk 
and  dates1 all fresh1 was one of many  

tokens of hospitality4 ,at sunset we    
went on to the next village1 ,menazeleh1
 a distance of about three miles        
through gardens and rushing streams of  
tepid water4 ,the next morning  early we
 again rode through gardens and         
date-orchards half visible in  the      
morning mist4 ,at seven o'clock the     
mosques and walls of ,hofhoof  appeared 
right before us as the sun lifted the   
veil2 it was a beautiful  sight4    ,el 
,hofhoof can claim a considerable age4  
,under the name of ,hajar1 it  was next 
to ,mobarrez1 the citadel town of the   
celebrated ,bni ,kindi  and ,abd ,el    
,kais 7#egj ,a4,d47 ,both of these      
towns1 and in fact every  village of    
,hassa1 owe their existence to the      
underground watercourses1  which are the
 chief characteristic of the province2  
everywhere there  is the same abundance 
of this great blessing4 ,a land of      
streams and  fountains1--welling up in  
the midst of the salt sea1 as at        
,bahrein2  flowing unknown and unsought 

under the dry desert at ,ojeir2 bubbling
  up in perennial fountains as at       
,katif2 or bursting out in seven hot    
springs that flow1 cooling1 to bless    
wide fields of rice and wheat at        
,mobarrez4 ,the entire region is capable
 of rich cultivation1 and yet now  more 
than half of it is desert4 ,there is not
 a man to till the ground1  and paradise
 lies waste except near the villages4   
,elsewhere ,bedouin  robbers and        
,turkish taxes prevent cultivation4     
,these two are the curse  of agriculture
 all over the ,ottoman provinces of     
,arabia4    ,illustration3 ,,palgrave',s
 ,,plan ,,of ,,hofhoof4    ,hofhoof     
itself is surrounded by gardens1 and its
 plan gives a good idea  of the general 
character of the towns of ,arabia4 ,a   
castle or ruler's  house2 a bazaar with 
surrounding dwellings and a mud-wall    
built around  to protect the whole4 ,the
 moat is now dry and half filled in with
 the  dbris of the walls1 which are not 
in good repair4 ,the town is nearly a   

mile and a-half across at its greater   
diameter1 but the houses are not  built 
as close together as is the custom in   
most ,oriental towns2 here  is the      
pleasant feature of gardens inside the  
walls4 ,the date-palm  predominates1 and
 indeed comes to wonderful perfection1  
but the nabak1  the papay1 the fig and  
the pomegranate are also in evidence4   
,indigo is  cultivated1 and also cotton1
 while all the region round about is    
green  with fields of rice and          
sugar-cane and vegetables1--onions1     
radishes1  beans1 vetches1 and maize4   
,the population of the city is entirely 
,moslem1 except one ,roman  ,catholic   
,christian1 who is the ,turkish doctor1 
and a half dozen ,jews4  ,the three     
,europeans who have previously visited  
and described ,hofhoof  are1 ,captain   
,sadlier 7#ahai71 ,palgrave 7#ahfc71 and
 ,colonel ,pelly 7#ahfe74  ,the first   
gives the population at #ae1jjj and     
,palgrave speaks of #bj1jjj  to #cj1jjj4
 ,in #ahga when the ,turkish expedition 

against ,nejd took the  city1 they      
reported it to have #ae1jjj houses and  
#bjj suburb villages767  ,this shows the
 absolute uncertainty of most statistics
 in regard to  ,arabia4    ,el ,hassa   
7,hofhoof7 is the first stage on the    
direct caravan route from  east ,arabia 
to ,mecca and ,jiddah4 ,abd ,er ,rahman 
bin ,salama1 the ,arab  ,sheikh1 under  
the ,turkish governor of the ,rifa'a    
quarter of the town  gave me the        
following information regarding this    
route4 ,from ,hassa to  ,riad is six    
days by camel1 from ,riad to ,jebel     
,shammar nine days2 to  ,wady ,dauasir  
seven2 and from ,riad to ,mecca eighteen
 days4 ,that would be  twenty-eight days
 to cross the peninsula1 not including  
stops on the  road and travelling at the
 rate of an ordinary caravan1 i4 e41    
three  miles an hour    ,the ,kaisariyeh
 or bazaar of ,hofhoof is well supplied 
with all the  usual requirements and    
luxuries of the ,levant2 weapons1 cloth1
 gold  embroidery1 dates1 vegetables1   

dried fish1 wood1 salted locusts1 fruit1
  sandals1 tobacco1 copper-ware and     
piece-goods--in irregular confusion as  
enumerated4 ,public auctions are held   
frequently in the square or on  the     
plain outside the walls4 ,here1 too1 the
 barbers ply their trade1  and          
blacksmiths beat at their anvils under  
the shade of a date-hut4  ,the ,rifa'a  
quarter has the best houses1 while the  
,na'athal has the  largest number2 the  
8,east-end0 in ,hofhoof being for the   
rich and the  8,west-end0 for the poor1 
as is proper in a land of paradoxes4    
,hassa is celebrated for two sorts of   
manufacture2 cloaks or abbas1  with rich
 embroidery in gold and colored thread1 
delicately wrought and  of elegant      
pattern1 the gayest and costliest       
garments of ,arabia2 and  brass         
coffee-pots of curious shape and pretty 
form1 which1 with the  cloaks1 are      
exported all over ,eastern ,arabia1 even
 as far as ,busrah  and ,muscat4 ,once  
trade flourished and the merchants grew 

rich in this  land of easy agriculture  
and fertile soil4 ,but intestine wars1  
,wahabi  fanaticism and ,turkish        
indolence1 extortion and taxation have  
taken  away prosperity1 and ,hassa's    
capital is not what it was in the days  
of  old1 when the ,carmathians held the 
town4    ,one remnant of its former     
glory remains2 a unique and entirely    
local  coinage called the ,toweelah or  
8long-bit40 ,it consists of a small     
copper-bar1 mixed with a small          
proportion of silver1 about an inch in  
length1 split at one end and with a     
fissure slightly opened4 ,along  one or 
both of its flattened sides run a few   
,cufic characters1 nearly  illegible in 
most specimens1 but said to read3       
,mohammed-al-,saood1  i4e41 8,mohammed  
of the ,saood family40 ,the coin has    
neither date nor  motto1 but was        
undoubtedly made by one of the          
,carmathian ,princes about  the year    
#ibj ,a4 ,d4 ,this ,moslem sect owed its
 origin to a fanatic and  enthusiast    

born at ,cufa1 called ,carmath1 who     
first had a following  about the year   
#bgg of the ,hejira4 ,he assumed the    
lofty titles1 ,guide1  ,director1 the   
,word1 the ,holy ,ghost1 the ,herald of 
the ,messiah1 etc4 ,his  interpretation 
of the ,koran was very lax in the       
matters of ablution1  fasting1 and      
pilgrimage1 but he increased the number 
of prayers to  fifty daily4 ,he had     
twelve apostles among the ,bedouins1 and
 his sect  grew so rapidly that they    
could muster in the field #ajg1jjj      
fanatical  warriors4 ,cufa and ,busrah  
were pillaged and ,bagdad taken4 ,in    
#ibi ,abu  ,taher stormed the ,holy     
,city of ,mecca and the ,carmathians    
took away the  black stone in triumph to
 ,katif4 ,the centre of their power     
remained  at ,hassa for some years4     
,here the coin was struck1 which is the 
only  remnant of their power and        
fanaticism4 ,and while the ,carmathian  
doctrines are held in abhorrence1 their 
little bars of copper still  buy rice   

and dates and stick to the hands of the 
money-changer in the  bazaar4    ,in    
former days there were gold and silver  
coins of similar shape4 ,some  in silver
 can yet be found occasionally inscribed
 with the noble motto  in ,arabic3      
8,honor to the sober man1 dishonor to   
the ambitious40 ,when  ,i was in        
,hofhoof that strange1 two-tailed       
copper-bar was worth half an  anna and  
disputed its birthright in the market   
with rupees and ,indian  paper and      
,maria ,theresa dollars and ,turkish    
coppers4 ,but how changed  the bazaar   
itself would appear to the ghost of some
 ,carmathian warrior  of the ninth      
century who first handled a 8long-bit40 
,even the ,wahabis  have disappeared and
 tobacco1 silk1 music and wine are no   
longer  deadly sins4 ,of these ,moslem  
,puritans many have left for ,riad1 and 
the  few that remain stroke their long  
white beards in horror at ,turkish      
,effendis in infidel breeches smoking   
cigarettes1 while they sigh for  the    

golden days of the ,arabian ,reformer4  
,there is a military hospital at        
,hofhoof with a surgeon and doctor1  but
 at the time of my visit there was a    
dearth of medicines and  an abominable  
lack of sanitation4 ,few soldiers submit
 to hospital  treatment1 preferring to  
desert or seek furlough elsewhere1 and  
nothing  is done for the ,arab          
population4 ,before my coming cholera   
raged here as  well as on the coast1 and
 during my short visit smallpox was     
epidemic  and carried off many1 many    
children4 ,thrice awful are such        
diseases in  a land where a practical   
fanaticism1 under the pious cloak of    
religion1  scorns medicine or preventive
 measures4    ,the government of the    
province of ,hassa is as follows4 ,the  
,sandjak  7,turkish for administrative  
division7 is divided into three cazas1  
,nejd1 ,katar and ,katif and a small    
garrison holds each of these  cazas2    
#fjj men at ,hofhoof1 and #cjj at ,katar
 and ,katif4 ,the governor1  called     

,mutaserrif ,pasha1 resides at the      
capital and kaimakams or  sub-governors 
at the other two centres4 ,there are the
 usual ,turkish  tribunals and each     
,arab tribe has a representative or     
go-between to  arrange its affairs with 
the governor4 ,the principal tribes     
which at  present acknowledge ,turkish  
occupation and submit to their rule are3
  ,el ,ajeman1 ,el ,morah1 ,bni ,hajar1 
,bni ,khaled1 ,bni ,hassam1 ,el ,motter1
 ,el  ,harb1 and ,el ,ja'afer4 ,the     
,turkish government has opened three    
schools  in the province2 the total     
number of pupils according to the       
,turkish  official report is #c1edj4    
,the same report puts the entire        
population  of the province at #bej1jjj2
 this gives a fair idea of the          
backwardness  of education even in this 
province which has always been          
remarkable  for book-learning4 ,the     
large mosque with its twenty-four arches
 and  porticoes1 smooth-plastered and   
with a mat-spread floor is always  full 

of mischievous youth learning the       
mysteries of grammar and the            
commonplaces of ,moslem theology2 but   
the days of poetry and writing of       
commentaries on the ,koran are in the   
past2 even the ,wahabi merchants  talk  
of ,bombay and are glad to get hold of  
an ,english primer or an  atlas of the  
new world which is knocking at their    
door for admittance4    ,after four days
 spent in the city ,i accepted an       
opportunity to return  northward with a 
caravan2 ,i was not allowed to go1      
however1 until  after ,i had signed a   
paper1 which1 because of the unsafety of
 the road  disclaimed all responsibility
 on the part of the ,government should  
,i  come to lose life1 limb or luggage4 
,a copy of this document is in my       
possession1 but the only foe ,i met in  
the desert was--fever4 ,on ,tuesday     
noon our small party set out1 not going 
through the large town of  ,mobarrez as 
,i had hoped1 but turning east and      
reaching ,kilabeejeh at  two o'clock4   

,we passed fountains and streams and    
fields of rice and  swamps1--everything 
very unlike ,arabia of the              
school-geography4 ,in four  hours1      
however1 we were again in the midst of  
desert where the sun  proved too hot for
 me and ,i was taken with a fever which 
did not leave  me until ,i returned to  
,bahrein4 ,the road continued desert all
 the way  to ,katif4 ,on ,wednesday we  
rode all night under the stars 7because 
of  a false alarm of robbers7 until nine
 o'clock next morning4 ,then we  rested 
at a place called1 with bitter irony1   
,um ,el ,hammam2 there are  no baths1 no
 trees1 no grass1 only a shallow pit of 
dirty water and  small shrubbery of     
dates4 ,here we spent a hot day4 ,on    
,friday morning  we came to the borders 
of ,katif1--palm-groves1 wells1 and     
ancient  aqueducts with curious towers  
and air-holes at intervals4 ,through    
gardens and around by the large square  
fort we came to the sea4 ,at the        
custom-house1 again1 ,i found rest and  

refreshment4    ,katif has no good name 
among ,hassa ,arabs2 its location is low
  and marshy2 8its inhabitants are      
mostly weak in frame1 sallow in         
complexion1 and suffer continually from 
malaria4 ,the town itself is  badly     
built1 woefully filthy1 damp and        
ill-favored in climate4 ,yet  it has a  
good population and brisk trade4 ,the   
inhabitants are mostly  ,shiahs of      
,persian origin and are held in         
abhorrence by the ,wahabis and  the     
,turks alike as little better than      
infidels4 ,the present location  of     
,katif corresponds to the very ancient  
settlement of the ,gerrha of  the ,greek
 geographers but no exploration for     
ruins has ever been made4  ,a           
,portuguese castle marks their          
occupation of this coast also during    
their supremacy in the gulf4 ,katif was 
taken by the ,turks in #ahga and  has   
been occupied by them ever since4       
,the ,arabian coast north of ,katif1 all
 the way to ,kuweit is without  a single

 large settlement4 ,mostly barren and in
 the hands of the  predatory and warlike
 tribe of ,bni ,hajar1 it is very       
uninteresting and  entirely             
unproductive4                           
,,xii                      ,,the        
,,river-,,country ,,and ,,the           
,,date-,,palm     8,the rich plains of  
,mesopotamia and ,assyria which were    
once cultivated   by a populous nation  
and watered by surprising efforts of    
human   industry1 are now inhabited1 or 
rather ravaged by wandering ,arabs4 ,so 
long as these fertile provinces shall   
remain under the government1 or   rather
 anarchy of the ,turks they must        
continue deserts in which nature   dies 
for want of the fostering care of       
man0--,niebuhr 7#agib74      ,what      
changes of history have left their      
records in ruins and names and  legends 
on the great alluvial plains of         
,northeastern ,arabia6 ,the two  rivers 
still bear their ,bible names1 the      
,euphrates and ,dijleh1 or  ,hiddekel1  

but nothing else is left which could be 
called paradise4 ,what  impresses the   
traveller first and most is that so     
large an extent of  this fertile region 
lies waste and unproductive under an    
effete rule4  ,the splendor of the past 
can scarcely be believed because of the 
ruin  of the present4 ,everywhere are   
traces of ancient empires and yet it    
seems incredible as we watch the        
half-naked ,arabs ploughing through the 
mud-banks with their wild cattle and    
primitive implements4    ,was this the  
cradle of the human race8 ,babylon and  
,nineveh are here  for the              
archaeologist2 ,ctesiphon1 ,kufa and    
,zobeir for the historian2  ,bagdad and 
,busrah 7or ,bassorah7 for old ,arabian 
romance2 and ,ur of  the ,chaldees for  
the ,bible student4 ,since ,haroun      
,rashid went about in  disguise how many
 yet stranger ,arabian nights has       
,bagdad seen6 ,how  surprised ,sinbad   
the sailor would be to see the decay of 
,busrah1 yet  with a dozen 8smoke-ships0

 in its harbor6    ,mesopotamia1 called 
by the ,arabs ,el ,jezira1 was formerly 
limited to  the land lying between the  
two rivers and south of the old wall by 
which they were connected above ,bagdad4
 ,from this point to the ,persian  ,gulf
 the district was and is still known as 
,irak-,arabi1 to distinguish  it from   
the ,irak of ,persia4 ,commonly1        
however1 the name of ,mesopotamia       
7,mid-,river-,country7 is given to the  
whole northeastern part of ,arabia4  ,it
 has a total area of #ahj1jjj square    
miles and presents great  uniformity in 
its physical as well as its ethnical    
characteristics4  ,arabs live and       
,arabic is spoken for three hundred     
miles beyond ,bagdad  as far as         
,diarbekr and ,mardin2 but we limit our 
description to the  region between      
,busrah and ,bagdad including the delta 
at the mouth of  the rivers4    ,near   
,bagdad the two giant rivers1 after     
draining ,eastern ,asia ,minor1         
,armenia and ,kurdistan1 approach quite 

near together2 from thence  the main    
streams are connected by several        
channels and intermittent  watercourses1
 the chief of which is the ,shatt-el    
,hai4 ,at ,kurna the two  rivers unite  
to form the ,shatt-el-,arab which       
traverses a flat1 fertile  plain dotted 
with villages and covered with          
artificially irrigated  meadow-lands and
 extensive date groves4 ,as far up as   
,bagdad the river  is navigable         
throughout the year for steamers of     
considerable size4  ,it is entirely     
owing to the enterprise of ,english     
commerce and the  ,bagdad-,busrah       
steamship line that the country1 so     
gloomily described by  ,niebuhr1 in     
#agib1 and even by ,chesney in #ahdj1   
has been developed into  new life and   
prosperity4 ,even ,turkish misrule and  
oppression cannot do  away utterly with 
natural fertility and productiveness2   
and if ever a  good government should   
hold this region it would regain its    
ancient  importance and double its      

present population4    ,two features are
 prominent in the physical geography of 
this region4  ,first the flat almost    
level stretches of meadow without any   
rise or  fall except the artificial     
ancient mounds#cf4 ,the second is the   
date-palm4 ,the whole length of the     
country from ,fao and ,mohammerah  to   
the country of the ,montefik ,arabs     
above ,kurna is one large date          
plantation1 on both sides of the wide   
river4 ,everywhere the tall  shapely    
trees line the horizon and near the     
lower estuary of the  ,shatt-el-,arab   
they are especially luxuriant and       
plentiful4 ,formerly  every palm-tree on
 the ,nile1 was registered and taxed2   
but to count  every such tree on the    
,shatt-el-,arab would be an unending    
task4    ,the proper coat-of-arms for   
all lower ,mesopotamia would be a       
date-palm4  ,it is the 8banner of the   
climate0 and the wealth of the country4 
,there  may be monotony in these long   
groves and rows of well-proportioned    

columns with their tops hidden in       
foliage1 but there certainly is  nothing
 wearisome4 ,a date garden is a scene of
 exceeding beauty1  varying greatly     
according to the time of the day and the
 state of  the weather4 ,at sunrise or  
sunset the gorgeous colors fall on the  
gracefully pendant fronds or steal      
gently through the lighter foliage  and 
reflect a vivid green so beautiful that 
once seen1 it can never  be forgotten4  
,at high-noon the dark shadows and deep 
colors of the  date-forests refresh and 
rest the eye aching from the brazen     
glare of  sand and sky4 ,but the forest 
is at its best1 when on a dewy night the
  full moon rises and makes a pearl     
glisten on every spiked leaf and the    
shadows show black as night in contrast 
with the sheen of the upper  foliage4   
,it was an ,arab poet who first sang the
 song of the date-palm so  beautifully  
interpreted by ,bayard ,taylor3         
8,next to thee1 ,o fair ,gazelle6       
,o ,bedowee girl1 beloved so well1--    

,next to the fearless ,nejidee          
,whose fleetness shall bear me again to 
thee--      ,next to ye both ,i love the
 palm      ,with his leaves of beauty   
and fruit of balm4      ,next to ye     
both1 ,i love the tree      ,whose      
fluttering shadows wrap us three        
,in love and silence and mystery4       
,our tribe is many1 our poets vie       
,with any under the ,arab sky      ,yet 
none can sing of the palm but ,i4       
,the noble minarets that begem          
,cairo's citadel diadem      ,are not so
 light as his slender stem4      ,he    
lifts his leaves in the sunbeam glance  
,as the ,almehs lift their arms in      
dance2      ,a slumberous motion1 a     
passionate sigh      ,that works in the 
cells of the blood like wine4      ,o   
tree of love1 by that love of thine     
,teach me how ,i shall soften mine40    
,mark ,twain compared the palm-tree to  
8a liberty-pole with a haycock0  on top 
of it4 ,the truth lies between the poet 
and the 8,innocent0  traveller1 for the 

date-tree is both a poem and a          
commercial product2  to the ,arab mind  
it is the perfection of beauty and      
utility4    ,the date palm-tree is found
 in ,syria1 ,asia ,minor1 nearly all    
parts of  ,arabia and the southern      
islands of the ,mediterranean1 but it   
attains to  its greatest perfection in  
upper ,egypt and ,mesopotamia4#cg ,some 
idea  of the immense importance of this 
one crop in the wealth of ,mesopotamia  
may be gained from the statement of an  
old ,english merchant at ,busrah1  that 
8the entire annual date-harvest of the  
,river-country might  conservatively be 
put at #aej1jjj tons40    ,the date-tree
 consists of a single stem or trunk     
about fifty to eighty  feet high1       
without a branch1 and crowned at the    
summit by a cluster of  leaves or       
8palms0 that drop somewhat in the shape 
of a huge umbrella4  ,each of these     
palms has long lanceolate leaves        
spreading out like a  fan from the      
centre stem which often attains a length

 of ten or even  twelve feet4 ,in a wild
 state the successive rows of palms1    
which mark  the annual growth of the    
tree1 wither and contract but remain    
upon the  trunk1 producing with every   
breath of wind the creaking sound so    
often heard in the silence of the       
desert-night4 ,but where the palms are  
cultivated the old stems are cut away as
 fast as they dry and are put  to many  
different uses4 ,the trunk of the       
palm-tree therefore presents  the       
appearance of scales which enable a man1
 whose body is held to the  tree by a   
rope noose1 to climb to the top with    
ease and gather the  fruit4 ,at a       
distance1 these annual rings of the     
date-palm appear as a  series of        
diagonal lines dividing the trunk4      
,palm-trees often reach the  age of a   
hundred years4 ,the date-palm is        
dicious2 but in ,mesopotamia  the       
pistilate-palms far exceed in number the
 staminate4 ,marriage of the  palms     
takes place every spring and is a busy  

time for the husbandman as  it is no    
small task to climb all the trees and   
sprinkle the pollen4    ,illustration3  
,a ,,date ,,orchard ,,near ,,busrah4    
,illustration3 ,,dates ,,growing ,,on ,a
 ,,date-,,palm4    ,arabs have written  
books and ,europeans have composed      
fables on the  thousand different uses  
of the palm-tree4 ,every part of this   
wonderful  tree is useful to the ,arabs 
in unexpected ways4 ,to begin at the    
top3--,the pistils of the date-blossom  
contain a fine curly fibre which  is    
beaten out and used in all ,eastern     
baths as a sponge for soaping  the body4
 ,at the extremity of the trunk is a    
terminal bud containing a  whitish      
substance resembling an almond in       
consistency and taste1 but  a hundred   
times as large4 ,this is a great table  
delicacy4 ,there are  said to be over   
one hundred varieties of date-palm all  
distinguished  by their fruit and the   
,arabs say that 8a good housewife may   
furnish  her husband every day for a    

month with a dish of dates differently  
prepared40 ,dates form the staple food  
of the ,arabs in a large part of        
,arabia and are always served in some   
form at every meal4 ,syrup and  vinegar 
is made from old dates1 and by those who
 disregard the ,koran1  even a kind of  
brandy4 ,the date-pit is ground up and  
fed to cows and  sheep so that nothing  
of the precious fruit may be lost4      
,whole pits are  used as beads and      
counters for the ,arab children in their
 games on the  desert-sand4 ,the        
branches or palms are stripped of their 
leaves and  used like rattan1 to make   
beds1 tables1 chairs1 cradles1          
bird-cages1  reading-stands1 boats1     
crates1 etc41 etc4 ,the leaves are made 
into  baskets1 fans and string and the  
bast of the outer trunk forms  excellent
 fibre for rope of many sizes and       
qualities4 ,the wood of the  trunk1     
though light and porous1 is much used in
 bridge-building and  architecture and  
is quite durable4 ,in short1 when a     

date-palm is cut  down there is not a   
particle of it that is wasted4 ,this    
tree is the  8poor-house0 and asylum for
 all ,arabia2 without it millions would 
have  neither food nor shelter4 ,for one
 half of the population of ,mesopotamia 
lives in date-mat dwellings4            
,although everywhere the date-culture is
 an important industry1 ,busrah  is the 
centre of the trade1 for here is the    
principal depot for  export4 ,the three 
best varieties of dates known at ,busrah
 are the  ,hallawi1 ,khadrawi and       
,sayer4 ,these are the only kinds that  
will  stand shipping to the ,european   
markets4 ,they are packed in layers  in 
wooden boxes1 or in smaller carton      
boxes4 ,the average export to  ,london  
and ,new ,york from ,busrah for the past
 five years has been  about #bj1jjj     
tons1 nearly one half of which was for  
the ,american  market4 ,other important 
varieties are ,zehdi1 ,brem1 ,dery and  
,shukri4 ,these are packed more roughly 
in matting or baskets1 and are  sent    

along the whole ,arabian coast1 to      
,india1 the ,red ,sea littoral  and     
,zanzibar4 ,there are over thirty other 
varieties cultivated near  ,busrah for  
local consumption4 ,some of them have   
curious names such as3  8,mother of     
,perfume10 8,sealed-up10 8,red ,sugar10 
8,daughter of ,seven10                  
8,bride's-finger10 8,little ,star10     
8,pure ,daughter02 others have names    
which it is better not to translate4    
,palgrave and others1 with whose verdict
 ,i agree1 pronounced the  ,khalasi date
 of ,el ,hassa superior to all other    
kinds4 ,it has recently  been introduced
 into ,mesopotamia4 ,palgrave says1 8the
 literal and not  inappropriate         
translation of the name is              
#8quintessence'--a species  peculiar to 
,hassa and easily the first of its      
kind40 ,the fruit itself  is rather     
smaller than the usual ,hallawi date1   
but it is not so dry  and far more      
luscious4 ,it is of a rich dark amber   
color1 almost ruddy1  and translucent2  

the kernel is small and easily detached1
 the date  tastes sweet as sugar and is 
as far superior to the date bought in   
the  ,american market as a ripe ,pippin 
is to dried apple-rings4    ,at ,busrah 
the date season opens in ,september and 
keeps every one busy  until the vast    
harvest is gathered and shipped4 ,the   
dates for export to  ,europe and        
,america are of prime quality1 a box of 
half a hundred-weight  on board the     
steamer is worth about three or four    
shillings wholesale4  ,all poor1 wet1   
and small dates are packed separately in
 mats or  bags1 and are sent to ,india  
as second-quality4 ,the poorest lot are 
sent in mass to the distilleries in     
,england4 ,thus nothing is lost4        
,date-packers1 who put the fruit in     
layers1 receive three or four  kameris  
for packing a box4 ,the best packers can
 only pack four boxes  a day1 so that   
their wages are about a kran 7about ten 
cents7 per  day4 ,they live cheaply on  
the fruit1 and bring all their family1  

babes  and greybeards with them to lodge
 for the season in the date-gardens4    
,the date season in ,busrah begins in   
the early or middle part of  ,september 
and lasts for six or eight weeks4 ,the  
price of the date-crop  varies4 ,it is  
usually fixed at a meeting held in some 
date-garden where  the growers and      
buyers play the bull and the bear until 
an agreement  is reached4 ,the prices in
 #ahig were1 in the language of the     
trade3  8#cdj ,shamis for ,hallawis1    
#bhj ,shamis for ,khadrawis1 and #ahj   
,shamis for  ,sayer40 ,seventeen ,shamis
 are equal to about one pound sterling1 
and  the prices quoted are for a kara1  
about fifty hundred-weights4    ,the    
culture of the date has steadily        
increased for the past fifteen  years4  
,in #ahif the greater part of the       
country was inundated by heavy  floods  
and over a million date-trees are said  
to have been destroyed2  new gardens are
 being planted continually4 ,the ,arabs 
of ,mesopotamia  display great skill and

 unusual care in manuring1 irrigating   
and  improving their date-plantations1  
for they realize more and more that     
this is no mean source of wealth4 ,one  
recent use to which export dates  are   
put is in the manufacture of vinegar1 it
 would seem1 since the  beet-sugar      
industry has proved so profitable1 that 
there must be some  method by which good
 sugar could be manufactured from       
date-syrup4    ,mesopotamia is rich not 
only in date-groves but in cereals1     
wool1 gums1  licorice root and other    
products4 ,the export of wool alone in  
#ahig was  valued at #bhh1gjj4 ,and the 
total exports the same year1 for the two
  provinces of ,bagdad and ,busrah1 were
 put at #ebb1ifj4 ,busrah is the        
shipping place for all the region round 
about1 and ocean steamers of            
considerable size are always in ,busrah 
harbor1 during #ahig four hundred  and  
twenty-one sailing vessels and          
ninety-five steamships cleared the      
port1 with a total tonnage of #aca1hdf2 

ninety-one of the steamships  were      
,british4    ,the population of the two 
vilayets is given by ,cuinet1 who       
follows  ,turkish authorities1 as       
follows3                       ,moslems4
  ,christians4  ,jews4      ,total4     
,bagdad ,vilayet1    #ghi1ejj           
#g1jjj      #ec1ejj       #hej1jjj      
,busrah ,vilayet1    #ici1fej           
#e1hej       #d1ejj       #iej1jjj      
,in ,bagdad vilayet nearly four-fifths  
of the ,moslem population belongs  to   
the ,sunnite sect1 while in ,busrah     
vilayet three-fourths of them  are      
,shiahs4 ,the ,sabeans are generally    
reckoned among the ,christians1         
although these are already sufficiently 
divided into ,latin1 ,greek  ,orthodox1 
,greek1 ,syrian1 ,chaldean ,catholic1   
,armenian ,gregorian1  ,armenian        
,catholic and ,protestants--the last in 
the smallest minority  possible and the 
others chiefly distinguished by mutual  
distrust and  united hatred of          
,protestantism4    ,the vilayet of      

,bagdad is divided again into three     
,sandjaks or  districts of ,bagdad1     
,hillah and ,kerbela1 and that of       
,busrah likewise  into those of ,busrah1
 ,amara ,muntefik and ,nejd#ch4 ,of     
these six  districts that of ,bagdad is 
the largest in area and importance and  
is  the centre of military power for    
both vilayets4 ,the boundaries of       
,bagdad ,sandjak go as far as ,anah on  
the ,euphrates toward the north and     
include ,kut-el-,amara on the south with
 both banks of the ,tigris4 ,hillah  and
 ,kerbela are along the ,euphrates with 
irregular boundaries while the          
,muntefik ,sandjak with its provincial  
town of ,nasariya separates them  from  
that of ,busrah4 ,the ,sandjak of ,amara
 begins a few miles north of  the       
junction of the two rivers1 and the     
whole frontier toward ,persia  is       
entirely undefined or at least 8in      
litigation10 as the ,turkish  official  
maps have it4    ,the two ,turkish      
provinces have all the involved         

machinery of ,turkish  civil and        
military administration4 ,there are     
plenty of offices and  office-holders   
and constant changes in both4 ,each     
province has a  governor-general or     
,wali and 7outside of the governor's    
sandjak7  each district has its         
mutaserrif-pasha either of the first or 
second  class--those one has to deal    
with generally prove to be of the       
latter4  ,then there are ,kaimakams for 
smaller districts or cities1 and        
finally mudirs for villages4 ,at the    
seat of government1 called the  ,serai1 
there is an administrative council1     
including the ,nib or  kadi1            
corresponding to chief-justice2 the     
defterdar or secretary of  finance2 the 
mufti or public interpreter of ,moslem  
law2 the nakib1  etc41 etc41 etc4 ,there
 are several courts of justice of       
different  rank2 the custom-house       
administration is on the e pluribus unum
 plan  and ne plus ultra system4        
,besides these there are the 8,regie des

  tabacs0 or the tobacco-monopoly1 the  
post and telegraph administration1  the 
sanitary offices1 the salt-inspectors1  
and1 at ,kerbela1 the  ,tarif of corpses
 levied on imported pilgrims4 ,to       
describe all these  satisfactorily would
 require a volume4                      
,,xiii                   ,,the ,,cities 
,,and ,,villages ,,of ,,turkish-,,arabia
      ,kuweit1#ci on the gulf a little  
south of the river delta1 will in all   
probability--before long1 rise in       
importance and be as well known as      
,suez or ,port ,said4 ,it has the finest
 harbor in all ,eastern ,arabia1 and  is
 an important town of from #aj1jjj to   
#ab1jjj inhabitants4 ,here will         
probably be the terminus of the proposed
 railroads to bind ,india and  the gulf 
to ,europe by the shortest route4 ,the  
whole country round about  being        
practically desert1 the place is        
entirely dependent on its trade  for    
support4 ,it possesses more bagalows    
7sailing-vessels7 than any port  in the 

gulf2 is remarkably cleanly2 has some   
very well-built houses  and an extensive
 dockyard for boat building4 ,the town  
and tribe are  nominally under ,turkish 
subjection1 although protection is the  
better  word1 and it is rumored that    
,kuweit will soon be as much in the     
hands  of the ,english as is ,bahrein4  
,the ,bedouin tribes of ,northern       
,hassa1 and even from ,nejd1 bring      
horses1 cattle and sheep to this place  
to barter for dates1 clothing  and      
fire-arms4 ,there is nearly always a    
large encampment of ,bedouins  near the 
town4 ,the route overland from ,kuweit  
to ,busrah is across the  desert until  
we come to an old artificial canal2     
leaving ,jebel ,sinam to  the left the  
second march brings us to ,zobeir1 a    
small village on the  site of ancient   
,busrah1 and only a few hours to the    
present site4 ,at  ,zobeir is the tomb  
of the ,moslem leader for whom the town 
is named4  ,the village contains about  
#djj houses1 and the population is rich 

and  fanatical4 ,in the vicinity are    
gardens where a kind of melon is raised1
  which is celebrated in all the region 
round about for sweetness and  delicacy 
of flavor4 ,the journey from ,kuweit to 
,busrah is generally  made1 even by     
natives1 in bugalows2 while the ,persian
 ,gulf steamers1  not calling at        
,kuweit1 proceed direct from ,bushire to
 ,fao1 at the mouth  of the             
,shatt-el-,arab4 ,a great hindrance to  
commerce is the bar formed  by the      
alluvial deposit of the immense river as
 it reaches the gulf4  ,at low tide     
there is only ten feet of water in the  
deepest part of the  channel1 and even  
at flood tide large steamers must plow  
their way  through the mud to reach     
,busrah4    ,fao is of no importance    
except as the terminus of the cable from
  ,bushire4 ,a ,british telegraph       
station was established here in #ahfd4  
,the  ,turkish telegraph system from up 
the rivers terminates at ,fao1 and  here
 too they have a representative to      

govern the place and enforce  stringent 
quarantine4 ,the ,shatt-el-,arab winds  
motononously between the  vast          
date-orchards or desert banks for about 
forty miles1 until we  reach the ,karun 
river and the ,persian town of          
,mohammerah4 ,busrah is  sixty-seven    
miles from the bar and between it and   
,fao there are many  important villages 
on each bank of the river4 ,aboo ,hassib
 is perhaps  the most important and is a
 great centre for date-culture and      
packing4    ,busrah consists of the     
native city--containing the principal   
bazaars1  the government house1 and the 
bulk of the population--and the new town
  on the river4 ,the native town is     
about two miles from the river on a     
narrow creek1 called ,ashar2 a good road
 runs along the bank1 and  this road    
really unites the two parts of the city 
into one as it is  lined with           
dwelling-houses for a large part of the 
way4 ,busrah has seen  better days1 but 
also worse4 ,in the middle of the       

eighteenth century  it numbered upward  
of #aej1jjj inhabitants4 ,in #ahbe1 it  
had diminished  to #fj1jjj2 the plague  
of #ahca reduced it further by nearly   
one-half1  and after the plague of      
#ahch1 scarcely #ab1jjj inhabitants     
remained4  ,in #ahed1 it is said to have
 had only #e1jjj inhabitants4 ,at       
present  the place is growing yearly in 
population and importance in spite of   
misgovernment and ruinous taxation4 ,it 
has every natural advantage  over       
,bagdad1 except climate1 and will yet   
outstrip the city of the  old caliphs1  
if ,turkey's rule mends or ends4 ,the   
present population  of the city proper  
is given by ,ottoman authorities at     
#ah1jjj4 ,many  ruins all over the      
plains and in the surrounding gardens   
tell of its  former extent and splendor4
 ,at present the native town looks sadly
  dilapidated1 and tells the story of   
neglect and decay4 ,the unexampled      
filthiness of the streets and the       
undrained marshes in the environs  make 

the place proverbially unhealthy4 ,this 
unhygienic condition is not  improved by
 the ,ashar ,creek being at the same    
time the common sewer  and the common   
water supply for over one-half of the   
population4 ,the  wealthy classes send  
out boats to bring water from the river1
 but all  the poorer people use the     
creek4 ,such are the results of an      
imbecile  government which could easily 
drain the marshes and supply every one  
with great abundance of pure water4     
,ancient ,busrah1 near the present site 
of ,zobeir1 was founded in #fcf ,a4     
,d41 by the second ,caliph ,omar as a   
key to the ,euphrates and ,tigris4 ,it  
reached great prosperity1 and was the   
home of poetry and grammatical          
learning1 as ,bagdad was the centre of  
science and philosophy4 ,after  the     
twelfth century the city began to decay1
 and at the conquest of  ,bagdad by     
,murad ,,iv41 in #afch1 this entire     
stretch of country fell  into the hands 
of the ,turks4 ,then the present city   

took the name of  ,busrah4 ,later it was
 in the hands of the ,arabs and         
,persians1 and  from #ahcb to #ahdj1    
,mohammed ,ali was in possession4 ,under
 the rule of  ,midhat ,pasha1           
governor-general of ,bagdad1 the city of
 ,busrah arose in  importance partly    
because of the ,turkish ,steam          
,navigation ,company which  he promoted4
 ,but it was a dream-life4 ,english     
commerce and enterprise  aroused the    
place thoroughly1 and the whistle of    
steamships has kept  it awake ever since
 the ,suez canal opened trade with      
,europe by way of  the gulf4#dj    ,in  
making the journey from ,busrah to      
,bagdad the traveller has choice  of two
 lines of river-steamers3 the ,ottoman  
service has six steamers  and the       
,english company three1 but the latter  
are only allowed to use  two by the     
,turkish government4 ,for romance1      
discomfort and tediousness1  choose the 
former2 for all other reasons select the
 latter4 ,i have  tried both4 ,the      

,english steamers carry the mails to    
,bagdad and make  weekly trips2 four or 
five days being required for the journey
 up  stream1 and three days down1       
although when the water is low the      
journey  may be long delayed4 ,in bad or
 shallow places the steamers often      
discharge a part of their cargo1 heave  
over the shallow part and load  up      
again4 ,of course trade suffers and vast
 quantities of merchandise  often lie   
for weeks at ,busrah awaiting shipment4 
,no steps are ever  taken by the        
,ottoman government to counteract the   
great waste of water  which flows into  
the marshes4 ,in course of time1 unless 
prevented1 this  waste will lead to the 
closing up of the main channel of the   
,tigris  even as the ,euphrates below   
,suk-es-,shiukh has become a marsh for  
lack  of use4    ,the good ,steamship   
,mejidieh with its kindly ,captain      
,cowley1 or the  sister ship ,khalifah  
lies at anchor just off the ,english    
,consulate1  the blue-peter flies       

overhead and the decks are overcrowded  
with all  sorts and conditions of       
men--,persians1 ,turks1 ,indians1       
,arabs1 ,armenians1  ,greeks2--baggage1 
bales1 boxes1 water-bottles--chickens1  
geese1 sheep1  horses1 not to speak of  
the insect-population on which it is    
impossible  to collect freight-charges4 
,the steamers are somewhat after the    
type  of the ,american river-steamers on
 the ,mississippi2 but no ,mark ,twain  
has yet arisen to immortalize them1     
although they afford an even  more      
fertile theme4 ,with a double deck and  
broad of beam they carry  hundreds of   
passengers and an astonishing amount of 
cargo for their  size4 ,the             
accommodation during cool weather is    
excellent1 and during  the hot days no  
one travels for the sake of luxury4     
,the first place at which the steamer   
calls is ,kurna at the junction  of the 
rivers1 and from whence the course is up
 the ,tigris to ,bagdad4  ,the ,tomb of 
,ezra1 about nine hours from ,busrah1 is

 a great place for  pilgrimages by the  
,jews4 ,it is a pretty spot on the river
 bank and  picturesque with its crowd of
 embarking and disembarking ,jews and   
,jewesses4 ,the tomb is a domed cloister
 enclosing a square mausoleum1  and     
paved with blue tiles4 ,over the doorway
 are two tablets of black  marble with  
,hebrew inscriptions attesting to the   
authenticity of the  tomb4 ,it is not   
improbable that ,ezra is buried here1   
for the ,talmud  states that he died at 
,zamzuma1 a town on the ,tigris4 ,he is 
said to  have died here on his way from 
,jerusalem to ,susa to plead the cause  
of  the captive ,jews4 ,josephus says   
that he was buried at ,jerusalem1 but no
  ,jew of ,bagdad doubts that ,ezra's   
remains rest on the ,tigris4    ,ten    
hours beyond1 we pass also on the west  
bank1 ,abu ,sadra1 a tomb of  an ,arab  
saint marked only by a reed-hut and a   
grove of poplars4 ,next  is ,amara1 a   
large and growing village with a        
coaling-depot and an  enterprising      

population4 ,this place was founded in  
#ahfa1 and promises  to become a centre 
of trade4 ,after passing ,ali ,shergi1  
,ali ,gherbi1 and  ,sheikh ,saad1 small 
villages1 without stopping1 the steamer 
calls at  ,kut-el-,amara1 a larger place
 even than ,amara1 on the east bank1    
with  over #d1jjj inhabitants4          
,illustration3 ,,the ,,reputed ,,tomb   
,,of ,,ezra ,,on ,,the ,,tigris ,,river4
    ,all the way from ,busrah to        
,bagdad1 but especially along this part 
of  the river1 we pass ,bedouin tribes1 
encamped in the black tents of  ,kedar1 
engaged in the most primitive           
agriculture or irrigation of their      
land1 or rushing along the banks to hail
 the passing steamer4 ,a hungry1        
impudent1 noisy1 cheerful lot they are2 
filling the merciful with pity  and     
moving the thoughtless to laughter1 as  
they scramble up and down  the banks    
into the water to catch a piece of bread
 or a few dates  thrown to them4        
,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,arch

 ,,of ,,ctesiphon ,,near ,,bagdad4      
,meanwhile we steam along passing       
,bughela1 ,azizieh1 ,bagdadieh and      
reach ,bustani ,kesra1 or the arch of   
,ctesiphon4 ,the little village of      
,soleiman-,pak is named for the pious   
man who was the private barber of       
,mohammed the prophet4 ,after various   
wanderings1 poor pious ,pak was  buried 
here1 only a short distance from the    
great arch4 ,a village  sprang up near  
the tomb1 pilgrims come from everywhere 
and miracles are  claimed to be wrought 
by him who when alive only handled the  
razor4  ,the whole region of            
,mesopotamia is more rich in saints1    
tombs and  pilgrim-shrines than any     
other part of ,arabia4    ,the arch of  
,ctesiphon is not a shrine but it is    
well worth a visit4  ,it is the only    
prominent object that remains of the    
vast ruins of  ,ctesiphon on the east   
bank of the ,tigris1 and ,seleucia on   
the west4  ,the arch is now almost in   
ruins but must once have been the faade 

of a magnificent building4 ,its length  
is #bge feet1 and its height is  given  
variously as eighty-six or one hundred  
feet2 the walls are over  twelve feet   
thick and the span of the magnificent   
arch is nearly eighty  feet4 ,what      
,ctesiphon was in the days of the       
,sassanian kings we read in  ,gibbon4   
,now its glory has departed and the tomb
 of the ,barber has more  visitors than 
the ancient throne of the ,chosroes4    
,eight hours after  leaving ,ctesiphon's
 ruins1 our steamer is in full sight of 
the city of  ,haroun ,rashid4    ,bagdad
 is a familiar name even to the boy who 
reads the ,arabian tales  rather than   
his geography4 ,it is one of the chief  
cities of the ,turkish  empire and has a
 history much older than the empire     
itself4 ,founded  by the ,caliph ,mansur
 about the year #gfe ,a4 ,d41 it was the
 capital of  the ,mohammedan world for  
five hundred years1 until it was        
destroyed  by ,halakn1 grandson of      
,jengiz ,khan4 ,situated in the midst of

 what was  once the richest and most    
productive region of the old world it is
  now no longer queen of the land but   
rather reminds us of decay and          
dissolution4 ,its present beauties are  
only the ruins of former glory4  ,the   
untidy soldiers slouching about the     
streets1 the evil-smelling  bazaars and 
ruined mosques1 the rotten bridge of    
boats that spans the  river1 the faces  
of the poor and the miserable who go    
begging through  the streets1 indicate  
the curse of ,turkish inanition and     
oppression4    ,on the west bank of the 
river is the old town enclosed by       
extensive  orange and date-groves4 ,on  
the east bank is ,new-,bagdad1 which    
also  looks old enough4 ,here are the   
government offices1 consulates1 and  the
 chief commercial buildings as well as  
the custom-offices4 ,bagdad  is still an
 important city on many accounts4 ,no   
other city of the  ,turkish empire is   
influenced so much by the desert and    
,arabia as is  ,bagdad2 and no other    

stands in such direct contact with the  
towns in  the interior of the peninsula4
 ,the ,arabic spoken is comparatively   
pure1  and ,bedouin manners still       
prevail in many ways in the social life 
of  the people4 ,the city has a very    
motley population1 because of commerce  
on the one hand and the number of       
pilgrim-shrines on the other4 ,the      
tombs of ,abd-ul-,kadir1 and ,abu       
,hanifah and the gilded domes and       
minarets which mark the resting-places  
of two of the ,shiah ,imams--all  draw  
their annual concourse of visitors from 
many lands and peoples4  ,all the       
languages of the ,levant are spoken on  
its streets although  ,arabic prevails  
over all4 ,dr4 ,h4,m4 ,sutton remarks1  
8,i have been at the  bedside of a      
patient where in a company of           
half-a-dozen people we had  occasion to 
use five languages1 and on another      
occasion we were in a  company of about 
forty people in a room where no less    
than fourteen  languages were           

represented4 ,the land of ,shinar is    
thus still the place  of the confusion  
of tongues40 ,bagdad like ,busrah has   
suffered greatly  by ravages of the     
plague at various times1 but especially 
in #ahcj when  the plague was followed  
by a fearful inundation4 ,in one night1 
when the  river burst its banks #g1jjj  
houses fell and #ae1jjj people perished4
    ,the population of ,bagdad is at    
present variously estimated at from     
#abj1jjj to #ahj1jjj4 ,nearly one-third 
are ,jews while the ,oriental           
,christians number about #e1jjj4 ,the   
trade of ,bagdad is large not only  with
 the region southwards and toward       
,busrah but with ,nejd and ,northern    
,mesopotamia4 ,the import trade from    
,india and ,europe to ,bagdad is over   
#a1jjj1jjj every year1 and the export   
trade to ,europe alone is placed  at    
#ebb1ifj for #ahig4 ,the river north of 
,bagdad is not navigable for  steamers  
but an immense number of kelleks daily  
arrive from the  north loaded with      

lumber from ,kurdistan and with other   
products4 ,these  kelleks are a craft   
made of inflated goatskins boarded over 
with  reeds and matting4 ,the boatmen   
return with the empty skins overland    
with the caravan companies4 ,still more 
characteristic of ,bagdad is  the small 
river-boat called a kuffe or coracle4   
,it consists of a  perfectly circular   
hull1 six to eight feet in diameter1    
with sides  curving inward like a huge  
basket1 and covered with pitch4 ,this   
type of  boat is as old as ,nineveh and 
they are pictured quite accurately on   
the  old monuments4    ,bagdad has more 
than sixty-eight mosques1 six churches  
and twenty-two  synagogues4 ,of the     
mosques some1 like that of ,daood       
,pasha1 are in  fine condition2 others  
are almost in ruins1 and remind one of  
the  remark of ,lady ,ann ,blunt3 8,a   
city long past its prime1 its hose a    
world too wide for its shrunk shanks40  
,the feature of ,bagdad is of  course   
the river ,tigris1 with its             

swift-flowing tide ever washing the  mud
 banks and watering the gardens for     
miles around4 ,the houses come  down    
close to the water's edge and some of   
them have pretty gardens  almost        
overhanging the stream and terraces and 
verandas--oriental and  picturesque4    
,the ,british ,residency is perhaps most
 beautiful in its  location and its     
frontage on the river2 but the other    
consulates vie  with it in displaying to
 the traveller the strength and         
hospitality of  ,european ,states4 ,the 
,european community is larger than at   
,busrah4                                
,,xiv                         ,a        
,,journey ,,down ,,the ,,euphrates      
,through the kind assistance of ,colonel
 ,mockler1 at that time the ,bagdad     
,consul ,general and ,resident1 in the  
autumn of #ahib1 ,i was able to make    
the journey from ,bagdad across to      
,hillah and down the ,euphrates--a route
  not often taken by the traveller4     
,after making necessary preparations    

and finding a suitable servant we hired 
two mules and left the city of  the old 
,caliphs with a caravan for ,kerbela4   
,it was in ,july and we made  our first 
halt four hours from ,bagdad1 sleeping  
on a blanket under the  stars4 ,an hour 
after midnight the pack-saddles were    
lifted in place and  we were off again4 
,it was a mixed company2 ,arabs1        
,persians1 and ,turks2  merchants for   
,hillah and pilgrims to the sacred      
shrines2 women in those  curtained1     
cage-like structures called             
taht-i-vans1--two portable  zenanas     
hanging from each beast2 dervishes on   
foot with green turbans1  heavy canes   
and awful visages3 and to complete the  
picture a number of  rude coffins       
strapped cross-wise on pack-mules and   
holding the remains  of some 8true      
believers10 long since ready for the    
holy ground at ,nejf  7,nedjef74    ,the
 caravan travelled along the desert road
 mostly at night to escape  the fearful 
heat of midday when we sought shelter in

 public khan4  ,nothing could be more   
uninteresting than the country between  
,bagdad  and ,babylon at this season of 
the year4 ,the maps mark six khans on   
the route1 but three of these are in    
ruins and the others are merely  stages 
of a caravan rather than villages or    
centres of cultivation4  ,the soil      
appears excellent1 but there are no     
irrigation canals1 and  everything has a
 deserted appearance4 ,a few low shrubs 
between the  mounds and moles of an     
ancient civilization2 mud-houses near   
the  khans and some ,arab encampments2  
camel skeletons shining white by the    
wayside1 under a burning sun2 and a     
troop or two of gazelle making for  the 
river-banks--that is all you see until  
you reach the palm-banked  ,euphrates at
 ,hillah4    ,the khans consist of a    
large enclosure with heavy walls of     
sun-dried  or ,babylonian brick4 ,in the
 interior are numerous alcoves or       
niches1  ten by six feet and four feet  
above ground2 you seek out an empty     

niche and find a resting-place until the
 caravan starts at midnight4  ,in the   
centre of the enclosure is a well and a 
large platform for  prayer--utilized for
 sleeping and cooking by late arrivals  
who find no  niche reserved as in our   
case4 ,the rest of the court is for     
animals and  baggage4 ,usual ,arab      
supplies were obtainable at these       
resting-places1  but every comfort is   
scarce and the innkeepers are too busy  
to be  hospitable4    ,khan el ,haswa   
where we arrived the second day is the  
centre of a small  village of perhaps   
#cjj people4 ,at three in the morning we
 left ,haswa  but it was nearly noon    
when we reached the river1 because of a 
delay  on the road4 ,the bazaar and     
business of ,hillah were formerly on the
  ,babylonian side of the stream1 but   
are now principally on the further  side
 of the rickety bridge of boats four    
miles below the ruins of  ,babylon4     
,after paying toll we crossed over and  
found a room in the ,khan  ,pasha--a    

close1 dirty place1 but in the midst of 
the town and near the  river4 ,hillah is
 the largest town on the ,euphrates     
north of ,busrah4  ,splendid groves of  
date-trees surround it and stretch along
 the river  as far as the eye can reach4
 ,the principal merchandise of the town 
is  wheat1 barley and dates4 ,of the    
,moslem population two-thirds are       
,shiah1  and the remaining ,sunni are   
mostly ,turks4 ,there are one or two    
native  ,christians and many ,jews1 but 
it is difficult to estimate correctly   
the  population of ,hillah or of any of 
the towns on the ,euphrates4 ,at ,hillah
  the river is less than #bjj yards wide
 and has a much more gentle flow  than  
the ,tigris at ,bagdad4 ,a short        
distance northwest of the town is       
,kerbela4 ,it is only a village but the 
spot is visited by thousands of         
faithful ,moslems every year who        
venerate the twelve ,imams of the ,shiah
  sect4 ,here is the tomb of ,hosein the
 grandson of the prophet and the  son of

 ,ali whom they believe the true        
successor in the ,caliphate4 ,by  living
 or dying here the ,shiah devotee has   
nought to fear for the next  world4 ,so 
strong is this belief that many leave   
directions in their  wills to be buried 
in this hallowed spot4 ,thousands of    
corpses are  imported some even from    
,india--after proper drying and         
salting--and are  laid to rest in the   
sacred ground4 ,nejf1 south of ,hillah1 
is the place  of ,ali's martyrdom and is
 no less sacred for the living and the  
dead4    ,at ,kerbela the manufacture of
 torbat is about the only industry4 ,a  
torbat is a small piece of baked clay   
about two inches in length1  generally  
round or oblong1 with the names of ,ali 
and ,fatima rudely  engraved on it4     
,made out of holy-ground1 these are     
carried home by all  pilgrims and are   
used by nearly every ,shiah as a        
resting-place for  the forehead in their
 prayer prostrations4 ,according to all 
reports  ,kerbela is similar to ,mecca  

in its loose morals and the character of
  its permanent population4    ,on ,july
 #cast we left ,hillah and sailed down  
the river in a native boat  similar to  
the 8bellum0 of ,busrah1 but without    
awning4 ,the ,euphrates  is more muddy  
than the ,tigris1 and its course1 though
 less sinuous1 is  broken here and there
 by shallow rapids4#da ,we sailed all   
night and  did not stop until we arrived
 at ,diwaniyeh the following afternoon4 
,many of the villages on the way        
appeared to have a considerable         
population2 date-groves were plentiful1 
and we passed two or three  ,mathhab or 
tombs of ,arab ,sheikhs1 including that 
reputed to be ,job's1  8the greatest of 
all the sons of the ,east40    ,at      
,diwaniyeh ,i was directed to the       
,serai1 or government-house1 where  the 
,muttaserif ,pasha of ,hillah was       
forcing taxes from the unwilling        
,arabs4 ,i was kindly received1 and1    
probably because of my passport1  was   
entertained at the ,pasha's table4      

,diwaniyeh has only a small  population1
 and its importance is due to its wealth
 of palms and the  wheat trade1 which   
gives another opportunity for the       
government to  establish a toll-bridge  
and custom-house4    ,the ,arabs of this
 region are notorious for their piracy  
on native  craft1 and in #ahcf they even
 attacked the ,english surveying        
expedition4  ,so ,i left the place with 
a guard of two soldiers--,saadeh and    
,salim1  who were as happy as their     
names4 ,patching their uniforms1 asleep 
in  the bottom of the boat1 eating of   
our bread and dates1 or polishing  their
 rifles marked 8,u4 ,s4 ,springfield1   
,snider's ,pat4 #ahfc10 we  reached     
,samawa safely4 ,during the day we      
passed the hamlets ,um ,nejis1  ,abu    
,juwareeb1 ,rumeitha1 and ,sheweit4 ,but
 the general scene was that  of narrow  
morass channels branching out from the  
river1 where forests  of reeds half hid 
mat-huts and naked ,arabs4 ,these river 
tribes are  not true nomads1#db but live

 in one place1 on fish and the products 
of the river buffalo4 ,it is a strange  
sight to see a herd of large  black     
cattle swimming across stream1 pursued  
by shouting1 swimming and  swearing     
herdsmen4 ,and this was once the home of
 ,abraham1 the friend of  ,god4    ,near
 ,rumeitha there was a large menzil of  
the ,lamlum tribe4 ,here we  fastened   
the boat for the night1 as our company  
was afraid to cross  certain rapids by  
starlight4 ,some of the ,arabs came to  
our boat1 armed  with flint-locks and   
the ,mikwar--a heavy stick knobbed with 
sandstone  or hard bitumen--in ,arab    
hands a formidable weapon4 ,most of the 
people  were asleep1 and we could get no
 supplies of any kind except two roast  
fowl from the ,turkish garrison in a mud
 brick fort opposite4 ,even one  of     
these fell to the share of a hungry     
jackal during the night4 ,we left  early
 in the morning1 and after some         
difficulty in crossing the shallow      
rapids1 reached ,samawa in four hours4  

,dismissing the zaptiehs1 we found  a   
room in the ,khan of ,haj ,nasir on the 
second floor and overlooking the        
bazaar4    ,it was the day before       
,ashera1 the great day of ,moharram1 and
 the whole  town was in funereal        
excitement4 ,all shops were closed4     
,shiah were  preparing for the great    
mourning1 and ,sunni sought a safe place
 away  from the street4 ,as soon as ,i  
came the local governor sent word that  
,i must not leave the khan under any    
circumstances1 nor venture in the       
street1 as he would not be responsible  
for ,shiah violence4 ,i remained        
indoors1 therefore1 until the following 
day1 and saw from the window  the       
confusion of the night of ,ashera1 the  
tramp of a mob1 the beating  of breasts1
 the wailing of women1 the bloody       
banners1 and mock-martyr  scenes1 the   
rhythmic howling and cries of 8,ya ,ali6
 ya ,hassan6 ya  ,hussein60 until       
throats were hoarse and hands hung heavy
 for a moment1  only to go at it again4 

,a pandemonium1 as of ,baal's prophets  
on ,carmel1  before the deaf and dumb   
,god of ,islam1--monotheistic only in   
its book4  8,there is no god but ,god10 
and yet to the ,shiah devotees of       
,moharram1  8,he is not in all their    
thoughts40 ,the martyr caliphs of ,nejf 
are their  salvation and their hope1 the
 ,houris' lap4    ,illustration3 ,a     
,,public ,,khan ,,in ,,turkish-,,arabia4
    ,between ,samawa and ,nasariya1 the 
next important town1 we passed the      
villages3 ,zahara1 ,el ,kidr1 ,derj     
,kalat1 7where there is a ,turkish      
,mudir  and a telegraph station on the  
,hillah-,busrah wire7 ,luptika1 ,el     
,ain1 ,abu  ,tabr and ,el ,assaniyeh4   
,the river begins to broaden below      
,samawa1 and  its banks are beautiful   
with palms and willows4 ,we were again  
delayed  at a toll-bridge2 there must be
 taxes everywhere in ,turkey1 on ships  
and on fishermen1 on boats and on       
bridges1 on tobacco and on salt2  but   
this taxing of the same cargo at every  

river port is peculiar4                 
,illustration3 ,,arab ,,pilgrims ,,on   
,,board ,a ,,river ,,steamer4           
,nasariya is a comparatively modern town
 and better built than any  on the      
,euphrates river4 ,its bazaar is large  
and wide1 and the  government-houses are
 imposing for ,arabdom4 ,a small gunboat
 lies  near the landing1 and this       
floating tub1 with its soldier guard and
  bugle-call1 represents the only       
civilization that has yet come to the   
,euphrates valley1 and is a thing of    
wonder to the ,arabs4 ,opposite         
,nasariya are two large walled          
enclosures1 wheat granaries protected   
from ,arab robbers4 ,three hours west   
are the ruins of ,mugheir--,ur of the   
,chaldees4    ,our meheleh sailed down  
the river before daylight and five hours
 later  came to ,suk el ,shiukh1 8the   
bazaar of old men40 ,abd el ,fattah1 in 
whose ,persian kahwah we found a place1 
is a cosmopolitan4 ,he had seen         
8,franjees0 before1 had been to ,bombay1

 ,aden and ,jiddah1 knew something  of  
books1 a little less of the gospel1 and 
spoke two ,english words1 of  which he  
was very proud1 8,stop her0 and 8,send a
 geri40 ,he was a model  innkeeper1 and 
had it not been for his tea and talk1   
the three days of  stifling heat under a
 mat-roof would have been less          
tolerable4    ,south of ,suk el ,shiukh 
the river widens into marshes1 where the
 channel  is so shallow that part of the
 cargo of all river boats is transferred
  to smaller craft4 ,on account of this 
delay1 we ran short of provisions       
before reaching ,kurna1 and our boatmen 
were such prejudiced sectarians  that it
 required argument and much backsheesh  
to bargain for some  rice and the use of
 their cooking-pot4 ,we were 8nejis10   
8kafir10 and  what not1 and the captain 
vowed he would have to wash the whole   
boat  clean at ,busrah from the         
footprints of the unbelievers4 ,between 
,suk  and the junction of the two rivers
 to form the ,shatt-el-,arab at ,kurna1 

there are many wide1 waste marshes1     
growing reeds and pasture for the       
buffalo--a breeding place for insect    
life and the terror of the boatmen      
because of the ,me'dan pirates4 ,we were
 three days on this part of the  river1 
and often all of us were in the water to
 lift and tug the boat  over some       
mud-bank4 ,el ,kheit is the only village
 of any size the whole  distance1 but   
the ,bedouin of the swamp1 who live half
 the time in the  water and have not    
arrived at even the loincloth stage of  
civilization1  are a great multitude4   
,at length we reached ,kurna and thence1
 by the  broad1 lordly1 ,shatt-el-,arab 
to the mission-house at ,busrah4        
,what is to be the future of this great 
and wealthy valley1 which  once         
supported myriads and was the centre of 
culture and ancient  civilization8 ,will
 it evermore rest under the blight of   
the fez and the  crescent8 ,the one     
curse of the land is the inane          
government and its  ruthless taxation4  

,the goose with the golden egg is killed
 every day in  ,turkey--at least robbed 
to its last nest-egg4 ,the              
shepherd-tribes1 the  villagers1 the    
nomads1 the agricultural communities1   
all suffer alike  from the same cause4  
,when and whence will deliverance come8 
,perhaps a  partial reply to these two  
questions will be found if we read      
between  the lines in our chapter on the
 recent politics of ,arabia4 ,a ,turkish
  railroad in the ,euphrates valley     
would rust2 but a railroad under  any   
other government would develop a region 
capable of magnificent  improvement4    
,,xv                        ,,the       
,,interior--,,known ,,and ,,unknown     
8,the central provinces of ,nejd1 the   
genuine ,wahabi country1 is to the      
rest of ,arabia a sort of a lion's den  
on which few venture and yet   fewer    
return40--,palgrave4     8,a desert     
world of new and dreadful aspect6 black 
camels1 and uncouth   hostile mountains2
 and a vast sand wilderness shelving    

toward the dire   impostor's            
city40--,doughty4      ,the region      
which1 for want of a more definite name1
 we may call the  ,interior includes    
four large districts4 ,three of these   
have been  comparatively well explored  
and mapped1 but the fourth is utterly   
unknown4 ,these districts are3          
,roba'-el-,khali1 ,nejran with ,wady    
,dauasir1  ,nejd proper1 and ,jebel     
,shammar4    ,it is surprising that at  
the close of the nineteenth century     
there  should remain so many portions of
 our globe still unexplored4 ,we  have  
better maps of the north pole and of the
 moon than we have of  ,southeastern    
,arabia and parts of ,central ,asia4 ,a 
triangle formed by  lines drawn from    
,harrara in ,oman to ,el ,harik in      
,southern ,nejd1 thence  to ,marib in   
,yemen and back to ,harrara will measure
 very nearly #ejj  miles on each of its 
upper sides and #hjj on the base4 ,this 
triangle1  with an area of #abj1jjj     
square miles is as utterly unknown to   

the world  at large as if it were an    
undiscovered continent in some polar    
sea4  ,never has it been crossed by any 
,european traveller or entered by an    
explorer4 ,it includes all the          
hinterland of the ,mahrah and ,gharah   
tribes1 all western ,oman and the       
so-called ,roba'-el-,khali 7literally1  
8empty abode07 of the ,dahna desert1 as 
well as that mysterious region  of ,el  
,ahkaf to which the ,koran refers and   
which is said by the ,arabs  to be a sea
 of quicksands1 able to swallow whole   
caravans4    ,on most maps the region in
 question is left blank2 others         
designate  it as an uninterrupted desert
 from ,mecca to ,oman2 while ,ptolemy's 
map  describes the region as producing  
myrrh and abounding in ,arab tribes  and
 caravan-routes4 ,whatever we know of   
the country at present must be  the     
result of ,arab hearsay booked by       
travellers in the coast-provinces4  ,the
 few names of places given in the       
,roba'-el-,khali would not lead  one to 

suppose that 8uninterrupted desert0 was 
its only characteristic  feature4 ,in   
the north are ,jebel ,athal 7the        
,tamarisk ,mountains71 and  ,wady       
,yebrin4 ,wady ,shibwan and ,wady       
,habuna seem to extend at least some    
distance into the triangle from the     
west1 while1 in the very centre  we have
 the very unusual names for a desert    
region ,belad-ez-,zohur                 
7,flower-country7 and ,el-,joz 7the     
nut-trees74 ,there is no doubt that a   
large part of the region is now desert  
and uninhabited2 but it may not  always 
have been so and may hold its own       
secrets1 archological and  geographical4
    ,an ,arab of ,wady ,fatima told     
,doughty1 what the divine partition of  
the  world was in the following words3  
8,two quarters ,allah divided to the    
children of ,adam1 the third part ,he   
gave to ,gog and ,magog1 a manikin      
people1 parted from us by a wall1 which 
they shall overskip in the  latter days2
 and then will they overrun the world4  

,of their kindred be  the gross ,turks  
and the misbelieving ,persians2 but you1
 the ,engleys  are of the good kind with
 us4 ,the fourth part of the world is   
called  ,roba'-el-,khali1 the empty     
quarter40 ,doughty adds1 8,i never found
 any  ,arabian who had aught to tell1   
even by hearsay1 of that dreadful       
country4 ,haply it is ,nefud1 with      
quicksands1 which might be entered  into
 and even passed with milch dromedaries 
in the spring weeks4 ,now my  health    
failed me2 otherwise ,i had sought to   
unriddle that enigma40 ,it  still awaits
 solution4 ,in ,oman they say it is only
 twenty-seven days'  caravan march      
overland to ,mecca right through the    
desert2 perhaps from  the ,oman         
highlands one could more easily         
penetrate into the unknown and  get     
safely to ,riad if not to ,yemen4       
,nejran1 celebrated as an ancient       
,christian province of ,arabia and      
sacred by the blood of martyrs1 lies    
north of ,yemen and east of the  ,asir  

country4 ,together with the             
,dauasir-,wady region it forms a strip  
of territory about #cjj miles long and  
#ajj broad1 well-watered and even  more 
fertile than the best parts of          
,yemen#dc4 ,the intrepid traveller1     
,halvy 7#ahgj7 first visited this region
 from ,yemen and found a large  ,jewish 
population in the southern part4 ,he    
visited the towns ,mahlaf1  ,rijlah and 
,karyet-el-,kabil1 penetrated ,wady     
,habuna but could not  succeed in       
reaching ,wady ,dauasir4 ,he describes  
the fertility of the  ,wadys and the    
extensive date-plantations of this part 
of ,arabia in  terms of greatest        
admiration4 ,ruins and inscriptions are 
plentiful4  ,in ,wady ,dauasir the      
,arabs say that the palm-groves extend  
three  dromedary-journeys4 ,the people  
are all agricultural ,arabs but1 as  in 
,oman1 they live in continual feud and  
turmoil because of tribal  jealousies   
and old quarrels4    ,the region east of
 ,wady ,dauasir is called ,aflaj or     

,felej-el-,aflaj1 two  days' journey    
distant1 here there are also palm-oases4
 ,it is six days'  journey thence to    
,riad1 but the way is rugged1 without   
villages4#dd  ,it was along ,wady       
,dauasir that ,i had hoped to make the  
overland  journey from ,sana to ,bahrein
 in #ahid1 once beyond ,turkish         
espionage  the way would have been open4
 ,according to the testimony of ,halvy  
the inhabitants of ,nejran and ,wady    
,dauasir are not fanatical4 ,nowhere  in
 ,yemen are the ,jews treated so kindly 
as by the ,arabs of ,nejran4  ,this     
entire region must also be classed with 
the fertile districts of  ,arabia4      
,water is everywhere abundant coming    
down from the ,jebel ,rian1  fifteen    
days' journey from ,toweyk and from the 
southern ranges of ,jebel  ,ban and     
,jebel ,tumra4 ,the inhabitants of      
,nejran and of ,southern ,dauasir  are  
heretical ,moslems4 ,they belong to the 
,bayadhi sect like the people  of       
,oman1#de and are supposed to be        

followers of ,abd-,allah-bin-,abad      
7#gdf ,a4 ,d474    ,historically1       
,nejran is of special interest because  
here it was that  the ,roman army of    
#aa1jjj men sent by ,augustus ,csar     
under lius ,gallus  to make a prey of   
the chimerical riches of ,arabia ,felix 
came to grief4  ,the warriors did not   
fall in battle but1 purposely misled by 
the  ,nabateans1 their allies1 they     
marched painfully over the waterless    
wastes in ,central ,arabia six months2  
the most perished in misery and  only a 
remnant returned4 ,strabo1 writing from 
the mouth of ,gallus  himself1 who was  
his friend and prefect of ,egypt1 gives 
a description  of the ,arabian desert   
that cannot be improved3 8,it is a sandy
 waste  with only a few palms and pits  
of water2 the acacia thorn and the      
tamarisk grow there2 the wandering      
,arabs lodge in tents and are camel     
graziers40    ,nejd--the heart of       
,arabia1 the genuine ,arabia1 the       
,arabia of the  poets--is properly      

bounded1--on the east1 by the ,turkish  
province of  ,hasa2 on the south by the 
border of the desert near ,yemama2 on   
the  west by ,hejaz in its widest extent
 to ,khaibar2 and on the north by       
,jebel ,shammar4 ,thus defined it       
includes the regions of ,el-,kasim1     
,el-,woshem1 ,el-,aared1 and ,yemama4   
,the 8,zephyrs of ,nejd0 are the        
pregnant  theme of many an ,arab poet   
and in these highlands1 the air is crisp
 and  dry and invigorating1 especially  
to the visitors from the hot and moist  
coast provinces4 ,it was such a poet who
 wrote in raptures of the ,nejd         
climate3        8,then said ,i to my    
companion while the camels were         
hastening      ,to bear us down the pass
 between ,menifah and ,demar4           
#8,enjoy while thou canst the sweets of 
the meadows of ,nejd2      ,with no such
 meadows and sweets shalt thou meet     
after this evening4'      ,ah6 heaven's 
blessing on the scented gales of ,nejd1 
,and its greensward and groves          

glittering from the spring showers2     
,and thy dear friends when thy lot was  
cast in ,nejd--      ,months flew past1 
they passed and we knew not1      ,nor  
when their moons were new nor when they 
waned40    ,as to the real and prosaic  
features of the country1 ,nejd is a     
plateau  of which ,jebel ,toweyk is the 
centre and backbone4 ,its general height
  above the sea is about #d1jjj feet1   
but there are more lofty ledges and     
peaks1 some as high as #e1ejj feet4     
,these highlands are for the most       
clothed with fine pasture2 trees are    
common1 solitary or in little  groups2  
and the entire plateau is intersected by
 a maze of valleys  cut out of the      
sandstone and limestone4 ,in these      
countless hollows is  concentrated the  
fertility and the population of ,nejd4  
,the soil of the  valleys is light1     
mixed with marl sand and pebbles washed 
down from the  cliffs4 ,water is found  
everywhere in wells at a depth of not   
much over  fifteen feet and often less2 

in ,kasim it has a brackish taste1 and  
the  soil is salty1 but in other parts  
of ,nejd there are traces of iron in    
it4 ,the climate of all ,nejd1 according
 to ,palgrave1 is perhaps one of  the   
healthiest in the world4 ,the air is    
dry1 clear and free from all  the       
malarial poison of the coast2 the       
summers are warm but not sultry1  and   
the winter air is biting cold4 ,the     
usual monotony of an ,arabian  landscape
 is not only enlivened by the presence  
of the date-palm near  the villages1 but
 by groups of ,talh1 ,nebaa' and ,sidr1 
the ,ithl and  ,ghada ,euphorbia--all of
 them good-sized shrubs or trees4#df    
,nejd is pasture land1 so that its breed
 of sheep are known all over  ,arabia2  
their wool is remarkably fine1 almost   
equal to ,cashmire in  softness and     
delicacy4 ,camels abound2 according to  
,palgrave1 ,nejd is  8a wilderness of   
camels40 ,the color is generally        
brownish white or  grey2 black camels   
are found westward and southward in the 

inhospitable  ,harra-country toward     
,mecca4 ,oxen and cows are not uncommon4
 ,game is  plenty1 both feathered and   
quadruped4 ,partridges1 quail1 a kind of
  bustard2 gazelle1 hares1 jerboa1      
wild-goat1 wild-boars1 porcupine1       
antelope1 and a kind of wild-ox         
7wathyhi7 with beautiful horns4 ,snakes 
are not common1 but lizards1 centipedes 
and scorpions abound4 ,the  ostrich is  
also found in western ,nejd as well as  
in ,wady ,dauasir4 ,the  ,bedouin hunt  
them to sell the skins to the ,damascus 
feather merchants  who come down with   
the ,haj every year to ,mecca2 forty    
reals 7dollars7  was the price paid in  
,doughty's time for a single skin--a    
small fortune  to the poor nomad4       
,mounted on their dromedaries they watch
 for the  bird and then waylay it1      
matchlock ready to hand4 ,the ,arabs    
esteem the  breast of the ostrich good  
food2 the fat is a sovereign remedy with
  them and half a finjan 7the measure of
 an ,arab coffee-cup71 is worth  half a 

,turkish mejidie4 ,the ostrich is no    
longer as common in ,arabia as          
formerly1 and in many parts of the      
peninsula the bird is unknown even  by  
name4    ,nejd is a land of camels and  
horses4 ,but although a fine breed of   
the latter exist it is a common mistake 
to suppose that horses are  plentiful in
 ,central ,arabia and that every ,arab  
owns his steed4  ,doughty says 8there is
 no breeding or sale of horses at       
,boreyda or  ,aneyza nor any town in    
,nejd40 ,most of the horses shipped from
 ,busrah or  ,kuweit to ,bombay are not 
from ,nejd1 although originally of      
,nejd-breed1  but come from ,jebel      
,shammar and the ,mesopotamian valley4  
,he who would  know all about the beauty
 of the ,nejd horse must visit the ,hail
 stables  with ,palgrave who 8goes      
raving mad0 about the animals2 or he can
 read  ,lady ,ann ,blunt's 8,pilgrimage 
to ,nejd0 in search of horses2 better   
still  let him buy that remarkable book 
by ,colonel ,tweedie3 ,,the ,,arabian   

,,horse1  ,his country and ,his people4 
,in this volume the horse is the hero   
and  ,arabs are grooms and stable-boys4 
,the ,arab is more kind to his horse    
than to any other animal4 ,no ,arab     
dreams of tying up a horse by the  neck1
 a tether replaces the halter1 one of   
the animal's hind-legs being  encircled 
about the pastern by a light iron ring  
or leather strap1  and connected with a 
chain or rope to an iron peg4 ,nejdi    
horses are  specially valuable for great
 speed and endurance4 ,they are all     
built  for riding and not for draught1  
to the unprofessional eye they do not   
seem at all superior to the best horses 
seen in ,london or ,new ,york  ,city1   
but ,i leave the matter to the          
authorities mentioned4#dg    ,the       
government of ,nejd indicates what the  
independent rulers of ,arabia  are like4
 ,doughty testifies that the sum of all 
he could learn from  the mouth of the   
,arabs themselves of ,ibn ,rashid's     
government 7now in  the hands of        

,abd-el-,aziz bin ,mitaab1 his nephew7  
was this3 8,he makes  sure of them that 
may be won by gifts1 he draws the sword 
against  his adversaries1 he treads down
 them that fear him and he were no      
right ruler1 hewed he no heads off60    
,some of the nomads consider the  prince
 of ,nejd a tyrant1 but the villagers   
generally are well content4  ,forsooth  
it is better for them to have one tyrant
 than many1 as in  the days before the  
political upheaval that unified central 
,arabia4  ,other of the more religious  
folk of ,nejd cannot forget the bloody  
path  by which ,ibn ,rashid gained his  
seat of power and call him 8,nejis1     
7polluted71 a cutter-off of his kinsfolk
 with the sword40    ,lavish sums in the
 eyes of the starved ,bedouin are spent 
on hospitality  but all guests are      
pleased and depart from the pile of rice
 to praise  ,god and the ,amir of ,nejd4
 ,daily1 in the guest-room1 according to
  ,doughty1 one hundred and eighty      
messes of barley-bread with rice and    

butter are served to the men freely2 a  
camel or smaller animal is  killed for  
the first-class guests and the total    
expense of his famous  hospitality is   
not over #a1ejj annually4 ,the revenues 
are immense and  ,ibn ,rashid's private 
fortune had grown large even when       
,doughty visited  him in #ahgg4 ,he has 
cattle innumerable and 8#dj1jjj camels02
 some #cjj  blooded mares and #ajj      
horses2 over #ajj negro slaves2 besides 
private  riches laid up in silver metal1
 land at ,hail and plantations in ,jauf4
    ,contrasted with the ,turkish       
provinces of ,arabia the subjects of the
  ,amir of ,nejd enjoy light taxation   
and even the ,bedouin warriors who are  
in the service of the ,nejd ruler       
receive better wages than the regular   
troops of the ,sultan4 ,from the        
descrip-    tion of ,mr4 and ,mrs4      
,blunt and ,doughty at ,hail1 one cannot
 but feel  that the government of ,nejd 
is much more liberal and less fanatical 
than it was in the old days of the      

,wahabis as described by ,palgrave4     
,the old ,wahabi power is now broken    
forever and ,nejd is getting into  touch
 with the world through commerce4 ,kasim
 already resembles the  border-lands and
 the inhabitants are worldly-wise with  
the wisdom of  the ,bombay              
horse-dealers4 ,many of the youth of    
,nejd visit ,bagdad1  ,busrah and       
,bahrein in their commercial ventures4  
,says ,doughty1 8all  ,nejd ,arabia1    
east of ,teyma1 appertains to the       
,persian ,gulf traffic and  not to      
,syria as does western ,nejd3 and       
therefore the foreign color of  ,nejd is
 ,mesopotamian40 ,he marvelled at the   
erudition of the ,nejd ,arabs  in spite 
of their isolation until he found that  
even here newspapers  had found their   
way in recent years4 ,english patent    
medicines are sold  in the bazaar of    
,aneyza and the ,arabs are somewhat     
acquainted with the  wonders of ,bombay 
and ,calcutta4 ,palgrave found the      
inhabitants of ,kasim  and southern     

,nejd far more intelligent than those of
 the north4 ,except  for the four large 
towns of ,hail1 ,riad1 ,boreyda and     
,aneyza1 ,nejd has  no large centres of 
population4 ,bedouin tribes are found   
everywhere  and villagers cultivate the 
fertile oases even in the desert2 but   
the  population is not as dense as in   
,oman or ,yemen nor even as in ,nejran  
and ,wady ,dauasir4    ,hail1 the       
present capital of ,nejd1 may have a    
population of ten  thousand within its  
walls4 ,it lies east of ,jebel ,aja1 a  
granite range  #f1jjj feet high ending  
abruptly at this point4 ,the city is on 
a  table-land #c1ejj feet above the sea4
 ,the ,amir's castle is a formidable    
stronghold occupying a position of      
immense natural strength in the  ,jebel 
,aja4 ,blunt visited this place in      
#ahgh1 but does not give its  exact     
site1 8lest the information might be    
utilized by the ,turks under  possible  
future contingencies40 ,we have three   
pen-pictures of ,hail3  that of         

,palgrave who drew a plan of the city2  
the description of  ,doughty with his   
plan of the ,amir's residence and       
guest-house2 and the sketches of ,lady  
,ann ,blunt on her pilgrimage4 ,it  is a
 walled town with several gates1 a large
 market-place1 the palaces  overtopping 
all and mosques sufficient for the      
worshippers4 ,it is a  clean1 well-built
 town1 according to ,doughty and        
pleasant to live in  save for the awe of
 the tyrant-ruler4 ,its circuit may be  
nearly an  hour1 in the centre of the   
walled enclosure stands the palace2 near
 it  the great mosque and directly      
opposite the principal bazaar4 ,the     
great  coffee-hall where the ,amir gives
 his audiences is eighty feet long  with
 lofty walls and of noble proportions4  
,it has long rows of pillars  8upholding
 the flat roof of ethel timbers and     
palm-stalk mat-work1  goodly stained and
 varnished with the smoke of the daily  
hospitality4  ,under the walls are      
benches of clay overspread with ,bagdad 

carpets4  ,by the entry stands a mighty 
copper-tinned basin or #8sea' of fresh  
water with a chained cup1 from thence   
the coffee-server draws and  he may     
drink who thirsts4 ,in the upper end of 
this princely kahwa  7coffee-house7 are 
two fire-pits1 like shallow graves1     
where desert  bushes are burned in      
colder weather2 they lack good fuel1 and
 fire is  blown commonly under the giant
 coffee-pots in a clay hearth like a    
smith's furnace40    ,the palace castles
 are built in ,nejd with battled towers 
of clay-brick  and whitened on the      
outside with jiss or plaster2 this in   
contrast  with the palm-gardens in the  
walled-enclosure give the town a bright1
  fresh aspect4 ,outside the walls1 the 
contrast of the ,bedouin squalor  and   
the rusty black basalt rocks lying in   
rough confusion is intense4  ,hail lies 
in the midst of a barren country and is 
an oasis not by  nature but by the pluck
 and perseverance of its founders4 ,the 
,shammar  ,arabs settled here from      

antiquity and the place is mentioned in 
the  ancient poem of ,antar4            
,er-,riadh or ,riad 7the                
8gardens-in-the-desert07 was the ,wahabi
  metropolis of ,eastern ,nejd and of   
all the ,wahabi empire4 ,the city lies  
in the heart of the ,aared country1     
enclosed north and south by ,jebel      
,toweyk and about #bhj miles southeast  
of ,hail4 ,it is a large place          
7according to ,palgrave of #cj1jjj      
population671 but nothing is known  of  
its present state1 as no ,european      
traveller has visited it since          
,palgrave4 ,the general appearance of   
,riad1 according to our guide is  like  
that of ,damascus4 8,before us stretched
 a wide open valley1 and  in its        
foreground1 immediately below the pebbly
 slope on whose summit  we stood1 lay   
the capital1 large and square1 crowned  
by high towers  and strong walls of     
defence1 a mass of roofs and terraces1  
where1  overtopping all1 frowned the    
huge but irregular pile of ,feysul's    

royal  castle1 and hard by it rose the  
scarce less conspicuous palace1 built   
and inhabited by his eldest son1        
,abdallah4 ,all around for full three   
miles over the surrounding plain1 but   
more especially to the west and  south1 
waved a sea of palm-trees above green   
fields and well-watered  gardens2 while 
the singing1 droning sound of the       
water-wheels reached  us even where we  
had halted at a quarter of a mile or    
more from  the nearest town-walls4 ,on  
the opposite side southward1 the valley 
opened out into the great and even more 
fertile plains of ,yemama1  thickly     
dotted with groves and villages1 among  
which the large town  ,manhufah1 hardly 
inferior in size to ,riad itself1 might 
be clearly  distinguished4444 ,in all   
the countries which ,i have visited1 and
 they  are many1 seldom has it been mine
 to survey a landscape equal to this  in
 beauty1 and in historical meaning1 rich
 and full alike to the eye  and the     
mind4 ,the mixture of tropical aridity  

and luxuriant verdure1  of crowded      
population and desert tracts1 is one    
that ,arabia alone  can present1 and in 
comparison with which ,syria seems tame 
and ,italy  monotonous40#dh             
,undoubtedly the population of ,riad has
 diminished since the seat of           
government was transferred to ,hail2 at 
present it has even less trade  and     
importance than ,hofhoof 7,hassa7 since 
the ,turkish occupation4    ,,jebel     
,,shammar and the northwestern desert1  
remain to be considered4  ,the chief    
characteristics of this region are the  
extensive ,nefuds or  sandy-deserts and 
the nomad population4 ,jebel ,shammar   
more than any  part of ,arabia is the   
tenting ground for the sons of ,kedar4  
,everywhere  are the black-worsted      
booths--the houses of goat-hair1 so     
celebrated in  ,arabic poetry and song4 
,place-names on the map of this country 
are not  villages or cities but         
watering-places for cattle and          
encampments of  the tribes from year to 

year4 ,from the ,gulf of ,akaba to the  
,euphrates1  and as far north as their  
flocks can find pasture1 the nomads call
 the  land their own4 ,many of them are 
subject to the government of ,nejd and  
pay a small annual tribute2 some are    
nominally under ,turkish rule and       
others know no ruler save their ,sheikh 
and have no law save that of  immemorial
 ,bedouin custom4    ,burckhardt        
discourses of these people like one who 
has dwelt among  them1 tasting the sweet
 and bitter of their hungry1 homely     
life4 ,he  describes their tents and    
their simple furniture1 arms1 utensils1 
diet1  arts1 industry1 sciences1        
diseases1 religion1 matrimony1          
government1  and warfare4 ,he tells of  
their hospitality to the stranger2 their
  robbery of the traveller2 their       
blood-revenge and blood-covenants2      
their slaves and servants2 their feasts 
and rejoicings2 their domestic          
relations and public functions2 their   
salutations and language2 and  how at   

last they bury their dead in a single   
garment1 scraping out a  shallow grave  
in hard-burned soil and heaping on a few
 rough stones to  keep away the foul    
hyenas4    ,burckhardt devotes a        
considerable portion of his book to an  
enumeration  of the ,bedouin-tribes and 
their numerous subdivisions4 ,these will
 prove  of great service to those who   
visit or cross the northern part of the 
,peninsula4 ,the most important tribe is
 that of the ,anaeze4 ,they are  nomads 
in the strictest acceptation of the     
word1 for they continue  during the     
whole year in almost constant motion4   
,their summer quarters  are near the    
,syrian frontiers and in winter they    
retire into the heart  of the desert or 
toward the ,euphrates4 ,when the tents  
are few they are  pitched in a circle   
and called dowar1 in greater numbers1   
they encamp  in rows1 one behind the    
other1 especially along a rivulet or    
wady-bed2  such encampments are called  
,nezel4 ,the ,sheikh's or chief's tent  

has  the principal place generally      
toward the direction whence guests or   
foes may be expected4 ,the ,anaeze tents
 are always of black goat's-hair2  some 
other tribes have stuff striped white   
and black4 ,even the richest  among them
 never have more than one tent unless he
 happen to have a  second wife who      
cannot live on good terms with the      
first2 he then  pitches a smaller tent  
near his own4 ,but polygamy is very     
unusual among  the ,bedouin ,arabs1     
although divorce is common4 ,the tent   
furniture is  simplicity itself2        
camel-saddles and cooking utensils with 
carpets and  provision skins1 are all   
the ,arab housewife has to look after4  
,since the days of ,job the ,bedouin    
have been a nation of robbers4 8,the    
oxen were plowing and the asses feeding 
beside them2 and the ,sabeans  fell upon
 them and took them away1 yea they have 
slain the servants  with the edge of the
 sword40 7,job i4 #ad47 ,the ,bedouin's 
hand is  against every man in all ,jebel

 ,shammar to this day4 ,the tribes are  
in  a state of almost perpetual war     
against each other2 it seldom happens1  
according to ,burckhardt1 that a tribe  
enjoys a moment of general peace  with  
all its neighbors1 yet the war between  
two tribes is not of long  duration4    
,peace is easily made and easily broken4
 ,in ,bedouin parlance  a salt covenant 
is only binding while the salt is in    
their stomachs4  ,general battles are   
rarely fought1 and few lives are lost2  
to surprise  an enemy by sudden attack1 
or to plunder a camp1 are the chief     
objects  of both parties4 ,the dreadful 
effects of 8blood-revenge0 7by which    
law the kindred of the slain are in duty
 bound to slay the murderer  or his kin7
 prevent many sanguinary conflicts4     
,whatever the ,arabs  take in their     
predatory excursions is shared according
 to previous  agreement4 ,sometimes the 
whole spoil is equally divided by the   
,sheikh  among his followers2 at other  
times each one plunders for himself4 ,a 

,bedouin raid is called a ghazu1 and it 
is worthy of remark that the  earliest  
biographer of ,mohammed1 ,ibn ,ishak1 so
 designates the wars of  the prophet of 
,god with the ,koreish4 ,the ,anaeze    
,bedouin never attack  by night1 for    
during the confusion of a nocturnal     
assault the women's  apartments might be
 entered1 and this they regard as       
treachery4 ,the  female sex is respected
 even among the most inveterate enemies 
whenever  a camp is plundered1 and      
neither men1 women nor slaves are ever  
taken  prisoners4 ,it is war only for   
booty4 ,the ,arabs are robbers1 seldom  
murderers2 to ask protection or dakheil 
is sure quarter1 even when  the spear is
 lifted4 ,peace is concluded generally  
by arbitration in  the tent of the      
,sheikh of a third tribe friendly to    
both combating  tribes4 ,the most       
frequent cause of war is quarrels over  
wells or  watering-places and pasture   
grounds1 just as in the days of the     
patriarchs4    8,the ,bedouins have     

reduced robbery10 says ,burckhardt1 8in 
all  its branches to a complete and     
regular system1 which offers many       
interesting details40 ,these details are
 very numerous1 and the stories  of     
robbery and escape given by the ,arabian
 chroniclers1 or told at the            
camp-fires1 would fill a volume4 ,one   
example will suffice us4 ,three  robbers
 plan an attack on an encampment4 ,one  
of them stations himself  behind the    
tent that is to be robbed1 and endeavors
 to excite the  attention of the nearest
 watch-dogs4 ,these immediately attack  
him2 he  flies1 and they pursue him to a
 great distance from the camp1 which is 
thus cleared of those dangerous         
guardians4 ,the second robber goes to   
the camels1 cuts the strings that       
confine their legs and makes as many    
rise as he wishes4 ,he then leads one of
 the she-camels out of the camp1  the   
others following as usual1 while the    
third robber has all this time  been    
standing with lifted club before the    

tent-door to strike down any  one who   
might awake and venture forth4 ,if the  
robbers succeed they then  join their   
companion1 each seizes the tail of a    
strong leading-camel  and pulls it with 
all his might2 the camels set up a      
gallop into the  desert and the men are 
dragged along by their booty until safe 
distance  separates them from the scene 
of robbery4 ,they then mount their prey 
and make haste to their own encampment4 
,before we lightly condemn the robber we
 must realize his sore need4  ,according
 to ,doughty and other travellers       
three-fourths of the  ,bedouin of       
,northwestern ,arabia suffer continual  
famine and seldom  have enough to eat4  
,in the long summer drought when        
pastures fail and  the gaunt camel-herds
 give no milk they are in a sorry       
plight2 then  it is that the housewife  
cooks her slender mess of rice secretly1
  lest some would-be guest should smell 
the pot4 ,the hungry gnawing of  the    
,arab's stomach is lessened by the      

coffee-cup and the ceaseless            
8tobacco-drinking0 from the nomad's     
precious pipe4 ,the women suffer  most  
and children languish away4 ,when one of
 these sons-of-desert  heard from       
,doughty's lips of a land where 8we had 
an abundance of the  blessings of       
,allah1 bread and clothing and peace1   
and1 how1 if any  wanted1 the law       
succored him--he began to be full of    
melancholy1 and to  lament the          
everlasting infelicity of the ,arabs1   
whose lack of clothing  is a cause to   
them of many diseases1 who have not     
daily food nor  water enough1 and       
wandering in the empty wilderness1 are  
never at any  stay--and these miseries  
to last as long as their lives4 ,and    
when his  heart was full1 he cried up to
 heaven1 #8,have mercy1 ah ,lord ,god1  
upon  ,thy creature which ,thou         
createdst--pity the sighing of the poor1
 the  hungry1 the naked--have           
mercy--have mercy upon them1 ,o         
,allah6'0    ,as we bid farewell to the 

tents of ,kedar and the deserts of      
,north  ,arabia let us say amen to the  
nomad's prayer and judge them not       
harshly  in their misery lest we be     
judged4                                 
,,xvi                            8,,the 
,,time ,,of ,,ignorance0     8,the      
religious decay in ,arabia shortly      
before ,islam may well be taken   in a  
negative sense1 in the sense of the     
tribes losing the feeling   of kinship  
with the tribal gods4 ,we may express   
this more concretely   by saying that   
the gods had become gradually more and  
more nebulous   through the destructive 
influence exercised1 for about two      
hundred   years1 by ,jewish and         
,christian ideas1 upon ,arabian         
heathenism 8--,h4   ,hirschfeld1 in the 
8,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic        
,society40      ,in order to understand 
the genesis of ,islam we must know      
something of  the condition of ,arabia  
before the advent of ,mohammed4 ,we     
shall then  be able to discover the     

factors that influenced the hero-prophet
 and  made it possible for him so       
powerfully to sway the destinies of his 
own  generation and those that were to  
follow4    ,mohammedan writers call the 
centuries before the birth of their     
,prophet  wakt-el-jahiliyeh--8the time  
of ignorance0--since the ,arabs were    
then  ignorant of the true religion4    
,these writers naturally chose to paint 
the picture of heathen ,arabia as dark  
as possible1 in order that the  8,light 
of ,god10 as the prophet is called1     
might appear more bright in  contrast4  
,following these authorities ,sale and  
others have left an  altogether wrong   
impression of the state of ,arabia when 
,mohammed first  appeared4 ,the commonly
 accepted idea that he preached entirely
 new  truth and uplifted the ,arabs to a
 higher plane of civilization is only   
half true4#di    ,no part of ,arabia has
 ever reached the high stage of         
civilization under  the rule of ,islam  
which ,yemen enjoyed under its          

,christian or even its  ,jewish         
dynasties of the ,himyarites4 ,early    
,christianity in ,arabia1 with  all its 
weakness1 had been a power for good4    
,the ,jews had penetrated to  nearly    
every portion of the peninsula long     
before ,mohammed came on the  scene4#ej 
,in the 8,time of ,ignorance0 the ,arabs
 throughout the peninsula were  divided 
into numerous local tribes or clans     
which were bound together  by no        
political organization but only by a    
traditional sentiment  of unity which   
they believed1 or feigned to believe1 a 
unity of  blood4 ,each group was a unit 
and opposed to all the other clans4     
,some were pastoral and some nomadic2   
others like those at ,mecca and  ,taif  
were traders4 ,for many centuries ,yemen
 had been enriched by the  incense-trade
 and by its position as the emporium of 
,eastern commerce4  ,sprenger in his    
ancient geography of the peninsula says 
that3 8,the  history of the earliest    
commerce is the history of incense and  

the  land of incense was ,arabia40 ,the 
immense caravan trade which brought  all
 the wealth of ,ormuz and ,ind to the   
,west1 must have been a means of        
civilization to the desert4 ,the tanks  
of ,marib spread fertility around  and  
the region north of ,sana was           
intersected by busy caravan-routes4  ,w4
 ,robertson ,smith goes so far as to say
 that 8,in this period the name  of     
,arab was associated to ,western writers
 with ideas of effeminate  indolence and
 peaceful opulence 444 the golden age of
 ,yemen40    ,the ,arabs had enjoyed for
 several thousand years1 an almost      
absolute  freedom from foreign dominion 
or occupation4 ,neither the ,egyptians1 
the  ,assyrians1 the ,babylonians1 the  
ancient ,persians nor the ,macedonians  
in their march of conquest ever         
subjugated or held any part of ,arabia4 
,but before the coming of the ,prophet  
the proud freemen of the desert  were   
compelled to bend their necks repeatedly
 to the yoke of ,roman1  ,abyssinian and

 ,persian rulers4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #aje1     
,trajan sent his general1  ,cornelius   
,palma1 and subdued the ,nabathean      
kingdom of ,north ,arabia4  ,mesopotamia
 was conquered and the eastern coast of 
the peninsula was  completely devastated
 by the ,romans in ,a4 ,d4 #aaf4 ,hira  
yielded to the  monarchs of ,persia as  
,ghassan did to the generals of ,rome4  
,sir ,william  ,muir writes1 8,it is    
remarked even by a ,mohammedan writer   
that the  decadence of the race of      
,ghassan was preparing the way for the  
glories  of the ,arabian prophet40 ,in  
other words ,arabia was being invaded by
  foreign powers and the ,arabs were    
ready for a political leader to break   
these yokes and restore the old-time    
independence4 ,roman domination  invaded
 even ,mecca itself not long before the 
,hegira4 8,for shortly  after his       
accession to the throne1 ,a4 ,d4 #faj1  
the ,emperor ,heraclius  nominated      
,othman1 then a convert to              
,christianity1 444 as governor  of      

,mecca1 recommending him to the         
,koreishites in an authoritative        
letter40#ea ,the ,abyssinian wars and   
invasions of ,arabia during the  century
 preceding ,mohammed are better known4  
,their dominion in ,yemen1  says ,ibn   
,ishak1 lasted seventy-two years1 and   
they were finally driven  out by the    
,persians1 at the request of the ,arabs4
    ,arabia was thus the centre of      
political schemes and plots just at the 
time when ,mohammed came to manhood1 the
 whole peninsula was awake to  the touch
 of the ,romans1 ,abyssinians and       
,persians1 and ready to rally  around   
any banner that led to a national       
deliverance4    ,as to the position of  
women in this 8,time of ,ignorance0 the 
cruel  custom of female infanticide     
prevailed in many parts of heathen      
,arabia4  ,this was probably due1 in the
 first instance1 to poverty or famine1  
and  afterward became a social custom to
 limit population4 ,professor ,wilken   
suggests as a further reason that wars  

had tended to an excess of  females over
 males4 ,an ,arab poet tells of a niece 
who refused to leave  the husband to    
whom she had been assigned after        
capture4 ,her uncle was  so enraged that
 he buried all his daughters alive and  
never allowed  another one to live4     
,even one beautiful girl who had been   
saved alive  by her mother was          
ruthlessly placed in a grave by the     
father and her  cries stifled with      
earth4 ,this horrible custom however was
 not usual4  ,we are told of one        
distinguished ,arab1 named ,saa-,saa1   
who tried to  put down the practice of  
8digging a grave by the side of the bed 
on  which daughters were born40         
,mohammed improved on the barbaric      
method and discovered a way by  which   
not some but all females could be buried
 alive without  being murdered--namely1 
the veil4 ,its origin was one of the    
marriage  affairs of the prophet with   
its appropriate revelation from ,allah4 
,the veil was unknown in ,arabia before 

that time4 ,it was ,islam  that forever 
withdrew from ,oriental society the     
bright1 refining1  elevating influence  
of women4 ,keene says that the veil     
8lies at the  root of all the most      
important features that differentiate   
progress  from stagnation40 ,the        
harem-system did not prevail in the days
 of  idolatry4 ,women had rights and    
were respected4 ,in two instances1      
beside that of ,zenobia1 we read of     
,arabian queens ruling over their       
tribes4 ,freytag in his ,arabian        
,proverbs gives a list of female judges 
who exercised their office in the 8time 
of ignorance40 ,according to  ,nldeke1  
the ,nabathean inscriptions and coins   
prove that women held an  independent   
and honorable position in ,north ,arabia
 long before ,islam2  they constructed  
expensive family graves1 owned large    
estates1 and were  independent traders4 
,the heathen ,arabs jealously watched   
over their  women as their most valued  
possession and defended them with their 

lives4 ,a woman was never given away by 
her father in an unequal match  nor     
against her consent4 8,if you cannot    
find an equal match10 said  ,ibn ,zohair
 to the ,namir1 8the best marriage for  
them is the grave40  ,professor ,g4 ,a4 
,wilken#eb adduces many proofs to show  
that women had a  right in every case to
 choose their own husbands and cites the
 case of  ,khadijah who offered her hand
 to ,mohammed4 ,even captive women were 
not  kept in slavery1 as is evident from
 the verses of ,hatim3        8,they did
 not give us ,taites1 their daughters in
 marriage2      ,but we wooed them      
against their will with our swords4     
,and with us captivity brought no       
abasement4      ,they neither toiled    
making bread nor made the pot boil2     
,but we mingled them with our women1 the
 noblest1      ,and bare us fair sons1  
white of face40    ,polyandry and       
polygamy were both practiced2 the right 
of divorce  belonged to the wife as well
 as to the husband2 temporary marriages 

were also common4 ,as was natural among 
a nomad race1 the marriage bond  was    
quickly made and easily dissolved4 ,but 
this was not the case among  the ,jews  
and ,christians of ,yemen and ,nejran4  
,two kinds of marriage  were in vogue4  
,the mota'a was a purely personal       
contract between a  man and woman2 no   
witnesses were necessary and the woman  
did not leave  her home or come under   
the authority of her husband2 even the  
children  belonged to the wife4 ,this   
marriage1 so frequently described in    
,arabic  poetry1 was not considered     
illicit but was openly celebrated in    
verse  and brought no disgrace on the   
woman4 ,in the other kind of marriage1  
called nikah1 the woman became subject  
to her husband by capture or  purchase4 
,in the latter case the purchase-money  
was paid to the bride's  kin4    ,the   
position of women before ,islam is thus 
described in ,smith's  8,kinship and    
,marriage in ,early ,arabia40 8,it is   
very remarkable that  in spite of       

,mohammed's humane ordinances the place 
of woman in the  family and in society  
has steadily declined under his law4 ,in
 ancient  ,arabia we find 444 many      
proofs that women moved more freely and 
asserted themselves more strongly than  
in the modern ,east4444 ,the  ,arabs    
themselves recognized that the position 
of woman had fallen 444  and it         
continued still to fall under ,islam1   
because the effect of  ,mohammed's      
legislation in favor of women was more  
than outweighed by  the establishment of
 marriages of dominion as the one       
legitimate type1  and by the gradual    
loosening of the principle that married 
women could  count on their own kin to  
stand by them against their             
husbands40#ec    ,in 8the time of       
ignorance0 writing was well known and   
poetry  flourished4 ,three              
accomplishments were coveted--eloquence1
 horsemanship  and liberal hospitality4 
,orators were in demand1 and to maintain
 the  standard and reward excellence    

there were large assemblies as at       
,okatz4  ,these lasted a whole month and
 the tribes came long journeys to hear  
the orators and poets as well as to     
engage in trade4 ,the learning of  the  
,arabs was chiefly confined to tribal   
history1 astrology and the              
interpretation of dreams2 in these they 
made considerable progress4             
,according to ,moslem tradition the     
science of writing was not known  in    
,mecca until introduced by ,harb1       
,father of ,abu ,scofian1 the great     
opponent of ,mohammed1 about ,a4,d4     
#efj4 ,but this is evidently an error1  
for close intercourse existed long      
before this between ,mecca and ,sana    
the capital of ,yemen where writing was 
well known2 and in another  tradition   
,abd el ,muttalib is said to have       
written to ,medina for help  in his     
younger days1 i4e41 about #ebj ,a4 ,d4  
,both ,jews and ,christians  also dwelt 
in the vicinity of ,mecca for two       
hundred years before the  ,hegira and   

used some form of writing4 ,for writing 
materials they  had abundance of reeds  
and palm-leaves as well as the flat1    
smooth  shoulder-bones of sheep4 ,the   
seven poems are said to have been       
written  in gold on ,egyptian silk and  
suspended in the ,kaaba4    ,in the     
earlier part of his mission ,mohammed   
despised the poets for the  good reason 
that some1 among them a poetess1 wrote  
satirical verses  about him4 ,the ,koran
 says 8those who go astray follow the   
poets0 7,surah  #bf3 #bbd7 and a more   
vigorous though less elegant            
denouncement is  recorded in the        
traditions 7,mishkat ,bk4 #bb1 ch4 #aj73
 8,a belly full of  purulent matter is  
better than a belly full of poetry40    
,when two of the  heathen poets1 ,labid 
and ,hassan embraced ,islam1 the prophet
 became more  lenient1 and is reported  
to have said 8poetry is a kind of       
composition  which if it is good1 it is 
good1 and if it is bad1 it is bad60     
,concerning the religion of the heathen 

,arabs the ,mohammedan writer           
,ash-,shahristani says3 8,the ,arabs of 
pre-islamic times may1 with  reference  
to religion be divided into various     
classes4 ,some of them  denied the      
,creator1 the resurrection and men's    
return to ,god1 and  asserted that      
,nature possesses in itself the power of
 bestowing life1  but that ,time        
destroys4 ,others believed in a ,creator
 and a creation  produced by ,him out of
 nothing but yet denied the             
resurrection4 ,others  believed in a    
,creator and a creation but denied      
,god's prophets and  worshipped false   
gods concerning whom they believed that 
in the next  world they would become    
mediators between themselves and ,god4  
,for  these deities they undertook      
pilgrimages1 they brought offerings to  
them1 offered them sacrifices and       
approached them with rites and          
ceremonies4 ,some things they held to be
 ,divinely permitted1 others to  be     
prohibited4 ,this was the religion of   

the majority of the ,arabs40  ,this is  
remarkable evidence for a ,mohammedan   
who would naturally  be inclined to take
 an unfavorable view4 ,but his absolute 
silence  regarding the ,jews and        
,christians of ,arabia is suggestive4   
,when the ,arabian tribes lost their    
earliest monotheism 7the religion  of   
,job and their patriarchs7 they first of
 all adopted ,sabeanism or  the worship 
of the hosts of heaven4 ,a proof of this
 is their ancient  practice of making   
circuits around the shrines of their    
gods as well  as their skill in         
astrology4 ,very soon however the       
star-worship became  greatly corrupted  
and other deities1 superstitions and    
practices  were introduced4 ,ancient    
,arabia was a refuge for all sorts of   
religious-fugitives1 and each band added
 something to the national  stock of    
religious ideas4 ,the ,zoroastrians came
 to ,east ,arabia2 the  ,jews settled at
 ,kheibar1 ,medina1 and in ,yemen2      
,christians of many sects  lived in the 

north and in the highlands of ,yemen4   
,for all pagan ,arabia  ,mecca was the  
centre many centuries before ,mohammed4 
,here stood the  ,kaaba1 the ,arabian   
,pantheon1 with its three hundred and   
sixty idols1  one for each day in the   
year4 ,here the tribes of ,hejaz met in 
annual  pilgrimage to rub themselves on 
the ,black ,stone1 to circumambulate    
the ,beit ,allah or ,bethel of their    
creed and to hang portions of their     
garments on the sacred trees4 ,at       
,nejran a sacred date-palm was the      
centre of pilgrimage4 ,everywhere in    
,arabia there were sacred stones  or    
stone-heaps where the ,arab devotees    
congregated to obtain special           
blessings4 ,the belief in jinn or genii 
was well-nigh universal1  but there was 
a distinction between them and gods4    
,the gods have  individuality while the 
jinn have not2 the gods are worshipped1 
the  jinn are only feared2 the god has  
one form2 the jinn appear in many4  ,all
 that the ,moslem world believes in     

regard to jinn is wholly borrowed  from 
,arabian heathenism and those who have  
read the ,arabian ,nights know  what a  
large place they hold in the everyday   
life of ,moslems4    ,the ,arabs were   
always superstitious1 and legends of all
 sorts cluster  around every weird      
desert rock1 gnarled tree or            
intermittent fountain  in ,arabia4 ,the 
early ,arabs therefore marked off such  
sacred territory  by pillars or cairns  
and considered many things such as      
shedding of  blood1 cutting of trees1   
killing game1 etc1 forbidden within the 
enclosure4 ,this is the origin of the   
,haramain or sacred territory  around   
,mecca and ,medina4 ,sacrifices were    
common1 but not by fire4 ,the  blood of 
the offering was smeared over the rude  
stone altars and the  flesh was eaten by
 the worshipper4 ,first fruits were     
given to the gods  and libations were   
poured out2 a hair-offering formed a    
part of the  ancient pilgrimage2 this   
also is imitated to-day4    ,w4         

,robertson ,smith tries to prove that   
totemism was the earliest  form of      
,arabian idolatry and that each tribe   
had its sacred animal4  ,the strongest  
argument for this is the undoubted fact 
that many of the  tribal names were     
taken from animals and that certain     
animals were  regarded as sacred in     
parts of ,arabia4 ,the theory is too    
far-reaching  to be adopted at haphazard
 and the author's ideas of the          
significance  of animal sacrifice are   
not in accord with the teaching of      
,scripture4  ,it is however interesting 
to know that the same authority thinks  
the  ,arabian tribal marks or wasms were
 originally totem-marks and must  have  
been tattooed on the body even as they  
are now used to mark  property4 ,the    
washm of the idolatrous ,arabs seems    
related to their  wasms and was a kind  
of tattooing of the hands1 arms and     
gums4 ,it was  forbidden by ,mohammed   
but is still widely prevalent in ,north 
,arabia  among the ,bedouin women4      

,covenants of blood and of salt are also
 very ancient ,semitic  institutions and
 prevailed all over ,arabia4 ,the form  
of the oath was  various4 ,at ,mecca the
 parties dipped their hands in a pan of 
blood and  tasted the contents2 in other
 places they opened a vein and mixed    
their  fresh blood2 again they would    
each draw the others' blood and smear it
  on seven stones set up in the midst4  
,the later ,arabs substituted the  blood
 of a sheep or of a camel for human     
blood4    ,the principal idols of       
,arabia were the following2 ten of them 
are  mentioned by name in the ,koran4   
,hubal was in the form of a man and came
 from ,syria2 he was the god   of rain  
and had a high place of honor4     ,wadd
 was the god of the firmament4          
,suwah1 in the form of a woman1 was said
 to be from antediluvian   times4       
,yaghuth had the shape of a lion4       
,ya'ook was in the form of a horse1 and 
was worshipped in ,yemen4   ,bronze     
images of this idol are found in ancient

 tombs4     ,nasr was the eagle-god4    
,el ,uzza1 identified by some scholars  
with ,venus1 was worshipped at   times  
under the form of an acacia tree4       
,allat was the chief idol of the tribe  
of ,thakif at ,taif who tried to        
compromise with ,mohammed to accept     
,islam if he would not destroy their    
god for three years4 ,the name appears  
to be the feminine of ,allah4     ,manat
 was a huge stone worshipped as an altar
 by several tribes4     ,duwar was the  
virgin's idol and young women used to go
 around it in   procession2 hence its   
name4     ,isaf and ,naila stood near   
,mecca on the hills of ,safa and ,mirwa2
   the visitation of these popular      
shrines is now a part of the ,moslem    
pilgrimage4     ,habhab was a large     
stone on which camels were slaughtered4 
,beside these there were numerous other 
gods whose names have been  utterly lost
 and yet who each had a place in the    
,pantheon at ,mecca4  ,above all these  
was the supreme deity whom they called  

1 the ,god1  or ,allah4 ,this name      
occurs several times in the ancient     
pre-islamic  poems and proves that the  
,arabs knew the one true ,god by name   
even in  the 8time of ignorance40 ,to   
,him they also made offerings though not
 of  the first and best2 in ,his name   
covenants were sealed and the holiest   
oaths were sworn4 ,enemy of ,allah was  
the strongest term of opprobrium  among 
the ,arabs then as it is to-day4        
,wellhausen says1 8,in worship  ,allah  
had the last place1 those gods being    
preferred who represented  the interests
 of a particular circle and fulfilled   
the private desires  of their           
worshippers4 ,neither the fear of ,allah
 nor their reverence  for the gods had  
much influence4 ,the chief practical    
consequence of  the great feasts was the
 observance of a truce in the holy      
months2 and  this in time had become    
mainly an affair of pure practical      
convenience4  ,in general the           
disposition of the heathen ,arabs1 if it

 is at all truly  reflected in their    
poetry1 was profane in an unusual       
degree4 ,the  ancient inhabitants of    
,mecca practiced piety essentially as a 
trade1  just as they do now2 their trade
 depended on the feast and its fair on  
the inviolability of the ,haram and on  
the truce of the holy months40    ,there
 is no doubt that at the time of        
,mohammed's appearance the old  national
 idolatry had degenerated4 ,many of the 
idols had no believers  or worshippers4 
,sabeanism had also disappeared except  
in the north of  ,arabia2 although it   
always left its influence which is      
evident not only  in the ,koran but in  
the superstitious practices of the      
modern ,bedouins4  ,gross fetishism was 
the creed of many4 ,one of ,mohammed's  
contemporaries  said1 8,when they found 
a fine stone they adored it1 or1 failing
 that1  milked a camel over a heap of   
sand and worshipped that40 ,the better  
classes at ,mecca and ,medina had ceased
 to believe anything at all4 ,the  forms

 of religion 8were kept up rather for   
political and commercial  reasons than  
as a matter of faith or conviction40#ed 
,add to all this the silent but strong  
influence of the ,jews and  ,christians 
who were in constant contact with these 
idolaters and we  have the explanation  
of the ,hanifs4 ,these ,hanifs were a   
small number  of ,arabs who worshipped  
only ,allah1 rejected polytheism1 sought
  freedom from sin and resignation to   
,god's will4 ,there were ,hanifs at     
,taif1 ,mecca and ,medina4 ,they were in
 fact seekers of truth1 weary of  the   
old idolatry and the prevalent hollow   
hypocrisy of the ,arabs4 ,the  earliest 
,hanifs of whom we hear1 were ,waraka1  
the cousin of the prophet  ,mohammed1   
and ,zeid bin ,amr1 surnamed the        
,inquirer4 ,mohammed at first  also     
adopted this title of ,hanif to express 
the faith of ,abraham but  soon after   
changed it to ,moslem4    ,it is only a 
step from ,hanifism to ,islam4 ,primary 
monotheism1  ,sabeanism1 idolatry1      

fetishism1 ,hanifism1 and then the      
prophet with the  sword to bring        
everything back to                      
monotheism--monotheism1 as modified  by 
his own needs and character and         
compromises4 ,the time of ignorance  was
 a time of chaos4 ,everything was ready 
for one who could take in the  whole    
situation1 social1 political and        
religious and form a cosmos4  ,that man 
was ,mohammed4                          
,,xvii                   ,,islam ,,in   
,,its ,,cradle--,,the ,,moslem',s       
,,god#ee     8,islam was born in the    
desert1 with ,arab ,sabeanism for its   
mother and ,judaism for its father2 its 
foster-nurse was ,eastern               
,christianity40--,edwin ,arnold4     8,a
 ,prophet without miracles2 a faith     
without mysteries2 and a morality       
without love2 which has encouraged a    
thirst for blood1 and which began   and 
ended in the most unbounded             
sensuality40--,schlegel's ,philosophy of
   ,history4     8,as we conceive ,god1 

we conceive the universe2 a being       
incapable of   loving is incapable of   
being loved40--,principal ,fairbairn4   
,libraries have been written1 not only  
in ,arabic and ,persian1 but in  all the
 languages of ,europe1 on the origin1   
character and history of  ,islam1 the   
,koran and ,mohammed4 ,views differ 8as 
far as the east is from  the west0 and  
as far as ,bosworth ,smith is from      
,prideaux4 ,the earlier  ,european      
writers did not hesitate to call        
,mohammed a false prophet and  his      
system a clever imposture2 some went    
further and attributed even  satanic    
agency to the success of ,islam and to  
the words of the prophet4  ,carlyle1 in 
his 8,heroes and ,hero-worship10 set the
 pendulum swinging to  the other side so
 far that his chapter on the            
,hero-prophet is published  as a leaflet
 by the ,mohammedan ,missionary ,society
 of ,lahore4 ,so little  did ,carlyle   
understand the true nature of ,islam    
that he calls it 8a  kind of            

,christianity40 ,what ,carlyle said was 
only the beginning of a  series of      
apologies and panegyrics which appeared 
soon after and placed  ,mohammed not    
only on the pedestal of a great reformer
 but 8a very  prophet of ,god10 making  
,islam almost the ideal religion4 ,syeed
 ,ameer  ,ali succeeds in his biography 
in eliminating every sensual1 harsh and 
ignorant trait from the character of the
 noted ,meccan2 and the recent  valuable
 book of ,t4 ,w4 ,arnold1 professor in  
,aligarh ,college1 ,india1  attempts to 
prove most elaborately that             
,mohammedanism was propagated  without  
the sword4    ,in contrast to this read 
what ,hugh ,broughton quaintly wrote in 
#affb3  8,now consider this ,moamed or  
,machumed1 whom ,god gave up to a blind 
mind1 an ,ishmaelite1 being a poor man  
till he married a widow2 wealthy  then  
and of high countenance1 having the     
falling sickness and being  tormented by
 the devil1 whereby the widow was sorry 
that she matched  with him4 ,he         

persuaded her by himself and others that
 his fits were  but a trance wherein he 
talked with the angel ,gabriel4 ,so in  
time  the impostor was reputed a prophet
 of ,god and from ,judaism1 ,arius1     
,nestorius and his own brain he frameth 
a doctrine40 ,in our day1 the  critical 
labors of scholars like ,sprenger1      
,weil1 ,muir1 ,koelle and  others have  
given us a more correct idea of         
,mohammed's life and  character4 ,the   
pendulum is still swinging but will come
 to rest between  the two extremes4     
,we have not space to give the story of 
,mohammed's life or of the  religion    
which he founded4 ,an analysis of the   
religion has been  attempted by means of
 two tables1 one showing its development
 from  its creed and the other the      
philosophy of its origin from outside   
sources4#ef ,the result of a century of 
critical study by ,european and         
,american scholars of every school of   
thought has certainly established  the  
fact that ,islam is a composite         

religion4 ,it is not an invention  but a
 concoction2 there is nothing novel     
about it except the genius  of ,mohammed
 in mixing old ingredients into a new   
panacea for human  ills and forcing it  
down by means of the sword4 ,these      
heterogeneous  elements of ,islam were  
gathered in ,arabia at a time when many 
religions  had penetrated the peninsula1
 and the ,kaaba was a ,pantheon4 ,unless
 one  has a knowledge of these elements 
of 8the time of ignorance10 ,islam  is a
 problem4 ,knowing1 however1 these      
heathen1 ,christian and ,jewish         
factors1 ,islam is seen to be a         
perfectly natural and understandable    
development4 ,its heathen elements      
remain1 to this day1 perfectly          
recognizable in spite of thirteen       
centuries of explanation by the  ,moslem
 authorities4 ,it is to the ,jewish     
,rabbi ,geiger that we owe  our first   
knowledge of the extent to which ,islam 
is indebted to the  ,jews and the       
,talmud4 ,rev4 ,w4 ,st4 ,clair ,tisdall 

has recently shown  how ,mohammed       
borrowed even from the ,zoroastrians and
 ,sabeans1 while  as to the amount of   
,christian teaching in ,islam1 the      
,koran and its  commentators are        
evidence4    ,there is a remarkable     
verse in the twenty-second chapter of   
the  ,koran1 in which ,mohammed seems to
 enumerate all the sources that  were   
accessible to him in forming his new    
religion2 and at that time  he seems to 
have been in doubt as to which was the  
most trustworthy  source4 ,the verse    
reads as follows3 8,they who believe and
 the ,jews and  the ,sabeans and the    
,christians and the ,magians            
7,zoroastrians7 and  those who join     
other gods to ,god1 verily ,god shall   
decide between them  on the day of      
,resurrection40    ,the ,god of ,islam4 
,,gibbon ,,characterizes ,,the ,,first  
,,part ,,of the ,moslem's  creed as 8an 
eternal truth 8--78there is no god but  
,god072 but very much  depends on the   
character of the ,god1 who is affirmed  

to displace all  other gods4 ,if        
,allah's attributes are unworthy of     
deity then even the  first clause of the
 briefest of all creeds1 is false4      
,there has been a  strange neglect to   
study the ,moslem idea of ,god and      
nearly all writers  take for granted    
that the ,god of the ,koran is the same 
being and has  like attributes as       
,jehovah or the ,godhead of the ,new    
,testament4 ,nothing  could be further  
from the truth4    ,first of all the    
,mohammedan conception of ,allah is     
purely negative4  ,god is unique and has
 no relations to any creature that      
partake of  resemblance4 ,he cannot be  
defined in terms other than negative4   
,as the  popular song has it1           
8,kullu ma yukhtaru fi balik      ,fa   
rabbuna mukhalifun 'an thalik--0#eg     
,absolute sovereignty and ruthless      
omnipotence are his chief attributes    
while his character is impersonal--that 
of a monad4 ,among the  ninety-nine     
beautiful names of ,god1 which ,edwin   

,arnold has used in his  poem 8,pearls  
of the ,faith10 the ideas of fatherhood1
 love1 impartial  justice and           
unselfishness are absent4 ,the          
,christian truth 8,god is love0  is to  
the learned1 blasphemy and to the       
ignorant an enigma4 ,palgrave1  who     
certainly was not biased against the    
religion of ,arabia and who  lived with 
the ,arabs for long months1 calls the   
theology of ,islam  8the pantheism of   
force40 ,no one has ever given a better 
account of  ,allah1 a more faithful     
portrait of ,mohammed's conception of   
deity  than ,palgrave4 ,every word of   
his description tallies with statements 
which one can hear daily from pious     
,moslems4 ,yet no one who reads  what we
 quote in all its fullness will         
recognize here the ,god whom  ,david    
addresses in the ,psalms or who became  
incarnate at ,bethlehem and  suffered on
 ,calvary4 ,this is ,palgrave's         
statement3    8,there is no god but     
,god--are words simply tantamount in    

,english to the  negation of any deity  
save one alone2 and thus much they      
certainly mean  in ,arabic1 but they    
imply much more also4 ,their full sense 
is1 not only  to deny absolutely and    
unreservedly all plurality1 whether of  
nature  or of person1 in the ,supreme   
,being1 not only to establish the unity 
of the ,unbegetting and ,unbegot1 in all
 its simple and uncommunicable          
,oneness1 but besides this the words1 in
 ,arabic and among ,arabs1 imply  that  
this one ,supreme ,being is also the    
only ,agent1 the only ,force1  the only 
,act existing throughout the universe1  
and leave to all beings  else1 matter or
 spirit1 instinct or intelligence1      
physical or moral1  nothing but pure1   
unconditional passiveness1 alike in     
movement or in  quiescence1 in action or
 in capacity4 ,the sole power1 the sole 
motor1  movement1 energy1 and deed is   
,god2 the rest is downright inertia and 
mere instrumentality1 from the highest  
archangel down to the simplest  atom of 

creation4 ,hence1 in this one sentence1 
#8,la ,ilh illa ,allh1' is  summed up a 
system which1 for want of a better name1
 ,i may be permitted  to call the       
,pantheism of ,force1 or of ,act1 thus  
exclusively assigned to  ,god1 who      
absorbs it all1 exercises it all1 and to
 whom alone it can be  ascribed1 whether
 for preserving or for destroying1 for  
relative evil  or for equally relative  
good4 ,i say #8relative1' because it is 
clear  that in such a theology no place 
is left for absolute good or evil1      
reason or extravagance2 all is abridged 
in the autocratic will of the  one great
 ,agent3 #8sic volo1 sic jubeo1 stet pro
 ratione voluntas'2 or1  more           
significantly still1 in ,arabic1 #8,kem 
yesha'o1' #8as he wills it1'  to quote  
the constantly recurring expression of  
the ,koran4    8,thus immeasurably and  
eternally exalted above1 and dissimilar 
from1  all creatures1 which lie levelled
 before him on one common plane of      
instrumentality and inertness1 ,god is  

one in the totality of omnipotent  and  
omnipresent action1 which acknowledges  
no rule1 standard1 or limit  save his   
own sole and absolute will4 ,he         
communicates nothing to his  creatures1 
for their seeming power and act ever    
remain his alone1 and  in return he     
receives nothing from them2 for whatever
 they may be1  that they are in him1 by 
him1 and from him only4 ,and secondly1  
no  superiority1 no distinction1 no     
preminence1 can be lawfully claimed  by 
one creature over its fellow1 in the    
utter equalization of their             
unexceptional servitude and abasement2  
all are alike tools of the  one solitary
 ,force which employs them to crush or  
to benefit1 to  truth or to error1 to   
honor or shame1 to happiness1 or misery1
 quite  independently of their          
individual fitness1 deserts1 or         
advantage1 and  simply because he wills 
it1 and as he wills it4    8,one might  
at first think that this tremendous     
autocrat1 this  uncontrolled and        

unsympathizing power1 would be far above
 anything  like passions1 desires or    
inclinations4 ,yet such is not the case1
 for  he has with respect to his        
creatures one main feeling and source of
  action1 namely1 jealousy of them lest 
they should perchance attribute  to     
themselves something of what is his     
alone1 and thus encroach on his         
all-engrossing kingdom4 ,hence he is    
ever more prone to punish than to       
reward1 to inflict than to bestow       
pleasure1 to ruin than to build4    8,it
 is his singular satisfaction to let    
created beings continually feel  that   
they are nothing else than his slaves1  
his tools1 and contemptible  tools also1
 that thus they may the better          
acknowledge his superiority1  and know  
his power to be above their power1 his  
cunning above their  cunning1 his will  
above their will1 his pride above their 
pride2 or  rather1 that there is no     
power1 cunning1 will1 or pride save his 
own4    8,but he himself1 sterile in his

 inaccessible height1 neither loving    
nor enjoying aught save his own and     
self-measured decree1 without son1      
companion1 or counsellor1 is no less    
barren for himself than for his         
creatures1 and his own barrenness and   
lone egoism in himself as the  cause and
 rule of his indifferent and unregarding
 despotism around4 ,the  first note is  
the key of the whole tune1 and the      
primal idea of ,god  runs through and   
modifies the whole system and creed that
 centres in  him4    8,that the notion  
here given of the ,deity1 monstrous and 
blasphemous as  it may appear1 is       
exactly and literally that which the    
,koran conveys1  or intends to convey1  
,i at present take for granted4 ,but    
that it indeed  is so1 no one who has   
attentively perused and thought over the
 ,arabic  text 7for mere cursory        
reading1 especially in a translation1   
will not  suffice7 can hesitate to      
allow4 ,in fact1 every phrase of the    
preceding  sentences1 every touch in    

this odious portrait has been taken1 to 
the  best of my ability1 word for word1 
or at least meaning for meaning from    
the 8,book0 the truest mirror of the    
mind and scope of its writer4 ,and  that
 such was in reality ,mahomet's mind and
 idea is fully confirmed by  the        
witness-tongue of contemporary          
tradition40    ,the ,koran shows that   
,mohammed had in a measure a correct    
knowledge of  the physical attributes of
 ,god but an absolutely false conception
 of  his moral attributes4 ,this was    
perfectly natural because ,mohammed had 
no idea of the nature of sin--moral     
evil--or of holiness--moral perfection4 
,the ,imam ,el ,ghazzali a famous       
scholastic divine of the ,moslems says  
of  ,god3 8,he is not a body endued with
 form nor a substance circumscribed     
with limits or determined by measure4   
,neither does ,he resemble bodies1  as  
they are capable of being measured or   
divided4 ,neither is ,he a  substance   
nor do substances exist in ,him2 neither

 is ,he an accident nor  do accidents   
exist in ,him4 ,neither is ,he like to  
anything that exists2  neither is       
anything like to ,him2 nor is ,he       
determinate in quantity  nor            
comprehended by bounds nor circumscribed
 by the differences of  situation nor   
contained in the heavens4444 ,his       
nearness is not like  the nearness of   
bodies nor is ,his essence like the     
essence of bodies4  ,neither doth ,he   
exist in anything2 neither does anything
 exist in ,him40  ,god's will is        
absolute and alone2 the predestination  
of everything  and everybody to good or 
ill according to the caprice of         
sovereignty4  ,for there is no          
,fatherhood and no purpose of redemption
 to soften the  doctrine of the decrees4
 ,hell must be filled and so ,allah     
creates  infidels4 ,the statements of   
the ,koran on this doctrine are coarse  
and  of tradition1 blasphemous4 ,islam  
reduces ,god to the category of the     
will2 ,he is a despot1 an ,oriental     

despot1 and as the moral-law is not     
emphasized ,he is not bound by any      
standard of justice4 ,worship of the    
creature is heinous to the ,moslem mind1
 and yet ,allah punished ,satan  for not
 being willing to worship ,adam4 7,koran
 ii4 #bh-ca47 ,allah is  merciful in    
winking at the sins of the prophet but  
is the avenger of  all unbelievers in   
him4        ,a ,god-machine1 a          
unit-cause        ,vast1 inaccessible   
,who doles out mercy1 breaks ,his laws  
,and compromises ill4        ,a ,god    
whose law is changeless fate1--         
,who grants each prophet-wish--         
,for prayer and fasting opes heaven's   
gate1        ,and pardons for           
backsheesh4    ,this is not 8the only   
,true ,god0 whom we know through ,jesus 
,christ and  so knowing have            
life-eternal4 8,no man knoweth the      
,father but the ,son  and he to whom the
 ,son revealeth ,him4 ,he who denies the
 incarnation  remains ignorant of ,god's
 true character4 ,as ,fairbairn says1   

8the love  which the ,godhead makes     
immanent and essential to ,god1 gives   
,god an  altogether new meaning and     
actuality for religion2 while thought is
 not  forced to conceive ,monotheism as 
the apotheosis of an ,almighty will or  
an impersonal ideal of the pure reason40
 ,islam knows no ,godhead1 and  ,allah  
is not love4       ,transcribers ,note3 
,to fit within page and layout          
constraints this   ,chart the linked    
tabular format4 ,the   section beginning
 with ,a2 ,faith and ,b3,practice       
,appears to derrive   equally from ,the 
,doctrine of ,god and ,the ,doctrine of 
,revelation   so has been abstracted and
 linked from the position the author    
seems   to have intended4 ,general notes
 have been abstracted and displayed as  
footnotes4            ,,analysis ,,of   
,,islam  ,,as ,a ,,system1 ,,developed  
,,from ,,it',s ,,creed4          8,there
 is no god but ,allah and ,mohammed is  
his apostle40        ,the ,doctrine of  
,god      7,negative47      8,there is  

no god but ,god40      ,pantheism of    
,force          #a4 ,his names          
of the essence1 ,allah 7the absolute    
unit7              of the               
attributes1--,ninety-nine names         
#b4 ,his attributes              ,the   
physical emphasized above the moral4    
,deification of absolute force4         
#c4 ,his nature              ,expressed 
by a series of negations                
8,he is not40                           
,to second section      ,the ,doctrine  
of ,revelation3 7,positive47            
8,mohammed is the apostle of ,god40     
,the sole channel of revelation and     
abrogates former revelations4           
,i4 ,by the ,,koran          7,wahi ,el 
,matlu7          ,revelation1 verbal1   
and which teaches the twofold demands of
            ,islam3--          ,the     
,book          ,,ii4 ,by ,,tradition    
7,wahi gheir ,matlu7                    
,revelation by example of          the  
perfect prophet          ,the ,man      
#a4 ,records of what ,mohammed did      

7,sunnat-el-fa'il7 7example7            
#b4 ,records of what ,mohammed enjoined 
7,sunnat-el-kaul7 7precept7             
#c4 ,records of what ,mohammed allowed  
7,sunnat-el-takrir7                     
7license7,a              ,a4 ,the       
,sunnite ,traditions3 7collected and    
recorded by the                         
following six authorities7              
#a4 ,buchari ,a4 ,h4 #bef;,b            
#b4 ,muslim 0 #bfa;,b                   
#c4 ,tirmizi 0 #bgi;,b                  
#d4 ,abu ,daood 0 #bge;,b               
#e4 ,an-,nasaee 0 #cjc;,b               
#f4 ,ibn ,majah 0 #bgc;,b               
,b4 ,the ,shiah ,traditions3 7five      
authorities7                  #a4 ,kafi 
,a4 ,h4 #cbi                  #b4       
,sheikh ,ali 0 #cha                  #c4
 8,tahzib0 0 #dff;,c                    
#d4 8,istibsar0 0 #dff;,c               
#e4 ,ar-,razi 0 #djf          ,,iii4    
,other ,authority              a4 ,among
 the ,sunnites3                         
,,ijma',a or unanimous consent of the   

leading companions of                   
,mohammed concerning ,i4                
,,kiyas or the deductions of orthodox   
teachers from sources                   
,i4 and ,,ii4              b4 ,among the
 ,shiahs3                  ,the doctrine
 of the twelve ,,imams--beginning with  
,ali who                    interpret   
,i4 and ,,ii4    ,second ,section       
,a4 ,faith3          7what to believe7  
8,iman0              #a4 ,in ,god       
#b4 ,angels              7angels1 jinn1 
devils7              #c4 ,books         
,modern ,moslems believe that #ajd      
8books0 were                  sent from 
heaven in the following order3          
,to ,adam--ten books                  0 
,seth--fifty                  0         
,enoch--thirty                  0       
,abraham--ten                           
,these are utterly lost4                
0 ,moses--the ,,torah                  0
 ,david--the ,,zaboor                  0
 ,jesus--the ,,injil                    
,these are highly spoken of in the      

,koran but are now                      
in corrupted condition and have been    
abrogated by                      the   
final book4                  0          
,mohammed--the ,,koran 7eternal in      
origin2 complete and                    
miraculous in character2 supreme in     
beauty and                              
authority47              #d4 ,last ,day 
7,judgement7              #e4           
,predestination              #f4        
,prophets                  ,a4 ,the     
,greater3                               
,adam--8,chosen of ,god0                
,noah--8,preacher of ,god0              
,abraham--8,friend of ,god0             
,moses--8,spokesman of ,god0            
,jesus--called 8,word of ,god and       
8,spirit of ,god40                      
,,mohammed1 7who has #bja names and     
titles7                          ,enoch1
 ,hud1 ,salih1                          
,ishmael1 ,issac1                       
,jacob1 ,joseph1 ,lot1                  
,aaron1 ,shuaib1                        

,zakariah1 ,john1                       
,david1 ,solomon1                       
,elias1 ,job1 ,jonah1                   
,ezra1 ,lukman1                         
,zu-el-kifl and                         
,alexander the ,great1                  
,elisha4                  ,b4 ,the      
,less3 ,of these there have been        
thousands4                              
,twenty-two are mentioned in the ,koran3
              #g4 ,resurrection         
,b4 ,practice          7what to do7     
8,din0 the five pillars              #a4
 ,repetition of ,creed              #b4 
,prayer 7five times daily7 including3   
#a4 ,purification                       
washing various parts of the body three 
times ac'd'g                        to  
fourteen rules                  #b4     
,posture 7prostrations7                 
facing the kiblah 7,mecca7              
prostrations                            
genuflections                  #c4      
,petition                               
,declaration                      the   

,fatihah or first ,surah4               
,praise and confession--the ,salaam4    
#c4 ,fasting 7month of ,ramadhan7       
#d4 ,alms giving 7about #a-dj of        
income47                  #e4           
,pilgrimage                      ,mecca 
7incumbent7                      ,medina
 7meritorious but voluntary7            
,kerbela1 ,meshed ,ali1 etc41 7,shiahs7 
,a ,verbally handed down from mouth to  
mouth and finally sifted and   recorded 
by both sects3     ,b ,not one of them  
flourished until three cenruries after  
,mohammed4     ,c ,by ,abu ,jaafar4     
,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,borrowed        
,,elements ,,of ,,islam4        ,i4     
,from ,,heathenism      7,as existing in
 ,mecca or prevalent    in other parts  
of ,arabia47            a4 ,sabeanism3  
,astrological superstitions1 e4 g41 that
 meteorites are                  cast at
 the devil4                  ,oaths by  
the stars and planets4 7,surahs #ef1    
#ec1 etc47                              
,circumambulation of ,kaaba--and1       

perhaps1 the lunar calendar4            
b4 ,arabian ,idolatry3                  
,allah 7as name of supreme deity71 used 
in old poets and                        
worshipped by ,hanifs4                  
,mecca--centre of religious             
pilgrimage--,the black-stone1 etc4      
,pilgrimage--in every detail3 dress1    
hair offerings1                  casting
 stones1 sacrifice1 running4            
,polygamy1 slavery1 easy divorce1 and   
social laws generally4                  
,ceremonial cleanliness1 forbidden      
foods1 circumcision4            c4      
,zoroastrianism3                        
,cosmogony--,the different stories of   
the earth4 ,bridge over                 
hell4                  ,paradise--,its  
character--the hourispairikas of        
,avesta4                  ,doctrine of  
,jinn and their various kinds4 ,exorcism
 of jinn                  7,surah #aac1 
#aad74            d4 ,buddhism3         
,the use of the rosary4                 
7,see ,hughes' ,dict4 of ,islam47       

,,ii4 ,from ,,judaism      7,the ,old   
,testament but more especially    the   
,talmud as the source of ,jewish        
ideas prevalent in ,arabia just         
before ,mohammed47            ,a4 ,ideas
 and ,doctrines3                        
7,according to the divisions            
of ,rabbi ,geiger47                  #a4
 ,words that represent ,jewish ideas    
7and are not ,arabic but ,hebrew47      
,taboot 7ark72 ,torah                   
7law72 ,eden2 ,gehinnom2 ,rabbi1        
,abbarteacher2                          
,sakinat,shekinah2 ,taghoot 7used       
hundreds of times                   in  
,koran7error2 ,furkan1 etc41 etc41 etc4 
#b4 ,doctrinal views4                   
,unity of ,god4                         
,resurrection4                          
,seven hells and seven heavens4         
,final judgment4 ,signs of last day4    
,gog and ,magog4                  #c4   
,moral and ,ceremonial laws4            
,prayer4  ,its time1 posture1 direction1
 etc4                        ,laws      

regarding impurity of body4 ,washing    
with water or with sand4                
,laws regarding purification of women1  
etc4                  #d4 ,views of life
                        ,use of         
8inshallah02 age of discretion          
corresponds to                          
,talmud4            ,b4 ,stories and    
,legends3               7,according to  
,rabbi ,geiger47                  ,adam1
 ,cain1 ,enoch2 the fabulous things in  
,koran are                 identical    
with ,talmud4                           
,noah--the flood--,eber                 
7,hud7--,isaac1--,ishmael--,joseph4     
,cf4 ,koran with ,talmud4               
,abraham--,his idolatry--,nimrod's      
oven--,pharao--the calf--7taken         
from ,talmud47                          
,moses--,the fables related of him and  
,aaron are old ,jewish                  
tales4                  ,jethro         
7,shuaib72 ,saul 7,taloot72 ,goliath    
7,jiloot71 and                 ,solomon 
especially4 ,cf4 ,talmud4      ,,iii4   

,from ,,christianity           7,corrupt
 form1 as found in the                  
apocryphal gospels47           8,gospel 
of ,barnabas40            #a4 ,reverence
 for ,new                               
,testament--,injil--7,zacharias1 ,john1 
,gabriel74            #b4 ,respect for  
religious teachers2 the ,koran          
references to               priests and 
monks4            #c4 ,jesus            
,christ--,his names--,word of ,god1     
,spirit of ,god1 etc4--,puerile         
miracles--,denial of crucifixion4       
7,basilidians1 etc47            #d4 ,the
 ,virgin--,her sinlessness--and the     
apostles--8hawari0 an                   
,abyssinian word meaning 8pure ones40   
#e4 ,wrong ideas of the ,trinity4 ,as   
held by ,arabian heretical sects4       
#f4 ,christian legends as of 8,seven    
,sleepers10 8,alexander of the          
horns10 8,lokman0 7sop47            #g4 
,a fast month4 ,ramadhan to imitate     
lent4            #h4 ,alms-giving as an 
essential part of true worship4         

8,the ,koran could not          have    
been composed by          any except    
,god4444          ,will they say he     
forged          it8 ,answer bring       
therefore          a chapter like unto  
it40--,,the ,,koran4      7,surah       
,yunas47                                
,,xviii                           ,,the 
,,prophet ,,and ,,his ,,book      ,in   
#egj ,a4 ,d4 ,abdullah the son of ,abd  
el ,muttalib a ,mecca merchant went  on 
a trading trip from ,mecca to ,medina   
and died there2 the same year  his wife1
 ,amina1 gave birth to a boy1 named     
,mohammed1 at ,mecca4 ,one  hundred     
years later the name of this ,arab lad1 
joined to that of the  ,almighty1 was   
called out from ten thousand mosques    
five times daily1  from ,muscat to      
,morocco1 and his new religion was      
sweeping everything  before it in three 
continents4    ,what is the explanation 
of this marvel of history8 ,many        
theories have  been laid down and the   
true explanation is probably the sum of 

all  of them4 ,the weakness of ,oriental
 ,christianity and the corrupt state  of
 the church2 the condition of the ,roman
 and ,persian empires2 the  character of
 the new religion2 the power of the     
sword and fanaticism2  the genius of    
,mohammed2 the partial truth of his     
teaching2 the  genius of ,mohammed's    
successors2 the hope of plunder and love
 of  conquest2--such are some of the    
causes given for the early and rapid    
success of ,islam4    ,mohammed was a   
prophet without miracles but not without
 genius4  ,whatever we may deny him we  
can never deny that he was a great man  
with  great talents4 ,but he was not a  
self-made man4 ,his environment accounts
  in a large measure for his might and  
for his method in becoming a  religious 
leader4 ,there was first of all the     
political factor4 8,the  year of the    
elephant0 had seen the defeat of the    
,christian hosts of  ,yemen who came to 
attack the ,kaaba4 ,this victory was to 
the young and  ardent mind of ,mohammed 

prophetic of the political future of    
,mecca and  no doubt his ambition       
assigned himself the chief place in the 
coming  conflict of ,arabia against the 
,roman and ,persian oppressors4    ,next
 came the religious factor4 ,the times  
were ripe for religious  leadership and 
,mecca was already the centre of a new  
movement4 ,the  ,hanifs had rejected the
 old idolatry and entertained the hope  
that a  prophet would arise from among  
them4#fj ,there was material of all     
sorts at hand to furnish the platform of
 a new faith2 it only required  the     
builder's eye to call cosmos out of     
chaos4 ,to succeed in doing  this it    
would be necessary to reject material   
also2 a comprehensive  religion and a   
compromising religion1 so as to suit    
,jew and ,christian  and idolater alike4
    ,then there was the family factor1  
or1 in other words1 the aristocratic    
standing of ,mohammed4 ,he was not a    
mere 8camel-driver40 ,the ,koreish  were
 the ruling clan of ,mecca2 ,mecca was  

even then the centre for all  ,arabia2  
and ,mohammed's grandfather1 ,abd el    
,muttalib1 was the most  influential and
 powerful man of that aristocratic city4
 ,the pet-child  of ,abd el ,muttalib   
was the orphan boy ,mohammed4 ,until his
 eighth year  he was under the shelter  
and favor of this chief man of the      
,koreish4  ,he learned what it was to be
 lordly and to exercise power1 and never
  forgot it4 ,the man1 his wife and his 
training were the determinative  factors
 in the character of ,mohammed4 ,the    
ruling factor was the mind  and genius  
of the man himself4 ,of attractive      
personal qualities1  beautiful          
countenance1 and accomplished in        
business1 he first won the  attention   
and then the heart of a very wealthy    
widow1 ,khadijah4 ,koelle  tells us that
 she was 8evidently an ,arab lady of a  
strong mind and  mature experience who  
maintained a decided ascendency over her
 husband1  and managed him with great   
wisdom and firmness4 ,this appears from 

nothing more strikingly1 than from the  
very remarkable fact that she  succeeded
 in keeping him from marrying any other 
wife as long as she  lived1 though at   
her death1 when he had long ceased to be
 a young man  he indulged without       
restraint in the multiplication of      
wives4 ,but as  ,khadijah herself was   
favorably disposed toward ,hanifism1 it 
is highly  probable that she exercised  
her commanding influence over her       
husband  in such a manner as to promote 
and strengthen his own attachment to the
  reformatory sect of monotheists40     
,mohammed married this woman when he had
 reached his twenty-fifth year4  ,at the
 age of forty he began to have his      
revelations and to preach his  new      
religion4 ,his first convert1 naturally 
perhaps1 was his wife1 then  ,ali and   
,zeid his two adopted children2 then his
 friend1 the prosperous  merchant1      
,abu-,bekr4 ,such was the nucleus for   
the new faith4    ,mohammed is described
 in tradition as a man above middle     

height1 of  spare figure1 commanding    
presence1 massive head1 noble brow1 and 
jet-black hair4 ,his eyes were piercing4
 ,he had a long bushy beard4  ,decision 
marked his every movement and he always 
walked rapidly4  ,writers seem to agree 
that he had the genius to command and   
expected  obedience from equals as well 
as inferiors4 ,james ,freeman ,clarke   
says  that to him more than to any other
 of whom history makes mention was      
given3        8,the monarch mind1 the   
mystery of commanding1      ,the        
birth-hour gift1 the art ,napoleon      
,of wielding1 moulding1 gathering1      
welding1 banding      ,the hearts of    
thousands till they moved as one40      
,as to the moral character of ,mohammed 
there is great diversity of  opinion and
 the conclusions of different scholars  
cannot be easily  reconciled4 ,muir1    
,dods1 ,badger1 and others claim that he
 was at first  sincere and upright1     
himself believing in his so-called      
revelations1  but that afterward1       

intoxicated by success1 he used the     
dignity of his  prophetship for personal
 ends and was conscious of deceiving the
 people  in some of his later           
revelations4 ,bosworth ,smith and his   
like1 maintain  that he was 8a very     
,prophet of ,god0 all through his life  
and that the  sins and faults of his    
later years are only specks on the sun  
of his  glory4 ,older writers1 with whom
 ,i agree1 saw in ,mohammed only the    
skill  of a clever impostor from the day
 of his first message to the day of  his
 death4 ,koelle1 whose book is a mine of
 accurate scholarship and  whose        
experience of many years mission-work in
 ,moslem lands qualifies  him for a     
sober judgment1 sees no striking        
contrast between the earlier  and later 
part of ,mohammed's life that cannot be 
easily explained  by the influence of   
,khadijah4 ,he was semper idem1 an      
ambitious  enthusiast choosing different
 means for the same end and never very  
particular as to the character of the   

means used4    ,aside from the question 
of ,mohammed's sincerity no one can     
apologize  for his moral character if   
judged according to the law of his time1
  the law himself professed to reveal or
 the law of the ,new ,testament4  ,by   
the ,new ,testament law of ,jesus       
,christ1 who was the last prophet       
before ,mohammed and whom ,mohammed     
acknowledged as the ,word of ,god1 the  
,arabian prophet stands self-condemned4 
,the most cursory examination of  his   
biography proves that he broke          
repeatedly every sacred precept of  the 
,sermon on the ,mount4 ,and the ,koran  
itself proves that the ,spirit of       
,jesus was entirely absent from the mind
 of ,mohammed4 ,the ,arabs among  whom  
,mohammed was born and grew to manhood  
also had a law1 although  they were     
idolaters1 slave-holders and            
polygamists4 ,even the robbers of  the  
desert who1 like ,mohammed1 laid in wait
 for caravans1 had a code  of honor4    
,three flagrant breaches of this code   

stain the character  of ,mohammed4#fa   
,it was quite lawful to marry a captive 
woman whose  relatives had been slain in
 battle1 but not until three months     
after  their death4 ,mohammed only      
waited three days in the case of the    
,jewess  ,safia4 ,it was lawful to rob  
merchants but not pilgrims on their way 
to  ,mecca4 ,mohammed broke this old law
 and 8revealed a verse0 to justify  his 
conduct4 ,even in the 8,time of         
,ignorance0 it was incest to marry  the 
wife of an adopted son even after his   
decease4 ,the prophet ,mohammed  fell in
 love with the lawful wife of his       
adopted son ,zeid1 prevailed  on him to 
divorce her and then married her        
immediately2 for this also  he had a    
8special revelation40 ,but ,mohammed was
 not only guilty of  breaking the old   
,arab laws and coming infinitely short  
of the law of  ,christ1 he never even   
kept the laws of which he claimed to be 
the  divinely appointed medium and      
custodian4 ,when ,khadijah died he found

  his own law1 lax as it was1           
insufficient to restrain his lusts4 ,his
  followers were to be content with four
 lawful wives2 he indulged in ten  and  
entered into negotiations for matrimony 
with thirty others4    ,it is impossible
 to form a just estimate of the         
character of ,mohammed  unless we know  
somewhat of his relations with women4   
,this subject  however is of necessity  
shrouded from a decent contemplation by 
the  superabounding brutality and       
filthiness of its character4 ,a recent  
writer in a missionary magazine touching
 on this subject says1 8,we must  pass  
the matter over1 simply noting that     
there are depths of filth in  the       
,prophet's character which may assort   
well enough with the depraved           
sensuality of the bulk of his followers 
444 but which are simply  loathsome in  
the eyes of all over whom ,christianity 
in any measure or  degree has           
influence40 ,we have no inclination to  
lift the veil that  in most ,english    

biographies covers the family-life of   
the prophet of  ,arabia4 ,but it is only
 fair to remark that these              
love-adventures and  the disgusting     
details of his married life form a large
 part of the  8lives of the prophet of  
,god0 which are the fireside literature 
of  educated ,moslems4    ,concerning   
the career of ,mohammed after the       
,hegira1 or flight from  ,mecca 7#fbb   
,a4 ,d47 a brief summary suffices to    
show of what spirit  he was4 ,under his 
orders and direction the ,moslems lay in
 wait for  caravans and plundered them1 
the first victories of ,islam were the  
victories of highwaymen and robbers4    
,asma1 the poetess who assailed the     
character of ,mohammed1 was foully      
murdered in her sleep by ,omeir1 and    
,mohammed praised him for the deed4     
,similarly ,abu ,afik1 the ,jew1 was    
killed at the request of ,mohammed4 ,the
 story of the massacre of the  ,jewish  
captives is a dark stain also on the    
character of the prophet  whose mouth   

ever spoke of 8the ,merciful and        
,compassionate40 ,after the  victory1   
trenches were dug across the            
market-place and one by one the         
male-captives were beheaded on the brink
 of the trench and cast in it4  ,the    
butchery lasted all day and it needed   
torch-light to finish it4  ,after dark  
,mohammed solaced himself with ,rihana a
 ,jewish captive girl1  who refused     
marriage and ,islam1 but became his     
bond-slave4 ,it is no  wonder that      
shortly after1 ,zeinab1 who had lost her
 father and brother  in battle1 tried to
 avenge her race by attempting to poison
 ,mohammed4    ,in the seventh year of  
the ,hegira ,mohammed went to ,mecca and
 instituted  for all time the ,moslem   
pilgrimage4 ,the following year he again
 set  out for ,mecca at the head of an  
army of #aj1jjj men and took the city   
without a battle4 ,other expeditions    
followed and up to the day1 almost  the 
hour1 of his death the prophet was      
planning conquests by the sword4  ,it is

 a bloody story from the year of the    
,hegira until the close of  the         
,caliphates4 ,he who reads it in ,muir's
 volumes cannot but feel the  sad       
contrast between the early days of      
,islam and the early days of            
,christianity4 ,the germ of all         
sword-conquest must be sought in the    
life and book of ,mohammed4 ,both       
consecrate butchery in the service of   
,allah4 ,the successors of ,mohammed    
were not less unmerciful than was the   
prophet himself4    ,thus far we have   
considered ,mohammed from a critical    
standpoint and  have written facts4 ,but
 the ,mohammed of history and the       
,mohammed of the  present day ,moslem   
biographers are two different persons4  
,even in the  ,koran1 ,mohammed is human
 and liable to error4 ,tradition has    
changed  all that4 ,he is now sinless   
and almost divine4 ,the two hundred and 
one names given him by pious believers  
proclaim his apotheosis4 ,he  is called 
,light of ,god1 ,peace of the ,world1   

,glory of the ,ages1 ,first  of all     
,creatures and names yet more lofty and 
blasphemous4 ,he is at  once the sealer 
and concealor of all former prophets and
 revelations4  ,they have not only been 
succeeded but also supplanted by        
,mohammed4 ,no  ,moslem prays to him1   
but every ,moslem daily prays for him in
 endless  repetition4 ,he is the only   
powerful intercessor on the day of      
judgment4  ,every detail of his early   
life is surrounded with fantastical     
miracles  and marvels to prove his      
divine commission4 ,even the evil in his
 life  is attributed to divine          
permission or command and so the very   
signs of  his character are his endless 
glory and his sign of superiority4 ,god 
favored him above all creatures4 ,he    
dwells in the highest heaven and  is    
several degrees above ,jesus in honor   
and station4 ,his name is never  uttered
 or written without the addition of a   
prayer4 8,ya ,mohammed0 is  the open    
sesame to every door of difficulty1     

temporal or spiritual4  ,one hears that 
name in the bazaar and in the street1 in
 the mosque  and from the minaret4      
,sailors sing it while raising their    
sails2  hammals groan it to raise a     
burden2 the beggar howls it to obtain   
alms2 it is the ,bedouin's cry in       
attacking a caravan2 it hushes babies   
to sleep as a cradle song2 it is the    
pillow of the sick and the last  word of
 the dying1 it is written on the        
door-posts and in their hearts  as well 
as since eternity on the throne of ,god1
 it is to the devout  ,moslem the name  
above every name2 grammarians can tell  
you how its  four letters are           
representative of all the sciences and  
mysteries by  their wonderful           
combination4 ,the name of ,mohammed is  
the best to give  a child and the best  
to swear by for an end of all dispute in
 a close  bargain4 ,the exceeding honor 
given to ,mohammed's name by his        
followers  is only one indication of the
 place their prophet occupies in their  

system and holds in their hearts4 ,from 
the fullness of the heart the  mouth    
speaketh4 ,mohammed holds the keys of   
heaven and hell4 ,no ,moslem1  however  
bad his character1 will perish finally2 
no unbeliever1 however  good his life1  
can be saved except through ,mohammed4  
,one has only to  question the ,moslem  
masses or read a single volume of the   
traditions to  prove these statements4  
,islam denies a mediator and an         
incarnation but the 8,story of the ,jew0
  and similar tales put ,mohammed in the
 place of a mediator without an         
incarnation1 without an atonement1      
without holiness4 ,our ,analysis of  the
 ,moslem creed shows how all the later  
teaching which so exalted  ,mohammed was
 present in the germ4 8,la ilaha illa   
,allah0 is the  theology1 8,mohammed er 
rasool ,allah10 the complete            
,soteriology of  ,islam4 ,the logical   
necessity of a perfect mediator was at  
the basis of  the doctrine of           
,tradition4 ,islam has1 it claims1 a    

perfect revelation  in the letter of the
 ,koran2 and a perfect example in the   
life of  ,mohammed4 ,the stream has not 
risen higher than its sources4    ,,the 
,,book ,,of ,,islam4 ,when ,mohammed    
,webb the latest ,american champion of  
,islam spoke at the ,chicago ,parliament
 of religions in praise of the  ,koran  
and its teaching1 ,rev4 ,george ,e4     
,post1 ,m4 ,d41 of ,beirut deemed  it a 
sufficient reply to let the book speak  
for itself4 ,he said3 8,i  hold in my   
hand a book which is never touched by   
#bjj1jjj1jjj of the  human race with    
unwashen hands1 a book which is never   
carried below  the waist1 a book which  
is never laid upon the floor1 a book    
every  word of which to these           
#bjj1jjj1jjj of the human race is       
considered the  direct word of ,god     
which came down from heaven4 ,i propose 
without note  or comment to read to you 
a few words from the sacred book and you
 may  make your own comments upon them  
afterward40 ,after quoting several      

verses to show that ,mohammed preached a
 religion of the sword and of  polygamy1
 he added3 8,there is one chapter which 
,i dare not stand before  you1 my       
sisters1 mothers and daughters1 and read
 to you4 ,i have not the  face to read  
it2 nor would ,i like to read it even in
 a congregation of  men4 ,it is the     
sixty-fourth chapter of the ,koran40    
,what sort of a book is this revelation 
of ,mohammed of which parts are  unfit  
to read before a ,christian audience and
 which yet is too holy to  be touched by
 other than ,moslem hands8 ,a book which
 the orthodox ,moslem  believes to be   
uncreated and eternal1 all-embracing and
 all-surpassing1  miraculous in its     
origin and contents4 ,a book concerning 
which ,mohammed  himself has said1 8,if 
the ,koran were wrapped in a skin and   
thrown  into the fire it would not      
burn40 ,goethe described it thus3       
8,however  often we turn to it1 at first
 disgusting us each time afresh it soon 
attracts1 astounds1 and in the end      

enforces our reverence4 ,its style in   
accordance with its contents and aim is 
stern1 grand1 terrible--and ever  and   
anon truly sublime4 ,thus this book will
 go on exercising through  all ages a   
most potent influence40 ,and ,nldeke    
writes1 8if it were not  for the        
exquisite flexibility and vigor of the  
,arabic language itself1  which1 however
 is to be attributed more to the age in 
which the author  lived than to his     
individuality1 it would scarcely be     
bearable to read  the later portions of 
the ,koran a second time40 ,goethe read 
only the  translation2 and ,nldeke was  
master of the original4 ,it is as       
hopeless  to arrive at a unanimous      
verdict regarding the ,koran as it is to
 reach  an agreement regarding          
,mohammed4    ,the book has fifty-five  
noble titles on the lips of its people  
but is  generally called the ,koran or  
8,the ,reading40 ,it has one hundred and
  fourteen chapters1 some of which are  
as long as the book of ,genesis and     

others consisting of two or three       
sentences only4 ,the whole book is      
smaller than the ,new ,testament1 has no
 chronological order whatever and  is   
without logical sequence or climax4     
,what strikes the reader first  of all  
is its jumbled character2 every sort of 
fact and fancy1 law and  legend is      
thrown together piecemeal4 ,the four    
proposed chronological  arrangements1 by
 ,jorlal-ud-,din1 ,muir1 ,rodwell and   
,nldeke are in utter  disagreement4     
,only two of ,mohammed's contemporaries 
are mentioned in  the entire book and   
his own name occurs only five times4    
,the book  is unintelligible to the     
average ,moslem without a commentary1   
and ,i  defy any one else to lead it    
through1 without the aid of notes1 and  
understand a single chapter or even     
section4    ,we will not stop to        
consider the fabulous account which     
,moslems give  of the origin of the     
,koran and how the various chapters were
 revealed4  ,although ,moslems claim    

that the book was eternally perfect in  
form  and preserved in heaven1 they are 
compelled to admit that it was  revealed
 piecemeal and at various times and     
places by ,mohammed to his  followers4  
,it was recorded in writing1 after the  
rude ,arab fashion1  8on palm-leaves and
 sheep-bones and white stones0 to some  
extent2 but  for the most part was      
preserved orally by constant repetition4
 ,omar  suggested to ,abu-,bekr after   
the battle of ,yemama that since many of
  the ,koran reciters were slain1 it    
would be the part of wisdom to put  the 
book of ,god in permanent form4 ,the    
task was committed to ,zaid1 the  chief 
amanuensis of ,mohammed and the         
resulting volume was entrusted to  the  
care of ,hafsa1 one of the widows of the
 prophet4 ,ten years later  a recension 
of the ,koran was ordered by the ,caliph
 ,othman and all  previous copies were  
called in and burned4 ,this recension of
 ,othman1  sent to all the chief cities 
of the ,moslem world1 has been          

faithfully  handed down to the present4 
8,no other book in the world has        
remained  twelve centuries with so pure 
a text40 7,hughes47 ,the present        
variations  in editions of the ,arabic  
,koran are numerous but none of them    
are1 in  any sense important4 ,the      
present ,koran is the same book that    
,mohammed  professed to have received   
from ,god4 ,out of its own mouth will we
 judge  the book2 and we cannot judge   
the book without judging the prophet4   
,we will speak later of the poetical    
beauties of the ,koran and of its       
literary character4 ,we do not deny also
 that there are in the ,koran  certain  
moral beauties1 such as its deep and    
fervent trust in the one  ,god1 its     
lofty descriptions of ,his ,almighty    
power and omnipresence1 and  its        
sententious wisdom4 ,the first chapter  
and the verse of the throne  are        
examples4        8,in the name of ,god1 
the ,compassionate1 the ,merciful4      
,praise be to ,god1 ,lord of all the    

worlds6    ,the ,compassionate1 the     
,merciful6    ,king on the ,day of      
,judgment6    ,thee do we worship1 and  
to ,thee do we cry for help6    ,guide  
,thou us on the right path6    ,the path
 of those to whom ,thou art gracious6   
,not of those with whom ,thou art       
angered1 nor of those who go astray40   
8,god6 there is no ,god but ,he2 the    
living1 the ,eternal      ,slumber doth 
not overtake ,him1 neither sleep4       
,to ,him belongeth whatsoever is in     
heaven and on the earth4      ,the      
preservation of both is no weariness    
unto ,him4      ,he is the high1 the    
mighty40    ,the great bulk of the      
,koran is either legislative or         
legendary2 the  book consists of laws   
and stories4 ,the former relate entirely
 to  subjects which engrossed the ,arabs
 of ,mohammed's day--the laws of        
inheritance1 the relation of the sexes1 
the law of retaliation1 etc--and  this  
part of the book has a local character4 
,the stories on the other  hand go back 

to ,adam and the patriarchs1 take in    
several unknown  ,arabian prophets or   
leaders1 centre around ,jesus ,christ1  
,moses and  ,solomon and do not venture 
beyond ,jewish territory except to      
mention  ,alexander the ,great and      
,lukman 7sop74    ,from the analytical  
tables it is not very difficult to see  
whence the  material for the ,koran was 
selected4 ,rabbi ,geiger's book1        
recently  translated into ,english1 will
 satisfy any reader that ,hughes is     
nearly right when he says1              
8,mohammedanism is simply ,talmudic     
,judaism  adapted to ,arabia plus the   
apostleship of ,jesus and ,mohammed40   
,but it  is ,talmudic ,judaism and not  
the ,judaism of the ,old ,testament4    
,for  the ,koran is remarkable most of  
all not because of its contents but     
because of its omissions4 ,not because  
of what it reveals but for what  it     
conceals of 8former revelations40 ,the  
defects of its teaching are  many4 ,it  
is full of historical errors and        

blunders4 ,it has monstrous  fables4 ,it
 teaches a false cosmogony4 ,it is full 
of superstitions4 ,it  perpetuates      
slavery1 polygamy1 religious            
intolerance1 the seclusion  and         
degradation of woman and petrifies      
social life4 ,but all this is of  minor 
importance compared with the fact that  
the ,koran professing to  be a          
revelation from ,god does not teach the 
way to reconciliation  with ,god and    
seems to ignore the first and great     
barrier to such  reconciliation1 viz3   
,,sin4 ,of this the ,old and ,new       
,testaments are always  speaking4 ,sin  
and salvation are the subject of which  
the ,torah and  the ,zaboor and the     
,injil 7,law ,prophets and ,psalms7 are 
full4 ,the  ,koran is silent or if not  
absolutely silent1 keeps this great     
question  ever in the background4#fb    
,it is a commonplace of theology that   
8to form erroneous conceptions  of sin  
is to fall into still graver errors     
regarding the way of  salvation40       

,mohammed1 as is evident from his whole 
life1 had no deep  conviction of sin in 
himself2 he was full of                 
self-righteousness4 ,his  ideas1 too1 of
 ,god1 were physical1 not moral2 he saw 
,god's power1  but never had a glimpse  
of ,his holiness4 ,and so we find that  
there is  an inward unity binding       
together the prophet and his book as to 
their  real character in the light of   
the gospel4 ,with such ideas of ,god1   
such a prophet and such a book1 it is   
easy to understand why the  ,mohammedan 
world became what it is to-day4 ,these  
bare outlines of the  system of ,islam  
are all that are necessary to indicate  
its nature and  genus4 ,allah's         
character as the revealer1 ,mohammed's  
character as the  channel of the        
revelation1 and the revelation itself1  
show us ,islam in  its cradle4          
,,xix                        ,,the      
,,wahabi ,,rulers ,,and ,,reformers     
8,nothing is so easy to appreciate as   
true ,christian commerce4 ,it   is a    

speaking argument1 even to the lowest   
savage1 for a gospel of   truth and     
love1 and yet more to the races         
sophisticated by a false                
civilization40--,principal ,cairns4     
,the history of the ,arabian ,peninsula 
has never yet been written4  ,many books
 describe certain periods of its history
 from the time of  the earlier ,arabian 
rulers1 but there is no volume that     
tells the  story from the beginning in a
 way worthy of the subject4 ,it would be
  interesting to search out the earliest
 records and trace the ,himyarite       
dynasties to their origin2 to learn the 
story of the ,jewish immigrants  who    
settled in ,medina1 ,mecca and ,yemen   
even before the ,christian ,era2  to    
follow the ,arabs in their conquests    
under the banner of the prophet2  to    
watch the sudden rise of the            
,carmathians and follow them in their   
career of destruction2 to search the old
 libraries and rediscover the  romantic 
story of the ,portuguese1 the ,dutch and

 the ,english in ,arabian  waters2--but 
our space limits us to the story of the 
past century4#fc    ,to understand the  
present political conditions and recent 
history of  ,arabia1 we must go back to 
the year #agfe1 which marks the rise of 
the remarkable ,wahabi movement1 which  
was at the bottom of all the  political 
changes that the ,peninsula has seen    
since that time4 ,this  movement was the
 renaissance of ,islam1 even though it  
ended in apparent  disaster1 and was    
politically a splendid fiasco4 ,the     
,wahabi reform  attracted the attention 
of ,turkey to ,arabia2 its influence was
 felt in  ,india to the extent of       
declaring a jihad or religious war      
against  the government1 and compelled  
,england to study the situation and send
  representatives to the very heart of  
,arabia4    ,beginning with the ,wahabi 
dynasty1 the history of the past century
 in  ,arabia centres in the rulers of   
,nejd and ,oman1 the ,turkish conquests 
and the ,english influence and          

occupation4 ,the strong independent     
government of ,nejd under ,ibn ,rashid  
and his successor1 ,abd-ul-,aziz1  would
 have been an impossibility except for  
the result of the ,wahabi  movement1 in 
demonstrating the weakness of ,turkish  
rule4 ,and it was for  fear of the      
,wahabi aggressions that ,turkey        
strengthened her ,arabian  possessions  
and invaded ,hassa4    ,mohammed bin    
,abd-ul-,wahab was born at ,ayinah in   
,nejd1 in #afia4  ,carefully instructed 
by his father in the tenets of ,islam   
according  to the school of ,hambali1   
the strictest of the four great         
sects4#fd  ,abd-ul-,wahab visited the   
schools of ,mecca1 ,busrah and ,bagdad1 
to  increase his learning4 ,at ,medina1 
too1 he absorbed the deepest  learning  
of the ,moslem divines and soaked       
himself in the 8six correct  books0 of  
traditions4 ,in his travels he had      
observed the laxity of  faith and       
practice which had crept in1 especially 
among the ,turks  and the ,arabs of the 

large cities4 ,he tried to distinguish  
between  the essential elements of      
,islam and its later additions1 some of 
which seemed to him to savor of gross   
idolatry and worldliness4 ,what  most   
offended the rigid monotheism of his    
philosophy was the almost  universal    
visitation of shrines1 invocation of    
saints and honor paid  to the tomb of   
,mohammed4 ,the use of the rosary1 of   
jewels1 silk1 gold1  silver1 wine and   
tobacco1 were all abominations to be    
eschewed4 ,these  were indications of   
the great need for reform4 ,the earlier 
teaching  of the companions of the      
prophet had been set aside or overlaid  
by  later teaching4 ,even the four      
orthodox schools had departed from the  
pure faith by allowing pilgrimage to    
,medina1 by multiplying festivals  and  
philosophizing about the nature of      
,allah4 ,therefore it was that          
,abd-ul-,wahab preached reform not only1
 but proclaimed himself the  leader of a
 new sect4 ,his teaching was based on   

the ,koran and the early  traditions4   
,this movement is chiefly distinguished 
from the orthodox system in the         
following particulars3     #a4 ,the     
,wahabis reject ,ijma or the agreement  
of later interpreters4     #b4 ,they    
offer no prayers to prophet1 wali1 or   
saint1 nor visit their   tombs for that 
purpose4     #c4 ,they say ,mohammed is 
not yet an intercessor2 although at the 
last   day he will be4     #d4 ,they    
forbid women to visit the graves of the 
dead4     #e4 ,they allow only four     
festivals1 ,fitr1 ,azha1 ',ashura and   
,lailat ,el ,mobarek4     #f4 ,they do  
not celebrate ,mohammed's birth4     #g4
 ,they use their knuckles for           
prayer-counting1 and not rosaries4      
#h4 ,they strictly forbid the use of    
silk1 gold1 silver ornaments1   tobacco1
 music1 opium1 and every luxury of the  
,orient1 except perfume   and women4    
#i4 ,they have anthropomorphic ideas of 
,god by strictly literal                
interpretation of the ,koran texts about

 8,his hand10 8sitting10 etc4     #aj4  
,they believe jihad or religious war1 is
 not out of date1 but   incumbent on the
 believer4     #aa4 ,they condemn       
minarets1 tombstones1 and everything    
that was not in   use during the first  
years of ,islam4    ,there is no doubt  
that ,abd-ul-,wahab honestly tried to   
bring about  a reform and that in many  
of the points enumerated his reform was 
strictly a return to primitive ,islam4  
,but it was too radical to last4  ,it   
took no count of modern civilization and
 the ten centuries that had  modified   
the very character of the ,arabs of the 
towns not to speak  of those outside of 
,arabia4 ,yet the preaching of the      
,reformer found  willing ears in the    
isolation of the desert4 ,as in the days
 of ,omar1  the promise of reform in    
religion was made attractive by the     
promise  of rich booty to those who     
fought in the path of ,god and destroyed
  creature-worshippers4 ,mohammed       
,abd-ul-,wahab was the preacher1 but  to

 propagate his doctrine he needed a     
sword4 ,mohammed bin ,saud1 of          
,deraiyah1 supplied the latter factor   
and the two ,mohammeds1 allied by       
marriage and a common ambition1 began to
 make converts and conquests4  ,the son 
of ,bin ,saud1 ,abd-ul-,aziz1 was the   
,omar of the new movement1  and his son 
,saud even surpassed the father in      
military prowess and  successful        
conquest4 ,abd-ul-,aziz was murdered by 
a ,persian fanatic  while prostrate in  
prayer in the mosque at ,deraiyah1 in   
#ahjc4 ,saud  at this very time was     
pushing the ,wahabi conquest to the very
 gates  of ,mecca4 ,on the #bgth of     
,april1 #ahjc1 he carried his banner    
into the  court of the ,kaaba and began 
to cleanse the holy place4 ,piles of    
pipes1  tobacco1 silks1 rosaries and    
amulets were collected into one great   
heap and set on fire by the infuriated  
enthusiasts4 ,no excesses were          
committed against the people except that
 religion was forced upon  them4 ,the   

mosques were filled by public 8whips0   
who used their leather  thongs without  
mercy on all the lazy or negligent4     
,everybody1 for a  marvel1 prayed five  
times a day4 ,the result of his victory 
at ,mecca  was communicated by the      
dauntless ,saud in the following nave   
letter  addressed to the ,sultan of     
,turkey3     8,,saud ,,to ,,salim--,i   
entered ,mecca on the fourth day of     
,moharram in the   #abahth year of the  
,hegira4 ,i kept peace toward the       
inhabitants4 ,i   destroyed all things  
that were idolatrously worshipped4 ,i   
abolished   all taxes except those that 
were required by the law4 ,i confirmed  
the   ,kadhi whom you had appointed     
agreeably to the commands of the prophet
   of ,god4 ,i desire that you will give
 orders to the rulers of ,damascus   and
 ,cairo not to come up to the sacred    
city with the ,mahmal#fe and   with     
trumpets and drums4 ,religion is not    
profited by these things4 ,may   the    
peace and blessing of ,god be with you40

    ,the absence of long salutations and
 the usual phrases of honor is          
characteristic of all ,wahabi           
correspondence4 ,in this respect it is a
  great improvement on the excessive    
lavishment of titles and honors so      
usual among ,moslems1 especially among  
the ,persians and the ,turks4    ,before
 the close of the year ,saud avenged his
 father's death by  attacking ,medina   
and destroying the gilded dome that     
covered the  prophet's tomb4 ,as early  
as #ahja parties of plundering ,wahabis 
had  sacked the tomb of ,hussein and    
carried off rich booty from the sacred  
city of ,kerbela4 ,according to the     
official inventory this booty  consisted
 of vases1 carpets1 jewels1 weapons     
innumerable2 also1 #ejj  gilded         
copper-plates from the dome1 #d1jjj     
cashmire shawls1 #f1jjj  ,spanish       
doubloons1 #cej1jjj ,venetian coins of  
silver1 #djj1jjj ,dutch  ducats1        
#bej1jjj ,spanish dollars and a large   
number of ,abyssinian slaves  belonging 

to the mosque4#ff ,their raids and      
conquests extended in  every direction  
so that in a few years the ,wahabi power
 was supreme in  the greater part of    
,arabia4    ,a single illustration will 
show the great ,saud's#fg prudence and  
celerity in action4 ,when he invaded the
 ,hauran plains1 in #ahaj1  although it 
was thirty-five days' journey from his  
capital1 yet the  news of his approach  
only preceded his arrival by two days1  
nor was it  known what part of ,syria he
 planned to attack1 and thirty-five     
villages  of ,hauran were sacked before 
the ,pasha of ,damascus could make any  
demonstrations for defence6             
,meanwhile the ,sublime ,porte remained 
inactive and nothing was done to  regain
 the sacred territories4 ,it was deemed 
impossible to reach ,mecca  from        
,damascus with any large body of        
soldiers through hostile territory      
where supplies were scarce4 ,salvation  
was expected from ,egypt2 and it  was   
hoped that an expedition by sea might   

succeed in taking ,jiddah and  thence   
advance upon ,mecca4 ,mohammed ,ali     
began preparations in #ahaj1 and  in the
 summer of #ahaa an expedition under his
 son ,touson ,pasha was sent  out from  
,suez4 ,in ,october the fleet arrived at
 ,yenbo and the troops  took the town4  
,ghaleb the ,sherif of ,mecca proved    
false to the ,wahabis  and made         
negotiations with the ,turkish commander
 to hand over the  town4 ,in ,january   
the army occupied ,medina but at ,bedr  
the troops were  attacked by ,wahabis   
and utterly routed4    ,all through this
 first campaign the cruelty and         
treachery of the ,turks  was shocking   
even to the mind of their ,bedouin      
allies4 ,none of their  promises were   
kept2 the skulls of the enemy slain were
 constructed  into a sort of tower near 
,medina2 ,ghalib1 the ,sherif1 was      
betrayed and  in violation of the most  
sacred promises he was taken prisoner   
and  deported2 wholesale butchery of the
 wounded and mutilation of the slain    

were common4    ,a second army under    
,mustafa ,bey advanced toward ,mecca and
 also took  possession of ,taif4        
,although the five cities of the ,hejaz 
were now in  the hands of the ,turks the
 ,wahabi power was not yet broken4      
,mohammed  ,ali ,pasha himself proceeded
 from ,egypt with another army2 he had  
great  difficulty in securing           
transportation and provisions4 ,finally 
he landed  his troops at ,jiddah and    
went on to ,mecca1 planning to attack   
,taraba  the great ,wahabi centre of the
 south1 as ,deraiyah was the capital  of
 the north4 ,here the enemy had gathered
 in great numbers under an  ,amazon     
leader1 a widow named ,ghalye who ruled 
the ,begoum ,arabs4 ,she was  reported  
to be a sorceress among the ,turks and  
stories of her skill and  courage       
inspired them with fear4 ,when the      
attack was made the ,wahabis  came off  
victorious and so harassed the army of  
occupation that during  #ahac and the   
beginning of #ahad they remained        

perfectly inactive4 ,later  the ,turks  
made a sea attack on ,gunfida1 the port 
south of ,jiddah1 and  captured it4 ,the
 ,wahabis however captured the wells    
that supplied the  town1 made a sortie  
and the ,turkish troops fled            
panic-stricken1 to  their ships4        
,discontentment arose among the ,turkish
 troops4 ,supplies  failed and wages    
were in arrears4 ,mohammed ,ali changed 
now his tactics  and tried to bribe the 
,bedouin chiefs to desert the ,wahabi   
leaders4 ,at  this time the ,turkish    
army consisted of nearly #bj1jjj men and
 yet the  campaign dragged on without a 
definite victory4#fh    ,the greatest   
battle was fought at ,bissel near ,taif 
where ,mohammed ,ali  defeated the      
,wahabis with great slaughter4 ,six     
dollars were offered  for every ,wahabi 
head and before the day ended #e1jjj    
bloody heads  were piled up before the  
,pasha4 ,about #cjj prisoners were taken
 and  offered quarter4 ,but on reaching 
,mecca the cruel commander impaled      

fifty of them before the gates of the   
city2 twelve suffered a like  horrible  
death at every one of the ten           
coffee-houses1 halting places  between  
,mecca and ,jiddah2 the remainder were  
killed at ,jiddah and their  carcasses  
left to dogs and vultures4    ,but the  
battle went against the ,turks when they
 met the desert and its  terrors4       
,hunger1 thirst1 fevers and the ,bedouin
 robbers attacked the  camp4 ,in one day
 a hundred horses died2 the soldiers    
were dissatisfied  and deserted4 ,at    
length ,mohammed ,ali made proposals of 
peace to  ,abdullah bin ,saud the       
,wahabi chief1 and when ,saud entered   
,kasim with  an army the negotiations   
were concluded and peace was declared4  
,but  peace was not kept1 and ,ibrahim  
,pasha1 the son of ,mohammed ,pasha was 
despatched with a large expedition      
against the ,wahabis in ,august1 #ahaf4 
,while ,egypt was attacking the ,wahabi 
strongholds from the west1 with         
infinite trouble and dubious results1   

the greatest loss the ,wahabi           
government had yet suffered1 was from a 
blow dealt by the ,british4  ,in #ahji  
an ,english expedition went from ,bombay
 against the piratical  inhabitants of  
their chief castle and harbor1          
,ras-el-,kheimah4 ,the  place was       
bombarded and laid in ashes4    ,ibrahim
 ,pasha accomplished by intrigue and    
bribery what his father  failed to do by
 force of arms4 ,after a series of      
advances one tribe  after another was   
detached from the ,wahabi government4   
,at last without  a battle the capital  
,deraiyah was taken1 ,abdullah captured1
 sent to  ,constantinople and there     
publicly executed on ,december #ahth1   
#ahah4    ,the ,turks were naturally    
jubilant over their success and thought 
they had made an end of the hated       
,wahabis4 ,they soon learned their      
mistake4 ,no sooner was the army of     
,ibrahim ,pasha withdrawn than the  old 
spirit rehabilitated the fallen empire  
with the old time strength  of          

fanaticism4 ,the army of the ,pashas    
could not govern or even occupy  the    
vast territories they had overrun4      
,within a few years ,turki the  son of  
the late ,amir was proclaimed ,sultan of
 ,nejd1 recovered all and  more than his
 father's territories1 and by the       
judicious payment of a  small tribute   
and yet smaller honor to the ,egyptian  
,khedive retained  the throne until he  
was murdered in #ahca4 ,his son and     
successor1  ,feysul1 took the reins of  
government and was rash enough to       
repudiate  the ,egyptian ,suzerainty4   
,nejd was again invaded4 ,hofhoof and   
,katif were  temporarily occupied by    
,egyptian and ,turkish troops and       
,feysul was  banished to ,egypt4#fi     
,feysul died in #ahfe1 having returned  
from his banishment in #ahdc and  ruling
 alone and supreme for all those years4 
,his son ,abdullah1 who had  acted as   
regent during the later years of        
,feysul1 succeeded to the  throne4 ,but 
there was a rival in his brother ,saud4 

,intrigues1 treasons  and violence were 
hatching in the palace courts even      
before the death  of ,feysul4 ,the      
dagger and the coffee-cup of poisoned   
beverage have  always been favorite     
weapons in seating and unseating the    
rulers of  ,arabia4 ,a prolonged fight  
ensued between the two brothers4 ,saud  
was at  first successful but ,abdullah  
flying to ,turkey invited the aid of    
that  power with the result that an     
expedition from ,bagdad ended in        
formally  and permanently occupying ,el 
,hassa as a ,turkish province4    ,at   
the time of ,saud's death1 in #ahgd1 the
 conflict was renewed1 but  ,abdullah   
ultimately regained the supremacy and   
was ruler at ,riad until  #ahhf1 when   
events occurred that heralded the rise  
of another power in  ,nejd1 based on    
political intrigue and the sword rather 
than on religion  and fanaticism4       
,when ,turki the ,amir was murdered by  
his own cousin1 ,meshari1 and ,feysul   
succeeded to the throne1 there was      

present at ,riad in the army an  obscure
 youth from ,hail1 ,abdullah bin        
,rashid4 ,he it was who entered  the    
palace by stealth1 stabbed ,meshari1 and
 helped to restore ,feysul  to his      
father's seat as ruler4 ,his valor and  
loyalty were rewarded  by bestowing upon
 him the governorship of his own native 
province  ,shammar2 he was also granted 
a small army to strengthen the ,wahabi  
rule in that region4 ,he soon became    
almost as strong as his master and      
showed himself an expert in all the     
intrigue and skill possible to the      
,arabs4 ,he extended his personal       
influence on all sides1 built a massive 
palace at ,hail and defeated all who    
plotted his destruction4 ,hired         
assassins dogged him on the streets1 but
 ,abdullah escaped every danger  and his
 star remained in the ascendant4 ,in    
#ahdd he died suddenly1  leaving        
unaccomplished ambitions and three sons1
 ,telal1 ,mitaab1 and  ,mohammed4       
,telal1 the eldest son1 was proclaimed  

ruler and was ever more  popular than   
his father had been1 and no less        
successful as a ruler4  ,he strengthened
 his capital1 invited merchants from    
,busrah and ,bagdad  to reside there1   
and gradually but surely established his
 entire  independence of the ,wahabi    
ruler at ,riad4 ,tormented1 however1 by 
an  internal malady he shot himself in  
#ahfg4 ,his younger brother1 ,mitaab1   
who succeeded1 ruled very briefly and   
was murdered by his nephews1 the  sons  
of ,telal1 within a year4 ,meanwhile1   
the third son of ,abdullah  bin ,rashid1
 ,mohammed1 had been a refugee at the   
,riad capital4 ,but  his ambitions now  
found their opportunity and his true    
character was  revealed4 ,by permission 
of the ,amir ,abdullah bin ,feysul he   
went back to  ,hail4 ,he commenced by   
stabbing his nephew ,bander who had     
usurped the  throne2 he then killed the 
five remaining children of his brother  
,telal  and became undisputed ,amir at  
,hail in #ahfh4 ,during the next        

eighteen  years he consolidated his     
authority4 ,his rule was after the ,arab
  heart--with a rod of iron and lavish  
hospitality2 continual executions  and  
continual feasting4    ,the ,arabs at   
,bahrein tell many almost incredible    
tales of ,mohammed bin  ,rashid's stern 
justice and speedy method of executing  
it1 as well of  his cruelty to those who
 resisted his will4 ,in those days the  
public  executioner's sword was always  
wet with blood2 men were tied to camels 
and torn asunder2 but the desert-roads  
were everywhere safe and robbers  met   
with no mercy4 ,as an indication of his 
wealth and hospitality  it is related   
that he constructed in the courtyard of 
his palace a  stone-cistern of great    
size always kept filled with that best  
of  ,bedouin dainties1 clarified butter 
7dihn74 ,a bucket and rope were at  hand
 and oil was dealt out as freely as     
water to the honored guests of  the     
great ruler4    ,in the year #ahhf the  
long-looked for opportunity came for    

,mohammed  bin ,rashid to complete the  
work of ,telal4 ,he not only aspired to 
be  independent of the ,riad rulers but 
to make ,riad1 the ,saud dynasty  and   
all the ,wahabi state a dependency of   
his ,nejd kingdom4 ,in that  year ,amir 
,abdullah bin ,feysul was seized and    
imprisoned by two of his  nephews1 one  
of whom usurped the throne4 ,mohammed1  
as a loyal subject1  marched to the     
rescue1 deposed the pretender1 but      
carried the ,amir  himself to ,hail1    
leaving a younger brother as his deputy 
governor4 ,the  great empire of the     
,sauds was virtually ended2 henceforth  
it was the  green and purple banner of  
,rashid and not the red and white       
standard of  the ,wahabis that ruled all
 central ,arabia4    ,mohammed bin      
,rashid had shown supreme diplomatic    
ability in all his  dealings with the   
,turks from the day of his power until  
his death4 ,he  humored their vanity by 
professing himself an ally of the       
,porte2 he  paid a small annual tribute 

to the ,sherif of ,mecca in recognition 
of  the ,sultan4 ,but for the rest he   
never loved the ,turk except at a good  
distance4 ,none of the ,arabs of the    
interior have forgotten the perfidy1    
treachery and more than ,arab cruelty of
 the ,egyptian ,pashas in their         
campaigns4    ,in #ahij a final attempt 
was made by the partisans of the old    
dynasty  to rebel against the ,amir and 
secure the independence of ,riad4 ,it   
was  fruitless2 and the severe defeat of
 the rebels proved it final4 ,in the    
year #ahig ,mohammed bin ,rashid died   
and his successor ,abd-el-,aziz bin     
,mitaab now rules his vast dominions4   
,he is less stern but not less able     
than his illustrious predecessor4       
,,xx                              ,,the 
,,rulers ,,of ,,oman      ,before we    
turn to the history of the ,turks in    
,arabia a word is  necessary regarding  
the rulers of ,oman--that province      
unique in ,arabia  for its isolation    
from all the other provinces in the     

matter of  politics4 ,prior to the      
appearance of the ,portuguese in the    
,persian  ,gulf 7#aejf7 ,oman had been  
governed for nine hundred successive    
years  by independent rulers called     
,imams2 elected by popular choice and   
not  according to family descent4 ,from 
that time until #afej the ,portuguese   
remained in power at ,muscat4 ,in #agda 
,ahmed bin ,said1 a man of humble       
origin1 a camel-driver1 rose by his     
bravery to be governor of ,sohar1  drove
 the ,persians who had succeeded the    
,portuguese1 out of ,muscat  and founded
 the dynasty that has ever since ruled  
,oman4 ,as early as  #agih the ,east    
,india ,company made a treaty with the  
,sultan of ,muscat  to exclude the      
,french from ,oman4 ,this fact is       
important to show the  character of the 
recent incident at ,muscat4    ,seyid   
,said1 who ruled from #ahjd to #ahef1   
had constant struggles against  the     
,wahabi power who threatened his        
territory4 ,with ,england he joined  the

 war against the ,wahabi pirates2 and   
made treaties in #ahbb1 #ahdj and  #ahde
 to suppress the slave-trade4 ,on the   
death of ,said the ,sultanate of  ,oman 
and ,zanzibar was divided4 ,seyid       
,thowani reigned at ,muscat while a     
younger brother reigned at ,zanzibar4   
,thowani was assassinated at ,sohar  in 
#ahff4 ,salim1 his son1 succeeded him1  
although he was suspected of  patricide4
 ,then there was an interregnum under a 
usurper until ,seyid  ,turki another son
 of ,said took the throne in #ahga4     
,continual rebellion  marked his period 
of rule4 ,but he was friendly to the    
,english and in  return for the         
abolition of free traffic of slaves     
between ,africa and  ,zanzibar the      
,english government allowed him an      
annual subsidy of a  little over #f1jjj 
a year4 ,in #ahhh the ,sultan died and  
his son1 ,feysul  bin ,turki1 succeeded 
him4 ,his rule was mild1 from the palace
 at ,muscat  his influence was not      
far-reaching2 rebellions1 inter-tribal  

wars and  plots of one mountain-chief   
against another mark all the years of   
his reign up to date4 ,in ,february1    
#ahie1 there was a serious ,bedouin     
uprising in which the ,arabs took the   
town and looted it4 ,the ,sultan        
himself barely escaped and was for a    
time a prisoner in his fort while  the  
town was in the hands of the enemy4 ,the
 cause of the trouble was a  difference 
as to the amount of yearly tribute a    
certain ,sheikh ,saleh  of ,samed should
 pay the ,muscat ruler4 ,from ,november1
 #ahid1 the rebels  collected arms and  
strengthened their numbers until on     
,february #abth of  the following year  
they were ready to strike the desired   
blow4 ,as this  episode was             
characteristic of all ,arab warfare we  
quote a brief account  of it sent at the
 time by a resident at ,muscat to the   
,bombay press3     8,on ,february #abth 
,abdullah1 the leader of his father's   
7,sheikh   ,saleh's7 troops1 with a     
retinue of perhaps #bjj armed ,bedouins 

arrived   at ,muscat in a scattered and 
peaceable manner1 and obtained an       
audience with the ,sultan4 ,a musket    
salute was fired1 and no attack   was   
thought of4 ,the ,sultan presented the  
leader with a purse of #djj   and a     
liberal allowance of rice1 dates1       
coffee1 and the famous ,muscat   8halwa0
 for the men4 ,the ,bedouins although   
armed were allowed to go   and come as  
they choose and no attack was feared4   
,sheikh ,abdullah   himself sat for a   
time in the bazaar and received the     
salaams of the   people who kissed his  
hand in respect4 ,when evening came the 
,sultan   requested the men to encamp   
outside of the gates1 the only means of 
entrance and exit through the old       
,portuguese walls4 ,although failing    
to comply with the request the ,bedouins
 claimed none but peaceful   intentions4
 ,at #h ,p4 ,m4 when according to custom
 the gates were closed1   perhaps       
one-half of the ,bedouins were within   
the walls4 ,this was   their ,trojan    

horse4 ,shortly after midnight the gates
 were attacked1   the few customary     
guards being easily overcome1 and thrown
 open to the   large numbers of         
,bedouins who up to this time had been  
hiding in a   neighboring mosque4 ,both 
the small gate leading to the bazaar and
 the   larger one to the west of the    
town were easily taken1 and the         
,bedouins   then advanced to the        
,sultan's palace1 effected an entrance  
and rudely   awoke the ,sultan and his  
family from their sleep4 ,seyyidi ,esel 
after   a courageous struggle of a few  
minutes1 7in which he shot two of the   
attacking party17 escaped by a small    
door opening to the sea and fled   to   
one of the two forts which command the  
city as well as the harbor4   ,his      
brother escaped to the other4 ,each of  
these forts is manned by   a force of   
perhaps fifty men and has several old   
twelve pounder   ,portuguese guns4      
8,the forts opened fire at once upon the
 palace which the ,bedouins now         

occupied4 ,the ,bedouins took possession
 of the town closing the gates   and    
stationing armed men through the bazaar 
and streets in the early   hours of the 
#acth of ,february4     8,a few shops   
containing muskets and ammunition were  
opened1 and the   contents robbed4 ,the 
,sultan's palace was completely looted  
and all his   personal property either  
destroyed or sold at any price4 ,on     
account   of the suddenness of the      
attack there was but a small number of  
the   ,sultan's soldiers in readiness4  
,these repaired to the forts and opened 
fire upon the ,bedouin invaders with    
both the guns of the foils and          
muskets4 ,for three days we were the    
witnesses of the extraordinary          
spectacle of a ,sultan bombarding his   
own palace2 no attempt was made   to    
meet the rebels on the streets4 ,by     
order of the invading captain   the     
portion of the town inhabited by        
,british subjects was not entered4      
,until ,sunday evening things remained  

about the same4 ,the attack from   the  
forts was continued day and night4 ,the 
,bedouins did not answer   the fire but 
remained in the palace and streets      
holding possessions   but making no     
attack on the forts4 ,within the town1  
although it   is in possession of the   
enemy1 all was orderly and quiet4       
,unarmed   people were allowed to pass  
to and fro and guards were stationed in 
the bazaar to prevent plunder4          
,reinforcements were expected by both   
parties4 ,on ,monday morning a body of  
about #a1jjj arrived from the   coast   
towns in aid of the ,sultan4 ,they      
encamped beneath the fort in   command  
of the ,sultan1 and at about #h ,a4 ,m4 
made an attack on the   invaders1 which 
became so serious a danger to the       
,british subjects   that the ,political 
,agent ,major ,j4 ,h4 ,sadler ordered a 
cessation of   hostilities at #a ,p4 ,m4
 until #h ,p4 ,m4 giving the ,british   
subjects an   opportunity to sojourn to 
the sheltered village of ,makalla4 ,more

   reinforcements to the ,sultan's      
troops arrived at #f ,p4 ,m4 and        
encamped   beneath the fort throwing    
temporary barricades across the streets 
at several advantageous points4 ,the    
main body of the ,bedouins were         
waiting to reinforce just outside       
,matral which village was however       
still in the hands of the ,sultan4 ,at  
#h ,a4 ,m4 on ,monday ,h4 ,m4 ,s4       
,sphina   arrived from ,bushire and at  
#b ,p4 ,m4 the ,r4 ,i4 ,m4 ,s4          
,lawrence40    ,the ,british gunboats1  
contrary to the expectations and fond   
hopes of the  population of ,muscat1 did
 not interfere in the matter4 ,for      
reasons of  diplomacy they left the     
,sultan to fight his own battles and    
when the  rebels were finally persuaded 
to leave saddled the poor ,sultan with  
a large bill for the damage incurred by 
,british subjects during the  attack4   
,in #ahid a ,french consulate was       
established at ,muscat2 as the ,french  
have no commerce to speak of in this    

part of the world the object of  the    
consulate was evidently political4 ,of  
the intrigues that resulted1  the       
alleged sale of a coaling-station to    
,france and the ,british  attitude      
toward the matter we will speak later4  
,,xxi                       ,,the       
,,story ,,of ,,the ,,turks ,,in ,,arabia
     8,no one travels in ,turkey with   
his eyes open without seeing that her   
government is a curse on mankind4       
,fears1 feuds and fightings make        
miserable the councils of her rulers4   
,they are bloodsuckers fastened   on the
 people throughout her dominions drawing
 from each and all   the last drop of   
blood that can be extracted4 ,turkey    
skillfully   and systematically         
represses what ,christian nations make  
it their   business to nurture in all   
mankind as manhood4 ,in her cities there
   are magnificent palaces for her      
sultans and her favorites4 ,but one     
looks in vain through her realm for     
statues of public benefactors4   ,there 

are no halls where her citizens could   
gather to discuss   policies of         
government or mutual obligations4 ,their
 few newspapers   are emasculated by    
government censors4 ,not a book in any  
language   can cross her borders without
 permission of public officers1 most of 
whom are incapable of any intelligent   
judgment of its contents4 ,art   is     
scorned4 ,education is bound4 ,freedom  
is a crime4 ,the tax gatherer   is      
omnipotent4 ,law is a farce4 ,turkey has
 prisons instead of public   halls for  
the education of her people4            
,instruments of torture are the         
stimulus to their industries40--,the    
,congregationalist1 ,april #h1 #ahig4   
,in reviewing the story of the ,turks in
 ,arabia1 we will begin with  ,hejaz1   
the most important province of ,turkey  
in ,arabia1 continue with  ,yemen1 the  
most populous1 and end with the         
,mesopotamian vilayets which  were her  
richest possessions4    ,it is not      
generally understood how highly the     

,sultan values his ,arabian  provinces4 
,it is on them and on them alone that he
 can base his claim  to the title of    
caliph4 ,the possession of the ,holy    
,cities in the hands  of the ,sultan    
makes him the chief ,mohammedan ruler2  
there his name is  blessed daily in the 
great mosques2 in the eyes of all the   
pilgrims  from every part of the ,moslem
 world ,turkey is the guardian of the   
,kaaba4 ,how many thousands of          
,mohammedans daily in the mosques of    
,india  and ,java call for blessings on 
the head of ,abd-ul-,hamid the ,caliph  
who  would never pray for ,abd-ul-,hamid
 the ,sultan4    ,mecca1 and ,hejaz     
generally1 was governed by the early    
,caliphs until #ihj  ,a4 ,d41 when it   
passed under the rule of the first      
,sherif1 ,jaafar4#gj  ,under ,suleiman  
the magnificent 7#aebj-aeff7 the        
,ottoman ,empire reached  the zenith of 
its power and greatness2 at that time   
,arabia too was  reckoned a ,turkish    
possession1 and the entire peninsula was

 included on  the maps of ,turkish      
,asia4 ,but1 as we have seen1 at the    
beginning of the  present century the   
,wahabis and not the ,turks were the    
real rulers of  ,arabia4 ,the ,arabs    
have never taken kindly to the rule of  
the ,turk1 but  the province of ,hejaz1 
once snatched from the hand of the      
,wahabis1 has  ever since been held by  
the ,sublime ,porte4 ,plots of rebellion
 have been  thick and ,sherifs have     
succeeded ,sherifs but the fort that    
frowns over  ,mecca has always a strong 
,turkish garrison and the ,pashas eat   
the fat  of the land at the expense of  
the people4    ,actual ,turkish rule was
 declared over the whole of ,hejaz in   
#ahdj4 ,at  that time ,abd-el-,mutalib  
was made ,great ,sherif of ,mecca1 but  
there was  continual trouble between the
 ,sherif and the ,pasha4 ,the religious 
head  of the holy city would not bow to 
the political head2 the anti-slave      
trade regulations although only very    
slightly enforced caused riots4  ,the   

,sherif was deposed and ,mohammed bin   
',aun declared ruler in his  place4 ,on 
,june #aeth1 #aheh1 the murder of       
certain ,christians at ,jiddah  brought 
,england into collision with the rulers 
of ,hejaz4 ,jiddah was  bombarded and   
the gate to the holy city was held by   
the ,christian  powers until the        
required indemnity was paid and the     
murderers  punished4 ,the next ,sherif  
appointed was ,abdullah4 ,during his    
time the  opening of the ,suez ,canal   
brought ,turkey much nearer to ,mecca   
and  inspired the religious zealots with
 the fear that now the ,christian       
fleets would attack the whole coast of  
,hejaz6 ,for had not the vizier of      
,haroun el ,rashid dissuaded that       
monarch from his plan to dig the canal  
lest the gateway to the ,holy ,cities   
would then be too accessible to the     
infidels8    ,the ,ottoman government   
introduced other horrors into the quiet 
seclusion of the ancient city of ,mecca2
 ,jiddah was connected with the  ,red   

,sea cable2 a wire carried the world to 
,mecca and put the ,pasha in  daily     
touch with the ,sublime ,porte2         
afterward it was extended to ,taif1  and
 the ,turks were masters of their own   
army corps1 so that the ,sherifs  could 
not act in secret4 ,it was even         
attempted to raise a ,meccan  regiment  
for the ,russian war4    ,in #ahfi the  
whole complicated bureaucratic system   
was introduced at  ,medina1 ,jiddah1    
,mecca and ,taif4 ,abdullah was a great 
favorite as  ,sherif1 both to the ,arabs
 and the ,turks2 he was mild and given  
to all  sorts of compromise so that he  
managed to please both parties which    
are always at war in ,mecca4 ,his       
brother ,husein succeeded as ,sherif but
  was murdered in #ahhj4 ,in the same   
year the aged ,abd-el-,mutalib for the  
third time became ,sherif and although  
at first very popular he soon  won the  
hatred of the conservative ,meccans by  
his cruelty and of the  ,turks by his   
double-dealing4 ,on request of the      

people of ,mecca for his  deposition1   
,othman ,pasha came to ,hejaz and       
although he did not depose  the aged    
,sherif1 managed to outwit him in       
governing the city4 ,in #ahhb           
,aun-er-,rafik1 a brother of ,husein1   
became ,sherif4 ,troubles between the   
dual powers of government became thick  
and the ,bedouin tribes took the        
occasion for a general uprising4 ,rafik 
fled to ,medina and could not  return   
until ,othman ,pasha was deposed4 ,since
 then the old struggle  continues4      
,the ,arabs in ,hejaz have no love for  
the ,turks or for any ,turkish  ruler2  
the ,bedouin tribes hate the very sight 
of a red fez and the  town-dweller is   
ground down with taxation4 ,aside from  
militarism there  have been no public   
improvements in either of the ,holy     
,cities since the  ,star and ,crescent  
waved from their forts4 ,the            
8pantaloon-wearing0 ,turks  are         
considered little better than           
8,christian dogs0 by the pious folk of  

,mecca4 ,have they not introduced the   
abomination of quarantine instead  of   
the old time simple trust in ,allah8    
,have they not acquiesced to the        
residence of ,christian consuls at      
,jiddah8 ,and what is worse1 have they  
not interfered with the free importation
 of slaves and the manufacture  of      
eunuchs for the residents of ,mecca8    
,the following literal translation of a 
placard posted everywhere in  ,mecca1 at
 the end of the year #ahhe1 may give the
 best insight into the  relations that  
exist between the ,turk and the ,arab in
 the cradle of  ,islam3     8#8,and who 
does not rule according to the          
revelation of ,allah he is an           
infidel4'--,koran v4 #dh4     8,be it   
known to you1 ye people of ,mecca1 that 
this accursed ,wali   intends to        
introduce ,turkish laws into the holy   
city of ,allah1   therefore beware of   
sloth and awake from sleep4 ,do not     
suffer the laws   to be executed for    
they are only the opening of the door to

 further   legislation4 ,our proof is   
that the ,wali ,othman ,pasha proposed  
his plan   to divide ,mecca into four   
quarters and to appoint three officers  
for   each quarter4 ,this plan he laid  
before the city council and when they   
declared it was impossible to do this in
 ,mecca the accursed replied1   ,is     
,mecca better than ,constantinople8 ,we 
will carry the plan through   by force4 
,for this reason1 ,o ,meccans1 an       
association has been formed   called the
 ,moslem ,club and whoever desires to   
enter it let him make   inquiries4 ,the 
object of the association is to         
assassinate this cursed   ,wali and his 
chief of police4 ,he who cannot join us 
let him utter his   complaint before    
,allah in the holy house that the public
 safety is   endangered while the       
present ruler lives4 ,and this cursed   
,wali also   attempts to secure the     
administration of the annual            
corn-shipment from   ,egypt4 ,and       
remember also how the accursed butchered

 the sons of the   ,sherif and his      
slaves and exposed their heads at       
,mecca4 ,what sort of   deeds are these8
 ,more atrocious than those at ,zeer4   
,so that whoever   kills this man will  
enter paradise without rendering an     
account4 ,the   purpose of dividing the 
city appointing ,sheikhs for each       
quarter is   nothing else than a pretext
 for new taxations as the ,cursed       
himself   let out before the council4   
8,in the name of the                    
8,,jemiat-,,el-,,islamiyeh40    ,the    
same people who promised paradise to the
 murderer of ,othman ,pasha  rebelled   
against his successor ,safwet ,pasha and
 will rebel as long as  the character of
 the ,meccan remains what it is4 ,those 
who dream that  the ,turk will make     
,mecca the centre of their power when   
,constantinople  falls1 know not the    
condition of affairs among the proud    
fanatics of  ,hejaz who will never allow
 ,mecca to become anything but the city 
of the  ,sherifs4 ,and as for the       

,bedouin tribes1 they blackmail every   
pilgrim  caravan and draw heavy         
subsidies from ,constantinople to keep  
the peace4  ,jiddah is in decay and the 
pilgrim-traffic is not as flourishing as
 it  was a decade ago4 ,even in ,hejaz  
the days of ,ottoman rule are numbered4 
,between ,hejaz and ,yemen is the region
 of ,asir4 ,its population has been     
celebrated from the earliest times for  
personal bravery and courage4           
,mountain-dwellers they love freedom2   
belonging to the ,zaidee sect they  hate
 the ,sunnites4 ,and these two reasons  
united made them abominate the  ,turks4 
,in order to extend ,ottoman power      
southward and reconquer ,yemen  for the 
,sublime ,porte it was necessary to pass
 through the territory  of the ,asir    
,arabs4 ,from #ahbd to #ahbg the        
,turkish troops carried six  successive 
campaigns against the brave highlanders 
but were in every  case repulsed with   
great loss4 ,in #ahcc and #ahcd the     
attempt was again  made2 a desperate    

battle was fought on ,august #bast of   
the latter  year1 the ,turkish troops   
were victorious4 ,but the ,arabs        
rallied1 made  sorties on the garrisons1
 famine reigned1 fever killed off many  
and in  ,september the ,turks again     
withdrew1 defeated4 ,in #ahcf a final   
attempt  was made to conquer ,asir2 this
 was with greater loss than ever before4
  ,to this day the entire region between
 ,taiz and ,roda 7a few miles north  of 
,sana7 is really independent1 although  
marked as ,turkish on the maps4  ,the   
,ottoman troops are bold to fight the   
,yemen ,arabs to the very gate  of ,sana
 but they grow pale when they hear of an
 expedition against the  dare-devil     
,bedouins of ,asir who fight with the   
ferocity of the ,american  ,indian and  
the boldness of a ,scotch ,highlander4  
,the story of the ,turks in ,yemen is   
very modern4 ,in #afcj they were        
compelled to evacuate ,yemen by the     
,arabs and they did not set foot in  the
 capital again until #ahgc4 ,in #ahga   

the ,imam of ,yemen lived his life  in  
peace1 secluded and sensual like an     
oriental despot in the palace  at ,sana4
 ,looked upon by the ,arabs as a        
spiritual ,sultan he was great1  but    
also powerless to hold in check the     
depredations and robberies of  the many 
tribes under his nominal sway4 ,things  
went from bad to worse4  ,trade almost  
ceased on account of the attacks on the 
caravans that left  for the coast4 ,the 
,sana merchants1 quiet and respectable  
,arabs1 saw  nothing but ruin before    
them1 and considering solely the        
benefits that  would accrue to          
themselves by such a step invited the   
,turks to take the  place4 ,they did not
 consult the large agricultural         
population or the  effect of ,turkish   
rule on the peasantry1 otherwise there  
would have  been an equally cordial     
invitation to the ,turks to stay out of 
,yemen4    ,the ,turks needed no urging 
at this time1 when they were            
strengthening  their hold on            

,mesopotamia1 extending their conquests 
in ,hassa and  trying to obtain the     
mastery of the ,hejaz ,bedouins4 ,it    
fell in most  admirably with their      
plans1 and an expedition set out at     
once4 ,in  ,march1 #ahgb1 an army under 
command of ,ahmed ,mukhtar ,pasha       
reached  ,hodeidah4 ,on ,april #beth the
 army entered ,sana twenty thousand     
strong  and the city opened its gates   
without a battle4 ,the conquest of the  
country now proceeded2 a force was sent 
to the region of ,kaukeban1  north of   
,sana1 another to the southern district 
of ,anes and still  another to ,taiz and
 ,mocha4 ,the conquest toward the south 
was limited  by the presence of ,england
 at ,aden4 ,for when the ,turkish army  
advanced  to the domain of the          
independent ,sultan of ,lahaj who had a 
treaty  with ,england1 the ,british     
,resident at ,aden sent a small force of
  artillery and cavalry to occupy the   
,lahaj territory4 ,in consequence of    
representations made at the same time by

 the ,english government to the         
,sublime ,porte1 the ,turkish army      
withdrew in ,december1 #ahgc4 ,in #ahge 
the  tribes bordering the southern      
boundary of ,yemen rebelled against     
,turkey  but the rebellion was crushed4 
,when the army took ,sana the ,imam was 
deposed1 but on account of his          
religious influence over the ,arabs was 
permitted to reside in the city1        
receiving a pension on condition that he
 would exert himself in behalf  of      
,ottoman rule4 ,this he fulfilled until 
his death when the birthright  as ,imam 
passed to his relative ,ahmed-ed-,din   
who also was nothing loth  to receive   
the honor of the ,arabs and the money of
 the ,turks4    ,sana received a certain
 amount of civilization1 more prestige  
and still  more commercial prosperity   
than in the older days4 ,as for the     
country  in general it was divided and  
subdivided into provincial districts    
and sub-districts2 the peasantry were   
taxed and taxed again2 military  roads  

were constructed by forced labor4 ,the  
hill-tribes1 who in the  times of the   
,imam had been left undisturbed in their
 agriculture and  who boasted an        
independence of centuries1 were now     
little better than  slaves4 ,extortion  
ruined them1 they hated the personality 
of the ,turks  whose religion was not as
 their own2 discontent smouldered       
everywhere  and was ready to burst into 
a flame4 ,and this discontent was       
increased  from year to year as the     
caravan-drivers returned from their long
  journeys to ,aden and told of the     
greatest marvel ever heard of--a        
righteous government and a place where  
justice could not be bought1  but       
belonged to every one--even the black   
skinned ignorant ,somali4 ,when  we     
remember that over #cjj1jjj camels with 
their drivers enter ,aden from  the     
north every year we can realize how     
widespread was this news4 ,i can        
testify to the world-wide difference    
between the municipal government  of    

,aden cantonment and that of the capital
 of ,yemen under the ,turks  as ,i saw  
it in #ahia4 ,when the ,turks accused   
,england of fomenting the  recent       
rebellions in ,yemen they were right to 
the extent that if the  ,yemen peasantry
 had not seen the blessed union of      
liberty and law at  ,aden they would not
 seek to rise against the ,turks4    ,in
 the summer of #ahib a body of #djj     
,turkish troops were sent to  collect by
 force the taxes due from the ,bni      
,meruan who inhabit the  coast north of 
,hodeidah4 ,the ,turks were surprised by
 a large body of  ,arabs and nearly     
annihilated4 ,wherever the news         
travelled the people  rose in arms4     
,tribal banners long laid away were     
unfurled and the cry  8long live the    
,imam0 rang through mountain and valley4
 ,a new ,jehad  was proclaimed and      
,ahmed-ed-,din was unwillingly forced to
 take the  leadership against the       
,turks4 ,when the rebellion broke out   
the ,turks  had only about #ae1jjj men  

in the whole of ,yemen2 and cholera had 
wrought havoc among these4 ,ill-fed1    
ill-clothed1 and unpaid2 badly  housed  
in the rainy and cold mountain villages1
 they could nevertheless  fight like    
devils when led by their commanders4    
,the ,imam escaped from  ,sana1 and a   
few days later the capital was besieged 
by an enormous  force of ,arabs4 ,all   
the unwalled cities fell an easy prey to
 the  rebels1 ,menakha was taken after a
 short struggle2 ,ibb1 ,jibleh1 ,taiz1  
and ,yerim all declared themselves for  
the ,imam4 ,the ,arabs treated their    
foes with respect after their           
victory2#ga they were feeding ,turkish  
prisoners at the ,imam's expense and in 
many cases money was given the  soldiers
 to enable them to escape to ,aden4     
,meanwhile telegrams were sent to       
,constantinople from ,sana and ,hodeidah
  beseeching assistance4 ,the whole of  
,yemen1 with the exception of the       
capital and two smaller towns in the    
north with ,hodeidah on the coast1  was 

in the hands of the rebels4 ,an         
expedition reached ,hodeidah1 under     
command of ,ahmed ,feizi ,pasha1        
formerly governor of ,mecca1 which after
  bombarding the villages on the coast  
north of ,hodeidah1 marched to the      
relief of ,sana4 ,without opposition the
 army reached ,menakha and took  the    
town by storm2 matchlocks and fuse-guns 
could not hold out against  field-guns  
and trained troops4 ,about thirty miles 
beyond a desperate  attempt was made to 
stop the army of relief2 in a narrow    
defile the  rebels under ,seyid         
es-,sherai took up their position and   
for twelve days  withstood cavalry1     
infantry and artillery assaults2 then   
they were  driven back and retired into 
the mountains4 ,by hurried marches the  
troops reached ,sana and took the city4 
,military law was proclaimed and  a     
universal massacre of prisoners took    
place4 ,a reward was offered for  the   
head of every rebel4 ,camel-loads of    
heads were brought into ,sana  every    

day4 ,the troops were turned loose to   
plunder the villages4 ,there  is no     
nation in the world that can put down a 
rebellion as rapidly  as the ,turks when
 they have a good-sized army1 but they  
have great  objection to any one seeing 
the process4    ,by the end of ,january1
 #ahic1 all the cities of ,yemen were   
reconquered  and the main roads were    
again open4 ,but the spirit of rebellion
 lived  on and the brave mountaineers   
withdrew to the inaccessible defiles and
  peaks only to plot further mischief4  
,telegraph-wires were cut2 soldiers     
were shot on the road2 and once and     
again bold attempts were made to  blow  
up the ,pasha's house in ,sana with     
gunpowder4 ,in #ahie there was          
rebellion in the north4 ,in #ahig-ih all
 ,yemen was again in arms and the       
uncertain and conflicting reports that  
reach the coast only emphasize  the     
serious character of the uprising4      
,on the map and in ,turkish official    
reports the boundaries of ,yemen join   

those of ,hejaz and extend many miles   
east of ,sana4 ,this has never  been and
 is not now correct4 ,twenty-five miles 
north and east of ,sana  there is no one
 who cares for a ,turkish passport or   
dares to collect  ,turkish taxes4    ,as
 to the future of ,turkey in ,yemen it  
is difficult to surmise4 ,rather  than  
risk further rebellions the ,sultan may 
adopt a conciliatory  policy4 ,but      
,yemen is too far from ,constantinople  
to be governed from  there4 ,extortion  
is the only way open to a ,pasha to     
enrich himself and  for soldiers to get 
daily bread where wages are not paid on 
time4 ,when  the ,pasha has filled his  
pocket his successor will try it a      
second time  and come to grief4         
,rebellion will be the chronic state of 
,yemen as long  as ,turkey rules at     
,sana4 ,the leopard cannot change his   
spots4    ,we now turn to notice the    
rule of the ,turks in ,northeastern     
,arabia1  and in their newly-acquired   
province of ,hassa4 ,bagdad was taken by

  the ,turks in #afch and that city has 
ever since been the capital of a        
,turkish ,province4 ,it is unnecessary  
to enter here into the succession  of   
,pashas and rulers and the attempts to  
subjugate the ,bedouin ,arabs4  ,in     
#ahcj the great plague visited all      
,mesopotamia and when epidemic was  at  
its height the river burst its banks and
 in one night #ae1jjj people  perished4 
,in #ahhd the vilayet of ,busrah was    
separated from that of  ,bagdad and has 
since remained under its own governor4  
,the two provinces  have all the        
machinery of ,ottoman rule in working   
order4 ,except for an  occasional       
outbreak among the ,montefik ,arabs1    
,turkey has no trouble to  hold         
,mesopotamia in her grasp4 ,nor is she  
at all willing that this rich  province 
should even dream of passing under other
 rulers4 ,in the year  #ahia the        
,turkish ,official ,bulletin gave the   
total revenue from taxation  in the     
,bagdad vilayet alone at #bdf1cjd       

,turkish pounds4    ,it may be          
interesting to note in passing the      
various sources of  taxation-money4     
,they are in brief3 tax on ,arab tents1 
exemption from  military service1 tax on
 sheep1 buffaloes1 camels1 tax on mines 
7salt71  tax on special privileges1 tax 
on forests and timber1 tax on fishing1  
custom dues1 tax on shipping1 on        
irrigation1 on farming improvements2    
8receipts from tribunals0 7#c1jjj tax on
 justice67 and beside all  this 8taxes  
diverses0 and 8revenues diverses0 to    
make up the budget4  ,all this is legal1
 ordinary taxation4 ,but the actual     
conditions of  ,turkish misrule made it 
impossible to exercise the inalienable  
rights  of 8life1 liberty and the       
pursuit of happiness0 without continual 
backsheesh to every official4    ,the   
population of ,mesopotamia1 ,moslem and 
,jew and ,christian are  thoroughly     
weary of ,turkish misrule1 but no one   
dares to lift up a  voice in protest4   
,they have become accustomed to it2 and 

there is  nothing else but to bear it   
patiently4 ,as for the nomads they have 
either1 like the ,montefik1 settled down
 along the rivers to cultivate  the soil
 and eke out a miserable existence1 or1 
like the ,aneyza and  ,shammar tribes1  
they are as thoroughly independent of   
the ,sultan as  when they first appeared
 in his borders4    ,turkish ,arabia on 
the north is represented on most maps by
 a regular  curved line starting from   
the ,persian ,gulf and ending at the    
,gulf  of ,akaba2 but the line is purely
 imaginary4 ,turkish rule does not      
extend far south of the banks of the    
,euphrates1 and the whole desert  region
 from ,kerbela to the ,dead ,sea and the
 ,hauran is practically  independent4#gb
 ,outside of ,bagdad and ,busrah even   
the river towns are  frequently         
threatened by the nomads1 and ,turkish  
soldiers have often to  guard the river 
steamers against pirates4 ,military rule
 is in vogue two  hundred years after   
the occupation of the country1 and the  

nomads are  nomads still4 ,the          
commander-in-chief of the ,sixth        
,ottoman army corps  resides at ,bagdad1
 and a good number of soldiers occupy   
the barracks in  the city of the old    
caliphs4    ,in ,turkey all ,moslems    
over twenty years of age are liable to  
military  conscription1 and this        
liability continues for over twenty     
years4  ,non-,moslems pay an annual     
exemption tax of about six shillings per
  head4 ,the army consists of ,nizam or 
regulars1 ,redif or reserves1  and      
,mustahfuz or national guard4 ,the      
infantry are supposed to be all  armed  
with ,martini-,peabody rifles1 but in   
,mesopotamia older patterns  are still  
in use4 ,the life of a ,turkish soldier 
is not enviable2 and  none of them would
 be volunteers for government service4  
,the ,turkish  navy is represented in   
the ,persian ,gulf and on the rivers by 
one or two  third-rate cruisers and a   
small river gunboat4    ,the result of  
the calling of ,turkey into the ,wahabi 

quarrel between  the two sons of        
,feysul1 was the occupation of ,katif   
and ,hassa by the  ,ottoman government4 
,since that time 7#ahgb7 ,hassa has been
 a part of the  ,busrah vilayet1 and the
 ,pasha1 who resides at ,hofhoof1 has   
the title  ,mutaserif ,pasha of ,nejd4  
,continual troubles with the ,arabs mark
 the  history of the occupation of      
,hassa2 the caravan routes are not as   
safe  as in the dominions of the ,amir  
of ,nejd2 the whole country shows decay 
and lack of government2 taxation of the 
pearl fishers has driven many  of them  
to ,bahrein2 the peninsula of ,katar is 
occupied by a garrison1  but that does  
not prevent continual blood feuds and   
battles between  the ,arab tribes4 ,the 
,ottoman government has established an  
overland  post-service between ,hofhoof 
and ,busrah as between ,bagdad and      
,damascus1  but both routes are unsafe  
and slow4 ,most of the ,hofhoof         
merchants use  the ,british ,post       
,office at ,bahrein2 and so do the      

government officials4    ,illustration3 
,flags that rule ,arabia4               
,,xxii                                  
,,british ,,influence ,,in ,,arabia     
8,the ,english1 said the old ,arab      
,sheikh in reply1 are like ants2 if one 
finds a bit of meat1 a hundred          
follow40--,ainsworth4     8,oman may1   
indeed1 be justifiably regarded as a    
,british dependency4   ,we subsidize its
 ruler2 we dictate its policy2 we should
 tolerate no   alien interference4 ,i   
have little doubt myself that the time  
will   come 444 when the ,union ,jack   
will be seen flying from the castles of 
,muscat40     8,i should regard the     
concession of a port upon the ,persian  
,gulf to   ,russia by any power as a    
deliberate insult to ,great ,britain1 as
 a   wanton rupture of the status quo   
and as an international provocation   to
 war2 and ,i should impeach the ,british
 minister1 who was guilty of            
acquiescing in such surrender1 as a     
traitor to his country40                

--,lord ,curzon1 ,viceroy of ,india4    
,in sketching the relations of ,england 
to the peninsula1 we will  consider3    
,her ,arabian possessions and           
protectorates2 her supremacy  in        
,arabian waters1 her commerce with      
,arabia2 her treaties with ,arab        
tribes2 and her consulates and agencies 
in ,arabia4    ,of all ,british         
possessions in ,arabia1 ,aden is by far 
the most  important1 on account of its  
strategic position as the key not only  
of  all ,yemen1 but of the ,red ,sea and
 all ,western ,arabia4 ,aden was visited
  as early as #afji by ,captain ,sharkey
 of the ,east ,india ,company's ship    
8,ascension40 ,he was at first well     
received1 but afterward imprisoned      
until the inhabitants had secured a     
large ransom4 ,two of the ,englishmen   
on board refusing to pay were sent to   
the ,pasha at ,sana4 ,in #afaj  an      
,english ship again visited ,aden and   
the crew were treacherously  treated4   
,in #ahbj1 ,captain ,haines of the      

,indian navy visited ,aden1 and  in     
#ahbi the ,court of ,directors          
entertained the idea of making ,aden  a 
coaling-station1 but the idea was       
abandoned4 ,in consequence of an        
outrage committed on the passengers and 
crew of a buggalow wrecked  near ,aden1 
an expedition was despatched against the
 place by the  ,bombay government in    
#ahch4 ,it was arranged that the        
peninsula of ,aden  should be ceded to  
the ,british4 ,but the negotiations were
 anything but  friendly1 and in         
,january1 #ahci1 a force of #cjj        
,europeans and #djj native  troops in   
the 8,volage0 and 8,cruizer0 bombarded  
and took the place by  storm4    ,this  
was the first new accession of territory
 in the reign of ,queen  ,victoria4     
,immense sums of money have been spent  
in fortifying this  natural ,gibraltar  
and in improving its harbor4 ,four times
 the ,arabs  have attempted to take     
,aden by land1 each time with fearful   
loss and  without success4 ,by sea ,aden

 is impregnable2 only the initiated know
  the strength of its mole-batteries1   
mines1 forts and other defences2  and   
every year new defences are constructed 
and old ones strengthened4  ,aden has   
become a great centre for trade1 and is 
one of the chief  coaling depots in the 
world4 ,it bars the further advance of  
,turkey into  ,south ,arabia1 guarantees
 independence and good government to all
 the  neighboring petty states1 and is  
an example of good government to all    
,arabia and the ,african coast4 ,the    
settlement is politically subject  to   
the ,bombay ,presidency and is          
administered by a ,resident with two    
assistants4 ,since the opening of the   
,suez canal1 trade has steadily         
increased and ,turkish custom extortions
 at ,hodeidah direct the caravan  trade 
more and more to ,aden from every part  
of ,yemen4    ,the island of ,socotra   
and the ,kuria ,muria islands are also  
attached  to ,aden1 together with the   
,somali ,coast in ,africa4 ,socotra has 

an  area of #a1chb square miles and     
about #aj1jjj inhabitants4 ,it came     
under ,british protection in #ahhf by   
treaty with its ,sultan4 ,the ,kuria    
,muria group was ceded to the ,british  
by the ,sultan of ,muscat1 for the      
purpose of landing the ,red ,sea cable2 
the islands are five in number  and have
 rich guano deposits4 ,the island of    
,kamaran is also classed  as belonging  
to the ,british ,empire4#gc ,it is a    
small island in the  ,red ,sea1 some    
miles north of ,hodeidah2 it is only    
fifteen miles long  and five wide1 and  
has seven small fishing-villages4 ,but  
it has a  good sheltered anchorage and  
is the quarantine ,station for all      
,moslem  pilgrims from the south to     
,mecca4    ,the ,bahrein ,islands are   
also included in the ,british ,empire1  
although  ,turkey still claims them as  
her own and the native ruler imagines   
that  he is independent4 8,the present  
chief ,sheikh ,isa owes the possession  
of his throne entirely to ,british      

protection which was instituted in      
#ahfg4 ,sheikh ,isa was again formerly  
placed under ,british protection in     
#ahgj when his rivals were deported to  
,india40 ,the ,political ,resident  at  
,bushire superintends the government of 
the islands to as great an  extent as is
 deemed diplomatic4    ,perim at the    
southern end of the ,red ,sea was taken 
possession of in  #agii by the ,east    
,india ,company and a force was sent    
from ,bombay to  garrison the island4   
,but it was found untenable at that time
 as a  military position and the troops 
were withdrawn4 ,perim was reoccupied   
in the beginning of #aheg4 ,the         
lighthouse was completed in #ahfa1 and  
quarters were built for a permanent     
garrison4#gd    ,we may also consider   
the possessions of ,egypt in ,arabia as 
practically  under ,english protection4 
,since the ,british occupation1 the     
peninsula  of ,sinai and the ,red ,sea  
litoral on the ,arabian side1 nearly as 
far as  ,yembo is under the             

,governor-,general of the ,suez canal4  
,england not only possesses the key     
positions on the coasts of ,arabia1  but
 has for many years held the naval      
supremacy in all ,arabian waters4  ,as  
the ,dutch succeeded the ,portuguese and
 established trading-stations  in the   
,persian ,gulf and in the ,red ,sea1 so 
,england followed the ,dutch4  ,the     
,east ,india ,company was at ,aden and  
,mocha in the beginning of  the         
seventeenth century1 and in #aged the   
,english ,east ,india ,company          
established itself at ,bunder ,rig1     
north of ,bushire1 and later at         
,bushire itself1 supplanting the ,dutch4
 ,the island of ,karak in the north  of 
the ,gulf was twice occupied by the     
,british1 in #ahch and in #ahec4  ,after
 the bombardment of ,bushire in #aheg   
and of ,mohammerah in the same  year1   
hostilities ceased and ,karak was again 
evacuated4 ,the island  of ,kishm1 in   
the southern part of the ,gulf1 was     
during the greater  part of the present 

century1 a ,british military or naval   
station4 ,the  ,indian naval squadron   
had its headquarters first at ,el       
,kishm1 then at  ,deristan and finally  
for many years at ,bassadore4 ,in #ahgi 
because of  the insalubrity of the      
climate the last company of ,sepoys was 
withdrawn  to ,india4 ,but the island is
 still in a sense considered ,british4  
,as  early as #afbb the ,persians and   
the ,british expelled the ,portuguese   
from  ,ormuz and shortly after1 in      
common with the ,dutch and ,french set  
up  trading factories at ,gombrun1 7now 
,bunder ,abbas74 ,in #agch the ,english 
,company established an agency at       
,busrah and much of their ,gulf business
  was shifted to that port4 ,since #ahfi
 there has been a telegraph station  at 
,jask with a staff of six ,english      
officials2 here the land and marine     
wires of the ,indo-,european telegraph  
meet and join ,india to the ,gulf4      
,the ,sultanate of ,oman1 since #ahbb1  
has been in the closest relations       

possible with ,british naval power4 ,at 
several critical periods in ,oman       
history1 it was ,great ,britain that    
helped to settle the affairs of  state4 
,in #ahfa a ,british commissioner       
arbitrated between two claimants  for   
the rule of ,muscat and ,zanzibar1 then 
one kingdom1 and divided  the           
,sultanate4 ,since #ahgc the ,sultan of 
,muscat has received an annual  subsidy 
from the ,british government4 ,near     
,cape ,musendum1 on the ,arabian  side  
of the ,gulf1 the ,british once occupied
 a place called ,malcolm's  ,inlet when 
they were laying the telegraph cable    
from ,kerachi to the  ,gulf in #ahfd4   
,five years later it was transferred to 
,jask4 ,from #ahje  to #ahba there were 
,british naval encounters with the      
pirates of the  ,gulf1 and since that   
date all piracy in these waters has     
ceased4#ge  ,british naval supremacy    
established peace at ,bahrein and has   
protected  its native government since  
#ahdg4 ,when in #ahfg the native ruler1 

8a  crafty old fox0 as ,curzon calls    
him1 broke the treaty1 the bombardment  
of ,menamah brought further proof of    
,british naval supremacy4 ,kuweit  was  
for a time 7#ahba-bb7 the headquarters  
of the ,british ,resident  at ,busrah2  
and1 semi-independent of ,turkey1 is now
 becoming wholly  dependent on          
,england--another indication of ,british
 naval supremacy4  ,even at ,fao1       
,busrah and ,bagdad ,british gunboats   
often keep the peace  or at least       
emphasize authority4 ,in a word ,great  
,britain holds the  scales of justice   
for all the ,persian ,gulf litoral4 ,she
 guarantees a  pax ,brittanica for      
commerce1 she taught the ,arab tribes   
that rapine  and robbery are not a safe 
religion2 where they once swept the sea 
with  slave-dhows and pirate-craft they 
have now settled down to drying fish    
and diving for pearls4 ,for the         
accomplishment of this subject ,england 
has spent much both in treasure and in  
lifeblood4 ,witness the graves of       

,british soldiers and marines in so many
 ,gulf ports4 ,the testimony of an      
outsider1 is given in a recent article  
in the ,cologne ,gazette1 which  thus   
describes the political and naval       
supremacy of ,england in ,eastern       
,arabia and the ,persian ,gulf3    8,a  
disguised protectorate over ,oman and   
control over the actions of the  ,sultan
 of ,muscat2 actual protectorate over   
,bahrein2 coaling station on  the island
 of ,kishm1 in the ,straits of ,ormuz2  
presence of a political  ,resident at   
,bushire who1 with the help of an       
association called the  ,trucial        
,league1 decides all disputes between   
,turkish1 ,arab1 and ,persian  chiefs in
 the ,persian ,gulf4444 ,this league    
gives the ,english a constant  pretext  
for intervention2 the object of keeping 
peace and policing the  gulf is only a  
pretence4444 ,all events on the ,persian
 ,gulf1 however  disconnected           
apparently1 are really dependent on each
 other through  the ,trucial ,league4   

,it is a confused tangle of hatreds and 
jealousies  whose threads are united in 
the hands of the ,resident at           
,bushire4444  ,russia shows an          
indifference which is quite             
incomprehensible  considering the       
interest she has and must have in these 
affairs4 ,one  could recount numerous   
instances where ,english agents have    
injured  ,russian interests without     
meeting with any opposition4 ,the       
,russian  ,consul in ,bagdad is thrust  
into the background by the activity of  
his  ,british colleague4 ,southern      
,persia1 the gulf1 ,eastern ,arabia1 and
  the ,land of ,oman have fallen        
completely within the ,english sphere of
  influence4 ,this state of affairs has 
not been officially ratified1 but       
exists as a fact4 ,that will last till  
some movement comes about to  restore   
the proper balance4 ,meanwhile1 the     
,english are the masters4  ,they are so 
accustomed to manage the whole ,persian 
,gulf that if the  least thing occurs   

that they have not foreseen or          
themselves arranged  they completely    
lose all self-control40    ,but the     
supremacy of ,england in the ,gulf and  
on the other coasts of  ,arabia is hers 
not only because of gunboats and        
gunpowder4 ,it is most  of all by the   
arts of peace that she has established  
and glorified her  power on the ,arabian
 litoral4 ,it must never be forgotten1  
for example1  that the magnificent      
surveys of the entire #d1jjj miles of   
,arabian coast  were the work of        
,british and ,indian naval officers2 by 
means of this  survey1 completed at     
great cost1 commerce has been aided and 
navigation  of the dangerous waters east
 and west of ,arabia has been made safe4
  ,england too is the only power that   
has established lighthouses2 e4  g41 at 
,aden1 ,perim1 in the ,red ,sea and     
lately on ,socotra4 ,england laid  the  
cables that circle ,arabia2 from ,india 
to ,bushire and ,fao connecting  with   
the ,turkish overland telegraph system2 

from ,aden to ,bombay and  from ,aden to
 ,suez through the ,red ,sea4 ,these    
cables were not the work  of a day but  
were laid with great expense and opposed
 by the very  governments they were     
intended to benefit4    ,again1 ,arabia 
has two postal systems and two only4 ,in
 the ,turkish  province of ,yemen there 
is a weekly post between the capital and
 the  chief towns to the coast2 in      
,hejaz there is a post to ,mecca2 and in
  ,mesopotamia and ,hasa there is       
another ,turkish postal system notorious
  for its slowness and insecurity4 ,for 
the rest all of ,eastern and  ,southern 
,arabia are dependent on the ,indian    
,postal system2 the whole  interior is  
ignorant of a post office or of a       
postman4 ,the government  of ,india has 
post offices at ,muscat1 ,bahrein1 ,fao1
 ,busrah and ,bagdad  with regular mail 
service1 and the best administration in 
the world4  ,the ,english post carries  
the bulk of the mail between ,busrah and
  ,bagdad while ,bahrein is really the  

post office for all ,eastern ,arabia2   
pearl-merchants at ,katar and in ,hasa  
mail their letters at ,bahrein and  even
 the ,turkish government needs the      
,english post to communicate with       
,busrah from ,hasa4    ,england has also
 earned her supremacy in ,arabian waters
 by honest  attempts to put a stop to   
the slave-trade1 in accord with the     
,anti-slave ,trade treaties between the 
powers4 ,she is the only power  whose   
navy has acted in seizing slave-dhows1  
liberating slaves and  patrolling the   
coast4 ,the work has not always been    
done thoroughly or  vigorously1 but that
 it has been done at all1 places        
,england first  among the powers that   
sail in ,arabian waters4    ,where the  
,union ,jack proclaims naval supremacy1 
there the red  mercantile flag of       
,england follows the blue and carries   
commerce2 the  two go together1 and     
although of different color are the same
 flag  to ,englishmen4 ,the world-wide  
commercial activity of ,great ,britain  

has touched every part of the ,arabian  
coast and ,british wares from           
,manchester and ,birmingham have        
penetrated to every secluded village of 
,nejd1 and are found in every valley of 
,yemen4    ,the mercantile navigation of
 the ,gulf as it now exists is the      
creation  of the last thirty years1 and 
is largely to be attributed to the      
statesmanship of ,sir ,bartle ,frere4   
,it was he who1 when at ,calcutta  as a 
member of ,lord ,canning's ,supreme     
,council1 befriended the young          
,scotchman1 ,william ,mackinnon1 who was
 planning a new shipping business       
beyond his slender means2 and a subsidy 
was granted to ,mackinnon's new  line of
 ,steamers4 ,thus it was that the       
,british ,india ,steam ,navigation      
,company was launched which first opened
 trade not only with ,zanzibar  but in  
the ,persian ,gulf4 ,in #ahfb not a     
single mercantile steamer  ploughed the 
,persian ,gulf4 ,a six-weekly service   
was then started1  followed by a        

monthly1 a fortnightly and finally by a 
weekly steamer4  ,from ,busrah there are
 two lines of ,english steamers direct  
for ,london4  ,the ,british ,india was  
the pioneer line and still holds the    
first  position1 although there are     
other lines that do coasting trade with 
,india4    ,thus ,english commerce      
controls not only the markets of both   
sides of  the ,gulf1 but of all         
,northwestern ,arabia and as far beyond 
,bagdad  as piece-goods and iron-ware   
can be carried on camels4 ,there is not 
a spool of thread in ,nejd or a         
jack-knife in ,jebel-,shammar that did  
not come up the ,persian ,gulf in an    
,english ship4 ,all of ,hassa eats  rice
 from ,rangoon and thousands of bags are
 carried in ,british ships  to ,bahrein 
to be transported inland by caravan4    
,not only is the  steamshipping mostly  
in ,english hands1 but many of the      
native buggalows  fly the ,british flag 
and the chief merchants are ,englishmen 
or ,british  subjects from ,india4 ,the 

,rupee is the standard of value along   
the whole  ,arabian coast from ,aden to 
,busrah4 ,in the interior the ,maria    
,theresa  dollar has long held sway1 but
 even that is becoming scarce among the 
,bedouins and they have little          
preference between the 8abu bint0  7the 
,rupee with a girl's head7 and the 8abu 
tair0 78the father of a  bird0--the     
eagle on the ,austrian dollar74 ,for a  
time a ,french line of  steamers ran in 
the ,gulf but the project was abandoned1
 though there is  now a rumour of its   
revival4#gf    ,aden is the commercial  
centre for all ,southern ,arabia and the
 enormous  increase of its trade since  
#ahci is proof of what ,english commerce
 has  done for ,yemen4 ,mocha is dead1  
and ,hodeidah is long since bedridden1  
but ,aden is alive and only requires a  
railroad to ,sana to become the         
commercial capital of all ,western and  
,southern ,arabia4 ,that railroad  will 
be built as soon as the ,turk leaves    
,yemen's capital2 ,god hasten  the day4 

,after the occupation of ,aden in #ahci 
until the year #ahej  customs dues were 
levied as in ,india but at that time it 
was declared  a free port4 ,during the  
first seven years the total value of    
imports  and exports averaged per year  
about #a1ijj1jjj ,rupees1 in the next   
seven  years the annual average rose to 
#f1jjj1jjj ,rupees1 and it has been on  
the increase ever since1 until it now is
 over #cj1jjj1jjj ,rupees2 nor  did this
 annual average include the trade by    
land which is also large4    ,the ,suez 
canal is another indication of the      
prestige which ,english  commerce has in
 the ,red ,sea and along the routes of  
traffic that circle  ,arabia4 ,in #ahic 
the gross tonnage that passed through   
the canal was  #aj1gec1gih2 of this     
#g1igg1gbh tons passed under the        
,english flag which  means that nearly  
four-fifths of the trade is ,english4   
,in the same year  the number of vessels
 passing through the canal was #c1cda of
 which  #b1dje belonged to ,great       

,britain4    ,the proposed              
,anglo-,egyptian railway across the     
north of ,arabia will  join the ,persian
 ,gulf to the ,mediterranean4 ,to       
shorten the time of  communication      
between ,england and her ,eastern       
,empire is evidently a  matter of the   
highest importance1 not only for        
commerce and post1 but  in the event of 
war1 mutiny or other great emergency4   
,the first surveys  for this overland   
railway were made as early as #ahej1 by 
the ,euphrates  ,expedition under       
,general ,chesney4 ,the scheme was      
warmly advocated in  ,england by ,sir   
,w4 ,p4 ,andrew1 the ,duke of           
,sutherland and others1 but  although it
 still awaits execution the plan comes  
up again every few  years with new      
advocates and new improvements4 ,once it
 was to be the  ,euphrates ,valley      
railway coming down to ,bagdad and      
,busrah or to ,kuweit  7,grane7 by way  
of ,mosul4 ,now the plan proposed is to 
open a railway  from ,port ,said due    

eastward across the ,peninsula along the
 thirtieth  parallel of latitude to     
,busrah4 ,a branch would deviate a      
little to  the south to the port of     
,kuweit which was also the proposed     
terminus  of the ,euphrates ,valley line
 on which a select committee of the     
,house  of ,commons sat twenty-five     
years ago4 ,from ,busrah the main line  
would  cross the ,shatt-el-,arab and the
 ,karun by swing-bridges and follow the 
coast-line of the ,persian ,gulf and    
,makran to ,kerachi4 ,such a line would 
reduce the time occupied in transit     
between ,london and ,kerachi to eight   
days4#gg ,whether this route or any     
other is followed is a matter of  minor 
importance4 ,the fact that since #ahgd  
,england has been to the  front in the  
matter of the overland railroad puts it 
beyond a doubt1  that when the railway  
is built its terminus at least will be  
under  ,english control and most        
probably the whole road will represent  
,english  capital and enterprise4       

,meanwhile there is intelligence that   
,turkey has made a concession to        
,german capitalists for the extension of
 the ,anatolian railways to  ,bagdad4   
,the line which runs from the ,asiatic  
shores of the ,bosphorus  to ,angora is 
in the hands of a ,german syndicate and 
the terms of  the concession contain    
compulsory clauses under which1 in      
certain  eventualities1 the ,turkish    
government can compel the syndicate to  
extend the road to ,sivas and ultimately
 to ,bagdad4#gh ,but politically  ,great
 ,britain has little to fear from the   
spread of ,german influence  in the     
,levant and ,mesopotamia4 ,the editor of
 an influential ,english  paper says1   
8,every mark expended by the ,germans   
upon public works in  the ,asiatic      
dominions of the ,sultan helps to build 
up the bulwark  against the menace of   
,russia4 ,and the creation of a ,german 
railway in  ,asia ,minor will1 in a     
limited degree tend to identify the     
interests of  ,germany and ,great       

,britain40 ,nevertheless ,england would 
never grant a  terminus or harbor to a  
,german railroad syndicate on the       
,persian ,gulf4    ,great ,britain has  
treaties or agreements of some sort with
 every tribe  and settlement of ,arabs  
from ,aden to ,muscat and thence to     
,bahrein4  ,england has two kings for   
,arabia2 the first lives at ,bushire and
 is  called the ,british ,resident and  
,consul ,general1 the other with a      
similar title lives at ,aden4 ,of the   
,bushire ,resident ,lord ,curzon wrote1 
8,one or more gunboats are at the       
disposal of the ,british ,resident  at  
,bushire who has also a despatch boat   
for his own immediate use  in the event 
of any emergency4 ,not a week passes    
but1 by ,persians  and ,arabs alike1    
disputes are referred to his            
arbitration1 and he  may with greater   
truth than the phrase sometimes conveys 
be entitled  the ,uncrowned ,king of the
 ,persian ,gulf40 ,to the energy and    
political  capacity of ,colonel ,ross   

and his capable predecessor1 ,sir ,lewis
 ,pelly1  this royal throne owes its    
foundation4 ,all the treaties made by   
,england with the ,arab tribes on the   
,eastern coast of ,arabia are here      
interpreted and enforced4    ,the       
treaties made with the chiefs of        
,bahrein and with the tribes on  the    
so-called ,pirate coast embraces clauses
 to enforce the maritime  peace of the  
,gulf1 to exclude foreign powers from   
the possession of  territory1 to        
regulate or abolish the slave-traffic   
and to put down  piracy4 ,since #ahbj   
various treaties of truce have been     
concluded with  the warlike ,arabs on   
the coast south of ,katar and have been 
frequently  renewed or strengthened4 ,in
 #ahec a ,treaty of ,perpetual ,peace   
was made  with other tribes#gi which    
provided that there should be a complete
  cessation of hostilities at sea and   
that all disputes should be  referred to
 the ,british ,resident4 ,the           
contracting parties were called         

,trucial ,chiefs and the treaty is known
 as the ,trucial ,arrangement or        
,league4 ,beside these treaties the     
,english have an exclusive treaty  with 
the ,sheikh of ,bahrein to such a       
degree1 that the islands are            
practically a ,british protectorate4    
,although there are no formal treaties  
with the tribes along the ,hassa  coast 
and ,katar1 these being under ,turkish  
rule1 that region is not  disregarded by
 ,great ,britain1 nay ,nejd itself finds
 a place in the  administration reports 
of the ,persian ,gulf1 ,political agency
 whenever  the horizon in that part of  
the peninsula shows a storm cloud though
 it  be no bigger than a man's hand4    
,the claims of the ,porte to sovereignty
  over ,el ,katar are not admitted by   
the ,british government#hj and are  the 
cause not only of diplomatic controversy
 but of actual interference  on the part
 of the ,british when necessary4    ,the
 great benefits that have followed the  
treaties of peace with the  ,arab tribes

 are manifest most of all by a          
comparison of that part of  the ,arabian
 coast under ,english supervision and   
the long stretch from  ,katif to ,busrah
 which is ,turkish4 ,the former enjoys  
peace and the  tribes have settled down 
to commerce and fishing1 there is safety
 for  the traveller and the stranger    
everywhere2 the latter is in continual  
state of warfare1 there is neither      
commerce nor agriculture and the  entire
 coast is utterly unsafe because of the 
laissez faire policy of  ,turkey4       
,turning to ,oman we find1 in the words 
of ,lord ,curzon1 that1 treaty          
succeeding treaty1 8it may be           
justifiably regarded as a ,british      
dependency40 ,the recent history of     
,muscat has only hastened the day  when 
8the ,union ,jack will be seen flying   
from the castles of ,muscat40  ,the     
,bedouin revolt and their occupation of 
the town resulted in  saddling the      
unhappy ,sultan with a large bill for   
damages sustained by  ,british subjects4

 ,the episode of the ,french            
coaling-station cost the  ,sultan his   
annual subsidy4 ,thus from the side of  
finance he is doubly  dependent on      
,english clemency4    ,the second       
,british king of ,arabia resides at     
,aden4 ,there he is at once  ,political 
,resident and commander of the troops4  
,his authority extends  not only to the 
settlement of ,aden proper but includes 
supervision of a  territory #bjj miles  
long by forty broad with a population of
 #acj1jjj4  ,many of the neighboring    
tribes are subsidized and all of them   
are bound  by treaty to ,great ,britain4
 ,what the ,bushire ,resident is for the
 ,gulf  that the ,aden ,resident is for 
the ,southern litoral of the ,peninsula4
  ,moreover the ,island of ,socotra is  
also under the ,resident at ,aden  and  
the ,island of ,perim4 ,the ruler of    
,makalla in ,hadramaut is under  special
 treaty with ,england2 although the     
newspaper report1 that ,great  ,britain 
had declared a protectorate over all    

,southern ,arabia1 has no               
foundation4#ha    ,in the tribes which  
are bound by treaty with ,britain a     
patriarchal  system of supervision seems
 to prevail4 ,good children are rewarded
 and  bad ones are punished4 ,nothing   
escapes the eye of the political parent2
  one has only to read the yearly       
,administration reports to find many    
striking and sometimes amusing examples4
 ,we quote from the ,residency  ,report 
of ,muscat for #ahic-id verbatim3 8,one 
case of breach of the  maritime peace of
 the ,gulf occurred in which the ,sultan
 was advised to  inflict a fine of ,rs4 
#ej 7about sixteen dollars7 on          
,mehdibin-,ali1 the  ,sheikh of the     
,kamazarah tribe of ,khassab1 for       
proceeding with a party  of armed men by
 sea to ,shaam with the object of       
prosecuting a certain  claim his wife   
had against the estate of her deceased  
father4 ,after  some months' delay the  
attendance of the ,sheikh was enforced  
at ,muscat  and the fine was recovered40

 ,the same report tells how the         
government  of ,india acknowledged the  
kindness shown to the shipwrecked crew  
of the  ,s4 ,s4 ,khiva in ,april1 #ahic1
 by the ,sultan of ,muscat1 8by         
presentation  to ,his ,highness of a    
handsome telescope and watch40 ,every   
year all the  tribal chiefs who have    
proved 8good boys0 receive some yards of
 bright  flannel1 a new rifle or a pair 
of army pistols4 ,but the patriarchal   
system works well2 and there are few    
,arabs who would like ,english  power in
 the ,gulf or near ,aden to grow less2  
all express admiration  for ,english    
rule1 if not for ,english politics4 ,in 
,arabia too the old  promise of ,noah is
 finding its fulfillment to-day4 8,god  
shall enlarge  ,japhet and he shall     
dwell in the tents of ,shem40 ,shem     
never took a  better guest into his tent
 than when he signed a treaty of        
perpetual  peace with ,england on his   
coasts4    ,england has consulates and  
consular agents at more places in       

,arabia  than has any other power and   
her consuls exercise more authority and 
have greater prestige4 ,in nearly every 
case they were first appointed  and have
 therefore had longer time to extend    
their influence4 ,at  ,jiddah1          
,hodeidah1 and on the island of ,kamaran
 there are ,british  consulates or      
vice-consulates2 and there are reports  
of a consulate  at ,sana4 ,at ,makalla  
there is a ,british agent4 ,muscat1     
,bagdad1 ,busrah1  ,bushire and         
,mohammerah all have consulates1 with   
different degrees  of authority and     
position1 all exercising power of some  
sort in  ,arabia4 ,bahrein1 ,lingah1    
,sharka1 ,bunder ,abbas1 and other      
points in  the ,gulf have ,british      
agents4 ,at ,jiddah1 ,hodeidah and ,aden
 there are  several consulates beside   
the ,english4 ,muscat has for some years
 had  an ,american consul and in #ahid  
the ,french established a consulate     
there4 ,russia has no representative in 
the ,gulf save at ,bagdad2 nor  has     

,germany4 ,none of the ,european powers1
 save ,england1 have agents at  any of  
the ,arabian ports in the ,gulf nor do  
the ships of their navies  often visit  
this part of the world4 ,in fact so     
little do the ,arabs know  of other     
consuls than ,english1 that their words 
for agent1 wakil1  and for consul1      
baljoz1 always signify to them ,british 
officers or  appointees4                
,,xxiii                                 
,,present ,,politics ,,in ,,arabia      
8,the signs of the times show plainly   
enough what is going to happen4   ,all  
the savage lands in the world are going 
to be brought under   subjection to the 
,christian ,governments of ,europe4 ,the
 sooner the   seizure is consummated1   
the better for the savages40--,mark     
,twain4      ,while ,turkey continues in
 power the western coast of ,arabia will
 see no  change and everything will be  
quiet in ,hejaz4 ,if however the trouble
  between the ,sherifs of ,mecca and the
 ,sublime ,porte should reach a  crisis 

or ,moslem fanaticism at ,jiddah should 
endanger the lives of  ,christians1 we  
may expect ,england1 and perhaps ,france
 and ,holland to  interfere as did      
,england in #aheh4hb ,regarding ,yemen  
there is more  probability of a great   
political change in the near future4    
,aden is  a cinder-heap1 but ,sana has a
 fine1 cold climate and is the capital  
of a rich mountain region capable of    
extraordinary development4 ,there  are  
those who desire to see ,england assume 
a protectorate over all  ,yemen1 and if 
ever the ,arabs should turn out the     
,turks1 ,england would  be almost       
compelled to step in and preserve peace 
for her allied  tribes near ,aden4 ,long
 since the army at ,aden has felt the   
need of a  hill-station and only the    
,crescent keeps the ,english troops     
penned up  in an extinct crater where   
life at best is misery4    ,the southern
 part of ,arabia is of such a character 
geographically  and the coast so barren 
that it offers no attractions to the    

most  ambitious land-grabber4 ,oman1    
like ,yemen1 is fertile and has in      
addition certain mining possibilities4  
,until recent years ,england was  the   
only foreign power that claimed an      
interest in the heritage of  the ,sultan
 of ,muscat4 ,now ,france is on the     
scene and is apparently  unwilling that 
,british power should increase in ,oman 
or the ,gulf4 ,the  alleged lease of a  
coaling-station to ,france by the       
,sultan of ,muscat  in ,february1 #ahii1
 was only the beginning of ,french      
opposition made  manifest4 ,her         
establishment of a consulate at ,muscat1
 her relations to  the slave-trade1 her 
attempt to subsidize a line of ,french  
steamers  in the ,gulf1 her secret      
agents recently travelling in the       
,gulf--all  these were only ripples that
 show which way the current flows4 ,so  
far  ,england has had free play in      
,oman2 now another power has appeared4  
,the coaling-station incident was soon  
settled to the satisfaction  of all     

,englishmen1 and in a thoroughly        
,english way4 ,under threat of          
bombardment the ,sultan repudiated his  
agreement with the ,french and by  way  
of punishment for his misconduct his    
annual stipend was stopped4  ,whether   
,france will continue to seek to        
increase her influence in  the ,gulf    
remains to be seen4 ,it is certain that 
,english policy is  strenuously opposed 
to allowing one square foot of ,oman    
territory to  pass into the hands of    
,france or any other foreign power4     
,in ,april1 #ahii1 it was announced that
 ,russia had entered the ,persian  ,gulf
 as a political power and acquired the  
harbor of ,bunder ,abbas in  ,persia as 
a terminus for her proposed railway4    
,since that time this  has been         
officially denied both at ,teheran and  
,st4 ,petersburg and also  stoutly      
reasserted with new proofs by the       
,english press and the press  of ,india4
 ,it is undoubtedly news of a           
sensational character if it be  true4   

,the presence of ,russia in the ,persian
 ,gulf would probably change  the future
 history of all its litoral and help to 
decide the future  partition of ,arabia 
and ,mesopotamia4 ,all things seem to be
 moving  toward a crisis in this region 
of the east4 ,and if the battle for     
empire and for possession of the keys to
 the gateway of ,india should be  fought
 in the ,persian ,gulf the possible     
consequences are too vast to be         
surmised4 ,what ,england's policy would 
be in case there is truth in the        
alleged ,russian aggression1 is         
summarized in a recent article in the   
,times of ,india3    8,it remains to    
consider what steps should be taken by  
,great ,britain  in view of the new     
development in ,gulf politics4 ,it may  
be taken for  granted that ,russia will 
not attempt to take possession of       
,bunder  ,abbas for a considerable time 
to come4 ,she will make every effort to 
deny the existence of the advantage she 
has gained until a convenient           

opportunity arises for putting her plan 
into execution4 ,in the  meantime1      
,great ,britain can be well content to  
remain quiet1 and to  imitate her       
adversary by playing a waiting game4 ,it
 will possibly be  suggested that by    
again occupying ,kishm1 and by seizing  
,ormuz1 the  value of ,bunder ,abbas to 
,russia could at once be neutralized to 
a large  extent4 ,that is doubtless     
true2 but it is material to point out   
that  little is to be gained by         
precipitate action1 that these points of
  vantage can be occupied with facility 
at any time1 and that the true  policy  
of ,great ,britain is to endeavor to    
preserve the status quo for  as long a  
period as possible4    8,meanwhile1     
there are many methods by which ,british
 power and influence  in the ,gulf can  
be safeguarded4 ,we understand that the 
,admiralty has  already decided to      
strengthen the naval force maintained in
 ,persian  waters1 and that the ,admiral
 commanding the ,east ,indies squadron  

will  in future give the ,gulf a larger 
share of his personal supervision4 ,but 
this is not enough4 ,the staff of       
political officers in the ,gulf needs   
to be enlarged4444 ,then1 too1 more     
telegraph cables are needed4 ,muscat  is
 now shut off from communication with   
the rest of the world1 although  the    
port was once linked up with ,aden by   
cable4 ,a line should be laid  from     
,muscat to ,jask forthwith1 and another 
branch should connect ,jask  with       
,bunder ,abbas and ,lingah4 ,more       
political agents should be stationed  in
 the hinterland between ,bunder ,abbas  
and ,seistan1 with roving  commissions1 
if necessary4 ,one other matter needs   
urgent attention4  ,russia now possesses
 the sole right to construct railways in
 ,persia1  under an agreement which1    
after being in existence ten years1     
expires  this year4 ,is anything being  
done to prevent the renewal of this     
objectionable concession1 which is      
deeply opposed to ,british interests  in

 the ,shah's dominions8 ,it is in the   
highest degree important that  ,great   
,britain should secure a share in the   
concessions for roads and  railways     
which will certainly be granted by the  
,persian government in  the near future4
 ,unfortunately1 the gaze of the        
,british public is so  steadily         
concentrated upon ,china that it is     
unable to perceive dangers  which       
threaten the empire in a far more vital 
place4 ,there must soon  be a rude      
awakening4 ,it is not in ,china1 but in 
,persia and the ,persian  ,gulf1 that   
the centre of political strife and      
international rivalry in  ,asia will    
soon be fixed40    ,with the event of   
,russia in the ,gulf and her ,persian   
policy1 with  ,france envious of        
,england's growing prestige in this     
,orient1 with  ,germany at work building
 railways and ,turkey's days numbered1  
what is  to be the future of the fertile
 provinces of ,busrah and ,bagdad8 ,will
  ,england continue to hold the upper   

hand in every part of ,arabia and  will 
some future ,lord ,cromer develop the   
,euphrates-,tigris valley into  a second
 ,egypt8 ,the battle of diplomacy is on4
 ,european cabinets1  backed by immense 
armies and navies are playing a game    
involving  tremendous issues--issues not
 only tremendous to themselves and to   
the populations of ,arabia and ,persia1 
but involving the interest of  another  
,king and the greatest ,kingdom4 ,the   
event toward which history  and recent  
politics in ,arabia have so far been    
moving is 8the one far  off ,divine     
event0 of the ,son of ,god4 ,not only to
 the missionary but to  every ,christian
 the study of the politics of ,arabia   
makes evident the  great ,providential  
hand of ,god in the history of the      
,peninsula during  the past century4    
,jesus ,christ holds the key to the     
situation4 ,all the  kings of the earth 
are in ,his hand and to whomsoever ,he  
gives power or  privilege1 the end will 
be the glory of ,his own name and the   

coming of  ,his own kingdom2 also in    
,arabia4                                
,,xxiv                                  
,,the ,,arabic ,,language     8,arabic  
grammars should be strongly bound1      
because learners are so   often found to
 dash them frantically on the           
ground40--,keith ,falconer4     8,it is 
a language more extended over the face  
of the earth and which   has had more to
 do with the destiny of mankind than any
 other1 except   ,english40--,rev4 ,geo4
 ,e4 ,post1 ,m4 ,d41 ,beirut4           
8,wisdom hath alighted upon three       
things--the brain of the ,franks1   the 
hands of the ,chinese and the tongue of 
the ,arabs40--,mohammed   ed-,damiri4   
,two religions contend for the mastery  
of the world2 ,christianity and  ,islam4
 ,two races strive for the possession of
 the dark continent1  the ,anglo-,saxon 
and the ,arab4 ,two languages have for  
ages past  contested for world-wide     
extension on the basis of colonization  
and  propagandism--the ,english and the 

,arabic4 ,to-day about seventy millions 
of people speak some form of the ,arabic
 language1 as their vernacular2  and    
nearly as many more know something of   
its literature in the ,koran  because   
they are ,mohammedans4 ,in the          
,philippine islands the first  chapter  
of the ,koran is repeated before dawn   
paints the sky red4 ,the  refrain is    
taken up in ,moslem prayers at ,pekin   
and is repeated across  the whole of    
,china4 ,it is heard in the valleys of  
the ,himalayas and  on 8the roof of the 
world40 ,a few hours later the ,persians
 pronounce  these ,arabic words and then
 across the ,peninsula the muezzins call
  the 8faithful0 to prayer4 ,at the     
waters of the ,nile1 the cry 8,allahu   
akbar0 is again sounded forth ever      
carrying the ,arab speech westward      
across the ,sudan1 the ,sahara and the  
,barbary ,states until it is last  heard
 in the mosques of ,morocco4    ,the    
,arabic ,koran is a text-book in the    
day-schools of ,turkey1  ,afghanistan1  

,java1 ,sumatra1 ,new ,guinea1 and      
,southern ,russia4 ,arabic is  the      
spoken language not only of ,arabia     
proper but forces the linguistic        
boundary of that peninsula #cjj miles   
north of ,bagdad to ,diarbekr and       
,mardin1 and is used all over ,syria and
 ,palestine and the whole of  northern  
,africa4 ,even at ,cape ,colony there   
are daily readers of the  language of   
,mohammed4 ,as early as #acae ,arabic   
began to be taught at the  universities 
of ,europe through the missionary       
influence of ,raymund ,lull  and to-day 
the language is more accurately known   
and its literature  more critically     
investigated at ,leiden than at ,cairo  
and at ,cambridge  than in ,damascus4   
,a missionary in ,syria who is a master 
of the ,arab tongue thus  characterizes 
it1 8,a pure and original speech of the 
greatest  flexibility1 with an enormous 
vocabulary1 with great grammatical      
possibility1 fitted to convey           
theological and philosophical and       

scientific thought in a manner not to be
 excelled by any language  except the   
,english1 and the little group of       
languages which have been  cultivated so
 happily by ,christianity in ,central   
,europe40 ,ernest ,renan1  the ,french  
,semitic scholar1 after expressing his  
surprise that such  a language as       
,arabic should spring from the          
desert-regions of ,arabia  and reach    
perfection in nomadic camps1 says that  
the ,arabic surpasses  all its sister   
,semitic languages in its rich          
vocabulary1 delicacy of  expression1 and
 the logic of its grammatical           
construction4#hc    ,the ,semitic family
 of languages is large and ancient1     
although not  as extensive              
geographically nor so diverse as those  
of ,indo-,european  family4 ,some       
maintain#hd that the ,semites were      
ancient immigrants from  the region     
northeast of ,arabia4 ,they hold that   
before the formation of  the different  
,semitic dialects the ,semites          

everywhere used a name for  the camel   
7jemel7 which still appears in all of   
the dialects4 ,they  have however no    
names in common for the date-palm1 the  
fruit of the the  palm nor for the      
ostrich1 therefore1 in their first home1
 the ,semites  knew the camel but did   
not know the palm4 ,now the region where
 there is  neither date-palm nor ostrich
 and yet where the camel has lived from 
the remotest antiquity is the central   
table-land of ,asia near the ,oxus4     
,von ,kremer holds that from this region
 the ,semites migrated to ,babylon  even
 before the ,aryan emigration2 the      
,mesopotamian valley is the oldest  seat
 of ,semitic culture4    ,others#he hold
 that the original home of the ,semites 
was in the south  of ,arabia whence they
 gradually overspread the peninsula1 so 
that1 as  ,sprenger expresses it1 8,all 
,semite are successive layers of        
,arabs40 ,the  arguments for this theory
 are briefly given by ,sayce3#hf 8,the  
,semitic  traditions all point to       

,arabia as the original home of the     
race4 ,it is  the only part of the world
 which has remained exclusively         
,semites4 ,the  racial                  
characteristics--intensity of faith1    
ferocity1 exclusiveness1                
imagination--can best be explained by a 
desert origin40 ,de ,goeje  lays stress 
on the fine climate of ,central ,arabia 
and the splendid  physical development  
of the ,arab as additional proof        
together with the  indisputable fact    
that 8of all ,semitic languages the     
,arabic approaches  nearest to the      
original mother-tongue as was           
conclusively demonstrated  by ,professor
 ,schrader of ,berlin40    ,the         
following table will show at a glance   
the position of ,arabic  in the ,semitic
 family group1 dead languages being put 
in italics4  ,arabic1 ancient and modern
 belongs to the ,south ,semitic group   
and at  an early period supplanted the  
,himyaritic in ,yemen1 although the     
,mahri  and ,ehkeli dialects are still  

used in the mountains of ,hadramaut4#hg 
,it was practically the only conquering 
language on the list and is the  only   
one that is growing in use4             
,,table ,,of ,,semitic ,,languages4     
,,northern3        ,,eastern            
,babylonian4            ,assyrian4      
,,western 7,aramaic7            ,eastern
                ,syriac4                
,mandean4                ,nabathean4    
,western                ,samaritan4     
,jewish ,aramaic 7as ,targums and       
,talmud74                ,palmyrene4    
,egyptian ,aramaic4      ,,central3     
,phnician4        ,hebrew4              
,moabite and ,canaanitish dialects4     
,,southern3        ,,arabic             
7,ishmaelite7            ,one written   
language but ,modern ,dialects in       
speech4                ,maltese 84      
,morocco4                ,algerian1 etc4
                ,egyptian4              
,syrian4                ,yemen4         
,bagdadi4                ,omanese1 etc4 
,himyaritic            ,mahri4          

,ehkeli4        ,ethiopic 7,joktanite7  
,old ,geez4            ,tigre4          
,tigrina4            ,amharic4          
,harari4    ,there are to-day over one  
hundred ,arabic newspapers and magazines
  regularly published and which together
 have an immense circulation in  all    
parts of the ,arabic-speaking world4    
,while the ,arabic language has now     
acknowledged supremacy above all its    
sisters1 in its historical and literary 
development it was last of  them all4   
,not until the seventh century of our   
era did ,arabic become1  in any sense1  
important4 ,the language received its   
literary birthright  and its inspiration
 through the illiterate prophet who     
could not read  but who set all the     
,eastern world to studying his book4    
,the ,arabic  literature of the days    
before ,mohammed has a high literary    
character1  but with all its beauty it  
was only the morning star that ushered  
in the sunrise4 ,when once the ,koran   
was promulgated1 literature and  grammar

 and the sciences all spoke ,arabic4 ,it
 was the renaissance of  the dead and   
dying ,east4 ,whatever effect the ,koran
 may have had on  the social life and   
morals of a people1 no one denies that  
it was  the ,koran and that alone which 
rescued ,arabic from becoming a local   
idiom4 ,again this ,koran was the       
unifying factor of the new religion1    
sweeping everything down before it2 not 
only did it unify the hostile  tribes of
 ,arabia but melted all their dialects  
into one and established  an            
ever-abiding classical standard for the 
remotest student of the  language of    
revelation4 ,we do not of course hold1  
as do the ,arabs1 that  the ,arabic of  
the ,koran is absolutely without a      
parallel in grammatical  purity and     
diction4 ,the contrary has been proved  
by ,nldeke and ,dozy4  ,the latter      
states that the ,koran is 8full of      
bastard-,arabic and has  many           
grammatical blunders1 which are at      
present unnoticed1 since the            

grammarians have kindly constructed     
rules or exceptions to include even     
these in the list of unapproachable     
style and perfection40    ,the origin   
and history of the ,arabic alphabet is  
exceedingly  interesting4 ,all writing  
was originally pictorial1 the next stage
  being that of the ideogram4 ,perhaps a
 trace of this earliest writing  still  
remains in the wasms or tribal marks of 
the ,bedouin4 ,scholars  maintain that  
the earliest ,semitic writing we possess
 of certain date  is that on the        
,moabite ,stone1 discovered by the      
missionary ,klein in  #ahfh4 ,almost of 
equal age is the ,cyprus and ,sidon     
alphabet1 and that  of the ,phnicians1  
found on ancient coins and monuments4   
,the date of  this writing is put at    
#hij ,b4 ,c4 ,on these monuments and    
coins the  system of orthography is     
already so carefully developed as to    
prove  that the ,semites understood the 
art centuries before that date4 ,the    
oldest forms of these ,semitic alphabets

 are in turn derived 7,halvy1  ,nldeke7 
from the ,egyptian hieratic characters4 
,the oldest inscriptions  found in      
,north ,arabia by ,doughty and ,enting1 
in the ,nabatean character1  and in     
,south ,arabia by ,halvy and others in  
,himyaritic character1 are  both        
written1 like modern ,arabic1 from right
 to left4 ,although the  characters do  
not resemble each other1 this would seem
 to indicate a  common origin4 ,the     
intimate connection of the present      
,arabic alphabet  with the ,hebrew or   
,phnician1 is shown not only by the     
forms of the  letters1 but by their more
 ancient numerical arrangement called by
 the  ,arabs ,abjad1 and which          
corresponds with the ,hebrew order4     
,illustration3 ,,cufic ,,characters4    
,accounts differ even among the ,arabs  
as to who adapted or invented  the      
present ,arabic alphabet from the older 
,cufic forms4 ,some even  hold that they
 both developed simultaneously out of   
the ,himyaritic4  ,the ,cufic1 it is    

true1 is found on old monuments and     
coins from the  ,persian ,gulf to       
,spain1 and is a square1 apparently more
 crude kind of  writing4 ,but the       
cursive script 7now called ,naskhi7     
seems to have  been in use also long    
before ,mohammed's time1 the ,arab      
historians to  the contrary             
notwithstanding1 for the exigencies of  
daily life4 ,that  writing was known at 
,mecca before the era of ,mohammed is   
acknowledged  by ,moslem tradition and  
the close intercourse with ,yemen long  
before  that time would certainly       
indicate some knowledge of ,himyaritic4 
,syriac  and ,hebrew were also known in 
,mecca and ,medina because of the       
,jewish  population1 and it is not      
improbable that this may have had       
influence  on the present form of the   
,arabic alphabet4    ,illustration3     
,,modern ,,copybook ,,style ,,of        
,,arabic 7,,voweled47    ,illustration3 
,,ordinary ,,arabic ,,handwriting       
7,,unvoweled47    ,it is not without    

reason that ,mohammed's cognomen for    
,jew and ,christian  alike was1 8the    
people of the ,book40 ,at first1 like   
the ,hebrew1  ,arabic had no            
vowel-points or diacritical marks4 ,in  
the earliest ,cufic  ,koran manuscripts 
these have the form of accents1         
horizontal lines  or even triangles4    
,the ,arabs tell many interesting       
stories about the  cause and occasion of
 their invention by ,abu ,aswad ad      
,duili or by ,nasr  bin ',asim4 ,in each
 case the awful sin of mispronouncing a 
word in the  ,koran leads to the device 
of vowel-points as a future             
preventative4  ,according to another    
tradition it was ,hasan-el-,basri 7who  
died ,a4 ,h4  #aaj7 that first pointed  
the ,koran text with the assistance of  
,yahya bin  ,ymar4 ,the vowel-points1 so
 called1 were in reality the abbreviated
  weak-consonants and were placed1 in   
accordance with the sound of these      
letters1 when so pronounced4 ,the       
vowel-points and diacritical marks  are 

always found in copies of the ,koran1   
but seldom in other books  and never in 
epistolary writing4 ,they are considered
 by the ,arabs  themselves as at best a 
necessary evil1 except for grammarians  
and  purists4 ,the story is told that an
 elaborate piece of ,arabic penmanship  
was once presented to the governor of   
,khorasan under the ,caliph al  ,mamun1 
and that he exclaimed1 8,how beautiful  
this would be if there  were not so much
 coriander seed scattered over it60     
,illustration3 ,,mogrebi ,,arabic ,,of  
,,north ,,africa 7,,unvoweled47    ,the 
demand for perfect accuracy in copying  
the ,koran in every detail of  point and
 accent1 led the ,arabs to glorify the  
art of caligraphy1 and1  as they        
followed neither painting nor sculpture 
because of their creed1  they naturally 
put all their artistic taste into their 
manuscripts4  ,brilliantly colored and  
adorned with gold on delicately tinted  
parchment1 or paper1 the fanciful       
chapter-headings and the elegant        

tracery of each letter in the book make 
such an old manuscript ,koran a  real   
work of art4 ,three names are recorded  
of those who in the early  days of      
,islam were the ,raphaels and ,michael  
,angelos of the reed-pen2  ,wazir       
,muhammed bin ,ali1 ,ali bin ,hilal al  
,bauwab1 and ,abu-'d-,dur bin  ,yakut al
 ,musta'sami4 ,as time went by there    
arose various schools of  this art2     
chiefly distinguished as the            
,magrib-,berber or ,western1 and  the   
,turko-,arab or ,eastern style4 ,in the 
decorations of the ,alhambra the        
western school shows some of its most   
finished art1 while ,damascus and       
,cairo mosques show the delicate        
8,arabesque0 traceries of the lighter   
oriental school4 ,it is in manuscripts1 
however1 that the best work is  found2  
some of these are of priceless value and
 exceeding beauty4 ,even  to-day there  
are ,arab penmen whose work commands a  
good price as art  and gives them a     
position in society as it did the       

monkey1 described in  the ,arabian      
,nights1 who improvised poetry in five  
styles of caligraphy  for the astonished
 king4    ,illustration3 ,,persian      
,,style ,,extensively ,,used ,,in       
,,eastern ,,arabia4    ,the ,arabic     
language is distinguished among those   
that know it for its  beauty1 and among 
those who are learning it for its       
difficulty4 ,to  the ,arabs their       
language is not only the language of    
revelation1 but  of the ,revealer       
himself4 ,allah speaks ,arabic in       
heaven1 and on the day  of judgment will
 judge the world in this 8language of   
the angels40 ,all  other tongues are    
vastly inferior in grammatical          
construction1 and what  else could they 
be since the ,koran with its classical  
perfection has  existed before all      
words1 uncreated1 written on the        
preserved tablet  in heaven1 the daily  
delight of the innumerable company of   
angels6 ,as  ,renan says1 8among a      
people so preoccupied with language as  

the ,arabs1  the language of the ,koran 
became as it were a second religion1 a  
sort of dogma inseparable from ,islam40 
,but the innate beauty of the  language 
is acknowledged by all who have made it 
a study1 whether born  on the soil of   
,arabia or educated in the universities 
of ,europe4 ,from  the days of the      
,dutch scholars1 ,de ,dieu1 ,schultens1 
,schroeder and  ,scheid1 and the ,swiss 
,hottinger to the times of ,nldeke1     
,gesenius and  ,renan1 the praises of   
,arabic have been proclaimed in ,europe1
 and its  study pursued with a devotion 
that almost amounted to a passion4      
,the elements of beauty in this language
 are many4 ,there is first its  logical 
structure1 which1 we are told1 surpasses
 that of any other  language4 ,even the 
order of the alphabet is more logical as
 regards  form than the ,hebrew2 its    
grammar is altogether logical2 the      
exceptions  to its rules can be formed1 
so to say1 into a syllogism4 ,palmer's  
and  ,lansing's grammars show how this  

logical structure can be discovered in  
the minutest detail1 so that1 e4 g41 the
 three short vowels control  the forms  
not only1 but the significance of roots1
 and are the key to  the interpretation 
of all grammatical mysteries4    ,a     
second element of beauty is found in the
 lexical richness of the  ,arabic4 ,its 
boundless vocabulary and wealth of      
synonyms are universally  acknowledged  
and admired4 ,a dictionary is called a  
,kamoos or  8,deep ,ocean0 where 8full  
many a gem of purest ray serene1 the    
dark  unfathomed caves0 conceal for the 
diligent student4 ,renan tells of  an   
,arab linguist who wrote a book on the  
#ejj names given to the lion  in        
literature2 another gives #bjj words for
 serpent4 ,firozabadi1 the  ,arabian    
,webster1 is said to have written a sort
 of supplement on the  words for honey  
and to have left it incomplete at the   
eightieth word2  the same authority     
asserts that there are over #a1jjj      
different terms in  ,arabic for sword   

and1 judging from its use by the ,arabs1
 this appears  credible4 ,de ,hammer    
,purgstall1 a ,german scholar1 wrote a  
book on the  words relating to the camel
 and finds them1 in ,arabic literature1 
to the number of #e1gdd4 ,but this      
remarkable exhibition loses some of  its
 grandeur when truth compels us to state
 that many of the so-called  synonyms   
are epithets changed into substantives  
or tropes accidentally  employed by some
 poet to conform to his rhyme4 ,it is   
also true that the  wealth of synonym is
 limited in ,arabic to a certain class  
of words2  in other departments of      
thought1 ethics for example1 the        
language is  wofully poor1 not even     
having a distinctive word for           
conscience4    ,a third point of beauty 
in the ,arabic language is its purity as
  compared with other ,semitic languages
 or even all other languages4  ,this was
 partly due to the geographical location
 of the ,arabs and is  still due to     
their early literature together with the

 ,koran which has  put a classical      
standard into the hands of every        
schoolboy and has  prevented1 by the law
 of religion1 both development and      
deterioration4  8,while other languages 
of the same family became dead and while
  many of their forms and meanings      
changed or disappeared1 the ,arabic     
remained comparatively pure and intact  
excepting perhaps the temporary         
corruption which necessarily occurred   
during the ,moslem conquests and        
foreign applications of the first four  
,caliphs40#hh    ,the ,arabic race      
occupied at first a circumscribed       
territory and came  little into contact 
with the surrounding nations so that the
 forces  which produce linguistic decay 
were absent4 ,the only thing that will  
preserve a language pure next to        
isolation is a classical literature4    
,english has changed less since         
,shakespeare's time than it did in the  
interval between him and ,chaucer4 ,so  
too with ,arabic4 ,had it not been  for 

the ,koran and its cognate literature1  
by this time the people  of ,syria1     
,egypt1 ,morocco and ,oman would perhaps
 scarcely understand  each other1 and   
their written language would differ     
vastly2 but the  existence of this      
literature has kept the written language
 a unit and  put a constant check on the
 vagaries of dialect4    ,the last1 and 
chief element of beauty in the ,arabic  
tongue is  undoubtedly its wonderful    
literature4 ,in poetry alone1 the       
,arabians  can challenge the world2 in  
grammar1 logic and rhetoric the number  
of  their works is legion2 while both at
 ,bagdad and ,cordova ,arab historians  
and biographers filled whole libraries  
with their learning2 in ,cordova  the   
royal library contained #djj1jjj        
volumes4 ,algebra and ,astronomy are    
specially indebted to the ,arabs2 all   
the sciences received attention  and    
some of them addition from the ,arabian 
mind4    ,the ,arabic tongue is not only
 beautiful but it is difficult1         

exceedingly difficult1 to every one who 
attempts to really master it4  ,one of  
the veteran missionaries of ,egypt      
wrote1 in #ahfd1 8,i would  rather      
traverse ,africa from ,alexandria to the
 ,cape of ,good ,hope1 than  undertake a
 second time to master the ,arabic      
language40 ,the first  difficulty is its
 correct pronunciation4 ,some ,arabic   
letters cannot be  transliterated into  
,english1 although certain grammars take
 infinite  pains to accomplish the      
impossible4 ,the gutturals belong to the
 desert  and were doubtless borrowed    
from the camel when she complained of   
overloading4 ,there are also one or two 
other letters which sorely try  the     
patience of the beginner and in some    
cases remain obstinate to the  end4     
,then the student soon learns1 and the  
sooner the better1 that  ,arabic is     
totally different in construction from  
,european tongues and  that 8as far as  
the ,east is from the ,west0 so far he  
must modify his  ideas as to the correct

 way of expressing thought2 and this    
means to  disregard all notions of      
,indo-,european grammar when in touch   
with the  sons of ,shem4 ,every word in 
the ,arabic language is referred to a   
root  of three letters4 ,these roots are
 modified by prefixes1 infixes and      
suffixes1 according to definite models1 
so that from one root a host  of words  
can be constructed and vice versa1 from 
a compounded word  all the servile      
letters and syllables must be eliminated
 to find the  original root4 ,this      
digging for roots and building up of    
roots is not a  pastime at the outset   
because of the extent of the            
root-garden4 ,dozy's  supplement to     
,lane's ,monumental ,arabic ,lexicon has
 #a1gad pages4 ,so  large in fact is the
 vocabulary of ,arabic writers that the 
classics  require copious explanatory   
notes for the ,arabs themselves and some
 of  them have written notes on the     
notes1 to explain the difficult words   
used in explaining others more          

difficult4 ,moreover ,arabic literature 
is  so vast in its extent that          
acquaintance with the vocabulary of a   
dozen  authors in one line of literature
 does not yet enable the student to     
appreciate the language of other works4 
,you may be able to read the  ,koran    
tolerably well and understand its       
diction and yet when you turn  to the   
,arabian ,shakespeare or ,milton find   
yourself literally at sea1 in  the      
,kamoos1 and unable to understand a     
single line4    ,the regular verb in    
,arabic has fifteen conjugations1 two   
voices1 two  tenses1 and several moods2 
the irregular verbs are many and        
mysterious  to the beginner although    
grammarians try to make them appear     
easier  by demonstrating that all their 
irregularities are strictly logical1    
not the result of linguistic perversity 
but foreseen calculation and            
providential wisdom4 ,is it not 8the    
language of the angels08--even the      
broken-plurals8    ,as a final testimony

 to the difficulties of the ,arabic     
language listen  to ,ion ,keith         
,falconer4 ,after passing the ,semitic  
,languages ,tripos at  ,cambridge under 
,dr4 ,wright1 and taking a special      
course in ,arabic at  ,leipzig1 he      
writes from ,assiut in ,egypt3 8,i am   
getting on in ,arabic1  but it is most  
appallingly hard4444 ,i have learned a  
good deal and can  make myself          
intelligible to servants and porters4 ,i
 have a teacher  every day for two hours
 and translate from a child's reading   
book40  ,after five years of further    
study he writes once more from ,aden    
7,jan4 #ag1 #ahhf71 8,i am learning to  
speak ,arabic quite nicely but it  will 
be long before ,i can deliver real      
discourses40 ,and this man was  an      
all-around scholar with a passion for   
languages4 ,without any doubt  ,arabic  
is one of the most difficult languages  
in the world to acquire  with any degree
 of fluency1 and progress in its        
attainment means  ceaseless plodding and

 endless diligence4                     
,,xxv                          ,,the    
,,literature ,,of ,,the ,,arabs         
,the literature of the ,arabs is either 
pre-,islamic or post-,islamic2  the     
former has as its chief classics the    
,muallakt or seven suspended  poems1 the
 latter finds its centre and apex as    
well as its origin and  inspiration in  
the ,koran4 ,the seven ancient poems1   
still extant1 are  also called          
,muthahabat or the 8golden poems10 and  
it is generally  admitted by ,arabic    
scholars that this was indeed the golden
 age of ,arab  literature4 ,zuhair1     
,zarafah1 ,imru-l-,kais1                
,amru-ibn-,kulsum1 ,al ,harith1  ',antar
 and ,labid were the authors of these   
poems and all but the last  were        
idolaters1 and belong to what the       
conceit of ,islam calls 8the ,time  of  
,ignorance40 ,these poems furnished the 
model ever afterward for later  writers 
and1 according to ,baron de ,slane1 are 
remarkable for their  perfection of form

 and exhibit a high degree of linguistic
 culture4    ,but the ,koran has        
eclipsed all that ever went before it or
 came after  it in the eyes of the      
,arabs4 ,it is the paragon of literary  
perfection  as well as of moral beauty4 
,its style is inimitable because it is  
,divine in the highest sense of the     
word4 ,to criticise its diction is to   
be guilty of blasphemy and to compare it
 with other literature is to  commit    
sacrilege4 ,there is no doubt that the  
chief charm of the ,koran  from a       
literary standpoint is its musical      
jingle and cadence4 ,it is  such as the 
,arabs1 the earliest masters of rhyme1  
love1 and servilely  imitate in all     
their later prose works4 ,our ,english  
translations of  the ,koran1 although   
accurate1 7and even idiomatic1 as       
,palmer's7 cannot  reproduce this2 in   
consequence the book appears vapid1     
monotonous and  to the last degree      
wearisome and uninteresting4 ,attempts  
have been made  by ,burton and others to

 acquaint ,english readers with this    
element of  beauty in ,mohammed's       
revelation4 ,the following#hi is almost 
equal to  the ,arabic itself1 and1 to   
say the least1 sounds more interesting  
than  ,sale's prose version of the same 
passage3        8,i swear by the        
splendor of light      ,and by the      
silence of night      ,that the ,lord   
shall never forsake thee      ,nor in   
,his hatred take thee2      ,truly for  
thee shall be winning      ,better than 
all beginning      ,soon shall the ,lord
 console thee1 grief no longer control  
thee1      ,and fear no longer cajole   
thee4      ,thou wert an orphan-boy1 yet
 the ,lord found room for thy head4     
,when thy feet went astray1 were they   
not to the right path led8      ,did ,he
 not find thee poor1 yet riches around  
thee spread8      ,then on the          
orphan-boy1 let thy proud foot never    
tread1      ,and never turn away the    
beggar who asks for bread1      ,but of 
the ,lord's bounty ever let praise be   

sung and said40    ,it is not to be     
expected that all the transcendant      
excellencies and  miraculous beauties   
which ,moslem commentators find in the  
,koran should  unveil themselves to     
cold1 unsympathizing western gaze1 but  
that the  book has a certain literary   
beauty no one can deny who has read it  
in the original4 ,as ,penrice says in   
his preface to his ,dictionary of  the  
,koran1 8,beauties there are many and   
great2 ideas highly poetical  are       
clothed in rich and appropriate         
language1 which not unfrequently  rises 
to a sublimity far beyond the reach of  
any translation2 but it  is             
unfortunately the case that many of     
those graces which present  themselves  
to the admiration of the finished       
scholar are but so many                 
stumbling-blocks in the way of the      
beginner2 the marvellous conciseness    
which adds so greatly to the force and  
energy of its expressions cannot  fail  
to perplex him while the frequent use of

 the ellipse leaves in his  mind a      
feeling of vagueness not altogether out 
of character in a work  of its oracular 
and soi-disant prophetic nature40       
,the greatest literary treasure of the  
,arabs next to the ,koran is the        
,makmat of ,al ,hariri4 ,no one of      
polite scholarship would dare profess   
ignorance of this great classic1 and the
 reader of these 8,assemblies0  is      
introduced to every branch of           
,mohammedan learning--poetry1 history1  
antiquities1 theology and law4 ,recently
 ,hariri has been translated  into      
,english by ,chenery and an earlier     
translation by ,preston has also  been  
printed4 ,stanley ,lane-,poole reviewing
 these translations thus  characterizes 
this ,shakespeare of the ,arabic world3 
8,it is difficult1 no doubt1 for most   
,westerns to appreciate the  beauties of
 this celebrated classic4 ,there is no  
cohesion1 no  connecting idea1 between  
the fifty separate #8,assemblies1'      
beyond  the regular reappearance of an  

egregious ,tartufe1 called ,abu-,zeyd1  
a ,bohemian of brilliant parts and      
absolutely no conscience1 who           
consistently extracts alms from         
assemblies of people in various cities1 
by preaching eloquent discourses of the 
highest piety and morality1  and then   
goes off with his spoils to indulge     
secretly in triumphant  and unhallowed  
revels4 ,even in this framework there is
 no attempt at  originality2 it is      
borrowed from ,hamadni1 the #8,wonder of
 the ,age4'  ,the excellence lies in the
 perfect finish3 the matter is nothing2 
the charm consists in the form alone4   
,yet this form is1 to ,english  readers1
 exotic and artificial4 ,among its      
special merits1 in the eyes  of         
,easterns1 is the perpetual employment  
of rimed prose4 ,to us this  is apt to  
seem at once monotonous and strained1   
with its antithetic  balance in sense1  
and jingle of sound2 but to the ,arabs1 
as to many  primitive peoples1 either   
riming or assonant prose was from early 

times  a natural mode of impassioned and
 impressive speech4 ,it is the mode     
adopted constantly and without strain in
 the ,koran1 and it is the mode  into   
which an historian1 such as             
,ibn-el-,athr1 falls naturally when he  
waxes eloquent over a great victory or a
 famous deed4444    8,but if we do not  
care for rimed prose1 there is plenty   
besides in  ,hariri to minister to      
varied tastes4 ,in these wonderful      
#8,assemblies1'  we shall find every    
kind of literary form1 except the       
shambling and  the vulgar4 ,pagan       
rhetoric1 ,moslem exhortation1 simple   
verse1 elaborate  ode1 everything that  
the immeasurable flexibility of the     
,arabic tongue  and the curious art of a
 fastidious scholar could achieve--all  
is here1  and we may take our choice40  
,what is said by this scholarly critic  
of ,hariri holds true of most  ,arabic  
poetry1 it lacks unity of idea and      
sobriety of expression4 ,all  is        
intense4 ,every beautiful eye is a      

narcissus2 tears are pearls2 teeth  are 
pearls or hail-stones2 lips are rubies2 
the gums1 pomegranate  blossoms2        
piercing eyes are swords1 and the       
eyelids1 scabbards2 a  mole is an ant   
creeping to suck the honey from the     
lips2 a handsome  face is a full-moon2  
an erect form is the letter alif as     
penned by  ,wazir ,muhammed2 black hair 
is night2 the waist is a willow-branch  
or a  lance1 and love is always passion4
 ,far-fetched allusions abound and the  
sense at every turn must do homage to   
the sound4 ,in the judgment of  ,baron  
de ,slane the two notable exceptions to 
the rule are ,al ,mutanabbi  and ,ibn   
,el ,farid who exhibit a daring and     
surprising originality often            
approaching the sublime and1 in the case
 of the latter1 mystic reveries  and    
spiritual beauties of no mean order4    
,the influence of the ,arabic language  
on other tongues and peoples has  also  
been great1 ever since the rise of      
,islam4 ,the ,persian language  adopted 

the ,arabic alphabet and a large number 
of ,arabic words and  phrases2 so that1 
as ,renan remarks1 in some ,persian     
books all the  words are ,arabic and    
only the grammar remains in the         
vernacular4 ,as  for ,hindustani1       
three-fourths of its vocabulary consists
 of ,arabic  words or ,arabic words     
derived through the ,persian4 ,the      
,turkish language  also is indebted for 
many words taken from the ,arabic and   
uses the  ,arabic alphabet4 ,the ,malay 
language1 with the ,moslem conquest1 was
  also touched by ,arabic influence and 
likewise adopted its alphabet4  ,in     
,africa its influence was yet more      
strongly felt4 ,the language  extended  
over all the northern half of the       
continent and is still  growing in use  
to-day4 ,the geographical nomenclature  
of the interior  is ,arabic and ,arabs  
preceded ,livingstone1 ,stanley and     
,speke in all  their journeys4 ,the     
languages of the southern ,sudan1 the   
,hausa1 and  even those of ,guinea      

borrowed largely from the ,arabic4      
,europe itself  did not escape the      
influence of the conquering ,semitic    
tongue4 ,spanish  and ,portuguese betray
 a vast number of ,arabic words and     
idioms4 ,french  and ,english are also  
indebted to ,arabic in no small degree  
for many  scientific and technical words
 introduced at the time of the crusades 
and even earlier4 ,here is a partial    
list of those which we received         
directly or indirectly from the ,arab   
tongue1 as given in ,skeat's            
,etymological ,dictionary and arranged  
into sentences2 every word in  italics  
is of ,arabic origin4     8,the ,nabob  
,mohammedan ,magazine relates1 that     
years after the   ,hegira1 a saracen    
caliph or ,mameluke sultan1 sat with    
his mussulman emir1 admiral1 vizier1    
moslem mufti and   ,koran-munshee1 7who 
knew alchemy and algebra and could      
cipher the azimuth and nadir to zero71  
sheikh of the   hareem1 muezzin and     
tariff-dragoman of the arsenal1 under a 

carob-tree1 on sofas of mohair-mattress 
covered with jerboa-   and              
gazelle-skins1 drinking coffee1         
saffron-elixer1 arrack1   alcohol and   
syrup of senna1 carraway and sumach4    
,for tonic   they also had rose-attar1  
artichokes1 alkaline-nitre in   myrrh1  
taraxacum1 otto-sherbet1 and naphtha in 
amber cups4   ,the ,sultan's infant     
daughter wore a carmine cotton          
and-muslin   chemise or diaper with a   
civet talisman and jasper amulet2   she 
played a ,tartar lute4 ,suddenly a      
giaour ,bedouin assassin   with an      
assagai and hookah-masque came down on  
them from behind   an alcove of the     
neighboring arabesque mosque minaret    
like a   sirocco-simoon or monsoon and  
killed them all40    ,most of these     
words came from the ,arabic through     
other languages such  as ,french and    
,spanish2 others were directly          
transferred from the ,arabic  to        
,english2 and still others have passed  
the long journey from ,arabic  to       

,greek1 to ,latin1 to ,italian1 to      
,french and thence to ,english4 ,the    
word magazine is perhaps the best       
example of how an ,arabic-root  found   
shelter in the soil of all the ,european
 languages and grew into  manifold      
significations from its original meaning
 with the ,arabs1  ghazana  to collect  
or store4    ,in modern days1 especially
 since the opening of the ,suez canal1  
the  ,english language is beginning to  
exert its influence on ,arabic4 ,in     
,egypt1 ,syria and the ,persian ,gulf   
many ,english commercial terms are      
being adopted into the language and the 
newspapers spread their use  everywhere4
    ,last1 but not least1 there is the  
immense1 incalculable influence  on the 
,arabic-tongue for all time exerted by  
the toil and sacrifice  of the early    
missionaries to ,syria through their    
college and press  in giving to the     
world a modern ,christian and scientific
 literature  and that crowning work of  
,drs4 ,eli ,smith and ,c4 ,v4 ,a4 ,van  

,dyck--the  ,arabic ,bible4 ,the mission
 press at ,beirut has four hundred and  
eighty  three volumes on its catalogue  
and prints about twenty-five million    
pages annually4#ij ,the ,arabic ,bible  
8one of the noblest literally  monuments
 of the age0 will yet prove a mighty    
influence in purifying  and ennobling   
the language and preserving its         
classical diction to  the utmost bounds 
of the ,arab-world4 ,there was only one 
,koran and  there will be only one      
,arabic ,bible--the finished product of 
,american  scholarship and her best gift
 to the ,mohammedan world4              
,illustration3 ,,title ,,page ,,of ,a   
,,christian ,,paper ,,printed ,,in      
,,arabic4                               
,,xxvi                                  
,,the ,,arab        8,children of ,shem6
 ,firstborn of ,noah's race        ,and 
still forever children2 at the door     
,of ,eden found1 unconscious of         
disgrace1        ,and loitering on while
 all are gone before2      ,too proud to

 dig1 too careless to be poor           
,taking the gifts of ,god in            
thanklessness1      ,not rendering      
aught1 nor supplicating more1           
,nor arguing with ,him if ,he hide ,his 
face4      ,yours is the rain and       
sunshine1 and the way        ,of an old 
wisdom1 by our world forgot1      ,the  
courage of a day which knew not death2  
,well may we sons of ,japhet1 in dismay1
      ,pause in our vain mad fight for  
life and breath1        ,beholding      
you--,i bow and reason not0--,anon4     
,concerning the origin of the tribes and
 people that now inhabit  the ,arabian  
peninsula there is disagreement among   
the learned4 ,it  is generally held that
 the original tribes of ,northern       
,arabia are  descendants of ,ishmael4   
,this is also the tradition of all ,arab
  historians4 ,as to the ,south         
,arabians1 who occupied their highlands 
with  the ,hadramaut coast for centuries
 before the ,ishmaelites appeared on    
the scene there are two opinions4 ,some 

believe them to be descendants  of      
,joktan 7,arabic ,kahtan7 the son of    
,heber and therefore1 like  the         
,northern ,arabs1 true ,semites4 ,others
 think that the earliest  inhabitants of
 ,south ,arabia were ,cushites or       
,hamitic2 while some ,german  scholars  
hold that in the earlier ,arabs the     
children of ,joktan and of  ,cush were  
blended into one race4    ,among the    
,ishmaelites are included not only      
,ishmael's direct  descendants through  
the twelve princes1#ia but the          
,edomites1  ,moabites1 ,ammonites1      
,midianites and probably other cognate  
tribes4  ,the names of the sons of      
,ishmael in relation to their           
settlements and  the traces of these    
names in modern ,arabia is a subject    
which has been  taken up by ,bible      
dictionaries but which still offers an  
interesting  field for further study4   
,the ,arabs themselves have always      
claimed  ,abrahamic descent for the     
tribes of the north4 ,the age-long1     

racial  animosity between the ,yemenites
 and ,madites seems to confirm the      
theory of two distinct races inhabiting 
the peninsula from very early  times2   
and they remain distinct until to-day in
 spite of a common  language and a      
common religion4 8,the animosity of     
these two races to  each other is       
unaccountable but invincible4 ,like two 
chemical products  which instantly      
explode when placed in contact1 so has  
it always been  found impossible for    
,yemenite and ,madite to live quietly   
together4  ,at the present day the      
,yemenite in the vicinity of ,jerusalem 
detests  the ,madite of ,hebron1 and    
when questioned as to the reason of     
their  eternal enmity has no other reply
 but that it has been so from time      
immemorial4 ,in the time of the ,caliphs
 the territory of ,damascus was         
desolated by a murderous war for two    
years1 because a ,madite had taken  a   
lemon from the garden of a ,yemenite4   
,the province of ,murcia in ,spain  was 

deluged with blood for seven years      
because a ,madite inadvertently  plucked
 a ,yemenite vine-leaf4 ,it was a       
passion which surmounted every  tie of  
affection or interest4 #8,you have      
prayed for your father3 why do  you not 
pray for your mother8' a ,yemenite was  
asked near the ,kaaba4  #8,for my       
mother6' said the ,yemenite1 #8,how     
could ,i8 ,she was of the race  of      
,mad4'0#ib    ,the ,yemenites at a very 
early period founded the strong and     
opulent  ,himyarite ,kingdom4 ,the      
,himyarites were the navigators of the  
,east and  they were celebrated for     
their skill in manufacture as well as   
for  enterprise in commerce2 they had a 
written language1 inscriptions  in which
 were discovered all over south ,arabia 
during the present  century4 ,the       
,madite or ,ishmaelite ,arabs on the    
contrary were more  nomad in their      
habits and were masters of the caravans 
which carried  the enormous overland    
trade by the two great trunk-lines of   

antiquity1  from the ,east to the ,west4
 ,one of these lines extended from      
,aden1  7,arabia ,emporium of ,ptolemy7 
along the western part of the peninsula 
and through ,yemen to ,egypt2 the other 
extended from ,babylon to ,tadmor  and  
,damascus4 ,a third route1 nearly as    
important1 was also in the hands  of the
 ,ishmaelite ,arabs1 by ,wady ,rumma and
 ,nejd to the old capital of  the       
,himyarites1 ,mareb4#ic ,these caravans 
unified the ,arabian peninsula  and     
fused into one its two peoples2 the     
northern ,arabs receiving  somewhat of  
the southern civilization and the       
southern ,arabs adopting  the language  
of the north4 ,but the decline in the   
caravan trade brought  disaster to      
,arabia2 the ship of the desert found a 
competitor in the  ships of the sea4    
,old settlements were broken up1 great  
cities1 which  flourished because of    
overland trade1 were abandoned and whole
 tribes  were reduced from opulence to  
poverty4 ,in this time of transition1   

long before the birth of ,mohammed1 the 
,arabic nation as it is known to  modern
 history seems to have been formed4     
,the modern ,arabs classify themselves  
into ,bedouins and town-dwellers2  or1  
in their own poetic way1 ahl el beit and
 ahl el h'eit1  8the people of the      
tent10 and 8the people of the wall40    
,but this  classification is hardly     
sufficient1 although it has been        
generally  adopted by writers on        
,arabia4 ,edson ,l4 ,clark1 in his book1
 ,the ,arabs  and the ,turks1 gives five
 classes3 8,beginning at the lowest     
round of  the ladder we have first the  
sedentary or settled ,arabs4 44 who     
though  still many of them dwelling in  
tents have become cultivators of the    
soil4 ,by their nomadic brethren these  
settled ,arabs are thoroughly  despised 
as degraded and denationalized by the   
change in their mode  of life4          
,secondly1 the wandering tribes in the  
neighborhood of the  settled districts1 
and in constant intercourse with their  

inhabitants4  ,both these classes1 but  
more especially the latter1 are         
thoroughly  demoralized4444 ,the third  
class consists of the ,arabs of the     
,turkish  towns and villages2 but they  
too are a degenerate class both in      
language and character4444 ,the fourth  
class consists of the inhabitants  of   
the towns and villages of ,arabia       
proper1 who by their peculiar  situation
 have remained more secluded from the   
rest of the world than  even the        
wandering tribes4444 ,finally the great 
nomadic tribes of the  interior1 still  
preserving unchanged the primitive      
character1 habits  and customs of their 
race40 ,this last class and this alone  
are the real  ,bedouins4    ,in addition
 to this classification according to    
civilization there  is the universal    
genealogical classification2 and no     
people in the  world are fonder of      
genealogies than the ,arabs4 ,the names 
of tribes  and families go back1 in many
 cases to pre-islamic days4 ,the        

earliest  tribal-names1 therefore1 are  
either taken from animals or            
totem-names1  like ,panthers1 ,dogs1    
,lizards1 e4 g41 ,anmar ,kilab1 ,dibab1 
etc42  place-names transformed afterward
 by the genealogists into ancestors1  e4
 g41 ,hadramaut1 ,haub2 or from idols   
and idol-worship1 e4 g41  ,abd el ,kais1
 ,abd al ,lat1 etc4 ,but the later      
system of genealogies  as given by the  
,arabs are utterly unreliable because   
they are so  evidently artificial4 ,the 
backbone of the system was the pedigree 
of  ,mohammed and this is notoriously   
untrustworthy4 8,dummy ancestors0 were  
inserted in order to connect a          
particular but unimportant tribe with  a
 distinguished one1 and ,hamdani himself
 tells us that he found it a  common    
practice of obscure desert groups to    
call themselves by the name  of some    
more famous tribe4#id    ,character is  
difficult to define4 ,to depict the     
moral physiognomy of a  nation and their
 physical traits in such a way that     

nothing important  is omitted and no    
single characteristic exaggerated at the
 cost of  others4 ,this difficulty is   
increased in the case of the ,arabs1 by 
their  twofold origin and their present 
twofold civilization4 ,that which is    
true of the town-dweller1 is not always 
true of the ,bedouin and vice  versa4   
,moreover the influence of the          
neighboring countries must be  taken    
into account4 ,eastern ,arabia has taken
 color by long contact with  ,persia2   
this is seen in speech1 architecture1   
food and dress4 ,southern  ,arabia1     
especially ,hadramaut1 has absorbed     
,east ,indian ideas4 ,while  ,western   
,arabia1 especially ,hejaz1 shows in    
many ways its proximity to  ,egypt4 ,not
 losing sight of these distinctions1    
which will account for  many exceptions 
to the general statements made1 what is 
the character  of the ,arabs8           
,physically1 they are undoubtedly one of
 the strongest and noblest races  of the
 world4 ,baron de ,larrey1              

surgeon-general of the first ,napoleon1 
in his expeditions to ,egypt and ,syria1
 says3 8,their physical structure  is in
 all respects more perfect than that of 
,europeans2 their organs  of sense      
exquisitely acute1 their size above the 
average of men in  general1 their figure
 robust and elegant1 the color brown2   
their  intelligence proportionate to    
their physical perfection1 and without  
doubt superior1 other things being      
equal1 to that of other nations40       
,the typical ,arab face is round-oval1  
but the general leanness of the         
features detracts from its regularity2  
the bones are prominent2 the  eyebrows  
long and bushy2 the eye small1 deep-set1
 fiery black or a  dark1 deep brown4    
,the face expresses half dignity1 half  
cunning1 and is  not unkindly1 although 
never smiling or benignant4 ,the teeth  
are white1  even1 short and broad4 ,the 
,arabs have very scanty beards as a     
rule1  but those of the towns often     
cultivate a patriarchal beard like the  

traditional beard of the prophet4 ,the  
figure is well-knit1 muscular1          
long-limbed1 never fat4 ,the arms and   
legs are thin1 almost shrunken1  but    
with muscles like whip-cords4 ,as young 
men the ,bedouins are often             
good-looking1 with bright eyes and dark 
hair1 but the constant habit of         
frowning to protect the eyes from the   
glare of the sun1 soon gives the  face a
 fierce aspect2 at forty their beards   
turn grey and at fifty they  appear old 
men4    ,it is a common mistake to      
consider the ,arabs democratic in their 
ideas  of society4 ,the genuine ,arab   
was and is always an aristocrat4 ,feuds 
originate about the precedence of one   
family or tribe over another2  marriage 
is only allowed between tribes or clans 
of equal standing2 the  whole system of 
sheikh-government is an aristocratic    
idea2 and as final  proof there still   
exists a species of caste in ,south     
,arabia1 while in  ,north ,arabia the   
,ma'adan ,arabs of ,mesopotamia and the 

,suleyb of the  desert are little better
 than ,pariahs as regards their         
neighbors4 ,it is  with a heavy heart   
that any ,arab sees set over him a man  
of less noble  extraction than himself4 
,the religion of ,arabia has made its   
people  fanatics1 although according to 
,nldeke1 8fanaticism is characteristic  
of all ,semitic religions40 ,but he     
forgets the real distinction between    
intolerance of another religion on      
ethical grounds as in the case of       
,judaism1 and the infinitely hard1      
one-sided1 crude exclusiveness of       
,islam4    ,the ,arabs rarely have the  
power of taking in complex unities at a 
glance2 the talent for arrangement is   
absent4 ,an ,arab carpenter cannot  draw
 a right angle1 nor can an ,arab servant
 lay a tablecloth square  on the table4 
,the old ,arab temple called a cube     
7,kaaba7 has none  of its sides or      
angles equal2 their houses show the same
 lack of  the 8carpenter's eye0 to-day4 
,streets are seldom parallel1 even the  

street1 so-called1 was not straight in  
,damascus4 ,the ,arab mind loves  units1
 not unity2 they are good soldiers1 but 
poor generals2 there is  no partnership 
in business2 and no public spirit2 each 
man lives for  himself4 ,that is the    
reason why ,yemen cannot shake off the  
yoke of the  ,turk1 and this explains   
why the smallest towns in ,arabia have a
 great  many little mosques4 ,the ,arab 
has a keen eye for particulars1 great   
subjectivity1 nervous restlessness1 deep
 passion and inward feeling1  and yet   
joined with strong conservatism and love
 of the past4 ,in  everything he follows
 old models and traditions2 witness     
their poetry  and their tent-life--in   
,arab phrase1 termed their 8houses of   
hair0 and  their 8houses of poetry40 ,as
 a result of their language-structure1  
the ,arabs have naturally a strong      
tendency to a pointed1 sharp speech  of 
epigrammatic brevity1 but also go to the
 other extreme of ornate  tautology4    
,the former is characteristic of the    

desert2 the latter of  the towns4       
,eloquence and poetry are still         
worshipped4 ,the only fine  art which   
,arabs admire is that of caligraphy2 and
 those who have seen  finished specimens
 of an ,arab master-penman1 must        
acknowledge that in  them are all the   
elements of painting and sculpture4     
,the ,arabs are polite1 good-natured1   
lively1 manly1 patient1 courageous  and 
hospitable to a fault4 ,they are also   
contentious1 untruthful1  sensuous1     
distrustful1 covetous1 proud and        
superstitious4 ,one must  always keep in
 mind this paradox in dealing with an   
,arab4 ,as ,clark  expresses it1 8an    
,arab will lie and cheat1 and swear any 
number of  false oaths1 in a pecuniary  
transaction2 but when once his faith is 
pledged he can be implicitly trusted1   
even to the last extremity40  ,there are
 ,arab oaths such as wallah1 which are  
intended to confirm  falsehoods and     
signify nothing4 ,there are others1 such
 as the threefold  oath1 with wa1 bi and

 ti as particles of swearing1 which not 
even  the vilest robber among them dare 
break4 ,grammatically1 the two oaths    
are nearly the same4    ,robbery is a   
fine art among the nomads2 but the      
high-minded ,arab robs  lawfully1       
honestly and honorably4 ,he will not    
attack his victims in  the night2 he    
tries to avoid all bloodshed by coming  
with overwhelming  force2 and if his    
enterprise miscarries1 he boldly enters 
the first  tent possible1 proclaims his 
true character and asks protection4 ,the
  ,dakheil1 or privilege of sanctuary1  
the salt covenant1 the blood  covenant  
and the sacredness of the guest1 all    
prove that the ,arabs  are trustworthy4 
,and yet1 in the ordinary affairs of    
life1 lying and  deception are the rule 
and seldom the exception4 ,the true     
,arab is  niggardly when he buys1 and   
will haggle for hours to reduce a price2
  and yet he is prodigal and lavish in  
giving away his goods to prove his      
hospitality4    ,according to           

,burckhardt1 the ,arab is the only real 
lover of the  ,orient2 if he limits this
 to the ,bedouin-,arab he is correct4   
,in matters  of love and marriage the   
,arab of the towns is what ,mohammed1   
the ,meccan  merchant was1 after the    
death of the old lady ,khadijah4 ,but   
,arabic  poetry of the times of         
ignorance does occasionally breathe the 
true  tale of love and chivalry2 and the
 desert ,arabs as a rule are not        
polygamists nor given to divorce4    ,it
 was a law among the ancient ,arabs that
 whoever sheds the blood of  a man owes 
blood on that account to the family of  
the slain4 ,this law  of blood-revenge  
was confirmed by the ,koran and is a    
sacred right  everywhere in ,arabia4 ,an
 ,arab is considered degenerate who     
accepts a  fine or any consideration    
save blood for blood4 ,this law is both 
the  cause of continual feuds1 and tends
 to terminate them without much         
bloodshed4 ,arabs of the town and of the
 desert will quarrel for hours  without 

coming to blows2 it is not cowardice    
that prevents an open  encounter1 but   
the fear of shedding blood and          
blood-revenge4    ,family life among the
 ,arabs is best studied by looking at   
child-life  in the desert and at the    
position of women among the ,bedouin and
 the  town-dwellers4 ,in no part of the 
world does the newborn child meet  less 
preparation for its reception than among
 the ,bedouin4 ,a land  bare of many    
blessings1 general poverty and the law  
of the survival  of the fittest1 has    
made the ,arab mother stern of heart4   
,in the open  desert under the shade of 
an acacia bush or behind a camel1 the   
,arab  baby first sees the daylight4 ,as
 soon as it is born the mother herself  
rubs and cleans the child with sand1    
places it in her handkerchief  and      
carries it home4 ,she suckles the child 
for a short period1 and  at the age of  
four months it already drinks profusely 
of camels'  milk4 ,a name is given to   
the infant immediately2 generally from  

some  trifling incident connected with  
its birth1 or from some object  which   
attracts the mother's fancy4 ,moslem    
names such as ,hassan ,ali  or ,fatimah1
 are extremely uncommon among the true  
,bedouins2 although  ,mohammed is       
sometimes given4 ,beside his own        
peculiar name every  ,bedouin boy is    
called by the name of his father and    
tribe4 ,and what is  more remarkable1   
boys are often called after their       
sisters1 e4 g41  ,akhoo ,noorah1 the    
brother of ,noorah4 ,girls' names are   
taken from the  constellations1 birds1  
or desert animals like ,gazelle4    ,in 
education the ,arab is a true child of  
nature4 ,his parents leave him  to his  
own sweet will2 they seldom chastise and
 seldom praise4 ,trained  from birth in 
the hard school of nomad life1 fatigue  
and danger do  contribute much to his   
education4 ,burckhardt says1 8,i have   
seen parties  of naked boys playing at  
noonday upon the burning sand in the    
middle  of summer1 running until they   

had fatigued themselves1 and when they  
returned to their fathers' tents they   
were scolded for not continuing  the    
exercise4 ,instead of teaching the boy  
civil manners1 the father  desires him  
to beat and pelt the strangers who come 
to the tent2 to  steal or secrete some  
trifling article belonging to them4 ,the
 more  saucy and impudent children are  
the more they are praised since this is 
taken as an indication of future        
enterprise and warlike disposition4     
,bedouin children1 male and female1 go  
unclad and play together until  their   
sixth year4 ,the first child's festival 
is that of circumcision4  ,at the age of
 seven years the day is fixed1 sheep are
 killed and a  large dish of food is    
cooked4 ,women accompany the operation  
with a  loud song and afterward there is
 dancing and horseback riding and       
encounters with lances4 ,the girls adorn
 themselves with cheap jewelry  and     
tent-poles are decorated with ostrich   
feathers4 ,altogether it is a  gala-day4

    ,illustration3 ,,churning ,,butter  
,,in ,a ,,bedouin ,,camp4    ,the       
,bedouin children have few toys but they
 manage to amuse themselves  with many  
games4 ,i have seen a group of happy    
children1 each with a pet  locust on a  
bit of string1 watching whose steed     
should win the race4  ,the boys make    
music out of desert-grass winding it in 
curious fashion  to resemble a horn1 and
 calling it ,masoor4 ,in ,yemen and     
,nejd a sling1  like ,david's1 with     
pebbles from the brook is a lad's first 
weapon4  ,afterward he acquires a lance 
and perhaps an old discarded            
bowie-knife4  ,the children of the      
desert have no books4#ie ,but1 of paper1
 they  have the ,book of ,nature4 ,this 
magnificent picture book is never more  
diligently studied than by those little 
dark eyes which watch the sheep  at     
pasture or count the stars in the blue  
abyss from their perch on a  lofty      
camel's saddle in the midnight          
journeyings4    ,when the ,bedouin lad  

grows up1 and begins to swear by the few
  straggling hairs on his chin1 he      
cannot read a letter1 but he knows men  
and he knows the desert4 ,the talk heard
 at night around the ,sheikh's  tent or 
the acacia-brush fireside is much like  
the wisdom of the book  of ,job4 ,a     
philosophy of submission to the world as
 it is2 a deification  of stoicism or   
patience2 a profound trust that all will
 end well at  last4 ,sad to say even the
 little nomads1 with their ignorance of 
all  religion1 share in the fanatical   
antagonism of their elders toward the   
,christian religion and ,christians4    
,one of their games1 in ,nejd1 is to    
draw a cross on the desert sand and then
 defile it2 they learn that  all outside
 the pale of ,mohammed's creed are      
kafirs and to please  ,allah are glad to
 throw stones at any wayfaring ,nasrani4
 ,little do  the ,bedouins and still    
less do their children1 however1 know of
 the  religion of ,islam4 ,the ,koran is
 not a book for children's minds and of 

such is not the kingdom of ,mohammed4   
,the ,bedouin child early puts away     
childish things4 ,to western eyes  the  
children of ,arabia appear like little  
old men and women2 and the  grown-up    
people have minds like children4 ,this  
is another paradox  of the              
,arab-character4 ,at ten years the boy  
is sent to drive camels  and the girl to
 herd sheep2 at fifteen they are both on
 the way to  matrimony4 ,he wears the   
garb of a man and boasts a matchlock2   
she takes  to spinning camel hair and   
sings the songs of the past4 ,their     
brief  childhood is over4 ,in the towns 
marriage takes place even earlier2 and  
there are boys of eighteen who have     
already divorced two wives4    ,among   
the ,bedouins polygamy is not common nor
 is it among the poorer  ,arabs of the  
towns4 ,the marriage ceremony among the 
,bedouins is  as simple as it is long   
and complex among the townsmen4 ,after  
the  negotiations which precede the     
marriage contract1 the bridegroom comes 

with a lamb in his arms to the tent of  
the girl's father and there  cuts the   
lamb's throat before witnesses4 ,as soon
 as the blood falls on  the ground the  
contract is sealed2 feasting and dancing
 follow1 and  at night the bride is     
conducted to the bridegroom's tent where
 he is  awaiting her arrival4 ,dowrys   
are paid more generally and more largely
  in the towns than in the desert4      
,among certain ,arab tribes a demand  of
 money for the hand of a bride would be 
deemed scandalous4 ,from a  western     
standpoint the women of the ,bedouin    
stand on a higher platform  of liberty  
and justice than those of the towns     
where the ,koran has  done its work on  
one half of society to repress intellect
 and degrade  affection1 and sensualize 
the sexual relation to the last degree4 
,on  the other hand divorce is perhaps  
more common among the ,bedouins1#if     
than among the city ,arabs4 ,burckhardt 
met ,arabs not yet forty-five  years of 
age who were known to have had above    

fifty wives4 ,concerning  the           
marriage-contract in the towns1 the     
ceremony1 the divorce  proceedings1 and 
the methods by which that is made legal 
which even the  lax law of ,islam       
condemns1 the less said the better4     
,on the position of women in ,arabia we 
quote four unimpeachable  witnesses who 
have nothing in common save their       
knowledge of the  subject2 there is     
truth on both sides where they differ2  
where they  agree there is no question  
of certainty as to the fact4            
,,doughty1 the ,christian explorer1     
whose volumes are a mine of  information
 says3#ig 8,the female is of all animals
 the better1 say  the ,arabians1 save   
only in mankind4 ,upon the human female 
the ,semites  cast all their blame4     
,hers is1 they think1 a maleficent      
nature1 and  the ,arabs complain that   
#8she has seven lives4' ,the ,arabs are 
contrary  to womankind1 upon whom they  
would have ,god's curse2 some1 they say1
  are poisoners of husbands and there   

are many adulteresses4444 ,the  horma i4
 e41 woman they would have under        
subjection2 admitted  to an equality1   
the ineptitude of her evil nature will  
break forth4  ,they check her all day at
 home and let her never be enfranchised 
from  servitude4 ,the veil and the      
jealous lattice are rather of the       
obscene  ,mohammedan austerity in the   
towns2 among the mild tent-dwellers in  
the  open wilderness the housewives have
 a liberty as where all are kindred2    
yet their hareem are now seen in the    
most ,arabian tribes half-veiled40      
,,burckhardt1 the time-honored authority
 on things ,arabian1 writes3 8,the      
,bedouins are jealous of their women1   
but do not prevent them from  laughing  
and talking with strangers4 ,it seldom  
happens that a ,bedouin  strikes his    
wife2 if he does so she calls loudly on 
her wasy or  protector who pacifies the 
husband and makes him listen to         
reason4444  ,the wife and daughters     
perform all the domestic business4 ,they

 grind  the wheat in the handmill or    
pound it in the mortar2 they prepare the
  breakfast and dinner2 knead and bake  
the bread2 make butter1 fetch  water1   
work at the loom1 mend the tent-covering
 and are1 it must be  owned1            
indefatigable4 ,while the husband or    
brother sits before the tent  smoking   
his pipe40    ,,lady ,,ann ,,blunt1 who 
travelled among the tribes of the       
,euphrates  valley with her husband1    
speaks thus from a woman's standpoint4  
8,of  the ,bedouin women a shorter      
description will be enough4 ,as girls   
they  are pretty in a wild picturesque  
way and almost always have cheerful1    
good-natured faces4 ,they are           
hard-working and hard-worked1 doing all 
the labor of the camp4444 ,they live    
apart from the men but are in no  way   
shut up or put under restraint4 ,in the 
morning they all go out to  gather wood 
for the day1 and whenever we have met   
them so employed they  have seemed in   
the highest possible spirits4444 ,in    

mental qualities the  women of the      
desert are far below the men1 their     
range of ideas being  extremely limited4
 ,some few of them1 however1 get real   
influence over  their husbands and even1
 through them1 over their tribes4 ,in   
more than  one ,sheikh's tent it is in  
the woman's half of it that the politics
 of  the tribe are settled40    ,,snouck
 ,,hurgronje1 the ,dutch traveller who  
spent an entire year  7#ahhd-he7 in     
,mecca thus characterizes the position  
of women in ,arabian  towns3#ih         
8,what avail to the young maiden the    
songs of eulogy which once in   her life
 resound for her from the mouth of the  
singing-woman1 but   which introduce her
 into a companionship by which she1 with
 her whole   sex1 is despised8 ,moslem  
literature1 it is true1 exhibits        
isolated   glimpses of a worthier       
estimation of woman1 but the later view1
 which   comes more and more into       
prevalence1 is the only one which finds 
its expression in the sacred traditions1

 which represent hell as   full of      
women1 and refuse to acknowledge in the 
woman1 apart from   rare exceptions1    
either reason or religion1 in poems1    
which refer   all the evil in the world 
to the woman as its root2 in proverbs1  
which represent a careful education of  
girls as mere wastefulness4             
,ultimately1 therefore1 there is only   
conceded to the woman the   fascinating 
charm with which ,allah has endowed her1
 in order to afford   the man1 now and  
then in his earthly existence1 the      
prelibation of the   pleasures of       
,paradise1 and to bear him children40   
,the poems which revile womankind1 and  
of which the ,dutch traveller  speaks1  
are legion4 ,here are two examples in   
,english translation from  ,burton3     
8,they said1 marry6--,i replied1--      
,far be it from me            ,to take  
to my bosom a sackful of snakes4        
,i am free why then become a slave8     
,may ,allah never bless womankind40     
8,they declare woman to be heaven to    

man2      ,i say1 ,allah1 give me       
,jehannum1 not this heaven40    ,three  
kinds of dwellings are found in ,arabia4
 ,there is the tent1 the  date-palm hut1
 and the house built with mortar of     
stone or mud-brick4  ,the tent is       
distinctive1 in a general sense1 of the 
interior and of  ,northern ,arabia2 the 
palm-hut of the coast and of ,south     
,arabia2 while  houses of brick and     
mortar exist in all the towns and       
cities4 ,the  evolution of the house is 
from goats'-hair to matting1 and from   
matting  to mud-roof4 ,each of these    
dwellings is called beit1 8the place    
where  one spends the night40    ,the   
,bedouin tent#ii consists of nine poles1
 arranged in sets of three  and a wide1 
black goats'-hair covering so as to form
 two parts2 the  men's apartment being  
to the left of the entrance and the     
women's  to the right1 separated by a   
white woollen carpet hanging from the   
ridge-pole4 ,the posts are about five to
 seven feet in height2 the  length of   

the tent is between twenty and thirty   
feet1 its depth at the  most is ten     
feet4 ,the only furniture consists of   
cooking utensils1  pack-saddles1        
carpets1 water-skins1 wheat-bags and    
millstones4    ,the date-palm hut is of 
different shapes4 ,in ,hejaz and ,yemen 
it is  built like a huge beehive1       
circular and with a pointed roof4 ,in   
,eastern  ,arabia it consists of a      
square enclosure with hip-roof generally
 steep  and covered with matting or     
thatch-work4 ,at ,bahrein the ,arabs are
 very  skillful in so weaving the       
date-fronds together and tightening     
every  crevice that the huts keep out   
wind and rain-storms most successfully4 
,the average size date-hut can be built 
for twenty or thirty ,rupees  7seven to 
ten dollars7 and will last for several  
years4    ,the stone-dwellings of       
,arabia are as different in architecture
 and  material as circumstance and taste
 can make them4 ,in ,yemen large        
castle-like dwellings crown every       

mountain and frown on every valley2     
stone is plentiful and the plan of      
architecture inherits grace and         
strength from the older civilization of 
the ,himyarites4 ,in ,bagdad1  ,busrah  
and ,east ,arabia ,persian architecture 
prevails1 with arches1  wind-towers1    
tracery and the veranda-windows4 ,while 
the architecture  of ,mecca and ,medina 
takes on its own peculiar type from the 
needs  of the pilgrimage4 ,generally    
speaking the ,arabs build their houses  
without windows to the street1 and with 
an open court2 the harem-system         
dictates to the builder1 even putting a 
high parapet on the flat-roof  against  
jealous eyes4 ,bleak walls without      
ornament or pictures are  also demanded 
by their surly religion4 ,all furniture 
is simple and  commonplace2 except where
 the touch of western civilization has  
awakened a taste for mirrors1 marble-top
 tables and music-boxes4    ,in dress   
there is also much variety in ,arabia4  
,turkish influence is  seen in the      

,ottoman provinces and ,indian-,persian 
in ,oman1 ,hassa and  ,bahrein4 ,the    
,turkish fez and the turban 7which are  
not ,arabian7 are  examples4 ,the common
 dress of the ,bedouin is the type that 
underlies  all varieties4 ,it consists  
of a coarse cotton shirt over which is  
worn  the abba or wide square mantle4   
,the headdress is made with a square    
cloth1 folded across and fastened on the
 crown of the head by a circlet  of     
woollen-rope called an #8akal4 ,the     
color of the garment and its            
ornamentation depends on the locality2  
likewise the belt and the  weapons of   
the wearer4 ,sandals of all shapes are  
used2 shoes and boots  on the coast     
indicate foreign influence4 ,the dress  
of the ,bedouin woman  is a wide cotton 
gown1 with open sides1 generally of a   
dark blue color1  and a cloth for the   
head4 ,the veil is of various shapes2 in
 ,oman it has  the typical ,egyptian    
nose-piece with only the middle part of 
the face  concealed2 in the ,turkish    

provinces of ,east ,arabia1 thin black  
cloth  conceals all the features4 ,nose 
and earrings are common4 ,all ,arab     
women also tattoo their hands and faces 
as well as other parts of their  bodies1
 dye with henna and use antimony on     
their eyelashes for ornament4    ,the   
staple foods of ,arabia are bread1 rice1
 ghee 7or clarified butter1  which the  
,arabs call semu7 milk1 mutton and      
dates4 ,these are found  everywhere and 
coffee is the universal beverage4 ,other
 foods and  fruits we have considered in
 our study of the provinces4 ,tea is now
  widely used but was known scarcely    
anywhere less than twenty years  ago4   
,tobacco is smoked in every village and 
the ,bedouins also are  passionately    
fond of the weed2 even the ,wahabi      
religious prohibition  did not drive out
 desire for the universal narcotic4     
,there is one  article of food we have  
left unmentioned1 locusts4 ,these are   
quite a  staple in the grocers' shops of
 all the interior towns of ,arabia4     

,they  are prepared for eating by       
boiling in salt and water1 after which  
they  are dried in the sun4 ,they taste 
like stale shrimps or dried herring4    
,the coast-dwellers still live largely  
on fish and in the days of  ,ptolemy    
they were called ,ichthiophagoi4        
,,xxvii                                 
,,arabian ,,arts ,,and ,,sciences       
,even ,islam could not suppress the     
,arab's love for music nor diminish  his
 regard for the great poets of 8the days
 of ignorance40 ,for be it  known that1 
although one can buy ,austrian          
mouth-organs in the bazaar  at ,jiddah1 
and harmonicas from ,germany in the     
toy-shop at ,hofhoof1  music is         
generally held by ,moslems1 even to-day1
 to be contrary to  the teaching of the 
prophet4 ,mafia relates that when he was
 walking  with ,ibn ,omar1 and they     
heard the music of a pipe the latter put
 his  fingers into his ears and went    
another road4 ,asked why1 he said3 8,i  
was  with the prophet1 and when he heard

 the noise of a musical pipe1 he  put   
his fingers into his ears2 and this     
happened when ,i was a child40  ,thus it
 comes to pass that by the iron law of  
tradition1 more binding  to the pious   
,moslem ofttimes than the ,koran itself1
 the ,mohammedan  world considers music 
at least among the doubtful amusements  
for true  believers4 ,and yet both      
before and after the advent of the      
morose  legislator1 ,arabia has had its 
music and song4 ,but music in           
,mohammedan  lands is ever in spite of  
their religion1 and is never1 as is the 
case  with ,christianity1 fostered by   
it4    ,among the ancient ,arabs poetry 
and song were closely related4 ,the     
poet recited or chanted his own         
compositions in the evening mejlis1  or 
more frequently at the public fairs and 
festivals1 especially the  national one 
held annually at ,okatz4 ,here it was   
that the seven noble  fragments still   
extant of their earliest literature were
 first read  and applauded1 and         

accounted worthy 7if this part of the   
story be not  fabulous7 to be suspended1
 written in gold1 in the ,kaaba4    ,it 
is unfortunate that the ,arabs1 with all
 their wealth of language  and          
literature1 have no musical notation1 so
 that we can only surmise  what their   
ancient tunes may have been4 ,were the  
early war songs of  ,omar and ,khalid   
sung in the same key as this modern war 
chant of the  ,gomussa tribe1 as        
interpreted by ,lady ,ann ,blunt8       
,illustration3 ,music score             
,illustration3 ,music score    ,and did 
,sinbad the sailor sing the same tune on
 his voyages down the  ,persian ,gulf to
 ,india which now the ,lingah boatmen   
lustily chant as  they land the cargo   
from a ,british ,india steamer8 ,or was 
it like  this sailors' song on the ,red 
,sea8 ,to both of these questions the   
only answer is the unchangeableness of  
the ,orient2 and this puts the          
probability1 at least1 so far that the  
sailors of to-day could easily  join in 

,sinbad's chorus4    ,the people of     
,jauf1 in ,northern ,arabia1 are most   
famous for music at  the present day1   
according to ,burckhardt4 ,they are     
especially adept  at playing the        
,rebaba4 ,this may well be considered   
the national  instrument of music4 ,it  
is all but universal in every part of   
the  peninsula1 and as well-known to all
 ,arabs as the bag pipe is to the       
,scotch4 ,i have heard the highland     
shepherd boys of ,yemen play on a set   
of reed-pipes rudely fastened together  
with bits of leather thong4  ,the drum  
tabl1 is common among the town ,arabs1  
and is used at their  marriage and      
circumcision feasts2 but all over the   
desert one only  hears the rebaba4 ,it  
is simplicity itself in its             
construction1 when  made by the         
,bedouins2 the finer ornamental ones are
 from the cities4 ,a  box frame is made 
ready1 a stick is thrust through1 and in
 this they  pierce an eye-hole for a    
single peg2 a kidskin is then stretched 

upon  the hollow box2 the string is     
plucked from a mare's tail1 and setting 
under it a bent twig for the bridge1    
their music is ready4    ,time and      
measure are often very peculiar and hard
 to catch1 but they  are kept most      
accurately1 and ,ali ,bey gives an      
example which he says1  8exhibits the   
singularity of a bar divided into five  
equal portions1 a  thing which ,j4,j4   
,rousseau conceived to be practicable1  
but was never  able to accomplish40     
,here it is as he gives it2 it          
strikingly resembles  the boatmen's song
 at ,bahrein3    ,illustration3 ,music  
score    ,the singing one commonly      
hears1 however1 is much more monotonous 
than  this1 and the tune nearly always  
depends on the whim of the performer  or
 singer1 sometimes1 alas1 on his        
inability to give more than a  certain  
number of variations6    ,antar1 one of 
their own poets1 has said that the song 
of the ,arabs is  like the hum of flies4
 ,a not inapt comparison to those who   

have seen  the 8fly bazaar0 in ,hodeidah
 or ,menamah during the date season1 and
  heard their myriad-mouthed buzzing4   
,antar1 however1 lived in the 8times  of
 ignorance10 and most probably referred 
to the chanting of the camel  drivers1  
which is bad enough4 ,imagine the       
following sung in a high  monotonous key
 with endless repetition4        8,ya   
,rub sallimhum min el tahdeed      ,wa  
ija'ad kawaihum 'amd hadeed40    ,that  
is to say1 being freely interpreted3    
8,oh ,lord1 keep them from all dangers  
that pass      ,and make their long legs
 pillars of brass40    ,to a stranger   
that which seems most peculiar in ,arab 
song is their  long drawn-out tones at  
the close of a bar or refrain1 sometimes
  equivalent to three whole notes or any
 number of beats4 ,doughty did  not     
appreciate it1 apparently1 for he writes
 8,some1 to make the  stranger cheer1   
chanted to the hoarse chord of the ,arab
 viol1 making  to themselves music like 
,david1 and drawing out the voice in the

 nose  to a demensurate length1 which   
must move our yawning or laughter40     
,there are1 however1 singers and        
singers4 ,i remember a ruddy ,yemen lad 
who sang us kasidahs during a heavy     
rain-storm in an old ,arab caf  near    
,ibb4 ,the singer was master of his     
well-worn rebaba1 and its music  seemed 
to overmaster him4 ,now his hand touched
 the strings gently1 and  then again    
swept over them with a strong nervous   
motion1 awakening  music indeed4 ,his   
voice1 too1 was clear and sweet1        
although ,i was  not enough versed in   
,arabic poetry to catch the full meaning
 of his  words4 ,it may have been the   
surroundings or the jovial companionship
  of friendly ,arabs after my ,taiz     
seclusion and a weary journey up the    
mountain passes1 but ,i have never heard
 sweeter music in ,arabia1 and  have    
often heard worse elsewhere4 ,god bless 
that travelling troubadour  of ,yemen6  
,here is a ,mecca song for female       
voices1 as given by ,ali ,bey in his    

travels 7#ahae71 and a second sung by   
the women of ,hejaz in a more           
monotonous strain3    ,illustration3    
,music ,score    ,such songs are called 
asamer2 love-songs are called hodjeiny1 
and the war song is known as hadou4     
,arabic prosody and the science  of     
metres is exceedingly extensive and     
seemingly difficult4 ,what we  call     
rhyme is scarcely known1 and yet every  
verse ends with the same  syllable in a 
stanza of poetry4    ,in ,mecca as well 
as in other 8religious0 centres there is
 a sort of  sacred-music of which       
,hurgronje gives several specimens4     
,they are  chants in honor of the       
prophet or prayers for him which are    
sung at the  ,moleeds or festivals in   
memory of ,mohammed4 ,here are two of   
them4    ,illustration3 ,music score4   
,interspersed with text4        ,sal la 
'llah a la ,mu-hammad      ,pray for    
mo-ham-med1 ,o ,god1        ,sal-la     
'llah 'a-laih-wa-sal-lam      ,pray1 ,o 
,god1 for him and peace4                

,illustration3 ditto                    
,mar-ha-ba-ya1 nur-el ain-ni mar-ha-ba  
mar-ha-ba jid el ,hu-sain-i mar-ha-ba   
mar-ha-ba ya mar-ha-ba-ya1              
mar-ha-ba-a-a-a-a4      ,most generally1
 however1 music is looked upon as       
decidedly secular1  especially all      
instrumental music4 ,the desert ,arabs  
know no religious  song and only sing of
 love and war in their old wild way4 ,it
 is only  at a distance from the mosque 
and away with the caravan1 that ,ghanim 
clears his throat and sings in a voice  
that can be heard for a mile as  we     
leave him behind3    ,illustration3     
,music score    ,the ,arabs of the      
desert have a reading-book all their own
 called  ,athar2 and a writing all their
 own called wasm4 ,no ,bedouin so       
ignorant but he can read ,athar and none
 so dull but he can write his  wasm4    
,illustration3 ,,tribal ,,marks or      
,w,a,s,ms of the ,,arabs4    ,athr or   
ilm el athar is the science of          
footsteps2 and like the free  ,indians  

of ,america1 the ,arab is keen to study 
and quick to judge from  sand tracks of 
both men and animals4 ,the genuine ,arab
 who has made  athar a study can tell   
the track of a friend from that of a    
foe1 and  can distinguish the tribe or  
even the clan2 he knows from the depth  
of  the footprint whether the camel was 
loaded or lame2 whether the man  passed 
yesterday or a week before2 from the    
regularity or irregularity  he judges of
 fatigue or of pursuit4 ,if the camel's 
forefeet dig deeper  than the hind he   
concludes the animal had a weak breast2 
from the offal  he knows whence the     
camels came and the character of their  
pasture4  ,burckhardt writes of         
instances where camels were traced six  
days'  journeys after being stolen1 and 
identified4    ,to identify property it 
must be marked1 therefore1 the kindred  
science  of wasm has its place4 ,a wasm 
is a ,bedouin trade-mark or ideograph   
to label his property1 real and         
personal4 ,their origin is unknown1     

although ,doughty says that they        
ofttimes resemble ,himyaritic letters   
and may therefore come from ,yemen4     
,each family or tribe has its own       
cattle-brand or token4 ,not only is     
personal property such as cattle  marked
 with the wasm but the ,bedouin put     
their mark on rocks near  favorite wells
 or pastures4 ,these signs are the only 
certain records  of former occupation of
 tribes4 ,many of the tribes have two or
 three  different wasms2 these belong to
 family groups4    ,the medical         
knowledge and medical treatment of the  
,arabs deserve some  notice4 ,the ,arabs
 think themselves always ailing and     
never fail to  consult a hakim or doctor
 when there is opportunity4 ,the hakeem 
is  supposed to know both their malady  
and its cure by simple observation2  to 
tell the physician for what cause they  
seek him would be an insult  to his     
wisdom and for him to ask them settles  
the matter that he is  not a true       
hakeem4 ,the common diseases of ,arabia 

are the following1  according to ,arab  
nomenclature3--,el ,kibd1 i4 e41 the    
liver1 or all  visceral infirmities2 er 
rihh1 literally1 8the wind10 or         
rheumatics  and neuralgia2 humma1       
fevers2 tahl or ague-cake2 el-hasa or   
stone2 ophthalmia2 8fascination0 or     
hysterics1 7as when they say a man  has 
a jinn or a child has been looked at by 
the evil-eye72 leprosy1  phthisis1      
dropsy1 stranguria1 ulcers and senile   
itch4 ,for any and all  of these        
ailments1 beside others not so common1  
yet sometimes epidemic  like smallpox   
and cholera1 the ,arabs seek a hakeem4  
,all medicine1 save  amulets1 charms and
 exorcisms1 is called dawa4 ,their      
pharmacopia is  not large but quite     
remarkable2 in addition to such simple  
herbs of the  desert as their hareem    
collect and dry they use in grave       
emergencies  that which is harm         
7forbidden7 and unclean4 ,patients have 
come to me  for a small piece of swine's
 flesh 7which they suppose all          

,christians  eat7 to cure one in        
desperate straits4 ,doughty tells how   
among the  ,bedouins they give the sick 
to eat of the carrion-eagle and even    
seethe  asses' dung for a potion4       
,kei or actual cautery is a favorite    
cure for all sorts of diseases2  so also
 is khelal or perforating the skin      
surface with a red-hot iron  and then   
passing a thread through the hole to    
facilitate suppuration4  ,scarcely one  
,arab in a hundred who has not some     
kei-marks on his  body2 even infants are
 burned most cruelly in this way to     
relieve  diseases of childhood4 ,where  
kei fails they have resource to words   
written on paper either from the ,koran1
 or1 by law of contraries1  words of    
evil1 sinister import4 ,these the       
patient 8takes0 either by  swallowing   
them1 paper and all1 or by drinking the 
ink-water in which  the writing is      
washed off4 ,blood-letting is also a    
sovereign remedy for  many troubles4    
,the ,arab barber is at once a          

phlebotomist1 cauterizer1  and dentist4 
,his implements--one can hardly call    
them instruments--are  very crude and he
 uses them with some skill but without  
any mercy4  ,going to the proper place  
in any large ,arab town you may always  
see  a row of men squatting down with   
bent back to be bled2 cupping and       
scarifying are the two methods most in  
vogue1 although some are quite  clever  
in opening a vein4 ,the science of      
medicine in the towns is  not much in   
advance of that of the desert--more     
book-talk but even  less natural        
intelligence4 ,a disease to be at all   
respectable must be  connected with one 
of the four temperaments or 8humors of  
,hippocrates40    ,medicines are hot and
 cold1 wet and dry2 and the same        
fourfold  classification distinguishes  
all ailments4 ,there are four elements  
only1 and the stars must be favorable to
 induce a rapid cure4 ,whatever  is     
prescribed must be solid and material2  
if it is bitter and painful  so much the

 better4 ,rough measures act more       
strongly on the imagination  and        
faith-cure is a reality in such cases4  
,burton gives this sample of  a correct 
prescription3                           
8,a40#ajj     8,in the name of ,allah1  
the compassionate1 the merciful1 and    
blessings   and peace be upon our ,lord 
the apostle and his family and his      
companions one and all4 ,but afterward  
let him take bees-honey and   cinnamon  
and album grcum of each half a part and 
of ginger a whole   part1 which let him 
pound and mix with the honey and form   
boluses1   each bolus the weight of a   
,mithkal1 and of it let him use every   
day a   ,mithkal1 on the saliva1 7that  
is to say1 fasting1 the first thing in  
the morning74 ,verily its effects are   
wonderful4 ,and let him abstain   from  
flesh1 fish1 vegetables1 sweetmeats1    
flatulent food1 acids of all            
descriptions1 as well as the major      
ablution and live in perfect quiet4     
,so shall he be cured by the help of the

 ,king the healer1 i4 e41 the           
,almighty4 ,and the peace40    ,honey   
has always been a panacea in ,arabia on 
authority of the ,koran and  tradition4 
,the only reference to medicine in the  
revelation of ,mohammed  is this        
ignorant statement3 8,from the bee's    
belly comes forth a fluid  of variant   
hue which yieldeth medicine to man40    
7,surah xvi4 #ga47  ,this being the only
 remedy prescribed by ,allah1 it is no  
wonder that  tradition affirms its      
efficacy as follows3 8,a man once came  
to ,mohammed  and told him that his     
brother was afflicted with a violent    
pain in his  belly2 upon which the      
prophet bade him give him some honey4   
,the fellow  took his advice but soon   
came again and said that the medicine   
had done  no good4 ,mohammed answered3  
#8,go and give him more honey1 for ,god 
speaks  truth and thy brother's belly   
lies1' and the dose being repeated the  
man was cured40#aja ,coriander-seeds1   
peppermint1 cinnamon1 senna1  iris-root1

 saffron1 aloes1 nitrates1              
arsenious-earth1 pomegranate-rind1      
date-syrup and vinegar--such are some of
 the common household remedies  of      
,arabia4 ,all ,arab women profess a     
knowledge of herbs and the art of       
healing so that the 8hakeem0 can        
scarcely make a living if he clings     
solely to his profession4 ,a ,mecca     
8,m4,d410 says ,hurgronje1 was also     
watch-maker1 gun-smith and distiller of 
perfume2 to fill up his idle  hours he  
did a little silver-plating and dealt in
 old coins6 ,yet this  man was at the   
head of the profession in ,mecca and was
 able1 so they  said1 to transmute the  
base metals and write very powerful     
charms4    ,the following are used as   
amulets in ,arabia3 a small ,koran      
suspended  from the shoulder2 a chapter 
written on paper and folded in a leather
  case2 some names of ,god or their     
numerical values2 the names of the      
prophet and his companions2 greenstones 
without inscriptions2 beads1  old coins1

 teeth1 holy earth in small bags4       
,amulets are not only worn  by the      
,arabs themselves and to protect their  
children from the evil-eye  but are put 
on camels1 donkeys1 horses1             
fishing-boats and sometimes  over the   
doors of their dwellings4 ,the ,arabs   
are very superstitious  in every way4   
,in ,hejaz if a child is very ill the   
mother takes seven  flat loaves of bread
 and puts them under its pillow2 in the 
morning  the loaves are given to the    
dogs--and the child is not always cured4
  ,rings are worn against the influence 
of evil-spirits2 incense or             
even-smelling compounds are burned in   
the sick-room to drive away  the devil2 
mystic symbols are written on the walls 
for a similar  purpose4 ,love-philtres  
are everywhere used and in demand2 and  
nameless  absurdities are committed to  
insure successful child-birth4 ,the     
child-witch1 called ,um-el subyan1 is   
feared by all mothers2 narcotics  are   
used freely to quiet unruly infants and1

 naturally1 mortality is  very large4   
,of surgery and midwifery the ,arabs as 
a rule are totally  ignorant and if     
their medical-treatment is purely       
ridiculous their  surgery is piteously  
cruel1 although never intentionally so4 
,in all  eastern ,arabia blind women are
 preferred as midwives1 and rock-salt   
is used by them against puerpural       
hemmorrhage4 ,gunshot-wounds are        
treated in ,bahrein by a poultice of    
dates1 onions and tamarind2 and the     
accident is guarded against in the      
future by wearing a 8lead-amulet40      
,there are many other superstitions in  
no way connected with the  treatment of 
the sick4 ,tree-worship and             
stone-worship still exist in  many parts
 of ,arabia in spite of the so-called   
8pure monotheism0 of  ,islam4 ,both of  
these forms of worship date back to the 
time of idolatry  and remain as they    
were partly by the sanction of ,mohammed
 himself1 for  did he not make a        
black-pebble in the ,kaaba1 the centre  

of his system  of prayer8 ,sacred trees 
are called ,manahil1 places where angels
 or  jinn descend2 no leaf of such trees
 may be plucked and they are honored    
with sacrifices of shreds of flesh1     
while they look gay with bits of  calico
 and beads which every worshipper hangs 
on the shrine4 ,just  outside of the    
,mecca gate at ,jiddah stands one of    
these rag-trees with  its crowd of      
pilgrims2 in ,yemen they are found by   
every wayside4#ajb                      
,,xxviii                   ,,the        
,,star-,,worshippers ,,of               
,,mesopotamia#ajc     8,in a remote     
period of antiquity ,sabeanism was      
diffused over ,asia   by the science of 
the ,chaldeans and the arms of the      
,assyrians4 ,they   adored the seven    
gods or angels who directed the course  
of the seven   planets and shed their   
irresistible influence on the earth4444 
,they   prayed thrice each day1 and the 
temple of the moon at ,haran was the    
term of their pilgrimage40--,gibbon4    

,in the towns along the lower ,euphrates
 and ,tigris1 especially at ,amara1     
,suk es ,shiukh1 ,busrah and            
,mohammerah1 there dwell an interesting 
people1 variously known as ,sabeans1    
,nasorians1 or ,st4 ,john ,christians4  
,they call themselves ,mandans1 and     
though numbering only four or five      
thousand1 they are and have always been 
entirely distinct from the  ,jews1      
,moslems and ,christians among whom they
 have dwelt for centuries4  ,their      
origin is lost in obscurity although the
 few scholars who have  studied the     
subject trace their history through the 
maze of their  religion to ancient      
,babylonia and ,chaldea4 ,in this       
remnant of a race  and religion we seem 
to have an example of the oldest form of
 idolatry1  ,star-worship1 and many of  
their mysterious customs may throw a    
side-light upon the cult of ancient     
,babylonia4 ,mandism is not only of     
deep interest as 8the only existing     
religion compounded of ,christian1      

heathen and ,jewish elements10#ajd but  
it affords another proof of  the early  
spread of religious ideas in the ,east1 
and the ,babylonian  origin of much that
 is supposed to be ,alexandrian         
,gnosticism in a  semi-,christian1      
semi-pagan garb4    ,in the ,english    
,bible the name ,sabeans is perplexing1 
and although  used of three different   
tribes or peoples1 none of these are any
 way  related to the present ,mandans   
unless those mentioned in ,job4 ,sabean 
is also the term used in the ,koran1    
where it undoubtedly applies to the     
people and proves that when ,islam arose
 their numbers and settlements  were far
 from unimportant4 ,the ,koran          
recognizes them as distinct from        
idolaters1 and places them with ,jews   
and ,christians as people of the        
book4#aje ,from this it is evident that 
the ,sabeans could not have  been1 as   
some allege1 a minor ,christian sect or 
identical with the  ,hemero-,baptists4  
,although giving special honor to ,john 

the ,baptist1  they can in no sense be  
called ,christians4    ,isolated by a   
creed1 cult and language of their own1  
the ,sabeans#ajf  love their isolation  
and do not intermarry with strangers nor
 accept  a proselyte to their faith4    
,nearly all of them follow one of three 
trades4 ,they raise the finest dairy    
produce of ,mesopotamia2 they build  a  
peculiar kind of light canoe1 called    
,mashhoof1 and all others  are          
silver-smiths4 ,no traveller should     
visit their villages without  carrying  
away specimens of their beautiful       
inlaid-work1 black metal on  silver and 
gold4 ,a peaceful people they are1      
industrious1 though mostly  poor and    
seldom affording trouble to their       
,turkish rulers4 ,both men  and women   
have a remarkably fine physique2 tall1  
of dark complexion1  good features1 and 
with long black beards1 some of the men 
are typical  patriarchs1 even as we     
imagine ,abraham who left their present 
country  for ,haran4 ,on ordinary days  

their dress does not distinguish them   
from  ,moslems or ,jews1 but on feast   
days they wear only white4 ,their women 
go  about unveiled2 they are rather     
taller and have a more masculine cast   
of features than ,moslem women4         
,specimens of ,,mand,,itic              
,,cursive-,,script with transliteration 
and  translation4      ,manditic3       
ssooda hvilak  peace be to you4         
,manditic3  kethkm skawee   how much is 
it8      ,manditic3  ana libba kabeelak 
,i love you much4      ,manditic3       
kasbah we dahwah    silver and gold4    
,manditic3  hofshaba rabba      great   
day 7,sunday7      ,manditic3  atran    
hofshaba      ,monday4      ,manditic3  
aklatha             ,tuesday4           
,manditic3  arba                        
,wednesday      ,manditic3  hamsha      
,thursday4      ,manditic3  shitta      
,friday4      ,manditic3  shuvah        
,saturday4    ,the two great things that
 distinguish the ,sabeans are their     
language  and their religion4 ,both are 

remarkable4 ,the former because of its  
long preservation among a dying people1 
and the latter as the most  remarkable  
example of religious syncretism4        
,naturally the bazaar-talk of all the   
river-country is ,arabic2 all  ,sabeans 
speak it and a goodly proportion read   
and write it2 but beside  this they have
 a household language of their own1 the 
language of their  sacred books1 which  
is called ,manditic4 ,it is so closely  
related to  ,syriac that it might almost
 be called a dialect1 yet it has an     
alphabet  and grammar of its own1 and   
their writing and speech is not fully   
intelligible to the ,syriac-speaking    
,christians from ,mosul4 ,wright says   
that their alphabet characters most     
resemble the ,nabathean and their       
language that of the ,babylonian        
,talmud4#ajg ,one peculiarity is the    
naming of the letters with the  vowel   
and not as in other ,semitic  languages 
by special names4 ,the oldest           
manuscripts of the ,manditic  date from 

the sixteenth century1 and are in       
,european ,libraries 7,paris  and       
,oxford74 ,but according to ,nldeke the 
golden period of their  literature1 when
 their religious books received their   
final and  present form1 was #fej-ijj   
,a4 ,d4 ,at present few can read or     
write their  language1 although all can 
speak it1 and from religious motives    
they  refuse to teach those outside of  
their faith even the first lesson1      
except secretly4    ,although meeting   
,sabeans for years and being their guest
 on frequent  journeys up and down the  
rivers1 ,i could find no satisfactory   
answer  to the question what their real 
faith and cult were4 ,the popular story 
that they turn to the ,north ,star when 
they pray and 8baptise0 every  ,sunday  
was all that ,moslems or ,christians    
could tell4 ,books of travel  gave      
fragmentary1 conflicting and often      
grossly erroneous statements4           
,according to some accounts they were   
idolaters1 others classed them  with    

,christians4 ,an anonymous article in   
the ,london ,standard1 ,oct4  #ai1      
#ahid1 entitled1 8,a prayer meeting of  
the ,star-worshippers10  curiously gave 
me the key to open the lock of their    
silence4 ,whoever  wrote it must have   
been perfectly acquainted with their    
religious  ceremonies1 for when ,i      
translated it to a company of ,sabeans  
at ,amara  they were dumbfounded4       
,knowing that ,i knew something made it 
easy for  them to tell me more4 ,the    
article referred to was in part as      
follows3     8,it happens to be the     
festival of the ,star-worshippers       
celebrated on   the last day of the year
 and known as the ,kanshio ,zahlo1 or   
day of   renunciation4 ,this is the eve 
of the new year1 the great watch-night  
of the sect1 when the annual            
prayer-meeting is held and a solemn     
sacrifice made to ,avather ,ramo1 the   
,judge of the under world1 and          
,ptahiel1 his colleague2 and the        
white-robed figures we observe down   by

 the riverside are those of members of  
the sect making the needful             
preparations for the prayer-meeting and 
its attendant ceremonies4     8,first1  
they have to erect their ,mishkna1 their
 tabernacle or   outdoor temple2 for the
 sect has1 strange to say1 no permanent 
house   of worship or meeting-place1 but
 raise one previous to their festival   
and only just in time for the           
celebration4 ,and this is what they are 
now busy doing within a few yards of the
 water1 as we ride into the   place4    
,the elders1 in charge of a shkando1 or 
deacon1 who directs   them1 are         
gathering bundles of long reeds and     
wattles1 which they   weave quickly and 
deftly into a sort of basket work4 ,an  
oblong space   is marked out about      
sixteen feet long and twelve broad by   
stouter   reeds1 which are driven firmly
 into the ground close together1 and    
then tied with strong cord4 ,to these   
the squares of woven reeds and   wattles
 are securely attached1 forming the     

outer containing walls   of the         
tabernacle4 ,the side walls run from    
north to south1 and are   not more than 
seven feet high4 ,two windows1 or rather
 openings for   windows1 are left east  
and west1 and space for a door is made  
on the   southern side1 so that the     
priest when entering the edifice has    
the ,north ,star1 the great object of   
their adoration1 immediately   facing   
him4 ,an altar of beaten earth is raised
 in the centre of the   reed-encircled  
enclosure1 and the interstices of the   
walls well daubed   with clay and soft  
earth1 which speedily hardens4 ,on one  
side of the   altar is placed a little  
furnace of dark earthenware1 and on the 
other a little handmill1 such as is     
generally used in the ,east for         
grinding meal1 together with a small    
quantity of charcoal4 ,close to   the   
southern wall1 a circular basin is now  
excavated in the ground1   about eight  
feet across1 and from the river a short 
canal or channel   is dug leading to it4

 ,into this the water flows from the    
stream1 and   soon fills the little     
reservoir to the brim4 ,two tiny cabins 
or huts1   made also of reeds and       
wickerwork1 each just large enough to   
hold a   single person1 are then roughly
 put together1 one by the side of the   
basin of water1 the other at the further
 extremity of the southern   wall1      
beyond the entrance4 ,the second of     
these cabins or huts is   sacred to the 
,ganzivro or high priest of the         
,star-worshippers1 and   no layman is   
ever allowed to even so much as touch   
the walls with his   hands after it is  
built and placed in position4 ,the      
doorway and window   openings of the    
edifice are now hung with white         
curtains2 and long   before midnight1   
the hour at which the prayer-meeting    
commences1 the   little ,mishkna1 or    
tabernacle open to the sky1 is finished 
and ready   for the solemnity4          
8,toward midnight the ,star-worshippers1
 men and women1 come slowly down   to   

the ,mishkna by the riverside4 ,each1 as
 he or she arrives1 enters   the tiny   
wattled hut by the southern wall1       
disrobes1 and bathes in the   little    
circular reservoir1 the tarmido1 or     
priest1 standing by and   pronouncing   
over each the formula1 #8,eshmo d'ha1   
,eshmo d'manda ha   madhkar elakh'      
7#8,the name of the living one1 the name
 of the living   word1 be remembered    
upon thee'74 ,on emerging from the      
water1 each one   robes him or herself  
in the rasta1 the ceremonial white      
garments   peculiar to the              
,star-worshippers1 consisting of a      
sadro1 a long   white shirt reaching to 
the ground2 a nassifo1 or stole round   
the   neck falling to the knees2 a      
hiniamo1 or girdle of woollen material2 
a gabooa1 square headpiece1 reaching to 
the eyebrows2 a shalooal1   or white    
over-mantle2 and a kanzolo1 or turban1  
wound round the   gabooa headpiece1 of  
which one end is left hanging down over 
the   shoulder4 ,peculiar sanctity      

attaches to the rasta1 for the garments 
composing it are those in which every   
,star-worshipper is buried1 and   in    
which he believes he will appear for    
judgment before ,avather in the   nether
 world ,materotho4 ,each one1 as soon as
 he is thus attired1   crosses to the   
open space in front of the door of the  
tabernacle1 and   seats himself upon the
 ground there1 saluting those present   
with the   customary ,sood ,havilakh1   
#8,blessing be with thee1' and receiving
 in   return the usual reply1 ,assootah 
d'ha havilakh1 #8,blessing of the       
living one be with thee4'     8,the     
numbers increase as the hour of the     
ceremonial comes nearer1 and   by       
midnight there are some twenty rows of  
these white-robed figures1   men and    
women1 ranked in orderly array facing   
the ,mishkna1 and   awaiting in silent  
expectation the coming of the priests4  
,a couple   of tarmidos1 lamp in hand1  
guard the entry to the tabernacle1 and  
keep their eyes fixed upon the pointers 

of the ,great ,bear in the sky   above4 
,as soon as these attain the position   
indicating midnight1 the   priests give 
a signal by waving the lamps they hold1 
and in a few   moments the clergy of the
 sect march down in procession4 ,in     
front are   four of the shkandos1 young 
deacons1 attired in the rasta1 with     
the addition of a silk cap1 or tagha1   
under the turban1 to indicate   their   
rank4 ,following these come four        
tarmidos1 ordained priests   who have   
undergone the baptism of the dead4 ,each
 wears a gold ring on   the little      
finger of the right hand1 and carries a 
tau-shaped cross   of olive wood to show
 his standing4 ,behind the tarmidos     
comes the   spiritual head of the sect1 
the ,ganzivro1 a priest elected by his  
colleagues who has made complete        
renunciation of the world and is        
regarded as one dead and in the realms  
of the blessed4 ,he is escorted   by    
four other deacons4 ,one holds aloft the
 large wooden tau-cross1   known as     

derashvod zivo1 that symbolizes his     
religious office2 a   second bears the  
sacred scriptures of the                
,star-worshippers1 the ,sidra   ,rabba1 
8the great ,order10 two-thirds of which 
form the liturgy of the   living and    
one-third the ritual of the dead4 ,the  
third of the deacons   carries two live 
pigeons in a cage1 and the last a       
measure of barley   and of sesame seeds4
     8,the procession marches through   
the ranks of the seated worshippers1    
who bend and kiss the garments of the   
,ganzivro as he passes near   them4 ,the
 tarmidos guarding the entrance to the  
tabernacle draw back   the hanging over 
the doorway and the priests file in1 the
 deacons and   tarmidos to right and    
left1 leaving the ,ganzivro standing    
alone   in the centre1 in front of the  
earthen altar facing the ,north ,star1  
,polaris4 ,the sacred book ,sidra ,rabba
 is laid upon the altar folded   back   
where the liturgy of the living is      
divided from the ritual of   the dead4  

,the high priest takes one of the live  
pigeons handed to him   by a shkando1   
extends his hands toward the ,polar     
,star upon which he   fixes his eyes1   
and lets the bird fly1 calling aloud1   
#8,bshmo d'ha   rabba mshabbah zivo     
kadmaya ,elaha ,edmen ,nafshi ,eprah1'  
#8,in the name   of the living one1     
blessed be the primitive light1 the     
ancient light1   the ,divinity          
self-created4' ,the words1 clearly      
enunciated within1 are   distinctly     
heard by the worshippers without1 and   
with one accord the   white-robed       
figures rise from their places and      
prostrate themselves   upon the ground  
toward the ,north ,star1 on which they  
have silently   been gazing4            
8,noiselessly the worshippers resume    
their seated position on the   ground   
outside4 ,within the ,mishkna1 or       
tabernacle1 the ,ganzivro   steps on one
 side1 and his place is immediately     
taken by the senior   priest1 a tarmido1
 who opens the ,sidra ,rabba before him 

on the   altar and begins to read the   
,shomhotto1 #8confession' of the sect1  
in   a modulated chant1 his voice rising
 and falling as he reads1 and ever   and
 anon terminating in a loud and swelling
 ,mshobbo havi eshmakhyo   ,manda d'ha1 
#8,blessed be thy name1 ,o source of    
life1' which the   congregants without  
take up and repeat with bowed heads1    
their hands   covering their eyes4      
8,while the reading is in progress two  
other priests turn1 and prepare   the   
,peto elayat1 or high mystery1 as they  
term their ,communion4 ,one   kindles a 
charcoal fire in the earthenware stove  
by the side of the   altar1 and the     
other grinds small some of the barley   
brought by the   deacon4 ,he then       
expresses some oil from the sesame seed1
 and1 mixing   the barley meal and oil1 
prepares a mass of dough which he kneads
 and   separates into small cakes the   
size of a two-shilling piece4 ,these    
are quickly thrust into or on the oven  
and baked1 the chanting of the   liturgy

 of the ,shomhotto still proceeding with
 its steady sing-song   and response1   
,mshobbo havi eshmakhyo1 from outside4  
,the fourth   of the tarmidos now takes 
the pigeon left in the cage from the    
shkando1 or deacon1 standing near him1  
and cuts its throat quickly   with a    
very sharp knife1 taking care that no   
blood is lost4 ,the little   cakes are  
then brought to him by his colleague1   
and1 still holding   the dying pigeon1  
he strains its neck over them in such a 
way that   four drops fall on each one  
so as to form the sacred tau1 or cross4 
,amid the continued reading of the      
liturgy1 the cakes are carried round    
to the worshippers outside by the two   
principal priests who prepared   them1  
who themselves pop them direct into the 
mouths of the members1   with the words 
#8,rshimot bereshm d'ha1' #8,marked be  
thou with the   mark of the living one4'
 ,the four deacons inside the ,mishkna  
walk   round to the rear of the altar   
and dig a little hole1 in which the     

body of the dead pigeon is then buried4 
8,the chanting of the confession is now 
closed by the officiating   tarmido1 and
 the high priest1 the ,ganzivro1        
resuming his former   place in front of 
the ,sacred ,book1 begins the recitation
 of the   ,massakhto1 or #8renunciation'
 of the dead1 ever directing his prayers
   toward the ,north ,star1 on which the
 gaze of the worshippers outside        
continues fixed throughout the whole of 
the ceremonial observances   and        
prayers4 ,this star is the ,olma        
d'noora1 literally #8the world   of     
light1' the primitive sun of the        
,star-worshippers' theogony1 the        
paradise of the elect1 and the abode of 
the pious hereafter4 ,for   three hours 
the reading of the #8renunciation' by   
the high priest   continues1 interrupted
 only1 ever and anon1 by the ,mshobbo   
havi   eshmakhyo1 #8,blessed be thy     
name1' of the participants seated       
outside1   until1 toward dawn1 a loud   
and ringing ,ano asborlakh ano asborli  

ya   ,avather1 #8,i mind me of thee1    
mind thou of me ,o ,avather1' comes from
   the mouth of the priest1 and         
signalizes the termination of the       
prayers4     8,before the ,north ,star  
fades in the pale ashen grey of         
approaching   dawn1 a sheep1 penned over
 night near the river1 is led into the  
tabernacle by one of the four shkandos  
for sacrifice to ,avather and   his     
companion deity1 ,ptahiel4 ,it is a     
wether1 for the ,star-worshippers       
never kill ewes1 or eat their flesh when
 killed4 ,the animal is laid   upon some
 reeds1 its head west and its tail east1
 the ,ganzivro   behind it facing the   
,star4 ,he first pours water over his   
hands1 then   over his feet1 the water  
being brought to him by a deacon4 ,one  
of the   tarmidos takes up a position at
 his elbow and places his hand on   the 
,ganzivro's shoulder1 saying ,ana       
shaddakh1 #8,i bear witness4'   ,the    
high priest bends toward the ,north     
,star1 draws a sharp knife from   his   

left side1 and1 reciting the formula1   
#8,in the name of ,alaha1   ,ptahiel    
created thee1 ,hibel ,sivo permitted    
thee1 and it is ,i who slay   thee1'    
cuts the sheep's throat from ear to ear1
 and allows the blood   to escape on to 
the matted reeds upon which the animal  
is stretched   out4 ,the four deacons go
 outside1 wash their hands and feet1    
then flay   the sheep1 and cut it into  
as many portions as there are           
communicants   outside4 ,the pieces are 
now distributed among the worshippers1  
the   priests leave the tabernacle in   
the same order as they came1 and with   
a parting benediction from the          
,ganzivro1 ,assootad d'hai havilakh1    
#8,the benison of the living one attend 
thee1' the prayer-meeting   terminates1 
and the ,star-worshippers quietly return
 to their homes   before the crimson sun
 has time to peep above the horizon40   
,what a mosaic of ceremonies and what a 
mixed cult in this river-bank           
prayer-meeting6 ,the ,sabeans of ,amara 

tell me that every minute  particular is
 correctly described1 and yet themselves
 do not furnish  the clew to the maze4  
,here one sees ,judaism1 ,islam and     
,christianity1 as  it were engrafted on 
one old ,chaldean trunk4 ,gnosticism1   
star-worship1  baptisms1 love-feast1    
sacrifice1 ornithomancy and what not in 
one  confusion4 ,the pigeon sacrifice   
closely corresponds outwardly to  that  
of the ,mosaic law concerning the       
cleansing of a leper and his  belongings
 and is perhaps borrowed from that      
source4#ajh ,but how  ,anti-,jewish is  
the partaking of blood and the          
star-worship4#aji ,the  cross of blood  
seems a ,christian element1 as does also
 the communion of  bread1 but from a    
,new ,testament standpoint this is in   
discord with all  that precedes4        
,nevertheless a complete system of dogma
 lies behind this curious cult  and one 
can never understand the latter without 
the former4 ,sabeanism  is a book       
religion2 and it has such a mass of     

sacred literature  that few have ever   
had the patience to examine even a part 
of it4  ,the ,sidra ,rabba1 or ,great   
,book1 holds the first place4 ,the copy 
,i  examined contains over five hundred 
large quarto pages of text divided  into
 two parts1 a 8right0 and a 8left hand0 
testament2 they begin at  different ends
 of the book and they are bound together
 so that when  one reads the 8right10   
the 8left0 testament is upside-down4    
,the  other name for the ,great ,book is
 ,ginza1 ,treasure4 ,it is from this    
treasure-house that we chiefly gather   
the elements of their cosmogony  and    
mythology4#aaj    ,first of all things  
was ,pera ,rabba the great ,abyss4 ,with
 him 8,shining  ether0 and the ,spirit  
of ,glory 7,mana ,rabba7 form a primal  
triad1  similar to the ,gnostic and     
ancient ,accadian triads4 ,kessler goes 
so far  as to say that it is the same4  
,from ,mana ,raba who is the king of    
light1  emanates ,yardana ,rabba1 the   
great ,jordan4 7,this is an element of  

,gnosticism7 ,mana ,rabba called into   
being the first of the ons1 ,primal     
,life1 or ,hayye kadema4 ,this is really
 the chief deity of the ,sabeans1  and  
all their prayers begin by invoking him4
 ,from him again proceed  secondary     
emanations1 ,yushamim 7i4e41 ,jah of    
heaven7 and ,manda  ,hayye1 messenger of
 life4 ,this latter is the mediator of  
their system1  and from him all those   
that accept his mediation are called    
,mandee4  ,yushamim was punished for    
attempting to raise himself above       
,primal  ,light1 and now rules the world
 of inferior light4 ,manda still 8rests 
in the bosom of ,primal light0 7cf4     
,john i4 #ah71 and had a series  of     
incarnations beginning with ,abel       
7,hibil7 and ending with ,john the      
,baptist6 ,besides all these there is   
yet a third life called ',ateeka1  who  
created the bodies of ,adam and ,eve1   
but could not give them spirit  or make 
them stand upright4 ,if the ,babylonian 
trinity or triad has its  counterpart in

 the ,manden ,pera1 ,ayar and ,mana     
,rabba1 then ,manda  ,hayye is clearly  
nothing but the old ,babylonian ,marduk 
7,merodach71  firstborn1 mediator and   
redeemer4 ,hibil1 the first incarnation 
of  ,manda1 also has a contest with     
darkness in the underworld even as      
,marduk with the dragon ,tiamat4    ,the
 ,sabean underworld has its score of    
rulers1 among others these rank  first3 
,zartay1 ,zartanay1 ,hag1 ,mag1 ,gaf1   
,gafan1 ,anatan  and ,kin1 with hells   
and vestibules in plenteous confusion4  
,hibil  descends here1 and from the     
fourth vestibule carries away the female
  devil ,ruha the daughter of ,kin4     
,this ,ruha1 ,kessler affirms1 is really
  an anti-,christian parody of the ,holy
 ,spirit1 but from conversation  with   
the ,sabeans ,i cannot believe this to  
be true4 ,by her own son ,ur  ,ruha     
becomes the mother of all the planets   
and signs of the zodiac4  ,these are the
 source and controllers of all evil in  
the world and  must therefore be        

propitiated4 ,but the sky and fixed     
stars are pure  and clear1 the abode of 
,light4 ,the central sun is the ,polar  
,star1  with jewelled crown standing    
before the door of ,abathr1 or 8father  
of the splendors40 ,these 8splendors10  
ons1 or primary manifestations  of      
deity1 are said to number three hundred 
and sixty1 7a ,semitic way  of          
expressing many71 with names borrowed   
from the ,parsee angelology             
7,zoroastrianism74 ,the ,mandans        
consider all the ,old ,testament saints 
except ,abel and ,seth false prophets   
7,gnosticism74#aaa ,true religion  was  
professed by the ancient ,egyptians1    
who1 they say1 were their  ancestors4   
,another false prophet was ,yishu       
,mashiha 7,jesus ,christ71  who was in  
fact an incarnation of the planet       
,mercury4 ,john the ,baptist1  ,yahya1  
appeared forty-two years before ,christ 
and was really an  incarnation of ,manda
 as was ,hibil4 ,he baptized at ,jordan1
 and1 by  mistake also administered the 

rite to ,jesus4    ,about #bjj ,a4 ,d41 
they say1 there came into the world     
#fj1jjj saints  from ,pharaoh's host and
 took the place of the ,mandans who had 
been  extirpated4 ,is not this a        
possible allusion to the spread of the  
,gnostic heresy and the coalescence of  
certain ,gnostics with the  then ,sabean
 community8 ,they say that their high   
priest then had his  residence at       
,damascus2 that is1 their centre of     
religion was between  ,alexandria and   
,antioch1 the two schools of            
,gnosticism4    ,mohammed1 according to 
their system1 was the last false        
prophet1 but  he was divinely kept from 
harming them1 and they flourished to    
such an  extent that at the time of the 
,abbasides they had four hundred centres
  of worship in ,babylonia4    ,the     
,mandan priesthood has three grades2    
tarmida or ta'amida  78disciple0 or     
8baptism071 shkanda 78deacons071 and the
 ,ganzivra  78high priest10 literally   
the keeper of the ,ginza or ,great      

,book74 ,the  late ,ganzivra was ,sheikh
 ,yahya1 a man of parts and well-versed 
in  their literature1 who long lived at 
,suk-es-,shiukh4 ,their present high    
priest is called ,sheikh ,sahn and was  
at one time imprisoned at ,busrah  on   
charge of fomenting a rebellion of the  
,arab tribes near ,kurna at the         
junction of the ,tigris and ,euphrates4 
,the ,sabeans observe six great feasts  
beside their weekly sabbath  7,sunday74 
,one of the feasts celebrates the       
victory of ,abel in the world  of       
darkness1 another the drowning of       
,pharaoh's army1 but the chief  feast1  
,pantsha1 is one of ,baptism4 ,it is    
observed in summer1 and all  ,sabeans   
are obliged to be baptized by sprinkling
 three times a day for  five days4 ,the 
regular ,sunday baptisms by immersion in
 running water  are largely voluntary   
and meritorious3 these latter correspond
 to the  ,moslem laws of purifications  
and take place after touching a dead    
body1  the birth of a child1 marriage1  

etc4    ,the moral code of the ,sabeans 
is that of the ,old ,testament in nearly
  every particular4 ,polygamy is allowed
 to the extent of five wives1 and  is   
even recommended in the ,sidra ,rabba   
but is seldom indulged in4 ,they  do not
 circumcise2 this is important1 proving 
that they are not of  ,arab origin4     
,they have no holy places or churches   
except those we have  described which   
are built for a single night on the     
riverside4    ,the story that they go on
 pilgrimage to ,haran#aab and visit the 
,pyramids as the tomb of ,seth#aac is   
apparently a myth4 ,they are  friendly  
to ,christians of all sects and love to 
give the impression  that because they  
honor the ,baptist they are more closely
 related to  us than are the ,jews and  
,moslems4 ,of course they deny that they
 do not  accept ,jesus as a true        
,prophet1 as they do all those other    
articles of  their belief1 which they   
deem wisest or safest to keep concealed4
    ,all our investigations end as we   

began1 by finding that the ,sabeans     
8worship that which they know not10 and 
profess a creed whose origin  is hidden 
from them and whose elements1 gathered  
from the four corners  of the earth1 are
 as diverse as they are incongruous4    
,who is able to  classify these elements
 or among so much heterogeneous dbris   
dig  down to the original foundations of
 the structure8 ,if we could1 would  we 
not1 as in so many other cases1 come    
back to ,babylonia and the  monuments8  
,illustration3 ,page of script          
,,xxix                         ,,early  
,,christianity ,,in ,,arabia     8,and  
some fell among thorns40--,matthew xiii4
 #g4     8,but while men slept1 his     
enemy came and sowed tares among the    
wheat   and went his way4 ,but when the 
blade was sprung up and brought   forth 
fruit then appeared the tares also4 ,so 
the servants of the   house-holder came 
and said unto him1 ,sir1 didst not thou 
sow good   seed in thy field8 from      
whence then hath it tares8 ,he said unto

 them1   ,an enemy hath done            
this40--,matthew xiii4 #be-bh4      ,it 
is recorded in the ,acts of the apostles
 that ,arabians1 or ,arabian            
proselytes1 were present at the ,jewish 
feast of ,pentecost4 ,we must  therefore
 go back to ,apostolic times to find the
 beginnings of  ,christianity in        
,arabia4 ,whether these ,arabians were  
from the northern  part of the peninsula
 bordering on ,syria1 from the dominions
 of the  ,arabian king ,hareth          
7,aretas71 or came as ,jewish proselytes
 from distant  ,jewish colonies of      
,yemen1 must ever remain uncertain4 ,in 
any case they  doubtless carried back to
 their homes something of the           
,pentecostal  message or blessing4 ,the 
,new ,testament references to ,arabia   
are not  disconnected and unique1 but   
stand in closest relation to the whole  
,old  ,testament revelation of ,god's   
dealings with ,ishmael and his          
descendants4    ,in ,paul's letter to   
the ,galatians1#aad he writes1 8,neither

 went ,i  up to ,jerusalem to them which
 were apostles before me2 but ,i went to
  ,arabia1 and returned again unto      
,damascus40 ,what did the great apostle 
to the ,gentiles do in ,arabia8 ,a      
consideration of this question will     
give us a better standpoint to review   
the later rise of ,christianity  not    
only in ,north ,arabia1 but in ,nejran  
and ,yemen4 8,a veil of thick           
darkness10 says ,lightfoot1 8hangs over 
,st4 ,paul's visit to ,arabia40  ,the   
particular part of ,arabia visited1 the 
length of his stay1 the  motive of his  
going1 the route taken and what he did  
there1--all is  left untold4 ,we can    
draw the map and tell the story of all  
but the  first great journey of the     
apostle4 ,certainly the first journey of
 the  new ,saul of ,tarsus cannot have  
been without some great purpose4 ,the   
probable length of his stay1 which is by
 some put at only six months1  but which
 may have been two years1#aae would also
 indicate some  importance in the event4

    ,visions and revelations to this    
,elijah and ,moses of the new           
dispensation there may have been while  
he tarried in the desert1 but  it is    
scarcely probable to suppose that at    
this critical juncture in  early church 
history so long a time should have been 
occupied with  these only4 ,therefore1  
we find the earliest commentators of the
 opinion  that ,paul's visit to ,arabia 
was his first missionary journey1 and   
that he 8conferred not with flesh and   
blood10 but went into ,arabia  to preach
 the gospel4#aaf 8,see how fervent was  
his soul10 says  ,chrysostom1 8he was   
eager to occupy lands yet untilled1 he  
forthwith  attacked a barbarous and     
savage people1 choosing a life of       
conflict and  much toil40 ,the idea that
 ,paul went to preach immediately after 
his  conversion is natural2 and that he 
should1 as the ,gentile apostle1 seek   
first that race which was also a son of 
,abraham and heir of many ,old          
,testament promises and whose           

representatives were present at         
,pentecost1  is not improbable4    ,but 
if ,paul went to ,arabia and preached   
the gospel1 where and to  whom did he   
go8 ,a certain reply to these questions 
is unattainable  since revelation is    
silent1 but 7#a7 ,the place was most    
probably the  ,sinaitic peninsula1 or   
the region east of ,sinai 7,rawlinson74 
7#b7 ,there  is more than one reason to 
hold with ,jerome and later writers that
 he  went to a tribe where his mission  
was unsuccessful as regards visible     
results4 7#c7 ,the only people of the   
desert then1 as now1 were ,arab         
,bedouin1 and of the probability that   
,paul also knew their life and  customs1
 ,robertson ,smith gives a curious      
illustration in an allusion to          
,galations vi4 #ag1 when speaking of    
tattoo marks in religion4#aag    ,now   
was there an ,arab tribe in the days of 
,paul1 in the region  southwest of      
,damascus1 to whom a missionary came    
with a new and strange  message which   

was not favorably received1 and yet whom
 and whose  message those ,arabs could  
not forget8    ,we find a curious legend
 taken up with other nomad dbris into   
the  maelstrom of ,mohammed's mutterings
 that may help to answer the  question4 
,it is about the ,nebi ,salih or 8good  
prophet10 who came to  the people of    
,thamud1#aah and whose person and       
mission is as much a  mystery to ,moslem
 commentators as ,paul's visit to       
,arabia is to us4  ,european critics    
suggest his identity with ,shelah of    
,genesis xi4 #ac6  but etymology and    
chronology both afford the most meagre  
basis4 ,palmer  offers a theory that    
,nebi ,salih is none other than the     
8righteous  prophet0 ,moses2#aai but the
 difficulty is that this puts the legend
  too far back in history4 ,it is not   
probable that the people of ,thamud     
8hewed out mountains into houses10 such 
as are found to-day as early as  in the 
days of ,moses4 ,nor does ,old          
,testament indicate a time when ,moses  

went to ,arabs with a ,divine message4  
,moreover1 the legend is evidently  a   
local one that came to the knowledge of 
,mohammed1 or it would  have been better
 known to him who borrowed so largely   
from the former  prophets2 and if it is 
a local legend1 it is not a legend of   
,moses1  for he is mentioned more than  
seventy-seven times in the ,koran1 and  
his story was well known in ,arabia1 at 
least as far as ,yemen4    ,the pith of 
the legend underlies the bark2 what says
 the ,koran8 ,nebi  ,salih came as a    
8brother10#abj and said1 8,o1 my people1
 worship ,god4  ,ye have no ,god but    
,him4#aba ,there has come to you an     
evident sign  from your ,lord4#abb 444  
,and remember how ,he made you          
vice-regents  after ',ad1 and stablished
 you in the earth 444 and remember the  
benefits of ,god4#abc ,said the chiefs  
of those who were big with  pride from  
amongst his people 7,pharisees or ,jews 
from ,damascus87 to  those who believed 
amongst them3 ,do ye know that ,salih is

 sent from  his ,lord8 7i4 e41 his ,lord
 is not your true ,god74 ,they said1 ,we
 do  believe in that with which ,he is  
sent1 7gospel87 8,said those who were   
big with pride1 ,verily1 in what ye do  
believe we disbelieve40 ,the  passage is
 again significant3 8,and he turned away
 from them 7back to  ,damascus87 and    
said1 ,o1 my people1 ,i did preach unto 
you the message  of my ,lord1#abd and ,i
 gave you good advice1 but ye love not  
sincere  advisers40 ,does not this story
 have points of contact with what might 
have been the experiences of a man like 
,paul among such a people8    ,the fact 
that there is a so-called tomb of ,nebi 
,salih at ,el ,watiyeh  7,palmer7 does  
not weigh much for or against any theory
 as to the  identity of the prophet4    
,arabia has tombs of ,job on the ,upper 
,euphrates1 of ,eve at ,jiddah1 of ,cain
 at ,aden1 and of other 8prophets0      
where there is a demand for it4 ,but it 
is interesting to learn from the        
learned author of ,the ,desert of the   

,exodus3 8,the origin and history  of   
,nebi ,salih is quite unknown to the    
present ,bedouin inhabitants1 but  they 
nevertheless regard him with more       
national veneration than even  ,moses   
himself40 ,if revered more than ,moses1 
why not was he later than               
,moses--greater than ,moses--even ,saul 
of ,tarsus8 ,whether this theory be     
only far-fetched or whether it has      
confirmation in the early spread of     
,christianity in ,north ,arabia the     
sequel may show4    ,historical         
,christianity in ,arabia had two        
centres1 so that the study  of its early
 rise and progress takes us first to the
 tribes furthest  north1 in the kingdoms
 of ,hirah and ,ghassan and then to     
fertile ,yemen  and ,nejran4    ,despite
 the growth of the ,roman ,empire       
eastward in the days of ,pompey1  the   
,arabs of ,syria and ,palmyra retained  
their independence and resisted  all    
encroachment4 ,under ,odenathus the     
,palmyrene kingdom flourished1  and     

reached the zenith of its power under   
his wife and successor1 the  celebrated 
,zenobia4 ,she was defeated by          
,aurelian1 and ,palmyra and its         
dependencies became a province of the   
,roman ,empire4 ,it is natural          
therefore to expect that ,christianity  
was introduced into this region  at an  
early period4 ,such was the case4       
,agbarus1 so celebrated in the  annals  
of the early church1 was a prince of the
 territory of ,edessa  and ,christianity
 had made some progress in the desert in
 the time  of ,arnobius4#abe ,bishops of
 ,bostra1 in ,northwest ,arabia 7not to 
be  confounded with ,busrah71 are       
mentioned as having been present at the 
,nicene council 7#cbe ,a4 ,d47 with five
 other ,arabian bishops4#abf ,the       
,arabian historians speak of the tribe  
of ,ghassan as attached to the          
,christian faith centuries before the   
,hegira4 ,it was of this tribe that  the
 proverb became current3 8,they were    
lords in the days of ignorance  and     

stars of ,islam40 ,they held sway over  
the desert east of ,palestine  and of   
,southern ,syria4 ,the name of ,mavia or
 ,muaviah is mentioned by               
ecclesiastical writers as an ,arab queen
 who was converted to the faith  and in 
consequence formed an alliance with the 
emperor and accepted a  ,christian      
,bishop1 named ,moses1 ordained by the  
primate of ,alexandria4  ,her conversion
 took place about ,a4 ,d4 #cgb4 ,thus we
 find that the  progress of             
,christianity increased in proportion as
 the ,arabs became  more intimately     
connected with the ,romans4    ,an      
unfortunate circumstance for the        
progress of ,christianity in ,north     
,arabia was its location between the    
rival powers of ,rome and ,persia4 ,it  
was a sort of buffer-state and suffered 
from both sides4 ,the ,persian  monarchs
 persecuted the ,christian ,arabs and   
one of their ,arab allies1 a  pagan1    
called ,naaman1 forbade all intercourse 
with ,christians1 on the  part of his   

subjects4 ,this edict we are told#abg   
was occasioned by the  success of the   
example and preaching of ,simeon        
,stylites1 the pillar  saint1 celebrated
 in ,tennyson's picture-poem4 ,this     
desert-friar who was  himself an ,arab  
by birth1 was a preacher after the heart
 of the stern1  austere1 half-starved   
,bedouin4 ,his fame spread even into    
far-off ,arabia  ,felix4#abh ,the stern 
edict of ,naaman was withdrawn1 however1
 and he  himself was only prevented from
 embracing the faith by his fear of the 
,persian king4    ,among the first monks
 to preach to the nomad tribes was      
,euthymius who  seems to have been a    
medical missionary working miracles of  
healing  among the ignorant ,bedouins4  
,one of the converted ,arabs1           
,aspebetus1  took the name of ,peter1   
was 8consecrated0 by ,juvenal1 patriarch
  of ,jerusalem1 and became the first   
bishop of the tribes in the             
neighborhood of ,southern ,palestine4   
,the progress or even the existence of  

,christianity in the kingdom  of ,hirah 
seems to have been always uncertain as  
it was dependent on  the favor of the   
,khosroes of ,persia4 ,some of the      
,arabs at ,hirah and  ,kufa were        
,christian as early as #chj ,a4 ,d4 ,one
 of the early converts1  ,noman abu     
,kamus1 proved the sincerity of his     
faith by melting down a  golden statue  
of the ,arabian ,venus1 worshipped by   
his tribe1 and by  distributing the     
proceeds among the poor4 ,many of the   
tribe followed  his example and were    
baptized4#abi ,to understand the        
importance of  this spread of           
,christianity in ,north ,arabia we must 
remember that this  was the age of      
caravans and not of navigation4         
,palmyra1 the centre of  the trade from 
the ,persian ,gulf1 owed its importance 
and power to the  trans-,arabian traffic
 with ,persia and the ,east4 ,irak and  
,mesopotamia  were then a part of       
,arabia and were ruled by ,arabian      
dynasties4    ,it was in ,southwestern  

,arabia1 however1 that ,christianity    
exerted even  greater power and made    
still larger conquests4 ,we cannot but  
wish that  the story of its success1    
trials and extinction had been given us 
in  some purer form with more of the    
gospel and less of ecclesiasticism4     
,had that early ,christianity been gold 
instead of glitter it would not  have   
perished so easily in the furnace of    
persecution or disappeared so  utterly  
before the tornado-blast of ,islam4     
,the picture of the ,christian church of
 this period 7#cbc-fib ,a4 ,d47 as      
drawn by faithful historians is dark    
indeed4 8,more and more the church      
became assimilated and conformed to the 
world1 church discipline grew  lax1 and 
moral decay made rapid progress4        
,passionate contentions1  quarrels and  
schisms among bishops and clergy filled 
also public  life with party-strife1    
animosity and bitterness4 ,the          
immorality  of the court poisoned the   
capital and the provinces4 ,savagery and

  licentiousness grew rampant4444       
,hypocrisy and bigotry took the place   
of piety among those who strove after   
something higher1 while the  masses     
consoled themselves with the reflection 
that every man could  not be a monk4444 
,the shady side of this period is dark  
enough but a  bright side and noble     
personages of deep piety1 moral         
earnestness1  resolute denial of self   
and the world are certainly not         
wanting40#acj  ,not only was religious  
life at a low level in all parts of     
christendom  but heresies were          
continually springing up to disturb the 
peace or to  introduce gigantic errors4 
,arabia was at one time called 8the     
mother  of heresies40 ,the most flagrant
 example was that of the ,collyridians1 
in the fourth century1 which consisted  
in a heathenish distortion of           
mariolatry4 ,cakes were offered to the  
,holy ,virgin1 as in heathen times  to  
,ceres4    ,at what time ,christianity  
was first introduced into ,arabia ,felix

 is  uncertain4 ,this part of ,arabia   
was in a measure shut off from the      
world of the ,romans until the          
expedition of lius ,gallus4 ,before the 
coming of ,christianity the ,yemenites  
were either idolaters or ,sabeans4  ,the
 large numbers of ,jews in ,yemen was an
 additional obstacle to the  early      
spread of the faith as they were always 
bitterly hostile to  the missionaries4  
,the legend that ,st4 ,bartholomew      
preached in ,yemen  on his way to ,india
 need not be considered2 nor the more   
probable  one of ,frumentius and his    
success as first bishop to ,himyar4 ,in 
the  reign of ,constantius1 ,theophilus1
 the deacon of ,nicomedia1 a zealous    
,arian1 was sent by the emperor to      
attend a magnificent embassy to the     
court of ,himyar and is said to have    
prevailed on the ,arabian king to       
embrace ,christianity4 ,he built three  
churches in different parts of  ,yemen1 
at ,zaphar1 ,aden and ,sana1 as well as 
at ,hormuz in the ,persian  ,gulf4 ,no  

less than four bishoprics were          
established and the tribes  of ,rabia   
,ghassan1 and ,kodaa were won to the    
faith4 ,ibn ,khalikan1 the  ,arabian    
historian1 enumerates as ,christian     
tribes1 the ,bahrah1 ,tanoukh  and      
,taglab4 ,in ,nejran1 north of ,sana1   
and ,yathrib there were also            
,christians4    ,arabian idolatry was   
very tolerant and afforded throughout   
the  third and fourth centuries an      
equally safe asylum to the persecuted   
,zoroastrians1 ,jews and ,christians who
 settled in various parts of the        
,peninsula4 ,the kings of ,himyar were  
themselves idolaters but allowed  every 
other sect great freedom1 including the 
,christians4 ,but no sooner  did the    
followers of ,judaism gain power than   
persecution began4 ,about  the year     
#efj1 ,dzu ,nowass1 ruler of ,himyar1   
revolted against his lord  the          
,abyssinian king1 ,elesbaan1 and1       
instigated by the ,jews1 began to       
persecute the ,christians4 ,all who     

refused to renounce their faith were    
put to death without respect of age or  
sex1 and the villages of ,nejran  were  
given over to plunder4 ,large pits were 
dug1 filled with fuel1 and  many        
thousands of monks and virgins were     
committed to the flames4    ,speedy     
punishment1 however1 overtook ,dzu      
,nowass when the ,abyssinian  hosts     
invaded ,yemen4 ,the ,christian         
conquerors avenged the massacre on  its 
perpetrators1 the ,jews1 with heathen   
fury4 ,the whole fertile tract  was once
 more a scene of bloodshed and          
devastation4 ,the churches built  before
 the days of ,dzu ,nowass were again    
rebuilt on the site of their  ruins and 
new bishops were appointed in place of  
the martyrs4 ,a short1  though          
desperate1 civil war1 resulting in the  
proclamation of ,abraha  as king of     
,yemen1 did not disturb the steady      
growth of ,christianity4  ,paying       
tribute only to the ,abyssinian crown1  
and at peace with all the  ,arab tribes1

 ,abraha was loved for his justice and  
moderation by all his  subjects and     
idolized by the ,christians for his     
burning zeal in their  religion4 ,large 
numbers of ,jews1 convinced by a public 
dispute and a  miracle at ,dhafar1 were 
baptized4 ,many idolaters were added to 
the  church2 new schemes of benevolence 
were inaugurated2 the foundations  were 
being laid for a magnificent cathedral  
at ,sana2 in short ,christian  ,yemen   
seemed at the dawn of its ,golden ,age  
in the year #efg ,a4 ,d4    ,what       
delayed its coming and how did the power
 of ,abraha lose its  prestige8 ,the    
story is gleaned from ,moslem and       
,christian writers2 it  is the last sad 
chapter in the short history of early   
,christianity in  ,arabia and the       
preface to the chronicles of ,islam4 ,so
 important is it  considered that the   
synopsis of it is embodied in the ,koran
 for the  perpetual delight of ,moslems4
 7,surah of the ,elephant47    ,in the  
early fall of the year #efh1 the        

caravans of ,arabs1 which came  along   
the level road leading from ,rhoda1     
bordered with rich vineyards  and       
fig-orchards1 stopped1 on entering      
,sana1 because of a crowd that  stood   
gazing at a large piece of parchment    
nailed on the side wall of  the entrance
 to the city4 ,it was a royal           
proclamation written in large           
,himyaritic letters4 ,a townsman in the 
long dress of a public teacher  stood   
before it and read aloud to the motley  
crowd that paused as  they came to      
morning market from the neighboring     
villages4 ,stately  camels1 bearing huge
 loads of dates1 were urged by their    
drivers1 who  good-humoredly exchanged  
greetings with their ,christian         
brethren2  donkeys1 nearly hidden       
between baskets of luscious grapes1     
jostled a  group of ,jewish             
money-changers sitting in the gate2 a   
score of women1  dark-eyed and in       
picturesque peasant dress1 were carrying
 their empty  gerbies to the wells--but 

one and all moved with curiosity1 stood 
for a  moment to listen4    ,the        
presbyter1 for such he was1 read as     
follows3    8,i1 ,ibraha1 by the grace  
of ,god and ,jesus ,christ our ,saviour1
 king of  ,yemen1 taking counsel and    
advice of the good ,gregentius1 bishop  
of  ,dhafar1 and having completed the   
building of the cathedral to the glory  
of ,god and in memory of our victory    
over the idolaters1 do now and  hereby  
proclaim that all the ,arab tribes who  
annually visit the heathen  shrine at   
,mecca1 are expected to cease going     
thither and to come with  their caravans
 of merchandise to worship the true     
,god1 on a shorter and  more convenient 
journey to our magnificent church at    
,sana1 the capital1  on penalty of a    
levy to be put by me on all caravans of 
tribes that  refuse to obey this        
proclamation4 ,and be it furthermore    
known to all  the tribes of             
,koreish44440 ,the reader was rudely    
interrupted by a party  of ,bedouin who 

drove their dromedaries right through   
the gate and up  the street with such   
fury that some of the crowd barely      
escaped being  run over4    8,it is a   
troop of those accursed ,kenanehs10 said
 ,ibn ,choza to his  companion4 8,they  
were born without manners--wild asses of
 the desert40  8,yes10 answered the     
other2 8and who insult our good king    
with their  nickname of ,el             
,ashram1--the split nosed1--because of  
the scar that  remains since his        
encounter with the heathen ,aryat40 8,if
 such as these1  ,abood1 do not obey    
this latest order from our ,christian   
king1 we'll try  the spears of my       
,modarites1 and then woe betide their   
caravans of semn  and their fertile     
palms4 ,not all the three hundred gods  
of the ,kaabeh  could save them from the
 righteous wrath of ,abraha40    ,the   
new cathedral1 whose ruined foundations 
yet testify as to its size  and         
solidity1 had been completed for some   
months1 and on the morrow  the good     

bishop was expected from ,dhafar to     
preach to the crowds that  thronged     
,yemen's capital at the feast4 ,this    
year more strangers than  ever before   
crowded the markets2 many were come1 in 
obedience to the  proclamation1 even    
from distant ,yathrib and from beyond   
,nejran1 to  engage in commerce and     
religion at once1--the universal custom 
of the  ,arabs4 ,the autumn rains were  
over and a fresh breeze from ,jebel     
,nokum  increased the cold1 felt by such
 strangers especially1 as came for the  
first time from the hot coast to an     
elevation of #i1jjj feet4    ,night fell
 on the towers and palaces of ,sana1 and
 there was no light in  the streets     
except that of stars shining with       
northern brilliancy from  between       
drifting clouds4 ,just before midnight1 
a solitary ,arab hurried  along one of  
the narrow paths1 too narrow to be      
called a street1 which  led from the    
caravanseri to the church4 ,his face and
 form were wrapped  in a long sheepskin 

cloak1 but his erect bearing1 vigorous  
step1 and  the carved silver handle of  
the curved dagger1 half hidden in his   
belt1 betrayed one of the ,kenaneh      
tribe4 ,stealthily looking around1  he  
stopped before one of the windows of the
 cathedral2 lifted himself  to the      
granite ledge1 dextrously used his      
dagger to remove one of the  large panes
 of talc-stone 7still used in all       
,sana71 and jumped inside4  ,he lingered
 only a few moments1 came out as he went
 in1 and hurried off  toward the way of 
the ,north gate4    ,on the morrow a cry
 arose from the early worshippers1      
carried on the  lips of every ,christian
 in ,sana1 till it echoed through market
 and  street3 8,abraha's church has been
 defiled6 ,dung is on the altar1 and    
the holy cross is smeared with ordure6  
',tis the work of the accursed          
,kenaneh--the signal of revolt for the  
idolaters of the ,north60 ,there was    
tumult in ,sana4 ,in vain ,gregentius   
endeavored to quiet the populace  by his

 eloquence4 ,adding fuel to the flame1  
came the news on the  same day of the   
defeat of the ,modarites and the death  
of ,ibn ,choza1  whom the king had sent 
on an expedition to a rebellious tribe  
in ,wady  ,dauasir4 ,abraha's wrath was 
doubly inflamed by the profanation of   
his  church and the death of his        
captain4 ,he publicly vowed to          
annihilate  the idolatrous ,koreish1 as 
well as the ,kenaneh1 and to demolish   
their  temple at ,mecca4 ,before        
nightfall that vow was the rallying-cry 
in the  soldiers' quarter and the toast 
in every ,jewish wine shop of ,sana4    
,the expedition was soon on its way4    
,abraha rode foremost1 seated on  his   
milk-white elephant1 caparisoned with   
plates of gold4 ,on his head  was a     
linen cap covered with gold embroidery1 
and from which descended  four chains4  
,he wore a loose tunic covered with     
pearls and ,yemen akeek  stone1 over his
 usual dress2 while his muscular arms   
and short neck  were almost hidden with 

bracelets and chains of gold in the     
,abyssinian  pattern2 for arms he had a 
shield and spears4 ,after him came a    
band  of musicians1 and then the nobles 
and warriors1 under command of  the     
valiant ,kais4 ,than him no better      
leader could have been chosen4          
,mourning the untimely death of his     
brother1 ,ibn ,choza1 slain by the      
treacherous arrow of ,orwa1 he sought a 
personal revenge even more than  the    
honor of his religion and his king1 and 
was prepared to risk all  in fulfillment
 of the expedition4 ,the army1 increased
 by volunteers  at every village on     
their route1 by forced marches over two 
hundred  miles of mountain road1 reached
 ,jebel ,orra1 weary and footsore4 ,what
 is  only a usual journey to the        
,bedouin of the ,north1 was a succession
 of  hardships to the ,yemen troops1    
accustomed as they were to mountain air1
  plenty of water and the rich fertility
 of their native valleys4 ,no less  did 
the herd of elephants suffer from the   

fatigue of distance and the  scarcity of
 pasturage and water4 ,every day the    
advance was made with  increasing       
difficulty4    ,meanwhile the ,koreish  
had not been idle4 ,rumor never runs    
faster than  in the desert4 ,all those  
who loved ,mecca1 that oldest historic  
centre  of all ,western ,arabia1 rallied
 to the standard of the ,koreish4 ,it   
was  the ,kaaba1 with its three hundred 
and sixty idols1 against the ,cross4    
,no sooner was ,abraha's approach known1
 than ,dzu ,neffer1 ,ibn ,habib  and    
other chiefs at the head of the tribes  
of ,hamedan and ,chethamah  gathered to 
oppose the advance4 ,a desperate        
conflict followed1 but the  camels were 
frightened at the sight of the          
elephants1 nor could the  desert ,arabs 
withstand an assault of such large      
numbers4    ,the news of defeat struck  
the ,koreish with the greatest          
consternation1  and ,abd-ul-,mutalib1   
grandfather of the future prophet1 who  
was guardian  of the ,kaaba1 took       

council with all the chiefs of the      
allies4 ,a swift  messenger was sent to 
,abraha offering a third part of the    
wealth of  all ,hejaz as a ransom for   
the sacred ,beit ,ullah4 ,the king1     
however1  was inflexible1 and his       
followers cried3 8,vengeance for the    
desecrated  ,cross in our sanctuary6 ,no
 ransom from the idolaters6 ,down with  
the  ,kaaba60 ,finally ,abd-ul-,mutalib 
himself came to seek audience4 ,he was  
admitted to ,abraha's presence and      
honored with a seat by his side2 but    
,arab tradition says he came only to ask
 about the loss of some camels1  and    
told ,abraha that the ,lord of the      
,kaaba would defend it himself6  7,such 
sublime faith does ,moslem tradition put
 into the mouth of the  prophet's       
ancestors1 even though the anachronism  
proves its falsehood47    ,on the       
following day ,kais led the advance     
through the narrow valley  that leads   
into the city4 ,here a grievous surprise
 awaited the host  of ,the ,elephant4   

,to supplement the faith of             
,abd-ul-,mutalib1 the ,arabs  laid in   
ambush1 and before day-dawn every one of
 the ,koreish had  occupied his place on
 the heights on either side of the pass1
 hidden  behind the rough masses of     
boulder and trap that to this day make  
the  whole hillside a natural battery4  
,no sooner had the elephants and  their 
riders entered the defile1 than a shower
 of rocks and stones  was incessantly   
poured upon them by their assailants4   
,the unwieldly  animals1 mad with fright
 and pain1 trampled the wounded to      
death1  and confusion was followed by   
headlong flight1 although the unequal   
contest lasted until sunset4 ,it was the
 ,thermopyl of ,arabian idolatry1       
forever after celebrated in the ,koran  
chapter of ,the ,elephant4 ,the  battle 
affords a miracle1 however1 to the      
,moslem commentator by the  easy change 
of a vowel1 which makes 8miraculous     
birds0 with hell-stones  in their beaks 
,god's avengers1 instead of the         

8camel-troops0 of the  ,koreish4 ,two   
months after the victory that prophet   
was born whose  character and career    
sealed the fate of early ,christianity  
in ,arabia1  already decided on the     
fatal day when ,abraha mounted his      
elephant and  left ,sana for revenge4   
,the division of the ,northern tribes   
between the ,persians and ,romans1      
followed by the defeat of the ,yemen    
hosts1 brought anarchy to all  central  
,arabia4 ,the idolaters of ,hirah and   
,ghassan overran the south1  and the    
weak reign of ,yeksoum1 son of ,abraha1 
could not stay the decay  of the        
,christian state4 ,even the ,persian    
protectorate only delayed its  final    
fall4 ,the sudden rise of ,islam1 with  
its political and social  preponderance1
 consummated the blow4 8,with the death 
of ,mohammed10 says  ,wright1 8the last 
sparks of ,christianity in ,arabia were 
extinguished1  and it may be reasonably 
doubted whether any ,christians were    
then left  in the whole peninsula40#aca 

,in #ahhh1 ,edward ,glaser1 the         
explorer1 visited nearly every part of  
,yemen and among his discoveries were   
many ancient inscriptions4 ,from        
,mareb1 the old ,sabean capital1 he     
brought back over three hundred1 one  of
 which dates from #edb ,a4 ,d41 and is  
considered by ,professor ,fritz  ,hommel
 the latest ,sabean inscription4 ,it    
consists of one hundred and  thirty-six 
lines telling of the suppressed revolt  
against the ,ethiopic  rule then        
established in ,yemen4 ,the inscription 
opens with the words3  8,,in ,,the      
,,power ,,of ,,the ,,all-,,merciful1    
,,and ,,his ,,messiah ,,and ,,the ,,holy
 ,,ghost40  ,this and the scarcely      
recognizable ruins of the cathedral at  
,sana are  the only remnants of         
,christianity that remain in ,arabia    
,felix4                                 
,,xxx                      ,,the ,,dawn 
,,of ,,modern ,,arabian ,,missions      
8,it surely is not without a purpose    
that this widespread and powerful   race

 the ,arabs has been kept these four    
thousand years1 unsubdued   and         
undegenerate1 preserving still the vigor
 and simplicity of its   character4 ,it 
is certainly capable of a great future2 
and as certainly   a great future lies  
before it4 ,in may be among the last    
peoples   of ,southwestern ,asia to     
yield to the transforming influences of 
,christianity and a ,christian          
civilization4 ,but to those influences  
it   will assuredly yield in the        
fullness of time40--,edson ,l4 ,clark4  
8,every nation has its appointed time1  
and when their appointed time   comes   
they cannot keep it back an hour nor can
 they bring it on40--,the   ,koran4     
,islam dates from #fbb ,a4 ,d41 but the 
first ,christian missionary to          
,mohammedans was ,raymund ,lull1 who was
 stoned to death outside the  town of   
,bugia1 ,north ,africa1 on ,june #cj1   
#acae4 ,he was also the first  and only 
,christian of his day who felt the      
extent and urgency of the  call to      

evangelize the ,mohammedan world4 ,his  
constant argument with  ,moslem teachers
 was3 ,islam is false and must die4 ,his
 devotion and  his pure character       
coupled with such intense moral         
earnestness won  some converts1 but his 
great central purpose was to overthrow  
the  power of ,islam as a system by     
logical demonstration of its error2  in 
this he failed4 ,his two spiritual      
treatises are interesting1 but  his ,ars
 ,major would not convince a ,moslem    
to-day any more than it  did in the     
fourteenth century4 ,his life is of     
romantic interest and  his indefatigable
 zeal will always be a model and an     
inspiration to  missionaries among      
,moslems4#acb ,but he lived before his  
time and his  age was unworthy of him4  
,nothing was done to give the gospel to 
,arabia or the ,mohammedans  from the   
time of ,raymund ,lull to that of ,henry
 ,martyn1 the first  modern missionary  
to the ,mohammedans4 ,the histories of  
these two men  contain all that there is

 to be written about missionary work for
 the  ,mohammedan world from #fbb until 
#ahab1 so little did the ,church of ,god
  feel its responsibility toward the    
millions walking in darkness after  the 
false prophet4    ,to the ,protestant   
,church of the eighteenth century       
,arabia and the  ,levant presented no   
attractions or appeal4 ,the ,turks1 as  
representing  the ,mohammedan world1    
were remembered as early as #aedi1 it is
 true1 by  the ,english ,book of ,common
 ,prayer1 in the collect for ,good      
,friday1#acc  7which dates from the     
,sarum ,missal74 ,no effort was made1   
however1 to  carry the gospel to them or
 to any part of their empire1 until long
  after other far more distant regions  
had been reached4 ,even ,carey  did not 
have the ,moslem world on his large     
program4 ,it was ,claudius  ,buchanan   
who first aroused an interest in the    
needs of the ,moslem  world4 ,on his    
return from ,india he told1 on ,february
 #be1 #ahji1 in his  sermon at ,bristol1

 the story of two ,moslem converts1 one 
of whom had  died a martyr to ,christ4  
,in his ,christian ,researches he       
propounds a  comprehensive scheme for   
the evangelization of the ,levant4 ,the 
,church  ,missionary ,society sent out  
missionaries1 and in #ahai the ,american
  ,board began work for ,moslems by     
sending ,pliny ,fisk and ,levi ,parsons 
to  ,syria4    ,this modern beginning of
 the gospel in ,asia ,minor had an      
indirect  bearing on the future         
evangelization of ,arabia and was a part
 of the  ,divine preparation4 ,the      
journeys of ,eli ,smith and ,h4 ,g4 ,o4 
,dwight  brought the ,american churches 
face to face with the whole problem of  
missions in that region4 ,the ,syrian   
,mission through its press at ,malta    
7#ahbb7 began the assault on the citadel
 of ,islam's learning4 ,in #ahcc  the   
press was removed to ,beirut2 and from  
that day until now it has  been         
scattering leaves of healing throughout 
all the ,arabic-speaking  world4 ,when  

in #ahfe ,dr4 ,van ,dyck wrote the last 
sheet of 8copy0 of the  ,arabic ,bible  
translation and handed it to the        
compositor1 he marked an  era of        
importance not only to ,syria and ,asia 
,minor1 but to the whole  of ,arabia1   
greater than any accession or deposition
 of sultans4 ,that  ,bible made modern  
missions to ,arabia possible2 it was the
 result of  seventeen years of labor2   
8and herein is that saying true1 ,one   
soweth1  and another reapeth 444 other  
men labored and ye are entered into     
their  labors40 ,whatever special       
difficulties and obstacles missionaries 
to  ,arabia have met or will meet1 the  
great work of preparing the ,word of    
,god in the language of the people and a
 complete ,christian literature  for    
every department of work1 has already   
been accomplished by others2  and       
accomplished in such a way that the     
,arabic ,bible of ,beirut will  always  
be the ,bible for ,oman and ,nejd and   
the most inland villages of  ,yemen and 

,hadramaut4    ,the history of direct   
effort to reach the great ,arabian      
peninsula  begins with ,henry ,martyn4  
,it is deeply interesting to follow the 
gradual unfoldings of the ,divine       
,providence in the reintroduction of    
the gospel into ,arabia thirteen        
centuries after ,christianity had been  
blotted out in that land by the sword of
 ,mohammed and his successors4  ,in more
 than one sense ,henry ,martyn was the  
pioneer missionary to  ,arabia4 ,he     
first came into contact with the ,arabs 
through his study of  their language and
 his employment of that remarkable      
character1 ,sabat1  as his munshee and  
co-worker4 ,sabat and his friend        
,abdullah were two  ,arabs of notable   
pedigree1 who1 after visiting ,mecca1   
resolved to see  the world4 ,they first 
went to ,cabul1 where ,abdullah entered 
the service  of the famous ,ameer ,zeman
 ,shah4 ,through the efforts of an      
,armenian  ,christian he abjured ,islam 
and had to flee for his life to         

,bokhara4  8,sabat had preceded him     
there and at once recognized him on the 
street4  #8,i had no pity1' said ,sabat 
afterward1 #8,i delivered him up to     
,morad  ,shah1 the king4' ,he was       
offered his life if he would abjure     
,christ4 ,he  refused4 ,then one of his 
hands was cut off and again he was      
pressed to  recant4 #8,he made no       
answer1 but looked up steadfastly toward
 heaven1  like ,stephen1 the first      
martyr1 his eyes streaming with tears4  
,he  looked at me1 but it was with the  
countenance of forgiveness4 ,his other  
hand was then cut off4 ,but he never    
changed1 and when he bowed his head  to 
receive the blow of death all ,bokhara  
seemed to say1 ,what new thing  is      
this8' ,remorse drove ,sabat to long    
wanderings1 in which he came to         
,madras1 where the government gave him  
the office of mufti or expounder  of the
 law of ,islam in the civil courts4 ,at 
,vizagapatam he fell in with  a copy of 
the ,arabic ,new ,testament as revised  

by ,solomon ,negri and sent  out to     
,india in the middle of last century by 
the ,society for ,promoting  ,christian 
,knowledge4 ,he compared it with the    
,koran and the truth fell  on him like a
 flood of light4 ,he sought baptism in  
,madras at the hands  of the ,rev4 ,dr4 
,kerr and was named ,nathaniel4 ,he was 
then twenty-seven  years of age4 ,when  
the news reached his family in ,arabia1 
his brother  set out to destroy him1    
and1 disguised as an ,asiatic1 wounded  
him with  a dagger as he sat in his     
house at ,vizagapatam4 ,he sent him home
 with  letters and gifts to his mother1 
and then gave himself up to propagate   
the truth he had once in his friend     
,abdullah's person1 persecuted to  the  
death40#acd ,these two were doubtless   
the first fruits of modern  ,arabia to  
,christ4    ,it was doubtless in a great
 degree ,sabat who directed ,martyn's   
thoughts  and plans toward ,arabia and  
the ,arabs4 ,on the last day of the year
 #ahaj  he wrote in his diary3 8,i now  

pass from ,india to ,arabia1 not knowing
  what things shall befall me there40   
,his purpose in leaving ,india was      
partly his broken health but more his   
intense longing to give the             
,mohammedans of ,arabia and ,persia the 
word of ,god in their own tongues4  ,on 
his voyage from ,calcutta to ,bombay he 
composed tracts in ,arabic1  spoke with 
the ,arab sailors and studied the ,koran
 and ,niebuhr's travels  in ,arabia4    
,from ,bombay he sailed for ,arabia and 
,persia in one of the  ships of the old 
,indian navy going on a cruise in the   
,persian ,gulf4 ,he  reached ,muscat on 
,april #bj1 #ahaa1 and writes his first 
impressions in  a letter to ,lydia      
,grenfell3 8,i am now in ,arabia ,felix2
 to judge from  the aspect of the       
country it has little pretensions to the
 name1 unless  burning1 barren rocks    
convey an idea of felicity2 but as there
 is a  promise in reserve for the sons  
of ,joktan1 their land may one day be   
blessed indeed40 ,he attempted to go    

inland for a short distance1 but  was   
forbidden by the soldiers of the ,sultan
 of ,muscat4    ,every word of ,henry   
,martyn's journal regarding ,arabia is  
precious1 but  we can quote only one    
more passage3 8,april #bd4 ,went with   
one ,english  party and two ,armenians  
and an ,arab who served as guard and    
guide to  see a remarkable pass about a 
mile from the town and a garden planted 
by a ,hindu in a little village beyond4 
,there was nothing to see1 only  the    
little bit of green in this wilderness  
seemed to the ,arab a great  curiosity4 
,i conversed a good deal with him1 but  
particularly with his  ,african slave1  
who was very intelligent about religion4
 ,the latter knew  as much about his    
religion as most mountaineers1 and      
withal was so  interested that he would 
not cease from his argument till ,i left
 the  shore40    ,martyn did not tarry  
long at ,muscat but his visit was 8a    
little bit of  green in this wilderness0
 and the prayers he there offered found 

answer  in ,god's ,providence long      
afterward4 ,on all his voyage to        
,bushire he  was continually busy with  
his ,arabic translation2 the people of  
,arabia  were still first in his heart  
for he expresses himself as desirous    
finally 8to go to ,arabia circuitously  
by way of ,persia40 ,his longing  to    
give the ,arabs the ,scripture began in 
,india and intensified his  devotion to 
the study of ,hebrew4 ,had ,martyn's    
chief assistant in the  ,arabic         
translating1 ,sabat1 been a better      
scholar their ,new ,testament  version  
would have proved abidingly useful4 ,as 
,sabat's knowledge of  the language     
proved very faulty their ,arabic        
,testament did not remain  in use4 ,it  
was first printed at ,calcutta in #ahaf1
 and although it  accomplished a good   
work in common with other old           
translations1 all  have been superseded 
by the wonderfully perfect version of   
,eli ,smith  and ,van ,dyck4 ,it was not
 due to ,martyn1 however1 that the      

,arabic  language had no worthy version 
of the ,bible until #ahfj4 ,in his      
diaries  for ,september #h and #i1      
#ahaj1 we read these remarkable entries3
 8,if my  life is spared1 there is no   
reason why the ,arabic should not be    
done in  ,arabia1 and the ,persian in   
,persia as well as the ,indian in       
,india40 444  8,arabia shall hide me    
till ,i come forth with an approved ,new
 ,testament  in ,arabic40 444 8,will    
government let me go away for three     
years before  the time of my furlough   
arrives8 ,if not ,i must quit the       
service1 and ,i  cannot devote my life  
to a more important work than that of   
preparing  the ,arabic ,bible40         
,these facts about ,martyn's life show  
at how many points it touched  ,arabia2 
his purposes1 his prayers1 his studies1 
his translations1 his  fellow-worker1   
and his visit to ,muscat4 ,but more than
 all these was the  result for ,arabia  
of ,martyn's influence and the power of 
his spirit to  inspire others4    ,in   

#ahbi ,anthony ,n4 ,groves1 a dentist of
 ,exeter1 taking the commands  of       
,christ literally1 sold all he had and1 
in the spirit of ,martyn1  began his    
remarkable attempt at mission work in   
,bagdad4 ,his work was  stopped twice1  
by the plague and by persecution1 and   
the story of  his life reveals how great
 were the obstacles which he vainly     
tried  to surmount4#ace ,from that day  
until long years after ,northern and    
,eastern ,arabia were waiting once more 
for the light4 ,the only effort  made in
 the ,gulf was by ,dr4 ,john ,wilson of 
,bombay who1 before #ahdc1  sent ,bible 
colporteurs once and again by ,aden and 
up the ,persian ,gulf2  8he summoned the
 ,church of ,scotland to despatch a     
mission to the ,jews  of ,arabia1       
,busrah and ,bombay4 ,a missionary was  
ready in the person of  ,william ,burns 
who afterward went to ,china1 the       
support of a missionary  at ,aden was   
guaranteed by a friend and ,wilson had  
found a volunteer  #8for the purpose of 

exploring ,arabia' when the disruption  
of the ,church  of ,scotland arrested   
the movement40#acf ,it was ,henry       
,martyn's life  that inspired ,john     
,wilson in #ahbd4 ,it was the ,free     
,church of ,scotland  that afterward    
took up the work of ,ion ,keith         
,falconer the pioneer  of ,yemen4 ,so   
,god's plans find fulfillment4#acg ,even
 ,muscat was not  left without a witness
 in those years of waiting4 ,it appears 
that the  captain of an ,american ship  
which called at ,muscat every year for a
  cargo of dates was a godly man and    
used to distribute ,arabic ,bibles and  
,testaments1 even before the ,bible     
,society extended its work to this      
place4    ,as early as #ahgh the        
,british and ,foreign ,bible ,society   
sent ,anton  ,gibrail from ,bombay to   
,bagdad on a colporteur-journey4 ,and   
about the  same time the ,south ,russia 
agent of the ,society1 ,mr4 ,james      
,watt1  visited ,persia and ,bagdad and 
pressed the needs of this field on the  

committee of the ,bible ,society4 ,he   
was seconded in his efforts by  ,rev4   
,robert 7now ,canon7 ,bruce1 a ,church  
,missionary ,society ,missionary  in    
,india4 ,arrangements were made between 
the two societies by which  ,bible work 
was opened in ,bagdad under the         
supervision of ,mr4 ,bruce4  ,in        
,december1 #ahhj1 a ,bible depot was    
opened4 ,since then the work has  gone  
on continuously and extended1 through   
the ,arabian ,mission1 to the  entire   
east coast of ,arabia4    ,the first    
reference to the needs and opportunities
 for work in ,western  ,arabia appears  
in the ,annual ,report of the ,british  
,bible ,society for  #ahhf1 where the   
opening of a ,bible depot at ,aden is   
announced with  the hope that it would  
lead to 8the circulation of the ,holy   
,bible on  a larger scale and in a      
variety of languages40 ,ibrahim ,abd el 
,masih  was the first in charge of this 
depot1 and his name was attached to  the
 call for prayer from ,south ,arabia    

issued after the death of ,keith        
,falconer4 ,colporteurs from ,egypt and 
from ,aden of the ,british and  ,foreign
 ,bible ,society have once and again    
visited the ,arabian ,red ,sea  ports   
and penetrated to ,sana1 the capital of 
,yemen4    ,between the years #ahhj and 
#ahij more than one appeal went forth   
for  ,arabia's need4 ,old ,doctor       
,lansing of the ,american ,u4 ,p4       
,mission in  ,egypt who for over thirty 
years had labored there waiting for the 
dawn  of a brighter day1 when he heard  
of one of these appeals1 was all on     
fire1 to start for ,yemen4 8,for some   
years10 wrote an ,american minister  in 
the far ,west1 8,i and my people have   
been praying for ,arabia40    ,the      
,wahabi reformation in its time         
attracted the interest of those  who    
studied the political horizon4 ,the     
bombardment of ,jiddah in #aheh         
compelled attention to ,mecca and the   
pilgrimage1 while from #ahch1 when      
,england became mistress of ,aden1 until

 #ahhj commerce and exploration  was    
specially active on all the ,arabian    
coast4 ,it was during this  period that 
the ,anglo-,indian naval officers       
,morsby1 ,haines1 ,elwon1  ,saunders1   
,carless1 ,wellsted and ,cruttenden     
carefully surveyed the  entire ,arabian 
coast4 ,what they did for commerce1     
,major-,general ,f4 ,t4  ,haig did for  
missions in ,arabia4 ,he it was who     
first made the extensive  journey all   
around the coast of ,arabia and into the
 interior of ,yemen4  ,his articles     
pleading for the occupation of the      
,peninsula reached ,keith  ,falconer and
 finally decided his choice of a        
particular field1 in the  wide          
,mohammedan world1 to which his thoughts
 were already turned4 ,it  was also the 
experience and counsel of this man of   
,god that helped to  determine the final
 location as well as the preliminary    
explorations  of the ,american          
missionaries of the ,arabian mission in 
#ahij-ib4 ,the  reports of ,general     

,haig are even to-day the best condensed
 statement  of the needs and            
opportunities in the long neglected     
,peninsula while  his account of the    
problems to be met and the right sort of
 men to meet  them will always remain   
invaluable until the evangelization of  
,arabia  is an accomplished fact4    ,in
 #ahhf ,general ,haig was asked by the  
committee of the ,church  ,missionary   
,society to undertake an exploration of 
the ,red ,sea coast  of ,arabia and     
,somaliland with a view to ascertaining 
the openings  for missionary effort4 ,he
 set out from ,london on ,october #abth1
 #ahhf1  reaching ,alexandria on the    
#aith1 and proceeded by way of the ,red 
,sea  coast in an ,egyptian steamer to  
,aden1 calling at ,tor1 ,yanbo1 ,jiddah1
  ,suakin1 ,massawa and ,hodeidah4 ,dr4 
and ,mrs4 ,harpur of the ,church        
,missionary ,society were already at    
,aden seeking an opening for mission    
work2 the former accompanied ,general   
,haig back to ,hodeidah and occupied    

that place for a time as the first      
medical missionary in ,arabia4  ,general
 ,haig then took the journey inland by  
the direct route to ,sana  with         
,ibrahim1 the ,british and ,foreign     
,bible ,society colporteur and  from    
,sana they went straight across ,yemen  
to ,aden4 ,shortly afterward  ,general  
,haig proceeded to ,muscat and up the   
,persian ,gulf calling at  all the      
ports4 ,from ,busrah he journeyed along 
the river to ,bagdad and  thence across 
the ,syrian desert by the overland post 
route to ,damascus4  ,it was this long  
and difficult journey which formed the  
basis of two  papers#ach entitled3 8,on 
both sides of the ,red ,sea10 and       
8,arabia as a  ,mission ,field40#aci    
,a few brief extracts from these papers 
will interest the reader and  show the  
character of this first appeal to       
evangelize the land of the  ,arabs4     
,writing of ,yemen he says2 8,we have in
 this southwestern part  of ,arabia a   
great mountainous country with a        

temperate climate1 and a  hardy         
laborious race4 ,this hill-country and  
its races extend northward  into ,asir1 
eastward into ,hadramaut for an         
indefinite distance1 while  to the      
northeast they extend inland as far as  
the borders of the great  desert4 ,the  
finest and most warlike races are those 
to be found to  the north and northeast 
of ,sana4 ,these have never yet         
submitted to  the ,turkish yoke2 in fact
 the limits of the ,turkish territory to
 the  east of ,sana are only a few miles
 distant from that place4 ,is it not  of
 extreme importance in connection with  
the evangelization of all  ,southern    
,arabia that the gospel should be       
preached and the ,word of ,god  brought 
to these hardy mountaineers8 ,they are  
mostly ,zeidiyeh1 a sect  akin to the   
,shiahs in doctrine1 but ,i saw no trace
 of fanaticism among  them1 rather they 
seemed everywhere willing to listen to  
the truth4 ,for  the most part ,i       
suspect they are but poor observers of  

the prescribed  religious practices of  
,islam4 ,during the whole of my travels 
in ,yemen  ,i never once saw a man at   
prayer1 and in only a few of the larger 
villages is there a mosque4 ,the women  
are particularly accessible2 in  the    
villages they wear no covering to the   
face1 and those that we met  at the     
khans1 or inns1 were always ready to    
come forward and talk4 ,the  little     
girls used frequently to run into our   
room1 and1 if invited1  would come and  
sit down by our side4 ,ignorance is1 ,i 
should say1 the  predominant            
characteristic of the whole             
population--ignorance of their  own     
religion1 ignorance of the simplest     
elements of truth4 ,i believe  that an  
evangelist1 thoroughly master of the    
language1 ,arabic1 might go  from       
village to village all over ,yemen      
preaching1 or quietly speaking  the     
gospel40    ,this testimony is true4    
,but the challenge has never yet been   
accepted  and all the highlands are     

still waiting for the first news of the 
gospel4 ,speaking of the capital of     
,yemen the report goes on3 8,sana is  a 
most important point4 ,it is impossible 
to exaggerate its importance  from a    
missionary point of view4 ,it is in the 
centre of the finest  races of ,southern
 ,arabia1 and if a mission could be     
established there1  its influence would 
extend on all sides to a multitude of   
tribes  otherwise shut out from the     
gospel40    ,after reviewing in detail  
the open doors in every part of ,arabia1
 and  speaking of the special obstacles 
at each point together with the best    
methods of inaugurating work1 he writes 
toward the end of his report3  8,in one 
degree or another then1 all ,arabia is1 
,i consider1 open to  the gospel4 ,it is
 as much open to it as the world        
generally was in  apostolic times1 that 
is to say1 it is accessible to the      
evangelist  at many different points1 at
 all of which he would find men and     
women  needing salvation1 some of whom  

would receive his message1 while  others
 would reject it and persecute him4 ,in 
some parts of the country  he would not 
be molested or interfered with by the   
ruling powers2 in  others1 as in        
,turkish ,arabia1 he might be arrested  
and even deported4  ,dangerous fanatics 
are1 ,i believe1 seldom met with but    
occasionally  the missionary might come 
across such1 and then the consequences  
might  be more serious4 ,but what if his
 lot were even worse than this1 if he   
were hunted from village to village1 and
 persecuted from city to city8  ,our    
,lord contemplated no other reception   
for ,his disciples when ,he sent  them  
forth4 ,this was in fact ,his ideal of  
the missionary life4444  #8,when they   
persecute you in this city1 7abandon the
 country8 ,no47 flee  ye into another4' 
,the evangelist in ,arabia need expect  
nothing worse  than this and even this  
would probably be of rare occurrence4444
 ,there  is no difficulty then about    
preaching the gospel in ,arabia if men  

can  be found to face the consequences4 
,the real difficulty would be the       
protection of the converts4 ,most       
probably they would be exposed to       
violence and death4 ,the infant church  
might be a martyr church at first  like 
that of ,uganda1 but that would not     
prevent the spread of the truth  or its 
ultimate triumph40 ,the most remarkable 
thing about this report1  which occupies
 only forty pages1 is its prophetic     
character1 its  permanent value and the 
fact that it touches every phase of the 
problem  still before us4    ,the       
immediate result of ,general ,haig's    
report was the determination  of the    
,church ,missionary ,society to leave   
,aden and ,sheikh ,othman to  ,keith    
,falconer and the ,free ,church of      
,scotland1 while ,dr4 and ,mrs4  ,harpur
 went to ,hodeidah to try the           
possibilities of work in that  city4    
,there the skill of a ,christian        
physician would have more of  strategic 
power than in ,aden itself which had two

 hospitals under  government service4   
,everything was hopeful at the outset   
and the people  flocked in large numbers
 to the dispensary4 ,evangelistic work  
was  carried on1 and ,dr4 ,harpur wrote3
 8,i try to read of the birth1 death    
and resurrection of ,christ including   
,isaiah liii41 and the simplest         
parables40 ,one or two of the ,arabs    
became specially interested and read    
the ,bible very eagerly4 ,but the       
,turkish governor found objection and   
required a ,turkish diploma from the    
missionary1 or to have his diploma      
acknowledged at ,constantinople4 ,work  
was at a standstill4 ,dr4 ,harpur  was  
compelled to return to ,england on      
account of severe illness and  ,hodeidah
 was not again entered4 ,in his letter  
to the ,church ,missionary              
,intelligencer1 dated ,april #abth1     
#ahhg1 we read3     8,should the way be 
closed now1 we trust that ,god will open
 it in   ,his own time1 and whenever    
that time may be1 ,i want now to say    

that   since ,i came here my great      
desire has been1 and will continue to   
be1   that ,i might be allowed to live  
and work among the people of ,yemen4    
,god knows best1 wherever our work may  
be4 ,owing to the uncertainty   that    
exists about my diplomas being ratified1
 and being in the   meantime effectually
 stopped from any work1 it seems        
advisable for us   to go back to ,aden1 
there to wait until we get directions   
from the   ,committee1 using the time   
there for the study of the language4    
,there   is a door here1 as far as the  
people themselves are concerned1 and ,i 
trust we may not have to leave these    
poor people who have not rejected   the 
gospel4 ,what a cause there is for      
prayer for them to ,him who is   ,king  
of ,kings and ,lord of ,lords40         
,about the same time1 a remarkable call 
to prayer was sent out by the  little   
band of workers in ,south ,arabia1 who  
were left to mourn the  sudden death of 
their spiritual leader1 ,ion ,keith     

,falconer4 ,it was the  first call to   
prayer issued for ,arabia and it did not
 remain unheeded3             ,,prayer  
,,for ,,the ,,spread ,,of ,,the ,,gospel
 ,,in ,,south ,,arabia4    8,we         
earnestly invite united intercession to 
,almighty ,god for the people  of this  
land1 that ,he will open doors for the  
preaching of the gospel1  and prepare   
the hearts of all to receive it4    ,we 
trust that many will respond to this    
request1 and unite with us in  setting  
apart a special time every ,tuesday for 
prayer for the above  object4 ,we are1  
yours faithfully1                       
7,signed47            ,f4 ,i4 ,,harpur1 
,m4 ,b41                                
,church ,missionary ,society4           
,,alex4 ,,paterson1 ,m4 ,b4 ,c4 ,m41    
,free ,church ,mission4                 
,,matthew ,,lochhead1                   
,free ,church ,mission4                 
,,ibrahim ,,abd ,,el ,,messiah1         
,yemen1 ,s4 ,arabia4              ,b4   
and ,f4 ,bible ,society40    ,while the 

,church ,missionary ,society did not    
continue work at ,hodeidah1  they were  
already occupying the extreme northeast 
corner of ,arabia  and had begun work in
 ,bagdad1 the old city of the caliphs1  
with its  commanding situation on the   
,tigris1 and its large1 ,arab           
population4  ,in #ahhb ,bagdad was      
occupied as an outpost of their ,persia 
,mission  on recommendation of ,dr4     
,bruce4 ,rev4 ,t4 ,r4 ,hodgson was the  
first  missionary there1 but he         
afterward went into the service of the  
,british  and ,foreign ,bible ,society  
and greatly extended its work in the    
,persian  ,gulf4 ,he was succeeded by   
,dr4 ,henry ,martyn ,sutton and others4 
,the  mission has had hard struggles    
with the ,turkish officials and its     
converts were compelled to flee4 ,the   
medical work has had a vast and         
extensive influence in all the region   
round about1 and at present  the        
mission-staff is larger than ever before
 and the school recently  opened is     

flourishing4 ,mosul has been taken over 
from the ,american  ,presbyterian ,board
 by the ,church ,missionary ,society1   
and in the words  of one of their       
missionaries1 8we are watching for an   
opportunity of  carrying the gospel into
 the very heart of ,central ,arabia1    
where the  independent ,prince of ,nejd 
holds rule1 across whose territory runs 
one  of the principal routes for        
pilgrims to ,mecca40    ,as early as    
#ahef ,rev4 ,a4 ,stern made missionary  
journeys to ,sana1 ,bagdad  and other   
parts of ,arabia to visit the ,jews with
 the gospel4 ,that  remarkable          
missionary to the ,jews1 ,joseph ,wolff1
 the son of a ,bavarian  ,rabbi and who 
was baptized by a ,benedictine monk in  
#ahab1 also visited  the ,jews of ,yemen
 and ,bagdad in his wanderings4#adj     
,in #ahhd1 ,mr4 ,william ,lethaby1 a    
,methodist lay-preacher from ,england1  
with his faithful wife1 began a mission 
among the wild ,arabs at ,kerak  in the 
mountains of ,moab2 so populous and     

important is this mountain  fortress in 
the eyes of the nomads that they call it
 ,el ,medina1 8the  city40 ,this pioneer
 effort1 after some years of struggle1  
was taken  up by the ,church ,missionary
 ,society in connection with their      
,palestine  mission4 ,mr4 ,lethaby1     
after journeying in ,east ,arabia1 and  
attempting  in vain to cross the        
,peninsula from ,bahrein westward       
7#ahib71 is now in  charge of the ,bible
 ,society's depot at ,aden4    ,as early
 as #ahhf the ,north ,africa ,mission   
attempted to reach the  ,bedouin tribes 
of ,northern ,arabia in the vicinity of 
,homs4 ,mr4 ,samuel  ,van ,tassel1 a    
young ,hollander1 of ,new ,york1 trained
 at ,grattan  ,guinness' ,institute1    
went out under their direction and      
accompanied  a ,bedouin chief on his    
annual migration into the desert in     
#ahij4 ,he  found good opportunities    
among the nomads for gospel-work1 so    
that the  door to him seemed            
8wide-open10 but ,turkish official      

jealousy of all  foreigners who have    
dealings with the ,bedouin tribes1 put  
an end to  his work and compelled its   
abandonment4 ,his experiences1 however1 
as  the first one who lived and worked  
for ,christ among the nomads in the     
black tents of ,kedar is valuable for   
the future4 ,the door of access  was not
 closed by the ,bedouins themselves1 but
 by the ,turks4 ,mr4 ,van  ,tassel found
 the ,arabs very friendly1 and willing  
to hear the ,bible  read1 especially the
 ,old ,testament4 ,he found none of the 
fanaticism of  the towns1 and even      
persuaded the sheikhs to rest their     
caravans on the  ,sabbath day4 ,it is   
interesting to note that the ,north     
,africa ,mission  was led to enter      
,north ,arabia through the              
representations of ,general  ,haig1 then
 one of their council4 ,at present they 
have no workers in  ,arabia1 although   
that name still finds a place in their  
reports every  month with the pathetic  
rehearsal3#ada 8,northern ,arabia is    

peopled by  the ,bedouin descendants of 
,ishmael2 they are not bigoted ,moslems1
 like  the ,syrians1 but willing to be  
enlightened4 ,this portion of the field 
is sadly in need of laborers40    ,in   
#ahih the ,christian and ,missionary    
,alliance of ,new ,york again called    
attention to the needs of ,northern     
,arabia through ,mr4 ,forder1 formerly  
of the ,kerak mission4 ,he attempted to 
enter into the interior1 by way  of     
,damascus1 but met with an accident1    
which prevented the undertaking4        
,before sketching the lives of the two  
great pioneer missionaries to  ,arabia1 
we must chronicle the appeal for the    
dark peninsula that  came from the heart
 of the ,dark ,continent4 ,not only     
because this  appeal belongs to the     
early dawn of ,arabian missions1 but    
because of  its remarkable character and
 its author4 ,henry ,martyn in #ahaa    
wrote  at ,muscat1 8there is a promise  
in reserve for the sons of ,joktan02    
,alexander ,mackay1 from ,uganda in     

#ahhh1 took up the strain1 and1 in      
closing his long plea for a mission to  
the ,arabs of ,muscat1 wrote3 8,may  it 
soon be said1 #8,this day is salvation  
come to this house forasmuch as  he also
 is a son of ,abraham4'0    ,this plea1 
written only two years before ,mackay's 
death1 and dated1  ,august1 #ahhh1      
,usambiro1 ,central ,africa1 is a great 
missionary document  for two reasons2 it
 breathes the spirit of ,christianity in
 showing  love to one's enemies and it  
points out the real remedy against the  
slave-trade4 ,and yet ,mackay           
accompanied his carefully written       
article  with this modest letter3 8,i   
enclose a few lines on a subject which  
has  been weighing on my mind for some  
time4 ,i shall not be disappointed  if  
you consign them to the waste-paper     
basket1 and shall only be too  glad if1 
on a better representation on the part  
of others1 the subject  be taken up and 
something definite be done for these    
poor ,arabs1 whom  ,i respect1 but who  

have given me much trouble in years     
past4 ,the best  way by which we can    
turn the edge of their opposition and   
convert their  blasphemy into blessing  
is to do our utmost for their           
salvation40#adb    ,in this article     
,mackay pleads for ,arabia for ,africa's
 sake and asks  that 8,muscat1 which is 
in more senses than one the key to      
,central  ,africa10 be occupied by a    
strong mission4 8,i do not deny10 he    
writes1 8that the task is difficult2 and
 the men selected for work in  ,muscat  
must be endowed with no small measure of
 the ,spirit of ,jesus1  besides        
possessing such linguistic ability as to
 be able to reach not  only the ears1   
but the very hearts of men40 ,he pleads 
for half a  dozen men1 the pick of the  
,english universities1 to make the      
venture  in faith4 ,his continual reason
 for the crying need of such a mission  
is the strong influence it would exert  
in ,africa because of the ,arab         
traders4 8,it is almost needless to say 

that the outlook in ,africa will  be    
considerably brightened by the          
establishment of a mission to the       
,arabs in ,muscat40 8,the ,arabs have   
helped us often and have hindered us    
likewise4 ,we owe them therefore a      
double debt1 which1 ,i can see no more  
affective way of paying than by at once 
establishing a strong mission  at their 
very headquarters--,muscat itself40     
,mackay was not unaware of the great    
difficulties of work among  ,mohammedans
 and in ,arabia2 he calls it 8a gigantic
 project0 and terms  ,arabia 8the cradle
 of ,islam40 ,but his faith is so       
strong1 that at the  very beginning of  
his article he quotes the remarkable    
resolution of  the ,church ,missionary  
,society passed on ,may #ast1 #ahhh1    
regarding work  for ,mohammedans4#adc   
,the effect of ,mackay's pleading was   
that the veteran ,bishop ,french took   
up the challenge and laid down his life 
at ,muscat4 ,that life has 8such        
linguistic capacity as to be able10     

evermore 8to reach not only the  ears   
but the very hearts of men0 in a way    
even far above the thought  of          
,alexander ,mackay of ,uganda4          
,,xxxi                    ,,ion ,,keith 
,,falconer ,,and ,,the ,,aden ,,mission 
8,my sword ,i give to him that shall    
succeed me in my pilgrimage1 and my     
courage and skill to him that can get   
it4 ,my marks and scars ,i carry   with 
me to be a witness for me1 that ,i have 
fought ,his battles1 who   now will be  
my rewarder4444 ,so he passed over and  
all the trumpets   sounded for him on   
the other side40--,bunyan's ,pilgrim's  
,progress4   7,death of ,valiant for    
,truth47      ,ion ,keith ,falconer and 
,thomas ,valpy ,french1 both laid down  
their lives  for ,christ after a brief  
period of labor in the land they so     
dearly  loved4 ,keith ,falconer died at 
the age of thirty after having spent    
only  ten months1 all-told1 on ,arabian 
soil2 ,bishop ,french was sixty-six     
years old when he came to ,muscat and   

lived only ninety-five days after  his  
arrival4 ,but both gave      8,one      
crowded hour of glorious life10    to   
the cause of ,christ in ,arabia and left
 behind them an influence1  power and   
inspiration which      8,is worth an age
 without a name40    ,ion ,grant        
,neville ,keith ,falconer1#add the third
 son of the late ,earl  of ,kintore1 was
 born at ,edinburgh1 ,scotland1 on the  
#eth of ,july1 #ahef4  ,at thirteen     
years of age he went to ,harrow to      
compete for an entrance  scholarship and
 was successful4 ,he was not a          
commonplace boy either  in his ways of  
study or thoughts on religion4 ,with a  
healthy ambition  to excel and yet with 
a kindly modesty he made friends of     
those  whom he surpassed and loved those
 who were his inferiors4 ,manliness1    
magnanimity1 piety and unselfishness1   
rare traits in a lad1 were in him       
conspicuous4 ,he loved outdoor sports   
and excelled in athletics as well  as in
 his studies4 ,at twenty he was         

,president of the ,london ,bicycle      
,club and at twenty-two the champion    
racer in ,great ,britain4    ,one       
paragraph taken from the close of one of
 his letters gives us a  glimpse of the 
boy at school and throws light on his   
future choice of  a profession4 ,it is  
dated ,july #afth1 #ahgc3 8 444         
,charrington sent me a  book yesterday  
which ,i have read4 ,it is called       
,following ,fully 444  about a man who  
works among the cholera people in       
,london so hard that  he at last        
succumbs and dies4 ,but every page is   
full of ,jesus ,christ1  so that ,i     
liked it4 ,and ,i like ,charrington     
because he is quite devoted  to ,him1   
and has really given up all for ,his    
glory4 ,i must go and do  the same soon3
 how ,i don't know40 ,this same year he 
left ,harrow1 and1  after spending a    
year with a tutor exclusively in        
mathematics1 entered  ,cambridge4 ,his  
intentions were at first to compete for 
honors in  mathematics but after careful

 thought he changed his plans and began 
to  read for honors in the ,theological 
,tripos4    ,during his college days he 
also distinguished himself as a master  
in his two favorite pursuits1 bicycling 
and shorthand4 ,on the later  subject he
 wrote the article in the ,encyclopedia 
,britannica4 ,he  had a fine intellect1 
tremendous power of application and a   
genius  for plodding4 ,his knowledge of 
,hebrew was extraordinary2 he wrote     
post-cards in that language to his      
professor on every conceivable  subject1
 and translated the hymn1 8,lead ,kindly
 ,light0 as a pastime4  ,no wonder that 
he received the highest honor in that   
language that  ,cambridge can give and  
passed with ease the ,semitic languages 
examination at the close of his course4 
,but in all his studies and pastimes he 
did not cease to show that  he was first
 of all a ,christian and had the        
missionary spirit4  ,by evangelistic    
work at ,barnwell and ,mile-,end1 alone 
and with his  friend1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,n4      

,charrington1 he labored to reach the   
poor and  down-trodden4 ,for the work in
 ,london he became at once treasurer and
  contributor of #aj1jjj and his work at
 ,mile-,end ,road is held in loving     
remembrance by the present workers4     
,here doubtless it was that his         
thoughts first turned to the regions    
beyond4 ,for in a letter dated  ,june   
#abth1 #ahha1 from ,stepney ,green1 he  
writes3 8,it is overwhelming  to think  
of the vastness of the harvest-field    
when compared with the  indolence1      
indifference and unwillingness on the   
part of most so-called  ,christians1 to 
become1 even in a moderate degree1      
laborers in the same4  ,i take the      
rebuke to myself4 444 ,to enjoy the     
blessings and happiness  ,god gives1 and
 never to stretch out a helping hand to 
the poor and the  wicked1 is a most     
horrible thing4 ,when we come to die1 it
 will be awful  for us1 if we have to   
look back on a life spent purely on     
self1 but1  believe me1 if we are to    

spend our life otherwise1 we must make  
up our  minds to be thought #8odd' and  
#8eccentric' and #8unsocial1' and to be 
sneered at and avoided4444 ,the usual   
centre is ,,self1 the proper centre  is 
,,god4 ,if1 therefore1 one lives for    
,god1 one is out of centre or           
eccentric1 with regard to the people who
 do not40    ,after his final           
examination at ,cambridge1 he turned his
 whole attention  to ,arabic2 why1 he   
himself knew not1 except that he loved  
the language2  it was ,god's plan in his
 life4 ,to secure special advantages he 
went  first to ,leipzig in ,october1    
#ahhj1 and afterward to ,assiut1 ,egypt4
 ,the  ,semitic scholar was becoming an 
,arab and fell in love with the desert  
even then4 ,he wrote from ,assiut1 after
 some months of study3 8,i am           
meditating a camel-ride in the desert4  
,i mean to go from here to ,luxor  on a 
donkey1 camping out every night1 and    
from ,luxor to ,kossair1 on the  ,red   
,sea1 on a dromedary4 444 ,i shall learn

 two things by doing this  journey1     
,arabic and cooking40 ,an attack of     
fever prevented the journey1  and       
,falconer returned to ,england4 ,even   
there his engrossing study  was ,arabic1
 in which he was now reading such       
difficult books as the  ,mo'allakat and 
,al ,hariri2 as he expressed it1 8,i    
expect to peg away at  the ,arabic      
dictionary till my last day40    ,in    
,march1 #ahhd1 he married ,miss         
,gwendolen ,bevan2 they took a journey  
to ,italy1 and then settled at          
,cambridge1 where ,keith ,falconer      
lectured  and studied4 ,in the spring of
 #ahhe he published his ,kalilah and    
,dimnah1  translated from the ,syriac1  
with notes2 a lasting monument to his   
,semitic scholarship and an example of  
his wide general learning4#ade          
,toward the end of the year #ahhd his   
thoughts first began to be  definitely  
drawn to the foreign mission field1 but 
as yet without any  special choice of   
field4 ,a summary of the papers written 

on ,arabia1 by  ,general ,haig1 for the 
,church ,missionary ,intelligencer was  
published  in ,the ,christian1 in       
,february1 #ahhe1 and fell under the    
eyes of  ,keith ,falconer4 ,the idea of 
evangelizing ,arabia took hold of him   
with  ,divine power4 ,his whole soul    
answered1 8,here am ,i1 send me40 ,the  
immediate outcome was a request for an  
interview with ,general ,haig1  whom he 
accordingly met in ,london on ,february 
#bast1 #ahhe1 8to talk  about ,aden and 
,arabia40 ,he determined to go to ,aden 
and see the field  for himself4 ,only   
two questions did he stop to consider3  
,first1 as to  the healthfulness of the 
place1 and then whether he should go out
 as a  free lance or should associate   
himself more or less closely with some  
existing society4 ,warmly attached to   
the ,free ,church of ,scotland from  his
 childhood1 he met the ,foreign ,mission
 ,committee of that church and  his     
project was recognized by them4 ,on     
,october #gth he left1 with his  young  

wife1 for ,aden1 and arrived there on   
,october #bhth4 ,they remained  until   
,march #fth of the following spring4    
,the first missionary report of this    
pioneer in ,south ,arabia indicates     
what he thought of the field2 and why he
 decided to make ,sheikh  ,othman1 and  
not ,aden1 the centre of future work2 it
 also sets forth the  methods which     
,keith ,falconer proposed to adopt for  
the evangelization  of ,arabia4 ,the    
following extracts are of especial      
interest3     8,the population of ,aden 
is made up of 7#a7 ,arabs1 all ,moslems1
 mostly   ,sunnis of the ,shafii sect2  
7#b7 ,africans1 mostly ,somalis who are 
all   ,shafii ,moslems2 7#c7 ,jews2 7#d7
 ,natives of ,india1 mostly ,moslems1   
the   rest being ,hindus1 a few ,parsis1
 and a few ,portuguese from ,goa4 ,in   
#ahgb1 for every five ,arabs there were 
less than three ,somalis2 but ,i   am   
told that now they are numerically      
equal4 ,the ,arabs and ,somalis         
together make up the great bulk--about  

four-fifths--of the whole4 ,in   #ahgb  
the ,jews numbered #a1dce2 they are now 
reckoned at more than   #b1jjj4 ,the    
,europeans1 the garrison1 and           
camp-followers number about   #c1ejj4   
,the climate of ,aden is1 for the       
tropics1 unusually healthy4   ,the      
port-surgeon1 who has been here five    
years1 assures me that a   missionary   
need have no fear on the score of       
health4 ,this is due to   the scarcity  
of rain and vegetation1 and to the      
constant sea-breezes4   ,the summer heat
 is severe and depressing1 but not      
unhealthy4 ,there   can be little doubt 
that ,aden1 from the fact of its being a
 ,british   possession1 from its        
geographical position1 its political    
relations   with the interior1 its      
commerce with ,yemen1 its healthy       
climate1 and   its mixed ,arab-,somali  
population1 is1 humanly speaking a good 
centre   for ,christian work among the  
,moslems of ,arabia and ,africa4        
8,the next question is1 how and where   

precisely to begin8 ,my own notion   is 
to establish a school1 industrial       
orphanage1 and medical mission   at     
,sheikh ,othman4 ,the children are far  
more hopeful than the adults1   and the 
power to give medical aid would be not  
only very useful in   ,sheikh ,othman1  
but invaluable in pushing into the      
interior4 ,there are   numbers of       
castaway ,somali children in ,aden whose
 parents are only   too willing that    
they should be fed and cared for by     
others4 ,these1   as well as orphans1   
might be gathered and brought up in the 
faith   of ,christ1 nemine              
contradicente4 ,it would be necessary to
 teach   the children to work with their
 hands1 and ,i think that a carpenter   
or craftsman of some kind from home or  
from ,india should be on the   mission  
staff4 ,but the chief object of the     
institution would be to   train native  
evangelists and teachers2 and a part of 
their training   should be medical4     
,with a slight1 rough-and-ready         

knowledge of   medicine and surgery1    
they would find many doors open to them4
 ,in   the school1 reading by means of  
the ,arabic ,bible and ,christian       
books1 writing1 and arithmetic would be 
taught to all2 and ,english1            
historical geography1 ,euclid1 algebra1 
and natural science to the   cleverer   
children4 ,a native teacher1 procurable 
from ,syria or ,egypt1   would be very  
valuable1 and ,i think a necessity at   
first4 ,if it   were known in the       
interior that a competent medical man   
and surgeon   resided in ,sheikh        
,othman1 the ,arabs who now come to     
,aden for advice   would stop short at  
our mission-house2 and the surgeon would
 have   considerable scope both in      
,sheikh ,othman1 ,el-,hautah1 and the   
little   country villages1 not to speak 
of the opposite ,african country4 ,of   
course the treatment of surgical cases  
would involve the keeping of a   few    
beds4 ,the medical missionary should be 
a thoroughly qualified man1   as natives

 often delay to come for advice until   
disease has become   serious and        
complicated4 ,the port-surgeon has      
impressed this upon me   several times4 
,it should be mentioned that the native 
assistant at the   ,sheikh ,othman      
dispensary often finds that ,arabs come 
to ,sheikh ,othman   to be treated1 and1
 deriving no benefit1 refuse to go on to
 ,aden1 and   return home4 ,the         
institution should stand in a cultivated
 plot or   garden4 ,this would render it
 far more attractive1 and would greatly 
benefit the children4 ,it would be      
possible to arrange for this in         
,sheikh ,othman1 where there is plenty  
of water1 and the soil is good2   but   
not in ,aden1 where almost utter        
barrenness is everywhere found4     8,my
 reasons1 then1 for perferring ,sheikh  
,othman are3     8#a4 ,we should not be 
seriously competing with government     
institutions4 ,in fact1 ,i am told that 
the government would be glad   to be    
relieved of the necessity of keeping up 

a dispensary at ,sheikh   ,othman4      
8#b4 ,the climate is fresher and less   
enervating than that of ,aden4 ,from    
its position it has the benefit of any  
sea-breeze which may blow1 and   the    
soil absorbs heat without giving it out 
again4 ,on the other hand1   in ,aden1  
the high1 black1 cinder-like rocks often
 obstruct the breeze1   store heat in   
the day1 and give it out at night4 ,thus
 the nights in   ,sheikh ,othman are    
markedly cooler than in ,aden4     8#c4 
,there is abundance of water1 and the   
soil is capable of   cultivation--a fact
 proved by the two fine private gardens 
there1 not   to speak of the government 
garden4 ,but at ,aden the soil is       
utterly   barren1 and all water must be 
paid for4 ,it is either condensed1 or   
procured by an aqueduct1 or from a well 
sunk #abj feet in the solid   rock4 ,the
 water from the latter is quite sweet1  
and sometimes handed   round after      
dinner in wineglasses6     8#d4 ,i am   
told on the best authority that it would

 be very difficult   to get a suitable  
site in ,aden1 whereas there are plenty 
in ,sheikh   ,othman4 ,besides any      
number of building sites1 two very large
 garden   sites are vacant4 ,the latter 
,i have inspected1 and the one ,i am    
recommended to take as having the best  
soil is admirably situated   between the
 old village and the new settlement4 ,it
 occupies the space   between them4 ,i  
can have the whole or the half of it    
granted to me   at a nominal quit-rent4 
8#e4 ,sheikh ,othman is eight miles on  
the road to the interior1 and so   in   
closer contact with the tribes1 and     
removed from the influence of   the bad 
and unchristian example set by so many  
,europeans4     8,on the other hand1 it 
must be borne in mind that the          
population of   ,sheikh ,othman--about  
#f1ejj--;is comparatively small1 though 
likely to   increase somewhat2 and that 
it is very shifting1 not more than some 
#a1ejj being permanently resident4 ,the 
last objection1 however1 applies   to   

,aden as well40    ,in another portion  
of the same report1 after telling of the
 importance  of ,aden as a missionary   
centre1 he emphasizes the fact that     
8,more  than a quarter of a million     
camels1 with their drivers1 enter and   
leave ,aden yearly with produce from all
 parts of ,yemen4 ,the great  majority  
of these pass through ,sheikh ,othman1  
where they make a halt  of several hours
 on the journey to ,aden40 ,no one      
acquainted with ,aden  and its vicinity 
and reading ,keith ,falconer's letters  
can fail to  be struck with the fact    
that from the outset he had his plans   
made  for the interior1 and that ,sheikh
 ,othman was only the first stage  which
 he intended to use as a base of        
operations4 ,he wrote to ,general  ,haig
 about the same time as the date of his 
report3 8,i have made up  my mind that  
the right place for me to settle at is  
,sheikh ,othman1  not ,aden4 ,this will 
leave ,aden and ,steamer ,point open to 
the ,church  ,missionary ,society4      

,though ,i do not think that a medical  
missionary  would have much scope in    
,aden1 ,i think that a ,bible and       
tract-room  and preaching-hall might be 
started there4444 ,i hope to visit      
,lahej  soon1 but fear ,i shall be      
unable to go to ,sana4 ,i should not    
know  where to leave my wife4 ,when ,i  
have a colleague at ,sheikh ,othman with
  a wife1 the two ladies can be together
 while the husbands go to ,sana  and    
elsewhere4 ,if the ,church ,missionary  
,society missionaries come here  ,i     
trust we shall find ways and means of   
coperating and helping one  another40   
,in ,february1 #ahhf1 ,keith ,falconer  
went with a ,scotch military doctor  to 
,lahej1 the first large village beyond  
,sheikh ,othman1 in the middle  of an   
oasis1 and then governed by an          
independent 8,sultan40 ,in ,march1      
having completed his preliminary survey 
of the field and decided on  choice of a
 location1 he sailed for ,england1 not  
to tarry there1 but  to prepare for the 

final exodus to ,arabia4 8,for10 says   
his biographer1  8the soldier of the    
,cross had counted the cost1 had weighed
 with the  utmost care every risk and   
had taken his final resolve4 ,the manner
 in  which he told his friends this was 
very characteristic of the man 444  who 
goes forth to the fight ready to spend  
and be spent in the cause  of ,christ40 
,in ,may he met the ,general ,assembly  
of the ,free ,church and  made his      
famous address on ,mohammedanism and    
missions to ,mohammedans4  ,in order to 
begin the work at ,aden1 a second       
missionary1 a medical man1  was desired4
 ,although the man was not yet found1   
,keith ,falconer made  the generous     
proposal to pay the sum of #cjj 7#a1ejj7
 annually to the  ,free ,church for the 
new missionary's salary4 ,he had already
 offered to  pay the expenses of himself
 and his wife1 and had agreed to take   
upon  himself the whole cost of the     
building of the mission-house4 ,he laid 
on  the missionary altar not only his   

talent of learning but that of money1   
and was in truth 8an honorary           
missionary40    ,the time between ,keith
 ,falconer's arrival in ,england and his
 return  to ,arabia was crowded full of 
life and activity1 but only the most    
important events can be narrated4 ,he   
received the gratifying but  altogether 
unexpected offer of the post of ,lord   
,almoner's professor  of ,arabic at     
,cambridge1 which he accepted1 becoming 
the successor  of ,edward ,h4 ,palmer   
and ,robertson ,smith4 ,he prepared the 
lectures  required1 choosing for his    
subject 8,the ,pilgrimage to ,mecca40   
,he read  all the books on the subject  
in many languages1 even learning the    
,dutch  grammar in order to understand a
 work in that language4 ,he visited     
hospitals in search of an associate for 
,arabia4 ,he selected his library  and  
furniture to take to ,aden and disposed 
of his house-lease4 ,he  acted as judge 
at the ,young ,men's ,christian         
,association ,cycling ,club  races in   

,cambridge4 ,he went to ,glasgow to meet
 ,dr4 ,stewart ,cowen who  was appointed
 his co-worker to ,arabia4 ,he tried to 
insure his life in  favor of the        
mission-work at ,mile-,end2 but while   
the insurance office  declared him      
8,first-,class10 they refused to grant  
the policy when they  heard of his      
proposed place of residence4 ,he gave   
several farewell  addresses in ,scotland
 and delivered his ,cambridge lectures  
just on the  eve of leaving for ,arabia4
 ,all this work was crowded into six    
months'  time by the man who1 like      
,napoleon1 did not have the word        
impossible  in his vocabulary4 ,how well
 the work was done is proved by his     
lectures1 the article in the            
,encyclopedia and his farewell          
addresses4  ,what could be finer and    
stronger than these last sentences from 
his  farewell address at ,glasgow which 
still ring with power3     8,we have a  
great and imposing war-office1 but a    
very small army 444   while vast        

continents are shrouded in almost utter 
darkness1 and   hundreds of millions    
suffer the horrors of heathenism or of  
,islam1   the burden of proof lies upon 
you to show that the circumstances in   
which ,god has placed you were meant by 
,him to keep out of the foreign         
mission field40    ,dr4 ,cowen arrived  
at ,aden on ,december #gth1 #ahhf1 and  
,keith ,falconer a  day later1 by the   
,austrian steamship 8,berenice40 ,he    
wrote1 8,we stopped  at ,jiddah1 but to 
my great disappointment quarantine      
prevented me from  going on shore4 ,i   
gazed long at the hills which hid ,mecca
 from us40    ,mrs4 ,keith ,falconer    
arrived a fortnight later4 ,but the new 
missionaries  were unfortunate at the   
outset in obtaining a suitable dwelling4
 ,the  stone bungalow1 which they       
expected to occupy at ,sheikh ,othman   
until  a mission-house was built1 could 
not be rented2 after considerable       
difficulty they managed to secure a     
large native hut1 about forty  feet     

square1 which1 with certain changes1    
appeared suitable for  the emergency4 ,a
 shed1 erected by ,keith ,falconer1     
served them as a  dispensary1 and on    
,january #aath1 he wrote1 8,our         
temporary quarters  are very comfortable
 and the books look very nice40         
,everything went  well for a time and   
arrangements were made to begin building
 the  mission-house4 ,a tour was taken  
to ,bir ,achmed and the gospel was      
preached every day by word and work1    
although some of the party were  down   
with fever nearly all the time4         
,early in ,february1 #ahhg1 they were   
cheered by the visit of ,general  ,haig1
 returning from his ,yemen journey2 but 
very soon after things  began for the   
first time to be clouded over4 ,on      
,february #ajth1  returning from a tour 
inland1 ,keith ,falconer was seized with
 a high  fever which continued for three
 days and then began to abate1 but did  
not leave him entirely4 ,mrs4 ,keith    
,falconer also had a severe attack  of  

fever1 and both went for a change to    
,steamer ,point for three weeks1  after 
which they returned to their 8hut0 at   
,sheikh ,othman4 ,on ,may #ast1  ,keith 
,falconer wrote to his mother1 8,you    
will be sorry to hear that  ,i have been
 down with yet another attack 444 this  
makes my seventh  attack4 ,this rather  
miserable shanty1 in which we are       
compelled to  live1 is largely the cause
 of our fevers 444 we expect to begin   
living  in the new house about ,june    
#ast1 though it will not be finished    
then40  ,but this letter did not reach  
her until after the telegram had told   
the news that ,god had called ,his      
servant to ,himself4 ,on ,tuesday1 ,may 
#ajth1 after continued fevers and two   
restless nights1 he went to sleep1  and 
in the morning 444 8one glance told all4
 ,he was lying on his back  with eyes   
half open4 ,the whole attitude and      
expression indicated a  sudden and      
painless end1 as if it had taken place  
during sleep1 there  being no indication

 whatever of his having tried to move or
 speak40 ,on  the evening of the next   
day he was laid to rest1 8,in the       
cemetery at  ,aden by ,british officers 
and soldiers--fitting burial for a      
soldier of  ,christ1 who1 with armor on 
and courage undaunted1 fell with face to
 the  foe4 ,the martyr of ,aden had     
entered ,god's ,eden4 ,and so ,great    
,britain  made her first offering--a    
costly sacrifice--to ,arabia's          
evangelization40    ,keith ,falconer did
 not live long1 but he lived long enough
 to do  what he had purposed1 7and to do
 it after ,god's plan not his own7  8to 
call attention to ,arabia40 ,the workman
 fell but the work did  not cease4 ,the 
,free ,church asked for one volunteer to
 step into his  place1 and thirteen of  
the graduating class of ,new ,college   
responded4  ,by the story of ,keith     
,falconer's life ten thousand lives have
 been  spiritually quickened to think of
 the foreign field and its claims4  ,he1
 8being dead1 yet speaketh10 and will   

continue to speak until ,arabia  is     
evangelized4 ,every future missionary to
 ,arabia and every friend of  missions  
who reads ,falconer's life will approve 
the appropriateness of  the simple      
inscription on his grave at ,aden3      
,,to    ,,the ,,dear ,,memory ,,of      
,,the ,,hon4 ,,ion ,,keith ,,falconer1  
,,third ,,son ,,of    ,,the ,,earl ,,and
 ,,countess ,,of ,,kintore1    ,,who    
,,entered ,,into ,,rest    ,,at ,,sheikh
 ,,othman1 ,,may #aa1 #ahhg1    ,,aged  
#cj ,,years4     8,if any man serve ,me1
 let him follow ,me2 and1 where ,i am1  
there shall   also ,my servant be3 if   
any man serve ,me1 him will ,my ,father 
honor40    ,the influence of ,keith     
,falconer's consecration was widely felt
 at the  time of his death and has been 
felt ever since4 ,his biography has     
become a missionary classic1 and has    
passed through six editions4 ,the       
,presbytery of the ,scotch ,church in   
,kafraria1 ,south ,africa1 resolved  in 
,october1 #ahhg1 that 8steps be taken to

 prepare a memoir of the  late ,hon4    
,ion ,keith ,falconer1 to be printed in 
,kafir as a tract for  circulation among
 the native congregations with a view to
 impress them  with an example of       
self-sacrifice40    ,the mission at     
,sheikh ,othman was continued4 ,through 
the generosity of  ,keith ,falconer's   
mother and widow stipends for two       
missionaries were  guaranteed4 ,dr4     
,cowen returned to ,england1 but ,rev4  
,w4 ,r4 ,w4 ,gardner  and ,dr4          
,alexander ,patterson came to the field4
 ,for a time ,mr4 ,matthew  ,lochhead1  
from the mission among the ,kabyles in  
,morocco1 also joined  them4 ,a school  
for rescued slaves was started1 but the 
children's  health failing they were    
transferred to ,lovedale in ,africa4 ,in
 #ahic1  ,rev4 ,j4 ,c4 ,young1 ,m4 ,d41 
was sent out as a medical missionary to 
enforce the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,gardner who with
 ,mrs4 ,gardner was then alone2 ,dr4    
,paterson and ,mr4 ,lochhead having left
 for reasons of health4 ,rev4 and  ,mrs4

 ,gardner went to ,cairo in #ahie1 and  
the following year ,dr4 ,young  was     
joined by ,dr4 and ,mrs4 ,w4 ,d4        
,miller4 ,in #ahih ,mrs4 ,miller died1  
and  ,dr4 ,miller returned home4 ,at    
present the mission staff consists of   
,rev4  ,dr4 ,young and ,dr4 ,morris1 who
 joined the mission in #ahih4           
,despite these frequent changes and     
short periods of service1 the ,keith    
,falconer mission has not been at a     
standstill4 ,each of the faithful  band 
used their special talent and           
individuality in removing somewhat  from
 the vast mountain of ,moslem prejudice 
and opposition 8to make  straight in the
 desert a highway for our ,god40 ,the   
immediate interior  around ,aden has    
been frequently visited2 the mission    
dispensary is  known for hundreds of    
miles beyond ,sheikh ,othman4 ,we record
 with  regret that ,keith ,falconer's   
wish to go to ,sana remains unfulfilled 
on  the part of the mission4 ,a school  
for boys has been started1 and the      

small 8shanty0 for the sick has grown   
into a fully equipped mission           
dispensary1 which treated over #ag1hjj  
out-patients in #ahih4 ,a much  needed  
and most hopeful work among the soldiers
 is carried on in  ,steamer ,point      
7,aden7 and the ,keith ,falconer        
,memorial ,church is filled  every      
,sabbath with those who love to hear the
 old gospel4                            
,,xxxii                ,,bishop ,,french
 ,,the ,,veteran ,,missionary ,,to      
,,muscat      ,if it was ,keith         
,falconer's life and death that sealed  
the missionary  love of the church to   
,aden1 it was the death of ,thomas      
,valpy  ,french#adf that turned many    
eyes to ,muscat4 ,bishop ,french it was 
who  signalized the completion of his   
fortieth year of missionary service by  
attacking1 single handed1 the seemingly 
impregnable fortress of ,islam  in      
,oman4 ,he is called by ,eugene ,stock1 
8the most distinguished of all  ,church 
,missionary ,society missionaries40     

,we are tempted to describe this man's  
early mission work in founding  the     
,agra college and protecting the native 
,christians in the mutiny2  his pioneer 
work in ,derajat2 his founding of the   
,st4 ,john ,divinity  ,school at        
,lahore2 his controversies with the     
,mohammedans2 and his  manifold labors  
as the first ,bishop of ,lahore1 but we 
can only  chronicle here the closing    
years of his useful life4 ,after forty  
years of 8labors abundant0 and          
8journeyings oft0 he resigned his       
bishopric to travel among               
,arabic-speaking people and learn more  
of  their language4 ,he visited the     
,holy ,land1 ,armenia1 ,bagdad and      
,tunis1  everywhere diligently seeking  
to learn ,arabic1 and persuade the      
,moslems  of the truth of ,christianity4
 ,he became1 as some one expressed it1 a
  8,christian fakir0 for the sake of the
 gospel and desired to end his  life as 
he began it1 in pioneer missionary-work4
    ,as we have said it was ,mackay of  

,uganda who riveted the bishop's        
attention to ,muscat4 ,such a plea from 
such lips could not but touch  the heart
 of such a veteran4 ,no one else came   
forward1 so how could  he refuse8 ,he   
knew that age and infirmities were      
coming upon him1 but  he wanted to die a
 missionary to ,mohammedans4 ,he had1 to
 use his own  words1 8an inexpressible  
desire0 to preach to the ,arabs4 ,he was
 willing  to begin the work on his own  
account with the hope that the ,church  
,missionary ,society would take it up4  
,what was the character of this         
lion-heart who dared to lift his grey   
head high and respond alone1 to         
,mackay's call for 8half a dozen men1   
the pick of the ,english ,universities  
to make the venture in faith08  ,one who
 was his friend and fellow-missionary   
for many years wrote3  8,to live with   
him was to drink in an atmosphere that  
was spiritually  bracing4 ,as the air of
 the ,engadine is to the body1 so was   
his intimacy  to the soul4 ,it was an   

education to be with him4 ,to acquire   
anything  approaching his sense of duty 
was alone worth a visit to ,india4 ,he  
demanded implicit obedience from those  
whom he directed1 and often  the cost   
was considerable4 ,if any were unwilling
 to face a risk1 he  fell grievously in 
the bishop's estimation4 ,there was     
nothing that he  thought a man should   
not yield--home1 or wife1 or health--if 
,god's call  was apparent4 ,but then    
every one knew that he only asked of    
them what  he himself had done1 and was 
always doing4 ,how shall ,i speak of his
  unworldliness8 ,india is full of tales
 of this2 of acts that often led  to    
somewhat humorous results4 ,there was no
 in season or out of season  with him4  
,he was always on his ,master's         
business4 ,no biography1 it is  said1   
will be complete that does not show this
 side of his character4  ,to outsiders  
frequently it seemed to lead him into   
inconsistencies4  ,it did not seem      
incongruous for him to turn to the lady 

next to him1  at a large luncheon party1
 and begin to discuss the heavenly      
,bride of  ,christ2 neither was it      
strange when hymn-books were distributed
 at  a large reception he held at       
,government ,house 7kindly lent for the 
bishop's sojourn there71 and the evening
 party was closed with hymns  and       
prayer40    ,rev4 ,robert ,clark of the 
,punjab1 ,church ,missionary ,society1  
testifies3  8,when he first began his   
work in ,agra1 he studied about sixteen 
hours a  day4 ,he taught in his school1 
he preached in the bazaars1 he          
instructed  inquirers for baptism1 he   
prepared catechists for ordination1 he  
was  engaged in writing books1 at the   
same time that he was learning ,arabic1 
,persian1 ,urdu1 ,sanscrit1 and ,hindi  
with munshis4 ,such excellence few  can 
attain to1 because few can safely follow
 in his steps in this  respect4 ,but all
 can copy his example of prayerful      
labor4 ,when he spent  his holidays in  
travels and in preaching excursions far 

and near1 he  showed us how to spend    
every hour of relaxation in the most    
profitable  way4 ,when he refused to    
possess even a very ordinary conveyance1
  because he thought that a missionary  
should go on foot1 and declined to  use 
anything but the most common furniture  
for his house1 he set us an  example of 
self-abnegation1 and showed us what1 in 
his opinion1 should  be the attitude of 
the missionary before the world4 ,when  
he spent his  earliest mornings with    
,god1 with his ,hebrew ,bible and ,greek
 ,testament  before him1 he often       
invited some friend to sit by him to    
share with  him the rich thoughts which 
the ,word of ,god suggested to his      
mind40    ,this was the man who in      
solitary loneliness1 without one friend 
to  stand at his side1 planted and      
upheld till death the banner of the     
cross where it had never been planted   
before4 ,in the hottest season of  the  
year1 with a little tent and two        
servants he was preparing to push       

inland when death interposed and gave   
rest to the veteran of sixty-six  years4
 8,we fools accounted his life madness1 
but he is numbered among  the children  
of ,god and his lot is among the        
saints40 7,wisdom of  ,solomon v4 #d1   
#e47 ,only ,judas can 8have indignation 
saying to what  purpose is this waste80 
,this broken box of exceeding precious  
ointment  has given fragrance to the    
whole world4    ,we will let ,bishop    
,french tell his own brief story of the 
work at  ,muscat1 beginning with the    
time when we travelled together down the
  ,red ,sea both in quest of ,god's plan
 for us in ,arabia4#adg                 
,near ,aden1 ,jan4 #bb;d1 #ahia4        
8,boisterous winds and turbulent seas   
have racked my brain sorely1 and   ,i   
have seldom had such torture in this    
line4 ,but we are close to the          
,straits of ,bab-el-,mandeb1 and hope to
 reach ,aden some twelve hours   hence4 
,i should have been sorry to miss       
,hodeidah1 where ,i had a long   day    

7spite of difficulty of reaching it by  
sambuca or small boat   of broad and    
heavy build71 returning to ship in the  
evening4 ,i left   my friends1 ,maitland
 and a young ,american missionary1 and  
made my   way straight out through a    
gate of one of the stout city walls1    
into   the country beyond1 where are    
palm-groves and some fairly imposing    
stuccoed country-houses of merchants and
 men of rank4 ,under an arcade   7as the
 sun was to be feared7 ,i got a little  
congregation together1   some learned1  
others unlearned1 and addressed them for
 over an hour1   eliciting the          
opposition of one or two of the ulum1 or
 educated   men4 ,for the first time in 
this part of my journey1 my mouth seemed
   a little opened and heart enlarged to
 witness for ,christ1 and a few   seemed
 really struck and interested4 ,i tried 
to get entrance into a   mosque or two1 
as of old time into ,afghan mosques with
 ,gordon and   others1 but failed to    
find the proper ,imams within4 ,i       

secured the   lower steps of a flight of
 steps leading up to the private        
residence   of a high ,turkish officer1 
in rich uniform1 a general of army here1
   not knowing whose steps ,i was       
occupying4 ,however1 the old gentleman  
came down 7as a ,roman centurion in old 
time might have done7 and   took his    
seat1 with a few others1 on his own     
doorstep1 and listened   with singular  
docility and thankfulness1 and begged my
 blessing   on his office1 and his      
fulfillment of its arduous duties4      
,after   first leave-taking1 he sent    
down to me a beautiful walking-stick of 
lemon-wood1 so ,i had to mount the steps
 to express my gratitude and            
acknowledgment of his singular courtesy 
and friendship4 ,then came   a still    
more enthusiastic and affectionate      
leave-taking still1 and   warm kissing  
of hands1 to ,maitland's astonishment4  
,i certainly never   experienced such   
kindness and friendship from any        
,turkish official   before in any       

quarter4 ,i trust the message may have  
struck his heart4   ,anyhow1 he gladly  
accepted a copy of the whole            
,bible--this is one of   the most       
bigoted of ,arab cities4     8,there was
 an excellent colporteur here this week1
 of the ,bible   ,society1 ,stephanos1 a
 ,jewish convert1 ,i believe1 and       
excellent ,arabic   scholar4 ,the ,wali1
 or viceroy of the city1 has forbidden  
his carrying   ,arabic ,bibles into the 
interior1 though the ,hebrew ones for   
the ,jews   at ,sennaa are passed1 some 
six days1 into the mountains4 ,in ,jidda
   itself1 ,i had some small measure of 
encouragement1 but not nearly so   much 
as in ,hodeidah1 which has now          
outstripped ,mocha as a thriving   trade
 centre in those parts40                
,muscat1 ,gulf of ,oman1                
,february #acth1 #ahia4     8,i arrived 
here on ,sunday last with ,mr4          
,maitland1 of the ,cambridge   ,delhi   
,mission1 whom ,i met in ,egypt1 and who
 spends a few weeks for his   health's  

sake with me1 perhaps until ,easter4 ,we
 did not like throwing   ourselves on   
the ,british ,consul here1 as we thought
 it might embarrass   him to entertain  
,christian missionaries on their first  
arrival here2   and we had very great   
difficulty in finding even the meanest  
quarters   for the first day or two1 but
 are now in quarters in an adjoining    
village1 more tolerable as regards      
necessary comforts1 belonging to   the  
,american ,consul1 who is agent for a   
,new ,york house of business4 ,i   have 
written to ,india for a ,swiss-cottage  
tent1 as a resource in case   of no     
possible residence being available here1
 or anything approaching   even the     
,english village public-house1 or       
,persian caravanserai4 ,in the          
adjoining hills such a tent might give  
shelter during the hot weather1   if the
 ,arabs will tolerate the presence of a 
,christian missionary4   8,of           
possibilities of entrance of a mission1 
,i feel it would be   premature to speak

 yet4 ,we are pushing on our ,arabic    
studies1 and ,i   am glad to find how   
much more intelligible my ,arab teaching
 is than   in ,tunis and ,egypt4 ,i hope
 soon to find a ,sheikh of some         
learning1   to carry on translations in 
,arabic under his guidance1 if life and 
health be spared4 ,i feel most thankful 
to feel myself again in a   definite    
temporary centre1 at least of missionary
 effort4 #8,patience   and              
long-suffering with joyfulness' ,i would
 humbly and heartily   desire to        
cultivate1 as most appropriate to my    
present condition and   circumstances4  
,the ,british ,consul1 a very polite and
 courteous and   high principled man1 is
 hopeless as to any effect being        
produced on   the ,oman ,arabs1 and     
feels his position precludes him from   
making   common cause with any effort   
for making proselytes among them4 ,so   
when   ,maitland goes ,i shall be pretty
 lonely here1 not for the first time1   
however1 and ,i only pray that the      

loneliness may help me to realize   more
 fully the blessed ,presence which      
fills1 strengthens1 animates1   and     
supports40    ,his last letter written  
from ,muscat to the ,church ,missionary 
,society is  dated ,april #bdth1 #ahia4 
,a portion of it is as follows3         
8,patience here1 as elsewhere 7and more 
than in most scenes ,i have   visited71 
is a great prerequisite4 ,i still live  
alone in a borrowed   house1 a spare one
 belonging to the ,american ,consul     
here1 and1 rough   as it is1 it is amply
 sufficient for a missionary1 and is in 
the heart   of the town4 ,i cannot get  
many--very few1 indeed--to come to my   
house   and read1 which is naturally one
 of my great objects4 ,they ask me into 
their shops and houses sometimes1 to sit
 and discuss on the great   question at 
issue between us and them1 some         
,beluchees1 mostly ,arabs2   and the    
latter ,i vastly prefer1 and consider   
more hopeful4 ,there are   some ,hindus 
in the crowded bazaars1 but ,i see      

little of them--partly   because of the 
noise of narrow streets and traffic1 and
 partly because   ,i do not wish to be  
tempted away from the ,arabic4 ,most of 
the few   ,hindu traffickers living here
 understand ,arabic4     8,there is much
 outward observance of religious forms2 
there are crowds   of mosques2 rather a 
large proportion of educated men and    
women too2   the latter take special    
interest in religious questions1 and    
sometimes   lead the opposition to the  
gospel4 ,they have large girls' schools 
and   female teachers4 ,there is a      
lepers' village nigh at hand to the     
town4   ,i occupied for the second time 
this morning a shed they have allotted  
me1 well roofed over2 and those poor    
lepers1 men and women1 gathered   in    
fair numbers to listen4 ,chiefly1       
however1 ,i reach the educated men   by 
the roadside or in a house-portico1     
sometimes even in a mosque1   which is  
to me a new experience4 ,still there is 
considerable shyness1   occasionally    

bitter opposition2 yet bright faces of  
welcome sometimes   cheer me and help me
 on1 and ,i am only surprised that so   
much is   borne with4 ,i have made      
special efforts to get into the mosques1
 but   most often this is refused4 ,the 
,moolahs and ,muallims seem afraid of   
coming to help me on in my translations1
 or in encountering with me   more      
difficult passages in the best classics4
 ,this has surprised   and disconcerted 
me rather2 but ,i have been saved in the
 main from   anything like depression1  
and have had happy and comfortable      
proofs of   the ,saviour's gracious     
,presence with me4 ,the ,psalms1 as     
usual1 seem   most appropriate and      
answerable to the needs of such a       
pioneer and   lonely work4444     8,if  
,i can get no faithful servant and guide
 for the journey into   the interior1   
well versed in dealing with ,arabs and  
getting needful   common supplies 7,i   
want but little71 ,i may try ,bahrein1  
or ,hodeidah   and ,sennaa1 and if that 

fails1 the ,north of ,africa again1 in  
some   highland2 for without a house of 
our own the climate would be            
insufferable for me--at least1 during   
the very hot months--and one's   work   
would be at a standstill4 ,but ,i shall 
not give up1 please ,god1   even        
temporarily1 my plans for the interior1 
unless1 all avenues being   closed1 it  
would be sheer madness to attempt to    
carry them out40    ,he never reached   
the interior1 for he received a         
sunstroke on his way  from ,muscat to   
the neighboring village1 ,mattra1 in an 
open boat4 ,he was  removed to the      
,consulate but scarcely regained        
consciousness except to  utter a 8,god  
bless you0 to the ,consul1 ,colonel     
,mockler4 ,he died on ,may  #adth1      
#ahia4 ,the very manner of his death    
fulfilled1 more than he ever  thought1  
his own words in one of his letters from
 ,muscat3 8,in memory  of ,henry        
,martyn's pleadings for ,arabia1 ,arabs 
and the ,arabic1 ,i seem  almost trying 

at least to follow more directly in his 
footsteps and  under his guidance1 than 
even in ,persia or ,india1 however      
incalculable  the distance at which the 
guided one follows the leader60    ,the 
grave of ,bishop ,french is in the      
bottom of a narrow ravine circled  by   
black rocks and reached by boat1 by     
rounding the rocky point to the  south  
of ,muscat4 ,here are many graves of    
sailors of the ,royal marine  and others
 who died on this burning and           
inhospitable coast4 ,here also  rests   
the body of ,rev4 ,george ,e4 ,stone1   
the ,american ,missionary1 who  was     
called home in the summer of #ahii1     
after a short period of service4    ,,in
 ,,memory ,,of ,,thomas ,,valpy         
,,french1 ,,bishop ,,missionary4        
,where ,muscat fronts the ,orient sun   
',twixt heaving sea and rocky steep1    
,his work of mercy scarce begun1        
,a saintly soul has fallen asleep3      
,who comes to lift the ,cross instead8  
,who takes the standard from the dead8  

,where1 under ,india's glowing sky1     
,agra the proud1 and strong ,lahore1    
,lift roof and gleaming dome on high1   
,his 8seven-toned tongue0 is heard no   
more3      ,who comes to sound alarm    
instead8      ,who takes the clarion    
from the dead8        ,where white camps
 mark the ,afghan's bound1        ,from 
,indus to ,suleiman's range1            
,through many a gorge and upland--sound 
,tidings of joy divinely strange3       
,but there they miss his eager tread2   
,who comes to toil then for the dead8   
,where smile ,cheltonian hills and      
dales1        ,where stretches ,erith   
down the shore      ,of ,thames1        
wood-fringed and fleck'd with sails1    
,his holy voice is heard no more        
,is it for nothing he is dead8          
,send forth your children in his stead6 
,far from fair ,oxford's groves and     
towers1        ,her scholar ,bishop dies
 apart2      ,he blames the ease of     
cultured hours        ,in death's still 
voice that shakes the heart4      ,brave

 saint6 for dark ,arabia dead6      ,i  
go to fight the fight instead6        ,o
 ,eastern-lover from the ,west6         
,thou hast out-soared these prisoning   
bars2      ,thy memory1 on thy ,master's
 breast1        ,uplifts us like the    
beckoning stars4      ,we follow now as 
thou hast led2      ,baptize us1        
,saviour1 for the dead6                 
--,archdeacon ,a4 ,e4 ,moule4           
,,xxxiii                         ,,the  
,,american ,,arabian ,,mission     8,our
 ultimate object is to occupy the       
interior of ,arabia40--,plan of   the   
,arabian ,mission4     8,to such an     
appeal there can be but one reply4 ,the 
,dutch ,reformed   ,church when it took 
up the mission originally commenced on  
an   independent basis as the ,arabian  
,mission1 did so with full knowledge    
of the plans and purposes of its        
founders1 which1 as the very title   of 
the mission shows1 embraced nothing less
 than such a comprehensive   scheme of  
evangelization as that above            

described40--,major-,general ,f4   ,t4  
,haig4     8,it is not keeping expenses 
down1 but keeping faith and enthusiasm  
up1 that gives a clear balance sheet4   
,give the ,church heroic   leadership1  
place before it high ideals1 keep it on 
the march for   larger conquests1 and   
the financial problem will take care of 
itself4   ,if the ,church sees that we  
are not going to trust ,god enough to   
venture upon any work for ,him till we  
have the money in sight1 it will        
probably adopt the same prudence in     
making contributions1 and our   good    
financiering will be with heavy loss of 
income40--,the ,christian   ,advocate4  
8,the ,arabian ,mission was organized   
,august #ast1 #ahhi1 and its first      
missionary1 ,rev4 ,james ,cantine1      
sailed for the field ,october #afth of  
the same year4 ,in order to trace the   
steps that led to the organization  of  
this first ,american ,mission to        
,arabia1 we must go back a year         
earlier4    ,in the ,theological        

,seminary of the ,reformed 7,dutch7     
,church at ,new  ,brunswick1 ,new       
,jersey1 the missionary spirit was      
especially active  during the year      
#ahhh4 ,this was fostered by members of 
the faculty who  had a warm love for    
that work1 by a missionary lectureship  
recently  inaugurated1 by the missionary
 alumni of the seminary1 and by some  of
 the students themselves who brought    
missions to the front4 ,among  these    
students were ,james ,cantine and       
,philip ,t4 ,phelps of the senior       
class1 and ,samuel ,m4 ,zwemer of the   
middle class1 who had individually      
decided to work abroad1 ,god willing1   
and who used to meet for prayer  and    
consultation regarding the choice of a  
field of labor4 ,the first  meeting of  
this band was held on ,october #cast1   
#ahhh1 and the topic  discussed was1    
8what constitutes a call to the ,foreign
 field80 ,after  that they met almost   
every week1 and gradually the idea took 
shape of  banding themselves together to

 begin pioneer work in some one of the  
unoccupied fields4 ,tibet and ,central  
,africa were mentioned2 but their       
thoughts generally seemed to unite on   
some ,arabic-speaking country           
especially ,nubia or the upper ,nile4   
,the ,seminary library was ransacked    
for information on these fields1 without
 definite results4 ,at the  end of      
,november the band decided to consult   
with their ,hebrew and  ,arabic         
professor1 ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,lansing1 ,d4  
,d41 who1 being of missionary  parentage
 and full of the missionary passion1    
warmly welcomed their  confidence and   
from that time became associated with   
them in their  plans4 ,after some time  
it was mutually agreed that ,god called 
them to  pioneer work in some portion of
 the ,mohammedan world in or adjacent to
  ,arabia4    ,over against this ,divine
 call there appeared a great human      
difficulty3  the fact that the church to
 which they belonged and owed allegiance
  conducted no missions in the          

,mohammedan world4 ,the ,mission ,board 
of  that church was already burdened    
with a debt of #ce1jjj1 and therefore   
it was improbable that they would       
establish such a work in addition to    
their other mission work4 ,in spite of  
these obstacles1 however1 it was        
decided1 ,february #aa1 #ahii1 to make  
formal application to the ,board1  and  
on ,may #bc;d the following plan was    
drawn up1 and presented to the  ,board  
of ,foreign ,missions3     8,we the     
undersigned desiring to engage in       
pioneer mission work in   some          
,arabic-speaking country1 and especially
 in behalf of ,moslems and   slaves1 do 
at the outset recognize the following   
facts3     #a4 ,the great need and      
encouragement for this work at the      
present time4     #b4 ,the non-existence
 of such mission work under the         
supervision of our   ,board of ,foreign 
,missions at the present time4     #c4  
,the fact that hitherto little has been 
done in the channels   indicated4       

#d4 ,the inability of our ,board to     
inaugurate this work under its   present
 status4     ,therefore1 that the object
 desired may be realized1 we            
respectfully   submit to the ,board1 and
 with their endorsement to the church at
   large1 the following propositions3   
#a4 ,the inauguration of this work at as
 early a time as possible4     #b4 ,the 
field to be ,arabia1 the upper ,nile or 
any other field1   subject to the       
statement of the preamble1 that shall be
 deemed most   advantageous1 after due  
consideration4     #c4 ,the expenses of 
said mission to be met 7a7 by yearly    
subscriptions in amounts of from five to
 two hundred dollars2 the   subscribers 
of like amounts to constitute a         
syndicate with such   organization as   
shall be deemed desirable2 7b7 by       
syndicates of such   individuals1       
churches and organizations as shall     
undertake the support   of individual   
missionaries1 or contribute to such     
specific objects as   shall be required 

by the mission4     #d4 ,these          
syndicates shall be formed and the      
financial pledges made   payable for a  
term of five years4     #e4 ,at the     
expiration of this period of five years 
the mission shall   pass under the      
direct supervision of our ,board as in  
the case of   our other missions4       
,should the ,board still be financially 
unable1   syndicates shall be re-formed 
and pledges re-taken4     #f4 ,in the   
meantime the mission shall be generally 
under the care of   the ,board 444      
through whose hands its funds shall     
pass4     #g4 ,the undersigned request  
the approval of the ,board to this      
undertaking in general1 and particularly
 in the matter of soliciting            
subscriptions4      7,signed47    ,j4   
,g4 ,,lansing1                 ,,jas4   
,,cantine1                 ,p4 ,t4      
,,phelps1                 ,s4 ,m4       
,,zwemer40    ,this plan was first      
presented to the ,board on ,june #c;d1  
when it was  provisionally accepted to  

be referred to the ,general ,synod4 ,on 
,june  #aath1 the ,synod1 after a long  
and ardent discussion1 referred the     
whole matter back to the ,board1 asking 
them 8carefully to consider the  whole  
question and1 should the ,board see     
their way clear1 that they be           
authorized to inaugurate the mission    
proposed40 ,on ,june #bfth the ,board   
met and passed the following resolution3
     8,resolved1 ,that1 while the ,board
 is greatly interested in the           
proposition to engage in mission work   
among the ,arabic speaking   peoples1   
the work in which the ,board is already 
engaged is so great   and so constantly 
growing1 and the financial condition of 
the ,board   is such 7its debt at that  
time being #ce1jjj71 that the ,board    
feels   constrained to decline to assume
 any responsibility in the matter4      
8,if1 however1 during the next four     
months1 such a degree of interest   in  
,foreign ,missions should be developed  
in the churches as to reduce   the      

amount to which the treasury is now     
overdrawn to a small fraction1   then   
the ,board would feel inclined to favor 
that important enterprise40             
,meanwhile the plan had been fully      
discussed in the church papers1  and    
although there were warm friends of the 
enterprise who earnestly  plead by pen  
and purse for its inauguration1 the     
current generally  ran dead against the 
proposal1 and much cold water was thrown
 on the  enterprise4#adh    ,how those  
felt who were most concerned in the     
decision was expressed  by ,professor   
,lansing1 on their behalf1 in the       
following words3 8,the  writer and the  
individuals named are deeply grateful to
 ,general ,synod  for its hearty        
reception and advocacy of the proposed  
mission4 ,and1  on the other hand1 they 
not only have no word of complaint to   
utter  in regard to the action of the   
,board1 but are grateful to the ,board  
for the careful consideration they have 
given the matter1 and deeply  sympathize

 with them in the sorrow which they and 
all must feel in  connection with the   
adverse action taken4 ,but this does not
 discharge  the responsibility4 ,a      
responsibility ,divinely imposed is not 
discharged  by any admission of existing
 human difficulty4444 ,when ,god calls  
we  must obey1 not object4 ,and also    
when ,god calls to some specific work1  
then ,he must have some way by which    
that work can be done40    ,after much  
thought and prayer a plan was adopted   
for conducting this  work4 ,the motto of
 the new mission appeared at the head3  
8,oh that  ,ishmael might live before   
,thee40 ,after the preamble1 similar to 
the  original plan1 there are the       
following sections3     8#a4 ,this      
missionary movement shall be known as   
,the ,arabian ,mission4     #b4 ,the    
field1 so far as at present it is       
possible to be determined1   shall be   
,arabia and the adjacent coast of       
,africa4     #c4 ,selected by and       
associated with the undersigned shall be

 a   ,committee of ,advice1 composed of 
four contributors1 to assist in         
advancing the interests of this mission4
     #d4 ,in view of the fact that this 
mission is of necessity                 
undenominational in its personnel and   
working1 contributions are   solicited  
from any and all to whom this may come1 
without reference to   denominational   
adherence4     #e4 ,the amount required 
to carry on the work of this mission    
will   be the sum necessary to meet the 
equipment and working expenses of   the 
individuals approved of and sent to     
engage in the work of this   mission4   
,no debt shall be incurred and no       
salaries be paid to other   than        
missionaries4     #f4 ,it is desired    
that the amount subscribed shall not    
interfere with   the individual's       
regular denominational contributions to 
foreign   missions4444     #g4 ,of the  
undersigned the first party shall be    
,treasurer1 and have   general oversight
 of the interests of the mission at home

 and as such   shall render an annual   
statement1 while the missionaries in the
 field   shall have the direction of    
those interests abroad44440    ,the     
rough draft of this plan was drawn up at
 ,pine ,hill ,cottage1 in the           
,catskills1 on ,august #ast4 ,a few days
 later1 while the band was at the  old  
,cantine homestead1 ,stone ,ridge1 ,new 
,york1 ,dr4 ,lansing composed the       
,arabian ,mission hymn1 which will      
always be an inspiration to those who   
love ,arabia2 but it will never be sung 
with deeper feeling than it was  for the
 first time1 in an upper room1 by three 
voices4    ,illustration3 ,,the         
,,arabian ,,missionary ,,hymn4          
,facsimile of the original copy composed
 by ,prof4 ,j4 ,g4 ,lansing in #ahhi1   
at ,stone ,ridge1 ,n4 ,y4    ,when the  
plan was published1 the ,rubicon was    
crossed1 although not  without the loss 
of one name from among the signers4     
,contributions  began to come in1 the   
,committee of ,advice was selected1 and 

the  mission was incorporated4 ,among   
other tokens of favor the mission       
received at this juncture from          
,catherine ,crane ,halstead1 a legacy1  
of  nearly five thousand dollars--the   
largest gift1 and the only legacy       
received by the ,arabian ,mission in the
 past decade4 ,this unexpected and      
providential donation was encouraging   
and enabled the mission to begin  work  
immediately4    ,on ,october #ast ,james
 ,cantine was ordained by the ,classis  
of ,kingston  in the ,fair ,street      
,reformed ,church and he sailed for     
,syria on ,october  #afth1 stopping at  
,edinburgh to consult with the ,free    
,church of  ,scotland ,committee        
regarding cooperation with their mission
 at ,aden4  ,the proposition was        
cordially welcomed but was not acted    
upon since  at ,sheikh ,othman1 it was  
afterwards mutually agreed that more    
would  probably be accomplished if the  
missions worked separately4 ,the second 
member of the band to leave for the     

field was ordained by the ,classis  of  
,iowa1 at ,orange ,city1 and sailed on  
,june #bhth1 #ahij4    ,the two pioneers
 left ,syria for ,cairo at the end of   
,november to meet  ,professor ,lansing  
who was in ,egypt for his health4 ,on   
,december #ahth ,mr4  ,cantine left by  
direct steamer for ,aden1 and on        
,january #hth1 #ahia1 the  writer       
followed in an ,egyptian coasting       
steamer1 desiring to call at  ,jiddah   
and ,hodeidah1 and to meet ,general     
,haig1 who was then at ,suakin  in      
charge of rescue work for orphans after 
the war4#adi ,my journey  down the ,red 
,sea was made in company with the aged  
,bishop ,french1  though neither of us  
ever heard of the other before we met on
 the train  to take the same ship at    
,suez4 ,we then learned for the first   
time that  both were bound for the same 
point with the same object1 to preach   
,christ to the ,arabs4    ,from ,aden   
the two ,american missionaries made it  
their first task to  explore the points 

suggested by ,general ,haig for         
missionary occupation4  ,one1 ,mr4      
,cantine1 journeyed northward to the    
country of the ,sultan  of ,lahaj1 while
 the other sailed along the southern    
coast in company  with ,kamil1 the      
,syrian convert from ,islam4 ,this      
earnest young disciple  had become      
acquainted with ,mr4 ,cantine in ,syria1
 and early expressed  a desire to join  
in the work for ,arabia4 ,he loved the  
,scriptures  and never shrank from      
obstacles which stood in the way of     
faith or  service4 ,his biography1 by   
,dr4 ,henry ,jessup1 shows what he      
surrendered  for ,christ2 only the day  
of days will show how much he           
accomplished  for ,arabia4 ,on ,may     
#bfth1 #ahia1 ,mr4 ,cantine sailed to   
visit ,muscat and  the ,persian ,gulf1  
with the understanding that his         
co-laborer should  meanwhile attempt the
 journey to ,sana and study the possible
 openings  for work in ,yemen4 ,the news
 of ,bishop ,french's death had already 

reached ,aden4 ,mr4 ,cantine tarried at 
,muscat a fortnight1 after which he     
visited ,bahrein and other ports of the 
,gulf1 going on finally to ,busrah  and 
,bagdad4 ,the importance of ,busrah as a
 mission centre was evident4  ,in       
population1 accessibility and strategic 
location it was superior to  other      
places in ,eastern ,arabia4 ,here seemed
 to be the place to drive  the opening  
wedge4    ,meanwhile a twenty-days'     
journey to ,sana and the villages of    
,yemen  on the ,hodeidah route1 had     
shown the importance of ,sana as a      
centre  of operations1 as is shown from 
the following written at that time3     
8,it has advantages of large population1
 central location1 importance  of       
position and healthfulness of climate4  
,mail comes weekly and a  telegraph     
connects with the outside world4 ,its   
disadvantages are1  a ,turkish          
government and the consequent           
difficulties of open and  aggressive    
work4 ,like the road from ,hodeidah to  

,sana1 it will be  uphill work1 through 
mountains and strong places1 but in both
 cases  you reach ,arabia ,felix40 ,on  
meeting ,mr4 ,cantine at ,busrah1       
however1  the arguments for ,yemen were 
set aside1 and it was agreed that it was
  best to make ,busrah the first        
headquarters4 ,it was never thought at  
the  time that ,yemen's highlands would1
 after ten years1 still be without a    
missionary4    ,illustration3 ,,the     
,,old ,,mission ,,house ,,at ,,busrah4  
,illustration3 ,,the ,,kitchen ,,of     
,,the ,,old ,,mission ,,house1 ,,busrah4
    ,dr4 ,m4 ,eustace was then at       
,busrah1 doing dispensary-work for the  
poor  and acting as physician to the    
,european community4 ,he welcomed the   
missionaries and worked with them       
heartily until he was transferred  to   
the ,church ,missionary ,society        
hospital at ,quetta4 ,his departure     
emphasized the power of a medical       
missionary among ,moslems1 and the      
missionaries made a strong plea for a   

physician to join them4 ,in  ,january1  
#ahib1 the ,board of ,trustees sent out 
,dr4 ,c4 ,e4 ,riggs1 a man  with        
testimonials of his standing as a       
physician and a member of an            
,evangelical church1 but who1 shortly   
after reaching the field1 avowed  his   
disbelief in the divinity of ,christ4   
,his commission was revoked  and he soon
 returned to ,america4 ,after several   
strange adventures this  singular yet   
lovable man reached ,chicago1 was       
converted under the  preaching of ,d4   
,l4 ,moody at the ,world's ,fair1 and   
died at his home in  ,new ,orleans about
 a year later4 ,it was a long way to the
 ,father's house  but proves the power  
of prayer1 and that ,god never forgets  
,his own4    ,on ,june #bdth of the same
 year faithful ,kamil1 rightly named    
,abd ,el  ,messiah 7servant of ,christ71
 was called to his reward4 ,his illness 
was  so sudden and the circumstances    
that attended his death so suspicious   
that we cannot but believe that he died 

a martyr by poison4 ,he was the         
strongest man of the mission in         
controversy with ,moslems1 and a most   
lovable character1 so that the report of
 that year truthfully states1  8our loss
 in his death is unmeasured40    ,these 
two successive blows were very serious  
and now two other losses  followed4     
,yakoob1 another ,moslem convert1 who   
had been in mission  employ1 and whose  
wife received baptism at ,busrah1 was   
arrested and  prevented from returning  
to our field4 ,also one of the two      
efficient  colporteurs employed by the  
mission1 left to seek his fortune in    
,america4 ,the continued illness of ,dr4
 ,lansing in the home land and  a       
decrease in contributions likewise cast 
a shadow on the work4 ,but  faith grew  
stronger by trial4 ,in the quarterly    
letter1 near the close  of this year1 we
 read3 8,the experience of the          
missionaries ever  since arriving at    
,aden1 their tours along the coast and  
inland1 the  opportunities for work     

along the ,euphrates1 the ,tigris and   
the ,gulf1  and the deep consciousness  
that our mission is called of ,god to   
carry  the gospel into the interior of  
,arabia--all prompt us to make a special
  plea at this time for additional      
workers4 ,there are several points near 
,busrah where permanent work should be  
inaugurated without delay1 and  places  
like ,bahrein1 ,muscat or ,sana are     
equally1 perhaps more1 open to  the     
gospel than ,busrah itself4444 ,if the  
,arabian mission is to be true  to its  
name and purpose1 it must occupy        
,arabia40 ,this was followed  by an     
appeal for five new men and the request 
that1 should means be  lacking to send  
them out1 salaries be reduced1          
8confident that the best  way to        
increase contributions is by extending  
our work and trusting  that ,god will   
provide for the future40    ,the mission
 was at this time passing through a     
period of determined  opposition and    
open hostility on the part of the       

,turkish local  government4 ,colporteurs
 were arrested2 the ,bible shop sealed  
up2 books  confiscated2 and a guard     
placed at the door of the house occupied
 by  the missionaries4 ,a petition was  
sent to the ,sublime ,porte to expel    
the mission4 ,but the opposition was    
short-lived and the petition never      
accomplished its purpose4 ,in ,december 
,rev4 ,peter ,j4 ,zwemer joined the     
mission in ,busrah4 ,the difficulties in
 the way of securing a residence  were  
at first very great and frequent change 
of abode was detrimental  to the work4  
,arrangements were likewise made during 
this year to carry  on all the ,bible   
work for the ,british and ,foreign      
,bible ,society in the  region occupied 
by the mission4    ,the chief event of  
the next year was the occupation of     
,bahrein as a  second station4 ,although
 the first attempt to open a ,bible shop
 and to  secure a residence on the      
islands was fraught with exceeding      
difficulty  and much opposition1 the    

attempt was successful1 and at the close
 of  the first year over two hundred    
portions of ,scripture had been sold4 ,a
  journey was made into the province of 
,hassa and the eastern threshold  of    
,arabia was thus crossed for the first  
time by a missionary4 ,at  ,busrah the  
evangelistic work and ,bible circulation
 made progress1 but  medical work was at
 a standstill4 ,cholera visited both    
stations and  greatly interfered with   
the work2 many people fled from ,busrah1
 and  at ,bahrein the total number of   
deaths was over five thousand4 ,peter   
,zwemer kept lonely watch on the islands
 at that time2 his only servant  died of
 cholera and he himself could not get   
away as no ship would take  passengers4 
,early in #ahid the good news came that 
,dr4 ,james ,t4 ,wyckoff had been       
appointed to join the mission4 ,sailing 
on ,january #fth1 and going via         
,constantinople to secure his ,turkish  
diploma he arrived at ,busrah in        
,march4 ,but the joy of welcoming a     

medical missionary was short-lived1  for
 after a brief stay at ,busrah he went  
to ,bahrein where a severe  attack of   
chronic dysentery soon compelled him to 
return to ,busrah  and subsequently to  
,kerachi and ,america4 ,thus the mission
 lost its  third medical missionary1 and
 his successor did not come out until   
the  following year4    ,muscat was     
visited by ,peter ,zwemer as early as   
,december1 #ahic1 and his  reports of   
this port as a prospective centre for   
work in ,oman were so  encouraging after
 several exploration journeys1 that it  
was decided to  allow him to occupy the 
station4    ,during the summer of #ahid1
 the writer1 at the request and expense 
of  the ,mildmay ,mission to the ,jews1 
made a journey to ,sana1 to distribute  
,hebrew ,new ,testaments4 ,it was also  
hoped that it would be possible for  him
 to cross from ,sana to ,bahrein1 by way
 of ,wady ,dauasir4 ,but the  theft of  
all his money even before reaching ,sana
 and his arrest by the  ,turks1         

prevented the attempt4    ,after many   
trials incident to the economical       
administration of the  mission at home1 
negotiations were concluded in ,june1   
#ahid1 by  which it was transferred to  
the management and care of the ,board of
  ,foreign ,missions of the ,reformed   
,church4 ,the distinct existence of  the
 corporation is still preserved1 but the
 trustees are chosen from  among the    
members of the ,foreign ,mission ,board4
 ,no other departures  from former      
methods were made1 save that the        
administration was now in  experienced  
hands and at less expense than formerly4
 ,the change was  cordially accepted by 
nearly all the missionaries and the     
contributors2  now no one questions its 
wisdom and benefit4    ,the year #ahie  
was another trying year to the mission1 
but there  were also blessings4 ,the    
departure of ,rev4 ,james ,cantine to   
,america  on furlough1 after nearly     
seven years in ,arabia1 necessitated the
  transferral of the writer to ,busrah  

and so left ,bahrein practically        
uncared for4 ,the missionaries and      
native helpers suffered more than  usual
 from the enervating climate1 and       
touring from both ,muscat and  ,bahrein 
was made impossible for a large part of 
the year by tribal wars  and troubles4  
,in ,february the ,bedouins attacked    
,muscat and captured  the town2 the     
place was given over to pillage and over
 two hundred  lives were lost2 the      
mission-house and shop were looted and  
,peter  ,zwemer took refuge at the      
,british consulate4 ,at ,bahrein a      
similar  trouble threatened for months  
and terror reigned1 but the disturbance 
never reached the islands and the unruly
 ,arabs were punished by  ,english      
gunboats4 ,at ,busrah the ,bible work   
was stopped by the ,turkish             
authorities2 the shop closed and        
colporteurs arrested4 ,the arrival of   
,dr4 ,h4 ,r4 ,lankford ,worrall at      
,busrah1 on ,april #bast1 with a        
,turkish  diploma1 once more gave the   

mission the golden key to the hearts of 
the people4 ,dr4 ,worrall has used it   
faithfully1 although his severe  illness
 the first summer almost made the       
mission despair of the health  of       
doctors4    ,mr4 ,cantine visited the   
churches in ,america and greatly        
stimulated  interest1 prayer and        
offerings1 although no new missionaries 
were found  willing and suitable for the
 field4    ,at the end of the year      
,amara was opened as an out-station in  
the midst  of much opposition but       
greater blessing4 ,even during this year
 earnest  inquirers in this fanatical   
river village gladdened the hearts of   
the  workers4    ,work for the women of 
,eastern ,arabia was begun in #ahif by  
,amy ,elizabeth  ,wilkes ,zwemer1 who   
left the ,church ,mission ,society      
mission at ,bagdad  to be married to    
,rev4 ,s4 ,m4 ,zwemer4 ,first at        
,busrah1 then at ,bahrein  and ,kateef  
she inaugurated the work which only a   
woman can do in ,moslem  lands4         

,extensive tours were made by the       
colporteurs and by ,peter  ,zwemer4 ,the
 entire region north of ,muscat as far  
as ,someil and ,rastak1  even to ,jebel 
,achdar1 was penetrated by the          
missionary and colporteurs4  ,one of the
 latter visited the so-called 8pirate   
coast0 south of ,katar  and sold over a 
hundred portions of ,scripture4 ,the    
following table  shows the increase of  
,scripture sales by the mission at all  
of its  stations4 ,more than five-sixths
 of these copies were sold to ,moslems3 
#ahib  #ahic   #ahid   #ahie    #ahif   
#ahig   #ahih   #ahii        #aijj      
#fbj   #hbe  #a1gfj  #b1cac   #b1hje    
#a1ggi  #b1jaj  #b1dfd   over #c1gjj    
,at ,busrah first fruits were gathered  
after these years of sowing in  two     
remarkable cases4 ,a soldier at ,amara  
accepted ,christ and came to  ,busrah   
for instruction2 this man has since     
8suffered the loss of all  things0 and  
8witnessed a good confession0 wherever  
he has been dragged  as an exile or     

driven as an apostate4 ,another convert 
was a middle-aged  ,persian who was     
deeply convicted of sin by reading a    
copy of ,luke's  gospel in the          
dispensary at ,busrah4 ,he was a        
consumptive1 and after  finding peace in
 ,christ1 left ,busrah for ,shiraz4     
,in the autumn ,mr4 ,cantine returned to
 the field1 but the following  ,february
 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,s4 ,m4 ,zwemer departed
 on furlough1 so that1 with  no         
reinforcements1 the mission-staff       
remained insufficient4 ,the work  at    
,bahrein not only stood still1 but1     
because of the unfaithfulness of  a     
native helper1 retrograded4 ,muscat was1
 on the contrary1 increasing  in        
importance4 ,a school was begun by ,mr4 
,p4 ,j4 ,zwemer1 when eighteen  helpless
 ,african boys1 rescued from a          
slave-dhow1 were handed over to  his    
care4 ,the little hand press in the     
mission-house sent forth its  first     
message2 a tract comparing ,christ and  
,mohammed1 which stirred  thought as    

well as opposition4 ,it was the first   
,christian writing ever  printed in     
,arabia and its simple message is       
prophetic3 8,mohammed or  ,christ1 on   
whom do you rely80    ,about this time  
the ,american ,bible ,society took over 
the work of ,bible  distribution at     
,bahrein and ,muscat by an annual       
appropriation to the  mission which     
enabled it to extend this department of 
work4    ,at ,busrah the medical work   
drew many within hearing of the gospel  
and  ,dr4 ,worrall was able to open work
 at ,nasariyeh4 ,at ,amara the seed once
  more fell on good soil1 and a small   
band of inquirers came together for     
prayer1 but the harvest is not yet4     
,at the close of #ahig1 ,rev4 ,f4 ,j4   
,barny1 supported by the young people   
of the ,marble ,collegiate ,church1 ,new
 ,york ,city1 came to the field1 and    
began language study4    ,the year #ahih
 is fresh in the memory of all those who
 are interested  in the ,arabian        
,mission4 ,during it ,peter ,zwemer1    

after having gone to  ,america1 was     
called to his reward and four new       
missionaries sent out  into the harvest 
field to sow the seed of the kingdom4   
,two of them1  ,miss ,margaret ,rice    
7now ,mrs4 ,barny7 and ,rev4 ,george ,e4
 ,stone1 sailed  with ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,s4
 ,m4 ,zwemer on their return in ,august4
 ,the other  two1 ,dr4 ,sharon ,j4      
,thoms and ,dr4 ,marion ,wells ,thoms1  
of the ,university  of ,michigan1 came  
to the field in ,december1 #ahih4 ,mr4  
,stone has now  also gone to his        
reward--the third of the ,arabian       
,mission to lay down  his life for      
,arabia4                                
,,xxxiv                 ,,in            
,,memoriam--,,peter ,j4 ,,zwemer ,,and  
,,geo4 ,e4 ,,stone      ,a skillful and 
loving hand has laid a wreath of        
immortelles on the  unknown grave of    
,kamil2 his biography will live4 ,we can
 only briefly  record our love and      
admiration for those other two of the   
,arabian  ,mission1 who 8loved not their

 lives unto the death10 but 8hazarded   
their lives for the name of our ,lord   
,jesus ,christ40    ,,peter ,,john      
,,zwemer was born at ,south ,holland1   
,illinois1 near ,chicago1 on  ,september
 #b;d1 #ahfh4 ,his childhood was spent  
in a loving ,christian home  surrounded 
by gracious influences and the prayers  
of godly parents4 ,in  #ahhj he entered 
the preparatory department of ,hope     
,college1 ,holland1  ,michigan1 and was 
finally graduated from the college in   
#ahhh4 ,he  was the only one of his     
class to choose the foreign field1 and  
for  it he sought special preparation   
after graduation1 by work as ,bible     
colporteur in ,western ,pennsylvania and
 ,new ,york1 and a year of teaching  in 
,iowa4 ,in #ahib he was graduated from  
the ,new ,brunswick ,theological        
,seminary1 and on ,september #adth1 of  
the same year1 was ordained at  ,grand  
,rapids1 ,michigan1 and sailed for      
,arabia on ,october #aith4 ,from  the   
day of his arrival on the field to the  

day of his death his first  thought was 
gospel work for the ,arabs4 ,he was of a
 practical turn  of mind1 and had no    
visionary ideas nor desire for          
martyrdom1 but a  sturdy1 steady purpose
 to make his life tell4 ,he was eager to
 meet  men1 keen to grasp opportunities1
 a cosmopolitan in spirit always and    
everywhere4 ,a student of character     
rather than of books1 he preferred  to  
make two difficult journeys rather than 
report one4 ,he loved to  teach and knew
 how to do it4 ,sympathy for the weak   
and suffering and a  hatred for all     
shams were prominent traits4 ,he        
endeared himself even to  those from    
whom he differed in opinion or conduct  
by his whole-hearted  sincerity and     
earnest advocacy of his views4 ,arabia  
was to him a school  of faith2 his      
,christian character ripened into full  
fruitage through  much suffering4 ,mr4  
,cantine wrote of him3    8,our personal
 relations were perhaps more intimate   
than those usually  known by the        

missionaries of our scattered stations4 
,i was at ,busrah to  welcome him when  
in #ahib he responded to our first call 
for volunteers1  and was also the one to
 say good-bye a few months ago as he    
left behind  him the rocks and hills of 
,muscat and ,oman1 among which the      
precious  cruse of his strength had been
 broken for the ,master's service4 ,his 
course was more trying than that of the 
others of our company1 as he  came among
 us when the impulse and enthusiasm     
which attach to the  opening of a new   
work were beginning to fail1 and before 
our experience  had enabled us to lessen
 some of the trials and discomforts of a
  pioneer effort4 ,a thorough ,american1
 appreciating and treasuring the  memory
 of the civilization left behind1 he yet
 readily adapted himself  to the        
conditions here found4 ,of a sensitive  
nature1 he keenly felt any  roughness   
from friend or foe1 but ,i never knew   
him on that account to  show any        
bitterness or to shirk the performance  

of any recognized duty4    8,of those   
qualities which make for success in our 
field he had not a  few4 ,his social    
instincts led him at once to make       
friends among the  ,arabs1 and while his
 vocabulary was still very limited1 he  
would spend  hours in the coffee-shops  
and in the gathering-places of the town4
  ,his exceptional musical talents also 
attracted and made for him many         
acquaintances among those he was seeking
 to reach1 besides proving  a constant  
pleasure to his associates and a most   
important aid in  all our public        
services4 ,and many a difficulty was    
surmounted by his  hopefulness and      
buoyancy of disposition1 which even pain
 and sickness  could not destroy40      
,illustration3 ,hon4 ,ion ,keith        
,falconer  ,rev4 ,peter ,j4 ,zwemer     
,bishop ,valpy ,french  ,kamil ,abdel   
,messiah  ,,four ,,missionary ,,martyrs 
,,of ,,arabia4    ,his short period of  
service in ,arabia was longer than that 
of either  ,keith ,falconer or ,bishop  

,french and although their lives have   
perhaps  exerted a much wider influence1
 his has left larger fruitage on        
,arabian  soil4 ,of his sickness and    
death the ,rev4 ,h4 ,n4 ,cobb1 ,d4 ,d41 
,secretary  of the mission wrote3       
8,when the station at ,muscat was opened
 in #ahic it was assigned to him4  ,from
 that time until ,may of the present    
year ,muscat was his home4  ,there he   
remained alone most of the time4        
,frequent attacks of fever  prostrated  
him1 unsanitary and unpleasant          
conditions surrounded him1  the heat1   
constant and intense1 often overwhelmed 
him2 still he clung  heroically to his  
post1 uttering no word of complaint1 and
 quitting  it only when mission business
 made it necessary1 or tours were to  be
 undertaken along the coast or in the   
interior1 or when prolonged  attacks of 
fever and the preservation of life made 
a limited absence  imperative4 ,when one
 considers all that he endured1 the     
wonder is not  that he died1 but that he

 lived as long as he did4 ,no higher    
heroism  fought1 suffered and at last   
succumbed at ,santiago4 ,he had become  
so  much reduced by repeated attacks of 
fever and rheumatism that it was        
thought wise last year that he should   
leave ,arabia and come home4 ,his       
desire was to remain until next year1   
#ahii1 but in the early part  of this   
year it became evident that he must not 
remain4 ,when in the  latter part of    
,may he left ,arabia1 his weakness was  
so great that he  was carried on board  
the steamer4 ,on the homeward way1      
though writing  back cheerfully         
concerning his improvement to those whom
 he had left  behind1 he grew gradually 
worse1 and when he arrived in this      
country  on the evening of ,july #ab1   
was taken immediately to the            
,presbyterian  ,hospital through the    
kind assistance of a student for orders 
in the  ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,those
 who have visited him there1 and they   
have  been many1 have been struck by his

 cheerfulness1 his hopeful courage1  his
 anxious desire to recover1 that he     
might return to his field and  work1 and
 yet his willing submission to his      
,father's will40    ,he clung to life   
with a grip of steel and laughed at the 
idea the  doctors had of his approaching
 death because he could not believe that
  his work was done4 8,i have done      
nothing yet and when ,i go back this    
time ,i will be ready to begin work10   
were his words4 ,yet he had no fear  of 
death4 ,his eye never turned away from  
,arabia2 he longed to plant  the plough 
once more in the stony soil of ,oman and
 to teach the most  ignorant the way of 
life4 ,from his dying bed he sent to the
 committee  a report regarding changes  
necessary in the house at ,muscat4 ,his 
hand1  almost too weak to hold a pen1   
wrote on ,october #gth3 8,dear          
father--,i am  slowly but surely        
improving and may be home soon4 ,now the
 board has  authorized me to complete   
the building-fund4 ,i have just secured 

#ajj  for a ,muscat touring boat4 ,dr4  
and ,mrs4 ,thoms sailed this morning for
  ,arabia1 laus ,deo6 ,i felt sorry ,i  
could not divide myself and go with     
them 444 patiently longing ,i wait ,his 
time40    ,even later than this1 when he
 could no longer write1 he dictated     
letters regarding the work at home and  
in the field4 ,on the evening of        
,tuesday1 ,october #ahth1 #ahih1 six    
weeks after his thirtieth birthday he   
quietly fell asleep4 8,his time0 had    
come4 ,after a brief service1 the  body 
was taken by loving hands to ,holland1  
,michigan1 and laid to rest  in the sure
 and certain hope of a glorious         
resurrection4 ,but his heart  rests in  
,arabia and his memory will remain      
longest where he suffered  most and     
where his fellowship was so blessed4    
8,o blest communion6 fellowship divine6 
,we feebly struggle1 they in glory shine
      ,yet all are one in ,thee for all 
are ,thine4                             
,hallelujah6        8,and when the      

strife is fierce1 the warfare long1--   
,steals on the ear the distant          
triumph-song      ,and hearts are brave 
again and arms are strong4              
,hallelujah60                           
,,george ,e4 ,,stone4    ,on the        
twenty-sixth of ,june1 #ahii1 ,george   
,e4 ,stone died of heat  apoplexy at the
 coast town of ,birka a few miles east  
of ,muscat4 ,on  ,thursday the          
twenty-second of that month1 in company 
with a colporteur1  he left ,muscat1 for
 a few days change4 ,he was in fairly   
good health1  although suffering from   
boils4 ,monday morning he had a little  
fever2  in the afternoon it came again  
and in a few hours he had departed4 ,his
  body was taken to ,muscat by the      
colporteur and there buried near the    
grave of ,bishop ,french4    ,rev4      
,george ,e4 ,stone was born on          
,september #ast1 #ahgc1 at ,mexico1     
,oswego  ,county1 ,new ,york4 ,he was   
graduated from ,hamilton ,college in    
#ahie1 and  from the ,auburn            

,theological ,seminary in #ahih4 ,toward
 the close of his  studies his thoughts 
were drawn to the foreign field and he  
became a  8student volunteer40 ,the     
reason for his decision was             
characteristic  of the man4 ,as he      
himself expressed it in his inimitable  
five-minute  speech at the ,general     
,synod3 8,i tried in every possible way 
to avoid  going to the foreign field but
 ,i had no peace4 ,i go from a sense of 
obedience40 ,he first heard of the      
special needs of ,arabia through a      
former classmate who represented ,union 
,seminary at the ,new ,brunswick        
,inter-,seminary ,conference in         
,november1 #ahig4 ,shortly after he     
wrote for  information about the field1 
and without further hesitancy he applied
  and was accepted4 ,ordained by the    
,presbytery of ,cayuga at ,syracuse1 he 
sailed with the mission party in        
,august1 #ahih4    ,george ,stone was a 
man of much promise2 altogether a       
character of one  piece without seam or 

rent4 ,sturdy1 manly1 straightforward1  
humble and  honest to the core4 ,he was 
entirely unconventional and did not know
  what it was to try to make a good     
impression4 ,he was simply natural4     
,with native tact and ,yankee wit was   
joined a keen sense of duty and  a      
willingness to plod4 ,confessing that he
 was never intended for a  linguist he  
yet1 by sheer application1 made         
remarkably rapid progress  in ,arabic4  
,he made friends readily and was        
faithful to sow beside all  waters4 ,no 
one could travel with him and not know  
that he was a fisher  of men2 yet he was
 never obtrusive in his method4 ,he had 
a splendid  constitution1 and looked    
forward to a long life in ,arabia1 but  
,god  willed otherwise4    ,he was at   
,bahrein from ,october #ith until       
,february #adth1 when he left  for      
,muscat to take the place of ,rev4 ,f4  
,j4 ,barny1 who had been ill  with      
typhoid and was going on sick-leave to  
,india4 ,he was the only  person        

available at the time1 although it was  
not a pleasant task for  a novice to be 
suddenly called to take care of a       
station of which he  knew little more   
than the name4 ,without a word of demur 
he left ,bahrein  at three hours' notice
 and sailed for ,muscat4 ,there he      
remained alone1  but faithful unto      
death1 until ,june1 when ,rev4 ,james   
,cantine arrived to  take charge of the 
work4 ,his letters were always cheerful2
 he seemed to  grasp the situation1 and 
with all its difficulties to see light  
above  the clouds4 ,the following       
sentences from a few of his letters show
 what  sort of man he was4 ,they were   
written in ordinary correspondence and  
with no idea that the words would ever  
be treasured3    8,i was pretty certain 
that ,i should be sent to ,muscat later 
on1 but had  no idea of going so soon4  
,however1 it is all right4 ,anything    
that has  been prayed over as much as   
your decisions at ,busrah1 must have    
been  directed of ,god1 and ,i have been

 under ,his orders for some time4444  ,i
 have had two or three fevers1 but they 
are small affairs1 sick one  day and    
well the next4 ,no further news4 ,i can 
only add my thankfulness  to ,god for   
the way ,he has led me through the last 
two months and for  giving me a share   
from the beginning in actual            
mission-work4444 ,many  thanks for the  
report4 ,i can learn a great deal from  
it to help out my  ignorance4 ,i do feel
 like a baby before this great work but1
 as the  darkies used to sing the ,lord 
is #8inching me along4' 444    8,pray   
for me that ,i may have wisdom and grace
 to carry this business  through4 ,i    
want it settled right40    ,to his      
,auburn friends he wrote this in a      
characteristic letter3    8,you ask what
 ,i think of it now that ,i am on the   
spot4 ,first3 that the  need has not    
been exaggerated1 and that              
,mohammedanism is as bad as it  is      
painted4 ,second3 that we have a        
splendid fighting chance here in        

,arabia1 and the land is open enough so 
that we can enter if we will4  ,if a man
 never got beyond the ,bahrein ,islands 
he would have a parish  of #ej1jjj      
souls4 ,third3 that on account of the   
ignorance of the people  they must be   
taught by word of mouth and therefore if
 we are to reach  them all1 we must have
 many helpers4 ,fourth3 that ,i am glad 
,i came to  ,arabia1 and that to me has 
been given a part in this struggle4 ,i  
do  firmly believe that the strength of 
,islam has been overestimated1 and  that
 if ever the ,church can be induced to  
throw her full weight against  it1 it   
will be found an easier conquest than we
 imagine--not but what  it will cost    
lives1 it has always been so1 but ,i do 
believe that ,islam  is doomed40        
,little did he think1 perhaps1 whose    
life it would first cost4 ,will  his    
call be heeded and will the ,church1    
will you1 help to throw the  whole      
weight of your prayers against ,islam8  
8,except a corn of wheat  fall into the 

ground and die it abideth alone1 but if 
it die it  bringeth forth much fruit40  
8,the seed must die before the corn     
appears      ,out of the ground in blade
 and fruitful ears4      ,low have those
 ears before the sickle lain1      ,ere 
thou canst treasure up the golden grain4
      ,the grain is crushed before the  
bread is made2      ,and the bread broke
 ere life to man conveyed4      ,oh1 be 
content to die1 to be laid low1         
,and to be crushed1 and to be broken so1
      ,if thou upon ,god's table may be 
bread1      ,life-giving food for souls 
an hungered40                           
,,xxxv                                  
,,problems ,,of ,,the ,,arabian ,,field 
8,a word as to the task your mission    
attempts4 ,it is to me the   hardest in 
the whole mission-field4 ,to conquer    
,mohammedanism is to   capture ,satan's 
throne and ,i think it involves the     
greatest conflict   ,christianity has   
ever known4 ,in attacking ,arabia you   
aim at the   citadel of supreme error   

occupied by the last enemy that shall   
bow to   the kingship of                
,christ40--,rev4 ,w4 ,a4 ,essery1 ,hon4 
,secretary of the   ,turkish ,mission   
,aid ,society4     8,while the          
difficulties in the way of missionary   
work in lands under   ,mohammedan rule  
may well appear to the eye of sense most
 formidable1   this meeting is firmly   
persuaded1 that1 so long as the door of 
access   to individual ,mohammedans is  
open1 so long it is the clear and       
bounden duty of the ,church of ,christ  
to make use of its opportunities   for  
delivering the gospel message to them1  
in full expectation   that the power of 
the ,holy ,spirit will1 in ,god's good  
time1 have   a signal manifestation in  
the triumph of ,christianity in those   
lands40--,resolution of the ,church     
,missionary ,society1 ,may #ast1 #ahhh4 
,the problem of missionary work in      
,arabia is twofold3 7#a7 the general    
problem of ,mohammedanism as a          
political-religious system which ,arabia

  has in common with all ,moslem lands2 
and 7#b7 the special problems or        
difficulties which pertain to ,arabia in
 particular4    ,the general problem of 
missions to ,moslems is too vast and    
important to  be treated here4 ,dr4     
,george ,smith says that 8the great work
 to which  the providence of ,god       
summons the church in the second century
 of  modern missions is that of         
evangelizing the ,mohammedans40 ,it is  
the  missionary problem of the future4  
,dr4 ,h4 ,h4 ,jessup1 who speaks of it  
as  8a work of surpassing difficulty1   
which will require a new baptism of     
apostolic wisdom and energy1 faith and  
love0 gives the elements of the  problem
 in his book4#aej ,as unfavorable       
features he enumerates1 7#a7  the union 
of the temporal and spiritual power1    
7#b7 the divorce between  morality and  
religion1 7#c7 ,ishmaelitic intolerance1
 7#d7 destruction of  true family life1 
7#e7 the degradation of woman1 7#f7     
gross immorality1  7#g7 untruthfulness1 

7#h7 misrepresentation of ,christian    
doctrine1 and  7#i7 the aggressive      
spirit of ,islam4 ,among the favorable  
features he  names3 7#a7 belief in the  
unity of ,god1 7#b7 reverence for the   
,old  and ,new ,testament1 7#c7 and for 
,christ1 7#d7 hatred of idolatry1 7#e7  
abstinence from intoxicating drink1 7#f7
 the growing influence of  ,christian   
nations1 7#g7 the universal belief of   
the ,moslems that in the  latter days   
there will be a universal apostasy from 
,islam4 ,in some  respects the problem  
has changed since ,dr4 ,jessup's book   
was written  but in its main outlines it
 remains the same4    ,the problem of   
,arabia as a mission-field can best be  
studied by  considering in order3 the   
land itself as regards its              
accessibility2 the  climate and other   
special difficulties2 the present       
missionary force2  the methods suited to
 the field2 and the right men for the   
work4 ,the  chapters on the geography of
 the peninsula show how different are   

the  various provinces and what are the 
strategic centres in each4 ,it is       
generally considered both a good        
missionary policy and a true apostolic  
principle to work out from the cities as
 centres of population  and influence4  
,this is especially necessary in ,arabia
 where the  population is scattered and 
largely nomadic4 ,all nomads come to    
some  city or village for their supplies
 at frequent intervals or1 if they  are 
independent of a foreign market1 they   
bring their produce to the  cities4     
,this by way of preface4    ,first1 what
 parts of ,arabia are really accessible 
to missionary  operations8 7#a7 ,the    
,sinaitic peninsula with the adjoining  
coast of  ,hejaz nearly as far as       
,yanbo2 the population is mostly        
,bedouin but a  good centre for work    
would be the ,egyptian quarantine       
station of ,tor  in the ,gulf of ,suez4 
7#b7 ,aden and the surrounding region   
under ,british  protection1 with a      
population of perhaps #bjj1jjj souls4   

7#c7 ,the entire  south coast from ,aden
 to ,makalla and ,shehr with its        
hinterland2  this region has been freely
 visited by explorers and travellers1   
men  and women2 the people are quite    
friendly and the natural base of        
operations would be the town of         
,makalla4 7#d7 ,oman with its           
coast-towns  and hill-country1          
everywhere accessible2 wherever         
missionaries have  tried to enter they  
have met with a welcome above all       
expectations4 7#e7  ,the so-called      
8pirate-coast0 in ,east ,arabia between 
,ras el ,kheima and  ,abu ,thubi2 many  
villages1 all under ,british subsidy and
 with resident  native agents4 7#f7 ,the
 islands of ,bahrein4    ,all of these  
regions are outside of ,turkish ,arabia 
and are more  or less under the         
influence of ,great ,britain so that    
every kind of  missionary work is       
possible4 ,no passports are required for
 travelling2  no special diplomas for   
the right to practice medicine2 no      

censorship  of books2 no official       
espionage or prohibition of residence4  
,in ,turkish ,arabia the case is        
different1 but it would be very         
incorrect  to say that ,turkish ,arabia 
is inaccessible4 8,the ,turks are no    
doubt10  as ,general ,haig remarks1 8a  
great obstacle1 but we must give them   
their  due1 and admit that they are not 
nearly so intolerant as some ,european  
,states1 including ,russia40 ,only one  
portion of ,turkish ,arabia seems1 at   
present1 to be wholly inaccessible1     
namely1 the two sacred cities ,mecca    
and ,medina4 ,at present1 we say1 for it
 does not seem possible that  these     
twin-cities would long remain closed if 
the church had faith to  approach their 
doors and were ready to enter4    ,other
 portions of ,turkish ,arabia are       
accessible1 at least to some  extent4   
7#a7 ,the entire coast of ,hejaz is     
accessible2 two cities1  ,jiddah1 and   
,hodeidah1 are specially suited for     
medical mission work2  while it is not  

at all improbable that with proper faith
 and kindly  tact1 the lovely town of   
,taif1 that garden of ,mecca1 would     
harbor a  medical missionary4 ,doughty's
 experiences seem to indicate that ,taif
 is  not considered holy ground4#aea    
7#b7 ,yemen1 the ,arabia ,felix indeed2 
with a splendid climate1 a superior     
,arab population1 numerous villages  and
 cities1 and with marvellous fertility  
of soil4 ,surely these  highlands will  
not remain forever under the rod of     
oppression2 when the  hour of           
deliverance comes1 every village should 
have a mission-school  and every city a 
mission-station4 ,even now under the    
,turks work is  possible for the large  
,jewish population4 7#c7 ,hassa with its
 capital  ,hofhoof and ,katif on the    
coast4 7#d7 ,the vilayets of ,busrah and
 ,bagdad4  ,these four regions in       
,turkish ,arabia are accessible1 with   
three  limitations to                   
missionary-work3--,every missionary must
 have proper  passports2 no medical     

missionary can practice without a       
,constantinople  diploma2 and no books  
or ,bibles can be sold unless they have 
been  examined by a censor of the press 
and bear the seal of the government4    
,the passport matter is awkward at times
 but is not an insurmountable  barrier2 
where the government considers          
travelling safe1 passports are  always  
given4 ,the medical diploma requirement 
is not different from  the law of       
,france and other countries2 once in    
possession of such a  diploma1 the      
leverage power of the ,christian        
physician is increased  rather than     
limited4 ,the third restriction prevents
 the distribution  of all controversial 
literature but admits the ,bible and    
many other  ,christian books2 it is     
rather burdensome and irritating to     
one's  patience but does not shut the   
door to real missionary work4 ,every    
copy  of the ,arabic ,scriptures printed
 at ,beirut bears the imprimatur of  the
 ,ottoman ,government--the sign and seal

 of the 8,caliph0 that the ,word  of    
,god shall have free course in his      
tottering empire4    ,finally there is  
the vast interior--,asir1 ,nejran1      
,yemama1 ,nejd1  ,jebel ,shammar--is    
that too accessible8 ,the whole region  
is free from  ,ottoman rule and1 for the
 greater part1 under one independent    
prince1  ,abd-ul-,aziz1 the successor of
 ,ibn ,rashid4 ,but for the rest the    
question  must remain unanswered until a
 missionary has attempted to enter these
  regions and has brought back a report4
 ,for travellers the whole of  the      
interior has proved accessible since the
 days of ,palgrave2 and  the presumptive
 evidence is that a missionary could    
also penetrate  everywhere even if he   
were not at first allowed to settle in  
any of the  towns4 ,i have not the least
 doubt that a properly qualified medical
  missionary with a thorough knowledge  
of the language would find not  only an 
open door but a warm welcome in the     
capital of ,nejd or even at  ,riad4     

,regarding the general accessibility of 
,arabia1 ,general ,haig wrote in  his   
report as follows3 8,there is no        
difficulty then about preaching the     
gospel in ,arabia if men can be found to
 face the consequences4 ,the real       
difficulty would be the protection of   
the converts4 ,most probably they  would
 be exposed to violence and death4 ,the 
infant church might be a  martyr church 
at first1 like that of ,uganda1 but that
 would not prevent  the spread of the   
truth or its ultimate triumph40    ,the 
climate of ,arabia is1 at present1 an   
obstacle to missionary work1  but in the
 mountain ranges of ,oman and ,yemen as 
well as in all the  interior plateau of 
,nejd a healthful1 bracing climate      
prevails4 ,now1  alas1 while all work is
 still confined to the coast1 we have   
perhaps  one of the most trying climates
 in the world4 ,the intense heat of     
summer 7often #aaj ,fahrenheit in the   
shade7 is aggravated by the  humidity of
 the atmosphere1 and the dust raised by 

every wind4 ,in the  winter1 from       
,december to ,march1 the winds in the   
northern part of the  gulf and the ,red 
,sea1 are often cold and cutting and    
although the  temperature is more suited
 at that time to ,europeans and         
,americans1 it  appears to be less      
healthy for natives4 ,the so-called     
gulf-fever of the  remittent type is    
very dangerous and convalescence is at  
times only  possible by leaving the     
gulf4 ,cholera and smallpox are not     
uncommon4  ,ophthalmia is rife4 ,prickly
 heat in aggravated form1 boils1 and all
 the  insect plagues of ,egypt are a    
cause of suffering in their season4     
,moslem fanaticism is not peculiar to   
,arabia nor is it more intense  or      
universal here than in any other purely 
,mohammedan land4 ,the  fanaticism of   
the ,arabs has been grossly exaggerated4
 ,the ,wahabis  represent the extreme of
 exclusiveness and prejudice1 but even  
among  them it is possible for a        
missionary to preach ,christ and read   

the  ,bible4 ,personal violence to the  
messenger of the gospel has proved in   
ten years experience1 almost unknown in 
any part of ,arabia visited by          
missionaries4 ,sometimes ,bibles and    
books are collected by a fanatical      
,mullah and consigned to the flames or  
the oblivion of an upper shelf  in his  
house4 ,the fellows of the baser sort   
perpetrate insults and  annoyances at   
times in village-work or refuse         
hospitality4 ,but we1 in  ,arabia1 have 
never met with the strong anti-foreign  
feeling such as  seems to be prevalent1 
for example1 in ,china4 ,the prejudice  
is seldom  against the dress or manner  
or speech of the foreigner2 even his    
food is considered clean and no ,arab   
would refuse to share his meal  with a  
,christian traveller4 ,but there is     
often a strong prejudice  against       
certain aspects of ,christian doctrine1 
especially if crudely  or unwisely put4 
,in an ,arab coffee-shop it would be    
unsafe as well as  unwise to use the    

words 8,son of ,god10 8death of         
,christ10 8,trinity0  etc41 without a   
previous explanation4 ,yet on the whole 
the ,arabs are  friendly to any stranger
 or guest and this friendliness is      
especially  strong toward ,englishmen   
and on the coast1 because of the clear  
contrast between ,english and ,ottoman  
or ,arab rule4 ,commerce too with  its  
general integrity and 8the word of an   
,englishman0 has in a sense  been the   
handmaid of missions by disarming       
prejudice and opening ,arab  eyes to the
 superiority of western civilization4   
,from a missionary standpoint the       
population of ,arabia can best be       
divided into the illiterate and those   
who can read4 ,the former class  are in 
the vast majority and include all the   
,bedouins with exceedingly  few         
exceptions4 ,taking the population at   
eight million1 to say that  one half a  
million could read would be a large     
estimate4 ,on this  account work for    
those who are able to read1 by means of 

colportage and  bookshops1 may be too   
highly rated as to its extensive result2
 its  intensive value no one will       
question4    ,the problem of reaching   
the nomad population is a very serious  
one4 ,the data for a correct theory of  
work among them are yet to  be          
collected4 ,experience of work among    
them has been very limited2  indeed the 
only work of importance was that of     
,samuel ,van ,tassel in  ,north ,arabia4
 ,as a class they are less religious    
than the town or  agricultural ,arabs4  
,one who has studied the subject writes3
 8,the ,arabs  ,bedouins remain         
,mohammedans simply because they know of
 nothing  better2 the ,bedouins are     
,moslems only in name observing the     
prescribed  forms in the neighborhood of
 the towns1 but speedily casting them   
aside  on regaining the desert4 ,yet    
there are men among them not without    
reverent thoughts of the ,creator1      
derived from the contemplation of ,his  
works1 thoughts which1 according to     

,palmer1 take sometimes the form  of    
solemn but simple prayer40 ,the         
character of missionary work among  this
 nomad population 7perhaps one-fourth or
 fifth of the population  of the        
peninsula7 will be very similar to that 
of ,james ,gilmour among  the ,mongols2 
and it will require men of his stamp to 
carry it on  successfully4              
,illustration3 ,,population ,,touched   
,,by ,,mission ,,effort4      ,aden1    
etc41         #ajj1jjj4    ,bahrein1    
#fj1jjj4    ,muscat1                    
#bj1jjj    ,busrah and ,bagdad1         
#ebj1jjj      ,the present missionary   
force in ,arabia is utterly inadequate  
to supply  the needs even of that small 
portion of the field they have occupied4
  ,there are only four points on a coast
 of four thousand miles where  there are
 missionaries4 ,there is not a single   
missionary over ten miles  inland from  
this coast4 ,no missionary has ever     
crossed the peninsula in  either        
direction4 ,the total number of foreign 

missionaries in ,arabia1  is less than a
 dozen--twelve workers1 men and women1  
let us say1 for a  population of        
#h1jjj1jjj souls4    ,illustration3     
,,area ,,visited ,,by ,,missionaries4   
,aden1 etc41               #h1jjj square
 miles4    ,bahrein1                    
#djj    8     8    ,muscat1             
#fjj square miles4    ,busrah and       
,bagdad1       #ga1jjj    8     8       
,the ,keith ,falconer ,mission is not as
 strong in its numbers as when  ,keith  
,falconer died4 ,the ,arabian ,mission  
has only recently received  enough      
reinforcement to man its three stations 
permanently4 ,there has  been too much  
of the spirit of experiment instead of  
the spirit of  enterprise2 a corporal's 
guard went out to attack the chief      
citadel  of the enemy4 ,bishop ,french  
was alone when he died at ,muscat4 ,the 
,arabian ,mission waited years before   
they received reinforcements4 ,what  is 
the spiritual need of ,arabia to-day8   
,of the total area of the  peninsula    

only about one-twelfth is in any way    
touched by missionary  effort4 ,this    
does not mean that one-twelfth of the   
area is covered  by mission-stations and
 touring1 but that in some way or other 
about  one-twelfth of the peninsula is  
8occupied0 by organized mission-work in 
its plan and purpose1 day by day4 ,as to
 the proportion of missionaries  to the 
population ten men out of eleven have no
 opportunity in this  neglected country 
to hear the gospel even if they would4  
,the only part of ,arabia that is fairly
 well occupied is the                   
,river-country--that is the two vilayets
 of ,bagdad and ,busrah4 ,here  there   
are two stations and two out-stations on
 the rivers2 colporteurs  and           
missionaries regularly visit the larger 
villages2 several native  workers are in
 regular employ and the ,bible ,society 
is active4 ,yet in  these two vilayets  
nothing has ever yet been done for the  
large ,bedouin  population1 and there   
are only six foreign missionaries1 men  

and women1  to a population 7,turkish   
census7 of #a1jej1jjj souls4    ,looking
 at ,arabia by provinces3 ,hejaz has no 
missionary2 ,yemen 7with  the exception 
of ,sheikh ,othman and ,aden7 has no    
missionary2 ,hadramaut  has no          
missionary2 ,nejd has no missionary2    
,hassa has no missionary2  ,jebel       
,shammar and all the northern desert    
have no missionary2 ,oman has  one      
missionary4 ,again1 the following towns 
and cities are accessible1  but have not
 one witness for ,christ3 ,sana1        
,hodeidah1 ,menakha1 ,zebid1  ,damar1   
,taiz1 ,ibb1 with forty smaller towns in
 ,yemen2 ,makallah1 ,shehr1  and ,shibam
 in ,hadramaut2 ,rastak1 ,someil1       
,sohar1 ,sur1 ,abu ,thubi1 ,dabai1      
,sharka and other important towns in    
,oman2 not to speak of the important    
towns of ,nejd and in ,mesopotamia1     
still without any missionaries and      
never visited by an evangelist4         
,arabia is in truth a neglected field1  
even now4 ,thus far the work has  been  

only preliminary2 the evangelization of 
,arabia must yet begin2 not  until every
 province is entered and every one of   
the strategic points  specified is      
occupied can we truly speak of ,arabia  
as a mission-field4  ,nor is the project
 visionary4 ,given the men and the means
 there is  not the slightest reason why 
the next decade should not see the      
entire  peninsula the field for some    
sort of missionary effort4 ,the doors   
are  open1 or they will open to the     
knock of faith4 ,god still lives and    
works4    ,regarding the best methods of
 mission-work in ,arabia the experience 
of missionaries in other ,moslem lands  
is of the greatest value4 ,the  story of
 the ,church ,missionary ,society in the
 ,punjab1 that of the  ,north ,africa   
,mission1 and above all the work of the 
,rhenish ,society  in ,sumatra should be
 thoroughly familiar to every ,arabian  
missionary4  ,medical missions have     
their special place and power1 but also 
their  special difficulties in pioneer  

work like that in ,arabia4 ,surgery is  
worth infinitely more than medicine     
among a people like the ,arabs1  where  
fatalism and neglect of the sick make   
the science of medicine of  doubtful    
result in so many cases4 8,kill or cure0
 rather than prolonged  treatment1 suits
 the ,moslem palate4 ,but a skillful    
surgeon with a  ,turkish diploma holds  
the key to every door in the entire     
peninsula4  ,there is not one           
mission-hospital in ,arabia6 ,surely    
such centres as  ,bagdad1 ,busrah1      
,bahrein1 ,sana1 ,jiddah1 ,hodeidah and 
,hofhoof should have  these acknowledged
 powerful methods of evangelization4 ,at
 ,aden and  ,muscat there are ,indian   
,government hospitals4    ,educational  
work is still absent or in its infancy  
as regards the  ,moslem population1 so  
that there are no data from which to    
formulate  theories as to its success4  
,in some parts of ,arabia schools might 
not  be permitted by the government2    
everywhere they would necessarily at    

the outset be very elementary4          
,christian women1 as experience has     
proved both in ,yemen and  ,east        
,arabia1 are welcomed everywhere4 ,with 
or without medical  qualifications1 but 
with hearts of love and sympathy for the
 poor1 the  suffering and the miserable1
 they can enter every house or hut4     
,even  in the black tents of ,kedar     
there are aching hearts and wretched    
homes  to which the gospel of peace and 
love can alone bring relief4 ,lady ,ann 
,blunt and ,mrs4 ,theodore ,bent have   
proved what women can do in ,arabia  for
 the sake of science2 will there be no  
,christian women who will  penetrate as 
far inland for the sake of their        
,saviour8    ,colportage is an approved 
mission-method especially in ,arabia1   
since  the ,bible and a full line of    
educational and religious literature is 
ready to our hand from the ,syrian and  
,egyptian missions4 ,in ,yemen  this    
work would be especially useful and     
practicable1 but there it  has scarcely 

been attempted systematically4 ,the     
problem is to find  men of the right    
stamp for the work4 ,men who are        
8willing to endure  hardness as good    
soldiers of ,jesus ,christ10 with tact  
and good temper  and the ability to talk
 with the simple-minded4 ,love is worth 
more than  learning in a colporteur4    
,good health and a clean ,turkish       
passport  are two other requisites4     
,even this method of work is in its     
infancy2  there are many open doors for 
the ,word of ,god that have never yet   
been  entered4    ,under evangelistic   
work come the problems of               
street-preaching1 touring1  and the use 
or abuse of controversy4 ,the best place
 for preaching at  stations is the      
mission-house itself1 after the example 
of ,paul 7,acts  xxviii4 #cj1 #ca74 ,on 
tours or in village-work the mejlis of  
the sheikh  or the public coffee-shop   
makes a capital pulpit4 ,in a small     
hand-book  for missionaries to ,moslems 
by ,rev4 ,arthur ,brinckman1 now out of 

print1#aeb ,i find the following        
admirable hints on public preaching to  
,moslems which apply to ,arabia also3   
8,if possible always address your       
audience from above4 ,sitting down is   
sometimes better than standing2 you are 
not so likely to get excited1  the      
attitude is less war-like in appearance4
 ,be with your back to a  wall if       
possible2 there are many reasons for    
this4    8,when drawn into argument1    
keep on praying that you may speak      
slowly1  and with effect4 ,when asked a 
question do not answer quickly--if you  
do1 you will be looked on as a sharp    
controversialist only2 think  over your 
answer first1 and give it most kindly   
and slowly4 ,if possible  always quote a
 passage near the beginning or end of a 
,koran chapter and  there will be less  
delay in finding it40    ,illustration3 
,,the ,,bible ,,shop ,,at ,,busrah4     
,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,a       
,,native ,,shop4    ,the question of the
 right place of controversy or whether  

it should  have a place at all in       
mission-work among ,moslems is of the   
highest  importance4 ,opinions differ   
decidedly among those who are pillars   
of the truth4 ,the best and briefest    
argument against the use of  controversy
 is that given by ,spurgeon in one of   
his early sermons at  ,new ,park ,street
 ,chapel4#aec ,he argues in brief that a
 missionary is  a witness1 not a        
debater1 and is only responsible for    
proclaiming the  gospel by his lips and 
by his life4    ,there is truth in this1
 but on the other hand even the apostles
  8disputed0 in the synagogues with the 
,jews1 and from the days of  saintly    
,martyn 7not to say ,raymond ,lull71    
until now1 the ,christian  missionary   
has been compelled by the very force of 
circumstances  to vindicate the honor of
 ,christ and establish the evidences of 
,christianity by means of controversy4  
,when1 in ,july1 #ahfd1 the ,turkish    
government persuaded ,sir ,henry ,bulwer
 to sign the death-warrant to all       

missionary work among ,moslems in the   
,turkish empire by the memorandum  that 
made controversy a crime1 the fact was  
immediately recognized4  ,rev4 ,j4      
,ridgeway1 then the editorial secretary 
of the ,church ,missionary  ,society1   
wrote an able paper in the ,church      
,missionary ,intelligencer  on the      
theme3 8,missionary work as regards     
,mohammedans impossible  if controversy 
be interdicted40 8,by controversy10 he  
wrote1 8we  understand not acrimonious  
and irritating recriminations1 which1   
well  aware how unbecoming and injurious
 they are1 the missionaries have  always
 eschewed1 but that calm investigation  
of conflicting religious  systems that  
is indispensable to the decision of the 
important  question--which is true and  
which is false80#aed    ,it is only in  
this sense that controversy is          
justifiable2 and this kind  of          
controversy1 whether by the printed page
 or word of mouth1 has not  proved      
unfruitful of good results4 ,sir        

,william ,muir gives a complete         
synopsis of all ,mohammedan attacks on  
the ,christian faith and the  replies   
made in defence of ,christianity2 his   
criticisms of the books  in question are
 also of great interest4#aee ,since that
 date there  have been new attacks and  
new apologies both from the ,moslem side
 and  from that of the missionary4 ,as a
 plough breaks up the soil before the   
seed is sown so this kind of literature 
and argument will often break  up the   
fallow ground of ,moslem hearts for the 
seed of ,god's ,word4 ,even  awakened   
fanaticism or active opposition is more 
hopeful than absolute  stagnation of    
thought and petrifaction of feeling4    
,how to awaken the  ,moslem conscience  
is the real problem4    ,it is less     
important to consider the attitude of   
the ,turkish rulers  toward ,christians 
than the attitude of the ,moslem mind   
toward  ,christianity1 as regards       
,arabia's evangelization4 ,the          
prevailing  attitude of the ,moslem     

mind1 in any particular part of ,arabia1
 toward  ,christianity practically      
decides the fate of a convert4 ,were    
,moslems  all strictly adherent to their
 traditions and the law regarding       
renegades from ,islam1 every convert    
would be a martyr and every  inquirer   
would disappear4 ,the ,ottoman code of  
,moslem law gives specific  directions  
for the trial and execution of the      
renegade from the faith4  8,he is to    
have three distinct offers of life if he
 will return to the  faith and time for 
reflection1 after each offer1 is to be  
given him4  ,if he remains obdurate he  
is to be executed by strangulation and  
then  his head is to be cut off and     
placed under his arm4 ,his body is thus 
to be exposed three days in the most    
public place40#aef ,but1 thank  ,god1   
,moslems do not strictly adhere to this 
law4 ,in this1 as in other  respects1   
many are better than their religion and 
superior to their  prophet4 ,converts in
 that part of ,arabia which is under    

,english rule or  protection are as safe
 as they are in ,india2 which does not  
mean that  they are entirely free from  
persecution4 ,in ,turkish ,arabia the   
law is  carried out by secret murder1 or
 by banishment2 yet not in every case1  
for even there inquirers and converts1  
if not active or prominent1  have       
remained for a time unmolested4 ,what   
the result would be in the  independent 
,moslem states of ,arabia we do not know
 yet4    ,the ,berlin ,treaty was       
intended to be the ,magna ,charta of    
,christian  liberty in the ,turkish     
empire1 but the ,turk has not kept the  
compact4  ,its provisions were too      
galling for ,moslem pride and prestige2 
reforms  never got beyond the paper     
stage4 ,the massacres of #ahid to #ahif 
proved  that the ,sultan is still the   
,pope of a religious fraternity and king
  of a political empire based on the    
forty-seventh chapter of the ,koran3    
8,when ye encounter the unbelievers     
strike off their heads until you  have  

made a great slaughter of them40 ,and   
the inaction of all the  ,christian     
powers at that time proved that it is   
vain to put confidence  in princes4 ,but
 in spite of all possible government    
opposition or even  the martyrdom of    
every individual convert 8so long as the
 door of  access to individual          
,mohammedans is open1 so long it is the 
clear and  bounden duty of the church of
 ,christ to make use of its             
opportunities  for delivering the gospel
 message to them40    ,the attitude of  
the ,arab mind is not universally       
hostile to  ,christianity4 ,the vast    
majority are indifferent to religion in 
any  form4 8,what shall we eat and what 
shall we drink and wherewithal  shall we
 be clothed10--is the sum of all their  
thoughts4 ,the ,arab  merchant serves   
,mammon with all his heart seven days a 
week4 ,religion  is an ornament and a   
conventionality2 he wears it like his   
flowing  overgarment and it fits him    
just as loosely4 ,he thinks it scarcely 

worth while to discuss questions of     
belief4 ,every one has their own        
religion1 is a remark one often hears in
 ,arabia4 ,it is a faint echo  of the   
all-embracing tolerance of the days of  
ignorance when three  hundred and sixty 
idols1 including an image of ,christ and
 the virgin1  filled the ,kaaba6        
,then there are some thoughtful men who 
know better1--seekers after  truth1--and
 who feel that there are strong points  
in ,christianity and  weak points in    
,islam which have not been duly         
considered4 ,one meets  examples of this
 class everywhere in all stations of    
life and in most  unexpected quarters4  
,in the heart of ,yemen ,i met a ,mullah
 who had a  wonderful knowledge of the  
,arabic ,bible2 and the copy he showed  
me  was an imperfect translation by     
,richard ,watson dated #ahbe6 ,another  
prominent ,mohammedan in ,eastern       
,arabia recently expressed his opinion  
that the ,christ of the ,new ,testament 
never intended to found a new  religion1

 but to introduce everywhere spiritual  
worship of the ,god of  ,abraham2 he    
said that a long and independent study  
of the ,bible had led  him to this      
opinion4    ,the steady increase of the 
circulation of ,scriptures in ,arabia is
  also an indication which way the      
current is drifting4 ,rev4 ,george ,e4  
,stone1 a few weeks before his death1   
writing of the ,bible circulation  at   
,muscat said1 8,i don't know when the   
explosion is coming but we are  getting 
the dynamite under this rock of ,islam  
and some day ,god will  touch it off40  
,the ,bible in ,arabia will indeed prove
 its power in  changing the entire      
attitude of the ,moslem mind4 8,is not  
my word like  as a fire8 saith the      
,lord2 and like a hammer that breaketh  
the rock in  pieces8----0    ,finally   
there is the problem of securing the    
right men for the work4  ,so hard is the
 field in many ways and so hard are     
,moslem hearts that  the description of 
,aaron ,matthews' ideal missionary for  

the ,jews would  apply to the ,arabs as 
well1 7the last clause omitted74 ,he    
wrote3  8,a ,jewish missionary requires 
,abraham's faith1 ,job's patience1 the  
meekness of ,moses1 the strength of     
,samson1 the wisdom of ,solomon1 the    
love of ,john1 the zeal of ,paul1 the   
knowledge of the ,scripture of          
,timothy1 and a little bit of ,baron    
,rothschild's pocket40 ,the financial   
part of the equipment is not essential  
on the part of the missionary2  he      
should be content with food and raiment4
 ,the less display of ,baron            
,rothschild's pocket the better1 in a   
land where people go to bed hungry  and 
where all live in the greatest          
simplicity4    ,the candidate for       
missionary work in ,arabia should have a
 strong and  sound constitution4 ,he    
should know how to 8rough it0 when      
necessary2  the more of the ,bohemian   
there is in his nature the better4 ,he  
should  have both ability and dogged    
determination enough to acquire the     

,arabic language4 ,other scholarship is 
useful but not necessary4 ,to  get along
 well with the ,arabs he should have    
patience4 ,and to avoid  wearing himself
 out1 a good temper2 a man with a very  
hot temper could  never stand three     
seasons in the ,persian ,gulf4          
,regarding spiritual  qualifications ,i 
cannot do better than quote the solemn  
words at  the close of ,general ,haig's 
paper on 8,arabia as a mission-field40  
,i  believe they deserve to be repeated 
not only for the sake of those who  send
 missionaries to ,arabia1 but for the   
sake of those who are  missionaries to  
,arabia4 ,it is a high ideal4    8,given
 the right men1 and ,arabia may be won  
for ,christ2 start with the  wrong men1 
and little will be accomplished4 ,but   
what qualifications are  needed6 what   
enthusiasm1 what fire of love1 what     
dogged resolution1  what uttermost      
self-sacrificing zeal for the salvation 
of men and the  glory of ,christ6 ,but  
upon this point ,i prefer to quote here 

the words  of a man who is preminently  
qualified to speak upon the subject4    
,three  years ago he wrote to me3       
8#8,unless you have missionaries so full
 of the spirit of ,christ that   they   
count not their own lives dear to them1 
you will probably look   in vain for    
converts who will be prepared to lose   
their lives in the   ,master's service4 
,in a relaxing tropical climate1 like   
that of ,aden1   circumstances are very 
unfavorable for the development of      
self-denying   character1 or of         
energetic service4 ,no small amount of  
grace would   be needed to sustain it2  
for we are compound beings1 and there is
 a   wonderful reaction of the body upon
 the soul1 as well as of the soul   upon
 the body4 ,it is supremely important1  
then1 in an enterprise   like yours1 to 
have the right stamp of men--men who    
have made some   sacrifices1 and who do 
not count sacrifice to be sacrifice1 but
   privilege and honor--men who do not  
know what discouragement means1   and   

men who expect great things from ,god4  
,such alone will prove really           
successful workers in a field so replete
 with difficulty4 ,unless   ,eternity   
bulks very largely in the estimation of 
a man1 how can he   encourage a native  
convert to take a step that will at once
 destroy   all his hopes and prospects  
of an earthly character1 and possibly   
result in imprisonment1 and torture1 and
 death itself8 and unless you   have men
 who are prepared1 should ,god seem to  
call for it1 to lead   their converts   
into circumstances of such danger and   
trial1 it is not   very likely that they
 will find converts who will go very    
much in   advance of themselves4 ,men of
 this stamp are not to be manufactured2 
they are ,god-made4 ,they are not to be 
found2 they must be ,god-sought   and   
,god-given4 ,but the ,master who has    
need of them is able to provide   them4 
,nothing is too hard for the ,lord4'0   
0,pray ye therefore the ,lord of the    
harvest that ,he would thrust forth     

laborers into ,his harvest40            
,,xxxvi                   ,,outlook     
,,for ,,missions ,,to ,,moslems ,,in    
,,arabia     8,take it at its very      
worst4 ,they are dead lands and dead    
souls1 blind   and cold and stiff in    
death as no heathen are2 but we who love
 them   see the possibilities of        
sacrifice1 of endurance of enthusiasm of
   life1 not yet effaced4 ,does not the 
,son of ,god who died for them   see    
these possibilities too8 ,do you think  
,he says of the ,mohammedan1   #8,there 
is no help for him in his ,god'8 ,has   
,he not a challenge too   for your      
faith1 the challenge that rolled away   
the stone from the   grave where        
,lazarus lay8 #8,said ,i not unto thee1 
that1 if thou wouldst   believe thou    
shouldst see the glory of ,god8 ,then   
they took away the   stone from the     
place where the dead was laid4'0--,i4   
,lilias ,trotter1   7missionary to      
,algiers74      ,two views are widely   
prevalent regarding the hopelessness of 

missionary work among ,moslems          
generally1 and although these views are 
diametrically opposite they are agreed  
that it is waste of time and  effort to 
go to ,mohammedan lands1 that it is a   
forlorn hope at best4  ,the first view  
is that of those who are themselves     
outside of the  kingdom1 and who shut   
its doors against the ,moslem1 saying3  
,experience  has proved it to be not    
only useless but dangerous to meddle    
with the  ,moslem and his religion4     
,their faith is good enough for them2 it
 is  suited to their ways4 ,they do not 
worship idols and have a code of        
morality suitable to the ,orient4       
,mohammed was a prophet of ,god and  did
 all that could be done for these kind  
of people4 ,every attempt to  convert   
them ends in failure4 ,let them alone4  
,islam will work out its  own           
reformation4 ,some1 like ,canon ,taylor 
and ,doctor ,blyden1 who profess  to be 
,christians1 even consider ,islam the   
handmaid of ,christianity and  specially

 fitted for the whole ,negro race4#aeg  
,the opposite view is that              
,mohammedanism is not too hopeful to be 
meddled with but too hopeless6 ,they who
 hold it profess to believe in  the     
,holy ,ghost as the ,lord and           
,life-,giver for the heathen world1 but 
hesitate when it comes to ,islam4 ,the  
,moslem is1 they say1 wrapped up in     
self-righteousness and conceit2 even    
those whose fanaticism is overcome  dare
 not accept ,christ4 ,it is better to go
 to the heathen who will  hear4         
,missions to the ,moslem world are      
hopeless1 fruitless1 useless4  ,it is   
impossible to ,christianize them and    
there have been few1 if any1  converts4 
,that both of these views cannot be     
correct is evident1 since they are      
contradictory4 ,that the first is false 
the whole history of ,islam             
demonstrates4 8,by their fruits ye shall
 know them40 ,but what of the  other    
view1 held by so many1 that we need not 
expect large results  where there is so 

little promise8    ,professor ,j4 ,g4   
,lansing1 one of the founders of the    
,arabian mission1  wrote in #ahij3 8,if 
the smallness of the number of converts 
from  ,islam to ,christianity be pointed
 out1 this argues not so much the       
unapproachability of ,moslems as the    
indifference and inactivity of          
,christians4 ,the doctrine of fatalism  
commonly accredited to ,islam1 is  not  
one-half so fatalistic in its spirit and
 operation as that which  for thirteen  
centuries has been practically held by  
the ,christian  ,church as to the hope  
of bringing the hosts of ,islam into the
 following  of ,jesus ,christ40 ,is it  
possible that the lack of results       
complained  of has been really a lack of
 faith8 ,hudson ,taylor remarked a few  
years ago1 8,i expect to see some of the
 most marvellous results within  a few  
years in the missions to ,islam1 because
 of this work especially  the enemy has 
said3 ,it is without result4 ,god is not
 mocked40 ,has the  apostle to ,china   

read the signs of the times aright8     
,neither ,god's ,providence nor ,his    
,word are silent in answer to that      
question4 ,first we have the exceeding  
hopefulness of results of recent        
missionary work in many ,moslem lands2  
then the sure promises of ,god  to give 
,his ,church the victory over ,islam2   
and lastly the many  exceeding great and
 precious promises for ,arabia the      
cradle of ,islam in  particular4    #a4 
,it is not true that there have been no 
conversions among ,moslems4  ,in ,india 
alone there are hundreds who have       
publicly abjured ,islam  and been       
received into the ,christian ,church4   
,the very first native  clergyman of the
 ,northwest ,provinces was a converted  
,mohammedan4  ,sayad ,wilayat ,ali of   
,agra suffered martyrdom at ,delhi for  
,christ4  ,mirza ,ghulam ,masih of the  
royal house of ,delhi became a          
,christian and  ,abdullah ,athim1 the   
valiant-hearted of ,amballa embraced the
 faith4 ,at  the ,chicago ,parliament of

 ,religions ,dr4 ,imad-ud-,din1 himself 
a convert  from ,islam and a voluminous 
controversial writer1 read a paper on   
,christian efforts among ,indian        
,mohammedans2 this paper gives the names
  of one hundred and seventeen prominent
 converts from ,islam1 mostly from  the 
,punjab4 ,beside these1 the author says1
 8there are all sorts and  conditions of
 men1 rich and poor1 high and low men   
and women1 children1  learned and       
unlearned1 tradesmen1 servants1 all     
kinds and classes of  ,mohammedans whom 
the ,lord our ,god hath called into ,his
 ,church40 ,it is  officially stated    
that quite one-half of the converts from
 among the  higher classes in the       
,punjab are from amongst ,moslems4      
,in ,persia there have been martyrs for 
the faith in recent years and  several  
have been baptized4 ,in the ,turkish    
empire there have been  scores of       
converts who have been obliged to flee  
for their lives  or remain believers in 
secret4 ,at ,constantinople a           

congregation of  converted ,moslems was 
gathered by ,dr4 ,koelle1 but man after 
man  disappeared--no doubt murdered for 
his faith4 ,in ,egypt there have been   
scores of baptisms and among others a   
student of ,al ,azhar ,university  and a
 ,bey's son confessed ,christ4 ,one has 
only to turn over the leaves  of the    
,church ,missionary ,society annual     
reports to read of ,mohammedans  being  
baptized in ,kerachi1 and ,bombay1      
,peshawar1 ,delhi1 ,agra1 and on  the   
borders of ,afghanistan4 ,in ,north     
,africa where the work is very  recent  
there have been conversions and in one  
locality a remarkable  spiritual        
movement is in progress among the       
,moslems4    ,in ,java and ,sumatra the 
,dutch and ,rhenish missionary societies
 have  labored with remarkable success  
among the ,mohammedan population4 ,at   
four stations of the ,rhenish ,mission  
is ,sumatra where the work is           
practically altogether among ,moslems1  
7namely1 ,sipirok-,simangumban1         

,bungabonder1 ,sipiongot1 and           
,simanasor7 the total number of church  
members according to the ,bombay        
,guardian1 is three thousand five       
hundred and ten4 ,the total number of   
baptisms from ,islam in these  stations 
was during #ahig sixty-nine1 and during 
the first half of #ahih  already        
ninety-seven baptisms were reported4 ,in
 some of the villages  where formerly   
,islam was predominant it has been      
expelled altogether4  ,the total number 
of ,battak ,christians amount to        
thirty-one thousand1  the largest part  
of whom were formerly ,moslems4#aeh ,in 
some parts of  ,java still larger       
results are claimed4    ,in most ,moslem
 fields it is absolutely impossible to  
obtain accurate  statistics of the      
number of conversions for obvious       
reasons4 ,the  threatened death-penalty 
demands great caution in exposing a     
convert  by freely publishing the fact  
of his conversion4 ,everywhere there are
  multitudes of secret believers whose  

names are sometimes not known even  to  
the missionaries4 ,any one who has read 
the lives of ,moslem converts  such as  
that of ,kamil or ,imad-ud-,din or who  
knows from books like  8,sweet ,first   
,fruits0 what it means for a ,moslem to 
forsake the faith  of his fathers1 knows
 that work in ,moslem lands must not be 
judged by  baptismal statistics4        
,there are other indications of         
spiritual life entering the ,moslem     
world4 ,there are thousands of          
,mohammedan youth receiving instruction 
in ,christian mission schools2 in       
,egypt1 one mission has twenty-four     
hundred and sixty-four ,moslem pupils   
enrolled4 ,the permeating power  of     
spiritual ,christianity is again at work
 in the ,levant as when ,paul  and      
,silas made their missionary journeys4  
,the old churches of the  ,east by their
 unfaithfulness were the occasion of the
 great apostasy  of ,islam2 their       
revival is the pledge of its downfall4  
,there is now  an ,evangelical ,church  

in ,persia1 ,egypt1 ,palestine1 ,syria  
and ,asia  ,minor4 ,bodies of living    
,christians in the midst of ,islam2 no  
wonder  that their power is beginning to
 be felt4 ,the devil takes no antiseptic
  precautions against a non-contagious  
,christianity4 ,but ,evangelical        
,christianity is contagious1 and the    
whole lurid horizon proclaims in        
persecutions and massacres and raging   
oppositions everywhere that ,islam      
feels the power of ,christian missions1 
even although they have only  begun to  
attack in a miserly and puny way this   
stronghold of ,satan4    ,regarding the 
character of ,moslem converts ,bishop   
,thoburn says3 8,i  believe that when   
truly converted the ,mohammedan makes   
not only a  devoted ,christian but in   
some respects will make a superior      
leader4  ,leadership is a great want in 
every mission-field and the ,mohammedans
  of ,india have the material1 if it can
 only be won for ,christ and  sanctified
 to ,his service1 out of which splendid 

workers can be made  in the ,master's   
vineyard40 ,doctor ,jessup voices the   
same opinion1 8,it  is not easy for a   
,mohammedan to embrace ,christianity but
 history shows  that when he is         
converted the ,moslem becomes a strong  
and vigorous  ,christian40    #b4 ,in   
the work of missions among ,mohammedans 
as well as in that among  the heathen we
 have the assurance of final victory in 
the abundant  testimony of ,god's ,word4
 ,god's promises never fail of          
fulfillment2  and those world-wide      
promises never are put in such a form as
 to  exclude the ,mohammedans4 ,the     
,bible tells us that many false prophets
  shall arise and deceive many2 but it  
does not for a moment allow that  the   
empire of ,christ shall divide rule with
 any of them4 8,it pleased  the ,father 
that in ,him ,jesus not ,mohammed should
 all fullness  dwell40 8,the ,father    
loveth the ,son and hath given all      
things into ,his  hands0--not into the  
hands of ,mohammed4 8,god hath exalted  

,him and given  ,him a name which is    
above every name 444 far above all      
principality  and power and might and   
dominion and every name that is named   
not  only in this world but also in that
 which is to come40 8,that at the  name 
of ,jesus every0 ,mohammedan 8knee      
should bow and every0 ,moslem  8tongue  
confess that ,jesus ,christ is ,lord to 
the glory of ,god the  ,father40 ,the   
present may see ,islam triumphant1 but  
the future belongs  to ,christ4 ,over   
against the lying truth 8there is no    
,god but ,god and  ,mohammed is ,his    
prophet10 ,christianity lifts the       
standard1 8,who is he  that overcometh  
the world but he that believeth that    
,jesus ,christ is  the ,son of ,god80   
,the ,divinity of ,christ1 which        
,moslems deny1 decides  the destiny of  
all world-kingdoms4 ,witness the present
 governments of  the ,moslem world4 8,be
 wise now therefore ,o ye kings1 be     
instructed ye  judges of the earth 444  
kiss the ,son lest ,he be angry and ye  

perish  from the way when ,his wrath is 
kindled but a little40    ,there is a   
failure among ,christians to realize the
 number and  importance of the          
missionary promises in the ,old         
,testament4#aei ,the  ,great ,commission
 was based on these exceeding great     
promises4 ,the  nations were in ,god's  
plan before they were on ,christ's      
program4 ,and  is it not remarkable that
 nearly all of these ,old ,testament    
promises  are grouped around the names  
of countries which now are the centre   
and strength of the ,moslem world8      
8,known unto ,god are all ,his works    
from the beginning of the world40 ,or   
will these promises of world-wide       
import only stretch beyond ,egypt1      
,mesopotamia1 ,syria and ,arabia1  not  
including those lands in ,god's plan of 
redemption and dominion8  ,is there not 
a special blessing in store for the     
lands that border  ,palestine1 when the 
,lord shall comfort ,zion and restore   
all her waste  places8 8,in that day    

shall ,israel be the third with ,egypt  
and with  ,assyria even a blessing in   
the midst of the earth4 ,whom the ,lord 
of  hosts shall bless1 saying1 ,blessed 
be ,egypt ,my people and ,assyria the   
work of ,my hands and ,israel ,my       
inheritance40    ,the ,moslem world is  
in no better condition and in no worse  
condition than the heathen world as     
portrayed in the ,new ,testament4 ,the  
need of both is the same2 and the same  
duty to evangelize them2 and the  same  
promise of ,god's blessing on our work  
of witness4 ,the ,mohammedan  world is  
also without excuse 7,rom4 i4 #bj1 #cb71
 without hope 7,john iii4  #cf2 ,eph4   
ii4 #ab71 without peace 7,isaiah xlviii4
 #bb71 without feeling  7,eph4 iv4 #ai71
 without ,christ 7,rom4 xiii4 #ac1 #ad7 
as is the heathen  world4 ,but no less  
is our responsibility toward them nor   
the power of  ,god's love to win them4  
,it is the rock of ,christ's ,sonship   
which is the stone of stumbling  and the
 rock of offence to the ,moslem mind4   

,but it is this very rock  on which     
,christ builds ,his church2 and the     
foundation of ,god standeth  sure4      
,writing on this subject ,mr4 ,edward   
,glenny1 the ,secretary of the  ,north  
,africa ,mission1 well says3            
8,blessed be ,god1 we are not left to   
carry on this warfare at our own        
charges6 #8,he that sent ,me is with    
,me1' said the ,master2 and ,he who     
sends ,his servants now is surely with  
them also1 for the promise  stands1     
#8,lo6 ,i am with you alway1 even unto  
the end of the age4' ,in all  our       
efforts for the salvation of men1 we are
 dependent upon the power  of the       
,spirit of ,god2 for no man can say that
 ,jesus is the ,lord1 but  by the ,holy 
,ghost4 ,but if those of us who work at 
home are conscious  of this1 those who  
labor in ,mohammedan countries realize  
it most  intensely4 ,amongst the masses 
at home1 what we have to contend against
  mostly is indifference2 but there it  
is deeply-rooted prejudice1 aye1  even  

in many cases1 hatred to ,jesus as the  
,son of ,god4 ,but the battle  is the   
,lord's1 not ours2 we are but           
instruments to carry out ,his  purposes4
 ,the ,spirit has been sent forth from  
the ,father to #8convict  ,,the ,,world 
of sin1' and we are not justified in    
making any reservation  in the case of  
,mohammedans--yea1 may we not expect    
that if there be a  nation or race on   
the earth more inaccessible than        
another1 more averse  to the gospel1    
more hardened against its teachings1    
that there the ,lord  will show #8the   
exceeding greatness of ,his power' by   
calling out some  from their midst whom 
,he may make #8chosen vessels' to bear  
,his name to  others8 ,has not that been
 ,his mode of working in time past80    
#c4 ,there is no land in the world and  
no people 7with the exception  of       
,palestine and the ,jews7 which bear    
such close relation to the  ,theocratic 
covenants and ,old ,testament promises  
as ,arabia and the  ,arabs4 ,the        

promises for the final victory of the   
,kingdom of ,god in  ,arabia are many1  
definite and glorious4 ,these promises  
group themselves  around seven names    
which have from time immemorial been    
identified  with the peninsula of       
,arabia3 ,ishmael1 ,kedar1 ,nebaioth1   
,sheba1  ,seba1 ,midian and ,ephah4 ,we 
select these names only1 omitting       
others which have an indirect reference 
to ,arabia or the ,arabs1 as well  as   
those promises1 so numerous and         
glorious1 concerning the wilderness  and
 desert-lands4 ,the latter would surely1
 for the dwellers of  ,palestine1 have  
primary reference to ,northern ,arabia2 
but our argument  is strong enough      
without these general promises4#afj     
,in order to understand the promises    
given to the sons of ,ishmael1 ,kedar   
and ,nebaioth1 we need first to know the
 relation which ,ishmael bears to  the  
,abrahamic covenant and the place he    
occupies in ,god's plan for the  nations
 as outlined in the book of ,genesis4   

,hagar1 the mother of the ,arabian      
patriarch1 seems to have occupied a     
prominent place in ,abraham's household 
and appears to have brought to  that    
position not only mental gifts but also 
an inward participation  in the faith of
 the ,god of ,abraham4 ,she was probably
 added to the  family of faith during   
,abraham's sojourn in ,egypt and        
occupied the same  position toward the  
female servants that ,eliezer of        
,damascus did to the  male servants4 ,it
 is when she was driven forth into the  
wilderness by  the jealous harshness of 
,sarah that we have the first revelation
 of ,god  regarding her seed4 8,the     
angel of the ,lord found her by a       
fountain of  water in the wilderness1 by
 the fountain in the way to ,shur40#afa 
,and  ,he said1 ,whence camest thou8 and
 whither wilt thou go8 ,and she said1 ,i
  flee from the face of my mistress     
,sarai4 ,and the angel of the ,lord said
  unto her1 ,return to thy mistress and 
submit thyself under her hands4  ,and   

the angel of the ,lord said unto her1   
444 8,i will multiply thy seed          
exceedingly that it shall not be        
numbered for multitude4 ,and the angel  
of the ,lord said unto her1 ,behold thou
 art with child1 and shall bear a  son  
and shalt call his name ,ishmael ,god   
will hear2 because the ,lord  hath heard
 thy affliction4 ,and he will be a wild 
man1 his hand will be  against every    
man1 and every man's hand against him2  
and he shall dwell  in the presence of  
all his brethren4 ,and she called the   
name of the  ,lord that spake unto her1 
,thou ,god seest me3 for she said1 ,have
 ,i also  here looked after ,him that   
seeth me40    ,it is plain from the     
context that the angel of the ,lord and 
the ,lord  ,himself are here identified2
 it was the angel of ,jehovah1 the angel
  of the covenant or the ,christ of the 
,old ,testament4 ,why should this       
8angel0 first appear to the ,egyptian   
bondwoman8 ,is it according to  the law 
that the ,lord always reveals ,himself  

first to the poorest1  most distressed  
and receptive hearts or was it the      
special office of  the covenant angel to
 seek 8that which was lost0 from the    
patriarchal  church at its very         
beginning8 ,lange suggests in his       
commentary that  the 8,angel of         
,jehovah1 as the ,christ who was to come
 through ,isaac  had a peculiar reason  
for assisting ,hagar1 since she for the 
sake of  the future ,christ is involved 
in this sorrow40 ,in any case the       
special  revelation and the special     
promise was given to ,hagar not only but
  to her seed4 ,christ1 if we may so    
express it1 outlines the future  history
 and character of the ,ishmaelites as   
well as their strength and  glory2 but  
,he also gives them a spiritual promise 
in the ,god-given  name1 ,ishmael1      
,elohim will hear4 ,without this the    
theophany loses  it true character4     
,ishmael as the child of ,abraham could 
not be left  undistinguishable among the
 heathen4 ,it was for ,abraham's sake   

that the  revelation included the unborn
 child in its promises4    ,the         
fulfillment of the promise that         
,ishmael's seed should multiply         
exceedingly has never been more clearly 
stated than by the geographer  ,ritter3 
8,arabia1 whose population consists to a
 large extent of  ,ishmaelites1 is a    
living fountain of men whose streams for
 thousands  of years have poured        
themselves far and wide to the east and 
west4  ,before ,mohammed its tribes were
 found in all border-,asia1 in the ,east
  ,indies as early as the middle ages2  
and in all ,north ,africa it is the     
cradle of all the wandering hordes4     
,along the whole ,indian ocean down  to 
,molucca they had their settlements in  
the middle ages2 they spread  along the 
coast to ,mozambique2 their caravans    
crossed ,india to ,china1  and in       
,europe they peopled ,southern ,spain   
and ruled it for seven  hundred years40 
,where there has been such clear        
fulfillment of the  promise of natural  

increase1 is there no ground that ,god  
will hear  and give spiritual blessing  
also and that ,ishmael 8shall dwell in  
the  presence of all his brethren0 in   
the new covenant of grace8              
,illustration3 ,,the ,,rescued ,,slave  
,,boys ,,at ,,muscat4    ,thirteen years
 after the first promise to ,ishmael we 
hear the promise  renewed just after the
 institution of circumcision1 the sign  
of the  covenant of faith4 8,and        
,abraham said unto ,god1 ,o that        
,ishmael might  even yet live before    
,thee4 ,and ,god said1 ,sarah thy wife  
shall bear  thee a son indeed2 and thou 
shall call his name ,isaac3 and ,i will 
establish my covenant with him for an   
everlasting covenant1 and with  his seed
 after him4 ,and as for ,ishmael1 ,i    
have heard thee44440 ,what  is the      
significance of ,abraham's prayer for   
,ishmael8 ,is it probable  that he      
merely asks for temporal prosperity and 
for length of life8  ,this is the idea  
of some commentators but none of them   

explain why the  prayer asks that       
,ishmael may live 8before ,god40 ,keil  
and others1 more  correctly we think1   
regard the prayer of ,abraham as arising
 out of his  anxiety lest ,ishmael      
should not have any part in the         
blessings of the  covenant4 ,the fact   
that the answer of ,god contains no     
denial of the  prayer of ,abraham is in 
favor of this interpretation4           
,illustration3 ,,the ,,arabian ,,mission
 ,,house ,,at ,,muscat4    ,in the      
prayer ,abraham expresses his           
anticipation of an indefinite  neglect  
of ,ishmael which was painful to his    
parental heart4 ,he asks  for him1      
therefore1 a life from ,god in the      
highest sense4 ,else what  does the     
circumcision of ,ishmael mean8 ,the     
sealing or ratifying of  the covenant of
 ,god with ,abraham through ,isaac's    
seed1 embraces not  only the seed of    
,isaac1 but all those who in a wider    
sense are sharers  of the covenant1     
,ishmael and his descendants4 ,and      

however much the  ,arabs may have       
departed from the faith of ,abraham they
 have for all  these centuries remained 
faithful to the sign of the old covenant
  by the rite of circumcision4 ,this is 
one of the most remarkable facts  of    
history4 ,circumcision is not once      
alluded to in the ,koran1 and  ,moslem  
writers offer no explanation for the    
omission4 ,yet the custom is  universal 
in ,arabia1 and from them it passed over
 with other traditions  to all the      
,moslem world4 ,the ,moslems date       
circumcision from ,abraham and          
circumcise at a late period4 ,the ,arabs
 in 8the time of ignorance0 also        
practiced the rite2 an uncircumcised    
person is unknown even among those      
,bedouins who know nothing of ,islam    
save the name of the prophet4#afb       
8,as for ,ishmael ,i have heard thee40  
,for the third time we read of a        
special revelation to prove ,god's love 
for the son of the bondmaid4  ,in the   
pathetic story of ,hagar's expulsion1   

,ishmael is the centre  figure4#afc ,his
 mocking was its cause2 for his sake it 
was grievous  in ,abraham's sight to    
expel them4 ,to ,ishmael again is there 
a special  promise1 8because he is thy  
seed40 ,when the water is spent in the  
bottle and ,hagar turns away from seeing
 the death of the child1 it was  not her
 weeping but the lad's prayer that      
brought deliverance from  heaven4 8,and 
the angel of ,god called to ,hagar out  
of heaven and said  unto her1 ,what     
aileth thee1 ,hagar8 fear not2 for ,god 
hath heard the  voice of the lad where  
he is4 ,arise1 lift up the lad and hold 
him by  thine hand2 for ,i will make of 
him a great nation4 ,and ,god opened her
  eyes1 and she saw a well of water2 and
 she went and filled the bottle  with   
water and gave the lad drink4 ,and ,god 
was with the lad40    ,no less does this
 history show the moral beauty of       
,hagar's character1  her tender mother  
love and all the beautiful traits of a  
maternal  solicitude than the repentance

 of ,ishmael4 ,god heard his voice2 ,god
  forgave his sinful mocking2 ,god      
confirmed his promise2 ,god saved his   
life2 ,god was with the lad4 ,the       
,providence of ,god watched over        
,ishmael4  ,long years after he seems to
 have visited his father ,abraham1 for  
we  read that when the patriarch died in
 a good old age 8his sons ,isaac  and   
,ishmael buried him in the cave of      
,machpelah40 ,no mention is made  here  
of the sons of ,keturah4 ,and twice in  
the ,bible the generations  of ,ishmael 
are recorded in full#afd in order to    
bind together the  prophecies of        
,genesis with the ,messianic promises of
 ,isaiah for the  seed of ,ishmael4     
,the twelve princes1 sons of ,ishmael1  
whose names are recorded 8by their      
towns and their castles0 were           
undoubtedly the patriarchs of so many   
,arab tribes4 ,some of the names can be 
distinctly traced through history  and  
others are easily identified with modern
 clans in ,arabia4 ,mibsam1  e4 g41     

seems to correspond with the ,nejd clan 
of ,bessam some of  whom are merchants  
at ,busrah2 ,mishma is surely the same  
as the ,arabic  ,bni ,misma2 while      
nearly all commentators agree that ,duma
 is ,dumat  el ,jendal in ,north        
,arabia1 one of the oldest ,arabic      
settlements4  ,aside from conjecture two
 names stand prominent and well-known in
  profane history2 ,nebajoth and ,kedar4
 ,pliny in his natural history  mentions
 them together as the ,nabati et ,cedrei
 and the ,arab historians  are familiar 
with the names4 ,undoubtedly the        
,nabatans are related to  ,nebajoth2    
although this is denied by ,quartremere 
it is affirmed by ,m4  ,chwolson and is 
the universal opinion of the ,arabs     
themselves4    ,now it is these very two
 names1 whose identity no one questions1
 that  are the centre of glorious       
promises4 ,it is generally known that   
the  sixtieth chapter of ,isaiah is the 
gem of missionary prophecy in the  ,old 
,testament2 but it does not occur to    

every one that a large portion  of it   
consists of special promises for        
,arabia4 8,the multitude of  camels     
shall cover thee1 the dromedaries of    
,midian and ,ephah1 7,sons  of ,keturah1
 ,gen4 xxv4 #a-e72 all they from ,sheba 
7,south ,arabia or  ,yemen7 shall come2 
they shall bring gold and incense2 and  
they shall  show forth the praises of   
the ,lord4 ,all the flocks of ,kedar    
shall be  gathered together unto thee2  
the rams of ,nebaioth shall minister    
unto  thee3 they shall come up with     
acceptance upon mine altar and ,i will  
glorify the house of my glory4 ,who are 
these that fly as a cloud and as  doves 
to their windows80    ,these verses read
 in connection with the grand array of  
promises that  precede them leave no    
room for doubt that the sons of ,ishmael
 have a  large place in this coming     
glory of the ,lord and the brightness of
 ,his  rising4 ,it has only been delayed
 by our neglect to evangelize ,northern 
,arabia but ,god will keep ,his promise 

yet and ,christ shall see of the        
travail of ,his soul1 among the         
camel-drivers and shepherds of ,arabia4 
,and then shall be fulfilled that other 
promise significantly put in  ,isaiah   
xlii4 for this part of the peninsula3   
8,sing unto the ,lord a new  song and   
,his praise from the end of the earth   
444 let the wilderness  and the cities  
thereof lift up their voice1 the        
villages that ,kedar  doth inhabit3 let 
the inhabitants of the rock sing1 let   
them shout from  the top of the         
mountains40 ,it is all there1 with      
geographical accuracy  and up-to-date2  
8cities in the wilderness0 that is ,nejd
 under its  present government2 ,kedar  
forsaking the nomad tent and becoming   
villagers2 and the rock-dwellers of     
,medain ,salih6 8,and ,i will bring the 
blind by a way they knew not2 ,i will   
lead them in paths that they have  not  
known3 ,i will make darkness light      
before them and crooked things          
straight40 ,the only proper name1 the   

only geographical centre of the  entire 
chapter is ,kedar4 ,in two other        
prophecies1#afe which have no           
,messianic character1 ,kedar is referred
 to as synonymous with ,arabia4         
,another group of missionary promises   
for ,arabia cluster round the names     
,seba and ,sheba4 8,all they from ,sheba
 shall come2 they shall bring  gold and 
incense and they shall show forth the   
praises of the ,lord40  7,is4 lx4 #f47  
8,the kings of ,sheba and ,seba shall   
offer gifts4 ,yea all  kings shall fall 
down before ,him1 all nations shall     
serve ,him4444 ,he  shall live and to   
,him shall be given of the gold of      
,sheba2 prayer also  shall be made for  
,him continually and daily shall ,he be 
praised40 ,the  ,messianic character of 
this psalm is generally acknowledged4   
,where are ,seba and ,sheba8 ,who are   
they8 ,three ,shebas are referred to in 
genealogy and prophecy4 #a4 ,a son of   
,raamah1 son of ,cush2 #b4 ,a son of    
,joktan2 #c4 ,a son of ,jokshan son of  

,keturah4 ,but all of these find their  
dwelling-place in what is now ,southern 
,arabia4 ,the ,joktanite ,sheba  is the 
kingdom of the ,himyarites in           
,yemen4#aff ,the kingdom of ,sheba      
embraced the greater part of ,yemen2 its
 chief cities and probably its          
successive capitals were ,seba1 ,sana   
7,uzal71 and ,zaphar 7,sephar74 ,seba1  
the oldest capital1 is identical with   
the present ,marib1 northeast  of ,sana2
 for ,ez,zejjaj in the ,taj ,el ,aroos  
dictionary says1 8,seba was  the city of
 ,marib or the country in the ,yemen of 
which the city was  ,marib40 ,ptolemy's 
map makes plain what the ,romans and    
,greeks understood  by ,seba and ,sheba4
 ,the ,cushite ,sheba settled somewhere 
on the shores  of the ,persian ,gulf4   
,in the ,marasid ,stanley-,poole says he
 found 8an  identification which appears
 to be satisfactory--that on the island 
of ,awl1 one of the ,bahrein islands are
 the ruins of an ancient city  called   
,seba40    ,the same authority holds    

that the ,keturahite ,sheba formed one  
tribe  with the ,cushite ,sheba and also
 dwelt in ,eastern ,arabia4 ,sheba has  
always been a land of gold and incense  
and we are only beginning to  know a    
little of the opulence and glory of the 
ancient ,himyarite  kingdom in ,yemen   
from the lately discovered inscriptions 
and ruins4    ,in the same psalm that   
gives these promises to ,southern and   
,eastern  ,arabia we have this          
remarkable verse3 8,he shall have       
dominion also from  sea to sea and from 
the river unto the ends of the earth4   
,they that  dwell in the wilderness     
shall bow before ,him and ,his enemies  
shall lick  the dust40 ,the river       
referred to is undoubtedly the          
,euphrates#afg  and the boundaries given
 are intended to include the ideal      
extent  of the promised land4 ,now it   
is1 to say the least1 remarkable that   
modern ,jewish commentators interpret   
this passage together with the          
forty-eighth chapter of ,ezekiel so as  

to include the whole peninsula  of      
,arabia in the land of promise4 ,i have 
seen a curious map1 printed  by ,jews in
 ,london1 on which the twelve restored  
tribes had each their  strip of         
territory right across ,arabia from the 
,red ,sea to the ,gulf and  including   
,palestine and ,syria4    ,isaac ,da    
,costa1 the great ,dutch poet1 who was  
of ,jewish descent gathers  together in 
his epic1 8,hagar10 some of these ,bible
 promises for the  sons of ,ishmael4#afh
        8,mother of ,ishmael6 ,the word 
that ,god hath spoken      ,never hath  
failed the least1 nor was ,his promise  
broken4      ,whether in judgment       
threatened or as blessing given2        
,whether for time and earth or for      
eternal heaven1      ,to ,esau or to    
,jacob4444      ,the patriarch prayed to
 ,god1 while bowing in the dust3        
',oh that before thee ,ishmael might    
live6'--,his prayer1 his trust4         
,nor was that prayer despised1 that     
promise left alone      ,without        

fulfillment4 ,for the days shall come   
,when ,ishmael shall bow his haughty    
chieftain head      ,before that        
,greatest ,chief of ,isaac's royal seed4
      ,thou1 favored ,solomon1 hast     
first fulfillment seen      ,of ,hagar's
 promise1 when came suppliant ,sheba's  
queen4      ,next ,araby the blest      
brought ,bethlehem's newborn ,king1     
,her myrrh and spices1 gold and         
offering4      ,again at ,pentecost they
 came1 first-fruits of harvest vast2    
,when1 to adore the name of ,jesus1 at  
the last      ,to ,zion's glorious hill 
the nation's joy to share      ,the     
scattered flocks of ,kedar all are      
gathered there1      ,nebajoth1 ,hefa1  
,midian4444      ,then ,israel shall    
know ,whose heart their hardness broke1 
,whose side they pierced1 ,whose curse  
they dared invoke4      ,and then1 while
 at ,his feet they mourn ,his bitter    
death1      ,receive ,his pardon4444    
,before ,whose same white throne        
,gentile and ,jew shall meet      ,with 

,parthian1 ,roman1 ,greek1 the far      
,north and the ,south1      ,from       
,mississippi's source to ,ganges' giant 
mouth1      ,and every tongue and tribe 
shall join in one new song1             
,redemption6 ,peace on earth and        
good-will unto men2      ,the purpose of
 all ages unto all ages sure4 ,amen4    
,glory unto the ,father6 ,glory the     
,lamb1 once slain1      ,spotless for   
human guilt1 exalted now to reign6      
,and to the ,holy ,ghost1 life-giver1   
whose refreshing      ,makes all earth's
 deserts bloom with living showers of   
blessing60           99       99        
99       99       99     8,mother of    
,ishmael6 ,i see thee yet once more1    
,thee1 under burning  skies and on a    
waveless shore6 ,thou comfortless1 soul 
storm tossed1  tempest shaken1 ,heart   
full of anguish and of hope forsaken1   
,thou1 too1  didst find at last ,god's  
glory all thy stay6 ,he came4 ,he spake 
to thee4  ,he made thy night ,his day4  
,as then1 so now4 ,return to ,sarah's   

tent ,and  ,abraham's ,god1 and better  
covenant1 ,and sing with ,mary1 through 
her  ,saviour free1 #8,god of my life1  
,thou hast looked down on me4'0    ,but 
,arabia1 although it has all this wealth
 of promise1 is not a  field for feeble 
faith4 ,yet we can learn to look at this
 barren  land because of these promises 
with the same reckless1 uncalculating1  
defiant confidence in which ,abraham    
8without being weakened in faith1       
considered his own body now as good as  
dead0 7,r4 ,v47 8but waxed strong       
through faith giving glory to ,god40    
,the promises are great because the     
obstacles are great2 that the glory of  
the plan as well as the glory  of the   
work may be to ,god alone4 ,arabia needs
 men who will believe as  seeing the    
,invisible4 ,six hundred years ago      
,raymond ,lull wrote3 8,it  seems to me 
that the ,holy ,land cannot be won in   
any other way than that  whereby ,thou1 
,o ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 and ,thy ,holy 
,apostles won it1 by  love and prayer1  

and the shedding of tears and blood40   
,a lonely worker among ,moslems in      
,north ,africa recently wrote3 8,yes  it
 is lives poured out that these people  
need--a sowing in tears--in a  measure  
that perhaps no heathen land requires2  
they need a ,calvary  before they get   
their ,pentecost4 ,thanks be unto ,god  
for a field like  this3 in the light of 
eternity we could ask no higher         
blessedness than  the chance it gives of
 fellowship with ,his ,son40    ,the    
dumb spirit of ,islam has possessed     
,arabia from its childhood for  thirteen
 hundred years2 8he teareth and he      
foameth and gnasheth with  his teeth and
 pineth away40 8,and ,he said unto them 
this kind can come  forth by nothing but
 by prayer and fasting40 8,if thou canst
 believe1  all things are possible to   
him that believeth40 7,mark ix4 #ad-bi47
    ,life for ,arabia must come from the
 ,life-,giver4 8,i believe in the ,holy 
,ghost10 therefore mission-work in      
,arabia will prove the promise of ,god  

true in every particular and to its     
fullest extent4 8,o that ,ishmael  might
 live 444 as for ,ishmael ,i have heard 
thee40        8,speed on1 ye heralds1   
bringing        ,life to the desert     
slain2      ,till in its mighty winging1
        ,god's spirit comes to reign    
,from death to new-begetting1           
,god shall the power give1      ,shall  
choose them for crown-setting           
,and ,ishmael shall live4        8,so   
speaks the promise1 bringing        ,the
 age of ,jubilee      ,to every home and
 tenting1        ,from ,tadmor to the   
sea4      ,the dead to life are risen1  
,the glory spreads abroad1      ,the    
desert answers heaven1        ,hosannas 
to the ,lord60                          
,appendix ,i                            
,a ,,chronological ,,table        ,circa
 #ahib ,b4 ,c4--,birth of ,ishmael4     
0   #aggc  0   --,death of ,ishmael4    
0    #iib  0   --,bilkis1 queen of      
,yemen 7,sheba7 visits ,solomon4      0 
#gjj  0   --,amalgamation of ,cushite   

and ,sabean clans in ,yemen4      0     
#ged  0   --,all ,yemen and ,oman under 
rule of ,yaarb4      0    #ehh  0       
--,first ,jewish settlements in ,arabia4
    ,a4 ,d4     #cc--;,arabians present 
at ,pentecost4      0     #cg--,the     
,apostle ,paul goes to ,arabia4      0  
#fj--,second ,jewish immigration into   
,arabia4      0    #aje--,roman ,emperor
 ,trajan under his general ,palma       
subdues                 ,northwestern   
,arabia4      0    #abj--;,destruction  
of great dam at ,marib and the beginning
 of ,arab                 migrations    
northward4      0    #big--;,famine in  
,western ,arabia4 ,migrations eastward4 
0    #cbf--,nearchus1 admiral of        
,alexander1 surveys the ,persian ,gulf4 
0    #cbe--,nicene ,council--,arabians  
present4      0    #cdb--;,christianity 
already extending in ,northern ,arabia4 
,churches                 built in      
,yemen4      0    #cgb--,mavia1 queen of
 ,north ,arabia1 converted to           
,christianity4      0                   

#ebe--;,abyssinian invasion of ,yemen4  
0    #efa--,mohammed born at ,mecca4    
0    #ege--,persians under ,anosharwan  
expel the ,abyssinians from ,yemen4     
0    #eie--,mohammed marries ,khadijah4 
0    #eie--,yemen passes under ,persian 
,rule4      0    #faj--,mohammed begins 
his prophetic career4      0            
#fbb--7;,a4,h4 #a7--,mohammed flees from
 ,mecca to ,medina4 ,the era of         
the ,hegira4 7,see end of ,table47      
0    #fbc--;,battle of ,bedr4      0    
#fbd--;,battle of ,ohod4      0         
#fcj--,mecca overcome4 ,embassy to      
,oman1 etc4      0    #fcb--;,death of  
,mohammed4 ,abubekr caliph4 ,all ,arabia
 subjugated by                 force of 
arms4      0    #fcd--,omar caliph4     
,expulsion of ,jews and ,christians from
 ,arabia4      0    #fch--,kufa and     
,busrah founded4      0    #fdd--,othman
 caliph4      0    #fee--;,dissensions  
regarding caliphate4 ,medina attacked4  
,ali                 chosen caliph4     
0    #fef--;,battle of the ,camel4      

,capital transferred to ,kufa4      0   
#ffa--;,ali assassinated4 ,hassan       
becomes caliph4      0                  
#gej--;,beginning of ,abbaside          
,caliphate 7,bagdad74      0            
#ged--,mansur4      0    #ghf--;,haroun 
el ,rashid4      0    #hji--;,amin4     
0    #hac--,mamun4      0               
#hcc--,motasim4      0                  
#hdg--,motawakkel4      0               
#hhi--;,arise of ,carmathian sect4      
0    #ije--,yemen comes under ,karamite 
caliphs4      0    #icb--,rebellion in  
,yemen4 ,it becomes independent under   
,imams of                 ,sana as      
rulers4      0    #icj--;,carmathians   
take ,mecca and carry away the          
black-stone to                 ,katif4  
0   #ajee--,togrul ,beg at ,bagdad4     
0   #ajif-abgb--,the ,crusades4 ,arabia 
in touch with ,european                 
civilization through its bands of       
warriors4      0   #aagc--,yemen subdued
 by sultans of ,egypt4      0           
#abdj--,rise of ,ottoman ,turks4      0 

#abeh--;,fall of ,bagdad4      0        
#acbe--,yemen again independent4      0 
#aded--;,imams of ,yemen take ,aden and 
fortify it4      0   #aejc--,portuguese 
under ,ludovico ,barthema1 make voyages 
on ,arabian                 coast and   
visit ,aden and ,muscat4      0         
#aejg--,portuguese take ,muscat4      0 
#aeac--,portuguese under ,abulquerque   
are repulsed at ,aden4 ,visit           
,mokha and the ,persian ,gulf4      0   
#aeaf--,suleiman by order of ,mameluke  
,sultan attacks ,aden and is            
repulsed4      0   #aech--,suleiman the 
,magnificent sends a fleet and takes    
,aden by                 treachery4     
,arab garrison butchered4      0        
#aedj--;,beginning of ,turkish rule in  
,yemen4      0   #aeej--;,arabs hand    
over ,aden to the ,portuguese4      0   
#aeea--;,aden recaptured by ,peri       
,pasha4      0   #afbd-agda--;,imams    
established rule over all ,oman with    
capital at                      ,rastak2
 then at ,muscat4      0                

#afji--;,first visit to ,aden by        
,english captains4      0               
#afah--;,english establish factories at 
,mokha4      0   #afbb--,portuguese     
expelled from ,bahrein and ,arab coast  
by the                 ,persians4      0
   #afcj--;,arabs drive out ,turks from 
,yemen and ,imams take the              
throne at ,sana4      0                 
#agdj-fe--;,dutch ,east ,india ,company 
in ,persian ,gulf and ,red ,sea         
ports4      0   #agfe--;,english ,east  
,india ,company in ,persian ,gulf and   
,red ,sea                 ports4      0 
#agce--;,abdali ,sultan of ,lahaj takes 
,aden4      0   #agda--;,ahmed bin ,said
 drives out ,portuguese from ,muscat and
 founds                ,dynasty of      
,imams1 anew4      0   #agfe--,mohammed 
bin ,abdul ,wahab dies and his political
 associate                 ,mohammed bin
 ,saud propagates ,wahabiism in ,arabia4
      0   #aghj--,spread of ,wahabi     
doctrine over all of ,central ,arabia4  
0   #ahja--,wahabis conquer ,bahrein and

 hold it for nine years4      0         
#ahjc--;,abd-ul-,aziz the ,wahabi chief 
assassinated by a ,persian              
fanatic4      0   #ahjc--,wahabis take  
,mecca and lay seige to ,jiddah4      0 
#ahjd--,wahabis take ,medina4      0    
#ahjd--,said bin ,sultan ruler of ,oman 
and ,zanzibar4      0   #ahji--;,aden   
visited by ,captain ,haines of ,british 
,navy4      0   #ahah--;,ibrahim ,pasha 
captures ,wahabi capital and sends ,amir
 in                 chains to           
,constantinople where he is beheaded4   
0   #ahje-ahbj--;,british suppress      
piracy in ,persian ,gulf4      0        
#ahbj--,son of ,amir1 ,turki1 proclaimed
 ,sultan of ,nejd and ,oman             
coast4      0   #ahba--;,british make   
treaty with tribes on ,oman coast called
 the                 8,trucial ,league40
      0   #ahbj-ahdg--;,british treaties
 with ,bahrein chiefs to suppress       
slave-trade and piracy4      0          
#ahca--,turki1 ruler of ,nejd1 murdered4
      0   #ahcb--;,feysul bin ,turki1   

succeeds him4      0   l#hce--;,abdullah
 bin ,rashid becomes a powerful chief in
 ,jebel                 ,shammar4      0
   #ahce--;,aden again visited by       
,british to avenge cruelty to sailors   
shipwrecked off its coast4      0       
#ahci--;,aden bombarded by ,british     
fleet and taken4 ,treaties made         
with surrounding tribes4      0         
#ahdj-ahdg--;,aden attacked by ,arabs4  
0   #ahdf--,tilal bin ,abdullah bin     
,rashid succeeds to rulership of        
,jebel ,shammar and becomes independent 
of ,wahabi power4      0                
#ahea-ahef--;,abdullah bin ,mutalib     
,sherif of ,mecca4      0               
#ahed--,sultan of ,oman makes treaty    
with ,england and cedes ,kuria          
,muria ,islands4      0                 
#ahef--,thuwani bin ,said ruler of      
,oman4      0   #aheg--,perim occupied  
by ,british4      0                     
#aheh-ahgg--;,abdullah bin ,mohammed    
,sherif of ,mecca4      0               
#aheh--;,cable laid in ,red ,sea from   

,suez to ,aden1 but proved              
defective 7cost #hjj1jjj74      0       
#aheh--;,bombardment of ,jiddah by      
,british4      0                        
#ahfe-ahhf--;,abdullah bin ,feysul ruler
 of ,nejd with capital at ,riad4      0 
#ahfg--,mitaab bin ,abdullah succeeds   
,tilal4      0   #ahfg--,menamah        
7,bahrein7 bombarded by ,british because
 of broken                 treaty4 ,isa 
bin ,ali made ruler4      0             
#ahff--,sultan bin ,thuwani ruler of    
,oman4      0   #ahfh--,mohammed bin    
,rashid assumes power and rule at ,hail 
as ,amir                 of ,nejd4      
0   #ahfi--;,cable laid from ,bombay to 
,aden and ,suez4      0                 
#ahgj--,turkish invasion of ,yemen4     
0   #ahga--,turkish invasion of ,hassa  
and occupation of ,katif4      0        
#ahga--,seyyid ,turki ruler of ,oman    
7,muscat74      0   #ahge--;,busrah made
 a separate vilayet4      0             
#ahgg--;,beginning of ,turkish          
bureaucracy at ,mecca4      0           

#ahgh--,treaty of ,berlin4 ,reforms     
promised in ,turkish ,provinces4      0 
#ahhj--;,hasein1 ,sherif of ,mecca1 is  
murdered4      0   #ahha-hb--;,abd el   
,mutalib again ,sherif of ,mecca4      0
   #ahhb--;,aun er ,rafik made ,sherif  
of ,mecca4      0   #ahhf--,mohammed    
,ibn ,rashid takes ,riad overturning    
,saud government                 and    
becomes ruler of all ,central ,arabia4  
,,note4--,to find the equivalent date   
,a4 ,h4 of any year ,a4 ,d43--,from the 
year ,a4 ,d4 deduct #fba4ed and to the  
remainder add #c per cent4 ,a4 ,h4  #a  
,july #afth1 #fbb ,a4 ,d41 and the      
,moslem year consists of #ab lunar      
months4 ,to find the equivalent date ,a4
 ,d4 of a year ,a4 ,h4 multiply it  by  
4#igjbbe and to the remainder add       
#fba4ed4 ,the sum gives the date ,a4    
,d4 of the end of the year ,a4 ,h4      
,appendix ,,ii                  ,,table 
,,of ,,the ,,arab ,,tribes ,,of         
,,northern ,,arabia                     
,el ,meshadaka4                         

,el ,meshatta4                          
,walid ,ali         ,el ,hammamede4     
,el ,jedaleme4                          
,el ,toluh4                             
,el-,hessene        ,el ,hessene        
7proper74                               
,messalih4                              
,i4 ,the ,anaeze3      ,er-,ruwalla     
,el ,ruwalla 7proper74                  
7or ,jilas7       ,um ,halif4           
,fedan4                                 
,tana ,majid   ,sebaa4                  
,el-,beshr                              
,medeyan4                               
,selga        ,metarafe4                
,aulad ,sulei                           
,el ,mowaly4                        ,el 
,howeytat4    ,,ii4 ,,ahl               
,,es-,,shemmal3 ,el ,hadedin4           
7,northern tribes7 ,es-,soleyb4         
7also7            ,el ,feheily4         
,arabs of the ,hauran ,es-,serdye4      
,bni ,sokhr4                            
,bni ,heteym4                           
,arabs of ,kerak4                       

,esh-,sherarat4                         
,el ,temeyat4                           
,el ,menjat4                            
,bni-,shammar         ,ibn ,ghazy4      
,,iii4 ,,ahl ,,el-,,kibly3              
,bayr4        7,southernly              
,el-,fesyani4            tribes7        
,el-,jerba4                        ,el  
,jofeir4                        ,el     
,akeydat                        ,bni    
,sayd4                                  
,el-,wouled4                            
,el-,bakara4        ,i4 ,,the ,,anaeze3 
,walid ,ali        ,el ,meshadaka4      
,el ,meshatta4        ,el ,hammamede4   
,el ,jedaleme4        ,el ,toluh4       
,el-,hessene        ,el ,hessene        
7proper74        ,messalih4             
,er-,ruwalla 7or ,jilas7        ,el     
,ruwalla 7proper74        ,um ,halif4   
,el-,beshr        ,tana ,majid          
,fedan4          ,sebaa4        ,selga  
,medeyan4          ,metarafe4           
,aulad ,suleiman4      ,,ii4 ,,ahl      
,,es-,,shemmal3 7,northern tribes7      

,el ,mowaly4      ,el ,howeytat4        
,el ,hadedin4      ,es-,soleyb4         
7also7      ,arabs of the ,hauran       
,el ,feheily4        ,es-,serdye4       
,bni ,sokhr4      ,bni ,heteym4         
,,iii4 ,,ahl ,,el-,,kibly3 7,southernly 
tribes7      ,arabs of ,kerak4          
,esh-,sherarat4      ,bni-,shammar      
,el ,temeyat4        ,el ,menjat4       
,ibn ,ghazy4        ,bayr4              
,el-,fesyani4      ,el-,jerba4      ,el 
,jofeir4      ,el ,akeydat      ,bni    
,sayd4      ,el-,wouled4                
,el-,bakara4                            
,appendix ,,iii                         
,,kaat ,,and ,,coffee ,,culture ,,in    
,,arabia      ,kaat 7,celastrus eatha   
edulis7 is a shrub or small tree which  
grows  at an altitude of about five     
thousand feet in the lower mountains  of
 ,yemen1 especially on the slopes of    
,jebel ,sohr near ,taiz4 ,it is         
uncertain whether the plant is          
indigenous1 but if introduced into      
,yemen  from ,africa1 it came very      

early1 with coffee1 when the ,abyssinian
  conquest caused the fall of the       
,himyarite empire4    ,kaat is planted  
from shoots which are left to grow for  
three years1  then all the leaves and   
buds are pulled off except on a few     
twigs2  these develop the following year
 into juicy shoots which are cut off1   
tied in bundles1 wrapped in grass to    
preserve their moisture1 and sold  under
 the name of moubarreh4 ,the second crop
 is of better quality1  and is called   
mouthanee4 ,a small bundle1 kilwet1     
sells at ,taiz  for about five cents1   
and a larger quantity1 yet scarcely a   
handful1  called zirbet1 for ten cents4 
,only the leaves and young twigs are    
masticated1 but ,i have seen the poor   
glad to pick up even the castaway  dry  
leaves and branches to get what comfort 
they could out of them4    ,the taste of
 the leaves is slightly bitter and      
astringent1 very like  that of the peach
 leaf4 ,it has stimulative properties1  
produces  wakefulness1 and in large     

quantities hallucination2 it is said to 
preserve the teeth1 and some use it as  
an aphrodisac4 ,all ,arabs claim  that  
it gives wonderful power of endurance1  
and that with their kaat  and tobacco   
they can do without food on long        
journeys4 ,every one1 young  and old1   
,arab1 ,jew or ,turk1 uses it1 and many 
use it in incredible  quantities4 ,one  
soldier told me that he spent a rupee   
7#cc cents7 a day  for his kaat1 and the
 ,cadi of ,taiz pays twenty dollars a   
day for this  luxury1--his household1   
however1 is as large as the koran and   
divorce  can make it4    ,the ,ottoman  
government receives twenty-five per cent
 customs on the  market price of the    
plant in addition to the land tax on    
kaat culture4  ,the total revenue from  
this source is considerable as can be   
judged  from the fact that at ,taiz1 a  
town of perhaps five thousand           
population1  all the other taxes are    
farmed for ten thousand dollars per     
annum1  while the daily sale of kaat    

amounts to over three hundred dollars6  
,the kaat market is open from early     
morning1 when the fresh bundles  came on
 donkeys and camels1 but the busiest    
time is in the afternoon2  for the      
proper thing is to eat kaat just before 
sunset1 and to invite  guests to chew   
leaves an hour or two before dinner4    
,the sellers sit  in the open air1 and  
are mostly women4 ,in their rather      
picturesque  costumes1 unveiled1 they   
sit the long day1 with a basket of the  
green  luxury before them2 sprinkling   
their ware from time to time to keep it 
moist2 untying a score of bundles to    
satisfy some proud epicure who  tastes  
before he takes2 haggling over the price
 of a damaged bundle  with some soldier2
 and again swearing1 as only ,arabs can1
 to the  genuineness of the kind in     
question--for kaat has six distinct     
flavors  and varieties1 each with a     
special name1 and alas for the slave who
  was sent for one and returns with     
another4 ,sometimes there is close      

dealing1 or on a rainy day 8a corner0 in
 the market1 or some wicked  urchin runs
 off with a stolen bundle1 and at such  
times all the women  talk at once1 and  
their uproar is only rivalled in ,yemen 
by the ,jews'  synagogue service4 ,the  
kaat market at #d ,p4 ,m4 is indeed a   
picture1 full  of color and pose and    
motion worthy the brush of an artist2   
its like  can only be seen in the       
villages of lower ,yemen1 and among the 
many  surprises to the traveller in this
 ,switzerland of ,arabia nothing is at  
first sight stranger and more ludicrous 
than to see sober ,arabs sit  down in   
groups at the close of day and1 as      
,nebuchadnezzar of old1 8eat  grass like
 oxen40    ,according to an ,arab       
history kaat was used by the ,arabs     
before the  coffee-plant became         
naturalized in the highlands of ,yemen4 
,at present  coffee and kaat grow       
together4 ,both are considered lawful to
 ,moslems1  and ,yemen's chief source of
 wealth is its coffee export4 ,the      

principal  districts for coffee-culture 
stretch north of ,taiz to ,lohaia and   
,kankaban and ,sana1 and the variety of 
the product depends mostly on the       
elevation of the plantation4 ,there are 
three distinct stages in its  culture4  
,first the seed is prepared by removing 
the shell or pericarp2  it is then      
mingled with wood ashes and dried in the
 shade4 ,then the  seed is planted in   
prepared beds of rich soil1 mingled with
 manure2 the  beds are covered with     
branches of trees to protect the young  
plants  from the heat of the sun and    
they are watered every six or seven     
days4  ,lastly after six weeks the      
plants are carefully removed from the   
ground  and planted in rows at a        
distance of two or three feet from each 
other4  ,after two or three years the   
coffee-tree begins to yield4    ,the    
gardens in ,yemen are all constructed in
 terraces along the  mountain-side and  
are exceedingly beautiful when the plant
 is in full  bloom4 ,when the berries   

are ripe they are plucked from the tree 
and  dried in the sun2 afterwards packed
 in gunnybags they are sent to the      
coast4 ,the ,arabs of ,yemen seldom use 
the bean in making coffee but  utilize  
the shell or husk2 the beverage is less 
strong1 more sweet and  of course       
cheaper4 ,coffee is sown in ,march1     
budding begins in ,may1 and  the crop is
 gathered in ,september4 ,a great deal  
of ,yemen coffee finds  its way overland
 to the interior of ,arabia in addition 
to the export  to ,aden and ,hodeida2   
,mokha was once the great emporium but  
has utterly  decayed and now consists of
 only a few houses in ruined condition  
and a  dilapidated ,mosque4             
,appendix ,,iv                          
,,an ,,arabian ,,bibliography      ,a4  
,the ,geography of ,arabia      ,andrew1
 7,sir ,w4 ,p47--,the ,euphrates ,valley
 ,route 7,london1 #ahhb74               
,barthema1 7,ludovico47--,travels in    
,arabia translated by ,r4 ,eden 7#aegf74
      ,begum of ,bhopal--,pilgrimage to 

,mecca 7,london1 #ahgj74      ,bent1    
7,theodore and ,mrs47--,south ,arabia   
7,london1 #ahii74      ,blunt1 7,lady   
,ann47--,a pilgrimage to ,nedj1 #b vols4
 7,london1 #ahhc74      0      0    0   
--,the ,bedouins of the ,euphrates      
7,london1 #ahgi74      ,buist1          
7,dr47--,physical ,geography of the ,red
 ,sea 7no date74      ,burckhardt1      
7,john ,lewis47--,notes on the ,bedouins
 and ,wahabis1 #b vols4      7,london1  
#ahcj2 in ,german1 ,weimar1 #ahca74     
,burckhardt1 7,john ,lewis47--,travels  
in ,arabia1 #b vols4 7,london1 #ahcj74  
,burton1 7,richard47--,personal         
,narrative of a ,pilgrimage to ,el      
,medina      and ,mecca 7,london1       
#aheg74        ,chesney--,survey of the 
,euphrates and ,tigris1 #d vols4        
7,london1 #ahej74                       
,cloupet--,nouveau ,voyage dans         
l',arabie ,heureuse en #aghh 7,paris1   
#ahaj74      ,constable1 7,capt4 ,c4    
,g41 and ,lieut4 ,a4 ,w4 ,stiffe47--,the
 ,persian ,gulf      ,pilot 7,london1   

#ahgj1 #ahic74      ,cruttenden1 7,c4   
,j47--,journal of an excursion to       
,sana'a the capital of      ,yemen      
7,bombay1 #ahch74        ,doughty1 7,c4 
,m47--,arabia ,deserta1 #b vols4        
7,cambridge1 #ahhh74        ,fogg1 7,w4 
,p47--,arabistan 7,london1 #ahge74      
,forster--,the ,historical ,geography of
 ,arabia1 #b vols4 7,london1 #ahdd74    
,frede1 7,p47--,la ,peche aux ,perles en
 ,perse et a ,ceylan 7,paris1 #ahij74   
,fresnel--,lettres in ,journal          
,asiatique iii4 ,series v4 #eba4        
,galland--,recueil des ,rites et        
,ceremonies du ,pelerinage de la ,mecque
     7,amsterdam1 #aged74        ,haig1 
7,f4 ,t41 ,maj4 ,gen47--,a ,journey     
through ,yemen4 ,proceedings of the     
,roy4 ,geog4 ,soc4 of ,london1 vol4 ix41
 ,no4 #h4      ,harris1 7,w4 ,b47--,a   
,journey through ,yemen 7,london1       
#ahic74      ,hunter1 7,f4              
,m47--,statistical ,account of the      
,british ,settlement of ,aden           
7,london1 #ahgg74      ,hurgronje1      

7,snouck47--,mekka1 mit bilder atlas1 #b
 vols4 7,hague1 #ahhh74        ,irwin1  
7,eyle47--,adventures in a voyage up the
 ,red ,sea on the coasts of             
,arabia1 etc41 in #aggg 7,london1       
#aghj74        ,jaubert--,geographie    
d',edresi 7in ,arabic and ,french1      
,paris1 #ahcf74      ,jomard--tudes     
,geog4 et ,hist4 sur l',arabie 7in vol4 
iii4 ,mengin's      ,history of ,egypt74
        ,king1 7,j4 ,s47--,description  
of the island of ,perim 7,bombay        
,government      ,records ,no4 #di74    
,la ,roque--,a voyage to ,arabia the    
,happy1 etc4 7,london1 #agbf74          
,makramah1 7,aboo ,abd ,allah ibn       
,achmed47--,a ,manuscript ,history of   
,aden      7see ,hunter's account74     
,manzoni--,el ,yemen2 ,tre anni         
nell',arabia felic 7,rome1 #ahhd74      
,michaelis--,receuil de ,questiones     
proposes a une ,societ de ,savants qui  
par ordre de ,sa ,majestie ,danoise font
 le voyage de l',arabic                 
7,amsterdam1 #aggd74        ,niebuhr1   

7,carsten47--,original edition in       
,german 7,copenhagen1 #aggb74      0    
0    --,in ,french edition 7,amsterdam1 
#aggd74      ,niebuhr1                  
7,carsten47--,travels through ,arabia   
trans4 into ,english by       ,robert   
,heron1 #b vols4 7,edinburgh1 #agib74   
,ouseley1 7,sir ,w47--,oriental         
,geography of ,ibn ,haukal4        0    
0  0  --,travels in ,persia and ,arabia1
 #c vols4 7,london1 #ahjj74             
,palgrave--,travels in ,eastern ,arabia 
7,london1 #ahfc74      ,parsons1        
7,abraham47--,travels in ,asia 444      
including ,mocha and ,suez              
7,london1 #ahjh74      ,phillips--,map  
of ,arabia and ,egypt with index        
7,london1 #ahhh74      ,prideaux--,some 
recent discoveries in ,southwest ,arabia
 7,proceedings ,soc4      ,bib4         
,archaelogy1 ,london74                  
,sachau--,am ,euphrat und ,tigris4      
,reisenotizen1 #ahig-ih 7,leipzig1      
#aijj74      ,schapira--,travels in     
,yemen 7#ahgg74      ,seetzen--,travels 

in ,yemen 7#ahaj74      ,sprenger1      
7,a47--,die alte ,geographie ,arabiens  
als ,grundlage der                      
,entwicklungsgeschichte des ,semitismus 
7,berne1 #ahge74      ,sprenger1        
7,a47--,die ,post und ,reiserouten des  
,orients 7#ahfd74      ,stanley1        
7,dean47--,sinai and ,palestine4        
,stern1 7,rev4 ,a47--,a journey to      
,sana'a in #ahef 7,jewish               
,intelligencer1      vol4 xxiii41 pp4   
#aja seq474      ,stevens--,yemen       
7#ahgc74        ,taylor1                
7,bayard47--,travels in ,arabia 7,new   
,york74 ,various editions4              
,tuck--,essay on ,sinaitic ,inscriptions
 in the ,journal of ,german ,oriental   
,society1 vol4 xiv41 pp4 #abi seq4      
,van den ,berg1 7,l4 ,w4                
,c47--,hadramaut and the ,arabian       
colonies in the      ,indian            
,archipelago4 ,translated from the      
,dutch by ,major ,seeley      7,bombay  
,govt4 ,records ,no4 #bab new series74  
,van ,maltzen1 7,h4 ,i47--,reisen in    

,arabien 7,braunschweig1 #ahgc74        
,vincent's--,periplus of the ,erythrean 
,sea4      ,von ,wrede1                 
7,adolph47--,reise in ,hadramaut4       
,wellstead1 7,lieutenant47--,travels in 
,arabia 7,london1 #ahch74      0        
0        --,narrative of a journey to   
the ruins of ,nakeb      el ,hajar      
7,journal ,roy4 ,geo4 ,soc4 vii4 #bj74  
,whish--,memoir on ,bahrein 7#ahei74    
,wstenfeld 7,f47--,baherein und         
,jemameh4        ,zehm                  
7,albrecht47--,arabie seit ,hundert     
,jahren 7,halle1 #ahge74      ,b4       
,manners and ,customs#afi      ,arabian 
,nights--7,various editions74           
,baillie1 7,n4 ,b4 ,e47--,the           
,mohammedan law of sale 7,london1       
#ahej74       0         0               
--,mohammedan ,law ,hanifi code         
7,london1 #ahfe74       0         0     
--,mohammedan ,law ,imamia code         
7,london1 #ahfi74      ,boyle1 7,j4 ,b4 
,s47--,manual of ,mohammedan ,laws      
7,lahore1 #ahgc74                       

,burckhardt's--,arabic ,proverbs        
7,london74        0       --,notes on   
the ,bedouins and ,wahabis1 7,london1   
#ahca74        ,grady1 7,s4 ,g47--,the  
,mohammedan ,law of inheritance         
7,london1 #ahfi74        ,hamilton1     
7,charles47--,hedaya or ,guide2 a       
commentary on the ,mussulman      ,laws 
7,london1 #ahhf74        ,jessup1 7,h4  
,h47--,women of the ,arabs 7,new ,york1 
#ahgd74        ,kremer1 7,alfred        
,von47--,kultur ,geschichte des         
,orients1 #b vols4      7,wien1         
#ahge-gg74        ,lane's--,manners and 
,customs of ,modern ,egyptians1 #b vols4
 7,london74      0   --,arabian ,nights1
 with ,notes1 #d vols4 7,london74       
,meer1 7,mrs4 ,hassan                   
,ali47--,observations on the ,mussulmans
 7,london1 #ahcb74        ,rumsey1      
7,almaric47--,mohammedan law of         
,inheritance 7,london1 #ahhf74          
,smith1 7,robertson47--,the ,religion of
 the ,semites 7,new ,york1 #ahhi74      
0         0      --,kinship and         

,marriage in early ,arabia 7,cambridge74
      ,syeed1 7,ameer ,ali47--,personal 
law of ,mohammedans 7,london1 #ahhj74   
,tornauw--,das ,moslemische ,recht      
7#ahhe74      ,trumbull1 7,h4 ,c47--,the
 ,blood ,covenant 7,philadelphia1       
#ahia74        ,von ,hammer1            
7,purgstall47--,die ,geisterlehre der   
,moslimen 7,wien1 #aheb74      ,c4      
,history of ,arabia4#agj      ,abu      
,jaafer ,muhammed et ,tabbari--,tarikh  
el mulook2 ,arabic and ,latin4          
,edit4 ,kosegarten 7,leipsic1 #aged74   
,abulfida--,annales ,muslemici4 ,arab4  
et ,latin4 ,various editions4           
,badger1 7,george ,percy47--,history of 
the ,imams and ,seyyids of ,oman by     
,salil ,ibn ,razik from ,a4 ,d41        
#ffa-ahef4 ,trans4 with intro4 and notes
      7,london1 #ahga74      ,blau1     
,otto--,arabien im ,sechsten            
,jahrhundert4 ,zeitschrift des ,deutsch4
      ,morgenland4 ,gesel4 xviii4 ,b4   
,clark1 ,e4 ,l4--,the ,arabs and the    
,turks 7,boston74                       

,crichton--,history of ,arabia and its  
people 7,london1 #ahdd74                
,d',herbelot--,bibliotheque ,orientale  
7,maestricht1 #aggf74      ,doughty1    
7,c47--,documents epigraphiques         
recueillis dans le nord de              
l',arabie 7avec prface et traduction des
 inscriptions nabatennes      de        
,medain-,salih par ,e4 ,renan74 ,with   
#eg plates #dto4 7,paris1 #ahhd47       
,dozy1 ,r4--,de ,israeliten te ,mekka   
7,leyden1 #ahfd74      0   0 --,essai   
sur l',histoire del' ,islamisme 7,paris1
 #ahgi74        ,eichhorn--,monumenta   
,antiquissima ,hist4 ,arabum 7,gotha1   
#agge74        ,faria y ,souza--,manuel 
de ,asia ,portuguesa 7,lisbon1 #afff74  
,flgel1 ,gustav--,geschichte der ,araber
 bis auf den sturz des ,chalifats       
von ,bagdad1 #b vols4 7,leipzig1 #ahfd74
      ,forster1 ,rev4 ,c--,the          
historical geography of ,arabia         
7,london1 #ahdd74                       
,freeman--,history of the ,saracens4    
,fresnel--,lettres sur hist4 des ,arabes

 avant l',islamisme4 ,journal           
,asiatique 7#ahch-ahec74                
,gibbon's--,decline and ,fall of the    
,roman ,empire 7,chaps4 l41 li41 lii474 
,gilman1 ,a4--,the ,saracens 7,story of 
,nations7 7,london1 #ahia74        ,haji
 ,khalifah--,hist4 of the ,maritime wars
 of the ,turks4 ,translated      from   
the ,turkish by ,james ,mitchell        
7,london1 #ahca74                       
,hallam's--,history of the ,middle ,ages
 7,chapter vi474                        
,hammer-,purgstall--,gemldesaal der     
,lebensbeschreibungen grosser           
,moslimischer ,herrscher 7,leipzig1     
#ahcg74      ,hamza                     
,ispahanensis--,tarikh ,saniy ,mulook el
 ,ardh1 ,arab4 ,lat4 ed4      ,gottwaldt
 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahdd74             
,jergis ,el ,mekin--,hist4 ,saracenica  
,arab4 et ,lat4 7,leyden1 #afbe74       
,khuzraji1 ,ali bin ,hoosain            
,el--,history of ,yemen 7,,mss4 in      
,records      of ,residency at ,aden74  
,milman's--,latin ,christianity ,bk4 iv4

 chaps1 i41 ii4      ,muir--,annals of  
,early ,caliphate 7,london1 #ahhc74     
7,see under ,d4 ,islam74      0 --,the  
,caliphate1 its ,rise1 ,decline and     
,fall 7,london1 #ahia74        ,ockley1 
,s4--,history of the ,saracens 7,london1
 #agjh74      ,perceval1 ,a4 ,p4        
,caussin de--,essai sur l',histoire des 
,arabes avant      ,islamisme 7,paris1  
#ahcf74      ,playfair1 ,r4             
,l4--,history of ,arabia ,felix         
7,bombay1 #ahei47      ,pocock1         
,eduardo--,specimen ,hist4 ,arab4 ex    
,abul ,feda 7,oxford1 #afej74           
,quartremere--,memoire sur les          
,nabatheen4                             
,rasmussen--,addimenta ad ,hist4 ,arab4 
ante ,islam4      ,redhouse1 ,j4 ,w4--,a
 ,tentative ,chronological ,synopsis of 
the history of      ,arabia and its     
neighbors from ,b4 ,c4 #ejjjjj 6 to ,a4 
,d4 #fgi      7,london1 #ahij74         
,roesch1 ,a4--,die ,knigin von ,saba als
 ,knigin ,bilquis 7,leipzig1 #ahhj74    
,rycant--,the present state of the      

,ottoman ,empire 7,london1 #afge74      
,sacha1 ,c4 ,edward--,the ,chronology of
 ,ancient ,nations2 an ,english         
version of ,arabic 8,vestiges of the    
past10 ,a4 ,h4 #cij-ajjj      7,london1 
#ahhe74      ,schmlder--,sur les ,ecoles
 ,philosophique chez les ,arabes        
7,paris1 #ahdb74      ,schulten--,hist4 
,imperii vetus ,joctanidarum 7,hard4    
,gelderland1 #aghf74        0           
--,monumenta ,vetustiora ,arab 7,leyden1
 #agdj74      ,sedillot--,hist4 gen4 des
 ,arabes 7,paris1 #ahgg74 7,best general
 history47      ,souza--,documentos     
,arabicos para a hist4 ,portuguesa      
7,lisbon1 #agij74        ,weil1         
,gustav--,geschichte der ,chalifen1 #c  
vols4 7,mannheim1 #ahdf-ea74      0     
0   --,geschichte der ,islamisher ,vlker
 von ,mohammed bis zur      ,zeit des   
,sultan ,selim 7,stuttgart1 #ahff74     
,wstenfeld1 ,f4--,die                   
,geschichtschreiber der ,araber und     
ihrer ,werke      7,gttingen1 #ahhb74   
,wstenfeld1 ,f4--,vergleichungs         

,tabellen der ,muh4 und ,christ4        
,zeitrechnung 7,leipzig1 #ahed74        
,wstenfeld1 ,f4--,die ,chroniken der    
,stadt ,mekka gesammelt1 und            
herausgegeben1 ,arab4 ,deutsch1 #d vols4
 7,leipzig1 #aheg74      ,wstenfeld1    
,f4--,genealogische ,tabellen der       
,arabische ,stmme      7,gttingen1      
#aheb74      ,d4 ,islam      ,addison1  
,lancelot--,state of ,mahumedism        
7,london1 #afgi74      ,akehurst1 ,rev4 
,g4--,impostures instanced in the life  
of ,mohammed     7,london1 #ahei74      
,alcock1 ,n4--,the rise of              
,mohammedanism accounted for 7,london1  
#agif74      ,anonymous--,life of       
,mohammed 7,london1 #agii74        0    
--,reflections on ,mohammedanism        
7,london1 #agce74        0    --,the    
morality of the ,east as extracted from 
the ,koran      7,london1 #agff74       
,arnold1 ,matthew--,essay on ,persian   
,miracle ,play 7,london1 #ahga74      0 
,edwin--,pearls of the ,faith 7,boston1 
#ahhc74      0     ,j4 ,m4--,ishmael1 or

 the natural aspect of ,islam 7,london1 
#ahei74      ,arnold1 ,j4 ,m4--,islam   
and ,christianity 7,london1 #ahgd74     
0  ,t4 ,w4--,the ,preaching of ,islam3  
,a history of the ,propagation of the   
,muslim faith 7,london1 #ahif74         
,bate1 ,j4 ,d4--,claims of ,ishmael     
7,benares1 #ahhd74      ,bedwell1       
,w4--,mahomet's ,imposture 7,london1    
#afae74      --,mahomet unmasked        
7,london1 #afdb74      ,beverly1 ,r4    
,m4--,a reply to ,higgins ,see ,higgins1
 #ahbi4      ,blochman1 ,h4--',ain i    
,akbari of ,abdul ,fadhl1 7,eng4 trans47
      7,calcutta1 #ahfh74      ,blunt1  
,w4 ,s4--,the ,future of ,islam         
7,london1 #ahha74      ,blyden--,islam1 
,christianity and the ,negro ,race      
7,london1 #ahhh74      ,bonlainvilliers1
 ,count--,life of ,mohammed4            
,translation4 7,london1 #agca74         
,brinckman1 ,a4--,notes on ,islam       
7,london1 #ahfh74      ,brydges1 ,h4    
,j4--,history of the ,wahabis 7,london1 
#ahcd74      ,burton1 ,r4 ,f4--,the     

,jew1 the ,gipsey and ,el ,islam        
7,london1 #ahih74      ,bush1 ,rev4     
,george--,life of ,mohammed 7,new ,york1
 #ahdd74        ,carlyle1               
,thos4--,heroes and ,hero-,worship      
7,london1 #ahdj74      ,cazenhove1      
,dr4--,mahometanism 7,christian         
,remembrancer1 ,jan41 #ahee74           
,daumer1 ,g4 ,f4--,mahomed und sein     
,werk 7,hamburg1 #ahdh74                
,davenport1 ,john--,apology for         
,mohammed 7,london1 #ahfi74      ,de    
,goeje--,memoire sur les ,carmathes de  
,baherein 7,leyden1 #ahfc74             
,deutsch1 ,emanuel--,essay on ,islam    
7,london1 #ahgd74      ,de ,worde--,a   
,lytell ,treatyse of the ,turkes ,law   
called ,alcoran 7,london74      ,dods1  
,marcus--,mohammed ,buddha and ,christ  
7,london1 #ahgh74                       
,dllinger--,mohammed's ,religion nach   
ihrer ,inneren ,entwicklung und ihrem   
,einflsse 7,ratisbon1 #ahch74           
,dozy--,l',histoire d ,islamisme        
7,leyden1 #ahgi74      --,het ,islamisme

 7,leyden1 #ahgi74      ,dugat1         
,gustave--,histoire des philos4 et des  
theol4 ,musulmans de #fcb-aceh      ,j4 
,c4 7,paris1 #ahgh74      ,duveyrier1   
,h4--,la conferie ,musulmane de ,sidi   
,moh4 bin ,ali ,es-,senonsi             
7,paris1 #ahhf74        ,falke          
,r4--,budda1 ,mohammed1 ,christus2 ein  
,gttingen ,vergleich u4 z4 w4           
7,gtersloh1 #ahig74      ,forster1 ,rev4
 ,c4--,mahometanism unveiled1 #b vols4  
7,london1 #ahbi74        ,gagnier1      
,j4--,ismael ,abulfeda1 ,de ,vita et    
,rebus gestis ,mohammedis      7,oxford1
 #agbc74      ,galland--,recueil des    
,rites et ,ceremonies du pelerinage de  
la ,mecque      7,amst41 #aged74        
,garnett1 ,l4 ,m4 ,j4--,the ,women of   
,turkey and their folk-lore             
7,london1 #ahia74      ,geiger          
,rabbi--,was hat ,mohammed aus das      
,judenthume aufgenommen8                
7,wiesbaden1 #ahcc74      --,judaism and
 ,islam translation of the above        
7,madras1 #ahih74      ,georgens1 ,e4   

,p4--,der ,islam und die moderne ,kultur
 7,berlin1 #ahgi74                      
,gerock--,versuch einer ,darstellung der
 ,christologie des ,korans              
7,hamburg1 #ahci74                      
,gibbon--,decline and ,fall of ,roman   
,empire 7in loco74      ,gmelin1 ,m4    
,f4--,christenschlaverei und der ,islam 
7,berlin1 #ahgc74      ,guyard1 ,s4--,la
 civilization ,musulmane 7,paris1       
#ahhd74        ,haines1 ,c4 ,r4--,islam 
as a ,missionary ,religion 7,london1    
#ahhh74      ,hamilton1 ,c4--,the       
,hedayah1 a commentary on ,moslem law4  
,trans4      7,london1 #agia47 7,edition
 by ,grady1 #ahij74      ,hauri1        
,johannes--,der ,islam in seinem        
,einfluss auf das ,leben seiner         
,bekenner7,leyden1 #ahhj74              
,herclots1 ,dr4--,qanoon-el-,islam      
7,london1 #ahcb74      ,higgins1        
,g4--,an ,apology for the life of       
,mohammed 7,london1 #ahbi74             
,hughes1 ,f4 ,p4--,notes on             
,mohammedanism 7,london1 #ahge74        

--,dictionary of ,islam 7,new ,york and 
,london1 #ahhe74      ,hurgronje1 ,c4   
,snouck--,het ,mekkaansche ,feest       
7,leyden1 #ahhj74      --,mekka3 mit    
bilder atlas1 7,the ,hague1 #ahhj74     
,inchbald1 ,rev4 ,p4--,animadversions on
 ,higgins1 7,doncaster1 #ahcj74         
,irving1 ,washington--,life of ,mahomet 
7,london1 #ahej74      --,successors of 
,mahomet 7,london1 #aheb74      ,jansen1
 ,h4--,verbreitung des ,islams1 u4 z4   
w41 in den verschiedenen1      ,landern 
der ,erde1 #ahij-ahig 7,berlin1 #ahih74 
,jessup1 ,h4 ,h4--,the ,mohammedan      
,missionary ,problem 7,phila41 #ahhi74  
,keller1 ,a4--,der ,geisteskampf des    
,christentums gegen den ,islam bis      
zur ,zeit der ,kreuzzge 7,leipzig1      
#ahig74      ,koelle1 ,s4 ,w4--,mohammed
 and ,mohammedanism critically          
considered      7,london1 #ahhh74       
,koelle1 ,s4 ,w4--,food for ,reflection 
7,london1 #ahfe74      ,,koran3         
7,editions and translations74           
--,english versions3 ,alexander ,ross   

7from ,french1 #afdi-afhh71 ,sale       
7#agcd71 ,rodwell 7#ahfa71 ,palmer      
7#ahhj74      --,first ,arabic1 printed 
text1 at ,rome1 #aecj 7,brixiensis74    
,arabic text1 ,hinkelmann 7,hamburg1    
#afdi74          and ,latin             
text1--,maracci 7,padua1 #afih74        
text--,empress ,catherine ,,ii4 7,st4   
,petersburg1 #aghg74                    
7      0    #agij1 #agic1 #agif1 #agih74
                                        
7,kasan1 #ahjc1 #ahji1 #ahci74          
7critical edition7 ,g4 ,flgel1          
7,leipzig1 #ahcd1 #ahdb1 #ahfi74        
--,french1 ,savary 7#aghc7 and          
,kasimirski 7,paris1 #ahdj1 #ahda1      
#aheg74      --,french version1 ,du     
,ryer 7,paris1 #afdg74      --,german   
versions3 ,boysen 7#aggc71 ,wahl        
7#ahbh71 ,ullmann 7#ahdj1 #ahec74       
--,german version1 ,schweigger          
7,nurnberg1 #afaf74      --,latin       
version1 ,robert and ,hermann 7,basle1  
#aedc74      --,russian version 7,st4   
,petersburg1 #aggf74      ,translations 

exist also in the other ,european       
languages2 and in      ,persian1 ,urdu1 
,pushto1 ,turkish1 ,javan1 and ,malayan 
made by ,moslems4      ,,koran          
,,commentaries3--78,there are no less   
than #bj1jjj in the library at          
,tripolis alone0--,arnold's ,islam and  
,christianity1 p4 #ha74      ,the most  
important are1--7,sunni7--        ,al   
,baghawi1 ,a4 ,h4 #eae4        ,al      
,baidhawi1 ,a4 ,h4 #fhe4        ,al     
,jalalain1 ,a4 ,h4 #hfd and #iaa4       
,al ,mazhari1 ,a4 ,h4 #abbe4        ,al 
,mudarik1 ,a4 ,h4 #gja4        ,ar-,razi
 7#cj vols471 ,a4 ,h4 #fjf4             
,as-,safi1 ,a4 ,h4 #ffh4                
,as-sirru'l wajiz1 ,a4 ,h4 #gae4        
,at-,tafsir 'l ,kebir1 ,a4 ,h4 #fjf4    
,azizi1 ,a4 ,h4 #abci1 7and ,shiah74    
,az-,zamakhshari1 ,a4 ,h4 #fjd4         
,hussain1 ,a4 ,h4 #ijj4        ,ibn u'l 
,arabi1 ,a4 ,h4 #fbh4        ,mir       
,bakir1 ,a4 ,h4 #ajda4        ,saiyid   
,hasham1 ,a4 ,h4 #aafj4        ,sheikh  
,saduk1 ,a4 ,h4 #cha4      ,krehl1 ,c4  

,l4 ,e4--,das leben des ,moham4         
7,leipzig1 #ahhd74      ,kremer1 ,von   
,alfred--,geschichte der ,herrschende   
,ideen des ,islams3 ,der                
,gottsbegriff1 die ,prophetie und       
,staatsidee 7,leipzig1 #ahfh74          
,la ,chatelier1 ,a4--,l',islam an       
,,xixesicle 7,paris1 #ahhh74      ,lake1
 ,j4 ,j4--,islam1 its origin1 genius and
 mission 7,london1 #ahgh74              
,lamairesse1 ,e41 7et ,g4               
,dujarric47--,vie de ,mahomet d'apres la
 tradition1      vol4 i4 7,paris1       
#ahih74      ,lane-,poole1              
,stanley--,studies in a ,mosque         
7,london1 #ahhc74      --,table-talk of 
,mohammed 7,london1 #ahhb74             
,lane--,selections from the ,koran      
7,london1 #ahgi74        ,mac,bride1 ,j4
 ,d4--,the ,mohammedan ,religion        
,explained 7,london1 #ahei74            
,maitland1 ,e4--,england and ,islam     
7,london1 #ahgg74      ,marracio1       
,l4--,refutatio ,al ,coran 7,batavii1   
#afih74      ,martyn1                   

,henry--,controversial ,tracts on       
,christianity and ,islam1 by the        
,rev4 ,s4 ,lee 7edited ,cambridge1      
#ahbd74      ,matthews--,the ,mishkat   
7traditions7 translation 7,calcutta1    
#ahji74      ,merrick1 ,j4 ,l4--,the    
life and religion of ,mohammed from     
,sheeah      traditions 7translated from
 ,persian7 7,boston1 #ahej74            
,mills1 ,c4--,the ,history of           
,muhammedanism 7,london1 #ahag74        
,mills1 ,w4 ,h4--,the ,muhammedan       
,system 7--#ahbh74      ,mochler1 ,j4   
,a4--,the relation of ,islam to the     
,gospel 7translation7      7,calcutta1  
#ahdg74      ,mohler1 ,j4 ,a4--,ueber   
das ,verhaltniss des ,islams zum        
,evangelium 7#ahcj74      ,morgan1      
,joseph--,mohammedanism ,explained      
7,london1 #agbc74      ,muir1 ,sir      
,william--,life of ,mahomet1 #d vols4   
7,london1 #aheh and #ahig74      --,rise
 and ,decline of ,islam 7in ,present    
,day ,tracts1 ,london1 #ahhg74          
--,mahomet and ,islam 7,london1 #ahij74 

--,sweet ,first ,fruits4 ,translated    
from ,arabic4 7,london1 #ahif74         
--,the apology of ,al ,kindy1 translated
 from ,arabic 7,london1 #ahhg74         
,muir1 ,sir ,william--,the ,coran3 ,its 
composition and teaching and the        
testimony it bears to the ,holy         
,scriptures 7,london1 #ahgh74           
,muir1 ,sir ,william--,the ,beacon of   
,truth 7from ,arabic7 7,london1 #ahig47 
--,the ,caliphate 7,london1 #ahig74     
--,the ,mohammedan ,controversy         
7,edinburgh1 #ahig74      ,mller1 ,f4   
,a4--,der ,islam im ,morgen und         
,abendlanden 7,berlin1 #ahhe74          
,murray1 ,rev4 ,w4--,life of ,mohammed1 
according to ,abu ,el ,fida             
7,elgin1 no date74        ,neale1 ,f4   
,a4--,islamism1 its ,rise and ,progress 
7,london1 #ahed74      ,niemann1 ,g4    
,k4--,inleiding tot de keunisvanden     
,islam 7,rotterdam1 #ahfa74             
,nldecke1 ,t4--,geschichte des ,qurans  
7,gttingen1 #ahfj74      --,das ,leben  
,muhammeds 7,hanover1 #ahfc74           

,oelsner1 ,c4 ,e4--,des effets de la    
religion de ,mohammed 7,paris1 #ahaj74  
,osborn1 ,major--,islam under the ,arabs
 7,london1 #ahgf74      --,islam under  
the ,caliphs 7,london1 #ahgh74          
,pfander1 ,doctor--,the ,mizan ,el ,hak 
7translated from ,persian7              
7,london1 #ahfg74      --,miftah ul     
,asrar 7,persian7 7,calcutta1 #ahci74   
--,tarik ul ,hyat1 ,persian 7,calcutta1 
#ahdj74      ,palgrave1 ,w4 ,g4--,essays
 on ,eastern ,question 7,london1 #ahgb74
      --,travels in ,central and        
,eastern ,arabia4      ,palmer1 ,e4     
,h4--,the ,koran translated1 #b vols4   
7,oxford1 #ahhj74      ,pelly1          
,lewis--,the ,miracle ,play of ,hasan   
and ,hussain 7,london1 #ahgi74          
,perron--,l',islamisme1 ,son            
,institutions1 etc4 7,paris1 #ahgg74    
--,femmes ,arabes avant et depuis       
l',islamisme 7,paris1 #aheh74           
,pitts1 ,joseph--,religion and manners  
of ,mahometans 7,oxford1 #agjd74        
,prideaux1 ,h4--,the ,true ,nature of   

the ,imposture fully explained          
7,london1 #agah74                       
,rabadan--,mahometanism 7,spanish and   
,arabic7 #afjc4      ,reland 7and       
others7--,four ,treatises 7on ,islam7   
7,london1 #agab74      ,rodwell1 ,j4    
,m4--,the ,koran1 ,translated 7,london1 
#ahga74      ,roebuck1 ,j4 ,a4--,life of
 ,mahomet 7,london1 #ahcc74      ,ross1 
,alexander--,the ,koran 7,london1       
#afdb74      ,rumsey1 ,a4--,al          
,sirajiyeh4 ,translated 7,london1       
#ahfi74      ,ryer1 ,andre du--,life of 
,mahomet 7,london1 #agah74              
,sale--,translation of the ,koran with  
preliminary discourse      7,london1    
#agcd74      ,scholl1 ,jules            
,charles--,l',islam et son fondateur3   
tude morale      7,neuchatel1 #ahgd74   
,sell1 ,rev4 ,e4--,the ,faith of ,islam 
7,madras1 #ahhj and ,london1 #ahig74    
--,the ,historical ,development of the  
,quran 7,madras1 #ahih74      ,smith1   
,bosworth--,mohammed and ,mohammedanism 
7,london1 #ahgf74      ,smith1 ,h4      

,p4--,the ,bible and ,islam 7,new ,york 
and ,london1 #ahig74      ,sprenger1    
,aloys--,das ,leben und die ,lehre des  
,mohammed1 #c vols4      7,berlin1      
#ahfe74      ,sprenger1 ,a4--,life of   
,mohammed from original sources         
7,allahabad1 #ahea74                    
,steinschneider1 ,moritz--,polemische   
,literatur in ,arabischer ,sprache      
7,leipzig1 #ahgg74      ,stevens1 ,w4   
,r4 ,w4--,christianity and ,islam       
7,london1 #ahgg74      ,st4 ,hilaire1   
,t4 ,bartholomew de--,mahomet et le     
,coran 7,paris1 #ahfe74      ,stobart1  
,j4 ,w4 ,h4--,islam and its ,founder    
7,london1 #ahgf74      ,syeed1 ,ahmed   
,khan--,essays on the life of ,mohammed 
7,london1 #ahgj74      ,syeed1 ,ameer   
,ali--,a critical examination of the    
life and teachings of      ,mohammed    
7,london1 #ahgc74        ,tassy1 ,garcin
 de--,l',islamisme d'apres le ,coran    
7,paris1 #ahgd74      ,taylor1 ,w4      
,c4--,the ,hist4 of ,mohammedanism      
7,london1 #ahcd74      ,thiersant1 ,p4  

,dabry de--,le ,mahometisme en ,chine   
7,paris1 #ahgh74      ,tisdall1 ,w4 ,st4
 ,clair--,the ,religion of the ,crescent
 7,london1 #ahif74      ,turpin1 ,f4    
,h4--,hist4 de la vie de ,mahomet1 #c   
vols4 7,paris1 #aggc74        ,wallich1 
,j4--,religio ,turcia et ,mahometis     
,vita 7#afei74      ,weil1 ,gustav--,das
 ,leben ,mohammeds2 nach ,ibn ,ishak    
bearbeit von ,ibn      ,hisham1 #b vols4
 7,stuttgart1 #ahfd74      ,weil1       
,gustav--,historische-,kritische        
,einleitung in den ,koran               
7,bielefeld1 #ahdd74      ,wherry1 ,e4  
,m4--,commentary on the ,quran1 #e vols4
 7,london1 #ahhb74      ,white1         
,j4--,bampton ,lectures 7on ,islam7     
7,oxford1 #aghd74      ,wollaston1      
,arthur ,n4--,half ,hours with ,mohammed
 7,london1 #ahij74      ,wortabet1      
,john--,researches into ,religions of   
,syria 7,london1 #ahfj74                
,wstenfeld1 ,h4 ,f4--,das ,leben        
,muhammeds1 #c vols4 7,gttingen1 #aheg47
      --,geschichte der ,stadt ,mekka1  

#d vols4 7,leipzig1 #aheg-fa74          
,zotenberg--,tareek-i-,tabari4          
,translated4      ,zwemer1 ,s4 ,m4--,the
 ,wahabis4 ,victoria ,institute         
7,london1 #aijj74      ,e4 ,christianity
 and ,missions#aga      ,birks1         
,herbert--,life and ,correspondence of  
,bishop ,t4 ,v4 ,french      7,london1  
#ahie74      ,jessup1 ,h4 ,h4--,the     
,setting of the ,crescent and the       
,rising of the      ,cross or ,kamil    
,abdul ,messiah 7,philadelphia1 #ahih74 
--,the ,mohammedan ,missionary ,problem 
7,phila41 #ahgi74      ,sinker1         
,robert--,memoir of ,ion ,keith         
,falconer 7,cambridge1 #ahhf74      ,the
 ,arabian ,mission4 ,quarterly ,letters1
 ,annual ,reports1 and special          
papers on missionary journeys from      
#ahij-ahii 7,new ,york74      ,wright1  
,thomas--,early ,christianity in        
,arabia2 a historical essay             
7,london1 #ahee74 ,this book gives a    
complete account of the early           
spread of ,christianity and cites       

authorities1 which1 being mostly      in
 ,latin1 are omitted here4      ,f4     
,language and ,literature               
,abcarius--,english-,arabic ,dictionary 
7,beirut1 #ahhb74      ,ahlwardt1       
,w4--,the ,divans of the six ancient    
,arabic ,poets 7,london1 #ahij74        
,ahlwardt1 ,w4--ber die ,poesie und     
,poetiek der ,araber 7,gotha1 #ahef74   
--,bemerkungen ber die chtheit der      
,alten ,arab4 ,gedichten                
7,griefswald1 #ahgb74      ,arnold1 ,f4 
,a4--,arabic ,chrestomathy1 #b parts    
7,halis1 #ahec74      --,septem         
,m'oallakat 7,leipzig1 #ahej74          
,badger1 ,g4 ,p4--,english-,arabic      
,lexicon 7,london1 #ahha74              
,birdwood1 ,allan ,b4--,an ,arabic      
,reading ,book 7,london1 #ahia74        
,butrus al ,bustani--,an ,encyclopdia in
 ,arabic1 vols4 i4-ix4 7#ahgf-hd74      
,cadri1 ,moh4--,guide to ,arab4         
,conversation 7,alexandria1 #ahgi74     
,caspari1 ,c4 ,p4--,arab4 ,grammatik    
7,halle1 #ahgf74      ,caussin de       

,perceval--,grammaire ,arabe4 7,paris1  
#ahhj74      ,cheikho1 ,p4              
,l4--,chrestomathia ,arabica cum lexico 
variisque notis      7,beirut1 #ahig74  
,clodius1 ,j4 ,c4--,gram4 ,arabica      
7,leipzig1 #agbi74                      
,clouston--,arabic ,poetry for ,english 
,readers 7,glasgow1 #ahhi74        ,de  
,goeje1 ,prof4--,a complete account of  
the authorship1 etc41 of the            
,arabian ,nights 78,de ,gids10          
,amsterdam1 ,sept41 #ahhf74             
,derenbourg1 ,h4 and ,spiro             
,j4--,chrestomathy 7,paris1 #ahhe74     
,dieterici1 ,fr4--,thier und ,mensch vor
 dem ,knig der ,genien u4 z4 w4         
7,leipzig1 #ahha74                      
--,arabisch-,deutsches ,wrterbuch zum   
,koran und ,thier und ,mensch           
7,leipzig1 #ahha74      --,die          
,arabische ,dicht-,kunst 7,berlin1      
#ahej74      ,dombay1 ,fr4 de--,gram4   
,mauro-,arab4 7,vindob41 #ahjj74        
,dozy1 ,r4 ,p4 ,a4--,supplment aux      
dictionnaires ,arabes1 #b vols4         

7,leyden1 #ahgg74      --,and many other
 monographs on the language4            
,erpenius1 ,th4--,grammatica1 etc4      
7,leyden1 #agfg74      --,rudimenta     
,linguae ,arabicae1 ,ed4 ,a4 ,schultens 
7,leyden1 #aggj74      ,euting--,katalog
 der ,arabischen ,literatur             
7,strassburg1 #ahgg74      ,ewald1 ,g4  
,h4 ,a4--,gram4 ,critica linq4 ,arab41  
#b vols4 7,lips41 #ahca74               
,farhat1 ,g4--,dict4 ,arabe-,franaise   
7,marseilles1 #ahdi74      ,faris ,es   
,shidiac--,arab4 ,gram4 7,london1       
#ahef74      ,fleischer1 ,h4            
,l4--,tausend und eine ,nacht 7text and 
notes1 #ab vols47      7,breslau1       
#ahbe-dc74      ,fleischer1 ,m4 ,h4     
,l4--,arabische ,sprche u4 z4 w4        
7,leipzig1 #ahcg74      ,flgel1         
,g4--,die ,grammatischen ,schulen der   
,araber nach den ,quellen               
bearbeitet 7,leipzig1 #ahfb74           
,flgel--,kitab ,el ,fihrist2 with       
,german notes 7,leipzig1 #ahga-gb74     
,flgel1 ,gustav--,lexicon               

,bibliographicum ,arab41 #g vols4 #dto4 
7,leipzig1 #ahce-eh74      ,forbes1     
,duncan--,arabic ,grammar4              
,freytag--,einleitung in das ,studium   
der ,arabischen ,sprache 7,bonn1 #ahfa74
      --,lexicon1 ,arab4 ,lat41 #d vols4
 7,halis1 #ahcj74                       
7abridged ,halis1 #ahcg74      --,arabum
 ,proverbia 7#c vols47 7,bonn1 #ahch74  
,giggejus1 ,a4--,thesaurus linq4        
,arabicae1 #d vols4 7,medioland1 #afcb74
      ,gies1 ,h4--,zur kentniss sieben  
,arabischer ,versarten 7,leipzig1       
#ahgi74      ,girgass and ,de           
,rosen--,chrestomathy 7,german ed4      
#ahge4 ,russian1 ,st4      ,petersburg1 
#ahgf74      ,goeje1 ,de ,m4            
,j4--,debelangrykheid van de beoefening 
d4 ,arab4 taal en      letterkunde      
7,hague1 #ahff74      ,golius1          
,j4--,lexicon ,arab4 ,lat4 7,leyden1    
#afec74      ,green1 ,a4 ,o4--,a        
,practical ,arabic ,grammar 7,oxford1   
#ahhg74        ,hammer ,van             
,purgstall--,literaturgeschichte der    

,araber3 ,von ihren beginne      bis zum
 ende des ,zwlfte ,jahrhunderts der     
,hidschret1 #g vols4      7,wein1       
#ahej-ef74      ,heury1 ,j4--,vocab4    
,french-,arab4 7,beirut1 #ahha74        
,hirth1 ,j4 ,fr4--,anthologia ,arab4    
7,jenae1 #aggd74      ,hoefer's         
,zeitschrift--,ueber die ,himyarische   
,sprache 7vol4 i41 #bbe sq74            
,jahn1 ,j4--,arabische ,chrestomathie   
7,wien1 #ahjb74      ,jayaker1 ,a4 ,s4  
,g4--,the ,omanese ,dialect of ,arabic1 
#b parts 7,in ,journal      ,r4 ,a4 ,s41
 of ,gt4 ,britain74        ,kosengarten1
 ,j4--,arab4 ,chrestomathy 7,leipzig1   
#ahbh74      ,kremer1 ,a4               
von--,lexikographie ,arab4 7,vienna1    
#ahhc74        ,lane1 ,e4 ,w4--,an      
,arabic ,english ,dictionary 7i4-viii47 
7,london1 #ahfc-hi74        0           
,w4--,the ,thousand and ,one ,nights1   
with notes1 edited1 #c vols4            
7,london1 #ahda74      ,lansing1 ,j4    
,g4--,arabic ,grammar 7,new ,york1      
#ahij74        ,mac ,naghten1 ,w4       

,h4--,thousand and ,one ,nights         
literally transl41 #d vols4             
7,calcutta1 #ahci74        ,newman1 ,f4 
,w4--,dictionary1 #b vols4 7,london1    
#ahij74      --,handbook of ,modern     
,arabic 7,london1 #ahij74      ,nldeke1 
,th4--,beitrage zur ,kentniss d4 ,poesie
 d4 alten ,araber1      7,hanover1      
#ahfd74      ,nldeke1 ,t4--,funf        
,mo'allqt1 bersetzt und erklrt4 ,,ii4   
,die ,mo'allaqt      ,antara's und      
,labid's1 #h vo4 7,vienna1 #aijj74      
,oberleitner1 ,a4--,chrestomathia ,arab4
 7,vienna1 #ahbd74        ,palmer1 ,e4  
,h4--,arabic ,grammar 7,london1 #ahij74 
--,arabic ,manual 7,london1 #ahij74     
,perowne1 ,j4 ,j4 ,s4--,adjrumiah1      
translated with ,arabic voweled text    
7,cambridge1 #aheb74                    
,richardson--,arab4 ,persian ,english   
,dictionary 7,london1 #aheb74           
0    ,j4 ,a4--,gram4 of ,arabic         
,language 7,london1 #ahaa74             
,rosenmller1 ,e4 ,f4 ,c4--,grammar      
7,leipzig1 #ahah74        ,sacy1 ,a4 ,j4

 ,sylvestre de--,an ,arabic ,grammar4   
--,arabic ,chrestomathy1 #d vols4       
7,paris1 #ahbi74      ,salmone1 ,h4     
,a4--,arabic-,english ,dictionary on a  
new system4 ,vol4 ,i4      contains the 
,arabic-,english part1 xviii4 and #abed 
pp4 ,vol4 ,,ii4      contains an        
,english-,arabic key1 referring every   
word to the ,arabic      equivalent in  
the first volume1 #b vols4 7,london1    
#ahij74      ,socin1 ,a4--,arabische    
,grammatik 7,berlin1 #ahhi74            
,steingass1 ,f4--,arab4-,eng4 and       
,eng4-,arab4 ,dict4 7,london1 #ahij74   
,tien1 ,a4--,handbook of ,arabic        
7,london1 #ahij74      --,manual of     
,colloquial ,arab4 7,london1 #ahij74    
,trumpp1 ,e4--,einleitung in das        
,studium der ,arabischen ,grammatiker   
7,mnich1 #ahgf74      ,tychsen1 ,o4     
,g4--,elementale ,arabicum 7#agib74     
,van ,dyck1 ,c4 ,c4 ,a4--,suggestions to
 beginners in the study of ,arabic      
7,beirut1 #ahib74                       
,vollers--gypto-,arab4 ,sprache 7,cairo1

 #ahij74      ,vriemoet1 ,e4            
,l4--,grammar 7,franeker1 #agcc74       
,wahrmund1 ,a4--,arab4 ,deutsch         
,handworter buch1 #b vols4 7,giessen1   
#ahhg74      --,handbuch der ,arab4     
,sprache 7,giessen1 #ahff74             
,winckler1 ,j4 ,l4 ,w4--,arab4          
,sprachlehre nebst ,wrterbuch 7,leipzig1
 #ahfb74      ,wright1 ,w4--,arabic     
,reading ,book 7,london1 #ahgj74        
,,note4--,for other ,arabic ,lexicons1  
,grammars and ,manuals consult ,oriental
  catalogues of3 ,kegan ,paul1 ,trench1 
,trbner  ,co41 ,london2 ,f4 ,a4         
,brockhaus1 ,leipzig2 and ,e4 ,j4       
,brill1 ,bibliothque ,orientale1        
,leyden4          ,index    ,see also   
,table of ,contents                     
,abd-ul-,wahab1 #aib4      ,abdulla bin 
,rashid1 #bjj4      ,abraha1 #caa4      
,abraham1 ,god's promises to1 #dja4     
,abyssinian invasion of ,arabia1 #cjh4  
,accessibility of ,arabia 7see ,open    
doors71 #cge4      ,adam1 ,tradition of 
the fall of1 #ag4      ,aden1 #ec1 #bah1

 #cce1 #cgf4      as a mission centre1  
#cch4      ,tribes around1 #bcj4        
,aflaj1 #ade4      ,aftan1 ,wady1 #bb1  
#ii4      ,allah 7see ,god71 #aga4      
,alphabet1 ,arabic1 #bdb4      ,ali1    
,ruins at1 #aje4      ,ali's footprint1 
#ff4      ,amara1 #acb1 #bhi1 #cfd4     
,american ,arabian mission1 #cec4       
,rifles in ,arabia1 #ffn1 #aci4         
,amulets 7see charms71 #bhc4            
,anaeze tribe1 #aed4      ,animals of   
,arabia1 #bh1 #hh1 #adi4      ,arab     
architecture1 #abd1 #bgb4               
characteristics1 #bfa1 #bfd4            
genealogies1 #bfa4      geographers1    
#be4      ,arab1 ,the1 #beh4            
,arabia1 #bdj4      ,area of1 #ah4      
,boundaries of1 #ah4      ,felix        
7,yemen71 #ec1 #cjg4      ,arabia in    
,moslem tradition1 #ag4      ,arabian   
field1 ,problems of the1 #cgd4          
history1 #aeh4      idolatry 7see       
,idolatry71 #cf4      mission1 #ced4    
hymn1 #ceh4      ,arabic language1 #bch1
 #bed4       newspapers1 #beg4          

,arabs1 ,classes of1 #bfj4       ,origin
 of1 #beh4      ,architecture1 ,arab1   
#bgb4      ,arts1 ,arabian1 #ge1 #bgd4  
,ashera1 #adj4      ,asir1 ,the ,turks  
in1 #baj4      ,athar1 ,science of1 #ia1
 #bgh4        ,bagdad1 #acc1 #cba4      
mission1 #cbg4      ,turkish rule in1   
#bae4      ,vilayet1 #abf4              
,bahrein1 #ig1 #aaj1 #bbj1 #cfc1 #cgc4  
huts1 #bga4      ,barka1 #hd4           
,barny1 ,f4 ,j41 #cff4                  
,bartholomew1 ,st41 ,tradition as to1   
#cjg4      ,batina ,coast1 #hc4         
,bayard ,taylor 7quoted71 #aba4         
,bedaa1 #aaa4      ,bedouin1 ,attacked  
by1 #fj4      dress1 #bgb4      life1   
#bfe4      tribes1 #fh1 #acb1 #aed4     
tribes1 ,mission to1 #cbh4      warfare1
 #bjc1 #cfd4      ,beit ,allah1 #cd1    
#ce4      ,bent1 ,theodore1 #gc4        
,bible1 ,arabic1 #bef1 #caf4      depot 
in ,bagdad1 #cba4      distribution in  
,arabia1 #cbj1 #cfe1 #cgg1 #chd1 #chh4  
,black stone of ,mecca1 #ca1 #cf4       
,blood covenants1 #aff4      revenge1   

#aee1 #bfe4      ,blunt1 ,lady ,ann1    
#bfi4      ,british and ,foreign ,bible 
,society1 #cba4      ,british influence 
in ,arabia1 #bah4      ,bruce1 ,robert1 
#cba4      ,buchanan1 ,claudius1 #cad4  
,bunder1 ,abbas1 #bce4      ,jissa1 #hd4
      ,burckhardt 7quoted71 #bfi4       
,burial place of ,mohammed1 #dg4        
,burns1 ,william1 #cbj4      ,burton    
7quoted71 #bhb4      ,busrah1 #abd1     
#abi1 #cfa4      mission1 #cfe4         
,camel1 ,land of the1 #hh4      ,use and
 character1 #ij1 #bdg4      ,cantine1   
,james1 #cec1 #cei1 #cfj4      ,caravan 
journey from ,bagdad1 #acf4             
,caravan routes of ,oman1 #id4          
,carmathian princes1 #aae4      ,castles
 in ,hadramaut1 #ge4                    
,cave-dwellers1 ,gharah1 #hf4           
,certificate1 ,the ,mecca1 #dj4         
,charms used by women of ,mecca1 #db4   
,child life among ,arabs1 #bfe4         
,christian ,church in ,aden1 #ed4       
,arabia1 #cjf4      ,christian coins    
used as amulets1 #dc4      ,christian   

and ,missionary ,alliance1 #cbh4        
,christianity in ,arabia1 #aei1 #cjj4   
,christians1 ,hatred of1 #cj1 #bfg4     
,st4 ,john1 #bhe4      ,christ's        
,sonship1 ,the ,rock of1 #cig4          
,church ,missionary ,society1 #cbb1     
#cbg1 #cdd4      ,circumcision1 #cii4   
,climate of ,arabia1 #bj1 #cgh4         
,bahrein1 #ajf4      ,nejd1 #adg4       
,oman1 #gi1 #hj1 #ic4      ,cobb1 ,h4   
,n4 7quoted71 #cfi4      ,coffee trade  
in ,yemen1 #gj4      ,coins             
7,carmathian71 #aae1 #bbe4              
,colportage work 7see ,bible            
distribution71 #chd4      ,commerce1    
,english1 in ,arabia1 #bbe4      in the 
,nejd1 #aea4      of ,busrah1 #abf4     
,consulates1 ,british1 #bca4            
,controversy1 #che4      ,converts from 
,islam1 #cia4      ,cosmogony1 ,sabean1 
#bif4      ,covenants1 #aff4            
,cradle of the ,human ,race1 #aai4      
,ctesiphon1 ,arch of1 #acc4      ,cufic 
characters1 #bdc4      ,customhouse1    
,turkish1 #eh4        ,customs1 ,arab1  

#aff4        ,da ,costa1 ,isaac1 #dje4  
,damar1 #ff4      ,date culture1 #abd4  
palm1 #aba4      ,dauasir1 ,wady1 #bb1  
#ade4      ,dedan1 #ig4      ,desert    
dwellers and the camel1 #ij4            
,deserts of ,arabia1 #bd1 #add4         
,difficulties of ,arabian missions1     
#cgd4      ,diseases in ,arabia1 #bhj1  
#cgh4      ,diwaniyeh1 #aci4            
,doughty 7quoted71 #add1 #bfh4          
,dress of the ,arabs1 #eh1 #gj1 #bgb4   
,dromedary1 #hi4      ,dutch ,missionary
 ,society1 #cid4      ,reformed ,church1
 #cec4      ,dwellings of ,arabs1 #bga4 
,east ,india ,company1 #bba4            
,education in ,mecca1 #dc4      of ,arab
 ,children1 #bff1 #cgi4                 
,educational missions1 #chc4            
,elephants in warfare1 #cab4            
,english possessions 7see ,british71    
#bg4      ,english supremacy in the     
,gulf1 #bbb4      ,euphrates1 ,journey  
down the1 #acf4      ,europeans who     
visited ,mecca1 #can4      ,eustace1    
,m41 #cfa4      ,evangelistic work in   

,arabia1 #chd4      ,eve1 ,tomb of1 #ag4
      ,ezekiel1 #ed1 #dje4      ,ezra1  
,tomb of1 #acb4        ,family life in  
,arabia1 #bfe4      ,fanaticism1        
,moslem1 #cgi4      ,fao1 #abi4         
,fatima1 ,shrine of1 #ej4      ,fauna of
 ,arabia1 #bh4      ,feasts1 ,sabean1   
#bih4      ,fetishism1 #afh4            
,feysul1 #aih4      ,fish on the ,oman  
,coast1 #hb4      ,flora of ,arabia1    
#bh1 #eg1 #fe1 #abd4      ,foods of     
,arabia1 #hf1 #abc1 #bgc4      ,forder1 
,mr41 #cbi4      ,frankincense1 #hf4    
,free ,church of ,scotland1 #cbj1 #ccd4 
,french1 ,bishop ,thomas ,valpy1 #ccj1  
#cca1 #cdd4      ,french coaling        
station1 #bcd4        ,games1 #bfg4     
,geology of ,arabia1 #ba4               
,geographers1 ,arab1 #be4      ,gharah  
tribe1 #he4      ,glenny1 ,edward       
7quoted71 #cig4      ,god1 ,the         
,moslem's idea of1 #aga4      ,god's    
promises for ,arabia1 #cie4             
,government of ,bahrein1 #ajh4          
,hassa1 #aag4      ,nejd1 #aej4         

,governments in ,arabia1 #bf4           
,graves1 ,anthony ,n41 #cbj4            
,hadramaut1 #ah1 #gb4      ,hagar1 #cig1
 #dje4      ,haig1 ,f4 ,t41 #cbb1 #ccd1 
#cei1 #cgh4      ,hail1 #aea4      ,haj 
,nasir1 ,khan of1 #adj4      ,hajarein1 
,hadramaut1 #gd4      ,halvy1 ,joseph1  
#gc4      ,hanifs1 #afh4      ,harem    
system1 #afa4      ,harpur1 ,dr4 and    
,mrs41 #cbb1 #cbe4      ,harrat         
7volcanic tracts71 #bc4      ,hassa1    
#aae1 #aag4        ,hassa1 ,the ,turks  
in1 #bag4      ,haswa1 ,khan ,el1 #acg4 
,haura1 #ge4      ,hegira1 #ahc4        
,hejaz1 ,turkish rule in1 #bjg4         
,hillah1 #acg4      ,himyarite dynasty1 
#aeh1 #cjg4      ,himyarites1 #bei4     
,himyaritic inscriptions1 #gd1 #bdd4    
,history of ,arabia1 #aeh1 #dji4        
,hodeidah1 #ec1 #gj1 #cdg4      ,bishop 
,french at1 #cdg4      ,hodgson1 #cbg4  
,hofhoof1 #aac4      ,honey1 #hf1 #bdg1 
#bhb4      ,horses1 ,arabian1 #hh1 #adi4
      ,hospital at ,hofhoof1 #aaf4      
,hospitality of ,rashid1 #bjj4      the 

,amir of ,nejd1 #aej4      ,hostility to
 ,christianity1 #chf4      ,hurgronje   
,snouck 7quoted71 #bgj4        ,ibb1    
,experience at1 #fe4                    
,ichthiophagoi1 #hb4      ,idolatry in  
,arabia1 #cf1 #eb1 #aff1 #bhd1 #cjg4    
,idols of ,arabia1 #aff4      ,ignorance
 of ,arabia1 #ade4      ,meccans1 #db4  
,ignorance1 ,time of1 #aeh4             
,illiteracy1 #db1 #cgi4      ,immorality
 in ,arabia1 #dj1 #da4      of the      
,koran1 #ahf4      ,india's influence on
 ,arabia1 #aji4      ,infanticide1 #afa4
      8,infidels01  #cj1 #ca4           
,inscriptions in ,yemen1 #cac4          
,himyaritic1 #gd4      ,interior of     
,arabia1 #adc1 #cgg4      ,irak-,arabi1 
#abj4      ,irrigation in ,oman1 #ic4   
,ishmael1 #ce1 #dja4      ,promises to1 
#cih4      ,ishmaelite ,arabs1 #bfj4    
,islam1 #afi4      ,analysis of1 #agg4  
,borrowed elements of1 #agh4      ,god  
of1 #aga4      sects1 #adj1aib4         
,jauf1 #bge4      ,jiddah1 #ag1 #ca1    
#cb4      ,jebel ,shammar1 #aed4        

,jesus ,christ1 #di1 #big4      ,jews in
 ,arabia1 #fc1 #ff1 #aei1 #cjh4         
8,john the ,baptist ,christians10 #big4 
,joktan1 #djd4      ,journey in ,oman1  
#id4      to ,hofhoof1 #aaa4      ,sana1
 #ef4      up the ,tigris1 #aca4        
,kaaba1 #cd1 #ce1 #bfc4      ,tradition 
of the1 #ag4      ,kaat-,culture1 #fc1  
#dad4      ,kamaran ,island1 #cc1 #bb,o4
      ,kamil1 #cfj1 #cfa1 #dbc4         
,katar ,peninsula1 #aaj4      ,katif1   
#aah4      ,kedar1 ,promises concerning1
 #cih4      ,keith ,falconer1 ,ion1     
#bej1 #cca4      ,mission1 #cdc1 #cha4  
,kenaneh1 #caj4      ,kerak1 #cbg4      
,kerbela1 #ach1 #aie4      ,khadijah1   
#aha4      ,khans1 #acg4      ,koran1   
#ahf1 #bci1 #bdb1 #bea1 #bhb4           
,koreish1 #caa1 #cab4      ,kuria-,muria
 ,islands1 #hf1 #bai4      ,kurna1 #adb4
      ,kuweit1 #abh1 #bbb4              
,lahaj1 #cch4      ,lane-,poole1        
,stanley 7quoted71 #bec4      ,language 
of the ,arabs1 #bch1 #bdi4      ,sabean1
 #bhh4      ,lansing1 ,dr41 #cba4       

,j4 ,g41 #ced4      ,law among ,arabs   
7see ,government71 #bfe4      ,legend as
 to creation of camel1 #hh4      of     
,nebi ,salih1 #cjb4      ,st4           
,bartholomew1 #cjg4      ,legends1 #afe4
      ,lethaby1 ,william1 #cbg4         
,literature of the ,arabs1 #bdb1 #bea4  
,locust1 #bff1 #bgc4      ,love among   
,arabs1 #bfe4      ,lull1 ,raymond1     
#bci1 #cad4        ,mahmal1 #aid4       
,madites1 #bei4      ,mackay's1         
,alexander1 ,appeal1 #cbi4              
,makalla1 #gc1 #cgf4      ,mandans1     
#bhe4      ,manufactures of ,hassa1     
#aae4      ,marriages in ,arabia1 #afb1 
#bfh1 #bgj4      of ,mohammed1 #aha1    
#ahb4      ,temporary1 #da4             
,martyn1 ,henry1 #cad1 #caf4            
,martyn's1 ,henry1 ,journal1 #cah4      
,mattra1 #hb4      ,mecca1 #ag1 #cj1    
#cd4      ,capture of1 #aid4            
,certificate1 #dj4      ,turkish        
,government of1 #bjh4      ,meccan      
songs1 #bgh4      ,medical knowledge of 
,arabs1 #bhj4      mission in ,aden1    

,need of a1 #ccf4      ,medical mission 
in ,yemen1 #cbe4      missions1 #cfa1   
#cgg4      ,medicine1 ,arab1 #bha4      
,medina1 #ca1 #de4      ,menakha1 #fi4  
,menamah1 #ii4      ,mesopotamia1 #aai1 
#baf4      ,star-worshippers of1 #bhe4  
,methods of mission work for ,arabia1   
#chc4      ,mildmay ,mission to the     
,jews1 #cfc4      ,mina1 #ci4           
,miracles1 ,moslem1 #cac4               
,mishkash1 #db4      ,mission at ,aden1 
#cdb4      ,muscat1 #hb1 #cdi4          
,missionaries needed1 ,the kind of1     
#chh4      ,missionary force in ,arabia1
 #chj4      problems of ,arabia1 #cgd4  
,missions in ,arabia1 #cad4      ,mahrah
 tribe1 #he4      ,makmat1 #bec4        
,mohammed1 #afi1 #agj1 #agi1 #bih4      
,ali1 #aif4      ,arabia1 before1 #aeh4 
,mohammed's burial place1 #dg4          
,mohammedan intolerance1 #cj4           
problem1 #cgd4      ,moharram1 #adj4    
,moses1 #cjb4      ,moslem attitude     
toward ,christianity1 #chf4      ,moslem
 world1 ,condition of the1 #cig4        

,moule1 ,a4 ,e4 7quoted71 #cea4         
,mounds at ,ali1 #ajf4      in the      
,river ,country1 #aba4      ,mountains  
and table-lands1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb4         
,mufallis1 #eh4      ,muscat1 #gh1 #cfc4
      ,attack on1 #cfd4      ,muscat1   
,bishop ,french at1 #cdh4      ,capture 
of1 #bjc4      ,henry ,martyn at1 #cai4 
,importance of1 #cbi4      ,music1      
,arab1 #bgd4        ,nasariya1 #ada4    
,nebaioth1 ,promises regarding1 #cih4   
,needs of ,arabia1 #cha4      ,nefud    
7,sandy ,desert71 #bj4      ,neibuhr1   
,m41 #ag4      ,nejd1 #bj1 #bg1 #adf4   
,nejf1 #ach4      ,nejran1 #ade4        
,new ,brunswick ,seminary ,band1 #cec4  
,newspapers1 ,arabic1 #bda4      ,nomad 
population1 #chj4      ,nomads1 ,arab1  
#aeg1 #bfd4      ,north ,africa         
,mission1 #cbh4        ,oaths1 #eg1     
#beb1 #bfd4      ,ojeir1 #aaa4          
,oman1 #gh1 #bba1 #bcd4      ,interior  
of1 #ib4      ,rulers of1 #bjb4         
,open doors in ,arabia1 #cbd1 #cge4     
,opposition to missions1 #cfb4          

,ottoman 7see ,turkish71 #abg4          
,outlook for missions1 #cia4            
,palgrave 7quoted71 #ai1 #aaj1 #aec1    
#agb1 #aih4      ,palmyrene ,kingdom1   
#cjd4      ,paradise1 ,rivers of1 #bbn4 
,paul in ,arabia1 #cjj4      ,pearl     
fishing1 #ajj4      ,pearl ,islands of  
the ,gulf1 #ig4      ,pearl oyster1     
#ajj4      ,penmanship1 ,arabic1 #bde4  
,pentecost1 ,arabs at1 #cjj4            
,perim1 ,island of1 #bbj4               
,persecution of ,christians1 #caa1 #cgi4
      ,persia1 #cah4      ,persian      
converts1 #cib4      persecution of     
,christian ,arabs1 #cje4                
,physicians1 ,arab1 #db1 #bhj4          
,pilgrimages1 ,early1 #afe4      to     
,mecca1 #cg1 #ahd4      ,pilgrims1      
,duties of1 #ch4      ,nationality of1  
#cc4      ,pillars1 ,the three1 #ci4    
,pirate coast of ,oman1 #hb4      ,poem1
 8,hagar10 #dje4      ,poems on women1  
#bgj4      ,poetry1 ,arab1 #afc1 #afd1  
#bed1 #bgd4      ,poets1 ,arabian1 #df4 
,political divisions of ,arabia1 #bf4   

history of ,bahrein1 #ajg4              
,politics in ,arabia1 ,present1 #bcc4   
,polyandry1 #afb4      ,polygamy1 #afb1 
#bfh1 #bih4      ,population of ,arabia1
 #bi4      ,bagdad1 #acd4               
,irak-,arabi1 #abf4      ,portuguese at 
,muscat1 #ha1 #bjb4      castle1 ,katif1
 #aah4      ,postal systems of ,arabia1 
#bbd4      ,post1 ,geo4 ,e4 7quoted71   
#ahf4      ,poverty of the ,arabs1 #aeg4
      ,prayer1 ,call to1 #cbf4      for 
,moslems1 #cae4      ,prayer-meeting of 
,star-worshippers1 #bhi4      ,prayers  
of pilgrims1 #ch4      offered at       
,medina1 #ej4      ,preaching in ,yerim1
 #ff1 #cbd4      to ,moslems1 #chd4     
,priesthood1 ,mandan1 #bih4             
,problems of the ,arabian field1 #cgd4  
,prophet's tomb at ,medina1 #dg4        
,provinces of ,arabia1 #be4             
,ptolemy's map of ,arabia1 #ah4         
,railway1 ,anglo-,egyptian1 #bbf4       
,rashid1 ,mohammed bin1 #bjj4           
,rastak1 #gi4      ,red ,sea coast1 #ai4
      ,reformation1 ,wahabi1 #aib4      

,reformed ,church in ,america1 #cec4    
,religion of heathen ,arabs1 #afd4      
the ,mahrah tribe1 #he4      ,sabeans1  
#bhh4      ,renan1 ,ernest 7quoted71    
#bci4      ,report of ,keith ,falconer1 
#cce4      ,results of missions to      
,moslems1 #cib4      ,rhenish missionary
 society1 #cid4      ,riad1 #aeb1 #bja4 
,riggs1 ,c4 ,e41 #cfa4      ,river      
country1 #aai1 #chb4      ,rivers of    
,arabia1 #ba4      ,roba'-el-,khali1    
#adc4      ,robbers1 ,bedouin1 #aee4    
,robbery among ,arabs1 #bfd4            
,robbery1 ,turkish1 #fi4      ,roda1    
#fh4      ,roman empire and the ,arabs1 
#cjd4      ,ruins at ,ali1 #aje4      in
 ,hadramaut1 #gd4      ,ruma1 ,wady1    
#bb4      ,russian influence1 #bce4     
interests in ,arabia1 #bbc4             
,sabeans1 #bhe4      ,sabat1 #cag4      
,sacred mosque of ,mecca1 #ce4          
,sacrifice1 ,sabean1 #bid4              
,sacrifices in ,arabia1 #ci1 #aff4      
,said1 ,seyid1 #bjb4      ,sana1 #ef1   
#fg1 #bab4      ,early ,christianity in1

 #caj4      ,importance of1 #cbd1 #cfj4 
,sana inscription1 #cac4      ,saud1    
#aid4      ,school for ,african         
slave-boys1 #cff4      ,schools at      
,medina1 #ea4      in ,hassa1 #aag4     
of ,mecca1 #dc4      ,sciences1         
,arabian1 #bgd4      ,seba1 #djd4       
,semitic languages1 #bdj1 #bda4         
,semites1 #bdj4      ,shatt-el-,arab1   
#abj4      ,sheba1 #djc1 #djd4          
,shehr and its ruler1 #gf4      ,sheikh 
,othman1 #ef1 #cce1 #ccf4      mission1 
#cdb4      ,shibam1 #ge4      ,shiran1  
,wady1 #bb4      ,shrines of ,arabia1   
#afe4      ,sib1 #hd4      ,sidra       
,rabba1 #bid4      ,sin1 ,koran doctrine
 of1 #aij4      ,sinaitic ,peninsula1   
#cjb1 #cge4      ,slave ,school at      
,muscat1 #cff4      trade1 #he1 #bbd4   
,smith1 ,eli1 #bef1 #caf4      ,social  
character of ,arabs1 #bfc4              
,socotra1 #ai1 #bai4      ,sohar1 #hd4  
,soldiers1 ,turkish1 #baf4      ,songs1 
,arabian1 #bge4      ,springs of fresh  
water in the ,gulf1 #ii4                

,star-worshippers of ,mesopotamia1 #bhe4
      ,steamship service to ,bagdad1    
#aca4      ,stern1 ,rev4 ,a41 #cbg4     
,stone1 ,geo4 ,e41 #cea1 #cff1 #cga1    
#chh4      ,suk-el-,shiukh1 #ada4       
,sultan of ,turkey1 #bjf4      ,sultans 
of ,muscat1 #gi4      ,sumatra missions1
 #cic4      ,superstitions1 ,arab1 #afe1
 #ahg1 #bhc4      ,sur1 #hd4            
,sutton1 ,henry ,m41 #cbg4      ,sword  
conquest of ,islam1 #ahd4        ,taif1 
#de4      ,taiz1 #fj1 #fb4              
,taxation1 ,turkish1 #fi1 #adb1 #bae4   
,tenoof1 #if4      ,tents1 ,bedouin1    
#aee1 #bga4      ,telegraph system1 #bh1
 #bbc4      ,thoms1 ,s4 ,j41 #cff4      
,theophilus1 #cjg4                      
,tigris-,euphrates basin1 #abj4         
,torbat manufacture1 #ach4              
,totemism in ,arabia1 #aff4             
,toweelah coin1 #aae4      ,trade 7see  
,commerce71 of ,bagdad1 #ace4           
,trade of ,bahrein1 #aje4      ,muscat1 
#hb4      ,tradition of fall of ,adam   
and ,eve1 #ag4      ,traditions1 ,henry 

,martyn's1 #cai4      ,treaties1        
,british1 with ,arabs1 #bbh4            
,tribal marks1 #aff1 #bgi1 #bha4        
,travellers in ,yemen1 #ec4             
,turkish ,arabia1 #cgf4      rule1 #bf1 
#bg1 #eh1 #ga1 #abg1 #baf4      ,turkish
 taxation1 #aac1 #adb4      ,turks in   
,arabia1 #bjf4        ,unexplored       
,arabia1 #ah4      ,unoccupied          
territory1 #chb4        ,van ,dyck1 ,c4 
,v4 ,a41 #bef1 #caf4      ,van ,tassel1 
,samuel1 #cbh4      ,veil1 ,use of the1 
#afa4        ,wadys1 #ba4      ,wahabis1
 #hc1 #aia4      ,wahat1 #eg4           
,warfare1 ,arab1 #bjc4      ,wasms1     
#aff1 #bdb1 #bha4      ,water courses of
 ,oman1 #ic4      ,weapons1 ,arab1 #bfg4
      ,wellhausen 7quoted71 #afg4       
,wellsted's travels in ,arabia1 #ib1    
#ic4      ,wilson1 ,john1 #cbj4         
,woman's dress in ,arabia1 #bgb4        
work for #cfe1 #chc4      ,women1 ,arab1
 #bfh4      ,bedouin1 #aef4      ,women 
in the  8,time of ,ignorance01  #afj4   
,women1 ,mohammed and1 #ahc4      of    

,mecca1 #dj4      ,yemen1 #eh1 #gj4     
,sabean1 #bhg4      ,wood carving in    
,hadramaut1 #ge4      ,worrall1 ,h4 ,r4 
,l41 #cfd4      ,wrede1 ,adolph von1    
#gb4      ,writing as a fine art1 #bdf4 
,early ,semitic1 #bdb4      use of1     
#afc4      ,manditic1 #bhg4             
,wyckoff1 ,james ,t41 #cfc4             
,yakoob1 #cfa4      ,yambo1 #ea1 #aif4  
,yemen1 #ec1 #eg1 #fb1 #bcd4      as a  
mission field1 #cbc4      ,turks in1    
#baa4      ,yemenites1 #bei4            
,yerim1 #fe4      ,young1 ,j4 ,c41 #cdc4
        ,zemzem1 ,well of1 #cd1 #cf4    
,zenobia1 #cjd4      ,zobeir1 #abh4     
,zwemer1 ,peter ,j41 #id1 #cfb1 #cfg4   
,zwemer's1 ,p4 ,j41 journey in ,oman1   
#id4      ,zwemer1 ,s4 ,m41 #ced1 #cei4 
,zwemer's1 ,s4 ,m41 journey down the    
,euphrates1 #acf4      ,zwemer's1 ,s4   
,m41 journey to ,hofhoof1 #aaa4         
,zwemer's1 ,s4 ,m41 journey to ,sana1   
#ef4      ,zwemer's1 ,s4 ,m41 journey up
 the ,tigris1 #aca4    ,illustration3   
,arabia          ,,footnotes3    #a ,may

 not this wady have been once a noble   
stream perhaps1 as ,glaser  conjectures1
 the fourth of the ,paradise rivers8    
7,gen ii4 #aj-ad7 ,upon  the question as
 to where the ancient ,semites located  
,paradise ,glaser  says that it was in  
the neighborhood of the confluence of   
the ,euphrates  and ,tigris1 on the     
,arabian side4 ,there the sacred palm of
 the city of  ,eridu grew2 there        
according to the view of the ancient    
,arabs the two  larger wadys of ,central
 ,arabia opened4 ,the one is the ,wady  
er-,ruma or  the ,gaihan2 and the other 
is the ,wady ed-,dauasir1 a side wady of
  which in the neighborhood of ,hamdani 
still bears the name of ,faishan        
7,pishon74--,see 8,recent ,research in  
,bible ,lands10 by ,h4,v4 ,hilprecht1   
7,philadelphia1 #ahig74 ,see also ,the  
,sunday-,school ,times1 ,vol4 ,,xxxiii1 
,no #di4    #b ,samhudi's ,history of   
,medina4 7,arabic text p4 #dj1 sqq47    
#c ,these wastes are also termed        
,dakhna1 ,ahkaf1 and ,hamad  according  

to the greater or less depth or shifting
 nature of the sands  or the more or    
less compact character of the soil4     
#d 8,kitab ,sinajet-el-,tarb0 by ,nofel 
,effendi 7,beirut #ahij74 ,the author   
follows the older ,arabic authorities4  
#e ,geography of ,asia 7,vol ,,ii41 p4  
#dfj71 #ahif4    #f ,the first account  
of a ,european visiting ,mecca is that  
of ,ludovico  ,bartema1 a gentleman of  
,rome1 who visited the city in #aejc2   
his  narrative was published in #aeee4  
,the first ,englishman was ,joseph      
,pitts1  the sailor from ,exeter1 in    
#afgh2 then followed the great ,arabian 
traveller1 ,john ,lewis ,burckhardt1    
#ahad2 ,burton in #ahec visited both    
,mecca and ,medina2 ,h4 ,bicknell made  
the pilgrimage in #ahfb and ,t4,f4      
,keane in #ahhj4 ,the narratives of each
 of these pilgrims have been  published1
 and from them1 and the travels of ,ali 
,bey1 and others1 we  know something of 
the ,holy ,land of ,arabia4 ,ali ,bey   
was in reality a  ,spaniard1 called     

,juan ,badia y ,seblich1 who visited    
,mecca and ,medina in  #ahjg and left a 
long account of his travels in two      
volumes illustrated  by many beautiful  
engravings4 ,burton's account of his    
pilgrimage is  best known1 but          
,burckhardt's is more accurate and      
scholarly4 ,of modern  books1 that of   
the ,dutch scholar1 ,snouck ,hurgronje1 
who resided in  ,mecca for a long time1 
is by far the best4 ,his ,mekka1 in two 
volumes1  is accompanied by an atlas of 
photographs and gives a complete history
  of the city as well as a full account 
of its inhabitants and of the  ,java    
pilgrimage4    #g ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #aeg4 
#h ,,table ,,of ,,mecca ,,pilgrimage1   
#ahhj4    7,from ,blunt's 8,future of   
,islam407      ,,nationality ,,of       
,,pilgrims4  ,arriving  ,arriving       
,total ,moslem  by ,sea4  by ,land4     
,pop4 represented4    ,ottoman ,subjects
    7excluding ,arabia7  #h1ejj  #a1jjj 
#bb1jjj1jjj  ,egyptians  #e1jjj  #a1jjj 
#e1jjj1jjj ,from 8,barbary ,states0     

#f1jjj   ----  #ah1jjj1jjj ,yemen ,arabs
  #c1jjj  ----  #b1ejj1jjj ,oman and    
,hadramaut   #c1jjj  ----  #c1jjj1jjj   
,nejd1 etc41 ,arabs  ----  #e1jjj       
#d1jjj1jjj  ,hejaz 7including ,mecca7   
----  #bb1jjj  #b1jjj1jjj ,negroes from 
,sudan   #b1jjj  ----  #aj1jjj1jjj 0 0  
,zanzibar  #a1jjj  ----  #a1ejj1jjj     
,malabari  from ,cape    of ,g4 ,hope   
#aej  ----  -------- ,persians  #f1jjj  
#b1ejj   #h1jjj1jjj ,indians 7,british  
,subjects7 #ae1jjj  ----  #dj1jjj1jjj   
,malays and ,javanese  #ab1jjj  ----    
#cj1jjj1jjj ,chinese  #ajj  ----        
#ae1jjj1jjj ,mongols   ----  ----       
#f1jjj1jjj ,russians1 ,tartars1 etc4    
----  ----  #e1jjj1jjj ,afghans and     
,baluchis   ----  ----  #c1jjj1jjj      
7included in ,ottoman ,haj7  #fa1gej    
#ca1ejj     ,total pilgrims present     
#ic1bej  #age1jjj1jjj at ,arafat        
#i ,professor ,hankin in the ,british   
,medical ,journal for ,june1 #ahid1     
published the result of his analysis of 
,zemzem water as follows3 8,total  solid

 in a gallon1 #bei2 ,chlorine1 #ea4bd2  
,free ammonia1 parts per  million1      
#j4ic2 ,albuminoid ammonia1 4#de4 ,it   
contains an amount of solids  greater   
than that in any well water used for    
potable purposes40    #aj ,its          
measurements1 according to ,ali ,bey1   
are #cg ft4 #b in41 #ca ft4 #g  in41 #ch
 ft #d in41 #bi ft4 and its height is   
#cd ft4 #d in4    #aa ,this religion    
which denies an atonement and teaches   
that ,christ  was not crucified yet has 
for its great festival a feast of       
sacrifice  to commemorate the obedience 
of ,abraham and the substitute provided 
by  ,god6    #ab ,this is the testimony 
of ,captain ,burton1 the man who        
translated  an unexpurgated text of the 
,arabian nights and left behind a book  
in  manuscript which his wife had the   
good sense to destroy and so prevent    
its publication4    #ac ,hurgronje1 p4  
#e1 ,vol4 ,,ii4    #ad ,ibid41 p4 #ajb4 
#ae ,ibid1 p #aa4    #af ,ibid41 pp4    
#fa-fd4    #ag ,this coin is called     

,mishkash and is a ,venetian coin of    
,duke  ,aloys ,mocenigo ,i4 7#aegj-gg   
,a4,d474 ,on one side the ,duke is      
kneeling  before ,st4 ,mark the patron  
saint of ,venice and on the other is the
  image of ,christ surrounded by stars4 
#ah ,the western or coast route goes by 
,koleis1 ,rabek1 ,mastura1 and  near    
,jebel ,eyub 7,job's ,mountain7 over    
,jebel ,subh1 then to ,suk-es-,safra    
and ,suk el ,jedid to ,medina4 ,the     
eastern road was the one taken by       
,burton1 and goes by way of ,el         
,zaribah1 ,el ,sufena1 ,el ,suerkish1   
etc41 a  distance #bdh miles4    #ai    
,these arguments may be stated briefly  
as follows3    #a4 ,a tumult followed   
the announcement of the prophet's death1
 and ,omar  threatened destruction to   
any one who asserted it4 ,is it probable
 that  a quiet interment took place8    
#b4 ,immediately after ,mohammed's death
 a dispute about the succession  arose1 
in the ardor of which1 according to the 
,shiahs1 the house of ,ali  and ,fatima1

 near the present tomb1 were threatened 
by fire4    #c4 ,the early ,moslems     
would not be apt to reverence the grave 
of the  prophet1 as do those of later   
date1 when tradition has exalted him    
above the common humanity4 ,the early   
,moslems were indifferent as to the     
exact spot4    #d4 ,the shape of the    
prophet's tomb was not known in early   
times1 nor is  it given in the          
traditions1 so that we find convex      
graves in some lands  and flat in       
others4    #e4 ,the accounts of the     
learned among the ,moslems are          
discrepant as to  the burial of         
,mohammed4    #f4 ,shiah schismatics had
 charge of the sepulchre for centuries1 
and  because of its proximity to the    
graves of ,abubekr and ,omar1 it was in 
their interest to remove the body4      
#g4 ,even the present position of the   
grave1 with relation to other  graves1  
is in dispute1 because the tomb-chamber 
7,hujrah7 is closely  guarded by        
eunuchs1 who do not allow any one to    

enter4    #h4 ,the tale of the blinding 
light which surrounds the prophet's tomb
  seems a plausible story to conceal a  
defect4    #i4 ,mohammed el ,halebi1 the
 ,sheikh-el ,ulema of ,damascus1 assured
 ,burton  that he was permitted to pass 
the door leading into the tomb-chamber1 
and that he saw no trace of a sepulchre4
    #aj4 ,moslem historians admit that  
an attempt was made in ,a4,h4 #dab to   
steal the bodies of ,mohammed and the   
two companions by the third  ,fatimite  
,caliph of ,egypt2 they relate marvels  
connected with the  failure of the      
attempt1 and assert that a trench was   
dug deep all  around the graves and     
filled with molten lead to prevent the  
theft of  the body4    #aa4 ,in ,a4 ,h4 
#fed the mosque was destroyed by a      
volcanic eruption1  according to the    
,moslem historians1 but the tomb-chamber
 escaped  all damage6 ,again in ,a4 ,h4 
#hhg it was struck by lightning4 8,on   
this  occasion10 says ,el ,samanhudi    
7quoted by ,burckhardt7 8the interior of

  the ,hujrah 7tomb-chamber7 was cleared
 and three deep graves were found  in   
the inside full of rubbish1 but the     
author of this history1 who  himself    
entered it1 saw no trace of tombs40 ,the
 same author declared  that the coffin  
containing the dust of ,mohammed was    
cased with silver4    #ab4 ,lastly the  
,shiah and ,sunni accounts of the       
prophet's death and  burial are         
contradictory as to the exact place of  
burial4    #bj ,niebuhr1 #agfc2         
,seetzen1 #ahaj2 ,cruttenden1 #ahcf2    
,dr4 ,wolff1 #ahcf2  ,owen1 #aheg2      
,botta1 #ahcg2 ,passama1 #ahdb2 ,arnaud1
 #ahdc2 ,van ,maltzan1  #ahga2 ,halvy1  
#ahgj2 ,millingen1 #ahgd2 ,renzo        
,manzoni1 #ahgi2 ,glaser1 #ahhj2        
,defler1 #ahhh2 ,haig1 #ahhi2 ,harris1  
#ahib2 and later travellers4 ,defler is 
the authority on the flora1 ,glaser on  
the antiquities1 ,manzoni on the  ,turks
 and their government1 ,haig on the     
agricultural population1 and  ,harris   
tells of the recent rebellions4         

,niebuhr's magnificent volumes  are     
still good authority on the geography   
and natural history of ,yemen4    #ba   
,the ,yemen plow is shaped like an      
,english plow in many respects2         
although it has only one handle its     
coulter is broad and made of iron1  a   
great improvement over the crooked stick
 of ,mesopotamia4    #bb ,it was not    
pleasant for an ,american to notice that
 nearly all the  ,turkish rifles in     
,yemen were 8,springfield #ahfa40 ,the  
same weapons that  were employed to     
break the chains of slavery in the      
southern states1  are now used to       
oppress the peaceful ,yemenites4    #bc 
,of the work among the latter1 and my   
experiences in distributing  the ,new   
,testament1 a report was published by   
the ,mildmay ,mission2 we  therefore    
omit reference to it here4    #bd ,geog4
 ,soc4 ,proceedings1 #ahhg1 p4 #dhb4    
#be ,defler says in his diary that this 
place has 8une odeur atroce et  des     
legions de puces et de punaises40 ,i    

also had an all-night's battle4    #bf  
,hadramaut is a very ancient name for   
this region4 ,not only does  ,ptolemy   
place here the ,adramit in his          
geography1 but there seems  little doubt
 that ,hadramaut is identical with      
,hazarmaveth1 mentioned in  the tenth   
chapter of ,genesis4    #bg 8,the       
,hadramaut3 a ,journey0 by ,theodore    
,bent4 ,nineteenth ,century1            
,september1 #ahid4 ,also ,mrs4 ,bent's  
8,yafei and ,fadhli countries40         
,geographical ,journal1 ,july1 #ahih4   
#bh ,le ,hadramont et les ,colonies     
,arabes dans le ,archipel ,indien par   
,l4,w4,c4 ,van den ,berg4 ,batavia1     
#ahhf4 ,by order of the ,government4    
#bi ,notes on the ,mahrah ,tribe with   
vocabulary of their language2 notes  on 
the ,gharah tribe2 geography of the     
southeast coast of ,arabia2--,july1     
#ahde1 ,july1 #ahdg2 and ,january1      
#ahea1 in the journal of the ,society4  
#cj ,the most characteristic difference 
between ,mahri and ,arabic is the       

substitution of ,shin 7sh7 for ,kaf 7k7 
in many words4    #ca 8,history of      
,oman48    #cb ,the remainder of the    
chapter is quoted from the letters of my
  brother1 ,rev4 ,p4 ,j4 ,zwemer1 and   
the sketch of ,tenoof was drawn by him  
on one of his journeys4    #cc ,these   
islands are identified by ,sprenger and 
others with ,dedan of  the ,scriptures1 
7,ezekiel xxvii4 #ae71 and were known to
 the ,romans by  the name of ,tylos4    
,pliny writes of the cotton-trees1      
8arbores vocant  gossympinos fertiliore 
etiam ,tylo minore40--7xii4 #aj74       
,strabo describes  the ,phnician temples
 that existed on the islands1 and       
,ptolemy speaks  of the pearl-fisheries 
which from time immemorial flourished   
along  these coasts4 ,the geographer1   
,juba1 also tells of a battle fought off
  the islands between the ,romans and   
the ,arabs4 ,ptolemy's ancient map      
shows how little was known as to the    
size or location of the group4  ,even   
,niebuhr's map1 which is wonderfully    

correct in the main1 makes  a great     
error in the position of the islands2 in
 his day the two  principal islands were
 called ,owal and ,arad1 names which    
still linger4    #cd ,this cost is      
divided as follows3 ,fishing smack r4   
#djj1 wages of  #aj divers r4 #b1jjj2   
wages of #ab rope-holders r4 #b1djj2    
apparatus  r4 #dj4 ,total rupees #d1haj4
    #ce ,the ,mashooah is a much smaller
 boat1 like the ,english  jolly-boat1   
and is used in the harbor and for short 
journeys around the  islands4    #cf    
,the only remarkable exception is the   
,jebel ,sinam--a rough hill of  basaltic
 rock that crops out in the midst of the
 alluvial delta near  ,zobeir2 a        
peculiar phenomenon1 but proving        
,doughty's general scheme for  the      
,arabian geology correct even here4     
#cg ,the dates of ,hassa and ,oman may  
equal those of ,busrah but the  gardens 
are inferior and the quantity produced  
is not so large4    #ch ,the last named 
is outside of our present subject and is

 a misnomer  given by ,turkish audacity 
to the region of ,hassa4    #ci ,kuweit 
is the ,arabic diminutive of ,kut a     
walled-village2 the  place is called    
,grane on some maps--evidently a        
corruption of ,kurein  or 8little horn10
 a name given to an island in the       
harbor4    #dj ,for the interesting     
history of the cities that occupied the 
site  of ,busrah before the days of     
,islam1 and as far back as              
,nebuchadnezzar1  see ,ainsworth's      
8,personal narrative of the ,euphrates  
expedition40    #da ,the following are  
the villages and encampments between    
,hillah  and ,diwaniyeh3 ,el ,ataj1     
,doulab1 ,dobleh1 ,kwaha1 ,saadeh1      
,tenhara1 ,bir  ,amaneh1 ,allaj1        
,anameh1 ,hosein1 ,khegaan ,sageer and  
,khegaan ,kebir4    #db ,the distinction
 between true ,arabs of the nomad tribes
 and the  ,me'dan was made as early as  
#agib by ,niebuhr in his travels1 and   
the  river boatmen still answer your    
question with contemptuous accent3      

8,those are not ,arabs1 they are        
,me'dan40    #dc ,it contains the       
following ,wadys3 ,nejran1 ,habuna1     
,wanan1 ,moyazet1  ,bedr and the        
extensive ,wady ,dauasir4    #dd ,aflaj 
has six villages3 ,siah1 ,leyta1        
,khurfa1 ,ei-,rautha1 ,el-,bedia4  ,wady
 ,dauasir has these towns3 ,el-,hammam1 
,es-,shotibba1 ,es-,soleil1  ,tamera1   
,ed-,dam1 ,el-,loghf1 ,el-,ferr1 ,es    
,showeik1 and ,el-,ayathat4  7,doughty47
 ,most of these towns are not given on  
the maps1 but as some  of them are1 it  
is interesting to mention the route from
 ,hassa to this  ,wady1 given by ,capt4 
,miles in a letter to ,sprenger 7dated  
,muscat1  ,march1 #ahgc7 and quoted in  
his 8,alte ,geog4 ,arabiens10 page #bdj4
 8,route  from ,el ,hasa to ,solail3    
,hassa1 ,khaiaj1 ,howta1 ,hilwa1        
,leilah1 ,kharfa1  ,rondha1 ,el ,sih1   
,bidia1 ,shitba1 ,solail4 ,from ,solail 
to ,runniya it is  three days' journey4 
,it is a town larger than ,solail4 ,the 
,dosiri  tribes are as follows          

,el-,woodaieen at ,solail2 ,el          
,misahireh possess  most camels1 etc42  
,al ,hassan at ,wasit2 ,beni ,goweit2   
,el-,khutran in  ,shitba2 ,el ,sherafa2 
,el-',umoor1 east end of ,wady2 ,al     
,saad1 west of ,wady2  ,el-,showaiej2   
,el-,khamaseen2 ,el ,kahtan2 ,hamid2 ,al
 ,amar2 ,el ,farjan in  ,kharfa40    #de
 ,a full account of their peculiar      
beliefs and their disputed origin  is   
given in the ,appendix to ,badger's     
8,history of ,oman40    #df ,the ,talh  
is a large tree of roundish1 scanty1    
leafage1 with a  little dry berry for   
fruit1 its branches are wide-spreading  
and thorny4  ,the ,nebaa' is much       
smaller though of considerable height2  
it has very  small ovate bright green   
leaves4 ,the ,sidi is a little acacia   
tree4    #dg ,for our present knowledge 
of the government1 population1 cities   
and villages of ,nejd we are chiefly    
indebted to the following  travellers3  
,captain ,g4 ,f4 ,sadlier1 of the       
,english army1 who was the  first       

,european to cross the ,arabian         
,peninsula4 7#ahai7 ,george ,wallin1  a 
learned young ,swedish ,arabist1        
travelling in #ahde and #ahdh as a      
,mohammedan doctor of law1 passed       
through the northern desert from ,jauf  
to ,hail and visited ,medina4 ,william  
,gifford ,palgrave1 a ,jesuit ,roman    
,catholic1 of ,english birth and        
scholarly tastes made his celebrated    
journey across ,arabia from west to east
 in #ahfb-fc4 ,in #ahfd the bold        
,italian traveller ,guarmani went from  
,jerusalem straight to ,jebel  ,shammar 
and ,aneyza4 ,in #ahfe ,colonel ,pelly1 
the ,british ,resident at  ,bushire made
 an important journey1 in company with  
,dr4 ,colville and  ,lieutenant ,dawes1 
from ,kuweit through southeastern ,nejd 
to ,riadh1  returning by ,hassa to      
,ojeir and ,bahrein4 ,then ,charles ,m4 
,doughty  7facile princeps among all    
authorities and travellers ,arabian7    
made  his long1 arduous1 zigzag journeys
 through northwestern and northern      

,arabia from ,november1 #ahgf1 to       
,august1 #ahgh4 ,our other authority for
  ,nejd is ,lady ,ann ,blunt who with   
her husband visited the capital of ,ibn 
,rashid's country from ,bagdad in #ahhc4
    #dh ,if we remember that ,palgrave  
compares ,feysul's mud brick palace  to 
the ,tuileries of ,paris1 states that   
the great mosque of ,riad can           
accommodate #b1jjj worshippers1 and     
gives the ,wahabi ruler a standing  army
 of #ej1jjj1 we deduct a little from the
 poetical description to  have a balance
 of net facts4    #di ,in our chapter on
 the ,arabic language we shall see that 
the golden  age of ,arabic literature   
was just before the birth of ,mohammed4 
#ej 8,mohammedanism had owed much to the
 ,jewish kingdom of ,sba4 ,the  rule of 
the ,sabean kings had extended over     
,mecca1 and ,jewish ideas and  beliefs  
had thus made their way into the future 
birthplace of ,mohammed4  ,the fact is  
full of interest for students of the    
history of ,islam4 ,the  epigraphic     

evidence which ,dr4 ,glaser has         
presented to us shows that  the rise of 
,mohammedanism was not the strange and  
unique phenomenon it  has hitherto been 
thought to be4 ,it had been prepared for
 centuries  previously4 ,arabia had for 
ages been the home of culture and the   
art of  writing1 and for about two      
hundred years before the birth of       
,mohammed  his countrymen had been      
brought into close contact with the     
,jewish  faith4 ,future research will   
doubtless explain fully how great was   
his  debt to the ,jewish masters of     
,mecca and the ,sabean kingdom of       
,southern  ,arabia40--,prof4 ,a4 ,h4    
,sayce in the ,independent4    #ea      
,koelle's ,mohammed1 p4 #e4    #eb ,het 
,matriarchaat bij de onde ,arabieren    
7#ahhd71 and ,supplement to  the same1  
in answer to critics1 7#ahhe74 ,the     
,hague4    #ec ,smith's 8,kinship and   
,marriage in ,early ,arabia10 pp4 #ajj1 
#ajd4    #ed ,palmer's ,introduction to 
the ,koran1 p4 xv4    #ee ,in the order 

of time1 and to fully grasp the extent  
of ,christian  ideas prevalent in       
,arabia the chapter on ,early           
,christianity in ,arabia  should precede
 this chapter on ,islam2 but logically  
that chapter  belongs with the other    
chapters on mission-work4 ,the same is  
true1 in a  measure1 of the chapter on  
the ,sabeans4    #ef ,see pp4 #agg1     
#agh1 for tables showing the ,elements  
in ,islam and the  sources from which   
they were derived4      #fj ,koelle's   
,mohammed1 p4 #bg4    #fa ,see an       
article on 8,mohammedanism and          
,christianity40--,dr4 ,robert  ,bruce1  
,the ,christian ,intelligencer 7,new    
,york7 ,april1 #ahid4    #fb ,even the  
sacred books of ,india and ,china and   
,ancient ,egypt compare  more favorably 
with the ,bible in this respect than    
does the ,koran4 ,they  teach the       
heinous character of sin1 as sin1 and do
 not deny the need of  a mediator or of 
propitiatory sacrifice but are full of  
both ideas4    #fc ,for a ,chronological

 table of ,arabian history1 from the    
earliest  times to the present1 see     
,appendix4    #fd ,the four orthodox    
sects are called3 ,hanafis1 ,shafis1    
,malakis1 and  ,hambalis4 ,the last was 
founded by ,ibn ,hambal at ,bagdad1 #ghj
 ,a4 ,d4 it is  the least popular sect4 
#fe ,the ,mahmal is a covered litter1 an
 emblem of royalty and of  superstitious
 honor sent from ,cairo and ,damascus to
 ,mecca1 to this day4    #ff ,zehm's    
,arabie1 p4 #ccb4    #fg ,saud died at  
the age of forty-five1 in ,april1 #ahad1
 from fever1  at ,deraiyah4 ,he was a   
strong-willed ruler but administered    
justice  with rigor2 he was wise in     
council and skillful in settling        
disputes  and healing factions4 ,of his 
eight children1 ,abdullah1 the eldest1  
succeeded him as ruler4    #fh ,the     
history of its tedious prosecution and  
all its cruelty on the  side of the     
,turks is told by ,burckhardt1 the      
traveller1 who was himself  living in   
,mecca at this time4    #fi ,palgrave   

visited the ,wahabi capital during the  
reign of ,feysul  and gives his usual   
picturesque descriptions of the court   
and family  life of the genial tyrant4  
,but it is necessary to take his        
accounts  of ,riad cum grano salis2 a   
,jesuit ,roman ,catholic would not      
describe  the strict ,puritanism of the 
,wahabis with any degree of admiration4 
,palgrave's statistics of the strength  
of ,feysul's army and of the  population
 of his dominions are utterly unreliable
 and greatly  exaggerated4 ,however one 
must read ,palgrave to know what was the
  condition of the ,wahabi empire in    
#ahfj-fc1 for he is our only authority  
for that period4    #gj ,the history of 
,mecca under these ,sherifs is given by 
,snouck  ,hurgronje at length in his    
8,mekka40    #ga ,this is according to  
the testimony of ,walter ,b4 ,harris who
 was in  ,yemen shortly after the       
rebellion4    #gb ,see ,lady ,ann       
,blunt's 8,bedouins of the ,euphrates40 
#gc ,statesman's ,year ,book4    #gd    

,for a complete account of ,perim1 see  
8,the ,description and ,history  of     
,perim10 by ,j4 ,s4 ,king1 ,bombay1     
#ahgg4    #ge ,treaties were made with  
the ,arabs of the pirate coast in #ahce1
  #ahch1 #ahci1 #ahdg1 #ahec1 and #ahef2
 of these we shall speak later4    #gf  
,the ,british ,india steamer1 carry the 
mails and leave ,bombay and  ,busrah    
once a week1 touching at the            
intermediate ports in the ,gulf1  after 
,kerachi1 as follows3 ,gwadur1 ,muscat1 
,jask1 ,bunder ,abbas1 ,lingah1         
,bahrein1 ,bushire1 ,fao and            
,mohammerah2 the journey lasts a        
fortnight and  the distance1 zigzag1 is 
about one thousand nine hundred miles4  
#gg ,in a recent paper read before the  
,society of ,arts in ,london ,mr4 ,c4   
,e4 ,d4 ,black of the ,geographical     
,department of the ,india office urges  
other reasons for the practicability of 
this route4--7,london ,times1  ,may     
#gth1 #ahih47    #gh ,times of ,india1  
,june #ag1 #ahii4    #gi    #a4 ,ras el 

,kheima--,jowasim tribe4 #b4            
,um-el-,kawain--,al-bu-,ali tribe4 #c4  
,ajman--,al-bu-,ali tribe4 #d4          
,sharka--,jowasim tribe4 #e4            
,debai--,al-bu-falasal  tribe4 #f4 ,abu 
,dhabi--,bni ,yas tribe4    ,all of     
these tribes reside between ,katar and  
,ras el ,had on the ,arabian  coast4    
7,see ,aitchison1 ,vol4 ,,vii41 ,no4    
xxvi47    #hj ,curzon's 8,persia10 ,vol4
 ,,ii41 p4 #dec4    #ha ,the following  
tribes in the vicinity of ,aden receive 
7or received7  annual subsidies from the
 ,british ,government3    ,tribe4       
,estimated ,population4 ,abdali #ae1jjj 
,fadhli #be1jjj ,akrabi #hjj  ,subaihi  
#bj1jjj ,haushabi #f1jjj ,alawi #a1ejj  
,amir #cj1jjj ,yaffai #ce1jjj    ,thus  
the total estimated population of these 
tribes is #acc1cjj and the  total amount
 of the annual stipend paid them in     
#ahgg1 was #ab1jjj ,german  crowns4     
7,hunter's 8,aden10 p4 #aee47    #hb ,in
 a remarkable article1 the ,novoe       
,vremya makes known the  ,russian       

discovery of 8a new ,british intrigue40 
,it appears that ,great  ,britain1 not  
content with the virtual annexation of  
,egypt and the  ,sudan1 is even1 while  
carrying out her plans for the          
absorption of  the ,transvaal and the   
advancement of her interests in ,persia1
 busily  engaged in setting up a        
,mohammedan ,power which is to rival    
that of  the ,sultan1 and is ultimately 
to be used as a means of menacing1 if   
not destroying1 ,russian authority in   
,central ,asia4 ,the puppet ,prince     
selected for this purpose is the ,sherif
 of ,mecca4 ,according to the  ,novoe   
,vremya1 the ,sherif has recently       
received from ,england a  letter stating
 that the ,british government1 having   
decided to invest  a certain worthy but 
impecunious ,mohammedan ,sheikh with the
 ,caliphate  of ,zeila1 on the borders  
of ,somaliland1 and recognizing the     
,sherif as  a descendant of the ,prophet
 and great protector of ,islam1         
considers  it desirable for the ,sherif 

on the day of the appointment of the new
  ,caliph to issue a manifesto          
expressing his approval4 ,in return for 
this service1 ,great ,britain will      
proclaim ,mecca and ,medina the private 
property of the ,sherif1 will assure to 
him the greater part of the  revenues of
 the new ,caliphate1 and will defend him
 by diplomatic means1  or even by force 
of arms1 against the interference of the
 ,sultan or  any other ,foreign ,power4 
,it is perhaps needless to say that the 
author  of this intrigue is said to be  
,mr4 ,chamberlain1 who is described as  
a man 8without faith1 without truth1    
capable of trampling under foot  every  
commandment1 whether of ,god or man1 in 
order to accomplish his  purpose of     
placing ,great ,britain at the head of  
the ,powers of the  world40--,times of  
,india1 #ahii4    #hc ,he speaks of it  
as follows in his ,histoire des ,langues
 ,semitques1  p4 #cdb 8,cette langue1   
auparavant inconnue1 se montre  nous    
soudainement dans toute sa perfection1  

avec sa flexibilite1 sa richesse        
infinie1 tellemen-complete1 en un mot1  
que depnis ce temps jusqu'a nos  jours  
elle n'a subi ancune modification       
importante4 ,il n'y a pour elle  ni     
enfance1 ni vieillesse2 une fois qu'on a
 signal son apparition et  ses          
prodijieuses cont qutes1 tout est dit   
sur son compte4 ,je ne sais  si l'on    
trouverait un autre exemple d'un idiome 
entrant dans le monde  comme celui-ci1  
sans tat archaque1 sans degrs           
intermediaires ni  tatonnements40    #hd
 ,von ,kremer1 ,guidi1 ,hommel4    #he  
,sayce1 ,sprenger1 ,schrader1 ,de       
,goeje1 ,wright4    #hf ,assyrian       
,grammar1 p4 #ac4    #hg ,an account of 
this language or dialect was given by   
,surgeon ,h4 ,j4  ,carter in ,journal   
,roy4 ,asiat4 ,soc41 ,july1 #ahdg4      
#hh ,lansing4    #hi ,found in the      
,edinburgh ,review for ,july1 #ahff1    
article 8,mohammed40    #ij 8,it would  
take a long list to exhaust the         
religious1 literary and  scientific     

contributions to the ,arabic language   
from the missionaries  in ,syria4 ,they 
include the translation of the          
,scriptures and the  stereotyping of the
 same in numerous styles2 the           
preparation of a  ,scripture guide1     
commentaries1 a concordance1 and a      
complete hymn and  tune book2 text-books
 in history1 algebra1 geometry1         
trigonometry1  logarithms1 astronomy1   
meteorology1 botany1 zology1 physics1   
chemistry1 anatomy1 physiology1 hygiene1
 materia medica1 practice of  physic1   
surgery1 and a periodical literature    
which has proved the  stimulus to a very
 extensive native journalism4 ,the      
,protestant converts  of the mission1   
educated by the missionaries1 have      
written elaborate  works on history1    
poetry1 grammar1 arithmetic1 natural    
science1 and  the standard dictionary of
 the language1 and a cyclopdia which    
will  make a library by itself1         
consisting of about twenty volumes of   
from  six hundred to eight hundred pages

 each40--,dr4 ,g4 ,e4 ,post1 in ,new    
,york  ,evangelist4    #ia ,gen4 xxv4   
#af4    #ib ,in the ,edinburgh ,review1 
,july1 #ahff4    #ic ,international     
,routes of ,asia1 by ,elise ,reclus1 in 
,new ,york  ,independent1 ,may #d1      
#ahii4    #id ,smith's ,kinship and     
,marriage in ,early ,arabia1 pp4 #i1    
#ag1 #aca4    #ie ,what the boys and    
girls of the towns can study we have    
described  in our chapter on ,mecca4    
#if ,this is the testimony of           
,burckhardt and ,doughty4    #ig ,arabia
 ,deserta1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bch4    #ih   
,translation from ,mekka1 ,vol4 ,,ii41  
p4 #ahg4    #ii ,see ,burckhardt's book 
for further particulars4    #ajj        
,signifying 8,allah40    #aja           
,baidhawi's ,commentary in loco4    #ajb
 ,for on account of these ancient       
superstitions and idolatries  still     
practiced1 see ,w4 ,robertson ,smith's  
8,religion of the ,semites0  and his    
8,kinship and marriage in ,early        
,arabia40 ,the mass of purely           

,mohammedan superstition can be studied 
in books like the ,arabian ,nights  and 
,lane's 8,modern ,egyptians40    #ajc   
,this chapter is an enlargement of a    
paper on 8,the  ,star-,worshippers of   
,mesopotamia0 read before the ,victoria 
,institute1  ,adelphi ,terrace1 ,london1
 #ahig4    #ajd ,kessler4    #aje ,surah
 ii4 #ei2 v4 #gc2 xxii4 #ag    #ajf     
,according to ,gesenius1 ,sabeans should
 be ,tsabians from  tsabaoth1 the 8host 
of heaven40 ,nldeke and others say it   
comes from  a root subba to wash1       
baptise1 and refers to the manner of    
their  worship4 ,gibbon is perhaps      
correct when1 on the authority of       
,pocock1  ,hettinger1 and ,d',herbelot1 
he states the origin of their other name
  thus3 8,a slight infusion of the      
gospel had transformed the last remnant 
of the ,chaldean polytheists into the   
,christians of ,st4 ,john at ,bussora40 
,in regard to their name ,sabeans1      
,lane's ,arabic dictionary says that  it
 comes from a root meaning 8one who has 

departed from one religion  to another  
religion40 ,the ,arabs used to call the 
prophet as-,sabi1  because he departed  
from the religion of the ,koreish to    
,el-,islam4  ,nasoreans is the name     
given them by some authors4 ,according  
to  ,petermann they themselves give this
 title only to those of their number    
who are distinguished for character or  
knowledge4 ,it doubtless comes  from    
,greek3 ,nazrioi1 the early             
half-,christian sect of ,syria4    #ajg 
,the only grammar of the language is the
 elaborate ,mandische  ,grammatik of the
 indefatigable scholar ,nldeke4 ,one    
great drawback of  the book however is  
that the ,hebrew character is used      
throughout and  not the ,manditic4      
#ajh ,leviticus xiv4 #d-g1 #di-ec4      
#aji ,cf4 ,job xxxi4 #bf-bh4    #aaj    
,the first printed and translated       
edition of the ,sidra ,rabba  was by    
,math4 ,norberg 7,copenhagen1 #ahae-af71
 but it is said to be so  defective that
 it is quite useless critically2        

,petermann reproduced the  ,paris ,,mss4
 in two volumes at ,leipsic1 #ahfg4     
,besides the ,sidra ,rabba  there are3  
,sidra d',yaheya or ,book of ,st4 ,john1
 also called ,drasche  d',malek         
7discourse of the ,king72 ,the ,diwan2  
,the ,sidra ,neshmata1 or  book of      
souls2 and last1 but not least1 the     
books of the zodiac called  ,asfar      
,malwashee4 ,except for the small       
portion of the ,sidra ,rabba  found in  
,brandt's recently published ,mandische 
,schriften 7#ahie7 all  of the above    
still await critical study and editing4 
#aaa ,see the history of ,gnostic       
teaching1 especially that of the        
,ophites and ,sethians4 ,all the evil   
characters in the ,old ,testament1  with
 ,cain at their head1 were set forth as 
spiritual heroes4 ,judas  ,iscariot was 
represented as alone knowing the truth4 
,i find no large  account of the serpent
 in the ,sabean system2 this may be     
otherwise  accounted for4    #aab       
,gibbon4    #aac ,sale's ,koran4    #aad

 ,galatians i4 #ag4    #aae ,gal4 i4    
#ah2 ,acts ix4 #i1 #be4    #aaf ,many   
others1 including ,hilary1 ,jerome1     
,theodoret and the  ,occumenian         
commentators are stated by ,rawlinson   
7,st4 ,paul in ,damascus  and ,arabia1  
p4 #abh71 to hold the same opinion4     
,porter1 not alone  of modern writers1  
puts forth the same view in his 8,five  
,years in  ,damascus10 and supposes that
 ,paul's success was great enough to    
provoke  the hostility of ,aretas and   
make him join the later persecution4    
#aag 8,kinship and ,marriage in ,early  
,arabia10 p4 #bad4    #aah ,koran1      
,surah vii4 #ga4    #aai ,desert of the 
,exodus1 p4 #ej4    #abj ,acts xvii4    
#bf4    #aba ,acts xvii4 #bi4    #abb   
,acts xvii4 #ca4    #abc ,acts xvii4    
#be4    #abd ,acts xx4 #bj1 #bg4    #abe
 ,wright's 8,early ,christianity in     
,arabia10 #ahee4    #abf ,buchanan's    
,christian ,researches4    #abg ,wright1
 p4 #gg4    #abh ,the latest version of 
his life is by ,nldeke in his 8,sketches

  from ,eastern ,history40 7,london1    
#ahib47    #abi ,wright1 p4 #add4       
#acj ,kurtz' 8,church ,history10 ,vol4  
,i41 p4 #chf4    #aca ,see however1     
,christianity in ,china1 ,tartary and   
,tibet1 by ,abbe  ,huc1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4   
#hh 7,new ,york1 #aheg74 ,he speaks of  
,christians in ,nejran  as late as the  
tenth century4    #acb ,see ,smith's    
8,short ,history of ,missions40         
,peroquet1 ,vie de ,raymund  ,lull      
7#affg74 ,low de ,vita ,ray4 ,lull      
7,halle1 #ahcj74 ,helfferich ,raymund   
,lull 7,berlin1 #aheh74 ,dublin ,univ4  
,mag41 ,vol4 ,,lxxviii41 p4 #dc1 8,his  
,life and ,work40    #acc ,o merciful   
,god1 who hast made all men1 and hatest 
nothing that  ,thou hast made1 nor      
wouldest the death of a sinner1 but     
rather that  he should be converted and 
live3 have mercy upon all ,jews1 ,turks1
  ,infidels1 and ,heretics1 and take    
from them all ignorance1 hardness of    
heart1 and contempt of ,thy ,word1 and  
so fetch them home1 blessed ,lord1  to  

,thy flock1 that they may be saved among
 the remnant of the true  ,israelites1  
and be made one fold under one          
,shepherd1 ,jesus ,christ our  ,lord1   
who liveth and reigneth with ,thee and  
the ,holy ,spirit1 one ,god1  world     
without end4 ,amen4    #acd 8,life of   
,henry ,martyn10 by ,george ,smith1 ,c4 
,i4 ,e41 ,,ll4 ,d41 7#ahib7  p4 #bbf4   
#ace ,journal of ,mr4 ,anthony ,n4      
,groves1 ,missionary to and at ,bagdad4 
7,london1 #ahca47    #acf ,george       
,smith's ,life of ,martyn1 p4 #efc4     
#acg ,in #ahgf1 after the death of ,dr4 
,wilson1 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,stothert of    
the ,free ,church ,mission arranged to  
take a trip up the ,persian ,gulf as    
far as ,bagdad4 ,they were deeply       
impressed by the spiritual needs of the 
whole of ,eastern ,arabia4 ,on the way  
they sold ,scriptures and on their      
return called attention to the needs of 
,bagdad4 ,for twenty-five years  special
 prayer was offered for ,eastern ,arabia
 every ,monday by these two             

missionaries6    #ach ,church           
,missionary ,intelligencer for ,may and 
,june1 #ahhg4    #aci ,the ,general also
 published an account of his journey in 
,yemen  from a geographical standpoint  
in the ,geographical ,journal1 ,vol4    
,,ix41  p4 #dgi4 ,see also ,the         
,missionary ,review of the ,world1      
,october1 #ahie4    #adj 8,the          
,missionary ,expansion since the        
,reformation40--,graham1 p4 #ai4  8,life
 and ,letters of ,rev4 ,a4 ,stern40     
#ada ,on ,van ,tassel's work and        
experiences see 8,north ,africa0 7#ba   
,linton ,road1 ,barking1 ,london71 ,vol4
 for #ahij1 pp4 #d1 #ba1 #dc1 #ei1 #gh2 
,vol for #ahia1 pp4 #b1 #ad1 #bg1 #ca   
and #ej4    #adb ,mackay of ,uganda1 by 
his sister1 7,new ,york1 #ahig7 pp4     
#dag-dcj  gives the article in full4    
#adc ,the text of this resolution is    
quoted at the head of chapter           
thirty-five4    #add ,see 8,memorials of
 the ,hon4 ,ion ,keith                  
,falconer40--,robert ,sinker  7#fth     

,edition ,cambridge #ahij7 and ,ion     
,keith ,falconer1 ,pioneer in ,arabia   
by ,rev4 ,a4 ,t4 ,pierson1 ,d4 ,d4      
7,oct4 #ahig1 ,missionary ,review of the
  ,world74    #ade ,kalilah and ,dimnah1
 or ,the ,fables of ,bidpai1 by ,i4 ,g4 
,n4 ,keith  ,falconer1 ,cambridge1      
#ahhe4    #adf ,life and ,correspondence
 of ,t4 ,v4 ,french1 ,first ,bishop of  
,lahore1  by ,rev4 ,robert ,birks1      
7,murray1 ,london1 #ahie74 #b vols4     
#adg ,the letters appeared in the       
,church ,missionary ,intelligencer1  for
 ,may and ,july1 #ahia4    #adh ,an able
 plea for the acceptance of the ,mission
 by the ,church was  made by ,rev4 ,j4  
,a4 ,davis1 in the ,christian           
,intelligencer1 ,n4 ,y41  ,september    
#ah1 #ahhi4    #adi ,this meeting with  
,general ,haig was described by him in  
an account  in the ,london ,christian   
7,june1 #ahia74    #aej ,the ,mohammedan
 ,missionary ,problem4--,h4 ,h4 ,jessup1
 ,d4,d41 #ahgi4    #aea ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4
 #ejc-ebi4    #aeb ,notes on ,islam3 ,a 

,hand-book for ,missionaries4--,rev4    
,arthur  ,brinckman4 ,london1 #ahfh4    
#aec ,reprinted in 8,north ,africa0     
7,april1 #ahib71 under the title3       
,preaching1 not ,controversy4    #aed   
,history of the ,church ,missionary     
,society1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #aee4    #aee 
,the ,mohammedan ,controversy and other 
articles--,sir ,wm4 ,muir1  ,edinburgh1 
#ahig4    #aef ,missionary ,review1     
,october1 #ahic1 p4 #gbg1 in article by 
8,c4 ,h40    #aeg ,christianity1 ,islam 
and the ,negro ,race1 by ,e4 ,w4        
,blyden1 ,london1  #ahhh4    #aeh       
,missions in ,sumatra1 ,dr4 ,a4         
,schreiber1 8,north ,africa10 ,may1     
#ahif4    #aei ,gen4 xii4 #c1 xviii4 #h1
 xxii4 #ah1 xxvi4 #d1 xxviii4 #ad2 ,num4
 xiv4  #ba2 ,forty-three of the ,psalms2
 ,isaiah ii4 #b1 #ah1 etc41 etc42       
,jeremiah  iii4 #ag2 ,dan4 vii4 #ac1    
#ad2 ,joel ii4 #bh2 ,jonah1 iii41 iv42  
,micah v4 #d2  ,hab4 ii4 #ad2 ,zeph4 ii4
 #aa2 ,hag4 ii4 #f1 #g2 ,zech4 ix4 #aj1 
xiv4 #i2 ,mal4 i4  #aa4    #afj ,see    

,isaiah xxxv4 #a-c1 xl4 #c1 xli4 #ai1   
xliii4 #ai1 li4 #c2 ,ezekiel  xxxiv4    
#be1 xlvii4 #h2 ,ps4 lxxii4 #i1 etc4    
#afa ,according to ,gesenius this is    
,suez1 while ,keil identifies it with   
,jifar1 a site in the northwestern part 
of ,arabia near ,egypt4    #afb ,compare
 ,rom4 iv4 #aa1 and ,gal4 iii4 #ag4     
#afc ,gen4 xxi4 #i-bb4    #afd ,gen4    
xxv4 #aa-ah1 and #a ,chron4 i4 #bh4     
#afe ,isaiah xxi4 #ac-ag and ,jer4 xlix4
 #bh-cc4    #aff ,see ,smith's ,bible   
,dictionary4    #afg ,cf4 ,exodus xxiii4
 #ca and ,deut4 xi4 #bd4    #afh ,the   
,christian ,intelligencer 7,n4 ,y471    
,march #ae1 #ahii4    #afi ,consult     
,bibliographies of ,palestine and ,syria
 with inference to  ,nomad life2 also   
,d4 ,islam4    #agj ,consult also list  
in ,gilman's ,saracens4    #aga ,consult
 ,british and ,foreign ,bible ,society  
,reports for account  of ,scripture     
circulation2 the ,free ,church of       
,scotland ,monthly  for reports of      
,keith ,falconer ,mission2 the ,church  

,missionary  ,intelligencer1 #ahhg1 vol4
 xii41 pp4 #bae1 #bgc1 #cdf1 #djh2      
,missionary  ,review of the ,world1     
#ahib-ahii1 ,october numbers1 and       
,record of the  ,american ,bible        
,society1 #ahih-aijj4